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    Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation
    Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation
    Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation
    Ebook1,179 pages14 hours

    Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

    By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

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    About this ebook

    Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, Volume Three, the latest release in the Handbook of Food Bioengineering series is a practical resource that provides significant knowledge and new perspectives in food processing and preservation, promoting renewable resources by applying soft ecological techniques (i.e. soft chemistry). Fermentation represents a simple and very efficient way to preserve food in developing countries where other methods, depending on specialized instruments, are not available. Through processes of soft chemistry and fermentation, food ingredients can be produced with improved properties (such as pharmabiotics) able to promote health.

    • Includes the most recent scientific progress with proven biological, physical and chemical applications of the food engineering process to understand fermentation
    • Presents novel opportunities and ideas for developing and improving technologies in the food industry that are useful to researchers in food bioengineering
    • Provides eco-friendly approaches towards components, materials and technologies developed for improvements in food quality and stability
    • Includes valuable information useful to a wide audience interested in food chemistry and the bioremediation of new foods
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateJul 18, 2017
    ISBN9780128112045
    Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

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      Book preview

      Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 3

      Edited by

      Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Alina Maria Holban

      Table of Contents

      Cover

      Title page

      Copyright

      List of Contributors

      Foreword

      Series Preface

      Preface for Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Chapter 1: Introduction in Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Abstract

      1. General Considerations

      2. Primary and Secondary Metabolites as Biotechnological Products

      3. Primary Metabolites

      4. Secondary Metabolites

      5. Fermentation Process

      6. Fermentative Microorganisms

      7. Health Benefits of Fermented Foods

      8. Fermented Dairy Products and Their Benefits

      9. Other Fermented Foods and Benefits

      10. Fermented Foods Side Effects

      11. Conclusions

      Chapter 2: Environment-Friendly Techniques for Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Fruits

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Bioactive Compounds of Fruits

      3. Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Fruits

      4. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Abbreviations

      Chapter 3: Bioactivity Profiling of Peptides From Food Proteins

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Animal Proteins

      3. Plant Proteins

      4. Algae and Fungi Proteins

      5. Potential Technological, Dietary, and Health Applications

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 4: A New Class of Pharmabiotics With Unique Properties

      Abstract

      1. Interaction Between Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms

      2. Antibiotics are Becoming Less Effective

      3. Rationale for Safe Use of Lactic Acid Fermented Products

      4. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 5: Aquafeed Formulation Using Plant Feedstuffs: Prospective Application of Fish-Gut Microorganisms and Microbial Biotechnology

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Aquafeed Formulation: Past, Present, and Future

      3. Plant Ingredients in Aquafeed Formulation: Available Resources

      4. Plant Ingredients in Aquafeed Formulation: Hurdles

      5. Gut Microorganisms: Hope in Aquafeed Formulation

      6. Solid State Fermentation: An Approach for Bioprocessing of Plant Feedstuffs

      7. Amelioration of ANFs in Plant Feedstuffs: Conventional Methods Versus Microbial Biotechnology

      8. Gut Microbiota as Biocontrol Agent: A Probiotic Approach

      9. Conclusions

      Chapter 6: Functional Components and Health Benefits of Fermented Soymilk

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. History of Fermented Soymilk

      3. Major Functional Components in Soymilk

      4. Traditional Fermented Soy Foods and Their Health Benefits

      5. Health Benefits of Fermented Soymilk

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 7: Nanoencapsulation of Spice Oils

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Nanoencapsulation Processes

      3. Effect of Carriers on the Morphology of Nanoparticles

      4. Spice Oils

      5. Patents on Nanoencapsulation of Spice Oils

      6. Conclusions

      7. Future Prospects

      Chapter 8: Comparison of Functional Properties of Cooked and Fermented (Rhizopus Oligosporus) Beans of Canavalia Cathartica of the Coastal Sand Dunes

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Beans and Processing

      3. Data Analysis

      4. Discussion

      5. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 9: Optimized Polygalacturonase Production in Reactor Tray Type, Study of Enzymatic Extraction and Extract Application

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Approaches, Materials, and Methods

      3. Results and Discussions

      4. Conclusions

      Chapter 10: Application of Olive Oil as Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Food: Composition and Biofunctional Constituents and Their Roles in Functionality, Therapeutic, and Nutraceutical Properties

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Lipid Definitions

      3. Health Properties of Olive Oil

      4. Phenolic-Lipid Interactions and Their Applications

      5. Techniques for Characterization of Virgin Olive Oil

      6. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 11: Significance of Laccases in Food Chemistry and Related Bioremediation

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Laccases and Food Chemistry

      3. Laccase-Based Biosensors for Measurements and Detection of Food Contents

      4. Role of Laccase in Bioremediation Related to Food Chemistry

      5. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 12: Fermentation to Improve Food Security in Africa and Asia

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. An Overview of African Fermented Foods

      3. Animal Protein Fermentations

      4. Fermented Fruits and Leafy Vegetables

      5. Asian Fermented Foods

      6. Asian Fermented Vegetables

      7. Asian Fermented Animal Proteins

      8. Conclusions

      Chapter 13: Chemistry of Essential Oils and Factors Influencing Their Constituents

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Organoleptic and Physical Characteristics of Essential Oils

      3. Taxonomy of Essential Oil–Producing Plants

      4. Essential Oil Extraction Methods

      5. Chemistry of Essential Oils

      6. Biosynthesis Pathways

      7. Analytical Techniques for Determining Essential Oil Composition

      8. Structure of Organic Compounds

      9. Classification of Essential Oil Composition

      10. Essential Oil Properties and Pharmacologic Effects

      11. Essential Oil Components and Their Biological Activities

      12. Factors Influencing Essential Oil Compositions

      Chapter 14: The Role and the Place of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography for the Determination of Fermented Dairy Products

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Fermentation

      3. Physical and Chemical Properties of Milk

      4. Techniques for the Analysis of Fermented Dairy Products

      5. The Place of Separation Techniques for the Determination of Carbohydrates and Organic Acids in Dairy Products

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 15: Evolving Status of African Food Seasoning Agents Produced by Fermentation

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Indigenous Fermented Food Seasoning Agents in Nigeria and Other Parts of Africa

      3. Nutritional and Food Security Significance of Nigerian Indigenous Fermented Seasoning Agents (NIFFSA)

      4. Processes Involved in Nigerian Indigenous Fermented Seasoning Agents (NIFFSA)

      5. Microbiology of the Traditional Processes of NIFFSA

      6. Biochemical Processes Associated With Traditional NIFFSA

      7. Challenges of Traditional Processes of NIFFSA

      8. Challenges to Development of Good Manufacturing Practices for Small-scale Seasoning and Food Fermentation

      9. Improving the Safety and Quality of NIFFSA

      10. Prospects and Outlook

      Acknowledgement

      Index

      Copyright

      Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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      Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

      No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

      This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

      Notices

      Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

      Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

      To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      ISBN: 978-0-12-811412-4

      For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

      Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

      Acquisition Editor: Nina Bandeira

      Editorial Project Manager: Jaclyn Truesdell

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      Designer: Matthew Limbert

      Typeset by Thomson Digital

      List of Contributors

      Caleb Acquah,     Curtin University, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia

      Dominic Agyei,     University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

      Siumara R. Alcântara,     Estácio de Sá University, Ourinhos, São Paulo, Brazil

      Mohammad N. Alhamad,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Majdi A. Al-Mahasneh,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Doa’a Al-u’datt,     University of Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada

      Muhammad H. Alu’datt,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Shashi L. Bharati,     North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India

      Pankaj K. Chaurasia,     University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Michael K. Danquah,     Curtin University, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia

      Cristina Delerue-Matos,     Superior Institute of Engineering of the Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal

      Lia-Mara Ditu,     University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Khalil Ereifej,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Charles M.A.P. Franz,     Max Rubner-Institut, Kiel, Germany

      Mitsuru Fukuda,     Research Institute of Nutrition Science, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan

      Vincenzina Fusco,     Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), Bari, Italy

      Sana Gammoh,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Irina Gheorghe,     University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Koushik Ghosh,     University of Burdwan, Bardhaman, West Bengal, India

      Mehmet Gumustas

      Hitit University, Corum

      Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey

      Yoshitaka Honda,     Marusan-Ai Co., Ltd., Okazaki, Aichi, Japan

      Flávio L. Honorato da Silva,     Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil

      Neveen Hussein,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Maki Kobayashi,     Kobe Gakuin University, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan

      Stan Kubow,     McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

      Leila Mehdizadeh,     Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

      Mohammad Moghaddam,     Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

      Simone Morais,     Superior Institute of Engineering of the Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal

      Manuela M. Moreira,     Superior Institute of Engineering of the Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal

      Ola Naimi,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Vedavyas R. Niveditha,     Mangalore University, Mangalore, Karnataka, India

      Folarin A. Oguntoyinbo,     University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria

      Augustina N. Okpara,     University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria

      Sibel A. Ozkan,     Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey

      Sharadwata Pan,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

      Taha Rababah,     Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

      Pooja J. Rao,     CSIR-CFTRI, Mysuru, Karnataka, India

      Arun K. Ray,     Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, West Bengal, India

      Constantin V. Sobol,     Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia

      Halagur B. Sowbhagya,     CSIR-CFTRI, Mysuru, Karnataka, India

      Kandikere R. Sridhar,     Mangalore University, Mangalore, Karnataka, India

      Jerry Obeta Ugwuanyi,     University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria

      Bengi Uslu,     Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey

      Foreword

      In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

      The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

      Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

      Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

      Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Series Preface

      The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

      Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

      While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

      Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

      Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Volume 4: Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

      Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

      Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

      Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

      Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

      Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome, and Health

      Volume 12: Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry

      Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

      Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry

      Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

      Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

      Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

      Volume 19: Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering

      Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

      The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome, and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

      All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

      This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Preface for Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      The chemical composition of food, the way it is obtained, and the amount used gives a particular taste and flavor to each food product and decide the measure of consumer appreciation. In general, foods obtained through natural approaches are most valued, while food ingredients developed through artificial processing are of poorer quality.

      Fermentation represents one of the oldest food processing and preservation methods and it continues to be widely applied to basic foods worldwide. From fermented dairy products and baked fermented flour to beer, wine, and soy sauce, fermentation is a part of our daily lives by producing a variety of food products that we love.

      Along with their particular taste, fermented foods have numerous benefits. First, fermentation represents a cheap and safe way of food preservation and intensifies the flavor by converting sugars into acids, making food more interesting. Second, fermented foods have numerous health benefits: (1) fermentation makes grains more digestible; (2) fermented products have higher levels of vitamins; (3) fermentation reduces naturally occurring toxins in some foods, thus rendering them safe to eat; (4) fermented foods often contain a higher level of convertible energy than nonfermented foods; and (5) some fermented products are used for medical therapy (i.e., koumiss is used in Russia to treat tuberculosis).

      This book aims to bring together the most interesting investigated aspects of soft chemistry and fermentation processes widely utilized in the current food industry. The newest technologies, along with their applicability spectrum, main advantages, and drawbacks are presented within this volume.

      The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Romania, Portugal, Malaysia, Australia, Russia, India, Japan, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Iran, Turkey, and Nigeria.

      The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, not only food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, and industrial companies, but also any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of food chemistry and fermentation.

      This volume starts with an introductory chapter, entitled Introduction in Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, prepared by Ditu and Gheorghe. This chapter provides an explicit overview with regard to the soft chemistry concept, the fermentation process, industrial microorganisms and their metabolites, and fermented food and its health benefits. Particular attention is paid to industrial microbiology, which uses different microorganisms, such as naturally occurring organisms, laboratory selected strains, and even genetically modified organisms, to produce a large variety of industrial food compounds for human interest.

      Chapter 2 prepared by Moreira et al., Environment-Friendly Techniques for Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Fruits, provides the reader with a broad view of the progress made in food chemistry by novel extraction techniques that are currently used to extract bioactive compounds, especially polyphenols, from fruits.

      Agyei et al. in Chapter 3, Bioactivity Profiling of Peptides From Food Proteins, describe the diversity, bioactivities, and physicochemical properties of bioactive peptides found in food proteins. The applications of these peptides in food and pharmaceutical products are also highlighted.

      Chapter 4, A New Class of Pharmabiotics With Unique Properties written by Sobol, discusses a new powerful probiotic product (PP) with a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. The concentration of metabolites in PP is much higher than that found in nature due to the use of a special fermentation technology. PP evoked an obvious pharmacological reaction at the cellular level, via an increase in intracellular calcium in various cells and tissues, thereby stimulating intracellular signaling mechanisms. The most pronounced effects of PP are normalizing microbiota, boosting the immune system, and normalization of the number and function of blood cells, especially lymphocytes. However, further research is needed to assess the efficacy and safety of this product.

      Ghosh and Ray in Chapter 5, Aquafeed Formulation Using Plant Feedstuffs: Prospective Application of Fish-Gut Microorganisms and Microbial Biotechnology, provide a summary of findings on the application of conventional methods, as well as the bioprocessing strategy adopted for deactivation of endogenous antinutritional factors, and also the use of probiotics as biocontrol agents when considering the application of microbial biotechnology in the formulation of aquafeeds.

      Chapter 6, Functional Components and Health Benefits of Fermented Soymilk prepared by Fukuda et al., presents the benefits of fermented soymilk as an alternative to cow milk yogurt. Soymilk can turn to a yogurt-like paste following lactic acid fermentation using Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, or other lactic bacteria. Isoflavone aglycones and peptides that are produced in soymilk during fermentation have hypolipidemic effects, such as lowering of blood cholesterol and the prevention of hepatic lipid and visceral fat accumulation. Accordingly, physiological effects of fermented soymilk are greater than those of classic soymilk.

      In Chapter 7, Nanoencapsulation of Spice Oils, Rao and Sowbhagya offer an overview on the nanoencapsulation of spice oils and its influence on their biological activities. Encapsulation helps in masking the odor of a flavorant, maintaining its flavor profile intact and its pungency, namely, piperine and capsaicin, for use as a nutraceutical. Various techniques, such as solvent precipitation with different nonionic surfactants, liquid–liquid dispersion, ionic gelation, high-pressure homogenization, sonication, emulsification, and so on, have been explored to develop nanoparticles of spice oils with higher retention of flavor and aroma.

      In Chapter 8, Comparison of Functional Properties of Cooked and Fermented (Rhizopus oligosporus) Beans of Canavalia cathartica of the Coastal Sand Dunes prepared by Niveditha and Sridhar, cooking properties of beans and functional attributes of cooked and fermented (Rhizopus oligosporus) split beans of the wild legume Canavalia cathartica, distributed on the coastal sand dunes of Southwest India, were compared with proximal properties. Hydration, swelling, crude protein, and carbohydrates proved to be higher than common pulses. Improved functional properties of fermented split beans serve as a potential indigenous ingredient for value-added functional foods, as well as nutraceutical products.

      Chapter 9, Optimized Polygalacturonase Production in Reactor Tray Type, Study of Enzymatic Extraction, and Extract Application written by Alcântara and Honorato da Silva, discusses the production of polygalacturonases through solid-state fermentation using cashew apple and Aspergillus niger CCT 0916 in bioreactors, and the impact of various production parameters, such as temperature and substrate thickness, on polygalacturonase activity.

      Alu’datt et al. in Chapter 10, Application of Olive Oil as Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Food: Composition and Biofunctional Constituents and Their Roles in Functionality, Therapeutic, and Nutraceutical Properties, discuss the current state of research regarding methods of phenolic extractions from olives and olive oil and their methods of analysis. Also, the chemistry and interactions of bioactive components from olive oil, predominantly the lipid, phenolics, and their derivatives constituents, and the major roles of extracted bioactive compounds from olive oil in food and the nutraceutical industry are also reviewed.

      In the Chapter 11, Significance of Laccases in Food Chemistry and Related Bioremediation, Chaurasia and Bharati present the applications of laccases in soil. Laccase has an important property of converting molecular oxygen into the water molecule, which is a green step for environmental studies. This property is significant in food chemistry and bioremediation, making laccase a valuable enzyme. In food chemistry laccase has unique roles in the stabilization of beverages, enhancement in the taste of food, preventing undesirable changes in food stuffs, checking unwanted color change in juices, enhancing the food quality by eliminating dissolved oxygen, and so on.

      Fusco et al. in Chapter 12, Fermentation to Improve Food Security in Africa and Asia, review the most common fermented foods in Asia and Africa that are based on either vegetable, meat, fish, or dairy fermentations. Given their high potential for improving food security and safety, traditional fermentation processes have been investigated in detail. Advanced tools to control the fermentation processes, which standardize the overall quality of the final products and enhance their shelf lives have been provided.

      Chapter 13, Chemistry of Essential Oils and Factors Influencing Their Constituents prepared by Moghaddam and Mehdizadeh, aims to reveal the chemical composition of various essential oil–bearing plants and the most influential factors that affect the ratios of essential oil molecules made by the plants. Essential oils (volatile oils) are complex mixtures of odorous principles stored in special plant cells and glands in different parts of plants in some plant families, which can be obtained and isolated by pressing and hydro or steam distillation. The constituents of plant essential oils fall mainly into two distinct chemical classes: terpenes and phenylpropanoids. However, several factors, including growth conditions, climate, altitude, soil type, agricultural methods and practices, developmental stage, plant part extracted, and harvesting time can influence the composition of essential oils.

      Gumustas et al. in Chapter 14, The Role and the Place of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography for the Determination of Fermented Dairy Products, summarize the importance of separation techniques for the determination of dairy products, and also highlights the influence of analysis conditions, sample preparation, and validation parameters. The authors highlight the progress of high-performance liquid chromatography in the chemical research of milk-derived products.

      Okpara and Ugwuanyi in Chapter 15, Evolving Status of African Food Seasoning Agents Produced by Fermentation, review the problems hampering the traditional processes, technological improvements, and progress toward standardization for good manufacturing practices, as well as the potential for future exploitation and industrialization of fermentation technologies in African countries, where fermentation processes play a significant role in the food security and food ecology of communities.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Chapter 1

      Introduction in Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Lia-Mara Ditu

      Irina Gheorghe    University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Abstract

      Biotechnology (term composed of bios and technique) is based on the industrial exploitation of productive potentiality of microorganisms, plant or animal cells, or their subcellular fractions, to obtain useful products. The progress of general microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, and biotechnologies led to a new science, industrial microbiology, and thereby, to industrial exploitation of new potentiality of microorganisms: antibiotic synthesis; enzyme production; production of alcoholic beverages; biofuel production; food preservation; and bioremediation of air, soil, and water contamination. Fermentation, a term derived from the Latin verb fevere (to boil), is one of the oldest methods of processing food and is the most important process in the food industry, playing many roles in the enrichment of the human dietary, food preservation, and biological enrichment of food substrates. Fermentation is a natural process achieved by microorganisms, subsequently used by humans on an industrial scale, but not invented by man. Industrial microbiology use different microorganisms, such as naturally occurring organisms, laboratory selected mutants, or even genetically modified organisms, to produce a very large variety of industrial products for human interest. This chapter provides an overview of general data regarding the fermentation process, industrial microorganisms, and their metabolites, fermented food, and health benefits.

      Keywords

      biotechnology

      fermentation

      metabolites

      fermented food

      1. General Considerations

      In 1992, the United National Conference on Biological Diversity defined biotechnology as any technological applications that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. Recent developments in molecular biology increased our understanding in genetics, giving to modern biotechnology new potential based on techniques of recombinant DNA technology, often referred to as genetic engineering, with huge effects on the world economy (Okafor, 2007). Research in the field of molecular biology has led to the techniques of genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology, cell culture, and protoplast fusion) of microbial cells, animal- and plant-modified in terms of the capacity of biosynthesis (quantitative and qualitative), biological processes performed by them to obtain useful products being described as modern biotechnologies. The main directions of development of modern biotechnology are determined primarily by recent discoveries in molecular biology, and, second, the demands of society toward certain issues faced today: the energy crisis, depletion of food on planet, ecology issues, and bioremediation.

      Industrial microbiology is a new science because it followed the progress of general microbiology, biochemistry and biotechnologies, even if microorganisms are used from the antiquity for preserving food plant, for the production of wine, fermented milk, and cheese. Before the industrial cooling technology, foods were preserved by acidification (lactic or acetic fermentation) by alcoholic fermentation, desiccation, or increased osmotic pressure by adding sugar.

      In the United States in 1923, Pfizer Company was the first company that started the bioproduction of citric acid. After this pioneering period, the microorganisms are used for industrial production of lactic acid, acetic acid, gluconic acid, and suitable solvent (butanol). The spectacular development of industrial microbiology occurred with the discovery of antibiotics, penicillin being first produced on an industrial scale in 1943 (Daemmrich, 2009).

      Bioindustry or biotechnology means industrial exploitation of productive potentiality of microorganisms, plant or animal cells, or their subcellular fractions to obtain useful products, all the biosynthesis or bioconversion processes being performed by microorganisms with economic importance with high economic value. The term is composed of two words: bios and technique, referring to a production process with living cells, with different aspects of modern biotechnology having significant effects on traditional biotechnology.

      2. Primary and Secondary Metabolites as Biotechnological Products

      Originally, industrial microbiological processes are produced under normal microbiota metabolic activity, existing at the surface or within the transformed product. The researchers observed that unselected microorganisms do not give stable results and result in wide yield variations. In addition spontaneous microbiota is accompanied by contaminants that affect final product quality. To prevent these inconveniences, the industrial strains are selected based on their metabolic properties, affording consistently higher-quality product.

      Metabolism can be defined as all biochemical reactions carried out by an organism and involves two pathways: primary metabolic pathways and secondary metabolic pathways, the line between the two being not clearly defined, but the distinction is necessary in terms of industrial microbiology (Hamdi, 2007). Primary metabolic pathways require the cell to use nutrients in its surroundings, such as low molecular weight compounds for cellular activity. There are three potential pathways for primary metabolism: Embden Meyerhof–Parnas Pathway (EMP), Entner–Dourdorof pathway, and the hexose monophosphate (HMP) pathway. (Breitling et al., 2013).

      Changing or removing metabolic regulatory mechanisms by phenotypic or genotypic variability can improve the primary and secondary metabolites microbial production, and contribute significantly to the improvement of the industrial performants of the microbial selected strains. Inducers, effectors, inhibitors, and various signal molecules play a role in the overproduction of different metabolites type, acting by positive and negative mechanisms (induction, nutritional, and feedback regulation mechanisms) (Sanchez and Demai, 2008).

      3. Primary Metabolites

      Primary metabolites are microbial products made during the exponential phase of growth (Fig. 1.1) whose synthesis is an integral part of the normal growth process (Sanchez and Demai, 2008). Primary metabolites vary in size from hydrogen gas (2 Da) to vitamin B12 (1355 Da). The most industrially important are amino acids, nucleotides, vitamins, solvents, and organic acids and fermentation products of primary metabolism, such as ethanol, acetic acid, and lactic acid, which are the first commercial products of the fermentation industry. These products are synthesized by a diverse range of bacteria and fungi and have numerous uses in the food, chemical, and nutraceutical industries.

      Figure 1.1   Growth Curve and Metabolites Production in Microorganisms.

      Many of these metabolites are manufactured by microbial fermentation rather than chemical synthesis because the fermentations are economically competitive and produce biologically useful isomeric forms. Several other industrially important chemicals could be manufactured via microbial fermentations (e.g., glycerol and other polyhydroxy alcohols), but are presently synthesized cheaply as petroleum by-products. However, as the cost of petroleum has skyrocketed recently, there is now renewed interest in the microbial production of ethanol, organic acids, and solvents (Sanchez and Demai, 2008).

      Within the field of industrial microbiology, alcohol is one of the most common primary metabolites used for large-scale production. Specifically, alcohol is used for processes involving fermentation, which produces products, such as beer and wine (Boundless, 2016).

      Primary metabolites, such as amino acids, including l-glutamate and l-lysine, are commonly used as supplements (Boundless, 2016). The industrial production processes involve Corynebacterium glutamicum strains that use molasses as growth media, which contains glucose from starch hydrolysis or fructose and sucrose (Schneidera et al., 2011). l-Amino acids are commercially used as additives in food, feed supplements, infusion compounds, therapeutic agents, and precursors for peptides synthesis or agriculture-based chemicals (Shyamkumar et al., 2014).

      Citric acid is another example of a primary metabolite commonly used in industrial microbiology. Industrial biotechnology for synthesis of citric acid commercial product is the largest fermentation process (Ikram-ul et al., 2004), mostly using selected fungal (Aspergillus niger strains) or yeast strains in aerobe bioreactors (Anastassiadis et al., 2008). For reducing production costs and minimizing environmental problems, the substrates utilized in the citric acid production are the residues of the agroindustry (molasses, glycerin, etc.). The traditional discontinuous fungi processes can be successfully replaced with continuous processes utilizing yeasts (reaching 200–250 g/L citric acid) (Anastassiadis et al., 2008). To enhance the citric acid production, Hu et al. (2014) obtained mutant an A. niger strain, named H4002, using the accelerated carbon ions and X-ray methods. In optimized culture conditions, modified strains H4002 exhibited 187.5 ± 0.7 g/L citric acid, demonstrating its potential to be used for citric acid industrial synthesis (Hu et al., 2014).

      Citric acid is commonly used in the food and beverage industries and pharmaceutical, chemical, cosmetic, and other industries for applications, such as acidulation, antioxidant, flavor, enhancement, preservation, plasticization, and as a synergistic agent (Auta et al., 2014). Citric acid also demonstrated an antioxidant and antiinflammatory effect, for a dose of 1–2 g/kg orally, in brain tissue and some beneficial hepatic protective effect at this dose range.

      Vitamins (riboflavin, thiamine, biotin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid) are essential micronutrients that are synthesized only by microorganisms (bacteria and yeasts) and plants, acting as cofactors for different enzymatic pathways. Microorganisms possess the simplicity and flexibility needed for economic vitamin production, many species being genetically modified to overexpress these molecules. Most vitamins and related compounds are now industrially produced, using fermentation technologies and microbial/enzymatic transformation, and widely used as food or feed additives, medical or therapeutic agents, health aids, and cosmetic and technical aids (Vandamme, 1992; Vranova et al., 2013).

      4. Secondary Metabolites

      Secondary metabolites are small biomolecules that are produced during the stationary phase and are not vital for the producer microorganism (Breitling et al., 2013). They include antibiotics, enzymes, antitumor agents, and antivirals (with large applicability in medicine) (Khazir et al., 2013; Mousa and Raizada, 2013); herbicides or phytotoxins (used in agriculture); and pigments and flavors (used as food additives) (Ramachandra Rao and Ravishankar, 2002).

      The rapid development of genomics has been conducted in a very promising research field regarding the new secondary metabolites: metabolomics. Metabolomics is a very important component of synthetic biology, which aims to discover and characterize new secondary metabolites. It seems that many microorganisms possess the genetically potential to produce many more secondary metabolites than was expected. As the gene expression of these cryptic secondary metabolites is too low and the levels of the final secondary products are undetectable, only bioinformatics analysis of putative secondary metabolite gene clusters in sequenced genomes can predict the presence of these metabolites (Breitling et al., 2013; Lim et al., 2012). The main goal of the recent study is to develop new technologies that can induce the production of cryptic metabolic genes and identify previously unreported molecules.

      Microorganisms represent an alternative source of enzymes; microbial enzymes are important in the development of industrial bioprocesses (Adriol and Demain, 2014). To produce large quantities of enzymes, microorganism strains can be cultured in a short time by fermentation and are susceptible to gene manipulation, most industrial enzymes being recombinantly produced by genetically modified bacteria and fungi (Anbu et al., 2013).

      Microbial enzymes can be used on an industrial scale in detergents and in the following industries: textiles, pulp and paper, chemical, leather, pharmaceuticals, food and beverages, biofuels, animal feed, and cosmetics. Lipolytic enzymes are currently attracting enormous attention because of their biotechnological potential. Lipases play an important role in the food, detergent, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries, constituting an important group of biotechnologically valuable enzymes, mainly due to the versatility of their applied properties (Ray, 2012). Amylase is a lipolytic enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of starch into sugars, one such activity being the production of glucose and fructose syrup from starch. α-Amylase catalysis is the first step in this process, having crucial applications, including the production of fructose syrup, environmentally safe detergents, and baked products (Sundarram and Murthy, 2014). α-Amylase is produced by several bacteria, fungi, and other genetically modified species of microorganisms. The microbial source of amylase is preferred to other sources because of its plasticity and vast availability. The most widely used source among the bacterial species is Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and Bacillus licheniformis (Konsoula and Liakopoulou-Kyriakides, 2007).

      Antibiotics are the most extensively studied secondary metabolites since 1928, when Fleming discovered penicillin. In natural environments, the antibiosis process is a competitive strategy for soil microbial strains survival among living microorganisms, such as Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Myxobacteria, and fungi, representing one of the most prolific sources for the production of antibiotics (Kelsic et al., 2015; Marinelli and Marcone, 2011). In the natural environment, each species produces several antibiotics, with the profile being species specific. In the last years, the application of genetic and molecular techniques, coupled with sensitive and bioanalytical assays and equipment, has demonstrated that microorganisms synthesize a variety of antibiotics (Kelsic et al., 2015). In the natural microbial communities, Streptomyces spp. is the largest antibiotic-producing genus in the microbial world, but this microbe produces the structurally related antibacterial molecules (Watve et al., 2001).

      Current approaches oriented to discover novel molecules mostly aim to target specific and minor microbial communities in unique or underexplored environments, including specific terrestrial niches, plant host–microbe associations, and marine environments. Environmental conditions comprise strong selecting factors, and the distribution of some microbial species, even in highly occurring taxa, presents biogeographic patterns determined by microenvironmental conditions that can be translated into novel compounds. Many research groups have recently emphasized the exploration of untapped microbial communities that are associated with rhizospheres, plant endophytes, lichens, endolithic microbial communities, insect parasites, endosymbionts, marine sediments, and invertebrates. These approaches have favored the isolation of novel microbial communities potentially producing novel chemical scaffolds (Fedorenko et al., 2015; Higginbotham et al., 2013).

      5. Fermentation Process

      Fermentation is one of the oldest methods of processing food into a form that is suitable for preservation. The term is derived from the Latin verb fevere (to boil) because of the chemical change caused by microorganisms or their products in the fermenter, usually producing effervescence and heat. The fermentation process was elucidated by Louis Pasteur (1822–95) who demonstrated experimentally that fermentation is an anaerobic metabolic process of living yeast based on the transformation of glucose into ethanol (Amore and Faraco, 2013). Pasteur defined it as respiration without air. Walker defines fermentation as a slow decomposition process of organic substances induced by microorganisms, or by complex nitrogenous substances (enzymes) of plant or animal origin (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, FAO) (Amore and Faraco, 2013).

      In the fermentation process, certain organic compounds, usually two different metabolites, derived from a fermentable substrate, serve as donor and acceptor of electrons, respectively (Fig. 1.2). Degradation of fermentative substratum is incomplete and therefore releases a much smaller amount of energy than the process of respiration, during which the oxidation process is complete. Fermentation processes are initiated by phosphorylation at the substrate level. Their result is the synthesis of ATP, and other compounds with an energy-rich bond, the most important being acetyl-CoA.

      Figure 1.2   Schematic Representation of Fermentative Process Based on the Final Products.

      EMP, Embden Meyerhof–Parnas Pathway.

      As the most important process of food industry, fermentation plays at least five roles in food processing: (1) enrichment of the human dietary through development of a wide diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food; (2) preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcoholic, acetic acid, alkaline fermentations, and high salt fermentations; (3) enrichment of food substrates biologically with vitamins, protein, essential amino acids, and essential fatty acids; (4) detoxification during food fermentation processing; and (5) a decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements (Steinkraus, 2002).

      6. Fermentative Microorganisms

      The fermentation is a natural process achieved by microorganisms, subsequently used by humans on an industrial scale, but not invented by man. The 2002 IDF Inventory listed 82 bacterial species and 31 species of yeast and molds, whereas the present Inventory of MFC contains 195 bacterial species and 69 species of yeasts and molds, microorganisms used in food fermentations covering a wide range of food matrices (vegetables, meat, fish, dairy, beverages, and vinegar) (Bourdichon et al., 2012). Industrial microbiology uses different microorganisms, such as naturally occurring organisms, laboratory selected mutants, or even genetically modified organisms (Boundless, 2016), to produce a very large variety of industrial products in large quantities. Any biotechnology process must use microorganisms included in the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) list as generally regarded as safe microorganisms, particularly when food products and ingredients are manufactured (Okafor, 2007). A substance or microorganism may be generally regarded as safe only if its general recognition of safety is based on the expert’s evaluation qualified to establish the safety of this microorganism (Bourdichon et al., 2012).

      Knowledge of the particularities of microorganisms allows the development of applications in various fields of agriculture, food industry, pharmaceutical industry, chemical industry, leather, and environmental protection. Once a microorganism was selected, either by classical methods or by molecular techniques, it is necessary to cultivate it under special conditions that ensure expression of specific characteristics that are useful in industrial practice. Useful substances can be represented by the constituents of the microbial cell or secreted substances into the external environment during the growth of microorganisms. The various species of microorganisms used in industrial microbiology belong to bacteria, microscopic fungi (yeasts and molds), and microalgae (Table 1.1).

      Table 1.1

      The main biotechnological microorganisms and their products.

      Adapted from Hunter-Cervera, J.C., Belt, A., 1996. Maintaining Cultures for Biotechnology and Industry. Academic Press, New York, NY.

      SCP, Single cell protein.

      a Strains obtained using recombinant DNA technology.

      To be used in the industrial microbiology field, all microorganisms must satisfy the following characteristics (Steensels et al., 2014):

      • The industrial microorganism must produce the substance of interest.

      • The microorganism of interest must be obtained in pure culture.

      • Must be genetically stable and, also, amenable to genetic manipulation.

      • Must grow in large-scale cultures.

      • The pure cultures of the microorganism must be maintained for a long period of time in in vitro conditions.

      • The microorganism must be capable of growing vigorously after inoculation into a seed-stage vessel.

      • It must produce the desired product in a relatively short period of time.

      • The microorganism must be able to grow in a relatively inexpensive liquid culture medium obtainable in bulk quantities.

      • It must be able to produce a desirable product, preferably a single one that easily recovered and preferably with the absence of any toxic by-products.

      • An industrial microorganism should not be harmful to humans or economically important animals and plants.

      • The microorganism should be capable of protecting itself from contamination (by production of antimicrobial substance) and should not be vulnerable to bacteriophages.

      • The most favorable industrial microorganisms are those of large cell size, as larger cells settle rapidly from a culture or can be easily filtered out with relatively inexpensive filter materials.

      7. Health Benefits of Fermented Foods

      Food-derived bacteria and yeasts can modify almost all the nutritional parameters of the host (Arora et al., 2013) by modulating gene expression and other important functions (O’Flaerty, 2014) because it contains living microorganisms which are able to modulate the physiological parameters of the host (Pessione, 2010).

      Functional characteristics of bacteria in fermented foods consist of probiotic activities (Hill et al., 2014), bacteriostatic activities (Meira et al., 2012), antioxidants (Perna et al., 2013), biopeptides synthesis (de Mejia and Dia, 2010), fibrinolytic properties (Kotb, 2012), synthesis of poly-glutamic acid (Chettri and Tamang, 2015), and also can degrade some of the antinutritional compounds (Babalola, 2014).

      Probiotics synthesized by living microorganisms provide benefits to host (Hill et al., 2014). The most common probiotic microorganisms belong to genus Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, and Bifidobacterium and to the cluster of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (Ouwehand et al., 2002). A significant number of bacteria produce compounds with beneficial or detrimental effects.

      Biogenic amines result from the decarboxylative process, which acts on free amino acids in food, by bacteria, such Escherichia coli, that are able to synthesize cadaverine from lysine and putrescine from ornithine (Applebaum et al., 1975); Proteus can also synthesize putrescine from ornithine (Visick and Fuqua, 2005). LAB are considered primitive organisms that adapted to anoxic conditions and that do not have functional cytochromes, catalase, and peroxidase; they are susceptible to oxygen and have an improved proteolytic system (Pessione, 2012), which is able to produce α-s1-casein, α-s2-caseins, β-casein, and κ-casein (Clare and Swaisgood, 2005).

      Hydrolytic cleavage of the α-lacto-albumin, β-lacto-globulin, lactoferrin, and immunoglobulins, produces hypocholesterolemic agents, which minimize the absorption of cholesterol and β-lacto-globulin, which have antioxidant and/or immunomodulatory properties (Hernández-Ledesma et al., 2005; Nagaoka et al., 2001; Prioult et al., 2004).

      Antioxidants are able to prevent membrane lipid peroxidation in chronic inflammation (Hartmann and Meisel, 2007; Zhang et al., 2015), are essential in controlling age-related chronic degenerative diseases in cardiovascular and the central nervous systems (Power et al., 2013), and act as hydrogen donors (Hernández-Ledesma et al., 2008).

      A high number of LAB isolated from fermented vegetable and diary products revealed antibacterial properties due to production of bacteriocin and nisin (Gaggia et al., 2011; Grosu-Tudor and Zamfir, 2013; Jiang et al., 2012; Khan et al., 2010; Tamang and Fleet, 2009), for example, the strain Lactococcus lactis BH5 produces bacteriocin (Hur et al., 2000) and Leuconostoc citreum GJ7 also synthesizes bacteriocins (Chang et al., 2008); and others species, such as Pediococcus pentosaceus produces pediocin (Shin et al., 2008). Frequently, species of LAB isolated from fermented vegetable revealed strong antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium (Lee et al., 2009), and Bacillus nosocomial isolates (Grosu-Tudor and Zamfir, 2013).

      Filamentous fungi, such as Actinomucor sp., Amylomyces sp., Aspergillus sp., Monascus sp., Mucor sp., Neurospora sp., and Rhizopus sp. synthesize products used in fermentation, such as α-amylase, amyloglucosidase, maltase, invertase, pectinase, β-galactosidase, cellulase, hemicellulase, acid and alkaline proteases, and lipases (Table 1.2).

      Table 1.2

      Fermented food benefits to human health.

      LAB, Lactic acid bacteria.

      8. Fermented Dairy Products and Their Benefits

      Numerous studies revealed that fermented dairy products have beneficial effects on human health, such as prevention of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and periodontitis (Adegboye et al., 2012; Keszei et al., 2009; Sonedstedt et al., 2011).

      In immune and metabolic systems fermented dairy products not only express their beneficial action, but also stimulate intestinal microbiota in combination with probiotics (Wang et al., 2012), act as antibodies (fecal and from saliva) (Campeotto et al., 2011; Surono et al., 2011), and minimize the risk of respiratory infections (De Vrese et al., 2006; Guillemard et al., 2010; Makino et al., 2010).

      Regarding the benefits of fermented food in immunocompromised patients, there are numerous studies showing the benefits of probiotic food, such as in transplantation, abdominal surgery, skins infections, respiratory infections, reduction in the load of pathogenic microbial species in the nasal cavity, diabetes treatment, and arthritis (Asemi et al., 2013; Glück and Gebbers, 2003; Liu et al., 2013; Rayes et al., 2002a,b,c; Youngster et al., 2011).

      9. Other Fermented Foods and Benefits

      A fermented vegetable known as kimchi has numerous health benefits, such as prevention of cancer and obesity, reduction in cholesterol levels, immune system promotion (Park et al., 2014), and prevention of diarrhea and constipation (Chen et al., 1992; Ke et al., 2002).

      The apple is a fruit with positive effects on human health attributes due to its polyphenol content that has antioxidant properties, reducing the risk of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease (Alberto et al., 2006). Fermented apple pomace is obtained from solid-state fermentation of apple pomace. Yeast concentration and nutritive quality of the protein increase during fermentation of pomace, as a result of microbial growth (Becerra, 2006). Fermented apple pomace acts by conserving the properties of the fruit, can improve fermentation in the rumen, and improve milk production.

      10. Fermented Foods Side Effects

      Fish sauce is a main ingredient used in food for numerous cultures in Southeast Asia; however, it generates a high risk of developing esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and gastric cancer in habitual consumers of this fermented sauce. Different scientific research showed that the high incidence of the tumor diseases is due to N-nitroso compounds and genotoxins that are present in the fermented fish products (Chen et al., 1992; Ke et al., 2002). Also, foods with high levels of biogenic amines, generated by Enterobacteriaceae in particular, have an impact on human health and food quality. Particularly, histamine is a biogenic amine that occurs in different concentration in many foods, including fermented fish (Rabie et al., 2011). In healthy persons, dietary histamine can be rapidly detoxified by amine oxidases; however, persons with low amine oxidase activity (due by genetic predisposition, gastrointestinal diseases, or medication with monoamine oxidase inhibitors) are at a risk of histamine toxicity.

      11. Conclusions

      Thanks to some of their metabolic properties, microorganisms, such as lactic acid bacteria, yeast, and filamentous fungi, are generally employed because they significantly contribute to industrial microbiology. The metabolic particularities of microorganisms and their metabolites allow the development of applications in various fields, such as the food and beverage industry, pharmaceutical and chemical industries, and environmental protection.

      It is a scientifically proven fact that our food choices affect our health. Fermented food products contain viable cells, probiotics, nondigestible carbohydrate galactooligosaccharide that acts as a prebiotic, essential amino acids, beneficial enzymes, vitamins (biotin and folic acid), and minerals; all these elements are provided by beneficial healthy microorganisms that promote gut health. The future directions in the food fermentation industry research must be oriented toward the selection of new microbial strains with new properties and applications of available knowledge to improve traditional food fermentations process.

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