Pavement Engineering Notes 2012

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes
PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
A pavement is a structure designed to allow trafficking, usually of wheeled vehicles. Most pavements are roads, but airfields, industrial hardstandings, cycle tracks etc. are all included. Key points: a) Pavements are high-volume constructions; the materials used must therefore be cheap and environmentally acceptable. b) There is no exact definition of failure; they simply have to remain serviceable. c) The definition of serviceability will vary from application to application. d) Maintaining serviceability is an important part of pavement engineering. The basic building blocks Soil: unpredictable; water susceptible; sometimes low strength Granular Material: more predictable; less water susceptible; stronger Hydraulically-Bound Material: bound with cement or something similar Asphalt: stones stuck together with bitumen; good quality material A Typical Pavement Structure
Surface course (or Wearing course) Asphalt Binder course (or Basecourse) Asphalt Base Asphalt, Hydraulically-bound (e.g. Pavement Quality Concrete), or Granular (often in more than one layer) Sub-base Hydraulically-bound or Granular Capping (or Lower Sub-base) Hydraulicallybound or Granular (only used over poor subgrade; often in more than one layer) Subgrade (or Substrate) Soil
CONSTRUCTION
A competent pavement designer must understand the practicalities of material production and pavement construction if sensible decisions are to be taken. 1. Unbound Material Natural Soils Check it to see that it is as strong as it was expected to be (CBR test see later). Protect it. Its easy to turn a basically sound material into a muddy soup! So leave a thin layer of overlying material until the very last moment. Granular Materials Make sure you have material that meets the specification. a) Particle Size Distribution: achieved by crushing larger rocks and/or by blending materials from more than one source. Put a sample through a set of sieves to check it. Sample
Shake
100 90 80 Percentage passing
Upper Limit Lower Limit
e.g. typical subbase limits:
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01 0.1 1 Sieve size (mm) 10 100
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 b) Particle Soundness: Use a test such as the Los Angeles Abrasion test; sometimes also tests for frost damage and chemical weathering (MnSO4 soundness). c) Particle Shape: This isnt always specified. Most common requirement = % crushed faces (trying to make sure that rounded gravel isnt used); sometimes also by limits on flakiness (% of particles of a given size able to pass through a special thin sieve opening) and elongation (% of particles with one dimension over 1.8 times the nominal size) of particles.
The shape depends on the equipment used to carry out the crushing: Cone Jaw
Roll
Impact
d) Water Content: All unbound materials are sensitive to water.

Dry Density Desired in-service condition after drying out 0% air voids (i.e. full saturation) Maximum Dry Density (heavy compaction) Maximum Dry Density (light compaction)
Heavy Compaction (e.g. on site)
Light Compaction (e.g. in laboratory) Dry Maximum suction Optimum Saturated Water Content
Low water content: negative pore pressure (or suction). Makes compaction difficult; BUT good once in the road.
Higher water content: positive pore pressure. Makes compaction easier; BUT bad once in the road. So: compact at Optimum Water Content (OMC); let it dry out to develop suction. Transport it to site in a suitable delivery truck Place it and compact it properly
Delivery Truck
Dozer
Motor grader
Compactor
Delivery Truck
Paver
Compactor
Dozer + grader = good enough for lower layers Paver = for high quality base layers (consistent thickness and surface level) Compactors:
Vibratory
Pneumatic
Static
2.
Hydraulically-Bound Material (HBM) HBM means any material that needs water to activate a binder usually cement. 4
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 In-situ Stabilised

Mixing unit
Stabiliser
Compactor
This is usually just soil improvement. Converts a soft soil into something you can build a road on. As well as cement, lime and/or fly ash (also called pulverised fuel ash PFA) are used. Plant-mixed HBM base/sub-base Get the right aggregate. You need a good durable rock, either river gravel or quarried and crushed. Particle size distribution = similar to granular. Water Content: Problem: you must have the right amount for compaction (OMC similar to granular materials) BUT you must also have just the right amount for the hydraulic reaction to take place. Too little water not all the binder will be activated reduced strength. Too much water free water after the reaction has finished air voids left after evaporation reduced strength again. [This restricts the practical combinations of particle size distribution and strength] Batch it and mix it (or mix it continuously) This is a twin-shaft batch mixer. The alternative is a drum mixer, allowing HBM to pass through continuously. This gives higher productivity. Transport it to site usually in a normal delivery truck.
Place it and compact it. Basically the same as for granular material, except that you would usually put it through a paver to get good level and thickness control. Cure it usually by spraying a bitumen seal to stop the water evaporating.
Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) Get the mix design right. This is a real concrete, which means it will be too wet for roller compaction (usually); it will need vibrating.
Water Content
Range of mixture design options for wetforming
Range required to allow chemical reaction to take place
Range for wet-form workability
Transport it to site usually in a purposebuilt concrete truck. Pave it. Wet concrete needs to be enclosed by formwork of one sort or another.
Range for rollerBatch it and mix it.compaction workability
Range of mixture design options for roller-compaction Range required to achieve design strength Cement Content
Options:
Fixed form; checker board pattern slow process. Fixed form; continuous side rails much quicker. Slip form; with a purposebuilt slip-form paver quicker still; most commonly used nowadays.
Get the surface texture right

A set of steel tines is dragged across the surface of the fresh concrete immediately after paving. [can also be achieved by sawing hardened concrete] The fresh concrete surface is brushed using an appropriately heavy-duty brush to form a ridged finish. A retarder is sprayed onto the finished concrete and loose mortar is brushed away from around the larger aggregate pieces about 12 hours afterwards. A sheet of rough fabric is dragged over the surface of the wet concrete, leaving a rough finish.
Grooving:
Brushed finish:
Exposed aggregate:
Burlap drag:
Form joints (usually)

Dowel bar (smooth) Filler Board Joint Types Joint Seal Slip Coating Expansion Cap Joint Seal Bottom crack inducer Sealant groove cut once joint has been formed aluminium-based sealant but can Joint former strip Joint Forming
Dowel bar (smooth)
Expansion Joint
Cure it, usually by means of a colourless Contraction Joint use wet cloth Tie bar (ribbed) or regular water Seal Joint spray application.
Crack Warping Joint
Crack
Slip Coating
also
Saw Cut (at early age)
Cure it usually by spraying a colourless seal to stop the water evaporating.
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 3. Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA)
Heat the bitumen to 140 to 180C; keep it in a hot storage tank. Dry the aggregate thoroughly in a drum dryer. Can combine in a drum mix plant
Sieve the hot dried aggregate into size fractions; store in hot bins. Mix bitumen + aggregate (about 30 secs) asphalt. Batch Mix Plant: Bitumen tank Hot bins
Elevator Dryer
Mixer Aggregate feed
Drum Mix Plant: Hot storage hopper Cold bins
Combined Dryer-Mixer Drum
Drum mixers give higher productivity. They rely on accurate proportioning of moist aggregate since the bitumen is fed directly into the drying chamber, which takes the form of an inclined rotating drum. The drying chamber doubles as the mixing chamber and the hot mixture is fed out continuously from the drum to a hot storage hopper before being dropped into the back of a waiting truck. Transport to site in a thermally insulated truck.
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Pave while the mixture is still hot, e.g. 110- 130 Compact before it cools down too much; either pneumatic or vibratory for main compaction, dead weight steel drum for the final finish
How quickly does the mat cool? For example, assuming a 110C paving temperature:
120 110
Temperature (C)
100 90 80 70 60 0 20 40 60
80m layer 40m layer

@ 2 minutes @ 4 minutes 80
20m layer
Depth (mm)
The practicalities of compaction mean that layer thicknesses tend to be between 25mm and 120mm.
MATERIALS
1. Sustainability and Cost
Pavements have to be cheap that is an absolute requirement. However, we also have to try to limit environmental costs. The key concept is embedded (or embodied) energy, which is the total energy used to manufacture, transport, process etc. every component of the pavement. Approximate costs and embedded energies for pavement component materials: Material Embedded Cost Energy (/Tonne) (MJ/Tonne) Embedded Direct Energy Ingredients Sands and gravels 5-10 0.1-0.2 5-8 Crushed rock aggregate 20-25 0.4-0.5 12-15 Bitumen 3200-3800 Portland cement 4500-5000 Reinforcing steel 23000-27000 Mixtures Hot-mix asphalt 600-800 12-16 25-40 Cold-mix asphalt 150-200 3-4 15-30 Lean concrete 450-500 9-10 15-25 Pavement quality concrete (PQC) 750-1000 15-20 35-50 Reinforced concrete 1100-1500 22-30 40-55 Transport All materials (per journey km) 12-20 The question is: what is a MJ worth? In terms of fuel cost it is only about 0.01-0.02! It also represents about 65g of CO2, and this might be valued anywhere from 0.002 to 0.02. To be environmentally conservative, the embedded energy costs in the table are based on an equivalence of 0.02 per MJ. So: although the table may be exaggerating, hot-mix asphalt and concrete carry a significant embedded environmental cost. BUT what about the issue of traffic, responsible for about 36% of all energy consumed in the UK? A Nottingham research project found that energy losses attributable to road stiffness were around 100MJ/m2 for a heavily trafficked concrete pavement over a 40year life. For asphalt this went up to around 250MJ/m2. These translate to about 300 and 1000MJ/Tonne assuming normal pavement thicknesses which as you can see are quite significant numbers. And this does not include energy loss due to surface roughness, which is likely to be a much bigger factor and definitely needs researching! Conclusion: we really should take the environmental cost of road pavements seriously.
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 2. Unbound Material Whats really going on?
AF B
A B
After Strain
Initial State Individual stones have to translate and rotate. stones slide against one another.
this is resisted by friction (typically around 30-35 for crushed rock, less for gravels); stone shape is also obviously important. Shear strength Can be measured in a shear box

Initial State After Strain
Can also be measured in a triaxal apparatus sin = (12) / (1+2)
Shear stress
Angle of internal friction (typically 55 for a crushed rock
limiting / ratio (typically 10 for a crushed rock)
increasing 1 Normal stress
Dont confuse stone-stone friction angle with . 11
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 What properties affect shear strength?
particle shape; angular is good stone-stone friction; not much effect stiffness modulus of the rock; not much effect particle size; big is good particle size distribution; broadly graded is good particle packing; dense is good water content; high suction is good (see p3) increases effective stresses. Shear stress
Apparent cohesion c (due to stone interlock) Stiffness With an unbound material you cant really talk about a Youngs Modulus because the behaviour is so non-linear and stressdependent. On the other hand it is convenient to pretend that it has a Youngs Modulus, so instead we call it Resilient Modulus or Stiffness Modulus and we have to remember that its value changes depending on the level of applied stress. Typical values:
Angle of internal friction Normal stress

Shear Stress Ultimate stress (= shear strength) Applied Stress Hysteresis loop represents energy loss Approximate shear modulus
Cycle no: 1 2 3
10
100
1000
10000
Shear Strain
Solid rock is approximately linear elastic with a stiffness modulus of 100 and 200GPa; unbound materials typically have a modulus in the range 20-250MPa. What properties affect stiffness? particle shape; not much effect stone-stone friction; high friction is good stiffness modulus of the rock; stiff is good particle size; big is good particle size distribution; not much effect particle packing; not much effect
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water content; high suction is good (see p3) increases effective stresses. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
Plunger Soil under test 50mm Force F Displacement d (50mm/min) Force (kN)
F2 F1
152mm diameter Steel mould
125mm height
1.27m m
2.54m m Displacement
CBR = max {(F1/13.2) ; (F2/20.0)} 100 where F1 and F2 are in kN
This is a convenient general measure of quality, but has no fundamental meaning. Very, very, very approximate relationships with stiffness: a) b) E = 10 CBR E = 17.6 CBR0.64
Confined Compression A triaxial test is better (more fundamental meaning) but it is complicated; and the stress conditions are usually not right for a pavement. Confined compression is an alternative.
Eight wall segments Springs Calibrated steel and rubber band Load applied via full-face platen Load applied via full-face platen Side plates free to move
Locking nuts fix side plates in place Adjustment control
Springbox PUMA (Precision Unbound for start conditions Material Analyzer)
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These tests are designed to give about the right level of stress in the material and so hopefully about the right stiffness modulus for pavement design. You can also get a measure of resistance to deformation accumulation under repeated load. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
Drop weight Scale Anvil Core hole
Number of blows
CBR (%)
Granular
Penetration rate p (mm/blow)
Soil
Depth
Depth Equation used in UK: log10[CBR] = 2.48 1.057 log10[p]
The DCP is especially convenient for doing down a core hole during evaluation of a failing pavement. Plate Tests Nowadays the usual way of doing these is by means of a portable dynamic plate test (DPT). It is a quick, practical method for getting the in-situ stiffness of a pavement foundation. You have to remember of course that it is affected by any layer within about 1m of the surface.
Drop weight Load
Peak load (P) Peak deflection () Deflection Rubber buffers Loading plate (radius r) Time delay due to ground inertia Time
Load cell and velocity transducer (geophone)
Boussinesqs equation for deflection under a rigid circular plate load: = P (1 2) / 2rE Therefore: E = P (1 2) / 2r
Modulus E Poissons ratio
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Static plate tests are also possible. The standard test to evaluate an airfield pavement subgrade is a static 762mm diameter plate. This table illustrates the fact that different stress conditions give different stiffnesses. Material Stiffness Modulus (MPa) Triaxial DPT In the Pavement (confining stress (100kPa contact (K-Mould, PUMA and 20kPa; deviator pressure) Springbox generally stress 0-100kPa) give similar results) 10 5 15 50 30 80 75 30 50 125 50 80 250 75 150 500 100 250
Very soft clay soil Firm clay soil Sandy soil Gravel capping Sub-base Granular Base
Permeability Usually it is assumed that a sub-base or capping layer will be free-draining which is not entirely true so you might want to measure it.
Material Description Well graded gravels Poorly graded gravels Silty gravels Clayey gravels Well graded sands Poorly graded sands Silty sands Clayey sands Low plasticity silts Low plasticity clays High plasticity silts High plasticity clays Typical permeability range (m/sec) 10-5 to 10-3 5 10-5 to 10-3 10-8 to 10-4 10-8 to 10-6 5 10-6 to 5 10-4 5 10-7 to 5 10-6 10-9 to 10-6 10-9 to 10-6 10-9 to 10-7 10-9 to 10-8 10-10 to 10-9 10-11 to 10-9
Water supply Head difference H
Measurement of volume flow Q
Overflow
Permeability k = QL/AH Porous end restraints Lid L
Specimen (cross-sectional area A)
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 3. Hydraulically-Bound Material (HBM)
The word Hydraulic means that the binder needs water in order to be activated. The most common binder of this type is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), but fly ash (a.k.a. pulverised fuel ash PFA), lime or ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) are often mixed in or even used without OPC to give a slow-setting (and cheaper) material. HBMs come in a range of different strengths / qualities: Stabilised soil insitu mixing process; roller compacted; results in a partially bound material. [Compressive strength < 2MPa] HBM subbase plant mixed; uses gravel or crushed rock aggregate; still roller compacted [Compressive strength 2-10MPa] HBM base fully bound crushed rock; usually roller compacted; also known as lean concrete. [Compressive strength 5-20MPa] Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) strong, fully bound concrete; wet-formed; vibratory compaction. [Compressive strength 30-50MPa] Strength
Strength can be measured in several ways. Flexural is most realistic for a pavement. Compressive (cube or cylinder) is the most convenient.
Indirect Tensile
or
Compressive Tensile
Flexural
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Tensile Strength In the end HBMs fail in Tension. The problem is that tensile strength is not easy to measure. You could do Indirect Tension. This is much easier and can be done on a core of material taken from a road but the stress conditions in the test are a little complicated and it is hard to be certain what the result means. Flexural Strength This is much closer to what happens in a pavement.
P L/3 P L/3 P L/3 h Max Bending Moment (M) = P L / 6
[beam width = b] P Compression M = 2 b(2x/h)x dx Assumption: x
[0 to h/2]
= 4(b/h).[x3] = h2/6
= 6M/h2 > The non-linear relationship between and in tension means that: M > h2/6
Tension Reality:
< 6M/h2
It all adds up to the flexural strength (i.e. the tensile strength deduced from a flexural test) being 10-15% higher than the real tensile strength. But this doesnt really matter since the pavement will behave more or less like a flexural test specimen. Compressive Strength This is the least meaningful strength test but the most common, because it is so convenient. For purposes of quality control it is therefore ideal.
Analysis: 1. Failure occurs when t,failure is reached. 2. If zero friction: t = c = c / E 3. But things arent quite linear, so: t > t / E 4. So, combining: c > t / 5. And if friction zero: c >> t /
Idealised shape
Real shape
Low friction graphite applied to platens
Adding all this uncertainty together, the compressive-tensile strength ratio can be anything from around 5 to 15.
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Conclusion: Compressive strength is not a fundamental measure. It should never be relied upon in pavement design. Rule of thumb: 1. Limestone aggregate results in low compressive-tensile strength ratio (e.g. 7). 2. Granite aggregate results in moderate compressive-tensile strength ratio (e.g. 10). 3. Gravel aggregate results in high compressive: tensile strength ratio (e.g. 12). Strength Gain with Time All HBMs become stronger with time. We usually design on a 28day strength but often use 3-day or 7-day for quality control.
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Compressive Strength (MPa)
50 40 30 20 10 0 1 10 100 1000
Age (days)
Flexural Stress:Strength Ratio
Fatigue All HBMs tend to follow a similar fatigue characteristic when plotted as numbers of load applications to failure against the ratio of applied stress to failure strength.
0.9
0.8
/s f = 1.064-0.064log(N)
0.7
0.6
9.2MPa Compressive strength 32.9MPa Compressive strength 25.9MPa Compressive strength; 0.5% steel fibres
0.5 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Number of Load Applications to Failure
Durability The key to durability is a low permeability which means small non-interconnecting voids. The principal cause of damage is water; so if water cant penetrate then damage wont occur. The danger comes when voids become filled with water and there is no clear escape path. So be careful in design to avoid water becoming trapped. Frost is another potentially serious problem. Water expands when it turns to ice, which means that if the water is inside a nearly-closed void at the time it freezes then the expansive pressure is likely to fracture the surrounding material. In PQC this can be seen as areas of surface flaking, giving a very rough ride quality to vehicles. Measures to combat frost damage include: Air entrainment; introduce tiny air bubbles (e.g. 5% by volume) using a chemical additive in the mix. Keep the strength high. 18
Thermal Properties HBMs are rigid solids; they are therefore susceptible to thermal expansion and contraction. This is the reason for the use of joints in concrete pavements. The key property is the coefficient of thermal expansion (). Aggregate River gravel Igneous rock Limestone Coefficient of thermal expansion (per degree C) 13 10-6 10 10-6 7 10-6
Stiffness HBMs are more or less linear elastic. Stiffness is not usually measured in the laboratory because it is more difficult to do + a bit less important than strength. Here are some typical values: Mixture Type [compressive strength] Pavement quality concrete [40MPa] Strong cement-bound base [10-20MPa] Weak cement-bound base [5-10MPa] Slag etc. bound base [5-10MPa] Hydraulically-bound sub-base [2-5MPa] Stabilised soil [< 2MPa] Typical stiffness 30000-40000 MPa 15000-25000 MPa 5000-15000 MPa 3000-10000 MPa 2000-5000 MPa 100-300 MPa
The Stiffness of a Discontinuous Layer A HBM is often designed to end up in a cracked state; sometimes it is deliberately cracked when joints are formed. The effective stiffness in-situ will therefore be less than that of the intact material. A HBM base with an initial stiffness of 10000-20000MPa can easily end up with an apparent in-situ stiffness of no more than 5000MPa.
M 1. Stress distribution 2. L h L L L I = h3/12 per m width h E M
1. Curvature = M/EI = 12M/Eh3 2. Strain at top = (h/4)/d /3 Stress at top = E/3 ( 0 at mid depth) Moment = (3/256) h2 = h2E/256 Curvature = /L = 256M/(h2EL) 3. Moment = hL/2 = ghL/2 Radius of curvature = (L2/4)/2 = L2/8 Curvature = 8/L2 = 16M/ghL3 Combine: Curvature = M[12/Eh3+256/(h2EL)+16/ghL3] Curvature also = M/EeffI = M[12/Eeffh3] eff = 1/[1/E+64h/3EL+4h2/(3gL3)] E
Uneven stress zone 3. h
d 0.75h L Slip stiffness g = /
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 4. Asphalt
Bitumen (otherwise known as binder) Bitumen is a liquid, even in service. This means that we need to worry about its viscosity, which is a function of temperature. The problem is that viscosity is a little complicated to measure directly, so the following two substitute tests are commonly used. Penetration: the penetration of a needle into a container of bitumen. Ring and ball softening point: the temperature at which a steel ball drops through a prepared disk of bitumen.
Water bath (stirred continuously in most specifications) Disk of bitumen Metal ring
Bitumen at 25C
15g
Allowed to fall for 5 seconds p
Steel balls
Penetration p measured in tenths of a millimetre Penetration (pen) Heat at 5C per minute
Softening point is the temperature at which the bitumen disks sag by 25mm (touching the plates positioned beneath them)
Ring & Ball Softening Point (SP) Penetration Index (PI):

100000000 10000000 1000000
(20-PI)/(10-PI) = 50 (log10[100/pen(at temperature T)])/(SP-T)
50 pen 100 pen 200 pen
Viscosity (Pa.s)
100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0 25 50 75 100 125
Compaction Mixing
150 175
Real bitumen behaviour
Temperature (Celsius)
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Load
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes There are two main components to bitumen behaviour, elastic and viscous, with a visco-elastic bit between them just to make things awkward.
Time
Displacement
Elastic Viscous Visco-elastic Elastic Visco-elastic Viscous
Time
Bitumen can also fracture. Tensile stress at failure is generally around 2-3MPa. Ageing Bitumen is that it changes with time due to oxidation and absorption by aggregate. Short-term ageing occurs during mixing, transporting, placing and compacting while the bitumen is at high temperature; pen goes down by about 25%. Long-term ageing occurs gradually such that bitumen becomes ever harder during its lifetime.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01 Texas (Benson, 1976) Texas (Benson, 1976) Michigan (Corbett and Schweyer, 1981) 0.1 1 10 100
Penetration (dmm)
Time (years)
Binder Modification Bitumen chemistry is a complicated subject and there are many different products on the market that are claimed to improve the properties of bitumen. You should be aware of: Polymers: Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS), Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) will all increase the viscosity at high temperatures but not at low temperatures. They may also increase fatigue life, particularly SBS. Natural rubbers: This has been driven by the need to recycle vehicle tyres. Sulphur: enhances workability at high temperature (>115C); becomes solid at lower temperature. Manganese: increases the cross-linkage between molecules and thereby increases viscosity and stiffness. The problem is that the bitumen becomes brittle. Bitumen-Filler Mortar 21
Filler is the term used for silt-size particles (2-75m) which are added to enhance the performance of the bitumen. It stiffens and strengthens the bitumen + gives extra resistance to fatigue cracking.
10 9
Stress at Failure (MPa)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.1
Pure bitumen +5% filler +15% filler +35% filler +50% filler +65% filler
Cold and/or rapid loading

1
Warm and/or slow loading

10
Strain at Failure (%)
Typically filler is added at slightly more than the mass of bitumen which means about a 2:1 bitumen to filler ratio by volume. Bitumen-Aggregate Adhesion This is a vital property if an asphalt is going to work properly. A lack of adhesion will mean that fracture can take place along the interfaces between aggregate particles and the bitumen-filler mortar and this will shorten the fatigue life of the asphalt; i.e. it will crack. But what causes poor adhesion? The problem is that all aggregates would really prefer water to bitumen hence the need to ensure that particles are absolutely dry before mixing with bitumen. Aggregate chemistry determines how easily the bond with bitumen is broken down, but it all happens much more rapidly if there is water about. What can be done about poor adhesion? Answer: include an additive, usually hydrated lime. Asphalt Stiffness Modulus Asphalt does not have a single modulus value; it is both temperature and loading rate dependent because bitumen is temperature and loading rate dependent. Predicting Asphalt Stiffness Modulus
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Step 1 Binder stiffness: The most widely adopted approach is to use van der Pohls nomograph, a chart which relates binder stiffness (Ebinder) to temperature (T), softening point (SP), penetration index (PI), and load pulse duration (t). The following formula matches the nomograph over a restricted range of input parameters. Ebinder [in MPa] = 1.157 107 t-0.368 2.718PI (SP T)5 Step 2 Mixture Stiffness: The other controlling parameter here is Voids in Mixed Aggregate (VMA), = the percentage of the mixture which is not aggregate = binder % + air %. Many different equations have been proposed. Here is one. Emixture [in MPa] = Ebinder [1 + (257.5 2.5VMA)/(n (VMA3))]n where: n = 0.83 log10[4 104/Ebinder] VMA = Vbinder + Vair in %; Ebinder is in MPa
These are easy enough to use, but the problem is that we dont normally know the volume of binder, only the mass percentage; so there is more calculating to be done. Example: predict the stiffness modulus of an asphalt with 5% binder by mass and 7% air voids at 10C under fast highway traffic if the softening point of the binder is 49C and the penetration index is -0.5. a) What loading time? Fast highway traffic: say 100kph; i.e. 27.8ms-1. Tyre contact is typically 300mm long, therefore loading time at the surface = 0.3/27.8 = 0.0108s. Rule of thumb: loading time (secs) = 1/speed (kph); i.e. 0.01s. So: Ebinder = 1.157 107 0.01-0.368 2.7180.5 (49 10)5 = 93.7MPa b) What VMA? We need to estimate the density of the rock in the asphalt, generally in the range 2500-2900kg/m3, say 2700 here. We also need the density of bitumen, typically 1030kg/m3. In 1000kg of asphalt: 5% binder = 50kg; binder volume = 50/1030 = 0.0485m3. 95% rock = 950kg; rock volume = 950/2700 = 0.3519m3. Combine: 0.4004m3. But 7% air voids total volume of (100/93) 0.4004 = 0.4305m3. binder volume percentage of 0.0485/0.4305 100 = 11.3% Therefore VMA = 11.3% + 7% = 18.3% So: n = 0.83 log10[4 104/93.7] = 2.183 Emixture = 93.7 [1 + (257.5 2.5 18.3)/(2.183 (18.33))]2.183 = 7270MPa
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Measuring Asphalt Stiffness Here are three possible tests:
TensionCompression F Indirect Tensile F Diameter = d L F/2 L
Four-point Bending (Flexure) F/2 F/2 h L L F/2
Thickness = b F E = 4FL/d2 Thickness = b E = F(+0.27)/b E = FL[(23L2/4h2)+1+]/hb
The tension-compression test is not very practical to carry out. The indirect tensile test is very quick and easy, but has complex stress conditions; nevertheless it is widely used. The four-point bending test is usually only carried out when testing for fatigue, but it also gives a good stiffness measurement. Note: stiffness depends on loading rate. Therefore you usually have to correct the result before using it in pavement design. Typical Stiffness Values Material
Dense asphalt base (50 pen binder) Dense asphalt base (100 pen binder) Surfacing
Stiffness Modulus (MPa) at 20C In the Laboratory In the Pavement (e.g. 125 milliseconds (e.g. 10 milliseconds to peak load) to peak load) 5000 7000 3500 5000 2000 3000
These values are for new asphalt, immediately after laying. But bitumen ages, which means that the stiffness of a mixture will increase throughout its life as the viscosity of the binder increases. For example, if a new dense asphalt base with 50 pen binder has an initial stiffness (in the road) of 7000MPa at 20C (by which time the penetration of the bitumen has already decreased to around 35 purely as a result of mixing and laying), then this will probably have increased to about 9000MPa after 10 years in a climate such as the UK, with much more rapid stiffness increase in hotter climates. Note approximate temperature correction suggested by the Transport Research Laboratory: log10(ET) = log10(E20C) 0.0003 (20-T)2 + 0.022 (20-T) Fracture and Fatigue of Asphalt 24
Low-temperature fracture can occur in continental climates. Asphalt expands and contracts with temperature changes, with a typical thermal expansion coefficient of around 1.8 10-5 per degree C. If it is too brittle at the low point of the temperature cycle then it may simply break. More usually, an asphalt cracks due to fatigue under millions of load applications. Localised fractures begin to form at particle-to-particle contacts and then slowly grow, eventually joining to form proper cracks. Growth rate is primarily controlled by the magnitude of strain in the mixture under load. You can see the effect in a loss of stiffness even before any cracks can actually be seen.
1
Proportion of Initial Stiffness
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
10C 20C 30C
Proportion of Life to Failure
Measuring Fatigue Resistance The following three tests are commonly used.
Indirect tensile
4-point bending
Trapezoidal (or 2-point bending)
Initial Strain (x 10 -6)
Usually what you do is to carry out a series of tests at different stress/strain levels and to plot the lives to failure against strain (under load at early stages of the test). Failure is generally taken to be a 50% loss in stiffness. The results tend to be only slightly affected by temperature. Permanent Deformation
1000
Fatigue characteristic: Fatigue characteristic Slope typically about -0.25 in log-log space
100
10 100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
Number of Load Applications to Failure
25
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Rutting is always a danger. To avoid it you need:
Good angular aggregate A sensible gradation (i.e. particle size distribution of the aggregate) Good compaction A hard binder (so rutting only happens in hot weather) At least 2% air voids, otherwise you begin to lose particle-particle contacts.
Measuring Permanent Deformation The most usual forms of test are:

Repeated load axial (RLA) Vacuum repeated load axial Wheel tracking
Typical RLA data: (100kPa, 40C) Note the effect of moisture conditioning i.e. soaking in water Rule-of-thumb: 1% strain is a safe limit; 2% spells danger; 3% means trouble!
Axial Strain (%)
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 Mix Mix Mix Mix Mix Mix 2500 A - Dry A - Moisture conditioned B - Dry B - Moisture conditioned C - Dry C - Moisture conditioned 3000 3500 4000
Number of Load Cycles
Durability As mentioned already, bitumen ageing means asphalt becomes stiffer a good thing but also more brittle not so good! But we also have to worry about water damage, leading to loss of adhesion between aggregate and bitumen. So:
Water bath
test one batch usually indirect tensile strength; Simple Soaking soak a second batch for a while (many different specifications); Procedure test the second batch; express the result as retained strength, i.e. ratio of soaked to unsoaked (in %); if > 75% (specifications vary) then OK Mixture Design 26
Aggregate Particle Size Distribution The choice depends on where the material is going in the pavement. Base: Surface: usually larger sized particles because layers are thick; also less bitumen. usually smaller particles better ride quality; better durability; thin layers; high binder content, therefore expensive.
Gradation usually go for a broadly graded mixture to give optimum aggregate packing, deformation resistance, stiffness + minimise binder content. For example the US Superpave specification uses a Fuller curve with n = 0.45 for what is termed asphalt concrete (sometimes called dense bitumen macadam in the UK). Fuller curves: % passing size d = (d/D)n
100 90 80 Percentage passing 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01 0.1 1 Sieve size (mm) 10 100
where D = maximum particle size
Another option is gapgrading. This means that there are large stones and smaller particles but not much in between. Hot rolled asphalt and stone mastic asphalt are both gap-graded mixtures. A very different surface material is porous asphalt, with a near single-sized gradation designed to allow easy water drainage.
Asphalt Concrete Hot Rolled Asphalt Porous Asphalt Stone Mastic Asphalt Fuller Curves (n = 0.45)
Critical particle size (Hot Rolled Asphalt)
The concept of a critical particle size can be useful. This is the point where the actual gradation just touches a Fuller curve. The gradation to the right of the critical size is less steep than the Fuller curve, which means that coarser particles are always separated by plenty of smaller-sized particles, right down to the critical size. However, the gradation to the left of the critical size is steeper than the Fuller curve, which means there are never enough small-size particles to fill the gaps between larger ones. This means that particles above the critical size form the aggregate skeleton; particles smaller than the critical size are really just floating in the binder. So: Asphalt concrete similar to the Fuller curve, therefore no clear critical size. Hot rolled asphalt very clear critical size at around 1mm; needs good sand-sized aggregate. Stone mastic asphalt should be a large critical size if well designed, but with almost enough particles to fill the gaps; therefore very sensitive to errors in gradation. Porous asphalt definitely a large critical size. Binder Content
27
Dont forget: binder content as a percentage by mass is quite different from its percentage by volume because the specific gravity of bitumen is so much less than that of rock. The volume percentage (typically 8-12%) determines mixture properties; the mass percentage (typically 4-6%) is most easily measured and therefore specified. The Marshall Mix Design Method A practical technique developed in the 1950s: Select a gradation. Make up a series of mixes at different binder contents. Prepare specimens using a Marshall hammer for compaction. Measure achieved densities. Carry out Marshall tests to derive stability and flow values. Determine optimum binder content based on stability, flow and density.
F Stability

60C (50mm /min)
Density

Marshall Test
optimum Binder content
optimum Binder content
0.45m 10kg
Stability
Flow maximum
50mm 100mm
Flow
minimum
Marshall Hammer
Binder content
The Superpave Mix Design Method This design approach grew out of research in the US in the 1990s and is principally concerned with optimising mixture volumetrics: Select a gradation (only broadly graded mixtures covered; filler-binder ratio by mass between 0.6 and 1.2). Make up a series of mixes at different binder contents. Prepare specimens using a gyratory compactor. Measure achieved densities. The optimum binder content is the one that gives a void content of 4%. Prepare further specimens at the optimum binder content. Check voids at light and heavy compaction.
28

Void Content
Void content check on specimens at design number of gyrations (50125 depending on traffic)
4%
optimum
Binder content
Check void content after maximum level of compaction (75-205 gyrations depending on traffic)
Check void content after initial compaction (6-9 gyrations depending on traffic) > 11% (unless traffic < 3msa)
Gyratory Compactor
>2%
The additional checks at the end ensure that compaction doesnt occur too easily, an indicator of poor aggregate interlock, and that void content will never fall below 2%, even under heavy trafficking. Both checks are intended to avoid the danger of rutting. Binder Grade (i.e. Penetration or similar measure) This depends largely on climate. The key point is that the binder should be able to perform satisfactorily over the full range of temperatures experienced in the pavement. Low temperature danger of fracture and fatigue High temperature danger of rutting Desirable working range of binder viscosity 5 103 to 107 Pa.s. e.g. 50 pen binder gives a working temperature range of around -10 to +45C. In some climates it is just not possible to find a conventional binder which covers the expected temperature range satisfactorily. In these cases there are two options: Accept that damage will occur and plan accordingly. Pay extra and use a modified binder, extending the working temperature range. Filler Filler is an extremely important part of the mixture. It is a very effective binder additive, multiplying stiffness, fracture and fatigue strength by a factor of up to about 3. The successful use of a good quality filler will: enhance mixture stiffness and fatigue strength; assist chemically in promoting aggregate-bitumen adhesion; inhibit drainage of hot binder off the aggregate during transportation; not prevent proper mixing; not prevent proper bitumen-aggregate contact.
29
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 5.
For best results, filler % by mass bitumen % by mass, maybe a little more. Cold-Mix Asphalt Conventional Hot-Mix materials have excellent mechanical properties BUT: aggregate has to be heated and dried thoroughly, this means that certain potential aggregates are excluded, the material has to be placed and compacted before it cools.
It would therefore be extremely useful to find an alternative which could be mixed with cold, wet aggregate. There might be significant environmental benefits as well as a reduced energy demand. Options: Bitumen Emulsion Foamed Bitumen
Bitumen Emulsion Bitumen emulsion is a suspension of bitumen droplets in water, created as follows: Break the bitumen into very small droplets, typically 1-20 microns in size. This requires a Colloid Mill (which unfortunately is expensive and uses up significant energy!)
Water + emulsifier Hot bitumen (100-140C) 10006000rpm The Emulsifier Emulsifiers are hydrocarbon chains with positively or negatively charged ions at the end of the chain. Cationic:
positively charged
Emulsion (<90C)
Anionic:
negatively charged
The emulsion works because the polymer parts of the emulsifier molecules attach themselves to the bitumen droplets. This leaves each droplet surrounded with charge and means that droplets repel each other. These forces are enough to prevent droplets
30
coalescing (combining) since bitumen and water have very similar specific gravities (1.00 and 1.03 respectively).
Bitumen droplet Charged emulsifier molecules Water + free emulsifier
Typical proportions: 40-70% bitumen. Big advantage of emulsions: they can last for months (with the occasional stir). Foamed Bitumen Bitumen foaming is an alternative technique to produce a binder which is workable at normal ambient temperatures. This is done as follows:
Expansion Ratio Hot Bitumen (140-200C) Water (2-6% of bitumen) Air Foam Time Half lives (typically 15-30 seconds) Maximum expansion ratio (typically 10-20)
Advantage of foamed bitumen over emulsion: it doesnt need so much water. Disadvantage: you have to use it within about a minute! (i.e. straight into the mixer) How Cold Mix Works For both emulsion and foamed bitumen to achieve reasonable mixing in of the binder the aggregate must be wet. The water content required is typically 2-3%. Problem: the binder (bitumen droplets in emulsion or flakes of bitumen foam) heads straight for the water, which is mostly found amongst the fine aggregate particles.
31
Result: coarse particles often dont get coated properly with bitumen, leaving a partially bound material. In detail:
1. Particles coated with a film of water before mixing
2. Bitumen droplets or flakes of foam coalesce onto the aggregate
3. Most of the water evaporates; some is trapped
Look in even more detail: Compaction squeezes particles together, forcing the water away from contact areas and creating bitumen bonds. The final trapped water content is usually 0.5-1.0% (by mass). The rest of the water can, in theory, evaporate; but this is highly weather dependent. Cold-mix therefore needs good weather. Additives Because the UK is not always warm and dry, it is common to add a small percentage (12%) of cement, lime or fly ash to the mixture in order to take up some of the water, helping the bitumen to attach itself to the aggregate. Volumetrics Dry Density We need good compaction, and this depends on the fluid content (fluid means water or emulsion or more debatably foam residue). Optimum compaction is achieved at
Air voids 10% 5% 0%
Optimum Fluid content
32
Fluid content
optimum fluid content. This is typically about 6% (by mass). So, say 2% water content is present in the aggregate already. This means that we can add 4% extra fluids. In an emulsion, this can be up to 70% bitumen, which means that the upper limit on bitumen content is just under 2.8% (compared to a typical 4-5% for a hotmix asphalt). If you want more bitumen then you just have to accept a lower density. Foamed bitumen needs a slightly higher initial aggregate water content to get good mixing. The result is that you end up with more or less the same limit as for emulsion. Illustration of volumetrics:
By Volume: 78% 7% 10% 5%
Aggregate
By Mass: By Volume: 87.5% 78%
FillerBinderAir Hot mix; dense grading;

8% 4.5% 0%
standard binder content
4% 6% 7% 2%
By Mass: By Volume:
90% 73%
4.5% 2.5% 3% 0% 6% 9% 10% 2%
Cold mix; dense grading; low binder content
By Mass: By Volume:
84.5% 69%
7% 6%
4% 9%
4.5% 0% 10% 6%
Cold mix; dense grading; standard binder content
By Mass:
84.5%
7%
4%
4.5%
0%
Cold mix; open grading; standard binder content
We can use the same equations for predicting the stiffness modulus of a cold-mix as for hot-mix. A trapped water pocket has just the same effect as an air void. Equation: where: Emixture [in MPa] = Ebinder [1 + (257.5 2.5VMA)/(n (VMA3))]n n = 0.83 log10[4 104/Ebinder] VMA is in %; Ebinder is in MPa
Say, for example, Sbinder is 25MPa for hot-mix at 20C but reduces to an average of 20MPa for cold-mix because of non-coated areas and the effect of the trapped water. Therefore n = 2.66 for hot-mix and 2.74 for cold-mix. Taking the volumetric examples above: SDBM = 6090MPa Scold-mix low binder = 5350MPa Scold-mix std binder = 1790MPa 33
Fatigue and deformation resistance are both also likely to be poorer than for hot mix. Curing An important difference between cold-mix and hot-mix is the time taken to gain strength. Hot-mix: - fairly high strength as soon as it has cooled down (e.g. 2 hours); - quite rapid stiffening for a few weeks as traffic slightly reorientates particles for maximum effectiveness; - slow stiffening thereafter due to binder ageing. Cold-mix: - initially little more than a granular material; - binder effect clear within 24 hours; - continuing slow strength gain over a period of up to 6 months; - simulate in lab with 5 days at 40C Unfortunately, it is not really practical to keep traffic off the road for 6 months while the material stiffens up! Therefore there is a danger of early life damage taking place but this is very hard to predict. So long as the trafic is light, no permanent damage will occur. The question is: just how much is too much?
6.0
Basalt FoamMaster Asphalt planings Limestone
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0
Blast furnace slag RAP Average
) P G ( r g d 0 2 a s e n f i t S
1.0 0.0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Days since Construction
Practical Use of Cold Mix Summary of key points: a) The binder content will probably be lower than for a hot mix. b) The void content is likely to be higher than an equivalent hot-mix. c) This means that cold-mix will usually be less stiff, less resistant to deformation and have lower fatigue life. It is a poorer material! material d) Water needs to evaporate before sealing the surface. This means that the aggregate grading used should be reasonably open. open e) It is important to limit early trafficking. trafficking f) All of these points mean that there is a significant risk associated with cold-mix. So why would anyone use cold-mix? a) The range of possible aggregates is extended. For example, construction and demolition waste, incinerator ash, crushed concrete and recycled asphalt planings (RAP) can all be used. b) Cold-mix technology is ideal for in-situ recycling. c) Cold-mix can have a storage life of several months.
34
d) Lower energy usage gives environmental benefits. For these reasons, cold-mix is a popular choice for minor roads.
35
PAVEMENT DESIGN
1. Traffic
Load Magnitude a) asphalt fatigue cracking depends approximately on the 4th power of tensile strain see graph on p25; b) concrete fatigue cracking depends approximately on the 10th to 12th power of tensile stress see graph on p18; c) subgrade rutting depends approximately on the 4th to 7th power of subgrade compressive stress (or strain?). So its all a bit complicated. The American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) undertook a series of pavement trials during the late 1950s using controlled trafficking with known loads. Conclusion: use a 4th power law. No. of equivalent design axles (Neq) = [axle load (P) / design axle load (Pdes)]4 i.e. if P is twice the design axle load Pdes, it will do 16 times the damage of a design axle. How much difference does the choice of power law really make? Typical highway traffic 1 hour:
Wt band 0-1T 1-2T 2-3T 3-4T 4-5T 5-6T 6-7T 7-8T 8-9T 9-10T 10-11T 11-12T 12-13T Average 0.5T 1.5T 2.5T 3.5T 4.5T 5.5T 6.5T 7.5T 8.5T 9.5T 10.5T 11.5T 12.5T Number 3875 1201 564 320 254 189 265 412 365 176 17 4 1
Convert to equivalent 8T axles: Neq = N (Wav/8)n

Equivalent no of 8T axles
5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 2 4 Without 14-15T axle With 14-15T axle
Exponent n
10
12
14
So, for highways we convert traffic to an equivalent number of 8T (80kN) axles (called standard axles) which means 40kN wheel loads. For airfields we have to choose a design aircraft and convert to numbers of equivalent design aircraft; similarly for port pavements etc. But, for highways at least, we usually dont know the detailed numbers in each weight band, so it is common to use a wear factor (or damage factor) for each vehicle type. 36
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Vehicle Type

Hakim (1998b) Frith et al (1997) UK Highways Agency (HD24)

Collop (1999) Flexible Rigid Rutting Fatigue
Wear Factors (= conversion factor to standard axles) Maintenance 0.40 2.30 1.70 3.00 1.70 2.90 3.70 New road 0.60 3.40 2.50 4.60 2.50 4.40 5.60
2 axle rigid 3 axle rigid 3 axle articulated 4 axle rigid 4 axle articulated 5 axle articulated 6 axle articulated
1.16 0.39 1.75 0.84 2.02 1.78
0.40 1.26 0.65 2.80 1.00 2.50 1.69
1.16 2.32 1.79 2.85 2.71 3.70 3.94
1.46 2.39 1.63 3.12 2.26 3.94 3.03
0.68 1.29 0.68 2.12 1.10 2.65 1.48
Note: these keep changing as vehicle and tyre design changes. Contact Pressure The contact zone between a pneumatic rubber tyre and the road surface is obviously complicated. But should we worry? By the time we go down a few centimetres the pressure will have evened out so the exact details certainly wont affect the lower layers probably not the base either. Result: dont worry about it except for high pressure, usually aircraft loads, when we need to choose a suitably strong surface course. Typical values: 250kPa for a car, 700kPa for a large truck, 1000-1500kPa for commercial aircraft and up to 3000kPa for some military planes. 2. Standard Pavement Designs
As an example, here is the main chart from UK Highways Agency standard HD26.
Example
Composite design HBM lower base
Composite design asphalt upper base, binder course and surface course
Fully flexible design (asphalt/ foundation)
37
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Note: Traffic: (msa = millions of standard axles)
HBM (hydraulically bound material) category: A. 9-12MPa (gravel) B. 9-12MPa (crushed rock); 12-16MPa (gravel) C. 12-16MPa (crushed rock); 16-20MPa (gravel) D. 16-20MPa (crushed rock) Foundation class: 1. Capping only 2. Granular subbase 3. Weak HBM subbase 4. Strong HBM subbase 50MPa at top of foundation 100MPa at top of foundation 200MPa at top of foundation 400MPa at top of foundation
Asphalt materials (= base layer): DBM125 = Asphalt concrete with 125pen binder HRA50 = Hot rolled asphalt with 50pen binder DBM50/HDM50 = Asphalt concrete with 50pen binder EME2 = Asphalt concrete with 15pen binder Here is the equivalent chart for concrete (rigid) pavements
Note:
Traffic: (msa = millions of standard axles) CRCP = continuously reinforced concrete pavement CRCR = continuously reinforced concrete roadbase (i.e. needs an asphalt surface) fr = concrete flexural strength R = reliability
38
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 The AASHTO (1993) method is also still widely used Key Equation: where:
Structural Number (SN) = a1h1 + a2h2 + a3h3 a1, a2, a3 = layer coefficients [Asphalt a 0.238 modulus(GPa)0.55] [Granular a modulus(MPa)0.85 / 470] h1, h2, h3 = layer thicknesses (inches)
Structural Number (SN) is a measure of the strength of the pavement structure, which is related to pavement life (in msa) through a complicated equation. Advantage: pretty simple conceptually Nowadays the AASHTO Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Method (MEPDM) is also available. This takes several minutes to run on a modern PC but accounts for detailed traffic distribution + changes in temperature day and night throughout the year. The problem is that all these methods + many others across the world are basically black boxes. You input some parameters and you get a design out and you just have to trust that the method applies to your particular case. You calculate nothing! 3. Analytical Pavement Design Flexible Pavements Design Principles The pavement has to fulfil the following roles: a) Protect the subgrade: Natural ground will not be usually be strong enough to bear traffic load directly; it would deform and rut. b) Guard against deformation in the pavement layers: All pavement materials must themselves be stable enough not to deform too much. c) Guard against break-up of the pavement layers: The strength of the pavement layers must be sufficient to prevent excessive cracking from developing. d) Protect from environmental attack: The materials used must not lose their properties (too much) under environmental attack. e) Provide a suitable surface: The design has to be suitable to provide an appropriate pavement surface. f) Ensure maintainability: The design must ensure that it is possible to carry out necessary maintenance. Analytical design usually only looks at (a) and (c). The other points are covered by sensible material specifications and sensible combinations of layers. Protect the subgrade Recognising the difficulties involved in soil parameter estimation, most of the current analytical design methods use the so-called the subgrade strain criterion
39
This is a massive simplification and relies on a massive assumption, namely: THE STRENGTH OF A SOIL IS DIRECTLY RELATED TO ITS STIFFNESS This is not really true!! Nevertheless, over a limited range of soils, for example UK heavy clays, it may be close enough to being true to be usable. The argument goes like this: life (to a limiting rut depth) = fn [stress strength] if: strength = fn [stiffness modulus] . . then: life = fn [stress/stiffness modulus] = fn [elastic strain]. The great advantage of this assumption is that it is only necessary to calculate the elastic strain value in the subgrade under load, i.e. the vertical elastic strain at the top of the subgrade under a design wheel load. This can be done using multi-layer linear elastic analysis programs like BISAR, ELSYM, JULEA, CIRCLY etc. All we need now is a relationship between life and strain. Here are three:
Hot-Mix Asphalt Subbase Subgrade
Nf [in millions] = 3.09 1010 z3.95 [z in microstrain] UK Transport Research Laboratory Nf [in millions] = 8.511 10-3 z7.14 [z in millistrain] NAASRA (Australia) Nf [in millions] = 7.6 108 z3.7 [in microstrain] British Airports Authority Conclusion: think before you believe any of them! They have all been developed based on experience. For example, sandy soils will tend to have different relationship between strength and stiffness modulus from that of clay soils, which means they can carry many times the number of load applications for a given level of elastic strain. This is about as good as it gets unless you really know something about the soil in your subgrade. However if you know enough to estimate the shear stress at failure at the top of your subgrade you might be able to be a little cleverer in your design, based on data like that shown here.
100
8 Shear Strain excluding the first cycle (%) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 10 100
90%:
ratio of applied stress to failure stress
Applied stress/failure stress (%)
Clay Sand
88%
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 1% strain
1% strain 2% strain
2% strain
99%
83%
90% 73% 54%

1000
71% 52%
10000
possible design line

1 1 00 1 0000 1 000000
Num ber of Load Cycles
Num ber of Load Cycles
40
This data is from laboratory tests carried out in the triaxial equipment on a soft clay and an angular sand. Note that when the data is in the form of a stress ratio, the behaviour of the two soils is fairly similar, allowing a possible design line to be proposed. Guard against break-up of the pavement layers It is a fact that a relationship is generally found between tensile strain in asphalt under load and the number of load applications until failure occurs; it is therefore quite logical that the maximum tensile strain in the asphalt layers of a pavement under a wheel load should be related to cracking. Cracking can occur: A at the bottom of the asphalt immediately under the load; B near the surface just outside the loaded area; C at the surface in the tyre tread contact zone.
Hot-Mix Asphalt Subbase Subgrade
A is generally assumed to be dominant. Even if it isnt always true it makes life simpler! It can be calculated relatively easily using multi-layer linear elastic analysis. We now need a relationship between calculated tensile strain and life. Here are two: Nf [in millions] = 4.17 10-10 (1/t)4.16 [t in microstrain] UK Transport Research Laboratory Nf [in millions] = 0.00432k1'C (1/t)3.9492 (1/E)1.281 [t in microstrain] AASHTO, US where: k1' = fn(h); C = fn(mixture volumetrics); E = asphalt stiffness modulus; h = asphalt thickness. Putting it all together:
Carry out traffic assessment
Buses 2-axle trucks 3-axle trucks 5 or 6-axle articulated trucks (with semi-trailer) Equivalent standard wheel loads/day 20-year design traffic 56 562 401 268 2633 2 107
Multi-layer linear elastic analysis

t h1 h2 E1, 1 E2, 2 E3, 3 h1 t = 50strain t = 70strain t = 100strain t = 150strain
strain 2000 1000 800 200 100 50 20 10 1
Select a fatigue characteristic
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
108 N
h2
41
Design Temperature This is all OK, but we will get a different answer depending on the temperature of the pavement since asphalt stiffness modulus depends on temperature. Its stiffness changes by a factor of about three for every 10C temperature change, and stiffness is a key input to any calculation of tensile strain. The problem is far too complex to analyse fully. So, select a design temperature and calibrate your prediction based on experience. In the UK, the temperature selected is 20C. The equations for Nf on the previous two pages assume an asphalt temperature of 20C. Typical Stiffness Moduli and Poissons Ratios Modulus Asphalt surface course: Asphalt concrete, 125 pen (= DBM125): Asphalt concrete, 50 pen (= DBM50/HDM50): Asphalt concrete, 15 pen (= DBM15): Weak HBM: Crushed rock base: Crushed rock subbase: Capping: asphalt and unbound material: HBM 2500MPa 3100MPa 5000MPa 7800MPa 500MPa 250-500MPa 150MPa 75MPa 0.35 0.2
Poissons ratio Issues in Real Design
Thin asphalt layers 800 1 000000 M odelling propagation The problem here is that 700 For practical design deformation (and therefore Computed 600 1 00000 curvature) of pavements with 500 thin asphalt layers is dominated 1 0000 by the stiffness of underlying 400 0 50 1 00 1 50 200 support, which means that it Asphalt Thickness (mm) 300 only increases slightly as 200 asphalt thickness reduces; and Computed 100 strain, which is proportional to For practical design curvature but inversely 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 proportional to thickness, Asphalt Thickness (mm) actually reduces at low thickness. The trouble is that though calculated strain may reduce as asphalt gets very thin, experience is that pavement life does not start increasing! Suggestion: just extrapolate the design curve derived at greater thicknesses. 42
Tensile Strain (microstrain)
Life (number of passes)
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Load Groups You dont often get a truly isolated wheel, in which case you might have to take account of effects from neighbouring wheels. In general: dont worry about it for asphalt strain; take it into account for subgrade strain.
Dynamic Effects Wheel load fluctuates as the vehicle body oscillates vertically. Some suspension systems are more effective than others at avoiding high dynamic load, but you cant avoid it entirely. Usually we ignore it in design, assuming it is included in the calibration. But lets take a look at what might really be happening.
Multiplier on damage
Load
Maximum dynamic Mean
Divide into time steps Work out relative damage in each time step [ = (W/Wmean)n ] Average damage over whole cycle
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1
Exponent = 4 Exponent = 8 Exponent = 12 Exponent = 4; repeatable load pattern
1.2 1.4 Ratio: maximun dynamic/mean
1.6
The first three curves make the assumption that the distribution of dynamic load is random. However, there is plenty of evidence to show that this is often not the case and that similar vehicles, having similar suspension system characteristics, will tend to apply peak loads in roughly the same locations. The fourth curve makes the assumption that the loading pattern is perfectly repeated, in which case the computed damage would occur at regular intervals along the pavement and you can sometimes see this in reality. Cornering Sideways force due to cornering = Mv2/r
M r v Centre of gravity h P1 d P2
Vertical force due to gravity Balance vertically:
= Mg
[g = 9.81m/s2]
P1 + P2 = Mg P1d = (Mv2/r)h + Mg(d/2)
Moments about inner wheel path: Combine: P1 = M (g/2 + v2h/rd) P2 = M (g/2 v2h/rd)
Example: v = 25m/s (approx 60mph); r = 500m; d = 2m; h = 2m; M = 8T P1 = 49.24kN; P2 = 29.24kN 43
Vehicle Speed Effects Vehicle speed is important for three reasons: dynamic loads will be higher at high speeds; asphalt stiffness varies with loading rate; soils and granular materials at high levels of saturation may suffer from positive pore pressures (and therefore low strength and stiffness) at high loading rates. But we still usually ignore it! Lateral Wander This refers to the fact that not every wheel follows the same path. On highways, the distribution across a wheel path commonly has a standard deviation of around 150mm; on airport runways this is likely to be a metre or more. We could therefore reduce the design traffic slightly to account for this. On roads this is rarely done; on airfields it is. Designing with Cold-Mix Asphalt The trouble with cold mix is that it is neither one thing nor the other. It is partially bound. Choices: a) treat it as a hot-mix
Hot-mix binder course + surface course 3500MPa Cold-mix base 2500MPa Calculate asphalt tensile strain at base of cold-mix layer; use a standard fatigue characteristic. Assumption: the material achieves full curing without damage [optimistic assumption]
b) treat it as a very superior granular material
Hot-mix binder course + surface course 3500MPa Cold-mix base 1000MPa Calculate asphalt tensile strain at base of binder course; use a standard fatigue characteristic. Assumption: the material deteriorates to the equivalent of an excellent granular material.
What stiffness to use?
500MPa if you are really quite unsure; 750MPa for most cases; 1000MPa for well controlled construction in UK; 1500MPa under ideal conditions. 44
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 4. Analytical Pavement Design Composite Pavements The first issue here is: what is a composite pavement?
Answer: one with a relatively strong HBM layer in it. A weak HBM is really just like a good granular material because it will end up broken into small pieces So, reviewing the design principles listed on p38, the key differences are: a) Subgrade protection becomes of secondary importance since the subgrade can never rut until the HBM has broken. b) We need to make sure the stress in the HBM isnt enough to break it, or at least not enough to break it too much. Thermal Stress All HBMs expand and contract with temperature changes. They are solids and so this imposes stresses, mainly in the longitudinal direction. In many climates there is likely to be at least a 20C difference in HBM temperature between setting and the coldest time of year, leading to a typical strain of 2 10-4, and this is around the failure strain for most HBMs. The HBM will therefore crack at intervals transversely across the pavement. In fact it will usually crack during the first few night of its life when the strength is still low. What will the crack spacing be?
Angle of friction h L Temperature << temperature at time of set HBM layer Crack
Shear stress = gh tan Force across centre of slab = L/2 = ghL/2 tan (per metre width of slab) If slab is intact: Tensile stress at slab centre ghL/2 tan h = gL/2 tan If this is more than the tensile strength of the HBM, it will break in two Example: say tensile strength = 0.2MPa when the first relatively cold night occurs, density = 2300kg/m3 and friction angle is 35. Stress = strength when: 0.2 106 = 2300 9.81 L/2 tan(35) i.e. L = 38m
So a 40m length between cracks will break into two 20m lengths, but a 35m length will remain intact. In fact eventual spacing should be between 19m and 38m.
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Conclusion: expect transverse cracks, but the spacing will depend critically on day-night temperature changes during the first few days and weeks of life, and these cannot reasonably be foreseen. Solution: crack deliberately (i.e. form joints) at much closer spacing, usually 3m.
Recently paved HBM
Form slots to 2/3 depth
Fill slots with bitumen emulsion
Roll HBM
This process creates weaknesses. Hopefully cracks from at each weakness but because they are quite close together, each crack should remain very narrow (a hairline crack). Design against Traffic Loading This time we need to calculate the tensile stress at the bottom of the HBM layer, again using multi-layer linear elastic analysis. We then need a relationship between calculated tensile stress and life. Going back to p18, the key quantity is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strength well actually flexural strength, i.e. strength from a realistic test arrangement. We can just apply the fatigue equation suggested on p18, namely: t / flexural strength = 1.064 0.064 log10 (N) So, if the design is for 50 million standard axles and the calculated tensile stress at the bottom of the layer is 0.8MPa, then the required long-term flexural strength is 1.4MPa, which equates to a compressive strength of 10-15MPa. If we want to use a weaker material we must make the layer thicker, or maybe make the foundation stronger. Reflective Cracking Even if there are no traffic-induced cracks in the HBM, we know that there will be thermally induced transverse cracks (or joints which amounts to the same thing). These represent discontinuities in the support given to the asphalt layers, which means we are very likely to find a crack appearing through the asphalt at those points. This is reflective cracking. a) Reflective cracks are a nuisance not a real failure; could just keep re-sealing them. b) Could use Highways Agency rule and always have at least 180mm of asphalt. c) Could check asphalt tensile strain t but if so then reduce EHBM to 500MPa. This represents the effect of a discontinuity in support to the asphalt. 46
Hot-Mix Asphalt HBM Subbase Subgrade
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 5.
Analytical Pavement Design Rigid Pavements (jointed unreinforced) Westergaard Analysis Since the 1920s, the equations developed by H.M. Westergaard have represented the most widely used approach to analysis of concrete pavements under load. The original equations were derived assuming a concrete pavement to act as a slab in pure bending, and several subsequent modifications have been made over the years to increase the accuracy with which a real pavement can be modelled. The equations are in terms of the maximum tensile stress in the concrete due to slab bending and they are for three load locations: i) internal (i.e. distant from a joint); ii) edge; and iii) corner. The load is assumed to consist of a uniformly stressed circular area. Here are commonly applied versions of the equations. Westergaard equations for stress in a concrete slab: Internal loading; stress at base of slab: Tensile = [0.275 p / h2].[1 + ].[4 log10(Ls/b) + log10(12 (1-2)) 0.436] Edge loading; stress at base of slab: Tensile = [0.529 p / h2].[1 + 0.54].[4 log10(Ls/b) + 0.359] Corner loading; stress at top of slab: Tensile = [3 p / h2].[1 (2 a / Ls)1.2] where: p = load; a = radius; h = slab thickness; = Poissons ratio; Ls = radius of relative stiffness = [E h3 / (12 k (1-2))]0.25; E = stiffness modulus; k = modulus of subgrade reaction; b = radius of equivalent pressure distribution = (1.6 a2 + h2) 0.675 h, if a > 0.72 h; = a, if a < 0.72 h. Joints (with zero load transfer) Corner Internal Edge
Plan View
Estimating modulus of subgrade reaction k:

P r E1, 1 E2, 2 E3, 3
Use multi-layer linear elastic analysis: predict deflection k = (P/r2)/ Note: the result will depend on the value of r.
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Once you have calculated a worst-case tensile stress you could then apply the fatigue equation suggested above for HBM. However, it is usual to be on the safe side and use a more conservative equation, known as the Packard line. t / flexural strength = 0.96 0.0799 log10 (N) So, if you calculate a worst case stress of 1.6MPa for example, and you want to use a concrete with a flexural strength of 4.5MPa then the design traffic is about 37 million load applications. Problem: real life isnt just corners, edges and places far from an edge. Joints usually transfer load, so they arent really edges. But then not all joints are the same look back to p7. Expansion joints are not far from being edges; contraction joints should have pretty good load transfer; warping joints should have excellent load transfer. Solution: Usually ignore the corner case. Often ignore the edge case. Use the internal case but apply a factor depending on how good you think the joints are; e.g. 1.2 for good joints, 1.5 for poor joints. Multi-layer Linear Elastic Analysis The same multi-layer linear elastic analysis as has been introduced for flexible pavements can also be used here to calculate tensile stress. Advantage: load combinations can be included, such as dual or tandem wheel sets.
Disadvantage: all layers have to be infinite in extent; there is no way of analysing an edge or corner situation. Limit State Analysis A problem with both Westergaard and multi-layer linear elastic analysis is that concrete cannot really crack at a single point. If cracking is to occur, then there must be a mechanism of cracks. What will actually happen is that the point of theoretical failure will simply reduce in stiffness locally as the first inter-particle fractures begin to occur. Conclusions based on an elastic analysis will therefore be conservative. The alternative is a limit state analysis. Key equation: Need to: WORK done by loads = ENERGY absorbed by foundation + ENERGY dissipated at cracks a) arrange loads on pavement; b) propose a failure mechanism; c) calculate work done + energy to foundation based on an assumed set of deflections and angles; d) derive the resisting bending moment (per metre) at crack locations; e) relate this bending moment to a required slab thickness for a given concrete strength using the equation M = h2/6 (refer back to p17). 48
The limit state approach opens the door to solving problems of multiple loads and complex joint geometry that would otherwise be impossible. Example:
d Load P 0.5m
Assumptions: a) load uniformly distributed over area of foundation enclosed by cracks b) square wheel pattern with 0.5m offsets everywhere Work done by loads = 4P (2d/20.52)/(2d/2) = 4P(11/d) Energy dissipated at cracks = 42dM (/(2d/2)) = 8M Energy absorbed by foundation = 4P (/3) Energy balance: 4P (11/d) = 8M + 4P/3 M P/3 for large d f = 2P/h2
0.5m Moment to cause cracking = M per linear metre
Since M also equals fh2/6, therefore:
Warping Stresses Thermally-induced warping stresses result from a temperature difference between the top and the bottom of a slab; they should not be ignored. Approach 1: assume that the safety margin in using the Packard line (previous page) is enough to cover warping stresses the usual approach in practice. Approach 2: use equations that were developed to predict warping stresses directly. These are the Bradbury equations for maximum warping stress in a concrete slab, one for internal stress and the other for edge stress, mirroring two of the conditions covered by the Westergaard equations. Internal loading; stress at base of slab: Tensile = .E..T (Cx + Cy)/(1 - 2) Edge loading; stress at base of slab: Tensile = .E..T Cx (or Cy) where: E = stiffness modulus; = coefficient of thermal expansion; T = temperature difference top-bottom; Cx,Cy depend on the ratio of slab dimensions x and y respectively to radius of relative stiffness Ls see inset. x/Ls=0, Cx0; x/Ls=2, Cx0.05; x/Ls=3, Cx0.18; x/Ls=4, Cx0.50; x/Ls=5, Cx0.73; x/Ls=6, Cx0.89; x/Ls7, Cx1
You can then add the maximum warping stress to the stress caused by traffic to give a real maximum value for design although you then have to make some difficult decisions about the number of likely combined stress applications during the life of the pavement.
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Joint Spacing The main factor here is the amount of thermal expansion and contraction not warping. Taking a typical coefficient of thermal expansion of 10-5 per C and a 30C difference between maximum summer and minimum winter pavement temperatures, then a nominally 10m long slab of concrete will vary in length by 3mm. So, if joints are placed in a road at 10m spacing, there will be a gap of 3mm or more in the winter. This is usually too much. Even with dowel bars (refer back to p 7) there wont be enough load transfer across joints in the winter because there wont be any aggregate interlock, which means the design case becomes almost an edge condition. In fact, experience suggests that for most climates joint spacings between 3.5 and 6m represent a reasonable compromise between the cost and nuisance of joint construction and maintenance and the need to maintain load transfer efficiency. Less and the cost becomes too great; more and joint problems become increasingly likely. 6. Reinforced Concrete Pavements Lightly Reinforced Reinforcement is often not economically justified. However a light reinforcement mesh is sometimes included near the top of the slab as a means of controlling shrinkage cracking. It can also be used to cut back on the number of joints. The argument goes like this: 1) 2) 3) 4) joints are a nuisance so lets have less of them; greater joint spacing increased warping stresses less load transfer at joints; therefore there is a much greater likelihood of cracking; but if reinforcement is present cracks are controlled; they will remain narrow and the slab will not break up.
In this sort of pavement hairline cracking is accepted; but there is enough reinforcement to hold the slab together, giving plenty of aggregate interlock across each crack and so plenty of load transfer. Continuously Reinforced But why have any joints at all? After all, if we can accept hairline cracking then what putting so much reinforcement in that it never fractures? This is continuously reinforced concrete (CRC), and it sits right at the top of the range of concrete pavement options. The principle is simple. There has to be enough reinforcement to resist the forces generated when the concrete contracts due to cooling. Note: a) b) c) d) the concrete will still crack but these will be hairline cracks, typically every 1m; reinforcement quantity will typically be 0.6-0.8% of the concrete area; slab thickness is usually less than in the unreinforced case but not by much; there needs to be an anchorage (into the ground) at each end. 50
SURFACE PROPERTIES
1. Ride Quality
Excellent ride quality is not always needed but it is on high-speed roads. Typical tolerance limits: 3mm in 3m So how can this be achieved? Pavement Quality Concrete No problem achieving the tolerance in a machine-laid wet-formed concrete pavement. Problem: concrete is hard and unable to absorb much energy from the tyres. high tyre vibration relatively high noise not so pleasant to drive on [joints just make things worse; good texture, e.g. longitudinal grooving or exposed aggregate finish, can help]
Asphalt To get a really good finish, the surface course must be relatively thin (say 50mm); otherwise the paver operator will not be able to control levels well enough. But then the underlying layer must also be reasonably even too and this principle applies right the way through the pavement. The evenness of the surface of each layer can be constructed slightly better than that of the one below, but only slightly. UK Highways Agency tolerances (absolute maxima) at each level: Pavement surface Binder course Base Subbase Impact of different types of surface: Surface Type Asphalt concrete Hot rolled asphalt + chippings Stone mastic asphalt Porous asphalt Surface dressing Concrete (PQC) Block paving Vibration generation medium medium low low high fairly high very high Energy absorption medium low high very high low very low low Ride quality ranking 3 4 2 1 5= 5= 7 6mm 6mm 15mm + 10mm 30mm
51
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 2. Material Strength, Durability etc
A PQC surface is of exactly the same strength as the rest of the concrete slab not an issue. Asphalt Surfaces Asphalt surface course has to have relatively small stone size due to its low layer thickness and, consequently, a relatively high bitumen content. This leads to a less stiff material but with high fatigue resistance and good durability. Asphalt surface structural properties: Mixture Type Asphalt concrete Hot rolled asphalt (+ chippings) Stone mastic asphalt Porous asphalt BASE Stiffness medium medium medium-low low HIGH Deformation resistance high low high medium-high HIGH Fatigue strength medium high medium-high medium-low MEDIUM
Block Paving Although blocks themselves are high-stiffness, the effective layer stiffness is a function of rotation and shear at joints, which depends on how well the joints are filled. It is common practice to assume a stiffness of 500MPa for a combined block-bedding sand layer. 3. Skid Resistance
Microtexture This term describes the intrinsic frictional properties of the surface. In an asphalt: In a PQC: In block paving: it relates to the aggregate particles at the surface. it relates to the cementitious mortar. it relates to the surface of the block.
The microtexture represents the ultimate skid resistance potential of a surface, the level applying in dry conditions and without any intervening dirt, bitumen or ice lens. It is logical therefore to insist on improved microtexture at sensitive locations such as approaches to pedestrian crossings and roundabouts, and this approach is adopted by highway authorities all over the world. Certain aggregate types such as gritstones therefore take on a premium value because of their excellent microtexture. The problem is that the frictional properties of a surface change under the action of traffic. In dry weather they are polished by the relative motion of tyre and surface, 52
activated partly by tyre vibration. This reduces the microtexture. It is standard practice therefore to assess the so-called Polished Stone Value (PSV) of an aggregate by first subjecting it to an accelerated polishing regime before measuring the frictional properties using the pendulum test.
Rubber pad
Rubber-tyred wheel
Pendulum Test Surface aggregate
Microtexture is also seasonal. Polishing occurs mainly in dry weather; wet weather Specimen Accelerated Polishing Machine restores frictional properties to some extent due to the abrading effect of small particles of grit which are present in surface water. For this reason, skid resistance should preferably be assessed in summer or during the dry season. Macrotexture If it never rained you would need no macrotexture (the visible texture due to the arrangement of stones or the presence of grooves etc). Neither tyre tread nor visible surface texture make the smallest contribution to basic skid resistance; they are only present to ensure that surface water has somewhere to go. Direct contact is needed between tyre and surface in order for friction to be activated; if a water film remains in between, the vehicle will aquaplane as soon as brakes are applied. An optimised macrotexture therefore ensures that there is only a short distance between individual contact points and regions where water can be accommodated without danger.
Polishing Test
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Water movement away from contact points

1. Measure out exact volume of sand 2. Pour onto pavement surface
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes Macrotexture is generally expressed as a texture depth in millimetres. The basic measure comes from a procedure known as the sand patch test, although there are also laserbased pieces of equipment on the market for rapid, sometimes trafficspeed, measurement.
3. Spread out level with tops of aggregate particles
4. Record diameter of sand patch
Sand Patch Test
Macrotexture can also deteriorate under traffic loading. The same wet-season abrasion that restores microtexture also reduces the height of individual aggregate particles, eventually reducing the texture depth excessively. For this reason, it is necessary to specify abrasion resistance, for example the Los Angeles Abrasion value. 4. Spray
Spray from surface water is a safety hazard. If water cannot easily flow across the surface of a pavement then it will be available to form spray. The issue is not texture depth but barriers to lateral flow. Traditional UK Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA) with rolled-in chippings has a particularly bad reputation for spray since each individual chipping sits in its own small indentation (negative texture) into the asphalt surface, allowing a small pond of water to remain around it until it either evaporates or is dispersed in the form of spray. Most other surfaces consist of protrusions (positive texture) from a more general surface level and water can flow around these protrusions and make its way sideways. Asphalt concrete and SMA therefore generate much less spray than HRA. Grooved concrete is also good. However, porous asphalt is undoubtedly the premier material. Porous asphalt allows water to drain straight into the pavement itself and then to pass laterally through it, below the level of the tyre-surface contact. The result: virtually no spray at all. Of course, the pavement has to be able to cope with the presence of water within the porous asphalt. Usually the porous asphalt surface course has to overlie a dense, impermeable binder course; otherwise pavement durability problems are likely.
54
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 5. Noise
This can be an important issue in urban areas. It is a highly complex field and it is not necessary for the pavement engineer to appreciate the exact acoustic mechanisms involved.
108 106 104 102
Blocks Other materials SMA Surface dressing Porous asphalt

Porous asphalt Stone mastic asphalt Asphalt concrete Surface dressing Slurry seal Exposed aggregate concrete Textured concrete Blocks
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Noise dB(A)
100 98 96 94 92 90 88
Texture depth (mm)
As expected, noise level generally depends on texture depth, i.e. roughness. However, the picture is clearly more complicated than this, with a 10dB(A) difference a factor of about 3 in actual sound pressure magnitude between block paving and porous asphalt for the same texture depth. Of the more common asphalt surfaces, SMA is evidently the quietest at normal texture depths (around 1mm). Conceptually: Noise is caused by vibration, principally of the tyre tread elements. Surface type affects both the amplitude and frequency of tyre tread vibration. [a rough surface will induce a high amplitude of tyre vibration and therefore high noise] Some of this noise will be absorbed by the surface, and this will depend on the hardness of the surface material. [concrete has poor ability to absorb any sort of vibration energy including noise and this means that it is difficult to produce a low-noise concrete surface] Porous asphalt has very low stiffness and therefore causes little excitation to the tyre tread elements; it also has excellent noise absorption properties an ideal low-noise material.
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PAVEMENT EVALUATION
1. Visual Condition Surveys
A visual survey is the most basic and yet often the most useful survey type of all. Put simply, not all cracks are the same; nor are all ruts or surface defects. An experienced engineer can deduce a great deal about the internal health or otherwise of a pavement just by inspecting the surface. Cracking in asphalt pavements a) Is there more cracking in the wheel path than elsewhere?
Yes: traffic is responsible, whatever that cracking may look like. No: traffic is irrelevant and the cause is environmental or due to a general material defect.
b) Are there transverse cracks right across the pavement?

Yes: either low-temperature cracks or reflective cracking from an HBM or PQC base.
c) Are there more transverse cracks in the wheel paths?

Yes: either traffic-induced reflective cracking or defects built in during construction.
d) Is there a single well-developed longitudinal crack in the wheel path?

Yes: traffic-induced fatigue of a thick flexible/composite pavement (cracks usually top-down).
e) Is there multiple cracking (crazing) in the wheel-path?

Yes: shallow failure; either thin asphalt or the upper layer has become debonded.
f) Is slurry pumping up to the surface through cracks?

Yes: water has become trapped, either in the bound materials or else in the foundation.
g) Are there localised wheel path depressions where more than one crack is present?
Yes: probably a HBM base; localised damage water ingress, loss of support, settlement.
Cracking in PQC Concrete Pavements a) Is cracking (of a jointed pavement) largely restricted to transverse cracks?
Yes: thermally-induced, assisted by traffic; initial joint spacing was excessive.
b) Are significant longitudinal cracks present in or around the wheel path?

Yes: traffic-induced damage; cracks will propagate rapidly along the pavement.
c) Are longitudinal cracks narrow, relatively close-spaced and straight?

Yes: lightly reinforced concrete; minor defects at the time of construction.
d) Are there corner cracks at joint intersections?

Yes: lack of slab support close to joints; damage is limited and will extend no further.
e) Are there regular transverse cracks at 1-2m spacing but no joints?

Yes: continuously reinforced.concrete; should be hairline; if wide then pavement is too weak.
Chipping Loss: loss of adhesive properties in the binder due to bitumen ageing. Ravelling: widespread chipping loss, leading to the development of pot-holes. Bleeding: excess bitumen in the pavement shiny surface significant safety hazard.
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Rutting
Surface course problem
Binder course - base problem
Foundation problem
2.
Profile Surveys
International Roughness Index (IRI) IRI is defined by the amplitude of motion of a vehicle suspension system as it travels along the road, measured in cumulative metres of suspension system movement per kilometre of travel (m/km or mm/m). The vehicles that measure IRI are known as bump integrators.
+ve Suspension movement
ve
7 6 IRI (m/km) 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1
Typical Data
IRI < 2 m/km 2-3 m/km 3-4 m/km 4-5 m/km > 5 m/km
excellent satisfactory moderately bumpy bumpy very bumpy
2 Distance (km)
Laser Profile Surveys Laser-based systems are now very commonly used, usually with an array of lasers pointing down at the road surface. Reflective waves are monitored. They can be used for profile measurement, texture depth and rut depth. These types of survey can be carried out at normal traffic speed.
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 3. Skid Resistance Surveys
Skid resistance is a property that is directly related to the safety of users, applying to both highways and airfield runways. In the case of airfield runways there are international standards and it is necessary for airport authorities to check skid resistance regularly, particularly under adverse weather conditions (rain or snow). Highways are governed by standards set by individual countries, regions and cities. The Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM)
Water tank
Trailer-mounted alternatives
Sideways force 20
Separation force
Drag force
Plan View
Plan Views
Wheel under braking
4.
Surface course Binder/Base course debonding HBM base
Cores and Trial Pits

Bottom-up reflective crack beginning to grow Crack in HBM base possibly reflected from subbase Serious crack in disintegrating HBM sub-base
Crack; reflected from HBM base through asphalt surfacing
Crack; top-down, penetrating through about 50% of the asphalt
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Coring, using cutters of 100mm or 150mm in diameter, is a relatively non-destructive method of sampling. Trial pits represent an alternative, labour-intensive method of sampling. They are suitable i) where bound layer thickness is low; ii) where samples of unbound foundation material are required; or iii) where specific information is needed which demands a larger area than can be afforded by a core. Construction Information Cores and trial pits reveal the following: Materials present; Layer thicknesses; Visual quality; Inter-layer bond.
Samples can also be taken back to the laboratory for testing. In-situ Tests The relatively small size of most core holes means that there is a limit to the types of test that can be carried out. In fact, there is only one in-situ test device that is commonly used and that is the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP see p14). Trial pits also allow the portable Dynamic Plate Test (DPT also p14). Laboratory Tests These tests include: compressive strength of HBM (height-diameter ratio of at least 1.0 required); uniaxial stiffness modulus of HBM; indirect tensile strength (ITS), either of HBM or asphalt; indirect tensile stiffness modulus (ITSM) of asphalt; indirect tensile fatigue test (ITFT) for asphalt; repeated load axial test (RLAT) for asphalt deformation; inter-layer bond strength tests. P Also, density and void content can be obtained on specimens of any convenient shape. Asphalt specimens can also be broken down into their constituents, by means of a centrifuge, with solvents used to extract the bitumen. Aggregate gradation and binder content can be checked. Binder quality can also be measured using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR).
Torque Test
Leutner Test
P P Peak shear force
Shear slip at failure
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 5. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Transmitter / receiver
Individual Received Signal

Surface reflection Asphalt/HBM reflection HBM/Granular reflection
Longitudinal Signal Profile
Radar wave pulses: Frequency 0.2-1.5MHz
Time
Interpreted Thickness Profile

Asphalt Hydraulically-bound material Granular material Depth
Thickness determination is the main reason for doing a radar survey and pretty good data is usually obtained, accurate to around 1cm. However, its all down to image recognition software, so mistakes are possible. Radar can also give data on moisture (water molecules become excited at radar frequencies), voids (because of the strength of a solid-air interface), and steel reinforcement (steel interferes with wave propagation). 6. Deflection Surveys
The Benkelman Beam This is the oldest and simplest form of deflection test device and it is successfully used throughout the world.
6350kg axle load Twin tyres
Benkelman Beam Arm Pivot Dial Gauge Measurement, y
Distance travelled, x
x
Deflection Adjust for temperature Approximate construction Life in years [using an empiricallydetermined set of equations]
Annual Traffic
Deflection due to wheel load
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The Benkelman Beam is a simple frame with an arm on a hinge, the rotation of which is read from a dial gauge. The equipment is placed on the ground immediately behind the twin rear tyres on one side of a goods vehicle loaded to a standard weight, the arm resting on the pavement surface between the twin tyres. When the operator is ready, the goods vehicle is slowly driven forward and a maximum reading is taken as the tyres pass the end of the arm; when it has driven forward some metres, a minimum reading is also taken. The difference relates to the deflection caused by the loaded wheel. The Lacroix Deflectograph The Deflectograph is an extension of the Benkelman Beam idea, initially developed in France. However it allows the vehicle to travel continuously along the road. The reference frame is in front of the measurement axle, and it is repeatedly dragged forward relative to the body of the vehicle and then released. As soon as the rear tyres of the vehicle have drawn level with the tip of the measurement arm, the frame is winched forward toward the front of the vehicle ready for the next reading. The result is that a measurement is taken every 3-4m and that the vehicle can travel continuously at a speed of 2-3km/hr. Readings are taken in both wheel paths.
Winching mechanism Reference frame
Distance travelled, x Arm
Twin tyres 6350kg axle load
Adjust to equivalent Benkelman Beam deflection Deflection
x
Adjust for temperature Approximate construction Life in years [using an empiricallydetermined set of equations]
Annual Traffic
Deflection due to wheel load Deflection, y
The problem with both the Benkelman Beam and the Deflectograph is that they are relatively low-resolution measurements and rely on empirical interpretation. They also do not give good data on PQC pavements. They are fine for estimating structural condition of asphalt pavements for network-level management but they are not really reliable enough for project-level design. For this we need something a bit more sophisticated. The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) The FWD gives a very precise value of absolute deflection (accuracies of 2 microns commonly quoted), and that opens the door to a much more sophisticated method of interpretation.
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FWD Longitudinal Section Deflection sensors Tow bar

Falling Weight Rubber buffers Loading Plate Load: 10-200kN Duration: 25-50msecs Platen radius: 150mm
Calculate deflections using multi-layer linear elastic analysis
Offset (m)
Measured load Known layer thicknesses
Deflection Bowl Deflection (microns)
Layer stiffnesses Adjust layer stiffnesses no Good match to measured deflections? yes Finish
The machine is usually trailer-mounted. Tests are performed with the equipment stationary and with the loading plate and deflection sensors lowered onto the surface. The load pulse is then generated by the action of a falling weight onto a set of rubber buffers. Key advantages: the load magnitude can be selected to match a typical wheel load; the pulse duration is similar to that from a moving vehicle; the deflections are absolute and highly accurate (using velocity transducers); measurements are taken not only at the load location (through a hole in the centre of the loading plate) but also at selected distances from it. The full set of readings describes a deflection bowl (or basin) which can be backanalysed (or back-calculated) to deduce the combination of layer stiffnesses present.
Upper Pavement - affects curvature of central part - typical indicator: d1d2 or d1d3 Base and Sub-base - affects slope in next region - typical indicator: d2d4 or d3d5 Subgrade - affects deflection at distance - typical indicator: d6 or d7
d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6
d7
Load
Asphalt over good foundation Concrete over poor foundation
Back-analysis is done by computer, with the following assumptions: all layers are of uniform thickness and of infinite lateral extent; all materials are linear elastic and homogeneous; the load consists of uniform stress on a circular area;
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dynamic effects due to inertia are negligible. How many layers can be analysed? Two: no problem Three: should be OK Four: be careful; dont just believe the result Another advantage over the Benkelman Beam and Deflectograph is that the FWD is equally useful on concrete or asphalt. It is particularly well suited to measuring load transfer efficiency across a joint. The loading plate is positioned one side of the joint and deflections are measured either side.
L12 d1 d2 d3
Poor load transfer Moderate load transfer Load Joint Good load transfer
Load Transfer Efficiency - affects step across joint - typical indicator: d2d3 or d3/d2 (note: 0 or 100% even if perfect, due to distance between sensors 2 and 3) Slab Support - affects angle of loaded slab - typical indicator: d1d2 / L12 (where L12 = distance between sensors)
Rolling Wheel Deflectometers The ultimate deflection test device would be one that measured a full deflection bowl like the FWD, but which travelled at traffic speed along a highway, thus combining both quality and quantity of information. Such a device is the rolling wheel deflectometer, and several versions have been developed over the years, achieving their goal to varying degrees. One is currently being trialled by the Transport Research Laboratory. There is an inevitable trade-off between measurement accuracy and travel speed. Several companies and research organisations have used lasers to measure either distance from a datum of vertical velocity of the surface. So: not used much yet but watch this space. 7. Diagnosis
Pavements with an Asphalt Surface Rutting: Check the visual condition. If ruts are narrow with shoulders, the problem is near the surface (surface course or binder course probably); the wider the rut, the deeper the problem. Inspect cores carefully. If an asphalt layer appears rich in binder, especially if that binder is soft, that is likely to be the cause of the problem. Consider carrying out repeated load axial tests (RLAT) to check whether materials are deformation susceptible. Also look at DCP data (if it exists). This should relate to rut resistance of foundation materials. Check FWD data. A subgrade stiffness of 50MPa or less indicates potentially deformable material.
63
Transverse Cracks: Look at the detailed crack shapes. If they are straight and regularly spaced, they are reflective cracks from joints in an underlying concrete pavement. If the shape is less regular, they may either be reflective cracks over a hydraulically-bound base or else low temperature cracking of the asphalt. If reflective cracking is suspected, check the crack distribution. If there is a concentration in the wheel paths then traffic is clearly playing an important part; if not, then the effect is almost entirely thermally driven. Short transverse cracks may also have originated as construction defects and they may be progressing due to binder embrittlement. If FWD data is available, check for loss of asphalt layer stiffness in the wheel paths. This provides evidence of crack severity. Longitudinal Cracking in the Wheel Path: The fact that this cracking is in the wheel path proves that it is the traffic which is doing the damage. If there are several cracks within the zone of the wheel path then the effect is almost certainly shallow, possibly associated with debonding between asphalt layers. If there is only a single crack, cores through cracks are advised. In many cases, crack depth is shallow. Cores will also indicate where debonding between layers is associated with cracking. If an FWD survey has been carried out, check the asphalt layer stiffness. If it is low or variable then this implies significant damage and/or debonding. Compare FWD-derived stiffnesses with those from laboratory testing of recovered samples. If the two measures agree then the asphalt layers are likely to be intact and well bonded. Check evidence for binder hardening, e.g. from unusually high stiffness of laboratory specimens, or poor binder adhesion, e.g. unusually low stiffness, even of undamaged material. Also evaluate the insitu stiffness of any HBM layer from FWD evidence. If it is less than expected, this is evidence that cracking is present. Using the best available evidence for the stiffness of each layer, carry out multi-layer linear elastic pavement analysis and compute pavement life. Compare the theoretical life with past traffic numbers and with current general pavement condition. Ravelling: Ravelling (and associated pot-holes) occurs when adhesion between binder and aggregate breaks down. Consider checking penetration of recovered surface course binder; or consider measuring surface course stiffness in the ITSM. These should identify binder hardening. Also check binder and filler contents since excess filler can contribute to poor adhesion. Bleeding: There is too much bitumen present. Inspect the cores. Multiple layers of surface dressing are one common source of excess binder. Otherwise consider determining the void content of the surface course. Bleeding should only occur at void contents of 2% or less. Also check the visual condition for rutting since low void content also leads to asphalt deformation. Pavements with a Concrete Surface Transverse Cracks (jointed PQC): Transverse cracking, either at mid-bay or a metre or so from joints, is common; it implies that the joint spacing was too large for the thermally-induced stresses and strains which have occurred. If the joint spacing is greater than about 20 times the slab thickness, joints cannot be expected to function properly.
64
Also find out whether the cracking occurred soon after construction. If so, shrinkage cracking may be the cause. Transverse Cracks (CRC): Transverse cracks are expected in CRC. They should form at a spacing of 1-2m but should remain narrow. If there are more or they are no longer narrow, then the pavement is not functioning as intended and will continue to deteriorate. Check concrete strength, slab thickness and foundation stiffness. The combination should reveal whether the pavement as it was constructed should have lasted longer than it has. If so then the problem lies elsewhere, e.g. reinforcement defects, overloading. Longitudinal Cracking: This is a sign of overloading and is a very serious mode of distress. Check concrete strength, slab thickness and foundation stiffness. If the computed life is less than the current condition suggests, then this implies that one of the input parameters was more favourable in the past. Possibly the foundation used to be stiffer and has deteriorated over the years. Check FWD data for poor slab support. Also check evidence for subgrade softening, from DCP, unbound material samples and/or a drainage survey. If the computed life is greater than the current condition suggests, then something has happened which the computation doesnt take into account. This could be shrinkage cracking during initial concrete curing. Also investigate the crack distribution. If it is localised then this suggests other areas may have much longer life. Faulting across Joints: This has a serious effect on ride quality. If dowels or tie-bars are present, there should be no faulting. If faulting is present, this can only mean serious corrosion of the bars and disintegration of the surrounding concrete. Even without dowels or tie-bars, faulting implies poor load transfer, possibly due to excessive joint spacing, poor durability aggregate, or a deformable foundation. Surface Deterioration: Concrete relies on the presence of a balanced combination of cement mortar and aggregate throughout. Excess cement mortar at the surface results in a relatively weak surface layer. Once trafficking has removed this excess mortar, there will be a decrease in ride quality. Another possibility is scaling, which means the loss of discrete areas of surface. This is usually caused by frost action. 8. Prognosis
Statistical Treatment of Data Since condition inevitably varies it is usual to work in terms of statistics, for example: 50 percentile (e.g. of FWD back-calculated stiffness, or of thickness) 15 percentile (i.e. 85% is better) = average = for design
Pavement Life Prediction Here you usually need an analytical computation, typically taking 15 percentile stiffness moduli. You must include consideration of the realistic long-term properties of materials. Sometimes it is possible to consult a design guide, but most are not flexible enough to cope with a deteriorated pavement.
65
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Result = predicted lives to failure.
The next step is to take account of the fatigue damage that has taken place already. Miners Law: This law states that relative damage is cumulative. For example: predicted fatigue life past traffic therefore relative damage = 30 106 axle loads = 12 106 axle loads = 40% (18 106 axle loads remaining)
The concept of relative damage becomes important for strengthening designs since, whatever the predicted life of the strengthened pavement, up to 40% of it may have to be discounted straight away due to past damage. For example: required future life = 30 106 axle loads design traffic = 50 106 axle loads (since 40% has to be discounted) Rutting is a bit different. You have to look at what has happened in the past and use that to calibrate your future prediction. For example, if you predict rutting due to excess subgrade strain, but there is no sign of rutting in the past then ignore your prediction! Calculations should never be believed without question, especially when so many assumptions are being made. This is especially true of concrete pavements, where predictions can change dramatically with a small change in one of the input parameters. The Effect of Debonding Debonding between bound pavement layers significantly decreases the overall apparent stiffness of the bound layers.
1.8 Relative strain / stiffness 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Depth of interface/total thickness 1
Strain at base of asphalt Apparent stiffness
Zero Bond
debonded interface
In the figure the debonded interface is assumed to transfer no shear stress at all, which is an extreme case. However, it is common to find that the apparent stiffness of the bound pavement layers is no more than half that expected when debonding is present. Note the tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt. It can be up to 60% higher than it would have been in a non-debonded pavement. 66
MAINTENANCE & REHABILITATION

1. Localised Cracking First option = just seal the cracks to stop water getting in.
Second option = patch repairs

Cracks Debonded
interfaces
Break out to required depth
Tack Coat
Problem: it is impossible to get the patch to be as good as the original pavement. It is difficult to compact, especially in the corners and it never bonds perfectly to surrounding materials. 2. Surface Deterioration Surface problems are:
Seal
Ravelling = pieces of stone becoming detached from the surface; Bleeding = excess bitumen coming to the surface (of an asphalt surface course); Polishing = stones losing their friction properties due to tyre action; Loss of texture = surface high-points wearing away or being pushed down into an asphalt. Possible solutions: Gritting = spreading fine stone (e.g. 3mm) over the surface counters bleeding Bush-hammering = abrade the surface stones counters polishing Jet-blasting = eroding bitumen-filler mortar counters loss of texture Grooving = cutting slots in the surface also counters loss of texture SURFACE DRESSING (see next page) counters everything
67
Surface Dressing (also known as Chip Seal) This is really a brand new thin surface layer (sometimes put straight onto a new road). a) spray a layer of bitumen (usually in the form of emulsion) over the surface; b) spread a single layer of aggregate particles, usually 10-15mm in size; c) watch the traffic compacting it.
Single surface dressing
A racked-in surface dressing includes a second application, of much smaller aggregate size, designed to fill the gaps between larger particles.
Racked-in surface dressing
Design:
Surface hardness Skid resistance Surface dressing type Aggregate selection and spread rate Binder selection and spread rate
Durability requirements Local economics Season/ weather
Problems: Cant be done in cold, wet weather; The surface isnt particularly nice to drive on. 3. Reflective Cracking This is the phenomenon of cracks appearing in a surface course directly over cracks in the layer underneath. It happens for 2 reasons: a) b) Thermal expansion/contraction opening and closing of joints/cracks; Traffic loads causing high stress/strain over a joint/crack.
What can you do about it? At least 180mm of asphalt overlay (UK Highways Agency); A geogrid or strong geotextile, providing actual enhanced strength (A in next figure); A standard geotextile, acting as a separation layer (B in figure); A high-durability asphalt layer (C in figure); An open-graded asphalt layer (D in figure); 68
A granular interlayer (E in figure); Crack and seat an underlying concrete layer (F in figure). A B C D E F
Is existing pavement visibly cracked?
Yes
C1: <0.5m
Typical crack spacing?
C2: 0.5-2.0m C3: >2.0m T1: <5 106 T2: any
C1-2, T2, F1
Geotextile
Geogrid
No
Traffic level?
C1, T1, F2
High-durability asphalt
C3, T2, F2
There is no need for an interlayer Is foundation water-sensitive?
Open-graded asphalt
F1: no F2: yes
C2, T2, F1
Granular interlayer
C2-3, T2, F1
4.
More serious cracking or rutting We are now thinking about: a) b) c) d) Question: how deep is the problem?
0 0 40mm inlay; A Rutting in original pavement Rutting in rehabilitated pavement 40mm overlay; B
overlays; inlays; deeper reconstruction; some combination.

10 20 Years
Rutting might be entirely due to asphalt 10 deformation but then it depends which layer is responsible. 20
A: mainly in surface course B: mainly in binder course
40mm inlay; B
Rut depth (mm)
Rehabilitation
40mm overlay; A
69
Cracking also may not penetrate too far from the surface. In thick pavements it is common to find cracks to 50-100mm depth only. just replace the surface course? Or maybe the binder course as well? Question: how do we deal with broken materials? Generally, for any material that is going to be left in the pavement we have to: assign a long-term stiffness for analytical design; estimate an equivalent thickness of new intact material if using design manuals. We can also use geogrid reinforcement or geotextiles, especially if the problem is likely to involve reflective cracking.
Overlay/Inlay Failed asphalt Damaged HBM Predict cracking of geogrid-reinforced layer Treat as intact; predict cracking of combined layer Downrate stiffness, e.g. to 500MPa Take realistic longterm in-situ stiffness Take realistic stiffness Take realistic stiffness
Overlay/Inlay Intact asphalt Failed asphalt Damaged HBM Sub-base Subgrade
If a PQC pavement is in reasonable condition we can just bond an extra thickness onto the surface used in USA particularly. Occasionally, usually on airfield pavements, it makes sense to put an entire new PQC slab on top of an existing cracked layer.
Overlay/Inlay Failed asphalt
Geotextile Thin-bonded overlay Intact PQC Predict cracking of geogrid-reinforced layer HBM Sub-base Capping Subgrade
PQC overslab Interlayer Failed PQC HBM Sub-base Capping Subgrade
Overlay/Inlay Cracked Concrete
Question: what if the problem is in the subgrade? Well, it may be OK to use an overlay to increase the thickness of the pavement. That will reduce the stress on the subgrade. However it may also be possible to improve its strength by adding/repairing drainage.
70

Has the upper subgrade softened?
Yes
Has it affected pavement peformance?
No
Yes
No
Dont worry about the drainage
Is the drainage defective?
Yes
Think about drainage improvement
No
Is improvement technically feasible?
Yes
No
5.
Recycling Most pavement materials can be recycled off site. For example, concrete can be crushed to generate new aggregate. Recycled asphalt planings (RAP) can be added to new asphalt depending on quality and consistency of the source. Problem: you cant heat the RAP directly because it would give off toxic fumes. Solution: superheat conventional aggregate; mix with RAP; heat is transferred. Consequence: there is a limit to the proportion of RAP that can be used 15-30% say. Hot In-situ Recycling
Milling unit Mixing drum Screed
Hopper for fresh asphalt
Preheater Units
Remixer
Compactor
Limitations: Be careful with the heating toxic fumes [flame, infra-red, superheated gases] Impractical to heat more than say 50mm, usually less Needs a reasonably consistent pavement with shallow damage only Cold In-situ Recycling a) Break everything up to a depth of up to 350mm; b) Mix in a binder of some sort [emulsion, foamed bitumen, cement & water]; c) Compact; d) Preferably leave exposed to the air for a few days; e) Apply a new surface course. 71

Milling unit
Recycler
Compactor
Limitations: The ingredients will be relatively uncontrolled, including the water content. Mixing will be imperfect, meaning there may be less binder at depth. This means that properties will be poor relative to a plant-mixed material. The surface will not be particularly smooth. Consequences: You generally need a plant-mixed, paver-laid surface course. If emulsion or foamed bitumen are used, the resulting material will be like a highquality granular material; long-term stiffness may be around 1000MPa but there is a large uncertainty margin on this. If cement and water are used then the material will be like a fairly weak (and highly variable) HBM.
72
PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT
Pavement management refers to the decision-making process as to what maintenance to do and when which depends on the data available from condition monitoring. So the first question is: what type of monitoring should be carried out and how frequently? 1. Managing Pavement Monitoring
Network Level A pavement authority needs to monitor performance regularly so as to plan budget allocation. Survey Type Traffic Count Axle weight Visual Condition Profile Deflectograph SCRIM Information Trends; design traffic Vehicle damage factors Roughness (approx) Structural condition (very approx) Skid resistance (possibly) Roughness Structural condition (very approx) Structural condition (approx) Skid resistance Usefulness High Low-medium Very high High Medium Medium
Traffic counts can be automatic, using piezo-electric strips buried in the road surface, or manual. The advantage of automatic counts is that they can continue day and night for long periods with little expenditure. The advantage of manual counts is that traffic can be classified accurately into different vehicle types (cars, buses, light goods, heavy goods different axle configurations). Both are extremely useful in working out priorities. Axle weight surveys can be carried out either by stopping and weighing wagons on a fixed weighbridge or by installing a weigh-in-motion (WIM) device into the pavement. Such surveys would normally only be carried out at state or country level, in order to monitor trends in goods traffic development through the years, enabling wear factors to be updated as necessary. Visual survey data is essential. The information which results relates to ride quality, structural condition and also safety-related features such as skid resistance. It can be processed to give single numbers (e.g. Pavement Condition Index PCI) that can be used (approximately) to assign likely remaining life and future maintenance costs. Visual survey data also allows minor maintenance to be programmed. Profile surveys, Deflectograph measurements and SCRIM surveys will all give a more accurate evaluation of individual aspects of condition, namely ride quality, structural 73
condition and skid resistance. However, the high productivity achievable from a profile survey, together with the fact that structural condition tends to correlate very roughly with profile, makes it the favourite for network-level monitoring. On major highways they would be carried out reasonably frequently (e.g. annually or biannually). Project-Level A pavement management system (PMS) will include triggers to indicate when detailed evaluation at project level is needed, based on individual indicators (visual, profile etc.) or a combination of them all. But when is the best time to do it?
Condition
Initial condition Time range for optimised major maintenance Projected performance following major maintenance
Condition for cost-effective major maintenance Condition according to coarse network-level surveys
Range of possible actual condition
Time
It is sensible to carry out a detailed (project-level) evaluation well before the optimum intervention level is reached according to network-level survey data. For example, if optimum intervention level is assumed to occur when the network-level condition indicator falls to 60% of its original value, it would be worth programming a detailed evaluation when the survey data indicates 70-75% because the real level may already be at 60%! Principle: Decide on one or more network-level condition indicators. Estimate what condition (according to the condition indicators) represents the optimum time for major maintenance. Set triggers for project-level surveys at condition indicator values significantly higher than those for optimum major maintenance. Aims of project-level suvey: to establish the deterioration mechanism(s); to provide parameters for analysis and rehabilitation design. Possible tools to use:
74
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 Survey Type Cores; trial pits; laboratory tests
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes Frequency Occasional
Radar (GPR) Detailed Visual Survey Falling Weight Deflectometer Drainage survey
Information Layer thickness Bound material stiffness modulus Fatigue strength Deformation resistance Foundation strength Layer thickness High moisture locations Crack density Rutting locations/severity Layer stiffness modulus Joint condition Drainage efficiency
Continuous Continuous @10-100m Targeted
Basically, you have to decide what you need to know and choose accordingly. Projectlevel surveys need designing rather than following a set procedure. Cores or trial pits are almost essential for every investigation, together with a detailed visual inspection of the pavement. Other surveys depend on situation. If analytical design procedures are to be used then the FWD (or rolling wheel deflectometer) is a key tool, supported by appropriate laboratory tests and by use of the DCP in core holes or trial pits. Radar is less essential and its use should depend on the likely variability in construction. Drainage surveys are important where water-related problems are suspected. 2. Managing Maintenance
Practical Constraints Multi-Lane Highways: Clearly one cannot raise (or lower) the surface level of one lane without doing the same to all other lanes on a carriageway. This means that a simple overlay solution may not really be as cost-effective as it looks. Highway Structures: Clearance to overbridges places an upper limit on raising levels. The carrying capacity of underbridges also places a limit; even a thin overlay adds a significant extra load. Kerbs and Barriers: Both kerbs and barriers can be raised but at a cost. In both cases there is usually a degree of flexibility, allowing small increases in pavement level, and it is therefore important to know just how much flexibility is available in a particular case. Airport Runways: It is generally only the central 20m width which is damaged by aircraft and it is often permissible to ramp down from a relatively thick overlay over the central part of the runway to little or zero thickness at the edge. Project-Level Optimisation
75
This is not always easy in practice. The problem is that budget constraints may mean that the theoretical minimum whole-life cost solution may not be affordable in the short term! There therefore has to be some interaction between project-level design and overall network-level management. In practice, the usual simplification is for the authority to tell the engineer what design lives to use (e.g. 20-year; 40-year). Usually therefore the designer will be asked to come up with the best solution to strengthen the road to take another x years of traffic. In this case, it is simply a matter of costing up all the practical alternatives, taking into account any add-on costs due to practical constraints. Indirect costs (delays to road users, safety-related issues) may also be considered. One key question is: what should x be? This is not an easy question to answer. There has been a trend to increase design life over the years so that 40 years is now common, and the key parameter is the so-called discount rate. The idea is that a certain sum of money today is assumed to increase in purchasing power with time due to continuing economic growth (!!). The corollary is that future costs can therefore be discounted at a certain annual rate. A debate rages as to the correctness of this assumption and discount rates range from zero to about 10%. One further issue is that no-one really knows how long the need for any particular pavement will last. So, just accounting for this uncertainty, some sort of discount is probably justified. Network-Level Optimisation Network-level pavement management forces non-pavement costs to be taken seriously, including costs which are not strictly financial: User costs (speed restrictions, vehicle wear and tear, fuel consumption, delays); Accident costs; Environmental costs (air pollution, energy usage). The most common method of dealing with user costs is to link them to International Roughness Index (IRI). The following are examples of equations used for this. Vehicle operating cost (VOC) Time cost (TC) = VOClow IRI (1+0.06[IRI3]) = TClow IRI (1+0.03 IRI) [IRI > 3]
There is nothing fundamental about these two equations. The economic equation is so different in different countries that calibration is always required. Accident costs can be linked to skid resistance coefficient () and to pavement condition, but only very approximately. Example equations are: Skidding accident cost Accident cost due to pavement Traffic flow 10(1-1.8 ) Traffic flow (rut depth 10mm)
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A good management system will include predictive equations for future deterioration based on experience, possibly also on the history of each length of road. It is then possible to run what if? scenarios. For example, what if a particular length of road was strengthened? Or just surface-dressed? Then the up-front cost of the treatment can be balanced against the reduction in ongoing and future cost. Does the perfect Pavement Management System exist? NO; its just too complex and there are too many different factors to take account of. In the end, network-level management is often simply a matter of avoiding foolish mistakes!
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UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

e.g. typical subbase limits:

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01 0.1 1 Sieve size (mm) 10 100

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

d) Water Content: All unbound materials are sensitive to water.

Heavy Compaction (e.g. on site)

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 In-situ Stabilised

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

Range of mixture design options for wetforming

Range required to allow chemical reaction to take place

Range for wet-form workability

Range for rollerBatch it and mix it.compaction workability

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

Get the surface texture right

Form joints (usually)

Dowel bar (smooth)

Saw Cut (at early age)

Cure it usually by spraying a colourless seal to stop the water evaporating.

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 3. Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

Mixer Aggregate feed

Drum Mix Plant: Hot storage hopper Cold bins

Combined Dryer-Mixer Drum

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

80m layer 40m layer

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

Can also be measured in a triaxal apparatus sin = (12) / (1+2)

Angle of internal friction (typically 55 for a crushed rock

limiting / ratio (typically 10 for a crushed rock)

increasing 1 Normal stress

Dont confuse stone-stone friction angle with . 11

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

Angle of internal friction Normal stress

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

152mm diameter Steel mould

CBR = max {(F1/13.2) ; (F2/20.0)} 100 where F1 and F2 are in kN

Locking nuts fix side plates in place Adjustment control

Springbox PUMA (Precision Unbound for start conditions Material Analyzer)

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

Drop weight Scale Anvil Core hole

Penetration rate p (mm/blow)

Depth Equation used in UK: log10[CBR] = 2.48 1.057 log10[p]

Drop weight Load

Load cell and velocity transducer (geophone)

Modulus E Poissons ratio

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Course Notes

Measurement of volume flow Q

Permeability k = QL/AH Porous end restraints Lid L

Specimen (cross-sectional area A)

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM Pavement Engineering - Module H23P01 3. Hydraulically-Bound Material (HBM)