Încărcare
Găsiți următoarea book favorită
Deveniți un membru astăzi și citiți gratuit pentru 30 zileÎncepeți perioada gratuită de 30 zileInformații despre carte
Cocoa Butter and Related Compounds
Până la Elsevier Science
Acțiuni carte
Începeți să citițiEvaluări:
Evaluare: 5 din 5 stele5/5 (1} stea)
Lungime: 1,008 pagini
- Editor:
- Elsevier Science
- Lansat:
- Aug 24, 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780128043448
- Format:
- Carte
Descriere
This book covers the progress of the last 10 years of studies on cocoa butter. Descriptions of several aspects, including physical characteristics such as rheology, hardness, melt profiles, etc., studied by new and advanced techniques are included. Similarly, the polymorphism of cocoa butter is reconsidered in light of studies done by synchrotron DSC, FTIR, and SAXS techniques. These data are complemented by new understandings on the cause of the crystallization and transitions of the polymorphs. Other aspects such as the effect of minor components, emulsifiers, and other fats are discussed in great detail in this book.
Brings together all that is known about cocoa butter into one book
Describes physical characteristics of cocoa butter including rheology, hardness, and melt profiles
Reconsiders polymorphism of cocoa butter in light of recent studies by various analytical techniques
Presents new understandings on the cause of crystallization and transitions of polymorphs
Informații despre carte
Cocoa Butter and Related Compounds
Până la Elsevier Science
Evaluări:
Evaluare: 5 din 5 stele5/5 (1} stea)
Lungime: 1,008 pagini
Descriere
This book covers the progress of the last 10 years of studies on cocoa butter. Descriptions of several aspects, including physical characteristics such as rheology, hardness, melt profiles, etc., studied by new and advanced techniques are included. Similarly, the polymorphism of cocoa butter is reconsidered in light of studies done by synchrotron DSC, FTIR, and SAXS techniques. These data are complemented by new understandings on the cause of the crystallization and transitions of the polymorphs. Other aspects such as the effect of minor components, emulsifiers, and other fats are discussed in great detail in this book.
Brings together all that is known about cocoa butter into one book
Describes physical characteristics of cocoa butter including rheology, hardness, and melt profiles
Reconsiders polymorphism of cocoa butter in light of recent studies by various analytical techniques
Presents new understandings on the cause of crystallization and transitions of polymorphs
- Editor:
- Elsevier Science
- Lansat:
- Aug 24, 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780128043448
- Format:
- Carte
Legat de Cocoa Butter and Related Compounds
Mostră carte
Cocoa Butter and Related Compounds
durability.
Preface
Chocolate is a delight and makes us happy; it is an indulgence everyone should have the opportunity to enjoy. While most people are aware of chocolate’s enjoyment, most people are not aware of the nutritional and health benefits the minor components in chocolate provide.
Only a very few consumers, confectioners, and food scientists know much about the cocoa butter, which is a key component in chocolate and responsible for many of the desirable sensory attributes unique to chocolate.
It is cocoa butter’s unique mixture of triglycerides that impart the desirable melting properties of chocolate that set the standard of quality for indulgent confections. However, this unique mixture of triglycerides has its unique problems. If not cooled properly or if it is stored for long periods of time and/or under fluctuating temperatures, the physical structure of the cocoa butter will change and impart an unappealing bloom
on the chocolate’s surface.
Cocoa butter must be tempered during cooling to obtain an optimal crystal state that will minimize the bloom effect. The complex physical changes, under complex tempering conditions, that occur remain still somewhat obscure. Many decades of research have passed and still the bloom and its relation to cocoa butter’s unique polymorphic behavior, crystal development and growth, and interaction with other chocolate ingredients are not fully understood.
This book brings to readers the progress of the last 10 years’ studies on cocoa butter. Descriptions of several aspects, including physical characteristics such as rheology, hardness, melt profiles, etc., studied by new and advanced techniques are included.
Similarly, the polymorphism of cocoa butter is reconsidered in light of studies done by synchrotron DSC, FTIR, and SAXS techniques. These data are complemented by new understandings on the cause of the crystallization and transitions of the polymorphs. Other aspects such as the effect of minor components, emulsifiers, and other fats are discussed in great detail in this book.
The first chapter, Chocolate and Cocoa Butter—Structure and Composition,
by Geoff Talbot, describes cocoa butter composition and its structure. This comprehensive review will familiarize readers with the complexity of the cocoa butter composition.
Chapter 2, "Theobrama cacao—An Introduction to the Plant, Its Composition, Uses, and Health Benefits," by César Vega and Catherine Kwik-Uribe, deals with minor components in cocoa beans that are bioactives. This chapter stresses the health benefits of cocoa butter and, as a result, also the chocolate that we are consuming.
Laurent Peno-Mazzarino describes the importance of the polyphenols present in cocoa beans’ chocolate (chocolate mass), antioxidants, and other benefits in Chapter 3, Cocoa Polyphenols.
The editors found this chapter interesting and significant. It stresses yet again the significant benefits that chocolate provides.
In Chapter 4, Phase Behavior of Saturated Triacylglycerides—Influence of Symmetry and Chain Length Mismatch,
Laziz Bouzidi and Suresh S. Narine introduce readers to the triacylglycerides (TAG) complexity of cocoa butter and deal with triglyceride phase behavior and its importance in cocoa butter,
In Chapter 5, Molecular Composition Dynamics and Structure of Cocoa Butter,
Rodrigo Campos and Alejandro G. Marangoni introduce the molecular composition dynamics of cocoa butter. They present some very new and interesting findings related to cocoa butter microstructure.
In Chapter 6, Polymorphism and Mixing Phase Behavior of Major Triacylglycerols of Cocoa Butter,
Mari Sasaki, Satoru Ueno, and Kiyotaka Sato introduce readers to the polymorphism of cocoa butter. They discuss the characterization, polymorphism, and mixing-phase behavior of major triglycerides in cocoa butter.
In Chapter 7, Causes and Best Manufacturing Practices to Minimize Bloom in Confections,
by Neil R. Widlak and Richard W. Hartel, readers get more understanding of the bloom phenomena. Widlak and Hartel discuss the causes and best manufacturing practices for minimizing bloom in chocolate and compound coatings.
Chapter 8, Morphology of Chocolate Fat Bloom,
by Yasuyoshi Kinta and Tamao Hatta, deals with various morphological aspects of bloom and brings to light some very interesting aspects related to it.
In Chapter 9, Effect of Minor Components on Cocoa Butter Polymorphism and Kinetics of Crystallization,
Adam Lechter deals with new aspects related to some minor lipids naturally occurring in cocoa butter, such as fatty acids and mono and monody glycerides, on kinetics of crystallization.
In Chapter 10, Noncocoa Ingredients in Cocoa Butter Crystallization,
Lina Svanberg discusses noncocoa ingredients affecting the crystallization of cocoa butter.
In Chapter 11, Impact of Cocoa Butter Origin on Crystal Behavior,
the authors Stéphanie Marty-Terrade and Alejandro G. Marangoni familiarize readers with the impact of cocoa butter origin on crystal behavior.
The effect of emulsifiers such as lecithin and PGPR as well as other emulsifiers on rheology and polymorphism are discussed in Chapter 12, Effect of Emulsifiers on Cocoa Butter and Chocolate Rheology, Polymorphism, and Bloom,
by Nissim Garti and Abraham Aserin.
Chapter 13, Methods of Studying Cocoa Butter and Bloom,
by Daniel Kalnin, comprehensively reviews current methods and analytical tools to study cocoa butter and bloom.
Satoru Ueno discusses a very novel approach for studying cocoa butter behavior in Chapter 14, New Method to Study Molecular Interactions in Fats—Synchrotron Radiation Microbeam X-ray Diffraction.
The chapter explores novel XRD methods using synchrotron SAXS.
In Chapter 15, Milk Fat and Cocoa Butter,
the authors, Serpil Metin and Richard W. Hartel, discuss the crystallization and microstructure of milk fat and cocoa butter blends.
Chapter 16, "Molecular Interactions of Triacylglycerides in Blends of Cocoa Butter with trans-free Vegetable Oils," by Jorge F. Toro-Vazquez, Miriam A. Charó-Alonso, Juan A. Morales-Rueda, and J. David Pérez-Martinez, introduces readers to the behavior of cocoa butter in the presence of other triglycerides.
Orit Segman, Zeev Wiesman, and Leonid Yarmolinksy cover shea butter—a close relative of cocoa butter—in Chapter 17, Methods and Technologies Related to Shea Butter Chemophysical Properties and to the Delivery of Bioactives in Chocolate and Related Products.
In Chapter 18, Enzymatic and Other Modification Techniques to Produce Cocoa Butter Alternatives,
Stefanie Verstringe, Nathalie De Clercq, Tuyet Mai Nguyen, Sheida Kadivar, and Koen Dewettink familiarize readers with enzymatic and other modification techniques to produce cocoa butter alternatives and optimize the physical properties of cocoa butter.
Kevin W. Smith details the topic of Confectionery Fats
in Chapter 19.
And in Chapter 20, Future of Cocoa Butter Research,
your editors share some thoughts on the future of the industry and directions that research on cocoa butter is likely to take.
We hope that the book will help technicians and scientists to familiarize themselves with the latest progress in this very fascinating research area. And to those newcomers in the field, we believe that this volume will be educational and informative.
Nissim Garti
NeilR. Widlak
1
Chocolate and Cocoa Butter—Structure and Composition
Geoff Talbot, The Fat Consultant, Bedford, United Kingdom
Introduction
Chocolate is one of the most popular food indulgences throughout the world. In terms of per capita consumption, Switzerland tops the league with a consumption in 2008 of 10.77 kg/head, followed by the United Kingdom with 10.07 kg/head (CAOBISCO, 2010). In fact, in 2008, the ten countries consuming the most chocolate per capita were all in Europe (Austria was in 10th place with a per capita consumption of 6.52 kg. In 2005, according to Datamonitor (All Business, 2010) per capita consumption of chocolate in the United States was 12.31 pounds (or 5.60 kg). Why should this be? There are many reasons why people eat chocolate—energy, presence of healthy flavonoids in dark chocolate, and so on—but probably the greatest reason for eating chocolate is the pure pleasure that it brings. Much of that pure pleasure comes from the cocoa present in the chocolate, both the flavor of the cocoa powder, and the smooth meltdown of the cocoa butter. It’s no wonder that the botanical name for the cocoa tree is Theobroma cacao—food of the gods.
Moving away from the hedonistic attributes of chocolate to its more scientific and technological aspects, what is chocolate? To answer that question we need to look at its composition, its structure, how it is produced, and how it is legally defined across the world.
Chocolate Composition and Structure
A basic definition of the structure of chocolate would be a fat-continuous matrix within which are particles of cocoa powder, sugar, and, in the case of milk chocolate, milk powder
giving it a structure such as that schematically shown in Fig. 1.1. In terms of the fats, cocoa butter is the one constant in that this is present in the fat phase, whatever the type of chocolate. Indeed, in dark or plain chocolates, cocoa butter is usually the only fat that is present. The exceptions to this are when a small amount of milk fat is added to enhance the bloom resistance of the chocolate or when low levels of noncocoa vegetable fat are added in countries that permit the use of these fats in chocolate. In milk chocolate, then the fat phase is boosted by the presence of milk fat. In this context, it is always milk fat from cows that is used. As already mentioned, some countries permit the use of vegetable fats in chocolate usually at a defined maximum level. These will be considered both as far as legislation is concerned in the section on legislative constraints and in compositional terms in the section on compositional similarities and differences between cocoa butter and cocoa butter equivalents. In the context of the term vegetable fat
it should, though, be remembered that cocoa butter itself is a vegetable fat. Chocolates also contain some form of emulsifier and this too could be considered to be part of the lipid phase of the chocolate.
Fig. 1.1 Schematic representation of the structure of chocolate.
In terms of the nonfat components in chocolate, then for flavor the most important of these is cocoa powder, i.e., the nonfat part of cocoa. Cocoa processing will be summarised in the next section but it is sufficient to say at this stage that the cocoa components used in chocolate are cocoa butter (the fat phase), cocoa powder (the nonfat phase), or cocoa mass (also known as cocoa liquor) which is the combination of both cocoa powder and cocoa butter found naturally in the cocoa bean. Clearly, as cocoa powder is brown in color it is not used as a component in white chocolate. Also present in almost all chocolates is sugar (although there is a limited market for a 99% cocoa chocolate which is essentially all cocoa mass with some emulsifier and no sugar is present). In milk and white chocolates, milk powders and milk fat are also present. These can be introduced into the composition as either full-cream milk powder containing about 25% milk fat or as skimmed milk powder to which the desired level of milk fat is added separately. A further component that is used in some chocolates (notably those produced in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Switzerland, the United States, and some British Commonwealth countries) is milk crumb or chocolate crumb. This is produced by blending whole milk, sugar, and cocoa liquor and spray-drying the mix. It was originally developed as a way of storing milk during times of the year when it was in short supply but, because it gives milk chocolate a distinctive flavor, it continues to be used simply because consumers have become used to and enjoy this particular flavor.
Cocoa Processing
The cocoa tree, Theobroma cacao, grows in a band between 20°N and 20°S of the Equator. In 2009/2010 the worldwide production was 3.596 million tonnes (ICCO, 2010). 68.4% of this was grown in Africa, 17.6% in Asia and Oceania, and 14.0% in South America. The largest individual growing countries were Côte d’Ivoire (33.1% of total production), Ghana (18.1% of total production), and Indonesia (14.9% of total production).
Cocoa pods are harvested when they change color, usually from green or red to orange or yellow. In West Africa this is usually carried out in the fourth quarter of the year. The harvested pods are cracked open using either a machete or a wooden club. Inside are a number (often between 30 and 45) of beans covered in a white mucilage (see Fig. 1.2). The beans are separated before fermentation and drying. Fermentation is a simple process usually requiring only that the beans are left in piles or in large wooden boxes for up to 5 days. During that time the mucilaginous pulp surrounding the beans liquefies and drains away. It is during the fermentation process that the precursors of the cocoa flavor develop. These are components such as methylxanthines that give the bitterness to cocoa and flavonoids giving both color and astringency. Indeed if beans are dried without fermentation taking place then they have only a minimal chocolate flavor. Such beans are produced but are usually then used only for the production of cocoa butter (Fowler, 2009). After fermentation the beans are dried, often by laying them out on mats in the sun in layers about 100mm thick where climatic conditions allow this kind of drying. Otherwise, they can be artificially dried either in chambers containing a wood-burning fire beneath the drying platform or in forced air dryers in which the beans dry in air from heat exchangers. The problem with wood fire drying is the risk that the beans will take on a smoky flavor. It is usually at this stage that the beans are bagged and exported for further processing.
Fig. 1.2 Open cocoa pod showing cocoa beans surrounded by white mucilage.
The first stage of processing of the beans is to remove any extraneous matter (stones, metal fragments, etc.) by sieving and magnets. Then the shells of the beans are separated from the interior (the nib
) of the bean. This is done by a process of breaking and winnowing. After breaking the shells, often with a type of swing-hammer, the broken shell and nib pieces are separated by passing through a series of sieves. It is at this stage that alkalisation, if it is going to be carried out, is performed. Alkalisation is a process that mainly benefits cocoa powder although alkalised cocoa liquor is sometimes used in chocolate. Its main purpose is to change the color of the cocoa powder, making it darker or more reddish-brown, and involves heating the nibs in an alkaline solution (for example, an aqueous solution of potassium carbonate).
At some stage during the process the cocoa is roasted. This can either be carried out on the whole beans before breaking the shell or it can be carried out on the nib itself. Roasting the whole bean makes it easier to remove the shell whereas roasting the nib, particularly after alkalisation, gives a better cocoa powder. Roasting conditions vary depending on the type of flavor required in the cocoa but temperatures between 110°C and 140°C are usually used. It is only after all of these processing stages that we get to the production of anything that is then directly used in chocolate—cocoa mass or cocoa liquor. This is produced by grinding the cocoa nibs. A range of different types of mill are used to achieve this. Cocoa mass is, then, a ground mix of cocoa powder and cocoa butter and should contain at least 53% fat although the Codex standard (Codex Alimentarius, 2003) has a range of 47–60% fat. The fat is separated from the powder by means of a cocoa press. This results in press cocoa butter.
The reduced fat cake from the press can be further processed along with unpressed cocoa mass and nibs in an expeller to produce expeller cocoa butter.
Finally, there is a grade of cocoa butter known as refined cocoa butter.
This can have been produced by pressing, expelling, or by solvent fractionation. The common factor between them all in terms of refined cocoa butter
is that after separation from the mass the fat is then refined using the normal fat refining techniques of neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization. Normally press and expeller cocoa butters are used without refining as this process removes the flavor associated with cocoa butter. Because they are used without refining, they do contain measurable levels of free fatty acid, although these are limited by legislation to a maximum of 1.75% (European Union, 2000). The variabilities in composition that are found in different cocoa butters will be discussed in more detail in the section on cocoa butter composition.
The fat content of cocoa powder varies depending upon how well the cocoa butter has been removed but commercial varieties tend to come mainly in two types—10/12 cocoa powder containing 10–12% cocoa butter and 20/22 or 22/24 cocoa powder containing 20–22% or 22–24% cocoa butter respectively.
Chocolate Processing
Chocolate processing involves a number of stages which can be summarised as:
• refining
• conching
• tempering
• molding or enrobing
• cooling
• packing
The first stage of refining refers not to refining in the sense that oils and fats are refined but more to a grinding process to reduce the particle size of the chocolate. It is important that the nonfat particles in chocolate are reduced in size to below 25 microns because particles larger than this can be detected on the tongue as grittiness. The exception to this is for chocolates that are to be used to coat, for example, biscuits. The grittiness of the biscuit as it breaks down in the mouth is enough to mask grittiness in the chocolate and so particle sizes of greater than 25 microns can then be used. The most common refining process for chocolate uses a series of counter-rotating heavy cylinders. Industrially a five-roll refiner is usually used but this is often preceded by a two-roll refiner to begin the process of particle size reduction (Beckett, 2009). Each roller goes at a faster speed than the one before it allowing a very thin film of chocolate to be transferred from one roller to the next. This is scraped off the final roller with a knife. Usually, a low-fat paste is passed through the roll refiner, for example a mix in which only 20–23% fat is present, irrespective of the fat content of the final chocolate. The remaining fat is then added during conching. The exceptions to this are when either a ball mill or a Macintyre refiner are used. In those cases it is more usual to grind the full-fat chocolate mix. A ball mill is a vessel containing a large number of metallic or ceramic balls, often of different diameters. Central in the vessel is a rotating agitator. The chocolate mix is stirred with the balls, the grinding action of the balls reducing the particle size. The temperature is such that the chocolate is fully liquid and so ball milling is often carried out at about 50°C. The Macintyre type of refiner is both a refiner and a conche in one unit. It consists of a large drum with a ridged inner surface. Central to the machine is a rotating shaft with spring loaded slats on its perimeter. The chocolate mix is introduced into the machine and the slats on the rotating shaft press against the ridges on the inside of the drum grinding the chocolate between them and thus reduce the particle size. Unlike roll refining this is a batch process. Because the chocolate is stirred and heated in this vessel and kept in there for a number of hours it is also conched as well as refined.
Conching essentially removes unwanted flavors and excess moisture from the chocolate. According to Ziegleder (2004) conching also redistributes the flavor in chocolate from initially being associated with the cocoa powder and cocoa butter to being almost equally distributed between these components and the sugar at the end of conching. Conching traditionally goes through three stages. In the first stage, the dry stage, the chocolate is in a flaky form direct from the roll refiners. In this stage the chocolate is thrown about in the conche so that unwanted flavor volatiles and moisture can be removed. It is also during this stage that the nonfat particles are largely coated in fat so it is important that the fat content should still be low enough to allow movement of the chocolate as a powder but high enough to allow a coating of fat on the particles. In the second, pasty stage, the particles become better coated with fat and the chocolate becomes more of a paste and less powdery. Because the fat content is still relatively low the paste is quite thick. This is important because it ensures that all of the particles are coated in fat, a factor that is important in defining the final viscosity of the chocolate. The remaining fat and the emulsifier are not added until the third stage, the liquid stage, of conching. This is because both of these additions change the paste from thick to thin. It is especially important if lecithin is being used as the emulsifier not to add it too soon as it attracts any moisture remaining in the chocolate and prevents its removal. Too much moisture in chocolate increases the viscosity. The amount of fat and the type and amount of emulsifier added during the final stage of conching are dependent on both the type of chocolate being produced and its final application, particularly whether it is to be used for molding or enrobing.
Up to this point the composition of the fat present in the chocolate has been less important than the amount of fat present at each stage. This changes with the next stage of chocolate processing—tempering—in which the composition, not only in terms of the relative amounts of cocoa butter, milk fat, and vegetable fat but also in terms of minor lipid components, can have a very large effect on temper and the conditions needed to temper the chocolate. This, though, will be covered in more detail in the section on the effect of chocolate fat phase composition on chocolate tempering and rheology. At this stage, the tempering process will be discussed in more general terms.
The reason why chocolate is tempered is because the fat phase of chocolate is essentially polymorphic. This means that it can crystallize in a number of crystal forms of different stabilities. Polymorphism of cocoa butter will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter and in considerably greater detail in Chapter 6, Polymorphism in Cocoa Butter—Characterization of the Polymorphs. In outlining the tempering process it is sufficient, at this stage, to consider that when chocolate is cooled from liquid (say, 50°C to say, 26°C) it will crystallize in both stable and unstable crystal forms. If the chocolate were then to be molded or used to coat a centre product and passed through a cooling tunnel, the unstable crystal (and some of the stable crystal) forms would continue to grow as the chocolate cooled. When the product is then brought back to ambient temperatures and kept at such temperatures the crystals in the unstable form will fairly quickly transform into the stable form. This recrystallization of the fat phase will show itself as a layer of fat crystals on the surface of the chocolate (known as fat bloom) and a change in texture to the internal structure of the chocolate. If, though, when the chocolate is cooled as described above, its temperature is increased again to, say, about 30°C, then the unstable crystals will melt leaving only the stable ones. When the chocolate is then cooled after molding or enrobing there will be only stable crystals present to seed
the rest of the chocolate which will then crystallize in this same stable form. Although this does not necessarily prevent a different form of fat bloom from growing on the chocolate it does ensure its long term stability when stored at 20°C or below.
Industrially, tempering is carried out by passing the chocolate through a series of heat exchangers which gradually cool and then re-heat the chocolate taking it through the stages needed to first crystallize both forms and then melt out the unstable form before the chocolate goes on to the next stage of processing.
After tempering, the chocolate can then be used in a variety of ways. It can be moulded into solid tablets. It can be moulded into empty shells that are then filled with different centres ranging from hard and soft pralines to very liquid centres such as liqueurs. It can also be used to coat or enrobe a wide range of products—biscuits, caramel, fudge, nuts, fruits, ice cream—the list is endless.
After molding or enrobing, the products pass through a cooling tunnel to solidify the chocolate. Industrial cooling tunnels have a number of stages within them that can be set to different temperatures. With chocolate it is important to start cooling at a fairly high temperature (15–18°C being typical). This allows more of the stable crystals to grow. If the chocolate was cooled quickly to lower temperatures then there would be the risk of again introducing unstable crystals that could go on to seed
some of the chocolate in this form. By cooling gently this is avoided and only stable seeds are present. After this initial gentle cooling, the chocolate goes through cooler stages in the centre of the tunnel with temperatures of 10–12°C being common. This crystallizes and solidifies the bulk of the chocolate. Finally, as the chocolate exits the tunnel the temperature is raised again to about 15°C. This is to ensure that the exit temperature of the chocolate is above the dew point in the vicinity of the tunnel exit. If not, then there is the risk of condensation on the surface of the chocolate. At the very least this can lead to unsightly drying marks. Worse it can get trapped within subsequent packing leading to the risk of mold formation. It can also result in sugar bloom in which a small amount of sugar in the chocolate can dissolve in the condensation and then recrystallize as sugar on the surface of the chocolate as the water evaporates. Sugar bloom and fat bloom can be easily distinguished. On the one hand, sugar bloom dissolves in water while fat bloom doesn’t; on the other hand fat bloom usually melts on the fingers while sugar bloom doesn’t.
After cooling, the products are then packed either by flow-wrapping, foil wrapping, or putting into boxes.
Chocolate Recipes
As so many chocolate companies have their own proprietary recipes for their chocolate (and often have more than one recipe for a particular type of chocolate) it is only possible to give guidelines and typical recipes here. A further constraint is that recipes have to meet specific national legislation. Chocolate can nominally be divided into three kinds—plain (or dark) chocolate, milk chocolate, and white chocolate. Generally speaking, plain chocolate is free from milk fat and nonfat milk solids while white chocolate is free from nonfat cocoa solids. The main components in chocolate are cocoa solids (i.e., cocoa butter, cocoa mass, cocoa liquor, cocoa powder) milk solids (i.e., milk fat, milk powders), and sugar. In some instances, e.g., the EU Chocolate Directive (European Union, 2000), these three groups of ingredients are termed noble ingredients.
In addition to these noble ingredients, chocolate can contain noncocoa vegetable fat (where this is permitted), emulsifiers, and other edible substances (again where these are permitted). Examples of other edible substances
are nuts, whey powder, vanilla or ethyl vanillin, salt, etc.
The emulsifiers used in chocolate are also usually defined in the chocolate legislation the most commonly used ones being soya lecithin, ammonium phosphatide (a synthetic type of lecithin produced from rapeseed oil and glycerol), and PGPR (polyglycerol polyricinoleate). Lecithin is the most commonly used emulsifier in chocolate with ammonium phosphatide being an alternative preferred by some manufacturers. PGPR has a marked effect on the yield value of chocolate and so is used (often in combination with lecithin) where particular flow characteristics are required in the chocolate. Chocolate is not an emulsion in the normal sense of the word and so these emulsifiers are not used in the usual sense of combining fatty and aqueous phases together. Rather, they are used to improve the flow characteristics of the chocolate by reducing its viscosity and/or yield value.
Using these ingredients together in different combinations produces different types of chocolate. A further variable factor in chocolate composition is the total fat content. This can range from 25% (often the minimum defined in chocolate legislation) to 29–30% as a more normal level up to 33–35% in some premium chocolates. In premium high cocoa solids dark chocolates the fat content can be quite high.
An example of a typical plain chocolate is shown in Table 1-A. Two milk chocolate formulations are shown in Table 1-B, one being low in milk fat (just above the level permitted in EU and U.S. milk chocolates), the other being higher in milk fat (above the designation for family milk chocolate
in the EU). Table 1-C shows a typical composition of white chocolate. In all cases the total fat content is about 33%. Where vegetable fat is permitted in chocolate it usually replaces part of the added cocoa butter in the recipe. In other words, the level of cocoa mass used remains the same. Some manufacturers produce what is often termed a supercoating.
This is a coating that does not conform the chocolate regulations and cannot be labelled as such but which, in many ways, performs exactly like chocolate. In supercoatings all of the added cocoa butter is replaced by vegetable fat. Comparative recipes of a low milk-fat milk chocolate containing vegetable fat at the 5% level and as a supercoating are shown in Table 1-D. Further recipes for chocolates containing milk crumb and chocolates for particular applications (biscuits, mini rolls, hollow figures, and eggs, ice cream, chocolate chips, and chunks) are listed by Yates (2009).
Table 1-A
Typical Plain Chocolate Formulation.
Table 1-B
Typical Milk Chocolate Formulations.
Table 1-C
Typical White Chocolate Formulation.
Table 1-D
Milk Chocolate and Milk Supercoating Recipes Using Vegetable Fat.
Legislative Constraints
Reference has already been made on a number of occasions to the legislative constraints that are imposed on chocolate compositions. Rather than try to cover the different regulations defining chocolate compositions worldwide, three regions
will be discussed here: (a) the United States, (b) the European Union, and (c) Codex Alimentarius. It should also be realised by the reader that the information given here is a snapshot of the legislation as it was at the time of writing. Regulations change and it is important when defining a new chocolate composition to refer to the regulations in force at that particular time and not assume that no changes have been made from those outlined here.
United States
The Standards of Identity for chocolate in the United States are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 21 (covering Food and Drugs), Part 163 (for cacao (chocolate) products). This defines the composition of a range of different chocolates. Sweet chocolate, for example must contain at least 15% of total dry cocoa solids and a maximum of 12% total dry milk solids. Semisweet or bittersweet chocolate must contain at least 35% of total dry cocoa solids. Milk chocolate is defined in a number of ways—as milk chocolate,
buttermilk chocolate,
skim milk chocolate,
and mixed dairy product chocolates.
Milk chocolate must contain at least 10% total dry cocoa solids, at least 12% total dry milk solids, and at least 3.39% milk fat. Buttermilk chocolate and skim milk chocolate have the same requirements as milk chocolate but differ in the source of the milk components. It should be noted that both buttermilk chocolate and skim milk chocolate contain less than 3.39% milk fat. White chocolate has to contain a minimum of 20% cocoa butter, a minimum of 14% total dry milk solids and a minimum of 3.5% milk fat. None of these chocolates are allowed to contain any noncocoa vegetable fat. However, there is a further group of products that can contain vegetable fat—sweet cocoa and vegetable fat coating,
sweet chocolate and vegetable fat coating,
and milk chocolate and vegetable fat coating.
Taking the milk chocolate and vegetable fat coating as an example, it still needs to conform to the requirements for milk chocolate in terms of minimum cocoa solids, milk solids, and milk fat, but has the added option of including safe and suitable vegetable derived oils, fats, and stearins other than cacao fat. The oils, fats, and stearins may be hydrogenated.
European Union
The compositions of chocolate produced in the European Union are defined by EU Directive 2000/36/EC (European Union, 2000). Like the United States regulations this defines the limitations on a range of different chocolates the main ones of which are summarized in Table 1-E. In addition to these definitions there are also regulations covering both chocolate and milk chocolate with quality
definitions. Up until these regulations were produced by the EU and came into force on August 3, 2003, each member state had its own chocolate regulations. One of the main differences between these national regulations was whether noncocoa vegetable fat was permitted or not. Seven member states—UK, Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Austria, and Portugal—permitted their use; the rest did not. The result of allowing their use throughout the EU was to put restrictions on their type, restrictions that did not apply previously in the countries that already allowed their use. In summary, these new restrictions limited them to being sourced from only six base oils (although coconut oil was allowed in ice cream coatings). These oils are considered in more detail in the section on composition of cocoa butter. In addition to this restriction a further limitation was imposed on the type of processing that is permitted. This is limited to fractionation and refining. The production of these fats by means of enzymic interesterification is specifically prohibited.
Table 1-E
Compositional Limitations on Some EU Chocolate Descriptions.
Codex Alimentarius
Although not specifically a national
legislation the Codex standard for chocolate can be used as a guideline in those countries where there is no specific legislation for chocolate. The Codex standard is found in STAN 87-1981, Rev.1-2003 (Codex Alimentarius, 2003). As with the U.S. and EU regulations, a range of different types of chocolate is defined. The main types are summarised in Table 1-F. The limitations are very similar to those imposed by the EU apart from there being minimum ranges for milk solids and milk fat in milk and white chocolate. The imposition of a range for a minimum value does, at first sight, seem odd but the Codex standard goes on to say that the minimum content for milk solids and milk fat shall be applied by the authority having jurisdiction in accordance with applicable legislation.
Table 1-F
Compositional Limitations on Some Codex Chocolate Descriptions.
Cocoa Butter Composition
Mention has already been made that cocoa grows in three main areas of the world—West Africa, Central and South Americas, and Asia. There are differences in fatty acid composition and, as a result of this, in triglyceride composition depending on the origin of the cocoa butter. Various workers over the past three decades or so have studied the fatty acid and triglyceride compositions of cocoa butter from these different origins. In the following section these studies will be summarised to show the differences and similarities between different cocoa butters.
Variation in Fatty Acid and Triglyceride Composition
Compared with many fats, cocoa butter has a very simple fatty acid composition being largely composed of palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), and a much lower level of linoleic acid (C18:2). This simple fatty acid composition results in an equally simple triglyceride composition with three triglycerides, POP, POSt, and StOSt predominating.
One of the earliest surveys of the differences between cocoa butters from different origins was carried out by Chaiseri and Dimick (1989). They measured the triglyceride composition of 64 cocoa butters—15 from South America, 8 from North and Central Americas (the farthest north being one sample from Mexico), 17 from Africa, and 24 from Asia (20 of these being from Malaysia). The mean triglyceride compositions from these different origins is shown in Table 1-G. In terms of the main triglycerides, there is no significant difference in POP contents between the four main origins. POSt is significantly higher in Asian cocoa butters than in butters from the other three areas; this triglyceride is also significantly lower in South American cocoa butters. StOSt is significantly higher in Asian cocoa butters than in the other three origins; this triglyceride is also significantly higher in African cocoa butters than in cocoa butters from the Americas. Turning to the more unsaturated triglycerides both POO and StOO differ significantly between the various origins with the amounts of these triglycerides being lowest in Asian cocoa butters, followed by African cocoa butters, and highest in cocoa butters from the Americas.
Table 1-G
Triglyceride Compositions of Cocoa Butters from Different Origins.
Source: Chaiseri & Dimick, 1989.
Timms and Stewart (1999) measured the fatty acid compositions of 140 cocoa butters of different origins. The palmitic acid level varied between 25.7% and 28.4% with a mean of 26.9% (SD 0.48). Stearic acid varied between 34.9% and 37.9% (mean 36.6%; SD 0.59) and oleic acid varied between 31.3% and 32.2% (mean 31.7%; SD 0.20). These statistics show just how little variability there is in cocoa butters. Foubert et al. (2004) measured both the fatty acid composition and the triglyceride compositions of 20 cocoa butters. Ten of these were of known origins, the remainder being from factory production batches in Belgium and The Netherlands. The fatty acid compositions and triglyceride compositions of those cocoa butters of known origins are shown in Table 1-H. As with Chaiseri and Dimick’s studies, these too show that South American cocoa butters, particularly Brazilian cocoa butters contain less POP/POSt/StOSt and more POO/StOO.
Table 1-H
Fatty Acid and Triglyceride Compositions of Cocoa Butters from Different Origins.
Source: Foubert et al., 2004.
Padley and Timms (1979) also studied cocoa butters from a range of origins but they did this to produce a baseline from which they could develop a method for determining the amount of cocoa butter equivalent that there was in chocolate. Having measured the triglyceride composition of a wide range of cocoa butters, some of known and some of unknown origins using the carbon number GC method they then normalised the C50, C52, and C54 values to P50, P52, and P54 values. So, for example P50 was calculated as follows:
In this way the sum of P50, P52, and P54 was 100%. They then plotted P50 against P54 (see Fig. 1.3). Irrespective of the origin of the cocoa butter all natural unadulterated cocoa butters fell on the same straight line, a line with an equation of P50 = 43.9 – 0.74P54.
Fig. 1.3 Plot of P50 v P54 (i.e., normalized C50 and C54) for a range of cocoa butters. Based on data from Padley & Timms, 1979.
Minor Components in Cocoa Butter
From a lipid point of view the most important minor components in cocoa butter are (a) minor triglycerides, (b) partial glycerides, (c) free fatty acids, (d) phospholipids, and (e) unsaponifiable matter.
Minor Triglycerides
Minor triglycerides can, in some senses, be considered to be anything that is not one of the main SOS type of triglyceride present in the fat, i.e., anything other than POP, POSt, and StOSt. The presence of varying levels of more unsaturated triglycerides (e.g., POO, StOO etc) has already been mentioned, particularly in the context of variability dependent upon origin. What have not so far been considered but which are of tremendous importance in terms of rheology and tempering of chocolate are the presence (or absence) of trisaturated triglycerides. In cocoa butter these are mainly PPP, PPSt, PStSt, and StStSt. Timms and Stewart (1999) state that the typical level of trisaturated triglycerides present in a normally processed cocoa butter is 1.4% but that this can rise to 3.6% in a heat-damaged fat (i.e., one that has been heated in the laboratory for 1 hour at 250°C under vacuum). The implication is that this may be due to some interesterification occurring during the high-temperature treatment. Foubert et al. (2004) measured the levels of the above four individual trisaturated triglycerides in 20 different cocoa butters and found the following mean levels:
The total SSS is above the level that Timms and Stewart (1999) define as being typical of a normally processed cocoa butter but well below that of a heat damaged cocoa butter which implies that perhaps there were some samples in the population of 20 cocoa butters that had been heat damaged in some way. One in particular had a total trisaturated triglyceride level of 3.45%. Four of the 20 had been identified as giving crystallization problems during production. The mean total SSS level of these four alone was 2.46%; the mean total SSS level of the remaining 16 samples was 2.02% suggesting that trisaturated triglycerides may be contributing to the crystallization problems.
Davis and Dimick (1989) isolated high-melting seed crystals present in cocoa butter that form during the early stages of crystallization. As well as being rich in glycolipids (11.08% compared to 0.89% in the whole cocoa butter) and phospholipids (6.55% compared to 0.037% in the whole cocoa butter), these high-melting seed crystals were also rich in trisaturated triglycerides. The fatty acid and trisaturated triglyceride compositions of the simple lipid fractions of the whole cocoa butter and the seed crystal are shown in Table 1-I. The total of the saturated fatty acids in the whole cocoa butter was 63.6%; in the seed crystals the total was 91.2%. The total of the three main trisaturated triglycerides in cocoa butter (PPSt, PStSt, and StStSt) was 4.47%; in the seed crystals the total was 65.66%.
Table 1-I
Fatty Acid and Trisaturated Triglyceride Compositions of the Simple Lipid Fraction of Whole Cocoa Butter and High-Melting Seed Crystals.
Source: Davis & Dimick, 1989.
Partial Glycerides
It is known that partial glycerides, particularly diglycerides, can have an adverse effect on the crystallization of fats. Siew and Ng (1999) showed that adding palm oil diglycerides to purified palm oil triglycerides inhibited nucleation and slowed down crystal growth rate. Tietz and Hartel (2000) suggest that at low levels partial glycerides act as nucleating sites and promote crystallization whereas at higher levels they start to interfere with crystallization. Timms and Stewart (1999) quote a maximum of 2.5% diglyceride in an acceptable cocoa butter. Foubert et al. (2004) measured the diglyceride content of 20 cocoa butters and found a mean level of 0.92% (SD 0.36) with the highest level in the 20 samples being 2.2%, i.e., all within the specification defined by Timms and Stewart (1999). Even the four cocoa butter samples identified by Foubert et al. (2004) as giving crystallization problems had a mean diglyceride content of 0.78% implying that whatever was causing the crystallization problems in these four samples it probably was not the diglyceride content.
Free Fatty Acids
Cocoa butter typically has a maximum specified free fatty acid level of 1.75% (Timms & Stewart, 1999; European Union, 2000; Folayan, 2010). The 20 cocoa butter samples analysed by Foubert et al. (2004) had a mean free fatty acid level (expressed as oleic acid) of 1.71% (SD 0.41) with eight of these samples having levels over the maximum specified level of 1.75%. Three of the four samples identified as giving crystallization problems had free fatty acid levels above this specified maximum while the fourth sample was only just inside the specification.
Phospholipids
The level of phospholipids in cocoa butter is not specified but the level of phosphorus was one of the measurements made by Foubert et al. (2004) on a series of 20 different cocoa butter samples. The phosphorus levels ranged from 2.3 ppm up to 63 ppm equating to a phospholipid range of 0.006% up to 0.16%. Davis and Dimick (1989) also measured the level of phospholipid in both whole cocoa butter (0.037%) and in the high-melting seed crystal fraction (6.56%) showing how this too is concentrated in this fraction and is therefore one of the first components to crystallize out from cocoa butter as it solidifies.
Unsaponifiable Matter
Unsaponifiable matter (higher aliphatic alcohols, sterols, pigments, hydrocarbons, etc.) is specified in the EU Chocolate Directive (European Union, 2000) as a maximum of 0.5%, except in the case of press cocoa butter when it can only be present up to a maximum of 0.35%. Codex Alimentarius (2001) specifies a maximum unsaponifiable matter of 0.7% in cocoa butter but also makes the exception for press cocoa butter where the maximum is 0.35%. Foubert et al. (2004) found unsaponifiable matter ranging from 0.31% up to 0.53%.
Compositional Similarities and Differences between Cocoa Butter and Cocoa Butter Equivalents
Although confectionery fats, cocoa butter substitutes, and cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) will be discussed in more detail in later chapters it is useful, in the context of cocoa butter, to compare the similarities and differences between CBEs and cocoa butter. Reference has already been made to chocolate legislation that permits the use of vegetable fats in chocolate. These vegetable fats are generally referred to as cocoa butter equivalents because they have a chemical composition and physical properties that are very close to those found in cocoa butter. The EU Chocolate Directive (European Union, 2000) permits the use of vegetable fats from only six sources. These
Ați ajuns la finalul acestei mostre. Înregistrați-vă pentru a citi mai mult!
Pagina 1 din 1
Recenzii
Recenzii
Ce cred oamenii despre Cocoa Butter and Related Compounds
5.0Evaluare: 5 din 5 stele
1 evaluări / 0 recenzii
Ce părere aveți?
Evaluare: din 5 stele