Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
= =
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
7
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of stop watch = _______________ sec
S.
No.
Resistance
R
Ohms
Time for 10 flashes
Sec
Mean
Time
Sec
Flashing
Period
T
= t / 10
Sec
1 2 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
8
CALCULATIONS:
RESULT:
The unknown resistance by using a neon flash lamp is
calculated to be ______________________ Ohms.
PRECAUTION:
Least count of stop watch should be noted and graduation on
stopwatch should be studied carefully before starting the
experiment.
The applied voltage should be kept constant through out the
experiment.
The capacitance of the capacitor should be selected so as to
get a measureable rate of flashing with the unknown
resistance.
In order to avoid error due to photo electric effect the
experiment should be performed in a dark room or the neon
bulb may be enclosed in a box with a small sighting hole.
The DC mains voltage should be greater than the striking
voltage for the lamp.
Reading for time and striking voltage should be noted at at
the instant when the lamp just glows.
The stop watch should be started at the same time when DC
mains is switched on.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
9
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Inaccuracy of stopwatch.
Loose connections
Voltage flections.
Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on.
Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by
your teacher
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
10
EXPERIMENT NO . 2
OBJECT: To convert the given galvanometer in to an ammeter up
to the range [ 0 1 ] ampere.
APPARATUS: Galvanometer, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Resistance
Box , Rheostat , Screw Gauge , 0ne way Key , Connecting Wires ,
Shunt Wire and Battery.
THEORY: A galvanometer having a resistance R
g
gives a full
scale deflection when a current I
g
is passed through it.. It can be
converted in to an ammeter up to the range [ 0 1 ] ampere by
connecting a small suitable resistance R
S
in parallel to it. The value
of the shunt resistance R
S
is such that when this parallel
combination of galvanometer and shunt resistance S is connected
in series with a circuit carrying a current I , it allows a current Ig to
pass through the galvanometer and the rest of the current [ I Ig ]
through the attached shunt resistances. The Rg ( The resistance of
galvanometer ) and Ig ( Current for full scale deflection ) can be
calculated by the following formulas.
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
=
]
g
R R [
V
g
I
+
=
The value of the shunt resistance R
S
can be calculated by equating
the potential differences across the two branches of the circuit. Let
R
g
and R
S
be the resistances of galvanometer and shunt
resistance respectively ans let I
g
and I
S
be the current passing
through them. Then
I = I
g +
I
s
_________ [ 1 ]
I
s
= [ I I
g
] _________ [ 2 ]
Since R
g
and R
S
are in parallel then by Ohms law we have
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
11
I
s
R
S
=
I
g
R
g
_________ [ 3 ]
From Equation [ 2 ] and Equation [ 3 ] we get
R
S
[ I I
g
] =
I
g
R
g
]
g
I I [
g
R
g
I
S
R
=
If the shunt wire has specific resistance and a radius r then its
required length L is given by
2
r S
L =
WORKING FORMULA:
1.
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
= 2.
]
g
R
H
R [
V
g
I
+
=
3.
]
g
I I [
g
R
g
I
S
R
=
3.
2
r S
L =
Where
R
g
is the resistance of the given galvanometer
R
H
is the high Resistance
R
S
is the shunt Resistance
I
g
is the current for full scale deflection flowing through the
galvanometer
V is the range of ammeter up to which the galvanometer is to
be converted
R
S
is the shunt resistance connected in parallel.
L is the length of wire having the resistance R
S
.
t is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter
[ It is a mathematical constant whose value is 3.142 ]
r is the radius of the wire.
is the specific resistance of the material of the wire
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
12
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS:
High
Resistance
R
H
Full
Deflection
Half
Deflection
Shunt
Resistance
R
S
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
=
Ohms Divisions Divisions Ohms Ohms
1. Least count of standard ammeter = ____________ Ampere
__________Divisions of galvanometer = _________ Ampere
One divisions of galvanometer = ___ / ___ = ___ Ampere
2. Least count of converted ammeter = ____________ Ampere
VERIFICATION:
S.
No.
Standard
Ammeter
Reading
Reading of the shunted
galvanometer
Difference
Galvanometer
Divisions
Converted
Ammeter
Amperes Divisions Amperes Amperes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
13
CALCULATIONS:
1.
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
= 2.
]
g
R
H
R [
V
g
I
+
=
3.
]
g
I I [
g
R
g
I
S
R
=
3.
2
r S
L =
RESULT:
a. The given galvanometer has been converted in to an
ammeter up to the range [ 0 1 ] ampere.
PRECAUTION:
All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
While finding the current I
G
for full scale deflection do not
close the circuit with out introducing a high resistance by the
resistance box.
No portion of calculated length of the wire should be under
the binding screw s of the galvanometer.
When comparing the readings of standard ammeter and the
shunted galvanometer pass large currents to produce large
deflection, thus reducing error in reading the deflection.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
For finding full scale deflection if the circuit is closed with out
introducing a high resistance by the resistance box.
The portion of calculated length of the wire should out of the
binding screw of the galvanometer.
A small amount of current may cause the error in the
deflection of the galvanometer.
Loose plugs in the resistance box.
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
14
EXPERIMENT NO . 3
OBJECT: To convert the given galvanometer in to an voltmeter up
to the range [ 0 1 ] volt.
APPARATUS: Galvanometer , Voltmeter , Ammeter ,
Resistance Box , Rheostat , 0ne way Key , Connecting Wires
and a Battery.
THEORY: A galvanometer having a resistance R
g
gives a full
scale deflection when a current I
g
is passed through it.. It can be
converted in to a voltmeter up to the range [ 0 1 ] volt by
connecting a suitable resistance R
X
in series with it. The value of
the series resistance R
X
is such that it allows a current I
g
to pass
through the combination of galvanometer and series resistance R
X
when potential difference V is applied across it. By applying Ohms
law the value of R
X
is given by
]
g
R
X
R [
V
g
I
+
=
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
=
To convert a moving coil galvanometer in to a voltmeter up to a
maximum voltage E
X
it is necessary to connect a high resistance in
series with the galvanometer coil of the resistance Rg Most of the
potential drop will then occur across the resistance R
X
The value
of the series resistance R
X
should be so adjusted that the voltage
E produces across the galvanometer coil and the series resistance
R
X
a current Ig sufficient to produce full scale deflection in the
galvanometer movement . Then by Ohms law
V = I
g
[
R
X
+ R
g
]
I
g
R
X
+ I
g
R
g
= V
I
g
R
X
= V I
g
R
g
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
15
g
I
g
R
g
I - V
X
R
=
g
I
g
R
g
I
g
I
V
X
R =
g
R -
g
I
V
X
R
=
WORKING FORMULA:
1.
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
= 2.
]
g
R R [
V
g
I
+
=
3.
g
R -
g
I
V
X
R
=
Where
R
g
is the resistance of the given galvanometer
R
H
is the high Resistance
R
S
is the shunt Resistance
I
g
is the current for full scale deflection flowing through the
galvanometer
V is the range of voltmeter up to which the galvanometer is
to be converted
R
X
is the high Resistance connected in series.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
16
OBSERVATIONS:
High
Resistance
R
H
Full
Deflection
Half
Deflection
Shunt
Resistance
R
S
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
=
Ohms Divisions Divisions Ohms Ohms
1. Least count of standard voltmeter = ___________ Ampere
_________Divisions of galvanometer = ____________ Volts
One divisions of galvanometer = ____ / ____ = ______ Volts
2. Least count of converted ammeter = ____________ Volts
VERIFICATION:
S.
No.
Standard
Voltmeter
Reading
Reading of the shunted
galvanometer
Difference
Galvanometer
Divisions
Converted
Voltmeter
Volts Divisions Volts Volts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
CALCULATIONS:
1.
S
R _
H
R
S
R
H
R
g
R
= 2.
]
g
R R [
V
g
I
+
=
3.
g
R -
g
I
V
X
R
=
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
17
RESULT:
b. The given galvanometer has been converted in to a
voltmeter up to the range [ 0 1 ] volts.
PRECAUTION:
All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
While finding the current I
G
for full scale deflection do not
close the circuit with out introducing a high resistance by the
resistance box.
No portion of calculated length of the wire should be under
the binding screw s of the galvanometer.
When comparing the readings of standard ammeter and the
shunted galvanometer pass large currents to produce large
deflection, thus reducing error in reading the deflection.
The rheostat used as potential divider should not be of low
resistance.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
For finding full scale deflection if the circuit is closed with out
introducing a high resistance by the resistance box.
The portion of calculated length of the wire should out of the
binding screw of the galvanometer.
A small amount of current may cause the error in the
deflection of the galvanometer.
A low resistance rheostat as potential divider may be used.
Loose plugs in the resistance box.
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
18
EXPERIMENT NO . 4
OBJECT: To calibrate a voltmeter by using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , Two
Battery ,Two 0ne way Key , Galvanometer , Two way key ,
Voltmeter , Standard cell and Connecting Wires.
THEORY: A galvanometer
WORKING FORMULA:
]
1
L
2
L
[
S
E
S
V
=
Where
V
S
is the calculated voltage
E
S
is the E.M.F of standard cell
L
1
is the balancing length for Standard cell is in circuit
L
2
is the balancing length for R
2
is in circuit
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
19
OBSERVATIONS:
3. Least count of standard voltmeter = _____________ Volts
4. E .M . F of standard cell = E
S
= _______________ Volts
5. Balancing length when Standard cell is in circuit L
1
= __ cm.
S.
No
Balancing
length for
R
2
is in
circuit
L
2
Calculated Voltage
]
1
L
2
L
[
S
E
S
V
=
Voltmeter
Reading
V
Difference
[ V
S
V ]
cm volts volts volts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CALCULATIONS: ]
1
L
2
L
[
S
E
S
V
=
RESULT:
The given voltmeter has been calibrated a by using a
potentiometer
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
20
PRECAUTION:
All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The jockey must have sharp edge.
Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be
gently tapped over it.
The current through the potentiometer should be passed
while taking readings..
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
Positive terminal of the batteries B
1
& B
2
and standard E
S
cell
should be connected to the same end of the potentiometer
wire.
Emf of the battery B
1
should be greater than emf of the
battery B
2
or the standard cell.
The rheostat R
1
once set should not be changed through out
the experiment.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire.
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
Loose plugs in the resistance box.
Jockey may not be of sharp edge.
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
21
EXPERIMENT NO . 5
OBJECT: To calibrate an ammeter by using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , Two
Battery ,Two 0ne way Key , Galvanometer , Two way key ,
Ammeter , Standard cell , Resistance box and Connecting Wires.
THEORY: A galvanometer
WORKING FORMULA:
]
1
L
2
L
S
R
S
E
[
S
I
=
Where
V
S
is the calculated voltage
E
S
is the E.M.F of standard cell
R
S
is the standard resistance.
V
S
is the calculated current
L
1
is the balancing length for Standard cell is in circuit
L
2
is the balancing length for R
2
is in circuit
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
22
OBSERVATIONS:
6. Least count of standard ammeter = ___________ Ampere
7. E .M . F of standard cell = E
S
= ______________ Volts
8. Value of standard resistance = R
S
= ____________ Ohms
9. Balancing length when Standard cell is in circuit L
1
___ cm
S.
No
Balancing
length for
R
S
is in
circuit
L
2
Calculated Current
]
1
L
2
L
S
R
S
E
[
S
I
=
Ammeter
Reading
I
Difference
[ I
S
I ]
cms amp amp amp
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CALCULATIONS: ]
1
L
2
L
S
R
S
E
[
S
I
=
RESULT:
The given ammeter has been calibrated a by using a
potentiometer
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
23
PRECAUTION:
All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The jockey must have sharp edge.
Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be
gently tapped over it.
The current through the potentiometer should be passed
while taking readings..
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
Positive terminal of the batteries B
1
& B
2
and standard E
S
cell
should be connected to the same end of the potentiometer
wire.
Emf of the battery B
1
should be greater than emf of the
battery B
2
or the standard cell.
The rheostat R
1
once set should not be changed through out
the experiment.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire.
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
Loose plugs in the resistance box.
Jockey may not be of sharp edge.
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
24
EXPERIMENT NO . 6
OBJECT: To calibrate an ammeter and a voltmeter by using a
potentiometer.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , Two
Battery ,Two 0ne way Key , Galvanometer , Two way key ,
Ammeter , Voltmeter , Standard cell , Resistance box and
Connecting Wires.
WORKING FORMULA:
]
1
L
2
L
[
S
E
S
V
= , ]
1
L
2
L
S
R
S
E
[
S
I
=
Where
V
S
is the calculated voltage
E
S
is the E.M.F of standard cell
R
S
is the standard resistance.
L
1
is the balancing length for Standard cell is in circuit
L
2
is the balancing length for R
2
is in circuit
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
25
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Least count of standard ammeter = ______ Ampere
2. Least count of standard voltmeter =_________ Volts
3. E .M . F of standard cell = E
S
= __________ Volts
4. Value of standard resistance = R
S
= _______ Ohms.
5. Balancing length when Standard cell is in circuit L
1
= ___ cm
CALCULATIONS:
]
1
L
2
L
[
S
E
S
V
= , ]
1
L
2
L
S
R
S
E
[
S
I
=
RESULT:
The given ammeter and voltmeter have been calibrated a by using
a potentiometer
S.
No
Balancing
Length
when
R
S
is in
circuit
L
2
Voltage
V
S
Voltmeter
Reading
V
Current
I
S
Ammeter
Reading
I
Difference
[ V
S
V ]
Difference
[ I
S
I ]
cms volts volts amps amps volts amps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
26
PRECAUTION:
All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The jockey must have sharp edge.
Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be
gently tapped over it.
The current through the potentiometer should be passed
while taking readings..
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
Positive terminal of the batteries B
1
& B
2
and standard E
S
cell
should be connected to the same end of the potentiometer
wire.
Emf of the battery B
1
should be greater than emf of the
battery B
2
or the standard cell.
The rheostat R
1
once set should not be changed through out
the experiment.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire.
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
Loose plugs in the resistance box .
Jockey may not be of sharp edge .
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
27
EXPERIMENT NO . 7
OBJECT: To determine the low resistance of the given coil by
Carey foster bridge.
APPARATUS: Meter bridge, Galvanometer, Two resistance
boxes, Given coil , Fractional resistance box , Cell, One way key
and Connecting wires.
THEORY: Carey foster bridge is a modified form of meter bridge
having four gaps across which resistances X , P , Q , and Y are
connected. P and Q are two equal resistances X is the unknown
low resistance and Y is the known resistance.
If the balance point C is obtained at a point L
1
cm from the end A ,
then
] i -[ - - - - - - - - - - -
]
1
L 100 [ Y
1
L X
Q
P
+ +
+ +
=
Where is the resistance per cm length of the wire and o and |
are the end resistance at A and B respectively.
If X and Y are interchanged and the balance point is obtained at
point L
2
from the end A then
] ii -[ - - - - - - - - - - -
]
2
L 100 [ X
2
L Y
Q
P
+ +
+ +
=
From equation [ I ] and equation [ ii ]
100 Y X
2
L Y
100 Y X
1
L X
Q P
P
+ + + +
+ +
=
+ + + +
+ +
=
+ o
As the denominator s are equal therefore
X + L
1
+ o = Y + L
2
+ o
X Y = L
1
+ o [ L
2
+ o ]
X Y = L
1
+ o L
2
o
X Y = [ L
1
L
2
]
X = Y + [ L
1
L
2
] -------------------- [ iii ]
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
28
Thus X can be determined if L
1
, L
2
and are known
For finding the resistance per cm of the wire , make X = 0 by
closing gap NO 1 by a copper shorting strip and balance point is
obtained at L
1
. Now copper strip X and Y are interchanged and
the balance point is obtained at L
2
then equation [ iii ] can be
written as
0 = Y + [ L
1
L
2
]
[ L
1
L
2
] = Y
]
2
L
1
L [
Y
=
WORKING FORMULA:
]
2
L
1
L [
Y
= , X = Y + [ L
2
L
1
]
Where
is the resistance per cm length of the given wire
X
is the unknown low resistance.
Y is the known resistance.
L
1
is the
balance point from end A
L
2
is the balance point from end A when X and Y are
interchanged
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
29
OBSERVATIONS: FOR DETERMINATION OF
[ The resistance per cm of the wire ]
Resistance P = _____ Ohms , Resistance P = ______ Ohms
S.
NO
Y
Ohm
Distance of balancing point
from A with shorting strip in
]
2
L
1
L [
Y
=
Ohm
L
1
cm
L
2
cm
1.
2.
3.
OBSERVATIONS:
FOR DETERMINATION OF UNKNOWN LOW RESISTANCE
Resistance P = _____ Ohms , Resistance P = _____ Ohms
S.
NO
Y
Ohm
Distance of balancing point
from end A
X = Y + [ L
2
L
1
]
Ohm
L
1
cm
L
2
cm
1.
2.
3.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
30
CALCULATIONS:
]
2
L
1
L [
Y
= , X = Y + [ L
2
L
1
]
Actual Value = ____________________ Ohms
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
c. The unknown low resistance of the given coil by Carey
foster bridge is calculated to be ______________
Ohms.
PRECAUTION:
All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The jockey must have sharp edge.
Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be
gently tapped over it.
The current through the bridge should be disconnected while
reversing the key.
The current through the potentiometer should be passed
while taking readings..
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire.
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
Loose plugs in the resistance box .
Jockey may not be of sharp edge .
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
31
EXPERIMENT NO . 8
OBJECT: To determine the value of two unknown resistances by
using a potentiometer and verify the law of combination of
resistances in series or parallel.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer , Jockey , Two Rheostat , Battery
,Two 0ne way Keys , Galvanometer , Two way key , Resistance
box , Two unknown resistances , Two cells and Connecting Wires.
WORKING FORMULA:
1
L
]
1
L
2
L [
R r
=
Where
r is the unknown resistance.
R is the known resistance.
L
1
is the balancing length for R.
L
2
is the balancing length for ( R + r ).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
32
OBSERVATIONS:
Known
Resistance
R
Un known
Resistance
r
Balancing
length for
R
L
1
balancing
length for
( R + r )
L
2
Un known
Resistance
r
1
L
]
1
L
2
L [ R
Mean
Un known
Resistance
r
Ohms
Ohms
Cm
Cm
Ohms
Ohms
r
1
r
2
r
1
+ r
2
2
r
1
1
r
1
+
CALCULATIONS:
1
L
]
1
L
2
L [
R r
=
r
1
+ r
2
2
r
1
1
r
1
+
RESULT:
Un known resistance r
1
= ____________ Ohms
Un known resistance r
2
= ____________ Ohms
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
33
For series combination
Observed value [ r
1
+ r
2
] = ____________ Ohms
Calculated value [ r
1
+ r
2
] = ____________ Ohms
For parallel combination
Observed value [
2
r
1
1
r
1
+ ] = ____________ Ohms
Calculated value [
2
r
1
1
r
1
+ ] = ____________ Ohms
PRECAUTION:
All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The positive terminal of the battery and that of cell must be
connected to the terminal on zero side of the potentiometer.
The emf of the main battery E
1
should be greater than E
2
used.
Never insert K
1
& K
2
simultaneously.
The current should remain constant for each set of
observation.
The current should be passed only for the duration it is
necessary otherwise the balance point will keep on
changing.
The jockey must have sharp edge.
Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be
gently tapped over it.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections.
Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire.
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
Loose plugs in the resistance box .
Jockey may not be of sharp edge .
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
34
EXPERIMENT NO . 9
OBJECT: To determine the work function of a metal by using a
sodium light.
APPARATUS: Photo electric cell , Sodium light , Battery ,
Rheostat , One Way key , Four way key or Reversing key , Micro
ammeter , Voltmeter and Connecting wires.
WORKING FORMULA:
e
0
V -
c
h Function Work = = ,
Where
| is the function of the given metal.
h
is the Planks Constant
c is the velocity of light
is the wavelength of sodium light
V
0
is the stopping potential
e is the charge on an electron.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
35
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of voltmeter = ________________________ volts.
Least count of micro ammeter = ____________________ amp.
S.
NO
Distance of sodium lamp from
Photo cell _____________cm
Voltmeter
reading
Volts
Micro ammeter
reading
Divisions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
CALCULATIONS:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
36
Stopping potential from the graph V
0
= ________________ volt.
Planks Constant = h = 6.625 10
34
joules sec
Velocity of light = c = 3 10
8
m / sec. or 3 10
10
cm / sec.
Wavelength of sodium light = = 5893 = 5893 10
10
m
Charge on an electron = e = 1.6 10
19
coul.
e
0
V -
c
h Function Work = =
Actual Value = ____________________ Ohms
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
The work function of a metal by using a sodium light is
calculated to be _______________________ Electron volts.
PRECAUTION:
All the connections should be tight and clean.
Distance between the source and the photo-cell should be
kept unchanged for one set of observations.
The applied voltage should be changed in small and regular
steps.
A V.T.V.M. if available, should be used in place of voltmeter.
To increase the life of the photo-cell, its window should be
closed, when it is not in use.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Change of distance between the source and the photocell
during the experiment.
Voltage flections
Use of a simple voltmeter.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
37
EXPERIMENT NO . 10
OBJECT: To determine the ionization potential of mercury.
APPARATUS: A mercury diode with base, Voltmeter, Micro
ammeter, Rheostat , One Way key , Power supply and Connecting
wires.
THEORY: The breaking of an atom in an electron and positively
charged ions is called ionization. Ionization can be brought about
by bombarding an atom by fast moving particles such as electrons.
The electron must be accelerated to certain definite energy for
given type of atoms. It will be seen that electron having sufficiently
energy can break off the loosely leave outermost electrons of the
target atom. This will correspond to a sudden increase in plate
current. The ionization potential is therefore defined as the
maximum accelerating potential which is required to accelerate the
electrons so that they can ionize the target.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of voltmeter = ________________________ volts.
Least count of micro ammeter = ____________________ amp.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
38
S.
NO
Anode Voltage
[ Plate Voltage ]
Volts
Anode Current
[ Plate Current ]
Amp
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
CALCULATIONS:
Actual Value = ____________________ Volts
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
The ionization potential of mercury is calculated to be
_______________________ Volts.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
39
PRECAUTION:
The connections should be tight and clean.
The current passed through the filament should not be more
than its related value.
A high resistance voltmeter should be preferred.
If the anode current is larger, use a milli ameter in place of
micro ammeter.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Use of low resistance voltmeter.
Voltage flections
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
40
EXPERIMENT NO . 11
OBJECT: To set up half and full wave rectifier and study their
waveforms on an oscilloscope. Also study the effect of smoothing
circuit ( filter circuit ) on ripple voltage.
APPARATUS: Four point contact diodes , 6V step down
transformer , A high resistance of 10 Kilo Ohms , Capacitor ,
Inductors, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
THEORY : The conversion of an alternating current in to direct
current is called rectification. This is very conveniently achieved by
diodes. A circuit which is used for rectification is called a rectifier.
To make the out put waveform from a study voltage we use a
suitable combination of capacitor and inductor in the circuit which
are known as filters. The equation for ripple factor is given
R C
r
f 3 4
1
F . R Factoe Ripple = = ---------------------- [ 1 ]
300
6 -
10 1000 120 3 4
1
F . R Factoe Ripple
= =
3 12 3 4
1
F . R Factoe Ripple
= =
004 . 0 F . R Factoe Ripple = =
1
2
)
c . d I
rms
I
( F . R Factoe Ripple = = -------------------- [ 2 ]
Where I
r m s
= Root mean square value of A.C current
I d.c = Value of D.C current
For full wave rectification Integrating equation [ 2 ] we get
}
= =
T
0
2
0
I
dt
2
i
rms
I and
}
= =
T
0
0
I 2
dt i
d.c
I
For half wave rectification the values of I
r m s
and I d .c are given
as under
2
0
I
rms
I = and
0
I
d.c
I =
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
41
FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
Now putting the values of I
r m s
and I d .c in equation [ 2 ] we
get
1
2
)
0
I
0
I
( F . R Factoe Ripple
2
= =
1
2
)
2
( F . R Factoe Ripple = =
t
4680 . 1 F . R Factoe Ripple = =
R . F = 1 . 211
FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
Now putting the values of I
r m s
and I d .c in equation [ 2 ] we
get
1
2
)
0
I 2
2
0
I
( F . R Factoe Ripple = =
1
2
)
2 2
( F . R Factoe Ripple = =
t
2340 . 0 F . R Factoe Ripple = =
R . F = 0 . 483
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
42
OBSERVATIONS:
FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
SHAPE OF WAVE FORM
In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Un filtered
Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts
SHAPE OF WAVE FORM WHEN DIODE IS INVERTED
In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Un filtered
Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts
SHAPE OF WAVE FORM WHEN DIODE IS INVERTED
In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Filtered
Peak value = F
0
= _____ Volts Peak value = F
0
= _____ Volts
d.c out put = F
0
= _____ Volts d.c out put = F
0
= _____ Volts
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
43
FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
SHAPE OF WAVE FORM
In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Un filtered
Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts
SHAPE OF WAVE FORM WHEN DIODE IS INVERTED
In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Un filtered
Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts Peak value = E
0
= _____ Volts
SHAPE OF WAVE FORM WHEN DIODE IS INVERTED
In Put Waveform Out Put Waveform Filtered
Peak value = F
0
= _____ Volts Peak value = F
0
= _____ Volts
d.c out put = F
0
= _____ Volts d.c out put = F
0
= _____ Volts
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
44
CALCULATIONS
Actual Value = ____________________ Volts
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
The waveforms of half and full wave rectifier on an
oscilloscope have been studied.
PRECAUTION:
Care should be taken in connecting the diodes whose N-type
ends is marked with red spot or arrow.
V.T.V.M. and C.R.O. must be earthed properly.
While observing input waveform crystal diodes must be
disconnected.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
The N type ends of diodes are not marked properly
Voltage flections
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
45
EXPERIMENT NO . 12
OBJECT: To study the characteristics of an RLC series or
acceptor circuit by plotting a response curve. Determine the
resonant frequency , band width and Q factor of the circuit
APPARATUS: Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Rheostat , One Way
key , Power supply and Connecting wires.
WORKING FORMULA:
C L 2
1
r
f Frequency Resonant = =
1
f
2
f f Width Band = =
f
r
f
Width Band
Frequency Resonant
factor Q Factor Quality
A
= = =
Where
f
r
is the resonant frequency.
L
is the inductance.
C is the capacitance.
A f is the band width.
f
1
& f
2
are the frequencies where the response falls to
0.707 of its maximum value.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
46
OBSERVATIONS:
Resistance R = _______ Ohms.
Inductance L =________ m Henry =________ Henry
Capacitance C = ______ f. = ___________ Farad.
S.
NO
Frequency ( f )
CPS or HZ
Current in the circuit
Amp
Log
f
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
CALCULATIONS:
Actual Value = ____________________ Volts
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
C L 2
1
r
f =
1
f
2
f f =
f
r
f
factor Q
A
=
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
47
RESULT:
The characteristics of an acceptor circuit have been studied.
It is seen that we get maximum output when the resonant
frequency is applied across the series combination of L , C
and R.
The resonant frequency f
r
is calculated to be _______ hertz.
The calculated value of resonant frequency is near about the
observed value.
The value of inductance L in the circuit is calculated to be
__________Henry.
Band width A f = ____ hertz and Q factor = _________
PRECAUTION:
Suitable set of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) should be
selected and their values should be known.
The connection should be tight and clean.
The AVO meter should be adjusted for suitable range before
switching on the circuit.
The selected range of the AVO meter should not be changed
for the whole set of observations.
Frequency from the oscillator should be changed in regular
small steps.
The naked wires should not be touched, when the circuit is
on.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Voltage flections.
Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on.
Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by
your teacher
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
48
EXPERIMENT NO . 13
OBJECT: To study the characteristics of an RLC parallel or
rejector circuit by plotting a response curve. Determine the
resonant frequency , band width and Q factor of the circuit
APPARATUS: Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Rheostat , One Way
key , Power supply and Connecting wires.
WORKING FORMULA:
C L 2
1
r
f Frequency Resonant = =
1
f
2
f f Width Band = =
f
r
f
Width Band
Frequency Resonant
factor Q Factor Quality
A
= = =
Where
f
r
is the resonant frequency.
L
is the inductance.
C is the capacitance.
A f is the band width.
f
1
& f
2
are the frequencies where the current rises to 1.414
times of the minimum current
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
49
OBSERVATIONS:
Resistance R = _______ Ohms.
Inductance L =________ m Henry =________ Henry
Capacitance C = ______ f. = ___________ Farad.
S.
NO
Frequency ( f )
CPS or HZ
Current in the circuit
Amp
Log
f
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
CALCULATIONS:
C L 2
1
r
f =
1
f
2
f f =
f
r
f
factor Q
A
=
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
50
Actual Value = ____________________ Volts
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
The characteristics of an rejector circuit have been studied.
It is seen that we get minimum output when the resonant
frequency is applied across the parallel combination of L , C
and R.
The resonant frequency f
r
is calculated to be _______ hertz.
The calculated value of resonant frequency is near about the
observed value.
The value of inductance L in the circuit is calculated to be
__________Henry.
Band width A f = ____ hertz and Q factor = _________
PRECAUTION:
Suitable set of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) should be
selected and their values should be known.
The connection should be tight and clean.
The AVO meter should be adjusted for suitable range before
switching on the circuit.
The selected range of the AVO meter should not be changed
for the whole set of observations.
Frequency from the oscillator should be changed in regular
small steps.
The naked wires should not be touched, when the circuit is
on.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Voltage flections.
Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on.
Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by
your teacher
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
51
EXPERIMENT NO . 14
OBJECT: To plot the characteristics curve of a semi conductor
diode. Determine the forward and reverse impedances
[Resistances].
APPARATUS: Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Rheostat , One Way
key , Power supply and Connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of voltmeter = ______________________ volts.
Least count of micro ammeter = __________________ amp.
Least count of milli ammeter = ___________________ m amp.
S.
NO
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Voltage
Volt
Current
Milli ampere
Voltage
Volt
Voltage
Microampere
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
52
CALCULATIONS:
Actual Value = ____________________ Volts
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
The characteristic curves for a ( p n ) junction ( both for
forward bias and reverse bias ) have been drawn.
It is seen that when the junction is forward biased with a
small potential difference it allows large current (in milli
amperes ) but when it is reverse biased with a large potential
difference small current ( in micro amperes ) passed through
it
PRECAUTION:
The connections should be neat clean and tight.
The AVO meter should be adjusted for suitable range before
switching on the circuit.
The applied voltage never exceed the rated value of the semi
conductor diode.
Care should be taken in connecting the diode whose N
type end is marked with red spot or arrow.
Voltage should be changed in small and regular steps.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
53
The naked wires should not be touched, when the circuit is
on.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections
Voltage flections.
The applied voltage exceed the rated value of the semi
conductor diode.
Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on.
Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by
your teacher
\
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
54
EXPERIMENT NO . 15
OBJECT: To study the static characteristics of a given transistor in
common emitter mode.
APPARATUS: Given transistor ( provided with base resistance ,
also called biasing resistance ), Micro ammeter, Milli ammeter , A
small Power supply, Two Way key and Voltmeter
THEORY: A transistor consists of germanium or silicon crystal in
which a layer of N type germanium is sand witched between two
layers of P type germanium. This is forming as P N P
transistor. Similarly a transistor in which a layer of P type
germanium is sad witched between the two layers of N type
germanium is called N P N transistor. A transistor consists of
three parts which are emitter , base and collector. The transistor
can be connected in the circuits normally in three ways.
Common Emitter configuration
Common Base configuration
Common Collector configuration
First one is forward biased junction. The second is reverse bias
junction. A junction is said to be forward biased if the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the P type region and the
negative terminal is connected to the N type region of transistor.
Similarly if the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the
N type region and the negative terminal is connected to the
P type region of transistor is called reverse biased junction.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
55
OBSERVATIONS: [ FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS ]
KEEPING COLLECTOR TO AMMETER VOLTAGE V
CE
IS
CONCTANT
S.
NO
V
CE
= 0 Volt V
CE
= 4 Volt V
CE
= 8 Volt
V
BE
Volt
I
B
Amp
V
BE
Volt
I
B
Amp
V
BE
Volt
I
B
Amp
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
[ FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS ]
[ KEEPING BASE CURRENT I
B
IS CONCTANT ]
S.
NO
I
B
= 0 A I
B
= 20 A I
B
= 40 A I
B
= 60
A
V
CE
Volt
I
C
m A
V
CE
Volt
I
C
m A
V
CE
Volt
I
C
m A
V
CE
Volt
I
C
m
A
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
CALCULATIONS:
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
56
Actual Value = ____________________ Volts
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
The input characteristic curves ( between V
BE
and I
B
keeping
V
CE
is constant ) and output characteristic curves ( between
V
CE
and I
C
keeping I
B
is constant ) have been drawn.
It is seen from these curves that a small change in base
current produces a large change in collector current I
C
.
PRECAUTION:
Do not apply base more than 3 volts and collector voltage
more than 12 volts.
Carefully observed the polarities of the power supplies and
terminals of the transistor.
Avoid rough handling the transistor otherwise it may be
damaged.
While making or breaking any connections both the power
supplies should be disconnected.
Before connecting a transistor in to a circuit one should
carefully identify the base ,emitter and collector terminals.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Loose connections.
Voltage fluctuation.
Un correct connection of a transistor in the circuit.
Base voltage may be more than 3 volts.
Collector voltage may be bore than 12 volts.
Necked wire should not be touched when the switch is on.
Before starting the experiment get the circuit checked by
your teacher
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
57
EXPERIMENT NO . 16
OBJECT: To determine the Planks constant by using a
spectrometer and hydrogen discharge tube.
APPARATUS: Spectrometer ,Diffraction grating , Hydrogen
discharge tube and Sprit level.
WORKING FORMULA: Planks constant can be calculated
as
3
1
] )
2
n
1
2
2
1
(
C
2
k
4
e m
2
2
[ h Constant s Plank' = =
N
Sin d
=
Where
h is the Planks constant
m is the mass of the electron
e is the charge of the electron
k is the Coulombs constant for electrostatic force
is the wave length of light
n is the color of the spectral line
d
is the grating element
u is the angle of diffraction
N is the order of image
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Least count of stop watch = 1 minute.
2. Number of lines ruled on the grating = ________lines / inch.
3. Grating element =
] [
cm 2.54
lines of no
inch 1
d = = = ______cm
4. Mass of an electron = m = 9.1072 10
31
Kg.
5. Charge on an electron = e = 1.6 10
19
coul.
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
58
6. Coulombs constant for electrostatic force =k = 9 10
9
N m
2
/coul
2
7. Speed of light = c = 3 10
8
m / sec. or 3 10
10
cm / sec.
FOR RED SPECTRAL LINE
S
NO
Order
Of
Image
Lines
Diffraction
reading on
Difference
Of
Readings
2u = A B
Angle of
diffraction
u
Wave
length
Right
side
[ A ]
Left
side
[ B ]
deg deg deg deg cm
1.
I
D
1
2.
I I
D
2
FOR BLUE SPECTRAL LINE
S
NO
Order
Of
Image
Lines
Diffraction
reading on
Difference
Of
Readings
2u = A B
Angle of
diffraction
u
Wave
length
Right
side
[ A ]
Left
side
[ B ]
deg deg deg deg cm
1.
I
D
1
2.
I I
D
2
FOR VIOLET SPECTRAL LINE
S
NO
Order
Of
Image
Lines
Diffraction
reading on
Difference
Of
Readings
2u = A B
Angle of
diffraction
u
Wave
length
Right
side
[ A ]
Left
side
[ B ]
deg deg deg deg cm
1.
I
D
1
2.
I I
D
2
DATED : _______________________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062
59
CALCULATIONS:
Planks constant for red spectral line [ n = 3 ]
3
1
] )
2
3
1
2
2
1
(
C
r
2
k
4
e m
2
2
[ h Constant s Plank' = =
Planks constant for red spectral line [ n = 4 ]
3
1
] )
2
4
1
2
2
1
(
C
b
2
k
4
e m
2
2
[ h Constant s Plank' = =
Planks constant for red spectral line [ n = 5 ]
3
1
] )
2
5
1
2
2
1
(
C
v
2
k
4
e m
2
2
[ h Constant s Plank' = =
Actual Value = h = 6.625 10
34
J s.
100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:
The Planks constant by using a spectrometer and hydrogen
discharge tube is calculated to be ____________ J s.
PRECAUTION:
All adjustment of the spectrometer must be correctly made.
The grating should be adjusted in the vertical plane and the
rulings on it should also be made vertical.
In measuring the angle, the left of the image should coincide
with the vertical cross-wire for positions of telescope on
either side of the central image.
The light should be incident on that side of the grating on
which there is no rulings. This is done to obtain no refraction
after deflection has taken place.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Slit may mot sharp.
Spectrometer may not be properly adjusted.
Turn table may not be properly adjusted.