Elementary Fluid Mechanics

INDEX

ELEMENTARY FLUID MECHANICS

CHAPTER I

FUNDAMENTALS

1. Development of Fluid Mechanics.

Man’s desire for knowledge of fluid phenomena began with his problems of water supply and disposal and the use of water for obtaining power. With only a rudimentary appreciation for the physics of fluid flow he dug wells, operated crude water wheels and pumping devices, and, as his cities increased in size, constructed ever larger aqueducts, which reached their greatest size and grandeur in those of the City of Rome. However, with the exception of the thoughts of Archimedes (250 B.C.) on the principles of buoyancy little of the scant knowledge of the ancients appears in modern fluid mechanics. After the fall of the Roman Empire (A.D. 476) no progress was made in fluid mechanics until the time of Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519). This great genius designed and built the first chambered canal lock near Milan and ushered in a new era in hydraulic engineering; he also studied the flight of birds and developed some ideas on the origin of the forces which support them.

After the time of Da Vinci, the accumulation of hydraulic knowledge rapidly gained momentum, the contributions of Galileo, Torricelli, Newton, Pitot, D. Bernoulli, and D’Alembert to the fundamentals of the science being outstanding. Although the theories proposed by these scientists were in general confirmed by crude experiments, divergences between theory and fact led D’Alembert to observe in 1744 that, The theory of fluids must necessarily be based upon experiment. D’Alembert showed that there is no resistance to motion when a body moves through an ideal (non-viscous) fluid, yet obviously this conclusion is not valid for bodies moving through real fluid. This discrepancy between theory and practice is called the D’Alembert paradox and serves to demonstrate the limitations of theory alone in solving fluid problems.

Because of the conflict between theory and practice, two schools of thought arose in the treatment of fluid problems, one dealing with the theoretical and the other with the practical aspects of fluid flow, and in a sense these two schools of thought have persisted down to the present day, resulting in the theoretical field of hydrodynamics and the practical one of hydraulics. Notable contributions to theoretical hydrodynamics have been made by Euler, La Grange, Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, Lord Rayleigh, Rankine, Lord Kelvin, and Lamb. In a broad sense, experimental hydraulics became a study of the laws of fluid resistance, mainly in pipes and open channels. Among the many scientists who devoted their energies to this field were Brahms, Bossut, Chezy, Dubuat, Fabre, Coulomb, Eytelwein, Belanger, Dupuit, d’Aubisson, Hagen, and Poisseuille.

Toward the middle of the last century, Navier and Stokes succeeded in modifying the general equations for ideal fluid motion to fit that of a viscous fluid and in so doing showed the possibilities of adjusting the differences between hydraulics and hydrodynamics. At about the same time, theoretical and experimental work on vortex motion by Helmholtz was aiding in explaining away many of the divergent results of theory and practice.

Meanwhile, hydraulic research went on apace, and large quantities of excellent data were collected or formulas proposed for fluid resistance, notably by Darcy, Bazin, Weisbach, Fanning, Ganguillet, Kutter, and Manning; among researchers on other hydraulic problems were Thomson, Fteley, Stearns, and H. Smith. Unfortunately, researches led frequently to empirical formulas obtained by fitting curves to experimental data or merely presenting the results in tabular form, and in many cases the relationship between the physical facts and the resulting formula was not apparent.

Toward the end of the last century, new industries arose which demanded data on the flow of fluids other than water; this fact and many significant advances in knowledge tended to arrest the increasing empiricism of hydraulics. These advances were: (1) the theoretical and experimental researches of Reynolds; (2) the development of dimensional analysis by Lord Rayleigh; (3) the use of models by Froude, Reynolds, Fargue, and Engels in the solution of fluid problems; and (4) the rapid progress of theoretical and experimental aeronautics in the work of Lanchester, Lilienthal, Kutta, Joukowski, and Prandtl. These advances allowed new tools to be applied to the solution of fluid problems and gave birth to modern fluid mechanics.

Since the beginning of the present century, empiricism has waned and fluid problems have been solved by increasingly rational methods; these methods have produced so many fruitful results and have aided so materially in increasing our knowledge of the details of fluid phenomena that the trend appears likely to continue into the future. Among the foremost contributors to modern fluid mechanics are Prandtl, Blasius, Karman, Stanton, Nikuradse, Bakhmeteff, Koch, Buckingham, Gibson, Rehbock, Durand, and Taylor.

2. Physical Characteristics of the Fluid State.

Matter exists in two states—the solid and the fluid, the fluid state being commonly divided into the liquid and gaseous states.

Solids differ from liquids and liquids from gases in the spacing and latitude of motion of their molecules, these variables being large in a gas, smaller in a liquid, and extremely small in a solid. It follows that intermolecular cohesive forces are large in a solid, smaller in a liquid, and extremely small in a gas These fundamental facts account for the familiar compactness and rigidity of form possessed by solids, the ability of liquid molecules to move freely within a liquid mass, and the capacity of gases to fill completely the containers in which they are placed.

FIG. 1.

A more fruitful and rigorous mechanical definition of the solid and fluid states may be made on the basis of their actions under the various types of stress. Application of tension, compression, or shear stresse to a solid results first in elastic deformation, and later, if these stresses exceed the elastic limits, in permanent distortion of the material. Fluids, however, possess elastic properties under compression stress, but application of infinitesimal shear stress results in continual and permanent distortion. This inability to resist shear stress gives fluids their characteristic ability to flow. Fluids will support tension stress to the extent of the cohesive forces between their molecules. Since such forces are extremely small, it is customary in engineering problems to assume that fluid can support no tension stress.

Since shear stress applied to fluids always results in distortion or flow, it is evident that in fluids at rest no shear stresses can exist and compression stress, or pressure, becomes the only stress to be considered.

Fluids being continuous media, it follows that pressures occurring or imposed at a point in a fluid will be transmitted undiminished to all other points in the fluid (neglecting the weight of the fluid).

Since pressure is compression stress the equilibrium of a mass of fluid at rest occurs from pressure acting inward upon its boundary surface as shown in Fig. 1. If this mass of fluid is reduced to infinitesimal size, it becomes evident that at a point in a fluid the pressure is the same in all directions. Since fluids are unable to support tangential (shear) stresses, no component of force can exist along the solid boundary of Fig. 1, and thus pressure must be transmitted from a fluid to a solid boundary normal to the boundary at every point.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

3. Density, Specific Weight, Specific Volume, and Specific Gravity.

Density¹ is the mass of fluid contained in a unit of volume; specific weight,¹ the weight of fluid contained in a unit of volume. Both these terms are fundamentally measures of the number of molecules per unit of volume. Since molecular activity and spacing increase with temperature fewer molecules will exist in a given unit volume as temperature rises, thus causing density and specific weight to decrease with increasing temperature.² Since a larger number of molecules can be forced into a given volume by application of pressure, it will be found that density and specific weight will increase with increasing pressure.

Density, ρ (rho), will be expressed in the mass-length-time system of dimensions and will have the dimensions of mass units (slugs) per cubic foot (slugs/ft³).

Specific weight, w, will be expressed in the force-length-time system of dimensions and will have the dimensions of pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft³).

Since a mass, M, is related to its weight, W, by the equation

in which g is the acceleration due to gravity, density and specific weight (the mass and weight of a unit volume of fluid) will be related by a similar equation

Using the fact that physical equations are dimensionally homogeneous, the foot-pound-second dimensions of p (which are equivalent to slugs per cubic foot) may be calculated as follows:

This algebraic use of the dimensions of quantities in the equation expressing physical relationship will be employed extensively and will prove to be an invaluable check on engineering calculations.³

The specific volume, υ defined as volume per unit of weight, will have dimensions of cubic feet per pound (ft³/lb). This definition identifies specific volume as the reciprocal of specific weight and introduces the equations

TABLE I*

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, S, OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS AT 68° F†

(Referred to water at 39.2° F)

* Smithsonian Physical Tables, Eighth Ed., 1933, Smithsonian Institution.

† Except as noted.

Specific gravity, S, is the ratio of specific weight or density of a substance to the specific weight or density of pure water. Since all these items vary with temperature, temperatures must be quoted when specific gravity is used in precise calculations of specific weight or density. Specific gravities of a few common liquids at 68° F. (except as noted), are presented in Table I, from which the specific weights of liquids may be readily calculated by

W = S × 62.45 1b/ft³

The specific weight of gases may be calculated by means of Boyle’s law and Charles’ law. Using the specific volume of a gas, Boyle’s law may be stated as ⁴

pυ = Constant

which expresses the law of compression or expansion of a gas at constant temperature. Charles’ law, expressing the variation of pressure with temperature in a constant volume of gas, is⁴

Obviously the only combination of variables which will satisfy both Boyle’s and Charles’ laws simultaneously is

which is called the equation of state of the gas in which the constant, R, is called the gas constant and has dimensions of feet/degree Fahrenheit absolute. Since w = l/υ, the above equation may be transformed into

from which specific weights of gases may be readily calculated.

Application of Avogadro’s law, that all gases at the same pressures and temperatures have the same number of molecules per unit of volume, allows the calculation of a universal gas constant. Consider two gases having constants R1 and R2, specific weights w1 and w2, and existing at the same pressure and temperature, p and T. Dividing their equations of state

results in

‘but, according to Avogadro’s principle, the specific weight of a gas must be proportional to its molecular weight, giving w2/w1 = m2/m1, in which m1 and m2 are the respective molecular weights of the gases. Combining this equation with the preceding one gives m2/m1 = R1/R2, or

m1R1 = m2R2

In other words, the product of molecular weight and gas constant is the same⁵ for all gases. This product mR is called the universal gas constant and is preferred for general use by many engineers. Values of these gas constants are given in Table II.

TABLE II

GAS CONSTANTS FOR COMMON GASES*

* 0. W. Eshbach, Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals, p. 7-16, John Wiley & Sons, 1936.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

Calculate the density of carbon dioxide at a temperature of 80° F and absolute pressure of 100 lb/in.²

4. Compressibility, Elasticity.

All fluids may be compressed with consequent increase in density, the process of compression taking place at the expense of the space between molecules. Therefore, as fluids are compressed the molecular spacing is diminished and the fluids become increasingly difficult to compress further. Fluids also become more difficult to compress as temperature increases because of increased molecular activity reducing the molecular spacing available for compression. Owing to these facts, it is obviously an approximation to express elastic compression of fluids by Hooke’s law

because E is not a constant but increases with increased temperature or pressure. Such an approximation, however, is justified for ordinary engineering calculations since the range of pressure encountered in engineering is comparatively small and the change in E over this pressure range is usually negligible.⁶ The above equation then becomes

the strain (- V/V) being the decrease in volume ( V) per original volume (V) p).

Compression of gases may take place according to various laws of thermodynamics. The isothermal compression of a volume of perfect gas, V1, existing at an absolute pressure, p1, to a volume V2 at a pressure p2 will be accomplished according to Boyle’s law.

P1V1 = P2 V2 or pV = Constant

Using the specific volume, υ in this equation there results

Frequently expansion of gases occurs so rapidly that there is no opportunity for flow of heat during the process. Such an expansion follows the adiabatic law

p1V1k = p2 V 2k or pVk= Constant

which, written in terms of specific volume and specific weight, becomes

in which k, called the adiabatic constant, is the ratio of the two specific heats of the gas, that at constant pressure, cp, to that at constant volume, cυ. Values of k for common gases are given in Table III.

TABLE III

ADIABATIC CONSTANTS, k, FOR COMMON GASES*

* O. W. Eshbach, Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals, p. 7-17, John Wiley & Sons, 1936.

Values of modulus of elasticity of gases, E, may be derived for isothermal and adiabatic processes for use in subsequent developments. Writing the law of elastic compression in differential form

For isothermal compression

pV= Constant

Differentiating this equation in respect to V results in

whence

and substituting this in the first expression

E = p

for an isothermal process.

By a similar analysis E for an adiabatic process may be shown to be given by

E = kp

Imposed pressures or pressure disturbances are not transmitted instantaneously from point to point in a fluid, but move in waves at finite velocity. The velocity or celerity of propagation of such waves is dependent upon the elastic properties of the fluid; fluids which are more easily compressible (having low values of E) transmit pressures with smaller velocity than those which are difficult to compress. A pressure disturbance is transmitted in a fluid with a celerity, c, which is given by the equation⁷

in which c is frequently termed the sonic or acoustic velocity since it is the velocity with which sound, a pressure disturbance, travels. In a gas, sound moves by a series of adiabatic compressions and rarefactions. Thus the sonic velocity in a gas may be calculated from

an equation which is accurately confirmed by experiment.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

Ten cubic feet of water exist at atmospheric pressure. When a pressure of 2000 lb/in.² is applied, what reduction in volume results?

− V = 0.0667 ft⁸

Calculate the velocity with which sound travels in water.

5. Viscosity.

FIG. 2.

The property of viscosity, which is exhibited by all fluids, is due fundamentally to the existence of cohesion and interaction between fluid molecules. As fluids flow these cohesions and interactions result in tangential or shear stresses between the moving fluid layers. Consider the thin viscous fluid layers shown in relative motion in Fig. 2. Let them have a thickness, dy, and areas of contact, A, the lower layer moving with velocity, υ the upper one with velocity υ + dv. To maintain this velocity difference a force F must be continually exerted on the upper layer as indicated, which results in a shear or friction stress, τ (tau), between the layers, given by

For viscous fluid motion the shear stress, τ has been found to be porportional to the rate of change of velocity along y or

and the coefficient of viscosity, μ (mu),⁸ is defined as the constant of proportionality in the above equation, or

in which the pressure does not appear, indicating that the shear stress, τ and thus the cofficient of viscosity, µ, are independent⁹ of pressure.

Viscosity varies widely with temperature, but temperature variation has an opposite effect upon the viscosities of liquids and gases due to their fundamentally different intermolecular characteristics. In gases, where intermolecular cohesion is negligible, the shear stress, τ between moving layers of fluid results from an exchange of momentum between these layers brought about by molecular agitation normal to the general direction of motion. Since this molecular activity is known to increase with temperature, the shear stress, and thus the viscosity of gases, will increase with temperature (Fig. 3). This reasoning is borne out by tests and by considerations of the kinetic theory of gases which indicate that gas Viscosities vary directly with the square root of the absolute temperature.

FIG. 3. Viscosities of Gases.¹⁰

FIG. 4. Viscosities of Liquids.¹⁰

In a viscous liquid, momentum exchange due to molecular agitation is small compared to the cohesive forces between the molecules, and thus shear stress, τ, and viscosity, μ are primarily dependent on the magnitude of these cohesive forces. Since these forces decrease rapidly with increases of temperature, liquid viscosities decrease as temperature increases (Fig. 4).

in subsequent developments, this term has been defined by

in which v is called the kinematic viscosity. The kinematic viscosity embraces both the viscosity and density properties of a fluid. Dimensional consideration of the above equation shows the dimensions of v to be square feet per second, a combination of kinematic terms, which explains the name kinematic viscosity.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

Calculate the kinematic viscosity of glycerine at 80° F.

From Fig. 4, μ = 0.0103 lb sec/ft.²

From Table I, S = 1.26

6. Surface Tension, Capillarity.

The apparent tension effects, which occur on the free surfaces of liquids, where the surfaces are in contact with another fluid or a solid, depend fundamentally upon the relative sizes of intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces. On a free liquid surface in contact with the atmosphere, surface tension manifests itself as an apparent skin over the surface which will support small loads.¹¹ The magnitude of surface tension, T, is the force in the surface and normal to a line of unit length drawn in the liquid surface; thus it will have dimensions of pounds per foot. Since surface tension is directly dependent upon intermolecular cohesive forces, its magnitude will decrease as temperature increases.¹² Surface tension is also dependent upon the gas in contact with the liquid surface, thus surface tensions are usually quoted in contact with air as indicated in Table IV.

TABLE IV

SURFACE TENSION, T, OF COMMON LIQUIDS*

(At 68°; F in contact with air)

* International Critical Tables, First Edition, 1926-1933, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

FIG. 5.

Surface tension in the surface of a droplet of liquid causes the pressure inside of the droplet to be greater than that outside. The relation of this excess pressure to the surface tension can be found by a simple mechanical analysis as follows. Consider the droplet of diameter d, indicated in Fig. 5. If the droplet is halved the forces on one half are seen to be (1) the force due to surface tension, T, existing around the circumference of the droplet and acting to the right, and

(2) the force due to the excess pressure, p, acting to the left. These forces are in equilibrium resulting in

Surface tension force − Pressure force = 0

or

giving

thus relating excess pressure to surface tension and indicating that these pressures increase as the size of droplet decreases.

The angle of contact made by a liquid on a horizontal surface illustrates another surface-tension phenomenon of more complex nature. Consider the mercury and water on a glass surface illustrated by Fig. 6.

FIG. 6.

The familiar large angle of contact assumed by the mercury indicates a comparatively large affinity of mercury molecules for each other (cohesion) and small affinity of these molecules for those of the glass (adhesion). The opposite effect is exhibited by the water. The water is said to wet the glass since its angle of contact is less than 90 degrees. The stability of these liquids on a solid surface may be characterized by the equilibrium of assumed surface tensions¹³ at their points of contact. Thus the following equation may be written

Tls+ T al COS α=T as

Frequently equilibrium does not exist between these tensions, and the following inequality resultscausing the liquid to spread over the surface on which it is placed. Such a condition exists when certain types of oil are placed on a water surface.

Tas > Tls + Tal COS α

Surface-tension effects like the above, existing when surfaces of liquids come in contact with vertical solid surfaces, result in the phenomenon known as capillarity. Water and mercury in contact with a vertical clean glass plate are illustrated in Fig.7. Here again are demonstrated the results of attractions and repulsions, cohesions and adhesions, between the molecules of liquid and solid

FIG. 7.

FIG. 8.

When a vertical tube is placed in a liquid as in Fig.8, these surface phenomena form a meniscus, or curved surface, in the tube, and the liquid in the tube stands above or below that outside depending upon the size of the angle of contact. The capillary rise, h, in such a tube may be calculated approximately by considering the equilibrium of the vertical forces on the mass of fluid A B C D. Neglecting the fluid above the low point of the meniscus the weight of A B C D is given by

Which acts downward. The vertical component, FT, of the force due to surface tension is given by

FT = πd T COSβ

which acts upward and is in equilibrium with the downward force, thus

giving

allowing the capillary rise to be calculated approximately and confirming the familiar fact that capillary rise becomes greater as tube diameter is decreased.

Similarly it may be shown that the capillary rise between vertical parallel plates is given by

where d is the distance between the plates.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

Of what diameter must a droplet of water be to have the pressure within it 0.1 lb/in.² greater than that outside?

From Table IV, T= 0.004985 LB/FT.

7. Vapor Pressure.

All liquids possess a tendency to vaporize, i.e., to change from the liquid state into the gaseous state. Such vaporization occurs because molecules are continually projected through the free liquid surface and lost from the body of liquid. Such molecules, being gaseous, are capable of exerting a partial pressure, the vapor pressure of the liquid, and since this pressure is dependent primarily upon molecular activity it will increase with increasing temperature. The variation of the vapor pressure of water with temperature is indicated in Fig. 9.

For boiling to occur a liquid’s temperature must be raised sufficiently for the vapor pressure to become equal to the pressure imposed on the liquid. This means that the boiling point of a liquid is dependent upon its pressure as well as its temperature.¹⁴

Table V offers a comparison of the vapor pressures of a few common liquids at the same temperature. The low vapor pressure of mercury along with its high density makes this liquid well suited for use in barometers and other pressure-measuring devices.

FIG. 9. Vapor Pressure of Water.

TABLE V*

VAPOR PRESSURE, pυ OF COMMON LIQUIDS AT 68° F

* Smithsonian Physical Tables, Eighth Edition, 1933, Smithsonian Institution.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HISTORICAL

W. F. DURAND, The Development of Our Knowledge of the Laws of Fluid Mechanics, Science, Vol. 78, No. 2025, p. 343, October 20, 1933.

R. GIACOMELLI and E. PISTOLESI Historical Sketch, Aerodynamic Theory, Vol. I, p. 305, Julius Springer, Berlin, 1934.

C. E. BARDSLEY, Historical Résumé of the Development of the Science of Hydraulics, Pub. 39, Engineering Experiment Station of Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, April, 1939.

VISCOSITY

E. C. BINGHAM, Fluidity and Plasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1922.

E. HATSCIIEK, The Viscosity of Liquids, Van Nostrand, 1928.

PROBLEMS

1. The Two Pistons A and B have respectively cross-sectional areas of 2 in.² and 50 in.² What force, F, must be applied to piston A to support a weight of 100 lb on B?

2. If 186 ft³ of a certain oil weigh 9860 lb, calculate the specific weight, density, and specific gravity of this oil.

3. Calculate the specific weight and density of mercury at 68° F.

4. Calculate the specific weight and density of glycerineat 57° F.

5. The density of alcohol is 1.53 slugs/ft³. Calculate its specific weight, specific gravity, and specific volume.

6. A cubic foot of air at 14.7 lb/in.² and 59° F weighs 0.0765 lb/ft³. What is its specific volume?

7. Calculate the specific weight, specific volume, and density of air at 40° F and 50 lb/in.² absolute.

8. Calculate the density, specific weight, and specific volume of carbon dioxide at 100 lb/in.² absolute and 200° F.

9. Calculate the density, specific weight, and specific volume of chlorine gas at 50 lb/in.² absolute and 100° F.

10. Calculate the density of carbon monoxide at 20 lb/in.² absolute and 50° F.

11. The specific volume of a certain perfect gas at 30 lb/in.² absolute and 100° F is 10 ft.³ Calculate its gas constant and molecular weight.

12. If h , what are the dimensions of h?

13. If V , calculate the dimensions of V.

14. If F = QwV/g, what are the dimensions of F?

15. Twelve cubic feet of water are placed under a pressure of 1000 lb/in.². Calculate the volume at this pressure.

16. If the volume of a liquid is reduced 0.035 per cent by application of a pressure of 100 lb/in.², what is its modulus of elasticity?

17. What pressure must be applied to water to reduce its volume 1 per cent?

18. Ten cubic feet of air at 100° F and 50 lb/in.² absolute are compressed isothermally to 2 cu ft. What is the pressure when the air is reduced