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    Feynman Lectures Simplified 3B: Quantum Mechanics Part Two
    Feynman Lectures Simplified 3B: Quantum Mechanics Part Two
    Feynman Lectures Simplified 3B: Quantum Mechanics Part Two
    Ebook316 pages2 hours

    Feynman Lectures Simplified 3B: Quantum Mechanics Part Two

    By Robert Piccioni

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    About this ebook

    Feynman Simplified gives mere mortals access to the fabled Feynman Lectures on Physics.

    Quantum mechanics is rarely taught well in introductory physics courses. Here more than anywhere else, Feynman excels. Here more than anywhere else, Feynman Simplified can help you learn from the very best, but at a humane pace.

    Feynman Simplified: 3B covers the second third of Volume 3 of The Feynman Lectures on Physics. The topics we explore include:

    Particle Exchange Model of Forces
    Barrier Penetration in Particle Exchange
    Quantum Operators & Matrices
    2-State & N-State Systems
    Hyperfine Splitting & Spin-Spin Interactions
    Electrons in Crystals & Semiconductors
    Schrödinger’s Equation
    Symmetry & Conservation Laws

    And if you are looking for information about a specific topic, peruse our free downloadable index to the entire Feynman Simplified series found on my website "Guide to the Cosmos . com"

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherRobert Piccioni
    Release dateApr 29, 2017
    ISBN9781370985661
    Feynman Lectures Simplified 3B: Quantum Mechanics Part Two
    Author

    Robert Piccioni

    Dr Robert Piccioni is a physicist, public speaker, educator and expert on cosmology and Einstein's theories. His "Everyone's Guide Series" e-books makes the frontiers of science accessible to all. With short books focused on specific topics, readers can easily mix and match, satisfying their individual interests. Each self-contained book tells its own story. The Series may be read in any order or combination. Robert has a B.S. in Physics from Caltech, a Ph.D. in High Energy Physics from Stanford University, was a faculty member at Harvard University and did research at the Stanford Linear Accelerator in Palo Alto, Calif. He has studied with and done research with numerous Nobel Laureates. At Caltech, one of his professors was Richard Feynman, one of the most famous physicists of the 20th century, and a good family friend. Dr. Piccioni has introduced cutting-edge science to numerous non-scientific audiences, including school children and civic groups. He was guest lecturer on a National Geographic/Lindblad cruise, and has given invited talks at Harvard, Caltech, UCLA, and Stanford University.

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      Book preview

      Feynman Lectures Simplified 3B - Robert Piccioni

      Feynman Simplified

      3B: Quantum Mechanics

      Part Two

      Everyone’s Guide

      to the

      Feynman Lectures on Physics

      by

      Robert L. Piccioni, Ph.D.

      Second Edition

      Copyright © 2016
      by
      Robert L. Piccioni

      Published by

      Real Science Publishing

      3949 Freshwind Circle

      Westlake Village, CA 91361, USA

      Edited by Joan Piccioni

      V1607231

      All rights reserved, including the right of

      reproduction in whole or in part, in any form.

      Visit our web site

      www.guidetothecosmos.com

      Everyone’s Guide to the

      Feynman Lectures on Physics

      Feynman Simplified gives mere mortals access to the fabled Feynman Lectures on Physics.

      This Book

      Feynman Simplified 3B covers the second third of Volume 3 of The Feynman Lectures on Physics. The topics we explore include:

      Particle Exchange Model of Forces

      Barrier Penetration in Particle Exchange

      Quantum Operators & Matrices

      2-State & N-State Systems

      Hyperfine Splitting & Spin-Spin Interactions

      Electrons in Crystals & Semiconductors

      Schrödinger’s Equation

      Symmetry & Conservation Laws

      To learn more about the Feynman Simplified series, to receive updates, and send us your comments, click here. 

      To further Simplify your adventure, learn about my Math for Physicists that explains the math to master Feynman physics.

      Looking for information about a specific topic? Peruse our free downloadable index to the entire Feynman Simplified series.

      If you enjoy this book, please do me the great favor of rating it on Amazon.

      Table of Contents

      Chapter 13: Molecules & Forces

      Chapter 14: Operators & Matrices

      Chapter 15: Two-State Spins

      Chapter 16: Hyperfine Splitting in Hydrogen

      Chapter 17: Spin 1/2 & Spin 1 Rotation Tables

      Chapter 18: Electrons in Simple Crystals

      Chapter 19: Electrons in Realistic Crystals

      Chapter 20: Semiconductors

      Chapter 21: Independent Particle Approximation

      Chapter 22: Schrödinger’s Equation

      Chapter 23: Symmetry & Conservation Laws

      Chapter 24: Review of Part Two

      Chapter 13

      Molecules & Forces

      We begin Part Two of Feynman’s brilliant presentation of quantum mechanics by exploring more two-state systems and the forces that bind molecules and nuclei.

      §13.1 An Ionized Hydrogen Molecule

      A hydrogen molecule, denoted H2, consists of two hydrogen atoms. Since each hydrogen atom consists of one proton and one electron, a hydrogen molecule has two protons and two electrons, making it electrically neutral.

      We consider here a hydrogen molecule that has been ionized by the removal of one electron, leaving two protons to share the lone remaining electron. Let’s examine how this electron can be shared.

      Two simple basis states present themselves: the electron could surround the left proton; or it could surround the right proton. These two states are symmetric and both effectively result in a neutral hydrogen atom with a lone proton nearby, as shown in Figure 13-1, where the dots are protons, and the gray disks are electrons.

      Figure 13-1 Two Basis States of Ionized H2

      As Feynman says:

      Of course, there are really many states of an electron near a proton, because the combination can exist as any one of the excited states of the hydrogen atom. We are not interested in that variety of states now; we will consider only the situation in which the hydrogen atom is in the lowest state—its ground state—and we will, for the moment, disregard spin [entirely].

      The energy required to remove an electron from a neutral hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, which is defined to be 1 Rydberg. (1 eV denotes one electron-volt, the energy gained by an electron traversing a potential of one volt.) On the atomic scale, 13.6 eV is substantial, about 6 times the energy of visible light.

      For the electron of an ionized hydrogen molecule to jump between states |1> and |2> it would have to overcome the binding energy of one proton before falling into the potential well of the other proton. This is a bit like a golf ball spontaneously disappearing from one cup and reappearing in another. No golfer has ever seen this happen, because in classical physics such actions are impossible.

      However, as we discovered in Feynman Simplified 3A, Section §9.5, barrier penetration does occur in the realm of quantum mechanics. Hence there is a nonzero amplitude H12 for the transition from |2> to |1>. Since 13.6 eV presents a large barrier, the amplitude H12 is small. By symmetry, states |1> and |2> must have the same energy (H11=H22) and the same amplitude to transition from one to the other (H12=H21).

      As before, there are two stationary states of definite energy:

      |+> = {|1> – |2>} / √2 with E+ = E0 + E*

      |–> = {|1> + |2>} / √2 with E– = E0 – E*

      where

        E0 = H11 = H22

      –E* = H12 = H21

      If H12 = H21 = 0, if there were no transition amplitude between the basis states, there would be only one energy level: E0. But because there is a nonzero transition amplitude, we say the single energy level is split into two levels: E– and E+.

      Let’s be very clear about the |+> and |–> states just described. The sole electron can exist in either stationary state |+> or |–> indefinitely, absent external interaction. In either of these states, the electron has a precisely defined energy, and is at all times simultaneously around both protons. Yet, if we measure the electron’s position, it will never be found around both. It will always have a 50% probability of being found entirely near the left proton and a 50% probability of being found entirely near the right proton.

      Alternatively, the electron could be, at time t=0, entirely in basis state |2>, around the right proton. But it will not remain there. Such an electron will transition back and forth between states |1> and |2>. These states are therefore not stationary, and are not states of definite energy. If we measure the electron’s position at time t, the probability of finding it around the left proton will vary between 0 and 1, as given by sin²(ωt), while the probability of finding it around the right proton will be given by cos²(ωt).

      In all cases, these are the states of a single electron, shared by two protons.

      Now let’s consider how the transition amplitudes H12=H21 vary with the distance between the two protons.

      In our prior study of barrier penetration (see Feynman Simplified 3A, Section §9.5), we learned that the penetration amplitude decreases exponentially as a function of the product of barrier height and barrier width. The same logic applies here to H12. H12 has its maximum magnitude when the protons are adjacent, and decreases rapidly as the proton-proton separation D increases.

      Since the energy level splitting is proportional to the transition amplitude, the splitting is also maximum at D=0, and decreases rapidly as D increases. This is illustrated in Figure 13-2.

      Figure 13-2 Electron Energy vs. Proton Separation D

      The energy of state |+> decreases with increasing D, creating a repulsive force that pushes the protons apart. Recall that force equals minus the gradient of potential energy; forces act to reduce potential energy.

      Conversely, the energy of state |–> energy decreases with decreasing D, creating an attractive force that pulls the protons together.

      But the electron’s energy is only part of the story. As two protons become closer, their electrostatic repulsive force increases in proportion to 1/D². Their electrostatic potential energy, Ep, is positive and proportional to 1/D, going to +∞ in the limit that D goes to zero. Adding the proton-proton potential energy, Ep, to the electron’s energy, we obtain the curves shown in Figure 13-3.

      Figure 13-3 Total Energy vs. Proton Separation D

      For |+>, adding Ep increases the repulsive force pushing the protons apart. While for |–>, adding Ep creates a minimum in the total energy at a proton-proton separation that we will call Dmin. At Dmin, the proton-proton repulsive force is exactly balanced by the attractive force between the electron and each proton. Since the total energy is negative at Dmin, the ionized hydrogen molecule has a stable bound state. The electron holds the two protons together, forming what chemists call a one-electron bond.

      Recall how the stationary states are formed from the basis states:

      |+> = {|1> – |2>} / √2 with E+ = E0 + E*

      |–> = {|1> + |2>} / √2 with E– = E0 – E*

      Note that the lower energy state, the only bound state, is symmetric with equal amplitudes for the electron to be around each proton. The higher energy state is asymmetric, with opposite polarity amplitudes.

      In V3p10-4, Feynman provides physical insight into why the asymmetric state has a larger energy:

      You remember that with a single proton the electron is spread out" because of the uncertainty principle. It seeks a balance between having a low Coulomb potential energy and not getting confined into too small a space, which would make a high kinetic energy (because of the uncertainty relation [ΔpΔx=ħ/2]). Now if there are two protons, there is more space where the electron can have a low potential energy. It can spread out—lowering its kinetic energy—without increasing its potential energy. The net result is a lower energy [for an ionic hydrogen molecule than for] a proton and a [separate] hydrogen atom. Then why does [|+>] have a higher energy? Notice that this state is [asymmetric and] must have zero amplitude to find the electron half-way between the two protons. This means that the electron is somewhat more confined, which leads to a larger energy."

      In fact, the asymmetric state |+> excludes the electron from the energetically most favorable location: midway between two positive charges.

      Feynman cautions that our assumption that H2+ is a two-state system breaks down at small values of D, requiring a more sophisticated quantum mechanical analysis than we are ready for. Our analysis is qualitatively, but not quantitatively, correct.

      The measured values for an ionized hydrogen molecule, denoted H2+, are:

      binding energy at Dmin = –2.8 eV

      Dmin = 1.06 angstroms = 1.06×10–10 m.

      The electron’s ability to be around one proton, or the other, or both simultaneously, results in a lower total energy for H2+ than for a hydrogen atom and a separate proton. The electron provides an attractive force that holds the three particles together.

      §13.2 Bridging

      a Negative-Energy Gap

      Let’s now examine more closely the barrier penetration phenomenon that makes the ionized hydrogen molecule stable.

      Barrier penetration occurs when a particle transitions across a region in which its kinetic energy is negative. Figure 13-4 plots the potential energy of the H2+ electron as a function of its distance x from the left proton. The negative kinetic energy region is shown in gray.

      Figure 13-4 Electron Energy vs. Position

      The dotted vertical lines mark the two proton positions. Classically, the electron’s potential energy is proportional to (–1/rL)+(–1/rR), where rL and rR are its distances to the left and right protons respectively. That sum approaches –∞ at the location of either proton.

      The H2+ electron’s potential energy V is represented in Figure 13-4 by the solid curve, while its total energy (T+V) is represented by the horizontal dashed line. T is positive near either proton, but V is very negative. Midway between the protons, the potential energy V increases (becomes less negative), making T negative within the gray zone. Classically, an electron with the indicated total energy cannot enter the gray zone, and cannot move from one proton to the other. 

      But as we know, the wave properties of particles enable them to penetrate barriers in which their kinetic energy is negative. Since the energy involved here is always much smaller than an electron’s mass-energy, we employ non-relativistic equations to analyze barrier penetration.

      Normally:

      T = m v² / 2 = p² / 2m

      p = √ (2m T)

      When T is negative, define ε = –T > 0. The equation for momentum then becomes:

      p = +i√ (2m ε)

      Now define Λ = iħ / p. In the gray negative-energy region, Λ is real and positive.

      Λ = iħ / [i√ (2m ε)]

      Λ = ħ / √ (2m ε)

      As we discovered in Feynman Simplified 3A, Section §9.5, a particle’s amplitude A to penetrate a distance x into a barrier corresponding to Λ is proportional to:

      A ~ exp{ – x / Λ }

      That analysis assumes Λ is constant. In the current case, kinetic energy T, momentum p, and Λ vary with x. Hence, the electron’s amplitude to transition from one proton to the other is best expressed by:

      A ~ exp{ – ∫ (dx / Λ) }

      Feynman explains why we ignored the negative imaginary solution of p=–i√(2mε). That would result in a positive real exponent that is physically unrealistic: an amplitude within the barrier that increases exponentially toward infinity.

      Let’s be very clear about what quantum mechanics says about barrier penetration. It does not say a real electron can travel within a barrier in which its kinetic energy is negative. What penetrates the barrier is the electron’s probability amplitude, something that has no physical reality.

      An electron placed near the left proton has a small but nonzero probability amplitude to be at the right proton. If we repeatedly measure the electron’s position, we might almost always find it near the left proton. But eventually, we will find it near the right proton.

      Our classical intuition encourages the notion that the electron must have moved from left to right, passing through the impenetrable barrier. But that is not what quantum mechanics claims. Indeed, quantum mechanics says we will never observe the electron inside the barrier: no real particle can ever be observed to have a negative energy, negative mass, or imaginary momentum.

      What quantum mechanics says is that for each measurement, there is some probability of finding the electron near the left proton and another probability of finding it near the right proton. We may be able to exactly predict these probabilities as functions of time, but regardless of how much we know, and regardless of what the electron’s prior history has been, its position is undetermined between measurements.

      For us to claim that an electron went from here to there, we would actually have to observe its position progressing step-by along that path.

      §13.3 Van Der Waals Effect

      In V3p10-5, Feynman adds a final note about the H2+ molecule: the van der Waals effect. This effect is generally quite small, but at large separations it makes a contribution to the attractive force holding the three particles together.

      In an isolated hydrogen atom, the center of positive charge and the center of negative charge both coincide with the atom’s center. However, if a second proton is nearby, the hydrogen atom’s electric charge centers shift, with the atom’s negative charge moving closer to and its positive charge moving farther from the second proton. This gives the atom an electric dipole moment µ. The dipole moment is proportional to the electric field E that the atom experiences from the second proton.

      The energy of a dipole µ in an electric field E is proportional to µ•E, which in this case is proportional to E². Recall that E is proportional to 1/r². Hence, at a proton-proton separation of r, the dipole energy is proportional to 1/r⁴. Since force is the gradient of potential energy, the attractive van der Waals force is proportional to 1/r⁵.

      Typically, we can ignore terms proportional to 1/r⁴, but in this case, A, the other contributing energy term, is proportional to exp{–r}/r. At large enough distances, the van der Waals effect dominates.

      Note that the van der Waals effect is attractive for both electron states, |+> and |–>, while the electron-exchange effect is repulsive for |+> and attractive for |–>.

      §13.4 Asymmetric Ionic Molecules

      Now consider the combined system of two different atoms, each of which has a net electric charge of +1 (each is missing one electron). Feynman uses the example of a lone proton and a Li+ ion, but the analysis applies generally to any asymmetric objects with positive charge.

      In a non-symmetric system, H11 may be very different from H22. For sake of discussion, assume:

      H12 = H21

      H11 > H22

      (H11 – H22) >> H12

      Define:

      –A = H12

      E0 = (H11 + H22) / 2

      Δ = (H11 – H22)

      From the two-state equations given given in Feynman Simplified 3A, Section §12.6, we have:

      E± = E0 ± √ [ Δ² / 4 + A²]

      Above, we had Δ=0, resulting in E±=E0±A. But here, for Δ>>A, this equation can be approximated by:

      E± = E0 ± (Δ/2)

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