Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer

Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer

First Edition

Riadh Al-Mahaidi

Robin Kalfat

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction

Abstract

1.1 Need for Rehabilitation and Strengthening

1.2 Structural Degradation of Concrete Structures

1.3 Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using FRP Composites

Chapter 2: Methods of Structural Rehabilitation and Strengthening

Abstract

2.1 Externally Bonded Steel Plates

2.2 External Posttensioning

2.3 Jacketing of Structural Members

2.4 Rehabilitation of Reinforcement Corrosion

2.5 Crack Injection

2.6 Selection of Appropriate Strengthening Technique

Chapter 3: Fiber-Reinforced Polymers and Their Use in Structural Rehabilitation

Abstract

3.1 Materials and Manufacturing

3.2 Wet Layup Systems

3.3 Prepreg Systems

3.4 Precured Systems

3.5 Near-Surface-Mounted FRP Systems

3.6 Prestressed FRP

Chapter 4: Design Basis for FRP Systems

Abstract

4.1 Strengthening Limits

4.2 Structural Fire Endurance

4.3 Environmental Considerations

Chapter 5: Strengthening Members in Flexure Using FRP

Abstract

5.1 General

5.2 Basis of Design

5.3 Rectangular Stress Block

5.4 Failure Modes of FRP Flexurally Strengthened Members

5.5 Ductility of FRP-Strengthened Members

5.6 FRP Termination and Anchorage

5.7 Serviceability Considerations

5.8 Creep Rupture and Fatigue Stress Limits

5.9 Design Summary Flow Charts for Flexurally Strengthened Members

5.10 Flexural Strengthening Examples

Chapter 6: Strengthening Members in Shear Using FRP

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Concept of Safety in Design

6.3 Contribution of Concrete to Shear Capacity of Prestressed Members

6.4 Contribution of Concrete to Shear Capacity of Prestressed Members

6.5 Shear Contribution of Transverse Shear Reinforcement

6.6 Design of Concrete Members Strengthened in Shear Using FRP

6.7 Design Summary Flowcharts for Shear-Strengthened Members

6.8 Shear-Strengthening Examples

Chapter 7: Axial Strengthening of RC Members Using FRP

Abstract

7.1 General

7.2 Confinement Under Concentric Axial Load

7.3 Combined Axial Compression and Flexure

7.4 Serviceability Considerations

7.5 Design Summary Flowcharts for Axially Strengthened Members

7.6 Axial Strengthening Examples

Chapter 8: FRP Anchorage Systems

Abstract

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Anchorage Devices for FRP Reinforcement Used to Strengthen Members in Flexure

8.3 Flexural Anchor Discussion

8.4 Mechanisms of FRP Failure in Shear Strengthening Applications

8.5 Anchorage Devices for FRP Reinforcement Used to Strengthen Members in Shear

8.6 Shear Anchor Discussion

8.7 Further Work and Development of Design Provisions

8.8 Conclusions and Recommendations

Chapter 9: Installation and Testing of FRP Systems

Abstract

9.1 General

9.2 Preparation

9.3 Application of Pultruded FRP Laminate Systems

9.4 Application of FRP Fabrics

9.5 Quality Control

9.6 Repair Techniques

9.7 Cold Weather Application/Accelerated Curing

9.8 Hot Weather Application

Chapter 10: Field Applications

Abstract

Acknowledgments

10.1 West Gate Bridge Project

10.2 Strengthening of Posttensioned Slabs at White City London

Index

Copyright

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Preface

Riadh Al-Mahaidi, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Robin Kalfat, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Strengthening and repair of structures are major issues worldwide. Strengthening is required when there is an increase in the applied load, human error in initial construction, legal requirements to comply with updated versions of existing codes, or as a result of the loss of strength due to deterioration over time. The direct costs associated with replacing a structure, and the indirect costs associated with the lack of service during the period of replacement are usually high enough to make strengthening the most desirable option. Further, many bridge and building elements are subjected to significant overloads that affect the structural safety, and may require strengthening.

Strengthening of structures using fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) is enjoying a great deal of popularity as a result of the unique properties of FRPs, namely, being lightweight, fatigue resistant, and noncorrosive in addition to their ease of application. As FRPs are becoming available at lower prices, a tendency toward using them as a substitute or in conjunction with steel plating (the favorite strengthening method of the 1990s) is gaining momentum. A significant proportion of the composite’s market worldwide is used for strengthening purposes in the field of structural engineering. This large growing market has forced a great deal of research and advancements in developing the standards of practice almost in every corner of the world.

Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures with Fiber Reinforced Polymer guides readers through the details of design and application of composite materials in strengthening reinforced concrete and prestressed structures. The book covers traditional strengthening and repair techniques as well as the use of newer materials such as FRPs. The book features worked design examples in areas of flexural strengthening, shear strengthening, and axial strengthening of members using FRP according to three international design guidelines. Researchers and practitioners in concrete and structural engineering can utilize the practices explored in this book to apply current techniques and make better decisions while remediating and repairing concrete structures. Key features of the book include worked design examples covering flexural, shear, and axial strengthening in accordance with most recent guidelines (ACI440.2, 2017; AS5100.8, 2017 and Concrete society technical report no. 55, 2012).

The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of Haider Hassan Mraih, MD Hasibur Rahman, and Puthpisey Kry for their assistance in the preliminary preparation, editing, and formatting the worked examples in Chapters 5–7 on flexural, shear, and axial strengthening and the contributions of Bahaa Al-Atta in reviewing and making corrections to the final manuscript. The contributions from Grahme Williams in Chapter 10 on the West Gate Bridge case study are also gratefully acknowledged. We would also like to acknowledge the collaborative work of Scott T. Smith in Chapter 8 on FRP anchorage systems.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

Reinforced concrete structures are subjected to a series of actions throughout their lifespan which can be the cause of deterioration. However, more recently, societal factors such as increased population growth, higher traffic volumes, heavier vehicles, changes in use, or structural modifications have resulted in overloading of many existing structural elements within bridges, buildings, and other structures. Hence, rehabilitation of existing structures is usually performed either to reinstate structural capacity as a result of deterioration or damage or to increase existing structural capacity due to increased loads. Alongside the demands to strengthen existing structures, many new innovative materials such as advanced fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) have been found to be an excellent substitute for traditional strengthening materials such as steel and successfully implemented to enhance the performance of structural elements in flexure, axial, shear, and torsion.

Keywords

Reinforced concrete; Strengthening; Rehabilitation; Fiber-reinforced polymers

Concrete is a structural material which has been widely used in the construction of civil infrastructure for over 150 years. This is due to its high compressive strength, good fire performance, high rigidity, long service life, low maintenance, and cost-effectiveness. Concrete is considered to be a quasi-brittle material capable of both cracking and crushing behavior under tensile and compressive stress. The compressive response of concrete is highly nonlinear, whereas in tension, the stress-strain response is described as approximately linear until fracture. To overcome poor tensile strength, steel bars are embedded in concrete to form a composite material called reinforced concrete (RC). Concrete is the second most consumed material in the world after water and it is estimated that over 30 billion tons of concrete was manufactured globally in 2011, which comes to over 3 tons per person on the planet.

1.1 Need for Rehabilitation and Strengthening

Existing concrete infrastructure built in the mid to late 1900s are showing increasing signs of deterioration and reduced functionality. Deficiencies range from those related to degradation and damage due to extreme events or due to existing structures required to sustain loads which exceed their capacity. Factors such as population growth, higher volumes of commuter and freight traffic, and heavier vehicles have increased the demands placed on existing bridges throughout the world. With the advent of freight vehicles to haul heavier loads, the modern world has seen the introduction of 42.5 ton semi-trailers, 62.5 ton B-doubles, 90 ton B-triples, and more recently, road trains capable of hauling in excess of 100 tons. The introduction of heavier freight vehicles has resulted in the replacement of older bridge loading codes with more stringent bridge loading specifications (CAN/CSA-S6, 1988; AASHTO, 1994; ACI 440.2, 2008). As a result, when many existing bridges are assessed in accordance with newer bridge loading specifications, many are found to be deficient.

The upgrading and strengthening of bridges throughout Australia is a major part of the $50 billion commitment to the Infrastructure Growth Package, which is to continue into 2016. The Australian Government has committed $300 million to the Bridges Renewal Programme (BRP) in 2016. The objectives of the BRP are to contribute to the productivity of bridges serving local communities and involve mostly bridge strengthening and replacement throughout the country. This is highlighted in the Engineers Australia Report Card (2010), which gives Australian bridges a rating of ‘poor’ and has mentioned major deficiencies in state and local bridges that will be exacerbated by increased load limits. In the United States, according to the American Road and Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA), as of 2016, there were nearly 204 million daily crossings on 58,495 structural-deficient bridges that are in need of repair. In the UK, it was estimated that 20% of the UK's 155,000 road bridges had some sort of strength deficiency in 2009.

Extreme events such as earthquakes remain a source of extensive economic and human loss as a result of poor performance of existing RC structures when subjected to complex dynamic loads. Prior to the development of the more recent seismic design codes in the 1970s, many structures were designed and constructed with inadequate reinforcement detailing (insufficient splices, no cogged bars, used plain instead of deformed bars) and lacked shear reinforcement in the vicinity of beam-column joints. As a consequence, many existing structures currently possess low strength and ductility when measured against current standards. Studies conducted by Liel and Deierlein (2012) demonstrate that many existing RC frame buildings are non-ductile and 35 times more likely to collapse in an earthquake than their modern counterparts. Furthermore, field reports after earthquake events have provided confirmation of the inherent vulnerability of existing structures, as evident where structures have either collapsed or been severely damaged in a seismic event. Replacement of seismically damaged structures is considered a large economic burden. However, with the advent of advanced composite materials such as fiber reinforcement polymers (FRPs), repair is becoming a more viable alternative.

1.2 Structural Degradation of Concrete Structures

Concrete structures are generally expected to provide adequate performance for the entirety of their service life with very little maintenance. However, such expectations are generally not realized due to factors such as: concrete degradation, overloading, or physical damage. Concrete degradation may have several possible causes such as: reinforcement corrosion, chemical damage from chloride or sulphate attack, carbonation, alkali aggregate reaction leading to concrete cracking and spalling, calcium leaching, and bacterial corrosion. Physical damage may be due to fire, vandalism, explosion, impact, earthquake, or other extreme events.

Corrosion—Because of the environmental protection provided by the concrete cover, steel reinforcement does not corrode in the majority of concrete structures due to the contact between the steel and the concrete, which creates both physical and chemical protection to the reinforcing steel. It is widely accepted that the amount of alkali elements in the concrete such as the presence of sodium and potassium gives rise to a high alkalinity of concrete in the pH range of 12–13. The combination of high alkalinity and the contact between the steel and the concrete creates a passive protective film around the reinforcing steel and, as long as this film is not disturbed, it will protect the steel against corrosion. The two common causes which lead to loss of protection provided by the concrete cover are due to a lowering of the pH to a level below 11–11.5 and a high concentration of chlorides which may cause steel depassivation leading to increased risk of steel corrosion. Once corrosion takes place, one can expect a loss in reinforcing steel cross sectional area in the formation of iron oxide. The formation of iron oxide may have further undesirable side effects such as expansion causing cracking and spalling of concrete.

Another means by which the alkalinity of the concrete may be reduced is through the process of carbonation, where carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses through the porous structure of the concrete. The resulting reduction of pH and the combination of oxygen and moisture may result in reinforcement corrosion. The rate of carbonation largely depends on the porosity of the concrete, but rarely occurs with good quality concrete when an adequate cover is provided.

Chloride-induced corrosion may take place when chloride ions from salt water or chloride-containing admixtures enter into the concrete. Even very low concentrations of chlorides present in the concrete are sufficient to break down the protective film around the steel reinforcement and initiate corrosion. The structural repair of corroded reinforced concrete depends on the extent of damage, but may include: repairs to spalled concrete portions using cement- and resin-based mortars, crack injection, removal of rust from reinforcing, and the application of protective coatings.

Sulphate attack—Sulphate attack is a mechanism where sulphate ions attack components of the cement paste leading to a chemical breakdown of the bonds which hold the concrete together. Sulphates are acidic and their presence in concrete leads to a breakdown of the alkaline environment in the concrete and deteriorates the concrete paste through an acidic reaction, which cause the concrete to weaken and crumble. Concrete can be exposed to sulphates, through internal or external means. Portland cement contains a small percentage of gypsum (calcium sulphate dihydrate), which can be activated when the internal temperature of the curing concrete reaches 70 degrees Celsius resulting in cement degradation. External sources of sulphate attack include: exposure to the high sulphate content of soil in the form of run-off, wastewater, seawater, and sulphates from masonry bricks which can be dissolved and released over time.

Alkali aggregate reaction (AAR)—AAR is a chemical reaction between alkali hydroxides developed in the pore solution of concrete and certain silica-rich constituents within the aggregate in the presence of water to form an expansive gel (Farny and Kosmatko, 1997; Chatterji, 2005). As the gel expands, an internal pressure develops which may lead to cracking of the aggregate and the paste matrix. The final result of AAR can be significant cracking of concrete and deterioration of its mechanical properties. A large number of concrete bridges around the world are affected by deterioration induced by the alkali aggregate reaction (AAR). According to Multon et al. (2004), more than 400 bridges in France alone have been affected by internal expansions caused by AAR or delayed etteringite formation (DEF). Shayan et al. (2003) states that one of the major durability problems for concrete structures is AAR which can lead to premature cracking and deterioration of structures. Broekmans (2012) has noted that many countries around the world have problems of AAR in their concrete structures and, in the future, other countries could be added to the list, due to the discovery of new cases of AAR, and the fact that this phenomenon is time-dependent.

The concrete repair industry is estimated to generate between 18 and 25 billion dollars per year in construction spending in the United States. While a significant portion of this sum is spent to repair deteriorated concrete, it has been estimated that 50% of repairs are not performing satisfactorily due to errors in design, construction, and/or material selection. Errors in design can have several possible causes such as incorrect considerations of loads, supports, material properties, analysis, assumptions, or consideration of restraint. Both construction and design errors usually become evident shortly after construction of the structure.

1.3 Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using FRP Composites

Traditional strengthening and rehabilitation approaches have included the use of mechanically fastened steel plates, near surface mounted steel reinforcement, concrete or steel jacketing, and partial or complete demolition and replacement. The above solutions have a reputation of being costly, destructive, labor-intensive, and time-consuming. However, the introduction of FRPs and their use as a strengthening material have largely replaced traditional strengthening methods and been proven to provide a suitable and cost-effective solution to strengthening of existing concrete structures due to: deterioration, increased loads, and changes in usage.

The material has several well-documented advantages over traditional strengthening materials such as: light weight, high tensile strength, durability, ease of installation, and unobtrusiveness (Khalifa et al., 2000). Application of FRP has been found to be more cost-effective than traditional strengthening methods and can negate the need to replace the original structure. The cost-effectiveness of application of FRP composites is further increased by the ongoing savings associated with lack of maintenance. As a result, FRP strengthening is enjoying a great deal of popularity in the construction industry (Rizkalla and Nanni, 2003).

FRPs consist of a polymer matrix embedded with microscopic filaments, which can be either short, continuous, unidirectional, multidirectional, woven, or nonwoven. The composite acquires its basic strength and other fundamental properties such as: stiffness, corrosion resistance, and thermal conductivity from the embedded fibers. The surrounding matrix binds the reinforcing fibers together acting as a load transfer medium between them. It also protects the fibers against mechanical and environmental damage. There are a number of FRP systems available which differ in the types of fibers used (i.e., carbon, glass, aramid, basalt) and the methods of bonding (i.e., externally bonded or near surface mounted) and are produced in the form of loosely woven fibers, pultruded laminates, or bars. FRP laminates or sheets are typically applied to structural members as externally bonded reinforcement using high strength adhesives or as near-surface-mounted reinforcement. Fibers are bonded to the concrete only after sufficient surface preparation consisting of: grit blasting, water jetting (to expose aggregate), and application of a suitable primer.

The use of FRP reinforcement is having a significant impact on the economics of bridge maintenance and rehabilitation worldwide and, in many cases, permits an increase in the load-carrying capacity of bridge members as opposed to replacement. A recent example is Melbourne's Westgate Bridge, which was built to support 40,000 vehicles per day and was recently strengthened in order to accommodate 140,000 vehicles per day. FRP has also been extensively implemented to strengthen RC structural elements in buildings, the majority of which require strengthening due to construction or design defects or changes in use resulting in increasing loading as was the case for White City shopping center in Sheppards bush, London (Kalfat, 2008).

As FRPs are becoming available at lower prices, a tendency towards using them as a substitute or in conjunction with steel plating (the favorite strengthening method of the 90s) is gaining momentum. The market for composites is estimated to grow from USD 69.50 Billion in 2015 to USD 105.26 Billion by 2021. This large growing market has forced a great deal of research and advancements in developing design guidelines for the use of advanced composite materials to strengthen concrete structures throughout the developed world (e.g., Fib: Task Group 9.3, 2001; ISIS Design Manual 4, 2001; Concrete Society Technical Report No. 55, 2004; ACI 440.2, 2008). More recently, following numerous requests from industry, the world's first design standard on ‘Rehabilitation and strengthening of existing bridges’ was introduced in 2017, which will form part 8 of the revised AS 5100.

1.3.1 Strengthening of RC Members in Flexure

Flexural strengthening can be accomplished by the application of FRP strips or laminates to the tension face of RC beams with the fibers orientated along the longitudinal beam axis. The application of flexural FRP can be in the form of externally bonded laminates, plates or sheets, or near-surface-mounted bars which are installed within precut grooves within the concrete cover.

Due to the high interfacial bond stresses which tend to develop between the externally bonded FRP and the concrete substrate, premature debonding of the FRP has been observed in most cases. Debonding may initiate in the intermediate regions of the span where the shear force or bending moment is high and propagate towards the plate end (intermediate crack-induced debonding). On the other hand, debonding may initiate at the end of the FRP laminate in the form of concrete cover separation failure or end interfacial delamination. Further details regarding the failure modes in flexurally strengthened members can be found in Chapter 5.

1.3.2 Strengthening of RC Members in Shear

In practice, shear strengthening is usually accomplished by the bonding of FRP laminates to the sides of RC beams in the form of externally bonded ligatures which act to cross diagonal cracks. FRP can be installed in the form of continuous sheets or discrete strips of a certain width and spacing. Common techniques for strengthening RC members in shear using FRP are: side bonding, U-jacketing, and full wrapping. Experience has shown that failure of FRP bonded to concrete as externally bonded shear reinforcement is closely related to the shear strengthening system utilized. The majority of experimental data highlight that almost all beams strengthened by enclosed wrapping typically fail due to FRP rupture after localized debonding (Chen and Teng, 2003). In contrast, beams strengthened by side bonding only and most strengthened by U-jacketing fail due to debonding of the FRP, which has been observed to initiate where the FRP intersects diagonal shear cracks in the member. Debonding then propagates to the nearer end of the plate (this is typically the free plate end). It may be noted that pure interfacial debonding failure along the FRP-adhesive interface, adhesive-concrete interface, or within the adhesive has been rarely reported. Debonding failures almost always occur within the concrete at the FRP-to-concrete interface.

In addition to strengthening of RC beams in shear, two possible strengthening approaches have been used by researchers to increase the punching shear capacity of slabs: (1) indirect shear strengthening which involves improving the flexural strength of the slab-to-column joint by applying FRP sheets/plates to the tension face of the slab (Soudki et al., 2012) and (2) direct shear strengthening which consists of improving the shear strength directly through the embedment of vertical FRP shear reinforcement using epoxy resin through predrilled holes in lieu of steel ligatures (Meisami et al., 2015).

1.3.3 Confinement of Axial Members Using FRP

Reinforced columns often require enhancements in strength due to deterioration, damage, increased floor loads, or the addition of one or more stories to an existing multistorey building. Furthermore, many RC columns built prior to 1970 are classified as either non-ductile or of limited ductility due to insufficient transverse steel ligatures. Such columns may pose a significant risk of collapse in earthquake-prone regions and may require retrofit to provide additional confinement and increase the respective strength and ductility.

One method to increase the strength and ductility of reinforced concrete columns is by means of confinement using FRP jackets. Confinement is implemented by wrapping the concrete member with fibers orientated transversely to the longitudinal axis of the member. FRP jackets provide passive confinement to the RC column and are only stressed once additional axial load is applied to the column causing dilation. Confined concrete has been proven to reach much higher levels of compressive strength and ductility when compared with unconfined concrete, which has been demonstrated in several concrete confinement models (Spoelstra and Monti, 1999; Lam and Teng, 2003).

Several factors influence the degree of confinement and the overall strength enhancement of confined concrete including: fiber modulus, fiber thickness, fiber rupture strain, column size, and column shape (circular, square, or rectangular). Circular column cross sections are most favorable for confinement due to the circumferentially uniform radial dilation of the concrete, which in turn generates a uniform confining pressure and stress in the FRP jacket. On the other hand, testing has shown that confining square and rectangular cross sections results in a reduction of the effective confinement area and a much lower confinement pressure.

References

AASHTO. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. Washington, DC: AASHTO; 1994.

ACI 440.2. Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures. Farmington Hills, Michigan: American Concrete Institute; 2008.

Broekmans M.A. Deleterious reactions of aggregate with alkalis in concrete. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 2012;74(1):279–364.

CAN/CSA-S6. Design of Highway Bridges. Standard S6-88. Toronto, Ont: Canadian Standards Association; 1988.

Chatterji S. Chemistry of alkali–silica reaction and testing of aggregates. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2005;27(7):788–795.

Chen J.F., Teng J.G. Shear capacity of FRP-strengthened RC beams: FRP debonding. Constr. Build. Mater. 2003;17(1):27–41.

Concrete Society Technical Report No. 55. Design Guidance for Strengthening Concrete Structures Using Fibre Composite Materials. second ed. 2004.1 904482 14 7.

Farny J.A., Kosmatko S.H. Diagnosis and Control of Akali-Aggregate Reaction in Concrete. Skokie, Illinois: Portland Cement Association, American Concrete Pavement Association; 1997.

Fib: Task Group 9.3. Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for RC Structures. Lausanne, Switzerland: International Federation for Structural Concrete; 2001.

ISIS Design Manual 4. Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Structures With Externally Bonded Fiber Reinforced Polymers. Winnipeg, Canada: Intelligent Sensing for Innovative Structures; 2001.

Kalfat R. In: The strengthening of post-tensioned slabs using CFRP composites at White City, London. Structural Faults and Repair, 12th International Congress and Exhibition, Edinburgh, 2008; 2008.

Khalifa A., Belarbi A., Nanni A. In: Shear performance of RC members strengthened with externally bonded FRP wraps. Proc. 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand; 2000 paper 305, 310 pp.

Lam L., Teng J. Design-oriented stress–strain model for FRP-confined concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2003;17(6):471–489.

Liel A.B., Deierlein G.G. Using collapse risk assessments to inform seismic safety policy for older concrete buildings. Earthq. Spectra. 2012;28(4):1495–1521.

Meisami M.H., Mostofinejad D., Nakamura H. Strengthening of flat slabs with FRP fan for punching shear. Compos. Struct. 2015;119:305.

Multon S., Leclainche G., Bourdarot E., Toutlemonde F. In: Alkali-silica reaction in specimens under multi-axial mechanical stresses. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. CONSEC; 2004.

Rizkalla S.H., Nanni A. Field Applications of FRP Reinforcement: Case Studies. USA: ACI Special Publication SP-215; 2003.

Shayan A., Xu A., Andrews-Phaedonos F. In: Development of a performance measure for durability of concrete bridges. Proceedings of the 21st Biennial Conference, Concrete Institute of Australia, Brisbane; Sydney, NSW, Australia: Concrete Institute of Australia; 2003.

Soudki K., El-Sayed A.K., Vanzwol T. Strengthening of concrete slab-column connections using CFRP strips. J. King Saud Univ. Eng. Sci. 2012;24(1):25–33.

Spoelstra M.R., Monti G. FRP-confined concrete model. J. Compos. Constr. 1999;3(3):143–150.

Further Reading

Garden H.N., Hollaway L.C. An experimental study of the influence of plate end anchorage of carbon fibre composite plates used to strengthen reinforced concrete beams. Compos. Struct. 1998;42(2):175–188.

Leung C.K., Yang Y. Energy-based modeling approach for debonding of FRP plate from concrete substrate. J. Eng. Mech. 2006;132(6):583–593.

Ombres L. Prediction of intermediate crack debonding failure in FRP-strengthened reinforced concrete beams. Compos. Struct. 2010;92(2):322–329.

Teng J.G., Yao J. Plate end debonding in FRP-plated RC beams—II: strength model. Eng. Struct.. 2007;29(10):2472–2486.

Wang J., Zhang C. Nonlinear fracture mechanics of flexural-shear crack induced debonding of FRP strengthened concrete beams. Int. J. Solids Struct.. 2008;45(10):2916–2936.

Yao J., Teng J.G. Plate end debonding in FRP-plated RC beams—I: experiments. Eng. Struct.. 2007;29(10):2457–2471.

Chapter 2

Methods of Structural Rehabilitation and Strengthening

Abstract

Traditional methods used to strengthen reinforced concrete structures include: externally bonded steel plates (with or without mechanical fasteners), external posttensioning, and concrete or steel jacketing of structural members. Although largely superseded by strengthening methods using FRPs, the above strengthening techniques still have their uses in providing strengthening solutions where the use of FRP is not feasible. Although many RC members require strengthening for increased load demands, many suffer from deterioration such as: reinforcement corrosion, concrete spalling, concrete deterioration, or excessive cracking. To rehabilitate deteriorated members, techniques such as cathodic protection, corrosion inhibitors, and patch repairs have been used to mitigate and repair reinforcement corrosion and damaged concrete. Crack injection can be used to repair cracks where open cracks are injected under high pressure using epoxy resin.

Keywords

Externally bonded steel plates; External posttensioning; Concrete or steel jacketing; Crack injection

2.1 Externally Bonded Steel Plates

The method of attaching mild steel plates to the surface of reinforced concrete elements using epoxy resins and mechanical fasteners has been used to increase the strength and rigidity of flexural and shear elements since the mid-1960s. Steel as a strengthening material has the advantages of being readily available and cheap, while possessing high tensile strength and ductility. The technique has been used to strengthen both buildings and bridges worldwide.

Externally bonded steel plates have been used both with and without mechanical fasteners to varying degrees of efficacy. Gomes and Appleton (1999) and Appleton and Gomes (1997) recommended some general guidelines on steel plate specification which restricted the maximum steel plate thickness to 5 mm where only epoxy bonding was used. However, with the addition of mechanical fasteners, the steel plate thickness could be increased to 12 mm. Further, it is recommended that the adhesive thickness be no more than 1–3 mm as higher thicknesses were found to produce a lower bond strength.

Steel plates can also be externally bonded to the webs of beams to enhance their shear strength. In such cases, Appleton and Gomes (1997) recommended that the thickness of the steel plates be no more than 3 mm when epoxy resin was used without mechanical fasteners and 8 mm where mechanical fasteners were used. In general, where a single row of mechanical fasteners is used, the width of the steel plate should not exceed 200 mm.

Whether epoxy bonding or epoxy bonding with mechanical fasteners is used, the installation must involve adequate surface preparation of the concrete substrate. This should involve the removal of the concrete laitance and exposure of concrete aggregate to achieve a surface roughness of 1–3 mm. This may be accomplished using sandblasting, water jetting, open wet grit blasting, or pneumatic needle hammer when areas are small. The steel plates should be shot-blasted and protected against corrosion during transport and handling using