Tell el-Hesi: Modern Military Trenching and Muslim Cemetery in Field I (Strata I-II)

Tell el-Hesi

Modern military trenching

and

Muslim cemetery in Field I,

Strata I-II

Lawrence E. Toombs

Tell el-Hesi, located in southern Israel at the juncture of the Negev Desert and the foothills of the Judean Mountains, provides an excellent opportunity for the archaeological study of the impact of a variety of physical environments on the peoples who inhabited a single site. The site has been occupied at various times from the Early Bronze Age through to the military trenching of 1948. Level one revealed the modern military trenching. Level two contained a Muslim cemetery that the author has dated to the period 1600-1800 A.D. This work analyzes the military trenching and provides the first statistical analysis of an entire cemetery in this geographic region. Using a computer code to analyze numerous attributes describing the burial cysts, skeletal data, and grave goods, the author has developed a typology of burials and drawn conclusions about the community which they represent.

More than eighty photographs of individual burials and burial goods in addition to tables, plans, and section drawings illustrate the text.

The methodology employed in this work makes it a valuable source of information for archaeologists investigating burials in any cultural context. The broader audience of anthropologists interested in burial customs will also find the book useful.

Lawrence Toombs teaches Near Eastern Studies at Wilfrid Laurier University.

Tell el-Hesi

Modern military trenching

and

Muslim cemetery in Field I,

Strata I-II

The Joint Archaeological Expedition

to Tell el-Hesi

Volume Two

AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH

EXCAVATION REPORTS

edited by

Eric M. Meyers

EXCAVATION REPORTS

Tell el-Hesi

Modern military trenching

and

Muslim cemetery in Field I,

Strata I-II

by

Lawrence E. Toombs

Tell el-Hesi

Modern military trenching

and

Muslim cemetery in Field I,

Strata I-II

The Joint Archaeological Expedition

to Tell el-Hesi

Volume Two

by

Lawrence E. Toombs

edited by

Kevin G. O'Connell, S.J.

Wilfrid Laurier University Press

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Toombs, Lawrence E., 1919-

    Tell el-Hesi

Bibliography: p.

ISBN 0-88920-134-X

1. Tel-Hasi Site (Israel). 2. Cemeteries—

Israel. 3. Intrenchments. 4. Excavations

(Archeology)—Israel. I. Title.

DS110.T4T66 1985      933      C85-090024-7

Copyright © 1985

WILFRID LAURIER UNIVERSITY PRESS

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3C5

85 86 87 88 4 3 2 1

No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system, translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, microfiche, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.

Contents

Tables

Figures

Plates

Pocket Inserts

Preface

Abbreviations

Chapter

1. General Introduction

Part I: Stratum I. The Military Trenching

2. Stratum I: The Military Trenching

General Structure of the Trenching

History of the Defense System

The Trenching as Excavated

General Features of the Trenching

The Trenching by Area

Period of Use of the Trench System

Part II: Stratum II. The Muslim Cemetery

3. Archaeological Context

Tel Gat

Tel Nagila

Tel Gezer

Tel Zeror

Tel Mevorakh

Caesarea Maritima

Conclusions

The Hesi Cemetery as Excavated by F. J. Bliss

4. The Cemetery in General

Location of Stratum II Burials

Catalogues and Indices

Grave Frequencies (Field 1)

Ground Plan of the Cemetery (Field 1)

Grave Clusters

Paired Burials

Horizontal Arrangement of Graves

The Cemetery in Fields V and VI

General Description

The Weli

5. Grave Construction

Sections

Grave Shafts

Burial Procedures

Grave Orientation

Grave Shapes

Depth of Burials

Position of Burial Chambers

Types of Burial Chambers

Type 1—Earth Burials

Type II—Burials Capped but Not Lined

Type III—Capped and Lined Burials

Type IV—Burials Lined but Not Capped

Type V—Jar Burial

Statistical Summary

Inclusions

Stone Pillows

Artifacts

Comparative Data

6. Secondary Burials

Incidence of Secondary Burials

Types of Secondary Burials

Secondary Burials in Grave Shafts

Secondary Burials in Separate Graves

Burial Pits

Empty Graves

Interpretation

7. Field Recording and Computer Coding

The Development of the Burial Code

The Code as Used in the Field

Notes on Skeletal Data

Notes on Grave Data

Revision of the Code

Revised Structure

New Categories

Reorganization of Categories

Revision of Entries

General Observations

Training of Excavation Teams

Photography

8. Typology of Burials

Preliminary Examination of the Data

Invariable Characteristics of the Burials

Variable Characteristics Regarded as Primary

Variable Characteristics Regarded as Secondary

The Typological Formula

Grave Structure

Age and Sex

Body Position

Eye Direction

Statistical Samples

Comparison of Typed and Fully Typed Burials

Grave Structure

Age and Sex

Body Positions

Eye Directions

Conclusions

Cross-comparison of Categories

Influence of Age and Sex

Social Stratification

Typical Burials

Typical Burials of Infants

Typical Burials of Children

Typical Burial of a Juvenile

Typical Burials of Adult Males

Typical Burials of Adult Females

Conclusions

Atypical Burials

Burials Anomalous in Body Position Only

Burials Anomalous in Eye Direction Only

Burials Anomalous in Both Body Position and Eye Direction

9. Secondary Characteristics

Orientation of the Skeleton in the Grave

Arm Positions

Analysis of the Terminology

Varieties of Arm Position

Arm Position in Relation to Body Position

Arm Position in Relation to Age and Sex

Arm Position in Relation to Grave Structure

The Preferred Body-Arm Combinations

Arm Positions in Burials with Anomalous Eye Directions

Unusual Leg Positions

Skull Shape and Coloration of Bones

Unusual Positions of the Skull

Diseases and Trauma

10. Artifacts

General Description

Occurrence of Artifacts in Relation to Grave Structure

Occurrence of Artifacts in Relation to Age and Sex

Beads

Classification

Bead Forms

Double-bored Objects

Pendants

Bead-like Pendants

Triangular Pendants

Disc-shaped Pendants

Bell-shaped Pendants

Unbored Disc

Rings

Finger Rings

Toe Rings

Earrings

Bracelets

Glass Bracelets

Copper/Bronze Bracelets

Iron Bracelets

Pins

Studded Leather Band

General Remarks on Jewelry

Copper/Bronze Discs

Cloth

Pottery

Side-spouted Water Pitchers

Burial Jar

Small Side-spouted Jar

Piriform Juglet

Objects Possibly Associated with Burials

Copper Wire

Glass Fragments

Iron Fragments

Pebble (?)

Inclusions Probably Accidental

Stone Objects

Loom Weight

Bone Fragments

Harness (?)

11. Conclusions and Dating Evidence

The Community

Religion

Economic Basis

Social Stratification

Sub-groups

Family Orientation

Medical Standards and General Health

Burial Customs

Preparation of the Body

Preparation of the Grave

Interment of the Body

The Filling of the Grave

The Identity of the Community

The Dating of the Cemetery

Terminus ante Quern

Terminus post Quern

Appendix 1. Index of Burials

Appendix 2. Typological Catalogue

Appendix 3. Index of Artifacts

Bibliography

Plates

Tables

Table

1. Summary of the occupational history of Tell cl-Hesi (as known at the end of the 1975 season)

2. Grave frequencies (Field I)

3. Grave Clusters

4. Distribution of Cist Types by Area in Totals and Percentages

5. The Distribution of Grave Types among the Various Age Groups

6. Data Comparing the Number of Graves Containing Artifacts with the Total Number of Graves and with the Cist Types Area by Area

7. Burial Code as Used in the Field

8. Burial Code, Revised Form

9. Comparison of the Occurrence of Cist Types between Typed Burials and those Having Full Typological Data (Totals and Percentages)

10. Comparison of the Occurrence of Age and Sex Groupings between Typed Burials and those Having Full Typological Data (Totals and Percentages)

11. Comparison of the Occurrence of Age Groupings between Typed Burials and those Having Full Typological Data (Totals and Percentages)

12. Comparison of Adult Male and Adult Female Burials between Typed Burials and those Having Full Typological Data (Totals and Percentages)

13. Comparison of Body Positions between Typed Burials and those Having Full Typological Data (Totals and Percentages)

14. Comparison of Eye Directions between Typed Burials and those Having Full Typological Data (Totals and Percentages)

15. Analysis of the Graves Having Full Typological Data in Terms of the Elements in the Typological Formula

16. Typological Formula

17. The Typical Graves among the Burials with Full Typological Data

18. Anomalous Burials among the Graves with Full Typological Data and among the Typed Graves

19. Frequency of Occurrence of the Various Arm Positions among the Eight Body Positions

20. Frequency of Occurrence of the Various Arm Positions among the Age/Sex Groups

21. Frequency of Occurrence of the Various Arm Positions among the Types of Grave Structure

22. Frequency of Occurrence of the Three Commonest Body-Arm Combinations among the Various Age Groups

23. Frequency of Occurrence of the Three Commonest Body-Arm Combinations among the Various Types of Grave Structure

24. The Concentration of the Three Commonest Body-Arm Combinations in the Field I Cemetery by Areas

Figures

Figure

1. Map of the topography of Tell el-Hesi

2. The military trenching on the summit of Tell el-Hesi (Field I)

3. Map showing the military situation in the Tell el-Hesi region after the Battles of Hirbet Mahaz

4. Plot of articulated adult burials in Field I

5. Plot of capped and lined graves and capped but unlined graves in Field I

6. General plan of the Stratum II cemetery in Field V

7. General plan of the Stratum II cemetery in Field VI

8. Ground plan of the weli in Field VI in relation to the nearby tamarisk

9. Isometric reconstruction of the weli seen from the north

10. Field form used for reporting skeletal and grave data from a single burial, as used in 1971 and in subsequent seasons

11. Suggested field form for reporting field, grave, skeletal, and artifactual data for a single burial in cemeteries similar to that of Tell el-Hesi, Stratum II

12. Histogram illustrating the percentage of each cist type among the typed burials in comparison with the percentage among the burials with full typological data

13. Histogram illustrating the percentage of each age bracket among the typed burials in comparison with the percentage among the burials with full typological data

14. Histogram illustrating the percentage of each body position among the typed burials in comparison with the percentage among the burials with full typological data

15. Histogram illustrating the percentage of each eye direction among the typed burials in comparison with the percentage among the burials with full typological data

16. Compass rose illustrating the distribution of eye directions among the typed burials in relation to the direction from the site to the city of Mecca

17. Histogram comparing the occurrence of the various age brackets in the three principal grave structures

18. Histogram comparing the occurrence of the various age brackets in the three principal body positions

19. Histogram comparing the occurrence of the various age brackets in respect to the eye direction towards Mecca and other eye directions

20. Histogram comparing the distribution of adult males and adult females in each grave structure and in each body position

21. Histogram comparing the distribution of the various age brackets among the types of grave structure

22. Histogram comparing the distribution of the various body positions among the types of grave structure

23. Histogram comparing the distribution of the various eye directions among the types of grave structure

24. Histogram comparing the observed and expected values for the occurrence of artifacts in the various types of grave structures and among the various age groups

25. Histogram comparing the observed and expected values for the occurrence of artifacts in the graves of adult males and adult females

Plates

Plate

1. Contour map of the site, showing the location and numbering of the fields and areas, and the principal topographical features

2. The military trenching through Areas 21 and 31 of Field I

3. The military trenching through Areas 31. 21,12. 3, and 4 of Field I

4. Plan and sections of the military trenching in Field I

5. Types of burial chambers found in the Stratum II cemetery

6. Intersecting burials (1)

7. Intersecting burials (2)

8. Burial I.2I.005A, B, and C, two infants and a child in a common grave

9. Burial I.22.065A and B, two infants in a common grave

10. Burial I.32.012A and B. an infant and a newborn child in the same grave

11. Burial I.I2.0I9A, an adult female closely associated with an adult male

12. Burial I.32.024A and B, an adult female and an adult male in virtually the same grave

13. Burial 1.32.046, the body of a young woman found immediately above the skeleton shown in Pl.

14. Burial 1.32.056, the skeleton of a young woman crushed by the burial illustrated in Pl. 13

15. The capstones covering Graves 1.32.046 and 1.32.056

16. Burials 1.41.081 and I.4I.I06 shared the same capstones

17. Burials 1.41.217 A and B shown in relation to the west balk of Area 41

18. Burial 1.51.028. the burial of an infant in a simple earth grave

19. Burial 1.12.037. a typical burial of an adult male in a simple earth grave

20. Cross-section through Grave VI.P-la.005, a capped grave

21. Burial 1.41.100, where most of the capstones have been robbed away and the lining consists of two rows of small field stones

22. Burial 1.32.048, the interment of an adult female in a capped and lined grave

23. Burial 1.12.017 with capstones in place

24. Burial 1.12.017, the same burial as Pl. 23 with the capstones removed and the stone lining visible around the skeleton

25. Burial 1.32.094, a robbed Type IV grave in which the skeleton of an adult female lies among the remaining stones of the grave lining

26. Burial 1.41.019, the jar burial of an infant seen from the southeast

27. Burial 1.41.019, the same burial as that shown in Pl. 26, viewed from the north

28. Burial V.P-la.006, the burial of an infant with the head resting on a stone pillow

29. Burial 1.32.039, the burial of an adult male, robbed of its lining stones and with the head and shoulders removed

30. Burial L32.064, the burial of a child, robbed of its cappers and with only the skull and upper torso intact

31. Burial 1.32.049, the burial of an adult female from which the skull was removed by a later grave or by military trenching

32. Burial 1.51.024, the burial of a child which removed all but the legs and part of the pelvis of an earlier burial (1.51.039)

33. The legs of Burial 1.51.039 intrude on an infant burial (1.51.038)

34. The burial of an adult female whose lower limbs were removed by an infant burial.

35. Burial 1.41.028, the typical burial of an infant in a capped and lined grave

36. Burial V.P-lf.006, the typical burial of an infant in the extended position on the right side with the eyes directed to the south

37. Burial 1.22.060, the typical burial of an infant in the extended position on the right side with the eyes directed to the southeast

38. Burial 1.12.033, the typical burial of an infant in the flexed position on the right side with the eyes directed to the south

39. Burial 1.12.035, the typical burial of an infant in the flexed position on the right side looking to the southeast

40. Burial V.P-lp.004, the typical burial of a child in the extended position on the back looking to the southeast

41. Burial 1.32.070, the typical burial of a child in the extended position on the back looking to the southeast

42. Burial 1.22.038, the typical burial of a child in the extended position on the right side with the eyes directed to the south

43. Burial 1.51.019, the typical burial of a juvenile in an extended position on the back looking to the south

44. Burial 1.4.020, the typical burial of an adult male in the extended position on the back with the eyes directed to the southeast

45. Burial 1.12.054, the typical burial of an adult male in the extended position on the right side with the eyes directed to the southeast

46. Burial 1.41.218, the typical burial of an adult female in the extended position on the right side, looking southwest

47. Burial 1.12.021, the typical burial of an adult female in the flexed position on the right side, looking southeast

48. Burial 1.32.060, the typical burial of an adult female in the flexed position on the right side, looking south

49. Burial 1.22.015, the typical burial of an adult female in the flexed position on the right side, looking southeast

50. Burial 1.22.079, the typical burial of an adult female in the flexed position on the right side, looking southeast

51. Burial 1.32.080, an anomalous burial in which an adult male is interred on the front with the eyes directed to the southwest

52. Burial 1.32.037, the anomalous burial of an adult male, with the body on the back and the legs flexed

53. Burial 1.12.015, the anomalous burial of an infant buried on the back with the eyes directed upward

54. Burial 1.22.102, the anomalous burial of an adult male extended on the back with the eyes directed to the north

55. Burial I.I 1.211, the burial of an adult female anomalous in both body position and eye direction, with the skeleton flexed on the left side and the eyes directed to the north

56. Burial 1.41.058, the burial of a male juvenile who may have been interred alive

57. An analysis of the bead types found in the Hesi cemetery

58. A typical collection of jewelry from a single grave

59. Illustrations of flat beads

60. Illustrations of Form 2: flal, diamond-shaped beads

61. Illustrations of Form 4: flattened-rounded, small beads

62. Illustrations of Forms 5, 6. 7, and 8 beads

63. Illustrations of Forms 9 and 10 beads

64. Illustrations of Forms 10 and II beads

65. Illustrations of Forms 13 and 14 heads

66. Illustrations of Forms 15 and 16 beads

67. Illustrations of shell beads

68. Illustrations of double-bored objects

69. Pendanls

70. Unbored copper/bronze disc

71. Simple band rings

72. Center-disc rings

73. Center-disc rings

74. Toe rings

75. Earrings

76. Undecorated glass bracelets

77. Decorated glass bracelets

78. Copper/bronze bracelet of the continuous band type

79. Copper/bronze bracelets of the simple open type

80. Copper/bronze bracelets of the open, snake-decorated type

81. Iron bracelets

in situ in the shaft of Burial 1.4.020, just above the capstones

from Burial 1.4.020

84. The jar which contained Burial I.41.019, an infant newly or prematurely born

85. Side-spouted jar from Burial VI.P-la.00l, the interment of an infant in a simple earth grave

86. Piriform juglet from the burial of an infant in a simple earth grave

87. Piriform juglet in situ in Burial 1.51.013

88. Drawings of the piriform juglet of Pl. 86 and the side-spouted vessel of Pl. 85

89. The handle of a glass vessel from the burial of an adult male in a capped grave

Pocket Inserts

Pocket Insert

1. General plan of the Stratum II cemetery in Field I

2. East balk section, Field I, Areas 1-51

3. West balk section, Field I, Areas 1-51

4. West balk section, Field I, Areas 2-32

Preface

The presence of Strata I and II, the modern military trenching and the Muslim cemetery, forced the Joint Expedition to an important archaeological decision. Both strata belong to the modern period and fall into the rather vaguely defined category of historical archaeology. Strata of this kind are frequently disregarded, or are treated very summarily, in the excavation and reporting of Near Eastern sites. In 1970 the Joint Expedition decided to excavate these strata with the same care and to report them in the same detail as the more ancient levels of the mound. This decision launched what may fairly be called a pioneering effort in the archaeology of the Palestine area. It necessitated the development of new excavation techniques and new methods of recording and computer analysis; new, that is, insofar as the treatment of this type of cemetery at a site in Israel is concerned.

The author undertook to publish these strata, not because of special qualifications, but because of the challenge of correlating and interpreting so wide ranging a body of data. The aim has been fourfold: to present in an organized form all the data on Strata I and II gathered by the expedition; to analyze this data so as to winnow the significant from the merely casual; to offer cultural conclusions, suggestions, and speculations on the basis of the analysis; and to compare the results in a preliminary way with the data from other sites and with the published work of anthropologists and travellers. The result is a report of unusual fullness, marred, no doubt, by numerous sins both of omission and of commission.

The author would not have been able even to begin this formidable task without the help of a great many -people. The list of acknowledgements, if given in full, would be a long one indeed, and the absence of a name or office from this brief listing does not mean that the contribution has been forgotten or is unappreciated. Everyone who worked on the dig between 1970 and 1975 contributed substantially to these pages. Special thanks, however, ought to be given to the expedition's anthropologist, Dr. Jeffrey Schwartz, for his work in developing the field techniques of excavation and the coded field forms for the recording of the burials; to Drs. W. J. Bennett, Jr. and D. Glenn Rose for their constructive criticisms of the manuscript at various stages of its preparation; and to the anthropologists, photographers, artists, and draftsmen whose work is incorporated here.

I am grateful also for the help of my colleagues in the scientific disciplines at Wilfrid Laurier University, and in particular to Dr. Rick Elliot for his guidance in mathematical questions, to Dr. John Kominar for his advice in chemical matters, and to Ms. Sandra Woolfrey and Mr. Robert Trotter for their work on the computer programs involved in the examination of the data.

The General Editor of the Hesi Series, Dr. Kevin G. O'Connell, S.J., has been indefatigable in ferreting out inconsistencies, infelicities, and errors in the manuscript, and has made many helpful substantive contributions to its pages. Thanks are also due to the Israeli archaeological community, especially to Dr. Ephraim Stern, for unfailing willingness to share findings and vast knowledge of Israeli sites with a visiting colleague.

A major source of support for the Hesi expedition during the four seasons on which this volume is based has been the financial contributions from the academic institutions comprising the Hesi consortium for one or more seasons. In addition to Oberlin College, which has been a member of the consortium from the first season to the present, the following institutions were members of the consortium for the seasons indicated: Ashland Theological Seminary (1973), CHERS: Consortium for Higher Education—Religious Studies (1975), College of the Holy Cross (1975), General Theological Seminary (1973), Hartford Seminary Foundation (1970, 1971), Seabury-Western Theological Seminary (1973,1975), Smith College (1975), The Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in Virginia (1975), Trinity Lutheran Seminary (1975), and Wilfrid Laurier University (1973, 1975). Several of those institutions also made financial and other contributions to the work of the Joint Expedition either in addition to their consortium payments or for seasons during which they were not consortium members. In particular, Wilfrid Laurier University generously provided staff time, equipment, and archival facilities for the expedition's photographic work, made its computers available for analysis of data, and provided generous support for the author's research as a member of its faculty. The encouragement of the administration of Wilfrid Laurier University and its policy of support for faculty research are acknowledged with gratitude.

Other institutions also providing support to the Joint Expedition for one or more of its first four seasons include Christian Theological Seminary, Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary, Harvard Semitic Museum, Phillips University, and Weston School of Theology.

Further major support was received by way of grants from The Smithsonian Institution (1970-73), the National Endowment for the Humanities (1973-76), and the Canada Council (1971). The latter grant made possible the development of the computer code discussed in Chapter 7.

Both staff and volunteers served at Hesi at great personal expense, and their shared spirit of generosity and dedication to a common task did much to make a difficult and often tedious operation exciting and attractive. The countless hours of contributed services in and out of the field, the travel costs paid by so many participants, and the hefty volunteer fees since 1973 together constituted the largest contribution to the total Hesi budget. Without that contribution, none of the work reported on in this volume could have been brought to successful conclusion. In addition, various contributions were received from private donors each season.

Last of all, my sincerest thanks go to my wife, Carolyn, for her faithful work on the manuscript and for the amazing equanimity with which she lived for four years almost literally in a Bedouin cemetery.

This book has