Programmable Logic Controllers

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers

Objectives: Define the term PLC.

Understand the history of PLC.

Identify four major components of PLC.

Explain the operation principle of a PLC system.

Describe the benefits of using PLCs.

Identify typical PLC applications.

Know PLC categories.

Overview

PLCs are digital electronic apparatus with a programmable memory for storing instructions to implement logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic functions. Since its inception in 1969, PLC technology has staged through six generations of development. Memory size and added functions have been increased from one generation to the next.

There are four major components in a PLC: processor unit, input modules, output modules, and programming device. A processor unit is the brain of the PLC that consists of three elements: central process unit, memory, and power supply. Input modules provide the physical connection between the processor unit and input field devices such as limit switches. Output modules provide the physical connection between the processor unit and output field devices such as motor starters. A programming device allows creating PLC programs and entering the programs to PLCs.

The basic operation principle of a PLC is program scanning. A PLC processor scans a program in a cyclic manner, starting from left to right at the top rung, then proceeding to the next rung. During scanning, the processor simultaneously updates the status of input and output instructions in both the program and the memory, as well as interacting with input and output modules.

The benefits of using PLCs are very obvious. They are flexible and programmable, reliable, and cost saving. PLCs provide ease of installation and implementation, as well as ease of maintenance and troubleshooting. There are five categories of PLCs according to their size and configuration, including micro PLCs, small PLCs, medium PLCs, large PLCs, and very large PLCs.

1.1 Definition of PLC

The term PLC is the abbreviation for Programmable Logic Controller. PLCs were initially called Programmable Controllers (PCs). The use of this term, PCs, caused some confusion when personal computers (PCs) became popular. To avoid this confusion, PCs are referred to as personal computers and PLCs programmable logic controllers. The National Electrical Manufacturing Association (NEMA) defines a programmable controller as follows:

A programmable controller is a digital electronic apparatus with a programmable memory for storing instructions to implement specific functions, such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control machines and processes.

More specifically, a PLC can be considered as an industrial computer that is especially designed for use in industrial, rugged environments. It performs the following functions:

•Receives and interprets the signals from various input switches and sensors

•Implements the control logics designed in the form of programs

•Outputs the control signals to activate the power devices such as motor starters, solenoids, contactors, etc.

1.2 History of PLCs

The inception of PLCs resulted from the necessity and the emergence of computer technology. Electromechanical relays that provide logic controls for industrial systems had been successfully implemented for many generations. The main problems with those hard-wired, relay-based systems include:

•Lack of flexibility of reprogramming

•Limit to relay types of applications

•Susceptive to mechanical failure due to physical contact and wear

•Prone to wiring errors

•Difficulty of trouble shooting

•Limited to small-to-medium size of control systems

•Costly to implement when the size of control systems increase

GM’s Hydromatic Division realized the need for using a solid-state system with computer flexibility to replace hard-wired relay control panels, which were huge, costly, and inflexible. In 1968, Hydromatic defined the design specifications for the first programmable logic controller. Some of the initial specifications are outlined below:

•The new control system had to be a solid-state device with the flexibility of a computer.

•The system had to sustain an industrial environment (vibration, heat, dirt, etc.).

•The system had to be re-programmable and reusable for other tasks.

•The input and output interfaces had to be easily replaceable.

•The system had to be easily programmed and maintained by plant electricians and technicians.

•The system had to be cost competitive with the use of hard-wired relay systems.

GM solicited interested companies to develop a system that met the above design specifications. Richard E. Morley, founder of the Modicon Corporation, built the first practical PLC in 1969. Since then, PLC technology has steadily advanced, in both hardware and software, with the computer technology. We can grossly classify the PLC development into six generations. The year, added functions, advancement in hardware and software, and the applications of each generation are summarized in Table 1.1.

1.3 PLC Components

A typical PLC system consists of four major components: processor unit, input modules, output modules, and programming device (Figure 1.1).

1.3.1Processor Unit

The processor unit is the brain of the PLC. It consists of three parts: central process unit (CPU), memory, and power supply (Figure 1.2). They are briefly described below:

Table 1.1: PLC Development

Figure 1.1: PLC components

Figure 1.2: Processor unit

CPU: executes operating system, manages memory, receives inputs, implements ladder logic instructions, outputs control signals to field devices, and handles communications with other devices.

Memory: has two types — system memory and user memory. The operating system is stored in a Read-Only Memory (ROM) type of system memory for converting the ladder diagram to instructions that the CPU can recognize. User memory is normally of Random Access Memory (RAM) type. It is used to (1) store status of inputs and outputs, (2) store contents of variables for timers and counters, and (3) reserve spaces for the processor work area.

Power Supply: produces low voltage DC power used by the logic circuits of the processor and input and output modules.

1.3.2Input Modules

Input modules provide the physical connection between the processor unit and the input field devices. They detect and transmit the input signals from input field devices to the processor (Figure 1.3). Using input modules, the PLC processor can sense status conditions such as Open or Closed, and actuated or not-actuated switches, as well as measure process quantities such as pressure, temperature, flow, and position. Using the input data gathered from input modules, the PLC processor processes the data according to the instructions in the PLC program, then issues control commands to the proper slot in output modules, which in turn control various output field devices such as solenoids, motor starters, etc.

Figure 1.3: Input modules

1.3.3Output Modules

Output modules provide the physical connection between the processor unit and output field devices to facilitate the PLC processor sending the control signals to output devices (Figure 1.4). Output modules perform the following functions:

•Provide connection terminals for output field devices

•Receive control data from the PLC processor and pass on to control output field devices

•Give isolation between the PLC system and field voltages

Figure 1.4: Output modules

Figure 1.5: Hand-held programming device

Figure 1.6: Programming terminal

1.3.4Programming Devices

The main purpose of a programming device is to enter the control programs to PLCs. There are several ways you can perform this task. The available programming devices you can use for a particular PLC vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. There are three basic types of programming devices: hand-held programmers, programming terminals, and personal computers.

Hand-held programmers are an inexpensive and portable way to program small PLCs (Figure 1.5). They have a display and keyboard with numeric keys and programming instruction keys for input. Programming terminals are used in larger PLCs. They are proprietary products from PLC manufacturers and are more costly. They look like a combination of computer monitor and keyboard (Figure 1.6). One programming terminal can serve multiple PLCs.

Personal computers can work together with PLC programming software to create PLC programs for any PLC types. Each brand name PLC has more than one type of programming software for you to prepare programs; the software allows you to download programs to PLCs and monitor the status of the systems.

1.4 PLC Operation Principle

The successful implementation of a PLC project depends on integrating field devices, the PLC program, and the PLC system. The keys to integrate and coordinate these three elements are interface wiring and address assignment (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7: PLC operation principle

1.4.1Input Wiring

There are two types of interface wiring: input wiring and output wiring. Input wiring connects input devices to the input modules. There are a fixed number of connection terminals in each input module. Each connection terminal has its assigned address in the PLC memory (Figure 1.8). The actuation of an input device generates a digital ON (1) or OFF (0) signal to appear at its connected terminal of the input module (Figure 1.9). The PLC processor picks up the signal while it reads the input module and stores the signal in the assigned memory address. In this way, any status change in input devices can be immediately reflected on the PLC memory.

Figure 1.8: PLC memory address for input module

Figure 1.9: Signals produced from input module

1.4.2Output Wiring

Similarly, output wiring connects output devices to the output modules. Each connection terminal has its assigned address in the PLC memory. The PLC processor sends the digital signal to connection terminals based on the content in their corresponding memory address (Figure 1.10). An ON (1) signal to a particular output terminal causes the wired output field device to be energized or turned ON. An OFF (0) signal to the output terminal de-energizes the output field device (Figure 1.11).

Figure 1.10: PLC memory address for output module

Figure 1.11: Signals from PLC to output module

1.4.3PLC Program

The PLC program is the road map of the operation. In most PLC systems, PLC programs are written in ladder diagram format. A ladder diagram consists of two rails and several rungs (Figure 1.12). Two rails, arranged vertically, represent the power lines. Program instructions are arranged along the horizontal rungs. The number of rungs increases as the program becomes larger and complicated. Each input and output instruction is assigned a memory address. A PLC program is implemented in cycles. Each cycle involves three steps:

Figure 1.12: A PLC program

1.Reading the status of input field devices in input modules and writing these signal data to their memory address

2.Scanning the program to update the status of input instructions and placing the output results to their address

3.Sending the control signals to the output modules

1.4.4PLC Scanning

The PLC processor scans a program in cyclic manner. The scanning cycle starts from left to right at the top rung and proceeds to the second rung until reaching the bottom rung to complete a cycle. It then returns back to the top rung to continue the next cycle (Figure 1.13). During scanning, the processor simultaneously updates the status of input and output instructions, in both the program and the memory, as well as interacting with the input and output modules.

Figure 1.13: PLC scanning cycle

1.5 PLC Applications

1.5.1PLCs versus Hard-Wired Relay Systems

PLCs initially were intended to replace hard-wired relay systems. They offer many advantages over their hard-wired counterparts. Table 1.2 compares these two types of control systems.

Table 1.2: Comparison between PLC control and relay control

1.5.2Benefits of Using PLCs

The architecture of PLCs is modular and flexible in nature, which permits hardware and software elements to be integrated in any combination. They can be uniquely tailored by adding or removing some elements to meet a specific application. The benefits of using PLCs can be summarized in the following five items:

•Flexible and programmable

•Ease of installation and implementation

•Reliable

•Ease of maintenance and troubleshooting

•Cost saving

Flexible and Programmable

PLCs allow the control systems to be modularly configured to meet specific needs whether they are big or small, simple or complicated, long-term or short-term use. They are programmable so that changes in a control program results in a different application. It is also easy to make any change to the control program without involving much effort in programming and hard-wiring.

Ease of Installation and Implementation

PLCs are relatively small size compared to their hard-wired relay counterparts. It takes less than half the space required by its equivalent relay control panel. The amount of wiring is significantly reduced due to the elimination of hard-wired relays, counters, timers, etc. Any changeover can be made readily by connecting the input and output devices to the terminal strips.

Reliable

PLC systems are highly reliable because they use solid-state elements that have no mechanical wear, low component failure, and low space and power consumption. They use standard devices and standardized wiring diagrams that eliminate customized interfaces. All of these contribute to them being more reliable systems than their relay hard-wired counterparts.

Ease of Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Most system components are solid-state type. Problems with mechanical wear, short-circuiting, and unexpected accidents from wiring and operation mistakes are significantly reduced. Because most system components are solid-state and modularized, maintenance is essentially reduced to replacing plug-in components if needed.

PLC components normally come with fault detection circuits and LED indicators. They detect any malfunction of the components and give prompt identification of component failures. Modern PLC systems are loaded with diagnosis programs and online monitor systems to show the actual status of each control element. All of these facilitate the troubleshooting of the system when they go wrong.

Cost Saving

Generally speaking, when the number of relays used in the system is more than 10, the use of a PLC becomes cost-effective. Today there are many micro PLCs that cost less than two hundred dollars. It is cost-effective using these low cost PLCs to implement those small control systems.

1.5.3PLC Applications

Since its inception, the functionality of PLCs has gone beyond simple relay replacement. With their added advanced functions, PLCs have been widely used in almost every sector of industry. Typical applications include:

•Discrete logic controls

•Monitoring

•Continuous control

•Analog measurement and control

•Diagnostic information gathering

•Data logging

•Production reports generation

•Communication network

Table1.3 tabulates some applications in various industries.

Table 1.3: PLC applications by industry

1.6 PLC Categories

PLCs are made in various sizes and configurations. They can be classified in six categories according to I/O count, memory size, processor type, function, and application. The various sizes are nano PLCs, micro PLCs, small PLCs, medium PLCs, large PLCs, and very large PLCs. Table 1.4 summarizes these sizes and their PLC categories.

1.6.1Rockwell Automation Allen-Bradley PLCs

There are more than 60 PLC manufacturers. Some top PLC makers include Rockwell Automation Allen-Bradley, Siemens, Mitsubishi, GE Fanuc, Omron, and Schneider Modicon. Some Rockwell Automation Allen-Bradley PLCs are shown in Table 1.5.

Table 1.4: PLC categories

Table 1.5: Rockwell Automation Allen-Bradley PLCs

Table 1.6: Siemens PLCs

1.6.2Siemens PLCs

Four groups of Siemens PLCs are shown in Table 1.6. They are Logic module, Simatic S7, Embedded controller, and PC-based controller.

1.6.3Mitsubishi PLCs

Three categories of Mitsubishi PLCs are shown in Table 1.7, including Alpha2 Sequence controller, FX compact controller, and L series controller.

1.6.4GE Fanuc PLCs

Four categories of GE-Fanuc PLCs are summarized in Table 1.8. They are Durus controller, VersaMax Micro controller, Series 90-30 controller, and PAC8000 controller.

1.6.5Omron PLCs

Table 1.9 summarizes four categories of Omron PLCs including Compact CP1 series, Modular CJ1 series, CJ2 series, and Rack CS1 series.

Table 1.7: Mitsubishi PLCs

Table 1.8: GE Fanuc PLCs

Table 1.9: Omron PLCs

Review Questions

1. What is a PLC?

2. What functions does a PLC perform?

3. Explain the main problems with those hardwired relay-based systems.

4. Describe the initial specifications of PLCs proposed by GM’s Hydromatic Division.

5. List the five generations of PLC development and briefly describe each of their contributions.

6. What are the four major components of a PLC system? Briefly describe each.

7. What are the three parts of a processor unit?

8. Describe the functions of a CPU.

9. What are the two types of memory used in PLCs? Describe each type.

10. Explain the purpose of input modules?

11. Use a drawing to help describe the functions of an input module in a PLC project.

12. Use a drawing to help explain the functions of an output module in a PLC project.

13. What are the three types of PLC programming devices? Briefly describe each.

14. List the two types of interface wiring.

15. Use a drawing to help describe the input wiring.

16. Use a drawing to help describe the output wiring.

17. Explain a ladder diagram.

18. Describe the three steps of a PLC implementation cycle.

19. Use a drawing to help describe the PLC scanning process.

20. Compare PLCs and hard-wired relay control systems.

21. List at least five benefits of using PLCs.

22. List five typical applications of PLCs.

23. List the six PLC categories.

CHAPTER 2

Electrical Control Fundamentals

Objectives: Identify the three types of electrical control elements.

Explain the structure and working principle of ladder diagrams.

List various types of input devices and their graphic symbols.

Describe the basic switch configuration.

Identify logic elements and their operating principle.

List various types of output devices and their graphic symbols.

Explain the procedure for constructing the state chart of electrical control circuits.

Construct the state chart of electrical control circuits.

Analyze the state chart to describe the operation of control circuits.

Overview

PLCs are a powerful means for implementing electrical control in various processes and control systems. To take full advantage of PLCs, we need to understand the basic electrical control elements, circuits, and systems. Electrical control is extensively used in every aspect of industry, from manufacturing to chemical process to transportation. Electrical control is implemented by placing three types of control elements in a ladder form of control scheme. Ladder diagrams are popular graphic representations of control circuits. They have two vertical rungs representing power lines and several horizontal rungs with control elements. The status of continuity in each rung controls the output element being energized or de-energized.

There are three types of control elements: input, logic, and output. Input devices provide a switching function for generating an ON/OFF signal or connection to the control rung. Logic elements implement logic decisions for the output based on the input signals. Output devices are normally the last element in the control rung. The output device is energized when its control rung has continuity. It is de-energized when the continuity of its control rung is broken.

In some circumstances, we may not have any documentation for an existing electrical control circuit that we need to service or we may have no circuit diagram of an existing circuit with which to work. We need to know how to analyze an existing electrical control system step-by-step, and finally describe what the systems are performing and their operation steps. This chapter concludes with a discussion of how to analyze electrical control circuits.

2.1 Electrical Control Systems

Many control components in mechanical systems and processes are controlled electrically. An electrical control system is the most effective means of operating over long distances and is efficient when low power levels are involved. Electrical circuits often illustrate the control schemes of the electrical control systems. The most common way to present the control scheme of electrical circuits is the ladder diagram. Electrical control circuits arrange three types of control elements in an appropriate form for accomplishing certain control schemes:

•input (information) devices such as push buttons, limit switches, pressure switches, temperature switches, photodetectors, and liquid level switches

•logic (decision) elements such as relays, timers, and counters

•output (action) devices such as solenoids, contactors, motor starters, lights, and alarms

2.2 Ladder Diagrams

In electrical control circuits, symbols are used to represent the control components. The ladder diagram is the most often used circuit diagram for illustrating the control functions. A ladder diagram uses control component symbols and a plan of their connections to show in simple form the scheme of control. It contains vertical rails and horizontal rungs, much like a ladder. The vertical rails represent the source voltage lines whereas the horizontal rungs depict the devices and circuits connected across the line. In ladder diagrams, the source of electrical power energy will always be two vertical lines (or side of the ladder), as shown in Figure 2.1. The power runs vertically from up to down. A horizontal format can also be used (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.1: Vertical ladder diagram

Figure 2.2: Horizontal ladder diagram

Figure 2.3: Wiring conventions

Control components are placed between two sides of the ladder with two symbols of wiring conditions — conductors connected and conductors not connected — as shown in Figure 2.3. Two wires with a dot in their intersection represent an electrical junction, whereas two wires crossing without a dot indicate no electrical junction (not electrically connected).

2.2.1Continuity

Continuity is defined as having power flowing from one rail to the other rail along a rung (Figure 2.4). All connecting elements in the rung must be closed to provide