Neutron and X-ray Optics

Neutron and X-ray Optics

Jay Theodore Cremer, Jr.

Adelphi Technology, Redwood City, CA, USA

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

1. Introduction

1.1 Refractive Index for Neutrons and X-rays

1.2 CRLs—Thin-Lens Approximation: Focal Length, Ray Path Lengths, and Attenuation

1.3 CRL Arrays

1.4 Integration on the Complex Plane—Cauchy–Riemann Theorem, Cauchy Integration, and Residues

1.5 Derivation of the Complex Refractive Index of Material Medium (e.g., Lenses) Based on the Rayleigh Scatter of X-rays and Gammas

1.6 Refractive of Gammas via Rayleigh and Delbrück Scatter

1.7 Historical Introduction to Gamma Lenses—The Dirac Equation and the Delbrück Effect

References

2. Neutron Refractive Index in Materials and Fields

2.1 Calculation of General Refractive Decrement for Material or Magnetic Media

2.2 Comparison of the Electron, Neutron, X-ray, and Light Refractive Index

2.3 Neutron Decrement for Composite Materials, and Neutron Refraction Due to Decrement Gradient

2.4 Neutron Decrement and Refractive Index in a Gravitational Field

2.5 Neutron Spin and Magnetic Dipole Moment Vectors in Applied Magnetic Fields

2.6 Potential Energy, Force, and Decrement for Neutrons in Applied Magnetic Fields

2.7 The Bloch Equation and Neutron Precession in an Applied Magnetic Field

2.8 Temperature Effect on Neutron Spin and Magnetic Dipole Moment Orientation in an Applied Magnetic Field

2.9 The Bloch Equation and the Lorentz Force Equation

2.10 Average Spin Polarization of a Neutron in an Applied Magnetic Field

2.11 Equation of Motion of the Expected Value of the Neutron Spin Vector in an Applied Magnetic Field

2.12 Expected Values of Quantum Mechanical Quantities Follow Classical Trajectories

2.13 Average Spin Polarization of a Beam of Neutrons in an Applied Magnetic Field

2.14 Adiabatic and Nonadiabatic Polarization Rotation About Magnetic Field Lines That Change Direction

2.15 Magnetic Resonance

2.16 Ferromagnetic Materials—Domains, Magnetization, Permeability, Susceptibility

2.17 Law of Refraction of Magnetic Field Lines

2.18 Ferromagnetic Materials with Applied Magnetic Fields and the Hysteresis Loop

2.19 Calculation of the Magnetization Vector from Unpaired Atomic Electron Magnetic Dipole Moments

2.20 Calculation of the Tangential Component of the Magnetization Vector from Magnetic Field Boundary Conditions

2.21 Calculation of the Neutron Potential Energy and Magnetic Scatter Length from the Tangential Component of the Magnetization Vector

2.22 Refractive Decrement and Index for a Neutron in a Ferromagnetic Material

References

3. Magnetic Neutron Scatter from Magnetic Materials

3.1 Partial Differential Cross Section for Neutron Scatter in Magnetic Materials

3.2 The Transition Matrix Element for Neutron Magnetic Scatter

3.3 Boltzmann Thermal Distribution of Initial Scatter System States

3.4 Magnetic Fields of Unpaired Atomic Electrons in Magnetic Materials

3.5 Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy due to the Total Electron Magnetic Dipole Moment

3.6 Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy Due to the Electron Spin Magnetic Dipole Moment

3.7 Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy Due to the Electron Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment

3.8 Evaluation of the Matrix Element for the Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy

3.9 Electron Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator for Unpaired Atomic Electrons

3.10 Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator and Magnetization Vector—the Spin Component

3.11 Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator and Magnetization Vector—the Orbital Component

3.12 Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator Relation with Magnetization Vector

3.13 Evaluation of the Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy Operator

3.14 Evaluation of Transition Matrix Element with Neutron Spin Eigenstates

3.15 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section Expressed by a Magnetization Vector

3.16 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section Expressed by Electron Spin Density

3.17 Magnetization Determined from Measuring Bragg Peak Intensity

References

4. LS Coupling Basis for Magnetic Neutron Scatter

4.1 Summation and Coupling of Atomic Electron Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum

4.2 Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum in Two- and Three-Electron Atoms

4.3 Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum for an N-Electron Atom

4.4 LS Coupling and the Pauli Exclusion Principle

4.5 Eigenfunctions and the Schrödinger Equation for a Two-Electron Atom

4.6 Antisymmetric and Symmetric Eigenfunctions Describe an Identical Electron Pair

4.7 Two-Electron Atom—Symmetric Spatial and Antisymmetric Spin Components

4.8 Two-Electron Atom—Antisymmetric Spatial and Symmetric Spin Components

4.9 N-Electron System Described by an Antisymmetric Total Eigenfunction

4.10 The Physical Basis of LS Coupling of Electron Spin and Orbital Motion

4.11 Derivation of Thomas Precession Factor for LS Coupling

4.12 An Alternative Derivation of the Thomas Precession Factor

4.13 Quenching of an Electron Orbital Momentum in a Crystal

4.14 Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials

References

5. LS-Coupled, Localized Electron, Magnetic Scatter of Neutrons

5.1 Heitler–London Model for Neutron Scatter by Magnetic Materials

5.2 Evaluation of the Unpaired, Atomic Electron, Magnetic Dipole Moment Transition Matrix Element

5.3 The Magnetic Form Factor

5.4 Partial and Differential Cross Section Expressions for a Quenched Magnetic Crystal

5.5 Evaluation of Partial and Differential Cross Section Expressions for a Quenched Magnetic Crystal—Separation of Unpaired, Atomic Electron Spatial and Spin Components

5.6 Evaluation of the Thermal Average of Initial State, Unpaired, Atomic Electron Positions

5.7 Partial Differential Cross Section for the LS-Coupled, Heitler–London Model in a Quenched Crystal with Unpaired, Localized Atomic Electron Spin

5.8 Partial Differential Cross Section for an LS-Coupled, Heitler–London Model in a Quenched Crystal with Unpaired, Localized Atomic Electron Spin and Orbital Current

5.9 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for an LS-Coupled, Heitler–London Model in a Quenched Crystal with Unpaired, Localized Atomic Electron Spin and Orbital Current

5.10 Expression of Partial Differential Cross Section by Intermediate Correlation Function

References

6. Magnetic Scatter of Neutrons in Paramagnetic Materials

6.1 General Expression for Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Paramagnetic Material in an Applied Magnetic Field

6.2 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Paramagnetic Material in an Applied Magnetic Field Expressed by the Total Spin Quantum Number for a Paramagnetic Atom

6.3 Coherent, Differential Cross Section for Elastic Neutron Scatter in Paramagnetic Material—With an Applied Magnetic Field at Low and High Temperatures

6.4 Coherent, Differential Cross Section for Elastic Neutron Scatter in Paramagnetic Material—No Applied Magnetic Field

6.5 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Scatter of Neutron Spin States from Localized Electrons in Paramagnetic Materials—No Applied Magnetic Field

References

7. Neutron Scatter in Ferromagnetic, Antiferromagnetic, and Helical Magnetic Materials

7.1 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Magnetic Neutron Scatter in Ferromagnetic Materials—Localized Unpaired Electrons

7.2 Antiferromagnetic Materials—Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Neutron Scatter from Localized Unpaired Electrons

7.3 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Magnetic and Nuclear Scatter of Neutron Spin States in a Bravais-Lattice Ferromagnetic Crystal—Localized Unpaired Electrons

7.4 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Magnetic and Nuclear Scatter of Neutron Spin States in a Non-Bravais-Lattice Ferromagnetic Crystal—Localized Unpaired Electrons

7.5 Production and Measurement of Polarized Neutrons by Ferromagnetic Materials

7.6 General Expression for the Coherent Differential Cross Section for Nuclear and Magnetic Elastic Scatter of Neutron Spin States in Ferromagnetic Materials—Localized or Delocalized Unpaired Electrons

7.7 Polarized Neutrons by Grazing Incidence Reflection via Nuclear Scatter of Neutron Spin States in Ferromagnetic Materials

7.8 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Scatter of Neutron Spin States from Magnetic Materials with Helical-Oriented, Localized, Unpaired Electron Spins

References

8. Coherent, Inelastic, Magnetic Neutron Scatter, Spin Waves, and Magnons

8.1 Electron Spin, Magnetic Dipole Moment, and Precession in Applied Magnetic Field

8.2 No Magnetic Field—Unpaired Electron Spins Tend to Align in the Same Direction

8.3 Heisenberg Model of Unpaired Electron Spin in Magnetic Materials

8.4 Physical Basis of Exchange Integral in the Heisenberg Model

8.5 Expression of the Heisenberg Hamiltonian by Spin Operators

8.6 Ferromagnetic Materials—Spin Waves, Dispersion Relation, and Magnons

8.7 Antiferromagnetic Materials—Spin Wave Dispersion Relation

8.8 Exchange and Anisotropy Energy and Domain Formation in Magnetic Materials

8.9 Hamiltonian Eigenequation for 1-D Ferromagnetic Spin Lattice

8.10 Spin and Spin Deviation Operators, Creation and Annihilation Operators, Holstein–Primakoff Transformations, and Linear Approximation of Heisenberg Hamiltonian

8.11 Application of the Bloch Theorem to Express Creation and Annihilation Operators

8.12 The Heisenberg Hamiltonian Expressed as a Sum of Harmonic Oscillators

8.13 Coherent, Inelastic Partial Differential Cross Section for One-Magnon Absorption or Emission for Neutron Scatter in a Ferromagnetic Crystal

8.14 Coherent Inelastic Neutron Scatter—One-Magnon Exchange in Ferromagnetic Material

8.15 Integral Expression for Temperature Dependence of Spin and Magnetization in a Ferromagnetic Crystal Based on the Planck Distribution

8.16 Evaluation of Low-Temperature Spin and Magnetization of the Integral Expression for a Cubic Ferromagnetic Crystal— Dependence

8.17 Magnon Population Low-Temperature Dependence in a Ferromagnetic Cubic Crystal

References

9. Coherent, Elastic Scatter of Neutrons by Atomic Electric Field

9.1 Spin–Orbit Electric Field Scatter of Neutrons

9.2 Foldy Electric Field Scatter of Neutrons

9.3 Scatter of Neutrons by Nuclear and Electric Field Interactions in a Non-Bravais Lattice Crystal

References

10. Diffractive X-ray and Neutron Optics

10.1 Derivation of Helmholtz–Kirchhoff Integral Theorem

10.2 Derivation of the Kirchhoff–Fresnel Diffraction Equation

10.3 The Obliquity Factor in the Kirchhoff–Fresnel Diffraction Equation

10.4 The Paraxial Approximation Applied to the Kirchhoff–Fresnel Diffraction Equation

10.5 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Rectangular Aperture

10.6 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-ray or Neutron Line Source by a Parallel Single Slit

10.7 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-ray or Neutron Line Source by a Parallel Slit Pair

10.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction of an X-ray or a Neutron Line Source from N Parallel Slits

10.9 Fraunhofer Diffraction from Gratings Is Archetype for Coherent, Elastic Scatter of X-ray or Neutrons from Material Lattices

10.10 Abbe Theory of Imaging Applied to X-rays or Neutrons

10.11 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Circular Aperture

10.12 Huygens–Fresnel Approach: The Kirchhoff Equation for a Compound Refractive Lens with X-rays or Neutrons

10.13 Compound Refractive Fresnel Lens for X-rays and Neutrons

10.14 Fresnel Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Circular Aperture

10.15 Fresnel Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Rectangular Aperture

10.16 Fresnel Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Knife Edge

10.17 Fresnel Zone Plates (FZP) for X-rays or Neutrons

10.18 X-ray or Neutron Achromat Fabricated from FZPs and CRLs

10.19 The Helmholtz Differential Equation for X-rays and Neutrons

10.20 Derivation of the Helmholtz Paraxial Equation for a Gaussian, Spherical X-ray Laser Beam

10.21 Solution of the Helmholtz Paraxial Equation for a Gaussian, Spherical X-ray Laser Beam

References

11. Kirchhoff Equation Solution for CRL, Pinhole, and Phase Contrast Imaging

11.1 Kirchhoff Equation with a 1-D Biconcave, Parabolic, or Spherical CRL and Thin-Sample Approximation for X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.2 Derivation of Kirchhoff Equation with a 2-D Biconcave Parabolic or Spherical CRL for X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity—Thick Sample

11.3 Biconcave, Parabolic CRL—Image Amplitude Distribution for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.4 Point Spread Function (PSF) of the Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.5 PSF of a Pinhole for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.6 The Modulation Transfer Function

11.7 The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) with a Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.8 Field of View (FOV) with a Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.9 Image Intensity Distribution of a Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Coherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.10 Biconcave, Parabolic CRL Image Intensity Distribution for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity—Coherent Amplitude Cross Terms Set to Zero

11.11 Without CRL—Phase Contrast Imaging for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

11.12 Special Case of a Merged Object Plane and Source Plane

11.13 Stationary Phase Approach Applied to an Image Amplitude Integral of a Spherical, Biconcave CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity

References

12. Electromagnetic Fields of Moving Charges, Electric and Magnetic Dipoles

12.1 Maxwell’s Equations and the Lienard–Wiechert Potentials

12.2 The Lorentz Gauge and the Helmholtz Theorem

12.3 Calculation of Scalar and Vector Potentials of an Oscillating Electric Dipole

12.4 Calculation of a Magnetic Field of an Oscillating Electric Dipole via the Vector Potential

12.5 Calculation of the Electric Field Emitted from an Oscillating Electric Dipole

12.6 Conversion of Electric and Magnetic Fields from MKS Units to CGS Units

12.7 Near- and Far-Zone Electric Fields and Power Emission from an Oscillating Electric Dipole

12.8 Frequency and Wave-Number Domain Expressions for Electric and Magnetic Fields Emission and Power from the Oscillating Electric Dipole

12.9 Binomial Expansion of the Vector Potential of a Moving Charge Includes Contributions from Electric and Magnetic Dipole and Electric Quadrupole Moments

12.10 Transformation of the Fields and Vector Potential of the Electric Dipole to the Magnetic Dipole

12.11 Electric and Magnetic Fields and Power Emission from an Oscillating Magnetic Dipole

12.12 Derivation of the Electric Field of a Charge in Arbitrary Motion from Lienard–Wiechert Potentials

12.13 Derivation of the Magnetic Field of a Charged Particle in Arbitrary Motion from Lienard–Wiechert Potentials

12.14 Poynting Vector and Electromagnetic Energy Radiated from an Arbitrary Accelerated Charge per Solid Angle per Frequency Interval

12.15 Calculation of the Electron Trajectory in Synchrotron Ring Insertion Devices

12.16 Simplified Velocity-Dependent Expression for the per Solid Angle Frequency Spectrum Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particles

12.17 Bremsstrahlung and Electromagnetic Wave Polarization

12.18 Net Neutron Magnetic Dipole Moment Produced in an Ultracold Neutron Population with Applied Magnetic Field, and Possibilities for Population Inversion

12.19 Energy Radiated per Solid Angle for a Moving Magnetic Dipole Moment of Neutrons and Charged Particles

12.20 Relation of a Magnetization Vector of a Moving Charge with a Polarization Vector of a Stationary Charge

References

13. Special Relativity, Electrodynamics, Least Action, and Hamiltonians

13.1 Special Relativity—Minkowski Space and Invariant Space–Time Distance

13.2 Special Relativity—Length Contraction

13.3 Special Relativity—Time Dilation

13.4 Special Relativity—Lorentz Transformation of Space–Time Position

13.5 Special Relativity—Lorentz Transformation with Position and Velocity Four-Vectors

13.6 Special Relativity—Four-Vector and Lorentz Transformation Representation in Minkowski Space

13.7 Special Relativity—Velocity, Mass, Momentum, and Energy

13.8 Radiated Power from an Accelerated Charge Moving at Nonrelativistic Velocity via the Nonrelativistic Larmor Formula and Lorentz Transformation at an Instant of Time

13.9 Special Relativity—Electromagnetic Four-Vectors

13.10 Special Relativity—Electromagnetic Fields and Potentials as Four-Vectors

13.11 Special Relativity—The Electromagnetic Field Tensor

13.12 The Maxwell Stress Tensor

13.13 Force Density and the Maxwell Stress Tensor

13.14 The Principle of Least Action and the Lagrangian Yields Euler–Lagrange Equations

13.15 Derivation of the Hamiltonian from the Lagrangian

13.16 Derivation of the Lagrangian for Relativistic Charged Particle in an Electromagnetic Field

13.17 Euler–Lagrange Equation for Langrangian Density for Real Scalar Fields

References

14. The Klein–Gordon and Dirac Equations

14.1 Relativistic Correct Schrödinger Wave Equation—the Klein–Gordon Equation

14.2 The Dirac Wave Equation for Spin 1/2 Particles—Overview

14.3 Derivation of the Dirac Equation that Predicts Correct LS Coupling Term for Unpaired Atomic Electrons in Magnetic Neutron Scatter

14.4 Solution of the Dirac Equation for a Free Particle

14.5 A Useful Vector Property with the Pauli Spin Matrix

14.6 Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction—The Basis of LS Coupling

14.7 Second Term of the Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction that Includes an LS Coupling Term

14.8 Third Term of the Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction

14.9 Magnetic Field of a Proton Current in an Electron Rest Frame Expressed by the Proton Magnetic Dipole Moment Vector and Electron Orbit Radius

14.10 Evaluated Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction that Predicts LS Coupling and Hyperfine Interactions

14.11 Equation of Motion for Electron Spin, Orbital, and Total Angular Momentum Vectors

14.12 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for the Hydrogen Atom—Step 1: Evaluation of in the Dirac Hamiltonian

14.13 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for the Hydrogen Atom—Step 2: Evaluation of in a Dirac Hamiltonian Term

14.14 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for a Hydrogen Atom—Step 3: Introduction of the Squared Angular Momentum Operator in a Dirac Hamiltonian

14.15 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for a Hydrogen Atom—Step 4: Obtain a Pair of Coupled First-Order Differential Equations from the Developed Dirac Hamiltonian

14.16 Asymptotic Solution—A Coupled, Dirac Eigenequation Pair for the Hydrogen Atom

14.17 Regular Solution of the Coupled, Dirac Eigenequation Pair and Electron Energy Formula for the Hydrogen Atom

14.18 Quantum Number Relationships in the Dirac Electron Energy Formula for a Hydrogen Atom

14.19 The Nuclear Electric Quadrupole Potential

References

15. Neutron and X-ray Optics in General Relativity and Cosmology

15.1 Special and General Relativity—History and Relation to Neutron and X-ray Optics

15.2 Equivalence Principle, Manifolds, Parallel Vector Translation, and Covariant Derivatives

15.3 Surfaces and Gauss’s Remarkable Theorem, Gaussian Curvature, and Metric Coefficients

15.4 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems

15.5 Metric Tensor and Invariant Distance in Coordinate System Transformations

15.6 Metric Tensor and Invariant Area and Volume in Coordinate System Transformations

15.7 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems and the Jacobian Determinant

15.8 Metric Coefficients, Jacobian Determinant, and Cartesian-to-Curvilinear Coordinate System Transformation

15.9 Variation of Physical Quantity by Displacement—Scalar and Vector Fields

15.10 Invariance, Summation Convention, and Contravariant Vectors

15.11 Natural Basis Vectors are Tangent to Surfaces in a Contravariant Vector Space

15.12 Geometric View of Contravariant Representation of a Vector

15.13 Geometric View of Covariant (Dual) Representation of a Vector

15.14 Covariant Vectors Transformation Is Similar to the Gradient of a Scalar Function

15.15 Dual Basis Vectors are Normal to Surfaces in the Covariant Vector Space

15.16 Covariant and Contravariant Tensors, Pseudo and Polar Scalars, Vectors, and Tensors

15.17 Natural and Dual Basis Vectors are Reciprocals

15.18 Natural and Dual Basis Vectors and the Metric Tensor

15.19 Differentials in Curvilinear Coordinates, Curved Surfaces, and Parallel Transport

15.20 Absolute and Covariant Derivatives of Vectors with Contravariant Representation

15.21 Absolute and Covariant Derivatives of Vectors and Tensors with Covariant Representation

15.22 Geodesic Curves and Connection Coefficients Expressed by a Metric Tensor

15.23 Gradient of a Vector in Curvilinear Coordinates

15.24 Cylindrical Coordinate System—Covariant and Contravariant Metric Coefficients and Connection Coefficients

15.25 Spherical Coordinate System—Covariant and Contravariant Metric Coefficients and Connection Coefficients

15.26 Newton’s Laws and Maxwell’s Equations in General Relativity

15.27 The Curvature, Ricci, and Einstein Tensors and the Curvature or Ricci Scalar

15.28 The Stress Tensor, Universe Fluid Model, and the Equation of Continuity and Motion

15.29 Einstein Field Equations

15.30 Hilbert Derived Einstein Field Equations from the Principle of Least Action

15.31 Gravity Waves Derived from Linearized Einstein Field Equations for the Weak Gravity Condition

15.32 Schwarzschild Solution to Einstein Field Equations and Experimental Predictions

15.33 The Friedmann Equation and Cosmological Issues

References

16. Radiation Imaging Systems and Performance

16.1 Liouville’s Theorem, the Vlasov Equation, and the Continuity Equation

16.2 Fraction of Source Intensity Intercepted and Focused by Lens

16.3 Depth of Field of a Lens

16.4 Radiation Dose Rate and Radiation Shielding

16.5 Imaging System Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)

16.6 Rose Model, Contrast, Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE), and Noise Power Spectrum (NPS)

16.7 Derivation of DQE from NPS, Contrast, Gain, and MTF

16.8 Criteria for Sample Feature Imaging

16.9 Imaging System Performance—Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC), Positive and Negative Likelihood, and Positive and Negative Predictive Value Curves

16.10 Reliable Detection of a Signal in the Presence of Background and Noise

References

17. Neutron and Charged Particle Magnetic Optics

17.1 Charged Particle Motion in Axial Symmetric Magnetic Field—Busch’s Theorem

17.2 Paraxial Ray Equation and Focusing of Charged Particles by an Axial Symmetric Magnetic Field

17.3 Paraxial Ray Equation for Azimuthally Symmetric Magnetic and Electric Fields and Busch’s Theorem Derived from the Least-Action Principle

17.4 Multipole Magnetic Fields and Lenses for Charged Particles

17.5 FODO Quadrupole Magnetic Lens Pair for Charged Particles

17.6 Neutron Trajectory in Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Gradient Focusing of Neutrons

17.7 Neutron Compound Cylindrical Magnetic Lens

17.8 Calculation of Magnetic Fields of Planar Magnets by Paired Magnetic Charge Sheets

17.9 1-D Magnetic Gravitational Trap for Ultracold Neutrons

17.10 Electron Trajectory in Wigglers and Undulator X-ray Sources

17.11 Derivation of Emitted X-ray Wavelength, Bandwidth, and Cone Angle for the Undulator

17.12 X-ray Power and Differential Power Emission per Solid Angle from an Undulator

References

Copyright

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1

Introduction

This Insights book is a continuation of the Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics volumes (AIEP) 172, 173, and 175 of the work on neutron and X-ray microscopy and optics by this author. This material is intended for a wide international readership of varying backgrounds, specialties, and educations, in which English may be a second language. The Insights book attempts to provide rapid assimilation of the presented topics that include neutron and X-ray scatter, refraction, diffraction, and reflection and their potential application.

AIEP volume 172 (Cremer, 2012b) first introduces experiments with thermal neutron and X-ray geometric, refractive, reflective, and diffractive optics, as well as neutron and X-ray microscopy, phase contrast, and thermal and fast neutron radiographic imaging. What follows is a presentation of compound refractive lenses (CRLs) and prisms followed by the monochromatic and geometric aberrations of geometric X-ray and neutron optics. This Insights volume will cover the diffractive neutron and X-ray optics and, using the Huygens–Fresnel approach, the Kirchhoff equation solutions for compound refractive X-ray and neutron lenses, which include the geometric, diffractive, monochromatic, and chromatic aberrations.

Next, the X-ray complex scatter factor and refractive index are derived, and presented are the scatter cross sections for X-rays, including X-ray attenuation processes. In addition, X-ray reflection and transmission at interfaces are included. Next, this volume derives the Schrödinger wave equation for neutron plane waves, neutron phase and group velocity, neutron reflection and transmission at interfaces, and neutron reflectometry, as well as X-ray and neutron interferometry, perfect crystals, and the Fizeau effect. Finally, the general refractive index for neutrons and X-rays in materials is derived, and useful formulas and the comparison of the scatter and attenuation process of neutrons and X-rays, multilayer mirrors, capillary optics, and Kumakhov lenses for neutrons and X-rays are presented, and then there is a discussion of bright-field, dark-field, and phase contrast microscopy for neutrons and X-rays.

AIEP volume 173 (Cremer, 2012c) starts with coverage on sources, scattering, detection, and radiographic imaging of fast neutrons, as well as the use of fast neutrons in nuclear resonant detection of isotopes. Next comes a detailed presentation of thermal neutron scatter, which includes neutron complex scatter lengths and scatter amplitudes, and refractive index in materials, and then onto a review of the relevant quantum mechanics, such as the Heisenberg, Schrödinger, and interaction pictures, creation and annihilation operators of the harmonic oscillator, and the derivation of the Breit–Wigner equation and Fermi’s Golden Rule. The Eikonal equation for neutron optics is presented, and the general solution of the Schrödinger wave equation for plane wave neutron scatter from nuclei is derived in detail and includes derivation of the complex scatter amplitudes, neutron scatter lengths, phase shift angles, and the optical theorem.

Next, is derived the total, differential, and partial differential cross sections for coherent and incoherent, elastic and inelastic neutron scatter in materials. Then, the crystal and its unit cell, and the regular and reciprocal lattices for Bravais and non-Bravais lattice crystals, the Ewald sphere, the Wigner–Seitz cell and the first Brillouin zone, and the Bragg and Laue diffraction conditions are presented prior to coverage of neutron diffraction from crystals. The partial differential, differential, and total cross sections, are derived for coherent and incoherent, elastic and inelastic neutron scatter in Bravais and non-Bravais crystals with 1-D and 3-D, which is based on the kinematic model. These crystal neutron scatter cross sections are first derived without thermal effects and then derived with the inclusion of thermal effects via the Debye–Waller factor.

The coherent and incoherent inelastic scatter and phonon–neutron scatter are also covered. The 1-D and 3-D thermal vibration modes in crystals are covered, and the cubic crystal lattice is examined in particular, which also includes Hooke’s law and the derivation of the cubic crystal stress tensor and elastic waves. Neutron residual stress analysis is discussed, along with the topics of coupled Ewald equations, extinction, and broadening of diffraction peaks in perfect crystals. Next, the dynamic model of neutron and X-ray scatter in perfect crystals is presented. The average nuclear potential and the time-independent Schrödinger equation and the solution for dynamic neutron scatter in a perfect crystal, which includes anomalous absorption, primary extinction, and Pendellösung interference, are detailed.

Next, the neutron transport equation for neutron scatter in mosaic crystals in terms of the neutron scatter and absorption cross section per unit volume is derived and then solved to yield the generalized Darwin equation. Single Bragg reflection applied to the generalized Darwin equations yields the ordinary Darwin equations, which are solved for the one-beam (off-Bragg) and two-beam (Bragg) cases for a planar mosaic crystal. Finally, the partial differential, differential, and total cross sections for kinematic neutron scatter from averaged nuclear potential in crystals are derived.

AIEP volume 175, chapter 1, starts with the coverage of the correlation, scatter, and intermediate functions of small-angle neutron scatter. Small-angle X-ray and neutron scatter from general samples are covered, followed by the Rayleigh–Gans theories, Babinets’ principle, and the differential cross section of X-ray or neutron small-angle scattering from a solute–solvent sample. The resolution of the scatter vector for a small-angle neutron scatter (SANS) instrument for X-rays or neutrons is derived. Next, we present the neutron scatter length density, particle structure factor, and scatter amplitudes and intensity. Also covered are random variables, correlation, and independence, followed by derivation of the macroscopic differential cross section for neutron scatter, which involves convolution and cross-correlation. Next, the coherent and incoherent, elastic and inelastic components of the pair correlation function, intermediate function, and scatter function, the relationships between these functions, and the measured neutron small-angle scatter intensities from neutron scattering sample are discussed.

AIEP volume 175, chapter 1 then covers the Guinier, Intermediate, and Porod regimes of the sample-averaged intermediate function, the method of contrast variation, and Porod’s law. Coherent neutron scatter measurements are shown to yield the solute particle size and shape in the Guinier regime, and incoherent neutron scatter measurements are shown to yield the incoherent scatter function, which give particle diffusion information. Also derived is the principle of detailed balance and covered are the static approximation, the particle number density operator and pair correlation function, and the moments of the neutron scatter function. The neutron coherent differential cross section in crystals is shown to be expressed by particle density operators, and neutron elastic scatter is shown to be only in the forward direction for liquids and gases by the coherent intermediate and scatter functions.

In the second chapter of AIEP volume 175, are derived the partial differential cross sections for neutron scatter from a nucleus, which accounts for the neutron spin and the nuclear spin. Covered first are the preliminary background topics of angular momentum vectors, spin vectors, and vector operators, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and commutation of operators, the neutron spin operator, and the neutron spin lowering and raising operators. Next are derived, the partial differential cross section for nuclear scatter of the neutron spin-up and spin-down states, and derived are polarized neutron scatter and the partial differential cross section, which includes both the neutron spin state and nuclear spin state, via the combined neutron spin operator and nuclear spin operators. Next, the neutron nuclear scatter length, which accounts for the neutron spin states, is covered. Thermal averaging is then taken into account, and the total partial differential cross section for neutron spin state scatter is derived, as well as the neutron spin state scatter lengths for an ensemble of nuclear spins and isotopes. Finally, derived are the partial differential, differential, and total cross sections for neutron coherent and incoherent scatter from an ensemble of atoms of varying nuclear spins and isotopes, which accounts for neutron spin states.

The Insights book augments, supplements, and continues coverage of the neutron and X-ray topics in AIEP volumes 172, 173, and 175, and extends this coverage to relevant topics from a variety of branches of physics. The Insights book also presents magnetic neutron scatter, neutron refractive index in materials and fields, electric field neutron scatter, and neutron magnetic optics, X-ray optics and gamma optics, and neutron and X-ray refractive lenses and microscopy. Also included in this book is a detailed discussion of associated material, which includes (1) neutron spin echo, tomography, and holography; (2) diffractive X-ray and neutron optics; (3) Kirchoff equation solutions for X-ray and neutron refractive lenses; (4) the Klein Gordon and Dirac equations applied to magnetic neutron scatter; (5) electrodynamics with particular coverage of Lienard–Wiechert potentials and electric and magnetic fields from moving and accelerated charges, magnetic dipole moments, and dipole interaction; (6) Hamiltonians and least action; (7) special relativity transformation of electric and magnetic fields between moving inertial frames; (8) a general relativity primer for X-ray and neutron optics applied to astronomy; (9) novel X-ray sources, such as transition, channel and parametric sources for X-ray optics; (10) neutron and charged particle beam focusing and imaging optics; and (11) radiation imaging systems and performance.

This Insights book and the AIEP volumes 172, 173, and 175 use MKS units, unless specified otherwise. The extensive mathematical physics that is presented in this book may require in many cases a computer to solve, simulate, model, or calculate. For scientific programming and numerical computation in the FORTRAN computer language, see Press et al. (1989), and for the rhea C computer language, see Press et al. (1992). For a general survey of scientific programming and numerical computation, see Burden and Faires (1997) and Gerard and Wheatley (1994).

This first chapter covers the basics of refractive material lenses for X-rays, neutrons, and gammas, and covers parabolic and spherical, biconcave and biconvex CRL. In particular, the focal lengths, limiting aperture diameters due to absorption, and parabolic focusing are derived for CRLs for neutrons, X-rays, and gammas. Also presented is a 3-D array of CRLs, which allow imaging and magnification of extended objects, which is based on the 3-D microlens arrays which are used for visible light in fax machines and photocopiers. The complex refractive index and scatter cross section for X-rays are derived using the electromagnetic wave equation and the atomic electron oscillator equation. Maxwell’s equations are presented and are used to derive the electromagnetic wave equation and the energy balance equation for the electromagnetic wave. A review of integration on the complex plane, which is specific to deriving the complex refractive index for photons, is presented.

In Chapter 1, the optical theorem, also known as the shadow theorem, is derived. The optical theorem allows one to calculate the total cross section for scatter and absorption of an X-ray or neutron wave from the scatter factor or scatter amplitude. Also, the Kramers–Kronig relation is derived. The optical theorem allows one to calculate the real refractive part of the complex refractive index from the imaginary attenuation component. The attenuation component of the complex refractive index is more readily measured than the attenuating component. For example, the very tiny total cross section for attenuation of neutrinos in theory would allow the calculation of the very tiny refractive part of the complex refractive index of neutrinos as a function of neutrino energy.

Chapter 1 closes with the application of the optical theorem and the Kramers–Kronig relations in gamma ray refractive optics (gamma CRLs). The complex refractive index for gammas, which is based on the Delbrück effect of photon–photon scatter, is specifically gamma scatter by the nuclear electric field. Finally, we present the first experimental results of the refractive deflection of gammas with a prism, which use an intense Compton backscatter gamma source.

This section closes with images taken with (1) neutron CRL, (2) X-ray CRL, (3) X-ray Fresnel zone plates, (4) thermal neutron radiography, (5) fast neutron radiography, (6) neutron phase contrast imaging, and (7) X-ray phase contrast imaging. The experiments and details regarding these images can be found in Chapter 1 of AIEP volume 172. Figure 1.1 shows refractive imaging of very cold, cold, and thermal neutrons with a CRL, which acts as the objective lens in a simple neutron microscope set up for obtaining magnified images (Mag ×). Refractive imaging of cold neutrons in Figure 1.1 can be found in Eskildsen et al. (1998), Choi et al. (2000), Beguiristain et al. (2002), Cremer et al. (2004a, 2004b, 2005, 2010), and Park et al. (2006). Refractive imaging with very cold neutrons in Lal et al. (2007) and thermal neutrons in Cremer et al. (2007, 2007a) are covered in section 2 of chapter 1 of Cremer (2012b).

Figure 1.1 A collection of neutron CRLs, microscopes, and their magnified images.

Figure 1.2 shows examples of refractive imaging with X-ray CRLs as well as photos of the various individual X-ray lenses stacked to form a CRL. The refractive imaging of X-rays in Figure 1.2 can be found in Snigirev et al. (1996, 1997, 2009), Lengeler et al. (1999, 2001), Schroer et al. (2000, 2002, 2003), Piestrup et al. (2005), Gary et al. (2007), and section 3 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b).

Figure 1.2 A collection of X-ray CRLs, microscopes, and their magnified images.

Figure 1.3 shows the use of a CRL to magnify a phase contrast image, produced by a synchrotron X-ray source (Schroer et al., 2000), the alligator CRL (Pereira et al., 2001), and the vinyl LP CRL (Cederström et al., 2000). Also see section 3 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b).

Figure 1.3 The use of CRL in phase contrast imaging of X-rays and the alligator (vinyl LP) CRL.

Examples of diffractive imaging of X-rays are shown in Figure 1.4. Also see section 7 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). In Figure 1.4 (left panel), the differential phase contrast (DPC) imaging with a grating are shown. Conventional transmission X-ray image (left fish) and DPC image (right fish) were obtained by Pfeiffer et al. (2006). In Figure 1.4 (right panel), the X-ray microscopy with Fresnel zone plates by the XM-1 bright-field, soft X-ray microscope at Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) is shown. The blood cell images are from C. Magowan, W. Meyer-Llse, and J. Brown of LBNL; see http://www.cxro.lbl.gov/zoneplate and http://www.cxro.lbl.gov/BL612/bioimaging.html.

Figure 1.4 Examples of diffractive imaging of X-rays with gratings and Fresnel zone plates.

In Figure 1.5, examples of phase contrast images with X-rays are shown. The X-ray phase contrast diagram and fish images in Figure 1.5 (left panel) are from the CSIROpedia Web site of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) in Australia (http://www.csiropedia.csiro.au/display/CSIROpedia/X-ray+phase-contrast+imaging). For X-ray phase contrast imaging, see Wilkins et al. (1996), Wilkins (1996), Gureyev and Wilkins (1998a,1998b), Gureyev et al. (2008), and section 7 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). The wasp and spider images in Figure 1.5 (right panel) are from the Web site of Excillum AB of Kista, Sweden (http://www.excillum.com/contact.html).

Figure 1.5 Examples of phase contrast imaging with X-rays.

In Figure 1.6, examples of cold and thermal neutron phase contrast imaging are shown. Also see section 4 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). In Figure 1.6 (left panel), the diagram and images are taken from a 2000 NIST Research Highlights article reporting on first-phase contrast imaging experiments with cold neutrons by Allman et al. (2000). In Figure 1.6 (right panel), the phase contrast images are contrasted with contact images Kardjilov (2003). The neutron wave is refracted by the edge portion of the sample toward the detector in directions that are at a small angle relative to the incident direction of the wave front before sample incidence. Refraction of neutrons by the strong refractive gradient of the edge feature causes an amplitude shadow of the edge feature at the detector. The interference of the amplitudes of the edge-refracted wave front and the transmitted wave front on either side of the edge feature leads to amplitude modulation and a modulated intensity at the detector, that is, a phase contrast image of the edge feature.

Figure 1.6 Examples of cold and thermal neutron, phase contrast imaging.

In Figure 1.7, examples of thermal neutron radiography are shown. The images in Figure 1.7 (left panel) are from the McClellan Nuclear Radiation Center (MNRC) at the University of California at Davis (UC Davis; http://mnrc.ucdavis.edu). They show the comparison between a neutron contact radiograph (contrasts hydrogen-based fluid) and X-ray contact radiograph (contrasts high-Z materials) of a lighter. The lower left photo shows the MNRC TRIGA reactor core with a blue glow from the Cherenkov radiation sonic boom or bow wave of charged particles, which exceed the phase velocity of light. Thermal neutron radiography can find missing glue in aircraft parts and stopped-up cooling channels in the aircraft turbine blade. In Figure 1.7 (right panel), contact thermal neutron radiography images of a rat paw, sea horse, and mouse are shown; they were taken at Bay 4 of the MNRC by Cremer et al. (2007), which is presented in section 4 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). The thermal neutrons from the reactor have a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution centered about 1.2 Å, where a sapphire crystal filters out gammas from the reactor and helps moderate the thermal neutrons to the room-temperature wavelength of 1.8 Å. The thermal neutrons in the reactor water are above room temperature, and the incident flux of 10⁵ n/cm²/s at the radiographic sample, with L/D=270 collimation (distance L/ source_size D), are slightly warmer with distribution center wavelength 1.2 Å. Hydrogen has an 80.26 barn scatter cross section, and a 0.33 barn absorption cross section; hence, the thermal neutrons are strongly attenuated by scatter from hydrogen in the mouse.

Figure 1.7 Examples of thermal neutron radiography.

Fast neutron imaging examples are shown in Figure 1.8; see section 5 in chapter 1 of Cremer (2012b). Disdier et al. (2003, 2004) used fast neutron imaging with liquid scintillator–filled capillary arrays to image the shape of imploding DT capsules in inertial confinement fusion experiments at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics at Rochester University with the Omega laser. Using the neutron source at the Ohio University Accelerator Laboratory (OUAL) in Athens, OH, Hall (2001) and Hall et al. (2001) obtained 10 MeV neutron radiographic and tomographic images of various phantoms, and Eberhardt et al. (2005) at CSIRO developed a combined gamma and fast neutron interrogation system for inspecting air cargo at the Brisbane airport in Australia. Dangendorf et al. (2002) exploited the fast neutron energy bands of higher and lower cross sections to obtain difference images of carbon rods. Lintech and Adelphi Technology have developed fast and thermal neutron imaging cameras see Popov et al. (2011) and Cremer et al. (2009, 2012). The phoswich detector developed by the Applied Physics Institute of Western Kentucky University by Barzilov et al. (2009) can discriminate, detect, and count the gamma, thermal, and fast neutron components from a radiation source, via pulse shape discrimination, and a plastic and lithium glass scintillator, optically coupled to a photomultiplier tube.

Figure 1.8 Examples of fast neutron imaging and radiography.

1.1 Refractive Index for Neutrons and X-rays

For derivation of the general refractive index for X-rays, gammas, and neutrons, see section 1 of Chapter 6 of AIEP volume 172, of a material for gammas (or neutrons) is

(1.1)

, where

(1.2)

, where

(1.3)

and

(1.4)

from the adjoining vacuum, is then

(1.5)

is the number of wavelengths per unit distance in the direction of ray propagation, where

(1.6)

, where

(1.7)

, where

(1.8)

Given n=1−δ), where

(1.9)

(1.10)

is the speed of the phase of the wave. Hence, the wave phase velocity can be less than or greater than the vacuum speed of light.

by

(1.11)

. Substitution of Eq. (1.7) into Eq. (1.11) gives

(1.12)

For propagation in the zbecomes

(1.13)

With substitution of for a neutron] wave inside the material medium becomes

(1.14)

One plugs into of Eq. (1.4) and uses the binomial approximation, via

(1.15)

of Eq. (1.14) becomes

(1.16)

The argument of the attenuation exponential of , where

(1.17)

From section 3 of Chapter 6 in AIEP volume 172, (both elastic and inelastic), where

(1.18)

Using of Eq. (1.16) becomes

(1.19)

, where

(1.20)

, where

(1.21)

From section 2 of Chapter 6 of AIEP volume 172, is

(1.22)

.

Recall from Eq. (1.462) of section 22 in Chapter 2 of AIEP volume 173, Cremer (2012c), that the complex scatter length b [fm] has units of length and is given by

(1.23)

Recall from of the incident neutron plane waves, where

(1.24)

is then

(1.25)

. individual thin unit lenses, which share a common optical axis and are used to form a compound refractive X-ray lens.

Figure 1.9 of the transmitted intensity along the center lens (optical) axis (Piestrup et al., 2001).

, which is the radius of curvature at the vertex of the paraboloid lens surface, where

(1.26)

Incident plane waves of X-rays, gammas, visible light, or neutrons are focused by the CRLs to a focal point on the optical axis. The closely spaced series of N of the CRL, where

(1.27)

lenses makes the focusing, collecting, and imaging of objects practical with X-rays, neutrons, or gammas, which have very small refractive decrements. See Figs. 1.9 and 1.10.

Figure 1.10 and require biconvex lenses to focus.

, where

(1.28)

, where

(1.29)

, where

(1.30)

of the neutron de Broglie plane wave:

(1.31)

of the equivalent neutron de Broglie plane wave, where

(1.32)

stands for millielectron volts. Recall that in , where

(1.33)

, or

(1.34)

relative to the target nucleus, or

(1.35)

, or

(1.36)

, where

(1.37)

, where

(1.38)

By the de Broglie relation of Eq. (1.28), the neutron velocity is inversely proportional to its wavelength:

(1.39)

.

of the ith isotope nuclei that comprise the lens material is then

(1.40)

Since the neutron or X-ray cross sections can vary widely for the same material, depending on the material structure and atom density nonuniformity, one should measure the candidate lens material scatter and absorption on a small-angle scatter beam line for neutrons or X-rays. For details of neutron attenuation cross sections for neutron monochromators and filters, see Freund (1983).

neutrons. The linear attenuation for a single element isotope is

(1.41)

, where

(1.42)

From , or

(1.43)

. Hence,

(1.44)

In at 293 K, respectively. Note that 1 barn=10−24 cm² and 1 fm=10−15 m.

Table 1.1

Listed are Neutron Bound Scattering Lengths and Absorption Cross Sections for Some Specimen- and CRL-Relevant Elements in Their Natural States

at room-temperature wavelength λ=1.8 Å. Neutron lenses, which are comprised of these elements, provide relatively strong refraction with minimal attenuation.

isotopes, such that each ifor a mixture is

(1.45)

for a mixture is

(1.46)

. Thus, these tabulated numbers in Table 1.1 are the weighted averages of all the natural occurring elements’ constituent stable isotopes.

In because of (1) the increase of dimensionless δ with increasing λwith increasing λ. Most materials have a positive decrement δ>0 with a refractive index n=1−δ<1 and thus require spherical or parabolic biconcave lenses for focusing and imaging. The exceptions are titanium, vanadium, and manganese, which have a negative decrement δ<0, with a refractive index n=1−δ, where beryllium, carbon, and aluminum are also good lens materials for X-rays.

Figure 1.11 .

1.2 CRLs—Thin-Lens Approximation: Focal Length, Ray Path Lengths, and Attenuation

. For the case of a biconcave lens, see the schematic in Figure 1.12, and for the case of a biconvex lens, see the schematic in Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.12 is the physical radius of the lens.