Aircraft Systems for Pilots

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Chapter I

Physics

General Characteristics of Matter

Physics is the term applied to that area of knowledge regarding the basic and fundamental nature of matter and energy. It does not attempt to determine why matter and energy behave as they do in their relation to physical phenomena, but rather how they behave.

The persons who fly, maintain, and repair aircraft should have a knowledge of basic physics in order to be able to understand the interactions of matter and energy.

This may be a review for those who have a background in physics. I suggest you read it anyway. You may find the aircraft applications interesting!

Matter

Although matter is the most basic of all things related to the field of physics and the material world, it is the hardest to define. Since it cannot be rigidly defined, this chapter will point out those characteristics which are easily recognizable.

Matter itself cannot be destroyed, but it can be changed from one state into another state by chemical or physical means. Matter is often considered in terms of the energy it contains, absorbs, or gives off. Under certain controlled conditions, it can be made to aid man in the process of flight.

Matter is any substance that occupies space and has mass. There are four states of matter: (1) Solids, (2) liquids, (3) gases, and (4) plasma. Solids have a definite volume and a definite shape; liquids have a definite volume, but they take the shape of the containing vessel; gases have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. Gases not only take the shape of the containing vessel, but they expand and fill the vessel, no matter what its volume. Plasma is made up of very hot, ionized gases. The gases are so hot that thermal collisions dissociate all of the atoms into positive ions and electrons. Most of the matter in the universe is plasma. The sun and all the stars are giant balls of plasma. About 99% of the total mass of the universe is in this plasma state.

Water is a good example of matter changing from one state to another. At high temperature it is in the gaseous state known as steam. At moderate temperatures it is a liquid, and at low temperatures it becomes ice, a solid state. In this example, the temperature is the dominant factor in determining the state that the substance assumes. Pressure is another important factor that will effect changes in the state of matter. At pressures lower than atmospheric, water will boil and thus change into steam at temperatures lower than 212° F (100° C). For example, the vapor pressure of water at 98.6° F (37° C) is equal to atmospheric pressure at about 63,000 feet. This means that blood will boil at that pressure altitude! Pressure is a critical factor in changing some gases to liquids or solids. Normally, when pressure and chilling are both applied to a gas, it assumes a liquid state. Liquid air, which is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, is produced in this manner.

All matter has certain characteristics or general properties. These properties are defined elementally and broadly at this point, and more specifically in applications throughout the text. Among these properties and relationships are:

Volume—meaning to occupy space; having some measurements such as length, width, and height. It may be measured in cubic inches, cubic centimeters, liters, or the like.

Inertia is the characteristic of matter that resists change in motion (velocity and direction). Newton’s first law is sometimes called the law of inertia: A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will continue in motion with a constant speed along a straight-line path (constant velocity) unless acted upon by some net force.

Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body, and therefore is a measure of the quantity of matter associated with the body. Units for measuring mass are usually considered fundamental units for a measurement system. The gram and kilogram are units for measuring mass in the metric system of measurement, and the corresponding English unit for measuring mass is the less familiar unit called the slug.

Gravitation, sometimes called mass attraction, is a force that results from the characteristic of particles of matter that causes attraction or pull on other particles of matter. This mutual attraction of the mass of particles can be described in terms of gravitational forces with Newton’s law of universal gravitation. Gravitational forces, like all other forces (pulls and pushes), are measured with the English unit of the pound or the metric unit of the Newton.

Weight is the name commonly used for the gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and a body (mass) near the Earth. Weight is a force and is described with force units such as the pound or Newton. Since the weight of a body (gravitational force acting on the mass of the body) is proportional to the mass of the body, these different physical quantities, weight and mass, are sometimes confused.

Density is a quantity which is useful when describing matter, especially when in the liquid or gaseous state. Depending upon the application, density can be defined as either weight density (weight per unit volume) or as mass density (mass per unit volume).

Figure 1-1. Comparison of metric and English systems of measurement.

Systems of Measurement

The two most commonly used systems of measurement are the English system, which is still in general use in the United States, and the metric system, used in most European countries and now adopted by the Armed Forces of the United States. The metric system is normally used in all scientific applications.

The metric system is sometimes called the cgs system because it uses as basic measuring units, the centimeter (c) to measure length, the gram (g) to measure mass, and the second (s) to measure time. The metric system is also referred to as the mks system (meter, kilogram, second).

The English system uses different units for the measurement of mass and length. The pound is the unit of weight; the foot and inch are used to measure length. The second is used to measure time as in the metric system.

The units of one system can be converted to units in the other system by using a conversion factor or by referring to a chart similar to that shown in figure 1-1. In this figure the English and the metric systems are compared; in addition, a column of equivalents is included which can be used to convert units from one system to the other.

Fluids

Because both liquids and gases flow freely, they are called fluids, from the Latin word fluidus, meaning to flow. A fluid is defined as a substance that changes its shape easily and takes the shape of its container. This applies to both liquids and gases. The characteristics of liquids and gases may be grouped under similarities and differences.

Similar characteristics are as follows:

Each has no definite shape but conforms to the shape of the container.

Both readily transmit pressures.

Differential characteristics are as follows:

Gases fill their containers completely, but liquids may not.

Gases are lighter than equal volumes of liquids.

Gases are highly compressible, but liquids are essentially not compressible.

These differences are described in the appropriate areas of the following discussion concerning the properties and characteristics of fluids at rest. Also included are some of the factors which affect fluids in different situations.

Machines

General

Ordinarily, a machine is thought of as a complex device, such as an internal-combustion engine or a typewriter. These are machines, but so is a hammer, a screwdriver, or a wheel. A machine is any device with which work may be accomplished. Machines are used to transform energy, as in the case of a generator transforming mechanical energy into electrical energy. Machines are used to transfer energy from one place to another, as in the examples of the connecting rods, crankshaft, and reduction gears transferring energy from an aircraft’s cylinder to its propeller.

A main purpose of machines is to multiply force; for example, a system of pulleys may be used to lift a heavy load. The pulley system enables the load to be raised by exerting a force which is smaller than the weight of the load.

Machines are also used to multiply speed. A good example is the bicycle, by which speed can be gained by exerting a greater force.

Finally, machines can be used to change the direction of a force. An example of this use is the flag hoist. A downward force on one side of the rope exerts an upward force on the other side, raising the flag toward the top of the pole.

There are only six simple machines. They are the lever, the pulley, the wheel and axle, the inclined plane, the screw, and the gear. However, physicists recognize only two basic principles in machines; namely, the lever and the inclined plane. The wheel and axle, the block and tackle, and gears may be considered levers. The wedge and the screw use the principle of the inclined plane.

An understanding of the principles of simple machines provides a necessary foundation for the study of compound machines, which are combinations of two or more simple machines.

The Lever

The simplest machine, and perhaps the most familiar one, is the lever. A seesaw is a familiar example of a lever in which one weight balances the other.

There are three basic parts in all levers; namely, the fulcrum F, a force or effort E, and a resistance R. Shown in figure 1-2 are the pivotal point F (fulcrum); the effort E, which is applied at a distance A from the fulcrum; and a resistance R, which acts at a distance a from the fulcrum. Distances A and a are the lever arms.

Figure 1-2. A simple lever.

Classes of Levers

The three classes of levers are illustrated in figure 1-3. The location of the fulcrum (the fixed or pivot point) with relation to the resistance (or weight) and the effort determines the lever class.

Figure 1-3. Three classes of levers.

First-Class Levers

In the first-class lever (A of figure 1-3), the fulcrum is located between the effort and the resistance. As mentioned earlier, the seesaw is a good example of the first-class lever. The amount of weight and the distance from the fulcrum can be varied to suit the need.

Second-Class Levers

The second-class lever (B of figure 1-3) has the fulcrum at one end; the effort is applied at the other end. The resistance is somewhere between these points. The wheelbarrow is a good example of a second-class lever.

Both first- and second-class levers are commonly used to help in overcoming big resistances with a relatively small effort.

Third-Class Levers

There are occasions when it is desirable to speed up the movement of the resistance even though a large amount of effort must be used. Levers that help accomplish this are third-class levers. As shown in C of figure 1-3, the fulcrum is at one end of the lever and the weight or resistance to be overcome is at the other end, with the effort applied at some point between. Third-class levers are easily recognized because the effort is applied between the fulcrum and the resistance.

This relationship can be stated in general terms: The length of the effort arm is the same number of times greater than the length of the resistance arm as the resistance to be overcome is greater than the effort that must be applied.

The mathematical equation for this relationship is:

A ÷ a = R ÷ E

where:

A = Length of effort arm.

a = Length of resistance arm.

R = Resistance weight or force.

E = Effort force.

Remember that all distances must be in the same units, and all forces must also be in the same units.

Mechanical Advantage of Levers

Levers may provide mechanical advantages, since they can be applied in such manner that they can magnify an applied force. This is true of first and second-class levers. The third-class lever provides what is called a fractional disadvantage, i.e., one in which a greater force is required than the force of the load lifted.

Mechanical advantage machines are used throughout the aircraft to help the pilot or a motor or hydraulic or pneumatic system to accomplish a task where work is involved.

Work, Energy, and Power

Work

The study of machines, both simple and complex, is in one sense a study of the energy of mechanical work. This is true because all machines transfer input energy, or the work done on the machine to output energy, or the work done by the machine.

Work is done when a resistance is overcome by a force acting through a measurable distance. Two factors are involved: (1) Force and (2) movement through a distance. As an example, suppose a small aircraft is stuck in the snow. Two men push against it for a period of time, but the aircraft does not move. According to the technical definition, no work was done in pushing against the aircraft. By definition, work is accomplished only when an object is displaced some distance against a resistive force.

In equation form, this relationship is:

Work = Force (F) × distance (d).

The physicist defines work as work is force times displacement. Work done by a force acting on a body is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the distance through which the force acts.

In the metric system, the unit of work is the joule, where one joule is the amount of work done by a force of one newton when it acts through a distance of one meter. That is,

1 joule = 1 newton-m

Hence we can write the definition in the form:

W (joules) = F (newtons) × d (meters)

If we push a box for 8 m across a floor with a force of 100 newtons, the work we perform is

W = Fd = 100 newtons × 8 m = 800 joules

How much work is done in raising a 500-kg (kilogram) elevator cab from the ground floor of a building to its tenth floor, 30 m (meters) higher? We note that the force needed is equal to the weight of the cab.

In the metric system, mass rather than weight is normally specified. To find the weight in newtons (the metric unit of force) of something whose mass in kilograms is known, the weight or gravitational force F = mg is used with g = 9.8 m/sec².

F (newtons) = m (kilograms) × g (9.8 m/sec²)

and

W (joules) = m (kilograms) × g (9.8 m/sec²) × d (meters)

W = Fd = mgd = 500 kg × 9.8 m/sec² × 30m

W = 147,000 joules

W = 1.47 10⁵ joules

Force Parallel to Displacement

If force is expressed in pounds and distances in feet, work will be expressed in foot-pounds (ft-lbs).

Example:

How much work is accomplished in lifting a 40-pound weight to a vertical height of 25 feet?

W = Fd

W = 40 lb × 25 ft

W = 1,000 ft-lb

Example:

How much work is accomplished in pushing a small aircraft into a hangar a distance of 115 feet if a force of 75 pounds is required to keep it moving?

W = Fd

W = 75 lb × 115 ft

W = 8,625 ft-lb

.

Figure 1-4. Direction of work.

Force Not Parallel to Displacement

In the equation above, F is assumed to be in the same direction as d. If it is not, for example the case of a body pulling a wagon with a rope not parallel to the ground, we must use F for the component of the applied force that acts in the direction of the motion, figure l-4(B).

The component of a force in the direction of a displacement d is:

F cos Ѳ

where Ѳ is the angle between F and d. Hence the most general equation for work is:

W = Fd cos Ѳ

When F and d are parallel, Ѳ = 0° and cos Ѳ = 1, so that Fd cos Ѳ reduces to just Fd. When F and d are perpendicular, Ѳ = 90° and cos Ѳ = 0. so that no work is done. A force that is perpendicular to the motion of an object can do no work upon it. Thus gravity, which results in a downward force on everything near the earth, does no work on objects moving horizontally along the earth’s surface. However, if we drop an object, as it falls to the ground, work is definitely done upon it.

In the case of an aircraft in level slow-flight at 60 KTS true airspeed, F must be used for the component of the force (thrust) that acts in the direction of motion. See figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5. Direction of work in level flight.

Friction

Friction is one of the most important aspects of life. Without friction it would be impossible to walk. One would have to shove oneself from place to place, and would have to bump against some obstacle to stop at a destination. Yet friction is a liability as well as an asset, and requires consideration when dealing with any moving mechanism.

In experiments relating to friction, measurement of the applied forces reveals that there are three kinds of friction. One force is required to start a body moving, while another is required to keep the body moving at constant speed. Also, after a body is once in motion, a definitely larger force is required to keep it sliding than to keep it rolling. Thus, the three kinds of friction may be classified as: (1) starting (static) friction, (2) sliding friction, and (3) rolling friction.

Static Friction

When an attempt is made to slide a heavy object along a surface, the object must first be broken loose or started. Once in motion, it slides more easily. The breaking loose force is proportional to the weight of the body. The force necessary to start the body moving slowly is designated F, and F is the force pressing the body against the surface (usually its weight). Since the nature of the surfaces rubbing against each other is important, they must be considered. The nature of the surfaces is indicated by the coefficient of starting friction, which is designated by the letter k. This coefficient can be established for various materials and is often published in tabular form.

Thus, when the load (weight of the object) is known, starting friction can be calculated by using the equation:

F = kF′

For example, if the coefficient of static friction of a smooth iron block on a smooth, horizontal surface is 0.3, the force required to start a 10-pound block would be 3 pounds; a 40-pound block, 12 pounds.

Starting friction for objects equipped with wheels and roller bearings is much smaller than that for sliding objects. Nevertheless. a locomotive would have difficulty getting a long train of cars in motion all at one time. Therefore, the couples between the cars are purposely made to have a few inches of play. When the engineer is about to start the train, he backs the engine until all the cars are pushed together. Then, with a quick start forward the first car is set in motion. This technique is employed to overcome the static friction of each wheel (as well as the inertia of each car). It would be impossible for the engine to start all of the cars at the same instant, for static friction, which is the resistance of being set in motion, would be greater than the force exerted by the engine. Once the cars are in motion, however, static friction is greatly reduced and a smaller force is required to keep the train in motion than was required to start it.

Dynamic or Sliding Friction

Sliding friction, sometimes called kinetic friction or dynamic friction, is the resistance to motion offered by an object sliding over a surface. It pertains to friction produced after the object has once been set into motion and is always less than starting friction. The amount of sliding resistance is dependent on the nature of the surface of the object, the surface over which it slides, and the normal force between the object and the surface. This resistive force may be computed by the formula:

F = µN

where: F is the resistive force due to friction expressed in pounds; N is the force exerted on or by the object perpendicular (normal) to the surface over which it slides; and µ (mu) is the coefficient of dynamic friction. (On a horizontal surface, N is equal to the weight of the object in pounds.) The area of the sliding object exposed to the sliding surface has no effect on the results. A block of wood, for example, will not slide any easier on one of the broad sides than it will on a narrow side, (assuming all sides have the same smoothness). Therefore, area does not enter into the equation above.

The coefficient of static friction will always be significantly higher than the coefficient of dynamic friction if other factors don’t change. What application does this knowledge have for the pilot? Consider this: During landing deceleration, will there be more braking (stopping) ability with the brakes locked or with maximum braking but wheels turning? That’s why anti-skid brake systems have been developed!

Rolling Friction

Resistance to motion is greatly reduced if an object is mounted on wheels or rollers. The force of friction for objects mounted on wheels or rollers is called rolling friction. This force may be computed by the same equation used in computing sliding friction, but the values of µ will be much smaller. For example, µ for rubber tires on concrete or macadam is about .02. The value of µ for roller bearings is very small, usually ranging from .001 to .003 and is often disregarded.

Example:

An aircraft with a gross weight of 79,600 lb is towed over a level concrete ramp. What force must be exerted by the towing vehicle to keep the airplane rolling after once set in motion?

F= µN

F = .02 × 79,600 = 1,592 lb

Power

Power is a badly abused term. In speaking of power-driven equipment, people often confuse the term power with the ability to move heavy loads. This is not the meaning of power. A sewing machine motor is powerful enough to rotate an aircraft engine propeller providing it is connected to the crankshaft through a suitable mechanism. It could not rotate the propeller at 2,000 RPM, however, for it is not powerful enough to move a large load at a high speed. Power, thus, means rate of doing work. It is measured in terms of work accomplished per unit of time. In equation form, it reads:

Power = Work ÷ Time

Power = (Force × Distance) ÷ Time

or,

P = Fd ÷ t

If force is expressed in pounds, distance in feet, and time in seconds, then power is given in ft–lbs/sec (foot-pounds per second). Time may also be given in minutes. If time in minutes is used in this equation, then power will be expressed in ft-lbs/min.

Power = (pounds × feet) ÷ seconds = ft-lbs/sec

or,

Power = (pounds × feet) ÷ minutes = ft-lbs/min

Example:

An aircraft engine weighing 3,500 pounds was hoisted a vertical height of 7 feet in order to install it on an aircraft. The hoist was hand-powered and required 3 minutes of cranking to raise the engine. How much power was developed by the man cranking the hoist? (Neglect friction in the hoist.)

Power = Fd ÷ t

P = (3,500 pounds × 7 feet) ÷ 3 minutes

P = 8,167 ft-lbs/min.

Power is often expressed in units of horsepower. One horsepower is equal to 550 ft-lbs/sec or 33,000 ft-lbs/min.

1 HP = 550 ft-lbs/sec

Example:

In the hoist example above, calculate the horsepower developed by the man.

Power is rate of doing work:

P = W ÷ t

In the metric system the unit of power is the watt, where

1 watt = 1 joule/sec

The watt is the metric unit of power; thus a motor with a power output of 5,000 watts is capable of doing 5,000 joules of work per second.

A kilowatt (kw) is equal to 1,000 watts. Hence the above motor has a power output of 5 kw. For conversion, one HP is equal to 746 watts.

1 hp = 746 watts

How much time does the elevator cab weighing 500 kg need to ascend 30 meters if it is being lifted by a 5 kw motor? We rewrite P = W/ t in the form

t = W ÷ P

and then substitute W = 1.47 × 10⁵ joules and P = 5 × 10³ watts to find that

t = W ÷ P = (1.41 × 10⁵ joules) ÷ (5 × 10³ watts) = 29.4 sec

Energy

In many cases when work is done on an object, something is given to the object which it retains and which later enables it to do work. When a weight is lifted to a certain height, such as in the case of a trip-hammer or when a clock spring is wound, the object acquires, through having work done on it, the ability to do work itself. In storage batteries and gasoline, energy is stored which can be used later to do work. Energy stored in coal or food can be used to do work. Thus, energy can be defined as the ability to do work. The same units, ft-lbs or joules, are used to describe both work and energy.

In general, a change in energy is equal to the work done; the loss in energy of a body may be measured by the work it does, or the gain in energy of a body may be measured by the amount of work done on it. Energy which bodies possess is classified into two categories: (1) potential and (2) kinetic.

Potential energy may be classified into three groups: (1) that due to position, (2) that due to distortion of an elastic body, and (3) that which produces work through chemical action. Water in an elevated reservoir, and the lifted weight of a pile-driver are examples of the first group; a stretched rubber band or compressed spring are examples of the second group; and energy in coal, food, and batteries are examples of the third group.

Bodies in motion required work to put them in motion. Thus, they possess energy of motion. Energy due to motion is known as kinetic energy. A moving vehicle, a rotating flywheel, and a hammer in motion are examples of kinetic energy.

Energy is expressed in the same units as those used to express work. The quantity of potential energy possessed by an elevated weight may be computed by the equation:

Potential Energy = Weight × Height

If weight is given in pounds and height in feet, the final unit of energy will be ft-lbs (foot-pounds).

Example: An aircraft with a gross weight of 110,000 pounds is flying at an altitude of 15,000 feet above the surface of the earth. How much potential energy does the airplane possess with respect to the earth?

Potential Energy = Weight × Height

PE = 110,000 × 15,000

PE = 1,650,000,000 ft-lbs

Forms of Energy

The most common forms of energy are heat (thermal), mechanical, electrical, and chemical. The various forms of energy can be changed, or transformed, into another form in many different ways. For example, in the case of mechanical energy, the energy of work done against friction is always converted into heat energy, and the mechanical energy that turns an electric generator develops electrical energy at the output of the generator.

Force And Motion Of Bodies

General

The study of the relationship between the motion of bodies or objects and the forces acting on them is often called the study of force and motion or dynamics. In a more specific sense, the relationship between velocity, acceleration, and distance is known as kinematics.

Uniform Motion

Motion may be defined as a continuing change of position or place, or as the process in which a body undergoes displacement. When an object is at different points in space at different times, that object is said to be in motion, and if the distance the object moves remains the same for a given period of time, the motion may be described as uniform. Thus, an object in uniform motion always has a constant speed.

Speed and Velocity

In everyday usage, speed and velocity often mean the same thing. In physics they have definite and distinct meanings. Speed refers to how fast an object is moving, or how far the object will travel in a specific time. The speed of an object tells nothing about the direction an object is moving. For example, if the information is supplied that an airplane leaves New York City and travels 8 hours at a speed of 150 MPH, this information tells nothing about the direction in which the airplane is moving. At the end of 8 hours, it might be in Kansas City, or if it traveled in a circular route, it could be back in New York City.

Velocity is that quantity in physics which denotes both the speed of an object and the direction in which the object moves. Velocity can be defined as the rate of motion in a particular direction, which is a vector quantity.

Acceleration

Acceleration is defined by the physicist as the rate of change of velocity. If the velocity of an object is increased from 20 MPH to 30 MPH, the object has been accelerated. If the increase in velocity is 10 MPH in 5 seconds, the rate of change in velocity is 10 MPH in 5 seconds, or 2 MPH/sec.

Expressed as an equation,

a = ∆V ÷ ∆t

a = (Vf − Vi ) ÷ ∆t

where:

a = acceleration

Vf = the final velocity (30 MPH)

Vi = the initial velocity (20 MPH)

∆t = change in time or the elapsed time

∆V = change in velocity

The example used can be expressed as follows:

A = (30 MPH − 20 MPH) ÷ 5 sec

A = 2 MPH/sec

If the object accelerated to 22 MPH in the first second, 24 MPH in the next second, and 26 MPH in the third second, the change in velocity each second is 2 MPH. The acceleration is said to be constant, and the motion is described as uniformly accelerated motion. Since velocity denotes both speed and direction, a change in direction of a mass is considered to be an acceleration. An aircraft executing a standard rate turn (3 degrees per second) is considered to be in uniformly accelerated motion.

If a body has a velocity of 3 MPH at the end of the first second of its motion, 5 MPH at the end of the next second, and 8 MPH at the end of the third second, its motion is described as acceleration, but it is variable accelerated motion.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

When a magician snatches a tablecloth from a table and leaves a full setting of dishes undisturbed, he is not displaying a mystic art; he is demonstrating the principle of inertia.

Inertia is responsible for the discomfort felt when a car is brought to a sudden halt in the parking area and the passengers are thrown forward in their seats, and inertia provides the feeling of being pushed back into the seat felt by occupants of a rapidly accelerating aircraft during takeoff. Inertia is a property of matter. This property of matter is described by Newton’s first law of motion, which states:

Objects at rest tend to remain at rest; objects in motion tend to remain in motion at the same speed and in the same direction.

Bodies in motion have the property called momentum. A body that has great momentum has a strong tendency to remain in motion and is therefore hard to stop. For example, a train moving at even low velocity is difficult to stop because of its large mass. Newton’s second law applies to this property. It states:

When forces act upon a body, the momentum of the body can be changed. The rate of change of momentum of the body is proportional to the vector sum of the forces (net force) applied to the body. The momentum (p) of a body is defined as the product of its mass times its velocity.

Momentum = mass × velocity or,

p = mV

Now if a force is applied, the momentum changes at a rate equal to the vector sum of the forces applied or the new force (∑F):

∑F = rate of change of momentum

∑F = (Mf − Mi) ÷ Δt

Substituting mV for M:

∑F = (mfVf − miVi) ÷ Δt

Since the mass does not usually change, mf = mi = m. Then

∑F = (mVf − mVi) ÷ Δt

∑F = m × [(Vf − Vi) ÷ Δt]

From the previous section the second term is recognized as acceleration. Then the second law becomes:

F = ma

If the only force acting upon a body near the earth is the gravitational force (its weight), then the body will experience an acceleration which is called the acceleration due to gravity, usually designated as g, and is equal in English units to 32 ft/SEC² , directed toward the center of the earth. The weight W of a body is the commonly used name for the force due to gravity acting upon that body, and if this is the only force acting upon the body of mass, m, that body accelerates toward the center of the earth at 32 feet per second per second. If these ideas are used along with Newton’s second law:

F = ma becomes W = mg, which can be rearranged as

m = W ÷ g

If the mass m of a body is known, then the weight W of that body near the earth is given by:

W = mg

If the weight W of a body near the surface of the earth is known, then the mass m of that body is given by:

m = W ÷ g

Distance between the bodies being attracted to each other affects the strength of the attracting force (mass attraction). For example, an airplane that weighs 3,000 pounds at sea level will weigh about 3/4 pound less at 10,000' ASL, but its mass remains the same.

The following examples illustrate the use of this formula.

Example:

A train weighs 32,000 lbs. and is traveling at 10 ft/sec. What force is required to bring it to rest in 10 seconds?

F = (W ÷ g) × a

= (W ÷ g) × [(Vf − Vi) ÷ t]

= (32,000 ÷ 32) × [(0 − 10) ÷ 10]

= [32,000 × (-10)] ÷ (32 × 10)

= -1,000 lbs

The negative sign means that the force must be applied against the train’s motion.

Example:

An aircraft weighs 6,400 pounds. How much force is needed to give it an acceleration of 6 ft/sec² (neglecting drag)?

F = (W ÷ g) × a

= (6,400 × 6) ÷ 32 = 1,200 lb

Newton’s third law of motion is often called the law of action and reaction. It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that if a force is applied to an object, the object will supply a resistive force exactly equally to and in the opposite direction of the force applied. It is easy to see how this might apply to objects at rest. For example, as a man stands on the floor, the floor exerts a force against his feet exactly equal to his weight. But this law is also applicable when a force is applied to an object in motion.

When an aircraft propeller pushes a stream of air backward with a force of 500 pounds, the air pushes the blades forward with a force of 500 pounds. This forward force causes the aircraft to move forward. In like manner, the discharge of exhaust gases from the tailpipe of a turbine engine is the action which causes the aircraft to move forward.

The three laws of motion which have been discussed here are closely related. In many cases, all three laws may be operating on a body at the same time.

In order to keep straight in one’s mind the relationships between Newton’s three laws of motion, it is well to remember that Newton’s third law involves interactions between two or more bodies. The action and reaction forces act on the different bodies which are also producing forces which are interacting with the bodies. Thus, when considering the resulting effect on the bodies, the net force, or vector sum of all the forces must be considered. Newton’s second law describes the effect of all the forces which act on one body (mass). Newton’s first law describes the action of a body when there is no net force acting upon it.

Vibration

The term vibration indicates periodic, continuing motion, usually of a solid object, but may also apply to a liquid (wave) or a gas (sound). The motion may be in the form of a pulse (a motion that comes along once-in-a-while) or waveforms, where any part of the vibrating mass is continuously moving.

If we give one end of a stretched string a quick shake, a kink or pulse travels down the string at some velocity v (figure 1-6). If the string is uniform and completely flexible, the pulse keeps the same shape and velocity. The velocity of the pulse depends on the properties of the string, its density and flexibility, and on how tightly it is stretched rather than on the shape of the pulse or how it is produced.

Figure 1-6. A pulse moves along a stretched string with a constant velocity v.

The energy content of a moving pulse is partly kinetic and partly potential. As the pulse travels, its forward part is moving upward and its rear part is moving downward (figure 1-7). Because the string has mass, there is kinetic energy associated with these up-and-down motions. Because the stretched string had to be stretched further to deform it (by pulling against the tension), work was done to form the pulse and the string, accordingly, possesses potential energy.

Figure 1-7. The forward part of a traveling pulse is moving upward and the rear part Is moving downward.

When the pulse reaches the end of the string, some or all of the pulse’s energy may be reflected, causing all or a portion of the pulse to travel back toward its starting point. Depending on how the string is held in place, the reflected pulse may be inverted (upside-down) or erect (right-side-up). Or, the energy of the pulse may all be absorbed by the support, in which case the pulse will disappear but the support will have to deal with the energy it has absorbed.

A good example of pulsing vibration is that produced by the internal combustion engine. As each cylinder fires, a pulse of motion is delivered to the crankshaft and to the propeller. Because of Newton’s third law, an equal and opposite pulse is delivered via the engine mount to the fuselage.

In a periodic wave, one pulse follows another in regular succession, so a certain waveform (the shape of the individual waves) is repeated at regular intervals. Periodic waves usually have sinusoidal waveforms (the same appearance as a graph of sin x (or cos x) versus the angle x (figure 1-8).

Figure 1-8. Most periodic waves have sinusoidal waveforms.

Sinusoidal waveforms are common in matter because the particles of matter undergo simple harmonic motion when displaced by the passage of a wave. Because the link between two particles of matter is not totally rigid, the movement of one particle causes the next particle to move a moment later (like a row of toppling dominoes).

Some related terms are used to describe periodic waves: wave velocity describes the distance each wave moves per second, wavelength (symbolized by the Greek letter lambda) is the distance between adjacent crests or troughs, frequency is the number of waves that pass a given point per second (cycles per second, or Hertz, Hz), period is the time it takes for one complete cycle to pass a given point (the reciprocal of the frequency), amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particle from its normal position. The amplitude of a wave in a stretched string is the height of the crests above or the troughs below the original line of the string.

Standing Waves

When a string whose ends are fixed in place is plucked, the string will vibrate in one or more loops (figure 1-9). These standing waves may be thought of as being the result of waves that travel down the string in both directions, are reflected at the ends, proceed across the string to the opposite ends and are again reflected, and so on.

Figure 1-9. Standing waves in a stretched string.

Pilots should attempt to visualize how the types of vibrations being described here can travel through the various parts of the aircraft.

Principle of Superposition

Standing waves in a mass interact with each other according to the principle of superposition: When two or more waves of the same nature travel past a point at the same time, the displacement at that point is the sum of the instantaneous displacements of the individual waves.

The principle of superposition holds for all types of waves. What it means is that every wave train proceeds independently of any other that may also be present, but the effect of waves present at any point is the additive result of all waves present. For example, should two waves with the same wavelength come together in such a way that crest aligns with crest and trough aligns with trough, the resulting composite wave will have an amplitude greater (the sum of the two amplitudes) than that of either of the original waves. The waves are said to interfere constructively with each other. But if the waves come together so that one wave’s crest aligns with the other’s trough, the effect is cancelling and the amplitude will be decreased (to zero, if the amplitudes of the individual waves are equal). In this condition, the waves interfere destructively with each other. See figure 1-10.

Figure 1-10 (A). Constructive interference. (B) Destructive interference.

Resonance

Consider for a moment a string where nodes occur at each end of the string, as in figure 1-9. The lowest possible frequency of oscillation corresponds to the longest wavelength, λ = 2L, as depicted by the top waveform in figure 1-9. Higher frequencies correspond to the shorter wavelengths. The lowest frequency is called the fundamental frequency. The higher frequencies are 2, 3, 4, etc. times higher (always whole numbers) and are called overtones.

The fundamental frequency and overtones of a mass are its natural frequencies of vibration. Pulsing a mass will cause it to vibrate at one or more of these frequencies. Eventually, internal friction in the mass will cause the various vibrations to die out.

However, the vibration can be caused to continue by applying to the mass a periodic force whose frequency is exactly the same as that of one of the mass’s natural frequencies. If the force applied at the correct frequency is greater than that needed to overcome internal friction, the amplitude of the standing wave will increase until the mass ruptures (a column of soldiers can destroy a flimsy bridge by marching across it in step with one of the bridge’s natural frequencies although the bridge is capable of holding up the static load of the soldiers’ weight). This phenomenon is called resonance and is based upon the concept of superposition of waves.

When periodic impulses are given to a mass at frequencies other than its natural ones, hardly any response occurs. The pilot must keep in mind that each structural part of the aircraft has its own natural frequencies of oscillation, at which a small amount of excitation can cause large amplitudes of oscillation. It is possible that an aircraft structure (as large as the fuselage itself or as small as the hat-rack structure) will have a resonant frequency the same as certain vibrations from the engine, propeller or even the air in the intake duct. For this reason, aircraft undergo extensive flight and vibration testing to minimize the chances of resonance excitation. For example, a propeller should never be used on an aircraft without first determining that it has been tested and certified for use with that particular engine and airframe combination.

Additional Reading

Anti-skid/Autobrake Systems—Boeing 757 Wild, T.; Transport Category Aircraft Systems; IAP, Inc. 1990, pages 167-170.

Unit conversions—There are many sources, such as: Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, any edition.

Gravity effects and further study of physical properties of matter.

− Any high school or beginning college physics textbook.

− Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics General Handbook, Chapter 7; IAP, Inc., Publ.

Study Questions and Problems

Neglecting drag, how much power is needed to cause a 2500 pound airplane to climb at 1000 ft/min? Express your answer in ft-lbs/ min, watts, and HP.

Three minutes after takeoff, how much potential energy will the aircraft of Question #1 possess (neglect remaining fuel in the tanks)?

What kind of energy does the aircraft of Question #2 possess?

What are the states of matter? Define or describe each.

What distinguishes a liquid from a gas and what is a fluid?

Show the value of pressure of the standard day atmosphere at sea level in five different units of measure.

Show the value of temperature of the standard day atmosphere at sea level in four different units of measure.

What kind of a lever is your forearm?

What kind of a lever is the aircraft control yoke, with respect to aileron movement?

What kind of a lever is a hydraulic wobble pump handle?

If you fell from an airplane at a high altitude where the air was so thin that there was negligible drag, how fast would you be falling after 5 seconds, in ft/sec, MPH, KTS, and km/hr?

What are the differences between inertia and momentum?

Chapter II

Aircraft Engine Types and Construction

The Heat Engine

For an aircraft to remain in level unaccelerated flight, a thrust must be provided that is equal to and opposite in direction to the aircraft drag. This thrust, or propulsive force, is provided by a suitable type of heat engine.

All heat engines have in common the ability to convert fuel (chemical energy) into heat energy, then into mechanical energy, by the flow of some fluid mass through the engine. In all cases, the heat energy is released at a point in the cycle where the pressure is high, relative to atmospheric.

These engines are customarily divided into groups or types depending upon:

The working fluid used in the engine cycle.

The means by which the mechanical energy is transmitted into a propulsive force.

The method of compressing the engine working fluid.

The types of engines are illustrated in figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1. Types of engines.

The propulsive force is obtained by the displacement of a working fluid (not necessarily the same fluid used within the engine) in a direction opposite to that in which the airplane is propelled. This is an application of Newton’s third law of motion. Air is the principal fluid used for propulsion in every type of powerplant except the rocket, in which only the by-products of combustion are accelerated and displaced.

The propellers of aircraft powered by reciprocating or turboprop engines accelerate a large mass of air through a small velocity change. The fluid (air) used for the propulsive force is a different quantity than that used within the engine to produce the mechanical energy. Turbojets, ramjets, and pulse-jets accelerate a smaller quantity of air through a large velocity change. They use the same working fluid for propulsive force that is used within the engine. A rocket carries its own oxidizer rather than using ambient air for combustion. It discharges the gaseous by-products of combustion through the exhaust nozzle at an extremely high velocity.

Engines are further characterized by the means of compressing the working fluid before the addition of heat. The basic methods of compression are:

The turbine-driven compressor (turbine engine).

The positive displacement, piston-type compressor (reciprocating engine).

Ram compression due to forward flight speed (ramjet).

Pressure rise due to combustion (pulse-jet and rocket).

A more specific description of the major engine types used in commercial aviation is given later in this chapter.

Comparison of Aircraft Powerplants

In addition to the differences in the methods employed by the various types of powerplants for producing thrust, there are differences in their suitability for different types of aircraft. The following discussion points out some of the important characteristics that determine their suitability.

General Requirements

All engines must meet certain general requirements of efficiency, economy, and reliability. Besides being economical in fuel consumption, an aircraft engine must be economical (the cost of original procurement and the cost of maintenance) and it must meet exacting requirements of efficiency and low weight per horsepower ratio. It must be capable of sustained high-power output with no sacrifice in reliability; it must also have the durability to operate for long periods of time between overhauls. It needs to be as compact as possible, yet have easy accessibility for maintenance. It is required to be as vibration free as possible and be able to cover a wide range of power output at various speeds and altitudes.

These requirements dictate the use of ignition systems that will deliver the firing impulse to the spark plugs or igniter plugs at the proper time in all kinds of weather and under other adverse conditions. Fuel-metering devices are needed that will deliver fuel in the correct proportion to the air ingested by the engine regardless of the attitude, altitude, or type of weather in which the engine is operated. The engine needs a type of oil system that delivers oil under the proper pressure to all of the operating parts of the engine when it is running. Also, it must have a system of damping units to damp out the vibrations of the engine when it is operating.

Power and Weight

The useful output of all aircraft powerplants is the force thrust, the force which propels the aircraft. Since the reciprocating engine is rated in BHP (brake horsepower) and the gas turbine engine is rated in pounds of thrust, no direct comparison can be made. However, since the reciprocating engine/propeller combination receives its thrust from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the horsepower developed by the reciprocating engine to thrust.

If desired, the thrust of a gas turbine engine can be converted into THP (thrust horsepower). But it is necessary to consider the speed of the aircraft. This conversion can be accomplished by using the formula:

THP = [thrust × aircraft speed (MPH]) ÷ 375 mile-pounds per hour

The value 375 mile-pounds per hour is derived from the basic horsepower formula as follows:

1 HP = 33,000 ft-lb per minute

33,000 ft-lb/min × 60 min/1hr = 1,980,000 ft-lb per hour

1,980,000 ft-lb/hr ÷ 5,280 ft/mi = 375 mile-pounds per hour

One horsepower equals 33,000 ft-lb per minute or 375 mile-pounds per hour. Under static conditions, thrust is figured as equivalent to approximately 2.6 pounds per hour.

If a gas turbine is producing 4,000 pounds of thrust and the aircraft in which the engine is installed is traveling at 500 MPH, the THP will be:

(4,000 × 500) ÷ 375 = 5,333.33 THP

It is necessary to calculate the horsepower for each speed of an aircraft, since the horsepower varies with speed. Therefore, it is not practical to try to rate or compare the output of a turbine engine on a horsepower basis.

The aircraft engine operates at a relatively high percentage of its maximum power output throughout its service life. The aircraft engine is at full power output whenever a takeoff is made. It may hold this power for a period of time up to the limits set by the manufacturer. The engine is seldom held at a maximum power for more than 2 minutes, and usually not that long. Within a few seconds after lift-off, the power is reduced to a power that is used for climbing and that can be maintained for longer periods of time. After the aircraft has climbed to cruising altitude, the power of the engine(s) is further reduced to a cruise power that can be maintained for the duration of the flight.

If the weight of an engine per brake horsepower (called the specific weight of the engine) is decreased, the useful load that an aircraft can carry and/or the performance of the aircraft obviously are increased. Every excess pound of weight carried by an aircraft engine reduces its performance. Tremendous gains in reducing the weight of the aircraft engine through improvement in design and metallurgy have resulted in reciprocating engines now producing approximately 1 HP for each pound of weight.

Fuel Economy

The basic parameter for describing the fuel economy of aircraft engines is usually specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption for turbojets and ramjets is the fuel flow (lbs/hr) divided by thrust (lbs), and for reciprocating engines the fuel flow (lbs/ hr) divided by brake horsepower. These are called thrust specific fuel consumption and brake specific fuel consumption, respectively. Equivalent specific fuel consumption is used for the turboprop engine and is the fuel flow in pounds per hour divided by a turboprop’s equivalent shaft horsepower. Comparisons of efficiency can be made between the various engines on a specific fuel consumption basis.

At low speed, the reciprocating and turbopropeller engines have better economy than the turbojet engines. However, at high speed, because of losses in propeller efficiency, the reciprocating or turbopropeller engine’s efficiency becomes less than that of the turbojet. Figure 2-2 shows a comparison of average thrust specific fuel consumption of three types of engines at rated power at sea level.

Figure 2-2. Comparison of fuel consumption for three types of engines at rated power at sea level.

Durability and Reliability

Durability and reliability are usually considered identical factors since it is difficult to mention one without including the other. An aircraft engine is reliable when it can perform at the specified ratings in widely varying flight attitudes and in extreme weather conditions. Standards of powerplant reliability are agreed upon by the FAA, the engine manufacturer, and the airframe manufacturer. The engine manufacturer ensures