Cargo Handling and Stowage: A Guide for Loading, Handling, Stowage, Securing, and Transportation of Different Types of Cargoes, Except Liquid Cargoes and Gas

Ships

1.1 What is Cargo?

Answering the question will be difficult because cargo is only a name for different kinds of products which will be transported from one point of the earth to another. This can be done by car, aircraft, truck, or ship. The most useful kind of transportation and also the most efficient kind of transportation is the ship.

A ship can carry, compared to a truck or railway, much more different products and also more masses. These goods will be transported generally for commercial gain.

1.2 What Kind of Cargoes do we know?

In general we know:

Liquid cargoes

Dry cargo in bulk

Heavy Lift/Project cargo

Reefer cargo

General Cargo

There are also some special cargoes which are partly belonging to the kinds of cargoes mentioned above, like dangerous goods which can be either dry cargo, refrigerated cargo or liquid cargo.

Each of the above mentioned kind of cargoes has special parameters to be known. Without knowing these parameters, a transportation of cargo is not possible. The different cargoes will be discussed in chapter 2, but for all cargoes to be loaded, general guidelines can be worked out. These guidelines should be followed prior loading, during loading, prior and during discharging and also during the voyage.

1.3 The Parameter to Carry Cargo Successfully

1.3.1 The Planning

The planning for loading and discharging of cargo is a compact unit. First of all we have to calculate the cargo, which means how much cargo can be loaded. The planning for the cargo operation is based on the cargo to be loaded. The quantity of the cargo to be loaded will be given by the charterer. The Master and/or Cargo Officer (normally the Chief Officer) have to check and clarify if the ship can load the said amount of cargo.

The next step – and for most of the vessels the first step – is where is the cargo bound for – what is the discharging port(s). For the calculation of the planned voyage the master not only needs to know how much cargo can be loaded, further he also must know:

Properties of the cargo to be loaded

Distance between port of loading and port of discharging

Climatic changes during the voyage which might influence the cargo

The Energy Efficiency Operation Index (EEOI) given by the company and how he can achieve the EEOI

The fuel oil consumption and average speed in accordance to the EEOI

The weather condition expected for this voyage – meteorological voyage planning and voyage/passage planning

The expected stability/trim condition during the voyage

The ballast water management regulations valid for this voyage and how it can be achieved in regards to the stability condition of the vessel, if ballast water management must be done (voyage plan)

Tidal condition on port of loading and port of discharging

Draft limitations in the port of loading and port of discharging

At what hatches will be loaded or discharged at the same time (important for the distribution of the cargo)

Comply with the international load line regulation

Comply with the terms given in the charter party

There are for sure many more aspects the ship command must take into account, but these are the most important ones.

The distance between the POL and POD¹ will be needed to calculate the required amount of fuel oil which will be consumed during the voyage. The HFO and MDO consumption has a direct influence on the load line regulation and the stability/trim of the vessel and as well for the distribution of the cargo. The consumption of fuel oil is one of the most important parameters to know prior loading especially when loading cargo in bulk.

The simple formula for the calculation of the consumption is:

Total consumption = Total time used for the voyage (in days) * HFO (MDO) consumption per day

There is still one factor missing in the consumption calculation. The factor missing is the safety margin for weather influences (bad weather on the voyage which causes the ship command to deviate from the origin voyage plan). This will result in more consumption of fuel oil which must be taken into account. The safety margin can be obtained by 15% to 25% more bunkers to be on board.

For example:

The daily consumption of the vessel = 35mt. The voyage takes 10 days.

Consumption = days * consumption/day

= 10days *35mt = 350mt/voyage

SafetyMargin = 25%

25% of 350mt = 87,5mt

Total Bunkers on Board = 350mt + 87,5mt = 437,5mt

The conclusion will be: Total consumption + Safety Margin = Required Bunkers/Voyage

The safety margin will differ due to the different bunker capacities of the ships and the daily consumption rate.

Another parameter for the pre-calculation of the cargo is the deadweight and displacement of the vessel. The detailed calculation is part of Stability &Trim. But the draft of the vessel is important for the planning of the voyage because the ship command must comply with the load line zones the vessel will trade in. Furthermore, the required maximum drafts in the POL and POD – given in the draft limitations – are part of the displacement calculation.

1.3.2 Stowage and Cargo Hold Space

After knowing how much cargo must be loaded (charterer’s figures) the ship command must calculate if the cargo can be loaded on board of the vessel.

Each cargo requires a different kind of stowage (see also Chapter 2 – The different types of cargo). For this reason the ship command must check prior loading if all necessary stowage material and lash material is available on board to guarantee a good stowage and loading/discharging procedure. All checks should and must be done prior loading. The ship command has to declare that the vessel is ready for loading (N.O.R)².

For the stowage of the cargo, the Stowage Factor (S.F.) of the cargo must be known. The stowage factor is a mathematical figure which expresses how much space will be occupied by the cargo if the said cargo will have certain measurements (H*L*W)³. This will be expressed in the S.F. It is the Volume occupied by the unit weight of cargo expressed in cubic meter or cubic feet.

The stowage factor will normally be given by the charterer, but it can also be calculated.

Formula for S.F.:

For example:

The total cubic meter of the hold = 3000m³. The vessel has actually loaded 650mt.

For most of the cargoes to be loaded, the stowage factor is already known or given by the charterer in advance. It is necessary for the ship command to have the S.F. in advance to prepare a preloading plan. The measurement of the hatches and the theoretically cargo to be loaded can be found in the vessel’s capacity plan.

The stowage of the cargo differs also with the cargo to be loaded and how exact the stevedores will work as well as how exact loading and stowage of the cargo will be supervised by the Officer of the Watch.

For a tanker, for example, the maximum filling of the tanks depends on the property of the cargo⁴. In general, the upper limit = 98% of the tank volume.

Starting from the vessel’s displacement on departure, the net in taken cargo can be calculated by subtracting the vessel’s light ship. Therefore: Departure displacement – light ship weight = gross displacement. If subtracting all other weights (fuel oil, provision, ballast water, crew effects, paints etc.), except for the cargo weight, from the gross displacement, you will get the net displacement of the ship.

Another important factor in respect to the stowage of the cargo is the broken stowage. The broken stowage can be also calculated.

Broken stowage is defined as the amount of space on a ship that is lost during stowage, measured in percentage of total bale space⁵. The percentage of space lost varies depending on the type of cargo, container shapes, and the bays used.

Therefore:

where: V = Total volume of the cargo Hold

            v = Volume occupied by the cargo loaded

The broken stowage is then the space between the packages which remains unfilled due to bad stowage expressed in percentage.

Example:

The total volume of a cargo hold = 3000m³. After loading, the ship command calculates the occupied space with 2500m³.

In this example, the broken stowage for this hatch will be 16,7%.

The broken stowage is a result of packing material which was used, or the ship’s design in the holds (remember: not all areas can be used for the stowage of cargo but are part of the area calculation in the hatches). Often times the case is: Just a result of bad stowage done by the stevedores.

Is the loss of stowage higher than agreed in the charter party, the master has to protest against the loss of stowage using the letter of protest to protect the vessel and the ship owner against any claim done by the charterer.

1.3.3 The Distribution of the Cargo

First: The distribution of the cargo is normally part of the ship command. It depends on the kind of cargo to be loaded and the type of vessel (Compare Bulk Carrier with a container ship or General Cargo vessel). On a container ship, the stowage plan is already prepared by the cargo planner ashore and therefore also the distribution of the cargo. Here the ship command only has to check that the distribution (weight distribution) is in accordance to the limitation of the ship’s longitudinal strength and stability and trim criteria.

Illustration 1: Normal Longitudinal Strength Curve of Feeder Container Vessel

The cargo distribution has to be done in accordance to the longitudinal strength condition and limits of the vessel. In order to obtain this requirement, the vessel will be loaded and discharged in sequences which have to be strictly followed. If the shear and bending stresses are above the limits, the cargo must be distributed so that these limits will not be overdue. This can be achieved by ballasting or de-ballasting, but sometimes this is also not possible anymore – then the distribution must be changed.

Second: The port criteria have to be observed and checked.

Maximum required draft and trim for loading and discharging

Tidal situation in port (high and low water times and heights)

Height of the berth etc.

These are influences on the cargo distribution.

Third: Kind of cargo to be loaded: For example, Iron Ore: Iron Ore cannot be loaded in all hatches. The loading procedure, certified by the classification society, must be strictly followed.

Logs and sawn timber, for example, have to be distributed in accordance to the relation hatch to deck, so as not to suffer any stability problems.

Fourth: Trim and draft – The cargo has to be distributed so that the trim and draft will not affect the maneuverability of the vessel or the load line convention.

Whenever trim, stability, or longitudinal strength is not in accordance with the given figures in the stability booklet (approved by the classification society), the distribution of the cargo must be changed in order to fulfill the requirements given by the classification society. The changes must be discussed with the charterer or his representative.

Fifth: The distribution should also be in accordance with the lashing arrangements (for example: Log and timber cargo in accordance with the International Timber Code, or Bulk Cargo with the BLU-Code).

Sixth: Distribution should be done in accordance with other cargoes to be loaded (separation of cargo. See Dangerous goods – IMDG Code). Other cargoes are reacting to the odor of the cargo stowed nearby.

Seventh: Distribution in accordance with loading and discharging facilities (Grain, Coal in Bulk, Heavy Lift, Reefer cargo).

Eight: Distribution in accordance with other loading and discharging ports – Port sequence must be observed and taken into account.

The above presented eight rules for stowage and distribution are showing us that the start of a successful transportation of cargo is depending on the preplanning that is done.

¹ POL = Port of loading and POD = Port of discharging

² NOR = Notice of Readiness. Will normally be tendered prior loading by the master of the vessel to the charterer or agent to state that the vessel is ready to take the said amount of cargo.

³ Height x Length x Width of the cargo to be loaded

⁴ Liquid cargoes, like oil products, are gassing which cost an increase of their volume

⁵ The cargo capacity of a vessel below deck, measured in cubic meters or cubic feet.

2. The Different Cargoes

2.1 The Containerized Cargo

Over the past 30 years, the container has been the most common cargo transportation unit on board of merchant vessels. Nearly all kinds of cargo can be transported with and in a container, from Reefer Goods to Heavy Lift, Bulk cargo, Liquid cargo and General cargo. To transport these kinds of cargoes, different types of containers have to be designed. In general, a container is a small hold and has to be treated as if it would be a cargo hold.

We know different types of containers:

20’ Dray Container

20’ Reefer Container

20’ Flat Rag Container

20’ Tank Container (including Container for Gasses)

40’ Dry Container

40’ Reefer Container

40’ Flat Rag Container

40’ Tank and Gas Container

45’ Dry Container

48’ Dry Container

49’ Dry Container

53’ Dry Container

20’ and 40’ fully ventilated Container

20’ and 40’ high Cube Container

The 48’& 49’ and especially the 53’ containers are often times used for transportation to the USA. Especially for these types of containers the ship must be designed for. The mate on board must have knowledge about the different types of containers, where they can be stowed, and the different parts of the containers. The last-named is very important for damage reports.

The container is a weak box loaded with heavy cargo inside and above. The mass of the cargo is accelerated by the six types of movement of a ship in response to sea conditions and by additional forces from wind and green seas. To handle these forces and to secure the valuable cargo, containers need to be further stabilized and secured by lashing equipment.

Illustration 2: Six Movements of a Ship

The stresses acting on the containers are in vertical, horizontal, and transversal direction.

2.2 The Different Container Parts

Illustration 3: The Different Construction Parts of a Container

Illustration 4: Bottom Construction

The above presented parts are the same for all containers. Some containers have additional parts like integrated reefer units etc.

2.3 Preparation of the Container and Stowing of the Cargo Inside of the Container

If the container is loaded to its maximum capacity, the weight of the cargo must be distributed as evenly as possible over the floor area. The load-carrying components of the container floor structure are the bottom side rails which absorb the load of a cargo via the container floor. For safe transport it is important for as many of the bottom rails as possible to be loaded. Point loads are to be avoided, since they can damage the container floor. Point loads always occur when relatively high weights are concentrated on a small bearing area.

If planning the cargo stow inside the container, also the maximum line load is of importance. For 20’ and 40’ container it states a maximum line load of 4.5 metric tons/m for a 20' container and 3.0 metric tons/m for a 40' container.

Example 1: A cargo weighing 14 t extends over a length of 5,3m. This gives a line load of

The result shows that this cargo could be transported in either a 20' or a 40' container as 2,64mt<4,5mt for a 20’ container and 2,64<3,0mt for a 40’ container. The limits of the line load will be not exceeded.

Example 2: A cargo weighing 18t extends over a length of 5,3m. This gives a line load of

This cargo could only be transported in a 20' container. In a 40' container the maximum line load would be exceeded and transport would therefore be disallowed.

However, the cargo can be also packed in a 40' container. Therefore, the bearing area must be enlarged to ensure safe transport. This may be achieved, for example, by laying dunnage or a sled under the cargo. Where dunnage is used, it must be ensured that the lower wooden planks lie lengthwise and are thus supported by several container bottom cross members. If using sleds, the skids of a sled must also lie in the lengthwise direction of the container.

The cargo loaded in a container will be mostly on pallets. This allows a fast loading and discharging of the cargo inside the container. Reefer cargo will be also single stowed, i.e. package by package.

Before the container will be loaded, the container has to be cleaned from inside, all old residues have to be out, the container must be free of any odor and there has to be an inspection after the cleaning by the company who is responsible for the stowage of the container. A lot of container damage claims are based on the fact that the cargo was affected by bad odor resulting from previous cargo. If the container is free of any odor, the container can be loaded. It is now up to the shipper to distribute the cargo in the container. Here it is usually practice that a stowage plan is prepared, as well as a lashing plan how the cargo will be secured inside the container. Sensitive cargo should be further protected against sweat water and humidity which can destroy the cargo. If, for example, the humidity of loaded coffee is exceeding 13%, a fully ventilated container must be used.

Illustration 5: Fully Ventilated Container

It should be assured that the inspection of the container and the cargo to be shipped in the container must be carried out by the shipper or the company who are packing the container on behalf of the shipper. An inspection certificate should be issued to state that the container was dry.

This inspection cannot be rechecked by the ship command; when the container will be loaded, the container is already sealed and cannot be opened anymore by the officers. Only if there are differences between the loading papers and the actual cargo inside the container, the master can make a protest and the shipper must now proof that all the information is in accordance to the cargo loaded. If not, the container should not be accepted by the master.

Another problem for the ship command is the securing of the cargo inside of the container. Cargo stowed in containers must be secured on all sides to prevent shifting, in particular towards the door. Spaces between packages and/or container walls must be filled. Secure the cargo by using the lashing points provided on the top and bottom side rails and on the corner posts. Containers should be packed and the cargo secured in accordance with guidelines for packing cargoes other than bulk cargo in or on cargo transport units (CTUs) for carriage by any means of transport at sea and ashore.

The CTU packing guidelines published by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and International Labor Organization (ILO) from 02-05-1997 supersede any previous applicable container packing guidelines.

2.4 Identification of Containers

2.4.1 Marking and Numbering of Containers

The container is a standardized cargo, meaning the measurements for the different container types are already fixed. These are standard measurements. The normal standard 20’ and 40’Container measures are:

20’ Container: 20’ x 8’ x 8’6’’ = 6,096m x 2,438m x 2,591m (LxWxH)

40’ Container: 40’ x 8’ x 8’6’’ = 12,192m x 2,438m x 2,591m (LxWxH)

The container will be identified by its identification Number according to the ISO6346.

Illustration 6: Identification acc. ISO 6346

Illustration 7: Size and Type Code – 6346

Illustration 8: Volumes and Weights Marking

2.4.2 Bays, Rows and Tiers

The container will be stowed according to an international system of numbering the location of the container. To locate a container on board and also to make a correct stowage plan (Bay Plan), the system is divided in bays, rows and tiers – on deck and in the hatches. This numbering is an international standard.

Bays: Each container loaded is split into compartments which will be termed as bay. The bays are depending on the size of the vessel. For example: It will proceed from 01 to 60. Bay 01 is the first bay forward of the ship and Bay 60 is the last one, near the stern of the ship. Odd numbered bays are 1,3,5,7 etc. and are for 20’ container stows, and even numbered bays, 2,4,6,8 etc., are for 40’ container stows. Between two 20’ bays there is a 40’ bay. There are exemptions because on some ships where no 40’ container can be stowed we will have special 20’ container bays. The same holds for 40’ container bays.

Rows: The position where the container is placed across the width of the vessel. The odd numbers are on the right side and the even numbers are on the left side.

Illustration 9: Bays, Rows, and Tiers on Deck⁶

If the ship can load 10 containers from side to side, the number of rows is an even number, then no zero row will be used. If the ship can, for example, load 11 container from side to side, then a center row, the zero row, will be used. Illustration No.9 is presenting an amount of odd numbered rows. Here the zero row will be used.

Illustration 10: Rows Including Center Row⁷

Tiers: The tiers are marking the level where the container is loaded. The tier numbers on deck are always starting with 8, followed by even numbers, and in the hatch they start with a 0, followed by even numbers. Example Deck: 80,82,84,86,88,90,92 etc. In the hatch: 02,04,06,08,10,12, etc.

see Illustration No.11 for a better understanding:

Illustration 11: Bayplan with Bay, Rows and Tiers⁸

The distribution must be exactly in accordance to the bay plan (Illustration No.11).

In the Illustration above, there is one reefer container loaded for Bangkok (BGK (R)). The container is located as follows: 07/02/80. = Bay 07/Row o2/Tier 80. Actually, we can identify more because the container is loaded forward on the ship, portside in the first layer on deck, and it is a 20’ Container because the bays are numbered from forward to the aft, as we said starting with 01 etc. Bay 07 is a 20’ Bay.

⁶ Peter Grunau – Own drawing

⁷ Peter Grunau – Own drawing

3.0 Lashing Material and Lashing Arrangement for Containerized Cargoes

The lashing material and also lashing arrangement is in accordance to the Cargo Securing Manual, CSM, which each vessel must have. The CSM is approved by the Classification Society and has to be strictly followed. The required lashing material and also the required lashing arrangement for this type of vessel is listed and presented in Illustrations. Besides the material to be used, the handling instruction for each bay, row and tier is included, as well as the maximum stacking weight per tier for each bay.

The lashing material to be used must be in accordance to the stress acting on the container and this is different for a full container vessel of 900 TEU or a full container of 12000 TEU. Also, for ships that are certified to carry containers on deck and in the hatches but are actually no container ships, the stress is acting on different locations and is never the same.

Before we are now listing and discussing the lashing materials and their use, at first we have to understand what kind of stress is acting on the container.

3.1 Stress Acting on the Container

We have already seen that the