Nuclear Facilities: A Designer's Guide

Nuclear Facilities

A Designer's Guide

First Edition

Bill Collum

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

List of figures

Author biography

Acknowledgments

Author's note

Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy

Introduction

1: Nuclear fuel cycle

Abstract

1.1 Uranium mining and purification

1.2 The atom

1.3 Enrichment

1.4 Fuel fabrication

1.5 Nuclear reactors

1.6 Nuclear reaction

1.7 Control rods

1.8 Burnable poison

1.9 Neutron activation

1.10 Decay chain

1.11 Plutonium creation

1.12 MOX fuel

1.13 Fast breeder fuel

1.14 Spent fuel removal

1.15 Spent fuel routing

1.16 Reprocessing

1.17 High level waste

1.18 Intermediate level waste

1.19 Permanent disposal

2: Radiation

Abstract

2.1 Radiation and contamination

2.2 Electromagnetic spectrum

2.3 Nonionizing radiation

2.4 Ionizing radiation

2.5 Exposure to radiation

2.6 Protection from radiation

2.7 Criticality

2.8 Personal dose measurement

3: Radiological zoning

Abstract

3.1 Zoning rationale

3.2 Naming conventions

3.3 Radiation zones

3.4 Contamination zones

3.5 Guiding principles

3.6 Dual classifications

3.7 Surface contamination

3.8 Depicting zones

4: Radiological changerooms

Abstract

4.1 Generic types

4.2 Changerooms

4.3 Sub changerooms

5: Structural

Abstract

5.1 Steelwork structures

5.2 Concrete structures

5.3 Combined concrete and steel structures

5.4 Seismic analysis

5.5 Extreme environmental events

6: Process engineering

Abstract

6.1 Closed cells

6.2 Mass balance

6.3 Feedstock analysis

6.4 End product

6.5 Transfer devices

6.6 Services distribution

6.7 Agitation systems

6.8 Overflows

6.9 Volume reduction

6.10 Solids removal

6.11 Ion exchange (IX)

6.12 Off gas treatment

7: Mechanical engineering

Abstract

7.1 Mechanical handling caves

7.2 Shielding windows

7.3 Manipulators

7.4 Shield doors

7.5 Bogies

7.6 Decontamination

7.7 Cave arrangements

7.8 Flasks

8: Ventilation

Abstract

8.1 Role of nuclear ventilation system

8.2 Integration with radiological zoning

8.3 Cascade philosophy

8.4 Engineered gaps

8.5 Maintaining containment at truck bays

8.6 Maintaining containment on building perimeter

8.7 Filtration

8.8 Air conditioning

8.9 Heat recovery

8.10 Solar heat gain

8.11 The ventilation sequence

8.12 Air handling units

8.13 Air quality

8.14 Vessel ventilation

8.15 Gloveboxes

9: Cranes

Abstract

9.1 Conventional cranes and high integrity nuclear cranes

9.2 In-cave cranes

10: Electrical

Abstract

10.1 Electricity supply

10.2 Control systems

10.3 Instrumentation

11: Radiometric instruments

Abstract

11.1 Monitoring requirements

11.2 Detection technologies

11.3 Technology selection

11.4 Instruments

11.5 Safeguards

12: Project planning

Abstract

12.1 Client specification

12.2 Project controls

12.3 Project management

12.4 Programming

12.5 Project phase activities

12.6 Feedback

13: Waste management

Abstract

13.1 Waste management hierarchy—conventional

13.2 Waste management hierarchy—radiological

13.3 Evolution of a waste management strategy

14: Safety

Abstract

14.1 Occupational safety

14.2 Nuclear safety

14.3 Safety case

14.4 Hazard analysis studies

14.5 Risk

14.6 As low as reasonably practicable

14.7 Safety reports

14.8 Periodic reviews

14.9 Safety case integration

15: Decommissioning planning

Abstract

15.1 Site license conditions

15.2 Planning factors

15.3 Operations phase

15.4 Decommissioning phases

15.5 Decommissioning strategy

15.6 Decommissioning plan

16: Future-proofing

Abstract

16.1 Design for decommissioning (DfD)

16.2 Design to remodel and reuse (DRR)

16.3 Integration with decommissioning strategy

16.4 Principles of DfD and DRR

16.5 Funding future-proofing

16.6 Future-proofing enablers

16.7 Responsibilities

17: Design development

Abstract

17.1 Layout preparations

17.2 Layout development

17.3 Vehicle bay

17.4 Ventilation stack

Index

Copyright

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Notices

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Dedication

This book is dedicated to my wife Maggie, who kept the coffee flowing and uncomplainingly shared our home with this book while patiently waiting for me to finish it.

It only took 6 years!

As the organization responsible for the decommissioning and clean-up of the UK nuclear legacy, we have first-hand experience of how design decisions made in the planning of a nuclear facility affect not only its operations but also its decommissioning. Whether it be worker dose, cost, schedule, or simply how difficult a job is to access and perform, the importance of early design decisions cannot be overstated. The NDA is therefore delighted to see this book, which pays attention throughout to the consequences of design decisions not only on operability but also on decommissioning.

Dr. Adrian Simper

Strategy and Technology Director, Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA)

As the lead skills body for the UK nuclear industry, the National Skills Academy for Nuclear (NSAN) is dedicated to improving capability within the industry. Established by nuclear employers and the government, we set the highest standards of excellence and, through a high-quality network of training providers, lead programs that improve competency within the supply chain. We welcome this book which, for the first time, draws together a wealth of multidisciplinary information that previously would have been difficult to accrue, even in an entire career. We believe it will make a significant contribution to improving knowledge, and therefore skills, within the nuclear sector.

Jean Llewellyn OBE

Chief Executive, National Skills Academyfor Nuclear (NSAN)

List of figures

Chapter 1—Nuclear fuel cycle

Fig. 1.1 Nuclear reactor dome. © EDF Energy 1

Fig. 1.2 Nuclear fuel cycle. © Bill Collum 2

Fig. 1.3 Opencast uranium mine. John Carnemolla/Shutterstock.com 3

Fig. 1.4 Yellowcake. Istock 4

Fig. 1.5 Magnox fuel rod. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 4

Fig. 1.6 Atom constituents. © Bill Collum 5

Fig. 1.7 The atom. general-fmv/Shutterstock.com 6

Fig. 1.8 Composition of natural uranium. © Bill Collum 7

Fig. 1.9 Zippe-type gas centrifuge. Fastfission 8

Fig. 1.10 Centrifuge cascade. © URENCO 9

Fig. 1.11 Nuclear fuel pellets. Science Photo Library 10

Fig. 1.12 AGR fuel assembly. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 10

Fig. 1.13 PWR fuel assembly. © Westinghouse 11

Fig. 1.14 Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR). Science Photo Library 12

Fig. 1.15 Pressurized water reactor (PWR). Science Photo Library 12

Fig. 1.16 Heat exchanger. © Bill Collum 13

Fig. 1.17 Boiling water reactor (BWR). Science Photo Library 14

Fig. 1.18 Turbine hall. © EDF Energy 14

Fig. 1.19 Reactor charge floor. Science Photo Library 15

Fig. 1.20 PWR fuel loading. Science Photo Library 15

Fig. 1.21 Neutron capture. © Bill Collum 17

Fig. 1.22 Nuclear fission. BlueRingMedia/Shutterstock.com 17

Fig. 1.23 Control rods. Designua/Shutterstock.com 18

Fig. 1.24 Example chemical element variations. © Bill Collum 20

Fig. 1.25 Activation of cobalt-59. © Bill Collum 21

Fig. 1.26 Activation of cobalt-59 and subsequent decay. © Bill Collum 21

Fig. 1.27 Formation of plutonium in a reactor. © Bill Collum 22

Fig. 1.28 Distribution of the approximately 1% plutonium in irradiated fuel. © Bill Collum 23

Fig. 1.29 Gloveboxes. Science Photo Library 24

Fig. 1.30 Fast breeder reactor (FBR). Science Photo Library 25

Fig. 1.31 Reactor refueling machine. © EDF Energy 27

Fig. 1.32 Fuel cooling pond. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 28

Fig. 1.33 Initial fuel cooling periods. © Bill Collum 28

Fig. 1.34 Fuel transport flasks. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 29

Fig. 1.35 Spent fuel routing options. © Bill Collum 30

Fig. 1.36 Dry fuel storage cask. © EDF Energy 31

Fig. 1.37 Copper disposal canister. © Posiva Oy 31

Fig. 1.38 Reprocessing. © Bill Collum 33

Fig. 1.39 De-cladding Magnox fuel rod. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 33

Fig. 1.40 Constituents of spent fuel. © Bill Collum 34

Fig. 1.41 Vitrified radioactive waste. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 35

Fig. 1.42 Vitrified waste store. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 36

Fig. 1.43 Five hundred liter drum. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 37

Fig. 1.44 Three cubic meter box. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 37

Fig. 1.45 Magnox swarf encapsulated in a 500 L drum. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 38

Fig. 1.46 In-drum mixing. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 38

Fig. 1.47 Shielded overpacks. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 39

Fig. 1.48 Modular ILW storage vault. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 40

Fig. 1.49 ILW drum being lowered into storage tube. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 40

Fig. 1.50 Deep geological disposal. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 41

Fig. 1.51 LLW disposal drum. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 42

Fig. 1.52 LLW storage vault. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 43

Chapter 2—Radiation

Fig. 2.1 Confining light rays. Visual3Dfocus/Shutterstock.com 45

Fig. 2.2 Transporting radioactive material. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 46

Fig. 2.3 Electromagnetic spectrum. Peter Hermes Furian/Shutterstock.com 47

Fig. 2.4 Shielding against ionizing radiation. © Bill Collum 48

Fig. 2.5 Gloveboxes. Science Photo Library 49

Fig. 2.6 Quantifying exposure to radiation. © Bill Collum 51

Fig. 2.7 Radiation exposure in the United Kingdom. © Bill Collum. Data from Public Health England 51

Fig. 2.8 Radiation exposure limits. © Bill Collum 53

Fig. 2.9 Indicative shielding equivalents. © Bill Collum 54

Fig. 2.10 Spherical dispersion. Science Photo Library 55

Fig. 2.11 Reduction in radiation energy over distance. © Bill Collum 56

Fig. 2.12 Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD). Science Photo Library 58

Fig. 2.13 Fingertip TLD. Science Photo Library 59

Fig. 2.14 Electronic personal dosimeter (EPD). Science Photo Library 59

Chapter 3—Radiological zoning

Fig. 3.1 Radiation zones. © Bill Collum 63

Fig. 3.2 Contamination zones. © Bill Collum 67

Fig. 3.3 Containment zone interfaces. © Bill Collum 70

Fig. 3.4 Start sequence. © Bill Collum 71

Fig. 3.5 Monitoring—pass. © Bill Collum 72

Fig. 3.6 Monitoring—fail. © Bill Collum 72

Fig. 3.7 Dual radiological classification. © Bill Collum 75

Chapter 4—Radiological changerooms

Fig. 4.1 Nuclear facility with administration building attached. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 77

Fig. 4.2 Nonradiological access routes. © Bill Collum 79

Fig. 4.3 Nuclear worker basics. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 80

Fig. 4.4 Security turnstile. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 81

Fig. 4.5 Boot barrier. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 81

Fig. 4.6 Boot barrier procedure—step one. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 82

Fig. 4.7 Boot barrier procedure—step two. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 83

Fig. 4.8 Boot barrier procedure—step three. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 83

Fig. 4.9 Airflow direction. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 85

Fig. 4.10 Monitoring area. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 86

Fig. 4.11 Monitoring sequence. © Bill Collum 87

Fig. 4.12 Hand monitoring. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 88

Fig. 4.13 Frisking station. © CANBERRA 89

Fig. 4.14 Installed personnel monitor (IPM). © CANBERRA 90

Fig. 4.15 IPM in use—step one. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 91

Fig. 4.16 IPM in use—step two. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 92

Fig. 4.17 Health physics office. © Bill Collum 93

Fig. 4.18 C2/C3 sub changeroom. © Bill Collum 96

Fig. 4.19 Disposable boot covers. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 97

Fig. 4.20 Full face respirator. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 97

Fig. 4.21 C3/C4 sub changeroom. © Bill Collum 100

Fig. 4.22 Air-fed PVC suit being fitted. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 101

Fig. 4.23 Health physicist conducting monitoring. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 102

Chapter 5—Structural

Fig. 5.1 Nuclear facilities. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 105

Fig. 5.2 Steelwork grid. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 106

Fig. 5.3 Steel stanchion. © Bill Collum 107

Fig. 5.4 Structural grid. © Bill Collum 108

Fig. 5.5 Steelwork structure. James Steidl/Shutterstock.com 109

Fig. 5.6 Steel column off grid. © Bill Collum 110

Fig. 5.7 Steel beams supporting floor construction. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 111

Fig. 5.8 Unbraced cube. © Bill Collum 111

Fig. 5.9 Braced cube. © Bill Collum 112

Fig. 5.10 Bracing types. © Bill Collum 113

Fig. 5.11 Typical bracing arrangement. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 113

Fig. 5.12 Portal frame. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 114

Fig. 5.13 Overhead traveling crane. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 115

Fig. 5.14 Precast concrete wall panel. Istock 116

Fig. 5.15 Precast concrete planks. wrangler/Shutterstock.com 116

Fig. 5.16 In situ concrete pouring. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 118

Fig. 5.17 Shear wall reinforcing bars. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 118

Fig. 5.18 Concrete banding. © Bill Collum 120

Fig. 5.19 Concrete structure within a steel framed building. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 122

Fig. 5.20 Sliding bearing. © Bill Collum 123

Fig. 5.21 Phased concrete penetration information. © Bill Collum 123

Fig. 5.22 Seismic categories. © Bill Collum 128

Fig. 5.23 Aftermath of a hurricane. John Huntington/Shutterstock.com 131

Fig. 5.24 Cladding panel. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 132

Fig. 5.25 Wind tunnel test. Science Photo Library 133

Fig. 5.26 Shifting snow. Istock 135

Fig. 5.27 Extreme rainfall. Paco Espinoza/Shutterstock.com 137

Fig. 5.28 Box gutter. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 137

Chapter 6—Process engineering

Fig. 6.1 Closed cell processing facility. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 139

Fig. 6.2 Internals of a maintenance-free processing vessel. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 140

Fig. 6.3 Closed cell during commissioning. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 141

Fig. 6.4 Closed cell computer model. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 142

Fig. 6.5 Mass balance of a fruit cake. © Bill Collum 144

Fig. 6.6 Stratification. © Bill Collum 147

Fig. 6.7 Centrifugal pump. Korotkevich/Shutterstock.com 151

Fig. 6.8 Self-priming pump. © Bill Collum 152

Fig. 6.9 Double block and bleed. © Bill Collum 153

Fig. 6.10 Remotely maintainable pump. © Bill Collum 155

Fig. 6.11 Reverse flow diverter. © Elsevier 156

Fig. 6.12 Fluidic pumping system—RFD internal. © Bill Collum 157

Fig. 6.13 Pipetting. © Bill Collum 158

Fig. 6.14 Fluidic pumping system—RFD external. © Bill Collum 160

Fig. 6.15 Siphoning. © Bill Collum 162

Fig. 6.16 Breakpot. © Bill Collum 163

Fig. 6.17 Services. © Bill Collum 166

Fig. 6.18 Services distribution. imantsu/Shutterstock.com 167

Fig. 6.19 Services hierarchy. © Bill Collum 168

Fig. 6.20 Joggle box. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 169

Fig. 6.21 Pump-round arrangement. © Bill Collum 172

Fig. 6.22 Pulse jet mixer. © Bill Collum 173

Fig. 6.23 Air sparge ring. © Bill Collum 174

Fig. 6.24 Evaporation process. © Bill Collum 176

Fig. 6.25 Settling tank—continuous flow. © Bill Collum 177

Fig. 6.26 Settling tank—batch process. © Bill Collum 178

Fig. 6.27 Ion exchange column. © Bill Collum 180

Fig. 6.28 Packed column. © Bill Collum 182

Chapter 7—Mechanical engineering

Fig. 7.1 Drum handling grab. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 185

Fig. 7.2 Remotely operated mechanical equipment. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 186

Fig. 7.3 Mechanical handling cave. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 187

Fig. 7.4 Shielding window. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 188

Fig. 7.5 Shielding window—out-cave view. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 189

Fig. 7.6 Refraction. Science Photo Library 190

Fig. 7.7 Shielding window—in-cave view. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 190

Fig. 7.8 MSM components. © Wälischmiller 193

Fig. 7.9 MSM drive wires and pulleys. © Wälischmiller 194

Fig. 7.10 MSM—cold arm controls. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 195

Fig. 7.11 MSMs—in-cave view. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 196

Fig. 7.12 Cave face corridor. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 197

Fig. 7.13 Electrical manipulator—rail mounted. © Wälischmiller 198

Fig. 7.14 Electrical manipulator deployed underwater. © Wälischmiller 198

Fig. 7.15 Hydraulic manipulator. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 199

Fig. 7.16 Power manipulator. © Wälischmiller 200

Fig. 7.17 Telescopic mast. © Wälischmiller 201

Fig. 7.18 Power manipulator with cutting disc. © Wälischmiller 202

Fig. 7.19 Laminated shield door. © Bill Collum 203

Fig. 7.20 PA door with integral frame. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 204

Fig. 7.21 Combination vertical and horizontal shield doors. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 206

Fig. 7.22 Interface between vertical and horizontal shield doors. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 207

Fig. 7.23 Vertical shield door recovery. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 208

Fig. 7.24 Remotely operated bogie with raise and lower capability. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 210

Fig. 7.25 Waste drum after dry pellet cleaning process. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 213

Fig. 7.26 Combined crane and power manipulator on a four girder bridge. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 215

Fig. 7.27 50 tonne cuboidal flask on transport bogie. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 219

Fig. 7.28 Cylindrical flask. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 220

Fig. 7.29 Cylindrical flask with shock absorbers fitted. Science Photo Library 221

Fig. 7.30 Flask crash test. Science Photo Library 222

Fig. 7.31 Flask after crash test. © EDF Energy 222

Fig. 7.32 Flask unloading underwater. Science Photo Library 224

Fig. 7.33 Lid lifting and flask unloading sequence. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 224

Fig. 7.34 Pintle arrangement. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 225

Fig. 7.35 Bottom loading flask. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 226

Fig. 7.36 Permanently installed gamma gate. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 227

Fig. 7.37 Mobile gamma gates. Science Photo Library 228

Fig. 7.38 Flask nappy. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 229

Chapter 8—Ventilation

Fig. 8.1 Extract velocity contours. © Bill Collum 232

Fig. 8.2 Cascade philosophy—direction of airflow. © Bill Collum 234

Fig. 8.3 Three times 50% ventilation system. © Bill Collum 235

Fig. 8.4 Two times 100% ventilation system. © Bill Collum 235

Fig. 8.5 Differential pressure between radiological zones. © Bill Collum 236

Fig. 8.6 Airspeed at interface between radiological zones. © Bill Collum 237

Fig. 8.7 Airflow across C2/C3 sub changeroom. © Bill Collum 238

Fig. 8.8 Airflow through open shield door. © Bill Collum 239

Fig. 8.9 Adjustable airspeed fin. © Bill Collum 240

Fig. 8.10 Interlocked doors. © Bill Collum 241

Fig. 8.11 Wind suction. © Bill Collum 242

Fig. 8.12 Containment of a C4 zone. © Bill Collum 243

Fig. 8.13 HEPA filter types. © M C Air Filtration 244

Fig. 8.14 HEPA filter bank. © M C Air Filtration 245

Fig. 8.15 HEPA filtration—beta-gamma plants. © Bill Collum 246

Fig. 8.16 HEPA filtration—alpha plants. © Bill Collum 247

Fig. 8.17 Mobile filtration unit. © M C Air Filtration 248

Fig. 8.18 Air in-bleed filter. © Bill Collum 249

Fig. 8.19 Manual filter change (testing). © M C Air Filtration 251

Fig. 8.20 Remote filter change. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 252

Fig. 8.21 Shielding between filter banks. © Bill Collum 252

Fig. 8.22 Push-through filter partly inserted into housing. © M C Air Filtration 255

Fig. 8.23 Generic arrangement of ventilation plant rooms—beta-gamma plant. © Bill Collum 260

Fig. 8.24 Ductwork distribution network—quartering. © Bill Collum 263

Fig. 8.25 Air handling unit. © Bill Collum 264

Fig. 8.26 Typical airflow by volume. © Bill Collum 267

Fig. 8.27 Glovebox suite. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 269

Fig. 8.28 Glovebox ventilation. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 270

Fig. 8.29 Push-through filter. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 271

Fig. 8.30 Glovebox housing automated processes. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 272

Chapter 9—Cranes

Fig. 9.1 Single girder EOT crane. Istock 276

Fig. 9.2 Twin girder EOT crane. SasinTipchai/Shutterstock.com 277

Fig. 9.3 Rope drum. Pnor Tkk/Shutterstock.com 277

Fig. 9.4 Wireless crane operation. Istock 279

Fig. 9.5 Pendant crane operation. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 279

Fig. 9.6 On-board crane operation. moomsabuy/Shutterstock.com 280

Fig. 9.7 Lifting accessory—mechanical grab. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 281

Fig. 9.8 Lifting feature—crane hook. Jamesbin/Shutterstock.com 281

Fig. 9.9 Spreader frame. Zelfit/Shutterstock.com 282

Fig. 9.10 Twist-lock. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 282

Fig. 9.11 Four drum stillage. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 283

Fig. 9.12 Lifting beam. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 284

Fig. 9.13 Pintle. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 285

Fig. 9.14 Shielded transport flask. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 286

Fig. 9.15 Hook approach. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 288

Fig. 9.16 Polar crane. Getty Images 296

Fig. 9.17 Polar jib crane handling vitrified waste container. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 298

Fig. 9.18 Scissor jack. pryzmat/Shutterstock.com 302

Fig. 9.19 Catenary cable. PoohFotoz/Shutterstock.com 306

Fig. 9.20 Cable reeling system. © Metreel Ltd 307

Fig. 9.21 Busbar power supply. © Metreel Ltd 309

Fig. 9.22 Drag chain. © Metreel Ltd 310

Fig. 9.23 Rack and pinion. PhotoProRo/Shutterstock.com 311

Chapter 10—Electrical

Fig. 10.1 132 kV–11 kV Substation. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 314

Fig. 10.2 Ring main. © Bill Collum 315

Fig. 10.3 Transformer. © Bill Collum 315

Fig. 10.4 Distribution board. © Bill Collum 317

Fig. 10.5 Non-firm power supply. © Bill Collum 319

Fig. 10.6 Firm power supply. © Bill Collum 319

Fig. 10.7 Guaranteed interruptible power supply. © Bill Collum 321

Fig. 10.8 11 kV Generator. Rehan Qureshi/Shutterstock.com 321

Fig. 10.9 Mobile generator. Radovan1/Shutterstock.com 322

Fig. 10.10 Wattage units. © Bill Collum 322

Fig. 10.11 EPD panels. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 323

Fig. 10.12 Guaranteed uninterruptible power supply (UPS). © Bill Collum 324

Fig. 10.13 Battery room. cpaulfell/Shutterstock.com 325

Fig. 10.14 Cable installation. Dmitry Kalinovsky/Shutterstock.com 326

Fig. 10.15 Cable trays. Misterdone Image/Shutterstock.com 327

Fig. 10.16 Basic control. © Bill Collum 328

Fig. 10.17 Sequence control. © Bill Collum 329

Fig. 10.18 Automation panel. © Bill Collum 331

Fig. 10.19 Automated sequence. © Bill Collum 331

Fig. 10.20 Remote operation. branislavpudar/Shutterstock.com 332

Fig. 10.21 SCADA system. © Bill Collum 333

Fig. 10.22 Central control room. © EDF Energy 334

Fig. 10.23 Bubbler system. © Bill Collum 336

Fig. 10.24 Vibrating fork. © Bill Collum 337

Fig. 10.25 Radar sensors. © Bill Collum 338

Fig. 10.26 Conductive sensors. © Bill Collum 339

Fig. 10.27 Capacitance sensors. © Bill Collum 340

Fig. 10.28 Ultrasonic. © Bill Collum 341

Fig. 10.29 Resistance temperature detectors. © Elsevier 343

Fig. 10.30 Bourdon tube. © Bill Collum 344

Fig. 10.31 Isolated diaphragm gauge. © Bill Collum 345

Fig. 10.32 Orifice meter. © Bill Collum 346

Fig. 10.33 Pitot tube. © Bill Collum 347

Chapter 11—Radiometric instruments

Fig. 11.1 Gas-filled detector. © Bill Collum 351

Fig. 11.2 Scintillation detector. © Bill Collum 355

Fig. 11.3 Transistor. © Bill Collum 357

Fig. 11.4 Semiconductor detector—passive state. © Bill Collum 358

Fig. 11.5 Semiconductor detector—active state. © Bill Collum 359

Fig. 11.6 Technology capabilities. © Bill Collum 360

Fig. 11.7 Resolution comparison. © Bill Collum 361

Fig. 11.8 Health physics instruments. © CANBERRA 363

Fig. 11.9 Environmental monitoring instruments. © CANBERRA 364

Fig. 11.10 Through-wall gamma monitor. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 364

Fig. 11.11 Assay equipment. © CANBERRA 365

Fig. 11.12 Radiometric instrument technologies. © Bill Collum 367

Chapter 12—Project planning

Fig. 12.1 Project control network. © Bill Collum 371

Fig. 12.2 Work breakdown structure. © Bill Collum 373

Fig. 12.3 Integrated breakdown structures. © Bill Collum 375

Fig. 12.4 Nuclear versus conventional expenditure. © Bill Collum 378

Fig. 12.5 Gantt chart. Paul Barnwell/Shutterstock.com 380

Fig. 12.6 Primary project phases. © Bill Collum 381

Fig. 12.7 Project hold points. © Bill Collum 382

Fig. 12.8 Escalating cost of change over time. © Bill Collum 386

Fig. 12.9 Evolution of mechanical equipment design. © Bill Collum 389

Chapter 13—Waste management

Fig. 13.1 Conventional waste management hierarchy. © Bill Collum 395

Fig. 13.2 Radiological waste management hierarchy. © Bill Collum 398

Chapter 14—Safety

Fig. 14.1 Confined space. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 407

Fig. 14.2 Summary of site license conditions. © Bill Collum. Based on data from the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR) 411

Fig. 14.3 Safety case categories. © Bill Collum 415

Fig. 14.4 Primary components of a safety case. © Bill Collum 417

Fig. 14.5 Example key words. © Bill Collum 419

Fig. 14.6 Fault schedule. © Bill Collum 423

Fig. 14.7 Satisfying a safety functional requirement. © Bill Collum 424

Fig. 14.8 Risk. © Bill Collum 426

Fig. 14.9 Hazard control hierarchy. © Bill Collum 427

Fig. 14.10 Fault sequence—unmitigated. © Bill Collum 431

Fig. 14.11 Fault sequence—mitigated. © Bill Collum 432

Fig. 14.12 Risk classification. © Bill Collum 434

Fig. 14.13 Mitigation measures and reliability. © Bill Collum 435

Fig. 14.14 Application of ALARP principles. © Bill Collum 437

Fig. 14.15 Safety reports—common themes. © Bill Collum 438

Fig. 14.16 Sealed radioactive source. Science Photo Library 443

Fig. 14.17 Safety case development—project inception. © Bill Collum 447

Fig. 14.18 Safety case development—optioneering. © Bill Collum 448

Fig. 14.19 Safety case development—option refinement. © Bill Collum 449

Fig. 14.20 Safety case development—detail design. © Bill Collum 450

Fig. 14.21 Safety case development—construction and installation. © Bill Collum 451

Fig. 14.22 Safety case development—inactive and active commissioning. © Bill Collum 452

Fig. 14.23 Safety case development—operations. © Bill Collum 453

Chapter 15—Decommissioning planning

Fig. 15.1 Site license condition 35. © Bill Collum. Based on data from the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR) 455

Fig. 15.2 Planning factors. © Bill Collum 456

Fig. 15.3 Refurbishment. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 463

Fig. 15.4 Shielded pipebridge. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 467

Fig. 15.5 Nuclear site in a costal location. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 468

Fig. 15.6 Fuel cooling pond. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 473

Fig. 15.7 Operations—primary phases. © Bill Collum 473

Fig. 15.8 POCO—preparing a cave for shutdown. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 474

Fig. 15.9 Operations—primary and secondary phases. © Bill Collum 475

Fig. 15.10 Decommissioning—primary phases. © Bill Collum 477

Fig. 15.11 Drummed LLW. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 479

Fig. 15.12 Low level waste store. Science Photo Library 479

Fig. 15.13 Scabbling concrete. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 480

Fig. 15.14 Manual D&D operations. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 480

Fig. 15.15 Remote dismantling. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 481

Fig. 15.16 Demolition of redundant nuclear plant. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 483

Fig. 15.17 In-ground sampling. © Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 484

Fig. 15.18 Decommissioning—primary and secondary phases. © Bill Collum 485

Fig. 15.19 Decommissioning—primary, secondary, and tertiary phases. © Bill Collum 487