+-+ q

m n++a aqn n











+- .+a + n+a+ 6++o
+ - .+a + 6n+ qn na
+ - .+a am++ +m a+n n 6++o















+aa ++. [n
n+.+to +a+a
+oot++ ++o. 6+mm 600 006.


+aa ++[ ++
m+o n+n n - 2003
+++ ++ n+n n - 2004
amn+n n - 2006



qm+ +oaJ

mmaJ ++. ++n+a ++m
+-+ 5-n0n+++++J.
a++o+ +o ot+ (+m m+. +),
6+m m 600 005.


0ao++a+aJ+a


++ a. J+ +mm ++ +. + +0ao
0+Ja+o+ +-+ a+a+++aJ. m++o+ +-+ a+a+++aJ.
. ++. ++ +o ot+. n+ ++n nm +o ot+.
6n+m0m+ 601 204. 6+m m 600 030.


+++J+a


++ a . ++a ++ +. naa+m
n..+++ +++J (+-+a). naa +a +++J (+-+a).
n.6+.+.+. ++mJ 0ao+on naa. ++mJ - +a 0ao +on na a.
0++.an+++a. 6+m m 600 024. ++tJ0n.. 606 107.


++a+ ++. +a n+ + 6+++ ++a+ 0+. a++
m++on n. .+++ +++ (+-+a ). m++on n. .+++ +++ (+-+a ).
nm+ mm+a 6n-+a 0ao+on naa. n++oJ na+-. 6n-+a 0ao +on naa.
5+++n+a . 6+m m 600 013. +o++n+a. ++++ 620 014.









6n++a.+ +a


n+++a

1. a-mn+a 1 - 31

1.1 a-mn+a 1
1.2 6a+6+- 0+J+0++[ 18

2. aa+a 32 - 48

2.1 n+nn anma +nnaa 32
2.2 +.[ +a+a 37

3. +o m+ ++ qn+ [ 49 - 90

3.1 na+o qn+[ 49
3.2 a.+++m qn+ [ 52
3.3 +-+ qn+[ 73

4. 5+n+-+a 91 - 121

4.1 noomnn+ 0++a+a 92
4.2 5+n+-+ mn6n++a+a 97
4.3 +++-nn[++o 107
4.4 + noomnn+ 0++a+ an6n++ noomnn+
0++a++o aq++o 116

5. + Ja+a ++-a mn+a 122 - 134

5.1 a+m+a anma +n-+a 123
5.2 +-+ a++++a 131

6. nmn aoa+o 135 - 168

6.1 ++n+J+ +o+ q++ 0+n n +a 135
6.2 ++++ +++++ +n++ 0a-o+ 0+nn+a 158

7. nqmn aoa+o 169 - 186

7.1 ++Jc++m ++ +t+mn 169
7.2 0++.om +++a 173
7.3 (x
1
, y
1
) an ma (x
2
, y
2
) ++ 5+ naa++ q
5.0+1aa 6++oa 179




8. m+ 0++-a+o 187 - 204

8.1 m+0++-a+o a++ +a 189
8.2 m+0++-a+o mn6n++a+a 198
8.3 ++nn+0++-++++m m+0++-a+o a+++a 202

9. 6++ mn aoa+o 205 - 216

9.1 + m+0++-++o +naa aa+ 0++[+a 206
9.2 ++++++am aoa+o aa++a 213

10. aa+ +a+ ++++o 217 - 228

10.1 a++on 0n++q aa+a 219

11. a+n.+a 229 - 240

11.1 0+J+0++[ a+n.+a 229
11.2 0+J+0++[ a+n.+am n+mn+[ 233

a.+ +n n. o+o 241 - 242

a+Ja.+ +n n. o+o 243 - 244


1. a-mn+a

+a mn+. a+aao a-+a aqa 0++mm+mnm. m++oa a-+a
aam am naa6n+a +0++ + +-+ aoo++ n++++a +n1aa++. a-+an
nnn +n+ n++ 6++-0.+6amo , +-+++m ++a +mq +nnaJ+a+0a+a.
++Jo n+.++ ++a aa 6Jam ++..+ ++J+ + +-+ aoo++ , acc+m+am
++ +-+a anma +-++am ++ a-+am 6++a+ am+ +n1aa++.
a- +a a+ +++ n- n+an 6nn ma am. a ac c+m+ +o ama no
am++ ++ q a. ++- +a+m nm. 5+ +++ +-+ 0a+ 5++a+m a-+a
am+ +-nJ+a am+ +n1aa++. 6Jam ++.[ q0++6+++J aa aoo+J 5+o
a-+a +.aa n.+++J; an na am+mm +na++o ann..a am a++ +
+n1aa+J. m+++ aqnn+ao 5+o a-+a , mm++a , a++mm a-+a ,
a++mn+ a-+a anma 6a+6+-+a ++annn nn n n++ 6++-0.+a.
a--a+nq +a 5+o a-+a ann. .m. 0+a++ 0+n n an n a- +a
+a++m. 5nn+.++o a-+am n-n+an nnn n++ 6++a0a+a.

1.1. a- mn+a

1.1.1 5+o a-+a (Natural Numbers)

1, 2, 3,. amnm 5+o a-+a+qa. 5a a--. +aa a-+a amaa
a++nn[a. 5+o a-+am 6++q++ N am+ qnn0n+a. N m mnn+a
m++1a n.o+o. mo++a..+oa, N = {1, 2, 3, } am am+0a+a. 5q ""
aa qn+[ N m ann mn n+a 1, 2, 3, m mn+ nn n.o+o.nn[+mnm
amn+ -++++mn+. 5q 1, 3, 5, amnm nnnn. 5+o a-+a amaa,
2, 4, 6, amnm 5+. .n n. 5+o a- +a amaa a+ +n 6nma . x 9 = 0,
x 16 = 0, x 54 = 0 0n+mn +amn+[++q+ +Ja 6++qnn N o++ + 6nno+a .
m+o. x + 5 = 5, x + 9 = 9 ++ +amn+[+am +Ja+a N o 5oo. a6mmo.
5++amn+[+a N o 5oo++ a- 0 o +na 6+++nn[+mnm.

1.1.2 mm a- +a (Whole Numbers)

0, 1, 2, amnm mm a-+a+qa. mm a-+am 6++q++ W am+
qnn0n+a. +0a W = {0, 1, 2,}. 5n0n++, x + 5 = 5, x + 9 = 9 0n+mn +am+am
+Ja. a- 0 qa; 5+ W o a a+. 5+o a- +a m+ +a mm a- +a+qa ;
m+o , 0 aa mm a- 5+o a- oo. 0+ 0++++o x + 25 = 15, x + 12 = 9
1
amnm W-o + Ja+a+ 6++- o++. a6mmo . an nm + Ja+a+m 10 anma 3
amnm mm a-+a+++.

1.1.3 mm+ +a (Integers)

0, 1, 1, 2, 2, amna mm++a+qa. 5anno 1, 2, 3, amnm a+
mm+ +a ; 1, 2, 3, amnm qn mm+ +a+qa . mm++am 6++qnn Z am+
qnnn.nn[+mn+. +0a, Z = {, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,}. m++ mm a-+a
mm++a+qa. m+o qn mm++a+m 1, 2, 3, amnm mm a-+a+++.
5n0n++ x + 25 = 15, x + 12 = 9 aa +am+am +Ja+a+m 10 anma 3 am nm Z o
aa++o , ++amn+[+a Z o +Ja+an 6nnmaam. m+o.
2x + 5 = 12, 3x + 9 = 4
++m Z o +Ja+an 6nnn+++++. a6mmo. 5annm +Ja+a+m
2
7
an ma
3
5

Z o a+++.

1.1.4 a++mm a-+a (Rational Numbers)

p, q mm++a++aa , q 0 amaa 6++-[
q
p
aa aoao am+nn[a a-+a
a++mm a-+a+qa . a++mm a-+am 6++q++ Q am+qnn0n+a .
q
p
aa
a++mm a--o , q a+ mm a--++aa , p anma q ++ q 1-+ +aJ+ +
0a6n++ 6n+++ +++-1aoo amo ,
q
p
m+ 0+Jaoa o o+ +. .aoao
5+++mn+ am0n+a. a[+++ ++..++,
11
7
,
5
2
amnm 0+Jaoaoa a a++mm
a- +a+qa . a+n++,
15
12
anma
22
24

amnm 0+Jaoao 5oo++ a++mm

a- +a+qa . m+o a 6a++ a++mm a- -a +m+ + + +aa+m 0+J aoa
annn 6nnn++ qa. a[+ ++++. .++,
15
12
=
5
4
anma
22
24

=
11
12
am nm
0+Jaoa++o a+mnm. a6a++ mmaa a++mm a- qa. a[+++++..++,
19 amn mma
1
19
am am+o+a ; 5 q 19, 1 ++ a-+a Z o aam
anma 1 0. am0a 19 m+ a++mm a- qa. am0a m++ mm++a
2
a++mm a-+a+qa. m+o mm++ann a++mm a-+a -[.
a[+ ++++. .++.
5
4
m+ a++mm a- ; m+o , 5+ mm o o.
1.1.5 N, W, Z an ma Q 6++qn n+ao +, , , ++annm +o n-n+a

+..o + anma 6n+++o ++ 5+-[a Q o nma+a n-n+an
6nnn+nn+ a-+.m aa +a+ na+++ 6++-[ n+o+a.
1. x, y ++m a++mm a-+a amo , x + y a a++mm a--+qa.
a[+ ++++. .++, 11 an ma
3
2
5+-[a Q o aam. annm +[+o+m
11 +
3
31
3
) 2 ( 33
3
2
1
11
3
2
=
+
=

+ =

.
5+aa Q o aa+. 5nn-n Q o +..o+++m .an n-n amnn[a.

2. x, y ++m a++mm a-+a amo , x + y = y + x. a[+ ++ ++. .++,
33
34
33
) 22 ( ) 12 (
3
2
11
4
=
+
=

anma
.
33
34
33
) 12 ( ) 22 (
11
4
3
2
=
+
=

am0a

11
4
3
2
3
2
11
4
. 5+ +..o+++m n+a+nmn n-n am a++nn[a.

3. x, y, z ++m a++mm a-+a amo , x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z. a[+ ++ ++. .++,
7
2
,
5
4
,
3
2
++a Q o a am;

+
+

35
) 10 ( ) 28 (
3
2
7
2
5
4
3
2
=

35
38
3
2
=
105
) 114 ( 70 +
=
105
44
,

+
=

+
7
2
15
) 12 ( 10
7
2
5
4
3
2
=

7
2
15
2
=
105
) 30 ( ) 14 ( +
=
.
105
44


.
7
2
5
4
3
2
7
2
5
4
3
2

+ =

5+ Q-o +..o+++m 0+Jnnn n-n am a++nn[a.


4. 0 m+ a++mm a-. 0aoa 0 + x = x + 0 = x. aoo+ a++mm a-
x-+qa 5+ 6n++++a. a[+ ++++..++,

3
11
3
11 0
3
11
1
0
3
11
0 =
+
= + = +
anma
.
3
11
3
0 11
1
0
3
11
0
3
11
=
+
= + = +

a++mm a- 0 a Q o +..om mn6n++a mnn am +0n+a .

5. a6a++ a++mm a-; x + qa x aa a++mm a- -m
x + (x) = (x) + x = 0 am a1a+m ++-o+a. x x m qn oo+ x-m
+..om 0+Ja+m am+ +m0a+a . a[+++ ++..++,
3
11
am+n a++mm a--nq,
3
3
11
amn a++mm a--m 0
3
0
3
11 ) 11 (
3
11
3
11
= =
+
=

am 5++qa+m ++-
mo+n+. am0a
3
11
m+
3
11
m +..om 0+Ja+n+qa.

6. x, y ++m a++mm a-+a amo , x y a++mm a--+qa. x y xy
am0n am+0a+a. a[+++++..++, 5,
3
2
amnm a++mm a-+a. 0aoa ,
(5)

3
2
=

3
2
1
5
=
3 1
2 ) 5 (

=
3
10
, + a++mm a- . 5+ +n n- nm Q o
6n+++o+++m .an n-n am++m0a+a.
7. x, y ++m a++mm a-+a amo , xy = yx qa. a[+ ++++..++, 3,
7
5

amnm a++mm a-+a. .
7
15
) 3 (
7
5
,
7
15
7
5
) 3 ( =

am0a. (3) ). 3 (
7
5
7
5

5++n n-nm Q o 6n+++o+++m n+a+nmn n- n
am an0n+a.

8. x, y, z amnm a++mm a-+a amo x(yz) = (xy)z.
a[+ ++++. .++, 2, 3,
5
7
amnm a++mm a-+a.
,
5
42
5
21
) 2 (
5
7
) 3 ( ) 2 ( =

[(2) (3)]
.
5
42
5
7
) 6 (
5
7
=

am0a [ ] .
5
7
) 3 )( 2 (
5
7
) 3 ( ) 2 (

5++n n-nm Q o 6n+++o+++m 0+Jnnn n-n am an0n+a.

9. a- 1 m+ a++mm a--+qa. 1x = x1 = x amn+ m++ a++mm
x-+ qa -a++qa . a[+ ++++..++, (1) .
3
5
3
5 1
3
5
=

++a +amn n+.

(x) y = [(1)(x)] y = (1)xy = xy; (x) = (1)[(1)x] =[(1)(1)x] = 1x = x.

10. a6a++ n+++aoo++ a++mm a- x-+ qa ,
x
1
m+ a++mm a- qa.
0aoa . . 1
1 1
=

x
x x
x a[+ ++ ++. .++, x =
4
21
, + a++mm a-. 5 q, x 0,
21
4
21
4
4
21
1 1
=

=
x
, + a++mm a- qa. 0aoa
x
. 1
84
84
21
4
4
21 1
= =

x
a-
x
1
Q o x m +o+ a o o+ 6n+++om +a
0+Ja+m am+0n+a.

4
11. x, y, z amnm a++mm a-+a amo. x(y + z) = xy + xz, (x+y) z = xz+ yz qa .
a[+ ++++. .++, 5 ,
2
1
,
3
2
=

= = z y x amo ,
x (y + z) =

5
2
1
3
2
=

2
10 1
3
2
= , 3
2
9
3
2
=

xy + xz = ) 5 (
3
2
2
1
3
2

3
10
3
1
= . 3
3
9
3
10 ) 1 (
= =
+
am0a, x(y+z) = xy + xz.
5aa+0n, (x + y)z = 5
2
1
3
2

= 5
6
) 3 ( 4

+
= ,
6
5
5
6
1
=

xz + yz = 5
2
1
5
3
2

+
2
5
3
10
= .
6
5
6
) 15 ( 20
=
+
+0a, (x+y) z = xz + yz.
5++n n-nm Q o 6n+++o+++m +..om n+ .[n n-n am an 0n+a .

1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 anma 11 a n-n+a Q o aa qnnn.. mnn++a+
++J+ +++ +ao o. am0a. 0a0o 6++m m n- n+a N, W anma Z +am
mnn++qa -a++qa.
m+o n-n 4 m+ 0 a+ ++J+ +aa+. 0 amn a- N o 5o o+++o+o ,
n-n 4, N o -a+oo. a+n++ 0 am n a- W anma Z o aa++o , n-n 4
m+ W, Z +ao -a++qa.
n-n 5, qn a- +a+ ++J++aa+. am0a N an ma W +ao 5+
-a+oo. m+o. 5nn-n Z o 6n++++a.
n-n 9 m+ a- 1-+ ++J+++nn++oa, N, W, Z +ao , 1 mnn amn++oa
N, W, Z +ao n-n 9 -a+++n+.
n-n 10 m+, n+ ++ann a-+am +o+a a-+an 6n++++
aa++oa , N, W, anma Z +ao aa n+++ann mnn++am +o+a+a
anno 5+++++ amn++oa N, W, Z +ao n-n 10 -a+++++.
+a++o , aa 6++o+ +..o + +oa a++m++o+a. Q o x, y
aam6amo, x y = x + (y) qa. 6++o, Q o n+a+n mn n- nm +na
6+++++. a[+++++. .++, 4 5 = 1, 5 4 = 1. am0a. 4 5 5 4.
aq++o aa 6++o+ 6n++ +o qn +oa nm a+a+m a++m+ +o+a .
Q o x, y aam anma y 0 amo , x y =

y
x
1
. 6++o m+ Q o n+a+nmn
n-nm +na 6++ +++. a[+ ++++. .++, 4 5 =
5
4
, 5 4 =
4
5
. am0a 4 5 5 4.
+a++o 6++o m+ Q o 0+Jnnn n-nm +na 6++ +++. a[+ ++++. .++,
3, 11,
3
2
am n Q aoaa a-+a+ ++++.
(3)

3
2 33
) 3 (
3
2
11 = ,
3
40
3
31 9
3
31
) 3 (

=

=
5
[ ]
3
2
) 14 (
3
2
11 ) 3 ( = = .
3
44
3
2 ) 42 (
=


am0a, (3) [ ] .
3
2
11 ) 3 (
3
2
11

5aa+0n,

2
3
1
11
) 3 (
3
2
11 ) 3 (
= (3)

2
33
= ,
11
2
33
2
1
3
2
33
1
3
=

[ ]

3
2
1
11
1
3
3
2
11 ) 3 (
=

3
2
11
1
1
3
=

3
2
11
3
= .
22
9
2
3
11
3
=

am0a, (3) [ ]

3
2
11 ) 3 (
3
2
11 .
+a++o 6++o m+ N o , .an n- nm +na 6++ +++. a6mmo , 5, 7
amn N m mnn+a+ ++++. 5 7 = 2, N m mn no o. 5a a+0n 6++o m+
N o .an n-nm +na 6+++++. a6mmo , 5 7 =
7
5
, N m mnnoo.

N, W, Z anma Q +am n-n+an n+mn[++ + +amm +Ja qnnn..
a-+am 6++q++o aa++ am n+o+a. a[+++++..++, +am 5x 10 = 0 m
+Ja x = 2 qa. 2, N m mn n++o+o , 5x 10 = 0 amn +amm +Ja N o a a+.
5x = 0 amn +amm +Ja x = 0 qa. a- 0 m+ N o 5oo. m+o. a- 0
m+ W o aa+. am0a. 5x = 0 aa +am m+ N o +Ja 6++-o+++aoo.
a+n++, +m +Ja W o aa+. 5x + 10 = 0 amn +am+ +++0a+a. 5+m +Ja
x = 2. a- 2 m+ N anma W 5+-ooa 5oo; m+o. 2 m+ Z o a a+.
am0a, 5x + 10 = 0 amn +amm +Ja N an ma W ao 5o o; m+o , Z o aa+.
3x + 5 = 0 amn an6n++ +am+ +++0a+a . 5+m +Ja x =
3
5
. a-
3
5
m+ N o
5oo,
3
5
m+ W aoa 5oo anma
3
5
m+ Z ooa 5oo. am0a, N, W
anma Z ++ a- 6++q++ao +am 3x + 5 = 0 m+ +Jamn 6nnn+++aoo.
m+o . a-
3
5
m+ Q ao 5+nn++o , +am 3x + 5 = 0 m+ Q ao +Jamn
6nnn+++n+. 5+nna 2 , 3 , , amnm a++mn+ a-+a am
n+++nn++o , x 2 = 0, x 3 = 0, x = 0 0n+mn +amn+[+a Q o +Ja+an
6
6nnn+++++. a++mn+ a-+an nnn n++ 6++aa+nq mmn++ a++mm
a-+a ++a aoao am+a mn+ a-[a +++0a+a.

1.1.6 a++mm a-+a ++a aoa++o qn++o

+aaq++o mn+o a++mm a-+a ++a+ qn+.oo am+a
mn+m n0a+a. a[+++++..++,
32
15
an ma
7
51
+am ++a nm m an n+a
mn0+

32
15
= 0.46875.
7
51
= 7.28571428










0anqnnn.[aa +a aqmn+o nmnnn+ a++ ++a n++
6++a0a+a. 5+nq mm++a aaa+m qn+ +0n+a am n++ ++- 0n+a .
a[+ ++++. .++ 324 3 +tm+a, 2 n+ ++a , 4 mm+a ++mannm +[+o+++
++-o+a. ++a+, 324 = 3 10
2
+ 2 10
1
+ 4 10
0
. 5a a+0n
2003 = 2 10
3
+ 0 10
2
+ 0 10
1
+ 3 10
0
.
am0a 0, 1, 2, , 9 aa a- 5o+++a+ 6++-[ annm m+a+nn++a,
10
0
, 10
1
, 10
2
, +am a.q+a++ moa 6+++ am++m 0n+a. 5+ 0n+o0a
nmm+a1a , 0, 1, 2, , 9 + 6++-[, 10
-1
, 10
-2
, 10
-3
, ++mannm
a.q+a++n 6nno+a. a[+++ ++..++,
6 10
-1
+ 2 10
-2
+ 5 10
-3
=
8
5
125 8
125 5
1000
625
1000
5 20 600
10
5
10
2
10
6
3 2
=

= =
+ +
= + + .
am0a.
8
5
0.625 am+ qnn0n+a. 5 q na a+m ao+n++++o m+o a--+m
6 m m+a+nn
10
6
, 5+-.+a+ a- 2 m m+a+nn
100
2
am n+o+a. naa+
n+m a+mn na a oo+ ++an na a am annJ. ++anna a+m 5.nnn++o
a a 0 m a+nn 0 10
0
= 0 qa. am0a ++annaa m+ ++aaoa++o
8
5

am+a0n++ mman nq+, nm mn nq+ o o+ ++an nq+ 5an nn n++ +
am+.n n+mn[++nn[+n+.
7
0an+n+ qn+.oo , 3.025 m 6n++a
3 10
0
+ 0 10
-1
+ 2 10
-2
+ 5 10
-3
=
1000
5
100
2
10
0
3 + + + = 3 +
1000
25
= 3 +
40
1
=
40
121
.
5n6n+m+,
32
15
amn nmm++ a[+++6++a0a+a. 5+o.

=
32
150
10
1
32
15
=

+
32
22
4
10
1
=

+
32
22
10
1
10
4

=

+
32
220
10
1
10
4
2
=

+ +
32
28
6
10
1
10
4
2
=

+ +
32
28
10
1
10
6
10
4
2 2

=

+ +
32
280
10
1
10
6
10
4
3 2
=

+ + +
32
24
8
10
1
10
6
10
4
3 2

=

+ + +
32
24
10
1
10
8
10
6
10
4
3 3 2
=

+ + +
32
240
10
1
10
8
10
6
10
4
4 3 2

=

+ + + +
32
16
7
10
1
10
8
10
6
10
4
4 3 2
=

+ + + +
32
16
10
1
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
4 4 3 2

=

+ + + +
32
160
10
1
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
5 4 3 2

=
5 4 3 2
10
5
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
+ + + + (6++mn mnmn6nm+n+)
= 0.46875

32
15
= 0.46875.
[++, nma+a 6++mn++ +++0a+a.

+ =
7
2
7
7
51

(A)
=

+
7
20
10
1
7 =

+ +
7
6
2
10
1
7 =

+ +
7
6
10
1
10
2
7
=

+ +
7
60
10
1
10
2
7
2
=

+ + +
7
4
8
10
1
10
2
7
2

=

+ + +
7
4
10
1
10
8
10
2
7
2 2
=

+ + +
7
40
10
1
10
8
10
2
7
3 2

=

+ + + +
7
5
5
10
1
10
8
10
2
7
3 2
=

+ + + +
7
5
10
1
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
3 3 2

=

+ + + +
7
50
10
1
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
4 3 2
=

+ + + + +
7
1
7
10
1
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
4 3 2

=

+ + + + +
7
1
10
1
10
7
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
4 4 3 2
=

+ + + + +
7
10
10
1
10
7
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
5 4 3 2

8
=

+ + + + + +
7
3
1
10
1
10
7
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
5 4 3 2

=

+ + + + + +
7
3
10
1
10
1
10
7
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
5 5 4 3 2

=

+ + + + + +
7
30
10
1
10
1
10
7
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
6 5 4 3 2

=

+ + + + + + +
7
2
4
10
1
10
1
10
7
10
5
10
8
10
2
7
6 5 4 3 2

= 710
0
+

+ + + + +
7
2
10
1
10
4
10
1
10
7
10
5
10
8
10
2
6 6 5 4 3 2

(B)

= 7.285714 +

7
2
10
1
6
.
6++mn++m+ (A)-o+++
a-[a +ana++n+.

32
15
m ++a aoaa am+a 0n++ + a aq+ +o mn mn mn 6nma++
++-o+a (a+ 0 a++mnno++o). am0a
32
15
mn mn6nma ++a a+an
6nnmaa+. m+o
7
51
m ++aaoa+ qn+ +oo. +aaq++o mn a++o+oa
mnmn6nnaoo (a+ 0 am a++ +o+oa aa+). 0+ 0++++o (B)
+..++o 6nnnn[a a+ma (A) +..++oaa a+ma m0n am n+. am0a.
+. .a (A), +. .a (B) 5annn+.0+ a++mn 5o+ ++a 2, 8, 5, 7, 1, 4 a++
a+n+ao ++an+ ++an +.+qa. am0a
7
51
m ++aaoa+ qn++o mnmn6nn+
anma aa 6++.+ mn (Non-terminating and Recurring) am0n+a. 5+m
7
7
51
= .285714285714285714 = 285714 . 7 ,
am am+0a+a. 5 q 285714 m a+ 5.nn.[a a 0++[ (bar).
7
51
m +a aq
mn+o 285714 ++an+ ++an 0+ a+++o 5.a6nma++ qn+ qa.
32
15
+++m mnmn6nma ++a a+a+m 0.46875 mnmn6nn++ aa 6++.+++aa
+++o+a. a6mmo ,
0.46875 =
5 4 3 2
10
5
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
+ + + +
= .....
10
0
10
0
10
5
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
7 6 5 4 3 2
+ + + + + + + = 0 46875 . 0 .
0aoa 0+ 0.46875 +q,
9
0.46875 =
5 4 3 2
10
5
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
+ + + +
= ( ) 1 4
10
1
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
5 4 3 2
+ + + + +
=

+ + + + +
5 5 4 3 2
10
1
10
4
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4

= ( ) 10
10
1
10
4
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
6 5 4 3 2
+ + + + +
= ( ) 1 9
10
1
10
4
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
6 5 4 3 2
+ + + + + +
=

+ + + + + +
6 6 5 4 3 2
10
1
10
9
10
4
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4

= ( ) 10
10
1
10
9
10
4
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
7 6 5 4 3 2
+ + + + + +
= ( ) 1 9
10
1
10
9
10
4
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
7 6 5 4 3 2
+ + + + + + +
=

+ + + + + + +
7 7 6 5 4 3 2
10
1
10
9
10
9
10
4
10
7
10
8
10
6
10
4
= . 9 46874 . 0

+0a, a6a++ a++mm a--a mnmn6nma oo+ mnmn6nn++ aa
6++.+ mn+o ++a a+a++ a+n+. +a aqmn+o 6nnnn[a a++a
qn+oo+ mm++a++aa. aq a-+a a. qna++aa 5+n n++o ++m ,
a++mm a-+a 5++++ +nnnn n- nmn 6nnmaam. m+++ +o+o
6nnnn.. a+a+m+ 0a6n++ +o+o a+a++ amno1a a+a++ ++-o+a.
am0a. +ao aa 5o+++a ++anaa a+ +an++mnm. 5+m am+o
-a++ am +++0a+a. mnmn6nma oo+ mnmn 6nn++ 6++.J a+ ++a
a+a+a a+m+ qn++mnm? 5++ am+a a[+++++.[+a +oa +++0a+a.

(i) ++a a+a 0.45 + ++++.
0.45 =
20
9
100
45
100
5 40
10
5
10
4
2
= =
+
= + .
(ii) ++a a+a 45 . 0 + ++++.
x = 45 . 0 = 0.454545 am+. am0a 100x = 45.454545
100 x x = (45.4545) (0.4545) oo+ 99x = 45 oo+ x =
11
5
99
45
= .
(iii) ++a a+a 9 34 . 0 + ++++.
x = 9 34 . 0 = 0.349999 am+. +0a 100x = 34.9999
1000x = 349.9999
1000x 100x = (349.9999) (34.9999)
900x = 315 oo+ x = .
20
7
100
35
900
315
= =
10
9 34 . 0 =
20
7
.
9 34 . 0 =
20
7
20
7
=

.
am0a, a6a++ mnmn6nma oo+ mnmn6nn++ aa6++.J a+ ++a a+a, +
a++mm a--m+ qn+qa. ++a+, + mn mn 6nma o o+ mn mn 6nn++
a a6++.J a+ ++a a+a mmam +a mm amn aoa+ +o a+ + 5+oa.

1.1.7 a++mn+ a-+a

mnmn6nn++ m+o 6++.J a+++nn ++a a+a+a+ +++0a+a.
a[+ ++++. .++, 0.101001000100001000001 . 5aa+ao 0 an ma 1 +0a aam.
0aoa 1 +a m+ 1 n+ ++a, 2 n++++a , 3 n+ ++ +a , 4 n+ ++ +a ,
++mann+o n+++nn.[aa+ n+. 5+o ++an+ ++a n a+a 6++.J a+
[+q+a 5oo. am0a. 5++++ ++a a+a+a a++mm a-+a+ qn++++.
++++ ++a a+a+a a++mn+ a- +a+ qn+qa am+0n+a. a++mm
anma a++mn+ a-+a0+ 6a+6+-+a am n+ . + ++a a+a+m+
nma+amanma a0+a + aoao a. [0a 5++ qa.
(i) mnmn6nma aoao 5++qa.
(ii) mnmn6nn++ m+o ++a n+ ++an a+a 6++.J a+ ++a a+a.
(iii) mnmn6nn++ an ma ++an+ ++an a+++ 6++.J a+ ++a a+a.
+0a a 6a++ ++a a+aa + 6a+ a- -+qa . a 6a++ 6a+ a- -n qa ++a
a+a - [ am ++a +no+a . + 6a+ 6+- x-m ++a a+ao 10
n
m q-++ao
qn+ +n. +a m n+a+ a+ mm a- + 5++ ++o . +m a+ 6a+ a-
am0n+a. 5aa+0n, 6a+ 6+- x m+ a++++0a+ oo+ n+ ++a++0a+
5oo+++nnm + qn 6a+6+- amnn[a. a[+++++..++,
7.00252525 = ....
10
5
10
2
10
5
10
2
10
0
10
0
7
6 5 4 3 2
+ + + + + + +
amn+ a+ 6a+6+-. m+o ,
3.0202202220 =

+ + + + + + + ...
10
0
10
2
10
2
10
0
10
2
10
0
3
6 5 4 3 2

qn 6a+ 6+--+qa.

6a+6+-+am 6++q++ R am+qnn0n+a. +0a R m+ a++mm anma
a++mn+ a-+am 6++qnn+qa. 5+o a-+a , mm a- +a , mm++a , a++mm
anma a++mn+ a-+a m++a 6a+6+-+a+qa. a++6a++ a++mm
a--a a++mn+ a--++++. 5+n0n+o0a. a++6a++ a++mn+ a--a
a++mm a- +++. R o aa++a+m +..o , +a++o , 6n+++o anma aq++o
a++a ++aa -a++qa. qnnn++, R o aa n+a+nm anma n+.[n
n-n+a+am. x, y an ma z a0+a +mm 6a+6+-++q.

(i) x + y = y + x, xy = y x; (ii) x(y + z) = xy + xz; (iii) (x + y)z = xz + yz,

11
0an +n1aa n-n+ao+++ nma+amann+ ++-o+a.
(i) x (y z)=x [y + ( z)]=xy + x( z) = xy xz.
(ii) (x + y)
2
= (x + y)(x + y) = (x + y) z, 5 q z = x + y amn n+++.
= xz + yz = x (x + y) + y (x + y)
= xx + xy + yx +yy
= x
2
+ xy + xy + y
2
= x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
.
(iii) (x y)
2
= (x y)(x y) = (x y) z, 5 q z = x y amn n+++.
= xz yz = x (x y) y (x y)
= xx xy (yx yy)
= x
2
xy xy + y
2
= x
2
2xy + y
2
.
(iv) (x + y) (x y) = (x + y) z 5 q z = x y amn n+++.
= xz + yz = x (x y) + y (x y)
= xx xy + yx yy
= x
2
y
2
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: 75 . 0 o qn++nn[a a++mm a--m+ ++-+.
+ Ja: x = 75 . 0 am+. x = 0.757575
100x = 75.757575
100x x = (75.757575) (0.757575) = 75.0000
99x = 75 oo+ x = .
33
25
99
75
=

a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: 0 . 1 = 9 . 0 amn+ ++++nn[++aa .
+ Ja: 5 q 0 . 1 = 1 = ) 10 (
10
1
= ) 1 9 (
10
1
+ =

+
10
1
10
9
= ( ) 10
100
1
10
9
+ = ( ) 1 9
100
1
10
9
+ +
=

+ +
100
1
100
9
10
9
= ( ) 10
1000
1
100
9
10
9
+ + = ( ) 1 9
1000
1
100
9
10
9
+ + +
=

+ + +
1000
1
1000
9
100
9
10
9
.
0a0o a a mn++m+ moamn 6+mm6++-0.+++qa. +0a,
0 . 1 = 0.9999 oo+ 0 . 1 = . 9 . 0

a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: 52 . 2 + 2 5 . 2 mmam +a mm aoao ++-+.
+ Ja: x = 52 . 2 am+. x = 2.525252.
100x = 252.5252
100x x = 250.000 oo+ 99x = 250 oo+ x = .
99
250

y = 2 5 . 2 am+. y = 2.52222..
10y = 25.2222
12
100y = 252.2222
100y 10y = 227.0000 o o+ 90y = 227 o o+ y = .
90
227

am0a. 52 . 2 + 2 5 . 2 =
99
250
+
90
227
=
990
2497 2500 +
=
990
4997
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: 0.101001000100001 an ma 0.010110111011110++ a++mn+
a-+a+ +.[+. a. + a++mm a--++ 5++qa+m+o , +m mmam
+a mm aoao ++-+.
+ Ja: x = 0.1010010001 anma y = 0.0101101110am+.
x + y = 0.1010010001 + 0.0101101110= 0.111111 = 0. 1 .
5 q x + y m ++aa+a mnmn6nn++ m+o ++an+ ++an a+a 6++.J a+++
++++ ++. am0a, x + y + a++mm a-. a = 0.11111am+. nmn 10a = 1.1111
10a a = 1.1111 0.1111 = 1.0000. oo+ 9a = 1 oo+ a =
9
1
. x + y =
9
1
.
qnn n. 0an+-. a[+++++.oo+++, 5+ a++mn+ a- +am +[+o +
a++mn+ a--++ 5+++ 0a-o+ a++aoo. 5+n 0n+o0a, 5+ a++mn+
a-+am 6n+++nnoa + a++mn+ a--++ 5+++0a-o+ a++aoo.
( 2 + a++mn+ a-. m+o 2 2 = 2, + a++mm a- ).

2 amn a++mn+ a--+ +++0a+a. 2 -am ++a a+a ++-a
mn+ +ma 6++a0a+a.
















am0a 2 = 1.414213562 . ++ana+. 2 m ++aa+a mnmn6nn+aoa , ++a n+
++an a+a 6++.J a+ 5oo+aoa a a+. am0a 2 + a++mn+ a--+qa.
5aa+0n, 3 , 5 , 7 , a++mn+ a-+a am +mao+a.

13
+-+++o an ma e aa +m+ +nnna++ 5+ a++mn+ a- +a
5.a6nm+mnm. a++6a++ a..++oa +m +nnaa an ma a. .a
++annn+.0+ aa a++a + a+no qa. 5aa+no+ +0+++
am+++m o qnn0n+a. m ++a a+a 3.1415926 amn++qa. 5+
mnmn6nn++, ++an+ ++an a+++ 6++.+++ a a+.
7
22
aa a++mm
a--m m 0+++++ a+nn+++ +-++.oo n+mn[++1a0a+a. 5++++ +-+
0a+ 5++a+m aa.+++ no ++++a +a+++1aa+J. 1973 a
-[ a++o , +++m ++a a+ao 1,000,000 5o+++a 5.a6nm+n a++o
++-nn.[aa+. no 0++o 5.+ +++ +++.m m a+a+ ++-n+ amn+
+n0n++ +.6nnm a++n +oma+m m+o a+++q n-++qa. [+++++.
2
2
3

,
3
3
4

,
4
4
5

,
5
5
6

, amn mn6+-+am a+nn+a+ +-++[++o

5a+m++a + qnnn.. 6a+6+--nq a+ a+ +++a+o aa+
n+o+a. ++ a--m e am+ qnn 0n+a . e m ++aa+a e = 2.7182818284.
5+aa mnmn6nn++ anma ++an+ ++an a+++ 6++.+++ aa+. 5++
a++mn+ a- e n nnn 0aoa +J aqnn+ao ++a no+ +n+o+a.

1.1.8 R-o a++ na

+o 6n++.+a a+am n-n++0+nn a++ n[++a0n++, a
a++nn[++nn..a amnn[+mnm. a[+++++..++, a+-aJ+a a+aJ
++++n0+nn, a++ qn+ + +++ +o+++ a+ ++n.+ ++a aa
onn.+o +n++ 6++++o, a a+-aJ+a a+++o +n n++++ +m+m 0n+a . x
anma y 6a+6+-+a am+. y x m+ a+ a- amo , x m+ y- a.+
qn+ + a- oo+ y m+ x a.n 6n++ a- amnn[a. x m+ y a.+
qna+m+ amn++ qn++ x < y amn qn+..1a, y m+ x a.n 6n+++
amn++ qn++ y > x amn qn+..1a n+mn[++0a+a. +0a, x < y anma y > x
amnm y x + a+ a- amn 0+ 6n++a ++am. y x qn a- amo ,
(y x) = x y a+++qa. am0a. y < x oo+ x > y. a[+++ ++..++, 19 an ma 17
am n 5+ a- +a a[+ ++ 6++a 0a+a . 19 17 = 2 m+ a+ amn++o , 17 < 19
o o+ 19 > 17 am+ +.++n+. [+ +, 19 anma 17 +a+ +++0a+a.
++ana+.
(19) (17) = 19 + 17 = 2, + qn a-. am0a, 19 < 17 oo+ 17 > 19.

x an ma y amnm 6a+6+-+a am+. nma+a +mno a0+a mm a.[0a
-a. (i) x y + qn a- ; ++a+, x < y (ii) x y + a+ a- ; ++a+, x > y
(iii) x y = 0; ++a+, x = y. x < y oo+ x = y am n+ x m+ y a.+ +n+
o o+ +a a- am 0n+a . 5+m x y am am+0a+a . 5+. x m+ y a.
14
a++oo amm qnnn+ n++ 6++a+. 5aa+0n, x > y oo+ x = y amo ,
x m+ y a.n 6n++ oo+ +a a- am0n+a. 5+m x y am am+0a+a.
5+. x m+ y a. qn+ ++o o am m qnn n+ n+ + 6++a +. x m+ a+
a- amo. x > 0 qa . x m+ qn oo amo. x 0 qa. x qn a- amo,
x < 0 qa . x m+ a+ a- oo amo. x 0 qa . +0a aaa+
6a+6+-+a x anma y ++q, nma+a +mno mm a.[0a -a++qa.
x < y, x = y, x > y.
5+m 6a+6+-++++m mn n+n n (trichotomy) a+ am0n+a. x, y an ma z amnm
x < y an ma y < z, aa+m aa a0+a +mm 6a+6+-+a amo , y x anma
z y +a a+ a-+a+qa. am0a, (y x) + (z y) a+ qa. ++a+, z x a+
qa. am0a. x < z. x < y anma y < z amo , x < z -a++qa. 5nn-nm
a+nmn n-n am 0n+a . x < y an ma y < z amn+ x < y < z am+ qnn0n+a. 5q y
m+ x an ma z ++q 5.+ 6+++o++ aa+ am0n+a.
6a+ 6+- x an ma 0 + ++++. nma+na+ao mm a.[0a
-a++qa.

x < 0, x = 0, x > 0.

x < 0 amo , x
2
= x x = qn a- qn a- = a+ a-.
x = 0 amo , x
2
= x x = 0 0 = 0.
x > 0 amo , x
2
= x x = a+ a- a+ a- = a+ a-.
am0a a++6a++ 6a+6+- x-+ qa x
2
0. qnnn++ n+++aoo+ aa6a++
6a+6+- x (> 0 oo+ < 0)-+ qa x
2
> 0. a0+6a++ 6a+6+- x + ++++. x
0 amn6n+m+. x m a.[a+nn x amma; x < 0 amn6n+m+. x m a.[a+nn x am ma
a++m++nn[+n+. x m a.[a+nnm |x| am n qn+.om+o qnn0n+a. am0a.
|x| = x, x 0 amn6n+m+; |x| = x, x < 0 amn6n+m+. ++ana+.
|x| 0, |x| = |x| an ma |x|
2
= x
2
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: an ma
7
22
5ann a++nn[++.
+ Ja: = 3.141528,
7
22
= 142857 . 3 = 3.142857142857

7
22
= 3.142857 3.141528 = 0.0013

7
22
m+ a+ a- .
<
7
22
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: a++mm a-+a 1.201 an ma 1.202 5an nn q 5.+o a0+a
++mq a- +a 5.+6+++o+++ 0+J++aa.
15
+ Ja: 5 q 1.202 1.201 = 0.001 > 0 am0a 1.201 < 1.202. 1.2011, 1.2012, 1.2013, 1.2014
++ a- +a+ ++++. 5a+a mn mn 6nma ++a a+a aoaoa a++o,
m++a a++mm a-+a+qa.
1.2011 1.201 = 0.0001 > 0. am0a 1.201 < 1.2011.
1.2012 1.2011 = 0.0001 > 0, amn++o 1.2011 < 1.2012.
1.2013 1.2012 = 0.0001 > 0, amn++o 1.2012 < 1.2013.
1.2014 1.2013 = 0.0001 > 0, amn++o 1.2013 < 1.2014.
1.202 1.2014 = 0.0006 > 0, am n++o 1.2014 < 1.202.
1.201 < 1.2011 < 1.2012 < 1.2013 < 1.2014 < 1.202.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: 1.201 anma 1.202 +++.0+ ++mq a++mn+ a-+a
5.+6+++o+++ 0+J++aa.
+ Ja: 1.202 1.201 = 0.001 > 0. am0a. 1.201 < 1.202.
a = 1.201101001000100001,
b = 1.201202002000200002,
c = 1.201303003000300003,
d = 1.201404004000400004,
aa ++m q a-+a+ ++++. 5a++aa mnmn6nn++, ++an+ ++an a+a
6++.J a+++ +++++ 6aa0an+m ++a a+a+a+ 6++-[a a++o. 6aa0an+m
a++mn+ a-+a+qa . 0aoa ,
a 1.201 = 1.2011010010001 1.2010000000000 = 0.0001010010001 > 0,
b a =1.2012020020002 1.2011010010001 = 0.0001010010001 > 0,
c b =1.2013030030003 1.2012020020002 = 0.0001010010001 > 0,
d c=1.2014040040004 1.2013030030003.= 0.0001010010001 > 0,
1.202 d =1.202000000000 1.2014040040004 = 0.0005959959995 > 0.
1.201 < a < b < c < d < 1.202.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: 001 . 2 an ma 003 . 2 a++mn+ a-+++.0+ a0+a 5+
a++mm a-+a 5.+6+++o+++ 0+J++aa.
+Ja:












001 . 2 = 1.41456 anma 003 . 2 = 1.41527
003 . 2 001 . 2 = 0.0007 (0+++++a++) > 0.
16
001 . 2 < 003 . 2 .
1.41461 an ma 1.41462 ++ a-+a+ ++++. mnmn6nma ++a a+a+
6++-[aa++o , 5a++-[a a++mm a-+a+qa. 0aoa
1.41461 001 . 2 = 1.414610000 1.41456= 0.00004 > 0
001 . 2 < 1.41461.
1.41462 1.41461 = 0.00001 > 0
1.41461 < 1.41462.
003 . 2 1.41462 = 1.41527 1.41462 = 0.0006> 0
1.41462 < 003 . 2 .
001 . 2 < 1.41461 < 1.41462 < . 003 . 2
0an+n1a a a[+++++.[++ao+++, a, b aa aaa+ 6aa0am
6a+6+-+a a < b am 5+nnm , r amn a++mm a--m a < r < b aa+m
++-o+a . a anma b mm+6++mm a+ +++a+o 5+nna , 0a0o +n1a a
n-n -a. 5nn-nm R o Q am .J+ +n n- n am +0n+a . +
0+J+0++.oo a++ 5+ 6aa0am naa+++.0+ 0a6n++ +m++n naa
5++qa amn -a1.m R m .J+ +n n-nm nn.o+a. 5+ +++ nn[.
6a+6+-+a 0+J+0++[ mnm+o qn+ + aa aq++n+.

m+ + a++mm a- +a 6a+ 6+- +0a am n+ +mao 6++a +.
m+o. a++mm oo++ 6a+6+-+a -[ amn+ n0a+a.
a[+ ++++. .++, 2 , 3 , , ++m 6a+6+-+a ; m+o a++mm a- +a
oo. 5n0n++, +am +a x 2 = 0, x 3 = 0, x = 0, R o + Jan 6nn ma am.
m+o. x
2
+1 = 0 am n +amn q R o +Ja 5oo. a6mmo. x
2
= 1 am a++6a++
6a+6+- x 1a 6nn 5+o++. 5++++ +am n+[+a +a+ aqn no +++n
0n+a+oo.


n+n + 1.1

1. nma+amannnq ++a a+am+ ++-+.
(i)
64
21
(ii)
6
11
(iii)
20
7
(iv)
24
11


2. nma+a a++mm a-+a mmam +a mm aoao ++-+:
(i) 0.34 9 (ii) 0. 7 (iii) 0.125 (iv) 0.521 (v) 8. 9

3. ++++ oo+ +an+ am+ +m+.
(i)
7
2
amn+ + mm a- .
(ii) 11 amn+ + mm.
17
(iii)
3
1
amn+ + a++mm a-.
(iv) 6 1 . 0 amn+ + a++mm a-.
(v) a6a++ ++a a+aa + 6a+6+- qa.
(vi) a6a++ 6a+6+--a + a++mm a- qa.
(vii) 0.1212212221 + a++mm a-.

1.2 6a+ 6+- 0+J+ 0++[

mm aqnn+ao 6a+6+- 0+J+0++.om n0a+a. 6a+6+-+a aaa+m
0+J+0++.om naa+a+++ qn++nn[+mnm amn+ a-[a n++ 6++a0a+a.
+ 0+J+0++.oo a0+a + naa++ ++++. 5n naa+ O amn 6n++[0a+a.
a- 0 5nnaa qnnn++++ 6++a0a+a. naa O-+q aonnna++ a- 1+
qn+ qa naa+++ 0+J+0++. oo A naa++ ++++. 0+J+0++.[++-[ OA m+
+oq +am.++ am+. na a A-+n 6n+++ + +aa OA 5++ qa am n+
+mao 6++a+. naa A, a- 1 + qn+ +n+ am m 6++- . nm n A +o++m
naa++qa; OAm +aa 1 o++qa . OA aa0++o+++ 6++-[ a6a++
6a+6+--m1a +0++.oo + naa++++ qn++o+a. 5++++
0+J+0++. . 6a+6+- 0+J+0++[ o o+ 6a++0++[ (Real Number Line) am
an0n+a.

6a++0++.oo aaa+m a+ mm++a naa+a+++ qn++nn[+mnm
amn+ a-[a +ma 6++a0a+a. O anma A mn0+ a- +a 0 anma 1 +a+
qn+ +m nm. O+q aonn++++o 2 oq+ 6++oaoaa naa (OA-am
+a++n 0n+o 2 a. q), 3 oq+ 6++oao aa naa, , 5a mn0+
a-+a 2, 3, ++ann+ qn+qa ( n.a 1.1 n n+J++aa).


n.a 1.1






5aa+0n, O-+ q 5.n nna++ 1, 2, 3, a-+a+ qn+qa naa+a mn0+
1 oq, 2 oq+a , 3 oq+a , 6++oa+ao qn++o+a.

a++mm a-+a 6a++0++.oo qn+qa mn+ +n 0n++
6++++6++a0a+a. a[+++++. on+++, a++mm a-
3
2
+ +++0a+a . a++mm
a-
3
2
m nq++oaa (Denominator of
3
2
) 3-+ qn+qa naa P am+. OP-+q
18
6+q++++ PQ ama 0++.om
3
2
m 6++q+ 2 (numerator of
3
2
) oq +a+ +o
a++. OQ-a+ 0+J++. PQ-+q 5-+++ A-aa+ 6+ooa 0++ +0++.om
a++. 5+0++[ OQ R amn naa+o
+++++n+ am+. AR =
3
2
oq+a
qa. a6mmo. OAR an ma OPQ
amnm ao6a+++ m+0++-+a. am0a,
o+ o o+ o
1
3 2
= =
AR OA
OP
AR
PQ
AR =
3
2
.
O-a a+a++aa> AR-+q +aa+m
+a++ +a++aa 6++-[ + a..a
a++. 5aa..a 6a++0++.. O-+q
aonnn++o + na a+o 6a. [+mn+.
n.a 1.2
5nnaa++m+ a++mm a-
3
2
+ qn+ +mn+ (n.a 1.2 n n++ + +aa ). 0+
a. .a O-+q 5.nnna++ 6a++0++.. 6a.[a naap++m+
3
2
aa a++mm
a--m+ qn++m n+. 50+ mn+o . a++6a++ a++mm a--m1a
6a++0++. oo qn+ +o+a. 6a++0++.oo P, Q amnm 6aa0am, +++an
naa+a amo annn+.+o , P an ma Q +a+ +a+ 0a6n++ naa+m1a
++-o+a. ++a+ 6a++0++.oo a++a+ naa++qa 5.0+1a 5.6aa
5oo amn+ n+m0n+a. am0a. 6a++0++[ 6++.J++n naa+a+o
(continuum of points) m+. a 6a++ a++mm a- -n qa 6a+ + 0++. oo +
+m++ na a -[ amn+ 5+a++o n+J+0++a. m+o 6a++0++.ooaa
m++nnaa+a a++mm a-+a a. [0a qn+qa+ am am+ amnn0a+a.
5+n q++ a. 5oo amn+++m. a[+++ ++..++, 2 am n a++mn+
a--+ +++0a+a.

n.a 1.3







n++a OA = 1 am+ 6++-[ +++a OABC a++. n++++a 0+nnn no.
OB
2
= OA
2
+ AB
2
= 1+1 = 2.
am0a OB = . 2 O-a a+a++aa OB +a++aa 6++-[ + a. .a a++
(n.a 1.3 n n+J++aa). 5aa..a , 6a+ 6+- 0++.om O + q 5.n nna na a
Q aoa , O-+q aonnna naa P-+oa ++++qa. OP = OB = 2 , OQ = OB = 2
amn++o naa+a P, Q a++mm a-+a+ qn++++. +0a naa P, 2 aa
a++mn+ a--m1a , naa Q, 2 aa a++mn+ a--m1a qn+qa.
19

a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: 3 , , 5 3 , 5 ++ a++mn+ a- +a 6a+ 6+- 0++.oo
qn++aa.
+ Ja: 6a+6+- 2 + q++ na a P-
6a++0++. oo qn++aa . 3 an ma 3
nma+a+m ++-o+a.
n.a 1.4
OP= 2 an ma PD = 1 aa+m 6+aa+a
OPDC (n.a 1.4 n n+J+ +aa ) a++.
n++++a 0+nnnno,
OD
2
= OP
2
+ PD
2
= ( 2 )
2
+ 1
2
= 3.
am0a OD = 3 . O-a a+a++aa, OD +a++aa 6++-[ + a..a a++.
5aa..a 6a++0++. om Q an ma Q +ao +++++.[a. n.+ +o+++ ++ana+.
OQ = OQ = OD = 3 . Q an ma Q aa; naa+a O-+q ao anma 5.nnn+ao
mn0+ aa++o , naa Q m+ 3 1a. naa Q m+ 3 1a
qn+ +m nm.
n.a 1.5
5 , 5 5an nn q- .+m
naa+a+ qn++ 0an+n+
++++ +++a0a+a. 6a+6+-
0++.om a+ O ao++ + 2 oq+a
6++oao O anq aonn++++o R
amn naa++ qn+ +aa
(an+m0a a++mm a-++q
-.+m naa+a 6a+6+-
0++.oo aaa+m ++-n+ amn++
+-o+++m0n+a). 6+aa+a ORFC
+aa OR = 2, +oa RF = 1 amna+m a++ ( n.a 1.5 n n+J++aa ).
n++++a 0+nnnno,

OF
2
= OR
2
+ RF
2
= 2
2
+ 1
2
= 4 + 1 = 5.

am0a. OF = 5 . O a+a+aa, OF +a++aa 6++-[ + a..a a++.
aa..a 6a+6+- 0++.om O anq aonn++++o S amn naa+oa , O an q
5.nn++++o S amn naa+oa 6a.[+mn+. 5 q OS = OS = OF = 5 am n++o ,
S m+ 5 1a. S m+ 5 1a qn++mnm.

0an++-a +++ao+++, a++6a++ 6a+6+--a , 6a+6+- 0++.om a+
+m++ + naa1.m 6n++++n n[+n+ am n+m0n+a. am+o+++. 6a+6+-
0++.om a+aa a6a++ naa1a +m++ + 6a+6+--m+ qn+qa amaa
n+m0n+a. O anq aonn++++o aa naa+a a+ 6a+6+-+a1a. O
anq 5.nn++++oaa naa+a qn 6a+6+-+a1a qn++mnm.
20
6a+6+-+a a an ma b 5an nn++m 6a+6+- 0++.om naa+a mn0+ P
anma Q am +. a < b amo P m+ Q m 5.nn++a++ 5+nn+ n++ 6++aaaa.
++a+. Q a+m+ P +q aonn++++o a++ naa am n++ 6++aaaa
(n.a 1.6 n n+J++aa). 0aoa. a < x < b amna+maa x am n 6a+ 6+- -n q
6a+6+-

n.a 1.6





0++.om a+ 6n+++ +nn.. na a R amo. R m+ P + qa Q +qa 5.nn..
naa+++ 5+nn+ n+m0n+a.

1.2.1 a++mn+ a- +ao +-+ +.o

2 , 3 , 5 , 0n+mn a++mn+ a-+a aaa+m +a++m amn+ +ma
+J0a+a. ++a x 2 = 0 amn +am n+.om+ +Ja ++- aa0a+6amo. +a+q
x = 2 +Ja+++ +.+++. 5+n0n+o0a x
n
= r amn +amn+.onq 6a+ a+nn x
+Ja++n 6nn aa+0n+a am+. 5 q r + a++mm a-. n + a+ mma+qa.
a+ 1: r < 0, n = 2, 4, 6, amo . x
n
= r amna+m + a+ 6a+6+- x ++-
mo+++. a6mmo . + 6a+ 6+- x n q. x
2
= x x > 0, x
4
= x
2
x
2
> 0, , x
n
> 0;
m+o r < 0 .
a+ 2: r > 0, n = 2, 4, 6, amo. x
n
= r amna+m + a+ 6a+6+- x ++-
5+oa. a[+++++..++. x
4
= 625 + q x = 5 ++-o+a.
a+ 3: r > 0, n = 1, 3, 5, amo. x
n
= r amna+m + a+ 6a+6+- x ++-
mo1a. a[+++++..++. x
3
= 64 + q x = 4 ++-o+a.
a+ 4: r < 0, n = 1, 3, 5, amo. x
n
= r amna+m + a+ 6a+6+- x ++-
mo+++. a6mmo. + a+ 6a+6+- x + q x > 0, x
2
= x x > 0, x
3
= x
2
x > 0,
x
n
> 0; m+o r < 0.
0an++-a +++ao+++. ++a na+. n + a+ mm (n = 1, 2, 3, )
anma r + a+ a++mm a- amo . x
n
= r amna+m + a+ 6a+6+- x
++- 5+oa. 5++o+o 6nnnn[a a+ 6a+6+- x
n
r am am++0n+a ;
++a+. x
n
= r x =
n
r ; 0aoa x r m n a+ +oa am +0n+a . 5 q
n
r +
a++mm a--++0a+ oo+ a++mn+ a--++0a+ 5++qa. a[+++++..++.
, 4 64
3
= . 2 4
4
= qnnn++. ++a +amn n+.
21
a+ 1: r m+
q
p
am n + a+ a++mm a- -m n a+ +oa++
5+nnm , ++a+.
n
q
p
r

= amo.
n
r =
q
p
+ a++mm a--+qa.
a+ 2: r m+ a++6a++ a+ a++mm a--m n a+ [++++
5oo6+mo.
n
r + a++mm a--++ 5+++ mo+++; a6mmo.
n
r +
a++mm a-
q
p
amo .
n
q
p
r

= . + a++mm a-6-m m+-n+.++

+.++n+. am0a. + a+ a++mm a- r m+ 0am a++ + a++mm
a--m n a+ [++++ 5+++aoo6+mo.
n
r m+ + a++mm a--++
5+++++; ++a+.
n
r + a++mn+ a- qa.
r + a+ a++mm a- -++ 5++ +.
n
r amn a+ 6a+6+-. +
a++mn+ a--++ 5+nnm.
n
r + m+. 6.- (surd) oo+ + a++mn+
+oa am +0n+a .

qnn n: + m+.6.- amn+ qnnn.. aoao a++ a++mn+ a--+qa. r
m+ a++6a++ a++mm a--m n a+ [+ +++ 5o o am n0n++.
n
r +
a++mn+ +oa+qa. 5q n am n+ a++mn+ +oa
n
r m qn6+- am+0n+a.
n
am n qn++m+ +o+ qn (Radical) am+0n+a. qn6+- n = 2 amo ,
2
r r m
aJ+ ++oa am na+ + +m+ +++ +a++ r am0n am++m0n+a. n = 3 amo ,
3
r r m +m +oa am+0n+a.

m+.6.-+a 6a+6+-+a amn++o. anm.m 5+n+-+ 6++o+a +, ,
, 5ann+ 6++on[++o+a . 5+ a++mn+ +o+a+ +.. + a++mn+
a- +.nnm. ++ a++mn+ a--m1a + m+.6.- am0n
a++m0n+a. 5aa+0n. + m+.6.--m. + a++mm a--m+o 6n+++
+ a++mn+ a- +.nnm. ++ a++mn+ a--m1a. + m+.6.-
am0n+a. a[+ ++++. .++.
3
2 .
5
7 . 2 amnm m+.6.-+a. 2 3 , 7 2
5 3
+
amnm a++mn+ a- +a. 5an n1a ++a m+.6.- +a amna++m0n+a .

a an ma b amnm 5+ 6aa0an+m a++mm a-+a am+. a , b
5+-[0a a++mn+ +o+a (aJ++ +o+a) am+. a + b , a b , a + b ,
a b ++a a++mn+ +o+a+qa. 5q a b m+ a + b m
+-++ a++mn+ +oa am+0n+a. 5aa+0n. a + b m+ a b m +-++
+oa , a + b m+ a b m +-++ +oa. a b m+ a + b m
+-++ +oa am n+m0n+a.
22
a++mn+ +o++1a. +m +-++ a++mn+ +o++1a 6n++++
+.nn+ + a++mm a--+qa. a[+ ++++. .++.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 3 4 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 3 2
2
2
= = + = + anma
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . 2 5 3 5 15 15 3 5 3 5 3
2 2
= = + = +

a++mn+ +o+a+ +++a a+nq nm a+a a++an n+mn[++0a+a .

a, b amnm a+ a++mm a-+a ; m, n amnm a+ mm++a amo.
(i) ( ) . a a
n
n
=
(ii) ( ) ( ) .
n n n
ab b a =
(iii) .
n
n
n
b
a
b
a
=
(iv) p
n
r + q
n
r = ( p + q)
n
r , 5 q p an ma q 5+-[0a 6a+6+-+a.
(v)
mn n m
a a . =
(vi) =
n
a .
n m m
a
(vii) a < b amo ,
n n
b a < qa.

++a +amn n+. a++a (ii), (iii) anma (iv) o , a++mn+ +o +a m+ +a
+aa+m qn6+- 6++-.a++qa. am0a. 6aa0am qn6+-+a 6++-.
a++mn+ +o+a ++nn.[ ann+ 6++-[ ++mq onn.+ 6++o+a
++a++ 0a-[6amo. ++ a++mn+ +o+a +a qn6+- .+
+o+a++, a+ (vi) + 6++-[ a+nn+ nnq 6++on. 0a-[a. a+ (vi) m+
a+ (i), a+ (v) 5an nm 5-n0n++qa amn+ nma+a+m n+o+a :
a+ (i) m no. a =
m m
a .
n m m n
a a = .
a+ (vii) + 6++-[. +aa+m qn6+- .+ a++mn+ +o +a nn.o+a.
qnn n:
n
a
n
a
1
am+ qnn 0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: nma+am a++mn+ +o+a+. 5o o++ amn+ +++-+.m
a.+a++aa.

(a)
225
121
(b)
25
49
(c)
5
7

(d)
72
144
(e)
3
216
32
(f)
3 3
16 4
+ Ja:
(a)
225
121
=
15
11
15
11
2
=

, + a++mm a-.
225
121
, + a++mn+
+oamm.
23
(b) =
25
49
2
5
7

=
5
7
, + a++mm a-.
25
49
, + a++mn+
+oamm.
(c)
5
7
+ a++mn+ +oa+qa. a6mmo.
5
7
m+ + a++mm
a--m+ aJ++aoo.
(d) 2
72
144
= = + a++mn+ +oa+qa.

(e)
3
216
32
= =


3
6 6 6
2 16
.
3
2 2
6
2 4
6
2 16
3 3
=

3
2 2
+ a++mn+ a- amn++o ,
3
216
32
+ a++mn+ +oa+qa.
(f) 4 4 4 4 4 16 4 16 4
3 3 3 3 3 3
= = = = , + a++mm a- .

3
4
3
16 + a++mn+ +oaoo.

a++mn+ +o+a. +, , , 6++-[ +++a6n+m+ +.+qa
aaa+m+ + a++mm a--++ 5++ +o+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: nma+am a++mn+ +o+a+. 5o o++ amn+ +++-+.m
a.+a:

(i) ( ) ( )
3 3
2 3 4 54 5 + + (ii) ( ) ( ) 3 3 3 2 + +
(iii) ( )( ) 32 3 2 4 3 + (iv)
4
432
4
2187
+ Ja:
(i) ( ) ( )
3 3
2 3 4 54 5 + + = (5 + 4) + ( )
3 3
2 3 2 27
= 9 + ( )
3 3 3 3
2 3 2 3
= 9 + ( )
3 3
2 3 2 3 = 9.
5+ + a++mm a-. ++a+. 5 +
3
54 , 4 3
3
2 ++ 5+-[a a++mn+
+o+a++ 5+nna annm +[+o + a++mn+ +oaoo. am0a a++mn+
+o+a +..on 6n++++ .an n-nm +na 6+++aoo.
(ii) (2 + ) 3 (3 + ) 3 = (2 3) +( ) 3 3 = 1 + 0 = 1 , + a++mm a-.
++nn.. 0++a + a++mn+ +oaoo.
(iii) ( )( ) 32 3 2 4 3 + = (3 + 4 ) 2 (3 ) 2 16
= (3 + 4 ) 2 (3 4 ) 2
= 2 2 16 3 2 4 2 4 3 3 3 +
= 32 2 12 2 12 9 + = 9 32 = 23.
5+ + a++mm a-. am0a. ++nn. . 0++a++m+ + a++mn+ +oamm.
24

(iv) 432 = 2 2 2 2 27 = 2
4
27.

4 4
. 27 2 432 =
2187 = 3 3 3 3 27 =3
4
27.

4 4
. 27 3 2187 =
.
3
2
27 3
27 2
2187 432
4
4
4 4
= =
5+ + a++mm a-. am0a. ++nn. . 0++a++m+ + a++mn+ +oaoo.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: nma+amanma a6a+mn1a + +m++ a++mn+ +oa++
am+aa.

(i) 80 225 20 + (ii)
3 3
135 2 40
(iii) 50 27 2
6
+ (iv)
3 3
2000 128 3
+ Ja:
(i) 5 2 5 4 5 4 20 = = = , 225 = 25 9 = 25 9 = 3 5 = 15,
80 = 5 16 = 5 4 5 16 = .
5 4 15 5 2 80 225 20 + = + = 6 . 15 5
(ii)
3 3 3 3 3
5 2 5 8 5 8 40 = = = an ma
3 3 3 3 3
5 3 5 27 5 27 135 = = = .
. 5 4 5 ) 6 2 ( 5 3 2 5 2 135 2 40
3 3 3 3 3 3
= = =
(iii) 3 3 3 3 27
2
2 3 3 3 2 3 6
= = = =

an ma 2 5 25 2 50 = = .
50 27 2
6
+ = 2 5 3 2 + .
(iv)
3
128 =
3 3
2 4 =
3
2 4 anma
3
3 3 3
2 10 2 10 2000 = = .
3 ( )
3 3 3 3
2 10 2 4 3 2000 128 = = 12
3 3
2 10 2 = (12 10)
3
2 = 2
3
2 .

a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: nma+amanma a6a+mn1a + +m++ a++mn+ +oa++
am+aa:

(i) 7
3
6 (ii)
3
5
4
3 .
(iii) 8
3
4 6
4
2 (iv)
3
81 ( ) 20 5 +
+ Ja:
(i) 5 q 7 m+ qn6+- 2 .++.
3
6 m+ qn6+- 3 .++. 2, 3
5annm a.6n+.a = 6. am0a. 7 ,
3
6 ++ 5+-.1a qn6+- 6 .+
a++mn+ +o+a++ am+0a+a. 5q 7 =
2
7 = , 343 7
6 2 3 3
=
25
3
6 =
6
3 2 2
. 36 6 = am0a, 7
3
6 =
6 6 6
36 343 36 343 = =
6
12348 .
(ii)
3
5
4
3 =
12
625
12
27 =
12
27 625 =
12
16875 .
(iii) 8
3
4 6
4
2 =
4
3
2 6
4 8
=
12
12
12
12
. 32
3
4
8
256
3
4
8
256
3
4
= =
(iv)
3
81 ( )
5 4 5
3 27
20 5
81
20 5
3 3
+

=
+
= + = = = =

6
6 3 3
125
9
5
3
5 3
3 3

6
125
9
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 14:
12 6 4
25 , 10 , 3 amnmann annm a+nn+am ama+++o
a++aa.
+ Ja: m+oo. ++nn. . a++mn+ a-++++m 6n++a+m qn6+- ++-0n+a.
++nn.. a++mn+ +o+am qn6+-+a 4, 6, 12. 5annm a.6n+.a =12 qa.
am0a ++nn.. a++mn+ +o+a qn6+- 12 aa a++mn+ +o+a++
a+n n 0a-[a.
12 4 3 4
27 3 3 3 3 = =
12 6 2 6
100 10 10 10 = = .
++nn.. a++mn+ +o+a . 25 , 100 , 27
12 12 12

5n6n+m+ a+ (vii) n n+mn[++.
12 12 12
. 100 27 25 < <
++a+.
6 4 12
. 10 3 25 < <

+o +a+ +ao. a++a
y
x
o a a nq+ y m+ + a++mn+ +oa++
5++ +o+a . n non n. . a++ +ao . + +q+ + mn++ 6++- [ nq++ +
a++mm a--++ a+n no+a. 5amn+. nq++ a++mm a--++qa mn
amna++m0n+a. 5amn+ nma+a+m +++m0n+a :
(i) nq+ y m+ a amn anno 5+++. a + a++mm a- amo.
6++q+. nq+ 5+- .1a a o 6n+++aa. a[+++++..++,
5
3
= =

5 5
5 3
5
15
.
(ii) nq+ y m+ a + b amn anno 5+++. a anma b a++mm
a-+a amo. 6++q+. nq+ 5+-.1a a b o 6n+++ 0a-[a. 5n6n+m+.
nq+ = (a + b ) (a b ) = ( ) b a b b a b a a = +
2
2
2
, + a++mm a-.
a[+ ++++. .++,
2 2
) 2 ( 3
2 2 3 2
) 2 3 )( 2 3 (
) 2 3 ( 2
2 3
2

=
+

=
+
= .
7
2 2 6
2 9
2 2 6
=

(iii) nq+ y m+ a b amn anno 5+++. a an ma b a++mm
a-+a amo. 6++q+. nq+ 5+-.1a a + b o 6n+++ 0a-[a. 5n6n+m+.
nq+ = (a b ) (a + b ) = ( ) b a b b a b a a = +
2
2
2
, + a++mm a-.
26
a[+ ++++. .++.
2 2
2
) 2 ( 3
) 2 3 (
) 2 3 )( 2 3 (
) 2 3 ( ) 2 3 (
2 3
2 3

+
=
+
+ +
=

+

=
( )
7
2 6 11
7
2 2 6 9
2 9
2 2 3 2 3
2
2
+
=
+ +
=

+ +
.
(iv) nq+ y m+ b a + am 5+++. a anma b 5a a++mm a-+a
amo. 6++q+. nq+ 5+-.1a b a o 6n+++ 0a-[a. 5n6n+m+.
nq+ , ) ( ) ( ) )( (
2 2
b a b a b a b a = = + = + a++mm a-.
a[+ ++++. .++.
( )
( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
5 3
5 3 2
5 3 5 3
5 3 2
5 3
2

=
+

=
+

=
( ) ( )
( ) . 3 5 5 3 1
2
5 3 2
5 3
5 3 2
= =

(v) nq+ y m+ b a amn anno 5+++. a, b 5a a++mm
a-+a amo. 6++q+. nq+ 5+-.1a b a + o 6n+++ 0a-[a.
5n6n+m+. nq+ , ) ( ) ( ) )( (
2 2
b a b a b a b a = = + = + a++mm a-.
a[+ ++++. .++.
( )
( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2
7 5
7 5 5
7 5 7 5
7 5 5
7 5
5

+
=
+
+
=

= ( ) 35 5
2
1
7 5
35 5
+ =

+
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 15:
14 5
1
+
m nq++ a++mm a--++ a+nnaa.
+ Ja:
14 5
1
+
=
( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
2 2
14 5
14 5
14 5 14 5
14 5 1

=
+


= ( ) 5 14
9
1
9
14 5
14 5
14 5
=

.
qnn n:
y
x
amn a+++ +m 6++q+ x m+ a oo+ b a + oo+ b a
oo+ b a + oo+ b a amn anno aa+. x a++mm
a--++ a+n n 0a-[6amo. 6++q++m +-++ a--m+o 6++q+, nq+
5+-.1a 6n+++ 0a-[a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 16:
4
3 11
m 6++q++ a++mm a--++q+.
+ Ja:
4
3 11
=
( ) ( )
( ) 3 11 4
3 11 3 11
+
+
=
( ) ( )
( ) 3 11 4
3 11
2 2
+


=
( ) 3 11 4
3 11
+

=
( ) 3 11 4
8
+
=
3 11
2
+
.
27
a[+ ++ ++. [ 17:
3 2 1
1
+
= a + b 2 + c 6 amo , a + b + c + +-[no++aa.
+ Ja:
3 2 1
1
+
=
( )
( )( ) 3 2 1 3 2 1
3 2 1 1
+


=
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
3 2 1
3 2 1



=
( )
( ) 3 2 2 2 1
3 2 1
+


=
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
3 2 1
2 2
3 2 1

=
4
6 2 2
4
2 3 2 2 2

= . 6
4
1
2
4
1
2
1
4
6 2 2
+ =
+

6
4
1
2
4
1
2
1
6 2 + = + + c b a .
.
4
1
,
4
1
,
2
1
=

= = c b a
.
2
1
4
1
4
1
2
1
= + = + + c b a

qnn n. p, q a++mm a-+a.
n
a + a++mn+ +oa amo. p+
n
a q amn
a++mn+ +o++o , p a++mm a- nq+ amma .
n
a q a++mn+ a- nq+
amma a++m0n+a. 5+ a++mn+ +o+a +aa+++++. annm a++mm
a- nq++a +aa+++++ 0a-[a an ma annm a++mn+ a- nq++a
+aa+++++ 0a-[a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 18: 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
y x + =

+
+
+

amo. x
2
+ y
2
+ +-[no.
+ Ja:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 3
1 3 2 3
1 3
1 3 2 3
1 3 1 3
1 3 1 3
1 3
1 3
2
2
2

+
=

+
=
+

=
+

= 3 2
2
3 2 4
=

.

( )
( )( )
( )
. 3 2
3 4
3 2
3 2
3 2
3 2 3 2
3 2 1
3 2
1
1 3
1 3
2
2
+ =

+
=

+
=
+
+
=

+

( ) ( ) 4 3 2 3 2
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
= + + =

+
+
+

= 3 0 4 + .
28
3 0 4 3 + = + y x
x = 4, y =0
x
2
+ y
2
= 16 + 0 = 16.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 19: x =
2 3
2 3

+
amo .
x
x
1
+ + +-[no++aa.
+ Ja: x =
2 3
2 3

+
=
( )( )
( )( ) 2 3 2 3
2 3 2 3
+
+ +
=
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 3
2 3

+

= . 2 3
1
2 3
2 3
2 3
+ =
+
=

+


( )
( )
( ) 2 3
2 3
2 3
1
2 3
1 1

+
=
+
=
x

=
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 3
1
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 2
=

( ) ( ) . 3 2 2 3 2 3
1
= + + = +
x
x

a[+ ++ ++. [ 20: a =
2 2 3
2 2 3

+
amo. a
2
(a 6)
2
m a+n nm+ +-[no.
+ Ja: a =
( )
( )
( )
( ) 2 2 3
2 2 3
2 2 3
2 2 3
+
+

+
=
( )
( )
2 2 3
8 9
2 2 3
2 4 3
2 2 3
2
2
2
+ =

+
=

+

a ( ) . 2 2 3 6 2 2 3 6 + = + =
a
2
(a ( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2 3 2 2 3 ) 6 + + = = ( )( ) [ ]
2
3 2 2 3 2 2 +
= ( )
2
2
2
3 2 2

= ( ) . 1 9 8
2
=

a[+ ++ ++. [ 21: 2 1.414 amo.
1 2
1 2

+
m 0+++++ a+nnm+ +-[no++aa.
+ Ja:
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
+
+

+
=

+
=
( )
( )
2
2
2
1 2
1 2

+
=
( )
( )
2
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
+ =

+
.

1 2
1 2

+
= ( ) 1 2 1 2
2
+ = + = 1.414 + 1 = 2.414


29
n+n + 1.2

1. nma+am a++mn+ +o+a+ 5oo++ amn+ +++-+.m a.+a.
(i)
3
16 (ii) 4 2 (iii)
5
729 (iv)
4
2
4
2 (v) 50 2

2. nma+am a6a+mn1a ++++aoao am+aa .

(i) 2 5 + 32 (ii)
3 3
40 320
(iii) ( ) ( ) 2 3 3 4 3 2 2 5 + (iv) ( ) ( ) 45 75 12 20 +
(v) 5 5
3
(vi) 3
3
6
(vii)
15 5
12 4 (viii)
3 4
5 3 (ix) 5 25
3


3. ama+++o a++aa .

(i) , 3
3
5 ,
6
11 (ii) , 5
3
7 ,
4
9 (iii)
3
2 , 5 ,
4
3

4. nm a+am a6a+mnm nq++ a++mm a--++ a+n naa :
(i)
6
18
(ii)
3 2 1
4
+
(iii)
1 5
1 5

+

(iv)
5 3
1
+
(v)
3 2
3 2
+

(vi)
2 2 3 3
3 2 2 3
+

5. nma+am a6a+mnoa x an ma y 5an n+ ++- +.
(i)
3 2
3 2

+
= x + y 3 (ii) 3
3 5 4
3 4 5
y x + =
+
+

(iii) 5
5 3
5 3
5 3
5 3
y x + =
+

+
(iv) 35
7 5
7 5
7 5
7 5
y x + =

6. a =
3 2
3 2

+
amo. a
2
(a 4)
2
m a+nn+ +-[no++aa.

7. a =
1 2
1 2

+
amo. a
2
+
2
1
a
m a+nn+ +-[no++aa.
8. 3 1.732 amo .
1 3
1 3

+
m 0+++++ a+nn+ +-[no++aa.
9. 2 1.414 , 3 1.732 amo.
3 2
1
+
m 0+++++ a+nn+ +-[no++aa.



30

a.+a

n+n + 1.1

1. (i) 0.328125 (ii) 3 8 . 1 (iii) 0.35 (iv) 3 458 . 0
2. (i)
20
7
(ii)
9
7
(iii)
999
125
(iv)
495
258
(v)
1
9

3. (i) +am (ii) ++ (iii) ++ (iv) ++
(v) ++ (vi) +am (vii) +am

n+n + 1.2

1. (i) m+.6.- (ii) m+.6.- oo (iii) m+.6.-
(iv) m+.6.- (v) m+.6.- oo
2. (i) 2 9 (ii)
3
5 2 (iii) 6 6 14 + (iv) 15 4 (v)
6
3125
(vi)
6
4
3
(vii)
15
3
16
(viii)
12
625
27
(ix)
6
5
3. (i)
6
11 ,
3
5 , 3 (ii)
4
9 ,
3
7 , 5 (iii)
3
2 ,
4
3 , 5 .
4. (i) 6 3 (ii) ( ) 1 3 2
11
4
(iii) ( ) 5 3
2
1
+
(iv) ( 3 5
2
1
) (v) 5 6 2 (vi) ( ) 30 6 13
19
1

5. (i) x = 7, y = 4 (ii) x = ,
59
40

59
9
= y
(iii) x = 7, y = 0 (iv) x = 0, y = 2

6. a
2
(a 4)
2
= 1 7. 34 8. 3.732 9. 0.318

31

2. aa+a

+a mn+. a+aao no0am +oa+ao ++a aa+a 6+++m0n+a.
a[+ ++++. .++. ++a +- +n n+n+++ +a++1a. 6aaa+onn+n+++ +annm
n+nnaam1a. 0ao+[a+n+++ +o++m +n naam1a. ++nna+n+++ n++++++m
6++aaaam1a a++m0n+a. aa+a onn.++++ 6++-[ +a
0+a+0+nn 0aoa +-++[+a 6+++m0n+a. +a anma +m +a+am
+a+a. 0++-+a. n+nnaa+a +nnaa+a anma +m aa+a nnn+ +-+n
n+am aa+o amna++m0n+a. m+++ aqnn+ao ++a. m+0++-+a .
++n+++a anma a..+a 0n+mn +o +a aoa +a+an nnn
+nnn++a 0a+a (aoo+ aoa +a+a +a++o a++nn..a++++
6++a0a+a). 5++ +++++++o. 5+-[ oo+ +nq 0ann.. m+0++-+a.
++n+++a oo+ a..+a 5ann mnm0ao mn++ +m++ +.++n6nma
+o +a +.[ +a+an nnn +n0n+a. ++a +++a m++ +a+a
+a++o a++a amn++o. +a +a++ +aa amm an0n+a .

2.1 n+nn anma +nnaa

++a. +a aoa+o +a+am +nnaa+a anma n+nn+am a++nn+[+a
aan+Ja+[0a+a.

2.1.1 6+a a+a; :

n.a 2.1
n+nn = l b +++ oq+a
+n naa = 2 (l + b) oq+a
d =
2 2
b l + oq+a

2.1.2 5-++a; :

n.a 2.2
n+nn = b h +++ oq+a
+n naa = 2(a + b) oq+a


2.1.3 6++[++nn.. onn++a anma ++++1.+ m+0++-a.

n.a 2.3
n+nn =
2
1
b h +++ oq+a .




32
2.1.4 6+0++- m+0++-a.
n+nn =
2
1
b h +++ oq+a
n.a 2.4
+n naa = b + h + d oq+a
d =
2 2
h b + oq+a


2.1.5 +an+ + m+ 0++-a .
++a = h =
2
3
a oq+a
n.a 2.5
n+nn =
4
3
a
2
+++ oq+a
+n naa = 3a oq+a

2.1.6 5++an+ + m+ 0++-a :

n.a 2.6
n+nn = h
2 2
h a +++ oq+a
+n naa = 2 ( )
2 2
h a a + oq+a

2.1.7 +an+ + m+ 0++-a; :

n+nn = ) )( )( ( c s b s a s s +.
5 q
2
c b a
s
+ +
= oq+a
n.a 2.7
+n naa = a + b + c oq+a

2.1.8 ++a+a .

n+nn =
2
1
(a + b) h +++ oq+a
n.a 2.8

2.1.9 ++n++a.
n+nn =
2
1
d (h
1
+ h
2
).
n.a 2.9
+++ oq+a


2.1.10 +++ +++a .
n+nn =
2
1
d
1
d
2
+.oq+a
n.a 2.10
+n naa = 2
2
2
2
1
d d + = 4a oq+a

33
2.1.11 a. .a :
a..++m n+nn = r
2
+++ oq+a
a..++m +nnaa = 2r oq+a

n.a 2.11
+a..+ +m n+nn=
2
1
r
2
+++ oq+a
+a.. aoom +aa = r oq+a
++oa..+ +m n+nn =
4
1
r
2
+++ oq+a
++oa.. aoom +aa =
2
1
r oq+a

qnn n: A an ma B na a+a 5-+qa 0+++0++. [+ +-om AB o o+ AB
am+ qn++m0n+a. 0aoa AB am 0n AB m +a++1a qn++m0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: + 6+aa+ aoa +aJ. onn++ +aa )a amaa ++a )ca
amaa 6++-[aa+. ++annnq a--a n+ +++ a..++q .)
6+oa+q6amo. 6a++ + +annn qa a--a n+ qa 6+oa+ +-[no.
+ Ja: b = 15 . h = 10 qa.

n.a 2.12
6+aa+n n+nn = b h = 15 10 = 150 +.a.
1 +.a a--a n+ 6+oa = . 16
150 +.a a--a n+ 6+oa = 16 150 = . 2400.



a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: + 6+aa++ ++.om aa+a |a 1a . + ++. om | 6+.a
n++ +aa 6++- . ++++ ++[+a++ 6a.. 0a-[a . ++++ ++[+am
a--++++ +-[no.
+ Ja: 6+aa++ ++.om n+nn = 400 300 = 12.0000 6+.a
2
.

n.a 2.13

+ ++++ ++.om n+nn = 4 4 = 16 6+.a
2
.
++++ ++[+am a--++ =
16
0000 , 12
= 7500.




a[+ ++ ++. [ 3. 40 6+.a
2
n+n n.+ 5-++++m ++a 15 6+.a amo. +m
onn++a +-[no.
+ Ja: n+n n = b h. 40 = b 15.

n.a 2.14
b =
3
8
15
40
= .
onn++a =
3
8
6+.a.
34
a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: 11 6+.a. 60 6+.a anma ) 6+.a n++ +a+a 6++-. +
m+0++-++m n+nn1a. +n naa1a +-[no.

n.a 2.15
+ Ja: n+n n = ) )( )( ( c s b s a s s .
5 q 2s = a + b + c = 11 + 60 + 61 = 132.
s = 66. s a = 66 11 = 55.
s b = 66 60 = 6. s c = 66 61 = 5.
n+nn = 5 6 55 66 = 330 +.6+.a .
+n naa = a + b + c = 11 + 60 + 61 =132 6+.a.



n.a 2.16
a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: n.a 2.16 o 6++[++nn.[aa ++n++a ABCD m n+nnm+
+-[no.
+ Ja: n+nn = ) (
2
1
2 1
h h d + = ) 20 10 ( 50
2
1
+
= 25 30
= 750 a
2
.



a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: n.a z.) o 6++[++nn.[aa ++a+a ABCD m n+nn +-[no.
+ Ja: n+n n = h b a + ) (
2
1


n.a 2.18
= 4 ) 5 12 (
2
1
+
= 34 +++ oq+a.


a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: +o++ +ann[++ +++ a..++q .12 6+oa+qa. ++a+ aoa
+o++m 5- n+++am +a+a 18a an ma 12a. ann 5+ n+++a
a6a+mma a + am.++ amo. 6a+++ +o++ +ann[++ qa 6+oa+
+-[no.

n.a 2.17
+ Ja: ABCD 6++[++nn.. ++a+a. 5q AB = 18 a . CD = 12 a . AD = BC = 5 a.
DA +q 5-+++ CE a++ (n.a 2.18 n n++ + +aa ). EBC J 5++an+ +
m+0++-a. +m ++a h =
2 2
3 5
= 16 = 4 a .
++a+a ABCD +m n+nn
=
2
1
(a + b) h =
2
1
(18 + 12) 4
= 2 30= 60 +.a.
1 +.a +ann[++ qa 6+oa = .12.
6a+++ +o++ +ann[++ qa 6+oa = 60 12 = . 720.
35
a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: + ++++++++m +n naa zc 6+.a. +m + +oa..++m +aa
6+.a. +m an6n++ +oa..+ +m +a++1a n+nn1a +-[no.
+ Ja: d
1
. d
2
amnm +oa..+a am+ 6++a+.

n.a 2.19
+n naa =
2
2
2
1
2 d d + .m+o +nnaa zc 6+.a
am+ 6++[++nn.[aa+.

2
2
2
1
2 d d + = 20 6+.a oo+ = 100.
5q + +oa..++m +aa 8 6+.a . d
2
2
2
1
d d +
1
= 8
am+.
64 + d
2
2
= 100 oo+ d
2
2
= 36. d
2
= 6 6+.a.
++++++++m n+nn =
2
1
d
1
d
2
=
2
1
8 6 = 24 6+.a
2
.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: 264 6+.a +amaa +an 5+ +a n+++a++n n+++nn[+n+. +
n++++ a..a++aa an6n+mn +an++ m+0++-a++aa aa++
6+++nn[+n+. a aa.+qa n+nn+am a++++m+ +-[no (
7
22
am m
n+mn[++).

n.a 2.20
+ Ja: a. .+ +m +n naa =
2
264
=132 6+.a.
m+o a..++m +n naa = 2r.
2
7
22
r = 132 o o+ r = 21 6+.a.
a..++m n+nn = r
2
=
7
22
21 21 = 1386 6+.a
2
.
+an++ m+0++-++m +n naa = 3a

n.a 2.21
m+o +n naa = 132 6+.a.
3a = 132 oo+ a = 44 6+.a.
+an++ m+0++-++m n+nn =
2
4
3
a =
2
44
4
3

= 484 3 6+.a
2
a..a anma +an++ m+0++-++m n+nn+am
a++a = 1386 : 484 3 = 21 3 : 22

n+n + 2.1

1. +a++-. m+0++-+am n+nn+a+ ++-+.
(i) on n++a = 18 6+.a. ++a = 3 6+.a.
(ii) m+0++-++m +mm n+++am +a+a zc 6+.a. 48 6+.a. z 6+.a.
(iii) +an++ m+0++-++m n+ + +aa 6+.a.
36
2. ABCD amn ++n++++m +oa..a AC m +aa; 44 6+.a an ma B. D o+++
AC+q a++nn[a q+++++a mn0+ zc 6+.a an ma 12 6+.a amo.
+++n++++m n+nn +-[no.
3. + ++n ++++m + +oa..++m +aa ) 6+.a an ma
a+oa..+ +nq a++nn[a 6+q+++0++[+am +a +a 1 6+.a
anma 6+.a amo. +++n+++ +m n+nn +-[no.
4. 260a +n naaaa + +++++++ +m + +oa..a 66a. an6n++
+oa..++m +aa ++-+. 0aoa +++++++++m n+nn ++-+.
5. + 5-++++m n+nn )z 6+.a
z
anma +m ++a ) 6+.a amo . +m
onn+++++ +- [no.
6. 6+.a anma 8 6+.a 5- n+ + +a+++ 6++- . ++a++ +m n+n n 1c
6+.a
2
. 5- n+++++.nn.. +t+a +-[no.
7. + ++a++ +m 5- n+ + ++ q 5.n n. . +t+a 5 6+.a an ma +
5-nn++ +aa 8 6+.a . + ++a+++m n+nn 45 6+.a
2
amo . an 6n++
5- n++++m +aa ++-+.
8. 22 6+.a 14 6+.a aaa a + 6+a a+ +o+ +m n+n nn q+ +aa+m
n+nn.+ + a.. +o++m +n naa ++- +.

2.2 +.[ +a +a

+ ++n ++a ABCD + ++++ (n.a 2.22 n n++++aa). BD+
5-++aa. +n6n+m+ ++n++a+m+ ABD anma BCD am 5+-[
m+0++-+a++n n+++nn[+mn+. 5+-[ m+0++-++qa BD n++a
6n++a+m+. nm0m+++n n+++qa 0n++. m+0++-+a ABD an ma BCD BD n
6n++nn++a+++ 6++-[ mnm 0ao mn++ a++ ++n++a ABCD
6nnnn[+m n+. am0a. ++n++a ABCD m+ 5+ m+0++-+am 0++++++qa



n.a 2.22

n.a 2.23






o o+ ABCD + +.[ +aa+qa. 5aa+0n. ++a+a + +. [ +aa+qa +
+ 6+aa+++m 5+ n+++ao 5+ 6+0++- m+0++-+a 0++++
+a+++nn..+ (n.a 2.23 n n+J++aa). ++a n++ 6++-.+ amm6amo. 5+
+a+a mnm n++++o mn a++ + +.[ +aa +a+++
0a-[6amo m+o +a++m a++a6+++ n++a 5+-.+a+ +a++m
37
a++a6+++ n++++n qn 6n++++a+++ 5+++ 0a-[a. +o +.[ +a +a. n.a
2.24 m+o n.a 2.35 a+ 6++[++nn.[aam.


n.a 2.26

n.a 2.25
n.a 2.24













n.a 2.28

n.a 2.27



n.a 2.29













n.a 2.31
n.a 2.30











n.a 2.32


n.a 2.33






38

n.a 2.35


n.a 2.34








mnm 0ao mn++ 5++qa n+++a naa+ 0++[+a+o ++.o+++ +m0n+a.
n.a 2.24 o+++ n.a 2.35 a+1aa +.[ +a+a aa+++ n+o+a.
a[+ ++++. .++. n.a 2.25 m+ + m+0++-a. + +a..a ++annm +.[
+aa+qa. + + nan+++m +o+q++ qm+q 6a.[+ 0++nna+++ 6+++n+.
n.a 2.27 m+ + 6+aa+a anma + +a..a ++annm +.[ +aa+qa.
5aa+aa. + +a..+ +m 0ao an qa 6+aa+ +mmo 0n+o
0++n naa+ +m n+. n.a 2.29 m+ + 6+aa+a anma 5+ +aa+m
++oa..+a+ 6++-. +.[ +aa+qa . n.a 2.33 m+ + 6+aa+a. +
m+0++-a. + ++a+a ++an n+ 6++- . +. [ +aa+qa; 5+ J
aa+-+mn 0n+o 6+++n+. +.[ +a+a+am. m+0++-+a. ++n+++a.
a..+a ++annm +..++ 5+nn++o. annm +n naa+a. n+n n+a
++ann m+++ aqnno +nn ++++a+ 6++-[ +-++.o+a.

+.[+ +a +a+a+m ++a++a anma no0++-+an nnn 5n0n++
++a n++++o+a.

2.2.1 ++a+a

++a+a amn+ ++mq n+++a1.+ + +a +aa. 5+o 5+
n+++a 5-++ma (n.a 2.36 n n++++aa). ABCD am n ++a+++o AB 1a
DC 1a 5-++ma. AB = a . CD = b am +.
5-0++[++q 5.nn.. +t+a h am +.
++a ++a+a ABCD m+0++-+a ABC
anma ACD +am +. [ +aa+++
6++aao+a. m+0++-a ABC o onn++a
AB . q+ +++a h. +0a.

glk; 2.36
ABC +m n+n n =
2
1
a h
ACD +m n+n n =
2
1
b h
++a+++m n+nn =
2
1
a h +
2
1
b h =
2
1
(a + b)h +++ oq+a.

39
2.2.2 no 0++-a
no0++-a amn+ n 0+++0++.[+ +-[+a+o aoaa++nn.. +a +aa
qa. no m+0++-+am +.[ +a0a no0++-a amn+ ++a n+0n+a.
no0++-++m n+++a +aa++aa. 0++-+a
+aa++aa 5+nnm. nno0++-a + mq
no0++-a amnn[a. m n+++a+
6++- . m q no 0++-a + mq
m0++-a amnn[a. + mq
m0++-++o m++ n+++a
+aa++aa. .0++-+a a6a+mma
120+q+ +aa++aa 5++qa (n.a 2.37 n
n++++aa). 5++ qnn n.. m q no0++-a
o++o n+mn[++nn[a++o. +m +nnaa
anma n+n naa nnn+ ++-0n+a. ABCDEF

glk; 2.37
amn+ + mq m0++-a am+. n+++a AB. BC. CD. DE. EF anma FA +aa+m
aa.+a. a6a++ n+++ +m +ama a oq+a am+. mq m0++-++m
+n naa+m+ a + a + a + a + a + a = 6a oq+a. ++a 5n0n++ mq
m0++-++m n+nn ++-a + +++ +m a+an0n+a. +oa..+a AD. BE .
CF ++++qa naa+m. O am+. m+0++-+a OAB. OBC. OCD. ODE. OEF. OFA
+an++ m+0++-+a qa. am0a. a6a++ m+0++-++m n+nn
2
4
3
a qa.
am0a. mq m0++-++m n+nn = 6
2
4
3
a =
2
2
3 3
a +++ oq+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: n.a 2.38m n+nnm+ +-[no.

+ Ja. n.a ABCDE m+ n++a BD +mn
6n++ +o++++ 6++-. ABDE an ma
BCD m +. .+qa. ABDE amn ++a+++o
5- n+++a+m AE . BD +am
+a+a mn0+ 10 6+.a. 16 6+.a qa.
5- n++++q 5.nn. . +t+a 9 6+.a.

n.a 2.38
+0a. ++a+a; ABDE m n+nn

. 117 9 ) 16 10 (
2
1
) (
2
1
2
P 6+.a = + = + h b a


BCD + m+0++-a. 5+m onnq+ BD+m +aa 16 6+.a . q+ +++a 8 6+.a .
+0a 5+m n+nn
. 64 8 16
2
1
2
1
2
nrkP = = h b
40
+.[ +aa ABCDE m n+nn = ABDE m n+nn + BCD m n+nn
= 117 + 64 = 181 6+.a
2
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: + +oa an naJ + +o+ +m aa+an nm a+a+m
qn++aa++. +o++m n+nnm+ +-[no.








n.a 2.39



+ Ja: A +o+++ D a+ aa +oaanna+m qn+a P. Q. R. S am+. nm n
AP = 5 a . AQ = 7 a . AR = 12 a . AS = 15 a . AD = 17 a . BP = 10 a . FQ = 8 a . CR = 8 a .
ES = 9 a. 6++[++nn.. +oa+m+ ++a++a PRCB. FESQ anma m+0++-+a
AQF. APB. DSE. CRD 5annm +..+qa (n.a 2.40 n n+J++aa ).
++a+a PRCB m n+nn : BP . CR 5-
n+++a. q++++a PR. ++a na+.

n.a 2.40
BP = 10 a . CR = 8 a. anma
PR = AR AP = 12 5 = 7a.
+0a. PRCB m n+nn =
2
1
(BP + CR) PR
=
2
1
(10 + 8) 7 = 63 a
2

++a+a QFES m n+n n. ES . FQ 5- n+ + +a . q+ +++a QS. ++a na+
ES = 9 a . FQ = 8 a . QS = AS AQ = 15 7 = 8a. +0a.
QFES m n+nn =
2
1
(ES + FQ) QS =
2
1
(9 + 8) 8 = 17 4 = 68 a
2

m+0++-a AQFm n+nn =
2
1
AQ FQ =
2
1
7 8 = 28 a
2

m+0++-a DSE m n+nn =
2
1
DS ES =
2
1
(AD AS) 9
=
2
1
(17 15) 9 =
2
1
2 9 = 9 a
2
.
m+0++-a CRD m n+nn =
2
1
RD CR =
2
1
(AD AR) 8
= 4 (17 12)= 4 5 = 20 a
2
.
m+0++-a APB m n+nn =
2
1
AP BP =
2
1
5 10 = 25a
2

+o++m n+nn = 63 + 68 + 28 + 9 + 20 + 25 = 213 a
2
.
41
a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: n.a 2.41 o ++-n++nn. . aoa++m n+nn +-[no++aa (
7
22

amn n+mn[++aa).

n.a 2. 41









+ Ja. 6+a a+a ABDE. +a..a AFE anma +an++ m+0++-a BCD ++annm
5-n0n 6++[++nn.. am am ++a n+0n+a.
6+aa+a ABDE m n+nn = 20 14 = 280 6+.a
2
.
+a..a AFE m n+nn =
2
1
r
2
=
2
1

7
22
7 7 = 77 6+.a
2
+an++ m+0++-a BCD m n+n n =
4
3
a
2
=
4
3
14 14 = 49 3 6+.a
2
.
am+m n+nn = 280 + 77 + 49 3 = 357 + 49 1.732
= 357 + 84.868 = 441.868 6+.a
2

a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: n.a 2.42 o ++-n++nn.. aoa+ +m n+nn +-[no++aa (
7
22

amn n+mn[++aa).


glk; 2.42









+ Ja. 6+a a+a ABCD. +a..a CDE anma ++o a..n nq++a AFD. BCG m
5-n0n 6++[++nn.. am am ++a n+0n+a.
6+aa+a ABCD m n+n n = 12 4 = 48 6+.a
2
.
+a..a CDE m n+n n =
2
1
6 6 =
7
22
3 6 =
7
396
= 56
7
4
6+.a
2
.
++o a..n nq+ AFD m n+nn =
4
1
4 4 =
7
22
4 =
7
88
= 12
7
4
6+.a
2
.
++o a..n nq+ BCG m n+nn = 12
7
4
6+.a
2
.
am+m n+nn = 48 + 56
7
4
+ 12
7
4
+ 12
7
4
= 129
7
5
6+.a
2
.
42

a[+ ++ ++. [ 14: n.a 2.43 o ann.[aa n+nn +-[no++aa.


n.a 2.43










+ Ja. 5n n.a . 6+a a+a CDFG. +a..a DEF an ma ++a+a ABCG ++annm
0++++++qa.
6+aa+a CDFG m n+nn = 28 13 = 364 6+.a
2
.
++a+a ABCG m n+n n =
2
1
(36 + 28) 14 = 64 7 = 448 6+.a
2
.
+a..a DEF m n+n n =
2
1

7
22
14 14 = 22 14 = 308 6+.a
2
6++[++nn.. annm n+n n = 364 + 448 + 308 = 1120 6+.a
2
.

+o +a+ +ao ++a 6n++ +a +a+ao++ + 6a.o ++++ a+
+a+a+ +++ 0a-o1aa+. annm n+nn+a+ ++- 0an+-.a+m
n+nn+a +.[a+nq n+o++ ++nn.. +a+ +m n+nno+++. 6a.o a[++nn..
+a+am n+nn+a+ +a+ + a+ a a +a +am n+n n+ ++-o+a.

a.. aoa aa+++m n+nn
+ a.. aa+a amn+ 6n++ a+++1.+ 5+ a..++ q
5.nn. . nq+++qa (n.a 2.44 n n++ ++aa). a.. aa+++m n+nn+m+ 6aa
a..nn+nno+++ a a..++m n+nn+ +a+ ++n q+ +aa+qa. ++a+.
aa+ n+nn = R
2
r
2
= (R
2
r
2
).


n.a 2.44








+a.. aa++ +m n+nn =
2
1
(R
2
r
2
) +++ oq+a.
43
a[+ ++ ++. [ 15: n.a 2.45 o +ao.nn.. nq++m n+nn +-[no++aa. 5++ nq+
++o a..+a+o ann.[aa+ (
7
22
am+ 6++aaaa ).


n.a 2.45










+ Ja. 6++[++nn.. +ao.nn..n nq+. 28 6+.a n++maa +++++o ++mq
+o+aoa 14 6+.a +maa ++o a..n nq++a +++++nq+ +aa+qa.
+++++m n+nn = 28 28 = 784 6+.a
2
.
+ ++o a..+ +m n+nn =
4
1
14 14 =
4
1

7
22
14 14 = 154 6+.a
2
.
0+a++m n+nn = 784 4(154) = 784 616 = 168 +++ 6+.a.


glk; 2.46
a[+ ++ ++. [ 16: 7a +omaa [n++ n.a 2.46 o ++.o+a+m
a++nn.[aa+. 5+m aa..+ +nnaa 720a anma a6a++ 0+J+0++[n
nq++m +aa 140a. aaan nq++a +a.. aoa++o aam. [n+++m
n+nn+ +-[no (
7
22
amn n+mn[++aa).










+ Ja. a +a. .+ +m +a r am +. am0a a +n naa 2 140 + 2 ( r)
o o+ 280 + 2r. m+o 5+m a+n n 720a am 6++[++nn.[aa+.
280 + 2r = 720 oo+ 2r = 440 o o+ r =
2
440
=
22 2
7 440

= 70 a.
am0a a +a..++m +a r = 70a.
6aa +a..+ +m +a R = 70 + 7 = 77a.
5n6n+m+ [ n+++m n+nn+m+ +a.. aa++am n+nn anma 6+aa+
aoa n+++m n+nn+am +[+o+q+ +aa+qa. m+o. + +a.. n+++m
n+nn=
2
1
(R
2
r
2
) =
2
1

7
22
(77
2
70
2
) =
7
11
147 7 = 1617 +++ a .
44
+ 6+aa+ aoa n+++m n+nn = 140 7 = 980 +++ a.
n+++m n+nn = 2 1617 + 2 980 = 3234 + 1960 = 5194 +++ a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 17: 4.2a . n+ + aaa a + +++ aoa +. o.+ +m + 6aan nn
+o+o + n+ +..nn.[aa+. ++nnm +aa 4.9 a amo. n+ 0a+++o+
nq++m n+nn +-[no (
7
22
amn n+mn[++aa).
+ Ja. ++++ +m A amn mm+o n+ +..nn.[ aa+ (n.a 2.47 n n++++aa).
++nnm +aa 4.9a anma +annm +aa 4.2a . n+a+m+ +an n+ +.+ +
5+o++++o . +m ++m ++++ +m B an ma E mm+a+ ++-o D an ma G
a+ +a +n+. am0a. n+a+m+ 4.9a +maa m+++o a..nnq+ anma
4.9 4.2 = 0.7a +ma a 5+ ++oa..n nq++a ++ann 0a+ mo1a.
n+ 0a+++o+ n+nn

n.a 2.47

=
4
3
4.9 4.9 + 2
4
1
0.7 0.7
=
4
3

7
22
4.9 4.9 +
2
1

7
22
0.7 0.7
=
2
33
0.7 4.9 + 11 0.1 0.7
= 56. 595 + 0.77

= 57.365a
2
.



n.a 2.48
a[+ ++ ++. [ 18: n.a 2.48 o +ao.nn.. nq++m n+nnm+ +-[no (
7
22

am+ 6++aaaa).








+ Ja. +ao.nn.. nq++m n+nn = (14 6+.a +maa +a..+ +m n+nn)
(7 6+.a. +maa +a..+ +m n+nn)
=
2
1
(14)
2

2
1
(7)
2

=
2
1

7
22
14 14
2
1

7
22
7 7 = 11 2 14 11 7 = 308 77 = 231 6+.a
2
.


45
n+n + 2.2

1. +oaanna+m 0++.[n n++++ +oaa nma+a qnnn+ao+++ +ann.a
a+++ annm n+n n+a+ +-[no.

(iii)

n.a 2.51
(ii)

n.a 2.50

(i)

n.a 2.49











2. + aa++.[ a++ma n.a 2.52 o
++.o+a+m 5+ 0+J0++.[+ +-[+a
anma 5+ +a.. ao+a+o
+a++ +n n.0a- [a . a 6a++ +
a..++m +a 21a. a6a++
0+++0++. [+ +-om +aa 85a .

glk; 2.52
aa++.[+ +.om n+nn +-[no (
7
22
am+ 6++aaaa.).
3. + ++a++ +m 5+ 5- n+++am +a +a 22 6+.a an ma 12 6+.a. +m
ann 5+ n+++a a6a+mma 10 6+.a + aa amo . +m n+nn ++-+.

4. J mq m0++-++m n+nn 150 3 6+.a
2
amo. +m n+++++
+-[no++aa.

5. n.a 2.53 o +ao..n nq++m n+nnm+ +-[no.




n.a 2.53











46
6. +a+++-a n.+am +ao..n nq++am n+nn+a+ +-[no++aa.

(i) (ii)

n.a 2.55

n.a 2.54








(iii) (iv)

n.a 2.56

n.a 2.57








7. + a..+ +m a..a 54 6+.a .> +m + a..a AB 0+J0++.[++-[ AB m
a + C amn naa. BC = 10 6+.a am na+m aa+. AC a. .a+++
6++-[ + a..a a++nn[+n+. aa..+++.nn.. n+nn+
+-[no++aa.
7
22
am+ 6++aaaa.

8. n.a 2.58 o +ao.. nq++m n+nn anma +n naa+ +-[no.


n.a 2.58







9. 14 a n++maa +++ aoa a+om ++mq +o+aoa ++mq n+++a
+. .n n. [a am. a 6a++ n+aa an n 5+ n++ +a ++ ++ +m n aan q+
+..nn.[aa+. 5nn+++a. annm ao o+ q. n. . +on nq++m no o
0a++mnm. n+++a 0a+++ +onnq++m n+nnm+ +-[no++aa.
7
22

am+ 6++aaaa.

10. ABCD. 36a 24a aaa a + 6+a a+ aoa +oa+qa . ++m q +o+aoa
++mq q+++a a6a+mma 10a. +a+ ++nnm+o +..nn.[aam.
a6a++ q++1a +nq a. o+ a++o 0a++n+. q+++a 0a+++
+onnq++m n+nnm+ +-[no.
7
22
am+ 6++aaaa.
47
a.+a;

n+n + 2.1

1. (i) 27 6+.a
2
(ii) 480 6+.a
2
(iii) 27.71 6+.a
2

2. 704 6+.a
2
3. 606+.a
2
4. 112 a . 3696 a
2
5. 34 6+.a 6. 4 6+.a 7. 10 6+.a
8. 62.226+.a

n+n+ 2.2

1. (i) 27.200 +.a (ii) 15.100 +.a (iii) 7.525 +.a
2. 4.956 +.a 3. 147.22 6+.a
2
4. 10 6+.a
5. 140 a
2
6. (i) 36.39 +.6+.a (ii) 25 a
2
(iii) 37.71 6+.a
2
(iv) 240.28 6+.a
2
7. 770 6+.a
2
8. 354.37 6+.a
2
. 94 6+.a 9. 42 a
2
10. 549.71a
2
48


3. +o m+++ qn+[

3.1 na+o qn+ [
a+m+o . 5+n n+o . 0a+++o . +++o anma 6n+n++o 0n+mn
n+.+ao ++a a+n 6n++ a-+a1a. a++ +n+ a-+a1a +-o+++m0n+a.
a[+ ++++. .++.
(i) na+o+++ +++am aa 6++oa 92,900,000 ao+a.
(ii) + +++++++m 6+oo+m+ 200, 000,000,000,000 +o++m+a 6++-o+++n+.
(iii) onn.+ ++a mnm a+a++a+m+ 0.000000000251 a++o+a.
(iv) + amm-am a..a +a++++ 0.000000000004 6+moa. .++qa.
5+n0n+mn a-+a nno am++oa . ++++oa aaaa aa+oo.
5+nna. ann [+q+ qn a++an n+mn[++ am+ +++a mo1a.
[+q+qn a++a +ma ++ 0a+a. 5+o a- m, 6a+6+- a 5an nn q
a
m
= a a . m +++-+a . a[+ ++ ++. .++. a
5
= a a a a a. 5 q a amn+
oa+ma amma. m m+ no o o+ [+ q amma a++nn[+mnm. a
m
amn
qn+.om a m [+ q m o o+ m no +++++ a amn no++m0n+a.
[+q+ qn a++a nma+a+m ++nn[+m nm:
(i) a
m
a
n
= a
m+ n
(6n+++o a+)
(ii)
n
m
a
a
= a
m n
, a 0, m > n (aq++o a+)
(iii) (a
m
)
n
= a
mn
([+ q a+)
(iv) a
m
b
m
= (a b)
m
(0++++ a+)
a 0 5++qa 0n++
m
a
1
a
m
am+ qnnn[+m0n+a. a
0
= 1 am
a++m++m0n+a. [+q+qn a++an n+mn[++. a++6a++ a+
6a+6+--m1a a 10
n
amn anno am+ mo1a. 5q 1 a < 10, n + mm
qa. a[+++++..++.
(i) 7.32 = 7.32 10
0

(ii) 11.2 = 1.12 10 =1.1210
1
(iii) 226 = 2.26 100 = 2.26 10
2
(iv) 6435.7 = 6.4357 1000 = 6.4357 10
3
(v) 92900000 = 9.29 10000000 = 9.29 10
7
(vi) 0.256 =
10
56 . 2
= 2.56 10
1
(vii) 0.00786 =
1000
86 . 7
= 7.86 10
3
(viii) 0.000000537 = 5.37 10
7
(ix) 0.0000000279 = 2.79 10
8
49

5m. a- am n+o a+ a- - a. [0a qn+ qa . + a- -m a 10
n

am na+o qn+. oo am+m+o. a m ++a a+ao a+a mmn nq+++m+ m+ 1
o+++ 9 a++o+m a--++ 5++qa. 0aoa n + mma+qa . 0aoa ++n n. .
+ a--m na+o qn+ . oo a+n n am+a0n++. ++a ++nn.. a--o a a
++an naa+m 5.+n++a+++o r 5.+a +++++m+o + +[ 6+++ 10
r
o
6n++q+0n+a. aa+0n. ++an naa+ ao+n++a+++o r 5.+a ++J++m+o
+ +[ 6+++ 10
r
o 6n++q+0n+a .

a[+ ++++..++.














a+n 6n++ oo+ a++ +n+ a-+a na+o qn+ . oo a+ +. an n
++ anno 6n+++0a+ oo+ aq++0a+ aaa+++ 5++ qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: nm a+a a-+a na+o qn+. oo am++.
(i) 7493 (ii) 105001 (iii) 3449099.93
(iv) 0.00567 (v) 0.0002079 (vi) 0.000001024
+ + a:










a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: nma+a a-+a ++a aoao am++.
(i) 3.25 10
5
(ii) 1.86 10
7
(iii) 9.87 10
9
(iv) 4.02 10
4
(v) 1.423 10
6
(vi) 3.25 10
9

50
+ + a: (i) 3.25 10
5
=
2
10
325
10
5
= 325 10
5 2
= 325 10
3
= 325000.
(ii) 1.86 10
7
=
2
10
186
10
7
= 186 10
72
= 186 10
5
= 18600000.
(iii) 9.87 10
9
=
2
10
987
10
9
= 987 10
9 2
= 987 10
7
= 9870000000.
(iv) 4.02 10
4
=
2
10
402
10
4
= 402 10
4 2
= 402 10
6
= 0.000402.
(v) 1.423 10
6
=
3
10
1423
10
6
= 1423 10
6 3
= 1423 10
9
=0.000001423.
(vi) 3.25 10
9
=
2
10
325
10
9
= 325 10
9 2
= 325 10
11
=0.00000000325.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: +-++.o ++a++ nma+amannm a.+m na+o
qn+.oo am++.
(i) (3000000)
3
(ii) (4000)
5
(200)
3

(iii) (0.00005)
4
(iv) (2000)
2
(0.0001)
4
+ + a :
(i) 3000000 = 3.0 10
6
.


(3000000)
3
= (3.0 10
6
)
3
= (3.0)
3
(10
6
)
3

= 3 3 3 10
63
= 27 10
18

= 2.7 10 10
18
= 2.7 10
19
.

(ii) 4000 = 4.0 10
3
, 200 = 2.0 10
2
.

(4000)
5
(200)
3
= (4.0 10
3
)
5
(2.0 10
2
)
3
= (4.0)
5
(10
3
)
5
(2.0)
3
(10
2
)
3
= 1024 10
35
8 10
23
= 1024 10
15
8 10
6
= 8192 10
21
= 8.192 10
3
10
21
= 8.192 10
24
.

(iii) 0.00005 = 5.0 10
5


(0.00005)
4
= (5.0 10
5
)
4
= (5.0)
4
(10
5
)
4
= 625 10
54

= 625 10
20
= 6.25 10
2
10
20
= 6.25 10
18
.

(iv) 2000 = 2.0 10
3
, 0.0001 = 1.0 10
4

4 4
2 3
) 10 0 1 (
) 10 0 2 (

.
.
=
4 4 4
2 3 2
) 10 ( ) 0 1 (
) 10 ( ) 0 2 (

.
.
=
4 4
2 3
10 1
10 4

(2000)
2
(0.0001)
4
=
=
22 ) 16 ( 6
16
6
10 4 10 4
10
10 4
= =

.
51

n+n + 3.1

1. nma+a a-+a na+o qn+. oo a++aa.
(i) 29980000000 (ii) 1300000000
(iii) 1083000000000 (iv) 4300000000
(v) 9463000000000000 (vi) 534900000000000000
(vii) 0.0037 (viii) 0.000107
(ix) 0.00008035 (x) 0.0000013307
(xi) 0.00000000011 (xii) 0.0000000000009

2. nma+a a-+a ++a a+ao am+aa.
(i) 3.25 10
6
(ii) 4.02 10
5
(iii) 4.132 10
4
(iv) 1.432 10
3
(v) 3.25 10
6
(vi) 4.02 10
5
(vii) 4.132 10
4
(viii) 1.432 10
3

3. nma+amannm a+nn+a na+o qn+. oo +- [no++aa.
(i) (100)
3
(40)
5
(ii) (21000)
2
(0.001)
4
(iii) (18000)
4
(30000)
2
(iv) (0.002)
8
(0.0001)
3
(0.01)
4
(v) (120000) (0.0005)
2
(400000)

3.2 a.+ ++m qn+ [

+m 0+n n++ am a +0o+ +-+ 0a+++ma+ +-+ +.o
aaa+++aa. a+a++aa 6+++ mo++ a.+++m qn+.om
nm+nn[++m++. a.++++ qn+qa +o+ 6++o logarithm m+ logos
anma arithmos amn 5+ +0++++ 6++n+ao++ + a+a++nn..++qa. logos
amn+o '+-+ +[6++ +o ` anma arithmos am n+o a- amm 6n++an[a.
+0a logarithm amn+o a- +-++[ 6+++o qa. a.+++m qn+.om
nm+nn[++. m+n+--++ [+q+ qn+..nnnn n0a+a.

3.2.1 [+q+ qn+[
a amn+ + a+ a- am +. x + mm amo a
x
amn qn+ .om
an+m0a nm+nn[++1a0a+a. x + a++mm a- . ++a+ x =
q
p
, 5 q p
+ mm. q + a+ mm amo. a
x
m+ nma+a+m a++m++nn[+n+.
p
q
a
x
a

= .
a[+ ++++. .++,
( )
8 3 3
8
5 5 = , ( )
4
11 11
4
7 7

= .
x amn+ + a++mn+ a- amn6n+m+. a
x
amn+ + 6a+6+--m+
qnn n+++ a++m+ +o+a . m+o 5+ + a++n 6++a+nq +a+q +++-+
52
++++++a 0+ann[+mnm. 5+nna. a > 0 amna+maa a++6a++
6a+6+--m+ 6++-[ x aa a6a++ 6a+6+--nqa. a
x
amn +m++ +
6a+6+--m a++m++ u = a
x
am am++0n+a. 5++o+o u m+ [+q
an no oo+ [+ q+ qn+ . oo am+nn.[aa+ am0n+a. 5q a
oa+ma amma. x [+q o o+ no amma an0n+a. mm+++q am++
[+q+qn a++a m++ 6a+ 6+- [+q++ qn 6n++++a++++
6++a0a+a. 5aa++a 5 q nma+a+m am++m0n+a.

(i) (iv)
y x
a
y
a
x
a
+
=
x
a
x
a
1
=

(ii)
y x
a
y
a
x
a

= (v) ( )
x
b a
x
b
x
a =
(iii)
xy
a
y
x
a =

(vi) 1
0
= a









0an +n+ a++a [+q+qn a++a amna++m0n+a. 5n6n+m+
a.++ qn+. om a++m++ mnn[0a+a.

3.2.2 a.+++ qn+ [
b 1 am na+m b amn+ + a+ a- am+. x amn + 6a+6+--nqa
b
x
m+ +m++ + 6a+6+- a + qn+qa am an+m0a n++a0a+a. a = b
x

am am+. 5qaa [+q x b oa+ma 6++-. a m a.++ am m
a++m0n+a. 5+m x = a am am++m 0n+a . am0a x = a amn+
a = b
b
log
b
log
x
amn+m +aa+m ann+qa. 0aoa. x = a amn a.+ + ann+m+
a = b
b
log
x
amn [+ q+ qn annm +aa+m ann am+0n+a. 5+-[
annoa oa+ma (b) m 0n. x = a am n qn+[. a.+++ qn+[ amnn[a.
5+ a = b
b
log
x
qn++mn+. a[+ ++ ++. .++.
(i) 3 = 729 amn+ 9
9
log
3
= 729 m +aa+m ann;
(ii) 2 log
3
1
8
= amn+
3
1
8 = 2 m +aa+m ann.
(iii) 3 = 0.001 amn+ 10
10
log
3
= 0.001 m +aa+m ann;
(iv) 2 = amn+ 7 49 log
7
2
= 49 m +aa+m ann;
(v) 3 log
2
1
9
= m +aa+m ann 3 9 3 9
2
1
= = o+ o ;
(vi)

=
8
1
log
2
3
4
amn+
8
1
4
2
3
=

m +aa+m ann.
53
qnn n: a.+++ qn+.oo oa+ma qnnn. 0a-[a. y = log x amm am+a+
6n++ann+; a6mmo +nq+ +aa+m [+q+qn an6nm+ oa+ma
6+++++o++m mo1a. 5+nna. +o +o+ao. oa+m+ +m+ qnnn.+ao
a.+++a am+a 0n++. q m++ a.+++a 0+ oa+m++n
6n++a+++ 6++-[aam amm 6++aa 0a-[a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: nma+a a.++ annm [+q+ qn an n++ a+nnaa.
(i) 5 =
25
log
2
1
(ii)

4
1
log
2
= 2 (iii)
3
1
6 log
216
= (iv)

9
1
log
3
= 2
+ + a: oa+ma 5+-.ann+aoa +aa+m++qa. am0a
(i) 5 =
25
log
2
1
m+ ( ) 5 25 2
1
= +q+ +aa+m++qa.
(ii)

4
1
log
2
= 2 m+ ( )
4
1
2
2
=

+q+ +aa+m++qa.
(iii)
3
1
6 log
216
= m+ ( ) 6 216 3
1
= +q+ +aa+m++qa.
(iv)

9
1
log
3
= 2 m+ (3)
2
=
9
1
+q+ +aa+m++qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: nma+a [+q+ qn an nm a.+ + ann++ a+nnaa.
(i) 2 =
6
1
64 (ii) 9
3
=
729
1
(iii)
4
1
8
1
3
2
=

(iv)
1
7
7
1

=
+ + a: 5+-.ann+aoa oa+ma mn++ 5+nn++o .
(i) 2 =
6
1
64 m+
6
1
= +q+ +aa+m++qa. 2 log
64
(ii) 9
3
=
729
1
m+ 3 =

729
1
log
9
+q+ +aa+m++qa.
(iii)
4
1
8
1
3
2
=

m+

=
4
1
log
3
2
8
1
+q+ +aa+m++qa.
(iv)
7
1
= 7
1
m+ 1 =

7
1
log
7
+q+ +aa+m++qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: a+nn[+.
(i) (ii) (iii) 729 log
9
8 log
4

27
1
log
9
(iv) . ) 243 ( log
1
3

+ + a : (i) x = am+. nmn 9 729 log

9
x
= 729 = 9
3
. x = 3.
(ii) x = am+. nmn 4 8 log
4
x
= 8 = 2
3
. m+o 4
x
= (2
2
)
x
= 2
2x
.
2
2x
= 2
3
. 2x = 3 oo+ x =
2
3


54
(iii) x =

27
1
log
9
am+. nmn 9
x
=
3
3
3
3
1
27
1

= = . m+o 9
x
= (3
2
)
x
= 3
2x
.
3
2x
= 3
3
, 2x= 3 o o+ x =
2
3
.
(iv) x = am +. nmn 3
1
3
) 243 ( log
x
= (243)
1
=
243
1
=
5
3
1
= 3
5
o o+ 3
x
=3
5
o o+ x = 5.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: nma+a +amn+[+a+ ++++aa.
(i) (ii) 2 log
3
= x 2 100 log =
b

(iii) x = 512 log
8
1

(iv) x + 2 . 0 9 log
27
=
+ + a:
(i) . 3 2 log
3
= x
2
= x oo+ x =
2
3
1
=
9
1
.
(ii) . b 2 100 log =
b
2
= 100 = 10
2
. b = 10.
(iii) x = . 512 log
8
1

3
8 512
8
1
= =

x
o o+ (8
1
)
x
= 8
3
o o+ 8
x
= 8
3
.
x = 3 oo+ x = 3.

(iv) x + 2 . x = 2 o o+ 0 9 log
27
= 9 log
27
9 log
2
27
=
x

9 ) 27 (
2
=
x
o o+
2
2
3
3 ) 3 ( =
x
o o+
2
2
3
3 ) 3 ( =
x
. 2
2
3
=
x
oo+ x =
3
4
.

5n 6n+m+ a+ a- +am a.+ ++am n- n+a+ +n +n-a
6++0a+a. )+ +a+ m++ a+ a-+a+ ++++m0n+a.

(i) 6n+++o a+: a, m, n amnm a+ a-+a. a 1 amo.
) ( log mn
a
= n
a
m
a
log log + .
+n-a : x m
a
= log , am+. y n
a
= log
nmn m = a
x
, n = a
y
.
m n = a
x
a
y
oo+ mn = a
x+y
.
5++ [+ q+qn annm a.++ annn q a+n n am+.

n
a
m
a
y x mn
a
log log ) ( log + = + = .


a++++++o. 0an+n+ a+ +ma+. 5+ a+ a-+am 6n+++nnomm
a.++++m+. aa+ a-+am a.+++am +[+o+q+ +aa+qa.

(ii) aq+ +o a+: m, n, a amnm a+ a-+a an ma a 1 amo.
55
n
a
m
a
n
m
a
log log log =

.
+n-a : x m
a
= log , am+. nmn y n
a
= log
m = a
x
, n = a
y
.

n
m
=
y
x
a
a
= a
x y
.
5+ [+q anno aa+. 5+ a.++ anno a+nn.

. log log log n
a
m
a
y x
n
m
a
= =

a++++++o. aq++o a+ +ma++a+.
n
m
aa a++++m a.++++m+
amn a+ ++++++n q+ +aa+qa. n
a
m
a
log log

(iii) no a+: a, m amnm a+ a-+a. a 1 anma n + 6a+6+- amo.
. m
a
n
n
m
a
log log =
+n-a : am+. nm n m = a x m
a
= log
x
qa. 5+nna n [+q a[++.
m
n
= (a
x
)
n
=a
xn
. 5+ [+ q an no 5++ +m n+. 5+m a.+ + an no
am+.

. log log m
a
n nx
n
m
a
= =


(iv) a a+ a- amo.
0 1 log =
a
.
+n-a : am+. nm n a x
a
= 1 log
x
= 1 = a
0
. x = 0. ++a+ (-+)

. 0 1 log =
a



(v) a + a+ a- amo.
. 1 log = a
a

+n-a : am+. nmn a a
a
x log =
x
= a = a
1
. x = 1 -+

. 1 log = a
a



(vi) oa+m a+nno a+: m, n, p a+ a- +a. n 1 an ma p 1 amo.
( ) p
n
m
p
m
n
log log log

= .
+n-a : x = am+. p
n
y m
p
log , log =
56
nmn p
x
= m, n
y
= p. 5an no p +++. ( ) . m n m n
xy
x
y
= = + -
5+ [+q aoao aa+. 5+m a.++ annnq a+n n.
xy m
n
= log -+

( ) ( ). log log log p m m
n p n
=


(vi) +o+a a+: m , n amnm 1 ++o+m a+ a-+a amo.



log
n
m =

+n-a : am+. nm n x n
m
= log
x
n n n
x
m
x
x
x

= = =

1 1
.

x
n m
1
= . 5+ [+q an no aa+. 5+m a.++ annn q a+nn.

x
m
n
1
log = o o+

(viii) a, b amnm 5+ a+ a-+a. b 1 amo . a
a
b
b =
log
+n-a : x = am +. nm n b a
b
log
x
= a qa . 5+o x n qn n+o++ n
n+++.
a
b
log




(ix) m, n an ma a a+ a-+a. a 1 am+. , log log n
a
m
a
= amo m = n qa.
+n-a : am+. nm n m
a
x log = n
a
x log = .
a
x
= n -+ -+ m = n (a+ (viii) m no). n
m
a
a =
log

qnn n: m+ + a.+ ++aoa oa+m+ + 1 amnoo+ao n+++++6++a+m0n+a.
a6mmo. oa+ma 1 .+ a.+ +++ +++0m+6amo. a[+ ++++. .++.
+ +++, 5+m a+n n x amo x = o o+ 1 9 log
1
9 log
1
x
= 9 am+ +.++n+.
m+o. a++ 6a+6+- x nqa 1
x
= 9 am+ +.++++.
a+ +++ +: 6n++a++ nma+a +am+a ++a a++nn -[.

(1) .
log
log
log
n
a
m
a
n
m
a
=

(2) . log log ) ( log n
a
m
a
n m
a
+ = +
n
m
m
n
log
1
log = .
a
a
b
b
=
log
.
n log
m
1
.
57
(1) m+ +an+qa. a6mmo. 5.+ n+ +++o aa+a ao+ n+++ +o
aa+a +aa++ mo+++. ++a+. .
log
log
log log
n
a
m
a
n
a
m
a

(2) m+ +am. a6mmo. ao+ n++++o aa+a 5.+ n++++o
aa+a +aaoo. ++a+. ). ( log ) ( log n m
a
mn
a
+
a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: +++q+. (i) 729 log 27 log
3 3
+ (ii)
1000
1
log 8 log
5 5
+
+ + a: (i) ++nn.. 0++a 5+-[ a.+++am +[+o anma 5++ a.+++am
oa+m+a +aa+++++mnm. am0a 6n+++o a++n n+mn[++o+a.
) 729 27 ( log 729 log 27 log
3
3 3
= +
= ) 3 3 ( log
6 3
3

= = 9 1 = 9. 3 log 9 3 log
3
9
3
=

(ii)

= +
1000
1
8 log
1000
1
log 8 log
5 5 5

=

125
1
log
5

= ( )
3
5
3
5
5 log
5
1
log

=

= (3) 5 log = (3) 1 = 3.
5

a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: +++q+:
(i) (ii) 14 log 98 log
7 7
4 log 3 4 log 2 36 log
2
1
9 9 9
+
+ + a: (i) . 1 7 log
14
98
log 14 log 98 log
7 7 7 7
= =

=
(ii)
3
9
2
9
2
1
9 9 9 9
4 log 4 log 36 log 4 log 3 4 log 2 36 log
2
1
+

= +
= 64 log 16 log 6 log
9 9 9
+
= 64 log ) 16 6 ( log
9 9

= 64 log 96 log
9 9

= .
2
3
log
64
96
log
9 9

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: +n++.
(i) (ii) 2 log 3 4 1250 log
10 10
= . 2 log 20 8 log
3
1
36 log
2
1
1875 log
32 5 5 5
+ =
+ + a: (i) ao+n+ +a 2 log 3 4
10
= = 4
3
10
2 log
58
= 4 8 log 10 log
10 10

= 8 log 10 log
10
4
10

= 8 log 10000 log
10 10

= 1250 log
8
10000
log
10 10
=

= 5.+ n++a.
(ii) ao+ n++a 2 log 20 8 log
3
1
36 log
2
1
32 5 5
+ = = 2 log 5 4 ) 8 ( log ) 36 ( log
32
3
1
5
2
1
5
+
=
5
32 5 5
2 log 4 2 log 6 log +
= 4
2
6
log 32 log 4
2
6
log
5 32 5
+

= +

=
4
5 5 5 5
5 log 3 log 5 log 4 3 log + = +
= 625 log 3 log
5 5
+
= ( ) 625 3 log
5
= = 5.+ n+ +a. 1875 log
5

a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: +n++. 2 9 log 8 log 7 log 6 log 5 log 4 log
8 7 6 5 4 3
= .
+ + a: 5.+ n+ +a = ( ) ( ) ( ) 9 log 8 log 7 log 6 log 5 log 4 log
8 7 6 5 4 3

= = 9 log 7 log 5 log
7 5 3
( ) 9 log 7 log 5 log
7 5 3

= = ao+ n++a. 2 1 2 3 log 2 3 log 9 log 9 log 5 log
3
2
3 3 5 3
= = = = =

a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: + ++++aa. 3 ) 50 2 ( log
10
= + x
+ + a: +amn+.om [+q anno am+.
2x + 50 = 10
3
= 1000 oo+ 2x = 1000 50 = 950 o o+ x = 475.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: m a+nn+ +-[no.
2 log 3
81
9

+ + a: =
2 log 3
81
9

2 log 3
2
9
9

= =
2 log 6
9
9

6
2
6
2 log
9
9

=

. ( a6mmo ) a
a
b
b
=
log
= .
64
1
2
1
6
=

a[+ ++ ++. [ 14: . 0 ) 1 ( log 2 log
6 6
= + x x + ++++aa.
+ + a: aq++o a++n n+mn[++. ++n n.. +am n+.om 0
1
2
log
6
=

+ x
x
am
am+o+a. 5+m [+q aoao am+.
1 6
1
2
0
= =
+ x
x
o o+ 2x = x + 1 o o+ x = 1.


59
a[+ ++ ++. [ 15: 1 ) 1 ( log ) 7 ( log
3 3
= x x + ++++aa.
+ + a: aq++o a++n n+mn[++. ++nn. . +amn+. om 1
1
7
log
3
=

x
x

am am+o+a. 5+m [+q aoao am+.
3 3
1
7
1
= =

x
x
o o+ ) 1 ( 3 7 x x = o o+ x x 3 3 7 = o o+ 2x = 4 oo+ x = 2.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 16: ( ) 2 log log
3 2
= x + ++++aa.
+ + a: am+. nmn ++nn.. +amn+.+m+ x y
3
log = 2 log
2
= y amn++n+. 5+m
[+q anno am+. o o+ . 4 2
2
= = y 4 log
3
= x 5+m1a. [+q aoao
am+. o o+
4
3 = x . 81 = x

a[+ ++ ++. [ 17: 3 log 1 log 3 log 2
5 9 5
= + x + ++++aa.
+ + a: ++nn.. +amn+.om a+nn am+.
1 3 log log 3 log
5 9
2
5
= x
o o+ .
5
3
log 5 log 3 log log 9 log
5 5 5 9 5

= = x
5.+ n++++o oa+m a+nn a++n n+mn[++.

=
5
3
log log
5 5
x . x = .
5
3


n+n + 3.2.1

1. nma+am ++++ oo+ +an+ amm a.+a++aa :
(i) . (ii) 5 243 log
3
= 3 27 log
3
1
= .
(iii) . 4 log
3
16
log 4
3
16
log
2 2
=

(iv) . 4 log 8 log ) 4 8 ( log

2 2 2
=
(v) 1 log
1
= a
a
. (vi) . log log ) ( log n m n m
a a a
+ = +

2. nma+amannn q+ +aa+m a.++ annm+ ++-+:
(i) (ii) . 04 . 0 5
2
=

. 4
8
1
3
2
=

(iii) . 256 4
4
=
(iv) 3
6
= 729. (v)
216
1
36
2
3
=

. (vi) . 001 . 0 10
3
=

3. nma+amannm a+nn ++-+:
(i) . (ii) . (iii) 625 log
5
216 log
6
9 log
3
.
(iv)
3
1
log
9
. (v) 81 log
3
1
. (vi) 2 4 log
2
.
60
(vii) . (viii) . (ix) .
6
10
log 2
10
8
5
log
25
2
9
log 2
9

4. 6+++++++ ++++aa :
(i) log
x
0.001 = 3. (vi) 3 log
2
= x .
(ii) 7 log
2
1
= x . (vii) = 4.
c
25 log
5
(iii) . (viii) 2 100 log =
x
4
2
log
3
=

N
.
(iv) . (ix) 3 125 log =
b
1
1000
1
log
10
=

a
.
(v) 5
1
log
2
=

x
. (x) 2 1 log
9
= N .

5. nma+a a6a+mnn qa ++nn.. a+nm+ao ++++m a.++ 0+++6+[+ +
am++:
(i) 3 amo x m+ , 1 5 log =
x
(A) 5 (B) 25 (C) 125 (D) 625
(ii) = + 144 log
196
1
log
12 14

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3
(iii) = 1024 log
4

(A) 10 (B) 8 (C) 7 (D) 5
(iv) amo x = , log 2 4 log x
a a
=
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3
(v) amo x = , 1 log 2
16
= x
(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 16 (D) 32
(vi) 2 log
5
= x amo x =
(A) 5 (B) 25 (C) 125 (D) 625

6. nma+a a6a+mno aa 0++a+ 0+ a.+ +++++ ++++ am++ :
(i) . 9 log 2 log
10 10
+
(ii) . 8 3 log 4 2 log 3
3 3
+
(iii) . 6 log 2 4 log 3 3 log 2 5
2 2 2
+ +
(iv) 7 log 15 log 5 log 3 2 log 2
2 2 2 4
+ + .
(v) . 4 log 6 3 log 2 2 log 5
64 10 10
+
(vi) . 3 25 log 24 log 20 log 5 log
10 10 10 10
+ +

7. z y x
a a a
= = = 5 log , 3 log , 2 log an ma , 7 log t
a
= amo. nma+a a6a+mnm
a+nnm1a x, y, z an ma t 5ann+o +-[no++aa.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 6 log
a
4 log
a
5 . 1 log
a
27 log
a
61
(v)
3
1
2 log
a
(vi) (vii) 600 log
a
27
8
log
a
(viii) 15 log
a
(ix) (x) (xi) (xii) 35 log
a
12 log
a
9 . 4 log
a
15
14
log
a

8. nma+a a6a++ +amn+.om1a ++++aa :

(i) (ii) 2 log 3 log 2
5 5
= x 11 log 7 log log
3 3 3
= + x
(iii) 0 1 8 log
16
= + x (iv) 256 log 16 log log
4 4 4
= x
(v) 2 3 log ) 2 ( log
4 4
= + + x (vi) 4 log ) 1 2 ( log ) 1 2 ( log
3 3 3
= + x x
(vii) (viii) 2 ) 1 ( log 10 log
3 3
= + x x 1 3 log ) 1 5 ( log ) 3 7 ( log
2 2 2
= + x x
(ix) ) 4 3 ( log ) 10 ( log
5 5
x x + = + (x) 2 ) log 5 ( log
3 5
= x
(xi) 1 log
2
1
5 10 log
3 3
+ = + x x

9. nma+a a6a+mno aa +amn+.om +n:

(i) 5 log 3 135 log
3 3
+ = (ii) 2 log 4 2 1600 log
10 10
+ =
(iii) 5 log 2 2 2500 log
10 10
+ = (iv) 2 log 3 3 125 log
10 10
=
(v) 2 log 2 2 25 log
10 10
= (vi) 10 log 4 3 0027 . 0 log
3 3
=
(vii) 10 log 6 2 000256 . 0 log
16 16
=

10. a- ) ++o+m a+ a-+a a, b, c amo . 1 log log log = c b a
a c b
am
+n++aa.

3.2.3 6n++ a.+ ++a

a.+++a a++m++6n+m+. a+ a-+am a.++ a++m++nn.
0a-[6amo. aa.+++m oa+ma a- 1 ++o++ ann a++6a++ a+
a--++ 5+++o+a am ao1m++1a0a+a. oa+m++ e amn a++mn+
a--++ 0+++6+[+++o. nnonn.. a.+++a 5+o a.+++a qa .
oa+m++m a- 10 ++ 6++-.+o. ++q a.+++a 6n++ a.+++a
amnn[a. 5+o a.+++a +m 0+nn++ amna+ nm+nn[++m++. 6n++
a.+++a 0+nn+++ +-n+ 6amn n++a amn +0o+ +-+ aoo++
nm+nn[++m++. 5+o a.++ . +m 0+n n+++ qn 6n+a 0+J+ qa
a+a++ ln x amm ++++a++ am+0a+a. ln x n nnn a+a++ 0ao aqnn+ao
no++o+a. 5n6n+m+. 6n++ a.+++am n+mn+[ nnn n++6++aa
mnn[0a+a . 6n++ a.++ +++ +a++ log x amm oa+ma 10
qnnn.+ao am+0a+a. am0a. log x = y amn+o
x
e
log
x
10
log
y x =
10
log amm 6n++a 6++aa
0a-[a; 5+ x = 10
y
+q +aa+m++qa. y = log x o x =
1000
1
amn n+++..
62
y = log
1000
1
= . 3 10 log
3
10
=

5+n0n+o0a, for x =
100
1
,
10
1
, 1, 10, 100, 1000, am+ 6++-.+o. +n0+nn+n0n+o
y = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .amn 6nm+m0n+a. 5annn n.o+o. +a+q+ +.nn+

x 10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
x
10
log
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

++a +amnn+. x m+ 6a+6+- 0++.om a+ ++n 0n+++o ++++ qa
0n++. a +++++m n+. 0aoa ++a +amnn+. x > 1 a++ m++
x a+nn++q m+ a+ a--++ 5+++mn+. 0 < x < 1 am n++ qa
x m a+n n++q m a+nn+a+ +a+-.a+m ..a-nn[+ +o+a :
x
10
log
x
10
log
x
10
log

x m a+ +
x
10
log m 5+nn.a x
10
log m a+nn
10
5
< x < 10
4
5 < < 4 x
10
log
5 + 0.a
1
a
2

10
4
< x < 10
3
4 < < 3 x
10
log
4 + 0.b
1
b
2

10
3
< x < 10
2
3 < < 2 x
10
log
3 + 0.c
1
c
2

10
2
< x < 10
1
2 < < 1 x
10
log
2 + 0.d
1
d
2

10
1
< x < 10
0
1 < < 0 x
10
log
1 + 0.e
1
e
2

10
0
< x < 10
1
0 < < 1 x
10
log
0 + 0.f
1
f
2

10
1
< x < 10
2
1 < < 2 x
10
log
1 + 0.g
1
g
2

10
2
< x < 10
3
2 < < 3 x
10
log
2 + 0.h
1
h
2

10
3
< x < 10
4
3 < < 4 x
10
log
3 + 0.i
1
i
2

10
4
< x < 10
5
4 < < 5 x
10
log
4 + 0.j
1
j
2


0an++-a ..a-+o+++ ++a +amnn+. 6n++ a.++ m a+nn x
10
log

(+ mm) + (0.r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
)


am m am+ mo1a . 5+ + an no . mmn nq++ m 0++++m amaa
++anmmn nq++ m n+ma+m++m amaa an0n+a. 6n++a++
n+ma+m+ +nm ++mq n+ma+m+ao (++a+++m++o) am+0a+a. m
n+ma+m+ +n+m+ 0 + qa 1 +qa 5.nn.. a+ a- amn+ n+m0n+a.
m 0+J++n+m+ x m a+n nn 6n+++ + + a+ mma++0a+ oo+ qn
mma++0a+ o o+ n+ ++a++0a+ 5++ qa . x < 1 amo . m 0++++n+m+
+ qn mma++ 5++ qa . x >10 amo . m 0++++n+m+ + a+
mma++ 5++qa. 1 < x < 10 amo. m 0++ ++n+m+ n+ ++a++ 5++qa.
x
10
log
x
10
log
x
10
log
x
10
log
x
10
log
x
10
log
x
10
log
63
a[+ ++ ++. [ 18: nma+a a-+am 6n++ a.+++am 0++++m+a+
+-[no++aa.
(i) 2003 (ii) 200.3 (iii) 20.03 (iv) 2.003
(v) 0.2003 (vi) 0.02003 (vii) 0.002003 (viii) 0.0002003
(ix) 0.00002003 (x) 0.000002003
+ + a: (i) 2003 m+ 10
3
+ qa 10
4
+qa 5.+o 5+n n++o. m a+nn+m+
3+0. d
2003 log
10
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
am n++ qa . am0a m 0++ + +m 3; n+ma+m++m 0. d 2003 log
10
1
d
2
d
3
d
4

qa. 0am aa+++. 2003 na+o qn+.oo am+. 2003 = 2.003 10
3
.

. = ) 10 003 . 2 ( log 2003 log
3
10 10
=
3
10 10
10 log 003 . 2 log +
= 10 log 3 003 . 2 log
10 10
+
=
4 3 2 1 10
. 0 3 003 . 2 log 3 d d d d + = + .
. m 0+J++m = 3. 2003 log
10
[x aa a+ 6a+6+--m a 10
n
am na+m na+o qn+ . oo am+m+o .
5 q +.+ +n 6nma mm n m+ m 0++ + +n+qa . m a+nn+m+
m n+m a+m+ +n+qa.]
x
10
log a
10
log
x
10
log
(ii) 200.3 = 2.003 10
2
. 200.3 m 0++++m = 2 ; log
anma log 200.3 m n+ma+m++m = 2.003 ( log 200.3 m n+ma+m++ma.
log 2003 m n+ma+m++ma +aa amn+ n+.)
10
log
(iii) 20.03 = 2.003 10
1
log 20.03 m 0++++m = 1; an ma log 20.03 m n+ma+m+ +m = 2.003. log
(iv) 2.003 = 2.003 10
0
log 2.003 m 0++++m 0; log 2.003 m n+ma+m+ +m log 2.003.
(v) 0.2003 = 2.003 10
1
log 0.2003 m 0++++m 1; log 0.2003 m n+ma+m+ +m log 2.003.
(vi) 0.02003 = 2.003 10
2
log 0.02003 m 0++++m 2; log 0.02003 m n+ma+m+ +m log 2.003.
(vii) 0.002003 = 2.003 10
3
log 0.002003 m 0++++m 3; log 0.002003 m n+ma+m+ +m log 2.003.
(viii) 0.0002003 = 2.003 10
4
log 0.0002003 m 0++++m 4; log 0.0002003 m n+ma+m+ +m log 2.003.
(ix) 0.00002003 = 2.03 10
5
log 0.00002003 m 0++++m 5; log 0.00002003 m n+ma+m+ +m log 2.003
(x) 0.000002003 = 2.003 10
6
log 0.000002003 m 0++++m 6; log 0.000002003 m n+ma+m+ +m log 2.003.

0an++-a a[+ ++++.[+ao++ +. ++a na+.
64
(i) a+ a- x m mm a- nq+ n 5o+++a 6++-. a- amo. m
0++++m = n 1.
x
10
log

(ii) a+ a- x m mm a- nq+ 0 an ma x m n+ma+m (++a+++m) nq++o
n+ma+m naa+q aonnn++o aa m+o n+++an n 5o++++n q mm n
n+ +++a 6nnn+nnm. m 0+++ +m = (n + 1). x
10
log

(iii) 2003000, 2003, 200.3, , 0.000002003 5a+m++a 0+ n+ma+m+ +nmn
6nnmaam. +0a. ++n n.. a+++o a++ +aa+m a+n n.+
5o+++an 6nnn m++ a-++qa 0+ n+m a+m+ +m++m 5++ qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 19: log 162 = 2.2095 ++nnom. nma+amann+ +-[no++aa.
(i) log 1620 (ii) log 16.2 (iii) log 1.62 (iv) log 0.162 (v) log 0.0162 (vi) log 0.00162.
+ + a: log 162 = 2.2095.
(i) log 1620 = 3.2095.
(ii) log 16.2 = 1.2095.
(iii) log 1.62 = 0.2095.
(iv) log 0.162 = 1 + 0.2095.
(v) log 0.0162 = 2 + 0.2095.
(vi) log 0.00162 = 3 + 0.2095.

qnn n: 3 +0.2095 ++++a++ 3 .2095 am am+0a+a . 5+n 0n+o0a 5 + 0.1023
5 .1023 am am+0a+a. +-++[a6n+m+. + 6n++ a.+ ++q qn a-
+.++o+a. +q++ a+ mma ++ qn a--.m +.o +a++. qn
a--+++ +.+ + a.+++m (qn mm) + 0.d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
amn anno am+
mo1a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 20: log 0.25 = 1.3979 an ma log 2003 = 3.3016 amm ++nnom.
nma+amann+ +-[no++aa.
(i) log 0.025 (ii) log 0.0025 (iii) log

2003
25
(iv) log

2500
003 . 2

+ + a: log 0.25 = 1.3979 = 1 + 0.3979. . log 0.25 m n+ma+m+ +m 0.3979 qa.
5+n0n+o0a. log 2003 = 3.3016 = 3 + 0.3016. . log 2003 m n+ma+m+ +m = 0.3016.

(i) log 0.025 = 2.3979
(ii) log 0.0025 = 3.3979
(iii) log

2003
25
= log 25 log 2003
3.3016
1.3979
1.9037
2.0000
1.9037
0.0963
= 1.3979 3.3016
= 1.9037.
= 2 + 2 1.9037
= 2.0963.

65
(iv) log

2500
003 . 2
= log 2.003 log 2500
= 0.3016 3.3979
= 4 + 4. 3016 3.3979 = 4.9037.

3.2.4 a.+++am ..a-

1.000 m+o 9.999 (3 n+ma+mn nq+1.m ) a++o+m a+ a- +am 6n++
a.+++am a+nn+ +a+ +-++.[ ..a- anno n.o+o n[++
aam+. (5++tom +.+ ++mq n+ + +an n++ + +aa ). 5a a. .a-+
a.++ ..a- am0n+a. 5++ ..a-+n n+mn[++. a+ +6a++ a+
a--nqa 6n++ a.+++m+ +-++.o+a. a.+++m n+mn+[+an nnn
n++ 6++aa+nq mm a.++ ..a-+ no++n1a mn+mn
na++nn[+++ 6++a0a+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 21: log 36.78 + +-[no.
+ + a: 36.78 = 3.678 10
1
.
. 0+++ +m =1. n+ma+m+ +nmn 6nma+nq. 3.678 + ++++. a.++
..a-+m 5.nn++ aaan ++oo (column) 3.6 m 5.++ n+aa.
Mean differences (+++++ a+ ++++a )
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3.6 .5647 10

3.6 a a +n (row) aa+++ no+++ 6++-0. 6+mn+o 7 m ++o+q+ +a
0.5647+ ++-0n+a. 0aoa 0+ +n+o 6++.++ + 6+mm +++++ a+ ++++++o
8 m ++om +a a- 10+ ++-o+a. 5++ a- 10 0.5647 .m +. . 0.5657
+.+qa. 5+0a 3.678 m 6n++ a.+ +++qa (n+m a+m+ +n+qa ). am0a.
log 36.78 = 1 + 0.5657 = 1.5657.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 22: log 0.00200316 + +-[no++aa.
+ + a: 0.00200316 = 2.00316 10
3
.
. 0+++ +m = 3, n+ma+m+ +m = log 2.00316. 5n6n+m+ 2.00316 +
++++. 5+o 5 n+m a+m +a a am. m+o 6n++ a.+ ++o 3
n+ma+m+a aa a-++qn n.o+o 5.nn.[aam. am0a 2.00316 2.003
am 0+++++nn[+++6++a0a+a (4a+ n+ma+m 5.++o 5 a.+ qna+m )
5+nn++o). 5n6n+m+. a.++ ..a-++ 6++-[ log 2.003 = 0.3016 am
n+o+a. am0a. log 0.00200316 3 + 0.3016 = 3.3016.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 23: log 730.391+ +-[no++aa.
+ + a: 730.391 = 7.30391 10
2
.
66
. 0+++ +m = 2. n+ma+m+ +m = log 7.30391. 7.30391 7.304 (a6mmo 4 a+
n+ma+ma 9. 5+ 5 a.+ +n++oo). am0a a.++n n.o+oo 5+++
log 7.304 = 0.8635. . log 730.391 2 + 0.8635 = 2.8635.

3.2.5 a++a.++ ..a-
log x = y amo x y m a++a.++ am +0n+a . ++a+. = y amo .
x = 10
x
10
log
y
m+ y m a++a.++++qa. am0a. y m a++a.+ + = 10
y
. a++a.++
6nma+ a.++n 6nma+nq 0++a+n+qa . a[+++ ++..++. log 20 = 1.3010 amo
1.3010 m a++ a.++ 20 qa.

0.0000 o+++ 0.9999 (++mq 5o+++a aa n+ma+mn nq+) a a
a-+am a++ a.+ +++++m ..a- 5++tom +.+ 5+-[n n+++ao
6++[++nn.o+++m n+. 5aa..a-+n n+mn[++ 6++[++nn.. a++6a++
a--m a++ a.+++m1a 6nno+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 24: nma+amannm a+Ja.+++m+ +-[no++aa.
(i) 1.2305 (ii) 3.4629 (iii) 1.8658 (iv) 2.0578
+ Ja:
( y m a+Ja.++++ +-[no++ m+n+- y m n+ma+m+ +nm
a.[a ++++. nmn n+ma+m+ +nm m+m +mm 5o++++q ann a+J
a.+++m+ +-[ +.m +++++ a++++++ +o aa 4 a+ 5o++++n++m
a+nnm+ +..+ +.nn+ 0+a++m a+Ja.++++qa.)
(i) 1.2305 m a+Ja.+ +
=
2305 . 1
10
= 10
1 + 0.2305
= 10
1
10
0.2305
= 700 . 1
10
1

= 0.1700

(ii) 3.4629 m a+Ja.+ + =10
3 + 0.4629
= 10
3
10
0.4629
= 903 . 2
10
1
3

= 0.002903.


(iii) 1.8658 m a+Ja.++ = 10
1.8658
a++ a.++n n.o+oo+++0.230 1.698
+++++ a+ ++++a
5 +q ann+ 2

1.700
2.897
6
2.903
7.328
13
7.341
= 10
1 + 0.8658
= 10
1
10
0.8658
= 10 7.341
= 73.41
67

(iv) 2.0578 m a+Ja.++ = 10
2.0578
= 10
2 + 0.0578
1.140
2
1.142
= 10
2
10
0.0578
= 10
2
1.142
= 114.2

qnn n: 0an++-a a[+++++.oo+++. ++a na+
(i) log x m 0+J+ +n+m+ n aa qn+o o+ mm amo . log x m a+Ja.+++o
aa n+ma+mn naa++m+ ( n + 1)

a+ 5o++++nqn nm 5.n n[+mn+.


0+J++m n+ma+mn naa+m +o
0 1 a+ 5o+ ++ +n q [+ +
1 2 a+ 5o++++nq [++
2 3 a+ 5o++++nq [++
3 4 a+ 5o++++nq [++
4 5 a+ 5o++++nq [++

(ii) log x m 0+J+ +m n amn qn a- amo. log x m a+Ja.+ ++o. n+ma+mn
naa++m+. n+ma+mn naa+q [++aa n 1 5. +ao n+++ma. n a+
5.+ +o n+++aoo+ a- a+a+m 5.nn[+mn+.

0+J++m n+ma+mn naa+m +o
1 0.d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
2 0.0d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
3 0.00d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
4 0.000d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
5 0.0000d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4







0an++-a ..a-+o , d
1
. d
2
d
3
d
4
amn+ ++nn.. a.+++o aa n+ma+m+
+nm+ a+Ja.++++qa.

3.2.6 a.+++mn n+mn[+++ +-++.o

5mn+ o+mo. +-++.o a+0a+a++aa. a++ +o o+a++aa 6nn
amm- +-++[a+m (calculator) anma +-m (computer) 5a++-[a aam.
m+o 5+ +++m+a ann[a+nq mm mJ am+ nno+ 6++-[ +-++.0.+a.
+-++.o a+ 0a+a++ am+ nno+ 6++-[ +-++. a.+++a
nm+nn[++nn..m. 5+n+++ a.++. a+Ja.++ ++annn++m
..a-+a ++++++nn..m. 5n6n+m+. +-++.oo a.+++m n+m+ ++..
+o a[+++++.[+a+ ++- m+n+n0n+a. nma+a a++nn+[+a
0+ann[+mnm.

68

(i) n
a
m
a
mn
a
log log ) ( log + =
(ii) n
a
m
a
n
m
a
log log log =

(iii)
.
log log m
a
n
n
m
a
=







a[+ ++ ++. [ 25: ++-+ (i) 27.91 5.49 (ii) 0.02871 0.00099 482.49
+ Ja. (i) x = 27.91 5.49 am+.
nmn log x = log (27.91 5.49)
= log 27.91 + log 5.49
= 1.4458 + 0.7396
= 2.1854

x = 2.1854 m a+Ja.++
= 10
2.1854
= 10
2 + 0.1854
= 10
2
10
0.1854
= 10
2
1.532= 153.2
(ii) x = 0.02871 0.00099 482.49 am+. nmn
log x = log 0.02871 + log 0.00099 + log 482.49
1.4456
2
1.4458
1.531
1
1.532
= 6835 . 2 9956 . 4 4581 . 2 + +
= 1372 . 2 .
x = 1372 . 2 m a+Ja.++ =0.01372.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 26: a+nn[+.
(i)
23 . 16
2003
(ii)
09782 . 0
3421 . 0

+ + a: (i) x =
23 . 16
2003
am+. nmn
3.3016
1.2103
2.0913
log x = log 2003 log 16.23
= 3.3016 1.2103
= 2.0913
x = 2.0913 m a+Ja.++ = 123.4.

(ii) x =
09782 . 0
3421 . 0
am+. nmn
log x = log 0.3421 log 0.09782
= 1.5341 2.9904
= (1+0.5341) (2+0.9904)
= 1 + 0.5341 0.9904
= 1.5341 0.9904 = 0.5437
x = 0.5437 m a+Ja.++ = 3.497.

69
a[+ ++ ++. [ 27: nma+amannm a+nn+a+ +-++[+.
(i) (29.76)
5
(ii) (0.3749)
7

+ Ja:
(i) x = (29.76)
5
am+. nmn
log x = log (29.76)
5
= 5 log (29.76) = 5 1.4737 = 7.3685.
x = 7.3685 m a+Ja.++ = 23360000.

(ii) x = (0.3749)
7
am+. nmn
log x =7 log( 0.3749) = 7 1.5739
= (1 + 0.5739) 7
= 7 + 4.0173
= 7 + 4 + 0.0173 = 3 + 0.0173 = 3.0173
x = 3.0173 m a+Ja.++ = 0.001041.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 28:
5
2713 . 0 m a+nn ++-+.
+ Ja: x =
5
2713 . 0 = (0.2713)
5
1
am+. nmn
log x = log (0.2713)
5
1
.
=
5
1
log 0.2713 =
5
1
1.4335 =
5
4335 . 0 1+
=
5
4335 . 4 5 +

= 1 + 0.8867 = 1.8867.
x = 1.8867 m a+Ja.++ =0.7702

a[+ ++ ++. [ 29:
46 . 1828
159 . 22 23 . 175
m a+nnm+ ++-aa.
+ Ja: x =
46 . 1828
159 . 22 23 . 175
am+. nmn
log x = log 175.23 + log 22.159 log 1828.46
1.000 m+o 9.999 (+mm n+a+m nmmn nq+1.m ) a++o+m a-+am 6n++
a.++n n.o+o+m+ +++J 6+++ ++n n.[aa++o. ++a nma+a 0++++++a
6+++ 0a-o++++n+.
175.23 = 1.7523 10
2
1.752 10
2
.
22.159 = 2.2159 10
1
2.216 10
1
.
1828.46 = 1.82846 10
3
1.829 10
3
.
log x = 2.2435 + 1.3456 3.2622
= 3.5891 3.2622 = 0.3269.
x = 0.3269 m a+Ja.++ = 2.122.


70
a[+ ++ ++. [ 30:
04623 . 0 ) 75 . 42 (
928 . 1 ) 25 . 76 (
5
3 3

m a+nn +-[no.
+ Ja: ++nn.. 0++a+m x am+. nmn
log x = log (76.25)
3
+ log
3
928 . 1 [log (42.75)
5
+ log 0.04623]
= 3 log 76.25 +
3
1
log 1.928[5 log 42.75 + log 0.04623]
= 3 1.8823 +
3
1
0.2851 [5 1.6309 + 2.6649]
= 5.6469 + 0.0950 [8.1545 + 2.6649]
= 5.7419 6.8194
= 2 + (7.7419 6.8194)
= 2 + 0.9225 = 2.9925
x = 2.9925 m a+Ja.+ + = 0.09828.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 31: 4.3562 m a+nn ++-+.
12
log
+ Ja: 5 q oa+ma 12 am a a+. a.+ + . .a-+n n+m n[+ +
a.+++m oa+ma 10 am 5+++ 0a-[a. oa+m++ a+nma a++n
n+mn[++.
12
log 4.3562 = 4.3562 10
10
log
12
log
= 4.3562
10
log
12 log
1
10

= x =
0792 . 1
6391 . 0
am+. nmn log x = log

0792 . 1
6391 . 0

= 1.8056 (0.0331)
= 1 + (0.8056 0.0331)
= 1 + (0.7725) = 1 .7725
x = 1.7725 m a+Ja.++ = 0.5923.

n+n + 3.2.2

1. nma+a a-+am 6n++a.+++am 0+J++m+a+ ++-+.

(i) 1234 (ii) 27.36 (iii) 3.65 (iv) 0.7851
(v) 0.084 (vi) 0.00532 (vii) 0.00003 (viii) 0.032 10
4

2. nma+a+m 6n++ a.+++a 6nnmaa a-+am mmn nq++o a a
5o+++am a--+++m+ +-[no++aa.

(i) 2.345 (ii) 1.456 (iii) 3.4567

(iv) 0.1234 (v) 0.9876 (vi) 3 0.982

71


3. a-+am 6n++ a.+++a +0a ++nn.[aam. a-+am n+ma+mn
naa+q nn+o m+o n+++aoo++ 5o++++nq mma+a n++++am
a--++++ +-[no.
(i) 3456 . 1 (ii) 2.2345 (iii) 123 . 3
(iv) 4.7877 (v) 5 .7245 (vi) 4.102

4. 32740 m 6n++ a.+++m n+ma+m+ +m 0.5151 qa. nma+a a-+am
6n++ a.+++a am++.
(i) 32740 (ii) 3274 (iii) 327.4
(iv) 32.74 (v) 3.274 (vi) 0.3274
(vii) 0.0003274 (viii) 0.03274 10
5

5. a.++ ..a-+n n+mn[++ nma+a a-+am 6n++ a.+++a+
+-[no++aa.
(i) 8273 (ii) 843250 (iii) 0.001439
(iv) 0.0000324 (v) 0.00468 (vi) 0.2356

6. nma+a 6n++a.+++am a+Ja.+++a+ +-[no++aa.
(i) 2.8903 (ii) 0.4321 (iii) 1.4583 (iv) 4261 . 3
(v) 5 .5201 (vi) . 0930 . 3

7. nma+a+m x m 6n++a.++ 5++++o. x m a+n n+ ++- +.
(i) 5.3027 (ii) 1.9168 (iii) 2.0411
(iv) 3.1773 (v) 0.3916 (vi) 4.1083
(vii) 2 . 1 2 . 3 + (viii) 1 . 2 4 . 5 (ix) 2.1 5.4
(x) 2 3 . 1 (xi) 3 41 . 3 (xii) 5 .5 3

8. nma+amann a+nn[ 6+++.
(i) 25.46 80.17 (ii) 37.42 816.3
(iii) 1.231 0.0084 (iv) 86.3 0.0625
(v) (0.0275)
3
(vi) (50.49)
5
(vii) (525.9)
8
(viii)
3
3 . 452
(ix)
5
08745 . 0 (x)
0543 . 0
37 . 45 4935 . 0

(xi)
2
3
) 4 . 132 (
5 . 27 ) 23 . 4 (
(xii)
23 . 3 94 . 16
3 . 84 71 . 24

(xiii) (xiv) 326 . 1 log
5
28 . 63 log
9




72
3.3 +-+ qn+ [

+a m +-++ +m +++m0+ +-+ qn+.+qa. m++ +-+n n+a+aoa
+-+qn+[ 0++mm+mn+. +-+++m o0++a ++++ +++o +a+++ +-+
aoo+++a m+n++++m a++o++ +-+ qn+[+a 0++mnm. 6+am +-+
0a+ ++ 0+m.+ (1845 1918) +a++++ +-+am 6++a+0+ +-+
aa++++q ao+o o++ a+++. +-++m +++++am1a. +-+6++a+
nnn+ onn.+ ++++++a1a nm+n n[++ 5n6n+m+ m+o0a+a.

3.3.1 + +-+ +m +++ ++

+mq a++n 6+++nn.. mnn+a+o m 6++q++ +-a am0n+a.
a[+ ++++. .++. m++ 5+o a-+am 6++qn n. + +a++oaa m++
+an++ m+0++-+am 6++qnn. ++++- ++m+ -+a 0ao +on
naa+m m++ mn++a aqnn a+-a++am 6++qn n. m++
6a+6+-+am 6++qnn. +o am+++ +aoaa m++ vowels-+am 6++qnn
0n+mna+a +-++q+ +o a[+++ ++.[++a qa. 0a0o qnnn. [aa
6++qnn++ao a a mnn++a. +a a+o aa amm m++.[+ +n
moa++o++m a +-+a +mnm. nma+a a[+++++.[+a+ +++0a+a.

(i) m.+ aqnnoaa ++a+m a+-a++am +-a.
(ii) + no+ + +oo n+ +++am +-a.

++a. +oo 0n+mn 6++n++q ++++m aao 6n++a 6++aa mo+++++o
0an qnn n. . a[+ ++ ++. [+a +m q a++m+ +n n. .a o o. am0a an nm
mnn+a +aa+o ++++++ +n mo+aoo. am0a a +-+a +++.

qnn n: + +-++oa a mnn+a +m+ +a++qa.

+ +-++m 6n++am + +maa oo+ + mn n o o+ +
++ +m+ am an0n+a. +-+a+ qn++ A oo+ B 0n+m n 6n++ +o
am++++a1a. annm mnn+a+ qn++ x,y,a,b 0n+mn +n+ +o
am++++a1a n+mn[++0a+a . x m+ +-a A o + mn n am n++ qn+ +
x A am am+0a+a . amn qn+[ aa+ amn 6n++an[a. +maa x m+
Ao mnnoo amn++ qn++. x A am am+0a+a. a[+ ++++. .++. A am n
+-++m +ma+a 1, 3, 4, 5 amo. 5+m 1 A, 3 A, 4 A, 5 A. m+o
6 A, 11 A, 9 A, qa++ A.

+ +-++m a++. nma+a 5+mn+an nmnnm0a+a :
(1) ..a- oo+ a++n n.o+o mn
(2) +-++..ann oo+ a+mn

73
3.3.2 . .a- o o+ a++n n.o+o mn+o +-++m+ qn++o

.nn+a { } 5annnqa + +-++oaa m++ mnn++a1a .
aa qn 6++-[n n++ +n n.o+o. [ ++-++m am+0a+a.
a[+ ++++. .++. mathematics ama 6++oooaa m++ ++ am++++am
+-a {a, e, i} qa . 5 q a aa am+ + 5+mn mathematics ama 6++ooo
a+++oa +-++o qnnn.6.m+a0n++ 0+6+++ mn a.[0a mnn++
am+0a+a. a6mmo +-++o aa mnn+a +m++a+a++ 5+++o
0a-[a. 5aa+m mnn+a { } aa .nn+qa am+a mn+m
. .a- o o+ a++n n. o+o mn am 0n+a . . .a- mn+o +o
+-+a nma+a+m am++0n+a:
(i) 13 a.+ qna+m n++ a-+am +-a {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} qa.
(ii) FOOTBALL ama 6++oooaa am+++a+ 6++-. +-a
{F, O, T, B, A, L}
(iii) m++ 5+o a-+am +-a {1, 2, 3,}. 5 q am n qn+[.
6++.+++ a+a m++ mnn+a1a mnm1a a.++ qnnn++qa.
5++-++m N aa +nn6nm+++o qnn0n+a. N = {1, 2, 3, }
(iv) m++ mm a-+a 0, 1, 2, 3, ++mann mnn++a+
6++-. +-++m W amn +nn6nm+++o qnn0n+a. W = {0, 1, 2, 3,}.
(v) m+ + mm+ +a+m 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, ++man n
mnnm++a+++ 6++-. +-a Z amn +nn6nm+++o qn++nn[+mn+.
Z={0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, }.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 32: 5 m a.q+a. m+o 50 +q+ qna+m m++ 5+o 5+..n
n. a-+a+ 6++-. +-+ +m ..a- mn+o am++.
+ + a: 5 o aqn[a 5+..nn. 5+o a-+a 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, qa .
50+q+ qna+m 5o aqn[a m+ + 5+..nn. a- +am +-a
={10, 20, 30, 40}.

3.3.3 +-+ +. .an n oo+ a+mn+o +-++m a++o

+-++m+ +-++..an n ama nn6+++ mn+oa am+o+a.
5amn+o +-++m am+. m+oo +m mnn+++.0+ aa 6n++a+m
n-nm n+ 0a-[a. 5nn-n. ++-++o aa mnn++q a++++0a
-a+++ 0a-[a. a[+++++.onq. {6, 36, 216} amn +-++m+ +++0a+a.
5+m mnn+a 6, 36, 216 am nm 6m [+ q+a aa n- nmn 6nn ma am.
am0a x = 6
n
, 5 q n = 1, 2, 3 aa +n++m 6, 36, 216 ++ a- +a a. [0a
+++mn+. 5++ +n++m+q.n.[ 0a6n++ a--1a 6nn 5+o++. +0a.
+-a {6, 36, 216} m+ x = 6
n
, n = 1, 2, 3 aa +n+ +m+ +na 6++ 1a
m++ mnn+a x o m+ am m n+o+a . 5+m { x | x = 6
n
, n = 1, 2, 3}
am am+0a+a. 5a mn+o. {} am n .n n+ qn 5ann+ 6++-[aa +-a
amn++ qn++n n+mn[+n+. | ama (vertical bar) 0++ q+ ++ 0++. [+ qn
74
nma+amann+ ++aoo (such that) am n 6n++ao n+m n[+ +n n[+n+. 6n++n
n-n+m x = 6
n
, n = 1, 2, 3. amn+ +-++m +a++qa a++++ 5+nn++o
5amn a+mn oo+ +-+ +. .an n mn amnn[+mn+. 0a6n++
mnnn+m n 6++[++nn.. +-a Am mnnnq a.[0a n-n P 6n++++mnn+o.
+-a A A = { x | n-n P x 6nnmaa+} am am+0a+a. 5+m. n-n P
6nnmaa m++ mnn+a x +am +-a A amn non0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 33: nma+amann a+mn+o +-a+++ qn++aa :
(i) 6 a.+ qna+m m++ 5+o a-+am +-a.
(ii) +o am++++aoaa m++ ++ am+ +++am +-a.
(iii) 2, 4, 6, . ++ a-+a+ 6++-. +-a.
+ + a: (i) x N, x < 6 am n+ x + 5+o a- an ma 6 a.+ qna amn+
aa++qa +nn+qa.
{ x | x N, x < 6} amn+ 0+a++m +-++m+ qnnn++qa.
(ii) qn+[ x amn+ + +o ++ am++m+ qnnn++++ 6++-.+o.
{x | x + +o ++ am+ +} amn0+ 0+a++m +-a+qa.
5++-++m { x | x = a, e, i, o, u} o o+ {a, e, i, o, u} am am+o+a.
(iii) 2, 4, 6, amn aoaoaa + a-- x = 2n, n N amn +n nm+o
aa+++o+a. { x | x = 2n, n N}amn+ 0+a++m +-a+qa.

qnn n: mnn+an n.o+o.+ao annm n-n+a+ 6++-[ +-++..ann
mn+o qnnn.nn[a++o +-++..ann mn+m aa+++o mn amaa
a++o+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 34: +-a A = {x | x + 5 = 7, x N} ..a- mn+o am++.
+ + a: x + 5 = 7 x = 7 5 = 2. 5 q 2 N.
a- 2+ +a+ 0a6n++ a--a x + 5 = 7, x N am n n- nm +na
6+++++.
A = {2}.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 35: +-a A =

7
1
,
6
1
,
5
1
,
4
1
,
3
1
,
2
1
1, +-++..ann mn+o am++.
+ + a: +-a A m mnn++a m+o am 5+o a-+am +o+a+a+qa. am0a
A =

= 7
1
| n n ,
n
x x ma an N .
qnn n: x, y amn+ x anma y am+ qn+qa.

3.3.4 moam an ma moao +- +a

+-a A m mn n+ +a m nm nm m n++ a- -.+ 6++. +. + 6++o
moa 6nma+m+o. +-a A moam +-a am a++0n+a .
75
aa+m a--a mn moa 6nnaoo6+mo A moao +-a am0n+a.
+-a A m mnn++am a--++. + a- am m a+ +n n[a . 5+m n(A)
am+ qnn 0n+a. +0a n(A) amn+ +-a Am mnn++am a--++++qa. A
+ moam +-a amo n(A) + mm a- qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 36: nm a+aman no++ + moam anma moao +-+a+
qnnn[+:
(i) A = {x | x W, x < 5}.
(ii) {+aa+++oaa m++n naa+a }.
(iii) {m+ naa+oaa m++ mn++a aqnn a+-a++a }.
(iv) N.
(v) W.
(vi) Z.
(vii) m++ n++ a-+a .
+ + a:
(i) x W, x < 5 x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. A m mnn++a 0,1, 2, 3, 4 +a mn0+ m+o+a. 5+-.+a.
+mn+a. ++m++a anma +++a mnn++a am a--[a 6++o moam+n+.
am0a n(A) = 5 an ma A + moam +-a.
(ii) +aa+++oaa m++n naa+a1a a6a+mn++ a--. +an+ ++o.
+6++o + +..+ +o moama. am0a {+aa+++oaa m++n naa+a }
aa +-a moam +-a+qa .
(iii) m+ naa+oaa mn++a aqnn a+-a++a ma+1a a--[a
6++o moama. am0a {m+ naa+oaa m++ mn++a aqnn
a+-a++a } +-a moam +-a+qa .
(iv) N = {1, 2, 3,}. 5++-++m mnn++a a6a+mn++ a--. +an+++o.
5+6++omn mnmn 6nn++. am0a N + moao +-a+qa.
(v) W = {0, 1, 2, 3,}. W m mnn+a a6a+mn++ m+o mnn. 5+-.+a
mnn..... am a--a mn mnmn6nn++. am0a W + moao +-a+qa.
(vi) Z = {0, 1, 1, 2, 2,} m mnn++a+m 0, 1, 1, 2, 2. mn0+ m+o+a
mnn. 5+-.+a mnn.... am a--a mn mnmn6nn++. +0a Z a moao
+-a+qa.
(vii) n++ a-+a 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 +a a--a mn mnmn6nn++++o.
m++n n++ a-+am +-a moao +-a+qa .

3.3.5 6an m+ +-a o o+ mn no +-a
mnn+a nn + +-++m 6an m+ +-a oo+ mn no +-a am
an0n+a. 6anm++-++ am+ qnn0n+a. = { } an ma n() = 0.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 37: nma+amanma 6anm+ +-+a ++a?
(i) {2o aqn[a nnn n. 5+o a-+a }
(ii) {4 + +++-+++n 6nn n n++ a-+a }
(iii) {x | x W, x N}. (iv) {}.
76
+ + a:
(i) 2o aqn[a nnn n. 5+o a- +a a+aaoo amn++o.
{2 o aqn[a nnnn. 5+o a-+a } = qa.
(ii) + a--m aq a-+a 1 anma 0+ a- am a.[0a 5+nnm. ++
a--n n++ a- am0n+a. am0a. 4 +++-++++ 6++-. n++ a- a+aoo.
{4 + +++-+++n 6nnn n++ a-+a } = qa.
(iii) W + q mnn++aa m+o N+q mnn++ 5oo++ 0+ mnn c qa.
++a+. x W, x N x = 0. {x | x W, x N} = {0}. 5+ +mnn +-a qa.
am0a 5+ + 6annnn +-a qa.
(iv) {} o 6anm++-a + mnn+qa. am0a {} 6anm++-aoo. ++a+
{} . . {} J +mnn +-a+qa.

3.3.6 +a+m +- +a
+-+a A, B amnm 0+ a--+++o mnn++a+ 6++-o+nnm
a+a +a+m +- +a amn n[a . +-a A m+ +-a B+q +a+m +-a++
5+nnm n(A) = n(B) qa . 5+m A B am am+0a+a. a[+++++..++.
A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {11, 9, 23}, n(A) = 3, n(B) = 3. am0a A B.

3.3.7 +a +- +a
5+ +- +a A, B amnm 0+ mnn+an 6nnn+nnm. ann+ +a
+- +a am +0n+a . 5a a+n++m A = B am am++m0n+a. a[+++++..++.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {x | x N, x < 5}amo A = B. a6mmo. Bo aa a+
x N, x < 5 x = 1, 2, 3, 4.
++a na+. A, B 5+-ooa 0+ mnn+a 5+nn0+ A, B 5a
+aa+++++o m+ 6++a++qa. am0a + +-++o aa mnn+a a++
a+++oa a+nna 0n+o am+o+a. a[+ ++++. .++.
{1, 2, 3, 4} = {4, 3, 1, 2 } = {3, 1, 2, 4} = {2, 4, 3, 1}

qnn n: 5+ +- +a +a6amo . a 0+ a- -+ ++o+m mn n+a+
6++-[aam. am0a a +a+m +-+a. a[+++ ++..++. {1, 1, 2, 2} anma
{1, 2, 1, 2} 5+-[a +a++-+a+++++0o+[ +a+m +-+a++aa 5+++mnm.
m+o +a+m +-+a +a+-+a++ 5+++0a-[a amn+oo. a[+++++..++.
{1, 1, 2, 2} an ma {1, 2, 3, 4} ama +-+a 0+ a--+++o+m mnn+a+
6++- [a a++o a +a+m +- +a . m+o a +a +- +a++++.
a6mmo. 1, 2 {1, 1, 2, 2} an ma 1, 2 {1, 2, 3, 4}.

3.3.8 +mn n+ +-a
+ mn n a.[0a 6++-. +-++m + +mn n+ +-a am +0n+a .
a[+ ++++. .++. 5+. .n n. n++ a-+am +-a + +mnn+ +-a+qa.
77
a6mmo. n++ a-+ao 5+..nn. a--++ 5+nn+ 2 a. [0a qa . am0a
{m++ 5+..nn. n++ a-+a } = {2} an ma n(A) = 1.

3.3.9 m+ ++ +-a
+ +-+ +ao 0++mma +-+a m++m mnn+a + +-++o
mnn+a++ 5++qa. 5++-++m m+ ++ +-a (universal set)
amna++m0n+a. m+++ +-++m U o o+ E amn qn++o
qnnn[+m 0n+a. a[+++ ++..++. + +-+ +ao +++a +-+a
A = {2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 3, 7, 11} amo . m+ ++ +-a U am
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11,} o o+ U = N o o+ U = W o o+ U = Z am+ 6++aao+a.

3.3.10 . +-a
A an ma B amnm 5+ +-+a am+. A m a 6a++ mn na B m
mnn+m+o. A +m B m + . +-a (subset) amna++m0n+a. 5+m0+
B m+ A m a+++-a (superset) amna++m0n+a. 5aa-a+ A B
o o+ B A am n qn++o am++0n+a . 5 q am n qn . +-a o o+
aa.+++ amn++ qn++mn+. 5aa+0n am n qn a++ +-a oo+
6++-[aa+ amn++ qn+ +n+. a[+++++..++. A = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3},
B = {1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 3} am n +- +a+ ++++. 5 q Ao a a mn n+a+m
1, 2, 1, 2, 3 ++a B +oa 5++ +m nm. am0a A m+ B m . +-a+qa.
++a+. A B. 5 q 3 B, 3 A. am0a B m+ A m .+-aoo. 5++
-a+ B A am n qn++o qnn n[0a+a . 5 q am n qn++m+
. +-ao o oo+ aa.++++ amm 6n++an[a.

qnn n: X am n +-a Y amn +-++m .+-a++aa. +-a Y m+ +-a X n q
.+-a++aa a+++o. X a Y a 0+ mn n+an 6nn ma am. am0a.
5++o+o X a Y a +a++- +a+qa. X = Y amo . X m a6a++ mnna Y m
mnn++ 5++qa ; 0aoa Y m a 6a++ mn na X m mn n++ 5++ qa . X a . Y a
+-+a. a-+a oo. 5+nna a-+++.0+ n+mn[++a = qn+
+a++-+a+ qn++n n+mn[+++m0n+a. = qn+ 5++-+a X, Y
5annn+.0+ n+mn[++a 0n++. ++a na+. X m mnn+a m++a Y o
aam. 0aoa Y m mnn+a m++a X o a am am n0+. ++a+. X a Y a
0+ mn n+a+ 6++- [a am.

qnn n: a6a++ +-a A a A +0+ .+-a++ 5+++mn+. a6mmo A m
mnn+a A o aam. 6anm++-a m+ a6a++ +-a A + qa
.+-a++ 5+++mn+. a6mmo m+ A +q . +-a++
a+aoo6+mo. 6anm++-a o A 5o 5oo++ + mnn 5+++
0a-[a. 5+ m+-n+.ooa+? am0a A A an ma A.
78
1.1.)) +q . +-a
X an ma Y am nm 5+ +- +a am +. +-a X m+ +-a Y m . +-a++
5+++. u X am na+m + mn n u Y amo. X am n +-a+m+ Y m +
+q +-a (proper subset) amna++nn[+mn+. 5+m X Y am m
qnnn[+m 0n+a. 5++o+o. 5+m Y X amma am++m0n+a.
a[+ ++++. .++. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} am+. A o aa m++
mnn+a B o aam. ++a+ A m+ B m .+-a+qa. m+o A o
5oo++ 5 amn mn6n+mm B o aa+. ++a+ 5 A, 5 B. am0a A m+
B m +q .+-a+qa. ++a+ A B .

qnn n: A m+ A +0+ .+-a amm an+m0a +-o++0++a. m+o A m+
A +q +q .+-ao o amn+ n++ 6++a+. am0a A A m +++ . +-a
(improper subset) amna++m0n+a.

3.3.12 [+ q+ +-a
+ ++nn.. +-a A m m++ .+-+am 6++qnnm A m
[+ q+ +-a (power set) am +0n+a . A m [+ q+ +-+ +m p(A) am n qn++o
qnnn[+m 0n+a. a[+ ++++. .++. A = {a, b} amo. A m . +- +a
. am0a p(A) = { . 5 q A o 2 mnn+a aam;
p(A) o 4 mnn+a aam. am0a A m + a- = 2. p(A) m + a- = 4;
++a+ n(A) = 2; n[p(A)] = 4. 5+n 0n+o0a. A = {a, b, c} amo.
} { }, { }, { {}, a,b b a } } { }, { }, { {}, a,b b a
p(A) = { }. } , { }, { }, { }, { }, { }, { }, { {}, b,c a c,a b,c a,b c b a
5 q A m + a- n(A) = 3; p(A) m + a- n[p(A)] = 8 = 2
3
. 5+o++ + ++a
na+. n(A) = m amo n[p(A)] = 2
m
.
+++a. n[p(A)] = 2
n(A)
.



n+n + 3.3.1

1. n.o+o annm+ 6++-[ nma+a +-+a a-[a am++:
(i) A = { SUNDAY amn 6++ooo aa +6+m++++a }.
(ii) B = {-om n+a++o+a}.
(iii) C = { MATHEMATICS amn 6++ooo aa am++++a }.
(iv) D = { TAMILNADU amn 6++ooo aa am++++a }.

2. n.o+o anno nma+a +-+a am++:
(i) P = {x | x amn+ TAMILNADU amn 6++ooo aa am++}.
(ii) Q = {x | x + mm a- anma 3 x < 7}.
(iii) R = {x | x m+ +m 5o+++am +[+o 9 amna+maa + ++o++ a- }.

79
3. +-++..ann anno nma+a +-+a am++:
(i) {3, 6, 9, 12} (ii) {5, 25, 125, 625} (iii) {1, 3, 5,}
(iv) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}.

4. 5.+n++a n.o+o anno aa+++aa +-a a6a+mn1a 0+
aonn++a +-++..ann anno aa+++aa 0+ +-++.m 6n++++aa .
(i) {1, 2, 3, 6} (a) {x | x + n++ a- anma + 6m + aqnn+m }.
(ii) {2, 3} (b) {x | x m+10 a.+ qna+m + nnn n. 5+o
a- }.
(iii) {2, 4, 6, 8} (c) {x | x + a+ mma- anma 6m aqnn+m }.
(iv) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (d) {x | x m+ 10 a.+ qna+m + 5+..n n. 5+o
a- }.

5. nma+a +-+am + a-+a+ +-[no++aa :
(i) +o am++++ao aa m++ ++ am++++am +-a.
(ii) 100 a.+ qna+m m++ a++ + a-+a +-a.
(iii) A = { x | x m+ mathematics amn 6++ooo a a am+ +}.
(iv) B = {x | x < 0, x W}.
(v) C = {x | 3 x < 4, x Z}.
(vi) 10 + qa 20+qa 5.nn. . n++ a-+am +-a.

6. nma+a moam +-+am a[n.. mnn+a am+aa :
(i) A = {1, 10, 100, ______, _______, 1,00,000}.
(ii) B = {2, 5, 8, 11, ______, _______, 20, 23}.

7. nma+a moao++ +-+ao [++ +mm mnn+a am+aa.
(i) C = {3, 6, 12, 24, ______, ______, ______, .}.
(ii) D = {4, 3, 2, 1, ______, ______, _____, }.

8. nma+a +-+a 6anm+ +-+a+ amn++ +m+:
(i) A = {3o aqn[a 5+..nn. 5+o a-+a }.
(ii) B = { x | x R , x
2
+ 1 = 0}.
(iii) C = {++mq n++ +a 6++- . no0++-+a }.
(iv) D = {++ n+++a 6++-. ++n+++a }.

9. A = {p, q, r, s}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7}, C = {q, r}, D = {8, 4, 6, 2}, E = {r, q, s, p}
F = {2, 6, 4, 8}am+. nm a+am ++++ oo+ +an+ am am++:
(i) A an ma C +a+m +-+a.
(ii) A an ma E +a +-+a.
(iii) F an ma B +a+m +-+a.
(iv) A an ma B +a +-+a.
(v) F an ma D +a +-+a.

10. nma+a a6a++ +-++m [+q+ +-++m am++:
(i) A = {1, 2} (ii) B = { x, y, z} (iii) C = {a, b, c, d}

80
11. (i) n(A) = 5 amo. n[p(A)] + ++-+.
(ii) n[p(A)] = 128 amo. n(A) + ++-+.

3.3.13 +-+ 6++o+a

5n6n+m+.
(i) 5+ +-+am 0++nn
(ii) 5+ +-+am 6a.[
(iii) + +-++m a+ ++nn
++ann+ +nnn0a+a.

(i) 5++-+am 0++n n
A an ma B amnm 5++-+a am+. A +0o+ o o+ B +0o+ oo+
5+-oo0a+ 5++qa m++ mnn+a1a 6++-. +-+ +m A an ma B m
0++ n n (union) am+0n+a. A, B 5annm 0++ nn +-++m A U B am+
qnnn[+m 0n+a. am0a
A B = { x | x A o o+ x B oo+ x A anma B}. U
5+m A B = {x| x A o o+ x B} am+ ++++a++ am+0a+a. 5 q 'oo+`
amn 6++o '+nn[++ 5-++` amn 6n++ao 6++aann[+mn+. ++a+
x A o o+ x B amn+ x A o o+ x B o o+ x A an ma B am n++
qnnn++qa .
U

a[+ ++ ++. [ 38: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 6} amo A U B + +-[no.
+ + a: A an ma B 5annm m++ mnn+a1a n.o+o.[. a-[a a++o
ao++.
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 4, 6.

am0a. A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.

(ii) 5+ +-+am 6a.[
A, B amnm 5++-+a am+. A, B 5a 5+-on qa 6n++a++ a++
mnn+a+o a+n 6nnn +-++m A an ma B 5annm 6a. [ (intersection)
am+0n+a. 5a6a.[+ +-++m A I B amn qn++o qnnn[+m0n+a. am0a.
A I B = {x | x A an ma x B}.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 39: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4} amo A B + +-[no. I
+ + a: A, B 5anno aa m++ mnn+a. 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4
A, B 5annm 6n++ mnn+a. 2, 3 . A I B = {2, 3}.

3.3.14 5-n n+m n +- +a
A an ma B 5a++-onqa 6n++a+m mnn 5oo6+mo. aa+
+-+a 5-nn+mn +-+a (disjoint sets) am +0n+a . ++a+. A B =
o o+ { } amo. A 1a B 1a 5-nn+mn +-+a+qa. a[+++++..++.
A = {1, 2, 3, 7}, B = {4, 5, 6} amo . A B = { }. am0a A1a B 1a 5-nn+mn
+-+a.
I
I

81

3.3.15 a++++++ +-a
A anma B am nm 5+ +- +a am +. B o 5oo++ A m mn n+a
m++1a 6++-. +-++m + a+ ++++ +-a (difference set) am +0n+a .
5+m A B am+ qnnn[+0n+a. am0a. A B = {x | x A, x B}.

qnn n: B A = {x | x B, x A}.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 40: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {1, 3, 7} amo. A B an ma B A 5ann+
+-[no++aa.
+ + a: AB = {2, 4, 5, 6}.
B A = {7}.

qnn n: A B B A.

3.3.16 + +-++m ++nn
A amn+ ++nn.. + +-a. U amn+ m++++-a am+. A o 5oo++
U m mnn+a+ 6++-. +-++m +-a A m ++n n (complement) am+0n+a.
5++-++m A

o o+ A
c
o o+ A amn qn+m+o qnnn[+m 0n+a.

qnn n: A
c
= U A.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 41: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {3, 4} amo. A
c
+ ++-+.
+ + a: A
c
= {1, 2, 5}.


A: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
B: 1, 3, 7
U: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
A : 3, 4

3.3.17 +-+ 6++a ++o + mn 6n++a
+-+6++a++o. +-+am 0++nn+ +-++o aa mnn+am
a--++++ +-++[a n+aa mn6n++a aa+. + nma+a+m
+nnn[+mn+.
A, B amnm 5+ +- +a amo. n(A B) n(A) + n(B) n(A B). U I

a[+ ++ ++. [ 42: A = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}amo n(A), n(B), n(A B)
anma n(A B) ++ann+ ++-+. 0aoa n(A B) n(A) + n(B) n(A B) am n
mn6n++a++ ++n++++aa.
U
I U I
+ + a: ++a na+. A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} A I B ={1, 3, 5, 7}.
n(A) = 8, n(B) = 5, n(A U B) = 9 an ma n(A I B) = 4.
am0a n(A) + n(B) n(A B) = 8 + 5 4 = 9. I
5 q n(A B) = 9. am0a n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B) am n mn 6n++a
++n++++nn[+mn+.
U U I


82

n+n + 3.3.2

1. A U B an ma A I B 5ann nma+a +-++q ++-+:
(i) A = {a, e, i, o, u} an ma B = {a, b}.
(ii) A = {1, 3, 5} an ma B ={1, 2, 3}.
(iii) A = {x | x + 5+o a- an ma 1 < x 6} anma
B = {x | x + 5+o a- anma 6 < x < 10}.
(iv) A = {p, q, r} an ma B = .

2. nma+a +-++q A B, A C an ma B A ++ann+ +-[no++aa :
(i) A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, i, o, u}, B = {a, b, c, d} anma C = {a, e, i, o, u}.
(ii) A = {3, 4, 5}, B = {5, 6, 7, 8} anma C = {7, 8, 9}.

3. U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}, A = {a, c, g} an ma B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}amo.
nma+amann+ +-[no++aa.
(i) A
c
(ii) B
c
(iii) (A U B)
c
(iv) (A
c
I B)
c
(v) A
c
B I
c
(vi) A
c
B U
c
.


3.3.18 6amn.a
+-++m a+ ++a ++nn[a 6++o+a (0++nn+ +-a. 6a.[++-a.
++nn++-a ++ann a++o) +-aa+ ++-n+nq +a 6++1a a++o.
+m 6am (John Venn) amn +0o+ +-+ aoo++ +-+a a+n.+a
+oa a+qa aa+m nm+nn[++m++. 5aa+m +-+a+ qnnn[a
a+n.+a 6am n. +a (Venn diagrams) amna++m0n+a. 5amn+o
m+++ +-a+m+ + 6+aa+++m+o qn++nn[a. +m +q .+-+a +
6+aa+++a a..+a+o qn++nn[a. 5n 6n+m+ 6amn.++o no0am
+-+am annm+ ++0a+a.



m++ +-a
n.a 3.1






A B U
n.a 3.2

A B I
n.a 3.3







83



A
c
n.a 3.4

B
c
n.a 3.5













(A U B)
c
n.a 3.6

(A I B)
c

n.a 3.7












A B
n.a 3.8

B A
n.a 3.9










a[+ ++ ++. [ 43: +0a (n.a 3.10n n++++aa) ++nn. [aa n.++o++ +.
nm a+aman n+ ++- +.
(i) A B (ii) A B (iii) (A B) U I U
c
+ + a: 5 q U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

n.a 3.10
(i) A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. U
(ii) A B = {2, 5}. I
(iii) (A U B)
c
= {7}.





84

a[+ ++ ++. [ 44: 6amn.++n n+mn[++. A = {2, 3, 5, 7} anma B = {3, 9, 11}
++ +- +a+ ++. [+. 0aoa n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B) am n
++++++ ++n++++aa.
U I

n.a 3.11
+ + a:
A U B = {2, 3, 5, 7} U {3, 9, 11} = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}
n(A B) = 6. (1) U
A I B = {2, 3, 5, 7} I {3, 9, 11} = {3}
n(A B) = 1. I
++a 6nnn+nn+ n(A) = 4, n(B) = 3. n(A) + n(B) = 4 + 3 = 7.
n(A) + n(B) n(A B) = 7 1 = 6. (2) I
(1), (2) 5an no++ + (A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B). U I

qnn n. A an ma B 5aa+-[a 5-nn+mn+nnm. A B = . 0aoa n(A B) = 0. I I
am0a n(A B) = n(A) + n(B). U

a[+ ++ ++. [ 45 : + o+o. ++o aqnnnq+ 6+ooa 6n-+am a--++ 45.
0++. . 0ao aqnnnq+ 6+o oa 6n-+am a--++ 70. 5a+ +ao 30 0n+
5+-[ aqnn++qa 6+o+n+++a amo. 6amn.++m+ 6++-[. nm
a+amann+ +-[no++aa.
(i) + qnnn.. aqnnnq a. [a 6+m na+ +a a+ +m 0n+?
(ii) a++m 0n+ 6a+++++o 5aa+-[ aqnn+ao a0+a mnn++a+
6+mna++a?


n.a 3.12
+ + a: A, B amnm mn0+ ++o aqnn. 0++..
0ao aqnn 5annnq+ 6+ooa 6n-+am
+-+a amo.
n(A) = 45, n(B) = 70. ++nn.[aa aa+++mno.
n(AI B) = 30. am0a 6amn.++o+++.
(i) (a) ++o aqnnnq a.[a 6+mn 6n-+am
a--++ n(A B) = 45 30 = 15,
(i) (b) 0++.. 0ao aqnnnq a.[a 6+m n
6n-+am a--++ n(B A) = 70 30 = 40
(ii) 5aa+-[ aqnn+ao a0+a + aqnnn++a+ 6+mn 6n-+am a--++.
n(AU B) = 15 + 30 + 40 = 85. 5+m 0ama+a++aa 6nno+a.
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B) = 45 + 70 30 = 85. U I

a[+ ++ ++. [ 46: + o+o aa 45 a[+ao. 25 a [+ao 6++o+ ++. +n 6n. o
5+++mn+. 30 a [+ao a+6m+on 6n. o 5++ +m n+. a++m a[+ao 5+-[a
5+++mnm.
+ + a: A = {6++o+++.+n 6n.o+a aa a[+a }
85
B = {a+6m+on 6n.o+a aa a[+a }
A I B = {6++o+++.+n 6n.o anma a+6m+on 6n.o 5+-[a aa a[+a }.
n(AI B) = x am+. nmn 6amn.+ +o+++.
n.a 3.13
25 x + x + 30 x = 45
-+ 55 x = 45
-+ x = 45 55
-+ x = 10
-+ x = 10.
6++o+++.+n 6n.o anma a+6m+on 6n.o
5+-.1a 6++-. a[+am a--++ = 10.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 47: 35 a+-+++++a 6++-. aqnno. 28 0n+ a+o+m n+.+ +o
0++ + +1n nm+; +-+ qn n+.+ +o 22 0n+ 0++++1nnm+. 18 0n+ 5+- [
n+.+aoa 0++ ++1nnm+. a++m a+-+++++a 5+-[ n+.+aoa 0++oa
6nnnm+? 6am n.+++ 6++-[ (i) a+o+nmn n+.+ +o a.[a 0+++ +
6nnna++a a++m 0n+ (ii) +-+qn n+.++o a. [a 0++ + + 6nnna++a a++m
0n+ amn++ +-[no++aa.
+ + a:
H, M amnm mn0+ a+o+m. +-+q
n+.+ao 0+++ + 6nnn a+-a++am
+-+a amo.

n.a 3.14
n(H) = 28, n(M) = 22, n(H M) = 18 am m
++nn.[aa+. H M am n +-a . a+o+m
oo+ +-+q 5an no 0+++ +1n n
a+-a++am +-++m+ qn++n+. am0a.
a+o+m oo+ +-+q 5anno mno
0+++ +1n n a+-a++am a--++.
I
U
n(H M) = n(H) + n(M) n(H M) U I
++a+. n(H M) = 28 + 22 18 = 32. U
aqnno 6a++ +a 35 0n+ 5++ +m nm+ . am0a 5+- [ n+. +aoa
0++oa1nna++am a--++ = 35 32 = 3 qa. 6am n.+++6++-[. ++a
++-n+.

(i) a+o+m n+.++o a.[a 0++ + +1nna++am a--++
= n(H ) n(H M) I
= 28 18 = 10
(ii) +-+qn n+.++o a.[a 0++ ++1nna++am a--++
= n(M) n(H M) I
= 22 18 = 4.



86

n+n+ 3.3.3

1. A = {2, 3, 5, 8, 10}, B = {3, 7, 8, 9}, C = {1, 2, 5, 8, 12} ++nnom.
(i) n(A B) (ii) n(B C) (iii) n(A B) (iv) n(C B) U I
++ann+ ++-+.

2. n(A) = 30, n(B) = 43 an ma n(A B) = 11 amo. n(A B) ++-+. I U

3. mn++a aqnn a+-a++a A, B ++ 5+ 0++a+ao mn0+a am+
0a-[a. 0++a A am 40 0n+a. 0++a B +m 30 a+-a++a.
5+-.1a 20 0n+a am++mnm+. aaqnno aa a+-+++++am
a--++++ +-[no++aa.

4. + qo++nn nq++o aa 400 a[+ao a[++nn.. +++++ +-nnmno.
250 0n+ +o 6++ ++ ++a+a1a , 170 0n+ +aa 6++++++a+a1a. 65
0n+ 5+- om1a a+q+m n+++a. a++m0n+ a++a+a+m 6++++
++a1a a+qa+oo amn++ +-++.aa.

5. + o+o 200 q[an+a aam. q A, B amn 5+ 0++nn a++a
a++a.0+ n+a1aam. 160 q[an+a A a+ 0++n n1a . 140 q[a n +a
B a+ 0++nn1a n+mn[+++mnm+. m+ + q[an+a 5aa+
a+ 0++nn+ao a0+a mnmn n+mn[++na++a+++nnm. 5+-[
a+ 0++nn+a1a n+mn[++a q[an+a a++m amn++
+-[no++aa.

6. 250 0n+ +o++6++-. + a+++o. 210 0n+ ++n1a. 50 0n+ c1a . +o+
5+-om1a n++m+. 20 0n+ ++n o o+ c 5an n ++ +ao o amo .
++n an ma c 5+-.1a n+++a++a a+ +m 0n+ amn++
+-[no++aa.

7. + +oot+ 5+ao. 5+nn+o qm. +-+q+ qm. 5a++-ooa +..++
150 a+-a++a mnnm++a++ aam+. +-+q+ qmao 70 a+-a++a
mnnm++a++ 5+++mnm+ anma 50 a+-a++a 5+-[ qmaoa
mnnm++a++ 5+++mnm+ amo. 5+nn+o qmao mnnm+++
5+nna++am a--++++ +-[no.

8. 30 a+-a++ a a aqn no . 20 a+-a++ n+.[n 0n+.o+o n0+nnm+. 10
a+-a++ n+.[. ++. o+a 5+-ooa n0+n nm+. 5 a+-a++ 5+-oo
87
mnoa +.n n0+n+aoo. a++m0n+ ++.o+++o a.[a n0+n nm+
amn++ +-[no++aa.

9. 0++.++o a[mn+m 0n++. XII aqnn a+-a++ao 35 0n+ +--
aqnn++q+ 6+o+mnm+. 25 0n+ +aa+ 0++an++m n+n+
aqnn++q+ 6+o+mnm+. 15 a+-a++a 5+-[ aqnn++qa
6+o+mnm+. aqnno a+-a++am 6a+++ a--++ 50 amo . a+ +
aqnnoa n0+n+++ a+-a++am a--++ amm6amm +-[no++aa.


a.+a

n+n + 3.1

1. (i) (ii) 1.3 10
10
10 998 . 2
9
(iii) 1.083 10
12
(iv) 4.3 10
9
(v) 9.463 10
15
(vi) 5.349 10
17
(vii) 3.7 10
3
(viii) 1.07 10
4
(ix) 8.035 10
5
(x) 1.3307 10
6
(xi) 1.1 10
10
(xii) 9 10
13

2. (i) 0.00000325 (ii) 0.0000402 (iii) 0.0004132 (iv) 0.001432
(v) 3250000 (vi) 402000 (vii) 41320 (viii) 1432

3. (i) 1.024 10
14
(ii) 4.41 10
4
(iii) 1.1664 10
8
(iv) 2.56 10
26
(v) 7.5 10
8

n+n + 3.2.1

1. (i) ++ (ii) +am (iii) +am (iv) +am (v) ++ (vi) +am
2. (i) 2 04 . 0 log
5
= (ii)
3
2
4 log
8
1

= (iii) 4 256 log

4
=
(iv) 6 729 log
3
= (v)
2
3
216 log
36

= (vi) 3 001 . 0 log

10
=
3. (i) 4 (ii) 3 (iii) 4 (iv)
2
1
(v) 4
(vi)
2
5
(vii) 36 (viii) 64 (ix)
4
1

4. (i) 10 (ii) 7 (iii)
10
1
(iv) 5 (v)
32
1

(vi) 512 (vii) 2 (viii) 162 (ix)
3
1
(x) 3
5. (i) C (ii) A (iii) D (iv) C (v) A (vi) D
88
6. (i) (ii) 18 log
10

81
8
log
3
(iii) 13 (iv)

3
350
log
2

(v)

25
72
log
10
(vi)

48
5
log
10

7. (i) x + y (ii) 2x (iii) y x (iv) 3y (v) t y
(vi) 3x + y + 2 z (vii) 3(x y) (viii) y + z (ix) z + t
(x) 2x + y (xi) 2t x z (xii) x y z + t
8. (i) 2 2 (ii)
7
11
(iii)
3
4
(iv) 16 (v)
3
10
(vi)
6
5

(vii) 9 (viii) 9 (ix)
3
7
(x) 243 (xi)
7
2

n+n + 3.2.2

1. (i) 3 (ii) 1 (iii) 0 (iv) 1
(v) 2 (vi) 3 (vii) 5 (viii) 2

2. (i) 3 (ii) 2 (iii) 4 (iv) 1
(v) 1 (vi) 3

3. (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3
(v) 4 (vi) 3

4. (i) 4.5151 (ii) 3.5151 (iii) 2.5151 (iv) 1.5151
(v) 0.5151 (vi) .5151 1 (vii) .5151 4 (viii) .5151 7

5. (i) 4.9177 (ii) 5.926 (iii) .158 3
(iv). .5105 5 (v). .6702 3 (vi) .3722 1

6. (i) 776.7 (ii) 2.705 (iii) 0.2873
(iv) 0.002668 (v) 0.00003312 (vi) 0.001239

7. (i) 200700 (ii) 82.56 (iii) 0.01099 (iv) 0.0006
(v) 0.4059 (vi) 0.00007789 (vii) 0.00003981
(viii) 0.0005012 (ix) 0.0005012 (x) 0.03981
(xi) 0.00000001698 (xii) 0.03162.

8. (i) 2041 (ii) 30550 (iii) 0.01034 (iv) 1380
(v) 0.00002079 (vi) 3285000 (vii) 5851 10
18
(viii) 7.670 (ix) 0.6142 (x) 412.3
(xi) 0.02263 (xii) 0.8339 (xiii) 0.1752
(xiv) 1.893.



89
n+n + 3.3.1

1. (i) A = {U, A}
(ii) B = { 0++. ++oa. qaJ ++oa. 5a0amn ++oa. 5o1+J ++oa }
(iii) C = { M, A, T, H, I, C, S, E.} (iv) D = { T, A, M, I, L, N, D, U}
2. (i) P = { T, A, M, I, L, N, D, U} (ii) Q = {3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(iii) R = { 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90}

3. (i) A = {x | x = 3n, n = 1, 2, 3, 4} (ii) B = {x | x = 5
n
, n = 1, 2, 3, 4}
(iii) C = {x | x N, x m+ nnnn. a-}
(iv) D = {x | x N, x = n
2
, 0 < n 10}

4. (i) (c) ; (ii) (a); (iii) (d); (iv) (b)
5. (i) 5 (ii) 9 (iii) 8 (iv) 0 (v) 7 (vi) 4
6. (i) 1000, 10000 (ii) 14, 17
7. (i) 48, 96, 192 (ii) 0, 1, 2
8. (i) 5o o (ii) 6anm+ +-a (iii) 5oo (iv) 6an m+ +-a
9. (i) +am (ii) ++ (iii) ++ (iv) +am (v) ++
10. (i) p(A) = { } { } { } { } { } , 2 , 1 , 2 , 1
(ii) p(B) = { } { } { } { } { } { } { } { } { } , , , , , , , , , , , , z y x z y z x y x z y x
(iii) p(C) = {{a},{b},{c},{d},{a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c},{b, d},{c, d}, {a, b, d},
{b, c, d},{c, d, a}, {a, b, c},{a, b, c, d},{}}
11. (i) 32 (ii) 7
n+n + 3.3.2

1. (i) A B = {a, e, i, o, u, b}, A I B = {a} U
(ii) A B = {1, 2, 3, 5}, A I B = {1, 3} U
(iii) A U B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A I B =
(iv) A B = {p, q, r}, A B = U I

2. (i) A B = {e, f, i, o, u }, A C = {b, c, d, f }, B A =
(ii) A B = {3, 4}, A C = {3, 4, 5}, B A = {6, 7, 8}

3. (i) A
c
= {b, d, e, f, h} (ii) B
c
= {g, h}
(iii) (A U B)
c
= {h} (iv) (A
c
I B)
c
= {a, c, g, h}
(v) A
c
I B
c
= {h} (vi) A
c
U B
c
= {b, d, e, f, g, h }

n+n + 3.3.3

1. (i) 7 (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) 4
2. 62 3. 50 4. 45 5. 100
6. 30 7. 130 8. 5 9. 5
90


4. 5+n +-+a

5+n+-++++ qn+qa +o+ 6++o Algebra m+ aljabr amn
++n++ 6++ooo++ + a+a++nn..++qa. ++n+ 6a+a+o al am n+ + +
amma. jabr amn+ .+ + nq++am mn-nn amma 6n++an[a.
5+6++oom n+mn+.om J a[+++++.om +oa n+++ 6++aao+a. x + 5 = 9
amn +amn+.oo 5.+ n++a+m+ x an ma 5 5aa+-[ nq++am +[+o+qa. ++a
(5) +amn+.om 5+n+++aoa +.om+o (0+J+++o). +a+q
(x + 5) + (5) = 9 + (5) o o+ x + [5 + (5)] = 9 5 o o+ x + 0 = 4 o o+ x = 4
am+ +.++n+. 5q 9 anma 5 aa 5+-[ nq++a 5-++nn.[ 4
6nnnn..+. 5aa+ +-+0a 5+n +-+a amnn[+mn+. 5+++ +-+ 0a++a
J+n..J. n+aaqn+J. aa+a+J. ++J anma n+a++J II 0n+mnaJ+a
5nn+.nn+a 6n+aaao aaJ++aamJ. +0+++ +-+ 0a+ o0++n+-.a
amnaJ 5+n+-+++o a+6n+a aaJ+++ +a+++1aa++o 5a+
5+n+-+++m +++ amna++m0n+a.

+-+++m 5nn+.nn+ao. a, b, x, y 0n+mn am++++a a-+a+ qn++n
n+mn[++0a+a. 5+qn+a. a-+a 5ann+ 6++-[ +..o. +a++o. 6n+++o.
aq++o. aJ+++oa a[+ +o ++ 6++nn+[+am+o 5+n+-++ 0++a+a
amnn[a+n 6nm+m0n+a. 5+n+-++ 0++a+a +o + 0a 6++[++nn.[aam.
2x + 3, (3a + b)(2x y), y x
x
x
19 14 ,
7 19
12 25
+
+
+
.
5+ 5+n+-++ 0++a+a+ +ann[+ +a++o. 5+n +-++ +am n+[
+.++mn+. 5+n+-++ +amn+[++q +o a[+ ++++. [+a +0a
6++[++nn.[aam. 2x + 3 = x + 6, 2 5
3 2
7
2
+ =
+

x
x
x
, 2x + 11 = 0.
5+n+-++ 0++a+o aa am++++a +0++a+m a+n+a amnn[a.
a[+ ++++. .++. ax + b am n 0++a+o. a an ma b qnnn. . a-+a. x
qnnn.nn.aoo amo. ax + b + q x a+n++qa. 5aa+0n 2x
2
+ 3xy + y
2
o x an ma
y a+n+a. + 0++a+o aa a+n++q qnnn.. a+nn+a +[ 6+++.
+0++a++m+ + a--m+ +++mn+. 5++ a--m. +0++a+m
a+n n am +0n+a . a[+ ++ ++. .++. 2x
2
+ y amn+ J 5+n+-++ 0++a. x an ma y
5+0++a+m a+n+a. x n q 2 a. y n q 1 a n+++.. 2x
2
+ y m a+n n 2(2)
2
+ 1 = 9.
x n q 1 a . y n q 2 a n+++..+o. 2x
2
+ y = 2(1)
2
+ 2 = 4. + 0++a+m a+n+m
+o 6a+ 6+- a+n n++ q + 0++a++m+ 6a+6+- a+nnm+ +++an
0n++o+a. a[+ ++ ++..++. 3 x amn 0++a+o x = 1 amnn+++om
91
2 3 1 = . 5+ + 6a+6+- oo; a6mmo. + 6a+6+--m aJ++a qn
a--++ 5+++++; am0a. + qn6+--m aJ++ +oa 6a+6+--++ 5+++
mo+++. 5++ + +++++ +o. mm oo+ no a+n+a+ 6++-.a++
5+n+-++ 0++a+an nnnn non0n+a. a+n+a. 0++a+a 6a+6+-
a+nn+a a.[0a qnnn++++ 6++a0a+a. 5m a- amn+0o 6a+6+--m
a.[0a qnnn++++ 6++a0a+a.

4.1 noomnn+ 0++a+a

ax
n
am n an no a a J 5+n +-++ 0++a+ x o a+ + J
+mn n+ 0++a am +0n+a . 5 q a + qnnn.. a-. x + a+n an ma n +
qn+oo+ mma+qa. a- a a x
n
m 6+m amma. n +mnn+ 0++a+m
[+q amma a++m0n+a. a[+ ++++. .++. 7x
3
amn+ [+q 3 .+ x o
a++ J +mnn+0++a; 5 q 7, x
3
m 6+m. 5+ +mnn+0++a+am +[+o
J ++mnn+0++a amnn[a. 5aa+0n +mm +mnn+0++a+am +[+o
+amn n+ 0++a amnn[a. a[+++++..++. 2x
3
+ 3x amn+ J ++mnn+0++a;
2x
5
3x
2
+ 3 amn+ + +amnn+0++a. moam a--+++o. x o a+ +
+mnn+0++a+am +[+o x o a++ + noomnn+ 0++a amna++nn[a.
noomnn+0++a+o aa +mnn+0++a+am 6+m++a noomnn+0++a+m
6+m++a amna++nn[a. noomnn+ 0++a+o aa m++ 6+m++a
n+++ a--++ 5+nnm. nnoomnn+0++a n+++ noomnn+0++a
amna++nn[a. 5m. noomnn+0++a a6a+mn1a n+++aoo++
noomnn+0++a++++ 6++a0a+a ; ++a+ 5ma+a noomnn+0++a
a6a+mnoa qn++n. +a + 6+ma++oa n+ ++ann+++ 5++qa.
noomnn+0++a+o aa +mnn+0++a+a nnoomnn+ 0++a+m
mn n+a amnn[a; mn n+am a+ +J+ + [+ q. no omn n+0++a+m [+q
o o+ no amnn[a. + no omn n+ 0++a+m a+ +J+ + [+ q.+ mn nm
6+ma. nnoomnn+ 0++a+m +o+++ 6+m o o+ aa+.+++ 6+ooa
6+m am+0n+a. a[+++++..++. 3x 6 + 3x
2
2x
5
4x
3
amn+ 5 no1.+
noomnn+0++a; 3x, 6, 3x
2
, 2x
5
, 4x
3
amnm mnn+a ; +o+++ 6+m 2 qa .
+ noomnn+0++a+m 6+m++a 6a+6+-+a amn++o. ann
6a+6+-+am n-n+a+ 6++-[ x m [+q+a 5nqm+a++ a+a+m
a+n n+a++o+a. a[+++++. .++. 3x
2
1 5x 3x
3
amn noomnn+0++a+
3x
3
+ 3x
2
5x 1 am [+q+a 5nqm+a++ a+n n+a++o+a. +
noomnn+0++a. +m mnn+am [+q+a 5nqm+a++ 5++qa+m
a+n n+a++ am+n6nnn+o. + +. . aoao 5+nn++++ 6++o0a+a. +
noomnn+0++a+o. x 5oo++ mnnm ([+q 0 + a a mn nm) +m
mn n o o+ a+no mn n am+0n+a. a[+++++..++. 3x 6 + 3x
2
2x
5
4x
3
o
a+no mn n 6 qa. ++a++ [+q.+ noomnn+0++a++q+ +nnnn
6n+J+a aam. m+nno noomnn+0++a+ 0+++ noomnn+0++a
92
am+0n+a. 5+-[ no1.+ noomnn+0++a+ 5+non no omn n+ 0++a
am+0n+a. +mm no1.+ noomnn+0++a+ mnnon noomnn+0++a
am+0n+a. ++mq no1.+ noomn n+0++a+ ++n non no omn n+ 0++a
am+0n+a. f(x) amm + noomnn+0++a+n 6n++a+++ qn+++o. f(x)m
no+m deg(f(x)) amn qn++o qnnn[0a+a. a[+++ ++..++. 1 3x
2
+ 5x
3
2x amn
noomnn+0++a+ f(x) am+ qnn n..+o. deg(f(x)) = 3 qa . +
noomnn+0++a+m mnn+a a-+a amn++o. m++ noomnn+
0++a+a a-+a+ qn++mnm. am0a. ++a 5ann+ 6++-[ +. .. +a++.
6n+++ anma aq++ mo1a. + noomnn+0++a+ an6n++ noomnn+
0++a+m+o aqnn+n nnn nm mJ non 0n+a . 5n 6n+m+
noomnn+0++a+a+ +.[a+n nnnn non0n+a.

4.1.1 noomnn+ 0++a+am +..o
++ [+q+am 6+m++a+ +.[a+m+o. +a+q 5+-[ noomnn+
0++a+am +[+o +.++m n+.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: 2x
4
3x
2
+ 5x + 3, 4x + 6x
3
6x
2
1 5an nm +[+o ++-+.
+ Ja. 6a+6+-+am 0+Jnnn n-n. n+.[n n-n ++annn n+mn[++0a+a.
(2x
4
3x
2
+ 5x + 3) + (6x
3
6x
2
+ 4x 1) = 2x
4
+ 6x
3
3x
2
6x
2
+ 5x + 4x + 3 1
= 2x
4
+ 6x
3
(3+6)x
2
+ (5+4)x + 2
= 2x
4
+ 6x
3
9x
2
+ 9x + 2.
+0a 6++[++nn.. +..a 5+-[ noomnn+0++a+a+ +.[a+o +a6++1a.
2x
4
+

0x
3
3x
2
+ 5x + 3
0x
4
+ 6x
3
6x
2
+ 4x 1
2x
4
+ 6x
3
9x
2
+ 9x + 2

4.1.2 noomnn+ 0++a+am +a++o
noomnn+ 0++a+a+ +.[a+ 0n+m0n +a++o1a 6++ +0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: x
3
+ 5x
2
4x 6 o+++ 2x
3
3x
2
1 + +a++aa.
+ Ja. 6a+6+-+am 0+Jnnn n-n. n+. [n n-n ++annn n+mn[++m+o
(x
3
+ 5x
2
4x 6) (2x
3
3x
2
1) = x
3
+ 5x
2
4x 6 2x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 1
= x
3
2x
3
+ 5x
2
+ 3x
2
4x 6 + 1
= (x
3
2x
3
) + (5x
2
+ 3x
2
) + (4x) + (6+1)
= x
3
+ 8x
2
4x 5.
+0a 6++[++nn[+mn mn+oa +a++o+ 6+++o+a.
a+ (1): x
3
+ 5x
2
4x 6.
a+ (2): 2x
3
3x
2
1.
a+ (2) o aa noomnn+ 0++a+m qn+a a+nn++.nn+,
a+ (3): 2x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 1.
a+ (1) , a+ (3) +ao aa noomnn+ 0++a+a+ +..++.nn+,
x
3
+ 8x
2
4x 5 .


0an+-. mn +a+++-a+m am+nn[a.
93
x
3
+ 5x
2
4x 6
2x
3
3x
2
1
+ +
x
3
+ 8x
2
4x 5

4.1.3 5+ no omn n+ 0++a+am 6n++ +o
5+ noomnn+ 0++a+am 6n+++o oo+ 6n+++nnom ++-. n+.[n
n-n1a. [+q+qn a++a1a n+mn[+++0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: x
3
2x
2
4 an ma 2x
2
+ 3x 1 5annm 6n+++nnom ++-+.
+ Ja. (x
3
2x
2
4) (2x
2
+ 3x 1)
= x
3
(2x
2
+ 3x 1) + (2x
2
) (2x
2
+ 3x 1) + (4) (2x
2
+ 3x 1)
= (2x
5
+ 3x
4
x
3
) + (4x
4
6x
3
+ 2x
2
) + (8x
2
12x + 4)
= 2x
5
+ 3x
4
x
3
4x
4
6x
3
+ 2x
2
8x
2
12x + 4
= 2x
5
+ (3x
4
4x
4
) + (x
3
6x
3
) + (2x
2
8x
2
) + (12x) +4
= 2x
5
x
4
7x
3
6x
2
12x + 4.

5+ noomnn+ 0++a+am 6n+++nnom ++-a0n++ + noomnn+
0++a+.+ a0a+J mnn1a an6n++ noomnn+ 0++a+m a0a+J
mn n+oa 6n++ + nm mJ. a a+ 6n+++nnom+a +..nn[+mnm. +0a
6++[++nn.. mn n+++++ +nm+6++anaJ++q +a+++ 5++qa.

x
3
2x
2
4
2x
2
+ 3x 1

x
3
(2x
2
+ 3x 1) : 2x
5
+ 3x
4
x
3
2x
2
(2x
2
+ 3x 1) : 4x
4
6x
3
+ 2x
2
4(2x
2
+ 3x 1) : 8x
2
12x + 4
2x
5
x
4
7x
3
6x
2
12x + 4

+o 0aa+ao noomnn+ 0++a+am 6n+++nnomo +o qnnn..
mnn+am 6+m++a 0+a+++ 5++qa. 0++++1a. 5.++1a +++mnn[++
++a noomnn+ 0++a+a mma+a 6n++++a0o0+ 6+m++a+ ++-o+a.
a[+ ++++. .++. A, B amn 5+-[ noomnn+ 0++a+am 6n+++nnomo x
3
m
6+man 6nn 0a-[a amo +0a a++mn aamn. n+++++ +nm+
6++anaJ++q +a+++ 5++qa.

no +0a 6++[++nn..a+am 6n+++nnom ++-+:
A +o aa x
3
mnnm 6+m B +o aa a+no mnn (+mmnn)
A +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m B +o aa x mnnm 6+m
A +o aa x mnnm 6+m B +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m
A +o aa a+no mnn B +o a a x
3
mnnm 6+m

94
no 2: 0a0o no 1 o aa aoo+n 6n+++nnom+a1a +.[+. +.+qa a+nn
A, B ++ 5+ noomnn+ 0++a+am 6n+++nnomo x
3
m 6+ma+qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: x
4
, x
3
, x
2
, x ++ mnn+am 6+ma 7x
3
6x
2
9x + 8 anma
5x
2
3x + 5 +am 6n+++nnomo+++ mma+a 6n++++a0o0+ +-[no.
+ Ja. A = 7x
3
6x
2
9x + 8 an ma B = 5x
2
3x + 5 am+.
mn n x
4
m 6+ma+ ++-o .
A +o aa x
4
mnnm 6+m B +o aa a+no mnn = 0 5 = 0.
A +o aa x
3
mnnm 6+m B +o aa x mnnm 6+m = 7 3 = 21.
A +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m B +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m = 6 5 = 30.
A +o aa x mnnm 6+m B +o aa x
3
mnnm 6+m = 9 0 = 0.
A +o aa a+no mnn B +o aa x
4
mnnm 6+m = 8 0 = 0.
am0a A B o x
4
m 6+m = 0 + (21) + (30) + 0 + 0 = 51.
mn n x
3
m 6+ma+ ++-o .
A +o aa x
3
mnnm 6+m B +o aa a+no mnn = 7 5 = 35.
A +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m B +o aa x mnnm 6+m = 6 3 = 18.
A +o aa x mnnm 6+m B +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m = 9 5 = 45.
A +o aa a+no mnn B +o aa x
3
mnnm 6+m = 8 0 = 0.
+++o A B o x
3
m 6+m = 35 + 18 + ( 45) + 0 = 8.
mn n x
2
m 6+ma+ ++-o .
A +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m B +o aa a+no mnn = 6 5 = 30.
A +o aa x mnnm 6+m B +o aa x mnnm 6+m = 9 3 = 27.
A +o aa a+no mnn B +o aa x
2
mnnm 6+m = 8 5 = 40.
+++o A B o x
2
m 6+m = (30) + 27 + 40 = 37.
x mn nm 6+ma+ ++-o :
A +o aa x mnnm 6+m B +o aa a+no mnn = 9 5 = 45.
A +o aa a+no mnn B +o aa x mnnm 6+m = 8 3 = 24.
+++o A B o x m 6+m = (45) + (24) = 69.

4.1.4 no a+n+ao a++ noomnn+ 0++a+a
x, y o a++ J +mnn+0++a ax
n
y
m
amo. +o a + 6a+6+-; x, y
amna a+n+a ; n anma m amnm a+mm++a. a[+++++..++. 5x
3
y
2
amn+
x, y o J +mnn+ 0++a. x, y o a+ + moam a- -+ ++o+m +mn n+
0++a+am +..n nom. x, y o a++ + noomnn+ 0++a amnn[a.
a[+ ++++. .++. 5x
2
y + 3x + y
2
, 3x 8y, 2x
2
+ 3xy + 2y
2
++a x, y o a+ +
noomnn+ 0++a+a. 50+0n+mm no a+n+ao a++ noomnn+ 0++a+a
-[. + a+n+o a++ noomnn+ 0++a+ao +..o. +a++o. 6n+++o
6++++ 0n+m0n no a+n+ao a++ noomnn+ 0++a+aoa 6+++o+a.


95
a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: x
3
y + x
2
y
2
3xy
3
, x
3
3x
3
y + y
3
+ 4xy
3
++ noomnn+ 0++a+am
+[+o ++-+.
+ Ja. (x
3
y + x
2
y
2
3xy
3
) + (x
3
3x
3
y + y
3
+ 4xy
3
)
= x
3
y + x
2
y
2
3xy
3
+ x
3
3x
3
y + y
3
+ 4xy
3
= (x
3
y 3x
3
y) + (x
2
y
2
) + (3xy
3
+ 4xy
3
) + (x
3
) + (y
3
)
= 2x
3
y + x
2
y
2
+ xy
3
+ x
3
+ y
3
.


a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: 2x + 3y, x
2
xy + y
2
++annm 6n++ +nnom ++-+.
+ Ja.
o o+ (2x + 3y) (x
2
xy + y
2
)
= 2x (x
2
xy + y
2
) + 3y (x
2
xy + y
2
)
= 2x
3
2x
2
y + 2xy
2
+ 3x
2
y 3xy
2
+ 3y
3
=2x
3
+ (2x
2
y + 3x
2
y) + (2xy
2
3xy
2
) + 3y
3
= 2x
3
+ x
2
y xy
2
+ 3y
3
.
2x + 3y
x
2
xy + y
2
2x(x
2
xy + y
2
) : 2x
3
2x
2
y + 2xy
2
3y(x
2
xy + y
2
) : 3x
2
y 3xy
2
+ 3y
3
2x
3
+ x
2
y xy
2
+ 3y
3


+ noomnn+ 0++a+ an6n++ noomnn+ 0++a++o aq+qa 6++o. nq+
4.4 o +++nn[+n+.

n+n + 4.1
1. ++ oo+ +am am n+o6++[:
(i) 2x +
x
3
amn+ + noomnn+ 0++a.
(ii)
2
2x + 3x
3
+ 1 amn+ J 5+-.+ano no omn n+ 0++a.
(iii) 5 2x 3x
2
+ x
3
o x
2
m 6+m 3.
(iv) 5xy amn+ J ++mnn+ 0++a.
(v) 2x + 3y + 5z amn+ + +amnn+ 0++a.
24 a++oaa a6a++ +-++oa +[+o +-[ +..aoao am++.
2. (x
3
+ 3x 1) + (2x
2
4x + 5)
3. (2x
4
+ x
2
+ 3x) + (x
4
3x
2
+ 7x 8)
4. (6 10x + 5x
2
+ x
3
) + (2x
3
3x 4)
57 a++oaa a6a++ +-+q+ao +a++o 6++o 6+++. +.. aoao
am++.
5. (x
3
+ 5x
2
10x + 6) (2x
3
3x 4)
6. (x
4
3x
2
+ 7x 8) (2x
4
+ x
2
+ 3x)
7. (3x
5
5x
2
+ 4x 7) (1 2x + 3x
2
x
3
)
810 a++o aa +-+q+am 6n+++nnom ++-+. + +..aoao am++.
8. (2x
2
6x + 3) (3x
2
4x + 9)
9. (3x
2
4x + 5x
3
7) (2x
2

x + 4)
10. (7 x x
2
) (x
3
5x
2
+ 3x)
96
11 m+o 13 a++oaa +-+q+ao mma+a 6n++++a0o0+ x
3
, x
2
, x ++
mnn+am 6+m++a+ ++-+.
11. (x
2
4x + 4) (x
2
+ 2x 3)
12. (3x 2 x
2
) (1 + 3x x
2
)
13. (7x
3
6x
2
9x 1) (2x
3
3x
2
1)
14 m+o 16 a++oaa +-+q+ao 6n+++nnom+ +..aoao ++-+.
14. (ax + by) (cx + dy)
15. (x + y) (2x
2
3xy 2y
2
)
16. (x
2
xy + y
2
) (x
2
+ xy + y
2
)
17. (x
3
px
2
+ 9x 1), (2x
3
3x
2
x + 2) ++a+am 6n+++nnomo x
2
m 6+m 12
amo , p+m a+n n ++- .
18. (x
3
2x + 5) (a 3x x
2
) m 6n+++nnomo x m 6+ma+m+.
(2x
2
+ x 1) (x
2
3x 2) m 6n+++nnomo x
2
m 6+manq+ +aa amo. a +m
a+nn ++-+.
19. (1 2x x
2
) (2x
2
mx + 3) am+n 6n+++nnomo x
2
m 6+m. x m 6+m 5annm
+[+o 5 amo , m m a+n n+ ++- +.

4.2. 5+n +-+ mn 6n++a+a

5+n+-+ mn6n++a+a am++nnn[a. 5+n+-+ +am n+[+an nnn
5q non0n+a. 5+n+-+ +amn+[+a an+m0a +nma0a+a. J 5+n+-+
+amn+.+m+ mm oo+ +nq 0ann.. a+n+a+ 6++-.+. a[+++++..++
2x + 3 = 6 x o x amn+ a+n. x +q n+o++ 1 n n+++. +am n+.+m+ 5 = 5 ama
-a a++++a++ aa+. x +q 0am a++ a+n n+a 6++[+++oa ,
a[+ ++++. .++ x = 2 am+ 6++-.+o +amn+.+m+ 7 = 4 ama +an+m
a++++a+qa. a+n++++n n+++.n n.. J a- ++ +amn+.. -a++m
a++++a+++m+o ++ a- , +amn+.om +Ja o o+ +oa amm +nnn[a. J a-
+ +amn+.om +Ja amo. + ++ +amn+.. +na 6++1a. a[+++++..++.
2x + 3 = 6 x amn+ 1 +na 6++ +n+. m+o 2 +na 6++ +ao o.
x
2
1 = (x + 1)(x 1) ama +amn+[ a++ a--+oa +na.+n+. 5aa+m
aoo+ a-+a+oa +na 6nma J 5+n+-+ +amn+[. 5+n +-+ mn 6n++a
amnn[a. A = B ama J 5+n+-+ +amn+[. 5+n+-+ mn6n++a++m+o .
++a 5+m A B am am+0a+a . n+ + +a a+n n +-+ mn 6n++a+. B A
amma am+o+a. ++a 5n6n+m+ +o 5+n+-+ mn6n++a+a+ 6++-J0a+a.

4.2.1 (x + a)(x + b) + ++m 5+n +-+ mn 6n++a
a-+am n+.[n n-nn n+mn[++.
(x + a )(x + b ) = x(x + b) + a(x + b) = x
2
+ xb + ax + ab
= x
2
+ ax + bx + ab= x
2
+ (a + b)x + ab.
++a 6nma+ (x + a)(x + b) x
2
+ (a + b) x + ab
97

0an++-a mn6n++a+q +
aoa+o aa++a ++0a+a.
ABCD am+n 6+aa+++m
n+nnaa+m+. AHFE am n ++++ +m
n+nnaa. HBGF, FGCI an ma EFID ++
6+aa++am n+nnaa 5annm
+[+o+ q+ +aa (n.a 4.2.1 n
n+J++aa ). +++o ++a 6nma+

n.a 4.2.1
(x + a)(x + b) = x
2
+ ax + ab + xb
= x
2
+ (a+b)x + ab.

0a0o aa mn6n++a+n n+mn[++ +o m+++a+m
mn6n++a+a+ 6++-J0a+a.

(i) (x a)(x + b) = [x + (a)] (x + b) = x
2
+ [(a) + b]x + (a)b
= x
2
+ (b a)x ab.
(ii) (x + a)(x b) = (x + a) [x + (b)] = x
2
+ [a + (b)]x + a(b)
= x
2
+ (a b)x ab.
(iii) (x a)(x b) = [x + (a)] [x + (b)] = x
2
+ [(a) + (b)] x + (a) (b)
= x
2
(a + b)x + ab.
(iv) (a + b)
2
= (a + b)(a + b) = a
2
+ (b + b)a + b
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
.
(v) (a b)
2
= (a b)(a b) = [a + (b)] [a + (b)]
= a
2
+ [(b) + (b)]a + (b) (b) = a
2
2ab + b
2
.
(vi) (a + b)(a b) = a
2
+ [b + (b)]a + (b)(b) = a
2
+ 0 a b
2
= a
2
b
2
.

am0a. ++a 6nma+
(x + a)(x + b) x
2
+ (a + b)x + ab
(x a)(x + b) x
2
+ (b a)x ab
(x + a)(x b) x
2
+ (a b)x ab
(x a)(x b) x
2
(a + b)x + ab
(a + b)
2
a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
(a b)
2
a
2
2ab + b
2
(a + b)(a b) a
2
b
2

(x a)(x b) amn+m mn6n++a x
2
(a + b)x + ab. + 2

a no noomnn+
0++a++qa. +m x m 6+m. +m mn n ++a mn0+ (a + b) anma ab
qa. 0a0o 6++[++nn.[aa mn6n++a+a. (x + a)(x + b) amn+m
6n+++nnomm a+a onn.++++ 6++-o+nn++o. 5a 6n+++nnom
++++a amma +nnn[a. 5+-[ ++mnn+ 0++a+am 6n+++nnom+
+-.n+aa 5++ ++++a n+mn[a.


98
a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: nma+amannm 6n+++nnom+a ++-+.
(a) (x + 3) (x + 5) (b) (p + 9) (p 2) (c) (z 7) (z 5) (d) (x 8) (x + 2)
+ Ja.
(a) (x + 3) (x + 5) = x
2
+ (3 + 5) x + 3 5 = x
2
+ 8x + 15.
(b) (p + 9) (p 2) = p
2
+ (9 2) p 9 2 = p
2
+ 7p 18.
(c) (z 7) (z 5) = z
2
(7 + 5) z + 7 5 = z
2
12z + 35.
(d) (x 8) (x + 2) = x
2
+ (2 8)x 8 2 = x
2
6x 16.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: 6n+++nnom +++++n n+mn[++ nma+amannm 6n+++n
nom+am a+nn+a ++-+.
(a) 107 103 (b) 56 48
+ Ja.
(a) 107 103 = (100 + 7) (100 + 3)
= 100
2
+ (7 + 3) 100 + 7 3
(b) 56 48
= (50 + 6) (50 2)
= 50
2
+ (6 2) 50 6 2
= 2500 + 200 12
=2688.
= 10000 + 10 100 + 21
= 10000 + 1000 + 21
= 11021.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: nm a+amann a+a++q+.
(i) (3x + 7y)
2
(ii) (11a 7b)
2
(iii) (2p + 5q)(2p 5q)
+ Ja.
(i) (3x + 7y)
2
= (3x)
2
+ 2(3x)(7y) + (7y)
2
=9x
2
+ 42xy + 49y
2
.
(ii) (11a 7b)
2
= (11a)
2
2(11a) (7b) + (7b)
2
= 121a
2
154ab + 49b
2
.
(iii) (2p + 5q)(2p 5q) = (2p)
2
(5q)
2
= 4p
2
25q
2
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: 6n+++nnom ++++an n+mn[++ nma+amannm a+nn
++-+.
(i) 103
2
(ii) 98
2
(iii) 104 96
+ Ja.
(i) 103
2
= (100 + 3)
2
= 100
2
+ 2(100)(3) + 3
2
= 10000 + 600 + 9 = 10609.
(ii) 98
2
= (100 2)
2
= 100
2
2 (100)(2) + 2
2
= 10000 400 + 4 = 9604.
(iii) 104 96 = (100 + 4) (100 4) = 100
2
4
2
= 10000 16 = 9984.

6n++ +n nom + +++ +mm m 0aoa +o n+a a mn 6n++a+a+ 6++- [
a+0a+a.
(i) (a + b)
2
+ (a b)
2
= (a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
) + (a
2
2ab + b
2
)
= (a
2
+ a
2
) + (2ab 2ab) + (b
2
+ b
2
) = 2a
2
+ 2b
2
.

2
1
[(a + b)
2
+ (a b)
2
] =
2
1
[2(a
2
+ b
2
)] = a
2
+ b
2
.
(ii) (a + b)
2
(a b)
2
= (a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
) (a
2
2ab + b
2
)
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
a
2
+ 2ab b
2
= 4ab.

4
1
[(a + b)
2
(a b)
2
] =
4
1
[4ab] = ab.
(iii) (a + b)
2
2ab = (a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
) 2ab = a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
2ab = a
2
+ b
2
.

99
(iv) (a + b)
2
4ab = (a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
) 4ab = a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
4ab
= a
2
2ab + b
2
= (a b)
2
.
(v) (a b)
2
+ 2ab = (a
2
2ab + b
2
) + 2ab = a
2
2ab + b
2
+ 2ab = a
2
+ b
2
.
(vi) (a b)
2
+ 4ab = (a
2
2ab + b
2
) + 4ab = a
2
2ab + b
2
+ 4ab
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= (a + b)
2
.
5aa+m +a+q nma+a n+aa mn6n++a+a +.++aam.


2
1
[(a + b)
2
+ (a b)
2
] = a
2
+ b
2

4
1
[(a + b)
2
(a b)
2
] = ab
(a + b)
2
2ab = a
2
+ b
2
(a + b)
2
4ab = (a b)
2
(a b)
2
+ 2ab = a
2
+ b
2
(a b)
2
+ 4ab = (a + b)
2

0a0o 6++[++nn.[aa mn6n++a+am n+++a a+nn am+. ++a 6nma+

a
2
+ b
2
=
2
1
[(a + b)
2
+ (a b)
2
]
ab =
4
1
[(a + b)
2
(a b)
2
]
a
2
+ b
2
= (a + b)
2
2ab
(a b)
2
= (a + b)
2
4ab
a
2
+ b
2
= (a b)
2
+ 2ab
(a + b)
2
= (a b)
2
+ 4ab

a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: a + b, a b ++annm a+nn+a mn0+ 7 , 4 amo. a
2
+ b
2
, ab
++annm a+nn+a+ ++-.
+ Ja: a
2
+ b
2
=
2
1
[(a + b)
2
+ (a b)
2
]
ab =
4
1
[(a + b)
2
(a b)
2
]
=
4
1
[(7)
2
(4)
2
]
=
4
1
(49 16) =
4
33
.
=
2
1
[(7)
2
+ (4)
2
]
=
2
1
(49 + 16) =
2
65
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: a + b, ab ++annm a+nn+a mn0+ 12 , 32 amo , a
2
+ b
2
,
(a b)
2
m a+nn+a+ ++-+.
+ Ja: a
2
+ b
2
= (a + b)
2
2ab
(a b)
2
= (a + b)
2
4 ab
= (12)
2
4(32) =144 128 = 16.
= (12)
2
2(32) = 144 64 = 80.


a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: a b, ab ++annm a+nn+a mn0+ 6, 40 amo. a
2
+ b
2
,
(a + b)
2
++annm a+nn+a+ ++-+.
(a + b)
2
= (a b)
2
+ 4ab
= 6
2
+ 4(40)= 36 + 160 = 196.
+ Ja: a
2
+ b
2
= (a b)
2
+ 2ab
= 6
2
+ 2(40) = 36 + 80 = 116.
100
a[+ ++ ++. [ 14: (x + p)(x + q) = x
2
5x 300 amo. p
2
+ q
2
m a+nn ++-+.
+ Ja: 6n+++nnom ++++ +m no, (x + p) (x + q) = x
2
+ (p + q)x + pq.
nn[++o ++a na+. p + q = 5, pq = 300.
5n6n+m+. p
2
+ q
2
= (p + q)
2
2 pq = (5)
2
2(300) = 25 + 600 = 625.

++a 5m (a + b + c)
2
+++m +-+ mn6n++a++ +-.n0a+a.
(a + b + c)
2
= [(a + b) + c]
2
= (a + b)
2
+ 2(a + b) c + c
2

= (a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
) + 2ac + 2bc + c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
= a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ 2(ab + bc + ca).
+++o ++a 6nma mn6n++a
(a + b + c)
2
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ 2(ab + bc + ca)
n+++a a+nn am+m+o ++a 6nma+
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ 2(ab + bc + ca) (a + b + c)
2
0aoa ++a ++-n+
(a + b + c)
2
2 (ab + bc + ca) = a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ 2(ab + bc + ca) 2(ab + bc + ca)
= a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
.
am0a. an6n++ +-+ mn6n++a+n 6nm+0n+a.
(a + b + c)
2
2(ab + bc + ca) a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
n+++a a+nn am+m+o ++a 6nma+
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
(a + b + c)
2
2(ab + bc + ca)

a[+ ++ ++. [ 15: nm a+amann a+an[+++.
(i) (2x + y + 2z)
2
(ii) (x 2y + z)
2
(iii) (2p 3q r)
2
(iv) (2a + 3b 2c)
2
+ Ja:
(i) (2x + y + 2z)
2
= [(2x) + y + (2z)]
2
= (2x)
2
+ y
2
+ (2z)
2
+ 2(2x)y + 2y(2z) + 2(2z)(2x)
= 4x
2
+ y
2
+ 4z
2
+ 4xy + 4yz + 8zx.
(ii) (x 2y + z)
2
= [x + (2y) + z]
2
= x
2
+ (2y)
2
+ z
2
+ 2x(2y) +2 (2y)z + 2zx
= x
2
+ 4y
2
+ z
2
4xy 4yz + 2zx.
(iii) (2p 3q r)
2
= [(2p) + (3q) + (r)]
2
= (2p)
2
+ (3q)
2
+ (r)
2
+ 2(2p) (3q) + 2(3q) (r) + 2(r)(2p).
= 4p
2
+ 9q
2
+ r
2
12pq + 6qr 4rp.
(iv) (2a + 3b 2c)
2
= [(2a) + (3b) + (2c)]
2
= (2a)
2
+ (3b)
2
+ (2c)
2
+ 2(2a)(3b) + 2(3b)(2c) + 2(2c)(2a)
= 4a
2
+ 9b
2
+ 4c
2
+ 12ab 12bc 8ca.
4.2.2 (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) +++m 5+n+-+ mn6n++a
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) = (x + a)[(x + b)(x + c)]
= (x + a)[x
2
+ (b + c)x + bc] = (x + a)(x
2
+ bx + cx + bc)
= x(x
2
+ bx + cx + bc) + a(x
2
+ bx + cx + bc)
= x
3
+ bx
2
+ cx
2
+ bcx + ax
2
+ abx + acx + abc
= x
3
+ (a + b + c)x
2
+ (ab + bc + ca)x + abc.
am0a.
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) x
3
+ (a + b + c)x
2
+ (ab + bc + ca)x + abc

101
0a0o 6++[++nn.[aa mn6n++a+o a, b, c 5an nn q n+o++ a, b, c n
n+++. +a+q+ +.nn+
(x a)(x b)(x c) = [x + (a)][x + (b)][x + (c)]
= x
3
+ [(a) + (b) + (c)]x
2
+ [(a) (b) + (b) (c) + (c) (a)]x + (a) (b) (c)
= x
3
(a + b + c)x
2
+ (ab + bc + ca)x abc.
5aa+m
(x a)(x b)(x c) x
3
(a + b + c)x
2
+ (ab + bc + ca)x abc.
5+o , x
2
m 6+m = (a + b + c), x m 6+m = ab + bc + ca, a+no mn n= abc.
5+n 0n+o0a. (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) o x
2
m 6+m = a + b + c, x m 6+m = ab + bc + ca,
a+no mn n= abc.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 16 : a+a ++-+.
(i) (x + 4)(x + 3)(x + 5) (ii) (2x + 1)(2x 3)(2x + 5)
(iii) (3 2x)(2x + 7)(2x + 1) (iv) (x a)(x 2a)(x 3a)
+ Ja:
(i) (x + 4)(x + 3)(x + 5) = x
3
+ (4 + 3 + 5)x
2
+ [4 3 + 3 5 + 5 4]x + 4 3 5
= x
3
+ 12x
2
+ [12 + 15 + 20]x + 60
= x
3
+ 12x
2

+ 47x + 60.
(ii) (2x + 1)(2x 3)(2x + 5) = (2x + 1)[2x + (3)](2x + 5)
= (2x)
3
+ [1 + (3) + 5](2x)
2
+ [1 (3) + (3) 5 + 5 1](2x) + 1 (3) 5
= 8x
3
+ 3(4x
2
) + [3 15 + 5](2x) 15
= 8x
3
+ 12x
2
26x 15.
(iii) (3 2x)(2x + 7)(2x + 1) = [(2x 3)](2x +7 )(2x + 1)
= [2x + (3)](2x + 7)(2x + 1)
= [(2x)
3
+ {(3) + 7 + 1}(2x)
2
+ {(3) 7 + 71+ 1(3)}(2x) + (3) 7 1]
= [8x
3
+ (5)(4x
2
) + (21 + 7 3)(2x) 21]
= [8x
3
+ 20x
2
34x 21] = 21 + 34x 20x
2
8x
3
.
(iv) (x a)(x 2a)(x 3a) = [x+(a)][x+(2a)][x+(3a)]
= x
3
+ {(a) + (2a)+( 3a)}x
2
+{(a) (2a) + (2a) (3a)
+ (3a) (a)}x + (a) (2a) (3a)
= x
3
+ {6a}x
2
+ {2a
2
+ 6a
2
+ 3a
2
}x 6a
3
= x
3
6ax
2
+ 11a
2
x 6a
3
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 17 : 6n+++nnom ++++an n+mn[++. x
2
mnnm 6+m. x
mnnm 6+m. a+no mnn ++ann+ ++-+.
(i) (x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 6) (ii) (x 7)(x + 2)(x + 4)
(iii) (x 5)(x 2)(x + 4) (iv) (2x 3 )(2x 5)(7 2x)
+ Ja:
(i) (x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 6) (x + a)(x + b)(x +c ) 1.m nn[++o.
a = 3, b = 5, c = 6.
x
2
m 6+m = a + b + c = 3 + 5 + 6 = 14,
x m 6+m = ab + bc + ca = (3 5) + (5 6) + (6 3) = 15 + 30 + 18 = 63,
a+no mn n = abc = 3 5 6 = 90.

(ii) (x 7)(x + 2)(x + 4) = [x + (7)](x + 2)(x + 4)
5+ (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) 1.m nn[++o. a = 7, b = 2, c = 4.
x
2
m 6+m = a + b + c = (7) + 2 + 4 = 1.
102
x m 6+m = ab + bc + ca = (7) 2 + 2 4 + 4 (7)
= (14) + 8 + (28)= (42) + 8 = 34,
a+no mn n = abc = (7) 2 4 = 56.

(iii) (x 5)(x 2)(x + 4) = [x + (5)][x + (2)](x + 4)
5+ (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) 1.m nn[++o. a = 5, b = 2, c = 4.
x
2
m 6+m = a + b + c = (5) + (2) + 4 = (7) + 4 = 3,
x m 6+m = ab + bc + ca = (5) (2) +(2) 4 + 4 (5)= 10 8 20 = 18,
a+no mn n = abc = (5) (2)4 = 40.

(iv) (2x 3)(2x 5)(7 2x) amn+ A am+n 5+n+-+ 0++a am+. 5+o
y=2x am+ 6++-.+o ,
A = (y 3)(y 5)(7 y) = (y 3)(y 5) [(y 7)] = [(y 3)(y 5 )(y 7)]
= [y
3
+ {(3) + (5) + (7)}y
2
+ {(3)(5) + (5)(7) + (7)(3)}y + (3)(5)(7)]
= [y
3
15y
2
+ (15 + 35 + 21)y 105] = y
3
+ 15y
2
71y + 105
= (2x)
3
+ 15(2x)
2
71(2x) + 105 = 8x
3
+ 60x
2
142x + 105
x
2
m 6+m = 60, x m 6+m = 142, a+no mn n = 105

an6n++ mn. (2x 3)(2x 5)(7 2x)
=

2
7
2
2
5
2
2
3
2 x x x =

+
2
7
2
5
2
3
8 x x x
x
2
m 6+m = 8(a + b + c) =

2
7
2
5
2
3
8 =

2
15
8 = 60,
x m 6+m = 8( ab + bc + ca) =

2
3
2
7
2
7
2
5
2
5
2
3
8
= 8

+ +
4
21
4
35
4
15
= 8

+ +
4
21 35 15
= (2) (71)= 142,
a+no mn n = 8(abc) =

2
7
2
5
2
3
8 = 8

8
105
= 105.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 18 : (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) x
3
6x
2
+ 11x 6 amo. a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
m a+n n
++-+.
+ Ja. 6n+++nnom +++++o+++ ++a na+.
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) = x
3
+ (a + b + c)x
2
+ (ab + bc + ca)x + abc.
nn[++o +a+q+ +.nn+. a + b + c = 6, ab + bc + ca = 11, abc = 6.
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
= (a + b + c)
2
2 (ab + bc + ca) = ( 6)
2
2(11) = 36 22 = 14.

(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) m mn6n++a+o+++ +o mn6n++a+a+ ++an0n+a.

(i) (a + b)
3
+ ++m mn 6n++a
(a + b)
3
= (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
= a
3
+ (b + b + b)a
2
+ (b b + b b + b b)a + b b b = a
3
+ 3a
2
b + 3ab
2
+ b
3

(a + b)
3
a
3
+ 3a
2
b + 3ab
2
+ b
3

103
n+++a a+nn6+m+.
a
3
+ 3a
2
b + 3ab
2
+ b
3
(a + b)
3


(ii) (a b)
3
+ ++m mn 6n++a
(a b)
3
= [a + (b)]
3
= a
3
+ 3a
2
(b) + 3a(b)
2
+ (b)
3
= a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3

(a b)
3
a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3


a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3
(a b)
3
n+++a a+nn.


(a + b)
3
, (a b)
3
amn mn6n++a+am onn.+o nma+a mn6n++a+a+
++an0n+a.
(i) (a + b)
3
3ab(a + b) = a
3
+ 3a
2
b + 3ab
2
+ b
3
3a
2
b 3ab
2
= a
3
+b
3
.

(a + b)
3
3ab(a + b) a
3
+ b
3


a
3
+ b
3
(a + b)
3
3ab(a + b)
n+++a a+nn.

(ii) (a b)
3
+3ab(a b) = a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3
+ 3a
2
b 3ab
2
= a
3
b
3
.

(a b)
3
+ 3ab(a b) a
3
b
3



a
3
b
3
(a b)
3
+ 3ab(a b)
n+++a a+nn.

(iii) a
3
+ b
3
= (a + b)
3
3ab(a + b) = (a + b)(a + b)
2
3ab(a + b)
= (a + b)[(a + b)
2
3ab] = (a + b)[(a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
) 3ab]
= (a + b)(a
2
ab + b
2
).


a
3
+ b
3
(a + b)(a
2
ab + b
2
)



n+++a a+nn.

(iv) a
3
b
3
= (a b)
3
+ 3ab(a b) = (a b)(a b)
2
+ 3ab(a b)
(a + b)(a
2
ab + b
2
) a
3
+ b
3
= (a b)[(a b)
2
+ 3ab] = (a b)[(a
2
2ab + b
2
) + 3ab]
= (a b)(a
2
+ ab + b
2
).


a
3
b
3
(a b)(a
2
+ ab + b
2
)


(a b)(a
2
+ ab + b
2
) a
3
b
3
n+++a a+nn.


104
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca + ++m mn 6n++a

++a 6nma+.
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca = ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 (
2
1
2 2 2
ca bc ab c b a + +
= [ ] ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 (
2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
a ca c c bc b b ab a + + + + +
= [ ]. ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2 2 2
a c c b b a + +

5aa+m. ++a nma+a mn6n++a+n 6nm+0n+a.

a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca [ ]
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
a c c b b a + +


n+++a a+nn6+m+.

[
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ]
2
1
a c c b b a + + a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca


(a + b + c) (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca) an++m mn6n++a

n+.[n n-nn n+mn[++ ++a .a+.

(a + b + c) (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca)
= a (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca) + b (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca)
+ c (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca)

= a
3
+ ab
2
+ c
2
a a
2
b abc ca
2
+ a
2
b + b
3
+ bc
2
ab
2
b
2
c
abc +ca
2
+ b
2
c + c
3
abc bc
2
c
2
a
= a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc.

5aa+m ++a 6nma+.

(a + b + c) (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc

n+++a a+nn.

a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc (a + b + c) (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca).


a[+ ++ ++. [ 19 : nma+amann a++6+m++. (i) (3x + 2y)
3
(ii) (2x
2
3y)
3
+ Ja.
(i) (3x + 2y)
3
= (3x)
3
+ 3(3x)
2
(2y) + 3(3x)(2y)
2
+ (2y)
3
= 27x
3
+ 3(9x
2
)(2y) + 3(3x)(4y
2
) + 8y
3
= 27x
3
+ 54x
2
y + 36xy
2
+ 8y
3
.
105
(ii) (2x
2
3y)
3
= (2x
2
)
3
3(2x
2
)
2
(3y) + 3(2x
2
) (3y)
2
(3y)
3
= 8x
6
3(4x
4
)(3y) + 3(2x
2
)(9y
2
) 27y
3
= 8x
6
36x
4
y + 54x
2
y
2
27y
3

a[+ ++ ++. [ 20 : a + b , ab ++annm a+nn++a mn0+ 4, 1 amo. a
3
+ b
3
m
a+nn ++-+.
+ Ja.
a
3
+ b
3
= (a + b)
3
3ab(a + b) = (4)
3
3(1)(4) = 64 12 = 52.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 21: a b = 4 an ma ab = 2 amo. a
3
b
3

m a+n n ++- +.
+ Ja.
a
3
b
3
= (ab)
3
+ 3ab(ab) = (4)
3
+ 3(2)(4) = 64 + 24 = 88.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 22: a + b = 2, a
2
+ b
2
= 8 amo. a
3
+ b
3
, a
4
+ b
4
a+nn ++-+.
+ Ja.
a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= (a + b)
2
2ab = (a + b)
2
(a
2
+ b
2
) = (2)
2
(8) = 4 8 = 4.
ab =
2
1
(2ab) =
2
1
(4) = 2.
a
3
+ b
3
= (a + b)
3
3ab(a + b) = (2)
3
3(2)(2) = 8 3 ( 4) = 8 + 12 = 20.

a+nmaa.
a
3
+ b
3
= (a + b)(a
2
ab + b
2
) = (a + b)(a
2
+ b
2
ab)
= (2) [8 (2)] = 2(10) = 20.
a
4
+ b
4
= (a
2
)
2
+ (b
2
)
2
= [(a
2
) + (b
2
)]
2
2 (a
2
)(b
2
)
= (a
2
+ b
2
)
2
2a
2
b
2
= (a
2
+ b
2
)
2
2(ab)
2
= (8)
2
2(2)
2
= 64 2(4)= 64 8 = 56.

n+n + 4.2

1. 6n+++nnom ++++ +n n+mn[++ nm a+aman n+ ++- +.
(i) (x + 9) (x + 2) (ii) (x + 8) (x 2)
(iii) (t 2)(t + 6) (iv) (p 4)(p 3)
(v) 102 106 (vi) 59 62
(vii) 34 36 (viii) 53 55

2. 6n+++nnom ++++ +n n+mn[+++ ++-+.
(i) (5x + 8y)
2
(ii) (3s 4t)
2
(iii) (4p + 7q)(4p 7q)
(iv) (101)
2
(v) (98)
2
(vi) 101 98

3. a + b = 5 , a b = 4 amo. a
2
+ b
2
an ma ab +m a+nn+ ++-+.

4. a + b = 10 , ab = 20 amo. a
2
+ b
2
, (a b)
2
+ ++-+.

5. (x + l)(x + m) = x
2
+ 4x + 2 amo. l
2
+ m
2
, (l m)
2
+ ++-+.

6. nma+amann a++6+m++.
(i) (3x + y + 2z)
2
(ii) (4x 2y + 3z)
2
(iii) (2p + 3q 2r)
2
(iv) (3a 2b 2c)
2
106

7. a + b + c = 11 , ab + bc + ca = 38 amo. a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
++-+.

8. 6n+++nnom +++++n n+mn[+ +n nma+amannm a+a ++-+.
(i) (x + 2 )(x + 3)(x + 4) (ii) (x + 2)(x + 3)(x 4)
(iii) (x + 2)(x 3)(x + 4) (iv) (x + 2)(x 3)(x 4) (v) (x 2)(x 3)(x 4)
9. 6n+++nnom + +++ +n n+m n[++n nma+amanno x
2
mnn. x mn n
++annm 6+m++a1a. a+no mnn1a ++-+.
(i) (x + 10)(x 3)(x + 2) (ii) (2x 3)(2x + 4)(2x 1)
(iii) (6x + 1)(6x 5)(7 6x)
10. (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) x
3
9x
2
+ 23x 15 amo. a + b + c,
c b a
1 1 1
+ + , a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2

++ann+ ++-+.

11. 6n+++nnom ++++ +n n+mn[++ a+a++q+.
(i) (2x + y
2
)
3
(ii) (2u 7v)
3
(iii)
3
1

x
x

(iv) (x
2
y
3
+ 2)
3
12. 2a 3b = 2 , ab = 6 amo. 8a
3
27b
3
m a+nn ++-+.

13. 3
1
= +
x
x amo. x
2
+
2
1
x
, x
3
+
3
1
x
+ ++-+.

14. x + y = 6 , xy = 8 amo. x
2
+ y
2
, x
3
+ y
3
+ ++-+.

15. p + q = 6 , p
2
+ q
2
= 32 amo. pq, p
3
+ q
3
, p
4
+ q
4
+ ++-+.

4.3. +++-n n[+ +o

m+++ nq++o 5+-[ oo+ +n q 0ann. . noomnn+ 0++a+a
6n+++. an6n++ noomnn+ 0++a+ aaa+m 6nno+a am+ +-.n+0++a.
5n6n+m+ + noomnn+ 0++a+ aaa+m 5+-[ oo+ +nq 0ann..
noomnn+ 0++a+am 6n+++o++ am+o+a am+ +n0n+a. + noomnn+
0++a+ 5+-[ oo+ +nq 0ann.. aa+ noomnn+ 0++a+am
6n+++o++ am+a+ +++-nn[++o am+ +nnn[a. 6n+++oo aa a6a++
aa+ noomnn+ 0++a1a 6++[++nn.. noomnn+ 0++a+m + +++-
amnn[a. a[+++++. .++. x + 3, x 3 amna x
2
9 m +++-+a+qa.
x
2
9 = (x + 3)(x 3)
amn++o. 5q x
2
9 amn+ 5+no noomnn+ 0++a. x + 3, x 3 am na +no
noomnn+ 0++a+a. 5aa+m +++-nn[+++o 0++a+a+ +++qa+nq
+a+n+. +++-nn[+++o ama 5+ ++ 6++o. +++-+a++n nq+ +o amma
+nnn[a.

4.3.1. +++-nn[++o aamn
aa 1: (6n++a+m+ +++-++ +-[no++o ) A am+n J 5+n +-++ 0++a+m
mnn+ao B am+n 6n++++++- 5++++o. ++a A +m a 6a++ mn n1a B
107
++o aq++ C am+n 0++a +.+qa. 5n6n+m+ A B C am+ +++-nn[++
am+o+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 23 : +++-nn[+++. 6x
4
y
3
4x
2
y
2
+ 10xy
3
.
+ Ja. 2xy
2
m+ 6n++++++- amn++ ++-+0n+a.
6x
4
y
3
4x
2
y
2
+ 10xy
3
= 2xy
2

+
2
3
2
2 2
2
3 4
2
10
2
4
2
6
xy
xy
xy
y x
xy
y x
= 2xy
2
(3x
3
y 2x + 5y).

aa 2: (mnn+a+ qmnn[+++o) J 5+n+-++ 0++a+m mnn++qn
6n++a+m +++- 5oo6+mo ++ mnn+a+ +q++ mn+o qmnn[++
+ 6n++a+m +++- +Ja+m++n n[a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 24 : +++-nn[+++. x
2
2xy x + 2y.
+ Ja. 0++a+m mnn++qn 6n++a+m+ +++- 5oo. ama mnn+a +0a
+-.a+m qmnn[++nn.o+a am+ ++-+0n+a.
x
2
2xy x + 2y = (x
2
2xy) (x 2y) = x(x 2y) + (1) (x 2y)
= (x 2y) [x + (1)] = (x 2y) (x 1).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 25 : +++-nn[+++. 6x
5
y
2
+ 6x
4
y
3
+ 9x
2
y
4
+ 9xy
5
.
+ Ja. m+o aa. 2 a aa 5+- .1a n+mn[++. ++a ++-n+.
6x
5
y
2
+ 6x
4
y
3
+ 9x
2
y
4
+ 9xy
5
= 3xy
2
(2x
4
+ 2x
3
y + 3xy
2
+ 3y
3
)
= 3xy
2
[(2x
4
+ 3xy
2
) + (2x
3
y + 3y
3
)] = 3xy
2
[x(2x
3
+ 3y
2
) + y(2x
3
+ 3y
2
)]
= 3xy
2
(2x
3
+ 3y
2
) (x + y).

n+n + 4.3.1

6n++a+m + +++-++ +-[no++ +++-+a++n nq++aa.
1. 9m 3n 2. 4a
3
8a
2
+ 16a 3. x
5
+ 4x
4. 6x
5
y
5
+ 3x
2
y
3
+ 14xy
3
5. 7pq 21p
2
q
2
6n++a+m + +++-++ +-[no+0++ oo+ qmnn[++o mn+n
n+mn[++0++. +++-+a++n nq++aa.
6. mn 2p pn + 2m 7. x
3
2x
2
2x + 4
8. x
3
x
2
ax + a 9. 2p
3
p
2
+ 2p 1
10. 8x
3
+ 4x
2
+ 4x + 2

4.3.2. +++-nn[++o ++++an n+mn[++. +++-nn[++o
+o 0+++ao + 0++a++ +++-nn[++a0n++ +++-nn[++o
++++an n+mn[++0a+a. 5++ +++a 6n+++o ++++ao+++
6nnnn..a++qa. 6n+++o ++++a+am.
(i) (X + Y)
2
= X
2
+ 2XY + Y
2
(ii) (X Y)
2
= X
2
2XY + Y
2
(iii) (X + Y)(X Y) = X
2
Y
2
(iv) ( X + Y) (X
2
XY + Y
2
) = X
3
+ Y
3
(v) (X Y)(X
2
+ XY + Y
2
) = X
3
Y
3
(vi) (X + Y)
3
= X
3
+ Y
3
+ 3X
2
Y + 3XY
2
= X
3
+ Y
3
+ 3X Y (X +Y )
(vii) (X Y)
3
= X
3
Y
3
3X
2
Y + 3XY
2
= X
3
Y
3
3X Y (X Y )
108
(viii) (X + Y + Z)
2
= X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
+ 2XY + 2YZ + 2ZX
(ix) (X + Y + Z) (X
2
+ Y
2
+Z
2
XY YZ ZX) = X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
3XYZ

0a0o 6++[++nn.[aa ++++a ao+ n++++o+++ 5.+n++a++
no+0++6amn+o +a+q +0a 6++[+ +nn.[aa +++-nn[++o ++++a
+.+qa.
(i) X
2
+ 2XY + Y
2
= (X +Y)
2
(ii) X
2
2XY + Y
2
= (X Y)
2
(iii) X
2
Y
2
= (X + Y) (X Y)
(iv) X
3
+ Y
3
= ( X + Y) (X
2
XY + Y
2
)
(v) X
3
Y
3
= (X Y) (X
2
+ XY + Y
2
)
(vi) X
3
+ Y
3
+ 3X
2
Y+ 3XY
2
= (X + Y)
3
(vii) X
3
Y
3
3X
2
Y + 3XY
2
= (X Y)
3
(viii) X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
+ 2XY + 2YZ + 2ZX = ( X + Y + Z)
2
(ix) X
3
+Y
3
+Z
3
3XYZ = (X + Y + Z) (X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
XY YZ ZX)

X
2
+ 2XY + Y
2
(X + Y)
2
n n+m n[+ + +++-n n[+ +o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 26: +++-+a++n nq++aa. 4x
2
+ 12xy + 9y
2
.
+ Ja. 6++[++nn.. 0++a+n nma+a+m a+nn+a++o+a.
4x
2
+ 12xy + 9y
2
= (2x)
2
+ 2(2x)(3y) + (3y)
2
X = 2x, Y = 3y am a[+++6++- .+o ao+n++a = X
2
+ 2XY + Y
2
. am0a. +
(X + Y)
2
am+ +++-nn[++nn[a. am0a ++a 6nma+
4x
2
+ 12xy + 9y
2
= (2x + 3y)
2
.

X
2
2XY + Y
2
(X Y)
2
n n+m n[+ + +++-n n[+ +o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 27 : +++-nn[+++. p
2
18pq + 81q
2
.
+ Ja. 6++[++nn.. 0++a+ nma+a+m am+o+a.
p
2
18pq + 81q
2
= p
2
2(p)(9q) + (9q)
2
X = p, Y = 9q am a[+ ++6++-.+o ao+n++a X
2
2XY + Y
2
qa . +++o +
(X Y)
2
am +++-nn[++nn[a. am0a. ++a 6nma+
p
2
18pq + 81q
2
= (p 9q)
2
.

X
2
Y
2
(X + Y) (X Y) n n+m n[+ + +++-n n[+ +o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 28: +++-nn[+++. 16x
4
y
2
25.
+ Ja. 16x
4
y
2
= (4x
2
y)
2
, 25 = (5)
2
, amn++o
16x
4
y
2
25 = (4x
2
y)
2
(5)
2
= (4x
2
y + 5) (4x
2
y 5).

X
3
+ Y
3
(X + Y) (X
2
XY + Y
2
) n n+m n[+ + +++-n n[+ +o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 29: +++-+a++nnq. 125a
3
+ 64b
3
.
+ Ja. 125a
3
= (5a)
3
, 64b
3
= (4b)
3
amn++o. ++a X = 5a, Y = 4b am a[+ ++ 6++a 0a+a .
nmmJ 125a
3
+ 64b
3
= (5a)
3
+ (4b)
3
= X
3
+ Y
3
= (X + Y) (X
2
XY + Y
2
)
= (5a + 4b) [(5a)
2
(5a)(4b) + (4b)
2
]
= (5a + 4b) (25a
2
20ab + 16b
2
).
109
X
3
Y
3
(X Y) (X
2
+ XY + Y
2
) n n+m n[+ + +++-n n[+ +o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 30 : +++-nn[+++. 216p
3
8q
3
.
+ Ja. 216p
3
= (6p)
3
, 8q
3
= (2q)
3
am am+o+a. +++o. X = 6p, Y = 2q am a[+ ++
6++-0.+a+m+o
216p
3
8q
3
= (6p)
3
(2q)
3
X
3
Y
3
= (X Y) (X
2
+ XY + Y
2
)
= (6p 2q) [(6p)
2
+(6p)(2q) +(2q)
2
]
= (6p 2q)(36p
2
+12pq+4q
2
).

X
3
+ Y
3
+ 3X
2
Y + 3XY
2
(X + Y)
3
n n+m n[+ + +++-n n[+ +o
a[+ ++ ++. [ 31: +++-n n[+ ++. 8x
3
+ y
3
+ 12x
2
y + 6xy
2
.
+ Ja. 8x
3
+ y
3
+ 12x
2
y

+ 6xy
2
= (2x)
3
+ y
3
+ 3(2x)
2
y + 3(2x)y
2
= [(2x) + y]
3
= (2x + y)
3
.

X
3
Y
3
3X
2
Y + 3XY
2
(X Y)
3
n n+m n[+ + +++-n n[+ +o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 32: +++-n n[+ ++. 8x
3
27y
3
36x
2
y + 54xy
2
.
+ Ja. 8x
3
27y
3
36x
2
y + 54xy
2
= (2x)
3
(3y)
3
3(2x)
2
(3y) + 3(2x)(3y)
2
= (2x 3y)
3
.

X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
+ 2XY + 2YZ + 2ZX (X + Y + Z)
2
n n+mn[+ + +++-n n[+ +o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 33 : +++-nn[+++. x
2
+ 9y
2
6xy + 4x 12y + 4.
+ Ja. 0++a x
2
+ 9y
2
+ 4 am n +[+o+ 6++- [a a+. 5+ +m m aJ+ + +am
+[+o. +++o. ++a am+a+
x
2
+ 9y
2
6xy + 4x 12y + 4 = x
2
+ (3y)
2
+ 2
2
+ 2x (3y) + 2x(2) + 2(2)(3y)
= [x + (3y) + 2]
2
= (x 3y + 2)
2
.

X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
3XYZ (X + Y + Z) (X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
XY YZ ZX) n n+m n[+ +
+++-nn[++o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 34: +++-n n[+ ++. x
3
8y
3
+ 27z
3
+ 18xyz.
+ Ja. 8y
3
= (2y)
3
, 27z
3
= (3z)
3
am n++o 6++[++nn.. 0++a+ P am+. 5+ +mm
+-+am +[+o+ 6++-[a a+. am0a ++a am+a+
P = (x)
3
+ (2y)
3
+ (3z)
3
3(x)(2y)(3z)
= [(x) + (2y) + (3z)] [(x)
2
+ (2y)
2
+ (3z)
2
(x) (2y) (2y)(3z) (3z)(x)]
= (x 2y + 3z) (x
2
+ 4y
2
+ 9z
2
+ 2xy + 6yz 3zx).

X + Y + Z = 0 aa 0n++ X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
+ +++-nn[++o

X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
= (X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
3XYZ) + 3XYZ
= (X + Y + Z) (X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
XY YZ ZX) + 3XYZ
= (0) (X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
XY YZ ZX) + 3XYZ = 3XYZ.
qnn n. X + Y + Z = 0 amo , X + Y = Z. (X + Y)
3
= ( Z)
3
= Z
3
. -+
X
3
+ Y
3
+ 3XY(X +Y ) = Z
3
. -+, X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
+ 3XY( Z) = 0.
X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
= 3XY Z.

110
a[+ ++ ++. [ 35: +++-n n[+ ++. (x y)
3
+ (y z)
3
+ (z x)
3
.
+ Ja. X = x y, Y = y z, Z = z x am+. nmmJ
X + Y + Z = (x y) + (y z) + (z x) = x y + y z + z x = 0.
X
3
+ Y
3
+ Z
3
= 3XYZ
X, Y, Z ++annnq n+++..+o
(x y)
3
+ (y z)
3
+ (z x)
3
= 3(x y) (y z) (z x).

qm +-++++n n+mn[+++ +++-nn[++o

a[+ ++ ++. [ 36: +++-n n[+ ++. 4x
2
+ 20xy + 25y
2
10x 25y.
+ Ja. 6++[++nn.. 0++a 4x
2
+ 20xy + 25y
2
10x 25y
= (2x)
2
+ 2(2x)(5y) + (5y)
2
5(2x) 5(5y)
= [(2x) + (5y)]
2
5[(2x) + (5y)] = (2x + 5y)
2
5(2x + 5y) = (2x + 5y) (2x + 5y 5).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 37: +++-n n[+ ++. 4a
2
4ab + b
2
2a + b.
+ Ja. 6++[++nn.. noomnn+0++a
4a
2
4ab + b
2
2a + b = (2a)
2
2(2a)(b) + (b)
2
(2a b)
= (2a b)
2
1 (2a b) = (2a b) (2a b 1).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 38: +++-n n[+ ++. 81x
2
18x + 1 25y
2
.
+ Ja. mnn+a+ qmnn[++
81x
2
18x + 1 25y
2
= [(9x)
2
2(9x)(1) + (1)
2
] (5y)
2
= [(9x) (1)]
2
(5y)
2
= (9x 1)
2
(5y)
2
= [(9x 1) + (5y)][(9x 1) (5y)]
= (9x + 5y 1) (9x 5y 1).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 39: +++-n n[+ ++. x
4
+1.
+ Ja. 2x
2
+.o+ +a++. ++a 6nma+
x
4
+ 1 = (x
4
+ 2x
2
+ 1) 2x
2
= [(x
2
)
2
+ 2(x
2
)(1) + (1)
2
] 2x
2
= (x
2
+ 1)
2
( 2 x)
2
= [(x
2
+ 1) + ( 2 x)][(x
2
+ 1) ( 2 x)]
= (x
2
+ 2 x + 1) (x
2
2 x + 1).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 40: +++-n n[+ ++. x
4
+ x
2
y
2
+ y
4
.
+ Ja. x
2
y
2
+ +.o+ +a++. ++a 6nma+
x
4
+ x
2
y
2
+ y
4
= (x
4
+ 2x
2
y
2
+ y
4
) x
2
y
2
= [(x
2
)
2
+ 2(x
2
)(y
2
) + (y
2
)
2
] (xy)
2
= (x
2
+ y
2
)
2
(xy)
2
= [x
2
+ y
2
+ (xy)] [x
2
+ y
2
(xy)] = (x
2
+ xy + y
2
) (x
2
xy + y
2
).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 41: +++-n n[+ ++. x
4
+ 5x
2
+ 9.
+ Ja. x
2

+ +.o+ +a++

, ++a 6nma+
x
4
+ 5x
2
+ 9 = (x
4
+ 6x
2
+ 9) x
2
= (x
2
+ 3)
2
x
2
= [(x
2
+ 3) + x][(x
2
+ 3) x]
= (x
2
+ x + 3) (x
2
x + 3).
111
a[+ ++ ++. [ 42: x
8
x
2
y
6
+ +++-+a++n n+.
+ Ja. x
2
+ 6n++++++-+++ a[++.
x
8
x
2
y
6
= x
2
(x
6
y
6
)
= x
2
[(x
3
)
2
(y
3
)
2
]
= x
2
(x
3
+ y
3
) (x
3
y
3
)
= x
2
[(x + y)(x
2
xy + y
2
)] [(x y)(x
2
+ xy + y
2
)]
= x
2
(x + y)(x y)(x
2
+ xy + y
2
) (x
2
xy + y
2
).

n+n + 4.3.2
nma+am ++++ +an+ am a.+a.
1. 2x
2
+ 2 2 x + 1 = (1 + x 2 )
2
2. x
6
4x
3
+ 4 = (x
3
+ 1)
2
3. a
2
b
2
= (a b)
2
4. a
3
+ b
3
= (a + b)(a
2
+ ab + b
2
)
5. a
3
b
3
= (a b)(a
2
+ ab + b
2
)
+++-nn[+ +o + +++an n+mn[++ +++-+a+ +-[no.
6. 1 + 6x + 9x
2
7. 144x
2
72x + 9
8. 4a
2
b
2
+ 20abcd + 25c
2
d
2
9. x
2
+ y
2
a
2
b
2
+ 2xy + 2ab
10. 3 3 x
3
y
3
+ 27z
3
11. (x + y)
3
+ 8y
3
12. (x
2
+ 1)
3
+ (x
2
1)
3
13. x
6
y
6

14. (x + y)
3
(x y)
3
15. (p + q)
3
+ (p q)
3
+ 6p(p
2
q
2
)
16. 27x
3
+ y
3
+ 27x
2
y + 9xy
2
17. x
3
12x
2
+48x 64
18. 8x
3
27y
3
36x
2
y + 54xy
2
19. 4x
2
+ 9y
2
+ z
2
+ 12xy + 4xz + 6yz
20. a
2
+ b
2
+ 9c
2
+ 2ab 6ac 6bc 21. x
3
y
3
+ 1 + 3xy
22. 8x
3
125y
3
+ 180xy + 216 23. 8x
3
27y
3
+ z
3
+18xyz
24. 3 3 a
3
8b
3
125c
3
30 3 abc 25. (a 2b)
3
+ (2b 3c)
3
+ (3c a)
3
26. (x + y 2z)
3
+ (y + z 2x)
3
+ (z + x 2y)
3
27. (a
2
b
2
)
3
+ (b
2
c
2
)
3
+ (c
2
a
2
)
3
28. a
3
(b c)
3
+ b
3
(c a)
3
+ c
3
(a b)
3
29. x(x + z) y(y + z) 30. 1 2xy x
2
y
2
31. x
4
+ 4

4.3.3. ax
2
+ bx + c ama 5+no+ 0++a++ +++-nn[++o

6+m++a a, b, c ++a m++a mm++a am a[+++ 6++a0a+a.
0aoa a 0. 6+m++a a, b, c +o +. [n n+[++ q .m n. .+o ax
2
+ bx + c +
+++-nn[++o+a. 5+++ +.[nn+[+a1a +++-+a1a 5m ++-0n+a.
m+oo. a = 1, b 1a c 1a mm++a ama aa+ a++ a[+++
6++a0a+a. ++a 5n0n++ x
2
+ bx + c amn++ +++-nn[++ 0a-[a. ++a a+no
mnn+++ c ama mma. p + q = b am 5++qa+m. p. q ama 5+ mm++am
6n+++nnom++ am+0a+a. +am.+ m+n++o ++a 6ann 6nnn+o.
x
2
+ bx + c = x
2
+ (p + q)x + pq
= (x
2
+ px) + (qx + pq)
= x(x + p) + q(x + p)
= (x + p) (x + q)
5aa+m. ++a a+an+++ +++++a0a+a.
112
a+ : x
2
+ bx + c +m a+no mnn c ++m+. p. q ama 5+ mm++am
6n+++nnom++aa. aa+ mm++am +[+o+++ p + q a+m+ x m 6+ma+++
b +q+ +aa++aa 5++qa+m n+++nn..+o. x
2
+ bx + c = (x + p) (x + q).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 43: +++-n n[+ ++. x
2
+ 9x + 18.
+ Ja. 6++[++nn.. 0++a+ X
2
+ XY + Y
2
aa aoa++o am+ mo+++. am0a.
X
2
+ 2XY + Y
2
= (X + Y)
2
amn+n n+mn[++ mo+++. am0a. a+no mn n 18 +
+++-nn[+ + m+o0a+a.
18 m aoo+ +++-+ 0++o+a
18 = 1 18 = 18 1 = 1 18 = 18 1
18 = 2 9 = 9 2 = 2 9 = 9 2
18 = 3 6 = 6 3 = 3 6 = 6 3
5++++-+am +[+o am+0a+a.
18 + 1 = 1 + 18 = 19
(18) + (1) = (1) + (18) = 19
2 + 9 = 9 + 2 = 11
(2) + (9) = (9) + (2) = 11
3 + 6 = 6 + 3 = 9
(3) + (6) = (6) + (3) = 9.
x m 6+ma1a. +++-+am +[+o1a nn.[n n+J+0++6amn+o 3, 6 ++
+++-+am +[+o x m 6+ma++ aa+. am0a.
x
2
+ 9x + 18 = (x + 3) (x + 6).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 44: +++-n n[+ ++. x
2
15x + 54.
+ Ja. a+no = 54 an ma x m 6+m = 15. 5q 54 m +++-+a1a. annm
+[+o1a +0a n. o+o.[+ ++.[0a+a.
+++-+a +[+o
{1, 54} 55
{1, 54} 55
{2, 27} 29
{2, 27} 29
{3, 18} 21
{3, 18} 21
{6, 9} 15
{6, 9} 15
am0a. x
2
15x + 54 = (x 6) (x 9).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 45: +++-n n[+ ++. 15 2x x
2
.
+ Ja. +.. aoao am+.
15 2x x
2
= x
2
2x + 15 = (1) (x
2
+ 2x 15).
5 q ++a 15 = 5 3, 5 + (3) = 2 am+ ++-+0n+a.
am0a. 15 2x x
2
= (1) [(x + 5) {x + (3)}]
= (1) (x + 5)(x 3)= (x + 5) ( 3 x).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 46: +++-nn[+++. x
2
x 132.
+ Ja. 132 = (12) 11, (12) + 11 = 1 am ++a ++-+0n+a .
am0a. x
2
x 132 = [x + (12)] (x + 11) = (x 12) (x + 11).
113
[+++++. a 0, a, b, c mm++a+++ 6++-. ax
2
+ bx + c am+n 5+no
noomnn+ 0++a+m+ +++0a+a. p, q ++ 5+ mm++a pq = ac amaa.
p + q = b amaa 5++ qa+m +aa+o +-[no++ mo+ ++o.
ax
2
+ bx + c =
a
1
(a
2
x
2
+ abx + ac)
=
a
1
[a
2
x
2
+ a(p + q)x + pq] =
a
1
[a
2
x
2
+ apx + aqx + pq] =
a
1
[ax (ax + p) + q(ax + p)]
=
a
1
(ax + p) (ax + q)
5aa+m. +aa+o 0++a+ +++-nn[++ mo+n+.

a+ : p. q aa mm++a. p q = a c . p + q = b amn++qa+m ++-mo+++o .
ax
2
+ bx + c =
a
1
(ax + p) (ax + q).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 47: +++-n n[+ ++. 2x
2
+ 7x + 3.
+ Ja. 5 q a = x
2
m 6+m = 2
b = x m 6+m = 7
c = a+no = 3
++a ++-n+ a c = 2 3 = 6 = 6 1, 6 + 1 = 7 = b. +++o
2x
2
+ 7x + 3 =
2
1
(2x + 6) (2x + 1) =(x + 3)(2x + 1).
a++m moan n+mn[++a+nqn n+o++ +[ mnnn n+++.
+a+++-a+m qmmn+o +++-nn[++o+a. a[+ ++++..++.
2x
2
+ 7x + 3 = 2x
2
+ (6 + 1)x + 3
= 2x
2
+ 6x + x + 3
= 2x(x + 3) + (1)(x + 3) = (2x + 1) (x + 3).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 48: +++-n n[+ ++. 8a
2
+ 2a 3.
+ Ja. 5 q. 8 3 = 24 = 6 4, 6 + ( 4) = 2 am+ ++-+0n+a. n++6+m++nm.
qmnn[++m+o ++a .a+.
8a
2
+ 2a 3 = 8a
2
+ 6a 4a 3
= 2a(4a + 3) (1)(4a + 3) = (4a + 3) (2a 1).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 49: +++-n n[+ ++. 6 +
2
11
x + x
2
.
+ Ja. 0++a+ a+nn6+m+. 6 +
2
11
x + x
2
=
2
1
(2x
2
+ 11x + 12).
5 q. 2 12 = 24 = 8 3, 8 + 3 = 11.
am0a. +[ mnnn n+++a. qmnn[++1a am+.
6 +
2
11
x + x
2
=
2
1
(2x
2
+ 8x + 3x + 12) =
2
1
[2x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)] =
2
1
(x + 4) (2x + 3).
ax
2
+ bx + c o a, b, c ++a mm++a++ 5oo+ao. 6a+6+-+a++
5+nna +. +[ mnnn n++6+m+ qmnn[+++ +++-nn[++a mn+
++a n+mn[++o+a.

114
a[+ ++ ++. [ 50: +++-n n[+ ++. 2 4 10 2 7
2
x x .
+ Ja. 5 q. 2 7 2 4 = 56 = (14) 4 0aoa (14) + 4 = 10. am0a. +[ mnnn
n++6+m+. qmmn+o am+.
7 2 x
2
10x 4 2 = 7 2 x
2
14x + 4x 4 2
= 7x ( 2 x 2) + 2 2 ( 2 x 2)
= ( 2 x 2) (7x + 2 2 ).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 51: +++-n n[+ ++. 3x
2
+ 5 3 x + 6
+ Ja. 5 q. 3 6 = 18 = (3 3 ) (2 3 ) 0aoa 3 3 + 2 3 = 5 3 . am0a. +[ mn nn
n++6+m+. qm mn+o +++-nn[++.
3x
2
+ 5 3 x + 6 = 3x
2
+ 3 3 x + 2 3 x + 6
= 3x (x + 3 ) + 2 3 (x + 3 )
= (x + 3 ) (3x + 2 3 ).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 52: +++-n n[+ ++. 15x
2
+ 17xy + 4y
2
.
+ Ja. ++a 15 4 = 60 = 12 5, 17 = 12 + 5 am+ ++- +0n+a. am0a. +[ mnnn
n++6+m+. qm mn+mn n+mn[++m+o ,
15x
2
+ 17xy + 4y
2
= (15x
2
+ 12xy) + (5xy + 4y
2
)
= 3x(5x + 4y) + y(5x + 4y)= (5x + 4y) (3x + y).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 53: +++-n n[+ ++. 6(a 1)
2
b 5(a 1)b
2
6b
3
+ Ja. x = a 1 am a[+++6++- .+o.
6(a 1)
2
b 5(a1)b
2
6b
3
= 6x
2
b 5xb
2
6b
3
= b(6x
2
5bx 6b
2
)
5 q. 6 6 = 36 = (9) 4 , 0aoa (9) + 4 = 5 am+ ++-+0n+a .
+++o = b(6x
2
9bx + 4bx 6b
2
)
= b[3x(2x 3b) + 2b(2x 3b)]
= b(2x 3b) (3x + 2b)
= b[2(a 1) 3b] [3(a 1) + 2b]
= b[(2a 3b 2) (3a + 2b 3)].

+++-nn[++ mo+++ mm++a+ 6+m++a+++ 6++-. 5+no noomnn+
0++a+a -[.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 54: +++-n n[+ ++. x
2
+ 3x 1.
+ Ja. ax
2
+ bx + c 1.m nn[++o a = 1, b = 3, c = 1.
5 q ac = 1 1 = 1 = 1 1. 0aoa (1) + 1 = 0 b.
am0a. x
2
+ 3x 1 mm++a+ 6+m++a+++ 6++-. +++-+a+++ mo+++.
qnn n. x
2
+ 3x 1=
4
9
4
9
2
3
2
2
+

+ x x 1 =
4
13
2
3
2

+ x
=
2
2
2
13
2
3

+ x =

+ +
2
13
2
3
x

+
2
13
2
3
x .

115
n+n + 4.3.3.

+0a a+amann+ +++-+a++n n+.

1. x
2
+ 7x + 12 2. x
2
+ 9x + 20
3. d
2
+ 10d + 21 4. z
2
7z 98
5. a
2
a 72 6. x
2
+ x 90
7. p
2
8p + 15 8. y
2
13y + 42
9. y
2
20y + 99 10. t
2
28t + 195

+0a a+amann+ +++-nn[+++.
11. 2a
2
+ 13a + 15 12. 4x
2
+ 8x + 3
13. 4x
2
+ 12x + 9 14. 6x
2
+ x 1
15. 6p
2
+ 17p + 10 16. 4a
2
11a 15
17. 7m
2
+ 16m 15 18. 8p
2
+ 29p 12
19. 6x
2
+ 5x 6 20. 15y
2
13y 6
21. 14x
2
x 3 22. 9a
2
9a + 2
23. 2a
2
13a + 18 24. 12x
2
7x + 1
25. 16x
2
32x + 7

+a a+amann+ +++-+a++n n+.
26. 9x
2
+ 24xy + 15y
2
27. 4x
2
16xy 9y
2
28. 6c
2
+ 11cd 10d
2
29. 5x
2
11xy + 6y
2
30. 2a
2
15ab + 28b
2

+a a+amann+ +++-nn[+++.
31.
10
3
10
13
2
x x 32.
3
8
3
10
2
+ u u 33.
16
1
2
1
2
+ x x
34.
4
7
8 4
2
+ x x 35.
6
1
3
5
4
2
+ x x 36. 2 3 2
2
+ + x x
37. 3 6 11 3
2
+ + x x 38. 5 3 20 5 5
2
+ + x x
39. 5 5 3 2
2
+ + x x 40. 2 14 2 7
2
+ + x x


4.4 + no omn n+ 0++a+ an 6n++ no omn n+ 0++a++o
aq+ +o

f(x) ama noomnn+ 0++a+ g(x) ama noomnn+ 0++a++o
aq+qa 6++o+m+ f(x) q(x) g(x) + r(x) amm 5++qa+ma. r(x) = 0 oo+ r(x) m
no++m+ g(x) m no+ a. +n++++aa 5++ qa+m. q(x), r(x) am a 5+
noomnn+ 0++a+a+ ++-n++qa. 5q f(x) 6++q+ amma. g(x) nq+
amma. q(x) +a amma. r(x) a+ amma a++m0n+a. f(x) g(x) o
aq+qa 6++oo aqn[a 0++a++++ f(x) m no an 6n+m+a. aq+qa
0++a++++ g(x) m no+q ++a++0a+ oo+ +aa++0a+ 5+++.[a. a6mmo
f(x) m no g(x) m no+ a.+ +n++++ 5++++o q(x) = 0 qa ; 0aoa r(x) = f(x)
amn+qa. +a. a+ ++- 5+ mn+a aam.
116
mn 1 :
+-. aq++o mn: 5++ mn+ ++a J a[+++++.om +oa aa+q0a+a.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 55: 2 + 5x + 3x
2
+ 2x
3
amn+ 1 + x o aq++aa.
+ Ja. aqn[a 0++a f(x) = 2 + 5x + 3x
2
+ 2x
3
aq+qa 0++a g(x) = 1 + x, f(x) m no = 3, g(x) m no = 1.
+a+ qn+ 0++a +a q(x) 1a. a+ r(x) 1a ++-n0+++qa.
+..a 1: f(x), g(x) ++ann+ +. . aoao am+0a+a.
f(x) = 2x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 5x + 2
g(x) = x + 1
+..a 2: aqn[a 0++a+m m+o mn n+++ (2x
3
) aq+ qa 0++a+m m+o
mnn+++ (x) o aq+++o +a+q +am m+o mnn

=
2
3
2
2
x
x
x
+.+qa.
+..a 3: aq+qa 0++a++++ (x + 1) +am m+o mnn+++ (2x
2
) o 6n+++
a+a 6n+++nnom+++ 2x
3
+ 2x
2
aqn[a 0++a+o+++ +a++0a-[a.
+a+q+ +.+qa a+ x
2
+ 5x + 2. a++m no. aq+qa 0++a+m no+ a.n
6n+++.
+..a 4: 0a0o +.++ x
2
+ 5x + 2 ama a++ n++ aqn[a 0++a+++
a[+ ++ 6++-[ +..a 2 n n+mn[++m+o +am 5+-.+a mnn

= x
x
x
2
+.+qa.
+..a 5: aq+qa 0++a (x + 1) +am 5+- .+a mn n+o (x) 6n+++. a+a
6n+++nnom (x
2
+ x) n++ aqn[a 0++a+mmm +a++ 0a-[a. +a+q
+.+qa a+ (4x + 2). a++m [+q aq+qa 0++a+m no+++ aa+.
+..a 6: a+ (4x + 2) n++ aqn[a 0++a+++ a[+ ++ 6++-[ +. .a 2 n
n+mn[++m+o +am +mn+a mnn

= 4
4
x
x
+.+qa.
+..a 7: ++a aq+qa 0++a (x + 1) . +am +mn+a+ mnn+o (4) 6n++ +
a+a (4x + 4) n n++ aqn[a 0++a+mmm +a++ 0a-[a. +.+qa a+ 2 .
5+ + a ++m no n+ ++a . 5+ aq+ qa 0++a+m no+ a.+ +n++. am0a.
++a aq+ qa 6++o +m++a.[. +a. a+ ++ann a[+ + am++0n+a.

0an+n+ +..+a +maa aoa++o 6++[++nn.[aam.
2x
2
+ x + 4
2x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 5x + 2
2x
3
+ 2x
2

x
2
+ 5x + 2
x
2
+ x

4x + 2
4x + 4

2
x + 1

=
2
3
2
2
x
x
x

= x
x
x
2

=4
4
x
x












117
5aa+n++ +a+q+ +.+qa +a q(x) = 2x
2
+ x + 4, a+ r(x) = 2.

++a na+, f(x)=q(x) g(x) + r(x). 2x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 5x + 2 = (2x
2
+ x + 4) (x + 1) + (2)

mn 2 :
aq+++ +++-nn[++o mn. 5++ mn+o. f(x) 5+-[ mnn+am
+[+o++n n++ +0o qn+ 0++a qa . m+o mn n g(x) +++-++++
6++-o++ qa. 5+-.+a+ mnn g(x) a. [++o qn++ + noomnn+
0++a++qa. 5+ ++a 6nn. f(x) .m 0+a++m mnn+a+ +. o. +an0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 56: 9x
3
+ 3x
2
5x + 7 3x
2
+ 2x 1 o aq.
+ Ja. 9x
3
+ 3x
2
5x + 7 = [(3x
2
+ 2x 1) (3x) 6x
2
+ 3x] + 3x
2
5x + 7
= (3x
2
+ 2x 1)(3x) + [6x
2
+ 3x
2
] + [3x 5x] + 7
= (3x
2
+ 2x 1)(3x) + (3x
2
) + (2x) + 7
= (3x
2
+ 2x 1) (3x) + [(3x
2
+ 2x 1) (1) + 2x 1] + (2x) + 7
= (3x
2
+ 2x 1) (3x) + (3x
2
+ 2x 1) (1) + [(2x) + (2x)] + [(1) + 7]
= (3x
2
+ 2x 1)(3x) + (3x
2
+ 2x 1) (1) + 6
= (3x
2
+ 2x 1) (3x 1) + 6
am0a. +a = 3x 1, a+ = 6.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 57: 4 17x 22x
2
12x
3
2x
4
x
2
3x + 4 o aq.
+ Ja. ++a +Ja 5+ aamn+aoa ++-0n+a.
+-. aq++o mn

2x
2
18x 68

2x
4
12x
3
22x
2
17x + 4
2x
4
+ 6x
3
8x
2
+ +
18x
3
14x
2
17x + 4
18x
3
+ 54x
2
72x
+ +
68x
2
+ 55x + 4
68x
2
+ 204x 272
+ +
149x + 276

x
2
3x + 4

2
2
4
2
2
x
x
x

x
x
x
18
18
2
3

68
68
2
2
x
x













am0a. +a = 2x
2
18x 68 , a+ = 149x + 276.

aq+ ++ +++-n n[+ +o mn
4 17x 22x
2
12x
3
2x
4
= 2x
4
12x
3
22x
2
17x + 4
= [(x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) 6x
3
+ 8x
2
] 12x
3
22x
2
17x + 4.
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) 6x
3
+ 8x
2
12x
3
22x
2
17x + 4
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) 18x
3
14x
2
17x + 4
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) + [(x
2
3x + 4) (18x) 54x
2
+ 72x] 14x
2
17x

+ 4
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) + (x
2
3x + 4) (18x) 54x
2
+ 72x 14x
2
17x

+ 4
118
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) + (x
2
3x + 4) (18x) 68x
2
+55x+ 4
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) + (x
2
3x + 4) (18x) + [(x
2
3x + 4) (68) 204x + 272] +55x + 4
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
) + (x
2
3x + 4) (18x) + (x
2
3x + 4) (68) 204x + 272 + 55x + 4
= (x
2
3x + 4) (2x
2
18x 68) + (149x + 276).
am0a. +a = 2x
2
18x 68 , a+ = 149x + 276.


n+n + 4.4

1. 4x
3
3x
2
+ x 7 m+ + 0a 6++[+ +n n. . 0++a+a+o aqn[a 0n++ +a. a +
++-+.
(i) 2x + 1 (ii) x 4 (iii) 1 x

2. 15 + x
4
8x
2
m+ +0a 6++[++nn.. 0++a+a+o aqn[a0n++ +a. a+
++-+.
(i) (x + 1)(x + 2) (ii) (x 2)
2
(iii) x
3
+ 2x.


a.+a

n+n + 4.1

1. (i) +am (ii) +am (iii) +am (iv) +am (v) ++
2. x
3
+ 2x
2
x + 4 3. 3x
4
2x
2
+ 10x 8
4. 3x
3
+ 5x
2
13x + 2 5. x
3
+ 5x
2

7x + 10
6. x
4
4x
2
+ 4x 8 7. 3x
5
+ x
3
8x
2
+ 6x 8
8. 6x
4
26x
3
+ 51x
2
66x + 27 9. 10x
5
+ x
4
+ 9x
3
+ 2x
2
9x 28
10. x
5
+ 4x
4
+ 9x
3
38x
2
+ 21x

x
3
m 6+m

x
2
m 6+m

x

m 6+m
11. 2 7 20
12. 6 10 3
13. 18 9 9
14. acx
2
+ bdy
2
+ (ad + bc)xy 15. 2x
3
x
2
y 5xy
2
2y
3
16. x
4
+ x
2
y
2
+ y
4
17. p = 9 18. a=
2
7
19. m = 12
n+n + 4.2

1. (i) x
2
+ 11x + 18 (ii) x
2
+ 6x 16 (iii) t
2
+ 4t 12 (iv) p
2
7p + 12
(v) 10812 (vi) 3658 (vii) 1224 (viii) 2915
2. (i) 25x
2
+ 80xy + 64y
2
(ii) 9s
2
24st + 16t
2
(iii) 16p
2
49q
2
(iv) 10201 (v) 9604 (vi) 9898
3.
2
41
,9/4 4. 60, 20 5. 12, 8
6. (i) 9x
2
+ y
2
+ 4z
2
+ 6xy + 4yz + 12xz (ii) 16x
2
+ 4y
2
+ 9z
2
16xy 12yz + 24xz

(iii) 4p
2
+ 9q
2
+ 4r
2
+ 12pq 12qr 8pr (iv) 9a
2
+ 4b
2
+ 4c
2
12ab + 8bc 12ac
119
7. 45
8. (i) x
3
+ 9x
2
+ 26x + 24 (ii) x
3
+ x
2
14x 24 (iii) x
3
+ 3x
2
10x 24
(iv) x
3
5x
2
2x + 24 (v) x
3
9x
2
+ 26x 24
x
2
m 6+m x

m 6+m a+no
9. (i) 9 16 60
(ii) 0 26 12
(iii) 396 138 35
10. 9,
15
23
, 35
11. (i) 8x
3
+ 12x
2
y
2
+ 6xy
4
+ y
6
(ii) 8u
3
84u
2
v + 294uv
2
343v
3
(iii)
3
3
1 3
3
x x
x x + (iv) x
6
y
9
+ 6x
4
y
6
+ 12x
2
y
3
+ 8
12. 304 13. 7, 18 14. 20,72 15. 2, 180,1016

n+n + 4.3.1

1. 3(3m n) 2. 4a(a
2
2a + 4)
3. x(x
4
+ 4) 4. xy
3
(6x
4
y
2
+ 3x + 14)
5. 7pq (13pq) 6. (m p) (n + 2)
7. (x + 2 ) (x 2 ) (x 2) 8. (x + a ) (x a ) (x 1)
9. (p
2
+ 1) (2p 1) 10. 2(2x + 1) (2x
2
+ 1)

n+n + 4.3.2

1. ++ 2. +am 3. +am 4. +am 5. ++
6. (1 + 3x)
2
7. (12x 3)
2
8. (2ab + 5cd)
2
9. (x + y + a b) (x + y a + b)
10. ) 3 3 ( z xy + (3x
2
y
2
xyz 3 3 + 9z
2
)
11. (x + 3y) (x
2
+ 3y
2
) 12. 2x
2
(x
4
+ 3)
13. (x + y) (x y) (x
2
xy + y
2
) (x
2
+ xy + y
2
) 14. 2y(3x
2
+ y
2
)
15. 8p
3
16. (3x + y)
3
17. (x 4)
3
18. (2x 3y)
3
19. (2x + 3y + z)
2
20. (a + b 3c)
2
21. (x y + 1) (x
2
+ y
2
+ 1 + xy + y x)
22. (2x 5y + 6) (4x
2
+ 25y
2
+ 36 + 10xy + 30y 12x)
23. (2x 3y + z) (4x
2
+ 9y
2
+ z
2
+ 6xy + 3yz 2zx)
24. ( a 3 2b 5c) (3a
2

+ 4b
2
+ 25c
2
+ ab 3 2 10bc + ca 3 5 )
25. 3 (a 2b) (2b 3c) (3c a) 26. 3(x + y 2z) (y + z 2x) (z + x 2y)
27. 3(a + b) (a b) (b + c) (b c) (c + a) (c a)
28. 3abc (a b) (b c) (c a) 29. (x y) (x + y + z)
30. (1 + x + y) (1 x y) 31. (x
2
+ 2x + 2) (x
2
2x + 2)

120
n+n + 4.3.3

1. (x + 3) (x + 4) 2. (x + 4) (x + 5) 3. (d + 3) (d + 7)
4. (z + 7) (z 14) 5. (a + 8) (a 9) 6. (x + 10) (x 9)
7. (p 3) (p 5 ) 8. (y 6) (y 7) 9. (y 9) (y 11)
10. (t 13) ( t 15) 11. (a + 5) (2a + 3) 12. (2x + 1) (2x + 3)
13. (2x + 3) (2x + 3) 14. (2x + 1)(3x 1) 15. (p + 2) (6p + 5)
16. (a + 1) (4a 15) 17. (m + 3) (7m 5) 18. (p + 4) (8p 3)
19. (2x + 3) (3x 2) 20. (3y + 1) (5y 6) 21. (2x 1) (7x + 3)
22. (3a 1)(3a 2) 23. (a 2) (2a 9) 24. (3x 1) (4x 1)
25. (4x 1) (4x 7) 26. (x + y) (9x + 15y) 27. (2x + y) (2x 9y)
28. (2c + 5d) (3c 2d) 29. (x y) (5x 6y) 30. (a 4b) (2a 7b)
31.
10
1
(2x 3) (5x +1) 32.
3
1
(u 2) (3u 4) 33.
16
1
(4x 1)(4x 1)
34.
4
1
(4x 1) (4x 7) 35.
6
1
(4x 1) (6x 1) 36. ( x 2 + 1) ( x + 2 )
37. ( x 3 + 2) (x + 3 3 ) 38. ( x 5 + 3) ( 5x + 5 ) 39. (x + 5 ) (2x + 5 )
40. ( )( ) 2 7 2 7 + + x x

n+n + 4.4

+a a +
1. (i) 2x
2

4
7
2
5
+ x
4
35

(ii) 4x
2
+ 13x + 53 205
(iii) 4x
2
x 2 5

2. (i) x
2
3x 1 9x + 17
(ii) x
2
+ 4x + 4 1
(iii) x 10x
2
+ 15
121


5. +Ja+a ++-a mn+a

+a+ q + +-+ q 6++[+ +n n. [, +nq+ +Ja ++-+ 6++m m+o , m+oo +m
mma+++ +mq no++, n++ + 6++- [, ++-++o amm 6++[++nn.[aa+,
am m +- [no+ +0a- [a o o+ a+m +n+ + 0a- [a am n+m n+ +
6++on[+o 0a-[a. nnq + +-+ +n q+ + Ja++- a+ + +-+ - a+an
n+mn[++ 0a-[a , a+ + mn+o ++ +-+ -a+an n+mn[++0a-[a
amn+m+ +Ja+m++ 0a-[a. +-++nq+ +Ja ++-+ 0+a++m +-+
-a+a+ ++a+n n+mn[+ ++ 6++o +na , n+n+1a 0+a++qa. 6++o
+nm +oa+++ +Ja ++- +n+ aamn+a1a , +++a1a n+o+a . +o
0+++ao + +-++m +Ja no0am aa+ao oo+ no0am +++ao ++-
mo1a . a[+++++..++ +0a aa +-++m a[+++6++a0a+a.

+-+ q: a b = 4, a + b = 5 amo ,
b
a
5m a+n n ++-+.
5++-++m +Ja ++- +a+-. mn+ao +a+ a-0-+..a 6++on[+n+.

am+: amm 6++[++nn.[aa+? a.: a b = 4, a + b = 5.
am+: amm +-[no++ 0a-[a? a.:
b
a
5m a+n n.
am+: anno+ 6++on[+o 0a-[a?
a.:

+ + 1:
a b = 4. (1) (1) + (2) 2a = 9 a = .
2
9

a + b = 5. (2) (1) (2) 2b = 1 b = .
2
1
2
1
=

b
a
=
2
9

1
2
= 9.

+ + 2:

b
a
=
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2
2
b a b a
b a b a
b
a
+
+ +
= = . 9
1
9
4 5
4 5
= =

+

+ + 3:
a b = 4 (1)
a + b = 5 (2)

b
a
= x am+. nmmJ.
1
x
b
a
= -+ a = bx.
122
(1) bx b = 4 b (x 1) = 4.
(2) bx + b = 5 b (x + 1) = 5.
=
+

) 1 (
) 1 (
x b
x b
5
4
-+
5
4
1
1
=
+

x
x
-+ 5x 5 = 4x + 4 -+ 5x 4x = 4 + 5 -+ x = 9.

am0a +am.+ +--na++nm, 6++o +nm , +na, 0aoa naa
++a +-+q+a+ +J++ ann+[+a1a. +++a1a +a++qa+nq+
0+a. 0an+n+ +-+++ +Jnn+nq +mm + ++a a.[0a 5+nn+++ moa
6+++ 0a-.+a. + +-++m +Ja ++-. n++ +++a na++m
a++o++aa, 0+ +-++nq a-[a a-[a +Ja ++-a 0n++a 6nn mo1a.
0aoa +a+ a--a+m+ ++++qa +nmo aa++ 6++[nn+++ 5++ + 0a-[a ,
ann aamn+a anm+ 6++aa +n+++++ 5+++ 0a-[a. 6ann.a 5oo+ao
no0am +++0++..+an 6nma+++ 5+++ 0a-[a. + +-++m +Jam+
++- J ++++o mo+aoo amo , an6n++ + ++n n+mn[+++ +Ja
++-+o 0a-[a. 5aa+m. + +-++m +Jam+ ++- +a+q+ 6+++ + no0am
+++a +J++ 0n+qa a+ n+mn[+++ 6++-0. 5+++ 0a-[a.

5.1 a+m+a anma +n-+a

+a++-a a-+am ann 0+++q+.
1, 3, 7, 13, 21,
++a 5++ annm 6n++ mnnm+ ++- aa+m0n+a am+. mnn+a+
+a+-.a+m nq++n+o+a.
1=1
3=1 + 2
7=1 + 2 + 4
13=1 + 2 + 4 + 6
21=1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8
5n6n+m+, 5++ anno [+ + a- am m amn+ +aa+o +-[no++ mo1a.

1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 = 21 + 10 = 31.

am0a. 6 a+ mnn 31. 0aoa 31 = 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5).

7 a+ mnn = 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +12
= 31 + 12 = 43
= 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6).

8 a+ mnn = 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +12 +14
= 43 + 14 = 57
= 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7).

9 a+ mnn = 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +12 +14 + 16
= 57 + 16 = 73
123
= 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8).

50+ mnn+am a+nn +.+qa mn+ 0+++qa 6n+m+, annm 6n++
mnn (++a+ n a+ mnn, n = 1, 2, 3, )
1 + 2[1 + 2 + 3 + + (n 1)]
am ++a +n mo+n+.

m+o 5+++ +nno 1 + 2 + 3 + + (n 1) amn +[+o aa+. 5+ +[+o
+-.n++ao annm 6n++ aoa+++ +-[a.0.+a amm 6++oo mo+++.
a[+ ++++. .++. +[+o 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + + 100 am n++ +++0a+a . 5+
1 5o++ + 100 a+ aa [++[++ 5+o a-+am +[+o qa. S am n+
5++[+o amo , S = 1 + 2 + 3 + + 98 + 99 + 100. ++a na+.
1 + 2 + 3 + + 98 + 99 + 100 = 100 + 99 + 98 + + 3 + 2 + 1.
++a+
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + + 98 + 99 + 100,
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + + 3 + 2 + 1.
2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + + 101 + 101 + 101.
5+o +tm 101 +a 5+nn+m+ ++- mo+n+.
am0a. 2S = 100 101 oo+ S = . 5050
2
101 100
=

0an++-a +[+o +.++n 6nnn mn++ +J++ 0++++m , ++a
1 + 2 + 3 + + (n 1) =
2
) 1 ( n n

am n +n n a+ma (Conjecture) 6+++o+a. n = 1, 2, 3, am+ 6++- [
5++nn+ ++n+J++o+a. 5q +n-a 6++[++nn.+ao + +nnm a++
+m+ ++n+J++0n+a. +n++nn.++a+ ++nm J a+m+++m (++a amn
6+a+m+ +-+ 0a+ +m 10a+ a++o 4a+ no+ ++ 6++- o++ +0n++.
aqnn+++++ a+-+++J+a ) + 2 + 3 ++ 100 m +[+o ++-+ 6++m m0n++.
.0m ++a 5050 amm a.+a+++J. +++J a+ aaa+m .0m n+oa++
mo+++ amm 0+.+ ++a. 0a0o ++a +n+ mn+. +++J a+++ n+++.[a+m
a+++J). +a+ annm 6n++ mnn
1 + 2
2
) 1 ( n n
= 1 + n(n 1) = n
2
n + 1.
am0a. 1, 3, 7, 13, . amn annm 6n++ mnn n
2
n + 1 qa.
0an+-. +ao , ++a J annm+ +J++++++, + +nnm
-.+++0m+a. -a+o 5+n+-+a , aoa+o 0n+m n n+a+ao no
0+nn+a a-+a+oa +a+a+oa a++ ann+a +J++++a+ 6++++m
aaa+o +- .n+ +a qa . 5n 6n+m+ ++a +-++ +o a a 6aa 0am
+nm+a. ++nm+an nq++na+nqn n+mn[++nn[a no +++a ++ann
n++ 6++a0a+a.
124
+nm+a amnn[na ao1m+++ +nnn[a a+++++a+qa. +0a +o
+nm+a 6++[++nn.[aam:

(i) x + 7 = 5, 5 q x N.
(ii) +++++m +oa..+a mm+6++mm 6+q+++qa.
(iii) (a + b) (a b) = a
2
b
2
, 5 q a, b R.
(iv) 2 + a++mm a- .
(v) ++++++++m +oa..+a mm+6++mm 6+q++++++.
(vi) 1 + 2 + . + n =
2
) 1 ( + n n
.
+nm+a 6a+++ma+++0a+ oo+ 6a++nnma+++0a+ 5+++o+a.
a[+ ++++. .++ 0a0o aa +nm+ao (i), (iv) an ma (v) ++a 6a+ +n n
+nm+a; (ii), (iii) an ma (vi) ++a 6a+++m +nm+a .

5.1.1 a++n am n+o am m?

+o +nm+a an+m0a aa +++++ao+++ n++ ++++++a
+a++ + - a++m moa+an 6nn aaaq+qa. ++nm+0a a++n
amnn[a. an+m0a anm+6++aann.. +o a++n+a +0a 6++[++nn.[aam.
(i) aoo+n n+++a +a aa 6++-. m+0++-a +an+ + m+ 0++-a
amnn[a.
(ii) a
x
= b amo , x m+ oa+ma a 6++- . b 5m a.+ + amn n[a .
(iii) 5+-[ 0++-+am +[+o 180 amo , a a+ ++nn 0++-+a
amnn[a.

5.1.2 o0++a+a

+o +nm+a -a6+m mma+++ anm+ 6++aao+a . 5++++ +nm+a
o0++a+a o o+ nn+6++-. -a+a amnn[a. aoa+ooa
5+n+-+++oa aa +o nn+6++-. -a+a +0a 6++[++nn.[aam.

(i) 5+-[ na a+a aa0+ 0+ + 0++[++m 5+++n+.
(ii) a0+a 5+-[ 6a+ 6+-+a x, y ++q x + y , xy ++a1a
6a+6+-+a+qa.
(iii) n + 5+o a- amo. n + 1 a 5+o a- qa.
(iv) + 0++.[+ +-.+m+ 0+ + a+nna a++++m 6nnn++ qa.
(v) + 0++-a+m+ 0+ + 5++a6a.o++++m 6nn n++qa .
5.1.3 , , ++ qn+a

+-+a. ++++ +++++ +ma +J++ 6nnnn.. + n+.nnq+++qa. +
+-++m +Ja oo+ +-++m aamn+a oo+ +-++m +n-a
nonno+++ 6nnnn.. + ann+qa. aamn+m a6a+m no1a +nq mmn
aa no+m+ ++J+++++ a++++ qa. +++a ++++m aa+a qn++ ++a
125
amn qn+mn n+mn[+++0n+a. a[+++++.om +oa++ amn qn+m
n+m n0a+a. nma+a +nm+a P, Q a+ ++++.
P: x = 2, Q: x
2
= 4.
P -a6+m+ 6++-.+o x = 2 qa.
x
2
= x x = 2 2 = 4. Q -a++qa .
am0a. P - a6+mo Q -a++qa. 5++ qn+.oo
P -a Q -a o o+ aa+++ P Q am am+o+a .
qn+[ m+ -J+ ++n+ amn+m+ qn+qa.

5n6n+m+ qn+ [ amn+m n0a+a .

a - [a 0+ +n m+a P, Q 5ann a[+ ++6++a0a+a. ++a+
P: x = 2, Q: x
2
= 4
Q -a6+mo x
2
= 4 qa. m+o 5+nq x = 2 a +Ja; x = 2 a + Ja+qa . am0a.
P 6a+++m +nm oo. 5++ -a+ ++a Q P am am+o+a.
[+ ++++ amn qn+.. n++ 6++a0a+a.
5+-[ +n m+a Q
1
, Q
2

a[+ ++6++a0a+a.
Q
1
: 2x + 3y = 12 0aoa 5x 6y = 3.
Q
2
: x = 3 0aoa y = 2.
Q
1
-a6+mo
2x + 3y = 12, (1)
5x 6y = 3. (2)
(1) 2 4x + 6y = 24 (3)
(2) 5x 6y = 3. (4)
(3) + (4) 9x = 27 x = 3.
x = 3 (1) 5o n+++. 6 + 3y = 12 o o+ 3y = 6 oo+ y = 2.
++a+ x = 3, y = 2. am0a. Q
2
-a++qa. am0a. Q
1
Q
2
.
Q
2
-a6+mo x = 3, y = 2.
2x + 3y = 2 3 + 3 2 = 6 + 6 = 12; 0aoa 5x 6y = 5 3 6 2 = 15 12 = 3.
am0a Q
1
-a+++n+. am0a Q
2
Q
1
.
. Q
1
Q
2
0aoa Q
2
Q
1
.

5++ moa+a Q
1
Q
2
, Q
2
Q
1
++ 5+- .1a
0+J+ + Q
1
Q
2
am am+o+a . 5++++ a+o+o , Q
1
a Q
2
a +aa+m+++
5++ qa
.
5+m 6n++a+a+. Q
1
6a+ amo. Q
2
6a+. Q
2
6a+ amo. Q
1
6a+ . ++a+
Q
1
6a++++ 5++++o anma 5++++o a.[0a Q
2
6a+ ++qa . am n qn+[
5++++o anma 5++++o a.[0a (if and only if) amn+m+ qn+qa.

5.1.4 0+nna amnn[a+ +++?
+ +n m. ++++m+ o o+ +an+m+ am +n+ +n n.++a+ +
a+ma (Conjecture) amna++m0n+a. + a+ma (Conjecture) ++ am
+n++nn. [a..+o + 0+n na++a[+n+. +am am +n+ +nn.. a+ma
6a+ +n n +n m amnn[a. am0a an+m0a 6a+ amm +n++nn.[a.. +nm
0+n na amnn[a. + +nm + qnnn.. a++o -a6+mo +++ +n m
no0am +o+ao ++n+J++nn..+ amm 6++o+0n+a. 5+n+-+++oa.
aoa+ooa ++a n++aa +o 0+nn+a nma+a+m 6++[++nn.[aam.
126
(i) + m+0++-++o 5+-[ n+++a +aa amo . an nn q a+0+
a a 0++- +a +aa.
(ii) + m+0++-++m 0++- aa+am +[+o 5+-[ 6+ 0++-a+qa .
(iii) 5-++++m +oa..+a mn6++mm 5+ +a+ +n[a.
(iv) nn a- -m aJ++ma nn a-0- qa.
(v) 5+.. a--m aJ++ma 5+.. a-0- qa.
(vi) 2 + a++mn+ a- qa .
(vii) (a + b)
2
=a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
.
(viii) log
a
(mn)=log
a
m + log
a
n.

5.1.5 + 0+nn++m +n-a amn+o amm?
+ 0+n n+ +m +n-a amn n[a+ +m - a+ +J-++ qa aa++a
qa . a[+ ++ ++. .++
nn a--m aJ++ma J nn a-0-
amn +nnm a[+ ++6++a0a+a.
5++ +n m + 0+nna amo. 5+n q +++a+ +++m +n-a 5++ +
0a-[a. +a+-. aa++++ +am++aa :

n J n n a- am+. nmn n = 2m + 1, 5 q m + mm a-.
5n6n+m+. n
2
= (2m + 1)
2
= 4m
2
+ 4m + 1 = 2(2m
2
+ 2m)+1.
m + mm a- amn++o , 2m
2
+ 2m a + mm a--+qa .
am0a 2(2m
2
+ 2m) J 5+. . a- -+qa .
+o+o 2(2m
2
+2m)+1 J n n a--+qa .
am0a n
2
J nn a- .

+n-a a++ no0am +++a aam. 6n++a++ a nma+a+m
a+nn[++nn.[aam.

(i) 0++o +n- mn.
(ii) anm+ +n- mn oo+ m+-n+.[ +n- mn.
(iii) a+J a[+++++.[+amno +n-a .
(iv) aoa+o +n- ++.
(v) ann mn +n-a.

(i) 0++o +n- mn: P Q am +n++ 0a-[a am+. m+oo P - a
am+6++-[ nonno+++ aa+++ + Q -a amn 6nm+o 0a-[a. P am n+
6a+6+mo Q m+ 6a+ qa am m +n+qa mn0+ 0++o +n- mn
amnn[a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1:
b
a
= 5 amo , =
+

b a
b a
3
2
am+ ++-n++aa .
+ Ja:
b
a
= 5 am+. nmn a = 5b. .
3
2
6
4
5
5
= =
+

=
+

b
b
b b
b b
b a
b a


127

a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: 0++o mn+o.
b
a
=
d
c
amo , =
+

b a
b a
d c
d c
+

am +n++aa.
+ Ja:
d
c
b
a
= am+. 5q u
b
a
= amn n+++.aa. nmn a = ub.
d
c
b
a
= amn++o. . u
d
c
=
c = ud.
=
+

b a
b a
.
1
1
) 1 (
) 1 (
+

=
+

=
+

u
u
b u
b u
b ub
b ub
5+n0n+m0n
1
1
) 1 (
) 1 (
+

=
+

=
+

=
+

u
u
d u
d u
d ud
d ud
d c
d c
.


d c
d c
b a
b a
+

=
+

.

(ii) anm+ +n- mn: +nm P m+ +nm Q -J+++n+ am +n++
0a-[a amm 6++a0a+a . 5+n+++ +nm P 6a+. +nm Q 6a++oo am+ 6++a+.
nmn nonno+++ aa+++ + m+-n+.+m aaam .0a+a (++a+ a[0++a
+n nn q 0+Ja+n+m +n m 6nm0a+a ). am0a a[0++a +an+m+ am m moa 6++ +.
Q -a++++++m 5+++ 0a-[a am m+ 6+++0n+a. +nm P 6a+ amo .
+n m Q a 6a+ am +n+qa 5++ mn anm+ +n- mn amnn[a
(a[+++6++-. +nnnq a+++m +nn .+o).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: anm+ +n- mn+o. 2 + a++mn+ a- am +n.
+ Ja: a[0++a++. 2 + a++mm a- am 0+Ja+n+++ 6++a0a+a. a 6a++
a++mm a--1a + ..aoao
q
p
am am+o+a am n0a+a. nmn
2 =
q
p
, 5 q p, q a+ a-+a. p + qa , q +qa 1 + +a+ 0a6n++ +++-1a
5oo. 5n6n+m+
2 =
q
p
p = 2 q p
2
= 2q
2
p
2
J 5+.. a-
p J 5+. . a-
p = 2m, m + mm a-
4m
2
= 2q
2
q
2
= 2m
2
q
2
J 5+. . a-
q J 5+. . a-
q = 2n, n + mm a-
p + qa q + qa 2 +++-++qa
m+-n+[ (p +qa q + qa 1 + +a+ 0a6n++
+++-1a 5oo amn+ a[0++a).
am0a 2 + a++mn+ a- qa .
128

a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: anm+ +n- mn+6++-[. 100 n+++a 9 6n.o+ao
a++nn.o++++o a++a+ + 6n.o+o 12 oo+ +nq 0aoa n+++a
a++nn.o++qa am +n.
+ Ja: 100 n+ ++a 9 6n.o+ao a+qa6n+m+ a++ + 6n.o+oa 12 n+ ++0a+
+nq 0a0o+ a++nn.aoo am a[+ ++ 6++a0a+a. +0a a6a++
6n. o+oa ++n. +a++ 11 n+++a a++nn.o++qa. am0a 9 6n.o+ao
a++nn.. n+++am +[+o ++n.+a++ 9 11 = 99 qa. 5+ 6++[++nn..
6++a++ q m+-n+.+m++qa. a6mmo. 100 n+++a 9 6n.o+ao a++
0a-[a. am0a qn++ n.+a + 6n.o+o+a+ 12 n+ ++0a+ +n q 0a0o+
a++nn.o++qa.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: P am n + na a AB amn 0++.[++-. m : n amn a++++o
an+ [ 6++1a amo. P +m+++ am. anm+ +n- mn+o +n.
+ Ja: P am n + na a AB amn 0++.. an+.oo m : n am n a+++ +o
n+nn++++ 6++a0a+a. 6++a ++q . n.[. P am n+ +m+ ++ 5o o am+
6++-.+o. an6n++ naa P
1
. AB amn 0++.[++-. m : n amn a++++o
an+ [ 6++a++qa (n.a 5.1 n n+J++aa ). nnq
n
m
PB
AP
= . 0aoa .
1
1
n
m
B P
AP
=



n.a 5.1






n AP = m PB 0aoa n AP
1
= m P
1
B
n AP =m (AB AP) 0aoa n AP
1
= m (AB AP
1
)
n AP =m AB m AP 0aoa n AP
1
= m AB m AP
1
(m + n) AP = m AB 0aoa (m + n) AP
1
= m AB
AP = ,
n m
mAB
+
AP
1
= .
n m
mAB
+

AP = AP
1
P 1a P
1
a 0+ naa++qa.
5+ 6++a ++q m+-n+.++ a+n+. am0a P. + +m+ + naa++qa.

(iii) a+J a[+ ++ ++. [+am no +n++o : P
1
, P
2
5+-[ +nm+a am+. P
1
P
2

amn+ -a++ am +++ 0a-[a am+. P
1
6a++++aa P
2
6a++nn+++aa
5++qa+m a0+a J a[+ ++ ++.[ ++-mo+++o P
1
P
2
amn moa+q ++a
a++aJ+a+0a+a. n+nn.. a[+++++.[ J a+J a[+++++.[ amnn[a.

129

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: x amn+ + 6a+6+- amo. x
2
x am a1a+?
+ Ja: P
1
: x amn+ + 6a+6+- .
P
2
: x
2

x.
x =
2
1
amo. P
1
: x amn+ + 6a+6+- amn +nm 6a++++n+. m+o
x =
2
1
+ q x
2
=
4
1
<
2
1
= x ; ++a+ P
2
6a++oo amn++n+. am0a. P
1
P
2
.
5 q x =
2
1
J a+J a[+ ++++. .+qa. am0a x amn aoo+ 6a+6+-++qa
x
2


x amn +nm 6a++++++ amn moam .+0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: n + 5+o a- amo. n
2
4n amn+ -a++?
+ Ja: P
1
: n + 5+o a-. P
2
: n
2
4n.
n =1 am+. 1 J 5+o a-. am0a. P
1
- a++qa.
m+o n
2
= n n = 1 1 = 1. 4n = 4 n = 4 1 = 4.
am0a n
2
< 4n. am0a. P
2
-a+oo. am0a. P
1
P
2
.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: x amn aoo+ 6a+6+-++qa x
2
1 > 0 am a1a+?
+ Ja: P
1
: x amn+ + 6a+6+- .
P
2
: x
2
1 > 0.
x =
2
1
amo. P
1
6a+ ++qa . m+o x
2
1=
4
1
1 =
4
3
< 0. am0a. P
2
6a++oo.
5 q x =
2
1
J a+J a[+++++.[ qa. am0a x amn aoo+ 6a+6+-++qa
x
2
1 > 0 6a++nn +nn+qa.
qnn n: 0an++-nn.. a[+ ++++.oo x 5m + qnnn.. a- a+nn+ 6++-[
+ +n nm 6a++n n +ma+ +aa+o +J-+++ mo++aa+.

(iv) aoa+o +n- mn: 5+n+-+++o +o
+-+q+a aoa+o mnnno +Ja ++-o+a.

n.a 5.2

a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: (a + b) (a b) = a
2
b
2
am +n.
+ Ja: n.++o ABCD + 6+aa+a.
AB = AI = a, BE = DI = b (n.a 5.2 n n+J++aa ).
nmn AD = AI + DI = a + b, AE = AB BE = a b.
am0a 6+aa+a AEFD 5m n+nnaa = (a + b) (a b)
m+o 6+aa+a AEFD 5m n+nnaa
= +++a ABGI 5m n+nnaa
6+aa+a BEHG 5m n+nnaa
+ 6+aa+a DFHI 5m n+nnaa
130
= a
2
ab + (6+aa+a CDIG 5m n+n naa +++a CFHG 5m n+nnaa)
= a
2
ab + (ab b
2
) = a
2
b
2
.
(a + b) (a b) = a
2
b
2
.

(v) ann mn +n-a:

aoa+oo +o +-+q++q+ +Ja ++-n+nq. ++nn.. +a+ao +o
0++[+a +[+o++ a++m0n+a . no aoa+o +-+q+ao a++o am n+
a++ +n+ + ++++qa. ++++m 5.+ao ann+a a+0a-[a. am0a
a++o +oa +n-a ++-n+. +-++m +Ja ++-na++ mm+.o0+ n1a
nno 0a-o++++n+.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: + m+0++-++o 5+-[ n+++a +aa amo. annnq a+0+
aa 0++-+a +aa am +n.

n.a 5.3
+ Ja: ABC + m+0++-a. AB = AC am+.
B = C am +n++ 0a-[a .
D, BC 5m a+nnaa am+. AD +
0+J+ + (a++o mn). m+0++-+a ADB,
ADC ++an ma BD = DC, AD 6n++.
AB = AC (n.a 5.3 n n+J++aa). am0a
5am+0++-+a +Ja+aa. am0a ++
0++-+a +aa. am0a B = C.


n+n + 5.1

1. a+ma amn+o amm?
2. 0+nna amn+o amm?
3. 0+nn++m +n-a amn+ amm?
4. am ++n+J++o +n-++n q mmm+++ 5+++ 0a-[a?
5. J a[+++++.[.m aoa+o +n- mn+ aa+q+.
6. a+J a[+++++.[ +n- mn+ a[+++++.[.m aa+q+.
7. ann mn amn+o am m?
8. anm+ +n- mn+o. x + y 2 amna+m x, y a++a+ 5+-[ 5+o a-+a
amo. x 1 o o+ y 1 am +n.

5.2 +-+ a++++a

o+o +.mn+ +++o+an n+++ 6++aa+n+++ +-+ a++++a
+a+++nn[+mnm. a++++a 5+n+-+a. aoa+o 0n+mn n+.nnq++am +-
6++-[ +a+++nn[+mnm. aoa+o +++++a+ 6++-[ a++nn.. +-+
a++++a aoa+o a++++a amnn[a . 5+n+-+ +++++a+ 6++-[
a++nn.. +-+ a++++a 5+n+-+ a++++a amnn[a. +o +a++ao
n+0+++m 6++a+n q mm0n +-+ a++++a nq+ +n+n n[a . n+0+++m 6++ a+
amn+ aq++ 6+oa. 0++a ++a++o. n++++nn ++ann+ ++J++++qa.
131
+.mn+o a a +-+ q+an nn n no+qa6n+m+ +n+ +-+ ++++++a
+a++1aam. 5n6n+m+ +o 5+n+-+ a++++annnn1a. aoa+o
a++++an nnn1a n++ 6++a0a+a.
++a m+oo + a[+++++.om+ +++0a+a. 1 0++.[nn+++++m ao
12 amo .
10 0++.[nn++++am ao = 12 10 = 120 qa.
20 0++.[nn++++am ao = 12 20 = 240 qa.
5 0++.[nn++++am ao = 12 5 = 60 qa .
3 0++.[nn++++am ao = 12 3 = 36 qa .


0++.[nn+++ +am
a--++ (x)
2 3 5 6 8 10
ao (y) 24 36 60 72 96 120

0++.[nn++++am a--++ ++a+qa6n+m+ ao
++a+a+1a. a- -++ qn1a6n+m+ ao qna+1a n+o+a. ++a
a[+++6++-. 5+-[ a+n+a mn++ +++++mnm oo+ mn++
qn+m nm. 5aa+m a1a 5+ a+n+a 0++o a+++ +o 5+n n++++ +m0a+a .
0a0o +n+ a[+ ++ ++.oo 0++.[nn++++am a--++1a annm ao1a
0+J a+++ +o a am am n+o+a . a+a + + a +o+o a a + +-+ +
5n 6n+m+ a[+ ++ 6++a 0a+a . + qnn n. . o+o . a++ 10 o++ + 15 + qa
5+nnaJ+am a--+++ x am n a+n qn+qa amaa. y am n a+n
aJ+a +J+onnaa+q+ 6+onaJ+am a--+++ qn+qa amaa
6++a0a+a. 1999 5o++ + 2002 a+.a a+ +.++ aa++a +a++-.a+m
..a-nn[++1a0a+a.

x 9200 10200 11600 12400
y 4140 4590 5220 5580

5q a6a++ a+.++nqa a++a =
x
y
0.45 am aa+++ n+o+a . nm n x, y
am a a+n+a 5-+ qa +am n+.++ y = 0.45x +.++n+. +.++ -[+am
aa++a 0+++qa6n+m+ a+n0n+qa -[+aoa a++a +o+++ a1a
am mm a++++++ a[+ ++ 6++a 0a+a . [+ + a+.+ +o + + o+o a++ a+a n
10 o++ + 15 +qa 5+nnaJ+a a--++ 15000 am 5++++o aJ+a
+J+on naa 6+o0a+J a--++ 6750 am y = 0.45x +amn+..+o n+o+a.
am0a y = 0.45x a++a+an 10 o++ + 15 +qa 5+nnaJ++qa. aJ+a
+J+on naa 6+ona++am a--+++qa 6++.Jnn[+ +a + +-+
a++++++ 6++aao+a . 5+ + 5+n+-++ +amn+.++ aa++o 5a a++++
5+n+-+ a+++ am0n+a.
5++ a[+ ++++. oo a++a+an 10 o++ + 15 +qa 5+nnaJ+a a--+ +
(x) +qa , +J+onnaa 6+ona++am a--++ (y) +qa 5.0+ a++
a++a + a+ a- a+no++qa. am0a 5+a+o+o y m+ x .m 0++o
a+m+o 6++-[aa+ am+0n+a. +amn+[ y = 0.45x + +-+ 0++o a+m+o
mma+++++qa. 6n++a++ + +-+ 0++o a+m+o mma+++ y = kx am a1a .
5 q k m+ a+no qa . 5+ + aoa+o +-+ +++ 5o o ama 5+m
+ n.a++ a+++ nn.+ ++6++- [ +-++m +Ja ++- m+n+++o+a.
132
a[+ ++++. .++ 0a0o a++ 5+n+-+ a++++ +a+-.a+m aoa+o +-+
a++++++ a++o+a. y = 0.45x amn +amn+. onq a+n.a a++o+a. 5++
a+n.a + 0+J+0++.++ a1a (n.a .| n n+J++aa). 5+ 0++o a+m+om
aoa+o a+++++qa.


n.a 5.4










[+++++. nma+a a[+ ++++..+ +++0a+a. + 5++o a-o 0+
+++m 0a+++o 6+oa++++ 6++a0a+a. 5++o a-o 160 +.a . +t++ ++ +.+ + |
a- 0++a qa amo. a-o+m 0a+a a-+q
4
160
= 40 +.a. qa. 160 +.a.
+t++++ +.++ z a- 0++a qa amo. a-o+m 0a+a a-+q
2
160
= 80 +.a.
qa. 5+o+++ ++a 0a+a (v) 5+ a.++m+o +.+qa 0++a (t) +
a.++qa am n+o+a. 5++ aa+++o+++ ++a 5++om 0a+a
++++qa 6n+m+ + qnnn. . +t+++ +.++ a[+++6++aa 0++a qn1a
am n+o+a . ++a+ v ++a+m+o t qn1a. 0aoa t ++a+m+o v qn1a
amn++o 0a+ma (v). 0++ma (t) +o+a 6n++++a 6nn n+nn+ n+o+a.
am0a 5++ 5+-[ aa+a (v an ma t) +o+a a++++o 5+nn+++
n+o+a. + aa ++++ qa6n+m+ an6n++ aa qna+a. + aa
qn1a6n+m+ an6n++ aa ++a+a+a 6nn n+nnm 5+ + 5+ aa+a
+o+a a+++ +o a+mnm am0n+a. +a++-. ..a-+o + qnnn..
+t++++ +.++ 5++o a-o a[+++6++aa 0++ma. 0a+ma
6++[++nn.[aam.
0++a (t)
a-+o
2 4 5 8
0a+a (v)
+.a.
80 40 32 20

0an+-. ..a-+o+++,
t v = 2 80 = 160 , t v = 4 40 = 160, t v = 5 32 = 160, t v = 8 20 = 160
amn+m n+o+a. ++a+
133
tv = 160 oo+ .
160
t
v =
v 1a t 1a a+Ja++++o a am.
5+ 0+++ +n 6n+m+ + 0a++ +
qn+ qa J 5+n+-+ a+++++qa.
vt = 160 + q + a+n.a a++ ++o
++ a+n.a + 0+J 0++.++++.
+ n.+ +o a a+ 0n+o +
+n+ ao 0n+o a1a (n.a 5.5
n n+J++aa). 5nn.++o t +
++J+ + v 5m a ma 0n++ +m+
++-o+a. 5aa+m 0a+++nqa.
0++++nqa 6++.Jn n[++a
a+n.a + aoa+o a+++++qa.

n.a 5.5

5+nn+oo PV = + a+no. am a +amn+.. n0a+a. 5+ + +o+ a
a++ a+m+o+q an m0a+J a[+++++..+qa. a+n++ 6ann +o+o m++a
++a+m+o +maa qn1a amaa. m++a qn+++o +maa ++a+qa
amaa n0a+a. +o+a a++ a+n n++n q anm0a+J a[+ ++++..++. qnnn..
n+nnaa A 6++-. 6+aa+++o +a+ +m aa x ++a+m+o +o++m aa y
qn1a amaa . + a+ +m aa qn+ ++o +o+ +m aa ++a+qa amaa
n+o+a. ++a+ xy = A amo. (x = +aa, y = +oa )
y =
x
A
o o+ x =
y
A
.
+aa qn+++o +oa ++++qa. +oa qn+ ++o +aa ++++qa.


n+n + 5.2

1. +-+ a+++ amn+o amm?
2. +-+ a++++m 0+a++ +m.
3. 0+J a++ a+no aa+q+.
4. a+J a++ a+no aa+q+.
134


6. nmn aoa+o

aoa+o amm qn+qa +o+ 6++o geometry m+. na am m
6n++.+ geo an ma aa.o am n 6n++.+ metron amn 5aa+-[
+0++++ 6++n+ao+++ 6nnnn..++qa. aoa+o amn+ +o++-++m+
qn+ qa n+.a++ 5+m+o 6n++.nn. .+. 5nn+.n n+am 6++.+ + ++o
aa++++o. a+n+++ +a aoa+o a++a +o aa++qa. 0+++o+a
+.[a+n qa. +oon+a ann+nqa. ++ 0++n++a (n+a[+a) ann+nqa
n+mn[++m+. nm m+ +0+++++a aoa+o -a+a +mq ++++ ++++++
+++++. n++++a. 1+a. 0n+mn +0++ + aoo++ +am n.nn+am +oa++
+ +a aoa+o nam +-+ o++ +n q + n n-+ +m+ . 5a+ +a+
n.nn+am +J+o0+ nmn aoa+o n+.nn+an q 0++nma++++
a+++. 5nn+.n n+ao. aoa+o ++a+a +-+mn. aoa+o -a+a
a+++mn+o nq+ +na+n0+ m+ma ++nn[+m n+. +a+J 330 +.m. ++o++o
a+a++ aoa+om +++ am na++nn[a +0+++ ncJ 1+a. amnaJ. +m
++o+++ aoa+o +++a+a +ma++m+a amm 6n++.[ n++mm +to
6++qnn+a++ aa+1aa+J. aoa+on nonn+ n++++++ +++nn+nqa ann
n+.+ao +na+ ann[++a+nqa 6n++a +aa++qa.

6.1 ++n++ + +o+ q++ 0+n n +a

+a+ m+++ aqnn+ao. a++m++ 5+o++ onn.++m aoa+o
6++n+a+++ naa. 0++[. +aa. 0++-a 0n+mnann n++a0a+a. 0aoa ++a
m+0++-+am 6++a++a. 5-0++[+a. +o +nnn+m ++n+++a
++ann1a n+ +a0a+a. ama. annnnnn 0aoa n++ 6++aa+n q
mm. ++a an+m0a no++ann 5n6n+m+ +ma ++0a+a.

6.1.1 onn.++m aoa+o 6++n+a

naa amn+ 6aa+o + +o+m+ qnnn+n q n+mn[a++qa.
aa++++o. +++++++am a0++ oo+ ++ano++m a0++ + naa++m+. +
+n+ .++aa.[ qn++nn[a. m+o. nmn+mno naa+q a0a+
oo+ aoa0a+ +.+++. 5+-[ 0++[+a mn6++m m 6a.o+ 6++aa
+o+o+++ naa+m n++ 6++aao+a. m+o. 5q naa+m n++
6++aa 0++..n nn n+ ++++ n+mn[+ +nn..+. 5+-[ +a+a mn6++mm
6a.o+6++aa 5.++o a++ naa+am 6++qnnm 0++[ am n+o+a .
m+o 5q 0++.om n++6++aa +a++mnnn n+ ++++ n+mn[+ +nn..+.
135
+m a+aa a++a+ naa+a1a 5-+qa 0+J+0++.om m++
naa+a1a +ma0+ 6++-[aaa+na++. m++ +++aoa moaoo+ao
6+oo++o+ 0ann+n0n + +aa am n+ + 6++a +0n+a . am0a. on n.
aoa+o 6++n+a+m naa. 0++[. +aa 5annnnn n na++o a.[0a n++
6++aa mo1amn ann+ +++++ a++mnn+ 5+o++ mn+qa. naa+a.
+on 6n++ am+++a+m A, B, C, D 0n+mnan n+o qn+ ++ ++..n n[a. A, B
amnm + 0++.om a+aa 5+ naa+a amo. +0++[

AB oo+

BA
am+ qn++nn[a. 5+m 0++[ AB amaa no+ +o+a . 5++o an+qn.
amn+o aa 5+ an+a. 0++[ 5+ +++aoa moanm 6+o+n+
amn+m+ qn++n+. ++++a++. + 0++.+m+ l amn +m am+++oa
qn++nn[a. A, B amna + 0++.om a+aa 5+ naa+a amo. A, B ++
naa+a1a 0++++ nnaa+++.0+ a1a +0+J+0++.om n++++m.
A, B amn 5+ naa+++.0+ a++ 0+J+0++.[++-[ o o+ +++ +a++
0++.[++-[ amnn[a. 5+ qn+.oo
AB
am+ qn++nn[a. AB 5m +a++ ++++a++
AB oo+ BA
am am+o+a. + naa+o 6++.+ a0+a ++++o moamn+ 6+ooa +
0++.om n++a +++ amnn[a. 5q 6++. qa naa++m+. ++++m +annnaa
oo+ 6++.++nnaa amnn[a. A am n+ + +++m 6++.+ +n na a. B m+
++++m a+aa a0+a + naa6+mo. 5+++++m+

AB
am+ qn++nn[a. 5+m. ++o an+qn1.m qn+++ao. +++ AB amaa
qn++o+a. AB +m a +a++a a ++o an+qn +++ AB +m ++++
qn+ qa.
qnn n. 5m.

AB amn+m. 5++o a n+qn AB +m a+ qn+ ++ao

++++a++ 0++[ AB amaa. AB amn+m qn+[ AB +m a+ qn+ ++ao
++++a++ 0++.[++-[ AB amaa . ++J

AB ++o an+qn AB
+m a+ qn+ ++ao ++++a++ ++J AB amaa qnn0n+a. naa+a A, B
5annn+.nn.. 6++oam AB amma qnn0n+a.

+ 6n++nnaa A +o +an+ qa 5+ ++++a AB, AC ma. naa A o
+ 0++-+ +m a++mnm am+0n+a. naa A m+ 0++-++m mm
amnn[a. 0+J+0++.[+ +-[+a AB1a AC 1a +0++-++m 5+ ++J+a amnn[a .
5+0++-a+m+. o o+ am+ qn++nn[a. BAC CAB BAC o o+ am
+ 0++-a+m+ qn++nn..+o. naa A m+ +0++-++m mm. AB an ma
AC +0++-++m ++J+a am n++ 6++++ 6++a+. A+o a1a 0++-a+m+
CAB
136
+ +++o+++ 6++.+ [++ ++++q+ 6+oa+++ + +n+ aoo+o
qn++nn[a (n.a 6.1 n n++++aa). A amn mm+oaa + 0++-++m ++J+a
6++++ +o+o +0++-++ aa+++ A am am+o+a. + 0++.[+
+-.n0n+mm + 0++-++nqa aa -[. A amn 0++-++m aa
mA am+ qn++o+a. qanna a+a 5oo6+mo. mA aa+++ A am+
qnn0n+a. m+o. mA amn+ J aa. A amn+ + qn+[ amn+n n+++
6++aaaa.



n.a 6.1


n.a 6.2








+ 0++-++m aa. +0++-++m ++J+am +a aan 6n+++++oo.
0++-+a. 'n++` amnn[a o+m+o a++nn[+mnm. + +a++m a+a+ +
+ +++ +m 6++.++n na a++6++-[ + mm +an++ ann[++m+o. +
360 n++ aaaa 0++-++m a++mn+ am +0n+a. 5++ aa 360 am
am+nn[a (n.a 6.2 n n++++aa ). 5q 0++-++m ++J+a mnm a+ mn++
a++aa+. ann 0++-+am aa+a 360 + onn.++++ 6++-.++qa.
+ +++. + mm +an++m
4
1
n+++++o a+qa 0++-++m aa
4
1
(360) = 90 qa;
6
1
n+++++o a+qa 0++-++m aa
6
1
(360) = 60
qa;
360
1
n+++++o a+qa 0++-++m aa
360
1
(360) = 1 qa.



n.a 6.3

n.a 6.4

n.a 6.5








m = 90 amo. + 6+0++-a (n.a 6.3 n n++++aa) amnn[a .
m m aa 90 + qa ++6amo.
BAC BAC
BAC BAC + a+0++-a (n.a 6.4 n
n++++aa) amnn[a . m m aa 90 +qa qna amo. +
qm 0++-a (n.a 6.5 n n++++aa) amnn[a.
BAC BAC
137
m = 180 amo. + 0++ + 0++-a (n.a 6.6 n n++++aa) amnn[a.
+ 0+++0++-6amo. BC + 0+J+0++.[+ +-.+qa. A, B, C amnm
+0++.a++ naa+a+qa. ++a+. 5nnaa+a +0++.oo a1a
naa+a+qa.
BAC BAC
BAC


n.a 6.7



n.a 6.6




5+ 0++[+a BD 1a CE 1a A amn na a+o 6a.o+6++a a++o a1a
0++-+a 1a BAC DAE 1a q+6+++ 0++-+a amnn[a. 0aoa. , CAD
BAE ++ 0++- +a q+ 6+++ 0++- +a++ aa+1a n+o+a (n.a 6.7
n n++++aa).

m 0++-++m aa 180 +q ++a++aa. 360 +q+ qna++
5+nnm +0++-a nmaa 0++-a amnn[a (n.a 6.8 n n++++aa).
BAC




n.a 6.9

n.a 6.10

n.a 6.8







5+ 0++- ++ q 6n++ + +1a . + 6n+++ +++a a+ +. 6n++a+m
++++q 5+ n+++aoa 0++-+a a1a+m+o. aa+ 0++-+a
[++[++ 0++-+a amnn[a (n.a 6.9 n n++++aa). n.a 6.9 5o BAD ,
++annnq 6n++mm A qa; 6n++ ++J
DAC
AD +q 5+ n+++aoa 5a
a+++nn++o. BAD 1a 1a [++[++ 0++-+a qa. BAC 1a
BAD 1a 6n++a+m + AB 6nnn++ ++oa. a [++[+ + 0++-+a +++;
a6mmo . a AB amn 6n++ n++++nq 0+ n++++oa++ 0++-+a++
5+nn+++m amn+ n++ 6++a0a+a. 5+ [++[++ 0++-+am +[+o 90
amo. a ++n n+ 0++- +a (n.a 6.10 n n++++aa) amnn[a. n.a 6.10 5o
m
DAC
BAD + m = 90; am0a. DAC BAD 1a DAC 1a ++n n+0++- +a+qa ; 5 q
m BAD = 90 m ; + 0++-a an n+m ++nn+0++-a+qa. am0a.
5+0++- +ao mnm aa 6+++++o. ann+m aam n+ mo1a.
DAC

138
5+ [++[++ 0++-+am +[+o 180 amo. a a+++nn+0++-+a
amnn[a (n.a 6.11 n n++++aa). n.+ +o.
m BAD + m = 180 CAD
o
.

n.a 6.11
am0a. 5 q ++ana+ BAD 1a CAD 1a
a+++nn+ 0++-+a+qa. 0aoa.
m = 180 m DAC BAD ,
m BAD = 180 m . DAC
++a+. + 0++-a+m+ ann+m a+++nn+
0++-a+qa . 5 q + 0++-a ++nnom. an n++ ++-o+a.

6.1.2 0++[+am a++m n-n+a anma 0+nn+a

n+ + 6++a a+n +++. ++a . 0+J+ 0++[+am a ++m +o n- n+a1a .
0+nn+a1a 5n0n++ ++-0n+a. 5q 0+nn+a +n+++ao 6++o
aa++++m +oa ++n+J+++ 6++a+0n+a.

6++o. + +a++o A, B amn 5+ naa+a+ qn++.



n.a 6.12








naa A m aa+++ no 0++[+a a++. an ma + 0++[ a. [a B aa0+
6+oa++ ++-+. 5+n 0n+m0n. naa B m aa0+ no 0++[+a a++.
anma 0+ + 0++[ a.[a A m aa0+ 6+oa+ 6+++ + 6++a+.
5+0++.+m+. A an ma B +a 5-+qa 0+J+0++[ AB am n+. 5+
6++oo+++. +a+++-a n-n +.++n+.

n- n ). + +a++o. 5+ naa+a 6++[++nn.o++++o. annm aa0+ 0+ +
0++[++m a1a.

qnn n. 0a0o +n+ onn.+ 6++a++o+++ +a++-.ann n+o+a.
(i) + +a++o aa 5+ 6aa0am naa+a 0+ + 0++..+++m
a+qa. X , Y amnm 5+ naa+6amo. 0++[ XY mm++m a1a.
(ii) +mm oo+ +mm+q 0ann.. naa+a + 0++.oo a+++o. a
+0++.a+ + na a+a amnn[a .
139
(iii) +mm oo+ +mm+q 0ann. . na a+ao a++a6++mm anna+ naa+a+o
a1a 0++.oo a++6+mo. a +0++.a++ naa+a+++.

6++o. + +a+ +o AB, CD amn 5+ 6aa0am 0++[+a a++. 5+ 0++[+a1a
0a-[aaanq + . [+. 5+ 0++[++ qa 6n++a++ + naa 5+nn+0++
oo+ 5oo+ao 0n+a+0++ ++-+ (n.a 6.13 n n++++aa).




n.a 6.13






0an++-a 6++oo+++ +a + +- . n- n +.+ +n+.

n-n 2: 5+0am 0++[++qa 6n++a++ + naa+q 0ao 5+++++.

qnn n. 5+ 0++[+++.0+ + 6n++nnaa a1a+m+o a mn6++mm
6a.[a0++[+a amnn[a. 6n++nnaa a+++ 0++[+a 6a.o+6++aa++
0++[+a amnn[a. 5++++ 6n++nnaa a+++ 0++[+a 5- 0++[+a
amnn[a.

6++o : 0++[ AB a++. 0++[ AB +o a+++ P amn naa+ a[+++6++a+.
P +m aa0+ 6+ooa+m 0++[+a a++. ++++ 0++[+ao 0+ + 0++[++m
AB +q 5-+++ aa++ ++-o+a (n.a 6.14 n n++++aa).



n.a 6.14








5+6++oo+++ +a++-. n-n +.++n+.

n- n 3: + 0++[a. +o a+++ + naa1a ++nnom. ++nn.. naa aa0+
++nn.. 0++.onq 5-+++ 0+ + 0++[++m a1a.

qnn n. +m m o o+ +n q 0an n. . 0++[+a +na a aa0+ 6+o o6amo .
+0++[+a +naaaa+0++[+a amnn[a .

140
6++o. AB, CD aa 5+ 6aa0am 0++[+a mn6++mm 6a.[a+m a+++.
6a.[a naa+ O am+ qn++aa (n.a 6.15n n++ + +aa ). , ,
, ++ 0++-+a a++aa.
AOC BOD
AOD BOC
5+o+++ +a++-.ann n+m0n+a.

n.a 6.15
m = m AOD , BOC
m = m AOC . BOD
5 q , ++ 0++-+a +0++o
q+6+++ 0++-+a+qa. 5a a+0n. ++ana+
1a 1a +0++o q+ 6+++
0++-+a+qa.
AOC BOD
BOC AOD

5+6++oo+++ +a++-. n-n +.++n+.

n- n 4. 5+0++[+a mn6++mm 6a.o+6++-.+o -.+qa q+6+++
0++-+a +aa.

qnn n: m = x, m = y am +. 0an+-. onn.+ 6++a++mno
m = x, m = y. m+o m
AOC AOD
BOD BOC AOC + m BOC + m BOD + m = 360 AOD
o o+ x + y + x + y = 360 o o+ 2x + 2y = 360 oo+ x + y = 180. am0a x, y
a+++nn+0++-+a qa. 5+o+++.
m + m AOC BOC = 180, mBOD + mAOD = 180,
mAOC + mAOD = 180, m BOC + m BOD = 180
am n+o+a. 0++o+a AOC. BOC 1a. BOD, AOD 1a . AOC, AOD 1a .
BOC. BOD 1a a6a+mma a+++nn+0++-+a a++mnm.

6++o : AB, CD amn 5-0++[+a a++. AB +q 5-+++ 5oo+ao 0++[ PQ
a++ (n.a 6.16n n++++aa).


n.a 6.16








PQ m+. 5-0++[+a AB +1a CD +1a 6a.[a+ n+. PQ m+ AB, CD
5annm + qm+q6a.o++qa amn+ n+. AB, PQ a n q a1a
6n++nnaa+ L amaa . CD, PQ an q a1a 6n++nnaa+ M amaa qn++.
, PLB , PLA , BLM , ALM , LMD , LMC CMQ , QMD ++an n
a++ n+J++aa. ++ana+.

m = m PLB LMD , m BLM = m , DMQ
m = m m PLA , LMC ALM = m . CMQ

5+6++oo+++ nma+a n-n +.++n+.
141
n-n 5: 5+ 5-0++[++q + 0++[ qm+q6a.o+++ a+++o. +a1a
a++6a++ 0++o ++ 0++-+a aao +aa++ 5++qa.

qnn n: (i) 0++-a ALM a LMD 1a + 0++o mma.. .0++-+a
a++mnm. 0++-a BLM a 1a an6n++ 0++o mma. . .0++-+a
qa. 0ao a++ 6++omno.
LMC
m BLM = m LMC , m ALM = m LMD
am n+o+a. 5+m+ 0+nna+++ +m0a+a.

0+n na 1: 5+ 5-0++[++q + 0++[ qm+q6a.o+++ a+++o.
+a1a a++6a++ 0++o m ma.. . 0++-+a aao +aa.

(ii) 0++-a PLA aa aa +0++o mma.. 6aa+0++-+a
a++mnm. 0++-a
DMQ
BLP 1a CMQ aa an6n++ 0++o mma..
6aa+0++-+a qa. 0ao a++ 6++omno.
m = m m PLA , DMQ BLP = m CMQ
am n+m 0n+a. 5+m+ 0+n na+++ +m0a+a.

0+n na 2: 5+ 5-0++[++q + 0++[ qm+q6a.o+++ a+++o.
+a1a a++6a++ 0++o m ma.. 6aa+0++- +a aao +aa.

(iii) 0++-+a BLM a LMD 1a qm+ q6a.o+m 0+nna a++
+0++o .0++-+a a++mnm. 5+n0n+o0a ALM a 1a
qm+q6a.o+m 0+nna a++ an6n++0++o .0++-+a qa. 0ao
a++ 6++omno.
LMC
m BLM + m LMD = 180, m ALM + m LMC = 180
am n+o+a. 5++ -a++ 0+nna+++ +no+a .

0+n na 3: 5+ 5-0++[++q + 0++[ qm+q6a.o+++ a+++o. 0+
n++++o a++ +0++o . 0++-+a a+++n n+0++-+a+qa.

6++o : + 0++[ AB a++. 0++[ AB +q 5-+++ a+++ 0++[ PQ a++.
0++[+a AB 1a PQ aa ++++qa naa+ L
am+ qn++aa. L oo++ an6n++ naa M
0++[ PQ m a+ qn++aa. ALM a++aa.
M 5m aa0+ m ALM = m LMD am
a1a+m 0++[ CD a++ (n.a 6.17n
n++++aa). 5+o+++ 0++[ PQ amn+ 0++[+a
AB, CD 5annnq qm+q6a.o amaa. AB 1a
CD1a mn6++mm +++++++ 0++[+a amaa
n+mo+mn+.

n.a 6.17

5+6++oo+++ nma+a n-n +.++n+.

n-n 6: + qm+ q6a. o 5+ 0++[+a 6a. [a 6n+m+ an n[+ +a +0++o
mma..0++-+a +aa++ 5+nnm. aa+ 0++[+a 5-0++[+a+qa.

142
0an+-. n-no+++ nma+a 0+nn+a +n++o+a.

0+n na 4: + qm+q6a.o 5+ 0++[+a 6a.[a6n+m+ ann[++a +0++o ++
0++-+a +aa++ 5+nnm. aa+ 0++[+a 5- 0++[+a+qa.

0+n na 5: + qm+q6a.o 5+ 0++[+a 6a.[a6n+m+ ann[++a 0++-+ao.
qm+ q6a. o+m 0+nna a+ + + 0++o . 0++- +a a+++n n+
0++-+a++ a+ ++o. aa+ 0++[+a 5- 0++[+a+qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: n.a 6.18 5o 0++[ l
1
aa 0++[ l
2
aa 5-0++[+a+qa. 0++[ l
3

m+ 0++[+a l
1
, l
2
++q

qm+q6a. o++qa. 1 , 2 ++ 0++-+am
aa+am a++a 4 : 5 amo . 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , , ++
0++-+am aa+a+ ++-+.
7 8



n.a 6.18












+ + a: m : m = 4 : 5 1 2
5
4
2 m
1 m
=

m 1 =
5
4
m 2 . m+o. , aa
a+++nn+ 0++-+am 0++o amn++o. m
1 2
1 + m 2 = 180.

5
4
m + m = 180 (-+) 2 2
5
2 m 5 2 m 4 +
= 180
(-+) 9 m = 180 5 (-+) m 2 2 = 100.
m = 180 m = 180 100 = 80. 1 2
5n6n+m+.
m = m = 80 ( , amnm + 0++o q+6+++ 0++-+a ), 3 1 1 3
m = m = 100( 4 2 2 , amnm + 0++o q+6+++ 0++-+a ), 4
m = m = 80 ( 5 1 1 , amnm + 0++o ++ 0++-+a ), 5
m = m = 100 ( 6 2 2 , amnm + 0++o ++ 0++-+a ), 6
m = m = 80 ( 7 5 5 , amnm + 0++o q+6+++ 0++-+a ), 7
m = m = 100 ( 8 6 6 , amnm + 0++o q+6+++ 0++-+a ). 8


143
a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: n.a 6.19 5o AB m+ CD +q 5-0++[ amaa. AC m+ BD +q
5-0++[ amaa +n.








n.a 6.19

+ + a: 0++[ CD m+ 0++[ AC + qa BD +qa qm+q6a.o++qa. 5q.
= 50 + 130 = 180. am0a. qm+q6a. o+m +nna a+ +
.0++- +a+m 1a 1a a+++nn+0++-+a+qa. am0a. AC 1a
BD 1a 5- 0++[+a. am0a. ++ 0++-+a
CDB ACD + m m
ACD CDB
XCA 1a 1a +aa .
am0a. m = 130. [+++++. AB + qa CD +qa. AC qm+q6a.o++qa. 5 q.
m = m = 130. ++a+ mma.. 0++-+a
CDB
XCA
XCA CAB XCA aa 1a
+aa. am0a. AB 1a CD 1a 5-0++[+a+qa .
CAB

6.1.3 m+0++-++n nnn+ n-n+a 0+nn+a

m+0++-++n nnn an+m0a ++a n++a0a+a. m+0++-a
am n+ +m m n+ + +a+o+m + aoa+o +aa+qa . n.a 6.20 5o DE,
XY, PQ +mm 0++[+a . 0++[+a PQ aa XY 1a
naa A 5o 6a.o+ 6++a+mnm. 0++[+a
DE 1a XY 1a naa B 5o 6a.o+
6++a+mnm. 0++[+a PQ aa DE 1a naa
C 5o 6a.o+ 6++a+mnm. AB, BC, CA
++ 0++.[+ +-[+a+o a1a aoaa
m+ 0++-a ABC amnn[a. 0+J+0++.[+
+-[+a AB, BC, CA m+0++-++m
n+ + +a amnn[a. naa+a A, B, C
m+0++-++m + ++a amnn[a.
0++-+a , BAC ABC , BCA

n.a 6.20
m+0++-++m .0++-+a amnn[a. 5+0++-+a aa+++ A , B , am+
qn++nn[a. 0++-a m+0++-++m 6aa+0++-a+qa . 0aoa 0++- +a
, , amnm m+0++-a ABC +m 6aa+0++-+a
am n++ 6++a0a+a.
C
PAB
DBA , YBC , BCQ ECA CAX

mmaqnno no++anno+++ nma+a a++n+a +ma++0a+a.
(i) + m+ 0++-+ +o a+ +a+ n+ + +a +aa 5o o amo . a m+ 0++-a +
+an+ + m+ 0++-a+qa .
(ii) + m+0++-++o a++a+ 5+ n+++a +aa amo. am+0++-a J
5++an+ + m+ 0++-a+qa .
(iii) + m+0++-++o aoo+ n+++a +aa amo. am+0++-a + +an++
m+ 0++-a+qa .
144
(iv) + m+0++-++o +mm 0++-+a qm 0++-+a++m. a m+0++-a
+ qm 0++- m+ 0++-a+qa .
(v) + m+0++-++o a++a+ + 0++-a a+0++-a amo . am+0++-a +
a+0++- m+0++-a+qa .
(vi) + m+0++-++o + 0++-a 6+0++-a++m (0++-++m aa 90).
am+0++-a + 6+ 0++- m+ 0++-a+qa .

m+0++-++n nnn+ nma+a 0+nn+a+ +m0a+a.

0+n na 6: + m+0++-++m +mm 0++-+am aa+am +[+o 180 qa.

0+n na 7: + m+0++-++m + n++a +..nn.[ -.+qa 6aa+0++-++m
aa a6a++ 0++-+am aa+am +[+o+ q+ +aa+qa.
+n-a : ABC + m+0++-a. n++a BC +
+.[+. BC m +.++o X amn naa++
qn++aa. n.a 6.21 5o 6aa+
0++-a+qa .
ACX
A aa B 1a a6a++
0++-+a+qa. ACX m = m A + m B
am +n+ +o 0a-[a. aa ACX C 1a
a+ ++nn+0++-+a+qa.

n.a 6.21
m + m = 180. ACX C
m+o. m A + m B + m = 180. C
m + m = m ACX C A + m B + m C . 5+ n++ma 6n++ m + +++a
6+++ m = m
C
ACX A + m B qa.

6++o : n.a 6.22 5o aano m+0++-a PQR a++. n+++a PQ, QR, RP
++annm +a+a+++ PQ, QR, RP a++ n++++ PQ + QR, QR + PR,
PR + PQ ++ a+nn+a+ +-[no++aa. 5+o+++.
(i) PQ + QR > PR, (ii) QR + PR > PQ, (iii) PR + PQ > QR

n.a 6.22
am+ +-.n+o+a.

5+6++oo+++ nma+a n-n +.++n+.

n-n 7: + m+0++-++m 5+ n+++am +a +am
+[+o +m n+a+ n++++m +a+ +a.+ +[+o+qa.

qnn n: a++6a++ m+0++-a ABC +oa. (i) AB < BC + CA
(ii) BC < CA + AB (iii) CA < AB + BC.

n.a 6.23
5a m+ 0++- +amm a+a amnn[a.

6++o : n.a 6.23 5o aaa+m m+0++-a ABC
a++. 0++- +a A , B , C ++ann
a++aa. 0aoa. AB, BC, CA ++ n++aa+a1a

145
+-[no++aa. 0++-+am aa+a nn.[n n++++ +o a+n 6n++
0++-a a+ amn+m+ +-.n+aa. 5+n 0n+m0n n+++am aa+a
nn.[nn++++ +o a+n6n++ n++a a+ am n+m+ +- .n+aa . 5+o++ +
6n++ 0++-++n q a+0+1aa n++a 6n+++ am n+o+a . 0++- aa
++a++ aa+. 6n++0++-a amaa. n++ aa ++a++ aa+. 6n++
n++a amaa 6++a ao+a. 5++ -a+n nm a+a n-n++ am+o+a.

n- n 8: + m+0++-++o. a+n6n++ n++++nq a++oaa 0++-a a+n6n+++.


qnn n: l amn 0++..+ ++++. n.a 6.24 5o
aaa+m l m a + a+++ P amn naa+
a[+++6++a+. P +o+++ 0++[ l + q
6+q+++0++[ PL a++. L o o++ 0a6n++
naa M l m a+ a[+++ 6++a+. n++a PM
5-+ +aa. m+0++-a PLM + 6+0++-

n.a 6.24
m+0++-a+qa. a6mmo n++a PL, l +q 6+q+++qa.
am0a. m = 90. m + m PLM PLM LMP + m LPM = 180 amn++o.
90 + m LMP + m LPM = 180 o o+ m LMP + m LPM = 90
m LMP < 90, m LPM < 90, m LMP = 90 m LPM .
++a+. 0++-a LMP 1a LPM 1a qm0++-+a anma ++nn+0++-+a .
am0a. m+ m+0++-a PLM 5o a+n 6n++ 0++-a. am0a n++a PM
a+n 6n++ n++a. ++a+. PL < PM, M amn+ 0++. om a+aa a++a+ +
naa. am0a P +o+++ a++nn[a 6+q+++0++[ PL, P +o++ + 0++[ l + q
a++nn[a ann 0++.[+ +-[+a a. a++ qna+m +am.+++qa. 5q.
LM < PM . a+n 6n++ n+ +a+++ PM . 6+ 0++- m+ 0++-a PLM m +J-a
am+0n+a.
PLM


6.1.4 ++ a+a m+ 0++- +a

aoa+on nnn n1a6n+m+. ++a+a m+0++-+a o++o +++
0a-o1aa+. am0a annm +o m+++ -a+an nnn 6++++6++a0a+a.

6++o : 5+ 6anm+ ++a+a a[+++6++aaaa. annn+.0+ + a++++
++a m nmn 6n++++aa. + ++am a+ + m+0++-a a++aa. [++
++ao +n0n+mn ++ + m+0++-a a+++nn++ ++-o+a (a+++n
noaa). 5aa+ m+0++-+a1a ++ a+a m+ 0++- +a am+ +no+a. 5aa+
m+0++-+am +an+++a1a. +a 0++-+a1a 6n++++o+a. 6n++++nn. .
n.. +an+++a ++ n+++a amaa. +a0++-+a + + 0++- +a amaa
+nnn[a. + m+0++-++oaa m++ n+++a. 0++-+a an6n++
146
m+0++-++m ++ n++++qa. 0++-++qa +aa+m+o.
am+0++-+a ++a+a m+0++-+a amnan0n+a.



n.a 6.25









a[+ ++++. .++. n.a 6.25 o aa m+0++-+a ABC, DPX + ++++.
5+o AB = DX, BC = PX, CA = PD; D A P C X B = = = , , am 5+nn++o
m+0++-a ABC 1a m+ 0++-a DXP 1a ++a+a m+0++-+a+qa . 5+m
ABC DXP am am+o+a.
++a+a m+0++-+an 6n+m++ m ++ +amn+[+a aa+ amn+
n++ 6++a+. am+o+++. m ++ +amn+[+a 6++[++nn.o++++o
m+0++-+a ++a+aa+qa. nma+a +mm 6++qnn+ao a0+a mm
6++[++nn.o++++o + m+0++-a a++o+a am m+++ aqnn+ao
n++a0a+a.
(i) 5+ n+++am aa+a. annn +.0+ aa 0++-++m aa
(n-0++-n 6++a+).
(ii) +mm n+++am aa+a (n-n-n 6++a+).
(iii) 5+ 0++- aa+a. + n++++m aa (0++-n-0++ 6++a+).
+a+++-a 6n++++ +ao a0+a mnm 5+ m+0++-++q +J-++++o.
am+0++-+a ++a+aa am+ +no+a.
(i) n++a - 0++-a - n++a
(ii) 0++-a - n++a - 0++-a
(iii) n++a - n++a - n++a

6++o : AB = PQ, P A = , AC = PR am 5++qa+m 5+ m+ 0++-+a ABC, PQR
a++aa. ann+ ++++++
a[+ + ann m nm a+ m n++n
6n++++ m+n+++aa (n.a 6.26 n
n++++aa). 5am+n ++o. ++ P,
++ A m a+a. ++ Q, ++ B m
a +a . + + R, + + C m a+a . AB ,
AC ++ n+++a+o aa.+++
0++-a A m+ PQ, PR ++

n.a 6.26
147
n+++a+o aa.+++ 0++-a P 1.a a++ +++++n 6n++++a+
nm0+++ +o+a. 5+o+++ nma+a n-nm n+0n+a.

n-n 9: + m+0++-++m 5+ n+++a a aa.+++ 0++-ma. an6n++
m+0++-++m 5+ n++++qa a aa.+++ 0++-++nqa +aa+m+o.
aa+ m+0++-+a ++a+aa+qa.

qnn n: 5++ n-nm ++a+a m+0++-++m n++a - 0++-a - n++a onn.+
+++aa oo+ +++ +a++ n-0++-n onn.+ ++ +aa am+ +no+a.

6++o : R C QR BC Q B = = = , , am 5++ qa+m 5+ m+ 0++- +a ABC, PQR
a++aa. ann+ +++++6+[++ m nma6++mn++ 6n++++nn+J+++o.
a++-[a +++++n 6n+++++mnm (n.a 6.27 n n++++aa).



n.a 6.27








5+6++oo+++ +.+qa on n.+ ++ +a++m + 0+nna+++ +m+m0n+a.

0+n na 8: + m+0++-++m 5+ 0++-+a ann+o 5-++ n++ma
an6n++ m+0++-++m 5+ 0++-++qa ann+o 5-++ n++++nqa
+aa+m+o. ++ 5+ m+0++-+a ++a+a m+0++-+a+qa.

qnn n: 5++ n-nm ++a+a m+0++-++m 0++-a - n+ +a - 0++-a onn.+
+++aa oo+ 0++-n-0++ onn.+ ++ +aa am+ +no+a.

6++o : A = D, B = E, BC = EF am 5++qa+m 5+ m+0++-+a ABC, DEF
a++aa (n.a 6.28 n n++++aa).


n.a 6.28








ABC + m+0++-a. am0a = + + C B A 180. (1)
148
DEF + m+0++-a. am0a = + + F E D 180
m+o. D = A, B = E = + + F B A 180 (2)
(1), (2) m no. = + + C B A F B A + + .
F C = .

am0a m+ 0++-a ABC, DEF o B , C 1a +.+ n++a BC 1a. E , n qa
+nq++ n++a EF nqa +aa++ 5+nn++o 0++-n-0++ n-nmno ABC DEF.
5+o+++ +a++-. 0+nn++ n+o+a.
F

0+n na 9: 5+ m+0++-+ao mnm 5+ 0++-+a. +m a++a+ +
n++ma. an6n++ m+0++-++m 5+ 0++- ++qa. ++ n++++nqa
+a6amo. ++ 5+ m+0++-+a ++a+aa+qa.

qnn n: ++ a+aa nn n+ 5+ + ++ +a+ +m 0++-a - 0++-a - n+ +a on n.+
+++aa oo+ ++++a++ 0++-0++-n onn.+ ++ +aa am+ +no+a.

6++o : BC = EF, CA = FD, AB = DE am 5++qa+m m+0++-+a ABC, DEF
++ann a++aa (n.a 6.29n n++++aa). 5+o m+0++-a DEF
6a.o6+[++ m+0++-a ABC m a+ a++. a++-[a a++ +++++n


n.a 6.29







6n+++++mnm. 5++o+o. D, A +m a+a. E, B +m a+a. F, C +m a+a
aa+ n+o+a . am0a ABC DEF. 5+6++oo+++ nma+a 0+nn++
n+o+a.

0+n na 10: + m+0++-++m +mm n+++a an6n++ m+0++-++m +mm
n++++q+ +a6amo. aa+ m+0++-+a ++a+aa qa.

qnn n: 0an +n+ ++ +aa n++a - n++a - n++a onn.+ +++aa am+
+nnn[a. ++++a++. 5+m n-n-n on n.+ ++ +aa am+ +no+a .

n-n-0++ +++aa oo+ 0++-0++-0++ 6++a+ ++ a+a m+0++-++qn
6n++++a+ am 5n6n+m+ 0+++n0n+a.

6++o : ABC amn m+0++-a a++. BC +q 5-+++ 0++[ XY a++ (n.a 6.30n
n++++aa). XY 1a AB 1a ++++qa na a+ D am+ qn++aa. XY 1a AC 1a
149
++++qa naa+ E am qn++aa. n++a AB 1a. n++a AC 1a 5-0++[+a+m
BC, XY++q qm+ q 6a.o+a+qa. am0a C E B D = = , (++ 0++-+a ).


n.a 6.30










5q. m+0++-+a ABC, ADE ++q 0++-0++-0++ 6n+++ +a aa+. m+o.
a a+ m+ 0++- +a ++ a+a m+ 0++- +a o o. a6mmo . + + n+ + +a
+aaoo. am0a. 0++-0++-0++ 6n++++a+m+ m+0++-+a +Ja+aa+++nn+nq
onn.+ ++ +aa+++++++ am n+0n+a.

6++o : 0n++a+m aanq +aa+m + 0++[ AX a++. a oq+a +am.+
0+J+0++.[+ +-[ AB . 0++-a BAX + qnn n.. aa 5++qa+m a+++
6++a+. B + a+a++aa. b (< a) oq +a++aa .+ a..a a++.
aa..a AX + 5+ naa+ao 6a.[a+ ++a ++-+0n+a. 5nnaa+a C, D
am+ qn++aa (n.a 6.31 n n++++aa).










m+0++-+a ABC. ABD ++q n-n-0++ 6n++++a aa+. m+o AC AD.
am0a ABC m+ ABD + q+ +Ja+aao o. 5+6++oo+++ n-n-0++ 6n++++a.
m+0++-+a ++a+aa++ 5+nn+nq onn.+ +++aa++ a+++ am
n+o+a.

n.a 6.31

6++o : BC = QR = a oq+a 5++qa+m 0++.[ +-[+a BC, QR a++. BC +m
a+nnaa+ X amaa . QR 5m a+n na a+ Y amaa qn++aa. X, Y 5ann
a+++a++aa.
2
a
oq+a +a++aa 6++-[ a.. +a a++. B, Q 5ann
a++a+++aa. b(< a) oq+a +a++aa 6++-[ an+a a++. 5++ an+a
150
an+m0a a+++ a..+a 6a.[a naa+a mn0+ A, P am+ qn++aa
(n.a 6.32 n n++++aa). AB, AC, PQ, PR + 5-++aa. AC, PR +a+a



n.a 6.32








a++aa. AC = PR amn+ n+o+a. am0a ABC PQR . 5+6++oo+++
+a+++-a 0+nn++m+ ++-+0n+a.


0+n na 11: + 6+0++- m+0++-++m ++-a. a0+a + n++a. an6n++
6+0++- m+0++-++m +J-a. + n++a ++annnq mn0+ +aa++
5+nnm. aa+ m+0++-+a ++a+aa+qa.

qnn n: 5+ 0+nna ++a onn.+ ++ +a++m 6+0++- m+0++-+am +Ja
+a+ +a++n++m 6+ 0++-a - ++ -a - n+ +a onn.+ +++aa oo+
++++a++ 6+-+-n onn.+ ++ +aa am am+nn[+n+.

6.1.5 5-++++m n-n+a
++mq n+++a+o .n[a +aa ++n++a am n+m n0a+a .
a++n+++a 5-+++ aa ++n++a 5-++a amnn[a.



n.a 6.33

n.a 6.34







n.a 6.33 5o ABCD + ++n++a. n.a 6.34. 5o PQRS + 5-++a+qa.
5nn.+ +o PQ || SR (PQ m+ SR +q 5-++qa amn+ 5aa+m qnn0n+a );
0aoa PS || QR.

n-n 1: J 5-++++o. a++n+++a +a +am.+a.

n.a 6.35
+n-a : ABCD J 5-++a am +. BD +
5-++aa (n.a 6.35n n++++aa). ABD, BDC
++ann+ ++++. 5q AB || CD, BD m+ AB,
CD ++annnq qm+q6a.o+++ aa+. am0a.
m 5aa+0n. AD || BC, BD m+
AD, BC ++annnq qm+q6a.o amn++o.
. m BDC ABD =
151
m n++a BD, m+0++-+a ABD, BDC+ q 6n++a++ aa+.
am0a. 0++-0++-n 6++a++mno ABD BDC. + + n+ + +a +aa . am0a.
AB = CD anma AD = BC.
. m DBC ADB =

n-n 2: J 5-++++o. a++0++-+a +aaa.+a.
+n-a : ABCD J 5-++a am+. BD + 5-++aa
(n.a 6.36 n n+J++aa ). ABD, BDC ++an ma
n.a 6.36
AB || DC, BD m+ AB, DC ++anm+q +
qm+q6a. o amn++o . m . m BDC ABD = 0aoa
AD || BC, BD m+ AD, BC ++an m+ q +
qm+q6a. o amn++o . m . m CBD ADB =
m DBC ABD ABC + = m m
= m ADB BDC + m
= m . ADC
5aa+0n m BCD BAD = m am n+o+a.

n-n 3: 5-++++m +oa..+a mn6++mm +a++n[a.
+n-a : ABCD J 5-++a . AC, BD am nm
+oa..+a. 5a 6a.o+ 6++aa naa+
M am+. 5q. BAM = DCM, ABM = CDM,
AB = CD. am0a. 0++-n-0++ 6++a ++m no.
AMB CMD (n.a 6.37n n++++aa).

n.a 6.37
AM = CM, BM = DM.
am0a +oa..+a +a++n[a.


n-n 4: + ++n++++m a++n+++a +a aa 6++-o++++o ++ ++n++a
5-++a+qa.
+n-a : ABCD am n ++n++++o AB = CD, AD = BC.
AC + 5-++aa. m+0++-+a ACB, ADC
++anma n-n-n 6++a++m no

n.a 6.38
ABC CDA (n.a 6.38n n++++aa). nmn.
m m , m ACD BAC = . m ACB CAD =
AB || CD ; 0aoa AD || BC.
am0a ABCD J 5-++a .

n-n 5: + ++n++++m a++0++-+a +a aa 6++-o++++o. ++ ++n++a
5-++a+qa.
n.a 6.39
+n-a : ABCD am a ++n +++ +o (n.a 6.39 n
n++++aa). m BCD BAD = m , m ADC ABC = m .
BD + 5-++aa. ABD, CDB ++
m+0++-+a+ ++++. 5q.
m1 + m2 + mBCD = 180;
m3 + m4 + mBAD = 180.
m1 + m2 + mBCD = m3 + m4 + mBAD,
a6mmo. mBCD = mBAD .
152
m1 + m2 = m3 + m4 (1)
m+o. ADC ABC = + = + m 4 m 2 m , m 3 m 1 m
4 m 2 m 3 m 1 m + = +
++a+. 3 m 4 m 2 m 1 m = 2)
(1) + (2) 2m1 = 2m4 m1 = m4. AD || BC.
(1) (2) 2m2 = 2m3 m2 = m3. AB || CD.
am0a. ABCD J 5-++a.

n-n 6: + ++n++++m +oa..+a mn6++mm +a++n[6amo. +++n++a
J 5-++a+qa .

n.a 6.40
+n-a : ABCD + ++n++a. AC, BD +oa..+a.
AC 1a BD 1a naa M 5o 6a.o+6++a +mnm
(n.a 6.40n n++++aa). M m+ AC, BD +am
+[n na a.
AM = CM, BM = DM.
q+6++J 0++-+a +aa amn++o.
. m m , m m BMC AMD CMD AMB = =
n-0++-n 6++a++mno.
AMB CMD, AMD CMB. am0a BAM =DCM, ABM = CDM (1)
AB, CD ++q AC + qm+q6a.o. (1) m no. m ma. . . 0++- +a +aa .
AB || CD. 5+n0n+o0a. AD || BC. am0a ABCD J 5-++a.

0+n na 12: + 0++o a++n+++a 5-+++aa. +aa++aa aa ++n++a J
5-++a+qa.

n.a 6.41
6++a+: ABCD am n ++n++++o AB || CD, AB = CD.
+n++: ABCD J 5-++a.
a++o: AC+ 5-++aa (n.a 6.41n n++++aa).
+n-a : ABC, ADC ++anma.
(i) AB = CD (6++a +).
(ii) AC 6n++.
(iii) AB || CD, AB +qa CD +qa AC qm+q6a.o
mBAC = mACD (mma.. 0++-+a +aa+qa).
n-0++-n 6++a++m no. ABC ADC.
m+0++-+ao ++n+++a. ++ 0++-+a +aa.
AD = BC, mDAC = mACB. AD || BC. am0a ABCD J 5-++a.

n-n 7: +mma. +mnn qa 0ann. . 5-0++[+a+o + qm+ q6a.o+m
a0+nn[++nn[a 6a.[++-[+a +a+am.+m6amo. 0am a++
qm+q6a. o+m a+a ++ 5- 0++[+a -.+qa 6a. [++-[+a
+a+am.+ma+qa.

n.a 6.42
+n-a : 0++[+a l
1
, l
2
, l
3
am nm
mm+6++mm 5- 0++[+a+qa. PQ, XY
++a l
1
, l
2
, l
3

+q qm+q6a.o+a+qa.
AC = CE am+. BD = DF am +n++
0a-[a. AG || BD +aa CH || DF +aa
a++ (n.a 6.42 n n+J++aa ).
153
AGDB, CHFD ++a 5-++a am n+0n+a.
AG = BD, CH = DF (1)
ACG , CEH ++ m+0++-+ao
CE = AC, mGAC = mHCE (+ + 0++- +a ), mACG = mCEH (++ 0++-+a ).
am0a 0++-n-0++ 6++a++mno. ACG CEH. AG = CH. (2)
(1), (2) m no BD = DF.

n-n 8: + m+0++-++o. 5+n+++am +[nnaa+a+ 0+++qa 0++[
+mn+a+ n++++nq 5-+++aa. +m aao n+++++aa 5++qa.
+n-a : m+0++-a ABC 5o . D, E mn0+ AB, AC ++ n+++am
+[nnaa+a+qa. ++a +n++ 0a-o++.
DE || BC, DE = ). (
2
1
BC
CF || BD a++. 5+ DE +m +.++ F 5o ++ ++ qa (n.a 6.43n n++++aa ).
m+0++-a ADE, CFE ++an ma . AD || CF, AC qm+q6a.o.
mDAE = mECF.
AD || CF, DF qm+q6a.o. mADE = mCFE.
0aoa E m+ AC +m +[nnaa m++o. AE = EC. am0a 0++-0++-n 6++a++mno
ADE CFE.
AD = CF 0aoa DE = EF.
m+o D, AB +m +[n naa amn++o. BD = AD.
BD = CF.
an+m0a BD || CF.

n.a 6.43
BCFD J 5-++a+qa.
DF = BC anma DF || BC -+ DE || BC.
DE + EF = BC -+ DE + DE = BC -+ 2DE = BC.
am0a DE || BC anma DE = . BC) (
2
1


n-n 9: + m+0++-++o. + n++++m +[nnaa aa0+ an6n++ n++++nq
5-+++ a++nn[a 0++[. +mn+a+ n++++ +a++n[a.
+n-a : ABC am n m+0++-++o D, AB +m
+[nnaa am+. D aa+++ BC +q 5-+++
DE a++. + AC + E o 6a...[a (n.a
6.44 n n++++aa). E m+ AC +m +[nnaa
am +n+ +o 0a-[a. 5 q BC || DE, BC, DE
+am qm+q6a.o AB qa.

n.a 6.44
mADE = mABC, (1)
AD || CF, AD,CF +am qm+q6a.o DF qa.
mADE = mEFC anma (2)
mAED = mBCE. (3)
(1), (2) m no mABC = mEFC. (4)
AD || CF, AD, CF +am qm+q6a.o AC qa .
mBAC = mACF. (5)
5n6n+m+. mBCF = mBCE + mECF
154
= mAED + ACF, (3) mno
= mAED + mDAE, (5) mno
= mBDE (6aa+0++-a = a 6a++ 0++-+am +[+o ).
++a+ mBCF = mBDE (6)
(4), (6)m no. BCFD J 5-++a+qa.
BD = CF, BC = DF. m+0++-+a ADE, CFE ++ann+ ++++.
5anno. CF = BD = AD amn++o . CF = AD. 0aoa.
mEFC = mADE, mDAE = mBAC = mACF = mECF.
0++-n-0++ 6++a++mno, ADE CFE.
DE = EF, AE = EC. E, AC 5m +[nnaa++qa.

6.1.6 + naa aa0+ 6+ooa 0++[+a

+mm oo+ +mm+q 0ann. . 0++[+a P am n + na a aa0+ 6+o oa
amo. +0++[+a + naaaa+ 0++[+a amaa nnaa P +0++[+a
++++qa naa amaa a++nn[a.

6++o : m+0++-a ABC a++. n++a
BC, CA ++anm+q mn0+ a++
q+++0++[+a DX, EY a++ (n.a 6.45
n n++++aa ). a 6a.[anaa+ S
am+. n++a AB +m a++q+++0++[
FZ a++. FZ m+ S m aa0+ 6+oa+
n+o+a. 5+6++oo+++ +a+++-a
0+nn++ n+m0n+a.

n.a 6.45

0+n na 13: m+0++-++m n+++am a++q++0++[+a + naa aa0+
6+ooa.

qnn n: + m+0++-++m +m m n+++am a++q+++0++[+a 6+o oa naa
am+0++-++m +n ma. . a+a amnn[a. 5+ S amn am+ ++o qn+ +nn[a.

6++o : ABC amn m+0++-+++ ++++. 5+o +nma.. a+a S ++ ++- +.
SA, SB, SC ++ann 5-++aa. SA, SB, SC ++annm +a+a a++
n++++aa. ++ana+. SA = SB = SC. S + a+a++aa . SA a +a++aa 6++-[
+ a..a a++. 5aa..a. m+0++-++m +mm + +nnaa+am aa0+
6+oa++ ++-o+a . aa..a m+0++-++m +n ma. .a amn n[a . +a
SA = (SB = SC) +n ma. . +a amnn[a.


155
6++o : ABC amn m+0++-a a++. n++a BC + q 6+q+ +++ AD a++. +
BC + D o +++++.[a. n++a CA a+q 6+q++++ BE a++. + CA +
Eo ++ ++ +. [a . AD 1a BE a
++++qa naa+ H am+
qn++aa. AB m 6+ q+ + CF
a++. + AB + F o
+++++.[a (n.a 6.46n n++++aa).
CF m+ H m aa0+ 6+o a+
n+o+a. 6+ q++ 0++[+a AD,
BE, CF amnm m+0++-++m
6+ 0++[+a amnn[a .

n.a 6.46

5+6++oo+++ +a++-. 0+nn++ n+o+a.

0+n na 14: + m+0++-++m 6+0++[+a + naa aa0+ 6+o+mnm.

qnn n: + m+0++-++m 6+ 0++[+a ++++qa naa++m+. am+0++-++m
6+ 0++. [ a+a amnn[a. 5+ H amn am+ ++o qn++nn[a.


n.a 6.47
6++o : m+0++-a ABC a++. m+ 0++-+ +o
0++-a A, 0++-a B ++annm +a6a.o+a
a++. 5a+a ++++ qa naa+ I am+
qn++aa. C m +a6a. o a++. 5+ I m
aa0+ 6+oa+ n+o+a (n.a 6.47n
n++++aa). 5+6++oo+++ +a+++-a 0+nn++
n+o+a.

0+n na 15: + m+0++-++m. +mm 0++-+am +a 6a. o+a + na a aa0+
6+ooa.

qnn n: + m+0++-++o +mm 0++- +am +a6a.o+a ++++qa naa++m+
am+0++-++m a a. . a+a amnn[a. 5+ I amn am+++o qn++n n[a.

6++o : I 5o+++ m+0++-a ABC m
n++++q 6+q+++ 0++[+a a++.
ann a++ n++++aa. a +a+aa
6++-.ma++ 5+nn+m+ ++-o+a. I +
a+a++aa. +aaa+m 6+ q+++ 0++.om
+a++ +a++aa 6++-[ + a..a
a++aa (n.a 6.48n n++++aa). 5aa..a
m+0++-++m +mm n+++a1a 6++.[+
6+oa++ ++-o+a. 5+m m+0++-++m

n.a 6.48
156
a a. .a amna++0n+a. 5aa..++m + aa m+0++-a ABC 5m
a a. . +a amnn[a.

6++o : m+0++-a ABC a++. n+++a BC,
CA, AB ++annm +[nnaa+a mn0+ D,
E, F am+ qn++aa. AD +1a BE +1a
5-++aa. 5a 6a.o+ 6++aa naa+
G am+ qn++aa. CF + a++. + G m
aa0+ 6+oa+ n+ (n.a 6.49n n++++aa).
0++[+a AD, BE, CF ++a m+0++-a
ABC+m +[+ 0++[+a amnn[a. AG, GD, BG,

n.a 6.49
GE, CG, GF ++annm +a+a a++ n+J++aa. ++ana+.
.
1
2
= = =
GF
CG
GE
BG
GD
AG

5+6++oo+++ +a+++-a 0+nn++ n+o+a.

0+n na 16: + m+0++-++m +[+0++[+a + naa aa0+ 6+ooa. 5nnaa
a6a++ +[+0++. om1a 2:1 amn a++++o n++qa.

qnn n: + m+0++-++m +[+0++[+a ++++qa naa++m+ am+0++-++m
+[+ 0++. [ a+a amnn[a. 5+ G am n am+++o qn++nn[a.

6++o : AB amn 0++. [++-. a++. AB +q
5-+++ l amn 0++[ a++aa (n.a 6.50n
n++++aa). l m a+ na a+a C, D ++an n
AB = CD am 5++qa+m qn++aa. 5+o+++
ABCD J 5-++a am n+o+a. l +q+
6+q++ AL a++. AL a++ n++++aa.

n.a 6.50
5-++a ABCD m n+nnaa = onn++a ++a = AB AL.
0am 5+ naa+a P, Q ++ann PQ = AB am 5++qa+m l m a+ qn++aa.
ABPQ J 5-++a am n+o+a.
ABPQ m n+n naa = onn++a ++a = AB AL.

5+6++oo+++ +a+++-a 0+nn++ n+o+a.

0+n na 17: 0+ o+ma+a. 5+ 5-0++[++qa.+o a1a 5-+++a
+an+nn.+a.
157
6++o : n.a 6.51 n n+J++aa. AB amn
0++.[++-. a++. AB + q 5-+++ l amn
0++.om a++aa. l m a+ naa C ++ qn++.
l amn 0++.[+ q A +o+++ AL am n
6+q++0++[ a++. AL m +a+ + a+ +
n++++aa. ++ana+. ABC amn m+0++-++m
n+nnaa =
2
1
onn++a ++a = .
2
1
AL AB

n.a 6.51
l m a+ an6n++ naa P ++ qn++aa.
m+0++-a ABP 5m n+nnaa = AL AB
2
1
am+++-+0n+a. m+0++-++m ++
C, l m a+ aq a++++++oa m+0++-+am n+nnaa+a +a6am n+0n+a.

5+6++oo+++ +a+++-a 0+nn++ n+o+a.

0+n na 18: 0+ o+m a+a. 5+ 5-0++[++qa 5.+o a1a
m+0++-+a +an+nn.+a.

n+n + 6.1

nma+a +nm+a ++++, +an+ am+ +naa.
1. 5+ 5-0++[+a + qm+q6a.o 6a.om+o. mma.. 0++-+a +aa.
2. 5+ 5-0++[+a + qm+q6a.o 6a.om+o. ++ 0++-+a +aa.
3. 5+ 5-0++[+a + qm+q6a.o 6a.om+o. qm+q6a.o+m 0+ nna
a++ .0++-+a +aa.

6.2 +++ + +++++ +n+ + 0a- o+ 0+n n +a

5+a+ ++a +o 6++o+a+ 6+++ n+J+ +. +o onn.+
6++a++a1a. 0+nn+a1a ++ n+J+0++a. 5n6n+m+. 0++-+a .
m+0++-+a ++annn nnn+ +o 0+nn++q ++++ +++++. ++a+.
a+++ mn+o (Method of Logical Reasoning) +n-+a+ ++ mnn[0a+a.

0+n na 19: + +++ an6n++ 0++.om a+ +n qa+m+o. +m+o ann[+ +nn[a
[++[+ + 0++-+am aa+am +[+o 180 +q+ +aa.
++a: +++ PQ , XY am n 0++.om a+ a++aa+.

n.a 6.52
+n++: mQPX + mYPQ = 180.
ann: XY +q 6+ q++++ PE a++.
+n-a : mQPX = mQPE + mEPX
= mQPE + 90 (1)
mYPQ = mYPE mQPE
= 90 mQPE (2)
158

(1) + (2) mQPX + mYPQ = (mQPE + 90) + (90 m QPE) = 180.
am0a 0+n na +n+ +nn..+.

0+n na 20: 5+ 0++[+a mn6++mm 6a.o+6++- .+o. q+6+++ 0++-+a +a
aaaaa++qa.
++a: 0++[+a AB, CD naa O ao 6a.o+6++a+mnm (n.a 6.53 n n++++aa).
+n++: mAOC = mBOD, mBOC = mAOD.
+n-a : +++ OB m+ 0++[ CD +m a+ +n+m n+.
mBOD + mBOC = 180. (1)

n.a 6.53
+++ OC 0++[ AB +m a+ +n+mn+.
mBOC + mAOC = 180. (2)
(1), (2) m no
mBOD + mBOC = mBOC + mAOC
mBOD = mAOC.
+++ OA, CD +m a+ +n+m n+.
mAOC + mAOD = 180. (3)
(2), (3) m no.
mBOC + mAOC = mAOC + mAOD. mBOC = mAOD.
am0a 0+n na +n+ +nn..+.

0+n na 21: + m+0++-++o +mm 0++-++m +[+o 180 qa.
++a: ABC + m+0++-a .

n.a 6.54
+n++: A + B + C = 180.
ann: ++ A m aa0+ XY am n 0++. om.
BC +q 5-+++ a++ (n.a 6.54n n++++aa).
+n-a : XY || BC. 5n6n+m+. XY, BC ++ q
AB qm+ q6a.o.
mXAB = mABC (mma.. 0++-+a) = B. (1)
XY, BC ++ q AC qm+q6a.o.
mYAC = mACB (mma.. 0++-+a) = C. (2)
0aoa mBAC = mA. (3)
(1) + (2) + (3) mXAB + mYAC + mBAC = mB + mC + mA
(mXAB + mBAC) + mCAY = mA + mB + mC
mXAC + mCAY = mA + mB + mC
180 = mA + mB + mC.
am0a. 0+nna +n++nn..+.


n.a 6.55
0+n na 22: + m+0++-++o. +an++++q a+0+1aa 0++-+a
+aaaaaa.
++a: m+0++-a ABC 5o AB = AC.
+n++: B = C.
ann: BC m a+nnaa+ M am+ qn+ + AM
5-++ (n.a 6.55 n n++++aa).
+n-a : m+0++-a AMB, AMC ++anma.
159
(i) BM = CM (ii) AB = AC (iii) AM 6n++. am0a n-n-n 6++a+nno.
AMB AMC. ++ 0++- +a +aa. qnnn++. B = C.
am0a 0+n na +n+ +nn..+.

0+n na 23: + m+0++-++m 5+ 0++-+ao. 6n++ 0++-++nq a++o
a1a n++a +n+ 0++-++n q a++o a1a n++++a. ++
+am.++.
++a: m+0++-a ABC 5o 0++-a B m+ 0++-a C a a. 6n+++.
-+ mB > mC (n.a 6.56n n++++aa).
+n++: AC amn n++++m + aa. AB am n
n++++m +a++ a.n 6n++++qa.
++a+. AC > AB.

n.a 6.56
+n-a : AB, AC amn n+++am +a+a
a+ a-+a amn++o. +a+++-a n+a+a
a1a.
(i) AC < AB (ii) AC = AB (iii) AC > AB

n+a (i) AC < AB am+. nnq. n++a AB 5m +aa+m+ n++a AC m +a++a.n
6n++++qa. am0a. AB +q a+0+1aa 0++-a C m+ AC +q a+0+1aa
0++-a B a. aao 6n+++++ a+ 0a-[a. ++a+. mC > mB. 5+
++ao aa -a mB > mC + q m+-n+.+m++qa. am0a. a[0++a
AC < AB m+ 6a++oo.

n+a (ii) AC = AB am a1a+m+o. 5+ n+++a AB 1a AC 1a +aa+qa . m+o.
+an++++q a+0+1aa 0++-+a +aa am n0a+a. ++a+. B = C.
5+aa ++ao aa -a B > C +q m+-n+.+m++qa. am0a AC = AB
m+ 6a++oo.

am0a. a+maa n+a (iii) AC > AB amn0+ 6a+++qa.

0+n na 24: +oa..+a mm+6++mm 6+q++++ aa J 5-++a +
++++++a+qa.
++a: ABCD amn+ J 5-++a. 5+o +oa..+a AC 1a BD 1a
mm+6++mm 6+ q++++ 5++ +mnm.
+n++: ABCD + ++++++a.
ann: +oa. . +a AC, BD a+++ a 6a.[a naa+ M am+ qn++aa
(n.a 6.57n n++++aa).
+n-a : m+0++-+a AMB, BMC ++anno.

n.a 6.57
(i) AMB = BMC = 90
(ii) AM = MC
(iii) BM 6n++.
am0a. 6++a+ n-n-0++ am no AMB BMC.
am0a. + + n+++a +aa. qnnn++ AB = BC.
ABCD J 5-++a amn++o AB = CD, BC = AD.
AB = BC = CD = AD.
am0a ABCD +++ +++a+qa. 0+nna +n++nn..+.
160
a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: +a+++-a 0++-a a6a+mnm ++nn+0++-a ++-+.
(i) 30 (ii) 45 (iii) 55 (iv) 81
+ + a: ++nn+0++-+am +[+o 90 . am0a.
(i) 30 +m ++nn+0++-a = 90 30 = 60.
(ii) 45 +m ++nn+0++-a = 90 45 = 45.
(iii) 55 +m ++nn+0++-a = 90 55 = 35.
(iv) 81 +m ++nn+0++-a = 90 81 = 9.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: +a+++-a 0++-a a6a+mnm a+++nn+0++-a ++-+.
(i) 70 (ii) 45 (iii) 120 (iv) 155
+ + a: a+++nn+0++-+am +[+o 180. am0a.
(i) 70 m a+++n n+0++-a = 180 70 = 110.
(ii) 45 m a+++n n+0++-a = 180 45 = 135.
(iii) 120 m a+++n n+0++-a = 180 120 = 60.
(iv) 155 m a+++n n+0++-a = 180 155 = 25.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: nma+a a6a+mnoa aa 0++-+a+ +-[no++aa.
(i) 5+0++-+a a+++nn+0++-+a ; 5anma 6n+++. +n++n 0n+o 2
a.+++ aa+.
(ii) 5+0++-+a ++nn+0++-+a ; 5anma 6n+++. +n++ a. 20
a++++ aa+.
(iii) 5+0++-+a [++[++ 0++-+a++aa. 120 0++-a ann+++aa
aam. anma 6n+++. +n++n 0n+o 1 a.+ a. 20 qna++
aa+.
(iv) 5+0++-+a q+6+++ 0++-+a++aa. ++nn+0++-+a++aa a am.
+ + a:

n.a 6.58
(i) +n+ 0++-++ x am+. . 6n++
0++-a 2x qa. 5+ 0++-+a
a+++nn+ 0++-+a amn++o.
x + 2x = 180 -+ 3x = 180 -+ x = 60.
+n+ 0++-a = 60, 6n++ 0++-a 2 60 = 120.

(ii) +n+ 0++-a x am+. . 6n++ 0++-a x + 20

n.a 6.59
qa. 5a a+ 0++-+a ++n n+ 0++- +a++o+o.
x + (x + 20) = 90 -+ 2x = 70 -+ x = 35.
+n+ 0++-a = 35,
6n++ 0++-a = 35 + 20 = 55.


(iii) +n+ 0++-a x am+. . 6n++0++-a 3x 20

n.a 6.60
qa. 5a a+ 0++-+a 120 + ann++o.
x + (3x 20) = 120. 4x = 140 -+ x = 35.
+n+ 0++-a = 35, 6n++ 0++-a = 3 35 20
= 105 20 = 85.
161
(iv) q+6+++ 0++- +a a6a+mma x am +.
5a ++nn+0++-+a amn++o .

n.a 6.61
x + x = 90 o o+ 2x = 90 o o+ x = 45.
0++-+a a6a+mma 45 qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: n.a 6.62 o 0++[ l
3
m+.
5-0++[+a l
1
, l
2
++annnq qm+q 6a.o
qa. 0++-+a x, y ++-+.

n.a 6.62
+ + a: mma.. 0++-+a +aa. x = 130.
qm+q6a. o+m 0+ nna a++
.0++-+am +[+o 180
o
.

y + 130 = 180 oo+ y = 180 130 = 50.


n.a 6.63
a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: n.a 6.63 o. l
4
m+
5-0++[+a l
1,
l
2
, l
3
++annnq
qm+q6a. o++qa. 0++-+a x, y ++-+.
+ + a: ++ 0++-+a +aa. x = 75.
qm+q6a. o+m 0+nna a++
.0++-+am +[+o 180
o
.
y + 75 = 180 o o+ y = 180 75 = 105.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: n.a 6.64 o . 0++[ l
3
m+
5-0++[+a l
1
, l
2
++annnq
qm+q6a. o++qa. 0++-+a x, y ++-+.

n.a 6.64
+ + a: qm+q6a.o+m 0+nna a+ +
.0++-+a a+++nn+ 0++-+a.
. 4y + 92 = 180 oo+
4y = 180 92 = 88 o o+ y = 22.
++ 0++-+a +aa
x + 2y = 92 x + 44 = 92
x = 92 44 = 48.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: m+0++-++m 0++- aa+am a++a 3 : 4 : 5 amo. ann+
++-+.
+ + a: 0++-+a 3x, 4x, 5x am+ 6++-.+o. 3x + 4x + 5x = 180 o o+ 12x = 180
-+ x = 15. 0++-+a 3 15, 4 15, 5 15 o o+ 45, 60, 75 qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: n.a 6.65 o qnnn.nn. . 0++-+a

n.a 6.65
x, y ++-+.
+ + a: ABC 5o x + 65 + 90 = 180 -+ x = 25.
BDC 5o x + y + 90 = 180-+ 25 + y + 90 = 180
-+ y + 115 = 180 -+ y = 180 115 = 65.
162
a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: nma+a n.+ao x, y ++-+.
(i) (ii)

n.a 6.67

n.a 6.66








+ + a: (i) AD = BC, AB = CD. ABCD J 5-++a .
2x = 24, 3y = 60 (m ma. . 0++- +a +aa ).
x = 12, y = 20.
(ii) m+0++-+a ACD, ACB, 5an no AD = AB, CD = BC, AC m+ 6n++.
ADC ABC.
++ 0++-+a +aa. am0a x + 20 = 26, y 5 = 42 o o+
x = 26 20, y = 42 + 5 o o+ x = 6, y = 47.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: J 5++an+ + m+ 0++-+ +m + +0++-++m +a6a. o
onn++++n q a++q+++0++[ am +n.
+ + a: ABC amn+ J 5++an++ m+0++-a am+. 5q AB = AC, 0++-a A +m
+a6a. o AD am+. AD, onn++a BC +q a++q+ ++ 0++[ am +n++o
0a-[a. m+0++-+a ADB, ADC ++anma
AB = AC, mBAD = mDAC ( AD m+ A m +a6a.o). AD 6n++.
n-0++-n 6++a+nno, ABD ACD.
++ n+++a +aa.

n.a 6.68
BD = DC. ++a+. D m+ BC +m +[nnaa qa.
ADC = x am +. nm n ADB = 180 x.
m+0++-a ADC o . ADC + C + CAD = 180.
m+0++-a ADB o. ADB + B + BAD = 180.
ADC + C + CAD =ADB + B + BAD.
-+ x =180 x -+ 2 x = 180 -+ x = 90.
AD m+ BC +q+ 6+q++++ aa+.
-+ AD m+ BC +m a++q+++ 0++.+qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: ABC amn+ + m+0++-a. naa D m+ BC +m a+n na a.
DA 5-+ +n n[+n+. DA = DC amo. BAC + 6+0++-a am +n.
+ + a: DA = DC am+ ++n n. [a a+ D m+ BC m a+nnaa amn++o BD = DC.
am0a m+ 0++- +a ABD. ACD 5++an++ m+0++-+a qa.
DAB = DBA (1)
DAC = DCA (2)

163
(1) + (2) DAB + DAC = DBA + DCA

n.a 6.69
BAC = DBA + DCA
BAC = CBA + BCA (3)
m+o BAC + CBA + BCA = 180 (4)
(4) BAC + (CBA + BCA) = 180
BAC + BAC = 180 ((3) n n+mn[++)
2BAC = 180
BAC = 90.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 14: + ++n++++m ++mq 0++-+am +[+o 360 am +n.
+ + a: ABCD + ++n ++a am+.
A + B + C + D = 360 am +n+ +o
0a-[a. 5+nq. +oa..a AC a++aa.
m+0++-+a ACD, ABC ++anno+++.

n.a 6.70

DAC + D + ACD = 180 (1)
CAB + B + ACB = 180 (2)

(1) + (2) DAC + D + ACD + CAB + B + ACB = 360
(DAC + CAB) + B + (ACD + ACB)+ D = 360
A + B + C + D = 360.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 15: AB = AC amn+++
ABC J 5++an++ m+0++-a am+.
DBC = DCB am a1a+m naa
D. m+0++-a ABC 5m a0a
a++aa+. AD m+ A 5m
+a6a.o am +n.

n.a 6.71
+ + a: DBC = DCB amn++o. m+0++-a
DBC J 5++an++ m+0++-a+qa. am0a
BD = DC. m+0++-+a ADB, ADC
++anma, BD = DC, AB = AC, AD 6n++.
am0a n-n-n 6++a+nno. ADB ADC.
. ++ 0++-+a +aa.
qnnn++. BAD = CAD. AD m+ A m +a6a. o++qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 16: + m+0++-a ABC m 6+ 0++[+a AD, BE am nm AE = BD
amna+ma am. AD = BE am +n.

n.a 6.72
+ + a: m+0++-+a ADB, AEB ++anma
(i) ADB = AEB = 90
(ii) AB 6n++
(iii) BD = AE.
6+-+-n 6++a+nno ADB AEB.
++ n+++a +aa. AD = BE.

164
a[+ ++ ++. [ 17: ABCD ama 6+aa+++o BC m a+nnaa E, qa.
AE = ED am +n.

n.a 6.73
+ + a: n.a 6.73 n n++++aa.
m+0++-+a ABE, DCE ++anno
(i) ABE = DCE = 90
(ii) BE = CE (E, BC m a+nnaa)
(iii) AB = CD (ABCD + 6+aa+a )
n-0++-n 6++a+nno ABE DCE.
. ++ n+++a +aa. AE = ED.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 18: + ++++++++o. +oa..+a a6a+mma an6n+mn+
6+q++++ 5++a+ +n[a am +n.
+ + a: ABCD + +++ +++a . +oa. . +a AC, BD a++. AC 1a BD 1a
6a.[nnaa+ O am+ qn++. naa O m+ AC, BD 5m a+nnaa amaa.
AC m+ BD +q 6+q+ + () amaa +n++o 0a-[a.
++++++a J 5-++a amn++o
+oa..+a a6a+mma an6n+mn
5++a++n[a. ++a+. OA = OC, OB = OD.

n.a 6.74
5n6n+m+. m+0++-+a AOB, BOC ++an ma
(i) AB = BC (ii) OB 6n++ (iii) OA = OC
n-n-n 6++a+nno AOB BOC.
. ++ 0++-+a +aa.
AOB = BOC = x am+..
m+o. AOB + BOC = 180.
x + x = 180 2x = 180 -+ x =
2
180
= 90.
+oa..+a a6a+mma an6n+mn+ 6+q++++ 5++a+ +n[a.


a[+ ++ ++. [ 19: + +++++++ +m +oa..+a a6a+mma a 6+o+mn
+++ 0++-+a +a++n[a am +n.
+ + a: ABCD + ++++++a. AC, BD
+oa..+a. AB || CD, AC qm+q6a.o
amn++o.

n.a 6.75
BAC = ACD (mma.. 0++-+a). (1)
m+o AD = CD (ABCD +++ +++a).
ADC J 5++an++ m+0++-a.
+an+++ +n q a+0+1aa 0++-+a +aa
amn++o. ACD = DAC. (2)
(1), (2) m no BAC = DAC.
am0a AC, 0++-a A a +a++n[a.
5+n0n+m 0n. AC m+ C +1a . BD m+ B an ma D ++ann1a
+a++n[a am +n++o+a.



165
a[+ ++ ++. [ 20: AB, CD 5-0++[+a.
AB, CD ++q 5.0+ naa O (n.a
6.76n n++++aa) APO = 45
5++qa+ma OQC = 35 5++qa+ma

n.a 6.76
a+ +a a+ amo . POQ +-[no.
+ + a: PO a + . [+. + CD +
++++qa naa+ X am+ qn+ +.
QO a +.[+. + AB ++ ++ qa
naa+ Y am+ qn++.
AB || CD, PX qm+q6a.o amn++o. OXQ = OPY = 45 (mma.. 0++-+a).
m+0++-a OXQ o. 6aa+0++-a POQ m+ +m a6a++ 0++-+a+++
OXQ an ma OQX ++annm +[+o+ q +aa.
. POQ = OXQ + OQX = 45 + 35 = 80.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 21: ABC 5o . B 5m
+a6a.o++m+ AC + naa D 5o
+++++mn+. ABC = 80, BDC = 95 amo .
A, C ++-+.

n.a 6.77
+ + a: n.a 6.77 n n++++aa. BDC 5o.
40 + 95 + C = 180 C = 180 135 = 45.
ABC 5o . A + B +C = 180.
A + 80 + 45 = 180 A =180 125 = 55.


a[+ ++ ++. [ 22: ABCD + ++a+a . 5+o
AB 1a CD 1a 5-0++[+a. AD = BC
amo. ADC = BCD am +n.

n.a 6.78
+ + a: n.a 6.78 n n++++aa. AD +q 5-+++ BE
a++. 5n6n+m+ ABED J 5-++a am n++o.
BE = AD. m+o AD = BC. BC = BE.
am0a m+0++-a BEC J 5++an++ m+0++-a.
BCE = BEC. (1)
m+o AD || BE, AD, BE 5ann+q DEC + qm+q6a.o.
ADC = BEC (+ + 0++- +a ). (2)
am0a (1), (2) m no. BCE = ADC o o+ BCD = ADC.


n+n + 6.2

1. nma+a +nm+ao aa ++. aa +am am am++.
(i) + ++J. + 0++.om a+ aa++o a1a [++aa 0++-+am
+[+o 180 qa.
(ii) 5+ 0++[+a 6a.o+6++- .+o. q+6+++ 0++-+a +aa.
(iii) + m+0++-a 5+ a+0++-+an 6nnn+qa.
166
(iv) + ++n++++m 0++-+am +[+o 180 qa.
(v) ABC PQR amo . A = Q.
(vi) DEF XYZ amo. DE = XY.
(vii) J 5-++++o. +oa..+a a6a+mma ann+ +a++n[a.

2. +a++-. a6a+mnm ++nn+0++-a ++-+.
(i) 20 (ii) 65 (iii) 70 (iv) 78

3. +a++-. a6a+mnm a+++nn+0++-a ++-+.
(i) 50 (ii) 130 (iii) 80 (iv) 152.

4. nma+a a6a+mnoa 0++- +a+ ++-+.
(i) 0++-+a ++nn+0++-+a. +n+ 0++-a. 6n++ 0++-++a. 40
qna+qa.
(ii) 0++-+a ++nn+0++-+a. 6n++ 0++-a. +n+ 0++-++n0n+o 4
a. q.
(iii) 0++-+a a+++nn+0++-+a. 6n++ 0++-a. +n++a. 58 ++a.
(iv) 0++-+a a+++nn+0++-+a. 6n++ 0++-a. +n+ 0++-++m 3
a. +a. 20 qna+m++qa.
(v) 5+ [+ +aa 0++-+a 140 0++-+ +m a++mnm. +n+ 0++-a
6n++ 0++-++a. 28 qna+qa.
(vi) 0++-+a q+6+++ 0++-+a++aa . a+++nn+0++-+a++aa
5+++mnm.

5. nma+a n.+ao x, y ++-+.
(i) (ii)

n.a 6.79

n.a 6.80









n.a 6.82
(iii) (iv)

n.a 6.81






167
6. nma+a n.+a a 6a+mnoa x, y ++-+.

(i) (ii)

n.a 6.84

n.a 6.83










(iii)
n.a 6.85










a.+a

n+n + 6.1

1. +am 2. ++ 3. +am

n+n + 6.2

1. (i) ++ (ii) ++ (iii) +am (iv) +am
(v) +am (vi) +am (vii) ++

2. (i) 70 (ii) 25 (iii) 20 (iv) 12

3. (i) 130 (ii) 50 (iii) 100 (iv) 28

4. (i) 25, 65 (ii) 18 (iii) 61 , 119 (iv) 50, 130
(v) 56, 84 (vi) 90, 90

5. (i) x = 130, y = 50 (ii) x = 80, y = 70
(iii) x = 20, y = 30 (iv) x = 50, y = 130

6. (i) x = 19, y = 8 (ii) x = 48, y = 12 (iii) x = 6, y = 3.
168
7. nqmn aoa+o

+ 0+J+0++.oo a++ a6a++ naa1a +++++ + 6a+6+--.m
6n++++nn.[aa+ amn+ m+o +++++++o +-0.+a. 5++ +++++++o
+ +a++o a++aa + naa++m+ aaa+m 6a+6+-+a+o +.o+
++..nn.o+a amn+ +++0a+a. 6+0m 6.a++J.a am+n n+a 6nn n n6+c +
++.[ +-+ aoo+J, m+mm+o++ aoa+o nq++n+. 5+n+-+ mn+
(a-+a anma ++m q onn.+ 6++o+a n+mn[++a mn) nm+nn[++m+J.
am0a++m. 5+n+-+ mn+n n+mn[++ aoa+o nq++n1a n+.nnq+
5+n+-+ aoa+o oo+ nqmn aoa+o am+ +nnn[+mn+. 5++
nqmn aoa+o 6+0m 6.a++J.a na+ +++o , aJ nqmn aoa+om
+++ amnn[+n+J.

7.1 +++ c++m + + +t+mn

+ +a++o a++nn.[aa +o +a+am 5+on+an nnn +n+
aa+m0n+a. + +a++o a++ na a+am 6++qn0n ++ +a++o a++
+ aoaa qa. am0a. aoa+om onn.+ 6++a+ + naa qa. +
+a++o a++a a a6a++ naa0++[a + 0++o 6a+6+-+a 5-nn+
nnn 5n6n+m+ ++a ++-0n+a.

+ ++am +a++m, 0+a++m +aa++ a[+ ++6++-[, ++ +a++o
mm+6++mm 6+ q++++ a++ 5+ +o++m 0+J+0++[+a a++.
n.a 7.1 o ++. o1aa+ 0n+o aa++a++. + 0+++0++om +.+0++.++aa
an6n++ 0+J+0++om 6+q+ ++ 0++.++aa a+0a+a. 5++ +0n++oa n.a 7.2 o
++.o1aa+ 0n+o a a++ a++oa a++nn.o+a. 5aa+-[ 0++[+a



n.a 7.2
n.a 7.1










6a.o+ 6++aa naa, O amn 6n++.nn.[, +n naa am a++nn[+n+.
5+-[ 6+q+ ++ 0++[+a +o++m 0++[+a++ 5+nn++o O am+n 5+ +n
naa1a +o++m+. 5n6n+m+ 5aa+ 0++[++qa O ama naa, a-
0(n+++a) ++ qnnn++++ 6++-[, 5aa+ 0+++0++[+a1a o+[0a+a. 0+
169
o+m 5+-[ 0++[++qa n+mn[++0a+a . 5n 6n+m+ 5+ 6+ q+ ++
0++[+a , 5+ 6+ q++ a- 0++[+a++ a+m+m nm. +.+0++.oo O am
ao+n++++o a++ a-+a a+ a-+a. q+++0++.oo O am 0ao
n++++o a++ a-+a a+ a-+a. 50+0n+mm +.+0++. oo O am
5.+n++ a-+a , q+++ 0++.oo O am +ann++++o a++ a-+a qn
a-+a. a-+am ama++ n.a 7.1 o 0++[+am mm+o a n+ qn+a
5.nn.[ ++..nn.[aa+. +.+++ a- 0++.om, x-++ amma q++++
a- 0++.om, y-++ amma ++a a++0n+a. 5a a+-[ 0++[+a +a++m,
++nnq++a am a++nn[a ++mq +an+++a++n n+++mnm. 5a n.a 7.1 o
++.o1aa+ 0n+o I (m+o+a) ++nnq+, II (5+-.+a) ++nnq+, III (+mn+a ) ++n nq+
anma IV (++m++a) ++nnq+ amn6n++.n n.[aam. O am+n naa++m+ ++mq
++nnq+++qa 6n++a+m+. +a++o P am+n a0+a + naa+ a[+++
6++a0a+a. 5nnaa P m+ + ++nnq++o a++aa+. P aa+++ y-+++q
5-+++ + 0+++0++[ a++. 5+0++[ x-++ L am +n na a+o ++ ++ +. [a .
5aa+0n, P aa+++ x-+++q 5-+++ + 0+++0++[ a++. 5+0++[ y-++
M am+n naa+o 6a...[a. x-+ + a- 0++. oo L amn naa++ qn+qa
6a+ 6+- a +aa , y-++ a- 0++.oo M amn naa++ qn+qa 6a+6+- b
+aa 5+++.[a. P m+ x-++o a+++o , b = 0 am+ ++-+0n+a. P m+
y-++o a+++o , a = 0 am+ ++-+0n+a . P m+ x-++0o+ oo+ y-++0o+
5oo+ao m+o ++nnq++ qa a+++o , a > 0 an ma b > 0 qa. a < 0 anma b > 0
+ 5++ ++o P ++m+ 5+-.+a ( II ) ++nnq++qa a1a. P ++m+ +m n+a
( III ) ++nnq++ qa a+++o , a < 0 anma b < 0. a > 0 an ma b < 0 + 5+nnm ,
P ++m+ ++m++a ( IV ) ++nnq++qa a1a. P ++m+ +nnaa O +
5+nnm , a = 0 an ma b = 0 qa. a amn a-
P aa naa+m x-++ +t+a oo+
x-6++oa (abscissa) amma, b aa a- P
aa na a+m y-+ + +t+a o o+
y-6++oa (ordinate) amma a++nn[a
(n.a 7.3 n n++++aa). ++a a, b aa
a-+a ++nnaa++o ( , ) 5aa+m
n+++nn.. nn .nn+qa , (a, b) amm
am+0a+a. + a, b am+n a++ 0++o
am an0n+a. ++nnaa+m
5.+n++maa a- , P naa+m x-++
+t++ +1a , ++nnaa+m ao+ n++maa

n.a 7.3
a- , P naa+m y-+ + +t++ +1a qnn n++o . (a, b) m+ + a++ 0++o am
a++nn[+n+. P naa++ qn+qa a++ 0++o (a, b) am n+ m 0n mm++m.
++a+ P aa + naa+ q 0am a++ a++ 0++o1a 5++ +++. P aa na a
P(a, b) amaa oo+ ++++a++ (a, b) amaa qn++nn[a. ++a P ++m+ (a, b)
170
+++t++a+ 6++-[aa+ am+ +m0a+a. 5aa+m +a++o aa a6a++
naa1a, 6a+6+-+a+o m + a++ 0++o++o qnnn.nn[a. 6+0m
6.a++J.aam +J++ 6++o a++qa 6n++.[ 5++aa+m+ +++c++m +aa
am m a+ +n n[+n+. 0aoa + 6+a a+ + + +aa oo+ xy +aa amma
a++nn[a. 5aa+m a-a++ 0++o+a+o +a++o a++ naa+a+
qn+ qa mn +++ c++m mn oo+ 6+a a+ mn oo+ xy + + +t+ mn
am m a+ +n n[+n+. 5+- [ + ++a 6+a a+ + ++a o o+ 6++oa
+++a amnn[+mnm.

++a na+,
(i) +n naa O am ++ +t++a (0, 0).
(ii) x-++m a+aa a++ naa+qa y-+++t+a 0.
(iii) y-++m a+aa a++ naa+qa x-+++t+a 0.
(iv) 6a+6+-+a+o+m a++ 0++o mm 6++[++nn..+o +nq +++c++m
+a++o +m++ + naa+m+o 5.a ++ -+++o+a . +a++o +m ++++m
5.+ + . amn naa++o qn+ +o+a.
(v) + naa++m+ m+o ++nnq++ qa
a+++o 5++ + +t++a a+,
5+-.+a ++nnq++ qa a+++o , x-+ +
+t+a qn anma y-+ + +t+a a+.
+mn+a ++nnq++ qa a+++o , 5+ + +
+t++a qn. ++m++a ++nnq++ qa
a+++o , x-++ +t+a a+ an ma
y-++ +t+a qn qa. + naa+m
++ +t++am 5+n+-++ qn+a n.a
7.4 o ++..nn.[aam.

n.a 7.4
(vi) x-+++q 5-++++ 6+ooa 0++.oo a++ aoo+n naa+a +aa+m
y-++ +t++++ 6++-o++qa (n.a 7.5 n n++++aa).



n.a 7.5

n.a 7.6









(vii) y-+++q 5-++++ 6+ooa 0++. oo a+ + aoo+n naa+a +aa+m,
x-++ +t++++ 6++-o++qa (n.a 7.6 n n+J++aa ).

171
A(x
1
,

y
1
) an ma B(x
2
, y
2
) amna +++c++m +a++o a++ a0+a 5+ naa+a
am+. 5an nn q 5.0+1aa +.a. .+ 6++oa, x
2
> x
1

amo


x
2
x
1
amaa,
x
1
> x
2
amo x
1
x
2
amaa, x
2
= x
1
amo 0 amaa a++m+ +n n[+n+. 5+n
0n+o0a, A, B 5annn +.0+++m 6+q+ ++ 6++oa+m+ y
2
> y
1

amo. y
2
y
1

amaa , y
1
> y
2

amo. y
1
y
2

amaa, y
2
= y
1

amo. 0 amaa a++m++nn[+mn+.
a[+ ++++. .++, n.a 7.7 o , A, B 5an nn q
5.0+1aa +.a. .+ 6++oa BN a ,
6+q+++ 6++oa AN a qn+ +m nm.
++a na+,
BN = LM=OL + OM = (x
1
) + (x
2
) = x
2
x
1
,
AN = AL + LN = y
1
+ MB = y
1
+ (y
2
) = y
1
y
2
.
5aa+0n, n.a 7.8 o A(x
1
, y
1
) an ma
B(x
2
, y
2
) am+ 6++-.+o A, B 5an nn q
5.0+1aa +.a. .+ 6++oa,
6+q+++ 6++oa ++m mn0+,

n.a 7.7

n.a 7.8
BN = ML = OM OL = x
2
(x
1
)
= x
1
x
2
,
AN = LN AL = BM (y
1
) = (y
2
) + y
1

= y
1
y
2
.
5+6++oa+a mn0+ | x
1
x
2
| amma
| y
1
y
2
| amma qnn n[+m0n+a .


a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: A (3, 0), B (0, 2 ), C (4, 4), D (3, 3), E (2.5, 1), F (1, 3), G (1, 0),
H (0, 4) ++ na a+a + a+n.+ ++ao qn++aa. 0aoa a6a++ naa1a
a++ ++nnq++o a+mn+ amn+1a qnnn.aa.
+ + a: n.a 7.9 5o + +a+ +o naa+a

n.a 7.9
qn++nn.[aam. A am+n naa x-++m
a+n nq++oa , B am+n naa y-++m
a+n nq++oa , C am+n na a ++m++a
++nnq++aa , D am+n na a m+o
++nnq++aa , E am+n na a 5+-.+a
++nnq++aa , F am+n na a +mn+a
++nnq++aa , G am+n naa x-++m
qnnn++++oa, H am+n naa y-++m
qnnn++++oa mn0+ a++aam.


a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: (3, 4), (9, 11) am+n 5+ naa++q 5.0+ aa
+.+6++oa, 6+q+++ 6++oa ++ann+ +-[no.
+ + a: (3, 4) , (9, 11) ++ 5+ naa++q 5.0+ aa +.+6++oa,
6+q+++ 6++oa mn0+ (3) (9) = 9 3 = 6 an ma (11) (4) = 15 qa .




172
n+n + 7.1

1. +0a 6++[++nn.[aa naa+a a+n.+++ao qn+ + a a+6+++
++nnq++ao a+mnm am n++ qnnn.aa.
(i) (2, 3) (ii) (7, 6) (iii) (2, 3) (iv) (6, 2)
(v) (9, 0) (vi) (5, 0) (vii) (0,11) (viii) (3, 2)

2. ++++ +an+ amn n+o a+ +aa.
(i) (9, 1), 5+-.+a ++nnq++a a1a.
(ii) (1, 0), y-++m 0ao a1a.
(iii) (3,1), y-++m ao+n++a a1a.
(iv) (1, 1), x-++m +0a a1a.
(v) (0, 0) amn+ x, y ++++a 6a.o+ 6++aa naa.
(vi) ( , 2 2 ), ++nnq+ II o a1a.
(vii) (, 3 ), ++nnq+ III o a1a .
(viii) ( 2 3 , 1), ++n nq+ IV o a1a.
(ix) (0, 3), x-++m 5.+n++a a1a.
(x) (5, 0), x-++m +0a a1a.
(xi) x-+++q 5-+++ aa 0++.om 0ao a0+a 5+naa+a , +aa+m
x-+++t++a 6++-o++qa.
(xii) (a, b), (c, d) ++a y-+++ q 5-++m 0++.om 0ao
a0+a 5+ naa+a amo , a = c.

3. 6++[+ +n n. [a a 5+ na a++q 5.0+ aa +.+6++oa, 6+q+ ++
6++oa ++ann+ ++-+.
(i) (1, 4) anma (3, 5). (ii) (2, 3) anma (4, 6).
(iii) (3, 5) an ma (7,2). (iv) (2, 1) an ma (4, 3).
7.2 0++. om +++ a

m+oo , x-+ ++ 0++ o o+ y-+++0++ 5-+++ a+++ LL am n
0+++0++. om +++am a++mn0n+a. 5+n+++ LL 0+++0++.om a+a+ +
P(x, y) am +n na a+++ + am+m +m+++6++a0a+a. 5aam+m P mam
+0++.om a+ [+mn+m am m +m++n n+J++aa. n.a 7.10 oo+ n.a 7.11
++anno qnnn.[aa+ 0n+o a0+a 5+ +++ao am 6+o oo+a
amn+ ++a n+0n+a.

n.a 7.11






P ++m+ + qnnn.. +++m aa+++ ++++mn0n++, P +m x-++++t+a
+++nn+ ++a ++-o+a (n.+a 7.12 an ma 7.13 n n+J++aa ). 5++ qnn n. .

n.a 7.10
173
++++ 0++.om a++ ++ am+ +m+0n+a. an6n++ ++++m+ 0++. om
qn+ ++ amnn[a. P ++m+ qn++++o +++a6n+m+ +.+ x-+ +
+t+a qn+mn+.


n.a 7.12

n.a 7.13








P m+ P
1
(x
1
, y
1
) amn +o+o+++ P
2
(x
2
, y
2
) amn +o+q a+++++o
+++.[a. P +m x-+ + +t+a+m+ x
1

a+nno+++ x
2
am+n a+nnnqa , y-++
+t+a+m+ y
1
a+nno+++ y
2
am+n a+nnnqa, a+ma++ ++- +0n+a . x-+ +
6++oao ann[a a+nna x
2
x
1
.

5+, +++a naa P +m . .a (run) amn n[a .
50+ 0n+m m y-++ 6++oao ann[a a+nna (a+m+o) y
2
y
1
. 5+ +++a
naa+m an na oo+ am+ + (rise) amnn[a. ++a n.+a 7.12, 7.13 ++anno
. .a x
2
x
1
a++++ 5+nn++ ++-+0n+a. n.a 7.12 o P m+ 0++.oo
0ao0++++ ++++mn+. ++a+, + 0++.oo 0ao0++++ P
1
o+++ P
2
an q
am++ .+n+. 0aoa P
2
a+m+ P
1
a. ++++ 5.++o a a+. 5 q
anna y
2
y
1
a+++qa. am0a. =
.a .
na an
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

am+n a++a a+ a- qa.

n.a 7.13 o , naa P m+ 0++.oo +a0++++ ++++mn+. ++a+ +, P
1
o+++
P
2
anq aa+mn+. naa P
2
m+ P
1
a.+++a++ (qn++) 5.++o aa+.
5q anna y
2
y
1
qn++qa. am0a. =
.a .
na an
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

, + qn a- qa .
am0a =
.a .
na an
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

am +n a++a+m+ ++nn.. 0+J+0++[ am+mn 0+J+0++.+

oo+ aa+mn 0+J+0++.+ amn+ +J-+++n+. am0a 5++ a++++
+0++.om +++ a am+m0n+a.

n.a 7.14

[+ +no+++, x-+++ q 5-++++
6+ooa 0++.om +++am+ +-.n0a+a.
n.a; 7.14 o , 0++[ LL m+ x-+++q
5-+++ aa+. 0++.om 0ao a++
aoo+n naa+a 0+ y-+ + +t++ ++
6++- [a am am ma ++- +0n+a . P
1
(x
1
, y
1
),
P
2
(x
2
,y
2
) ++a 5-+0++. oo a+ +
5+ naa+a am+. 5q, y
1
= y
2
. am0a
anna y
2
y
1
= 0.
174
+0a. +++a = =
.a .
na an
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

= 0.

n.a 7.15
[+ +no+++, y-+ ++ q 5-++++
6+ooa 0++.om +++am+ ++-0n+a.
P
1
(x
1
, y
1
), P
2
(x
2
, y
2
) ++a 5-+
0++.oo a++ 5+ naa+a am+
(n.a 7.15 n n+J++aa ). 5 q, x
1
= x
2
.
am0a, . .a = x
2
x
1
= 0. P
1
, P
2
6aa 0am
naa+a. am0a, y
1
y
2
. +0a
+++ a = =
.a .
na an

1 2
1 2
x x
y y

=
0
1 2
y y
.
5+ a++m++nn.aoo.
y-+++q 5-++++ 6+ooa
0++.om +++a a++m++nn.+++.

ama na 0++. om +++ a > 0.
ama 0++.om +++a < 0.
x-+++q 5-++++ 6+ooa 0++.om +++a 0.
y-+++q 5-++++ 6+ooa 0++.om +++a a++m+ +n n.+++.

5q ++a +am++ 0a-o++,
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

=
( )
( )
2 1
2 1
x x
y y


=
2 1
2 1
x x
y y

. 5a a+m (x
1
, y
1
),
(x
2
, y
2
) ++ 5+ na a+a+ 0+++ qa 0++.om +++ a
=
.a .
na an
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

=
2 1
2 1
x x
y y

.
5+o+++, +++a+m+ 0++.om +++n
6n++++ aa+oo am n+ ++a
n+0n+a. 0aoa 0++. om +++ a
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

am+n a++a P
1
, P
2
am+n
naa+am qnnn. . 6+++6+[++o+
+++ + ++ o o. 5+ + - a++
6++++ 6++aa, +0+J+0++. om a +
0am 5+ na a+a P
3
(x
3
, y
3
) anma
P
4
(x
4
, y
4
) a[+ ++ 6++a 0a+a (n.a 7.16
n n+J++aa ). P
3
o+++ P
4
+ q+ 6+o oa
0++.om +++a =
3 4
3 4
x x
y y

.

n.a 7.16
P
1
o+++ P
2
+ q+ 6+o oa 0++. om
+++ a =
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

.


175
m+o P
1
AP
2
, P
3
BP
4
amna ao6a+++ m+0++-+a.

B P
A P
3
1
=
4
2
BP
AP
oo+
A P
AP
1
2
=
B P
BP
3
4
.
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

=
3 4
3 4
x x
y y

.
++a+, +++a+m+ 0++.om 0aoa++ 5+ naa+am 5.+++ ++++ ++o o.

qnn n: 6++[++nn.[aa (x
1
, y
1
) anma (x
2
, y
2
) ++ 5+ naa+am aa0+ 0+ +
0+++0++[++m a++ mo1a. +0+J+0++.om +++a = =
.a .
na an

1 2
1 2
x x
y y

.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: (5, 6) anma (15, 9) ++ naa+am aa0+ 6+ooa 0++. om +++a
++-+. 0aoa +0++[ 0a0onna 6nm+n++ oo+ +an+ +a 6++a+n++ am+
+m+.
+ + a: (5,6) (x
1
, y
1
) amma. (15, 9) (x
2
, y
2
) amma 6++a+. 0++. om +++a
=
.a .
na an

1 2
1 2
x x
y y

n.a 7.17
=
10
3
5 15
6 9
=

, + a+ a-.

am0a. 0++.+m+ (n.a 7.17 n n+J++aa)
0ao anna 6nnmaa+.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: (16, 29), (40, 6) am+n naa+am aa0+ 6+ooa 0++. om +++a
++-+. 0++.+m+ 0ao anna 6nm+n++ oo+ +a 5n++a 6++a+n++ am+
+m+.
+ + a:

n.a 7.18
0++.om +++a = =
.a .
na an
) 16 ( 40
29 6



=
8
5
56
35
=

+ qn a- .
am0a 0++.+m+ (n.a 7.18 n n+J+ +aa )
+a 5n++a 6nnma a+.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: +0a 6++[++nn.. naa+a+ 0+++qa 0++.om +++a+an nnn
aa+q+.
(i) (6, 4) an ma (7, 4) (ii) (2, 8) an ma (2, 7)
+ + a:
(i) 0++.om +++a =
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

= , 0
13
0
6 7
4 4
=

=



0++.+m+ x-+++ q 5-++qa.
(ii) 0++.om +++a =
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

=
0
1
2 2
8 7
=
+

= a++m++nn.+++.
0++.+m+ x-+++q+ 6+q++++ aa+.
176
a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: +++ a
5
3
6++-[. (2, 3) amn naa aa++++ 6+ooa 0++. om
an6n++ naa++ ++-+.

+ + a: m+oo. +++a =
5
3
am am+0a+a (++a+, nq++ a+++++
6++a0a+a ). (2, 3) am n na a+ q n.a 7.19 o a a+ 0n+o P amn6n++[.
P +o+++ 5 oq+a x-++nq 5-+++ ao+ n++a++ ++J++
(a6mmo ..a = 5) Q (2 + 5, 3) ++a+,
Q (3, 3) am n na a++ 6+m n.+.
Q ao++ + 3 oq y-++nq 5-+++
+an+ (a6mmo. 5q anna = 3)
R(3, 3 + (3)) ++a+ R (3, 0) amn
naa++ 6+mn.+. R (3, 0) am n+
0++.om 0aoa++ an6n++ naa.
5+m+ ++n++++. P, R + 0++ + qa

n.a 7.19
0++.om +++a =
) 2 ( 3
3 0

=
5
3
.

a+n maa. (2, 3) (x
1
, y
1
) am+. 0++.oo an6n++ naa+ (x
2
, y
2
) am+. am0a,
+++a =
1 2
1 2
x x
y y

=
2
3
2
2
+

x
y
. m+o , +++a =
5
3
am+ ++nn.[aa+.

2
3
2
2
+

x
y
=
5
3
oo+ 3x
2
6 = 5y
2
15 oo+ 3x
2
+ 5y
2
= 9. 5+o y
2
n q a+ n n
6++[++ x
2
+.+qa. a[+++++..++, y
2
= 0 amo , 3x
2
+ 5 0 = 9 o o+
3x
2
= 9 oo+ x
2
= 3. am0a, (3, 0) m+ 0++.om a+ an6n++ naa++qa.


7.2.1 0+++0++.om +amn+[

P(x,y) amn+ 6++[++nn. . 0++. oo a1a a+m+m n naa+++
5+++.[a. a+n+a x, y 5ann+ 0+++qa 5+n+-++ +amn+[ +0++.om
+amn+[ qa. 0++.oo a++ a6a++ naa+m x-+++t+a , y-+++t+a
++a 0++.om +amn+.. +na 6++1a. 5++ (x, y) am n a++ 0++o+a
+++c++m +a++o qn++ 0+J+0++.om a+n.a +.+ qa. 5m. 0++.om
+amn+[, 0++[ am0n a++nn[a. 0++. om a+n.a. x-++ A am +n 0+ +
naa+oa , y-+ + B am+n 0+ + naa+oa +++++n+. A m+ x-+ +o
aa++o +m y-++ +t+a 0 qa. a amn+ A m x-+++t+a amo , (a, 0)
amn+ 0++.om +am n+.. +na 6++ 1a. x +q a 1a, y +q 0 1a 0++. om
+amn+.oo n+++., a +m a+n n+ ++-o+a . a +m a+nn, 0++.om x
6a.[++-[ amnn[a. ++a+, + 0++.om x 6a.[++-.+m+, 0++.+m+ x-
++ ++ ++qa na a+m x-+++t+a qa. 50+ 0n+mm, B ++m+ y-++o
5+nn++o +m x-+ + +t+a 0 qa. am0a, b amn+ B +m y-+++t+a amo.
(0, b) amn+ 0++.om +amn+.. +na 6++1a. am0a. x +qn n+o++ 0 a1a,
177
y +qn n+o++ b +1a 0++.om +amn+. oo n+++., b m + Ja+ ++-o+a . b m
5++ a+n n, 0++. om y 6a. [+ +- [ amnn[a. am0a. 0++.+m+ a++ naa+o
y-++ 6a.[+n0++, ++n naa+m y +++t+a , 0++. om y 6a.[+ +-[
amnn[a . +n6n+m+ +++a m amma, y 6a.[++-[ c amma 6++- . 0++.om
+amn+.. nm a+a+m ++-0n+a.

n.a 7.20

0++.om y 6a.[+ +-[ c +++
5+n n++o P
1
(0, c) amn+, 0++.+m+
y-++ 6a.[a0n++ (n.a 7.20 n
n+J++aa ) ann[a naa. P(x, y) am n+
0++.om 0am a0+a +
naa+++. [a. nmm+ 0++.om +++a
=
0

x
c y
(-+)
x
c y
.
m+o 0++. om +++ a m amm
6++[++nn.[aa+.

x
c y
= m (-+) y c = mx (-+) y = mx + c.
0aoaa +amn+.+m+ + 0++. om +amn+.om +++a-6a.[++-[ +++a+qa.

qnn n: 0++.+m+ +nnaa (0, 0) aa++++ 6+mn+o , +m y 6a.[++-[ c = 0.
am0a. 0++.om +am n+[ y = mx + 0 o o+ y = mx.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: +++ a
2
1
+aa , y-6a.[++-[ 3 +aa a a 0++.om +amn+[
++-+.
+ + a: +++a-6a.[++- [ + +++ +n n+mn[++, 0++.om +amn+[
y =
2
1
x + (3)
m =
2
1

c = 3
y = mx + c
o o+ 2y = x 6
o o+ x 2y 6 = 0.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: 3x + 4y + 5 = 0 amn 0++.om +++a, y-6a.[+ +-[ ++ann+
++-+.
+ + a: +amn+.. a+n n am+++o +.n n+, 4y = 3x 5 (-+) y = .
4
5
4
3

x
5+ ++ +am n+. ., y = mx + c .m nn[++o.
+++a m =
4
3
, y-6a.[++-[ c =
4
5
.
n+n + 7.2
1. 6++[++nn.. 5+ naa+a+ 0+J+ qa 0++.om +++a+ ++-+.

(i) (4, 1) anma (5, 2). (ii) (4, 8) anma (5, 2).
(iii) (5, 0) anma (0, 8). (iv) (0, 0) anma ( 3 , 3).
(v) (2a, 3b) an ma (a, b). (vi) (a, 0) anma (0, b).

178
2. 6++[++nn.. na a aa+++aa , ++nn. . +++a1a 6++- . 0++. om an6n++
naa++ ++-+.
(i) naa (5, 6), +++ a 1. (ii) naa (0, 4), +++ a
4
1
.
(iii) na a (2, 2), +++ a 1. (iv) na a (1, 3), +++ a 4.
(v) naa (1, 4), +++ a
3
7
.
3. +++aa , y- 6a.[++-[a mn0+ 6++[++nn.[a am. 0++. om +amn+..+
++-+.
(i) 3 an ma 7. (ii) 5 an ma 9. (iii) 2 an ma 15.
(iv) 6 an ma 11. (v)
5
3
an ma 1. (vi)
5
2
an ma
5
8
.
4. 6++[++nn.. 0++. om +++a, y- 6a.[++-[ ++-+.
(i) 3x + 2y = 4 (ii) 2x = y (iii) x y 3 = 0 (iv) 5x 4y = 8

7.3 (x
1
, y
1
) an ma (x
2
, y
2
) ++ 5+ na a++ q 5.0+1a a
6++oa

5+ naa++q 5.0+1aa 6++oa amn+ aoa+oo + onn.+
+++++a+qa. 5n0n++ +n++m 5+n+-++ 0++a++ +-.n0a+a.
P
1
(x
1
, y
1
), P
2
(x
2
, y
2
) amna +++c++m +a++o a++ 5+
naa+a++.[a. P
1
, P
2
5annnq 5.0+1aa 6++oa d(P
1
, P
2
) oo+ P
1
P
2
am+qnn0n+a.
2 1
P P amn 0++.[++-. a++. +mm a++a am+mnm.
a+ (i): 0++.[++-[
2 1
P P m+ x-+++q
5-+++ aa+ (n.a 7.21 n n+J++aa).
5 q y
1
= y
2
. P
1
L, P
2
M ++ann x-+++q
6+q++++ a++. P
1
P
2
ML + 6+aa+a+qa.
am0a P
1
P
2
= LM. ++a+, d(P
1
, P
2
) amn+ L
anma M amnmannn q 5.0+1aa
6++oa. m+o , L anma M amn naa+a
x-++m a+aam. 5nnaa+a mn0+x
1
, x
2
am+n 6a+6+-+a x-+++++ a-0++.oo
qn++mnm. +m+o LM m +aa
LM = .
2 1
x x am0a d (P
1
,

P
2
) =
2 1
x x .

n.a 7.21
a+ (ii):
2 1
P P am+n 0++.[++-[
y-+++q 5-+++ aa+ (n.a 7.22 n
n+J++aa ). 5 q x
1
= x
2
. P
1
L, P
2
M ++an n
y-+++q 6+ q++++ a++. P
1
P
2
ML +
6+aa+a+qa. am0a P
1
P
2
= LM. ++a+,

n.a 7.22
179
d(P
1
, P
2
) amn+ L an ma M amnmannn q 5.0+1aa 6++oa. m+o, L anma
M amn naa+a y-++m a+aam. 5nnaa+a mn0+ y
1
, y
2
am+n
6a+6+-+a y-+++++ a-0++.oo qn+ +mnm. +m+o. LM m +aa =
2 1
y y .
am0a d(P
1
,

P
2
) =
2 1
y y .
a+ (iii): 0++.[++-[
2 1
P P m+ x-+++qa 5-+oo; y-+++qa
5-+oo (n.a 7.23 n n+J++aa).
P
1
aa+++ x-+++ q 5-+++ +
0++[a, P
2
aa+++ y-+++q 5-+++
+ 0++[a a++. 5+0++[+a P
3
o
6a...[a. nmm+ P
3
, (x
2
, y
1
) qa.
0++.[++-[ P
1
P
3
m +aa
2 1
x x qa .
0++.[++-[ P
3
P
2
m +aa
2 1
y y .
P
1
P
3
P
2
amn+ + 6+0++-
m+0++-a amn+ ++a ++-+0n+a.
am0a n++++a 0+nn++m no,

n.a 7.23
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 3
2
3 1
2
2 1
, , , y y x x P P d P P d P P d + = + =
= (x
1
x
2
)
2
+ (y
1
y
2
)
2
= (x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
d(P
1
,

P
2
) =
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( y y x x + .
5+ 6++oa ++-a +++a qa . 5+ (x
1
, y
1
) an ma (x
2
, y
2
) ++ 6++[++nn..
5+ naa++q 5.0+1aa 6++oa d + ++a. +.+0++.o0o+ oo+
q+++0++. o0o+ a+++ 5+ naa++++m + ++a 6nnn n.[aa+. 5q ++a
+am++ 0a-o++ d(P
1
,

P
2
) = d(P
2
, P
1
).
0aoa 5++ +++a a++ 5+ naa++qa 6n++++a. P
1
anma P
2
++a 0+ +.+ 0++.oo a+++o , y
1
= y
2
qa. +++o
d(P
1
,

P
2
) =
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( y y x x + =
2
2
1 2
0 + x x =
1 2
x x .
P
1
an ma P
2
++a 0+ q+++0++.oo a+++o , x
1
= x
2
qa. +++o
d(P
1
, P
2
) =
2
2 1
2
2 1
) ( ) ( y y x x + =
2
2 1
2
0 y y + = .
2 1
y y

qnn n: +nnaa O m+ (0, 0). P (x, y) a0+a + naa amo ,
OP =
2 2
) 0 ( ) 0 ( + y x = .
2 2
y x +
5+++ 6++oa
2 2
y x + amn+ +nnaa+o+++, (x, y) am+n naa+m +
6a+ .+ amnn[a.




180
6++oa +++++n n+mn[+ +, ++a
(i) +m m na a+a 0+ 0++. ooa+m nma+ o o+ + 6+ 0++- m+ 0++-a
oo+ 5++an++ m+0++-a oo+ +an++ m+0++-++ +a++qa+
amm +++o+a.
(ii) ++mq naa+a , 5-++a, 6+aa+a , +++a o o+ ++++++a ++ann
+a++qa+ amm +++o+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: A(15, 3) an ma B (7, 1) 5annn+.0+1aa 6++oa+ ++-.
+ + a: A an ma B 5an nn+.0+1aa 6++oa d am+.
d (A, B) =
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( y y x x +
(x
1
, y
1
) (15, 3)
(x
2
, y
2
) (7, 1)
=
2 2
) 3 1 ( ) 15 7 ( + + +
=
2 2
4 22 +
= 16 484 + = 500 = 5 10 .

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: (4, 9), (2, 0) anma (4, 3) ++a 0+ 0++. ooa1a naa+a
am+++.[+.
+ + a: A, B an ma C amnm mn0+. 6++[++nn.. naa+a++ 5+++.[a.
AB =
2 2
) 9 0 ( ) 4 2 ( + + +
A (4, 9)
B (2, 0)
a+++n n.a


n.a 7.24
=
2 2
9 6 + = 81 36 +
= 117 = 13 3 13 9 = .
BC =
2 2
) 0 3 ( ) 2 4 ( +
C (4, 3)
=
2 2
3 2 + = 9 4 + = 13 .
AC =
2 2
) 9 3 ( ) 4 4 ( + + +
=
2 2
12 8 + = 144 64 + = 208 = 13 4 13 16 = .
5 q 13 4 13 13 3 = + . AB + BC = AC amn++ ++-+0n+a.
A, B an ma C 0+ 0++.ooa1a naa+a .

a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: (3, 2), (2, 5) an ma (8, 7) naa+a + 5++an++ m+0++-++
a+qa am+ ++.[+.
+ + a: 6++[++nn.. naa+a mn0+ P, Q
anma R am +. PQR + 5++an++ m+0++-a
am +n+ + +.+ 5+ n+ + +a
+a+amaaa am+++..o+a. 5n6n+m+.

n.a 7.25
d(P,Q) =
2 2
) 2 5 ( ) 3 2 ( + + = 49 1 7 1
2 2
+ = +
, 2 5 50 = =
d (Q, R) = , 5 6 180 144 36 12 6 ) 5 7 ( ) 2 8 (
2 2 2 2
= = + = + = +
d (R, P) = . 2 5 50 25 25 5 ) 5 ( ) 7 2 ( ) 8 3 (
2 2 2 2
= = + = + = + +
d (P, Q) = d (R, P) d (Q, R). PQR + 5++an++ m+0++-a (n.a 7.25 n
n+J++aa ). m+o +an++m+0++-aoo.
181
a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: (0, 3), (0,1) an ma ( ) 2 , 3 ++a + +an++ m+0++-++m
+++a am+ ++.[+.
+ + a: 6++[++nn.. naa+a mn0+ A, B an ma C
+ 5+++.[a . ABC + +an++m+0++-a am
+n++ +m aoo+n n+++a +a +aa+ma
am+ ++. .o+a. 5q

n.a 7.26
d (A, B) = , 2 4 ) 2 ( 0 ) 3 1 ( ) 0 0 (
2 2 2 2
= = + = +
d (B, C) = , 2 4 1 3 ) 1 2 ( ) 0 3 (
2 2
= = + = +
d (C, A) = . 2 4 1 3 ) 2 3 ( ) 3 0 (
2 2
= = + = +
d (A, B) = d (B, C) = d (C, A).
ABC + +an++ m+0++-a (n.a 7.26 n n+J++aa).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: P (7, 1), Q (4, 1) an ma R (4, 5) + 6+0++- m+0++-++m
+++a+ am ++++.
+ + a: PQR + 6+ 0++- m+0++-a am+++.. J + ++0++-a 90 am+ ++. .
0a-[a. 5+n q m+ 0++-++m n+++am +a+a n++++a 0+nn++ +na
6+++ 0a-[a. 50+

n.a .27
PQ = , 5 5 125 4 121 ) 1 1 ( ) 7 4 (
2 2
= = + = +
QR = , 10 100 36 64 ) 1 5 ( ) 4 4 (
2 2
= = + = + + +
PR = . 5 25 16 9 ) 1 5 ( ) 7 4 (
2 2
= = + = +
PQ
2
= 125, QR
2
= 100 anma PR
2
= 25.
QR
2
+ PR
2
= PQ
2
amn++ ++-+0n+a. am0a n++++a +++a ++n+J++nn. .+.
PQR + 6+0++- m+0++-a. R = 90.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 14: (1, 2), (2, 1), (5, 3) anma (4, 6) amn a+++o a++ naa+a
J 5-++++m a+qa am+++.[+. 5+ + 6+aa+a+? ++++.
+ + a: 6++[++nn.. naa+a mn0+ P
1
, P
2
, P
3
an ma P
4
+ 5+++.[a.
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
J 5-++a am+++.[a+n q + aamn. +.+ a++n+++am
+a+a +aa am+++.[a++qa. 50+
P
1
P
2
= 10 9 1 ) 2 1 ( ) 1 2 (
2 2
= + = + ,

n.a 7.28
P
2
P
3
= , 5 25 16 9 ) 1 3 ( ) 2 5 (
2 2
= = + = + +
P
3
P
4
= , 10 9 1 ) 3 6 ( ) 5 4 (
2 2
= + = +
P
4
P
1
= . 5 25 16 9 ) 6 2 ( ) 4 1 (
2 2
= = + = +
P
1
P
2
= P
3
P
4
= 10 an ma P
2
P
3
=

P
4
P
1
= 5.
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
amn+ J 5-++a. 5q.
P
1
P
3
= 17 1 16 ) 2 3 ( ) 1 5 (
2 2
= + = + an ma
(P
1
P
2
)
2
+ (P
2
P
3
)
2
= 10 + 25 = 35, (P
1
P
3
)
2
= 17, (P
1
P
2
)
2
+ (P
2
P
3
)
2
(P
1
P
3
)
2
.
P
1
P
2
P
3
amn+ 6+0++- m+0++-aoo. P
1
P
2
P
3
amn+ 6+0++-aoo.
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
amn+ + 6+aa+a 5oo.
182
a[+ ++ ++. [ 15: (0, 1), (2, 3), (6, 7) an ma (8, 3) amn a+++o a[+++
6++aann.. naa+a + 6+aa+++ a+qa am+ ++.[+.
+ + a: 6++[++nn.. naa+a A, B, C an ma D + 5++ +. [a; . ABCD + 6+aa+a
am+++.[a+nq + aamn. +m a+Jnn+++a +a+amaaa amn++qa.
0aoa +m J +++0++- aa 90 am n++qa. J +++0++-a 90
am+++.[a+nq + aamn. ABC m n+++a n++++a 0+n n++ +na
6+++n+ am+++.[a0+. 50+ ++a ++-n+
AB = , 5 2 20 16 4 ) 1 3 ( ) 0 2 (
2 2
= = + = + +

n.a 7.29
BC = , 5 4 80 16 64 ) 3 7 ( ) 2 6 (
2 2
= = + = + +
CD = , 5 2 20 16 4 ) 7 3 ( ) 6 8 (
2 2
= = + = +
AD = . 5 4 80 16 64 ) 1 3 ( ) 0 8 (
2 2
= = + = + +
AC = . 10 100 64 36 ) 1 7 ( ) 0 6 (
2 2
= = + = + +
AB = CD = 5 2 , BC = AD = 5 4 an ma
AB
2
+ BC
2
= 20 + 80 = 100 = AC
2
. ABCD + 6+aa+a. m+o +++aoo.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 16: (0, 1), (2, 1) (0, 3) an ma (2, 1) amn a+++o a[+++6++aann..
naa+a + +++++m +++a am+++.[+.
+ + a: 6++[++nn.. naa+a mn0+ A, B, C, D am+.
ABCD + +++a am+ ++.[a+nq +.+
n+++a +a+am.+a anma +o
a..+a +a+amaaa am+++.[a+ +
aa qa . 5 q

n.a 7.30
AB = , 2 2 8 4 4 ) 1 1 ( ) 0 2 (
2 2
= = + = + +
BC = , 2 2 8 4 4 ) 1 3 ( ) 2 0 (
2 2
= = + = +
CD = , 2 2 8 4 4 ) 3 1 ( ) 0 2 (
2 2
= = + = +
AD = , 2 2 8 4 4 ) 1 1 ( ) 0 2 (
2 2
= = + = + +
BD = , 4 16 0 16 ) 1 1 ( ) 2 2 (
2 2
= = + = +
AC = . 4 16 16 0 ) 1 3 ( ) 0 0 (
2 2
= = + = + +
AB = BC = CD = AD = 2 2 an ma BD = AC = 4 am+ ++-+0n+a.
ABCD + +++a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 17: A(2, 3), B(6, 5), C(2, 1) anma D(6, 7) amn a+++o a[+++
6++aann. . naa+a + +++ +++++ -.++qa ; m+o + +++aoo am+
++.[+.
+ + a: ABCD + ++++++a+qa am+ ++.[a+nq + aa. +.+ aoo+
n+++a +aa am+ ++. [a+++m. + +++ +++a+m+. +++ao o am+
++.[a+nq + aa. +.+ +oa..+a +a+aaoo++a am+
++.[a+++m. 5 q
AB =
2 2
) 3 5 ( ) 2 6 ( + + = 64 16 + = 80 ,
183
BC =
2 2
) 5 1 ( ) 6 2 ( + = 80 16 64 = + ,

n.a 7.31
AC =
2 2
) 3 1 ( ) 2 2 ( + + = 32 16 16 = + ,
BD =
2 2
) 5 7 ( ) 6 6 ( + = 144 144 + = 288 ,
CD =
2 2
) 1 7 ( ) 2 6 ( + + = 80 64 16 = + ,
AD =
2 2
) 3 7 ( ) 2 6 ( + + = 80 16 64 = + .
AB = BC = CD = AD, AC BD.
ABCD amn+ + ++++++a ; m+o + +++ao o.


n+n + 7.3

1. +0a 6++[++nn.[aa 0++o naa++q 5.0+1aa 6++oa+ ++-+.
(i) (1, 2) anma (4, 3) (vi) (a, b) an ma (b, a)
(ii) (3, 4) anma (7, 2) (vii) ) 1 , 1 2 ( + an ma (1, 3)
(iii) (7, 2) anma (3, 2) (viii)

4
5
,
3
2
an ma ( ) 2 , 1
(iv) (4, 5) an ma (4, 5) (ix) (2, 0) anma (5, 4)
(v) (a, b) anma (b, a) (x) (2, 3) an ma (1, 5)
2. +0a 6++[++nn.. naa+a 0+ 0++.ooa1a naa+a am+++.[+.
(i) (5, 2), (3, 2) an ma (8, 8) (ii) (
2
1
, 1), (1, 2) an ma (0,
2
3
)
(iii) (1, 4), (3, 2) an ma (3, 16) (iv) (4, 8), (2, 4) an ma (3, 16)
(v) (8, 4), (5, 2) an ma (9, 6).
3. +0a 6++[++nn.. naa+a 5++an++ m+0++-++ - .++qa+ am
++++.
(i) (5, 4), (2, 0) an ma (2, 3). (ii) (6, 4), (2, 4) anma (2, 10).
(iii) (2, 1), ( 4, 2) an ma (2, 5).
4. +0a 6++[++nn.. naa+a +an++ m+0++-++ -.++ qa+ am ++++.
(i) ( 3 , 1), (2 3 , 2) an ma (2 3 , 4).
(ii) ( 3 , 2) , (0, 1) an ma (0, 3).
(iii) (0, 3) (0, 5) an ma ( 3 , 4).
5. +0a 6++[++nn.. naa+a 6+0++- m+0++-++m +++a+ am ++++.
(i) (4, 4), (3, 5) an ma (1, 1). (ii) (2, 0), (2, 3) an ma (2, 5).
6. +0a 6++[++nn.. +++a+ 6++-. m+0++-a aaa+ m+0++-a am+
++-+.
(i) (3, 7), (4, 0) an ma (10, 8). (ii) (5, 2), (0, 6) an ma (8, 1).
184
7. + 0a 6++[+ +n n. . a+++o a+ + na a+a 5-+++ + a+ qa+ am
++++.
(i) (3, 5), (5, 4), (7, 10) an ma (15, 9). (ii) (5, 8), (6, 3), (3, 1) anma (2, 6).
(iii) (6, 1), (5, 6), (4, 3) an ma (3, 2). (iv) (0, 3), (4, 4), (6, 2) anma (2, 1).
8. +0a 6++[++nn.. a+++o a++ naa+a + 6+aa++ + a+ qa+ am
++++.
(i) (8, 3), (0, 1), (2, 3) an ma (6, 7). (iii) (3, 0), (1,2), (5, 6) an ma (1, 8).
(ii) (2, 7), (5, 4), (1, 10) an ma (8, 7). (iv) (1, 1), (0, 0) (3, 3) an ma (2, 4).
9. +0a 6++[++nn. . a+++o a++ naa+a + +++++m a+qa+ am
++++.
(i) (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3) anma (1, 3). (ii) (1, 8), (4, 6), (2, 1) an ma (3, 3).
(iii) (1, 1), (0, 4), (7, 3) an ma (8, 10). (iv) (12, 9), (20, 6), (5, 14) an ma (3, 1).
(v) (1, 2), (1, 0), (1, 4) an ma (3, 2).
10. + 0a 6++[+ +n n. . a+++o a+ + naa+a + ++++++++m +++a+
am ++++.
(i) (0, 0), (3, 4), (0, 8) anma (3, 4).
(ii) (2, 3), (6, 5), (2, 1) an ma (6, 7).
(iii) (1, 4), (5, 1), (1, 2) an ma (3, 1)
























185
a.+a

n+n + 7.1

1. (i) I (ii) I (iii) III (iv) IV (v) a++ ++nnq+1a 5oo
(vi) a++ ++nnq+1a 5oo (vii) a++ ++nnq+1a 5oo (viii) II

2. (i) +am (ii) +am (iii) +am (iv) ++ (v) ++ (vi) ++ (vii) ++
(viii) +am (ix) +am (x) +am (xi) +am (xii) ++

3. (i) (2, 1) (ii) (6, 9) (iii) (10, 7) (iv) (2, 2)

n+n + 7.2

1. (i) 1 (ii) 6 (iii)
5
8
(iv) 3 (v)

a
b
4 (vi)
a
b

2. (i) (6, 7) (ii) (4, 5) (iii) (3, 3) (iv) (2, 1) (v) (2, 3)

3. (i) 3x + y + 7 = 0 (ii) 5x y + 9 = 0 (iii) 2x + y 15 = 0
(iv) 6x y 11 = 0 (v) 3x + 5y 5 = 0 (vi) 2x + 5y 8 = 0

4. (i)

2 ,
2
3
(ii) (2, 0) (iii) (1, 3) (iv)

2 ,
4
5


n+n + 7.3

1. (i)
10
(ii)
26 2
(iii) 10 (iv)
41 2
(v) (a b)
2

(vi) (a + b) 2 (vii)
6
(viii)
12
481
(ix) 5 (x)
. 65

2. (i) 0+ 0++. ooa1a (ii) 0+ 0++.ooa+++ (iii) 0+ 0++. ooa1a
(iv) 0+ 0++.ooa+++ (v) 0+ 0++.ooa+++
3. (i) 5++an++ m+0++-a (ii) 5++an++ m+0++-a
(iii) 5++an++ m+0++-a
4. (i) +an++ m+0++-a (ii) +an++ m+0++-a
(iii) +an++ m+0++-a
5. (i) 6+0++- m+0++-a (ii) 6+0++- m+0++-a oo
6. (i) 5++an++ 6+0++- m+0++-a (ii) 5++an++ 6+0++- m+0++-a
7. (i) 5-++a (ii) 5-++a (iii) 5-++a (iv) 5-++a
8. (i) 6+a a+a (ii) 6+aa+a (iii) 6+aa+a (iv) 6+aa+a
9. (i) +++a (ii) +++a (iii) +++aoo (iv) +++a (v) +++aoo
10. (i) +++ +++a (ii) +++ +++a (iii) +++ +++a

186


8. m+0++-a+o

no +tnn+-[++q mm0n a+ma+o nnn na+n q. +-+a+oo
m+0++-a+o ama n+a 0++nma++nn..+. ann+J++a (Hipparchus) am a
+0+++ a+ma+o anma +-+ aoo++. m+0++-a+o a+a+++ +m
a++an 6n+aaa n+mn[++ a+m6aan 6n++. +am 5+ q n+++a1a .
+o+a1a ++-+a 6+++++. am0a 5a+0+. m+0++-a+om +++
amnann+ 6n+++ +a+m++qa . m+0++-a+o+ qn+qa +o+ 6++oo+m
Trigonometry m+. m+0++-a amn 6n++.+ 'Trigon` an ma aa am n
6n++.+ 'Metra` ++ 5+ +0++++ 6++n+ao+++ 6nnnn..++qa. am0a
m+0++-a+o amn+ + m+0++-++m n+++am aa++qa. 0++-+am
aa++qa 5.0+ a++ 6++.+n+annn n n1a n+.nnq+++qa.
m+0++-a+o n+.++m no+++ 6++.qa+nq mm. ++a 0++-+a. annm
aa+a ++a nnn an+m0a n+++ a-[a +man 6++a0a+a.

0++- +a an nm aa+a

+ 6n++n naa+o+++ 6++.qa 5+ ++++a+o + 0++-a
a++nn[+n+. + +++. 0++-++m 6++.+++++J (6++.+ +n n+ +a ) amaa.
an6n++ +++. 0++-++m moa+++J (moan n+ +a) amaa +nnn[a. 6n++nnaa.
0++-++m mm amnn[a. mm+o+++ 6++.qa ++6++mm 6++.++n n++
+o+o+++ moan n++ +o a+ +aoa++o 0++-a a+mn+.



n.a 8.1

n.a 8.2











+++m +an+ +o+++ ma +an++m a+J+++0o+ (n.a 8.1 n n+J++aa)
oo+ +o+++ ma +an ++m +++0o+ (n.a 8.2 n n+J+ +aa ) aa+
n+o+a. ++++a OA aa OB 1a mn0+. + 0++-++m 6++.++++.
moa++ amo. 0++-+++ qn+. oo AOB am+ qnn 0n+a.
187
aan0n++. +++c++m +a++o +nnaa+
mm+++aa. x-++ 6++.++++++++aa
6++-[. n.a 8.3 5o ++- n+0n+o
0++-++m an0n+a. + 0++-a+m+
0an+n+ aa+o +onn[+ +nnom.
+0++-a+m+ +. . +o+o aa+
am 0n+a . + 0++-+ + a+ + n++
amna++nn[a o+mn n+mn[+++m0n+a.
n.a 8.3

n++ aa

+ +++. +o+++ma+an++m a++ +++o + mm +an++ ann[+ +a
6n+m+. q 360 n+++a (5+ 360
o
am am+nn[a) aaaa + 0++-a
aa++++ +m+m0n+a. ann 0++-+a 360
o
0++-++ onn.++++
6++-[ a++m0n+a. a[+++ ++..++. + +++ +an++ ann[+ +aoo6+mo.
+ 0
o
aaaa 0++-a a++mn+ am0n+a. + +++ +o+++ma +an ++m
a++ +++o. mm +an++o n++a +an++ ann[++m+o. + (360
o
) = 90
o

aaaa 0++-a a++mn+ am0n+a. + ++J +o+++ma +an++m +++o.
mm++an ++o n++a +an++ ann[++a+m+o. + (360
o
) = 90
o
aaaa
0++-a a++mn+ am0n+a. am0a. +o+++ma +an++m a+++++o a1a
+an ++a a+ 0++-+a -.++ q+mnm amaa. +o+++ma +an ++m
+++o a1a +an++a qn 0++-+a -.++q+mnm amaa
n+m0n+a. 5aa+ ++++ +o ++a. 0
o
o++ + 90
o
a+ a1a 0++- +a
a.[0a ++++m0n+a. 0
o
o++ + 90
o
+ qa a1a 0++-a qm0++-a amnn[a.
90
o
aao a1a 0++-a 6+0++-a amn n[a . 180
o
aao a1a
0++-a 0+++0++-a amnn[a. 5+ qm0++-+am +[+o 90
o
amo . a
++nn+0++-+a amnn[a. 5+ a+0++-+am +[+o 180
o
amo . a a+
++nn+0++-+a amnn[a.


6+0++- m+0++-ma. n++++a 0+nnma

+ m+0++-++o +
0++-++m aa 90
o
amo . a
m+0++-a + 6+ 0++- m+ 0++-a
amn n[a . n.a 8.4 o ABC +
6+0++- m+0++-a. 5+o ABC
amn 0++-++m aa 90 qa .
n++a AC ++-a amnn[a. 5+0a

n.a 8.4

188
a+n6n++ n++a. 0aoa 5+ 6+0++-++nq a+0+ a++aa n++a+qa.
n++++a amn +0+++ +-+ aoo++. ++ -++m a+ a1a +++++m n+nnaa.
ann 5+ n+++am a+a1a ++++am n+nnaa+am +[+o+q+ +aa am+
+-.n++++ . ++a+. n.a 8.4 5o . qa . 5+0a n++++a
0+n na amnn[a.
2 2 2
BC AB AC + =
8.1 m+ 0++-a+o a++ +a
a++a+ + qm0++-a AOB
a[+ ++6++a0a+a. 5+ +0+++ am+++m
o qnn0n+a. P ama naa +++ OB
+m a+ a++ naa am+. +++ OA
a+ q+ 6+ q+ +++ P +o+++ 0++.[++-[
PQ a++. nnq m+0++-a OQP +
6+0++- m+0++-a. mm Q ao
6+0++-a a++aa+. OQP 5o
n++a OP ++-a qa. n+ +a PQ

n.a 8.5
0++-a am a++n++a+qa. n++a OQ 0++-a am [++aa n++a+qa.
OP , PQ, OQ++ n+++am +a+a mn0+ OP, PQ, OQ am m
qnnn[+m0n+a. 5++a+a+ 6++- [ nm a+a m m+ 0++-a+o a++ +a
a++m++m0n+a.
sine =
OP
PQ
=
+aa +m -+ ++
+aa +m ++ a+Jn+
,
cosine =
OP
OQ
=
+aa +m -+ ++
+aa +m ++ n+ a +a [+
,
tangent =
OQ
PQ
=
+aa +m ++ n+ a +a [+
+aa +m ++ n+ a++
,
cosecant =
PQ
OP
=
+aa +m ++ n+ a++
+aa +m -+ ++
,
secant =
OQ
OP
=
+aa +m ++ n+ a +a [+
+aa +m -+ ++
,
cotangent =
PQ
OQ
=
+aa +m ++ n+ a++
+aa +m ++ n+ a +a [+
.

0an++-a a+++a+. ++++a++ mn0+. sin , cos , tan , cosec , sec,
cot am am+0a+a . 0an ++-a a++ +am aa+a . 0++-a a a.[0a
++J+ +a++qa. 6+ 0++- m+0++-a OQP 5m aa+ ++++++o o. 5+m
n+. P ama 0a6n++ naa +++ OB +m a+ a[+++6++a+; 0aoa PQ
OA + q 6+ q+ +++ a++ (n.a 8.5 n n+J++aa). m+0++-a OQP a m+0++-a
OQP a ao6a+++ m+0++-+a amn+ 6+aa+qa. 5+o+++ ++a.
P O
OP
Q O
OQ
Q P
PQ

=


189
am n0a+a. 5+o+++ ++a 6nma a+++a
Q O
Q P
OQ
PQ
,
P O
Q O
OP
OQ
,
P O
Q P
OP
PQ

=
o o+
Q P
Q O
PQ
OQ
Q O
P O
OQ
OP
Q P
P O
PQ
OP


=

=


= , ,

am n+o+a. am0a 0an+n+ m a+++a naa P, +++ OB +m a+ a+ +
+o+o a++++ ++oa a+n++ am n+o+a. 0an++-a a++ +ao+++
++ana+.

1
PQ
OP
OP
PQ
= = cosec sin ,

ec cos
1
= sin ,
sin
1
= cosec .
1 = = sec cos
OQ
OP
OP
OQ
,

sec
1
cos
cos
1
sec = = .
1 co tan = =
PQ
OQ
OQ
PQ
t .

,
cot
1
tan
tan
1
cot = = .
0aoa ++a +amnn+.

OQ
PQ
OQ
OP
OP
PQ
OP
OQ
OP
PQ

tan
cos
sin
= = =

=
. +o+a+a a[++.
++a 6nma+

cot
tan
1
sin
cos
= = . am0a.

cot
sin
cos
tan
cos
sin
= = qa.
qnn n: + qm0++-a++aa. am m+0++-a+o m a+++ao mnm
a+nn a. [0a 6+++ + +o+o. 0a0o +n+ ++++an n+mn[++ ann
m+0++-a+o a+++a+ ++- 5+oa. +a n+.n nq++o. qm0++-+a
a.[0a ++++m0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: n.a 8.6 5o ++nn.[aa 6+0++- m+0++-++o++ + am
m m+0++-a+o a+++a+ ++-+.

n.a 8.6
+ + a. n.++o 0++-a anq
a++n++ +aa = 6; [++aa n++ +aa = 8.
n++++a 0+nnnno.
(++-++m +aa )
2
= 8
2
+ 6
2
= 64 + 36 = 100.
++-++m +aa = 100 = 10.

am0a.
, =
5
3
10
6
sin = =
+aa +m -+ ++
+aa + n+ a++

3
5
6
10
= = cosec =
+aa + n+ a++
+aa +m -+ ++
,
5
4
10
8
= = cos =
+aa +m -+ ++
+aa + an+ +a [+
,
4
5
8
10
= = sec =
+aa + an+ +a [+
+aa +m -+ ++
,
4
3
=
8
6
= = tan
+aa + an+ +a [+
+aa + n+ a++
,
3
4
6
8
cot = = =
+aa + a+Jn+
+aa + an+ +a [+
.
190
a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: ABC +o mB= 90, AB = 8 6+.a., AC = 17 6+.a. amo. 0++-a A
anma 0++-a C +am m++ m+0++-a+o a+++a1a ++-+.
+ + a. n.++o A = mBAC anma C = mBCA (n.a 8.7 n n+J++aa ).
n++++a 0+nnnno, AC
2
= AB
2
+ BC
2

n.a 8.7
BC
2
= AC
2
AB
2
= 17
2
8
2
= 289 64 = 225.
BC = 225 = 15. am0a.
,
A
A ,
A
A ,
A
A
,
AB
BC
A ,
AC
AB
A ,
AC
BC
A
15
17
sin
1
ec cos
8
17
cos
1
sec
15
8
tan
1
cot
8
15
tan
17
8
cos
17
15
sin
= = = = = =
= = = = = =
,
C
C ,
C
C ,
C
C
,
BC
AB
C ,
AC
BC
C ,
AC
AB
C
8
17
sin
1
ec cos
15
17
cos
1
sec
8
15
tan
1
cot
15
8
tan
17
15
cos
17
8
sin
= = = = = =
= = = = = =


qnn n: 0an+-. +-++o. sin C = cos A, cos C = sin A, tan C = cot A, am
0+++q+m0n+a. 5aa+n+nn+nq+ +++-a A 1a C 1a ++nn+0++-+a .

a[+ ++ ++. [ 3:
25
7
= sin amo. an n m+0++-a+o a+++a+ ++-+.
+ + a.
25
7
= = sin
+aa +m +J-+
+aa + n+ a+Jn
amn++o. mABC = 90, mACB = . AB = 7,
AC = 25 ammaaa+m + 6+0++- m+0++-a ABC + +++aa (n.a 8.8 n
n+J++aa ). am0a. n++++a 0+nnnno.
AC
2
= AB
2
+ BC
2
25
2
= 7
2
+ BC
2
o o+ 625 = 49 + BC
2
.
BC
2
= 625 49 = 576. BC= 576 = 24.

n.a 8.8
am0a. ,
AC
BC

25
24
cos = =
,

,
BC
AB

7
25
sin
1
cosec
24
7
tan
= =
= =

.

7
24
tan
1
cot
24
25
cos
1
sec
= =
= =


a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: 2 cosec = A amo. (i) sin A + cos A (ii) tan A + cot A ++annm
a+nn+a+ ++-+.
+ + a. cosec A = 2 =
+aa + n+ a++
+aa +m -+ ++
=
1
2
.

n.a 8.9
am0a. mQRP = A, +J-++m + aa = PR = 2 ,
a+Jnn++++m +aa = PQ = 1 am a1a+m
+ 6+0++- m+0++-a PQR + +++0a+a
(n.a 8.9 n n+J++aa ).
191
n++++a 0+nnnno, PR
2
= PQ
2
+ QR
2
.
( 2 )
2
= (1)
2
+ QR
2
. 2 = 1 + QR
2
. QR
2
= 2 1 = 1.
QR = 1. am0a.
. 1
1
1
cot , 1
1
1
tan
,
2
1
cos ,
2
1
sin
= = = = = =
= = = =
PQ
QR
A
QR
PQ
A
PR
QR
A
PR
PQ
A

(i) sin A + cos A =
2
1
2
1
+ = 2

2
1
= 2 , (ii) tan A + cot A = 1 + 1 = 2.

qnn n. a0+a + +amn+. . +n++ 0a- [a amo. +a+++-a aa+ao
mnmn n+mn[+++o 0a-[a.
aa 1. +amn+.om 5.+n+++ 0++a+ oo+ ao+ n+++ 0++a+ ++++a
6+++ an n n++++o aa 0++a+n 6nm+o 0a-[a.
aa 2. +amn+.om 5.+n++++o aa 0++a+ ++++a 6+++ + aoaa (1)
6++-+ 0a+a . [+ ++++. ao+ n+ ++ +o a a 0++a+ +++ +a 6++ + +
aoaa (2) 6++-+0a+a. nmm+ aoaa (1) = aoaa (2) am+ ++.[0a+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5:
B A B A
B A B A
B A
B A
sin sin cos cos
sin cos cos sin
tan tan 1
tan tan

+
=

+
am +n.
+ + a.
5.+n++ 0++a =
B A
B A
tan tan 1
tan tan

+
=
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
cos
sin
cos
sin
1
cos
sin
cos
sin

+
=
B A
B A B A
B A
B A B A
cos cos
sin sin cos cos
cos cos
sin cos cos sin

+

=
B A B A
B A
B A
B A B A
sin sin cos cos
cos cos
cos cos
) sin cos cos (sin

+

=
B A B A
B A B A
sin sin cos cos
sin cos cos sin

+
= ao+n++ 0++a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6:
B
A
B A
B A
tan
tan
tan cot
cot tan
=
+
+
am +n++aa.
+ + a. 5.+n++ 0++a = =
+
+
B A
B A
tan cot
cot tan
1
tan
tan
1
tan
1
1
tan
B
A
B
A
+
+
=
A
B A
B
B A
tan
tan tan 1
tan
1 tan tan
+
+

=
) tan tan 1 (
tan
tan
) 1 tan (tan
B A
A
B
B A
+

+
=
B
A
tan
tan
= ao+n++ 0++a.

192
a[+ ++ ++. [ 7:

cos 1
tan sin
cot 1
tan 1
+
+
=
+
+
am +n++aa.
+ + a. 5.+n++ 0++a = =
+
+

cot 1
tan 1

tan
1
1
tan 1
+
+
=

+
+

tan
1 tan
) tan 1 (
=

tan + 1
tan

1
tan + 1

= tan (1)
ao+n++ 0++a =

cos + 1
tan + sin
=

cos 1
cos
sin
sin
+
+
=
) cos 1 (
1
cos
) sin cos (sin


+

+

=
) cos 1 (
1
cos
) 1 (cos sin


+

+
=

cos
sin
= tan . (2)
(1) an ma (2) m no 5.+n++ 0++a = ao+n++ 0++a.

+o qnn n. . 0++- +am m+0++-a+o a+++a
30, 45 an ma 60 aaaa 0++-+am m+0++-a+o a+++am
a+nn+a+ ++-0n+a.
(i) 30 an ma 60 0++-+am m+0++-a+o a+++a
n++ +aa 2 oq+a 6++-. +an+ +
m+0++-a ABC + a[+ ++ 6++a 0a+a (n.a
8.10n n++++aa). n++a AB+ q mm C
+o+++ 6+q+++0++[ CD a++. na a D,
n++a AB m a+n na a++qa . 5n 6n+m+
AD = 1, AC = 2, mDAC = 60, mACD = 30.
ADC + 6+0++- m+0++-a (n.a 8.11n
n++++aa).n++++a 0+nnnno,

n.a 8.10
AC
2
= AD
2
+ DC
2
-+ 2
2
= 1
2
+ DC
2
.

DC
2
= 3 -+ DC = 3 .
6+0++- m+0++-a ADC +o+++.
sin 60 =
2
3
=
AC
DC
sin 30 =
2
1
=
AC
AD

cos 60 =
2
1
=
AC
DA
cos 30 =
2
3
=
AC
DC

tan 60 = 3
1
3
= =
DA
DC
tan 30 =
3
1
=
DC
AD

cot 60 =
3
1
=
DC
DA
cot 30 = 3
1
3
= =
AD
DC

sec 60 = 2
1
2
= =
DA
AC
sec 30 =
3
3 2
3
2
= =
DC
AC

cosec 60 =
3
3 2
3
2
= =
DC
AC
cosec 30 = 2
1
2
= =
AD
AC


n.a 8.11

193
(ii) 45 0++-++m m+0++-a+o a+++a
ABC J 5++an++ 6+0++- m+0++-a am+. 5q mB = 90,
AB = BC = 1 (n.a 8.12 n n+J+ +aa ). 5 q AC = 2 , mCAB = 45. mBCA = 45
am n++ 6++a+. m+0++-a ABC +o++ + ++a 6nma+.


n.a 8.12
cot 45 = 1
1
1
= =
BC
AB

sec 45 = 2
1
2
= =
AB
AC

cosec 45 = 2
1
2
= =
BC
AC

sin 45 =
2
1
=
AC
AB

cos 45 =
2
1
=
AC
AB

tan 45 = 1
1
1
= =
AB
BC


(iii) 0, 90 0++-+am m+0++-a+o a+++a
5+ 0++-+am m+0++-a+o
a+++an 6nma+nq ++Jc++m ++
+a++o +n naa+ a+a++aa. + aa
r oqa 6++- [ + a. .+ +m+ ++++.
++Jc++m +a++m m+n ++nnq++o a++
5a a. .+ +m ao AB+m a+ P am n+ a0+a
+ naa am+ (n.a 8.13 n n++ + +aa ). x
++nq PM amn q+ ++0++[ a++. P am n
naa+m ++ +t++a x, y am +. nm m+
OM = x, PM = y qa. 6+0++- m+0++-a

n.a 8.13 OMP 5o. n++++a 0+nnnno. x
2
+ y
2
= r
2
amn
6nm+0n+a. r =
2 2
y x + . MOP = am +. + qm0++-a+qa.
sin[ =
r
y
, cos =
r
x
.
ao AB+m a + 6aa 0am +o+ao P + 6++-.+o. ++a +amnn+. +++ OP
m+ +o OA ao+++ +o OB +q +an++.1a6n+m+. 0++-a m+ 0
aao+++ 90 aanq +++++mn+. +aa x m+ r o+++ 0 an q
qn+m n+. y m+ 0 ao+++ r nq +++++m n+. am0a. m+ 0 o++ +
90 + q ++++ qa 6n+m+.
r
x
m aa 1o+++ 0a+q qna+1a.
r
y
m aa
0o+++ )nq ++a+a+1a n+m0n+a. ++a+ am aa 0
o
o+++
90
o
+q ++a+qa6n+m+. cos am aa 1 o++ + 0 anq qna+1a. sin
am aa 0 o++ + 1n q ++a+a+1a. n+m0n+a. 0aoa. a6a++
qm 0++-a an q x, y a. m+0++-a+o a+++a +m++a+a++
a1a am n+m0n+a. OP m+ OA am +o+ .1a6n+m+. = 0,
x = r, y = 0 qa. am0a. ,
r r
y
0 =
0
= = 0 sin
o
1 = = = 0 cos
r
r
r
x
o
. OP m+ OB +m
+o+ .1a6n+m+. = 90, x =0, y = r qa. am0a.
0 =
0
= = 90 cos 1 = = = 90 sin
r r
x
,
r
r
r
y
o o
.
194
5n6n+m+. ++a 6nma+.
, 0 =
1
0
=
0 cos
0 sin
= 0 tan
o
o
o


0
1
=
0 sin
0 cos
= 0 cot
o
o
o
, a++m++ 5+o+++.
1 =
1
1
=
0 cos
1
= 0 sec
o
o
;

0
1
=
0 sin
1
= 0 cosec
o
o
, a++m++ 5+o+++

0
1
=
90 cos
90 sin
= 90 tan
o
o
o
, a++m++ 5+o+++,
0 =
1
0
=
90 sin
90 cos
= 90 cot
o
o
o
,

0
1
=
90 cos
1
= 90 sec
o
o
, a++m++ 5+o+++,
1 =
1
1
=
90 sin
1
= 90 cosec
o
o
.

0, 30, 45, 60, 90 m m+0++-a+o a+++a +a++-.a+m ..a-n
n[++o+a.

0 30 45 60 90
sin 0
2
1

2
1
2
3

1
cos 1
2
3

2
1
2
1

0
tan 0
3
1

1 3
a++m++
5+o+++
cot
a++m++
5+o+++
3 1
3
1

0
sec 1
3
2

2
2
a++m++
5+o+++
cosec
a++m++
5+o+++
2
2
3
2

1

qn+ [. amn+m sin
2
) (sin
2
am ++++a++ am++m0n+a. 5+n0n+m 0n
annno++qa am++m0n+a. a[+++++..++. (tan )
3
= tan
3
. cos
4
amn+
(cos )
4
+ qnnn++qa. sin
2
sin
2
am am+a+ +an+qa.



195
a[+ ++ ++. [ : a+nn ++-+. 2 cos
2
30 tan
2
60 sec
2
45 sin
2
60.
+ + a. cos 30 =
2
3
, tan 60 = 3 , sec 45 = 2 , sin 60 =
2
3
.
2 cos
2
30 tan
2
60 sec
2
45 sin
2
60 = 2 ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
2
3
2 3
2
3

= 2
4
3
3 2
4
3

=
2
9

2
3
= 3.
a[+ ++ ++. [ ). tan A =
o
o
60 cos 1
60 sin
+
amo. qm0++-a A ++ ++-+.
+ + a. sin 60 =
2
3
, cos 60 =
2
1
.
tan A =
3
1
3
3
2
3
2
3
2
1
1
2
3
= = =
+
.
m+o tan 30 =
3
1
. A = 30.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: 2 sin (A + B) = 3 , 1 cos 2 = B , amo A, B ++-+.
+ + a. 2 sin (A + B) = 3 amn++o. sin (A + B) =
2
3
.
m+o. sin 60 =
2
3
.
am0a A + B = 60. (1)
2 cos B = 1, amn++o cos B =
2
1
.
m+o cos 45 =
2
1
.
am0a B = 45. (2)

(1), (2)+ ++ + +. A = 15.







196

n+n+ 8.1

+-+q+a 1 m+o 4 5annoa a 6+0++- m+0++-+ao qnnn.[a a
m+0++-a+o a++ +a+ +-[no.

1. 2.

n.a 8.14

sin B, cos C, tan B

n.a 8.15

sec X, cot Z, cosec Z


3. 4.

n.a 8.16

cos Q , tan R, cot Q

n.a 8.17

tan M, sec N, cosec N


+-+q+a 5 5o++ + 10 a+ 6++[+ +n n. . a++a 0n++ am an n
m+ 0++-a+o a+++a+ ++-+.

5. cos =
5
3
6. sin =
13
12
7. sec =
3
2

8. cosec = 10 9. cot =
7
1
10. tan =
5
2

11.
37
35
cos = A amo.
A A
A A
tan sec
tan sec

+
+ +-[no++aa.
12. sin =
5
3
amo.


cos cot
ec cos

+ +-[no++aa.
197
13. cosec = 2 amo. cot +

cos 1
sin
+
+ +-[no+ +aa.
14. cot =
3
1
amo.
5
3
sin 2
cos 1
2
2
=

am+ ++-+.
15. 3 cot = 4 amo.


ec cos 3 sec 2
cos 2 sin 3
+
+
a+nn+ +-[no++aa.
16. a+nn ++-+.
(i) cosec
2
45 cot
2
30 + sin
2
60 sec
2
30 (ii) cos
2
30 sin
2
30 cos 60
(iii) 8 sin
2
60 cos 60 (iv)
o o
o
60 tan 30 tan
45 tan
+

17. nma+amann ++n++++aa.
(i) sin
2
30 + cos
2
30 = 1 (ii) sec
2
60 1 = tan
2
60 (iii) 1 + cot
2
30 = cosec
2
30

18. sin (A+B) = 2 sin (A B) = 1 amo. A, B +a+ +-[no++aa.



8.2 m+ 0++-a+o mn 6n++a+a

onn.++m +mm m+0++-a+o mn6n++a+a + qm0++-a
anq 6nm0a+a. +a. ao o+ 0++- ++qa 5a 6n+++ +mma.
m mm+ +nnaa am+. m 6++.+++++ x ++++ 6++a0a+a.
P (x, y) am n+ m moa+++m a+a++ a0+a + naa am+ (n.a 8.18 n
n++++aa). P +o++ + x +++ q.

n.a 8.18
q+++0++[ PQ a++. nmm+ OQ = x, PQ = y.
OP = r am +. n++++a 0+n nnno.
6+0++- m+0++-a OQP 5o.
x
2
+ y
2
= r
2
qa .
5+ n++ma r
2
o aq+ +.
2
2
2
2 2
=
+
r
r
r
y x
-+ 1
2
2
2
2
= +
r
y
r
x

-+ 1
2 2
=

r
y
r
x
.
m+o. sin =
r
y
, cos =
r
x
. (cos )
2
+ (sin )
2
= 1.
++a+. cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1. (1)


198
(1) m 5+ n++ma cos
2
o aq++.




2 2
2 2
cos
1
=
cos
sin + cos
-+
2
2
2
2
2
cos
1
cos
sin
cos
cos

= +

2 2
cos
1
cos
sin
1

-+ 1 +(tan )
2
= (sec )
2

++a+. 1 + tan
2
= sec
2
. (2)

(1) m 5+ n++ma sin
2
o aq++.


2 2
2 2
sin
1
=
sin
sin + cos
-+
2
2
2
2
2
2
) (cosec
sin
1
sin
sin
sin
cos

= +
-+ cot
2
+ 1 = cosec
2

++a+. 1 + cot
2
= cosec
2
. (3)

5++ +mm mn6n++a+a (1), (2) an ma (3) ++a n++++a 0+nn++
onn.++++ 6++-.a++qa. 5an no+++ 0aoa +o mn6n++a+a
n++ 6++a0a+a.
(1) n n+mn[++ (i) sin
2
= (sin
2
+ cos
2
) cos
2
= 1 cos
2

(ii) cos
2
= (cos
2
+ sin
2
) sin
2
= 1 sin
2
am n+o+a.
(2) + 6++-[ (i) tan
2
= (1 + tan
2
) 1= sec
2
1
(ii) sec
2
tan
2
= (1 + tan
2
) tan
2
= 1 am n+o+a.
(3) + 6++-[ (i) cot
2
= (1 + cot
2
) 1 = cosec
2
1
(ii) cosec
2
cot
2
= (1 + cot
2
) cot
2
= 1 am n+o+a.

0an++-a mn6n++a+an nma+a+m ..a-nn[++o+a.

sin
2
+ cos
2
1 1 + tan
2
sec
2
1 + cot
2
cosec
2

sin
2
1 cos
2
tan
2
sec
2
1 cot
2
cosec
2
1
cos
2
1 sin
2
sec
2
tan
2
1 cosec
2
cot
2
1

0aoa. 5++ mn6n++a+a 5.nn++++o+++ aonn++++nqa. aonn++++
o+++ 5.nn++++nqa n+mn[++0a+a. ++a+. a[+ ++++. .++.
sec
2
tan
2
1 am ma 1 sec
2
tan
2
amaa n+mn[++0a+a. 5.+n++
0++a+ 5m 5.n.0++ amma. ao+n++ 0++a+ a.n.0++ amma qnn0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: +n++. sin
4
+ cos
4
= 1 2sin
2
cos
2
.
+ + a: 5.n.0++ = sin
4
+ cos
4
= (sin
2
)
2
+ (cos
2
)
2
= [sin
2
+ cos
2
]
2
2 (sin
2
)(cos
2
) ( a
2
+ b
2
= (a + b)
2
2ab)
= (1)
2
2sin
2
cos
2
= 1 2sin
2
cos
2
= a.n.0++.

199
a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: +n++.

sin 1
cos
+
= sec tan .
+ + a: 5.n.0++ =

sin 1
cos
+
=

sin 1
sin 1
sin 1
cos

+

=

) (
2
sin 1
sin 1 cos

) (
2
cos
sin 1 cos

=

cos
sin 1
=

cos
sin
cos
1
= sec tan = a.n.0++.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: +n++.
2
) cot ec (cos
cos 1
cos 1
A A
A
A
+ =

+
.
+ + a: 5.n.0++=
A
A
A
A
cos 1
cos 1
cos 1
cos 1
+
+

+

=
A
A
2
2
cos 1
) cos 1 (

+
=
2 2
2
2
sin
cos
sin
1
sin
cos 1
sin
) cos 1 (

+ =

+
=
+
A
A
A A
A
A
A

= (cosec A + cot A)
2
= a.n.0++.
0am aa+++.
a.n.0++ = (cosec A + cot A)
2
=
2
sin
cos
sin
1

+
A
A
A
=
2
sin
cos 1

+
A
A

=
A
A
2
2
sin
) cos 1 ( +
=
A
A
2
2
cos 1
) cos 1 (

+
=
) cos 1 ( ) cos 1 (
) cos 1 (
2
A A
A
+
+
=
A
A
cos 1
cos 1

+
= 5.n.0++.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 14: +n++. sin
4
cos
4
= sin
2
cos
2
.
+ + a: 5.n.0++ = sin
4
cos
4
= (sin
2
)
2
(cos
2
)
2
= (sin
2
+ cos
2
) (sin
2
cos
2
)
=(1) (sin
2
cos
2
) = sin
2
cos
2
= a.n.0++.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 15: +n++. sec A tan A =
A A tan sec
1
+

+ + a: a.n.0++ =
A A tan sec
1
+
=
A A
A A
A A tan sec
tan sec
tan sec
1

+

=
A A
A A
2 2
tan sec
tan sec

=
1
tan sec A A

= sec A tan A = 5.n.0++.


a[+ ++ ++. [ 16: +n++. (sec + cos ) (sec cos ) = tan
2
+ sin
2
.
+ + a: 5.n.0++ = (sec + cos ) (sec cos ) = sec
2
cos
2

= (1 + tan
2
) cos
2
= tan
2
+ (1 cos
2
)
= tan
2
+ sin
2

= a.n.0++.
200

a[+ ++ ++. [ 17:
cos 1
1
cos 1
1

+
+
= 2 cosec
2
am +n++aa.
+ + a: 5.n.0++ =
cos 1
1
cos 1
1

+
+
=
) cos (1 ) cos (1
) cos (1 1 ) cos 1(1


+
+ +


=

2
cos 1
cos 1 cos 1

+ +
=

2
sin
2
= 2cosec
2
= a.n.0++.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 18: +n. sin
2
A sin
2
B + cos
2
A cos
2
B + sin
2
A cos
2
B

+ cos
2
A sin
2
B = 1.
+ + a: 5.n.0++ = (sin
2
A sin
2
B + sin
2
A cos
2
B) + (cos
2
A cos
2
B + cos
2
A sin
2
B)
= sin
2
A (sin
2
B + cos
2
B) + cos
2
A (cos
2
B + sin
2
B)
= sin
2
A(1) + cos
2
A (1) = sin
2
A + cos
2
A = 1 = a.n.0++.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 19: m = tan A + sin A, n = tan A sin A amo . m
2
n
2
= 4 mn am
+n++aa.
+ + a: 5.n.0++ = m
2
n
2
= (tan A + sin A)
2
(tan A sin A)
2
= tan
2
A + sin
2
A + 2 tan A sin A (tan
2
A + sin
2
A 2 tan A sin A)
= 4 tan A sin A (1)
a.n.0++ = 4 mn = ) sin (tan ) sin (tan 4 A A A A +
= A A
2 2
sin tan 4 = A
A
A
2
2
2
sin
cos
sin
4
=
A
A A A
2
2 2 2
cos
cos sin sin
4

=
A
A A
2
2 2
cos
) cos 1 ( sin
4


= A A
2 2
tan sin 4 = 4 sin A tan A. (2)
(1), (2) 5an nm no. 5.n.0++ = a.n.0++.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 20: cos
6
+ sin
6
= 1 3 cos
2
sin
2
am +n++aa.
+ + a : 5.n.0++ = cos
6
+ sin
6

= (cos
2
)
3
+ (sin
2
)
3
= (cos
2
+ sin
2
) (cos
4
cos
2
sin
2
+ sin
4
)
= (1) (cos
4
+ sin
4
cos
2
sin
2
) = [(cos
2
)
2
+ (sin
2
)
2
] cos
2
sin
2

= [(cos
2
+ sin
2
)
2
2 cos
2
sin
2
] cos
2
sin
2

= (1)
2
3 cos
2
sin
2

= 1 3 cos
2
sin
2
= a.n.0++.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 21: +n++. cos sin 2 1+ = sin + cos
+ + a: 5.n.0++ = cos sin 2 cos sin
2 2
+ + 1 = sin + cos
2

2
=
2
) cos + (sin
= sin + cos = a.n.0++.


201
n+n + 8.2
1. +n++aa. A A A sec sin 1 sec
2
= .
2. +n++aa. (sin A + cos A)
2
+ (sin A cos A)
2
= 2.
3. +++q+.


2 2
2 2
tan sec
cosec cot
.
4. +n++aa.
A A
A A
tan sec
tan sec

+
=
A
A
sin 1
sin 1

+
.
5. +n++aa.

2
sec 2
sin 1
1
sin 1
1
=

+
+
.
6. x = r sin A sin B, y = r sin A cos B, z = r cos A amo. x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
m a+nn ++- +.

7. tan A + cot A = cosec A sec A am+ ++-n++aa.
8. +n++aa. 1 cos 2
tan 1
tan 1
2
2
2
=
+

A
A
A
.
9. +n++aa.
cot cosec
1

= cosec + cot .
10. (tan A + cot A)
2
= sec
2
A+ cosec
2
A am +n++aa.
11. A A
A
A
A
A
cos sin
cot 1
sin
tan 1
cos
+ =

am +n++aa.
12. +n++aa.
A
A
A A
A A
cos
sin 1
1 sec tan
1 sec tan +
=
+
+
.
13. +n++aa. (tan A tan B)
2
+ (1 + tan A tan B)
2
= sec
2
A sec
2
B.
14. +n++aa.

cot 1
tan

tan 1
cot

= sec cosec +1.

15. +n++aa.

cos 1
cos 1
cos sin 1
cos sin 1
2
+

+ +
+
.
16. (sin + cosec )
2
+ (cos + sec )
2
= 7 + tan
2
+ cot
2
am +n++aa.
17. 2
sin cos
sin cos
sin cos
sin cos
3 3 3 3
=

+
+
+




am +n++aa.
18. +n++aa.


2
4 4
4 4
tan
cos sin 1
sin cos 1
=
+
+
.

8.3 ++n n+ 0++- ++ ++m m+ 0++-a+o a++ +a
an+m0a 6+0++- m+0++-++m
++nn 0++-+an nnn ++a n++a0a+a.
6+0++- m+0++-a OQP 5o (n.a 8.19 n
n++++aa), Q + 6+ 0++-a. 5q

n.a 8.19
mQOP + mOPQ = 90 .
202
am0a. QOP, OPQ ++ 0++-+a ++nn+0++-+a+qa. mQOP = am+.
nmn mOPQ = 90 qa. m+0++-a+o a++ +am a++n+n nmnnn
0++-a anq nma+amann an+m0a n++a0a+a.
OQ
PQ
,
OP
OQ
,
OP
PQ
= = = tan cos sin ,
PQ
OQ
,
OQ
OP
,
PQ
OP
= = = cot sec cosec
5n6n+m+. 90 +q m+0++-a+o a+++a n+ mnn[0a+a. n.++o+++.

sin (90 ) = ,
OP
OQ
,
PQ
OQ
,
OP
PQ
= = ) 90 tan( ) 90 ( cos
o o

OQ
PQ
,
PQ
OP
,
OQ
OP
= = = ) 90 ( cot ) 90 ( sec ) 90 ( cosec
o o o

.. (1)
..(2)
(1), (2) nn. +a++-.ann n+o+a.
) 90 ( cos sin
OP
PQ
= =
o
=
OP
OQ
cos = sin (90 )
OQ
PQ
= tan = cot (90 ) =
PQ
OP
cosec = sec (90 )
OQ
OP
= sec = cosec (90 )
PQ
OQ
= cot = tan (90 ).
5+m J ..a-+++ a++o+a.

sin (90 ) = cos cosec (90 ) = sec
cos (90 ) = sin sec (90 ) = cosec
tan (90 ) = cot cot (90 ) = tan
a[+ ++ ++. [ 22: a+nn ++-+.
o
o
25 cot
65 tan
.
+ + a : tan 65 = tan (90 25) = cot 25.
o
o
25 cot
65 tan
=
o
o
25 cot
25 cot
= 1.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 23: a+nn ++-+. sin 20 tan 60 sec 70
+ + a : sec 70 = sec(9020) = cosec 20=
o
20 sin
1

sin 20 tan 60 sec 70 = sin 20 tan 60 cosec 20 = sin 20 3
o
20 sin
1
= 3 .
a[+ ++ ++. [ 24: cosec x = sec 25 amo. x m a+nn ++-+.
+ + a: cosec x =sec(90 x), sec(90 x)= sec 25. 90 x=25. x = 90 25= 65.

qnn n: 0a0o aa +-++o. x m+. +amn+. om 5+ n++ma sec + + + +a
6++a++o +.+ +aoo. m+o. qm0++-++n++m m+0++-a+o
a+++am +m+ +m ann-nmn n+mn[++ ++-nn..+ amn+ n+.
203
n+n + 8.3
1. a+nn ++-+. (i)
o
o
54 cos
36 sin
(ii)
o
o
55 cot
35 tan
(iii) sin sec (90 )
2. +++q+. (i)
o
o
o
o
o
o
39 ec cos
51 sec
2
3
48 cos
42 sin
2
1
57 cot
33 tan
+ + . (ii)
o
o
o
o
43 ec cos
47 sec
4
67 cos
23 sin
3 + .
3. x ++ ++-+.
(i) sin 60 = cos x (ii) cosec x cos 54 = 1 (iii) sec x = cosec 25 (iv) tan x tan 35 = 1
a.+a

n+n + 8.1

1.
12
5
,
13
5
,
13
5
2.
2
5
,
2
1
,
2
5
3.
15
8
,
15
8
,
17
8
4. 1, 2 , 2
5.
4
3
cot
3
5
sec
4
5
cos
3
4
tan
5
4
sin = = = = = , , ec , , .
6.
12
5
cot
5
13
sec
12
13
cos
5
12
tan
13
5
cos = = = = = , , ec , , .
7. 3 cot 2 cos
3
1
tan
2
3
cos
2
1
sin = = = = = , ec , , , .
8. 3 cot
3
10
sec
3
1
tan
10
3
cos
10
1
sin = = = = = , , , , .
9. 2 5 sec
7
2 5
cos 7 tan
2 5
1
cos
2 5
7
sin = = = = = , ec , , , .
10.
2
5
cot
5
29
sec
2
29
cos
29
5
cos
29
2
sin = = = = = , , ec , , .
11.
25
49
12.
8
25
13. 15. 2
75
34

16. (i) 7 (ii) 0 (iii) 3 (iv)
4
3

18. A = 60, B = 30
n+n + 8.2

3. 1 6. r
2
n+n + 8.3

1. (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1
2. (i) 3 (ii) 7
3. (i) 30 (ii) 36 (iii) 65 (iv) 55
204


9. 6++mn aoa+o

nmn aoa+oo a++a1a. +J++ mn+ +++-+a1a n+mn[++
m+0++-a 0n+mn aoa+o +a+am n-n+a+ +ma 0+nn+a +n-a
6+++0n+a. 5++-+nn+ao a+a aoa +a+a aa++q+ +++++
a+a+oo. a+++n n.+a a+++ ++ 0+n n+am +++ + mn
+n-++q+ +-++++ 6++a+m0n+a. a++ a+a+m aoa+o ++a+a
nmn aoa+on n+oa+nq+ 0+a++++++. a[+++++..++. nmn
aoa+oo PQ amn 0+J+0++.[+ +-om. AB amn 0+J+0++.[+ +-om
a++ q+ ++ 0++.++ 5+++n+ amn++ 6+++nn[++. +oo+a++ PQ a AB
+q+ 6+ q++++ ++a a+a+oo. m+o. AB + q+ 6+q++++. PQ a
a++++++ a++0n+a . nnonn. . aoa+o +a+a+ +oo+a++ a++ ++
n++ +Ja1a. +na1a 0+a. aoa+o +a+a a++. no aoa+o
++a+a aam. aoa+o ++a+a+ 6++-[ aoa+o a+n.+a a+a0+
6++mn aoa+o+qa. 5nn+.nn+ao. nmn aoa+oo +-[aa+0n+o.
onn.+ 6++a++a. 0+nn+a. +J++ mn +n-+a a+a +.+++.
+nqn n+o++. nmn aoa+o aa+++ +n++nn.. ann mn+a+
6++-[ aoa+o +a+a a+a+ a.[0a 5nn+am qn+ 0++a+qa. aa
qn+ +n n.++ 0+J aaa n (straight edge) anma 5+ +a++++a 5ann a.[0a
6++-[ aoa+o +a+a a++ 0a-[6amn+. aoa+o +a+a
+a++qa +-+q+ao +a+o++ a1a. aoa+-+ +a+a +a++qa
+-+q+a +++++ a++o a+ +J++ -a+a. 0+nn+a
+a+++nn.[aam. a[+++ ++..++. n++++a 0+nna aa+0n +a+m+.
m+++ aqnn+ao. ++a +a++-.annn++m a+mn+a+ +nma0a+a.

(i) + 0+J+0++.[+ +-om a++q+ ++0++[ a++o.
(ii) + 0++-++m 5++a6a.o a++o.
(iii) + +an++ m+0++-a a++o.
(iv) + 0+J+0++.[++-. ++nn.. a+++ +o n++ +o.
(v) + 6+0++- m+0++-a a++o.
(vi) + 5-++a a++o.
(vii) + ++++++a a++o.
(viii) +a+ a..+a a++o.
(ix) + ++a+a a++o.
(x) n++ aa+a ++nnom. m+0++-++ a++o.

205
5++ +++++++o. +a++-. mn+a+ +n0n+a.

(i) + m+0++-++m +[+0++.[ a+a. 6+0++. [ a+a. +nma. . a+a.
aa.. a+a ++ann+ ++-o.
(ii) +.[ anma 6n+++o ++++++a aoa+o a+mn aa+++n 6nm+o.
(iii) 5+ a-+am a+++a ++++++ 6++ mn aoa+o +oa ++-o.

9.1 + m+ 0++-+ +o +na a aa+ 0++[+a

nmn aoa+oo. +a++-.ann+ 6++++ a++a0a+a.
(i) + m+0++-++m +[+0++[+a + naa+o ++ ++qa. 5+ +n naa
m+0++-++m +[+0++.[ a+a amnn[a. 5nnaa a6a++ +[+ 0++..1a
2 : 1 aa a++++o n++qa.
(ii) + m+0++-++m n+++am a++q+++0++[+a + naa+o ++++qa.
5nnaa m+0++-++m +nma.. a+a amnn[a.
(iii) + m+0++-++m +mm 0++-+am +a6a. o+a + naa+o ++++ qa.
5nnaa m+0++-++m a a. . a+a amnn[a.
(iv) + m+0++-++m 6+0++[+a + naa+o ++++qa. 5nnaa 6+0++.[
a+a amn n[a .

6++mn+o 5nnaa+a+ qn+qa mn+ 5m ++- mnn[0a+a.

9.1.1 +[+0++.[ a+a

m+0++-++m + ++n naa+1a 5+m a+Jn n+ ++ +m +[n na a+1a
5-+ qa 0+J+ 0++. [+ +- [ + +[+ 0++[ amn n[a . +m m + +n na a+a
aa++o +mm +[+0++[+a + m+0++-++nq 5+++mnm. 5++
+[+0++[+a + naa+o ++++qa. 5nnaa m+0++-++m +[+ 0++. [ a+a
amnn[a. 5nnaa. aa++a++ G aa +o am+++o qn++nn[a. G aa
5nnaa a6a++ +[+0++..1a 2 : 1 aa a++++o n++qa . G amn+
++nnaa+ a. a+Jnn++++nq +++a+o 5++qa. G m n- n+a
onn.++++ 6++- [. +m 5+nn.+++ ++-a mn +0a ++nn. [a a+.

no 1: ++nn.. m+0++-a ABC + a++.
no 2: BC +m +[n na a D m 5+n n.a +-[. +[+0++[ AD a++.
no 3: CA +m +[n na a E m 5+n n.a +-[. +[+0++[ BE a++.
no 4: AD, BE amnm ++++qa na a+ G amm qn++. G am n+ ABC m
+[+0++.[ a+a+qa.

206
qnn n: 0an+-. mn+o. G + ++- +mn+a+ +[+0++.. a++aoo.
a6mmo. 6a.[anaa++m +[+0++.[ a+a G + ++- 5+ +[+ 0++[+0a
0n++a+m+. +mn+a+ +[+0++.. a++++o. + G aa++++ 6+oa++
++-o+a.
a++6a++ ann oo+ a+n. +-++oa. m+oo ++a ++nn..
aa+a1a. 0+a+1a 6++++ 6++a a 0a-[a . 5+n qnnm. ++a + a+++n
n.++ a+++ 6++aa 0a-[a. 5aa+++n n.+ +o. ann oo+
a++o+q-.+m aamnn no+a+ +.o+ ++.. 0a-[a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: AB = 7 6+.a. AC = 7.5 6+.a. BC = 5.5 6+.a amo ABC a++.
+m +[+0++.[ a+a G + ++- +. AD G a+ + a++++o n++qa amn+
am++.
+ Ja: ABC +m a+++n n.++ a+++ ++nn.. aa+a+ qn++aa (n.a 9.1
n n+J++aa). 5n 0n++ +[+0++.[ a++++ ++-0n+a. no+a +0a
++nn.[aam.
no 1: BC = 5.5 6+.a aao BC aa 0+J+
0++.[++-. a++. B a+a+++ 6++-[
7 6+.a +++o + ao a++. 50+0n+o C
a+a+++ 6++-[ 7.5 6+.a +++o + ao
a++. 5aa+ an+a 6a.[a naa+ A
am+ qn++aa. AB an ma AC a++. 5n 0n++
m+0++-a ABC a++n n. [a a+.
a+++n n.a

n.a 9.1
no 2: a++q+ ++ 0++[ mn+o. BC m
+[nnaa D 1a. AC m +[nnaa E 1a
++-+.
no 3: AD, BE a++. 5a G o ++++qa. G
amn+++m ABC m +[+0++.[ a+a.

n.a 9.2
no 4: AB m a+n na a F + ++-+. CF a++. 5+ G aa+ 6+oa++
++-o+a.
no 5: AG an ma GD ++annm +a
aa+a+ ++- +. AG = 4.5 6+.a.
GD = 2.25 6+.a. am+ ++-o+a. am0a.
GD
AG
= .
1
2
25 . 2
5 . 4
= am0a G m+ AD 2:1
amn a++++o n++ +mn+.








207
9.1.2 +nma.. a+a

+ m+0++-++m n+++am a++q+++0++[+a +naa aa 6+ooa.
5nnaa. m+0++-++m +nma.. a+a amnn[a. 5nnaa aa++a++ S aa
+o am+++o qn++nn[a. S m+ m+0++-++m +mm
++nnaa+ao+++a +a+t+++o 5++qa. 5+ +a+t++ +m R am+. S
a+a++aa. R +a++aa 6++-[ a++nn[a a..a. m+0++-++m +mm
++nnaa+a aa0+ 6+ooa. 5aa..a m+0++-++m +n ma. .a amaa. R
amn+ +n ma. . +a amaa +nnn[a.
+nma.. a+++1a. +nma..++1a ++-. +a++-. aamn+n
nmnnm+m0n+a.

no 1: m+0++-a ABC a++.
no 2: BC an ma AC ++annm a++ q+++ 0++[+a a++.
no 3: BC anma AC ++annm a++ q+++ 0++[+a 6a.o+ 6++aa
naa+ S am+ qn++. naa S m+ ABC m +nma..a+a amna++nn[a.
no 4: AB m a++ q+++ 0++.om a++. 5+0++[ S aa+ 6+o a++
+am++aa. SA, SB anma SC ++annm +a+a a++aa. SA = SB = SC
amn+nn++ 6+++ + 6++a+. S a+a++aa. SA a +a++aa 6++- [ +
a..a a++. 5aa..+++m m+0++-++m +nma..a. 5+ A, B, C aa+
6+oa++ 6+++ + 6++aaaa.
no 5: CA m a++ q+++ 0++.om a++. 5+ S m aa+ 6+o a++
++- +0n+a .

a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: AB = 7 6+.a , m B = 45, BC = 6 6+.a aa+a 6++-. ABC
a+++ +m +nma..++ a++.
+ Ja. ++nn.. aa++0+nn ABC a++
(n-0++-n 6++a+). nmmJ. nma+a no+a+
6++.+aa.
a+++n n.a

n.a 9.3
no 1: BC an ma AB ++annm a++q+++
0++[+a a++.
no 2: 5a a++q+++0++[+a 6a.[a
naa+ S am+ qn++. S m+ +nma..
a+a+qa.
no 3: SA, SB an ma SC ++annm +a+a
a++aa. SA = SB = SC = 3.6 6+.a am+
++-+0n+a.
no 4: S a+a++aa. SA +a++aa 6++-[ a..a a++. 5aa..a A, B , C
++annm aa++++ 6+o+m n+. 5+0a 0+a++m +nma. .a+qa.


208
no 5: CA m a++q+ ++0++.om a++. 5+ S m aa+ 6+oa++ ++-+0n+a.


n.a 9.4












qnn n: + m+0++-++m +nma. .+ +m a+++a.m. am+0++-a+m+
+nma. .+ ++o ann.[aa+ am0n+a.

9.1.3 aa.. a+a

n.a 9.5
+ m+0++-++m +mm
0++-+am 5+ +a6a.o+a + naa
aa+ 6+o+mnm. 5nnaa. m+0++-++m
a a. . a+a amnn[a. 5+ I aa
+o am+++o qn++nn[a. aa..
a+++m m+++a+m n-n amm6amo.
I +o+++ m+0++-++m n++++q
a++nn[a IL , IM , IN ama
q+++0++[+am +a+a +aa+qa. 5++
+a+am +aa+m a+nn. r aa +o
am+++o qn++nn[a.
I a+a++aa. r +a++aa 6++-. a..++m a++++o. 5aa..a
m+0++-++m +mm n+++a1a .nna+++ 6++[+mn+. 5+ m+0++-++m
a a. .a amnn[a (n.a 9.5 n n+J+ +aa ). +a r a a++a (inradius)
am+0n+a.
aa.. a+a ++-aa. aa++++ aa.aa. aa. .++ a++aa
aamn+a +0a ++nn.[aam.

no 1: ABC a++.
no 2: B an ma C ++ 0++-+am 0++- +a6a.o+ a++.
no 3: 5++ 5+ +a6a.o+a 6a.o+ 6++aa naa+ I am+ qnn n[+.
5++nnaa I amn0+ 0+a++m aa.. a+a+qa.
no 4: A m +a6a.o1a I aa+ 6+oa++ ++n+J++aa.
no 5: I +o+++ n++a BC +q+ 6+q+++ 0++[ a++. +m +a++ a++aa.
+ aa++a r + ++a.
209
no 6: I + a+a++aa r +a++aa 6++-[ + a..a a++. 5+0a.
m+0++-++m aa..a+qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: PQ = 8 6+.a, mP = 50, mQ = 60 ++ aa+.+ PQR m
aa..a a++. 0aoa aa++++ a++aa.
+ Ja: PQR m a+++ n.++o. +m aa+a+ qn+ +aa.
a+++n n.a

n.a 9.6

no 1: 0++-n-0++ onn.+ 6++a++n
n+mn[++ PQR a++.
no 2: P m 5+ +a6a.o a++.
no 3: Q m 5+ +a6a.o a++.
no 4: 5++ 5+ +a6a.o+a 6a.[a naa+ I
am+ qn++aa. 5nnaa I m+ aa..
a+a+qa.
no 5: PQ aa n++++nq ID aa 6+q+ ++0++[ a++.
no 6: ID m +a++ a++aa. 5++ +aa m+0++-++m aa++a+qa.
ID = 2 6+.a . am+ ++-o+a.
no 7: I a+a++aa . ID +a++aa 6++-[ + a..a a++. 5aa..a
m+0++-++m aa..a+qa.


n.a 9.7












9.1.4 6+ 0++. [ a+a

m+0++-++m + 6+0++[ amn+ m+0++-++m J ++n
naa+o+++ a+Jnn++++n q a++nn[a 6+q+++0++[ amn+ ++a
+man[+++ 6++a0a+a. + m+0++-++n q

n.a 9.8
+mm 6+0++[+a aam amn+
n0a+a. 5+6+0++[+a + naa aa+
6+o+mnm amn+ ++a mm0n n0a+a.
5nnaa m+0++-++m 6+0++.[ a+a
amnn[a. 5+ H aa +o am+ ++o
qn++nn[a. n.a 9.8 o. ABC am n+ +
m+0++-a. , AL BM an ma CN amna
210
6+0++[+a. 5a H o +++++mnm. 5q H amn+ ABC m 6+ 0++. [
a+a+qa.
m+0++-++m 6+0++.[ a+a H + ++- aamn+a +0a
++nn.[aam.
no 1: ++nn.. aa++q m+ 0++-a ABC a++.
no 2: , AL BM aa 6+0++[+a a++.
no 3: AL . BM ++++qa naa+ H am+ qn++aa. H m+ m+0++-a ABC m
6+ 0++. [ a+a+qa .

a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: XY = 9 6+.a, YZ = 8 6+.a. ZX = 7 6+.a amo. XYZ m 6+0++. [
a+a ++-+.
+ Ja: XYZ a+++n n.++ a+++. 6++[+ +nn.[aa aa+a+ qn++aa.
no1: n-n-n onn.+0++amn n+mn[++.
m+0++-a XYZ a++.
a+++n n.a

n.a 9.9
no 2: 6+0++[+a , XL YM a++.
no 3: , XL YM 6a.o+ 6++aa naa+ H
am+ qn++aa. H m+ XYZ m 6+ 0++. [
a+a+qa.
no 4: ZH 5-++. XY N o ++++qa+m
+.[+. ZN m+ Z aa++m 6+0++[ am+
++-o+a.


n.a 9.10















6aa0ama+a+m m+0++-++q +[+0++.[ a+a. +nma.. a+a.
aa.. a+a. 6+0++.[ a+a ++ann+ qn+++o. annm 5+nn.+a
+0a ++nn.[aano ++-o+a.




211
. .a-

+mmn na a m+ 0++-+ +m a+
+q naa+m
5+n n.a
+[+0++.[ a+a
m+ + a+++m
m+0++-a
m+0++-++m a0a
qm0++- m+0++-a m+0++-++m a0a
6+0++- m+0++-a +J-++m a+nnaa +nma. . a+a
a+0++- m+0++-a m+0++-++n q 6aa0+
aa.. a+a
m+ + a+++m
m+0++-a
m+0++-++m a0a
qm0++- m+0++-a m+0++-++m a0a
6+0++- m+0++-a
6+0++-++m ++n
naa
6+0++.[ a+a
a+0++- m+0++-a m+0++-++n q 6aa0+


n+n + 9.1

+-+q+a 1 m+o 4 a+. ++n n.[aa m+0++-++m +[+0++.[ a+a G ++-+.
1. ABC o. BC = 6 6+.a, mB = 40, mC = 60.
2. ABC o. m++n n+++a 6.5 6+.a +aa 6++-.a.
3. PQR o. mR = 90, PQ = 7 6+.a , PR = 6 6+.a.
4. LMN o. LM = 6 6+.a, mL = 95, MN = 8 6+.a.

+-+q+a 5 m+o 8 a+. ++nn.. m+0++-++m +nma..a a++. +nma..
+++m aa+ ++-+.
5. ABC o. AB = 8 6+.a, BC = 5 6+.a, AC = 7 6+.a .
6. PQR o. PQ = 5 6+.a, PR = 4.5 6+.a , mP = 100.
7. XYZ o. XY = 7 6+.a , mX = 70, mY = 60.
8. PQR o. a6a++ n++ma 5.5 6+.a +amaa+.

+-+q+a 9 m+o 12 a+. a a..a a+++. a a++++m aa[+.
9. ABC o. AB = 9 6+.a, BC = 7 6+.a, CA = 5 6+.a .
10. XYZ o. XY = YZ = ZX = 8 6+.a.
11. PQR o. PQ = 10 6+.a, mP = 90, mQ = 60.
12. ABC o. AB = 5.4 6+.a. mA = 50, AC = 5 6+.a .

+-+q+a 13 m+o 16 a+. m+0++-++m 6+0++. [ a+a ++-+.
13. ABC o. BC = 5.6 6+.a , mB = 55, mC = 65.
14. PQR o. mP = 90, mQ = 30, PR = 4.5 6+.a.
15. LMN o. LM = 7 6+.a, mM = 130, MN = 6 6+.a.
16. XYZ o. XY = 7 6+.a , YZ = 5 6+.a , ZX = 6 6+.a.


212
9.2 ++++++am aoa+o aa+ +a

5n0n++ ++a 5+ a+ mm a-+am +.[+ +++++. 6n+++o +++++
++ann aoa+o mn+o ++-0n+a.

9.2.1. +. [+ +++++
a, b aa 5+ a- +am +.[+ +++++
2
b a +
qa.
2
b a +
aa a--
aoa+o +oa ++- +a++-. mn++ +++a0a+a.
no 1: a + b +aa 6++-. 0+J+0++.[+ +-[ PQ a[+++ 6++a +.
no 2: PQ m a++q+ ++ 0++.om a++.
no 3: PQ aa. a++q+++0++[a ++++qa naa++ qn++. P o o+ Q
ao+++ nnaa aa 6++oam a++aa. 5+6++oa
2
b a +
+ ++a.
5+n q+ +++-a am m6amo. XY amn 0+J+0++.[+ +-om +aa l amo. XY m
a+nnaa++m+ X . Y o+++
2
l
6++oao 5++qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: 6 an ma 9 ++annm +. [+ +++++++ ++-+.
+ Ja: 6++mn +0a ++nn.[aa+.
no 1: 0+a++m +a++nq + 0+J+0++.. a++. AB = 6 6+.a aano AB
+o 6a.o+ 6++aaaa (n.a 9.11 n n+J++aa ).
no 2: AB m aon nn+ +o BC = 9 6+.a aano BC aa +-. 6a.o+ 6++a+.
no 3: AC m a++q+ ++ 0++om a++. 5+ AC + ++++qa naa+ qn++
+m M amn 6n++[+.
no 4: A o o+ C +o+++ M m 6++oa a++aa. AM =7.5 6+.a am+
++-o+a. 5+0a 6 an ma 9 ++ a-+am +.[+ +++++ qa .



n.a 9.11








9.2.2 6n+++o +++++ oo+ a+++a +++++
a , b amnmann 5+ a+ mm a-+a am+. a an ma b +m 6n+++o
+++++ am n+ ab qa. x = ab amo. x
2
= ab o o+ x x = ab oo+
b
x
x
a
=
o o+ a : x = x : b. am0a x m+ a, b +q 5.+o+m a+++a +++++ amo+a
(+ a- x m+ a : x = x : b aa+m 5++ ++o . x m+ a an ma b ++a++q
213
5.+o+m a+++a +++++ amn n[+n+). aoa+o mnnno ab + ++-a mn
+0a ++nn.[aa+.
no 1: 0+a+0+nn +aa+m +
0+J+0++.[+ +-. a++.

n.a 9.12
no 2: +o. AB = a , BC = b aa no 5+
+-[+a 6a.o+ 6++aaaa (n.a 9.12
n n+J++aa ).
no 3: AC a..a+++ 6++-[ +
a..a a++.
no 4: AC +q+ 6+q++++ B aa+++
DE aa ++- a++.
no 5: BD o o+ BE m +a++m
a++aa. 5++ +aa a, b + q 5.+o+m
a+++a +++++++ ++a. 5n0n++ BD m
+aa+m+ AB anma BC amnmannm +a+am a+++a ++++++ aaa+m ++a
amn+n n+++ 6++a 0a+a. AC amn+ a..a. D amn+ a..+ +m 0aoaa na a.
am0a ADC = 90. BD am n+ AC +q+ 6+q+ ++m+. B 1a . BD amn n++ma
ADB an ma DCB am+n m+0++-++qn 6n++a+ma. am0a 5aa+
m+0++-+a ao6a+++a. am0a n+++a 0+J a++++o 5++qa. ++a+.

BD
AB
=
BC
BD
oo+ BD
2
= AB BC o o+ x
2
= ab oo+ x = . ab

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: 9 6+.a , 3 6+.a +a6++-. 5+ +-[+am 6n+++o +++++++
qn+ qa ++-+ ++-+.
+ Ja:

n.a 9.13
no 1: AX aa 0++. om 0+a+0+nn
+aa+++ 6++a+.
no 2: +o AB an ma BC ++ 5+
+-[+a mn0+ 9 6+.a ,3 6+.a 6a. o+
6++a+ (n.a 9.13 n n+J++aa ).
no 3: AC m a++ q+++ 0++om
a++ +. + AC 6a.[a naa+ O
am+.
no 4: O a+a++aa. OA +a++aa
6++-[ + a..a a++.
no 5: B aa+++ DE aa ++- AC + q+ 6+ q++++ a++.
no 6: BD oo+ BE amnm AB , BC ++.+o+m 6n+++o +++++++ qn+qa.
BD o o+ BE m +a +a a+ +aa . 5+ + +a0a 9, 3 m 6n++ +o +++++ qa .
BD +a++ a++. BD = 5.2 6+.a am+ ++-o+a.
214
a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: 4 an ma 9 +q 5.0+ a+++a +++++++ ++-+.
+ Ja: 4 an ma 9 ++annm a+++a +++++ = 6 9 4 = am +a+q+ 6++1a.
5aa+nn 6 aoa+o mn+o ++-0n+a.
no 1: AX aa 0+J+ 0++.[+ +-om
0n++a+m aanq +aa++ a+++
6++a0a+a.

n.a 9.14
no 2: AX m 0ao 4 6+.a +ama a AB
am+n 0++.[+ +- . 6a.[+.
no 3: B +q aonnna++. B +o++ + 9 6+.a
+amaa +-[ BC a++ (n.a 9.14 n
n+J++aa ).
no 4: AC m a+nnaa+ O am+
qn++aa.
no 5: O a a+a++aa. OA a +a++aa
6++-[ + a..a a++.
no 6: B aa+++. AC +q+ 6+ q+ +++ DE aa ++- a++.
no 7: BD amn+ AB an ma BC +m a+++a +++++++ qn+qa.
no 8: BD +a++ a++ 6++a+. BD = 6 6+.a am+ ++-o+a. 5++ a- 6 m+ 4
anma 9 +am a+++a +++++ qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: 12 m a+nn aoa+o mn+o ++-+.
+ Ja: 12 = 3 4 am+ ++-o+a.
am0a 12 am n+ 4 an ma 3 ++
a-+am 6n+++o +++++++++
+++o+a. 4 an ma 3 +am a+++a
+++++++ ++- aoa+o mn+
++a n+mn[++0a+a.

n.a 9.15
no 1: AX aa 0++. om a+ AB = 4
6+.a., BC = 3 6+.a. aano. AB . BC
aa +- [+a 6a. o+ 6++a +
(n.a 9.15 n n+J++aa ).
no 2: AC a..a+++ 6++-[ +
a..a a++.
no 3: AC +q+ 6+ q+ +++. B aa+++DE aa ++- a++.
no 4: BD m +a++ a++aa. BD =3.4 6+.a am ++a ++-o+a. am0a.
12 3.4.







215


n+n + 9.2

1 m+o 4 a++o+m +-+q+ao. 6++[++nn.[aa a-+am +.[+ +++++++
++-+.

1. 6 anma 4 2. 10 an ma 5 3. 9 an ma 3 4. 2.5 an ma 6.5

5 m+o 8 a++o+m +-+q+ao. ++nn.. a-+am 6n+++o +++++++ ++-+.

5. 3.2 an ma 1.8 6. 2.2 an ma 5 7. 4 an ma 1.6 8. 6 an ma 4

9 m+o 12 a++o+m +-+q+ao. ++nn.. a-+am aJ+++o++m aoa+o
mnnno+ ++-+.

9. 15 10. 18 11. 21 12. 24






a.+a

n+n + 9.1


5. 4 6+.a 6. 3.7 6+.a 7. 4.7 6+.a 8. 3.2 6+.a
9. 1.65 6+.a 10. 2.3 6+.a 11. 3.7 6+.a 12. 1.5 6+.a


n+n + 9.2


1. 5 2. 7.5 3. 6 4. 4.5
5. 2.4 6. 3.3 7. 2.5 8. 4.9
9. 3.9 10. 4.2 11. 4.6 12. 4.9
216


10. aa++a+ ++++o

+am.+ mn+. a+a+++o naa aa++a amna++nn[a a--nn
a- +a+a ++a n+J++0n+a. a[+ ++++..++. ++a+a+an no+qa0n++. J
-+m + J+ 0++ + aa1a o o+ -+ qa n+1a + +m aa1a
++-+m0n+a. 5++ a--aa+a. annm a+J++on 0n++q+an nn n n+ +
6++aa+n+++ +++m ++o 5.6aa+ao n++nn[+mnm. 5aa+m n++nn[a
naa aa++a ++ aao 5+nn++o. 5ann mnnn[++ n+aa
aa++a n+ na+o ++J++ mn 0+ann[+n+. na+o ++J++
mn+o ++nn.. naa aa++a. nq++na+n ++m +-+++m + n+a
naa++o qa. 5nn+am 6++.+++ ++o aaJ+++o. 5+ + ++.om
.+++a++q. +m ++.[ a++am 6n++a++++ +o+ n+ + +n0+nn a++a
a+++ aa n+ +a++. m+o. 5mm na a++o a+n6n++ aaJ+++
.++ m++n n+a+aoa mo6a[nn+oa. +..a[a+oa a+n 6n++
n+m a+++n+. naa++o amn++ qn+qa +o+ 6++o statistics amn+
o++m 6a+a+ 6++oo+m. Status amn+o+++ +a+m+. Status amn+n q
+++o +o (political state) am m 6n++a+qa . ++a . m+ ++ aqn n+ao na a
aa++a 0++++qa mn nnn1a. ann nm+nn[++a mn nnn1a
no+++ 5n6n+m+ +ma +J0a+a.

naa aa++a m+o +on naa aa++a (primary data). 5+-.+a
+on naa aa++a (secondary data) am 5+ a+n n[a . + a+aJ +a+
++0m 0++++qa aa++a m+o +on naa aa++a amn n[a . +o 0++ +ao .
an+m0a + +a+a++o 0+++++nn.. m+o +on naa aa++a an6n++
+a+a+ 0a6n++ 0+a++++n n+mn[+++ 6++-.+o. n0n++ nnaa
aa++a 5+-.+a +on naa aa++a am +0n+a . + a+a++o
0+++++nn[a aa+ +a 6++q+ +n n.++ na a aa+ +a o o+ 6+n nm.n n.++
na a aa+ +a amn n[a . 5+ +++ na a aa+ +a +++ +aoao mn+++
6++q++nn.[. . .a- aoao ++nn[+n+. 5aa. .a-++m+. + ++a6a-
n. o+o amna++nn[+n+. ++a6a- n.o+o aa++++ ++nn[a naa
aa++a 6++q++nn.. naa aa++a am+0n+a. a[+++++..++. +0a
++nn.[aa 30 a+-aJ+am +-+ a+n6n-+a+ +++0a+a.
31 39 37 46 39 49
42 31 31 40 43 46
48 42 30 43 42 42
46 48 40 56 56 50
37 50 45 37 45 48
217
0an++-a naa aa+a 6++q++nn.++ +o+o aa+. ++nn.. a+n6n-+a
am a+++o am+. +a+q+ +.nn+.
30, 31, 31, 31, 37, 37, 37, 39, 39, 40, 40, 42, 42, 42, 42, 43, 43, 45, 45, 46, 46, 46, 48, 48, 48,
49, 50, 50, 56, 56.
0an+n+ a+++o a+n6n- 30 + mn1a. 31 +mm mn1a. 37 +mm
mn1a an ma 5a a+0n an n a+n 6n- +a a+ +a am. + + mn+o
++nn.. a+n6n-+a a--a+m+o +a+q+ +.+ qa ++a 6a-+a
. .a-+ 6++q++nn.++ naa aa++am ++aan n.o+o am+0n+a.
x amn+ + a+n6n--m1a. f amn+ x a+n6n- 6nnn a+-aJ+am
a--++ oo+ x m ++a6a--m+ qnnn++++ 6++a+. ++a6a--m
o6a- amma ++a +m0a+a .
x 30 31 37 39 40 42 43 45 46 48 49 50 56
f 1 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 1 2 2
5 q. x amn+ aa+m a+n oo+ a+nm+ (variate) (5a6a[+++ ++.oo. x
m+ a+n6n--m+ qn++n+) amna++nn[a ; f ++a6a-. ++a+. +
a+n+m qnnn. . a+nn a++m mn ++a+mn+ amn++ qn++n+.
5q. a+n 6n++ a+nn = 56 an ma a++ +n+ a+nn = 30. am0a.
a++ = a+n6n++ a+nn a++ +n+ a+nn = 56 30 = 26.
++a. ++nn.o++qa a+n6n-+a+ 0+J+++6++aa n+a 5.6aa+a amnn[a
5.6aa+a a++o+a. m+o aqnn 5.6aa 30-34. 5+ + 5.6aa 30, 31,
32 ,33 an ma 34 ++ a+n6n-+a+ 6++-[aa+. [++ aqnn 5.6aa
35-39. 5aa+n+++ 6++.+. +.+ aqnn 5.6aa 55-59 m+ 55, 56, 57, 58 an ma
59 ++ a+n6n-+a+ 6++-[aa+. 5q 5.6aa+a a6a+mma +a
anma 0ao aoo+q++ a-+a aa.++ 5+nn++o. 5aa.6aa+a
aa.++ 5.6aa+a qa. 5n0n++. ++a6a- n.o+o an0n+a.
n+a 5.6aa a--++ qn ++a6a-
30-34 ||||
4
35-39 ||||
5
40-44 |||| |||
8
45-49 |||| ||||
9
50-54 ||
2
55-59 ||
2
6a+++a 30
++nn.o++qa na a aa+++oaa a+nn+a mnm nm mn++ no++.
a6a++ a+nnnqa +nq++ 5.6aa+q a+0+ 0+J+ 0++[ | (nn+ qn
oo+ a--+++ qn) 5. 0a-[a. 0+ n+ao 5.a6nm+mn a6a++ 5 a+
a- -n ++m a- -+ ++ qn+m an +m0a n n+an 6++0+ 5.a 6nn n++ qa
++mq a--+++ qn++q qm++++ ( \ ) 5. 0a-[a. 5++ mn++m+.
++nn.o++qa naa aa++aoaa ++m a+nn++qa 5. 0a-[a.
0an+n+ ..a-+o. a6a++ aqnn 5.6aa+q++ a--+++ qn+am
218
a--++++m+ aaqnnm ++a6a- (frequency) amnn[+n+. 5aa..a-.
6++q++nn.. naa aa++am ++a6a-n.o+o amn n[+n+. 0an+n+
..a-+m n+a 5.6aa++qa 34.5, 39.5 0n+mn a+n6n-+a+ 0+J++
5+o++ amn+ n+. 5++++ aoo . ++a aqnn 5.6aa+am 0ao
aoo+ ++++ 5.6aa a+++++++ am n ++++.m 29.5-34.5, 34.5-39.5, ,
54.5-59.5 am a+nn a++o+a. 5+ +++ a+nn++ .+ ..a-+ +0a
++-o+a.
n+a 5.6aa a--++ qn ++a6a-
29.5-34.5 |||| 4
34.5-39.5 |||| 5
39.5-44.5 |||| ||| 8
44.5-49.5 |||| |||| 9
49.5-54.5 || 2
54.5-59.5 || 2
6a+++a 30
5q. ++a6a- n.o+o+m+ x a+n+m 6++.J++++m a+n n+++ 6++a++n+.
+ n+a 5.6aa+m 0ao aoo anma +a aoo+am a+++++++
aa.6aa+m aa (size) amma. 0ao aoo anma +a aoo+am
++++++ n+am a+nn (class mark) amma a++0n+a. 5q 34.5-39.5 n+a
5.6aa+m aa = 5 anma n+am a+nn = 37. 5+ 5.6aa+m a+a+n n
qa. 0aoaa ..a-+o+++. 34.5 +q++a a+n6n- 6nnnaJ+a 4, 39.5 + q+
+a a+n6n-+a 6nnnaJ+a 4 + 5 = 9, 44.5 +q++a a+n6n- 6nnnaJ+a 4 + 5 + 8
= 17, 49.5 +q++a a+n6n-+a 6nnnaJ+a 4 + 5 + 8 + 9 = 26, 54.5 + q+ + a
a+n6n-+a 6nnnaJ+a 4 + 5 + 8 + 9 + 2 = 28 an ma 59.5 + q+ +a a+n 6n- +a
6nnnaJ+a 4 + 5 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 2 = 30. 5++++ ++aa+am a--+++a qaa
++a6a-+a (cumulative frequencies (c.f)) oo+ qaa o6a- +a am +0n+a .
qaa ++a 6a-+am ..a- +0a ++nn.[aa+

n+a 5.6aa a+a+nn x ++a6a- f qaa ++a 6a- c.f
29.5-34.5 32 4 4
34.5-39.5 37 5 9
39.5-44.5 42 8 17
44.5-49.5 47 9 26
49.5-54.5 52 2 28
54.5-59.5 57 2 30
6a+++a 30

10.1 a++on 0n++ q aa+a

6+nnm.nn.++ naaaa++am ++a6a-n.o+o 0an+n+a+m ann+m
+oa. nnaa aa++am + 6+aa+m annm+ ++-mo+n+. +
qnnn.. a+nno++ + naaaa+ a+nn+a .1a a+n n+ +m 0n++ +mnnnn
219
0aoa n++6++aa. naa aa++a +a++a++ n++++qa +..a..a+m
aa+a aam. ++++ aa+a a++on 0n++ q aa+a (Measures
of Central Tendency) oo+ a++Jn n aa+a (Measures of Location)
amnn[+mnm. ++++. +o aa+a+am:
1. +.[+ +++++ (Average)
2. 5.+o (Median)
3. m+[ (Mode)

10.1.1 +. [+ +++++
11, 22, 7, 33, 27 amn a+nn+a+ +++0a+a. 0an+n+ a6a++
a+nno++ +a. 20 + +a++. +a+q+ +.nn+ 9, 2, 13, 13, 7. 5+ +
a+++++ +a+ +.. +a+ q +.nn+ 0. 5+o+++. a- 20 ++nn.o++qa 5
a+nn+am +[ao a+++++n+ am n+0n+a. 5+ ++nn. o++qa a+nn+am
+++++ o o+ +. [+ +++++ amnn[a. 6n++a++. x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
am+n n a+nn+am
+.[+ +++++ (average) oo+ a-+-++ +++++ (arithmetic mean) oo+ ++++a++
+++++ (mean) x amn a-. x o++ + n a+n n+a x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
m ao+++am
+[+o 0 amn++ qa+m a++m++nn[+mn+. ++a+. x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
aa

n
a+nn+am +++++ x m+
(x
1
x ) + (x
2
x ) + ... + (x
n
x ) = 0 oo+ (
n
x x x + + + ...
2 1
) n x = 0
amn +amn+..+o +.++n6nma . am0a
.
n
x ... x x
x
n 2 1
+ + +
=

+-++ +o . qn+[ , ++ a+ (sigma) m+. +[+o+ qn++n n+mn[++nn[+n+.
5+++ qn+.om +oa. +[+o
n
x x x + + + ...
2 1
m+ o o+ aa+++
am qn++nn[a. am0a. ++a a++mnn+.

=
n
i
i
x
1
i
x
.
n
x
x
i
=
naa aa+ a+nn+a ++a6a- n.o+oo a++nn.o++++o. +++++ x m+.
n
n n
f f f
x f x f x f
x
+ + +
+ + +
=
....
...
2 1
2 2 1 1

amm 6nnnn[+mn+. 5q x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
m+ mn0+ f
1
, f
2
,, f
n
amn
++a6a-+a+ 6++-. +mn n.. a+n n+a++0a+ oo+ f
1
, f
2
, , f
n
amn
++a6a-+a+ 6++-. n+a 5.6aa+am 5.a+nn aa+a++0a+
5++ qa . ++ a+ qn+. oo am+.
x =
N
x f
i i
, 5 q N =
n
f .... f f + + +
2 1
.
++nn.o++ qa a+nn+am a.[a+nn+a a+n 6n++a+++ 5++++o. +++++++m+
+++q-aamn6++mnm+o +-++.nn[a. A amn+ 6n++++a++ 0+J+6+[++nn. .
220
J a- am+. ++a. x
1
A, x
2
A, , x
n
A am +n a+no +a an0n+a.
5aa+no++q c amn 6n++a+m +++- 5+n n++++ 6++-.+o. nma+a
a+++a an0n+a.
.
c
A x
..., ,
c
A x
,
c
A x
n


2 1

5ann mn0+ d
1
, d
2
, , d
n
am +. 5n6n+m+.
i i
d f = f
1
d
1
+ f
2
d
2
+ ..+ f
n
d
n
=
c
A x
f ...
c
A x
f
c
A x
f
n
n

+ +

2
2
1
1

= ( ) ( ) ( [ ] A f x f A f x f A f x f
c
n n n
+ + + ...
1
2 2 2 1 1 1
)
=

( ) ( ) [ ]
n n n
f f f A x f x f x f
c
+ + + + + + ... ...
1
2 1 2 2 1 1
= [ ]
1
N A x f
c
i i

N A x f
i i

= c

-+
i i
d f
i
i
i
i
d f c N A x f

+ =
-+ x =
N
x f
i i
= A

+ c
N
d f
i i
.
qnn n. x
1
A, x
2
A, , x
n
A +a n++nmn++m. 6n++++++- c +
qnnn.mo1a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 am+n na a aa++am +++++++ ++-+.
+ Ja : x =
N
x
i
=
6
19 17 15 13 11 9 + + + + +
=
6
84
= 14.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: nma+a naa aa+++q +.[+ +++++++ ++-+.

x 10 11 13 15 16 19
f 4 5 8 6 4 3
+ Ja:
+++ q-aa mn.
A = 14, c = 1 am+ 6++a+. nmn d = x A

x f d f d
10 4 4 16
11 5 3 15
13 8 1 8
15 6 1 6
16 4 2 8
19 3 5 15
6a+++a
N=30
fd = 29 39 = 10

x = A+ c
N
fd

=14 + 1
30
10

14 0.33 = 13.67.
0++o mn.




x =
N
x f
i i
=
30
410
13.67.
x f f x
10 4 40
11 5 55
13 8 104
15 6 90
16 4 64
19 3 57
6a+++a N = 30 fx = 410

221
a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: nma+a naa aa+++q +.[+ +++++ ++-+.

a+n6n- 80 85 90 95 100
a+-aJ+am
a--++
5 6 6 2 1
+ Ja: A = 90 , c = 5 ,
c
A x
d

= am+. x A +a+ +-++.[ c = 5 am n+.
x f d
f d
80 5 2 10
85 6 1 6
90 6 0 0
95 2 1 2
100 1 2 2
N = 20
fd = 12
x = A+ c
N
fd

= 90 + 5
20
12
= 90 3 = 87.
a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: nma+a naa aa+++q +.[+ +++++ ++-+.

n+a 5.6aa 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
a+n6n- 12 18 27 20 17 6
+ Ja:
0++o mn.
n+a 5.6aa a+ a+nn x ++a6a- f
f x
0-10 5 12 60
10-20 15 18 270
20-30 25 27 675
30-40 35 20 700
40-50 45 17 765
50-60 55 6 330
N = 100
fx = 2800

..a-+o+++. N = 6a++ + ++a6a- = 100,

fx = 2800.
x =
N
fx

=
100
2800
= 28.
222
+++q-aamn. A = 30, c = 5,
c
A x
d

= am+.

n+a 5.6aa a+ a+nn x d ++a6a- f f d
0-10 5 5 12 60
10-20 15 3 18 54
20-30 25 1 27 27
30-40 35 1 20 20
40-50 45 3 17 51
50-60 55 5 6 30
N = 100 fd = 101141= 40

x = A+ c
N
fd

= 30 + 5
100
40
= 30 2 = 28.


n+n + 10.1.1

1. +++++++ ++-+. 7, 12, 18, 14, 19, 20.
2. + aqnnoaa 15 a+-aJ+ao. 4 a+-aJ+a 66 a+n6n-+a . 5 a+-aJ+a
67 a+n6n-+a. 6 a+-aJ+a 68 a+n6n-+a a[+++o. aaqnnm +.[+
+++++++ ++-+.
3. nma+a naa aa+++q +.[+ +++++++ +-++[+.

x 5 10 15 20 25 30
f 4 5 7 4 3 2

4. nma+a naa aa+++q +.[+ +++++++ +-++[+.

a+n6n-+a 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
a+-aJ+am
a--++
11 6 3 6 4 10 4

5. nma+a naa aa++ao++ + +. [+ +++++++ ++-+.

a+n 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
++a6a- 12 20 15 14 16 11 7 8

6. nma+a ..a-++ 6++-[ +. [+ ++++++ ++-+

n+a 5.6aa 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
++a6a- 8 14 7 10 11
223
10.1.2 5.+o aa

++nn.o++qa 6+nnm.nn.++ naa aa++a am oo+ 5nq
a+++o am+a0n++. +aa+o mqnn[++ 5++qa a+++o +[+o+++
a+ +++ qa + a+n n+ +- .n+ mo1a . 5+ + +[ a+n n o o+ a+ ++o
aa a+nn naa aa++am 5.+o aa amn n[a .
a[+ ++++..++. 14, 28, 20, 29, 18, 25, 26, 17, 36 am+n naa aa++a+
+++0a+a. ann am a+++o am+. 14, 17, 18, 20, 25, 26, 28, 29, 36 am +a+q+
+.++n+. 5aa+++o. 25 m+. naa aa++am +[+o+++
a+++++n+. am0a 25 m+. na a aa+ +am 5.+o aa qa .
5q. ++nn.o++qa a+nn+am a--++ nnnn.+o a++aa++o.
a+++o a++a a a+nn++ 5.+o aa 5+++n+.

85, 79, 57, 59, 66, 26, 40, 33, 48, 53 am+n naa aa++a+ +++0a+a.
an n m qn[+ + am a+++o am+. 26, 33, 40, 48, 53, 57, 59, 66, 79, 85 am+
+.++n+. 5q 5+..nn. a--+ ++o a+n n+a a+ +a a++o .
mqn[+ ++ a+++m +[ao 53 an ma 57 a++aam. am0a. ++a 5aa+
a-+am +++++++ +-++.. 55
2
110
2
57 53
= =
+
m+ a+++q a+ a+nn++
5++ +n+. a+n n 55 m+. ++n n.. na a aa++ao + a+n n++
5o o6+m n+oa . +0a 5.+o a+n n++ a+n+. +0a. ++n n. .
6+nnm.++ naa aa++am 5.+o aamn 6nn nma+a aa+a
0an6++a0a+a.

m+oo. ++nn.. 6a+++ naa aa++a ama+++0o+ oo+
5n qa+++0o+ am+ 0a-[a. N amn+ a+nn+am a--++ am+. N
nnnn. a--++ 5++++o. 0an+-. a+++o + a+nn +[+o+++
5++qa. 5+ ++nn.. a+n n+am am oo+ 5nqa+++o

+
2
1 N
a+
mnn++ a1a. 5+0a 5.+o a+nn qa. N 5+. .n n. a- -++
a+ ++o . q 5+ a+n n+a +[+o+++ a1a . a na a aa+
a+nn+am am oo+ 5nqa+++o
2
N
a+ an ma

+1
2
N
a+
mnn+a+qa. am0a. 5aa+ mnn+am +++++0+ 5.+o qa.
++nn.. naa aa++a. ++a6a- n.o+oo a++++++o 5.+o+
++-n nma+a mn++ +++ao+a.
m+oo. qaa ++a6a- ++o a++.
2
N
m a+n n+ ++- 0a- [a .
5 q N am n+ 6a++ + ++a 6a- (N =
n
f .... f f + + +
2 1
) qa . nnq
224
..a-+o+++.
2
N
+q+ +aa+m oo+
2
N
+q +n0n ++a+m qaa
++a6a- a+nnm .+ a+n+m a+nn oo+ n+a 5.6aa++ ++-
0a- [a (5+ n+aom 5.+o n+a 5.6aa amnn[a). ++nn.. naa
aa+++ q. 5.+o n+a 5.6aa+q++ a+n+m a+n0n ++nn.. naa
aa+++n++m 5.+o a+nn+qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: 23, 25, 29, 30, 39 ++annm 5.+o ++-+.
+ Ja: ++nn.o++qa a+nn+a an +m0a am a+++o a++a am.
N = a+nn+am a--++ = 5. 5+ J n nnn. a-. +0a.
5.+o =

+
2
1 N
a+ mnn =

+
2
1 5
a+ mnn = 3 a+ mn n = 29.
5.+o = 29.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: 3, 4, 10, 12, 27, 60, 55, 49, 50, 41, 32, 63, 71, 75, 80 m 5.+o
++-+.
+ Ja: ++nn.o++qa a+nn+a ama+++o a++.
3, 4, 10, 12, 27, 32, 41, 49, 50, 55, 60, 63, 71, 75, 80.
N = a+nn+am a--++ = 15, J nnn n. a-.
5.+o =

+
2
1 N
a+ mnn =

+
2
1 15
a+ mnn = 8

a+ mnn= 49.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: 29, 23, 25, 29, 30, 25, 28 5an nm 5.+o ++-+.
+ Ja: ++nn.o++qa a+nn+a ama+++o am+.
23, 25, 25, 28, 29, 29, 30.
N = a+nn+am a- -++ = 7, J n nn n. a- .
5.+o =

+
2
1 N
a+ mnn =

+
2
1 7
a+ mnn = 4 a+ mnn = 28.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: 26, 25, 29, 23, 25, 29, 30, 25, 28, 30 m 5.+o ++-+.
+ Ja: ++nn.o++qa naa aa+ +a ama+++o am+.
23, 25, 25, 25, 26, 28, 29, 29, 30, 30.
N = a+nn+am a--++ = 10, J 5+..nn. a-.
5.+o =
2
N
a+ mnn anma

+1
2
N
a+ mn n ++annm +++++
= 5 a+ an ma 6 a+ mnn+am +++++
= 26 an ma 28 +am +++++ =
2
28 26 +
= 27.




225
a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: nma+a ..a-+q 5.+o aa +-++[+.

a+n ( x) 5 10 15 20 25 30
++a6a- ( f ) 3 6 10 8 2 3


+ Ja:

x f
qaa
++a6a-
5 3 3
10 6 9
15 10 19
20 8 27
25 2 29
30 3 32

6a++ + ++a6a- = N = f = 32 . +++o
2
N
= 16.
5.+o =

2
N

a+ a+nn = 16 a+ mnnm a+nn. m+o 16 a+ a+n n+m+.
qaa ++a 6a- 19 a a n+a 5.6aa+o a+ +a a+. 5+n qn
6n++++mn n a+n+m a+n n 15 qa. am0a. 5.+o = 15.


n+n + 10.1.2

1. nma+a a+n+am 6++qnnn q 5.+o ++-+.
(i) 66, 63, 55, 60, 46, 10 (ii) 35, 39, 36, 34, 28, 27, 45, 41
(iii) 60, 61, 60, 58, 57, 59, 70 (iv) 41, 45, 36, 37, 43, 45, 41, 36

2. 40 a+-aJ+am a+n6n-++++m 5.+o ++-+.

a+n6n-+a 24 20 35 52 50 48
a+-aJ+am
a--++
4 7 3 9 5 12

3. nma+a naa aa+++q 5.+o ++-+.

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f 4 6 5 3 2 5

226
4. 43 6++ao+aJ+am +o+a ++nn. [aam. 5annm 5.+o a+nnm+
++-+.
+o 25 35 45 55 65
6++ao+aJ+am
a--++
3 5 20 10 5

10.1.3 m+[
a++o aa+ao m+[a J aa+qa.
(i) +m+6++q++++ a++aa a+nn+am +-++o a++ + a+nn+m+
++ a--+++o 5+++n0++ + ++nn.. naa aa++am m+[
amnn[a.
(ii) ++nn.. naa aa++a mqn[++ + ++a6a- n.o+oo
a+++o. ++ ++a6a-- 6++-. n+a. m+[ n+a amn n[+n+.
5nn+ao aa a+n+m 5.nn.. a+nn. ++nn.. naa aa+++m m+[
amnn[a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: 7, 4, 5, 1, 7, 3, 4, 6,7 m m+[ ++-+.
+ Ja: naaaa++a ama+++o am+.
1, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7.
0an++-a naa aa++ao 7, ++ +.a ++-nn[+n+. am0a. m+[ = 7.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 11: 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, 30 m m+[ ++-+.
+ Ja: naa aa++a an+m0a ama+++o aam. a6a++ a+nna 0+ +
+.a 0an+-. a+++o a+++++n+. am0a. ++nn. . naa aa+++ q
m+[ 5oo.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 12: 12, 15, 11, 12, 19, 15, 24, 27, 20, 12, 19, 15 m m+[ ++-+.
+ Ja: ++nn.. naa aa++a ama+++o am+.
11, 12, 12, 12, 15, 15, 15, 19, 19, 20, 24, 27.
5 q 12 +m m mn1a . 15 +mm mn1a a+++++n+.
12 an ma 15 5+- [a ++n n. . na a aa+ ++ q m+[+a++ a+m nm. 5 q.
++nn.. naa aa+ ++q 5+ m+[+a 5+++mnm amm +m+m0n+a.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 13: nma+a ++a6a- n.o+oo+++ m+[ ++-+.
+o 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
6++ao+aJ+am
a--++
12 11 14 13 12 10 9
+ Ja: n.o+oo+++ ++a na+. a+ +J++ ++a6a- 14 qa. 5+nq
5+a+m a+n +o+m a+nn 55 qa. 5+0a ++nn.. aa+++m m+.+qa.
++a+. m+[ = 55.

227

n+n+ 10.1.3
1. nma+a naa aa+++q m+[ ++-+.
(i) 84, 91, 72, 68, 87, 84 (ii) 65, 61, 72, 81, 51, 31
(iii) 38, 31, 22, 20, 31, 61, 15, 20 (iv) 15, 11, 18, 23, 11, 19, 11
2. nma+a n+aonq m+[ ++-+.
x 10 20 30 40 50 60
f 8 15 12 10 9 6
3. nma+a ..a-+o+++ m+[ ++-+.

x 60 61 62 63 64 65
f 5 8 14 16 10 7


a.+a

n+n + 10.1.1

1. 15 2. 67.1 3. 15.6 4. 79.1 5. 45 6. 35.4

n+n + 10.1.2

1. (i) 57.5 (ii) 35.5 (iii) 60 (iv) 41
2. 48 3. 3 4. 45

n+n+ 10.1.3

1. (i) 84 (ii) m+[ 5oo (iii) 20, 31 (iv) 11
2. 20 3. 63
228


11. a+n.+a

na+o. 6n+n++o anma aJ+++a 0n+mn +n+ao ++a 6a+6+-
a+nn+a 6nma no0am a+n+a+ +-o+++0n+a. a[+++++..++. a-+++o.
+ ++++m ++a (s) anma ao (p) 5+ 6a+a+n+a+qa. 5aa+n+a +
+amn+.om aa+++ 5-++o+a. 5+ +am n+..n n+mn[++. a6a++ s 5m
a+nnnqa p 5m a+nn ++a 6nno+a ; an ma 6a+ 6+- +a+o m a++
0++o+a (s, p) 5m +-++n 6nno+a . aoo+ a++ 0++o+a1a. +.+++
s-++++aa. q+++ + p-++++aa 6++-. ++Jc++m +a++o naa+a+++
qn++o+a. 5n6n+m+ 5nnaa+a. a+n+++.0+1aa nam a+n.+ +m
a++m++n+ amm 6++o+0n+a. 5aa+n.a a+n+am nam +ma++
++.[+n+. a+m+++a+m. ++a o++o n+mn[++a + a+n.a 0+J+0++[
a+n.a+qa. ++a 5n6n+m+ 0+J+0++[ a+n. +an nn n1a. a aaa+m
a++nn[+mnm amn+n nnn1a. annn n+mn[+++ +o +amn+[+a+
+Jnn+ qn++a ++- mnn[0a+a.

11.1 0+J+0++[ a+n.+a
x an ma y 5+ a+n+a am +. a y = mx + c amn +amn+.[ aoa++o
5-++nn..+o. a 0+++ mn+o 5-++nn.[aam amm +m0a+a. ++a
an+m0a nqmn aoa+o n+.++o. ++Jc++m +a+ +o y = mx + c am n +am n+[
+ 0+J+0++om+ qn++n+ am+ +-[a0a+a. 5++++-+++o ++m x an ma y
5annn+.0+++m na + 0+++ na am +0n+a . a 6a++ x a+nnnqa.
y = mx + c amn +amn+[ y 5m + a+n n+ 6++[+ +n+; an ma x, y a-+a+o
a+n6nnn + a++ 0++o (x, y) +.++n+. 5aa+n++n 6nnnn.. a++
0++o+am +-a. y = mx + c 5m a+n.+ +m a++n 6++ +n+. 0aoa 5+
0+++ a+n.a am a++0n+a. +amn+[ y = mx + c o . m m+ +0+J+0++om
+++ a. c m+ +m y-6a. [+ +- [ amn+ ++a +ma +J0a+a. x=0
aa0n++. y 5m a+nn y-6a.[++-.+qa. +o +a++ao y-6a.[++-om
a+n n 0 + 5++qa. 5+a+o+o. +amn+[ y = mx am n++n+; an ma
5+0+J+0++[ +nnaa aa+6+o+n+. ++a 5n6n+m+ no0am a+o+ao
0+J+0++om a+n.a a+a+ qn++n n+Jn0n+a . + 0+J+0++[ a+a+n++m
onn.+ qn+0++a . +0+J+0++om a+ 5+ naa+a +a+q+ 0+a amn++qa.
nma+a mn. 0+J+0++[ a+a+n+++n nmnnnnn[+mn+.

no 1: x 5m 5+ 6aa0am a+nn+a x
1
, x
2
5an n+ +am n+[ y = mx + c 5o
n+++.[. y +q 5+ a+nn+a y
1
, y
2
++a 6nm+m0n+a. 5n6n+m+ ++a 5+
naa+a (x
1
, y
1
) an ma (x
2
, y
2
) 5ann + 0+J+0++om a+ 6nn ma0a+a.
229
no 2: x-++ an ma y-++ 5ann + a+n.+++ao a+++ annm a+
0+a+0+nn aa[+a+ qn+++6++a0a+a. no 1 5o 6nnnn.. ++
+t++am aan 6n+m+0+ 5+ +++a o+[+o 6+++0n+a. ++
+t++a ++ a+nn+a .+m amo. +++ao 1 6+.a . aa 6n++
a+nn+ qn+ qa o++++ 6++a+0n+a.
no 3: 5+ naa+a (x
1
, y
1
) an ma (x
2
, y
2
) a+n.+++ao ++++ ++Jc++m
+a++o qn++aa.
no 4: 5+ na a+a1a + 0+J+ 0++. [+ +- .+o 5-+ + 5+ n+ +ma + . .aa .
5+0a 0+a++m 0+J+0++[ a+n.a+qa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 1: (2, 3) an ma (4, 1) 5-+ qa 0++.om a+n.a a++.
+ Ja: a+n.+++ao x, y-+ ++a a++ +
annm a+ 1 6+.a. = 1 oq am+ qn++aa.
A(2, 3) an ma B (4, 1) amnm ++nn. . 5+
naa+a am+. ++a 5aa+ naa+a1a
a+n.+++ao qn+ +0n+a. ++a. A anma B
0+J+0++.+o 5-++ 5+ nnma +.[0a+a.
5n6n+m+ 0+a++m a+n.a 6nnnn..+ (n.a
11.1 n n+J++aa ).

n.a 11.1

a[+ ++ ++. [ 2: y = 2x 5m a+n.a a++.

n.a 11.2
+ Ja: y = 2x amn+ 0+J+0++om +amn+[ amn++o.
0+J+0++[ +nnaa aa++++ 6+o+n+. x = 1,
0, 1 am+ +amn+. oo n+++.. mn0+ ++a
y = 2, 0, 2 amn 6nm+0n+a. 5+m+ +0a
..a-++++ ++ +a0a+a .



x 1 0 1
y 2 0 2
a+n.+++ao x-++. y-++ a+++. annm a+ 1 6+.a . = 1 oq am+
6++a+m0n+a. ++a 5n6n+m+ (1, 2), (0, 0), (1, 2) ++ na a+a
a+n.+++ao qn+ +0n+a. 5nnaa+a 5-+ + 5+n+ +ma +. [+0n+a.
5n6n+m+ +a+q+ 0+a++m 0+J+0++[ a+n.a +.++aa+ (n.a 11.2 n
n+J++aa ).


n.a 11.3
a[+ ++ ++. [ 3: y = 3x 1 5m a+n.a a++.
+ Ja: x = 1, 0, 1 am+ +amn+.oo n+++.
mn0+ ++a y = 4, 1, 2 amn 6nm+0n+a.
a+n.++o (1, 4), (0, 1) anma (1, 2) +
qn++aa. naa+a 0+J+0++.+o 5-++ 5+
nnma +. .aa. +a+ q+ 0+a++m 0+J+0++om
a+n.a +.+ +aa+ (n.a 11.3 n n+J+ +aa).

230
a[+ ++ ++. [ 4: +++ a
2
3
+aa. y-6a.[++-[ 3 +aa 6++-. 0+J+0++om
a+n.a a++.
+ Ja: 0++om +amn+[ y = mx + c o o+

n.a 11.4
y =
2
3
x + (3) oo+ y =
2
3
x 3.
x = 2, 0, 2 amn n+++. mn0+
y = 0, 3, 6 am ++a 6nm+0n+a. (2, 0),
(0, 3) an ma (2, 6) naa+a
a+n.+++ao qn++aa. naa+a




x 2 0 2
y 0 3 6
5-++ 5+ nnma +..aa.
5n6n+m+ +a+ q+ 0+a++m
0+J+0++om a+n.a +.++n+ (n.a
11.4 n n+J++aa).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 5: 2x + 3y = 12 amn 0+J+0++. om a+n.a a++.
+ Ja: 6++[++nn..+ +amn+.. nma+a+m am+o+a.
3y = 2x + 12 oo+ y =

3
2
x + 4.

n.a 11.5
x = 3, 0, 3 amn n+++. mn0+
y = 6, 4, 2 am ++a 6nno+a. (3, 6), (0, 4)
anma (3, 2) ++ na a+a
a+n.+++ao qn++aa.



x 3 0 3
y 6 4 2
naa+a 5-++ 5+ nnma
+..aa. 5+0a 0+a++m 0+J+0++[
a+n.a+qa (n.a 11.5 n n+J++aa).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 6: x = 3 5m a+n.a a++.

n.a 11.6
+ Ja: x = 3 amn +amn+. oo y n nn n
qnnn.nn.aoo amn+ ++a
+am++0n+a. am0a. y 5m a+ + +
a+nnnqa x = 3 qa . y + q 1 an ma 2 am+
0+J+6+[+ +. 5+ na a+a (3, 1) anma (3, 2),
x = 3 amn 0++.om a+ 5+++n+ amn
6nm+0n+a. 5nnaa+a a+n.+++ao
qn++aa. 5+ naa+a 0+J+0++.+o
231
5-++ 5+nnma +. .aa. +a+q+ 0+a++m 0+J+0++[ a+n.a +.++n+
(n.a 11.6 n n+J++aa). 5q 0+J+ 0++[ y-+++ q 5-+++ aa+
+am++aa.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 7: y = 4 5m a+n.a a++.

n.a 11.7
+Ja: y 5m a+nn a+n+ao 4 amaa.
+amn+.oo x 5m a+nn qnnn.nn.+aoa
5+nn++ ++-+0n+a. am0a. ++a x +q 5+
a+nn+a 2, 2 am+ 0+J+6+[++0n+a .
5n6n+m+ +a+q 5+ naa+a (2, 4) anma
(2, 4), 0+J+ 0++[ y = 4 5m a++nn+++n
6nm+0n+a.
x 2 2
y 4 4




5aa+ naa+a1a a+n.++o qn++ + 0+J+0++om+o 5-++aa. 5+m
5+nnma +..aa. 5+0a +a+q+ 0+a++m a+n.a+qa (n.a 11.7 n
n+J++aa). 5q 0+J+ 0++.+m+ x-+++q 5-+++ aa+ +am++aa.

n+n + 11.1

1. +a++-. naa+a aa+6+ooa 0+J+0++[ a+n.a a++.
(i) (2, 3) anma (4, 6) (ii) (1, 0) anma (2, 5)
(iii) (3, 2) anma (5, 1) (iv) (2, 3) an ma (5, 4)
2. nma+amannm a+n.a a++:
(i) y = 2x (ii) y = 3x (iii) x = 5y (iv) x = 4y
3. nma+amannm a+n.a a++:
(i) x = 3 (ii) y = 5 (iii) x = 5
(iv) y = 4 (v) 2x + 3 = 0 (vi) 1 + 2y = 0
4. y = mx + c amn+n++m a+n.++mn nma+a a+nn+a+ 6++-[ a++.
(i) m = 3 an ma c = 4 (ii) m =
3
2
an ma c = 3
(iii) m = 3 anma c = 4 (iv) m = 2 anma c = 5
5. nma+a +amn+[+am a+n.a a++:
(i) 2x + 3y = 12 (ii) x 5y = 10
(iii) y + 2x 5 = 0 (iv) x 2y + 1 = 0





232
11.2 0+J+ 0++[ a+n. +am n+m n+[
5+n+-++ 6++on+[+amn 5+ + +a 0+J+0++[+ +amn+[++q.
annm a+n.+a mn++ a+++ +Ja ++-o+a. x, y 5o a++ +
0+++ +amn+[ ax + by + c = 0 am n aoao 5++ qa . 5++amn+[ ++Jc++m +a++o
+ 0+J+0++.+ qn+qa. am0a. 5+ ++a+ +amn+[+am +Ja ++-n+ 5+
0+J+0++[+am 6n++nnaa++ +-[nonn+nq+ +aa+qa. 5q. +mm a++a
-.++m nm.
m+o+a+++. 5+ 0+J+0++[+a m0n+6.+mn++ a+mnm; ++a+. 5+
a+n.+a mn++mnm. 5+a+o+o moao+ naa+a 5+
a+n.++qa 6n++a+ma am n+0n+a. am0a, 6++[+ +n n. .
+amn+[++q a- -nn +Ja+a -[.
5+-.+a+++. 5+ 0+J+0++[ a+n.+a m0n+6.+mn++ aa+oo;
m+o . a 5-++ma. 5+ a +o+o 5+ 0+J+ 0++[ a+n. +a
mn6++mm 6a.o+ 6++aa+oo. am0a. 5+ 0++[++qa 6n++a+m naa
+.+++. am0a. 5a6a+++a+ +amn+[++q+ +Ja +.+++.
+mn+a+++. 5+ 0+J+0++[+a 0+ + naa+o 6a. o+6++a+mnm.
5+a+o+o. 6++[++nn.[aa ++a+ +amn+[++q+ +m++ +Ja+a
-[. 5a. +0+J+0++[+a 6a.o+6++a a na a+m + + +t+ +a+qa .
am0a. 5a6a+++a+ +amn+[++q 0+6+++ +Ja -[.

a[+ ++ ++. [ 8: 2x + y = 1 an ma 4x + 2y = 2 amn ++a+ +amn+[+a
a+n.a +oa +J.
+ Ja: 0++[ 1: y = 2x + 1
0++[ 2: 2y = 4x + 2 i.e., y = 2x + 1

x 1 1
y 3 1

x 1 1
y 3 1



n.a 11.8
0+ a+n.+++ao 5+ +amn+[+am
naa+a+ qn++aa. naa+a
(0++.[+ +-.+o) 5-++ 5+nnma
+..aa. 5n6n+m+ 5+ m0n+6.+mm
5-++ 0+J+0++[+a +.++mnm
(n.a 11.8 n n+J+ +aa). + 0++.om
a+aa a++ + naa1a an6n++
0++.om a+ aa+. am0a. a--nn
naa+a 5+ 0+J+0++[++qa
6n++a++ a am. am0a. a- -n n
+Ja+a. 6++[++nn.. 5+ ++a+
+amn+[++q -[.


233
a[+ ++ ++. [ 9: x 2y = 4 an ma x 2y = 6 5m a+n.a a+++ +m +oa
5++amn+[+am +Ja ++-+.
+ Ja: 0++[ 1: x 2y = 4 oo+
n.a 11.9
2y = x 4 oo+ y =

2
1
x 2.
x 0 2
y 2 1

0++[ 2: x 2y = 6 oo+
2y = x + 6 o o+ y =

2
1
x + 3.
x 0 2
y 3 4

++a (0, 2) anma (2, 1) amn naa+a a+n.+++ao qn++ annm aa0+
0+J+0++[ a+0a+a. [++. ++a (0, 3) anma (2, 4) ++ naa+a 0+
a+n.+++ao qn+ + annm aa0+ 0+J+0++[ a+0a+a. 5q 0+J+0++[+a
5-++++ 6+o a+ ++a ++-o+a . am0a. a 6a. o+ 6++a aao o. am0a.
5a6a++ +a+ +amn+[++ q+ +Ja +.+++ (n.a 11.9 n n+J++aa).

a[+ ++ ++. [ 10: ++a+ +amn+[+a x + y = 5, x y = 3 5ann a+n.a
+oa +J++aa .
+ Ja: 0++[ 1: x + y = 5
oo+ y = x + 5 (1)

x 2 1 3
y 7 6 2
0++[ 2 : x y = 3
o o+ y = x 3 (2)

x 1 0 3
y 2 3 0


n.a 11.10
(2, 7), (1, 6) an ma (3, 2) ++ na a+a
a+n.+++ao qn++aa. 5nnaa+a aa0+
0+J+0++[ a++aa. 5+0a +amn+[ ()) 5m
0+++0++[ a+n.a+qa. [++ (1, 2), (0, 3)
anma (3, 0) ++ naa+a 0+
a+n.+++ao qn++aa. 5nnaa+a aa0+
0+J+0++[ a++aa. 5+0a +amn+[ (2)
5m 0+J+0++[ a+n.a+qa. 5aa+
0+J+0++[ a+n.+a + naa P(4, 1)
5o 6a.[+n+ (n.a 11.10 n n+J+ +aa ).
5nnaa. 5+ 0++[+am a+a aa++o.
++a+ +amn+[+am +Ja x = 4, y = 1 am
n+m0n+a.

234
n+n + 11.2

+0a 6++[++nn.[aa 1 m+o 10 a++o+m +am n+[+am 6++q++q a+n.a
+oa +Ja ++-+.

1. x + y = 0, x = 4. 6. 2x + y = 1, 4x + 2y = 2.
7. x + 2y = 4, x + 2y = 6.
8. x 3y = 4, x + 2y = 1.
9. 3x + y = 2, 6x y = 7.
10. 2x + 3 = 0, 4x + y + 4 = 0.
2. x y = 0, y = 3.
3. x + y = 2, x y = 2.
4. x y = 6, 2x + y = 9.
5. x + y = 5, x y = 1.

a.+a
n+n+ 11.1
1. (i)

1. (ii)

1. (iii)

1. (iv)

2 (i)
x 1 0 1
y 2 0 2


2. (ii)

x 1 0 1
y 3 0 3










235
2. (iii) 2. (iv)

x 0 4 4
y 0 1 1
x 0 5 5
y 0 1 1



3. (i) (ii)

x 1 2 1
y 5 5 5
x 3 3 3
y 1 2 1



(iii) (iv)

x 0 1 1
y 4 4 4
x 5 5 5
y 0 1 2



236
(v) (vi)

x 0 1 1
y 0.5 0.5 0.5
x 1.5 1.5 1.5
y 0 1 1


4. (i) (ii)

x 1 0 1
y 1 4 7
x 3 0 3
y 5 3 1


(iii) (iv)

x 0 1 2
y 5 3 1
x 0 1 1
y 4 7 1



237
5. (i) (ii)

x 3 0 3
y 6 4 2
x 5 0 5
y 1 2 3


(iii) (iv)

x 1 0 1
y 7 5 3
x 1 3 5
y 1 2 3

n+n + 11.2
1.

x 4 4 4
y 1 0 1
x 1 0 1
y 1 0 1

+Ja x = 4; y = 4.

2.

x 0 1 2
y 3 3 3
x 1 0 1
y 1 0 1

+Ja x = 3; y = 3.

238
3.

x 3 4 5
y 1 2 3
x 0 1 2
y 2 1 0

+Ja x = 2; y = 0.

4.

x 2 3 4
y 5 3 1
x 3 4 5
y 3 2 1

+Ja x = 5; y = 1.

5.

x 2 3 4
y 1 2 3
x 2 3 4
y 3 2 1

+Ja x = 3; y =2.


6.

x 1
0 1
y 3 1
1
x 1
0 1
y 3 1
1




a--nn + Ja+a.

7.

x 0 2 4
y 3 2 1
x 0 2 4
y 2 1 0

+Ja 5oo.


239
8.

x 1 1 3
y 0 1 2
x 2 1 4
y 2 1 0

+Ja x = 1; y = 1.



9.

x 0 1 2
y 7 1 5
x 0 1 2
y 2 1 4

+Ja x = 1; y = 1.



10.


x 2 1 0
y 4 0 4
x
2
3

2
3

2
3

y 2 0 2

+Ja x =
2
3
; y = 2.
240