Shop Theory (Henry Ford Trade School)

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Text originally published in 1941 under the same title.

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Although in most cases we have retained the Author’s original spelling and grammar to authentically reproduce the work of the Author and the original intent of such material, some additional notes and clarifications have been added for the modern reader’s benefit.

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SHOP THEORY

BY

HENRY FORD TRADE SCHOOL

Dearborn, Michigan

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 4

SHOP THEORY DEPARTMENT 5

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS 9

FORMULAS AND DATA 12

FORMULAE 13

SMALL TOOLS 14

RULES 52

MICROMETERS 58

VERNIER GAGES 66

CHISEL AND CHIPPING 73

HACK SAWS AND SAWING 78

FILES AND FILING 85

SOLDERING 97

F CLASS QUERIES 103

DRILLS AND DRILLING OPERATIONS 116

TAPERS 138

THREADS 148

GEARING 168

CUTTING TOOLS 188

SHAPER 194

LATHE 213

GAGES AND GAGE BLOCKS 297

HEAT TREATMENT 316

GRINDING 336

REQUEST FROM THE PUBLISHER 391

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This is one of a series of lesson sheets prepared by instructors in Ford Schools for use in their classes.

Ford Apprentice School was organized in 1913 to train Ford employees in the metal trades.

Henry Ford Trade School was founded in 1916 to train mechanics and make it possible for a young boy to partially support himself while attending school. It is incorporated under Michigan law as a non-profit institution. The school occupies three acres of floor space and has class and shop equipment for 1800 students.

SHOP THEORY DEPARTMENT

Subjects directly related to shop work are studied in the Shop Theory department of Henry Ford Trade School. All students are required to attend Shop Theory classes one period each day during the time spent in the classroom. The work deals with the historical development, principles of construction, and use, care, and operation of hand tools, precision tools, and the usual toolroom machines and equipment. Practice is given in the use of various handbooks and reference books. The mathematical computations required for cutting threads, turning tapers, figuring speeds and feeds, indexing, milling spirals, helixes, and cams, setting sine bars, checking tapers and angles, cutting gears, and for various other operations, are discussed and explained. Safety in the shop is emphasized.

The equipment of the Shop Theory department consists of various hand tools, precision tools, enlarged models of precision tools and gears, cutaway models of index heads, Johansson Gage Blocks, and numerous pictures and charts. A film slide projector for showing enlarged views on a screen is used to illustrate various tools, machines, and operations. Special tools and equipment from the school shop are available for classroom use.

The lesson sheet method of instruction, supplemented by lecture and discussion, is used. This compilation of the sheets, which is constantly being revised and brought up to date, should prove valuable as a reference for students and shop instructors.

Henry Ford Trade School gratefully acknowledges the courtesy of the following companies in permitting the use of various cuts and descriptive material from their textbooks and catalogs:

Armstrong Brothers Tool Co

Baker Brothers Inc.

Brown & Sharpe Mfg Co

Cincinnati Milling Machine and Cincinnati Grinders Inc.

Eugene Dietzgen Co

Foster Machine Co

Gleason Works

Gould & Eberhardt

Greenfield Tap & Die Corporation

Henry Disston & Sons Inc.

J H Williams & Co

J T Slocomb Co

John Bath & Company

Jones & Lamson Machine Co

Kearney & Trecker Corporation

Landis Tool Company

Leeds & Northup Company

Morse Twist Drill & Machine Co.

Nicholson File Company

Norton Company

O S Walker Co.

Pratt & Whitney Co.

Reed-Prentice Corporation

Simonds Saw and Steel Co.

Standard Fuel Engineering Co.

Swann Chemical Co.

S W Card Manufacturing Co.

The Acme Machine Tool Co.

The American Tool Works Co.

The Avery Drilling Machine Co.

The Blanchard Machine Company

The Bullard Company

The Carborundum Company

The Chas A Strelinger Co.

The Cincinnati Bickford Tool Co.

The Cincinnati Planer Co.

The Cleveland Twist Drill Co.

The Fellows Gear Shaper Co.

The Frederick Post Company

The Heald Machine Company

The L S Starrett Company

The Lodge & Shipley Machine Tool Co.

The Lufkin Rule Co.

The Monarch Machine Tool Co.

The Stanley Rule & Level Plant

The Taft-Pierce Mfg Co.

The Warner & Swasey Co.

Whitman & Barnes

Wilson Mechanical Instrument Co.

We have also received many helpful suggestions from other authors and publishers, especially from that excellent textbook MACHINE TOOL OPERATION in two volumes by Henry D Burghardt, published by McGraw-Hill Book Company.

HENRY FORD TRADE SCHOOL

DEARBORN MICHIGAN

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS

The measurements made in a machine shop are usually taken in inches or fractional parts of an inch. Most of the precision tools used in the shop read in thousandths of an inch. The usual graduations on a rule are in 64ths, 32nds, 16ths, and 8ths of an inch.

Before a student can read a rule or the precision measuring tools efficiently, he must be thoroughly familiar with fractions and decimal fractions. Since he is often called upon to change decimals to fractions and fractions to decimals in making measurements, and in reading and checking blue prints and sketches, he should understand this operation thoroughly. Precision measuring tools, such as micrometers and vernier tools, are read in thousandths or fractional parts of a thousandth of an inch. For example, 1/16 is read sixty-two and one-half thousandths, 1/32 is read thirty-one and one-quarter thousandths, 1/64 is read fifteen and five-eighths thousandths, etc. It will be noted that these readings give the full decimal values for the corresponding fractions. However, since the precision tools commonly used in the shop cannot be read closer than one-tenth of one thousandth, it is customary for a mechanic to use only those figures up to and including the tenth-thousandth figure, or to four decimal places. For example, the complete decimal value of 1/64 is .015625, which in the shop is commonly read as fifteen and six-tenths thousandths, fifteen being the whole number of thousandths while six is six-tenths of one one-thousandth, or a fractional part of a thousandth.

To change a fraction to a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator. For example, in changing 3/16 to a decimal, 3.0000 ÷ 16 = .1875.

When reading a rule it is sometimes convenient to read either way from some large dimension line. That is, in measuring 47/64 of an inch it is easier to find 3/4 and subtract 1/64 from it than to count the divisions from the end of the rule.

The following table contains the decimal values and fractional values in halves, fourths, eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and sixty-fourths, for the fractions most commonly used in the shop. These values should be memorized.

Read the decimal equivalent to the fourth decimal place and express in thousandths. For example, 23/64 is read three hundred fifty-nine and four tenths, thousandths.

Memorize the quarters, eighths, sixteenths, one thirty-second, three thirty-seconds, and one sixty-fourth.

FORMULAS AND DATA

FORMULAE

SMALL TOOLS

The condition in which, a mechanic keeps the various tools he uses determines his efficiency as well as the judgment that others pass upon him in his daily work. A workman is always judged by the way he handles his tools. For instance, an ordinary steel rule which is battered or otherwise damaged so that it is difficult to read will often cause a workman to scrap a piece of work, thereby losing considerable time and money. A caliper with points bent out of shape will inevitably cause trouble if used in that condition. A divider with points dull or loose in the joint cannot be made to do satisfactory work. A micrometer that has been strained out of shape will not give an accurate measurement.

Every mechanic should have a tool box of his own where he keeps his tools when he is not using them. There should be a place for every tool and each tool should be kept in its place.

All tools should be wiped clean before they are placed in the tool box, and if not to be used again for some time they should be oiled to prevent rusting.

Tools that are being used on the machine or bench should be kept within easy reach of the operator and placed so that they cannot fall on the floor. They should never be placed on the finished parts of a machine.

1. Describe the most common hammers and tell the purpose for which each is used.

A. The most common hammers are the ball peen (Fig. l), straight peen (Fig. 2), cross peen (Fig. 3), and claw hammer (Fig. 4). Hammers are made with wooden handles and steel heads and vary in size from 6 ounces to 2½ pounds. The principal parts of a hammer are the peen, eye, face, and post. The upper part of the machinists’ hammer, called the peen, is made in three common shapes—the ball peen for riveting and the straight and cross peen types for swaging. The eye is the hole that receives the handle, the face is the lower part of the head, and the post is the portion between the face and the eye. The claw hammer is used by the carpenter for driving or pulling nails.

2. What are soft hammers and why are they used?

A. Hammers with heads made of lead, copper, babbitt (Fig. 5) or rawhide (Fig. 6) are known as soft hammers. They are used to seat work in a machine vise, to drive a mandrel, or in any similar operation where the steel hammer might injure the work.

3. Why should a hammer handle be gripped near the end?

A. A hammer handle should be gripped near the end so that full leverage may be obtained. A solid blow cannot be delivered when it is held too close to the head.

4. Why does the eye in a hammer head taper from each end toward the middle?

A. The hammer handle is formed to fit one end of the tapered eye and prevent the head from slipping up the handle, and in the other end of the tapered eye the handle is expanded by wedges to fit the eye and hold the head securely.

5. Why must a hammer handle be set square with the head?

A. The hammer handle must be set square with the head to insure the proper balance.

6. What is meant by peening?

A. Peening is the stretching of metal by hammering, such as hammering the end of a rivet or the end of a bolt so the nut will not jar loose. Peening is used to stretch babbitt to fit tightly in a bearing, to straighten bars by stretching the short side, and in numerous other operations.

Goggles must be worn when chipping, grinding, working near cyanide pots, etc. (Fig. 7). The chipping guard (Fig. 8) should be placed so as to protect fellow workmen as well as machinery.

A vise (Fig. 9) is used for holding work while it is being finished, assembled, etc. at the bench. Do not hammer a vise handle. When holding work in a vise, put a packing block of wood or metal under it to keep it from working down in the vise. Protect finished work with brass or copper jaw caps (Fig. 10). Place the work so that it can be chiseled toward the solid jaw. Refer to Chisels and Chipping, sheet 4, for an illustration of the proper use of these tools.

7. Describe the hack saw.

A. The hack saw consists of a frame and a thin steel blade with teeth formed on one edge. It is six to twelve inches long, approximately one-half inch wide, and usually about .027ʺ thick.

8. What is a chisel?

A. A chisel is a tool or instrument made from octagon-shaped steel, having a cutting edge at one end of the blade, and used in dressing, shaping, or cutting. It is driven by a hammer or mallet. Some of the different types are shown below.

9. What is a wrench?

A. A tool with jaws or openings for turning or twisting bolts, nuts, etc.

10. How are wrenches named?

A. (1) From their shape, as S wrench, angle wrench, etc.

(2) From the object on which they are used, as tap wrench, pipe wrench, etc.

(3) From their construction, as spanner wrench, ratchet wrench, etc.

Some of the most common wrenches are shown below.

11. Explain the use of each of the following wrenches: single-end, double-end, closed-end, adjustable hook spanner, adjustable pin face, T-socket, off-set socket, ratchet, pipe, strap, chuck key, hollow set-screw, and monkey wrench.

The single-end wrench shown in Fig. 24 is used on jobs requiring a wrench with one size only.

The double-end wrench shown in Fig. 25 is used on jobs that require a wrench which has openings of different sizes.

The use of the closed-end wrench shown in Fig. 26 is much the same as that of the single-end wrench. The closed end of the wrench eliminates the danger of the jaws spreading.

The adjustable hook spanner wrench (Fig. 27) is used on nuts having notches cut in the periphery to receive the hook located at the end of the wrench.

The adjustable pin face wrench is used to adjust nuts having holes in their face to accommodate pins in the ends of the adjustable legs (see Fig. 28).

The T-socket wrench (Fig. 29) is made with different types of sockets, such as square, hexagon, and octagon. It is generally used on jobs where the nuts are almost Fig. 29 T-Socket Wrench inaccessible, as on engines, motors, bodies, wire wheels, etc.

The off-set socket wrench (Fig. 30) is used on nuts requiring a greater leverage than that which can be obtained with the T-socket wrench, or on jobs where the T-socket wrench cannot be used.

The ratchet wrench (Fig. 31) is similar to the socket wrench except that the handle works as a ratchet. This is especially useful when only a short swing of the handle is permissible. Another advantage of this wrench is that it is not necessary to remove it until the bolt or nut is tight.

The Stillson pipe wrench (Fig. 32) and the chain pipe tongs (Fig. 33) are used to turn pipes. Be careful in using these wrenches that the finish on plated pipes is not scratched or otherwise damaged.

The strap wrench (Fig. 34) is used for turning plated pipes, removing bezels, etc., or for revolving any job on which the surface finish must be preserved.

The chuck key (Fig. 35) is used for adjusting chuck jaws.

The hollow set-screw wrench (Fig. 36) is used to adjust hollow (safety) setscrews.

The monkey wrench is a heavy adjustable wrench for use on heavy work (see Fig. 37). Its use on small tools is not encouraged. The three following rules for the use of the monkey wrench are very important:

1. Never hammer with the solid jaw of the wrench.

2. Always adjust the movable jaw so that it is tight against a nut.

3. Point the jaws in the direction of the force applied. This will prevent the jaws from springing and the wrench will be less likely to slip off a nut.

Do not use a pair of pliers instead of a wrench (see Fig. 38).

12. What is a screw driver?

A. A screw driver is a metal blade with a handle on one end and with the other end flattened to fit screw slots.

13. What kind of steel is generally used to make screw drivers?

A. Tool steel is generally used. Screw drivers under one-half inch in size are usually made of round stock (see Fig. 39).

14. Why are the larger sizes of screw drivers made with square blades?

A. The blade of the screw driver shown in Fig. 40 is made square so that a wrench may be applied to assist in turning a screw.

15. What is the purpose of the double-end offset screw driver shown, in Fig. 41?

A. This type of screw driver is used for turning screws that cannot be reached with a straight screw driver.

16. How should the blade of any screw driver be ground?

A. A screw driver blade should be ground so that the faces will be almost parallel with the sides of the screw slot. Fig. 42 shows a screw driver correctly ground.

If a blade is incorrectly ground as shown in Fig. 43, it has a tendency to slip out of the slot and leave a burr.

Excessive heat due to grinding, shown by a blue color, will draw the temper and cause the driver to become soft.

17. Describe the helical ratchet screw driver shown in Fig. 44.

A. The helical ratchet screw driver drives or draws screws by pushing on the handle. It also has a ratchet movement and can be locked rigid. It may be changed from right-hand to left-hand or locked by moving the shifter.

18. "What are the three most important classes of screws and what are the names of the principal types of screw heads in each class?

A. Machine screws, set screws, and wood screws are the most important classes. Fig. 45 names and illustrates the principal screw heads in these classes.

19. How can the screw number of a flat head wood screw be determined?

A. Measure the diameter of the screw in sixteenths, double this, and subtract two. The answer will be the number of the screw. For example, suppose the diameter of a screw is ⅜" (which equals 6/16). Doubling 6, we get a product of 12. Subtracting 2 from this, we get an answer of 10. The screw is therefore No. 10.

20. What is a drill? Describe some of the-various types of drills and drill equipment.

Fig. 46 Taper Shank Drill

A. A drill is a round steel shaft with grooves formed on its periphery, one end, known as the point, being ground to form suitable cutting edges (see Figs. 46 and 47). The shank end of a drill may be either tapered or straight. Most drills have a tapered shank, which can be fitted into a spindle, socket, or sleeve (see Figs. 48 and 49). All drills with a diameter less than ⅛ have straight shanks, however, and straight shanks in other sizes are available. Drills with straight shanks are held in a drill chuck (Figs. 50 and 51).

Figs. 52 and 53 show two drills for drilling wood, steel, or other material, one driven by hand and the other by an electric motor. The drill holder in Fig. 54 is used to hold a drill while drilling with a lathe. A drill drift is used to remove drills from sleeves and sockets. A plain drift is shown in Fig. 55 and a safety drift in Fig. 56. The drill vise in Fig. 5 7 is used to hold work while it is being drilled.

21. How are the countersink, the Counterbore, and the combined drill and countersink used? A. The countersink, shown in Fig. 58, is used for countersinking the tops of holes which are to receive flathead screws or bolts.

The counterbore shown in Fig. 59 is used for enlarging a hole on the axis of one already drilled, so that the head of the bolt or cap screw will come flush with the surface of the work.

Fig. 60 shows a combined drill and countersink which is used for drilling the center holes in work which is to be mounted on centers. It is also used to spot the center in a piece that is to be drilled.

A, angle of countersink too large; B, angle of center too large; C, hole not large enough; D, hole upset; E, hole not countersunk; F, chips in center hole; G, correct center hole as shown by fit at H.

Fig. 61. Examples of combined drill