2nd Term Biology Note For Ss2

OUR LADY OF PERPETUAL HELP COLLEGE ORBA
BIOLOGY LESSON NOTES TERM: 2nd CLASS: SS2

Compiled by: Ukwuma, M. C. Jnr.
SCHEME OF WORK A. TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS: 1. SKELETON AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS: biological significance and forms 2. TYPES OF SKELETON: Exo-skeleton, Endo-skeleton 3. BONES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN 4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS: Location and arrangement of structural components, main features of supporting tissues. 5. MECHANISMS OF SUPPORT: harden and rigidity, flexibility and resilience 6. USES OF FIBRES FOR THE PLANT 7. FUNCTION OF SKELETON IN ANIMAL: protection, support, locomotion, respiratory movements 8. FUNCTIONS OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS: strength, rigidity, resistance against the forces of wind and water
B. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 1. ALIMENTARY TRACTS: types, parts of alimentary canal description and functions 2. FEEDING HABITS: categories and mechanism, modification in organisms to reflect feeding habits, filter feeding, fluid feeding, feeding adaptation in insects, saprophytic and parasitic feeding. 3. FEEDING IN PROTOZOA, HYDRA, MAMMALS C. TRANSPORT SYSTEM 1. NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION (REVIEW OF OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION 2. TRANSPORT SYSTEM NECESSARY IN LARGE ORGANISMS 3. MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORTATION: EXCRETORY PRODUCTS, GASES, DIGESTED FOOD, OTHER NUTRIENTS 4. MATERIALS TRANSPORTED WITHIN ORGANISMS: GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS, LIQUIDS, OXYGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE, ETC 5. STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES, VEIN, CAPILLARIES 6. MEDIA OF TRANSPORTATION 7. MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN: UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS, MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS, HIGHER ANIMALS, HIGHER PLANTS D. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1. TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS: BODY SURFACE, GILLS, TRACHEAL SYSTEM, LUNGS 2. MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN: HIGHER AND LOWER ANIMALS, PLANTS
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WEEKS 1-2:
TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION TO THE SKELETON AND SUPPORTING TISSSUES IN ANIMALS Time: 40 minutes OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to: I. Define skeleton and identify the types. II. List and explain the forms of skeletons. III. State the biological importance of skeletons. Living things need the support of tissues and bones. These will enable them to maintain shape and perform some other functions such as movement and respiration. SKELETON AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS. The skeleton is the bony framework of the body. In fact, the term skeleton comes from a Greek word meaning dried up. Living bone, however, is not inert material; it is dynamic and adaptable.
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TYPES OF SKELETON There are 3 main types of skeleton: namely; endoskeleton, exoskeleton and Hydrostatic skeleton. Exoskeletons are found external to the rest of the body and the tissues and organs are attached to it from inside. In arthropods, exoskeleton is made up of chitin. Endoskeleton is found within the body of the organism and it is made up of cartilages and bones. Hydrostatic skeleton are found in organisms that have soft bodies such as earthworms. It is made up of fluid that keeps the body turgid and maintains characteristic shape of that animal. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE 1. The skeleton and supporting tissues help the animal in going about fending for themselves. 2. It is a measure of advancement and development as well as evolutionary position of a given organism. For instance; man stands upright with a more sophisticated skeletal build-up than a cockroach; which has an external support only. FORMS OF SKELETON There are 3 major forms of skeleton and these depend on: the level of development of the organism, ecological niche and habitat of the organism. The forms of skeleton are: o Cuticles o Bones and o Cartilages. a. CUTICLES: they contain waxy substance called chitin which is located externally. b. BONES: they are rigid tissues found in the skeletons of higher animals and are the hardest tissues in vertebrates. A bone consists of compact and spongy components and a system of canals (Harversian canal) that allows neuromuscular bundles to reach all the parts of the bone. Bone cell are known as osteocytes which are scattered and are surrounded by bony materials. c. CARTILAGE: they are found in the skeleton of complex vertebrates. They consist of living cells called chondrocytes, carbohydrates and protein fibers. It is tough and flexible and has great tensile strength.
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Cartilages forms the skeleton in all vertebrate embryos could ossify to form bones. Cartilages are commonly referred to as biscuit bone. EVALUATION: I. II. III. What is a skeleton? Differentiate between bone and cartilage? Using examples, discuss the different types of skeletons.
TOPIC: FUNCTIONS OF A SKELETON
Time: 40 minutes
OBJECTIVES: The student should be able to: I. Discuss the principal functions of the skeletal system II. Identify the body systems served by these functions. The bones of the skeleton perform the mechanical functions of support, protection, and leverage for body movement and the metabolic functions of hemopoiesis and storage of fat and minerals. The strength of bone comes from its inorganic components, of such durability that they resist decomposition even after death. It performs many body functions, including support, protection, leverage for body movement, hemopoiesis in the red bone marrow, fat storage in the medullary cavity, and mineral storage. 1. Support. The skeleton forms a rigid framework to which the softer tissues and organs of the body are attached. It is of interest that the skeletons 206 bones support a mass of muscles and organs that may weigh 5 times as much as the bones themselves. 2. Protection. The skull and vertebral column enclose the brain and spinal cord; the rib cage protects the heart, lungs, great vessels, liver, and spleen; and the pelvic girdle supports and protects the pelvic viscera. Even the sites where blood cells are produced are protected within the spongy bone tissue of certain bones. 3. Body movement. Bones serve as anchoring attachments for most skeletal muscles. In this capacity, the bones act as levers (with the joints functioning as pivots) when muscles contract and cause body movement. One of the most important types of body movements includes the
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respiratory movements. These will permit mammals to breathe efficiently by the action of the Diaphragm, intercostals muscles and the rib cage. 4. Hemopoiesis. The process of blood cell formation is called hemopoiesis (hem''o-poi-e'sis). It takes place in tissue called red bone marrow located internally in some bones. It is estimated that an average of 2.5 million red blood cells are produced every second by the red bone marrow to replace those that are worn out and destroyed by the liver. 5. Fat storage. Lipid is stored in the adipose tissue within the medullary cavity of certain bones. The adipose tissue and its lipid content are known as yellow bone marrow. 6. Mineral storage. The inorganic matrix of bone is composed primarily of the minerals calcium and phosphorus. These minerals which account for approximately two-thirds of the weight of bone, give bone its firmness and strength. About 95% of the calcium and 90% of the phosphorus within the body are deposited in the bones and teeth. Although the concentration of these inorganic salts within the blood is kept within narrow limits, both are essential for other body functions. Calcium is necessary for muscle contraction, blood clotting, and the movement of ions and nutrients across cell membranes. Phosphorus is required for the activities of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, as well as for ATP utilization. If mineral salts are not present in the diet in sufficient amounts, they may be withdrawn from the bones until they are replenished through proper nutrition. In addition to calcium and phosphorus, lesser amounts of magnesium, sodium, fluorine, and strontium are stored in bone tissue. EVALUATION: I. State some characteristics of bones? II. What are the functions of the skeletal system?
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MAMMALIAN SKELETON
Time: 40 minutes (x 3)
OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to: I. Identify the bones of the vertebral column. II. State the distinguishing features between the bones of the vertebral column. The mammalian skeleton is composed of the skull (cranium), vertebral column (backbone), ribs and sternum (breast bone) forming the Axial skeleton, while limb girdles (pectoral and pelvic) form the Appendicular skeleton. BONES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN A bone of the vertebral column is called a vertebra (plural, vertebrae). There are 33 vertebrae in the human skeleton all attached to themselves; end to end. They are bound by strong ligaments that keep them straight. Between 2 adjoining vertebrae is a cartilaginous intervertebral disc that allows slight movements and acts as a shock absorber. The vertebral column forms a hollow tube through which the spinal cord passes. The vertebral column Figure 1: intervetebral discs and articulations is divided into 5 regions. They are of vertebrae cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal. STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRA All the vertebrae have peculiar features, but basically they have the following features in common: a. Centrum/Body which is a solid piece of bone below the neural canal. b. Neural Arch carried by the Centrum c. Neural canal surrounded by both the Centrum and the arch d. Neural spine which projects upwards dorsally/Spinous process e. 2 transverse processes which are sideways projections from each vertebra f. Facets for the articulation with other Figure 2: a typical vertebra
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parts of the skeleton. They are known as zygaphoses. g. Vertebrarterial canal/Transverse foramen CERVICAL VERTEBRAE In man, there are 7 of them. The first is the atlas while the second is the axis. The others are nominal cervical bones. FEATURES OF THE ATLAS Has large neural canal Has a flat transverse process The neural spine is very short or absent The Centrum is absent It has a Vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood vessels Functions: it allows the head to nod on it and fits into the occipital condyles of the skull.
FEATURES OF THE AXIS Has a broad and flat Centrum Articulates with the atlas through the Odontoid process Has a large flattened neural spine The transverse process is reduced to a pin-like structure It has a Vertebrarterial canal.
Function: it allows the head to be turned easily.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE These are found in the chest region. In man there are 12 of them. FEATURES OF THORACIC VERTEBRAE It has long and prominent neural spine which projects upwards and backwards A pair of short transverse process
Figure 3: side view of a typical thoracic vertebra
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There is presence of demi-facets and articular surfaces for attachment of ribs A large neural canal Large Centrum is also present Functions: 1. It aids in the attachment of ribs 2. Muscles of the shoulder and back are attached to neural spines 3. It assists in breathing alongside the ribs
Figure 4: front view of a typical thoracic vertebra
LUMBER VERTEBRAE These are found in the upper abdominal region. In man there are 5 of them. FEATURES OF THE LUMBER VERTEBRAE It has long flattened transverse process It has a broad and flat neural spine It has large and thick Centrum Projections of anapophyses and metapophyses There is well developed prezygaphyses and post zygapophyses
Functions: 1. It provides attachment to abdominal muscles 2. They bear considerable weight of the body SACRAL VERTEBRAE This is found in the lower abdominal region. In man, they are 5 in number and fuse together to form a sacrum. FEATURES OF SACRAL VERTEBRAE Has narrow neural canal Has a spine which is reduced to a small notch It has a large Centrum Function: They give rigid support to the abdominal cavity.
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SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT SKELETONS AND THEIR NUMBERS Type of vertebra Cervical Thoracic Lumber Sacral Caudal TOTAL Region of the body Neck Chest Waist Loin Tail Number Man Rabbit Rat 7 7 7 12 12-13 13 5 6-7 6 5 3-4 4 4 16 27-30 33 44-47 57-60
EVALUATION: I. What are the features of the thoracic vertebrae. II. How many vertebrae are there in the vertebral column of a rabbit?
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS Time: 40 minutes OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to: I. II. Define supporting tissues. Explain the characteristics and functions of the different types of supporting tissues
Simple tissues: they include those supporting tissues with only one type of cell. They include: parenchyma, collenchymas and sclerenchyma. 1. Complex tissues: these have 2 or more types of cells. They include: xylem, phloem and epidermis. PARENCHYMA: parenchyma cells are large, thin-walled and contain air spaces. They are found in the cortex of stems, leaf mesophylls and fresh fruits. They take part in photosynthesis and storage of food. The cells give support and rigidity when they are fully turgid. They are called packing or ground tissues.
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COLLENCHYMA: collenchymas tissue commonly occurs beneath the epidermis in stems and petioles and around veins in dicot leaves. Their thickness is about 3-4 cells. They are small, tightly packed cells and are thickened at the corners. This gives the stem strength, but is readily flexible during elongation of plants. They photosynthesize since they contain chloroplast. SCLERENCHYMA: is made up of dead cells whose walls are uniformly thickened. The walls often contain hard substances like Lignin. They are found in seed coats, shells of nuts and the flesh of some fruits. XYLEM: they are made up of dead cells which lie within the cambium and consist of xylem vessels, tracheids, wood fibers and wood parenchyma. It provides support and strength to the plant. PHLOEM: this tissue lies externally in each vascular bundle (xylem and phloem) and is made up of 3 types of cells: sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. CORTEX: the vascular bundles of the roots and stems of young plants are surrounded by tissues of parenchyma cells known as cortex. In the stems, the cortex is differentiated into an outer collenchymas and inner endodermis. The turgidity of cortex parenchyma, thickening of the walls of cortex collenchymas and sclerenchyma give support and strength to the plant. EPIDERMIS: this is the outermost layer of cells of plants. It forms protective skin of the stem, leaves, flowers and fruits. It is made up of a single layer of cells. Some epidermal cells secrete waxy substances called cutin which forms a layer known as cuticle. This prevents excess water loss and mechanical damage to the plant body. In the roots, the epidermal cells form root hairs for absorption of water and mineral salts. The turgidity of epidermal cells gives support and helps to maintain the shape of plant organs like stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc.
USES OF FIBRES FOR THE PLANT 1. All fiber gives strength and support to plants 2. They serve mechanical functions when they grow older such as rigidity, flexibility and elasticity 3. They protect the fragile parts of the plant
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4. They are sclerenchymatous in nature 5. When they are associated with wood or xylem, they are known as wood fibers. FUNCTIONS OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS 1. Strength 2. Rigidity 3. Resistance against the forces of wind and water (protection) 4. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts 5. Flexibility 6. Sometimes they photosynthesize EVALUATION: I. II. List the different supporting tissues in plants. What are the functions of supporting tissues in plants.
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WEEK 3: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ALIMENTARY TRACT Time: 40 minutes (x 3)
OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to I. Identify the different types of alimentary tracts. II. Explain the parts and functions of the mammalian digestive tract. Alimentary canal, also called digestive tract, is a pathway by which food enters the body and solid wastes are expelled. The alimentary canal includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. TYPES OF FEEDING AND ALIMENTARY TRACTS: Here, let us consider the digestive tracts of round worms (earthworms), arthropods (cockroach), aves (bird) and mammals (rabbit).
ROUND WORMS (EARTHWORM) (Lumbricus spp) The digestive tract which begins with the mouth and ends in the anus is divided into specialized compartments. Food mixed with soil is sucked into the mouth, passes through a short passage way into the pharynx and then through the esophagus into the thin-walled crop that functions as a storage chamber. Then it enters the gizzard where the food is churned and ground. The pulverized food suspended in water, passes into the long intestine where enzymatic digestion and absorption occur. COCKROACH The food is softened by a digestive juice secreted by the salivary glands. Then it passes through the esophagus into the crop and the gizzard which has thick walls. The food is ground in the gizzard into which the caecum secretes digestive enzymes. The digested food is passed into the mesenteron (mid-gut) where absorption takes place. The mid-gut is followed by the colon, end of which forms the rectum.
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BIRD Although birds do not have teeth, they have the mechanism for grinding up the food swallowed before it is digested. The food is stored in the crop and later passed on to the gizzard through the glandular proventiculus. The strong wall of the gizzard and the small stone often swallowed by the bird help in grinding up the food. Pancreatic ducts in the pancreas and bile ducts from the liver open into the loop shaped duodenum. This leads to the ileum and colon. At the posterior end of the rectum are the cloaca and the anus. RABBIT The small intestine in rabbit is very long and coiled due to the difficulty of digesting plant materials because of the presence of the cellulose cell wall. The long intestine enables the herbivore to extract the maximum amount of nutrients from the food. The wall of the large intestine forms numerous folds. The caecum is long. This creates more surface area for the slow action of bacteria which converts cellulose to sugars. The rectum is long and contain solid pellets of feces.
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The processes of digestion in man is complicated and is summarized in the table below: SN PART OF DESCRIPTION PHYSICAL ACTION SYSTEM 1 Mouth Consists of lips, Food is broken down to teeth, tongue, pieces by teeth, salivary glands. lubricated by saliva, tongue rolls food into bolus for easy swallowing. 2 Esophagus Muscular tube Passes food from mouth connecting to stomach by peristalsis mouth to the stomach 3 Stomach Single chamber Food is stored, churned (monogastric), and mixed with gastric muscular, juice becoming a paste having cardiac (chyme). and pyloric sphincters 4 Duodenum First part of the small intestine Food is churned with further digestive more digestive enzymes. Region of active digestion. More peristalsis. CHEMICAL ACTION Saliva makes food alkaline. Ptyalin converts cooked starch to maltose.
Action of ptyalin continues. Saliva is neutralized by HCL; which kills bacteria and provides medium for pepsin. Rennin curdles milk, pepsin changes proteins to peptides. Bile emulsifies fats and neutralizes acidity of food. Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids changed to simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol respectively. Absorption of simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol.
Ileum
Large intestines
Second part of small intestines lined with villi No villi but has mucous glands
Anus
Muscular
Food turned to semifluid. More peristalsis and mixing of food. Water absorbed from unabsorbed residue and passes into rectum as feces Expels faeces.
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EVALUATION: I. II. Give a detailed account of the activities happening in the duodenum. Differentiate between the alimentary canal of a herbivore, carnivore and omnivore.
WEEK 4: MAMMALIAN DENTITION OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. II.
Time: 40 minutes
Explain what dentition means. Identify dentition in line with mode of nutrition.
While carnivores do not need to chew their food as herbivores because animal cells do not have non-digestible parts and can be acted upon directly by digestive enzymes. A dog for instance, gulps its food while a horse will spend more time chewing food. Omnivores have teeth that are structurally and functionally intermediate between those of the herbivores and carnivores. TYPES OF MAMMALIAN TEETH 1. Incisors: the front teeth used for biting off small pieces of food. Chiselshaped. 2. Canine: used for tearing off food. E.g. flesh from bone. Usually long and pointed. 3. Premolars: flat topped with broad surfaces for grinding food. 4. Molars: like premolars. They are absent in the milk teeth of young mammals. They also have broad surfaces and are used for crushing food.
Dentition of a herbivore: Dental formula: I 2/1, c 0/0, pm 3/2, m 3/3 Adaptations: Incisors are sharp for cutting grass. Canines absent leaving a space (diastema). Diastema allows for mixing of food. Molars and premolars have transverse ridges for grinding food.
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Dentition of a carnivore: Dental formula: I 3/3, c1/1, pm 4/4, m 2/3 Adaptation: Sharp incisors for catching and holding prey. Long pointed and curved canines for attacking and holding prey. Molars and premolars have pointed cusps for crushing bones. The dentition of an omnivore: Dental formula: I 2/2, c 1/1, pm 2/2, m 3/3 Adaptation: Sharp incisors for cutting food. Premolar and molars have broad surfaces for grinding food. Note that human teeth are not all that specialized as they are used for various plant and animal food materials. EVALUATION: I. II. Give the dental formula for man What are the features of canine, incisors, molars and premolars?
FEEDING HABITS
Time: 40 minutes (x 2)
OBJECTIVES: Student should be able to know: I. II. The different feeding habits of the different life forms. The structural adaptations of different life forms to these feeding habits.
FEEDING IN PROTOZOA Protozoan show a holozoic mode of nutrition. They prey on ciliates by engulfing along with water after which enzymes are secreted to digest the ciliate. On digestion, it diffuses into the cytoplasm.
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FEEDING IN COELENTRATES Coelenterates like jelly fish sting preys using their tentacles before ingestion. Others like hydra possess hollow sac, some of which have linings with flagella that mix the content in the enteron. The digestion is extracellular, it has no anus.
FILTER FEEDING Clams, prawn, ducks, mosquito larva and whales are examples of filter feeders. This feeding method occurs mainly in aquatic organisms. The feed by mere filtration or sifting of smaller diatoms inside the aquatic environment into their mouth. In mosquito larva, 2 small hairy brushes near the mouth beat in a circular motion thus setting up water currents near the mouth. The water and food particles pass through the mouth into the pharynx where the water is eliminated while filtering out food particles. Mosquito larva eats bacteria and other small particles of organic matter.
FLUID FEEDING Most insects feed on fluids like nectar from flowers, plant juice or blood. They make use of special mouth parts called proboscis. Examples are insects like bees, mosquitoes, tsetse flies, butterflies, etc. the mouth parts of the anopheles are modified for piercing and sucking blood and nectar. As soon as the stylets pierce the skin of the victim, blood is sucked up through the tubular proboscis.
INSECTS FEEDING ON SOLIDS Insects that feed on solid food have cutting and chewing mouth parts. The cockroach for example, has chewing mouth parts, consisting of a pair of lips and 2 pairs of jaws all arranged around the mouth. While the food is held in position by the lips, the jaws are used to cut off pieces of the food.
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CARNIVOROUS PLANTS These plants have special devices for attracting and trapping insects. The devices usually have bright colors, scents and sugary liquids. Once an insect is trapped, the plant secretes enzyme rich digestive juices o kill and digest it. The soluble nitrogenous compounds are assimilated by the plants. In the pitcher plant for instance, the leaf is modified into a pitcher containing digestive fluid. The rim of the pitcher is colorful and smooth, and nectar is secreted near it. Insects are attracted to the nectar, and while they get at it, they slip and fall into the digestive fluid in the pitcher. Similar mechanisms are employed by the other carnivorous plants. HOME WORK: using your SS1 notes, revise the parasitic and saprophytic modes of nutrition and the adaptations of the saprophytes and parasites (endoand ecto- parasites).
Week 5: Revision Week 6: Mid-Term Test
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WEEK 7:
TRANSPORT SYSTEM Time: 40 minutes
TOPIC: NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION
OBJECTIVES: I. Understand the need for transportation in living systems. II. Understand the role of osmosis and diffusion in the transport of materials in living organisms III. Identify the materials for transport in living systems. Diffusion involves the movement of solute particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration while osmosis involves the movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane (such as the cell membrane) from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. In application, materials are constantly carried from parts of the body where they are produced (regions of higher concentration) to other parts of the body where they are used or removed (regions of lower concentration). The movement of substances from one part of the body of an organism to the other parts is called transportation. Small (single-celled) organisms with a large surface area to volume ratio will employ simple diffusion and cytoplasmic streaming for the movement of materials in and out of them. As the organisms increase in size, the need for more sophisticated channels of transport arises, hence simple diffusion will no longer be efficient. Note that in multicellular organisms, the nutrient requirements are high and wastes have to be transported over long distances within the body, depending on the size of the organism. Thus, the surface area to volume ratio will determine the type of transport that will take place in an organism. While it is great in unicellular organisms, it reduces or diminishes in multicellular organisms with increase in size.
MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORTATION: these include EXCRETORY PRODUCTS like oxygen, carbon (IV) oxide, nitrogenous wastes, water, mineral salts GASES such as oxygen, carbon (IV) oxide, DIGESTED FOOD like glucose, amino acids, glycerol, fatty acids,
OTHER NUTRIENTS/SUBSTANCES. Examples include: vitamins, antitoxins, hormones
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Assignment: study the diagram below and in a page, explain what you can deduce from it.
EVALUATION: I. What determines the type of transport that will take place in complex organisms? II. What are the materials for transport? III. Distinguish between osmosis and diffusion.
MEDIA OF TRANSPORTATION
Time: 40 minutes
OBJECTIVES: I. Understand what kind of media is required for effective material transport. II. Understand the concept of blood and its components Materials are always supplied in liquid media. Unicellular organisms transport substances through their protoplasm; plants through cell sap, while higher animals transport through the blood and the lymphatic systems. Note that in vertebrates, blood and lymph are transported through special vessels known blood vessels or vascular bundles. They include: arteries, veins and capillaries.
BLOOD The mammalian blood consists of plasma and formed particles or blood cells (red blood cells or erythrocytes, white blood cells or leukocytes and platelets).
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PLASMA: is a pale yellow liquid which is largely made-up of water and many dissolved substances like proteins, waste materials, digested food, gases, hormones and salts. It transports these substances. RED BLOOD CELL: are bi-concave, flat and circular cells without a nucleus in the mature cells. The cells contain oxygen-carrying, red pigment hemoglobin which is responsible for the color of the cells. They are formed in the bone marrow of adults. FUNCTION: they transport oxygen from the lungs to the body cells. WHITE BLOOD CELLS: are larger than red blood cells and are nucleated. They are formed in lymph nodes and bone marrow. They are lymphocytes and phagocytes. FUNCTION: they defend the body against diseases by getting rid of foreign bodies. PLATELETS: these are irregular, non-nucleated and tiny cell fragments formed in large bone marrow cells. FUNCTION: they prevent excessive loss of blood by the formation of the blood clot when there is a cut. This is known as clotting. EVALUATION: I. II. What are the compositions of the blood? State the functions of all the components identified above.
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD: OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. Understand the different functions of blood.
Time: 40 minutes
1. It transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body where they are used. 2. It transports carbon (IV) oxide to the lungs where it is removed. 3. Urea is transported from the liver t the kidney in the plasma. 4. Hormones are transported from the endocrine glands to the target organs. 5. Transport of digested foods. 6. Regulation of body temperature by distributing heat uniformly to various body parts and getting rid of excess heat through the skin. 7. Antibody production: lymphocytes produce antibodies which destroy intruding micro-organisms
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8. Phagocytic action: phagocytes get rid of foreign bodies by ingesting them. 9. Clotting: which is a mechanism that prevents excessive blood loss when a capillary is broken. EVALUATION: I. II. Describe the main functions of the blood. At what level of organization is the blood?
WEEK 8: STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES, VEIN, CAPILLARIES Time: 40 minutes OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. II. Describe the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries. Discuss their functions.
SN ARTERIES 1 They have a thick, muscular and elastic wall 2 They do not contain valves (except semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery) 3 Transport blood away from the heart 4 Contain blood with high pressure 5 Blood moves faster in them 6 Always contain oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery) 7 The lumen is narrower than the vein
VEINS They have a fairly thick and slightly elastic wall They contain valves
Transport blood to the heart Contain blood with low pressure Blood movement in them is slow Always contain deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein) The lumen is wider
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CAPILLARIES: Arteries branch to form arterioles while veins branch into venules. In the organs, the arterioles connect with the venules by a network of blood vessels known as the capillaries. The walls of capillaries are a cell thick and they make available a large surface area for the exchange of materials between the blood and the body of cells. Note that the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood does not mix and hereby forms a concept known as the double circulation. HOME WORK: draw the mammalian heart and discuss: a. The features of the heart. b. Functions of the heart.
TOPIC: MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS Time: 40 minutes OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. II. Describe the circulatory system. Differentiate between systemic and pulmonary circulations.
A transport system consists of a circulating fluid or the media, a pumping device otherwise known as the heart and a network of tubes or vessels. These
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comprise what is also known as the circulatory system. In animals there are 2 types of circulatory systems.
A. Open circulatory system: this can be found in some animals like insects and mollusks. Blood is pumped into blood vessels which open into spaces in the body cavity known as haemoceols. The internal organs which are immersed in the blood, exchange materials freely with the blood. Blood moves slowly and in a single direction. It transports only food and wastes but does not transport oxygen. Consequently, the blood is colorless as it does not contain hemoglobin. B. Closed circulatory system: in higher animals, blood is contained in the blood vessels and it moves round the body in these vessels. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins return deoxygenated blood to the heart. Exchange of materials occurs in capillaries. There are 2 types of closed circulatory systems: single circulation and double circulation. When the blood passes through the heart once every time it makes one complete circuit and is found in fishes. This is called the single circulation while double circulation involves blood passing through the heart twice for a complete circulation. This is mainly because the fishes have a 2-chambered heart while vertebrates have a 4-chambered heart. In double circulation, blood is pumped to and fro the heart. This is the pulmonary circulation. The blood is also sent to and fro other body tissues for the nourishment of the cells. This is known as the systemic circulation. EVALUATION: I. Differentiate between the following: o Open and closed circulatory systems o Systemic and pulmonary circulations.
TOPIC: MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS Time: 40 minutes OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. II. III. Compare transport in animals and in plants Understand translocation and transpiration. Describe the importance of transpiration.
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While the unicellular plants are able to exchange materials with their environment by simple diffusion, the more complex plants will also require a more sophisticated system for transport. The system is composed of conducting tissues known as vascular tissues. Vascular tissues are found in both flowering and non-flowering plants. The materials for transport in plants include: oxygen, carbon (IV) oxide, water, mineral salts, food substances, pigments and hormones. These materials are transported mainly in the plant and cell sap. The plant sap is the fluid found in the vascular tissues which contain 97.6% water and dissolved organic and inorganic solutes. The cell sap is the watery fluid contained in the vacuoles of plant cells.
TRANSLOCATION This is the movement of substances (food and water) to the various parts of the plants. This is brought about by the vascular tissues which are in bundles of characteristic patterns in roots, stems and leaves. The 2 types of vascular tissues are: xylem and phloem. Xylem: transports water and dissolved solutes (mineral salts) upwardly from the roots to the other parts of the plant. It is made up of tracheids ad vessels. Phloem: transports manufactured food downwardly from the leaves to other parts of the plant. It is made up of the sieve tubes and companion cells. Plants are able to take up nutrients and water by applying simple diffusion and osmosis. Note that the root hairs present a selectively permeable membrane. The transport of solutes through the xylem also involves active transport.
TRANSPIRATION Transpiration is the loss of water by evaporation to the atmosphere though the stomata of the leaf. Transpiration stream is the continuous flow of water from the roots to the leaves which results from: Water loss in leaves by evaporation. Increase in osmotic concentration of the cells of the leaves and stem. Movement of water from the xylem tissues to the cells of laves and stem.
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Movement of water from the root cells to the xylem tissues and more water is absorbed by the root hairs. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION INCLUDES: 1) It helps to cool the plant as water evaporates from the leaf surface. 2) It provides water for physiological functions of the plant cells. 3) It moves mineral salts to all parts of the plants. EVALUATION: I. II. III. What is transpiration? What is the importance of transpiration to plants? What are the conditions that affect the rate of transpiration?
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WEEK 9:
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Time: 40
TOPIC: TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS minutes (x 2) OBJECTIVES: students should be able to understand: I. II. III. What a respiratory system is. The types of respiratory systems. The differences between inspiration and expiration.
Last term, we defined respiration as the breakdown of food substances to provide the energy required for carrying out life processes. It is important to note that respiration could be said to be internal or external. Internal respiration deals with those activities taking place at the cellular level such as the glycolytic breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm of cells and the subsequent conversion of pyruvate to ATP in the mitochondria through h the process known as the Kreb`s cycle. External respiration referred to as breathing involves: inspiration, expiration and gaseous exchange. During inspiration: the diaphragm contracts and pulls downwards and the intercostals muscles contract to raise the ribs. These movements increases the volume of the lungs and reduces the pressure within the lungs (intra-pleural pressure) below the atmospheric pressure, thus, air from atmosphere will flow into the lungs. During expiration: the diaphragm and intercostals muscles relax
In the animal kingdom several breathing systems exist. In mammals lungs are the organs of gas exchange. Respiration is the whole process of oxidation of the metabolites in the body to produce energy. Therefore it actually encompasses all organs and tissues. Breathing is the cyclic, automatic and centrally controlled function to bring oxygen in and take carbon dioxide out of the body. Circulation transports the respiratory gases to the different organs and structures of the body. Tissue metabolism uses oxygen and returns carbon dioxide to be exhaled and excreted. All the different parts of the process are intertwined and must proceed at a certain pace
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Life in the Earths atmosphere is bound with respiration. The oxidative processes within cells are called internal respiration. The various processes helping the cells to maintain appropriate inflow of oxygen and outflow of carbon dioxide are called external respiration. Different organisms have developed a multitude of ways to deal with the environment and to regulate their internal milieu. Breathing is usually thought of as a bellows function of inhaling and exhaling gases, but in fact there are many processes working in smooth succession and simultaneously. The first process takes place between the organism and the surrounding medium which is either air or water. The Four Types of Surfaces for Gas Exchange includes: body surface, gills, tracheal system, lungs.
TOPIC: BODY SURFACES Time: 40 minutes In some small animals exchange can occur directly between all cells of the body. Gas exchange across the body surface can also occur in some larger animals such as amphibians and earthworms, but they require a circulatory system to distribute the gases throughout the entire body. Air pouches can provide an internal surface for the exchange of respiratory gases. Frogs can breath through their skin and also with primitive lungs, as shown in the Figure 1
Figure 1. Gas exchange through skin and primitive lungs.
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Gills In aquatic animals such as the sea star, most molluscs, arthropods, and fish, gills provide a large surface area for the exchange of gas from the water which flows through them. Gills are rich in blood vessels so the gas exchanged can be circulated through the entire body. Fresh water flows in countercurrent fashion past the blood vessel flow as shown in Figure 2.
WEEK 10 TOPIC: TRACHEAL SYSTEM Time: 40 minutes The respiratory system of an insect contains branched tubes. They deliver air directly to the body cells. The system does not distribute dissolved oxygen--it distributes air. The gas diffuses into cells that are in contact with the tracheal system (Figure 3). This type of gas exchange limits the size of insects, because they do not have a circulatory system to move dissolved oxygen through a large body.
Figure 3. Insect tracheal breathing system.
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LUNGS Lungs are gas exchange surfaces that are restricted to one location in an animal body. They are found in many animals including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Birds have specialized air sacs that assist with gas exchange (Figure 4). In mammals no air sacs exist (Figure 5). Figure 4. Bird lungs.
EVALUATION: I. II. III. List and explain the various types of respiratory systems. Distinguish between cellular respiration and breathing What are the features that make the gills of bony fish efficient gaseous exchange structures?
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TOPIC: MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HIGHER ANIMALS Time: 40 minutes OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. Understand the parts of the respiratory tract and their roles in gaseous exchange. II. Discuss the set of physical activities that accompany breathing. The respiratory system in mammals in made up of the external nares (nose), nasal passages, pharynx, trachea, lungs, diaphragm and the thoracic cavity. Inhaled air is moistened and warmed as it passes along the nasal passages through the nose. The nasal passage opens into the pharynx which opens into trachea or wind pipe. The trachea branches into two. Each one enters a lung and in turn branches to form a network of smaller tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles end in millions of tiny sacs called alveoli. The surface of each alveolus is richly supplied with blood capillaries. The lungs are situated in the thoracic cavity. The floor of the thorax is made up of a sheet of muscle called diaphragm. The sides of the thorax consist of 12 pairs of rib bones connected to one another by the intercostals muscles. Each rib is attached to the vertebral column posteriorly and to the sternum anteriorly; thereby forming a bony cage.
Breathing is brought about by the regular movements of the diaphragm and the intercostals muscles which alternately increase and decrease the volume of the chest cavity. The lungs are inflated by the air drawn into them. They are deflated when air is squeezed out of them. During inspiration: the diaphragm contracts and pulls downwards and the intercostals muscles contract to raise the
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ribs. These movements increases the volume of the lungs and reduces the pressure within the lungs (intra-pleural pressure) below the atmospheric pressure, thus, air from atmosphere will flow into the lungs. During expiration: the diaphragm and intercostals muscles relax. In the lungs, oxygen contained in the inhaled air diffuses into the blood in the capillaries surrounding the alveoli. The oxygen combines with the hemoglobin, producing oxyhemoglobin which gives bright red color to oxygen rich blood. Blood containing oxyhemoglobin is known as oxygenated blood while that in which oxygen has been used up is known as deoxygenated blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide resulting from metabolic activities/processes within the cell diffuses into the blood in form of bicarbonate ions (HCO 3)-. The bicarbonate ions then decompose into carbon dioxide in the lungs where it diffuses into air sacs. EVALUATION: I. II. Discuss the set of physical activities that accompany breathing. State the functions of the diaphragm in respiration.
TOPIC: RESPIRATION IN PLANTS minutes OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. II.
Time: 40
Understand the difference between respiration and photosynthesis Explain how gaseous exchange occurs in plants.
Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale oxygen gas as waste. The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO 2 (carbon dioxide) and 6 H2O (water) and that makes 6 O 2 (oxygen) and C6H12O6 (glucose). What is not expressed in the chemical equation is the capture of energy from sunlight which occurs. Photosynthesis uses electrons on the carbon atoms as the repository for that energy. Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. It reclaims the energy to power chemical reactions in cells. In so doing the carbon atoms and their electrons are combined with oxygen forming a gas which is easily removed from both the cells and the organism. Plants use both processes, photosynthesis to capture the energy and respiration to use it.
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Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon dioxide through holes on the undersides of their leaves known as stoma or pores or through the lenticels. NOTE that the opening and the closing of the stomata depends on the guard cells flanking them. When the guard cells are turgid, the cells remain open, but when they become flaccid, the pores close up. When the stomata opens, oxygen diffuses through the intercellular spaces of the leaf into the mesophylls cells to be used for the oxidation of carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are broken down into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide diffuses from the mesophyll cells into the intercellular spaces and finally escapes through the stomata into the surrounding air while the water gets mixed up with the water content of the cell. However, most plants are not involved in highly aerobic activities, and only take in oxygen (to give out carbon dioxide) when the plant is not photosynthesizing. EVALUATION: I. II. Differentiate between respiration and photosynthesis. Discuss the events leading to the opening and closing of the stomata.
WEEK 11: REVISION WEEK 12: EXAMINATION
Sources/Further readings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Modern Biology for senior secondary schools Comprehensive Biology for senior secondary schools by C. O J. Nweze Exam focus: Biology for WASSCE & SSCE by Egunyomi et al Encarta Encyclopedia Human Anatomy by Van der Graaf Medical Physiology by Guyton and Hall
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2nd Term Biology Note For Ss2

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BIOLOGY LESSON NOTES TERM: 2nd CLASS: SS2

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TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS

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TOPIC: FUNCTIONS OF A SKELETON

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Function: it allows the head to be turned easily.

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Figure 4: front view of a typical thoracic vertebra

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WEEK 3: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ALIMENTARY TRACT Time: 40 minutes (x 3)

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WEEK 4: MAMMALIAN DENTITION OBJECTIVES: students should be able to: I. II.

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Week 5: Revision Week 6: Mid-Term Test

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TRANSPORT SYSTEM Time: 40 minutes

TOPIC: NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Time: 40

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Figure 1. Gas exchange through skin and primitive lungs.

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Figure 3. Insect tracheal breathing system.

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WEEK 11: REVISION WEEK 12: EXAMINATION

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