Inverters

DC to AC Solid State Converters

Switch-Mode DC-AC Inverter
Four quadrants of operation
Bose
Q
2
Q
1
Load
D
1
D
2
0
a
0.5V
d
0.5V
d
V
d
i
L
FWD
FWD

(a)
+0.5V
d
-0.5V
d
V
ao
0
Q
1
Q
2
i
L
D
1
Q
1
D
2 Q
2
Feedback
Active
t
d
Feedback
Active
DPF arrgle |
I
L
V |
et

(b)
Fig.4.7 (a)HALF-BRIDGE INVERTER
(b) OPERATION IN SQUARE-WAVE MODE
Bose

Q
3
Q
2
Load
D
2
D
3
0 b
0.5V
d
0.5V
d
V
d
i
L
FWD
FWD
Q
4
Q
1
a
D
1
D
4
FWD
FWD

(a)


+V
d
-V
d
V
ao
0
Q
1
Q
3
|
I
m
D
1
D
2
Feedback
Active
Feedback
Active
DPF angle
I
L
V
|
i
L
et
Q
2
Q
4
D
3
D
4
Q
1
Q
3
Q
2
Q
4

(b)
Fig.4.8 (a) SINGLE-PHASE H-BRIDGE INVERTER
(b) LOAD VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVES IN SQUARE WAVE
MODE
Diode-Rectifier Bridge Input Current
Idealized case with a purely dc output current
Six-Step three-phase Voltage Source Inverter
Fig. 1 Three-phase voltage source inverter.
Gating signals, switching sequence and line to negative voltages
Fig. 2 Waveforms of gating signals, switching sequence, line to negative voltages
for six-step voltage source inverter.
Line to line voltages (V
ab
, V
bc
, V
ca
) and line to neutral voltages (V
an
, V
bn
, V
cn
)
Line to line voltages

V
ab
= V
aN
- V
bN

V
bc
= V
bN
- V
cN
V
ca
= V
cN
- V
aN
Phase voltages

V
an
= 2/3V
aN
- 1/3V
bN
- 1/3V
cN
V
bn
= -1/3V
aN
+ 2/3V
bN
- 1/3V
cN
V
cn
= -1/3V
aN
- 1/3V
bN
+ 2/3V
cN
Fig. 4 Waveforms of line to neutral (phase) voltages and line to line voltages
for six-step voltage source inverter.
dc dc
dc
V 78 . 0 V
6
2
V 4
2
3
~ = =
t t
(rms) ) (V
1 ab
Amplitude of line to line voltages (V
ab
, V
bc
, V
ca
)
Fundamental Frequency Component (V
ab
)
1
Harmonic Frequency Components (V
ab
)
h
: amplitudes of harmonics decrease inversely proportional to their harmonic order
3,.....) 2, 1, (n 1 6n h where,
V
78 . 0
dc ab
= =
=
h
(rms) ) (V
h
Characteristics of Six-step VSI
It is called six-step inverter because of the presence of six steps
in the line to neutral (phase) voltage waveform

Harmonics of order three and multiples of three are absent from
both line to line and line to neutral voltages and consequently
absent from the currents

Output amplitude in a three-phase inverter can be controlled by
only change of DC-link voltage (V
dc
)

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI
Objective of PWM
Control of inverter output voltage

Reduction of harmonics

Disadvantages of PWM
Increase of switching losses due to high PWM frequency

Reduction of available voltage

EMI problems due to high-order harmonics

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI
Inverter output voltage
When v
control
> v
tri
, V
A0
= V
dc
/2

When v
control
< v
tri
, V
A0
= -V
dc
/2

Control of inverter output voltage
PWM frequency is the same as the frequency of v
tri
Amplitude is controlled by the peak value of v
control
Fundamental frequency is controlled by the frequency of v
control
Modulation Index (m)
A0 1 A0
1 0
V of component frequecny l fundamenta : ) (V where,
,
2 /
) (
dc
A
tri
control
V
V of peak
v
v
m = =
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)
Fig. 5 Pulse-width modulation.



SINUSOIDAL PWM WAVE FABRICATION OF H-BRIDGE INVERTER


SINUSOIDAL PWM WAVES FABRICATION OF H-BRIDGE INVERTER (UNIPOLAR SWITCHING)


SINUSOIDAL PWM OVERMODULATION
Fig. 1 Three-phase voltage source inverter.



Fig.4.11 THREE-PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER WITH DIODE RECTIFIER
FOR INDUCTION MOTOR SPEED CONTROL


Bose
v
ao v
bo
v
co

et
et
+V
d
-V
d
Vd
2
3
+
Vd
2
3
-
Vd
1
3
+
Vd
1
3
-
v
ab
v
an
v
ao
t
t
v
T
*
* *
V
d
+0.5V
d
-0.5V
d
carrier wave
Sinewave
singnal
v
P
0
0
0
0
-V
d

( ) sin( ) ( )
2
d
ao c
V
v t m t M N e e e = + + Bessel Function Harmonic Terms
SINUSOIDAL PWM WAVES OF A 3-PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER





II. PWM METHODS
Sine PWM
V
A
0
V
B
0
V
C
0
V
A
B
V
B
C
V
C
A
t
Fig. 7 Waveforms of three-phase sine PWM inverter.
v
tri
v
control_A
v
control_
B
v
control_C Three-phase sine PWM waveforms
Frequency of v
tri
and v
control
Frequency of v
tri
= f
s
Frequency of v
control
= f
1
where, f
s
= PWM frequency
f
1
= Fundamental frequency

Inverter output voltage

When v
control
> v
tri
, V
A0
= V
dc
/2

When v
control
< v
tri
, V
A0
= -V
dc
/2

where, V
AB
= V
A0
V
B0

V
BC
= V
B0
V
C0
V
CA
= V
C0
V
A0
II. PWM METHODS
Sine PWM
Amplitude modulation ratio (m
a
)
A0 1 A0
1 0
V of component frequecny l fundamenta : ) (V where,
,
2 /
) (
dc
A
tri
control
a
V
V of value peak
v of amplitude
v of amplitude peak
m = =
Frequency modulation ratio (m
f
)
frequency l fundamenta f and frequency PWM f where, ,
1 s
1
= = =
f
f
m
s
f
m
f
should be an odd integer
if m
f
is not an integer, there may exist sunhamonics at output voltage
if m
f
is not odd, DC component may exist and even harmonics are
present at output voltage
m
f
should be a multiple of 3 for three-phase PWM inverter
An odd multiple of 3 and even harmonics are suppressed

VOLTAGE-FED INVERTER PWM TECHNIQUES


- SINUSOIDAL PWM (SPWM)


- SELECTED HARMONIC ELIMINATION (SHE)


- SPACE VECTOR PWM (SVM Or SVPWM)


- RANDOM PWM (RPWM)


- HYSTERESIS BAND (HB) CURRENT CONTROL


- DELTA MODULATION


- SIGMA DELTA MODULATION

Programmed Harmonic Elimination
Angles based on the desired output
5
th
and 7
th
harmonic elimination
Bose
0
Pulse width
Notch
width
v
ao
t/2
et
t
o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
t-o
4
t-o
3 t-o
2
t-o
1
-0.5V
d
+0.5V
d

(a)
0 20 40 60 80 100
40
80
120
Fundamental voltage V
s
in (%)
A
l
p
h
a

(
o
)

a
n
g
l
e
s

(
d
e
g
)
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

o
f

h
a
r
m
o
n
i
c

a
s

%

o
f

f
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
93.34%
13
th

harmonic
11
th

harmonic
o
3
o
2
o
1
60
50
40
30
20
10

(b)
Fig.4.24 (a) SELECTED HARMONIC ELIMINATION PWM
(b) NOTCH ANGLE RELATION WITH FUNDAMENTAL VOLTAGE
Bose
state
On
devices V
an
V
bn
V
cn
Space
voltage
vector
0 Q
4
Q
6
Q
2
0 0 0 V
0
(000)
1 Q
1
Q
6
Q
2
2V
d
/3 -V
d
/3 -V
d
/3 V
1
(100)
3 Q
4
Q
3
Q
2
. V
3
(010)
4 Q
4
Q
3
Q
5
. V
4
(011)
5 Q
4
Q
6
Q
5
. V
5
(001)
6 Q
1
Q
6
Q
5
. V
6
(101)
7 Q
1
Q
3
Q
5
0 0 0 V
7
(111)
2 Q
1
Q
3
Q
2
V
d
/3 V
d
/3 -2V
d
/3 V
2
(110)

(a)
0
van-axis
3
Vd
+
3
2Vd
-
vbn-axis
vcn-axis
e
-j
a
2
=
3
2t
e
j
a =
3
2t
3
Vd
+
3
2Vd
V2(1 1 0)

(b)
2
2
3
an cn bn
V v av a v (

= + +
Fig.4.25 (a) SUMMARY OF 3-PHASE TWO-LEVEL INVERTER
SWITCHING STATES
(b) SYNTHESIS OF INVERTER VOLTAGE VECTOR
2
(110) V
Bose

o
V
a
V
*
V
0
(0 0 0)
V
7
(1 1 1)
R
e
I
m
1
2
3
4
5
6
V
1
(1 0 0)
V
2
(1 1 0) V
3
(0 1 0)
V
4
(0 1 1)
V
5
(0 0 1)
V
6
(1 0 1)
V
b

(a)
0
0
0
V0 V1 V2 V7 V7 V2 V1 V0
t0/2 ta tb t0/2
Phase
a
Phase
b
Phase c
Tc Tc
Ts

(b)
Fig.4.26 (a) SWITCHING STATE VOLTAGE VECTORS OF 3-PHASE
BRIDGE (VECTOR SYMBOL OMITTED)

(b) FABRICATION OF VOLTAGE WAVES IN T
s
INTERVAL










(a) (b) (c )





Fig.4.27 SVM OPERATION REGIONS
(a) UNDERMODULATION MODE (0<m'<0.907)
(b)OVERMODULATION MODE 1 (0.907<m'<0.952)
(c) OVERMODULATION MODE 2 (0.952<m'<1.0)





Bose

(a)

(b)
Fig.4.29 (a) HYSTERESIS-BAND (HB) CURRENT CONTROL PRINCIPLE OF HALF-BRIDGE
INVERTER
(b) CURRENT CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Bose
Fig. 4.30 COMPARISON OF SPWM-SVM-SHE-HB PWM TECHNIQUES

SPWM

- CARRIER-BASED OPEN LOOP ASYSNCHRONOUS OR SYNCHRONOUS CARRIER
- LOW UNDERMODULATION RANGE ( 0 < m' <0.7855)
( m' CAN BE INCREASED TO 0.907 BY MIXING TRIPLEN HARMONICS
WITH MODULATING WAVE)
- NONLINEAR CHARACTERISTICS IN OVERMODULATION RANGE
- SMOOTH OVERMODULATION UP TO SQUARE-WAVE
- LOWEST HARMONIC RIPPLE FOR 0 <m' <0.4
- LARGE fs BASED RIPPLE AT OVERMODULATION
- DC LINK VOLTAGE RIPPLE INTRODUCES ADDITIONAL OUTPUT RIPPLE
- SIMPLE IMPLEMENTATION
SVM

- CARRIER-BASED OPEN LOOP ASYSNCHRONOUS OR SYNCHRONOUS CARRIER
- GOOD FOR ISOLATED NEUTRAL 3-PHASE OUTPUT
- LARGE UNDERMODULATION RANGE ( 0 < m' <0.907)
- EASY LINEARIZATION IN OVERMODULATION UP TO SQUARE- WAVE
- LOWEST HARMONIC RIPPLE IN UNDERMODULATION RANGE
- LARGE fs BASED RIPPLE AT OVERMODULATION
- DC LINK VOLTAGE RIPPLE INTRODUCES ADDITIONAL OUTPUT RIPPLE
- COMPLEX COMPUTATION INTENSIVE - NEEDS MICROCOMPUTER/DSP
- CAN NOT BE APPLIED WITH HIGH CARRIER FREQUENCY

SHE

- NO CARRIER BASE - NUMBER OF NOTCHES DETERMINE SWITCHING FREQUENCY
- DIFFICULT TO APPLY AT LOW FREQUENCY
- OUTPUT MAY NOT BE HARMONICALLY OPTIMUM
- MOST USEFUL WHEN SPECIFIC ORDER OF HARMONICS ARE HARMFUL
- EASY LINEARIZATION IN WHOLE MODULATION RANGE
- DC LINK VOLTAGE RIPPLE INTRODUCES ADDITIONAL OUTPUT RIPPLE
- MICROCOMPUTER/DSP BASED LOOK-UP TABLE IMPLEMENTATION

HB

- EASY OPERATION FROM ZERO FREQUENCY
- NEEDS CLOSE LOOP CURRENT CONTROL
- DC LINK RIPPLE IS COMPENSATED PERMITS LOWER CF IN DC LINK
- FAST TRANSIENT RESPONSE
- SWITCHING FREQUENCY VARIES
- SMOOTH TRANSITION FROM UNDERMODULATION TO
OVERMODULATION
- NON-OPTIMUM HARMONIC RIPPLE
- FREQUENCY-SENSITIVE PHASE LAG OF FUNDAMENTAL CURRENT
- VERY SIMPLE TO IMPLEMENT
Bose
Switch-Mode DC-AC Inverter
Block diagram of a motor drive where the
power flow is unidirectional
Switch-Mode DC-AC Inverter
Block diagram of a motor drive where the
power flow can be bi-directional


Fig. 4.48 PROGRESSION OF VOLTAGE-FED CONVERTER SYSTEMS FOR AC DRIVES

Bose
3000V

}
e
e
*
u
e
*

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.33 (a)THREE-LEVEL DIODE-CLAMPED INVERTER
(b) TYPICAL PHASE VOLTAGE WAVE
Bose
Fig.4.51 TWO-SIDED TWO-LEVEL CONVERTER SYSTEM FEATURES


- REAL POWER FLOW IN EITHER DIRECTION

- CONVERTER SUPPLES MACHINE EXCITATION

- SINUSOIDAL LINE CURRENT AT UNITY POWER FACTOR

- LINE POWER FACTOR CAN BE PROGRAMMED TO BE LEADING OR LAGGING (VAR
COMPENSATOR IN EXTREME CASE)

- LINE-SIDE RECTIFIER OPERATES IN BOOST MODE

- DC LINK VOLTAGE IS HIGHER THAN LINE AND MACHINE PEAK COUNTER EMFs

- INVERTER CAN OPERATE IN OVERMODULATION MODE, BUT RECTIFIER MUST
OPERATE IN UNDERMODULATION MODE

- DC-LINK CAPACITOR REQUIRES PRECHARGING

- SOMEWHAT EXPENSIVE THAN WITH FRONT-END DIODE RECTIFIER BUT VERY
POPULAR FOR 4-QUADRANT MOTOR DRIVE






Bose
Bose
INDUCTION
MOTORS
PWM inverter
PWM rectifier
TRACK
C
F
C
F
+
-
-
Trolly
25kV ,60Hz
T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
r
+



Fig.4.49 ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE DRIVE WITH PARALLEL
INDUCTION MOTORS
Bose
3-PHASE
60Hz
PWM
PECTIFIER
PWM
INVERTER
AC MOTOR

Fig.4.50 THREE-PHASE TWO-SIDED PWM CONVERTER SYSTEM




Bose


L
R
Nonlinear load
Thyristor rectifier
PWM ripple filter
PWM converter
I
Q
I
P
I
h
I
P
I
Q
I
h
Leading I
Q
3-phase
60Hz
v
s
i
P
V
d
C
+
-

Fig.4.57 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC) AND ACTIVE HARMONIC
FILTER (AHF)
Bose
Machine
C
F
icm
M
Bearing
current

Fig.4.61 COMMON MODE DV/DT INDUCED CURRENT THROUGH MACHINE BEARING
Bose
Machine
M
R
d
C
L
Filter
Commonmode
current
Fig.4.63 LOW-PASS FILTER AT MACHINE TERMINAL TO SOLVE DV/DT
INDUCED PROBLEMS