!"##"$%&'())*)+,)-".

#/"#0
123"4.)5.2/

6789:;8<<8=:

>#0".#20?)#2*@.2$"A""03>#0"**"'0B2*4.)C".0%D
@("A2E?#5)+0("@7>4&F5.""/"#0

L0<0<35?&)355=">.01"62)"0.P?1%<'0?321%"=BQ2Q%"55:
R(. MJJS L'%..>.2) "2 R%31.T.53).1 L0#.=)0 "7 U2).55.=)<35 /%"#.%)$ T&'()0? "% RTU/F?
.0)3-5&0(.1)(.>"0)=">#%.(.20&9.0.)"7'5"-35)%31.%<5.07"%&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$V#%").=)&2'
.9.%$)(&2' 7%"> F&$#7 I+$*#+7* )" /%"W3= )" ;&%9323Q0 I+ J*'(5 @35"2' 6&)( T"<21<# 6..1 B&55.%
321 K&=%"0"7) X&21"60A: L7).% 0.9.2 $.3%0 "7 2.'")&3)&2'? &21<0)%&.0 )(3) %.5$ "2 ="#$%&'()0?
#3).2)0?321)%31.>3%B0%.=.&9.1>"%.#%").=)&"2)(3232$"2.(31-.5&.9.1#"00&-5.3))(."<)0.)
"7)(.)35B0:
RTU/F630="2=5<1.1&2)(.="2).P)"7)(.H%<'<3$T"<21"7)(.G.2.%35L'%..>.2)"2
R%31. 321 R3%&770 )35B0: GLRR )35B0 (31 <0<355$ -..2 ="2=.%2.1 6&)( >"%. ="29.2)&"235 )%31.
&00<.00<=(30)3%&770?321>32$="<2)%&.0&2&)&355$(312"&2).%.0)&2311&2'&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$
#%").=)&"2)")(.H%<'<3$T"<213'.213Y0">.6.%."##"0.1)">.%.5$1&0=<00&2'U/<21.%)(.
3<0#&=.0 "7 )(. GLRR: K"%."9.%? .9.2 0<##"%).%0V23>.5$? )(. H2&).1 F)3).0? Z<%"#.? 321
D3#32V(310.%&"<01&03'%..>.2)03-"<)6(3)="20)&)<).13##%"#%&3).#%").=)&"2:T&'()<#)")(.
MJO[>&2&0).%&35>..)&2')(3)53<2=(.1)(.2.'")&3)&"20?)(.&2).%.0).1#3%)&.0(312"&1.36(.)(.%
&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$6"<51-.#3%)"7)(.%"<21:
L5)("<'( &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ #%").=)&"2 630 <5)&>3).5$ &2=5<1.1 &2 )(. >&2&0).%&35
1.=53%3)&"2 @&:.:? )(. 3'.213 7"% )(. %"<21A? )(. 7&%0) )6" $.3%0 "7 RTU/F )35B0 0("6.1 5&))5.
>"9.>.2): L0 "2. HF 2.'")&3)"% %.>.>-.%0? \R(.%. 630 2" %.35 1&0=<00&"2 3) 355:] K3^"% %&7)0
.P&0).1 -.)6..2 1.9.5"#.1 321 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0? 321 >32$ "7 )(. 2.'")&3)"%0 (31 2"
#%.9&"<0 .P#.%&.2=. 6&)( &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$: L) )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 >&1).%> %.9&.6 &2 MJOO?

!"#$%&%'()&$)(#**'+,-."&(&+/'0'('&1234'+#5(6'$'&(7"'(&**"'8&(0&(9:&)47"55;<(5=(&>5+?'=5*#&*#5+
&+9*"'@5"+ABC'++'9-47"55;5DE50'(+>'+*.'+*'(D5(F1$#+'$$&+9E50'(+>'+*3D5(65,'(*:&)('+7'3G;,'(*:B
H#;;#&>$ <(5D'$$5( 5D I+*'(+&*#5+&; !(&9' &+9 I+0'$*>'+* &* *"' @5"+ AB C'++'9- 47"55; 5D E50'(+>'+*3 8&(0&(9
J+#0'($#*-3&+9K#7"&';H&*L#+$3G$$57#&*'<(5D'$$5(&**"'8&(0&(9F1$#+'$$47"55;B!"'%&%'(>&-,'1$'9&;5+'
5(#+75+M1+7*#5+)#*"N!6I<4<&(*II3OP?6QRSTQUVWXB6'0#$'94'%*'>,'(YSSRB
!"#$%&'() * +,,+ -$ )(. /%.0&1.2) 321 4.55"60 "7 83%93%1 !"55.'.: ;" #3%) "7 )(&0 #<-5&=3)&"2 >3$ -.
%.#%"1<=.1? %.9&0.1? )%32053).1? 0)"%.1 &2 3 %.)%&.935 0$0).>? <0.1 &2 30#%.310(..)?"%)%320>&)).1&232$
7"%>"%-$32$>.320@.5.=)%"2&=?>.=(32&=35?#(")"="#$&2'?%.="%1&2'?"%")(.%6&0.A6&)("<))(.6%&)).2
#.%>&00&"2"7)(.!30./%"'%3>:4"%"%1.%0321="#$%&'()#.%>&00&"2&27"%>3)&"2?#5.30.9&0&)"<%6.-0&).
3) 666:B0'=30.:(3%93%1:.1< "% 0.21 3 6%&)).2 %.C<.0) )" !30. /%"'%3>? D"(2 4: E.22.1$ F=(""5 "7
G"9.%2>.2)?83%93%1H2&9.%0&)$?IJD"(24:E.22.1$F)%..)?!3>-%&1'.?KL,+MNO

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

RTU/F 630 ="20&1.%.1 )" -. "2. "7 )(. \#%"-5.> '%"<#0?] 53=B&2' .9.2 3 ="20.20<0 "2 3
7%3>.6"%B7"%)(.2.'")&3)&"20:
R(. 1.315"=B "9.% RTU/F 630 -%"B.2 &2 MJOJ? 321 2.'")&3)"%0 -.'32 )" 1&0=<00 63$0 )"
#%").=)? .27"%=.? 321 0.))5. 1&0#<).0"9.%&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$:8"6.9.%?-.=3<0."7)(.1&77.%.2)
5.'35 )%31&)&"20 "7 #%").=)&"2 &2 H2&).1 F)3).0? Z<%"#.? 321 D3#32? )(. 0<##"%).%0Q #.%0&0).2)
1&03'%..>.2)00""2&2).20&7&.1:U7)(.%.6.%.)"-.'5"-350)3213%10?6("0.6"<51)(.$-.aU2)(.
>&10)"7)(&01&0=<00&"2?32&>#300.)(3)1.9.5"#.1&2MJJ,"9.%3'%&=<5)<%350<-0&1&.0-%"<'())(.
'+*#('H%<'<3$T"<21)"3(35):
R(%.. $.3%0 53).%? &2 b.=.>-.% MJJN? )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 .21.1 3) 530)? 37).% 0.9.%35
05..#5.002&'()0"7(&'(0)3B.02.'")&3)&2':c77&=&350.>.%'.16&)(>"%.)(32S,,#3'.0"71.)3&5.1
)%31.3'%..>.2)0321++?,,,#3'.0"70<##5.>.2)3%$&27"%>3)&"2321=">>&)>.2)0:L>"2')(.0.
1"=<>.2)0630)(.7&235RTU/F3'%..>.2):
K32$=(3%3=).%&W.1)(.RTU/F)35B030(39&2'-..2&2&)&3).13211%&9.2-$HFB2"65.1'.
-30.1 &21<0)%&.0? #3%)&=<53%5$ #(3%>3=.<)&=350? .2).%)3&2>.2)? 3'%"=(.>&=350? 321 =">#<).%
0"7)63%.:L0"2.#3%)&=&#32)#<)0&)?\U)6303#3%)2.%0(&#-.)6..2&21<0)%$321'"9.%2>.2))(3)
(31 2.9.% .P&0).1 -.7"%. &2 32 &2).%23)&"235 )%31. 2.'")&3)&"2:] F">. 03$ )(&0 #3%)2.%0(&# 5.1 )"
\#").2)&355$)(.>"0)&>#"%)32)5.'3531932=.7"%)(.6"%51)%31&2'0$0).>0&2=.)(..0)3-5&0(>.2)
"7 )(. GLRR &2 MJSI:] M c)(.%0 9&.6 RTU/F 30 3 #%&>. .P3>#5. "7 )(. =3#)<%. "7 3 ><5)&53).%35
#%"=.00-$HF&21<0)%$:

G(20>3>#0"**"'0B2*4.)C".0%H
U2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ =32 -. 1.7&2.1 30 &27"%>3)&"2 6&)( 3 =">>.%=&35 935<.: U2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$ %&'()0 3%. 3 =">#"0&). "7 \&1.30? &29.2)&"20? 321 =%.3)&9. .P#%.00&"20] 321 \)(. #<-5&=
6&55&2'2.00)"-.0)"6)(.0)3)<0"7#%"#.%)$"2)(.>:] + U2)(.H2&).1F)3).0?)(.%&'())"#%").=)U/
&0%.="'2&W.1&2)(.!"20)&)<)&"2@L%)&=5.U?F.=)&"2OA: N
Z="2">&0)0'.2.%355$-.5&.9.&2)(.2..1)"#%").=)&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$?3%'<&2')(3)7%..
>3%B.)7"%=.035"2.1"2")#%"9&1.0<77&=&.2)&2=.2)&9.)"=%.3).B2"65.1'.:L2&22"93)"%=322")
3##%"#%&3).)(.7<55-.2.7&)"7(&0"%(.%&22"93)&"2:R(.%.7"%.?>32$.="2">&0)0>3&2)3&2)(3))(.
=%.3)&"2"7B2"65.1'.><0).&)(.%-.0<-0&1&W.1-$)(.'"9.%2>.2)"%-.#%").=).1)(%"<'()(.

Michael P. Ryan, Knowledge Diplomacy: Global Competition and the Politics of Intellectual Property,
Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998, p. 1.

R.M. Sherwood, 1990, Intellectual Property and Economic Development, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990,
p. 11 cited in Carlos A. Primo Braga, Trade-Related Intellectual Property Issues: The Uruguay Round and Its
Economic Implications, in The Uruguay Round and the Developing Economies, ed. Will Martin and L. Alan
Winters, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1995, p. 382.

The Congress shall have Power To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited
Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries. Harvard Law
School Professor William Alford notes in remarks to the author that Article I, Section 8, does not apply to
trademarks.

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

=%.3)&"2 "7 ).>#"%3%$ >"2"#"5&.0? 6(&=( =32 #3$ 7"% )(.&22"93)&9.3=)&9&)$:/"5&=$>3B.%0><0)

1.).%>&2. ("6 ><=( #%").=)&"2 &0 2..1.1 )" 355"6 32 31.C<3). %3). "7 %.)<%2 )" 0)&><53).
&22"93)&"2:
/"5&=&.0 )" #%").=) &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ &2=5<1. )(. '%32)&2' "7 #3).2)0? )%31.>3%B0? 321
="#$%&'()0:/3).2)0#%").=)&29.2)&"20)(3)3%.2"9.5?2")"-9&"<0)")("0.&2)(.7&.51?321<0.7<5:
L#3).2)..(30)(.%&'())".P=5<1.")(.%07%"><0&2'?>3B&2'?"%0.55&2')(.#3).2).1&29.2)&"27"%
3 0#.=&7&.1 #.%&"1 "7 )&>.: R%31.>3%B0 3%. =">>.%=&35 0$>-"50 <0.1 )" &1.2)&7$ '""10 321
0.%9&=.0"%)(.&%#%"1<=.%0@.:':?!"=3!"53?G<==&A:!"#$%&'()0#%").=)6"%B0"73<)("%0(&#?0<=(
30-""B0?7%">)(.)&>."7)(.&%=%.3)&"2:U2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$#%").=)&"2&0350""7).2.P).21.1)"
)%31.0.=%.)0?&21<0)%&351.0&'20?53$"<)1.0&'20"7&2).'%3).1=&%=<&)0?321'."'%3#(&=35&21&=3)&"20
)(3)&1.2)&7$3#%"1<=)?0<=(306&2.?6&)(3#3%)&=<53%%.'&"2@.:':?!(3-5&0?!(3>#3'2.A:
R(.0)3B.0&2#%").=)&2'&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$6.%.(&'(7"%>32$HF=">#32&.0:;")"25$
&0)(.="0)"7#%"1<=)1.9.5"#>.2)&2)(.B2"65.1'.-30.13213%)&0)&=&21<0)%&.00&'2&7&=32)?-<)
0<==.00&0%3%.5$'<3%32)..1:R(.="0)"7&>&)3)&2')(.0.#%"1<=)0?("6.9.%?&0"7).2%.53)&9.5$5"6:
d.7"%. RTU/F 630 =">#5.).1? )(. HF U2).%23)&"235 R%31. !">>&00&"2 @UR!A .0)&>3).1 )(3)
L>.%&=32 =">#32&.0 5"0) -.)6..2 eSN 321 e[, -&55&"2 322<355$ 1<. )" &231.C<3). &2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$ #%").=)&"2 3-%"31: S /(3%>3=.<)&=350? =(.>&=35 #%"1<=)0? 7&5>0? 0"7)63%.? #<-5&=3)&"20?
321 0"<21 %.="%1&2'0 6.%. 3>"2' )(. #%"1<=)0 377.=).1: U2 MJOJ? HF U/T%.53).1 &21<0)%&.0
.P#"%).1e`O:O-&55&"2&2'""10="9.%.1-$#3).2)0?)%31.>3%B0321="#$%&'()0V3-"<)M[#.%=.2)
"7HF>.%=(321&0..P#"%)0: `
U2).%23)&"235>3%B.)06.%."7'%"6&2'0&'2&7&=32=.)")(.HF7&5>321).5.9&0&"2-<0&2.00:
8"55$6""1 630 350" &>#"%)32) )" )(. HF .="2">$Y -$ MJJM? )(. &21<0)%$ '.2.%3).1 32 322<35
)%31. 0<%#5<0 "7 >"%. )(32 eS:` -&55&"2? 0.="21 "25$ )" )(. 3.%"0#3=. -<0&2.00: [ d<) )(.%. 6.%.
%&0B0&29"59.1&2>3B&2'>"9&.0V)6")(&%10"73557&5>01&12")%.="<#)(.&%#%"1<=)&"2="0)0:L0
9&1."=300.)). %.="%1.%0 -.=3>. >"%. %.31&5$ 393&53-5.? 355"6&2' 32$"2. )" ="#$ 9&1.")3#.0? )(.
&21<0)%$Q0 #%"-5.>0 6&)( #&%3=$ 3-%"31 &2=%.30.1: R(. K")&"2 /&=)<%. L00"=&3)&"2 "7 L>.%&=3
@K/LLA%.#"%).1&2MJOJ)(3)#&%3=$3=="<2).17"%0">.eM:+-&55&"2&25"0)%.9.2<.0:U2MJJ,?)(.
K/LL 0#.2) e+, >&55&"2 7&'()&2' 7&5>? 9&1."=300.)).? 321 =3-5. Rf \-321&)0:] I \E..# &2 >&21?]
%.>3%B.1 D3=B f35.2)&? )(.2 #%.0&1.2) "7 )(. K/LL? \)(3) )(. HF 7&5> &21<0)%$ 1".0 3-"<) e+S
-&55&"2 3 $.3%: 4"%)$"2. #.%=.2) "7 )(3) =">.0 7%"> &2).%23)&"235 >3%B.)0? 0" &) &0 &2=%.30&2'5$
=%<=&35321&>#"%)32))(3))("0.>3%B.)0%.>3&2"#.2321)(3)"<%U/&0#%").=).17%">)(&.9.%$:
X.3%.="20)32)5$9&'&532)-.=3<0.?5&B.9&%)<.?6.3%..9.%$13$-.0&.'.1:] O

Montreal Trade Talks; Intellectual Property Talks Stalled, The Financial Times, December 1, 1988, section I, p.
4. Debate continues over the actual value of foreign infringement of US intellectual property; critics note that
USITC figures are based on data supplied by domestic industries.

Keith Maskus, Intellectual Property Rights and the Uruguay Round, Economic Review 78, no. 1, 1993, p. 15.

Bruce Stokes, Tinseltown Trade Wars, The National Journal, February 23, 1991.

Faye Rice, How Copycats Steal Billions, Fortune Magazine, April 22, 1991, p. 157.

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Jack Valenti are from an August 1997 interview with the author.
According to industry sources, exports accounted for 22 percent of revenues in 1985, growing to 35 percent by
1989 (Bruce Stokes, Tinseltown Trade Wars, The National Journal, February 23, 1991).

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

X&)( %.0#.=) )" )(. #(3%>3=.<)&=35 &21<0)%$? .P#.%)0 2"). )(3) "25$ "2. =">>.%=&355$
9&3-5. 1%<' .>.%'.0 7%"> .9.%$ S?,,, )" M,?,,, =">#"<210 0=%..2.1 &2 3 #%"=.00 )(3) "7).2
&29"59.0 M, $.3%0 "7 ).0)&2' 321 =5&2&=35 )%&350: J U2 311&)&"2? )" 1&0="9.% 321 1.9.5"# 3 2.6
>.1&=&2.321-%&2'&))">3%B.)&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0="0)0"239.%3'.e`,,>&55&"2: M, G&9.2)(.0.
)%.>.21"<0="0)0?>32$HF321Z<%"#.32#(3%>3=.<)&=35=">#32&.03%'<.1)(3))(.="#$&2'321
035. "7 #3).2).1 1%<'0 3%"<21 )(. 6"%51 1&>&2&0(.1 )(. 3>"<2) "7 >"2.$ 393&53-5. 7"% 7<%)(.%
%.0.3%=(: R(. 1%<' =">#32$ K.%=B g !": 7"<21 )(3) '5"-35 #3).2) #&%3=$ ="0) )(. HF
#(3%>3=.<)&=35 -<0&2.00 3-"<) e[ -&55&"2 &2 MJO[? #"00&-5$ %.1<=&2' )(. &21<0)%$Q0 Tgb
&29.0)>.2) -$ -.)6..2 eI+, >&55&"2 321 eJ,, >&55&"2: MM U2 311&)&"2? /7&W.%Q0 =(3&%>32 Z1><21
/%3)) .0)&>3).1 )(3) -3))5.0 )" 1.7.21 (&0 =">#32$Q0 #3).2)0 (31 ="0) "9.% eM,, >&55&"2 -.)6..2
MJOM 321 MJJM: M+ HF #(3%>3=.<)&=35 =">#32&.0 6.%. 2") '.))&2' \3 73&% 0(3B.?] "2. /7&W.%
.P.=<)&9.2").1:4"%.P3>#5.?&20&Ph3)&2L>.%&=32="<2)%&.0?/7&W.%Q0035.0"7M+#3).2).11%<'0
3>"<2).1)"e+S:[>&55&"2&2MJOS:!">#32&.0)(3)="#&.1)(.0.1%<'0?("6.9.%?-%"<'()&2eN,:+
>&55&"2&2035.0: MN
R(. #"0&)&"2 "7 U/-30.1 &21<0)%&.0 630 2") <2&9.%0355$ 3==.#).1? ("6.9.%: K32$
1.9.5"#&2' 23)&"20 "##"0.1 )(. &1.3 "7 0)%.2')(.2&2' &2).%23)&"235 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ %&'()0:
\L21 6&)( '""1 %.30"2?] 03$0 4: K: F=(.%.%? #%"7.00"% "7 #<-5&= #"5&=$ 321 >323'.>.2) 3)
83%93%1Q0D"(24:E.22.1$F=(""5"7G"9.%2>.2):\U2)(.HF?6.3%.5"9.5$($#"=%&).0:X(.26.
6.%.31.9.5"#&2'23)&"26.0$0).>3)&=355$3##%"#%&3).1")(.%#."#5.Q0).=(2"5"'$:F")(3)630
)(.63$6.1.9.5"#.1?-<)6.1"2Q)632)")(.%#."#5.)"3##%"#%&3)."<%).=(2"5"'$&2"%1.%)"
1.9.5"#: d<) "7 ="<%0. 6. (39. 2" (&0)"%&=35 >.>"%$? 0" 6. 1"2Q) .9.2 B2"6 6.Q%. -.&2'
($#"=%&)&=35:] MS
;"% 6.%. 1.9.5"#&2' 23)&"20 35"2. &2 )(.&% %.0.%93)&"20: F">. &21<0)%&35&W.1 23)&"20
)%31&)&"2355$ 1&12")355"6#3).2)0"27""10)<770321>.1&=&2.0?("51&2')(3)>"2"#"5&.00("<51
2") -. #.%>&)).1 "2 #%"1<=)0 0" &>#"%)32) )" ="20<>.% 6.573%.: Z9.2 F6&)W.%5321? (">. 3) "2.
)&>. )" )(%.. 5.31&2' #(3%>3=.<)&=35 =">#32&.0? "77.%.1 2" #3).2) #%").=)&"2 "2 1%<' #%"1<=)0
<2)&5MJII: M` L03%.0<5)?0">..P#.%)01.=%&.1)(.=(3%3=).%&W3)&"2"7="#$&2'#%"1<=)030\#&%3=$?]
0&2=. 0<=( ="#$&2' 630 "7).2 5367<5 <21.% 3 ="<2)%$Q0 5.'35 0$0).> 321 .P&0)&2' &2).%23)&"235
3'%..>.2)0:L=="%1&2')"F=(.%.%?<0."7)(.).%>630\3-&'#<-5&=%.53)&"200=3>]i

Michael P. Ryan, Knowledge Diplomacy: Global Competition and the Politics of Intellectual Property, p. 5.

M,

Ambassador Clayton Yeutter (United States Trade Representative, 1985-88), in the forward of Jacques J. Gorlin,
An Analysis of the Pharmaceutical-Related Provisions of the WTO TRIPS (Intellectual Property) Agreement,
London: Intellectual Property Institute, 1999, p. ii. In addition, a number of PhRMA publications cite the $500
million figure (attributing it to a Boston Consulting Group study of January 1996).

MM

USITC (US International Trade Commission), Potential Impact on the US Economy and Selected Industries of the
NAFTA, USITC Publication 2596, Washington: US International Trade Commission, 1993, p. 9-3.

M+

Faye Rice, How Copycats Steal Billions, p. 157.

MN

Michael J. Zamba, Going after Patent Pirates at Punta del Este, Christian Science Monitor, September 18, 1986,
p. 22.

MS

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from F. M. Scherer are from a December 1998 interview with the author.

M`

F.M. Scherer, The Patent System and Innovation in Pharmaceuticals, paper presented at the AIDE Conference
on Pharmaceutical Patents, Innovation and Public Health, Toulouse, France, December 1998, p. 6.,

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

R(.%.&03536"7)(.0.30)(3)03$0\)("<0(3552")0).35>.%=(321&0.7%">
")(.% #."#5.Q0 0(&#0:] b"&2' 0" -$ 7"%=.V)3B&2' 32")(.%Q0 0(&# 321 &)0
#%"#.%)$V&0 #&%3=$ 321 630 ><)<355$ ="21.>2.1 -$ 355 23)&"20: F">.
=">#32&.0-%321.1)(.3=)&9&)$"7B2"=B&2'"7731%<')(3)630#3).2).1
&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0?-<)2")&2U21&3?"%B2"=B&2'"773#&.=."70"7)63%.
)(3)630="#$%&'().1&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0?-<)2")&2!(&23?)(.$-%321.1
)(3)#&%3=$:d<))(.#%"1<=)&"2"7)(.0.#%"1<=)0630#.%7.=)5$="20&0).2)
6&)()(.5360"7)(.="<2)%$&26(&=()(.B2"=B&2'"777&%>6305"=3).1:U)
6302")9&"53)&2'32$&2).%23)&"235536:X(.%.630)(.5369&"53)&"2aF"
&)Q02")#&%3=$:d<)#&%3=$(303).%%&-5$.>")&"235&>#3=)321UQ>0<%.)(.
6"%1 630 =("0.2 1.5&-.%3).5$ &2 "%1.% )" '.) )(. >"0) #<-5&= %.53)&"20
&>#3=)#"00&-5.:
8"6.9.%?0">."-0.%9.%02").)(3)>32$1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0(3153603'3&20)="#$&2'=.%)3&2
#%"1<=)0 0<=( 30 =5")(&2' 321 ><0&=? -<) "7).2 )(.0. 5360 6.%. 2") .27"%=.1: U2 0<=( =30.0? )(.
=(3%'."7#&%3=$\>31.0">.0.20.:]

>#0".#20?)#2*>#0"**"'0B2*4.)C".0%4.)0"'0?)#
R(.><5)&53).%35)%.3)&.0"2&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$)(3).P&0).1-.7"%.)(.H%<'<3$T"<21V
)(. >"0) &>#"%)32) -.&2' )(. /3%&0 !"29.2)&"2 7"% )(. /%").=)&"2 "7 U21<0)%&35 /%"#.%)$ @MOONA?
%.53)&2' )" #3).2)0? )%31.>3%B0? 321 &21<0)%&35 1.0&'20? 321 )(. d.%2. !"29.2)&"2 7"% )(.
/%").=)&"2 "7 h&).%3%$ 321 L%)&0)&= X"%B @MOO[A? 32 &2).%23)&"235 3'%..>.2) "2 ="#$%&'()0V6.%.
31>&2&0).%.1-$)(.X"%51U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$c%'32&W3)&"2@XU/cA:Z0)3-5&0(.1&2MJ[I?XU/c
^"&2.1)(.H2&).1;3)&"200$0).>&2MJIS?-.=">&2'"2."7M`0#.=&35&W.1H;3'.2=&.0:XU/c630
%.0#"20&-5. 7"% #%">")&2' )(. #%").=)&"2 "7 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ )(%"<'("<) )(. 6"%51? 321 &)0
3=)&9&)&.06.%.53%'.5$1.9").1)"(.5#&2'5.001.9.5"#.123)&"201%37)32131>&2&0).%23)&"235U/
5360: M[
K32$ U/%.53).1 &2).%.0)0 &2 )(. H2&).1 F)3).0? !32313? 321 X.0).%2 Z<%"#. ="20&1.%.1
XU/c )" -. )"")(5.00: K.>-.%0(&# &2 )(. .P&0)&2' ="29.2)&"20 630 2") <2&9.%035 321 2"
.27"%=.>.2) 321 1&0#<). %.0"5<)&"2 >.=(32&0>0 .P&0).1: L=="%1&2' )" "2. "-0.%9.%? )(&0 0$0).>
630\53%'.5$&2=3#3-5."71&0=&#5&2&2'.9.2)(.>"0).'%.'&"<07"%>0"7)%31.>3%B321="#$%&'()
&27%&2'.>.2):] MI 4"%#3).2)0?)(.=.2)%35).2.)"7)(./3%&0!"29.2)&"2630+&*#5+&;*('&*>'+*Z&2&)0
#3).2) #%").=)&"2? 3 ="<2)%$ (31 )" )%.3) 7"%.&'2 321 1">.0)&= #%"1<=.%0 )(. 03>.: R(&0 0$0).>
\'39.="<2)%&.03%"<21)(.6"%5135")"71&0=%.)&"2&21.0&'2&2')(.&%#3).2)5360?]03$0L%9&21
F<-%3>32&32?37"%>.%>.>-.%"7)(.GLRRF.=%.)3%&3)Q0RTU/F'%"<#:\R(3)Q06($$"<7"<21&2
9&%)<355$3551.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.02"#%").=)&"27"%#(3%>3=.<)&=35"%=(.>&=35#%"1<=)0:R(&0630

M[

See www.wipo.int.

MI

Keith Maskus, Intellectual Property, in Completing the Uruguay Round: A Results Oriented Approach to the
GATT Trade Negotiations, ed. Jeffrey J. Schott, Washington: Institute for International Economics, 1990, p. 168.

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

5.'&)&>3). <21.% )(. /3%&0 !"29.2)&"2:] MO 4"% .P3>#5.? 3=="%1&2' )" XU/c? "7 )(. JO >.>-.%
23)&"20 "7 )(. /3%&0 !"29.2)&"2? SJ .P=5<1.1 #(3%>3=.<)&=35 #%"1<=)0 7%"> #%").=)&"2 321 ++
.P=5<1.1=(.>&=35#%"1<=)0: MJ
X&)( )(. 0<##"%) "7 HF =">#32&.0 )(3) %.5&.1 "2 #3).2)0? .0#.=&355$ /7&W.%? )(. H2&).1
F)3).0 ("#.1 )" 0)%.2')(.2 #3).2) #%").=)&"2 <21.% XU/c -$ %.9&0&2' )(. /3%&0 !"29.2)&"2: d<)
)(.7"<%="27.%.2=.0(.51-.)6..2MJO,321MJOS73&5.1?53%'.5$-.=3<0.)(.1.-3).0-.)6..2)(.
1.9.5"#.1 321 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 ="<51 2") -. %.0"59.1: R(. H2&).1 F)3).0 321 ")(.%
&21<0)%&35&W.1 ="<2)%&.0 3%'<.1 )(3) 6&)("<) #3).2) #%").=)&"2? =">#32&.0 (31 2" &2=.2)&9. )"
&29.0))"=%.3).2.6321-.)).%1%<'0:b.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0="<2).%.1)(3))(.$%.#%.0.2).139.%$
0>35505&=."7'5"-35>3%B.)0(3%.:U2311&)&"2?)(.$03&1?>"0)2.61%<'&22"93)&"20)3%'.).1)(.
(.35)( #%"-5.>0 "7 )(. #+91$*(#&; 6"%51V="21&)&"20 0<=( <5=.%0 321 (.3%) 1&0.30.: U2 .="2">&=
).%>0?&2=%.30&2'U/#%").=)&"26"<51-%&2')(.1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.02"0&'2&7&=32)1$23>&='3&20
-<)6"<51&275&=)="20&1.%3-5.0)3)&=="0)0i&2=%.30.1#%&=.0?>"%.%"$35)&.0)"7"%.&'2.%0?321(3%>
)"="20<>.%6.573%.:4&2355$?)(.)(%&9&2''.2.%&=1%<'&21<0)%&.0&2="<2)%&.00<=(30U21&3?d%3W&5?
321 K.P&=" ="<51 -. 377.=).1 -$ &2=%.30.1 #3).2) #%").=)&"2: \R(. .77"%)0 &2 XU/c 6.%.
<20<==.007<5 -.=3<0. )(.%. 630 2" 0="#. 7"% >3B&2' )%31."770?] F<-%3>32&32 %.>.>-.%0:
\b.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 6"<51 03$? jU7 6. 6.%. )" 1" )(&0? 6(3) 6"<51 6. '.) &2 %.)<%2aQ L#3%)
7%">)(.73=))(3))(.$6.%.9&"5.2)5$"##"0.1)"&)3))(3)0)3'.?.9.2&7)(.$6.%.)"="2=.1.)(.
C<.0)&"2630?X(3)630)(.#3$"777"%)(.>a]
R(. &23-&5&)$ )" .P.%=&0. 5.31.%0(&# 3) XU/c 7%<0)%3).1 0">. HF '"9.%2>.2) "77&=&350:
\R(.73=))(3)6.6.%.)(.2<>-.%"2.>3%B.)&2)(.6"%51321#%"-3-5$)(.-.0)"2&2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$#%").=)&"2630"7).25"0)"2.9.%$-"1$?]%.=3550G.%351K"00&2'("77?HF3>-30031"%)"
)6" "7 )(. 0.00&"20 "2 %.9&0&2' )(. /3%&0 !"29.2)&"2 321 53).% #%.0&1.2) "7 )(. /(3%>3=.<)&=35
T.0.3%=(321K32<73=)<%.%0"7L>.%&=3@/(TKLA:\X.6.%."2.9").3>"2'M`,:U)("<'()?jR(&0
&0=%3W$:X(3)(3##.2.1)")(.5.31.%0(&#%"5."7)(.H2&).1F)3).0aQ] +,

I&>#$B30.%J.B30.20?)#3
U21<0)%$ '%"<#0 (31 -.'<2 )" 3##%"3=( )(. HF '"9.%2>.2) 3-"<) 6(3) )(.$ 9&.6.1 30
#&%3=$ "7 )(.&% &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ &2 )(. >&1MJI,0: U2 #3%)&=<53%? )(. 3'%"=(.>&=35 0.=)"% 630

MO

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Arvind Subramanian are from a January 2000 interview with the author.

MJ

In addition, 45 members excluded animal varieties; 44, methods of treatment of the human or animal body; 44,
plant varieties; 42, biological processes for producing animal or plant varieties; 32, computer programs; and 35,
excluded food products (WIPO, Existence, Scope and Form of Generally Internationally Accepted and Applied
Standards/Norms for the Protection of Intellectual Property, GATT Document MTN.GNG/NG11/W/24/Rev.1,
1988, annexes I and II, as cited in Peter Drahos with John Braithwaite, Information Feudalism: Who Owns the
Knowledge Economy? New York: New Press, 2002, p. 124).

+,

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Gerald Mossinghoff are from an August 1997 interview with the author.
After serving as chairman of the General Assembly of WIPO, Mossinghoff chaired the Subcommittee on
Intellectual Property of President Reagans Cabinet Council on Commerce and Trade. He was also Assistant
Secretary of Commerce and Commissioner of the US Patents and Trademarks Office before becoming president of
PhRMA.

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

7%<0)%3).1 -$ )(. ="#$&2' "7 &)0 #%"1<=)0 &2 8<2'3%$: +M /.0)&=&1.0 321 ")(.% =(.>&=350 6.%.
.P)%.>.5$ .P#.20&9. )" 1.9.5"#? ).0)? 321 0)<1$V-.)6..2 eMN 321 e+, >&55&"2 #.% #%"1<=)?
&21<0)%$ %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 =53&>.1: ++ R(.$ 3%'<.1 )(3) )(. =(.>&=350 >32<73=)<%.1 &2 8<2'3%$
6.%. 0"51 &2 -")( 1">.0)&= 321 &2).%23)&"235 >3%B.)0? &2=5<1&2' d%3W&5? U21&3? 321 R3&632?
6&)("<) )(. #.%>&00&"2 "7 )(. =">#32&.0 )(3) 1.9.5"#.1 )(.>: R(. HF ;3)&"235 L'%&=<5)<%35
!(.>&=350 L00"=&3)&"2 .0)&>3).1 )(3) )(. H2&).1 F)3).0 0)""1 )" 5"0. eM`, >&55&"2 &2 .P#"%)0 &2
MJIJ 35"2. 30 3 %.0<5) "7 8<2'3%$Q0 .77"%)0: +N D&> Z2$3%)? 3 X30(&2')"2? b!? %.#%.0.2)3)&9. "7
K"2032)"? 1.=&1.1 )" 1" 0">.)(&2' 3-"<) &): R"'.)(.% 6&)( %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 "7 )6" ")(.%
3'%"=(.>&=35#%"1<=.%0?4K!321F)3<77.%!(.>&=35?Z2$3%)3##%"3=(.1"77&=&350&2!"2'%.00?)(.
!">>.%=.b.#3%)>.2)?)(.R%31.T.#%.0.2)3)&9.?321)(./3).2)321R%31.>3%Bc77&=.@/RcA&2
32.77"%))"'3&20">.5.9.%3'.&21.35&2'6&)()(.8<2'3%&320:
R(.3'%"=(.>&=35=">#32&.0>31.)(.=30.)(3)&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$0("<51-.)%.3).130
3 )%31. &00<. 321 )(3) &)0 0$0).>3)&= )(.7) )(.%.7"%. ="20)&)<).1 32 <273&% )%31. #%3=)&=.: Z2$3%)
%.>.>-.%0 )(. '"9.%2>.2)Q0 &2&)&35 %.0#"20.: \L) )(. )&>. .9.%$"2. 03&1i jc( '..? #3).2)0 3%.
(&'(5$).=(2&=35?9.%$.0").%&=)(&2'0:X(3)1")(.$(39.)"1"6&)()%31.aQL216.#%.00.1)(.>
321 03&1i jh""B? &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ &0 #%"#.%)$: U) ="0)0 >"2.$ 321 )&>. )" =%.3).Y &) (30
=">>.%=&35 935<.? 321 &7 #."#5. 0).35 &)? &)Q0 5&B. 0).35&2' 32$ ")(.% B&21 "7 #%"#.%)$:Q] R(&0
3%'<>.2) 630 3 (3%1 0.55? 3=="%1&2' )" Z2$3%)? -.=3<0. \)(. >&2<). $"< 6"<51 03$ j#3).2)Q
.9.%$-"1$Q0.$.06"<51'53W."9.%:] +S
d<) &2 )(. .21? )(. ="35&)&"2 7"<21 355&.0: U2 D<2. MJIJ? )(. !">>.%=. b.#3%)>.2) 5.1 3
1.5.'3)&"2 )" 8<2'3%$ 321 5.32.1 "2 5"=35 '"9.%2>.2) "77&=&350 )" 1" 0">.)(&2' 3-"<) )(.
3'%"=(.>&=350 &00<.:F.23)"%D"(2b327"%)(@TKcA"7)(.F.23).F<-=">>&)).."2U2).%23)&"235
R%31. 630 350" 0$>#3)(.)&=: U2 (.3%&2'0 "2 !3#&)"5 8&55 ="2=.%2&2' %.2.635 "7 >"0) 739"%.1
23)&"2)%31&2'0)3)<07"%8<2'3%$?b327"%)(C<.0)&"2.16(.)(.%)%31.%&'()00("<51-.'%32).1)"
3 ="<2)%$ )(3) ="#&.1 U/ 7%"> HF &21<0)%&.0: +` L7).% (.3%&2' ).0)&>"2$ 7%"> )(. =(.>&=35
=">#32&.0?=">>&))..=(3&%>32F.23)"%L-%3(3>T&-&="77@b!RA1.=53%.1)(3)8<2'3%$Q0K4;
0)3)<0 630 \&2 0.%&"<0 ^."#3%1$:] +[ R(&0 \B&21 "7 '") )(. 8<2'3%&320Q 3)).2)&"2?] 03$0 Z2$3%):
;.'")&3)&"20 .20<.1 -.)6..2 8<2'3%&32 "77&=&350? )(. =(.>&=35 =">#32&.0? )(. HF !">>.%=.
b.#3%)>.2)?R%31.T.#%.0.2)3)&9.?321/Rc:b3$037).%)(.F.23).(.3%&2'?K"2032)"0&'2.132
3'%..>.2) 6&)( )(. 8<2'3%&32 3'%"=(.>&=35 .P#"%) )%31. "%'32&W3)&"2 )(3)? 3=="%1&2' )" 3

+M

These chemicals included Roundup weed killer (Monsanto), Furandan (FMC), and Eradicane (Stauffer Chemical).

++

Jack Early, President, National Agricultural Chemicals Association, testimony for a hearing before the
subcommittee on International Trade of the Senate Committee on Finance, Continuing the Presidents Authority
to Waive the Trade Act Freedom of Emigration Provisions, 96th Congress, July 16, 1979, p. 77.

+N

Bradley Graham, Hungarians Respond to Senate Threat: Hungarian Trade Status in Doubt in Senate Panel, The
Washington Post, August 4, 1979, p. D7.

+S

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Jim Enyart are from a 1997 interview with the author.

+`

Those testifying at the July 19, 1979, hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on International Trade of the
Committee on Finance, 96th Cong., 1st sess., Continuing the Presidents Authority to Waive the Trade Act
Freedom of Emigration Provisions, included Jack Early, president, National Agricultural Chemicals Association;
Robert McLellan, vice president of international and government affairs, FMC Corp.; and Nicholas Reding,
managing director, Monsanto Agricultural Products Co.

+[

Quoted in Graham, Hungarians Respond to Senate Threat, p. D7.

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

=">#32$"77&=&35?6"<51.218<2'3%$Q0#&%3)&2'"7K"2032)"Q0#3).2).1#%"=.00: +I T.=3550Z2$3%)i
\X.6.%.05"65$-%.3B&2'1"62)(&0&1.3)(3))(.6("5.%32'."7&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$&00<.0630
^<0))""=">#5&=3).1)"1.356&)(:]

>#0"**"'0B2*4.)C".0%2#$0(",F@@
839&2' 3=(&.9.1 0">. 0<==.00 &2 8<2'3%$? )(. 3'%"=(.>&=35 =">#32&.0 632).1 )" ^"&2
7"%=.0 6&)( ")(.% &21<0)%&.0 )" 7<%)(.% )(. =3<0. "7 U/ #%").=)&"2: Z2$3%) ("#.1 )" 6"%B 6&)(
=">#32&.0)(3)6.%.5""B&2')"#%").=)2")"25$#3).2)0?30630(&0&21<0)%$?-<)350"="#$%&'()0
321 )%31.>3%B0: R(. &1.3? 03$0 Z2$3%)? 630 )(3) \&7 6. 6"%B.1 )"'.)(.% )" &275<.2=. )(.
'"9.%2>.2) 6. ="<51 '.) 3 (.55 "7 3 5") 73%)(.%:] H5)&>3).5$? K"2032)" ^"&2.1 )(. L2)&
!"<2).%7.&)&2' !"35&)&"2? 3 '%"<# 5.1 -$ h.9&F)%3<00 )(3) &2=5<1.1 ")(.% )%31.>3%B-30.1
=">#32&.00<=(30F3>0"2&).?UW"1?!(32.5?321G<==&: +O c2."7)(.="35&)&"2Q0%.=.2).77"%)0(31
-..232<20<==.007<53)).>#))"3=(&.9.)%31.>3%B#%").=)&"2&2)(.MJINkIJR"B$"T"<21"7)(.
GLRR><5)&53).%35)%31.)35B0:
U2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 630 2") 3 >3^"% )"#&= "7 2.'")&3)&"2 1<%&2' )(. 7&%0) 0&P %"<210 "7
GLRR? 7"% )(. "%&'&235 MJSI 3'%..>.2) 1&1 2") %.C<&%. )(3) >.>-.% ="<2)%&.0 31"#) >&2&><>
0)3213%10 "7 U/ #%").=)&"2: +J 8"6.9.%? &2 )(. 0.9.2)( %"<21 "7 )35B0? (.51 &2 R"B$"? )(. L2)&
!"<2).%7.&)&2' !"35&)&"2 6"%B.1 6&)( %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 7%"> )(. H2&).1 F)3).0 321 )(. Z<%"#.32
!">><2&)$ )" #%"#"0. 32 32)&="<2).%7.&)&2' ="1.: N, R(. ="1. =355.1 7"% GLRR 0&'23)"%&.0 )"
&2).%=.#)3211&0#"0."7="<2).%7.&)'""103)&2).%23)&"235-"%1.%0:\R(3).77"%)0)3%).19.%$53).&2
)(.R"B$"T"<21?]%.=3550RTU/F2.'")&3)"%K&B.83)(363$?6("350"6"%B.1"2)(.MJIJ="1.:
\Z9.2)("<'(6.'")31%37)3'%..>.2)?6.1&12Q)%.355$3=(&.9.32$)(&2'")(.%)(32(39&2'3).P)
"<) )(.%. 7"% ><5)&53).%35 ="20&1.%3)&"2: d<) &) 1&1 0.%9. )" #<) U/ "2 )(. GLRR 3'.213:] NM L
%.9&0.1 1%37)? 0<##"%).1 -$ !32313 321 D3#32? 630 0<->&)).1 &2 MJO+Y )("<'( 0">. %.0#"21.1
#"0&)&9.5$)")(.32)&="<2).%7.&)&2'="1.?&)0)&556302")#<)&2)".77.=):

+I

Monsanto, Hungary in Agreement on Herbicide Marketing, Dow Jones News Service, July 25, 1979.

+O

Founded in 1978, the International Anti-Counterfeiting Coalition had by 1997 grown to 180 members; among
them were trademark-based companies, law firms, trade associations, and investment firms.

+J

In the original GATT agreement, intellectual property is mentioned in Article XX, General Exceptions: Subject
to the requirement that such measures are not applied in a manner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or
unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on
international trade, nothing in this Agreement shall be construed to prevent the adoption or enforcement by any
contracting party of measures: (d) necessary to secure compliance with laws or regulations which are not
inconsistent with the provisions of this Agreement, including those relating to customs enforcement, the
enforcement of monopolies operated under paragraph 4 of Article II and Article XVII, the protection of patents,
trade marks and copyrights, and the prevention of deceptive practices[.]

N,

In each round of talks following its inception, GATT produced new accords. World trade expanded dramatically
during this period, from $60 billion in 1950 to approximately $4 trillion in 1991.

NM

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Mike Hathaway are from a September 1997 interview with the author.

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

I&K"5?3*20?)#D&"'0?)#L:8
R%31.>3%B&21<0)%&.03213'%"=(.>&=35=">#32&.06.%.2"))(."25$U/-30.1&21<0)%&.0
1&0)%.00.1 3-"<) 9&"53)&"20 "7 )(.&% &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ %&'()0: Z>.%$ F&>"2? 6(" 630 3 HF
2.'")&3)"%7"%)(.RTU/F3'%..>.2)7%">MJO[<2)&5MJJN3216300<-0.C<.2)5$.P.=<)&9.1&%.=)"%
"7)(.d<0&2.00F"7)63%.L55&32=.?"-0.%9.0i
U2 )(. &>>.1&3). 37).%>3)( "7 )(. R"B$" T"<21 6. (31 3 0.%&.0 "7
).=(2"5"'&=35 1.9.5"#>.2)0: c2. 630 )(. 319.2) "7 9&1."=300.)).
%.="%1.%0: R(3) #%.=&#&)3).1 3 0#.=&7&= 9&1." #&%3=$ #%"-5.>: R(. 0.="21
1.9.5"#>.2)630)(.&2=%.30&2'<0."73<1&"=300.)).0:X.06&)=(.17%">
O)%3=B )" %.'<53% =300.)). )3#.0 321 )(.%. 630 6&1.0#%.31 <0. "7
X35B>.2l0&=m:R("0.B&210"7).=(2"5"'&.05.1)"><0&=#&%3=$:R(.)(&%1
1.9.5"#>.2) 630 0"7)63%.: R(. /! -.=3>. B&21 "7 3 0)3#5. &2 )(. >&1
MJO,0 37).% UdK &2)%"1<=.1 &)0 /! &2 MJO+: F" )(.2 6. (31 3 0"7)63%.
#&%3=$ #%"-5.>: F&><5)32."<05$? 6. (39. (31 3 5"2'0)321&2' #3).2)
#%"-5.> &2 )(3) )(.%. 6.%. 1.7&=&.2=&.0 &2 )(. /3%&0 !"29.2)&"2 6(&=(
#.%>&)).1 3 2<>-.% "7 ="<2)%&.0 )(3) 6.%. 2") #3%)$ )" &) "% 6(&=(
&2).%#%.).1 )(. ="29.2)&"2 9.%$ 5""0.5$ )" .P=5<1. #3).2)3-&5&)$ "7
=(.>&=350? &2=5<1&2' 3'%&=<5)<%35 =(.>&=350 321 #(3%>3=.<)&=350: F"
>3%B.)01.9.5"#.17"%)("0.#&%3).1'""10306.55: N+
4%<0)%3).1 6&)( >1;*#;&*'(&; 3##%"3=(.0 )" U/ #%").=)&"2 @0<=( 30 )(. R"B$" T"<21 321
XU/cA?0">.HF&21<0)%&.0-.'32)"0..B")(.%>.320)"311%.00)(.&%U/="2=.%20:c2.0)%3).'$
630 )" &2=%.30. ,#;&*'(&; #%.00<%. "2 ="<2)%&.0 )(3) 1&1 2") %.0#.=) HF =">#32&.0Q &2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$ %&'()0: U2 MJO+? 6&)( )(. .2="<%3'.>.2) "7 HF =">#32&.0? )(. H2&).1 F)3).0 R%31.
T.#%.0.2)3)&9.@HFRTA="21<=).1="20<5)3)&"206&)(E"%.3?K.P&="?F&2'3#"%.?321R3&632&232
.77"%) )" 0)%.2')(.2 #3).2)? )%31.>3%B? 321 ="#$%&'() #%").=)&"2: U2 311&)&"2? K"2032)" 5.1 32
.77"%) )" >3B. &2).%23)&"235 9&"53)&"20 "7 HF U/T0 0<-^.=) )" %.)35&3)&"2 <21.% HF )%31. 5360: HF
=">#32&.0 ("#.1 )(3) &7 )%31. 3=)&"20 6.%. 5&2B.1 )" 3 ="<2)%$Q0 .27"%=.>.2) "7 &2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$%&'()0?#%").=)&"27"%)(.&%#%"1<=)06"<51&2=%.30.:
F<==.00 630 3=(&.9.1 6(.2 )(. R%31. L=) "7 MJOS >31. &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ %&'()0
3=)&"23-5. <21.% 0.=)&"2 N,M "7 )(. MJIS R%31. L=): F.=)&"2 N,M #.%>&)0 )(. HF '"9.%2>.2) )"
<2&53).%355$ %3&0. )3%&770 3'3&20) )%31&2' #3%)2.%0 )(3) >3&2)3&2 \<2^<0)&7&3-5. "% <2%.30"23-5.]
%.0)%&=)&"20 3'3&20) HF )%31.: R(<0? 7"% )(. 7&%0) )&>.? )(. HF '"9.%2>.2) 630 3<)("%&W.1 )" )3B.
%.)35&3)"%$ 3=)&"2 3'3&20) ="<2)%&.0 )(3) 73&5.1 )" "77.% \73&% 321 .C<&)3-5. #%"9&0&"2 "7 31.C<3).
321 .77.=)&9. #%").=)&"2 "7 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ %&'()0:] H21.% 0.=)&"2 N,M? =">#32&.0 321 )%31.
300"=&3)&"20="<51#.)&)&"2)(.HFRT)"&29.0)&'3).="<2)%&.07"%U/T9&"53)&"20:Z%&=F>&)(?6("30

N+

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Emery Simon are from an October 1997 interview with the author.

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

="7"<21.%"7)(.2.6U2).%23)&"235U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$L55&32=.@UU/LA NN %.#%.0.2).1393%&.)$"7
="#$%&'()-30.1&21<0)%&.0?^"&2.1Z2$3%)&2(.5#&2')"1%37))(.532'<3'.)(3)>31.)(&0#"00&-5.:
!"2'%.00 350" >"9.1 )" >3B. #%").=)&"2 7"% HF &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 3 ="21&)&"2 7"% ="2)&2<.1
.5&'&-&5&)$ <21.% )(. G.2.%35&W.1 F$0).>"7/%.7.%.2=.0@GF/A?6(&=('%32).1="2=.00&"235)3%&770
)"&>#"%)07%">5.001.9.5"#.1="<2)%&.0: NS U/T06.%.=5.3%5$#"0&)&"2.1"2)(.HF)%31.3'.213:
L2<>-.%"7"-0.%9.%0=%.1&).1)(..77"%)0"7)(.HF&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$&21<0)%&.06&)(3
#&9")35 %"5. &2 1.9.5"#&2' )(&0 2.6 #"6.%7<5 -&53).%35 )""5: \R(. U/ &21<0)%$ &2 )(. HF 630
.P)%.>.5$0399$321=5.9.%-.=3<0.)(.$>31.&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$3>"%35&00<.?]"2..P#53&20i
X(3) (3##.2.1 &2 )(. HF &2 )(. MJO,0 630 )(3) $"< (31 )(&0 '%"6&2'
>">.2)<>3'3&20))("0.\#&%3).0]321\%"--.%0]"<))(.%.?3%)&=<53).1-$
&21<0)%$&239.%$>"%35)"2.:X(3)1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.06.%.1"&2'630
0..2 30 .)(&=355$ "-^.=)&"23-5.: R(3)Q0 6($ )(. U/ >"9.>.2) &0 3
730=&23)&2'#"5&)&=35.="2">$0)"%$?-.=3<0.&21<0)%$3%)&=<53).1)(&09.%$?
9.%$=5.9.%5$:R(.&%0<==.00630%.75.=).1&2)(.73=))(3)N,M'").23=).1&2
)(.H2&).1F)3).0:R(.%(.)"%&=630)%32053).1&2)"5.'&053)&"2:
X&)( )(. 2.6 5.'&053)&"2 &2 #53=.? )(. UU/L 0"<'() )" &27"%> )(. HFRT 3-"<) )%31. &2
&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$321)(.#%"-5.>073=.1-$)(.7&5>?#<-5&0(&2'?321%.="%1&2'&21<0)%&.0:U2
MJO`?)(.UU/L6%").3%.#"%))&)5.1\/&%3=$"7HF!"#$%&'().1X"%B0&2R.2F.5.=).1!"<2)%&.0?]
6(&=( .0)&>3).1 HF 5"00.0 &2 )("0. ="<2)%&.0? &2=5<1&2' )(. T.#<-5&= "7 E"%.3? 3) eM:N -&55&"2
322<355$: N` U2 %.0#"20. )" )(&0 %.#"%) 321 =">#53&2)0 7%"> #(3%>3=.<)&=35 >3B.%0? =(.>&=35
=">#32&.0?321)(.K/LL?)(.HF'"9.%2>.2)53<2=(.130.=)&"2N,M=30.3'3&20))(.T.#<-5&="7
E"%.3&2F.#).>-.%MJO`:L7).%-&53).%352.'")&3)&"20?)(.)6"="<2)%&.0%.3=(.1323'%..>.2)&2
D<5$ MJO[: E"%.3 3'%..1 )" 0)%.2')(.2 &)0 ="#$%&'() 536 321 .27"%=.>.2) 30 6.55 30 )" #%").=)
0"7)63%. 321 &2)%"1<=. #%"1<=) #3).2)0 7"% #(3%>3=.<)&=350 321 =(.>&=350: N[ U) 350" 3'%..1 )"
#%").=) )(. )%31.>3%B0 "7 7"%.&'2 7&%>0 321 )" '&9. .P).20&"20 )" 3'%&=<5)<%35 =(.>&=35 #3).2)0:
D3$30(%.. X3)35? 3 RTU/F 2.'")&3)"% 7"% U21&3? 2").0? \HF )%31. 2.'")&3)"%0? )(<0? 3=(&.9.1 )(.&%
7&%0)>3^"%9&=)"%$"20)%.2')(.2&2')(.#%").=)&"2"7U/T0&231.9.5"#&2'="<2)%$<0&2')(.)(%.3)

NN

Founded in 1984, the IIPA originally comprised five trade associations: the Motion Picture Association of
America, the Recording Industry Association of America, the National Music Publishers Association, the
American Film Marketing Association, and the American Association of Publishers.

NS

The GSP provides preferential duty-free entry to more than 4,000 products (which otherwise be subject to customs
duty) from about 140 designated beneficiary countries and territories. The program was instituted on January 1,
1976, under the Trade Act of 1974. www.customs.ustreas.gov.

N`

IIPA (International Intellectual Property Alliance), Piracy of US Copyrighted Works in Ten Selected Countries,
Washington: IIPA, 1985, p. i. The other nine countries included in the study were Singapore, Taiwan, Indonesia,
Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Brazil, Egypt, and Nigeria.

N[

Some countries issued patents for the process of making a drug, and not for the productthe drug itself. Critics
said that if only process patents were issued, companies could legally copy drugs by arguing they were using a
different manufacturing process.

M,

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

"7032=)&"20:] NI Z>.%$F&>"2=3550)(.-&53).%35U/3'%..>.2)-.)6..2)(.HF321E"%.33>"1.5
7"%RTU/F:

,"00?#5>4)#0("I.B5B2%7)B#$F5"#$2
R(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 "7 GLRR )35B0 -.'32 <21.% .="2">&= ="21&)&"20 0<-0)32)&355$
1&77.%.2))(32)("0.6(.2)(.R"B$"T"<21630=">#5.).1:c2."-9&"<0=(32'.630)(.53%'.HF
>.%=(321&0.)%31.1.7&=&)?6(&=((31'%"621%3>3)&=355$0&2=.)(.53).MJI,0:U2)(.73=."7X.0)
G.%>32 321 D3#32.0. )%31. 0<%#5<0.0? >32$ HF '"9.%2>.2) "77&=&350 -.'32 )" 3'&)3). 7"% 3 2.6
%"<21"7GLRR)35B0)"5.9.5)(.#53$&2'7&.51:R(.2")&"2"7>3B&2'3>3^"%#<0()"&2=5<1.U/&2
)(.%"<21630.9"59&2'3))(.03>.)&>.:
/7&W.%=(3&%>32Z1><21/%3))321UdK=(3&%>32D"(2c#.56.%.&20)%<>.2)35&23%'<&2'
)(3) &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 0("<51 -. &2=5<1.1 "2 )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 3'.213: d")( .P.=<)&9.0
0.%9.1"2)(./%.0&1.2)Q0L19&0"%$!">>&)).."2R%31.;.'")&3)&"20@L!R;A1<%&2')(.!3%).%
321T.3'3231>&2&0)%3)&"20?/%3))30)(.=">>&))..Q0=(3&%321c#.530(.31"7)(.U/)30B7"%=.: NO
\d")( "7 )(.>?] 3=="%1&2' )" "2. HF RTU/F 2.'")&3)"%? \(31 #%"-5.>0 6&)( #&%3=$ 321 )(.7) "7
)(.&% U/ 321 )(.$ 1.=&1.1 )" '.) &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ &2)" )(. )%31. 9.2<. 6(.%. $"< (31 0">.
)..)( &2 )(. .27"%=.>.2) >.=(32&0>:] /%3)) 321 c#.5 1&0#53$.1 .2)(<0&30> 7"% )(. #"5&)&=35
#%"=.00 30 6.55 30 )(. &00<.0: L0 "2. "7 /%3))Q0 ="55.3'<.0 %.=3550? \8. 5&B.1 X30(&2')"2 321 (.
5&B.1#"5&)&=0?30"##"0.1)"0">.=(&.7.P.=<)&9.06("6&551"&)?-<)"25$%.5<=)32)5$:8.5"9.1
)(.X30(&2')"26"%51:]\/%3))321c#.5?]%.>3%B03HF2.'")&3)"%?\-30&=355$.2'&2..%.1?#<0(.1?
321=3^"5.1)(.'"9.%2>.2)&2)"&2=5<1&2'U/30"2."7)(.)"#&=07"%)(.2.'")&3)&"2:]
U2 MJO`? HFRT !53$)"2 n.<)).% =%.3).1 )(. #"0&)&"2 "7 300&0)32) HFRT 7"% &2).%23)&"235
&29.0)>.2)321&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$?3^"-7&55.1-$83%9.$d35.: NJ X"%B&2'6&)(d35.321n.<)).%?
/7&W.%321UdK.>#5"$..01.9.5"#.13#"0&)&"2#3#.%1&%.=).13)X(&).8"<0.0)377Y&)#%">#).13
#%.0&1.2)&350)3).>.2)"2)(.&>#"%)32=."7&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$)")(.H2&).1F)3).0: S,
L0)(.7"%>.%!Zc"7)(.>3B.%"7n35.5"=B0?!">>.%=.F.=%.)3%$K35="5>d351%&'.350"
(31 32 &2).%.0) &2 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$Y #3).2)0 (31 -..2 &>#"%)32) )" (&0 =">#32$Q0 -<0&2.00:
L7).% >..)&2' 6&)( %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 "7 )(. >")&"2 #&=)<%.? #<-5&0(&2'? 0"7)63%.? 321 %.="%1&2'
&21<0)%&.0 &2 )(. 0<>>.% "7 MJOS? d351%&'. =">>&)).1 )" &>#%"9. #%").=)&"2 7"% HF U/ -")( 3)
(">. 321 3-%"31: 8&0 =">>&)>.2) 630 )%32053).1 &2)" 3 >3^"% &2&)&3)&9. <21.% 6(&=( )6"

NI

Jayashree Watal, Intellectual Property Rights in the WTO and Developing Countries, The Hague: Kluwer Law
International, 2001, p. 19.

NO

The ACTN was created by Congress in 1974; Pratt was appointed by President Carter in 1979.

NJ

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Harvey Bale are from a 1997 interview with the author. Bale worked at
USTR from 1975 until 1987, when he became international trade manager at Hewlett-Packard; he became senior
vice president international for the US Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association (PMA, later renamed PhRMA)
in 1989. In 1997, Bale became director-general of the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers
Associations (IFPMA).

S,

Michael A. Santoro, Pfizer: Protecting Intellectual Property in a Global Marketplace, Harvard Business School
Case Study N9-392-071, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School, 1992, p. 9.

MM

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

!">>.%=.b.#3%)>.2)3'.2=&.0?)(.U2).%23)&"235R%31.L1>&2&0)%3)&"2@URLA321)(./3).2)321
R%31.>3%Bc77&=.?^"&2.17"%=.0)"=">-3))(.#%"-5.>: SM
U2 311&)&"2? d351%&'. .0)3-5&0(.1 32 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 0<-=">>&)).. "7 )(. !3-&2.)
!"<2=&5 "2 !">>.%=. 321 R%31. 321 .P#%.00.1 &2).%.0) &2 >"9&2' U/ &2)" 3 9.2<. 6(.%. )(.
H2&).1F)3).0="<51.P.%=&0.'%.3).%5.31.%0(&#:G.%351K"00&2'("77?6("-.=3>.)(.=(3&%"7)(.
U/ =3-&2.) ="<2=&5 0<-=">>&))..? %.=3550i \R(.%. 630 3 ="20.20<0 )(3) 6. 6"<51 >"9. )(. >3&2
#<0(7"%><5)&53).%35&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$"<)"7)(.XU/c?6(.%.)$#&=35H;#%"=.1<%.03##5$?
&2)")(.GLRR6(.%.6.6.%.3==<0)">.1)"2.'")&3)&2'7%">3#"0&)&"2"70)%.2')(:]L%"<21)(.
03>.)&>.?D3=C<.0G"%5&2?3)%31..P#.%)321="20<5)32))"UdK?6%").3#3#.%1.0=%&-.1-$"2.
"-0.%9.%30\)(.7&%0)&2).55.=)<353%)&=<53)&"2"7(39&2'-%"31.%U/0)3213%10#5<032.27"%=.>.2)
).P)&2)(.GLRR3'%..>.2):] S+
d<) 2") 355 HF '"9.%2>.2) 321 -<0&2.00 &2).%.0)0 6("5.(.3%).15$ 0<##"%).1 )(. &1.3 "7
&2=5<1&2' 3 -%"31 1&0=<00&"2 "7 U/T0 &2 )(. GLRR: K32$ "7 )(. ="#$%&'()-30.1 &21<0)%&.0 6.%.
3##%.(.20&9.: /%").=)&"2 7"% >"9&.0? %.="%1&2'0? 321 -""B0 630 35%.31$ 73&%5$ 0)%"2' &2 )(.
&2).%23)&"235 3%.23? )(32B0 )" )(. d.%2. !"29.2)&"2: SN !"#$%&'() &21<0)%&.0 6.%. )(.%.7"%.
="2=.%2.1)(3))(.$>&'();5$''%"<21&7U/630-%"<'()&2)")(.GLRR:Z%&=F>&)(?#%.0&1.2)"7
)(.UU/L?.P#53&20i
Z3%5$"2&2MJO`?6(.2D3=C<.0G"%5&26%").(&0#3#.%7"%UdK?6.6.%.
9.%$63%$"7&):U2MJO`321MJO[?6.(31^<0)-.'<2)(.#%"=.00"7<0&2'
)(. 0.=)&"2 N,M 3=)&"2: L N,M 3=)&"2 (31 -..2 -%"<'() 3'3&20) E"%.3 321
)(.%.63035")"7>"9.>.2)-$)(.HF'"9.%2>.2))"&>#%"9.#%").=)&"2
"2 3 -&53).%35 -30&0: X. 6.%. -.'&22&2' )" (39. 9.%$ 0&'2&7&=32) 0<==.00:
L) )(3) #"&2)? F&2'3#"%.? R3&632? E"%.3? 321 U21"2.0&3V-&' #&%3).
="<2)%&.06(.%.6.(312"#%").=)&"27"%="#$%&'()0V6.%.-.'&22&2')"
>"9. )"63%1 #%").=)&2' HF ="#$%&'()0: o c7 ="<%0.? 3) )(&0 #"&2) )(.
&2).%23)&"2350)3213%1&2#%").=)&"2630)(.d.%2.!"29.2)&"2:R(.d.%2.
!"29.2)&"26303==.#).1-$.9.%$"2.?.9.2)("<'()(.H2&).1F)3).0630
2")3>.>-.%:X.'")d.%2.5.9.5#%").=)&"2-.=3<0.)(.6("5.#%&2=&#5.
"7 )(. ="29.2)&"2 630 23)&"235 )%.3)>.2): R(. -&53).%35 >.=(32&0> 630
6"%B&2'9.%$6.55321&)5""B.15&B.&)6"<51="2)&2<.)"6"%B306.55"%
.9.2-.)).%)(326.(31.9.%)("<'():F"#53=&2'="#$%&'()0)3213%10&2)"
3 )%31. 2.'")&3)&"2? 6(&=( &0 =(3%3=).%&W.1 -$ 0#5&))&2' )(. 1&77.%.2=. 3)
)(..21"7)(.13$?2"6?)(3)>31..9.%$-"1$2.%9"<030(.55: SS

SM

Eileen Hill, Commerce Department Program Seeks Greater Protection for US IPR, Business America, Volume 8,
March 18, 1985, p. 4.

S+

Jacques Gorlins 1985 paper for IBM was titled "A Trade-Based Approach for the International Copyright
Protection for Computer Software."

SN

Although the United States was not a member of the Berne Convention until 1988, US companies benefited from
its concept of national treatment.

SS

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Eric Smith are from an October 1997 interview with the author.

M+

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

F">.HF'"9.%2>.2)"77&=&350-.5&.9.1)(3))(.0)%<''5.0("<517"=<05.00"2-%&2'&2'U/
&2)" )(. GLRR )35B0 321 >"%. "2 '.))&2' )(. H2&).1 F)3).0 )" 3'%.. )" )(. #%&2=&#5. "7 23)&"235
)%.3)>.2) 321 0&'2 "2 )" )(. d.%2. !"29.2)&"2: F<=( 32 3=)? )(.$ >3&2)3&2.1? 6"<51 '&9. )(.
H2&).1 F)3).0 3 -.)).% #53)7"%> 7%"> 6(&=( )" 3%'<. )(3) ")(.% ="<2)%&.0 0("<51 &>#%"9. )(.&%
="#$%&'() #%").=)&"2: \X. 6.%. 2") 355 )(3) )(%&55.1 3-"<) '"&2' &2)" 0">. <2B2"62 2.6
2.'")&3)&"2 6&)( 32 "<)=">. )(3) 630 )")355$ <2=.%)3&2 3) )(3) #"&2)?] %.>3%B0 "2. '"9.%2>.2)
"77&=&35:

@("4.)C)#"#03M.52#?N"
U2.3%5$MJO[?HFRT!53$)"2n.<)).%319&0.1UdKQ0D"(2c#.5321/7&W.%Q0Z1><21/%3))
)"0..B355&.0&2-<0&2.00.0&2Z<%"#.321D3#32)"(.5#"9.%=">.%.0&0)32=.)"&2=5<1&2'U/&2)(.
GLRR: S` \X.)"51)(.>'"9.%2>.2)="<512Q)1")(&035"2.?]%.=3550"2.7"%>.%)%31."77&=&35i
X.(31)"'.)-<0&2.000<##"%)&2Z<%"#.321D3#32)">3B.)(&0(3##.2:
F"6.6"<512..1)(.>)"'.))(.&%Z<%"#.32="<2).%#3%)0)"'")")(.&%
'"9.%2>.2)0 321 03$? \X. 632) )(&0:] D3#32.0. 321 Z<%"#.320V)(.
Z<%"#.320 #3%)&=<53%5$V3%. 9.%$ ="20.%93)&9.: o R(. HF '"9.%2>.2)
"9.% )(. $.3%0(30).21.1)"5""B3))(.0.&00<.0&23-<0&2.0063$i\X.
(39. 3 #%"-5.> (.%.? 5.)Q0 0"59. &):] R(. Z<%"#.32 3##%"3=( &0 >"%.
)%31&)&"235:R(.&%9&.6&0?\X.(39.3#%"-5.>(.%.?-<)>3$-.)(.%.&02"
0"5<)&"2: R(. U21&320 321 )(. d%3W&5&320 321 )(. L%'.2)&2.320? )(.$Q%.
'"&2')""##"0.355)(&0321)(.$"<)2<>-.%<0:U)Q0"25$'"&2')"=%.3).3
5")"77%&=)&"2:d.0&1.06.(39.35")"7")(.%<27&2&0(.1-<0&2.00:]X(&5.
)(.H2&).1F)3).0).210)"-&)."77>"%.)(32&)=32=(.6o)(.Z<%"#.320
(3%15$632))"-&)."7732$)(&2':
U2K3%=(MJO[?/%3))321c#.57"<21.1)(.U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$!">>&))..@U/!A?3'%"<#
"7 MN !Zc0 =">>&)).1 )" >"9&2' &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ "2)" )(. GLRR 3'.213: S[ D3=C<.0 G"%5&2?
="20<5)32) )" UdK 321 )(. U/ )30B7"%=. "7 )(. /%.0&1.2)Q0 L19&0"%$ !">>&)).. "2 R%31.
;.'")&3)&"20?630(&%.1)"5.313210)377)(."%'32&W3)&"2:\c<%7&%0))30B?]G"%5&2%.=3550?\630)"
'")"Z<%"#.321D3#323216"%B6&)()(.#%&93).0.=)"%6&)(&2)("0.="<2)%&.0)"'.))(.>)"#<)
#%.00<%. "2 )(.&% )%31. >&2&0)%&.0:] SI 4%"> D<2. )(%"<'( L<'<0) "7 MJO[? U/! %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0
)%39.5.1)"R"B$"?d"22?h"21"2?/3%&0?d%<00.50?321!"#.2(3'.2)">3B.)(.&%=30.:H5)&>3).5$?
)(. U/! 7"%>.1 3 )%&#3%)&). ="35&)&"2 6&)( )(. Z<%"#.32 H2&"2 "7 U21<0)%&35 321 Z>#5"$.%0Q
!"27.1.%3)&"20@H;U!Z?"%J+#5+9'$#+91$*(#'$9';&.5>>1+&1*['1(5%['++'A321)(.E.&132%.2?3
#"6.%7<5#%&93).7.1.%3)&"2"7.="2">&="%'32&W3)&"20&2D3#32:R(.0.'%"<#06"%B.1)"="29&2=.

S`

Michael A. Santoro, Pfizer: Protecting Intellectual Property in a Global Marketplace, 1992, p. 10.

S[

The IPCs 13 member companies were Pfizer, IBM, Merck, General Electric, Du Pont, Warner Communications,
Hewlett-Packard, Bristol-Myers, FMC, General Motors, Johnson & Johnson, Monsanto, and Rockwell
International.

SI

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Jacques Gorlin are from a September 1997 interview with the author.

MN

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

)(.&% '"9.%2>.2)0 )(3) &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 0("<51 -. "2 )(. 3'.213 7"% )(. GLRR )35B0: /%3))
2").1 )(3) )(. ^"&2) 3=)&"2 -$ HF? Z<%"#.32? 321 D3#32.0. -<0&2.00 '%"<#0 630 3 0&'2&7&=32)
-%.3B)(%"<'(&2)(.&29"59.>.2)"7)(.&2).%23)&"235-<0&2.00=">><2&)$&2)%31.2.'")&3)&"20: SO
T.#%.0.2)3)&9.0"7)(.U/!350")%39.5.1)"G.2.93)">..)6&)("77&=&3503)XU/c:R(.H;
3'.2=$ 630 %<2 -$ L%#31 d"'0=(? 6(" (31 -..2 )(. HF %.#%.0.2)3)&9. )" )(. /3%&0 321 d.%2.
!"29.2)&"20&2MJ[+321(31"%'32&W.1)(.="27.%.2=.)(3).0)3-5&0(.1XU/c&2MJ[I@(.%.)&%.1
7%"> XU/c &2 MJJIA: R(. "%'32&W3)&"2 630 -"%2 321 -<&5) 7%"> (&0 9&0&"2: SJ F">. &2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$&21<0)%&.06.%.1&003)&07&.16&)(XU/c?9&.6&2')(.#%").=)&"2"77.%.1-$)(.%.'&>.&)
31>&2&0).%.130&20<77&=&.2):Z2$3%)=(3%3=).%&W.0XU/c30\5&B.>32$")(.%H;3'.2=&.0?B&21"7
)3B.2"9.%-$)(.1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0]Y&)\0#.2).2"%>"<03>"<2)0"7)&>.)35B&2'3-"<)("6
.9.%$-"1$"<'())"(39.).=(2"5"'$7"%7%..321'"9.%2>.2)06.%.'"&2')"'&9.&))".9.%$-"1$:
;")6&)(0)321&2')(.73=))(3)'"9.%2>.2)0"622"U/)"0#.3B"7:]@c)(.%"-0.%9.%0"-^.=))")(&0
=(3%3=).%&W3)&"2"7XU/c?%.="'2&W&2'&)0935<.303).=(2&=35-"1$:AR(.U/!2.9.%)(.5.00("#.1
)"'3&2XU/cQ00<##"%)7"%&2=5<1&2'U/&2)(.GLRR)35B0:L0Z2$3%)).550&)?d"'0=(\&29&).1<0
<#)"(&0#.2)("<0."9.%5""B&2'h3B.G.2.93]i
8. 7.1 <0 3 ><5)&="<%0. 5<2=( 7%"> (&0 #%&93). 1&2&2' %"">: U) 630
="2=5<1.16&)(="'23=321=&'3%0:8.630%.355$02"6&2')(.=%3#"<)"7
<0:4&2355$?6.03&1)"(&>?\h""B?K%:d"'0=(?6.(39.7"<21XU/c)"-.
2")="20)%<=)&9.&2)(.#%").=)&"2"7U/3216.3%.'"&2')"1"0">.)(&2'
3-"<) &): n"< 3%. .&)(.% '"&2' )" (.5# "<) "% 6. 3%. '"&2' )" '" %&'()
3%"<21 $"<:] L21 (. 03&1? \X.55? $"< =32Q) 1" )(3)? 6. 3%. )(. "25$
3<)("%&W.1 "%'32&W3)&"2:] L21 6. 03&1? \X.55? 6. 3%. '"&2' )" 1" &):
n"<Q9. '") $"<% =("&=.Y $"< .&)(.% '.) "2 -"3%1 "% '.) 5.7) &2 )(. 1<0):]
d"'0=( 1&12Q) -<1'.: U) )<%2.1 "<)? 6(.2 )(. 2.'")&3)&"20 0)3%).1 &2
GLRR? K%: d"'0=( -.=3>. 9.%$ 7%&.215$ 321 03&1 )(3) )(.%. 630 3 '%.3)
1.35"7.P#.%)&0.&2XU/c321("6)(.%."<'())"-.3(<'.%"5.7"%XU/c
&2 )(. RTU/F 3'%..>.2): n"< 6&55 2")&=. )(3) )(. RTU/F 3'%..>.2) (30 3
%.30"23-5$6.3B="20<5)3)&9.%"5.7"%XU/c:
X&)(&2)(.HF'"9.%2>.2)?L00&0)32)HFRTd35.-.=3>.)(.#"&2)>327"%'.))&2'U/&2)"
)(. GLRR )35B0: d35. 321 (&0 ="55.3'<. Z>.%$ F&>"2 .0)3-5&0(.1 32 &2).%3'.2=$ #%"=.00 )"
#%">"). 3 ="20.20<0 7"% -%&2'&2' )(. &00<. )" )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21: L=="%1&2' )" F&>"2? \U) 630
2") 32 .30$ #%"=.00:] R(. )6" 350" 6"%B.1 )" ="29&2=. L>.%&=3Q0 >3^"% )%31&2' #3%)2.%0 )"
0<##"%))(.&2=5<0&"2"7U/"2)(.3'.213:b&0=<00&"23))(3)#"&2)7"=<0.12")"21.)3&50?0#.=&7&=

SO

Quoted in Peter Drahos, Global Property Rights in Information: The Story of TRIPS at the GATT, Prometheus
volume 13, no. 1, June 1995, p. 13, cited in Susan K. Sell, Private Power, Public Law: The Globalization of
Intellectual Property Rights, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 106.

SJ

Ryan notes that WIPOs story of institutionbuilding leadership by one person is matched in the history of
international governmental organizations only at the GATT and the International Labor Organization (ILO). Eric
Wyndham White at the GATT and David Morse at the ILO each served as director-general for some 20 years
beginning in 1948 (Michael P. Ryan, Knowledge Diplomacy: Global Competition and the Politics of Intellectual
Property, 1998, p. 127).

MS

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

&21<0)%&.0?"%0)3213%10?-<)^<0)"2)(.&1.3)(3))(.2.'")&3)&"20("<51)3B.#53=.:L5)("<'()(.$
6"%B.1=5"0.5$6&)()(.U/!?F&>"2>3B.0=5.3%)(3)\6.6.%.%.355$1"&2')6"1&77.%.2)^"-0:]
U2)(.0#%&2'"7MJO[?0&P>"2)(0-.7"%.)(.H%<'<3$>..)&2'?d35.>.)&2!323136&)()(.
4%&.210"7U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$?3'%"<#(."%'32&W.1:8.%.=3550)(.'"9.%2>.2)%.#%.0.2)3)&9.0
7%">Z<%"#.?D3#32?L<0)%35&3?321!323136("'3)(.%.1)"1&0=<00)(.&00<.01&0#53$&2'\35")"7
=<%&"0&)$?-<)2")35")"7&>>.1&3).0<##"%):]F""2)(.%.37).%d35.>.)6&)()(.GLRRF.=%.)3%&3)
)"1&0=<00)(.#"00&-&5&)$"7&2=5<1&2'U/&2)(.H%<'<3$T"<21:L=="%1&2')"d35.?\R(.%.3=)&"2
"7)(.GLRRF.=%.)3%&3)630?\X.55?>3$-.)(.%.Q03=(32=.7"%="<2).%7.&)&2')"-.311%.00.1?-<)
2") ")(.% &00<.0]V2") ="#$%&'()? 2") #3).2)0? 2") )%31. 0.=%.)0: R(.&% #.%=.#)&"2 630 )(3) )(.%.
630 )"" ><=( "##"0&)&"2 =">&2' 7%"> 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0: R(.%. 630 )"" ><=( "7 3 ;"%)(k
F"<)(&00<.:]

@("6).0(O&)B0(>33B"
K32$ 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 1&1 2") 3'%.. )(3) &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 0("<51 -. #%").=).1
5&B. 32$ ")(.% #%"#.%)$: R.=(2"5"'&=35 &22"93)&"2 630 2") <2&9.%0355$ 0..2 30 3 #%&93). =3#&)35
'""1Y >32$ 036 &) 30 3 #<-5&= '""1 )(3) ="<51 -. <0.1 )" #%").=) (.35)( "% #%">"). .="2">&=
1.9.5"#>.2):U21&%3G(321&?7"%.P3>#5.?)"51)(.X"%518.35)(L00.>-5$&2K3$MJO+)(3)\)(.
&1.3"73-.)).%"%1.%.16"%51&0"2.&26(&=(>.1&=351&0="9.%&.06&55-.7%.."7355#3).2)0321
)(.%.6&55-.2"#%"7&)..%&2'7%">5&7.3211.3)(:] `, F">.1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.09&.6.1#3).2)0303
0&'2&7&=32) "-0)3=5. )" ).=(2"5"'$ )%3207.% 321 -.5&.9.1 >323'&2' 321 ="2)%"55&2' #3).2)0 )" -.
B.$)"1.9.5"#>.2)#"5&=$:
b.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 )(3) %.0&0).1 )(. &2=5<0&"2 "7 U/ &2 )%31. 2.'")&3)&"20 350" =&).1 )(.
&>#"%)32=."7#%").=)&2'&21&'.2"<0&21<0)%&.0321="2)%"55&2'#%&=.0:F)%"2'.%U/T#%").=)&"2630
0..2-$>32$"7)(.0.="<2)%&.03039.(&=5..23-5&2'7"%.&'2><5)&23)&"2350)".P.%=&0.>"2"#"5$
#"6.% 321 .P=.00&9. ="2)%"5 "9.% ).=(2"5"'$? )(.%.-$ 7"%=&2' >32$ 1">.0)&= =">#32&.0 "<) "7
-<0&2.00 321 &2753)&2' #%&=.0: F">. 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 350" 3%'<.1 )(3) #3).2) 321 )%31.>3%B
"62.%00("<51-.=">#.55.1)"5&=.20.)(.&%).=(2"5"'&.0)"5"=351">.0)&==">#32&.0&2"%1.%)"
.20<%.)(3)0">.%.9.2<.0)3$.1&2="<2)%$V3#%3=)&=.B2"623075>%1;$5(-;#7'+$#+=:
4&2355$? >32$ 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 3%'<.1 )(3) )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 630 2") )(.
3##%"#%&3). 9.2<. 7"% 3'%..>.2)0 "2 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$: U21&3 630 3 0)%"2' #%"#"2.2) "7 )(&0
9&.6? ("51&2' )(3) U/ 630 2") \)%31.%.53).1] 321? (.2=.? 1&1 2") -.5"2' &2 )(. GLRR 0)%<=)<%.:
U230><=( 30 GLRRQ0 >3213). .P).21.1 "25$ )" )%31. &2 )32'&-5. '""10? U/T &00<.0 0("<51
="2)&2<.)"-.311%.00.1&2)(.XU/c:

`,

Wofgang E. Siebeck, Robert E. Evenson, William Lesser, and Carlos A. Primo Braga, Strengthening Protection of
Intellectual Property in Developing Countries, World Bank Discussion Paper No. 112, Washington: World Bank,
1990, cited by Peggy Chaudhry and Michael Walsh in Intellectual Property Rights, Changing Levels of
Protection Under GATT, NAFTA, and the EU, The Columbia Journal of World Business, volume 30, no. 2.
Summer 1995, p. 88.

M`

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

;.9.%)(.5.00? 0">. "-0.%9.%0 0<''.0) )(3) 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 1&1 2") -.5&.9.
&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$)"-.)(.>"0))(%.3).2&2'&00<.<21.%="20&1.%3)&"27"%)(.H%<'<3$T"<21:
U2)(.5.31<#)"/<2)31.5Z0).?)(%..0"=355.12.6&00<.06.%.1&0=<00.1i0.%9&=.0?&29.0)>.2)?
321&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$:\c2)(.1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0Q0&1.?U)(&2B)(.$6.%.>"%.7"=<0.1"2
)(. 0.%9&=.0 "2053<'() )(32 )(. RTU/F "2053<'()?] 03$0 7"%>.% GLRR F.=%.)3%&3) 0)377 >.>-.%
L%9&21F<-%3>32&32:\R(.$6.%.%.355$?%.355$"##"0.1)"5&-.%35&W3)&"2"70.%9&=.0:F">.6"<51
03$ )(3) )(. 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 >31. 3 0)%3).'&= >&0)3B.i )(.$ .P#.21.1 3 5") "7 2.'")&3)&2'
="&23'.)%$&2')"%.0&0)0.%9&=.0321B&21"7"9.%5""B.1RTU/F:]

FP"'?3?-"A)/"#0
T&'() <# )" )(. GLRR >&2&0).%&35 >..)&2' &2 /<2)3 1.5 Z0).? )(. 0)3)<0 "7 U/ %.>3&2.1
<2=.%)3&2: U2=5<0&"2 "7 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ %&'()0 (31 -..2 ="20&1.%.1 7%"> )(. "<)0.) -$ )(.
/%.#3%3)"%$ !">>&))..? .0)3-5&0(.1 &2 ;"9.>-.% MJO` )" 1&0=<00 )(. 2.P) %"<21 "7 GLRR
2.'")&3)&"20:R(.=">>&))..Q01.-3).0&2).20&7&.1)(%"<'(MJO[Y)(.H2&).1F)3).0%3&0.1)(.0)3B.0
-$ #%"#"0&2' )(3) U/T0 -. ="9.%.1 &2 '.2.%35 %3)(.% )(32 "25$ &2 %.53)&"2 )" )%31. &2 ="<2).%7.&)
'""10: L '%"<# "7 M, ="<2)%&.0 5.1 -$ d%3W&5 321 U21&3 )""B 3 (3%15&2. 0)32=. 3'3&20) )(. HF
#"0&)&"2: `M Z9.2 6&)(&2 )(. Z<%"#.32 !">><2&)$? 0">. -.5&.9.1 )(3) GLRR 630 2") 32
3##%"#%&3). 9.2<. 7"% U/Y )(.$ 7.3%.1 )(3) )(. =">#5&=3).1 &00<. 6"<51 "9.%5"31 )(. 0$0).>?
^."#3%1&W&2' )(. 6("5. 2.'")&3)&"2: L) )(. 7&235 #%.#3%3)"%$ >..)&2'? !">>.%=. F.=%.)3%$
d351%&'.1.=53%.1)(3)/%.0&1.2)T.3'32632).1&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$"2)(.3'.213321&>#5&.1
)(3))(.HF6"<512")'"7"%63%16&)("<)&):
d351%&'. 321 L'%&=<5)<%. F.=%.)3%$ T&=(3%1 h$2' 3==">#32&.1 HFRT !53$)"2 n.<)).% )"
)(.>&2&0).%&35>..)&2'&2/<2)31.5Z0).:R(.>&2&0).%&35?6(&=(6"<510.))(.3'.2137"%)(.2.6
%"<21 "7 GLRR )35B0? 630 &>#"%)32) )" )(. T.3'32 31>&2&0)%3)&"2 6(&=( ("#.1 )" 1&00<31.
!"2'%.00 7%"> 31"#)&2' %.0)%&=)&9. )%31. 5360 )" 1.35 6&)( )(. %.="%1 HF )%31. 1.7&=&): n.<)).%
)(%.3).2.1)"635B"<)"7)(.)35B0<25.007"<%B.$HF#%&"%&)&.06.%."2)(.3'.213:\X.%.'3%1
)(.&00<.0"73'%&=<5)<%.?0.%9&=.0?&29.0)>.2)321&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$30=%&)&=35)")(.7<)<%."7
355 GLRR >.>-.%0?] n.<)).% 03&1: \X. =322") .29&0&"2 2"% 3'%.. )" =">#%.(.20&9. 2.6 )%31.
2.'")&3)&"20 )(3) 1" 2") &2=5<1. )(.0. 7"<% &00<.0 "2 )(. 3'.213:] `+ /7&W.%Q0 Z1><21 /%3))? 6("
350" 3)).21.1 )(.>&2&0).%&35?2").1)(3)&7)(.-<0&2.00=">><2&)$\1".02)'.)>"0)"7)(.2.6
&00<.0? "<% .2)(<0&30> 7"% )(. 2.6 %"<21 6&55 '" 1"62 0<-0)32)&355$:] `N U2 )(. .21? &2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$630&2=5<1.1&2)(.F.#).>-.%MJO[/<2)31.5Z0).0)3).>.2))(3)53<2=(.1)(.H%<'<3$
T"<21V-<))(.-3))5.(31^<0)-.'<2:\X.632).1)"'.)&)"2)(.3'.213?'.)37"")&2)(.1""%?
-<)2"-"1$B2.66(.%.&)630'"&2')"'"7%">)(.%.?]2").0d35.:\;"-"1$(313=5<.6(3))(&0
3'%..>.2)630'"&2')"5""B5&B.:]

`M

The other eight countries were Argentina, Cuba, Egypt, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Peru, Tanzania, and Yugoslavia.

`+

Yeutter quoted in Mary Beth Franklin, Protectionism Would Result in Suicidal Trade War, United Press
International, September 15, 1986.

`N

Pratt quoted in Clyde H. Farnsworth, US Rejects a European Trade Move, The New York Times, September 15,
1986, p. D10.

M[

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

@("@7>4&6"5)0?20?)#3D@("J?.30@Q)R"2.3
R(.RTU/F'%"<#?=(3&%.1-$h3%0L2.557%">F6.1.2?630"2."7M`2.'")&3)&2''%"<#0&2
)(.H%<'<3$T"<21"7GLRR:8"6.9.%?)(.#%.0.2=."7U/T0&2)(.H%<'<3$T"<21#%"=.001&1
2") &>#5$)(3))(.%.63032$0"%)"7&2).%23)&"235="20.20<0"2)(.&00<.?"%.9.23>3213).7"%
-%"311&0=<00&"2:R(.532'<3'."7)(.>&2&0).%&351.=53%3)&"2.0)3-5&0(&2')(.2.'")&3)&"2"-^.=)&9.
7"%U/?6%&)).2-$)(.F6&00321!"5">-&323>-30031"%0?6300">.6(3)3>-&'<"<0321'.2.%35i
U2"%1.%)"%.1<=.)(.1&0)"%)&"20321&>#.1&>.2)0)"&2).%23)&"235)%31.?
321 )3B&2' &2)" 3=="<2) )(. 2..1 )" #%">"). .77.=)&9. 321 31.C<3).
#%").=)&"2"7&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$%&'()0?321)".20<%.)(3)>.30<%.0321
#%"=.1<%.0 )" .27"%=. &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ %&'()0 1" 2") )(.>0.59.0
-.=">. -3%%&.%0 )" 5.'&)&>3). )%31.? )(. 2.'")&3)&"2 0(355 3&> )" =53%&7$
GLRR#%"9&0&"20321.53-"%3).303##%"#%&3).2.6%<5.03211&0=&#5&2.0:
;.'")&3)&"200(3553&>)"1.9.5"#3><5)&53).%357%3>.6"%B"7#%&2=&#5.0?
%<5.0? 321 1&0=&#5&2.0 1.35&2' 6&)( &2).%23)&"235 )%31. &2 ="<2).%7.&)
'""10? )3B&2' &2)" 3=="<2)6"%B35%.31$<21.%)3B.2&2)(.GLRR:R(.0.
2.'")&3)&"200(355-.6&)("<)#%.^<1&=.)"")(.%=">#5.>.2)3%$&2&)&3)&9.0
)(3)>3$-.)3B.2&2)(.XU/c321.50.6(.%.)"1.356&)()(.0.>3)).%0: `S
K32$1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0<21.%0)""1)(./<2)31.5Z0).0)3).>.2)305&>&)&2')%.3)>.2)
"7 U/ )" )(. #%"-5.> "7 )%31. &2 ="<2).%7.&) '""10? 2") 30 "#.2&2' )(. 2.'")&3)&"20 )" 0.) '5"-35
0)3213%10 "7 #%").=)&"2 7"% U/T0? %3&0. )(. 5.9.50 "7 0<=( #%").=)&"2? "% 0)%.2')(.2 .27"%=.>.2)
#%"=.1<%.0:U21&3321d%3W&56.%.3>"2')("0.%.0&0)&2')(.2")&"2)(3))(.0)3).>.2)0("<515.31
)"31&0=<00&"2"76(.)(.%)(.&%"6223)&"2355.'350$0).>0"77.%.17"%.&'20<##5&.%031.C<3).U/
#%").=)&"2:
/%"'%.00&2)(.&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$'%"<#630="20.C<.2)5$05"6:X&)()(.H2&).1F)3).0
.>#(30&W&2')(.2..1)"0.)0)3213%10"7#%").=)&"23211.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.07"=<0.1"2(39&2'
3==.00 )" 2.6 ).=(2"5"'&.0 321 -3532=&2' )(. &2).%.0)0 "7 U/T "62.%0 6&)( <0.%0? 7.6 #"&2)0 "7
3'%..>.2).>.%'.1:\R(.7&%0))6"$.3%063031.#%.00&2'5$73>&5&3%300.%)&"2321%.300.%)&"2"7
.9.%$"2.Q0#"0&)&"20?]%.=3550F<-%3>32&32:HF2.'")&3)"%K&B.E&%B="2=<%0i
R(.7&%0))6"$.3%06.%.35>"0).P=5<0&9.5$?)"<0.)(.#(%30."7"2."7)(.
'<$0 &29"59.1? 3 E3-<B& 132=. 6(.%. 6. ^<0) )35B.1 &2 '.2.%35&)&.0: X.
6"<51 5"- #%&2=&#5.0 3) )(. F"<)( 321 )(.$ 6"<51 .&)(.% 0&) )(.%. 321
&'2"%.)(.>"%"==30&"2355$5"-32&1.3-3=B3)<0:d<))(.%.6302"%.35
1&0=<00&"2:L210&2=.$"<Q%.)35B&2'&2)(.="2).P)"73)%31.2.'")&3)&"2?
$"<Q9.'")#%&>3%&5$)%31.2.'")&3)"%0#%.0.2)?>32$"76(">1&12Q)(39.
)(.7"''&.0)&1.3"76(3))(.&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$&00<.06.%.3553-"<):o

`S

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Including Trade in Counterfeit Goods, in WTO/GATT
Ministerial Declaration on the Uruguay Round (Declaration of 20 September 1986).
www.jus.uio.no/lm/wto.gatt.ministerial.declaration.uruguay.round.1986/doc#71.

MI

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

F" $"< (31 )(&0 '.2.%35 1&0=<00&"2 )(3) 6.2) "2 7"% 3 ="<#5. "7 $.3%0 30
#."#5.-.=3>..1<=3).1"26(3)U/630: ``
K32$.=(".1E&%BQ0="2=5<0&"2)(3)#3%)&=&#32)0Q'.2.%3553=B"7.P#.%&.2=.&2U/05"6.1
)(. 2.'")&3)&"2 #%"=.00: R(. HF ).3>? &2 ="2)%30)? 1%.6 "2 3 93%&.)$ "7 7.1.%35 3'.2=&.0 321
&2=5<1.1 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ .P#.%)0 30 6.55 30 )%31. 2.'")&3)"%0: G"%5&2? )(. (.31 "7 )(. U/!?
.>#(30&W.0)(3)1&77.%.2=.i
c2."7)(.)(&2'0)(3))(.H2&).1F)3).06309.%$'""13-"<)?6(&=(")(.%
="<2)%&.0 6.%. 2")? 630 )(. %.53)&"20(&# -.)6..2 )(. /3).2) c77&=.? )(.
!"#$%&'() c77&=.? 321 )(. HFRT: HFRT 630 )(. 5.31.% &2 )(. %"<21
-.=3<0.&)6303GLRR=30.:d<))(.%.53)&"20(&#-.)6..2K&B.E&%B3))(.
/3).2)321R%31.c77&=.321Z>.%$F&>"2321")(.%06("1&1U/3)HFRT
630)%.>.21"<0?3>"1.5%.53)&"20(&#:U)630.0#.=&355$'""16(.2K&B.
E&%B630)(.%.)(.530)="<#5.$.3%0:U20">.="<2)%&.0?)(.#3).2)#."#5.
6.%.2Q)-%"<'()&2-$)(.)%31.#."#5.:d<)&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0?&)6"%B.1
-.3<)&7<55$:
R(. HF 2.'")&3)&2' ).3> 3)).>#).1 )" >3B. 0">. #%"'%.00: \X. 0.) <# 3 2.'")&3)&2'
'%"<#? &2=5<1&2' >"0)5$ )(. cZ!b lc%'32&W3)&"2 7"% Z="2">&= !""#.%3)&"2 321 b.9.5"#>.2)m
="<2)%&.0?3216.2))(%"<'(30<-0)32)&9.%.9&.6"70)3213%10?]%.=3550K&B.83)(363$?)(.5.31
HF2.'")&3)"%<2)&5MJOJ:d<)1.0#&).)(.0..77"%)0?)(.7&%0)="<#5."7$.3%0"7)(.RTU/F)35B06.%.
1">&23).1-$)(.;"%)(F"<)(1.-3).:83)(363$3110?
X. =.%)3&25$ (31 7<2 7"% )6" $.3%0? -.3)&2' 1"62 3%'<>.2)0 >31. -$
U21&3: 4"% .P3>#5.? #3).2).1 #%"1<=)0 >31. <# "25$ )(%.. #.%=.2) "7 355
>.1&=&2350: R(. 1&77.%.2=. -.)6..2 )(. #%&=. 3 #(3%>3=.<)&=35 #&%3).
6"<51 =(3%'. 321 3 5.'&)&>3). #%"1<=.% 6"<51 =(3%'. 630 3) >"0)
3%"<21M`#.%=.2):R(.#&%3).0#%.))$><=(=(3%'.1)(.03>.3>"<2)30
)(.5.'&)&>3).#%"1<=)0Y&)630%.355$)(.>3%B.)?)(.3-&5&)$)"#3$?)(3)0.)
)(.#%&=.:R(.1&77.%.2=.)")(.="20<>.%&2).%>0"7="0)63035>"0)2&5?
321)(&2B"7)(.1&77.%.2=.&26(3)$"<'.)7%">35.'&)&>3).#%"1<=.%&2
).%>0"7.1<=3)&"2?=3%.?321%.5&3-&5&)$"7#%"1<=):;""2.="<511.7.21
)(..P&0).2=."7="<2).%7.&)-&%)(="2)%"5#&550)(3)6.%."2)(.>3%B.):R(.
31932)3'.0)")(.="20<>.%"7#%").=)&2'5.'&)&>3).#%"1<=)06.%.%.355$
C<&). '""1 .9.2 &7 $"< 1&12Q) ="<2) )(. -&''.0) 31932)3'.? )(. >3%B.)
&2=.2)&9.)"#%"1<=.=<%.07"%&552.00.0:
R(. U2).55.=)<35 /%"#.%)$ !">>&)).. 7"<21.1 -$ UdK 321 /7&W.% 630 &2).20.5$ 3=)&9.
1<%&2')(&0#.%&"1:L=="%1&2')"G"%5&2?#%."==<#3)&"26&)()(.;"%)(kF"<)(1.-3).-5"=B.132$
\0<-0)32)&9.2.'")&3)&"2o0"6.)""B31932)3'."7)("0.)6"$.3%0:]U2;"9.>-.%MJO[?U/!U/

``

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Mike Kirk are from a September 1997 interview with the author.

MO

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

0#.=&35&0)0>.)6&)()(.&%="<2).%#3%)03))(.E.&132%.2&2D3#32321H;U!Z&2d%<00.50)"-.'&2
1%37)&2'37%3>.6"%B7"%)(.%"<21:G"%5&2.P#53&20?\X.-30&=355$632).1)"=">.<#6&)(3-""B
)(3)03&1?jR(&0&06(3)6.632):Q]
4%"> )(. U/!Q0 #.%0#.=)&9.? &) 630 &>#"%)32) )(3) &21<0)%$ 3%)&=<53). )(. >&2&><>
3==.#)3-5. 0)3213%10 7"% &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ #%").=)&"2: U/! %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 -.5&.9.1 )(3) )(.
>"0)%.5.932).P#.%)&0."2&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$6307"<21&2&21<0)%$?6(.%..P#.%)0<21.%0)""1
("632$#%"#"0.10)3213%106"<513=)<355$7<2=)&"2:\n"<=32-.)(.)"##3).2)3))"%2.$6&)(3
)%.>.21"<0 3>"<2) "7 &2).%23)&"235 .P#.%&.2=. &2 )(. /3).2) 321 R%31.>3%B c77&=.?] G"%5&2
>3&2)3&20? \-<) &7 )(3) &0 )(. "25$ .P#.%&.2=. $"<Q9. (31? $"< 6&55 %.355$ 2") B2"6 )(. .77.=)
1&77.%.2) 5360 321 532'<3'. 6&55 (39. "2 $"<% 3-&5&)$ )" .27"%=. 3 #3).2): F" 6. -30&=355$ 03&1?
jh""B? &) &0 "25$ )(. #%&93). 0.=)"% U/ 0#.=&35&0)0 6(" %.355$ B2"6 6(3) )$#.0 "7 >&2&><>
0)3213%106&55(.5#<0:Q]
c6&2' )" )(.&% 1&77.%.2) U/ 0$0).>0? )(. L>.%&=320? D3#32.0.? 321 Z<%"#.320 1&1 2")
3563$0 3'%.. "2 6(3) )(. >&2&><> 0)3213%10 6.%.: U20).31 "7 3)).>#)&2' )" 2.'")&3). )%.3)$
532'<3'.? &21<0)%$ "77&=&350 )%&.1 )" &1.2)&7$ 6(3) -30.5&2. =(3%3=).%&0)&=0 )(.&% #3).2)? ="#$%&'()?
321 )%31.>3%B %.'&>.0 0(3%.1: \4"% .P3>#5.?] .P#53&20 G"%5&2? \6. 1&12Q) 03$? &2 ).%>0 "7
#3).2)0?)(3)&)(31)"-.37&%0))"7&5.0$0).>30"##"0.1)"37&%0))"&29.2)0$0).>:X.^<0)03&1
)(3).9.%$="<2)%$(30)"(39.30$0).>7"%'&9&2'3#3).2):]F<=(=">#%">&0.06.%.2")3563$0
0)%3&'()7"%63%1?("6.9.%:8..53-"%3).0i
R(.2.'")&3)&"2"7)(3)-30&=7%3>.6"%B630)"<'(:X.0#.2)5"2'("<%0:
d<)6.0(3%.1)(.03>."-^.=)&9."7)%$&2')"=">.<#6&)(323'%..1).P):
U20">.3%.30?)(.-&''.0)#%"-5.>0)(.Z<%"#.320321)(.D3#32.0.(31
6.%. 2") 2.=.003%&5$ 6&)( )(. 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0? -<) 6&)( )(. H2&).1
F)3).0 -.=3<0. 6. 6.%. )(.&% 53%'.0) >3%B.): 4"% .P3>#5.? )(. D3#32.0.
6.%. 9.%$ ="2=.%2.1 3-"<) =(32'&2' )(. HF >3%B.) -.=3<0. "7 355 )(.
D3#32.0. .5.=)%"2&= &21<0)%&.0 )(3) 6.%. -30&=355$ "25$ .P#"%)&2' )" )(.
H2&).1F)3).0:F")(.%.6.%.).20&"20:R(.%.6.%.=.%)3&2)(&2'06.(31)"
=(32'.321)(3)6.%.=">>.21.1:U>.32?6.6.%.2")'"9.%2>.2)Y6.
6.%. &21<0)%$: d<) "<% )(%<0) 630 )" =%.3). 3 0.) "7 >&2&><> 0)3213%10
)(3) 6"<51 %.75.=) )(. 5.9.5 "7 U/ #%").=)&"2 &2 )("0. ="<2)%&.0 )(3) (31
'""1U/#%").=)&"2:
R(.U/!350"0"<'()0<##"%)7%">321="20.20<06&)(HF)%31.'%"<#0:X(&5.H;U!Z321
)(.E.&132%.2%.#%.0.2).1355)(..>#5"$.%&21<0)%&.0&2Z<%"#.321D3#32%.0#.=)&9.5$?)(.U/!
%.#%.0.2).1 "25$ MN =">#32&.0: U) )(.%.7"%. 3%%32'.1 >..)&2'0 .9.%$ 0&P )" 2&2. >"2)(0 6&)(
&21<0)%$ 300"=&3)&"20Y N, )" S, 6"<51 %.9&.6 1%37)0 "7 %.=.2) 6"%B: Z%&= F>&)(? 6(" %.#%.0.2).1
)(. ="#$%&'() &21<0)%&.0 )(%"<'( )(. UU/L? 630 &29&).1 )" (.5# 1.9.5"# )(. -30&= 7%3>.6"%B: 8.
%.=3550)(3)\)(.U/!#."#5.6.%.#%.))$'%.3):R(.$6.5=">.1<0321)(.$B2.6)(3)6.(31)(.
="20)&)<.2=$)(3)="<51(.5#0.55RTU/F&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0321)(.$1&12Q):F")(.$&29&).1<0:]

MJ

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

!">#5.).1 &2 D<2. MJOO? )(. M,,#3'. U/! %.#"%) 1.)3&5.1 >&2&><> 0)3213%10 7"% 32
3==.#)3-5. RTU/F 3'%..>.2): U) 630 9&.6.1 30 )(. #%"1<=) "7 3 <2&C<. ="553-"%3)&"2 3>"2' )(.
HF?Z<%"#.32?321D3#32.0.-<0&2.00=">><2&)&.0:8.65.))/3=B3%1#%.0&1.2)321!ZcD"(2L:
n"<2'=(3%3=).%&W.1)(.<21.%)3B&2'30\<2#%.=.1.2).1l?mo)(.7&%0))&>.)(3))(.&2).%23)&"235
-<0&2.00 =">><2&)$ (30 ^"&2)5$ 1.9.5"#.1 3 1"=<>.2) "7 )(&0 >3'2&)<1. 321 0<=( 0<-0)32)&9.
1.)3&5 7"% #%.0.2)3)&"2 )" "<% '"9.%2>.2) 2.'")&3)"%0:] `[ b.5&9.%.1 )" )(. HF 2.'")&3)"%0? )(.
1"=<>.2) ="2)%&-<).1 0&'2&7&=32)5$ )" )(. 7&235 3'%..>.2): L=="%1&2' )" "2. 2.'")&3)"%? \R(.%.
6.%.%.355$)6"#%")")$#.07"%6(3).9.2)<355$-.=3>.)(.RTU/F3'%..>.2):c2.630)(.U/!Q0
-30&=7%3>.6"%B321)(.")(.%6303-&53).%353'%..>.2))(.H2&).1F)3).02.'")&3).16&)(E"%.3
&2)(.0<>>.%"7MJO[:]
X(&5.)(.HF'"9.%2>.2)630&2).%.0).1&2)(.="35&)&"2Q0#"0&)&"2?")(.%="<2)%&.06.%.
2") 0" %.=.#)&9.: /7&W.% '.2.%35 ="<20.5 h"< !5.>.2). %.>3%B.1? \R(. Z<%"#.32 '"9.%2>.2)0
6.%.5.006&55&2')"31"#))(.0.9&.60:U20).31?)(.$=("0.)".>#(30&W.)(.1&77.%.2=.0-.)6..2
)(. H2&).1 F)3).0 321 Z<%"#.: R(. D3#32.0. '"9.%2>.2) 630 .9.2 5.00 %.0#"20&9. )" )(.
1"=<>.2):U2)(.D3#32.0.=<5)<%.)(.%.&03><=(1&77.%.2)%.53)&"20(&#-.)6..2'"9.%2>.2)321
-<0&2.00: U2 D3#32? &) &0 )(. '"9.%2>.2) 6(&=( 1.=&1.0 6(3) &0 -.0) 7"% D3#32 321 7"% D3#32.0.
-<0&2.00:] `I
L0 )(. RTU/F .77"%) ="2)&2<.1? U/-30.1 &21<0)%&.0 5"--&.1 )(. HF 31>&2&0)%3)&"2 )" <0.
0.=)&"2 N,M >"%. 9&'"%"<05$: U2 MJOO? 2.6 )%31. 5.'&053)&"2 630 #300.1 -$ !"2'%.00 )(3) 7<%)(.%
0)%.2')(.2.1)(.H2&).1F)3).0Q3-&5&)$)"3##5$#%.00<%."2="<2)%&.0)(3)1.2&.1U/#%").=)&"2)"
HF 7&%>0: R(. MJOO c>2&-<0 R%31. 321 !">#.)&)&9.2.00 L=) &2=5<1.1 3 #%"9&0&"2 B2"62 30
\F#.=&35 N,M?] 6(&=( %.C<&%.1 )(. HFRT )" 0<->&) 32 322<35 %.#"%) )" !"2'%.00 &1.2)&7$&2'
23)&"20)(3)1.2&.131.C<3).#%").=)&"27"%U/T"%)(3)1.2&.173&%321.C<&)3-5.>3%B.)3==.00)"
HF U/T ("51.%0V321 )" %.)35&3). >"%. C<&=B5$: R(. >"0) 0.%&"<0 9&"53)"%0 6.%. 1.0&'23).1
\/%&"%&)$ 4"%.&'2 !"<2)%&.0]Y ")(.% ="<2)%&.0? #53=.1 "2 3 \/%&"%&)$ X3)=( h&0)?] 6.%. 0<-^.=) )"
-&53).%352.'")&3)&"20?6(&5.23)&"20)(3)>.%.5$%.C<&%.1>"2&)"%&2'6.%.#<)"23\X3)=(h&0):]
R(. -%3&2=(&51 "7 RTU/F 2.'")&3)"% K&B. 83)(363$? F#.=&35 N,M #%"9"B.1 '%.3)
%.0.2)>.2) 3>"2' HF )%31&2' #3%)2.%0 321 630 1.2"<2=.1 &2).%23)&"2355$: n.) 7%"> )(.
#.%0#.=)&9."7HF&21<0)%$321>32$&2!"2'%.00?)(%.3)0"73=)&"2<21.%F#.=&35N,M0<==..1.1&2
.2="<%3'&2' >32$ ="<2)%&.0 )" -.'&2 0)%.2')(.2&2' )(.&% &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 5360: U2 MJOJ? +`
="<2)%&.0 6.%. =&).1 <21.% F#.=&35 N,M? 6&)( d%3W&5? U21&3? F"<)( E"%.3? K.P&="? !(&23? F3<1&
L%3-&3?R3&632?321R(3&5321#53=.1"2)(./%&"%&)$X3)=(h&0):d%3W&5321U21&363%2.1)(3)HF
<2&53).%353=)&"20<21.%N,M)(%.3).2.1)(.H%<'<3$T"<213219&"53).1)(.GLRR:
H21.% )(. N,M &2&)&3)&9.0? HFRT &29.0)&'3).1 d%3W&5Q0 =">#<).% 0"7)63%. #%").=)&"2 321
#(3%>3=.<)&=35#3).2)0:T.0#"21&2')"HF#%.00<%.?d%3W&5=%.3).10"7)63%.="#$%&'()#%").=)&"2
&2 &)0 F"7)63%. h36 "7 MJOI: d<) 6(.2 )(. d%3W&5&32 '"9.%2>.2) 0("6.1 2" =">>&)>.2) )"

`[

IPC press release, June 14, 1988; quoted in Michael A. Santoro, Pfizer: Protecting Intellectual Property in a
Global Marketplace, 1992, p. 12.

`I

Quoted in Michael A. Santoro, Pfizer: Protecting Intellectual Property in a Global Marketplace, 1992, p. 12.

+,

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

&2=%.30. #%"=.00 321 #3).2) #%").=)&"2 7"% 1%<'0 37).% 3 =">#53&2) )(3) 03>. $.3% 7%"> )(. HF
#(3%>3=.<)&=35&21<0)%$?)(.H2&).1F)3).0&2=%.30.1)3%&770)"M,,#.%=.2)"2d%3W&5&32.P#"%)0"7
=.%)3&2#3#.%#%"1<=)0?="20<>.%.5.=)%"2&=0?321#(3%>3=.<)&=35#%"1<=)0?377.=)&2')%31.6"%)(
3-"<)eNJ>&55&"2:R(.)3%&77&2=%.30.0?6(&=()""B.77.=)c=)"-.%MJOO?9&%)<355$#%"(&-&).1d%3W&5
7%"> .P#"%)&2' )(.0. #%"1<=)0 )" )(. HF >3%B.) 1<%&2' MJOJ 321 )(. 7&%0) (357 "7 MJJ,: `O U2 &)0
6%&)).20<->&00&"2)")(.RTU/F2.'")&3)&2''%"<#&2c=)"-.%MJOO?d%3W&53%'<.1)(3))(.'%"<#
(313>3213).)"1&0=<00\%&'&1321.P=.00&9.#%").=)&"2"7U/T0]321\3-<0&9.<0."7U/T0:] `J
U2)(..21?)(.H2&).1F)3).0-3=B.11"627%">&)00.=)&"2N,M%.)35&3)&"26(.2d%3W&57&5.1
3 =">#53&2) <21.% )(. GLRR: 4"55"6&2' 300<%32=.0 -$ d%3W&5Q0 #%.0&1.2) )(3) #3).2) #%").=)&"2
6"<51 -. .P).21.1 )" #(3%>3=.<)&=35 #%"1<=)0? HFRT !3%53 8&550 %.0=&21.1 )(. )3%&770 @.9.2
)("<'( )(&0 5.'&053)&"2 630 2") .23=).1 <2)&5 MJJ[A: L=="%1&2' )" 3 7"%>.% HFRT "77&=&35? 8&550
\1&12Q)632))"-.7"<21&29&"53)&"2"7)(.GLRR:X(.20(.%.0=&21.1)(.)3%&770)(.d%3W&5&320
6&)(1%.6)(.&%=">#53&2):]

@("A?$@"./7"-?"Q2#$S"%)#$
L) )(. b.=.>-.% MJOO H%<'<3$ T"<21 >&1).%> %.9&.6 &2 K"2)%.35? RTU/F %.>3&2.1
3>"2')(.#%"-5.>'%"<#0?<23-5.)"3%%&9.3)3="20.20<07"%)(.7%3>.6"%B"7)(.)35B0:K&B.
E&%B %.=3550? \X. 6.%. 2") %.31$ 7"% )(. >&1).%> %.9&.6? -<) &) 630 3 2&=. 63B.<# =355: U) )"51
.9.%$-"1$? jcB3$? &7 6.Q%. '"&2' )" 3=(&.9. 32$)(&2' 6.Q9. '") )" '.) 3 5&))5. -&) >"%. 7"=<0.1Y
6.Q9.'"))"=">.)"'%&#06&)()(.&00<.035&))5.-&)-.)).%:Q]b.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0="2)&2<.1)"
-5"=B32$1&0=<00&"2"70<-0)32)&9.0)3213%10:U2311&)&"2?Z<%"#.Q0"77&=&35#"0&)&"2630\73%?73%
-.(&21)(3)"7)(.H2&).1F)3).0?]3=="%1&2')""2.HF"-0.%9.%?6("0<''.0).1)(3))(.Z<%"#.320
\6.%.><=(>"%.6&55&2')"#%"9&1..P.>#)&"20)(3)6"<51(39.355"6.1U21&3321d%3W&5)"?&2
.77.=)?'<)32$U/T"-5&'3)&"20:] [,
R(. 1.315"=B "9.% RTU/F 630 7&2355$ -%"B.2 &2 L#%&5 MJOJ 3) )(. R%31. ;.'")&3)&"20
!">>&)).. >..)&2' &2 G.2.93: \L7).% L#%&5?] 3=="%1&2' )" E&%B? \6. %.355$ '") &) )"'.)(.% 321
0)3%).1>"9&2'7"%63%1:]F.9.%35HF"-0.%9.%0'39.=%.1&))")(.L00"=&3)&"2"7F"<)(.30)L0&32
;3)&"20 7"% >"9&2' )(. )35B0 35"2' @3) )(3) )&>.? LFZL; =">#%&0.1 d%<2.& b3%<00353>?
U21"2.0&3? K353$0&3? )(. /(&5&##&2.0? F&2'3#"%.? 321 R(3&5321A: 4"%>.% 300&0)32) HFRT d35.
.P#53&20?\R(.LFZL;="<2)%&.06.%.B&21"7>&115.'%"<21>.1&3)"%0:oU21&3321d%3W&56.%.
)(. >"0) 0)%.2<"<0 &2 )(.&% "##"0&)&"2 )" RTU/F? 7"55"6.1 -$ Z'$#) 321 /3B&0)32: UQ1 03$ )("0.
6.%. )(. 7"<% >3^"% "##"2.2)0 )" )(. &00<.: d<) ")(.% ="<2)%&.0 )(3) 6.%. 73% >"%. &2).%.0).1 &2
)%31. "%'32&W3)&"2? 5&B. )(. LFZL;="<2)%&.0?7.5)&)630.00.2)&35)(3))(.H2&).1F)3).0(39.&)0
63$ "2 RTU/F:] b.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 3'%..1 )" 5&7) )(.&% -5"=BY U21&3 321 d%3W&5 6.%. )(. 530)

`O

USTR, Report to Congress on Section 301 Developments, January 1995June 1996.

`J

Jayashree Watal, Intellectual Property Rights in the WTO and Developing Countries, 2001, p. 25.

[,

For example, European proposals excluded patents on plant and animal varieties and on biological processes for
producing plants and animals.

+M

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

("51"<)0: [M R(.2.'")&3)&"2"-^.=)&9.06.%.=53%&7&.1321)(.&00<.0"731.C<3).U/T0)3213%10321
)(.&% .27"%=.>.2) 6.%. 0#.=&7&=355$ &1.2)&7&.1 30 #3%) "7 )(. )35B0: U) 630 350" 3'%..1 )(3) )(.
2.'")&3)&"20 6"<51 )3B. )(. 1.9.5"#>.2)35 321 ).=(2"5"'&=35 ="2=.%20 "7 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0
&2)"3=="<2):L)530)?HF2.'")&3)"%00&'(.1?)(.%.63037%3>.6"%B7"%)(.RTU/F2.'")&3)&"20:
X($ 1&1 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 3'%.. )" -%"31.2 )(. 1&0=<00&"2a L 2<>-.% "7 "-0.%9.%0
-.5&.9.)(3)0">.23)&"206.%.6&55&2')")%31.0<##"%)"7RTU/F7"%&>#%"9.13==.00)"&21<0)%&35
>3%B.)0 &2 3'%&=<5)<%.? ).P)&5.0? 321 5&'()>32<73=)<%&2'#%"1<=)0:\L2.'")&3)"%7%">L%'.2)&23
03&1)(3))(.$1&12Q)'&9.313>26(3)630&2)(.U/="1.305"2'30)(.$'")6(3))(.$632).1&2
3'%&=<5)<%.?] 2").0 Z2$3%): \X(&=( 0("60 $"< )(3) )(.0. 2"2)%31&)&"235 GLRR 3'%..>.2)0 l5&B.
RTU/Fm 6"<51 #%"-3-5$ 2.9.% >3B. &) &7 )(.$ 6.%.2Q) =3%%&.1 &2 3 6&1.% 2.'")&3)&"2:] L0 F&>"2
#<)0&)i
c2. "7 )(. %.30"20 6($ #."#5. )%$ )" '.) )(.0. &00<.0 "2)" )(. )%31.
3'.213&0-.=3<0.)(.%.3%.=%"000.=)"%35)%31."770:U7$"<3%.2.'")&3)&2'
"2 U/ 6&)( d%3W&5 321 $"< 03$ )" )(. d%3W&5&32? \U7 $"< 1"2Q) #%").=) HF
0"7)63%.?6.6"2Q)#%").=)d%3W&5&320"7)63%.&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0?])(3)&0
3>.32&2'5.00)(%.3):8"6.9.%?&7$"<03$)")(.d%3W&5&320?\U7$"<1"2Q)
#%").=) HF 0"7)63%. )(.2 6. 6"2Q) 5.) $"< .P#"%) ="77.. )" )(. H2&).1
F)3).0?])(.2)(3)&03>.32&2'7<5)(%.3):R(.-&'-%.3B37).%)(.>&1).%>
%.9&.66303><=(=5.3%.%.2'3'.>.2)"23'%&=<5)<%35&00<.0:b.9.5"#&2'
="<2)%&.0 &2 '.2.%35 632).1 0<-0)32)&35 5&-.%35&W3)&"2 "2 3'%&=<5)<%35
.P#"%)0:F"?0<11.25$?)(.$(31>"%."730)3B.&2)(.0.2.'")&3)&"20:4"%
<0?)(.U/3'.213630"2."7"<%-&'0)3B.0:F"?&2%.)<%27"%-.&2'>"%.
7"%)(=">&2' "2 3'%&=<5)<%.? 6(&=( %.355$ )""B 32")(.% 7"<% 321 3 (357
$.3%0?6.'")0">.'%.3).%7"%)(=">&2'2.00"2U/:
R(.H%<'<3$T"<213'%..>.2)%.1<=.13'%&=<5)<%35)3%&7703213'%&=<5)<%350<-0&1&.0: [+ U2
311&)&"2? )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 3'%..>.2) #(30.1 "<) )(. K<5)&7&-.% L%%32'.>.2) @K4LA: F&2=.
MJIS? )(. K4L (31 #.%>&)).1 1&0=%&>&23)"%$ <0. "7 ).P)&5. C<")30? >"0)5$ 3##5&.1 -$ 1.9.5"#.1
="<2)%&.0 )" #%"1<=)0 7%"> 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 @U21&3 350" >3&2)3&2.1 (&'( -3%%&.%0 <21.% )(.
K4LA:R("0..P#.=).1)"'3&2>"0)7%">)(.K4L#(30."<)6.%.5"6&2=">.="<2)%&.0&2F"<)(
L0&3306.55308"2'E"2'?F"<)(E"%.3?R3&632?F&2'3#"%.?321!(&23@3))(.)&>.?2")3GLRR
>.>-.%A:c-0.%9.%02").)(3)"2."7)(.B.$<21.%5$&2'-3%'3&20"7)(.H%<'<3$T"<21630)(.
3==.#)32=."7RTU/F-$0">.1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0&2.P=(32'.7"%)(..21"70<=(C<")30:U)630
30\3RTU/F7"%K4L1.35?]03$0"2.0"<%=.:

[M

India resisted until September 12, 1989, when it announced it had accepted in principle the international
enforcement of trade-related IP rights within the Uruguay Round context (Susan K. Sell, Private Power, Public
Law: The Globalization of Intellectual Property Rights, 2003, p. 109).

[+

Some argued that these changes would improve market access for developing countries, though others maintained
that such benefits were overstated. Agricultural tariffs were reduced by an average of 36 percent in developed
countries and 24 percent in developing countries. Because agricultural tariffs were to be reduced by 36 percent
overall, developed countries could reduce tariffs in some areas while maintaining significant protections in other
sectors.

++

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

U2311&)&"2)"-.&2'3))%3=).1-$)(.=3%%")"75"6.%)3%&770&2).P)&5.03213'%&=<5)<%.?0">.
1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 )(%.3).2.1 -$ )(. 0)&=B "7 0.=)&"2 N,M 036 RTU/F 30 )(. 5.00.% "7 )6" .9&50:
H21.% RTU/F? &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ ="275&=)0 6"<51 -. 0<-^.=) )" )(. XRc 1&0#<). 0.))5.>.2)
>3=(&2.%$: R("<'( )(.$ 0)%"2'5$ 1&05&B.1 \=%"00032=)&"20]V%.#%&0350 "2 '""10 )%31. 7"%
-%.3=(.0 "7 RTU/FV1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 7"<21 )(. #%"0#.=) "7 3206.%&2' .P=5<0&9.5$ )" )(.
H2&).1F)3).0.9.25.003##.35&2':K32$3235$0)0-.5&.9.)(3)HF)(%.3)0"7)%31.032=)&"20<21.%
0.=)&"2N,M1&00<31.1)(.LFZL;="<2)%&.07%">"##"0&2')(.1.9.5"#.1="<2)%&.0"2RTU/F:U2
311&)&"2?>32$h3)&2L>.%&=32="<2)%&.0?&2=5<1&2'!(&5.321K.P&="?6.%.35%.31$0)%.2')(.2&2'
)(.&%U/#%").=)&"20:R("<'()(.0.23)&"20="2)&2<.1)"("51)(.&%.3%5&.%#"0&)&"20"2RTU/F?)(.$
6.%.1.0=%&-.1301&0#53$&2'3\>3%B.153=B"77.%9"%]&2#<%0<&2')("0."-^.=)&9.0: [N \F.=)&"2N,M
&0%.355$)(.'("0)"7)(&06("5.83>5.)0)"%$?]3=="%1&2')"F<-%3>32&32?\-.=3<0.&))<%2.1"<)
)" -. B.$ &2 0(3#&2' )(. .9.2)<35 "<)=">.: U) (31 3 (<'. &275<.2=. &2 ).%>0 "7 =(32'&2'
1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0Q#"0&)&"2"2&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$:]
F">. 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 350" %.="'2&W.1 )(3) =.%)3&2 ><5)&23)&"235 =">#32&.0
&2=%.30&2'5$9&.6.1U/#%").=)&"2301.=&0&9.&23))%3=)&2'7"%.&'2&29.0)>.2):/%"9&1&2'U/T0(31
-.=">. "2. >"%. 63$ )" 9&. 7"% 7"%.&'2 =3#&)35 &2 3 =">#.)&)&9. 6"%51: K"%. '.2.%355$? >32$
1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0?-.5&.9&2')(.GLRR)"-.)(.&%-.0)1.7.20.3'3&20)0)%"2'.%23)&"20?9&.6.1
U/ #%").=)&"2 30 )(. #%&=. )(.$ (31 )" #3$ 7"% )(. 0<==.00 "7 )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21: \R(.%. 630 3
0$0).>&=&00<.3)0)3B.?]F<-%3>32&32.P#53&20:\L%.357.3%)(3)&7)(.$1&12Q)3'%..)"&2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$? )(. HF 6"<51 )<%2 363$ 7%"> )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 321 )(3) 630 2") &2 )(. &2).%.0) "7
1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0:]

FK2#$/2.E
R(.-%.3B&2)(.1.315"=B5.1)"375""1"70<-0)32)&9.#%"#"0350: [S U2'.2.%35?0<->&00&"20
7%"> 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 739"%.1 5""0.% 0)3213%10 321 .27"%=.>.2): R(. C<.0)&"2 "7 6(.%. )"
5"1'. )(. RTU/F 3'%..>.2)V&2 )(. GLRR "% &2 XU/c? 30 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 739"%.1V350"
%.>3&2.1"#.2:D3$30(%..X3)35?)(.232.'")&3)"%7"%U21&3?2").0?\U2%.)%"0#.=)?&)3##.3%0)(3)
0">.1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0#3&1>"%.3)).2)&"2)")(&030#.=))(32)")3B&2'=""%1&23).1#"0&)&"20
"20<-0)32)&9.2"%>03210)3213%10"7U/T0:] [`
/.%(3#0 )(. >"0) &>#"%)32) #%"#"035 =3>. 7%"> )(. Z<%"#.320? 6("0. 1%37) RTU/F
3'%..>.2)6307"%63%1.1&2MJJ,:F<-%3>32&32=3550&)\35321>3%B&2)(.#%"=.00:o4"%0">.
)&>.? RTU/F (31 -..2 0..2 30 32 .P=5<0&9.5$ HF5.1 &2&)&3)&9.: d<) 6(.2 )(. Z! )3-5.1 l&:.:?

[N

Jayashree Watal, Intellectual Property Rights in the WTO and Developing Countries, p. 31.

[S

Legal drafts were submitted by the European Community, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Cuba,
Egypt, India, Japan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Switzerland, Tanzania, the United States, Uruguay, and Zimbabwe.

[`

Jayashree Watal, Intellectual Property Rights in the WTO and Developing Countries, p. 28. Watal notes that the
written submissions of Korea, Peru, and Brazil argued for a balance between the rights and obligations of IPR
owners. In addition, Korea made a case for liberal compulsory licensing of patents. India argued that patents were
linked to critical developmental priorities such as food production, poverty alleviation, nutrition, health care, and
disease prevention (Watal, p. 29).

+N

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

0<->&)).1m&)0#%"#"035?)(3)0&'235.13=(32'.&2)(.Z<%"#.32#"0&)&"27%">"2."7-.&2'>&515$
&2 739"% "7 32 U/ 3'%..>.2) )" "2. )(3) 630 35>"0) 30 0)%"2' 30 )(3) "7 )(. HF: U) =(32'.1 )(.
-3532=."7#"6.%:]
R(. Z<%"#.320 (31 0)%3).'&= 30 6.55 30 =">>.%=&35 %.30"20 7"% -.=">&2' >"%. 300.%)&9.
3-"<) #<%0<&2' RTU/F: h""B&2' 3(.31 )" )(. 7&235 H%<'<3$ T"<21 3'%..>.2)? )(. 2.'")&3)"%0
B2.6)(3)=(32'.0&2Z<%"#.323'%&=<5)<%35#"5&=$6.%.&2.9&)3-5.:U23555&B.5&(""1?)(.0.=(32'.0
6"<51 -. >"0) <23##.35&2' )" 4%32=.: R(. Z<%"#.320 #<0(.1 7"% &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ %<5.0
%.53).1 )" '."'%3#(&=35 &21&=3)&"20 "2 6&2. 30 "2. >.)("1 "7 \>"55&7$&2' )(. 4%.2=(?] 30 "2.
"-0.%9.%#<)&)?321)(.%.-$(.5#&2')"0.55)(.3'%..>.2)3036("5.:
L0)(.2.'")&3)&"20>"9.1)(%"<'(MJJ,?)(.&%7"=<00(&7).1)"1&03'%..>.2)0-.)6..2)(.
="<2)%&.0)(3)53%'.5$="2)%"55.1U/:c2.2.'")&3)"%%.=3550?\U2=%.30&2'5$&)-.=3>.3;"%)(k;"%)(
1.-3).?321.9.%$-"1$.50.630'"&2'35"2'7"%)(.%&1.:]

6"5)0?20?#5&02#$2.$3
c2=. 3 7%3>.6"%B (31 -..2 .0)3-5&0(.1 7"% )(. 2.'")&3)&"20? 3 93%&.)$ "7 ="2).2)&"<0
&00<.0 2..1.1 )" -. %.0"59.1: F&P "7 )(. 1&77.%.2=.0 -.)6..2 )(. H2&).1 F)3).0? )(. Z<%"#.32
!">><2&)$?321D3#326.%.#3%3>"<2):
!"#$%&'()*&+ ,-.)*&/)#-0B R(. Z<%"#.32 !">><2&)$ 321 F6&)W.%5321 632).1 0)%"2'
#%").=)&"2 7"% '."'%3#(&=35 &21&=3)&"20 )(3) \&1.2)&7$ 3 '""1 30 "%&'&23)&2' &2 )(. ).%%&)"%$ "7 3
K.>-.%? "% 3 %.'&"2 "% 3 5"=35&)$ &2 )(3) ).%%&)"%$? 6(.%. 3 '&9.2 C<35&)$? %.#<)3)&"2 "% ")(.%
=(3%3=).%&0)&= "7 )(. '""1 &0 .00.2)&355$ 3))%&-<)3-5. )" &)0 '."'%3#(&=35 "%&'&2] @GLRR? L%)&=5.
ppUUA: 4"% .P3>#5.? 0<=( #%").=)&"2 6"<51 3##5$ )" 6&2.0 300"=&3).1 6&)( 0#.=&7&= %.'&"20?
#%.9.2)&2'HF6&2.%&.07%">23>&2')(.&%#%"1<=)07"&>%&=+'3,5(9'&1237"&,;#$33210"7"%)(:
1&/"-/0B b&03'%..>.2)0 ="2)&2<.1 3-"<) .P=.#)&"20 )" #3).2)3-5. 0<-^.=) >3)).%: 4"%
.P3>#5.?0("<51#532)32132&>3593%&.)&.0-.#3).2).1aL2")(.%3%.3"71&0#<).630)(.-30&0"2
6(&=( #3).2)0 6.%. 363%1.1: X(&5. ")(.% ="<2)%&.0 <0.1 3 7&%0))"7&5. 0$0).>? )(. H2&).1 F)3).0
'%32).1#3).2)0)")(.7&%0))"&29.2)3#%"1<=)V-<)&20&0).1)(3)7"%.&'2&29.2)"%00..B&2'#3).2)0
&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0-.)(.7&%0))"7&5.:R(.%.7"%.?&)630#"00&-5.7"%3HF#3).2))"-.363%1.1)"3
HF3##5&=32)%3)(.%)(3237"%.&'23##5&=32)6("3=)<355$>31.)(.&29.2)&"27&%0):
1(&%2&*"3/)*&+0B U2 311&)&"2 )" .20<%&2' #%").=)&"2 7"% #(3%>3=.<)&=35 #3).2)0 >"%.
'.2.%355$? )(. &21<0)%$ 350" 632).1 \#&#.5&2.] #%").=)&"2V)(3) &0? #3).2) #%").=)&"2 7"%
#(3%>3=.<)&=350)(3)6.%.&2)(.%.0.3%=(#&#.5&2.-<)2")$.)"2)(.>3%B.):
4#5/6&%"B R(. H2&).1 F)3).0 632).1 )" 3=="%1 0"7)63%. )(.03>.="#$%&'()#%").=)&"230
5&).%3%$6"%B0?-<))(.D3#32.0.%.0&0).1:

+S

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

7#%&+8)$(/0BZ<%"#.3200<##"%).1)(.&2=5<0&"2"7>5(&;(#="*$36(&=(6"<51#%").=)32
3<)("%Q06"%B-$#%.9.2)&2'")(.%07%">=53&>&2'3<)("%0(&#"7&)"%>3B&2'1.7"%>&2'=(32'.0
)"&):HF="#$%&'()5361&12")%.="'2&W.>"%35%&'()0:
8"-/&+ 8)$(/09 R(. HF %.="%1&2' &21<0)%$ 632).1 )" #%"(&-&) =">>.%=&35 %.2)35 "7
%.="%1.1 6"%B0: U2 MJOJ? UU/L #%.0&1.2) Z%&= F>&)( 1%37).1 3 #%.5&>&23%$ N,M #.)&)&"2 3'3&20)
D3#32%.'3%1&2')(.3##%"P&>3).5$I?,,,D3#32.0.%.2)350("#07%">6(&=(="20<>.%0="<51%.2)
321)(.2="#$!b0:
c2.=(355.2'.&22.'")&3)&2'0<=(&00<.06306(3)"2.#3%)&=&#32)1.0=%&-.030\)(.355"%
2")(&2']23)<%."7U/:\n"<=32Q)0#5&))(.1&77.%.2=.?](..P#53&20:\U)Q02")5&B.$"<=32(39."&;D
"7 32 .P=5<0&9. %&'(): n"< .&)(.% (39. 32 .P=5<0&9. %&'()? "% $"< 1"2Q):] K"0) )%31. 2.'")&3)"%0
6.%.3==<0)">.1)"3>"%.)%31&)&"2350$0).>&26(&=(3>&115.'%"<21="<51-.2.'")&3).1321
1.350 ="<51 -. =<) %.53)&9.5$ C<&=B5$: \n"< '" &2)" 3 0>"B.7&55.1 %""> 6&)( 3-"<) +` ")(.%
="<2)%&.0321(3>>.%"<))(.1.35?)(.2$"<635B"<)?)(.6(&).0>"B.5&7)0?321)(3)Q0&):d<)$"<
=32Q)1")(3)&2U/:oRTU/F^<0)1&12")7&))(."51#3%31&'>:]
L2")(.% #%"-5.> 6&)( )(. 2.'")&3)&"20? 7%"> )(. HF #.%0#.=)&9.? 630 )(. #.%=.&9.1
<26&55&2'2.00"7)(.Z<%"#.320)"0#.2132$#"5&)&=35=3#&)35:b<%&2')(.RTU/F2.'")&3)&"20?"2.
L>.%&=32 %.=3550? \)(. Z<%"#.320 )%31&)&"2355$ 6"<51 =3).% )" 321 3##.3% )" 0&1. 6&)( )(.
1.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0"2=.%)3&2&00<.0?B2"6&2')(.HF(313=">>"2&2).%.0)"2)(.#%").=)&"2"7
U/321)(3))(.HF6302")'"&2')"=39.&2:]F">."-0.%9.%0'"0"73%30)"3==<0.)(.Z<%"#.320
"7 '.))&2' 3 7%.. %&1. )(%"<'( RTU/F "2 )(. -3=B "7 HF .77"%)0: c)(.%0 =(3%3=).%&W. &) 1&77.%.2)5$:
L=="%1&2' )" "2.? \)(. ZH 2.'")&3)"%0 6.%. 0>3%).% )(32 )(. HF 2.'")&3)"%0: R(. HF '".0 7"% 3
05.1'.(3>>.%3##%"3=()".9.%$)(&2'?6(&=((30&)00)%.2')(03211%36-3=B0:d<))(.Z<%"#.320
6.%.><=(>"%.0<-)5.:U7$"<6"%B&2)(.lZ<%"#.32m!">>&00&"2?6(&=(&03(")-.1"7&2)%&'<.?
)(.2 &) &0 3 #&.=. "7 =3B. (3215&2' )(. L>.%&=320: U7 $"< =32 >323'. 3 !">>&00&"2 #%"=.00
&29"59&2' )(. U)35&320? )(. 4%.2=(? )(. G.%>320? 321 )(. d%&)0? )(.2 $"< =32 >323'. 32$
2.'")&3)&"2:;"#%"-5.>:]
K"%.)(32#"5&)&=0321)3=)&=00.#3%3).1)(.HF321Z<%"#.32).3>0:c2.1&77.%.2=.630
)(.="20&0).2=$"7)(.#53$.%0:\R(&0&0"2."7)(.)(&2'0)(3)U)(&2B)(.Z!(303231932)3'.&2?]
3=="%1&2')"E&%B:
U2 )(. )%31. 1&%.=)"%3). )(.%.? )(. 7"5B0 )(3) 6.%. &29"59.1 &2 )(. RTU/F
2.'")&3)&"2(31-..2&29"59.1&2)(&03%.37"%>32$$.3%0?321&2)(.)%31.
)35B0V)(.R"B$"T"<21?.)=:R(.$3%.0)&55)(.%.?)(.03>.#."#5.:L21&2
)(. HF? )(.%. (30 35>"0) -..2 3 =">#5.). )<%2"9.% &2 )(. U/ 2.'")&3)&2'
'%"<#: R(.$ 0)3%).1 "<) 6&)( 83%9.$ d35. 6(" 6.2) )" /(TKL? )(.2
K&B. 83)(363$ 6(" 6.2) &2)"#%&93).#%3=)&=.?d%<=.X&50"26("6.2)
)" )(. 8&55? 321 )(.2 >$0.57 6(" 5.7) 321 =3>. (.%. l)" )(. L>.%&=32
U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$h36L00"=&3)&"2m:K$="2=.%23-"<))(.7<)<%.?321
&)Q030.%&"<0="2=.%2?&0)(3)&76..9.%'.)&2)""2."7)(.0.)(&2'03'3&2

+`

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

6("3%.$"<'"&2')")<%2)"aX("630)(.%.)(3)%.355$B2.6aX.1"2Q)
0)%<=)<%."<%0.59.09.%$6.557"%)(&0&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0:
R(. HF 321 Z<%"#.32 2.'")&3)&2' ).3>0 350" 3##%"3=(.1 )(.&% &2).%3=)&"20 6&)(
%.#%.0.2)3)&9.0"71">.0)&=&21<0)%$9.%$1&77.%.2)5$:\U2).%>0"7-%&2'&2'&21<0)%$&2#<)?]%.=3550
"2."-0.%9.%?\)(.Z<%"#.32!">>&00&"2#."#5.6.%.%.>"9.17%">)(.#%.00<%.0"75"--$&2':]
Z! "77&=&350 =">><2&=3).1 6&)( %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 "7 )(. >.>-.% 0)3).0? -<) #3&1 5&))5. 3)).2)&"2 )"
&21<0)%$: U2 73=)? Z<%"#.32 &21<0)%$ %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 "7).2 3##%"3=(.1 )(. HF ).3> &2 ("#.0 "7
'3&2&2' >"%. &275<.2=. &2 )(. )35B0: U2 ="2)%30)? HF 2.'")&3)"%0 >.) 1&%.=)5$ 6&)( &21<0)%$
%.#%.0.2)3)&9.0: L5)("<'( )(.0. ="20<5)3)&"20 05"6.1 )(. HF ).3> &2 .0)3-5&0(&2' 32 &2&)&35
#"0&)&"2?03$0"2."-0.%9.%"7)(.#%"=.00?&).2^"$.1><=(-.)).%%.35)&>.&27"%>3)&"27%">)(.
#%&93).0.=)"%:

@("@2**)?."3@"T02#$0("P.2+01)/C)3?0"@"T0
U2 "%1.% )" ="<2).% )(. RTU/F #%"#"0350 #<) 7"%63%1 -$ )(. HF? Z<%"#. 321 D3#32?
7"<%)..21.9.5"#&2'23)&"20=%.3).13=">>"2).P)6&)((.5#7%">)(.H;!RLbF.=%.)3%&3):R(.
1"=<>.2) -.=3>. B2"62 30 )(. R355"&%.0 ).P)? 37).% )(. #&=)<%.0C<. 4%.2=( )"62 6(.%. )(.
1.5.'3)&"206"%B.1:D3$30(%..X3)352").0)(3))(.R355"&%.0#%"=.00="<51(39.-..23=(32=.7"%
&2).%.0).1 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 )" =""%1&23). #"0&)&"20 "2 .3=(0<-0)32)&9.&00<.?-<)-.=3<0."7
)(.&% 53=B "7 ).=(2&=35 .P#.%)&0.? )&>.? 321 =""%1&23)&"2? )(.$ \5"0) 3 =%<=&35 "##"%)<2&)$ )" #<)
7"%63%1 3 >"%. 1.)3&5.1 ).P):] 8"6.9.%? )(. 1"=<>.2) 1&1 -.=">. )(. -30&0 7"% 2.'")&3)&2' 3
2<>-.%"73%)&=5.0&2)(.7&235RTU/F3'%..>.2): [[
!"2)&2<.1 53=B "7 "9.%355 ="20.20<0 &2 )(. RTU/F '%"<# 5.1 F6.1&0( 3>-30031"% h3%0
L2.55? )(. '%"<#Q0 =(3&%>32? )" #%.#3%. 3 1%37) RTU/F ).P) 6&)( (&0 0)377 &2 D<2. MJJ,: R(.
1"=<>.2) 630 .00.2)&355$ 3 0<>>3%$ "7 )(. &00<.0 321 #"0&)&"20 <21.% 1.-3).: L2.55 =">-&2.1
)(.93%&"<05.'35#%"#"03500<->&)).1-$)(.2.'")&3)"%0?&2=5<1&2'35).%23)."#)&"20&2-%3=B.)0&2
3%.30"71&03'%..>.2):
H0&2' )(. 1%37) ).P) 30 3 -30.5&2.? )(. RTU/F 2.'")&3)"%0 7"55"6.1 )(. \G%..2 T"">]
#3)).%2"7GLRR)35B0:U2)(.G%..2T"">#%"=.00?1.5.'3).07%">355)(..2'3'.1="<2)%&.073=.
.3=(")(.%3=%"003)3-5.)"1&0=<00321.P=(32'.).P)0:4"%0&P>"2)(0?#3%)&=&#32)06(&))5.1363$
3))(.&00<.0?)%$&2')"%.>"9.30>32$"7)(.-%3=B.)030#"00&-5.:\R(3)#.%&"1630)(.(.3%)"7
)(. 2.'")&3)&2' #%"=.00?] F<-%3>32&32 %.>.>-.%0: \U) 630 9.%$ ).=(2&=35? -<) )(. ).P) 630
="20&1.%3-5$ 0)%.3>5&2.1:] 4"% .P3>#5.? >32$ 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 3%'<.1 &2 739"% "7 3 %<5.
#.%>&))&2' #3%355.5 &>#"%)0V-%&2'&2' '""10 &2)" 3 ="<2)%$ 6&)("<) )(. ="20.2) "7 )(. %&'()0
("51.%37).%)("0.'""106.%.#53=.1"2)(.>3%B.)Y)(.H2&).1F)3).0321Z<%"#.3%'<.13'3&20)
&):@U2)(..21?2.'")&3)"%03'%..1)"1&03'%..3211.=&1.1)"%.>"9.)(.0<-^.=)7%">XRc1&0#<).
0.))5.>.2):AR(.%.0<5)"7)(."9.%3552.'")&3)&"2#%"=.00630)(.b.=.>-.%MJJ,\b%37)!">#"0&).
R.P)]#%.0.2).13))(.d%<00.50>&2&0).%&35>..)&2':

[[

Jayashree Watal, Intellectual Property Rights in the WTO and Developing Countries, p. 31-32.

+[

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

@("I.B5B2%7)B#$S."2E3P)Q#
U2 b.=.>-.% MJJ,? 32 &>#300. -.)6..2 )(. H2&).1 F)3).0 321 )(. Z<%"#.32 !">><2&)$
"9.% 3'%&=<5)<%35 0<-0&1&.0 -%"<'() )(. .2)&%. H%<'<3$ T"<21 )" 3 (35): L) )(. )&>. "7 )(.
-%.3B1"62?)%.>.21"<0#%"'%.00630-.&2'>31.&2RTU/F:\X.6.%.0&))&2')(.%.)(&2B&2'6.
6.%.1"&2'0">.0.%&"<02.'")&3)&2'?]%.=3550E&%B?\321)(.L%'.2)&2.3>-30031"%635B.1&2321
6(&0#.%.1 &2 )(. .3% "7 (&0 2.'")&3)"% 3) )(. )3-5. 321 )(. '<$ ^<0) 0)""1 <# 321 03&1? jX. 3%.
635B&2'"<):R(&06("5.>..)&2'&0"9.%:QL210<%..2"<'(?.9.%$-"1$'")<#321635B.1"<)321
&)630"9.%-.=3<0.3'%&=<5)<%.7.553#3%):]
U2 4.-%<3%$? d<0( 31>&2&0)%3)&"2 "77&=&350? 6"%B&2' )(%"<'( GLRR 0)377? .21.39"%.1 )"
%.0<%%.=) )(. 73&5.1 %"<21: R(. L>.%&=320 "77.%.1 )(. Z<%"#.320 3 7&' 5.37 -$ 3-321"2&2' )(.&%
>"0) #%">&2.2) 1.>321 &2 73%> )%31. #"5&=$V)(3) )(. Z<%"#.32 !">><2&)$ =">>&) )" %.1<=.
&)00<-0&1&W.1'%3&2.P#"%)0-$+S#.%=.2)"9.%0&P$.3%0:

@("PB#E"*P.2+0
X(.2)(.)35B06.%.%.0)3%).1&2.3%5$MJJM?)(.RTU/F2.'")&3)&"2#%"=.00="2)&2<.1?-<)
5&))5.#%"'%.00630>31.:K32$&00<.07%">)(.$.3%-.7"%.%.>3&2.1<2%.0"59.1?&2=5<1&2'>"%35
%&'()0?#3).2)0?)(.0="#."7#%").=)&"27"%=">#<).%#%"'%3>0?)(.5.2')("7#%").=)&"27"%0"<21
%.="%1&2'0? )%31. 0.=%.)0? 1&0#<). 0.))5.>.2)? 321 )%320&)&"2 #.%&"10 7"% =">#5$&2' 6&)( )(.
3'%..>.2):L0GLRRb&%.=)"%G.2.%35L%)(<%b<2B.5.P#53&2.13))(.)&>.?\)(.%.30"26($)(.
5&0)&0.00.2)&355$<2=(32'.1&0)(3))(.%.(30-..23'.2.%35%.5<=)32=.)"0.))5.)(.0.&00<.0<2)&5
)(.%. &0 3 #.%=.#)&"2 )(3) )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 2.'")&3)&"20 30 3 6("5. 3%. &2 )(.&% 7&235 53#:] [I
D3=C<.0 G"%5&2 %.>.>-.%0? \F&2=. )(. %.>3&2&2' RTU/F &00<.0 6.%. >"0)5$ #"5&)&=35 321 %.53).1
2") "25$ )" .3=( ")(.%? -<) 350" )" ="2=.00&"20 -.&2' >31. 321 %.=.&9.1 &2 ")(.% 2.'")&3)&2'
'%"<#0? )(. RTU/F 2.'")&3)&"20 #%"=..1.1 3) 3 023&5Q0 #3=. )(%"<'( "<) >"0) "7 l)(.m $.3%:] [O
U20).31 "7 5.39&2' 2.'")&3)"%0 )" 6"%B "<) 532'<3'. &2 73=.)"73=. 2.'")&3)&"20? L2.55 -.'32 )"
#%"#"0.0<''.0).1).P))")(.1.5.'3).0:
R(. GLRR F.=%.)3%&3) )%&.1 )" -%.3B )(. ="2)&2<&2' 1.315"=B0 &2 )(. "9.%355 H%<'<3$
T"<21 -$ #%.0.2)&2' 3 =">#%.(.20&9. \b%37) 4&235 L=)] 7"% )(. .2)&%. 2.'")&3)&"2 &2 b.=.>-.%
MJJM:R(.b<2B.5b%37)?6(&=()""B&)023>.7%">)(.GLRRQ01&%.=)"%'.2.%35?#39.1)(.63$7"%
)(. =">#5.)&"2 "7 )(. )35B0: U20).31 "7 -%3=B.)&2' 3%.30 "7 1&03'%..>.2)? )(. F.=%.)3%&3) 0)377
#%"#"0.1&)0"62).P)&2="20<5)3)&"26&)()(.&2).%.0).1#3%)&.0:L=="%1&2')"5"2')&>."-0.%9.%0?
)(&03##%"3=(630<2&C<.&2)(.(&0)"%$"7)(.GLRR?6(&=()%31&)&"2355$(317<2=)&"2.1303B&21
"7 5.'35 319&0&2' -"1$ )" )(. >.>-.% 0)3).0: d<) )(. #.21&2' &00<.0 "7 3'%&=<5)<%35 321 3&%=%37)
0<-0&1&.0 321 "7 RTU/F? %.=3550 "2. "-0.%9.%? 1%"9. )(. F.=%.)3%&3) )" \#<) "<) 3 ).P) "2 &)0 "62?

[I

GATT document MTN.TNC/w/89/Add.1, p. 8 (dated November 7, 1991); quoted in Jacques J. Gorlin, An Analysis
of the Pharmaceutical-Related Provisions of the WTO TRIPS (Intellectual Property) Agreement, p. 2.

[O

Jacques J. Gorlin, An Analysis of the Pharmaceutical-Related Provisions of the WTO TRIPS (Intellectual Property)
Agreement, p. 5.

+I

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

6(&=(&)2.9.%%.355$(311"2.-.7"%.)"0<=(32.P).2)6&)(0<=(="2)%"9.%0&353%.30:U)-%"B.%.1
)(.1&77.%.2=.0:]
d$ 0">. 3=="<2)0? b<2B.5 (31 &2&)&355$ .P#%.00.1 1"<-)0 3-"<) &2=5<1&2' &2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$ "2 )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 3'.213? &2 53%'. #3%) -.=3<0. (. 630 ="2=.%2.1 3-"<) &)0
&>#5&=3)&"20 7"% #(3%>3=.<)&=350 &2 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0: 8. (31 0#"B.2 #<-5&=5$ 3-"<) )(.
&>#"%)32=."73==.00)"(.35)(=3%.321)(.%&'()"723)&"20)"%.'<53).1%<'#%&=.0:4%">)(.#"&2)
"79&.6"70">.&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0?0<=(#"0&)&"20>31.(&>3)3&2).1&2).%5"=<)"%:
R(. b<2B.5 b%37) 630 2.9.%)(.5.00 53%'.5$ 0<##"%)&9. "7 )(. HF U/ &2).%.0)0: F">.
"-0.%9.%0 -.5&.9. )(3) b<2B.5 %.="'2&W.1 )(. GLRR ="<51 2") 377"%1 )" 5"0. )(. -3=B&2' "7
=">#32&.0 0<=( 30 /7&W.% 321 UdK: U2 )(. H2&).1 F)3).0? )%31&)&"2355$ )%31.-"50).%&2' &21<0)%&.0
0<=(300)..53213<)">"-&5.>32<73=)<%.6.%.1&0#53$&2'5.00.2)(<0&30>7"%7%..)%31.Y)(.>"0)
3''%.00&9. 0<##"%) =3>. &20).31 7%"> &21<0)%&.0 (.39&5$ 1.#.21.2) "2 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ 321
(&'( ).=(2"5"'$: R("0. &21<0)%&.0 6.%. 350" 0..2 30 =%<=&35 7"% '.))&2' )(. GLRR 3'%..>.2)
)(%"<'(!"2'%.00:
c)(.%0 311 )(3) b<2B.5 (&>0.57 (31 5&))5. )"1"6&)()(.RTU/F3'%..>.2)1%37):c2)(&0
3=="<2)? )(. RTU/F 3'%..>.2) 630 .00.2)&355$ 3 9.%0&"2 "7 )(. b.=.>-.% MJJ, RTU/F b%37)
!">#"0&). R.P)? %.9&0.1 -$ L2.55 &2 ="20<5)3)&"2 6&)( &2).%.0).1 1.5.'3)&"20: \U) 630 h3%0 L2.55
321(&0300&0)32)L1%&32c)).26("03))(%"<'(355"7)(.2.'")&3)&"20?]"2."-0.%9.%#"&2)0"<):
\U) 630 )(. )6" "7 )(.> 6(" =%.3).1 )(3) ).P): H5)&>3).5$ )(.$ 6.%. 6"%B&2' 6&)(&2 73&%5$
=&%=<>0=%&-.1 #3%3>.).%0 #%&2=&#355$ )" 1" 6&)( 6(3) )(. 2.'")&3)&"20 (31 -..2 355 3-"<):]
/3%)&=&#32)0&2)(.RTU/F2.'")&3)&"203=B2"65.1'.)(3)6&)("<))(.b%37)!">#"0&).R.P)?)(.%.
6"<51(39.-..22"0<-0)32)&9.RTU/F3'%..>.2)i\6.6"<51(39.'")).25&))5."%2")(&2'V^<0)
30 &) (3##.2.1 &2 &29.0)>.2) 321 0.%9&=.0?] &2 )(. 6"%10 "7 "2.: 4"% )(3) %.30"2? 0.9.%35
2.'")&3)"%0%.7.%)"h3%0L2.5530(.%""7)(.0)"%$?321"7)(.GLRRF.=%.)3%&3): [J
H5)&>3).5$? )(. b<2B.5 b%37)Q0 RTU/F 3'%..>.2) #%"9&1.1 0)%"2' U/ #%").=)&"2? -<)
1.53$.1 &)0 &>#5.>.2)3)&"2 7"% 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 7"% 7&9. )" ).2 $.3%0: HF #(3%>3=.<)&=35
=">#32&.06.%..0#.=&355$=%&)&=35"7)(.0.)%320&)&"2#.%&"10321350"=%&)&=&W.1)(.1%37)-.=3<0.&)
53=B.1#&#.5&2.#%").=)&"27"%1%<'0<21.%1.9.5"#>.2):R(..2).%)3&2>.2)&21<0)%$=">#53&2.1
)(3)1&0=%&>&23)"%$#%3=)&=.0&2)(.="#$%&'()3%.36.%.2").P#5&=&)5$311%.00.1:d<)"-0.%9.%003$
)(.0. ="2=.%20 ><0) -. #<) &2)" #.%0#.=)&9.: L0 "2. 2").0? U/ &21<0)%&.0 '") \J` #.%=.2) "7 6(3)
)(.$ 632).1:] K"%."9.%? .9.2 5"2'.% &>#5.>.2)3)&"2 #.%&"10 6.%. <21.% ="20&1.%3)&"2V
&2=5<1&2'3M`$.3%)%320&)&"2#.%&"17"%#(3%>3=.<)&=350?#%"#"0.1-$)(.Z<%"#.32!">><2&)$
321U21&3:HF2.'")&3)"%06.%.3-5.)"%.1<=.)(3))&>.7%3>.:

[J

Michael P. Ryan, Knowledge Diplomacy: Global Competition and the Politics of Intellectual Property, p. 112.

+O

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

@("U#$,2/"
d$ b.=.>-.% MS? MJJN? .9.%$ &).> &2 )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 (31 -..2 1.=&1.1 .P=.#) 7"%
.5.>.2)0 "7 )(. .2).%)3&2>.2) &21<0)%$Q0 \3<1&"9&0<35] &00<. @&:.:? >"9&.0? ).5.9&0&"2? 321
%.="%1&2'0A: F)"%&.0 &2 )(. ?') \5(L !#>'$3 :5$ G+=';'$ !#>'$3 321 H&$"#+=*5+ <5$* =(%"2&=5.1 )(.
\=<5)<%.63%]-.&2'63'.1-.)6..2Z<%"#.@#%&>3%&5$4%32=.A321)(.H2&).1F)3).0:b&77.%.2=.0
-.)6..24%.2=(321HF7&5>>3B.%013).1-3=B)")(.&21<0)%$Q09.%$-.'&22&2'0?6(.2)(.4%.2=(
=%.1&).1 )(. 1&0="9.%$ "7 )(. =&2.>3 )" )(. h<>&q%. -%")(.%0 "7 h$"20 321 )(. L>.%&=320 )"
R(">30 Z1&0"2: I, U2 )(&0 =30.? 8"55$6""1 -530).1 )(. 4%.2=( 30 -53)32) #%").=)&"2&0)0? =&)&2'
23)&"235#"5&=&.0)(3)739"%.1Z<%"#.327&5>0321).5.9&0&"2:R(.4%.2=(3==<0.1)(.H2&).1F)3).0
"7=<5)<%35&>#.%&35&0>?6&)(/%.0&1.2)K&)).%321=(3%'&2')(3)L>.%&=3206.%.)%$&2')"&>#"0.
)(.&%\)")35&)3%&32]1">&2&"2"9.%)(.>&210"7)(.6"%51: IM L=="%1&2')"/30=35T"'3%1?)(.=(&.7
4%.2=( 7&5> &21<0)%$ 5"--$&0)? \4%.2=( 7&5>0 3%. )(. =&2.>3 "7 =%.3)&"2: L>.%&=32 7&5>0 3%.
#%"1<=)0"7>3%B.)&2'B] I+
R(.#%&2=&#353%.30"71&03'%..>.2)7.55<21.%)(.#<%9&.6"7RTU/F321)(.3'%..>.2)"2
R%31. &2 F.%9&=.0: R(. 4%.2=( '"9.%2>.2) )3P.1 -532B 9&1."=300.)).0 321 %.="%1.%0? '&9&2' )(.
#%"=..10 )" 4%.2=( 7&5>>3B.%0 )" =">#.203). )(.> 7"% )(. &55.'35 ="#$&2' "7 )(.&% 6"%B0 )(3)
&2.9&)3-5$ "==<%%.1: R(. K")&"2 /&=)<%. L00"=&3)&"2 "7 L>.%&=3 3%'<.1 )(3) <21.% )(. RTU/F
#%&2=&#5."723)&"235)%.3)>.2)?HF7&5>>3B.%00("<510(3%.&2)(.0.5.9&.0:U2)(.)%31.&20.%9&=.0
2.'")&3)&"20?)(.H2&).1F)3).0350"#%.00.17"%=(32'.0&2Z<%"#.325360)(3)%.0.%9.1`M#.%=.2)
"7 5"=35 ).5.9&0&"2 #%"'%3>>&2' 7"% Z<%"#.32 #%"1<=)&"20: 4"% )(.&% #3%)? )(. 4%.2=( 0"<'() )"
>3B.32.P#5&=&)\=<5)<%35.P=.#)&"2]#3%)"7)(.1.35:
R(. HF .2).%)3&2>.2) &21<0)%$ (31 =">>&)>.2)0 "7 0<##"%) 7%"> -")( )(. d<0( 321
!5&2)"2 31>&2&0)%3)&"20: /%.0&1.2) G."%'. 8: X: d<0( (31 03&1 (. 6"<51 2") 0&'2 3 GLRR )(3)
.P.>#).1 3<1&"9&0<35 0.%9&=.0 7%"> &2).%23)&"235 )%31. %<5.0: /%.0&1.2) d&55 !5&2)"2 (31 )"51 M[
)"#.2).%)3&2>.2).P.=<)&9.0&2c=)"-.%MJJN)(3)(.6"<512")0&'232$3'%..>.2)&26(&=(7&5>?
).5.9&0&"2?3219&1."6.%.\0&2'5.1"<)7"%<23==.#)3-5.%.0)%&=)&"20:] IN R(.K/LLQ0D3=Bf35.2)&
)(%.3).2.1)")%$321-5"=B="2'%.00&"2353##%"935"7)(.H%<'<3$T"<21&73<1&"9&0<350.%9&=.0
6.%. .P.>#).1 7%"> )(. 3'%..>.2): \U 1"2Q) 632) )(.%. )" -. 32$ 3>-&'<&)$?] (. 03&1: \U7 )(.0.
C<")30.P&0)?)(&0&0L%>3'.11"2)&>.:UQ>"2)(.8&55&23;.6n"%B>&2<).-%&2'&2'"<).9.%$
/3)%&") >&00&5.? .9.%$ 4M[ &2 "<% 3%>"%$? 5.31&2' 6(3).9.% 5.'&"20 6. =32 7&21 )" "##"0. )(&0
3'%..>.2):] IS

I,

Roger Cohen, Aux Armes! France Rallies to Battle Sly and T. Rex, The New York Times, January 2, 1994,
Section 2, p. 1.

IM

Mitterand quoted in Charles Bremner, Where Did French Films Go Wrong? The Times (London), December 10,
1993, p. 18.

I+

Rogard quoted in Charles Goldsmith and Charles Fleming, The GATT ChallengeBig Picture, The Wall Street
Journal Europe, November 23, 1993, p. 1.

IN

Clinton, quoted in Karen Tumulty, Europes US Film Curbs Could Scuttle Trade Talks, The Los Angeles Times,
December 4, 1993, p. A1.

IS

Bruce Stokes, Tinseltown Trade Wars, The National Journal, February 23, 1991.

+J

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

F">.7.5))(3))(.HF&21<0)%$Q0%(.)"%&=321#"0)<%&2'"2)(.0.&00<.0\=.%)3&25$'"))(.
4%.2=(%&5.1<#:]c2.HF"77&=&35%.>.>-.%0)(3))(.4%.2=(?
o 6.2) )" )(. Z<%"#.32 !">>&00&"2 321 03&1 9.%$ 0)%"2'5$? jc9.% "<%
1.31 -"1&.0 6&55 $"< >3B. 32$ ="2=.00&"20 &2 )(.0. 3%.30:Q U )(&2B 6.
6"<51(39.-..2-.)).%"77&7lHF.2).%)3&2>.2)&21<0)%$%.#%.0.2)3)&9.0m
6"<51 (39. ^<0) 0(<) <# 321 0.2) 0">. "7 )(.&% #."#5. )" 4%32=. )" 0..
6(3) >&'() -. #"00&-5.: 8"6 1" $"<2.'")&3).6&)(0">.-"1$&7$"<Q9.
'") "2. "7 $"<% ).3> 0&))&2' "9.% )(.%. 3=%"00 )(. "=.32 =355&2' )(.> 3
-<2=("70=<>-3'0aU)1".02Q)5.31)"#%"'%.00?U)(&2B:
8"6.9.%?")(.%"-0.%9.%02").)(3))(.H%<'<3$T"<21#3=B3'.63035%.31$3-&'6&27"%
)(.K/LL?0<''.0)&2')(3)f35.2)&321")(.%01.=&1.1)"<21.%#53$)(..P&0)&2''3&20&2"%1.%)"
-"50).%)(.&%#"0&)&"2)"1.>321)("0.="2=.00&"20)(.$(31$.))"6&2:
R(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 2.'")&3)&"20 6.%. =">&2' )" 3 =5"0.: U2&)&355$? >"0) ="<2)%&.0
="20&1.%.1 D<2. MJJNV)(. .P#&%3)&"2 13). 7"% )(. HF !"2'%.00Q0 730))%3=B 3<)("%&W3)&"2V)" -.
)(.7&2351.315&2.7"%)(.=">#5.)&"2"7)(.GLRR)35B0:L1.53$&2)(.3'%..>.2)6"<510<-^.=)
)(.H%<'<3$T"<21).P))"5&2.-$5&2.0=%<)&2$-$HF5.'&053)"%0%3)(.%)(3232<#"%1"629").
"2)(.)%31.3'%..>.2)Q0&>#5.>.2)&2'5.'&053)&"2:U)6306&1.5$(.51)(3)0<=(32"<)=">.6"<51
1"">)(.=">#%">&0.0%.3=(.1"9.%0&P$.3%0"72.'")&3)&2')"31.3)(-$3)("<0321=<)0:
d<) !"2'%.00 .P).21.1 730) )%3=B? 321 )(. 2.6 1.315&2. 7"% =">#5.)&"2 "7 )(. H%<'<3$
T"<21-.=3>.>&12&'()"2b.=.>-.%M`?MJJN:HFRTK&=B.$E32)"%321ZH2.'")&3)"%F&%h."2
d%&))32 03) 1"62 &2 G.2.93 "2. 530) )&>. )" (3>>.% "<) 3 7&235 3'%..>.2): R(. -"))">5&2. HF
#%"#"035? &00<.1 3) Ni,,3:>:?&2=5<1.17<%)(.%&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$#%").=)&"27"%)(.%.="%1321
>"9&.&21<0)%&.0:c2.-$"2.?3&1.0"2-")(0&1.01%"##.1363$7%">)(.)35B0?.P(3<0).1:D3=B
f35.2)&? 6(" 350" #3%)&=&#3).1 &2 )(. 2.'")&3)&"20? =53&>0 )" (39. '"2. )(%.. 13$0 6&)("<) 05..#
321"2.6&)("<)7""1:4&2355$?^<0)-.7"%.1362&2G.2.93@321-.7"%.>&12&'()&2X30(&2')"2?
b!A? E32)"% =355.1 /%.0&1.2) !5&2)"2 7"% 3##%"935 )" 3-321"2 )(. 3<1&"9&0<35 &00<. &2 .P=(32'.
7"%=">#5.)&2')(.%.0)"7)(.'5"-35)%31.#3=):!5&2)"23'%..1:
U2)(..21?1.0#&).=%&)&=&0>0?)(.RTU/Fb<2B.5b%37)-.=3>.#3%)"7)(.H%<'<3$T"<21
4&235 L=) 6&)( "25$ >&2"% >"1&7&=3)&"20 @7"% .P3>#5.? 1.9.5"#.1 ="<2)%&.0 >323'.1 )" &20.%) 3
=53<0. )&'().2&2' %.0)%&=)&"20 "2 =">#<50"%$ 5&=.20&2' 7"% 0.>&="21<=)"%0 30 6.55 30 #%").=)&"20
7"%="27&1.2)&35).0)13)3A:;.'")&3)&"20=5"0.1321)(.H%<'<3$T"<214&235L=)63031"#).1-$
)(.MMI>.>-.%0"7GLRR&2K3%%3B.=(?K"%"=="?&2L#%&5MJJS:
R(.H%<'<3$T"<214&235L=)1.5&2.3).1)(.>"0)06..#&2'=(32'.0)")(.6"%51)%31&2'
0$0).> 0&2=. )(. "%&'&235 MJSI GLRR 3'%..>.2): X"%516&1.)3%&7706.%.0530(.1-$>"%.)(323
)(&%1321>32$2"2)3%&77-3%%&.%0?0<=(30C<")30?6.%.%.1<=.1306.55:R(.3'%..>.2)350"0.)<#
32.6-"1$=355.1)(.X"%51R%31.c%'32&W3)&"2)"%.#53=.)(.GLRR1&0#<).%.0"5<)&"20$0).>:
K32$=(32'.06.%.%.C<&%.1)"-%&2'HF536&2)"3'%..>.2)6&)()(.).%>0"7)(.3=)V=(32'.0
)(3)(31)"-.3##%"9.1-$!"2'%.00:

N,

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

,"00?#50("I.B5B2%7)B#$F5.""/"#0V2#$@7>4&W@(.)B5(1)#5."33
L7).%)(.(.3).1-3))5.&2!"2'%.00"9.%)(.;"%)(L>.%&=324%..R%31.L'%..>.2)?0">.
6"%%&.1 3-"<) )(. #%"0#.=)0 7"% )(. H%<'<3$ T"<21 &>#5.>.2)&2' 5.'&053)&"2: R(. .%0)6(&5.
;L4RL"##"2.2)0%355$&2'3'3&20))(.H%<'<3$T"<213'%..>.2)0&2=5<1.17"%>.%#%.0&1.2)&35
=321&13).0 T"00 /.%") 321 /3)%&=B D: d<=(3232? F.23)"% D.00. 8.5>0 @T;!A? ="20<>.% 319"=3).
T35#( ;31.%? 321 >32$ .29&%"2>.2)35&0)0: F">. -.5&.9.1 )(3) )(. #%"#"0.1 X"%51 R%31.
c%'32&W3)&"2 6"<51 )(%.3).2 HF 0"9.%.&'2)$Y ")(.%0 .>#(30&W.1 )(. 3'%..>.2)Q0 #").2)&35 )"
(3%> L>.%&=32 6"%B.%0 321 )(. .29&%"2>.2)Y 321 0">. 1.=%&.1 )(. 0"=355.1 739"%&)&0> -.&2'
0("62)"-&'-<0&2.00:
HF&21<0)%$53%'.5$739"%.1)(.H%<'<3$T"<21L'%..>.2)0L=)3216"%B.1)"0<##"%)
&)0 #3003'.: G.%351 K"00&2'("77? )(.2 )(. #%.0&1.2) "7 /(TKL? %.=3550 >..)&2' \.9.%$ >"%2&2'
6(.2&)630#.21&2')"1.=&1.6("Q01"&2'6(3)?6("Q00..&2'6(3)="2'%.00>32?6("Q06.3B?
6("Q0 0)%"2'? 6(.%. 1" 6. #<) 32 31? 321 6(.%. 1" 6. 7&21 '%300 %"")0 0<##"%): U) 630 3 7<55
="<%) #%.00:] /(TKL 7"%>.1 3 ="35&)&"2 6&)( ")(.% (&'().=( )%31. 300"=&3)&"20 )" 6"%B )"63%1
#3003'."7)(.3'%..>.2):L106.%.#<-5&0(.1&2)(.H&$"#+=*5+<5$*?)(.?')\5(L!#>'$?)(.H&;;
4*(''* @51(+&;3 321 ")(.% 2.60#3#.%0? #%"=53&>&2' \L>.%&=3Q0 8&'( R.=(2"5"'$ U21<0)%&.0 ;..1
GLRR:]\U)63037&'())"'.))(.H%<'<3$T"<213'%..>.2)#300.1&2!"2'%.00?]03$037"%>.%
HFRT"77&=&35:\U7$"<1&12Q)(39.)(.&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$&21<0)%&.0?)(.%.6"<512Q)(39.-..232
3'%..>.2):]
L>"2')("0."##"0&2')(.H%<'<3$T"<21L'%..>.2)0L=)6.%.3'%"<#"7b.>"=%3)0
5.1-$F.23).!">>.%=.!">>&))..!(3&%>32Z%2.0)8"55&2'0@F!A:8"55&2'01.53$.1)(.-&55-$
("51&2'30.%&.0"7(.3%&2'0&26(&=((.=%&)&=&W.1HF)%31.#"5&=$:8"6.9.%?B.$>.>-.%0"7)(.
b.>"=%3)&= 5.31.%0(&#V3>"2' )(.>? K3^"%&)$ h.31.% T&=(3%1 G.#(3%1) @KcA? 8"<0. F#.3B.%
R(">304"5.$@XLA?321F.23).K3^"%&)$h.31.%G."%'.K&)=(.55@KZAV0<##"%).1)(.H%<'<3$
T"<21: U2 311&)&"2? &2 3 #%.R(32B0'&9&2' 3'%..>.2)? !5&2)"2 '<3%32)..1 )(3) !"2'%.00 ="<51
-3=B"<)"7)(.2.6XRc&7&)3%-&)%3%&5$-.'32%<5&2'3'3&20)L>.%&=32&2).%.0)0:R(&0300<%32=.
03)&07&.1)(.'%.3)>3^"%&)$"7b.>"=%3)0321T.#<-5&=320:
K..)&2'&2353>.1<=B0.00&"237).%)(.MJJS.5.=)&"20?^<0)-.7"%.T.#<-5&=320300<>.1
="2)%"5 "7 -")( ("<0.0? !"2'%.00 #300.1 )(.H%<'<3$T"<21L'%..>.2)0L=)V+OO)"MS[&2)(.
8"<0.321I[)"+S&2)(.F.23).:/3003'.350"%.C<&%.132311&)&"2359").)"63&9.="2'%.00&"235
%<5.0 3'3&20) 32$ -&55 )(3) 311.1 )" )(. 7.1.%35 1.7&=&): 4"55"6&2' )(&0 530) 3=)&"2 "7 )(. M,N%1
!"2'%.00? /%.0&1.2) !5&2)"2 0&'2.1 )(. ).P) &2)" 536 "2 b.=.>-.% O? MJJS: R(. .23=)>.2) "7 )(.
H%<'<3$ T"<21 321 )(. #3003'. "7 ;L4RL )(. $.3% -.7"%. >31. )%31. 3 0&'235 0<==.00 "7
!5&2)"2Q07&%0))6"$.3%030#%.0&1.2):

NM

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

I&>#$B30.%7"2'0?)#0)0("J?#2*F5.""/"#0
R(.#%&2=&#35#%"9&0&"20"7)(.RTU/F3'%..>.2)&2=5<1.1
x

/%").=)&"2 "7 #3).2)0 7"% +, $.3%0 37).% )(. 13). "7 7&5&2'? %.'3%15.00 "7 #53=. "7
&29.2)&"2"%>32<73=)<%.

/3).2)#%").=)&"27"%#(3%>3=.<)&=35#%"1<=)0

/3).2)#%").=)&"207"%5&7.7"%>0@6&)(=.%)3&2.P=5<0&"207"%#532)032132&>350A

L2\3'%..>.2))"1&03'%..]"2)(.0<-^.=)"7#3%355.5)%31.@.P(3<0)&"2"7%&'()0A

/%").=)&"2 "7 ="#$%&'()0 7"% 3) 5.30) `, $.3%0? 6&)( .P).20&"2 "7 ="#$%&'()0 )"
0"7)63%.

ZP=5<0&9. %.2)35 %&'()0 )" 3<)("%0 "7 =">#<).% #%"'%3>0 321 7&5>0 30 6.55 30 )"
#.%7"%>.%0321#%"1<=.%0"70"<21%.="%1&2'0321-%"31=30)0

T.="'2&)&"2"7\6.55B2"62])%31.>3%B0

/%").=)&"2"7="27&1.2)&35).0)13)3

/%").=)&"2"70.>&="21<=)"%53$"<)1.0&'207"%M,$.3%0

R(.0="#."7)(..27"%=.>.2)"-5&'3)&"2

F<#.%9&0&"2"7)(.3'%..>.2)<21.%)(.XRc-$3="<2=&5"2RTU/F

F<->&00&"2 "7 ="275&=)0 3%&0&2' <21.% RTU/F )" )(. XRcQ0 1&0#<). 0.))5.>.2)
>.=(32&0>

R(.HF0"7)63%.&21<0)%$630#5.30.1)(3)RTU/F3=="%1.1&)0#%"1<=)0)(.03>.`,$.3%
#%").=)&"2305&).%3%$6"%B0@)(.D3#32.0.(31%.0=&21.1)(.&%&2&)&35"##"0&)&"2)")(&0#%"9&0&"2A:
HF #(3%>3=.<)&=35 =">#32&.0 6.%. >"0) .P=&).1 -$ )(. #%"0#.=) )(3) 23)&"20 ="<51 2" 5"2'.%
1&0=%&>&23).3'3&20))(.>\-$7&.51"7).=(2"5"'$]i)(3)&0?="<2)%&.0="<512")>3&2)3&25360)(3)
1.2&.1 #3).2)0 "25$)">.1&=&2.0:U2E&%BQ0^<1'>.2)?\R(.&00<.0)(3)6.%."2)(.)3-5.&2MJO[
321 MJOI 6(.2 )(&0 )(&2' '") B&=B.1 "77 355 '") 311%.00.1 73&%5$ 6.55: U) 630 35>"0) #%."%13&2.1
)(3) 0"7)63%. 6"<51 -. #%").=).1 30 3 5&).%3%$ 6"%B 321 #(3%>3=.<)&=35 #%"1<=)0 6"<51 -.
#3).2)3-5.:oR(.#(3%>3=.<)&=35'<$0321)(.0"7)63%.'<$00)3%).1)(.%"<21:R(.$Q%.)(.'<$0
)(3)1%"9.)(.#%"=.00:R(.$(31)(.&%"3%0&2%&'()<#7%"2):]
R(. HF %.="%1 &21<0)%$ 350" >31. '3&20 <21.% )(. RTU/F 3'%..>.2): R("<'( >32$
="<2)%&.0(312")%31&)&"2"7#%").=)&2'0"<21%.="%1&2'0?)(.$6.%.2"6"-5&'3).1)"&>#5.>.2)

N+

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

0<=( #%").=)&"2: K"%."9.%? &)0 ).%> 630 &2=%.30.1 7%"> +, $.3%0 @.0)3-5&0(.1 <21.% )(. T">.
!"29.2)&"2A )" `, $.3%0: U2 311&)&"2? %.="%1 =">#32&.0 6.%. '&9.2 )(. %&'() )" #%"(&-&) %.2)35?
0<-^.=) )" 3 '%32173)(.% =53<0. )(3) -.2.7&).1 D3#32: R("<'( )(. >"9&. &21<0)%$ 1&1 2") '.)
.9.%$)(&2' &) 632).1? 7&5>0 321 %.53).1 #%"1<=)0 %.=.&9.1 &>#%"9.1 U/ #%").=)&"2 <21.% RTU/F:
d.=3<0. )(. d.%2. !"29.2)&"2 630 &2="%#"%3).1 &2)" )(. RTU/F 3'%..>.2) @0..RTU/FL%)&=5.JA?
="#$%&'()07"%7&5>06.%..27"%=.3-5.)(%"<'()(.XRcb&0#<).F.))5.>.2)H21.%0)321&2'@bFHA:
4&5>0350"%.=.&9.1#%").=)&"2<21.%RTU/FL%)&=5.MM"2%.2)35%&'()0:
;")355"7)(.&21<0)%$'3&20&2)(.RTU/F3'%..>.2)6.%.="2=%.).:X(.230B.16(3)(31
-..2 3=(&.9.17"%)(.%.="%1&2'&21<0)%$?;.&5R<%B.6&)W?0.2&"%9&=.#%.0&1.2)"7)(.T.="%1&2'
U21<0)%$L00"=&3)&"2"7L>.%&=3?%.#5&.1i\;<>-.%"2.&02")3-"<))(.1.)3&50?2<>-.%"2.&0)(.
73=) )(3) )(. .29&%"2>.2) "7 )(. 6("5. 2.'")&3)&2' %"<21? 30 6.55 30 )(. %.0<5)0? 630 3 0&'2 )(3)
&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$(31%&0.2)")(.7"%.7%"2)"7="20=&"<02.00"7)%31.2.'")&3)"%0-.=3<0."7&)0
#%">&2.2=.&2'5"-35=">>.%=.:F"U6"<510)3%)"776&)()(.%.="'2&)&"2"7)(.%"5."7U/&2)(.
.="2">&=.29&%"2>.2)5.31&2'&2)")(.+M0)=.2)<%$:] I`
R" -. 0<%.? 2") 355 HF =">#32&.0 6.%. .2)&%.5$ 03)&07&.1 6&)( )(. 3'%..>.2):
/(3%>3=.<)&=35 =">#32&.0Q 1&03##"&2)>.2) 6&)( )(. )%320&)&"2 #.%&"1 7"% 1.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0
321 53=B "7 #&#.5&2. #%").=)&"2 7"% )(.&% #%"1<=)0 (31 -..2 0"7).2.1 -$ )(. &2=5<0&"2 "7 3
\>3&5-"P]#%"9&0&"2)(3).00.2)&355$355"6.1=">#32&.0)"7&5.3#3).2)&23="<2)%$-.7"%.&)7<55$
.0)3-5&0(.13#3).2)0$0).>@)(.%.-$'&9&2'0">.#%").=)&"21<%&2')(.)%320&)&"2#.%&"1A:R(.7&5>
&21<0)%$ 630 1&03##"&2).1 )(3) 0">. &00<.0? &2=5<1&2' 9&1." 5.9&.0? (31 -..2 5.7) "77 )(. )3-5.:
L'%"=(.>&=35 =">#32&.0 -.5&.9.1 )(3) )(.&% -&".2'&2..%.1 #532)0 6.%. &231.C<3).5$ ="9.%.1:
4&2355$? HF 2.'")&3)"%0? 6(" (31 ("#.1 )" .21 Z<%"#.32 1.>3210 )(3) HF 6&2.>3B.%0 =.30.
<0&2' )(. 23>.0 "7 4%.2=( %.'&"20 0<=( 30 !(3-5&0 321 !(3>#3'2. )" 1.0=%&-. )(.&% #%"1<=)0?
.P#%.00.1 7%<0)%3)&"2 )(3) )(. 3##.553)&"20 "7 "%&'&2 &00<. (31 -..2 #<) "77 7"%7<)<%.1&0=<00&"2:
n.) >"0) &21<0)%$ %.#%.0.2)3)&9.0 =.5.-%3).1 )(. 3'%..>.2): f35.2)& %.75.=)0? \U )(&2B )(3) RTU/F
630 "2. "7 )(. >"0) &>#"%)32) )(&2'0 )(3) )(&0 )%31. 300"=&3)&"2 l)(. K/LLm 321 ")(.% U/ )%31.
300"=&3)&"20(39.3==">#5&0(.1?=.%)3&25$&2)(.530)1.=31."%0":]
F">. "-0.%9.%0 311 )(3) 6(&5. &21<0)%$ #53$.%0 =">#53&2.1 5"<15$ 3-"<) 3 7.6 &00<.0?
)(.$ 6.%. 6.55 363%. )(3) )(.$ (31 53%'.5$ '")).2 )(.&% 63$: R(. #%").0)0 "7 )(. #(3%>3=.<)&=35
&21<0)%$? 7"% .P3>#5.? 6.%. \1.5&-.%3).5$ 1&0&2'.2<"<0?] 3=="%1&2' )" "2. 3235$0)? 6(" .P#53&20
)(3)\&)Q0B&21"730)3213%1-3%'3&2&2').=(2&C<.)"03$$"<3%.<2(3##$6&)()(.).P):U7$"<03&1
$"<6.%.(3##$?)(.2)(.")(.%0&1.6"<5103$?jX.55?6.Q9.'&9.2(&>)""><=(:Q]

1)#'*B3?)#
U2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ >"9.1 "2)" )(. GLRR 3'.213 53%'.5$ )(%"<'( )(. .77"%)0 "7
L>.%&=32 -<0&2.00 &2).%.0)0: \L0 "##"0.1 )" #%.))$ ><=( .9.%$ ")(.% &00<. )(3) 630 "2 )(.

I`

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Neil Turkewitz are from an October 1997 interview with the author.

NN

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

H%<'<3$ T"<21?] "2. -<0&2.00 0"<%=. "-0.%9.0? \U/ 630 #%"-3-5$ )(. "2. &00<.)(3)630)")355$
#<0(.1-$&21<0)%$?7&%0)&2)(.H2&).1F)3).0321)(.2"9.%0.30:]
d.=3<0. )(. =">>.%=&35 0)3B.0 6.%. 0" (&'(? RTU/F -.=3>. 9&)35 )" )(. 0<==.00 "7 )(.
%"<21@7"%3RTU/F)&>.5&2.?0...P(&-&)MA:\R(.%.="<512")(39.-..232H%<'<3$T"<216&)("<)
&2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$?] 03$0 F<-%3>32&32: \R(. H2&).1 F)3).0 ="<51 2") (39. =">. -3=B 6&)( 32
3'%..>.2) l)(3) 53=B.1m 0.%&"<0 "-5&'3)&"20 "2 U/: b.9.5"#&2' ="<2)%&.0 3-0"5<).5$ >&0%.31 )(.
.9"5<)&"2 "7 RTU/F: R(.$ )(&2B )(.$ >31. 3 >&0)3B. -$ 5.39&2' )(. 1""% 05&'()5$ 3^3%: R(3)Q0
=">#5.).5$3=31.>&=:R(.RTU/F^<''.%23<)630%.355$<20)"##3-5.:]
;.9.%)(.5.00? 0<=( &>#"%)32) =(32'.0 &2 &2).%23)&"235 &2).55.=)<35 #%"#.%)$ #%").=)&"2
6"<51 (39. -..2 <25&B.5$ &2 )(. 3-0.2=. "7 3 ><5)&53).%35 )%31. #%"=.00 0<=( 30 )(. GLRR: \U2
XU/c?]E&%B.>#(30&W.0?\&)&0"2.1&>.20&"235Y&)&0355U/Y)(.%.&02")(&2'"2)(.")(.%0&1."7
)(..C<3)&"2:od<)7"%)(.73=))(3)lRTU/Fm630#3%)"7)(&0-&'2.'")&3)&"2&)2.9.%6"<51(39.
(3##.2.1:U)^<0)753)"<)6"<512")(39.(3##.2.1:]
L5)("<'(RTU/FQ7<)<%.&>#3=)630<2=5.3%3))(.)&>.?"2.)(&2'630=.%)3&2i&2).55.=)<35
#%"#.%)$ 6"<51 ="2)&2<. )" '%"6 &2 &>#"%)32=. 321 =">#5.P&)$ 30 &27"%>3)&"2-30.1 #%"1<=)0
3212.67"%>0"7).=(2"5"'$.2).%.1&2).%23)&"235=">>.%=.: I[ d$)(.>&1MJJ,0?(&'().=(2"5"'$
'""103=="<2).17"%3-"<)"2.C<3%).%"7355HF'""103210.%9&=.00"51&27"%.&'2>3%B.)0: II U7)(.
RTU/F 2.'")&3)&"20 (31 0<==..1.1 &2 0.))&2' "25$ >&2&><> 0)3213%10? )(.2 6(3) 6"<51 =">.
2.P)ad"22&.T&=(3%10"2"7)(.K/LL"-0.%9.0i
R.=(2"5"'$ &0 =(32'&2' 0" 730): L21 )(3)Q0 )(. )%"<-5. 6&)( )(.
><5)&53).%35)%31&2'0$0).>iU))3B.0).2$.3%0)"'.)323'%..>.2)5&B.)(.
H%<'<3$ T"<21 #<) )"'.)(.%? >3$-. 5"2'.% &7 $"< 5""B 3) 355 )(.
#%.5&>&23%$ 2.'")&3)&"20: L21 &2 M, $.3%0 )(. 6"%51 =(32'.0 =">#5.).5$
&23(&'().=(&21<0)%$5&B."<%0:F"$"<3%.3563$0#53$&2'=3)=(<#Y$"<
3%.3563$06%&)&2')(.%<5.07"%6(3)(3##.2.1&2)(.530)M,$.3%0:d<)&7
$"< 6%&). )(.> %&'()? 3) 5.30) &) #%"9&1.0 $"< '<&132=. 7"% )(. 1&%.=)&"2
$"<3%.(.31&2': IO

I[

Keith Maskus, Intellectual Property, in Completing the Uruguay Round: A Results Oriented Approach to the
GATT Trade Negotiations, ed. Jeffrey J. Schott, Washington: Institute for International Economics, 1990.

II

Mary Lowe Good, Technology and Trade; Symposium: Free Trade Areas the Challenge and Promise of Fair vs.
Free Trade, Law and Policy in International Business, vol. 27, no. 4, June 22, 1996, p. 853.

IO

Unless otherwise noted, all quotes from Bonnie Richardson are from an August 1997 interview with the author.

NS

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

UT(?X?08
@7>4&@?/"*?#"
MOON
MOO[
MJ[I
MJIS
>&1MJI,0
MJIO
MJIJ

MJI,Q0MJO,0

MJO,0
MJOS
Z3%5$MJO,0

MJO`
MJO[
K3%:MJO[

MJO[

F.#):MJO[
F.#):MJO[
MJO[kOI
D<2.MJOO
MJOO

/3%&0!"29.2)&"27"%)(./%").=)&"2"7U21<0)%&35/%"#.%)$.0)3-5&0(.1:
d.%2.!"29.2)&"27"%)(./%").=)&"2"7h&).%3%$321L%)&0)&=X"%B
.0)3-5&0(.1:
X"%51U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$c%'32&W3)&"2@XU/cA.0)3-5&0(.1:
XU/c^"&20)(.H2&).1;3)&"200$0).>:
U21<0)%$'%"<#03##%"3=()(.HF'"9.%2>.2)3-"<))(.\#&%3=$]"7)(.&%
&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$:
R%31.>3%B&21<0)%&.07"<21)(.U2).%23)&"235L2)&!"<2).%7.&)&2'
!"35&)&"2:
R(.L2)&!"<2).%7.&)&2'!"35&)&"26"%B06&)(2.'")&3)"%0)"1.9.5"#3
#%"#"0.132)&="<2).%7.&)&2'="1.1<%&2')(.R"B$"T"<21"7GLRR)35B0:
R(.="1.&02")#<)&2)".77.=):
/7&W.%=(3&%>32Z1><21/%3))321UdK=(3&%>32D"(2c#.50.%9."2)(.
/%.0&1.2)Q0L19&0"%$!">>&)).."2R%31.;.'")&3)&"20@L!R;A1<%&2'
)(.!3%).%321T.3'3231>&2&0)%3)&"20:/%3))=(3&%0)(.=">>&))..?321
c#.5&0(.31"7)(.U/)30B7"%=.:
F"7)63%.\#&%3=$]-.'&20)"-.&1.2)&7&.1303#%"-5.>@UdK&2)%"1<=.1
#.%0"235=">#<).%03%"<21MJO+A:
R(.R%31.L=)"7MJOS>3B.0U/T&27%&2'.>.2)3=)&"23-5.<21.%0.=)&"2
N,M"7)(.MJISR%31.L=):
D3=C<.0G"%5&2?3)%31..P#.%)321="20<5)32))"UdK?6%&).03#3#.%
1.0=%&-.1-$"2."-0.%9.%30\)(.7&%0)&2).55.=)<353%)&=<53)&"2"7(39&2'
-%"31.%U/0)3213%10#5<032.27"%=.>.2)).P)&2)(.GLRR3'%..>.2):]
HFRT!53$)"2n.<)).%=%.3).0)(.#"0&)&"2"7300&0)32)HFRT7"%
&2).%23)&"235&29.0)>.2)321&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$:
L-&53).%35U/3'%..>.2)-.)6..2)(.HF321E"%.3@53).%<0.1303>"1.5
7"%RTU/FA&0%.3=(.1:
/%3))321c#.57"<21)(.U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$!">>&))..@U/!A?3'%"<#
"7MN!Zc0=">>&)).1)">"9&2'&2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$"2)")(.GLRR
3'.213:
R(.U/!7"%>03)%&#3%)&).="35&)&"26&)()(.Z<%"#.32H2&"2"7U21<0)%&35
321Z>#5"$.%0Q!"27.1.%3)&"20@H;U!ZA321)(.E.&132%.2?3#"6.%7<5
#%&93).7.1.%3)&"2"7.="2">&="%'32&W3)&"20&2D3#32:
U2).55.=)<35#%"#.%)$&0&2=5<1.1&2)(./<2)31.5Z0).0)3).>.2))(3)
53<2=(.0)(.H%<'<3$T"<21:
R(.H%<'<3$T"<21-.'&20:
R(.7&%0))6"$.3%0"7RTU/F2.'")&3)&"203%.=(3%3=).%&W.1-$
1&03'%..>.2)0-.)6..21.9.5"#.13211.9.5"#&2'="<2)%&.0:
R(.U/!=%.3).03%.#"%)1.)3&5&2')(.>&2&><>0)3213%107"%32
3==.#)3-5.RTU/F3'%..>.2):
R(.HFc>2&-<0R%31.321!">#.)&)&9.2.00L=)&2=5<1.03#%"9&0&"2
B2"6230\F#.=&35N,M])"-"50).%U/#%").=)&"2:

N`

U2).%23)&"235R%31.K..)0U2).55.=)<35/%"#.%)$ _________________________________ ;TM`,+M[[M:,

b.=:MJOO
L#%:MJOJ
D<2.MJJ,
b.=:MJJ,
b.=:MJJ,
b.=:MJJM
b.=:M`?MJJN
MJJS

L))(.H%<'<3$T"<21>&1).%>%.9&.6?RTU/F2.'")&3)"%0%.3=(2"
="20.20<07"%)(.7%3>.6"%B"7)(.)35B0:
R(.1.315"=B"9.%RTU/F&0-%"B.2:
h3%0L2.55?=(3&%>32"7)(.RTU/FX"%B&2'G%"<#?#%.#3%.031%37)RTU/F
).P):
R(.RTU/Fb%37)!">#"0&).R.P)&0#%.0.2).13))(.d%<00.50K&2&0).%&35
K..)&2':
R(.H%<'<3$T"<21-%.3B01"62:
R(.GLRRF.=%.)3%&3)#%.0.2)03=">#%.(.20&9.1%37)B2"6230)(.
b<2B5.b%37):
R(.H%<'<3$T"<21=5"0.0Y)(..2).%)3&2>.2)&21<0)%$Q03<1&"9&0<35
&00<.&05.7)"2)(.)3-5.:
U2)(.H2&).1F)3).0?30)(.530)3=)"7)(.M,N%1!"2'%.00?)(.H%<'<3$
T"<21L'%..>.2)0L=)#300.0?+OOkMS[&2)(.8"<0.321I[k+S&2)(.
F.23).:

N[