Arabica

A guide to the Arabic Language

Salman al-Hasan

Ibn Jabal Institute 2006 / 1427 AH

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without prior permission of the copyright owner
ii












,, ,
,, , . ,


The One who taught Man by the pen
Taught Man that he knew not








TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 0 PRELIMINARIES 1
CHAPTER 1 PHRASES 24
SECTION 1.1 THE QUASI SENTENCE 24
SECTION 1.2 POSSESSION 29
SECTION 1.3 DEMONSTRATION 40
SECTION 1.4 DESCRIPTION 47
CHAPTER 2 THE NOUN SENTENCE 56
CHAPTER 3 THE VERBAL SENTENCE 56
SUMMARY OF VERB FORMS 97
CHAPTER 4 GOVERNMENT 99
CHAPTER 5 DUALS OR PLURALS 121
CHAPTER 6 NUMBERS ONE TO TEN 131
CHAPTER 7 THE FIVE NOUNS 141
CHAPTER 8 ADVERBS OF TIME AND PLACE 152
CHAPTER 9 FURTHER POSSESSION 160
CHAPTER 10 QUANTIFICATION AND COMPARISON 169
CHAPTER 11 DOUBLED AND HAMZATED WORDS 178
CHAPTER 12 WEAK VERBS 190
CHAPTER 13 TERMINAL WEAK VERBS 199
CHAPTER 14 HER SISTERS AND HALF SISTERS 128
CHAPTER 15 HER SISTERS HER SISTERS 132
CHAPTER 16 HER SISTERS 248
ARABICA ANSWERS CH 1 - 10 258

iii
` =, ,
Preliminaries

Words


Arabic divides words into three categories:
1. ' (Verbs)
2. . ` ' (Nouns)
3. ` ,` ,` - (Particles)

A ` (verb, fi

l
un
) is a word that has a self-contained meaning of its own and has a tense or a time in
which the meaning exists. An ` ,` (noun, ism
un
) has a self-contained meaning of its own but no tense. A
` ` , - (particle, Harf
un
) has no self-contained meaning of its own. Often we say that a ` ` , - (particle) is
any word that is neither a ` (verb) nor an ` ,` (noun).

P1 = | (Nouns)

In English we refer to adjectives as a separate category to nouns. A noun is the name of a person, place,
thing, state, quality or action. An adjective is a word that describes a noun. We say that an adjective
modifies a noun by limiting, qualifying or specifying it.

In Arabic we class adjectives together with nouns as one general category called . ` ' (nouns or
names). Arabic does distinguish between nouns and adjectives but does not have a single word

corresponding to the English word noun. For the purposes of this book, we are going to be slightly
vernacular and will use the term ` ,` narrowly to mean noun. The word for adjective in Arabic is .
(Sifat
un
).


P2 Vowels

A consonant is a static sound that cannot move. A consonant needs a vowel either before it or after it in
order to move or liaise with other consonants. For example, the consonant b can only move if we
say ab or ba.

The word for vowel in Arabic is , - (Harakat
un
) which literally means movement. There are three
principal ` . , - (vowels) in Arabic:

1. The ` . (Dhammat
un
) represented by the symbol above a letter produces a u sound
2. The -` (fatHat
un
) represented by the symbol above a letter produces an a sound
3. The ,` (kasrat
un
) represented by the symbol below a letter produces an e sound
iv

The ., ` (sukuun
un
), represented by the symbol above a ` ` , - (letter), indicates that the ` ` , - (letter)
carries no , - (vowel).

A ` ` , - (letter) carrying a , - (vowel) is called ` ` , - ` (voweled, lit. moving, mutaHarrik
un
) and a ` ` , -
(letter) with a ., ` is called ` (unvoweled, lit. still or silent, saakin
un
).

The ` . , - (vowels) given above are often called short vowels. When the letters , ` , and ` are `
(unvoweled) they are called ` ` ,` ,` - (letters of elongation, Huruuf
u
al-madd
i
) or long vowels. When
placed after their corresponding ` . , - (vowels), these ` ` ,` ,` - (letters of elongation) produce
(elongation, madd
un
):
(maa)
` , (dhuu)
` (fii)

As illustrated above, is used to elongate -` , ` , to elongate ` . and ` to elongate ,` .

When the letters , , and carry a , - (vowel), they become consonants.
(a)
, (wa)
(ya)
The alif, when ` ` , - ` (voweled) is no longer called an alif. It becomes a hamza.

P3 ` , , (Nunation)

Often an Arabic noun or adjective is pronounced with a . (n) sound at the end. This is called ` , ,`
or nunation. This . however, is not written but is represented by a doubled vowel:

. ` . (
un
)
-` . (
an
)
,` . (
in
)

For example, the word for book in Arabic is pronounced ` ` , (kitaabun) but written as ` . (kitaab
un
).

` , ,` appears only on . ` ' (nouns) and never on ` ,` ,` - (particles) or ' (verbs).



v
P4 ` = - , (Declension)

Arabic words are either ` . ,` ` (declinable/variable, mu

rab
un
) or ` (indeclinable/fixed, mabniyy
un
). A
declinable word is able to change the vowel on its last letter. An indeclinable word is fixed on one
vowel ending. For example, the word ` . (kitaab
un
) meaning book is ` . ,` ` (declinable) so we may
say , (kitaab
an
) or . (kitaab
in
) depending on the meaning we want to produce. On the other hand,
the word , (wa) meaning and is ` (indeclinable) and never becomes ` , (wu) or , (wi). `
(indeclinable) words never have ` , ,` .

We shall see later that most . ` ' (nouns) are ` . ,` ` (declinable). Most verbs and all ` ,` ,` - (particles)
are ` (indeclinable).

As illustrated above, we shall represent the vowel endings on ` ` ` . , (declinable) words in superscript.

P5 ., -| (Definition)

Nouns are either definite or indefinite. Definite words refer to things that are particular and therefore
identifiable. Indefinite words refer to things that are members of a class and are therefore non-
particular and unidentifiable. The expression a book is indefinite because we do not know which
particular book is being referred to. To make it definite, we need to introduce a determiner as in the
expressions the book, this book and my book which are definite. The Arabic word for definite is
,` (ma

rifat
un
) which interestingly means knowledge; definite things, being identified are thereby
known. The Arabic word for indefinite is , (nakirat
un
) which interestingly means unknown.
Indefinite things, being unidentified are unknown.


P5.1 Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

Common nouns refer to classes of things, such as the word city. Proper nouns (often called
proper names) refer to particular things, such as Damascus.

Proper nouns are intrinsically ,` (definite) because they are the names of particular things, such
as Damascus. Common nouns may be indefinite, such as in the expression a city. Common nouns
can be made definite by a determiner, such as in the expressions the city, this city and my city.


P5.2 Articles of Definition

The most common way of making common nouns indefinite and definite is by using articles of
definition. In English, the word a (an before a vowel) is called the indefinite article. Placing it
vi

before a common noun makes it indefinite. The word the is called the definite article. Placing it
before a common noun makes it definite.

Articles of definition apply only to common nouns and not to proper nouns. Proper nouns such as
Damascus cannot be made indefinite because they are intrinsically definite. We cannot say a
Damascus or a London. It also makes no sense to say the Damascus or the London.

There is no indefinite article in Arabic. A book is simply expressed as,

` . A book
(kitaab
un
)

We can think of a ` , ,` (tanween
un
) or nunation on the final letter of an Arabic common noun or
adjective as the indefinite article which usually indicates that it is , (indefinite).

The Arabic definite article is . ... (al) which is called the ., ,` ` ' (lit. particle of definition, adaat
u

at-ta

reef
i
). It is prefixed to an ` ,` (noun) or . (adjective). The book is expressed as,

` . The book
(al-kitaab
u
)

Notice that the
un
sound on the final letter is replaced by a simple
u
sound. In short, the . at the
beginning and the
u
at the end tell us that the word is ,` (definite).


First Aid


Beginners sometimes fail to distinguish between a , (indefinite) and ,`
(definite) word. They say for example:

` .



` .
(kitaab
u
)




(al-kitaab
un
)
Which appears to be neither ,` (definite)
because of the absence of the . , nor ,
(indefinite) because there is no
un
at the end.

Placing the
un
of the , (indefinite) on a ,`
(definite) word beginning with . .
Prescription

Restrict yourself to saying either:
` . which is , (indefinite), or
` . which is ,` (definite).

~ls .
vii
We stated above that articles of definition only apply to common nouns and not to proper nouns
because proper nouns are intrinsically definite. You will find that some proper nouns do however have
` , ,` or . , such as ` (Greater Syria, shaam
un
) and ` , (Yemen, yaman
un
) which are also written as
` (ash-shaam
u
) and ` , (al-yaman
u
). Some proper nouns come invariably with an . such as ` ,
(Iraq, al-

iraaq
u
) and ` ` . (China, aS-Seen
u
). We have this in English too with The Congo and The
Levant. These should not be thought of as articles of definition. They are simply conventions that
have developed as these words were used over time.


P5.3 Proper names that derive from common nouns

(a) The word for God in Arabic is = (allaah
u
) which is a proper name. One opinion suggests that this is
an assimilation of the definite article . with the word ` (god, ilaah
un
(an alif in pronounced but not written
after the lam)), rendering ` (al-ilaah
u
). The hamza is then dropped, and the two lams are assimilated in
pronunciation but written separately.
- ` - ` - =

Another opinion states that the proper name = , being the personal and unique name of God is
indivisible like God Himself, and has no etymology.


(b) People like to give their children names with beautiful meanings and this is why some words such
as ` - have two existences, one as an adjective and one as a proper name.

The word ` - started its life as the ` , ,` suggests as an indefinite adjective meaning handsome.
Making it definite renders ` - (the handsome).

Then one day someone named their son ` - . The moment they did so, this adjective ossified into a
proper name. We translate the proper name ` - as Hasan without regard to the descriptive meaning
the original adjective had. As a proper name, ` - (Hasan) is ,` (definite). The ` , ,` is not an
indefinite article, but merely a surviving accoutrement of its previous existence as an adjective.

The . should not normally be attached to proper names that have ossified from the adjective without
it. However, . is sometimes attached to such proper names as an allusion to the descriptive meaning
of the original adjective. We might for example, attach . to the name ` - rendering ` - (al-
Hasan) to suggest that the person whose name is Hasan is also himself handsome. (This explains the
name of the author of this book). The proper name ` ` -` behaves in the same way except that it is no
longer used as an adjective.

viii
P6 Moon Letters and Sun Letters




Pronunciation

The . of the definite article . is pronounced when a word begins with one of the
following letters:
. . _ _ _ _ _ ,
These are called `, , ` ,` ,` - (the Moon Letters, al-huruuf
u
al-qamariyyat
u
).
They are called so because when we make the word ` , (moon, qamar
un
) ,` (definite),
we say it ` , (al-qamar
u
), pronouncing the . of the definite article . .

The . of the definite article . is not pronounced when a word begins with one of the
remaining letters of the alphabet:
. . _ _ .
These are called ` , ` ` ` ,` ,` - (al-huruuf
u
ash-shamsiyyat
u
, the Sun Letters).
They are called so because when we make the word ` ` (sun, shams
un
) ,` (definite),
we say it ` ` ` (ash-shams
u
), not pronouncing the . of the definite article . .

It is not necessary to memorise these two lists of letters. Instead, notice that all the Sun
Letters are pronounced very near the place in the mouth from which the . is
pronounced. The . of the definite article . is not pronounced when followed by a Sun
Letter to avoid the difficulty on the tongue of successively uttering two letters
pronounced from the same part of the mouth. This difficulty does not occur with the
Moon Letters so the . is pronounced.



i
ix
P7 The Hamza



Orthography


,` _ = (Disjunctive hamza, hamzat
u
al-qaT
i
)
A glottal stop is the sound at the beginning of the word at. In Arabic, the glottal stop
is usually represented by the letter hamza written as . . When a word begins with a
glottal stop sound, we assume that we should write an initial hamza to represent this.
The initial hamza is written as follows: / ' / ' . For example, if we want to say the
word akhbaar
un
, we write ` _ ` - ' . The initial hamza must always be written and
pronounced. This is called ,` _ = (hamzat
u
-l-qaT
i
). When the ,` _ = is preceded
by a vowel, it is still pronounced:

' , . ` (waasmaa
un
)

,` ` . , (Conjunctive or liaison hamza, hamzat
u
al-waSl
i
)
Sometimes, we appear to pronounce a glottal stop at the beginning of certain words but
do not write . (hamza). Such words are few and can simply be learned. So far we have
encountered ` ,` and the definite article . . We never write . (hamza) on the initial
(alif) of such words. To do so is a spelling mistake. This is because there is actually no
. (hamza) there. This is called ,` ` . , (hamzat
u
-l-waSl
i
), which is often written like
this ' .

The only time an initial hamza sound is pronounced on such words is when they begin a
sentence. This hamza sound is imported like a liaison vowel in order to get the sentence
started (cf. P8). It is not possible to start on a sukuun; ` ,` and . are impossible to
pronounce. When this occurs, the initial (alif) in often vowelled to indicate that a
hamza sound needs to be produced: ` ,` and . .

When such words are preceded by a vowelled letter, this liaison vowel need not be
supplied and the (alif) is overridden:
, ` ,` (wasm
un
)
. , ... (wal )
, ` , (wa-l-qamar
u
)
, ` ` ` (wa-sh-shams
u
)

i
x
P8 The liaison vowel




Phonetics


The word phone refers to sound, and is where the word telephone
comes from. A phonetic change is a change we make to the way we say
something because it is either difficult or impossible to say it the way it
should be. In English, for example, the indefinite article a changes to an
when followed by a vowel simply because it is easier to say. Try saying a
apple and then an apple.

In Arabic, when the ,` ` . , on the definite article . is preceded by
., ` we encounter something called . ` , ` (iltiqaa
u
as-
saakinayn
i
, the meeting of two vowelless consonants). This renders it
impossible to pronounce:
. ` ,` (hum l)
. ` (min l)
. (hal l)

It is possible to pronounce both consonants by stopping:

. ` ,` (hum al)
. ` (min al)
. (hal al)

However, this stilts the flow of speech so we often import a ` , -
(liaison vowel, lit. appropriate vowel). If the vowel preceding the ., ` is a
` . the liaison vowel is ` . . If it is a -` the liaison vowel is a ,` and
vice versa:

. ` ,` (hum
u
-l)
. (min
a
-l)
. (hal
i
-l)

Compare for example, the euphonic harmony of . (hal
i
-l) with the
disjointedness of . (hal al).


i
xi
P9 = =| - g, | (The Diptote)

You will notice that there are some words in the vocabulary lists that are given,
1. without ` , ,` , and
2. without .
These words are called ` ,` . ` _,` ` (diptotes).

P9.1 There are intrinsically definite Proper Noun Diptotes, such as,

Makkah ` ` Damascus

P9.2 There are indefinite common noun diptotes such as,

. ,` - . Desert . Ancients

These words should be learned without ` , ,` . Note that while the proper noun diptote is intrinsically
definite, the common noun diptote is indefinite. To make it definite, we simply attach . to it:

` . . ,` - The desert . The ancients

` ,` . ` _,` ` (The Diptote) will be explained in chapter four. For the moment, you simply need to
recognise it and learn it without ` , ,` .


P10 - | , =v (The Weak Noun)

In Arabic, there are three letters that are considered to be weak letters. They are called ` ,` ,` -
(letters of weakness):

1. ( _,` . ` . ' , short alif, (alif
un
maqSuurat
un
)), (also called ` ` . ' , long alif)
( ,` ` ` . ' , stretched alif, (alif
un
mamduudat
un
)) (also called , , ~ ` . ' , inclined alif)
2. , (wa)
3. (ya)

If the final root letter of a word is not weak it is called a ` ,` ` _, - . (sound noun). When the final root
letter is weak it is called a ` ,` ` ` (weak noun) and undergoes certain phonetic changes.

The alif is considered weak because, being itself a long vowel, it is not able to carry another vowel. A
vowel needs a solid consonant to carry it. It is actually physically impossible to pronounce a vowel on
an alif and prizes will be awarded to anyone who can! Arabs calls this ` _ (impossibility).
xii

Orthography

Often we see what appear to be vowels on an ,` ` ` . ' . In fact what we
see are not alifs but hamzas: ' , ' , . Often a vowel is written on the alif of
words such as ` ,` and on the definite article . . These are liaison vowels
on alifs carrying ` . , ,` (cf. P5 The Hamza), not vowels on alifs proper.


The , and are considered weak because it is often, but not always, , (inelegant, lit. heavy) on the
tongue to pronounce a vowel on them. Arabs call this (inelegance lit. heaviness). This will be
explained below.

P10.1 _, = | (The short)

Words such as .` _ (meaning, ma

n
an
) and _` ` (dual, muthann
an
) are called ` _,` . (short) because they
end in _,` . ` . ' which is written as (like a but without dots). As you can see, _.` looks
quite different from the regular Arabic word that ends in ` , ,` such as ` . . This is because it
undergoes certain phonetic changes. For the moment you simply need to know that there is a category
of word called ` _,` . that ends in _,` . ` . ' and has a fatha ` , ,` on the penultimate letter.

But we know that you are a curious bunch and for those of you who really want to know why, we have
explained it in the box below. If you find it befuddling, take a deep breath and gently move on. Dont
worry, you can revisit it later.



Phonetics

The word _.` should be ` ` (ma

nay
un
) but the ayu sound is ,
(inelegant) in the Arabic tongue. In response, the changes to _,` . ` . '
rendering ` _ ` (ma

naa
un
). Earlier we said that ` . is actually
pronounced ` ` , . If we do the same for ` _ ` we get ` _ ` . . It is not
physically possible to pronounce a vowel on an ` . ' because an ` . ' is itself a
long vowel. A vowel needs a solid consonant to carry it. To overcome this,
we override the _,` . ` . ' and pronounce the ` , ,` on the letter preceding
it: _ ` (ma

n
an
) (or phonetically, _ ` . ). Finally, the _,` . ` . ' is still
written though not pronounced and it is a convention to write the ` , ,` on the
_,` . ` . ' though it is actually pronounced on the letter preceding it:
_.` (ma

n
an
).


i
i
xiii
Some ` _,` . words such as . (stick,

aS
an
) are written with ,` ` ` . ' (stretched alif, also called
, , ~ ` . ' or long alif). They are still called ` _,` . even though they have no _,` . ` . ' . The word
. should be ` . (

aSay
un
). The phonetic changes it undergoes are identical to that of _.` .

When the definite article . is attached to _.` and . , they are pronounced ` ` _. (al-ma

naa)
and . (al-

aSaa).

` _,` . (short) words that are ` ,` . ` _,` ` (diptotes) such as ` _ ,` (muusaa, Moses), ` _ - .
(SaHaaraa, deserts), ,` ` (dunyaa, world) and ` _ (ancients) as expected, do not have ` , ,` . When the
definite article . is attached to the common nouns among them we have ` _ -` . (aS-SaHaaraa, the
deserts), ,` ' (ad-dunyaa, the world) and ` _ (al-qudaamaa, the ancients).


P10.2 , | (The reduced)

Words such as _ (caller) and , (valley) are called ` , ` (reduced) because they drop their final
letter. The root of the word _ is , (d-

-w) so it should be ` , (daa

iw
un
). The root of the word
, is , (w-d-y) so it should be ` , (waadiy
un
). However, the sounds iwu and iyu are ,
(inelegant) in the Arabic tongue, so the weak letter is dropped leaving the ` , ,` to be pronounced on the
penultimate letter.

When made ,` (definite), a ` is appended to ` , ` words, rendering ` ` and ` , .

` , ` (reduced) words of the form _ ' such as _ ' (lands) and . (meanings) are ` ,` . ` _,` `
(diptotes). This is not apparent at first instance, there being no evident difference in ending between the
words , and _ ' . We will expand upon this later.


xiv
P11 Vocabulary


You will have noticed that there are some words in Arabic that suffer certain anomalies relating to the
way they end. We will use this opportunity to enumerate them and put them into categories, choosing
one word of each type as a paradigm heading. We can think of these categories as mental vocabulary
boxes.

On a clean sheet of paper, draw out seven columns in the following manner.


-, -` . . ` . (Sound Nouns)
BOX 1 BOX 2 BOX 3
Generic
Default
Box
- = =| - ` g,
Proper Noun
Diptote
= =| - ` g, -
Common Noun
Diptote
` .` , , . ,` - .






` ` . ` . (Weak Nouns)
BOX 4 BOX 5 BOX 6 BOX 7
` _, = - ` _, = -
Diptotes
- ` , ` , -
Diptotes
_.` _ ,` _ _ '
. ,` ` , .
_` ` _ - .


_






You can then enter any new word you encounter into one of these boxes so that you know exactly
how it behaves. Box 1 is simply the default box and you need not write anything in it. If you occupy
yourself too much with it you will spend a very long time filling it!


xv
P12 - -,`=| (Word form)

Most Arabic words are produced from a three letter root. . (k-t-b) for example are the root letters
for the words ` . (book) and , (writing). , (k-l-m) are the root letters of the words `
(speech) and (word). Words are produced from their roots by adding, dropping or changing letters
and vowels. English grammarians often call root letters radicals. (The English word radical,
contrary to common perception, simply means root as in radish). A root letter or radical in Arabic is
called a ` _ . ` ` , - (lit. necessary letter) and a non-root letter is called a ` _ ` ` , - (extra letter). Arabic
uses the letters (f-

-l) to map _ , . (word forms). is called ' ` ,` . . ,, (the morphology

template (lit. scale).


P13 The - | , = (Active Participle) and ,, - | , = (Passive Participle)

The , . (form) is used to produce the ` ,` or Active Participle from the root. An Active
Participle is a noun or adjective that refers to the doer or active agent of the action denoted by the
root. For example, the root . (k-t-b) denotes the action of writing, so the Active Participle ` .
refers to one who writes or writer. The root , , (f-h-m) denotes the action of understanding so
the Active Participle ` , refers to one who understands.

The , . (form) ,` is used to produce the ,` ` ,` or Passive Participle from the root. A Passive
Participle is a noun or adjective that refers to the done to or passive agent of the action denoted by the
root. For example, the root . (k-t-b) denotes the action of writing, so the Passive Participle
` .,` refers to something written. The root , , (f-h-m) denotes the action of understanding so
the Passive Participle ` ,` , refers to something understood.


P14 The relative adjective

It is possible to produce a . (adjective) from an ` ,` (noun) by suffixing to it. This is called .,
` ` (the yaaof relating). This produces an attributive relating to meaning. In English, we suffix
ic in this way to produce Islamic from Islam and suffix tary to produce monetary from
money. suffixing produces a relative adjective that is indefinite, masculine and singular, despite
the characteristics of the original word.

`

Islamic
(islaamiyy
un
)

` ` Islam
(al-islaam
u
)
Monetary
(maaliyy
un
)



Money
(maal
un
)
`

Solar
(shamsiyy
un
)

` `

Sun
(shams
un
)
xvi
,

Lunar
(qamariyy
un
)

` ,

Moon
(qamar
un
)
` , -

Literal
(Harfiyy
un
)

` ` , -

Letter
(Harf
un
)
` , .

Morphological
(Sarfiyy
un
)

` ` , .

Morphology
(Sarf
un
)


Nationality and attribution is frequently produced in this way.

_,` Syrian `, _,` Syria
` Damascene ` ` Damascus
,` . Egyptian ` ,` . Egypt
, ,` ' American , ,` ' America
=, , , British , =, , , Britain

When the is attached to a definite word, it becomes indefinite and must lose its definite article.

, . Chinese ` . China
, Iraqi ` , Iraq

If the ` ,` (noun) ends in a . / it must be dropped before suffixing .

, - . Companion , - . Companions
Meccan Mecca

The relative adjective is made .` ,` (feminine) by attaching . / after .

` , Meccan (f)

The attached to a ` _` - (plural) renders it ` , ` (singular).

- _ Mens - _ Men
xvii
/ ,` Womens; womanly . / ,` Women
, ,
Arabic; Arab
(masc. sing. adj.)
` . ,
The Arabs
(collective plural)

When is attached to a word ending in _,` . ` . ' such as _.` , the _,` . ` . ' changes to a , .

, ` Relating to meaning, semantic; spiritual
(also ` ` , , ) , ,` ` Worldy
,` , Mosaic(al)

When is attached to a word ending in ,` ` ., '` ` . ' such as . ,` - . , the . changes to a , .

, ,` - . Relating to the desert, desert (adj.)

P15 =| (pronouns)

A ` _ . (Dameer
un
, pronoun) is a word that takes the place of an ` ,` (noun) in the nouns absence. In
the expression, the man is big, we may replace the ` ,` (noun) man with the ` _ . (pronoun) he,
rendering he is big.

Arabic ` , . (pronouns) have a singular ` , ` (singular), _` ` (dual) and ` _` - (plural) form. ` , .
(pronouns) are all intrinsically ,` (definite) because they always take the place of a ,` (definite)
noun. If I were to say to you, He came, it would make no sense for me to say this unless you know
who I am talking about. If you know who I am talking about, then He is ,` (definite).

English has different sets of pronouns for different purposes. Consider the expression, He is a student
so do not take his book from him. There are three pronouns we can use to refer to him: He, his and
him. The same is true for the other persons. For example, in the first person we have: I am a student
so do not take my book from me. We will consider why we have different sets of pronouns later. For
the moment, we will learn the Arabic equivalents for these.

P15.1 - = - = (detached pronouns)

The pronouns He, She, They, You I and We are rendered into Arabic using what we call
. ` ` ` , . (detached pronouns).

The third person masculine pronouns are,

` ,` (they pl.) ` (they two) ,` (he/it)
xviii

The third person feminine pronouns are

` ` (they pl.) ` (they two) (she/it)

The second person masculine pronouns are

' ` ,` ` (you pl.) ' ` ` (you two) ' .` (you)

The second person feminine pronouns are

' ` ` ` (you pl.) ' ` ` (you two) ' .` (you)

In the first person, the same pronouns are used for masculine and feminine

` ` - (we) ' (I)

There is no ` _ . (pronoun) in Arabic for it. ,` and are used to mean it. When referring to a
mixed group, like French, the masculine plural ` ,` is used.

You should learn these pronouns in the numbered order given. They have been tabulated for you in the
vocabulary section for ease of learning.

P15.2 - = - = (attached pronouns)

The pronouns His, Her, Their, Your My and Our and the pronouns Him, Her, Them,
You, Me and Us are rendered into Arabic using what we call .` ` ` , . (attached pronouns).

The third person masculine pronouns are,

` ,` (Their/Them pl.) ` (Their/Them two) ` . (His/Him)

The third person feminine pronouns are

` ` (Their/Them pl.) ` (Their/Them two) (Her)

The second person masculine pronouns are

` , (Your/You pl.) (Your/You two) (Your/You)

The second person feminine pronouns are

` (Your/You pl.) (Your/You two) (Your/You)

In the first person, the same pronouns are used for masculine and feminine

(we) ` (I)
The pronouns ` . and can also mean its and it.
xix
= . |
Vocabulary


These are Arabic ` , . . ` ` (detached pronouns). They are all ,` (definite):


DRILL #1


` _` -
Plural
` ` _
Dual
` , `
Singular

(hum)
,
THEY
(3) (huma)

THEY (two)
(2) (huwa)
,
HE
(1)
` , `
Masculine


(hunna)

THEY
(6) (huma)

THEY (two)
(5) (hiya)
_
SHE
(4)
.` ,`
Feminine
` .
Third person
(antum)
| ,
YOU
(9) (antuma)
|
YOU (two)
(8) (anta)
| .
YOU
(7)
` , `
Masculine
(antunna)
|
YOU
(12) (antuma)
|
YOU (two)
(11) (anti)
| .
YOU
(10)
.` ,`
Feminine
` . ~ -`
Second
person
(naHnu)

WE
(14)
(ana)
|
I
(13)
` , `
, .` ,`
Masculine and
feminine
` , `
First person


All ` , . (pronouns) should be learned in the numbered order given. All the verb forms introduced in
later chapters will be conjugated in this order.
xx
-.
These are Arabic ` , . ` ` . (attached pronouns). They are all ,` (definite):


DRILL #2


` _` -
Plural
_` `
Dual
` , `
Singular

(hum)
,
THEIR / THEM
(3) (huma)

THEIR / THEM
(2) (hu)

HIS / HIM
(1)
` , `
Masculine


(hunna)

THEIR / THEM
(6) (huma)

THEIR / THEM
(5) (haa)

HER
(4)
.` ,`
Feminine
` .
Third person
(kum)
,
YOUR / YOU
(9) (kuma)

YOUR / YOU
(8) (ka)
c
YOUR / YOU
(7)
` , `
Masculine
(kunna)

YOUR / YOU
(12) (kuma)

YOUR / YOU
(11) (ki)
c
YOUR / YOU
(10)
.` ,`
Feminine
` . ~ -`
Second
person
(naa)

OUR / US
(14) (iy)
-
MY /ME
(13)
` , `
, .` ,`
Masculine and
feminine
` , `
First person

xxi
. ` . (nouns) will be introduced as , (indefinite) unless otherwise indicated. You should take care
to pronounce the
un
at the end of , (indefinite) words. ` , ` . (pronouns) are intrinsically ,`
(definite).

` _,` - (plurals) have been provided in brackets. These should be learned together with ` ` , (the
singular).

Synonyms are separated by commas and alternative meanings are separated by semi colons. Non-
essential words at this stage are shaded in grey.

= Allah (def. prop. noun) Allah
` ` -` , ` -` .,` , Muhammad (def. prop. noun) muHammad
un
(muHammaduuna)

` , ' ,
1. verb (gram.);
2. action
fi

l
un
(af

aal
un
)
` ,` , . ` ' ,
1. noun (gram.);
2. name
ism
un
(asmaa
un
)
` ` , - , . ` ` ,` - ' ` ,` ,` - ,
1. letter (gram.);
2. edge
Harf
un
(aHruf
un
, Huruuf
un
)

` . , ` .` , book; message kitaab
un
(kutub
un
)
` .` , , , ` .,` ,` , , house bait
un
(buyuut
un
)
, - , , - ., , beautiful, handsome (masc.) jameel
un
(jameeluuna)
, - , ` , - ` . , beautiful, handsome (fem.) jameelat
un
(jameelaat
un
)

, - , ` . , - ,
1. vowel (gram.);
2. movement (f)
Harakat
un
(Harakaat
un
)
` .,
1. vowellessness (gram.);
2. stillness; silence
sukuun
un

Elongation madd
un

` ,` ,` - ` letters of elongation: , , & Huruuf
u
al-madd
i

` ` ` , - Moving mutaHarrik
un

`
1. vowelless consonant
(gram.);
2. stillness; silence
3. inhabitant
saakin
un


` . ,` Declension i

raab
un

` . ,` declinable, variable in ending mu

rab
un

` indeclinable, fixed in ending mabniyy
un

xxii
, and (conjunction) Wa

` / ` ` Syria shaam
un
/ ash-shaam
u

` , / ` , Yemen yaman
un
/ al-yaman
u

` , Iraq al-

iraaq
u

` ` . China aS-Seen
u

` , , , God ilaah
un
(aalihat
un
)
` - , . - , handsome; beautiful (m. adj.) Hasan
un
(Hisaan
un
)
- , ` . - , handsome; beautiful (f. adj.) Hasan
un
(Hisaan
un
)
` - , .,` - , Hasan (prop. noun) Hasan
un
(Hasanuuna)
` - , .,` - , al-Hasan (prop. noun) al-Hasan
un
(al-Hasanuuna)

. , ` . . ,
1. adjective (gram.);
2. attribute, quality (f)
Sifat
un
(Sifaat
un
)
` , ,` Nunation tanween
un

` ., ,` Definition ta

reef
un

, indefinite (gram.) nakirat
un

,` , ` _ ,
1. definite (gram.);
2. knowledge (f)
Ma

rifat
un
(ma

aarif
u
)
' , , ' ` . ,
1. particle (gram.);
2. tool (f)
adaat
un
(adawaat
un
)
., ,` ` '
definite article
(lit. tool of definition)
adaat
u
at-ta

reef
i


` , , ' ` _ , moon; satellite qamar
un
(aqmaar
un
)
` ` , ` ,` ` , sun (f) shams
un
(shumuus
un
)

`, , ` ,` ,` - the moon letters al-Huruuf
u
al-qamariyyat
u

` , ` ` ` ,` ,` - the sun letters al-Huruuf
u
ash-shamsiyyat
u


` _ = Cutting qat
un

` . , Connection waSl
un


,` letter sounding glottal stop hamzat
un

_ = ,`
disjunctive hamza
(lit. the hamza of cutting)
hamzat
u
al-qat
i

` . , ,`
Conjunctive hamza
(lit. the hamza of connection)
hamzat
u
al-waSl
i


. Meeting iltiqaa
un

xxiii
` , ` .
the meeting of two vowelless
consonants
iltiqaa
u
as-saakinayn
i

` . ` appropriate (m) munaasib
un

` appropriate (f) munaasibat
un

` , -
liaison vowel
(lit. appropriate vowel)
Harakat
un
munaasibat
un


Makkah makkat
u

` ` Damascus dimashq
u

. ,` - . , ` . , ,` - . . _ - . , desert
SaHraa
u

(SaHaaraa, SaHraawaat
un
)
` ,`, , _ . . ' , ancient (m)
qadeem
un

(qudamaa
u
, qudaamaa)
`, , ` . `, , ancient (f) qadeemat
un
(qadeemaat
un
)

` _,` ` , .,` ,` ` , forbidden (m) mamnuu
un
(mamnuu

uuna)
,` ` , ` . ,` ` , forbidden (f) mamnuu

at
un
(mamnuu

aat
un
)
` ` , .
1. morphology (gram.)
2. changing
3. spending (money, time etc.)
Sarf
un

,` . ` _,` ` Diptote (lit. forbidden from change) mamnuu
un
mina aS-Sarf
i


` ` Weak mu

tall
un

Weakness

illat
un

` ,` ,` - Letters of weakness Huruuf
u
al-

illat
i

` _,` . Short maqSuur
un

` . ' _,` . Short alif alif
un
maqSuurat
un

` ,` ` Stretched mamduud
un

,` ` ` . ' Stretched alif alif
un
mamduudat
un

` _, - . , ` _ - . , sound; correct (m) SaHeeH
un
(SiHaaH
un
)
-, - . , ` . -, - . , sound; correct (f) SaHeeHat
un
(SaHeeHaat
un
)
` ,` ` _, - . sound noun ism
un
SaHeeH
un

` ` ` ,` weak noun ism
un
mu

tall
un

` _ impossibility ta

adthdthur
un

, , , heavy (m) thaqeel
un
(thiqaal
un
)
, , ` . , , heavy (f) thaqeelat
un
(thaqeelaat
un
)
xxiv
heaviness thiqal
un


_.` , . , meaning ma

n
an
(ma

aan
in
)
, def. _` ` , ` . ,` ` , , _` ` dual (gram.)
muthann
an
(muthannayaat
un
)
(al-muthannaa)
. , . , staff, stick

aS
an
(

iSiyy
un
)
` , ` reduced (gram.) manquuS
un

_ , ` . .,` , caller daa
in
(daa

uuna , du

aat
un
)
, , .,` , . , ` , ' , valley waad
in
(awdiyat
un
, widyaan
un
)
` ` _ ' , .,` . _ ' . _ ' , earth arD
un
(araaD
in
, araDuuna)
. , , _ , . , (word) form Seeghat
un
(Siyagh
un
)
, , ` . , , writing kitaabat
un
(kitaabaat
un
)
` speech kalaam
un

, ` . . ` , , word (fem.) kalimat
un
(kalim
un
, kalimaat
un
)
` _ . ` ` , - root letter (lit. necessary letter) Harf
un
laazim
un

` _ ` ` , - non-root extra letter Harf
un
zaaid
un

,, ' ` ,` . .
the morphological template
(lit. scale)
al-meezaan
u
aS-Sarfiyy
u

` ,` Active Participle ism
u
al-fa

ail
i

` . , ` .` , author, writer kaatib
un
(kuttaab
un
)
` , , .,` , one who understands faahim
un
(faahimuuna)
,` ` ,` Passive participle ism
u
al-maf

uul
i

` .` , ` . ,,` , written maktuub
un
(maktuubaat
un
)
` ,` , , ` . ,` , , understood mafhuum
un
(mafhuumaat
un
)
` ` ., the yaa of relating yaa
u
an-nisbat
i

` ` Islam al-islaam
u

` Islamic islaamiyy
un

, ,` ' , wealth; money maal
un
(amwaal
un
)
monetary maaliyy
un

` solar shamsiyy
un

, lunar qamariyy
un

xxv
` , - literal Harfiyy
un

` , . morphological Sarfiyy
un

`, _,` Syria suuriyyaa
_,` Syrian suuriyy
un

` Damascene dimashqiyy
un

` ,` . Egypt miSr
u

,` . Egyptian miSriyy
un

, ,` ' America amreekaa
, ,` ' Amercan amreekiyy
un

, =, , , Britain bareeTaaniyaa
=, , , British bareeTaaniyy
un

` . China aS-Seen
u

, . Chinese Seeniyy
un

` , Iraq al-

iraaq
u

, Iraqi

iraaqiyy
un

, - . companions SaHaabat
un

, - . companion SaHaabiyy
un

Makkah makkat
u

makkan makkiyy
un

` - _ , - _ , man rajul
un
(rijaal
un
)
- _ mens rijaaliyy
un

. / ,` women nisaa
un
/ niswat
un

/ ,` womens nisaaiyy
un
/ niswiyy
un

` . , the Arabs al-

arab
u

, , arab (adj.); arabic

arabiyy
un

, ` moral; spiritual ma

nawiyy
un

(also , ,` ` ) , ,` ` worldly dunyawiyy
un
(dunyaawiyy
un
)
, ,` mosaic muusawiyy
un

, ,` - . desert (adj.) SaHraawiyy
un


1
, v = , |
Chapter 1

Phrases


The Preliminaries chapter introduced to us some key principles relating to Arabic words. In this
chapter, we are going to learn how to produce phrases (not sentences yet Im afraid). We will focus on
five basic structures:

1. ` ` ` ` - (The Quasi sentence) (shibh
u
jumlat
in
)
2. . (Possession) (al-iDaafat
u
)
3. _ (Demonstration) (al-ishaarat
u
)
4. ` .` . , (Description) (al-waSf
u
)


1.1 - - - , = (The Quasi Sentence)

A ` ` - ` (quasi sentence, shibh
u
jumlat
in
) is produced when a ` ` , - , - (Harf
u
jarr
in
) or preposition comes
together with a ` ,` (noun) or a ` _ . (pronoun). A preposition in Arabic is also sometimes called a _ -
(jaarr
un
) and the quasi sentence is also referred to as _ - ` _,` ,` - , (jaarr
un
wa majruur
un
). A , - ` ` , -
(preposition) is a word that tells us about the spatial relationship between two words. In the expression,
a word from the book, the word from is a , - ` ` , - (preposition). In English, the word following a
preposition is called its object. In Arabic we call it ` _,` ,` - ` ,` .

The following are a few , - ` ,` ,` - (prepositions) in Arabic.

` From _ To _ On; Upon In; About

* In Arabic a , - ` ` , - (preposition) makes its ` _,` ,` - ` ,` (object) end in ,` .

` .
From a book
(min kitaab
in
)
. From the book
(min al-kitaab
i
)
(Note the liaison vowel on ` (cf. P6))

2
We use . ` , .` ` (attached pronouns), not . ` ` ` , . (detached pronouns) (cf. P13), as objects
of ,` ,` - , - ` (prepositions).

` `
From it

.
From the book
(Note that we say ` ` not ,` ` )

,` ,
On/in it
` _ .
On/in the Earth

1.1.1 A ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) consisting of a ` ` , - , - (preposition) and its object must be attached to
another word in order to establish the spatial relationship between the object of the ` ` , - , -
(preposition) and that word. For example, in the expression a word from the book, the ` ` - ` (quasi
sentence) from the book is attached to a word. In Arabic we call attachment ` (ta

allaq
un
); we say
that the ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) is ` ` (muta

alliq
un
) or attached.

` .
A word from a book
(kalimat
un
min kitaab
in
)
.
A word from the book
(kalimat
un
min al-kitaab
i
)
.
The word from the book
(al-kalimat
u
min al-kitaab
i
)
,. .
The sign in the book
(al-aayat
u
fi al-kitaab
i
)
` _ . , -
Life on the earth
(al-Hayaat
u
fi al-arD
i
)
(on the earth is expressed as ` _ . not _ ` _ . )
` _ ` .
A message to Mankind
(kitaab
un
ila an-naas
i
)
` , ,, ` _ . ` ., , . `
Close to the earth and far from the sky
(qareeb
un
min al-arD
i
wa ba

eed
un

ani as-samaa
i
)
(Note the liaison vowel on ` )
` ` ., , ` ` , , , ` ,
Close to it/him and far from it/her
(qareeb
un
minhu wa ba

eed
un

anhaa)

3



Phonetics

The following phonetic changes occur to some ,` ,` - , - ` (prepositions) when their
object is a . .` ` _ (attached pronoun).

When attached to a . .` ` _ (attached pronoun) the preposition _ changes to .` ,
and _ changes to .` ,

` ` ` , ` ,
Peace be upon you
(The traditional Muslims greeting)
` , To us

When . ` , ` , ` ,` or ` ` are preceded by ,` or ` , the ` . becomes ,` .

, In him/it
` , , To them (two)
` , ,` , On them (two)
` ,, In them (f)
The attached pronoun for the first person singular behaves in the following
anomalous ways:

(a) When preceded by a long vowel (` , , ` or ), changes to .

` To me .` , - .` , -

` On me .` , - .` , -

` In me ` - , ` -

(b) When attached to the prepositions ` and ` a . is interpolated and we have
two alternative spellings.

` / ` From me ` / ` From/about me
When the pronoun (us/our) is attached to ` or ` , the two nuns are assimilated:

`
(From us)
` -
`
(From/about us)
` -


i
4
= . |
Vocabulary

` ` - ` ` / ` _,` ,` - , _ - Quasi sentence shibh
u
jumlat
in
/ jaarr
un
wa majruur
un

, - ` ` , - / _ - preposition Harf
u
jarr
in
/ jaarr
un

in; among; (preposition) fii
` _ . on the earth fi al-arD
i

_ on (prep.)

alaa
_ ` _ . on the ground

ala al-arD
i

_ to (prep.) ilaa
` from; of (prep.) min
` from; about (prep.)

an
_` - until (prep.) Hattaa
, ` . . ` , , word kalimat
un
(kalim
un
, kalimaat
un
)
, , ` . ` ., , sign aayat
un
(aayaat
un
, aay
un
)
, - , ` . , , - , life (f) Hayaat
un

` People, Mankind naas
un

` ., , , . , , ' , relative (m) qareeb
un
(aqribaa
u
)
` ., , , .,` , , , , ` , close (to) (m) qareeb
un
(qareebuuna) (min)
, , , ` . , , , , ` , close (to); relative (f) qareebat
un
(qareebaat
un
) (min)
` ., , - Hasans relative qareeb
u
Hasan
in

- ` ` ., , close to Hasan qareeb
un
min Hasan
in

` ` , , , ` , , , ` , far (from) (m) ba

eed
un
(bi

aad
un
) (

an)
` , , , ` , , ` . , , ` , far (from) (f) ba

eedat
un
(ba

eedaat
un
) (

an)
. , ` . , , sky samaa
un
(samaawaat
un
)
` peace salaam
un


5

Exercise 1.1.2

Express in Arabic

1. From the sun
2. Life in Iraq
3. On an edge
4. Until the meeting
5. Forbidden from change
6. A movement in the skies/heavens
7. Appropriate in writing
8. A word to Mankind
9. Close to me and far from you
10. A house in the valley
Exercise 1.1.1

Express in English

. ` . _
. ` `
. `
. ` , ` , `
. ` , ` `
. ` ` ` ,
. `
. ` ` , , , :` ` ., ,
. ` _ . `
. ` _ = ,

6
, v = , |
Chapter 1

Phrases

1.2 , - = (Possession)

Expressions such as the students book and his book involve possession. We render such
expressions into Arabic using something called an . construction. . literally means
attribution. The . construction is made up of two parts: ` .` (muDaaf
un
, possessed noun or
attributed) and ` , ` .` (muDaaf
un
ilayh
i
, possessor or attributed to (it)).

1.2.1 , - = - - | (the definite possessive construction)

In Arabic, the ` .` (possessed noun) always comes before the ` .` ` , (possessor), so that the
actual word order would be for example, the book of the student, rather than the students book,
though both translations are acceptable.

* The ` .` (possessed noun) always makes the ` , ` .` (possessor) end in ,` .


. = ` . The book of the student or
The students book
(kitaab
u
aT-Taalib
i
)
` , ` .` .` `
Possessor Possessed noun


We said in the Preliminaries chapter that ` . does not exist. As you can see, that is not entirely true.

Possession by a definite entity is one of the determiners that makes a noun definite. When we say,
the students book, we are not referring to a book or any book; we are referring to the particular book
that belongs to the student. In English we do not feel the need to repeat the definite article on the
word book and say the students the book. The simple fact that book is possessed by the student
makes book itself definite. It does not need its own definite article.

* In the same way, in Arabic, we never put the definite article . on a ` .` (possessed noun). The
` .` being definite, also never has ` , ,` .

In short, we only put the definite article . on the ` .` ` , (possessor), which makes the whole .
construction ,` (definite) the book of the student.


7
Here are a few very common expressions in Arabic that are definite . constructions.

= ` .
Allahs book / The book of Allah
(kitaab
u
Allah
i
)
= ` .` , ,
Allahs house / The house of Allah
(bait
u
Allah
i
)
= ` `
Allahs slave / The slave of Allah
(

abd
u
Allah
i
)
= . ` '
Allahs names / The names of Allah
(asmaa
u
Allah
i
)
= ` . .
Allahs attributes / The attributes of Allah
(Sifaat
u
Allah
i
)

(a) The ` , ` .` (possessor) may be a .` ` ` ,` , . (attached pronoun), not a . ` ` ` ,` , . (detached
pronoun). The ending of the ` ,` , . (pronoun) however does not change because ` , . (pronouns) are
` (indeclinable).

` , `
His book
` . . =
The students book
(Note: we do not say ,` ` . )

` , ` , ` ,
Their daughters
-` , ` . ,
The mens daughters
` .` , ' ` `
Their sons
. ` ` .` , '
The womens sons
:` .
Your attribute


` ` , ,
My house


' '
Our mother





Phonetics


The following phonetic changes occur to some . .` ` , (attached
pronouns) when they are attached to . ` ' (nouns).

i
8
When . ` , ` , ` ,` or ` ` are preceded by ,` or ` , the ` .
becomes ,` .

, ` , `
` , ` , ` ` , ` ,
` ' _ , ` , ' ' ` , ` ,
_ , ` ` ` , `
When preceded by a long vowel (` , , ` or ), changes to .

,` ` My world
. My stick



* (b) There is no fixed ending for the ` .` (possessed noun). In the examples above, it ends in ` .
which is the default ending. It may also end in ,` or -` , depending on what comes before it.

= . . In the book of the student / In the students book
(fii kitaab
i
aT-Taalib
i
)
. = . A word in the book of the student / A word in the students book
(kalimat
un
fii kitaab
i
aT-Taalib
i
)

We will introduce -` endings in chapters two and three.

(c) When one ` .` ` , possesses a number of items, rather than saying,

. = ` , , ` .
We say,
` ` , . = ` .
The book and pen of the student
(lit. the book of the student and his pen)
` ' ` ` . , = .
The names and attributes of Allah
(lit. the names of Allah and His attributes)

Effectively, we have two . constructions; the second is conjucted to the first with , .

(d) Note that the ` , ` .` (possessor) may be ,` (definite) but have ` , ,` if it is a proper noun. This
is still a definite . construction.

9
` ` -`
Muhammads speech / The speech of Muhammad
(kalaam
u
Muhammad
in
)
- .` , ,
In Hasans house / In the house of Hasan
(fii bayt
i
Hasan
in
)
- .` , , ` ` .
The book from Hasans house / The book from the house of Hasan
(al-kitaab
u
min bayt
i
Hasan
in
)


1.2.2 , - = | (the indefinite possessive construction)

You have probably guessed that if the whole . is made ,` (definite) by a definite ` , ` .`
(possessor), then simply making the ` , ` .` (possessor) , (indefinite) should render the whole
construction , (indefinite).

. ~ ` .
A book of a student, or
A students book, or
The book of a student
(kitaab
u
Taalib
in
)
. ~ .
In a book of a student, or
In a students book, or
In the book of a student
(fi kitaab
i
Taalib
in
)

In English we say, a students book. We dont feel the need to repeat the indefinite article on the word
book and say a students a book because book is made indefinite by a student. In the same way,
in Arabic, we never put a ` , ,` on a ` .` (possessed noun). In short, we only put a ` , ,` on the
` .` ` , (possessor), which makes the whole . construction , (indefinite) a book of a
student.

You can see above that we have translated the expression . ~ ` . in three different ways. In
meaning, all of these expressions are , (indefinite), even though English uses a definite article in the
third. This is because the ` , ` .` (possessor) a student is , (indefinite). Similarly, Arabic would
consider the expressions, the middle of a desert and the daughter of a king to be completely ,
(indefinite) and would translate them using an indefinite . construction.

The . construction cannot be used to express a book of the student, for which we will introduce
an alternative structure.

(a) The indefinite . construction is used for certain idiomatic expressions

-
A word of truth
(kalimat
u
Haqq
in
)


10
We can dispense with the . construction and render this,

` -
A word of truth
(kalimat
un
min al-Haqq
i
)

The preposition ` (from) is used here to mean of. Note that in the above expression has ` , ,` .
This is because we are not using an . construction.


1.2.3 , - = Chains

It is possible to have a series of ` .` (possessed nouns) and ` , ` .` (possessors) forming an Idafa
chain. The definite article . can only be placed on the final ` , ` .` (possessor).

` . .` , ` ,`
The name of the daughter of the teacher
(ism
u
bint
i
al-ustaadh
i
)
. = ` ' .` , ` ,`
The name of the daughter of the teacher of the student
(ism
u
bint
i
ustaadh
i
aT-Taalib
i
)
. ~ ` ' .` , ` ,`
A name of a daughter of a teacher of a student
(ism
u
bint
i
ustaadh
i
Taalib
in
)

In the second example above, we have three ` .` (possessed nouns) and three ` , ` .`
(possessors). ` ,` (a name) is the ` .` of .` , (a daughter) which is its ` , ` .` and in turn also the
` .` ot ` ' (a teacher), which is its ` , ` .` and again in turn also the ` .` of . ~ (a student)
which is the final ` , ` .` (possessor).


1.2.4 Superlatives

The form ' (af

al
u
) is called , . ` ` ,` (noun of preference). In English, it is often called the
elative form. The , . ` ` ,` is used in Arabic for comparatives and superlatives. , . ` ` ,` is made
.` ,` (feminine) using the form _ ` (fu

laa). The .` ,` (feminine) of ` ` - ' (handsomer/handsomest)

for example, is _ ` ` - (more/most beautiful). The .` ,` (feminine) of ` , ' (first, (assimilated from , ' '))
is _ ` , ' .

The , . ` ` ,` (noun of preference) for ` .` .` (doubled) roots is of the form ' (afall
u
) for the ` , `
(masculine) and does not have a .` ,` (feminine) counterpart. We have ' ' (severer/severest) and '
(less/least).

The , . ` ` ,` (noun of preference) for ` ` (weak) roots is of the form _ ' (af

aa) for the ` , `

(masculine) and ,` (fu

yaa) for the .` ,` (feminine). We have _ ` ' (higher/highest) and its feminine
, ` . The word ,` ` (world) is actually the feminine of _ ` ' (lower/lowest or closer/closest).
11

(a) When in an indefinite . construction the , . ` ` ,` (noun of preference) form ' produces a
superlative. The masculine singular form ' is used even for the feminine and the plural.

, ` ` - ' The handsomest boy
(aHsan
u
walad
in
)
.` , ` ` - ' The prettiest girl
(aHsan
u
bint
in
)
. ` ' ` ` - '
The most beautiful names
(aHsan
u
asmaa
in
)
., ` , '
The greatest signs
(akbar
u
aayaat
in
)
` _ . .` , , ` , ' The first house on the Earth
(awwal
u
bayt
in
fi al-arD
i
)
` , ' The first word
(awwal
u
kalimat
in
fi al-arD
i
)
,` _ ` '
The loftiest name
(a

laa ism
in
)
` _ . , . , ` _ ` '
The loftiest similitude in the heavens and the earth
(a

laa mathal
in
fi as-samaawaat
i
wa al-arD
i
)
_ ` '
The loftiest word
(a

laa kalimat
in
)
. _ ` ' _ . _ ` ' `
From the highest heaven to the lowest heaven
(min a

laa samaa
in
ilaa adnaa samaa
in
)
, - _ ` '
The lowest life
(adnaa Hayaat
in
)

The nouns ` ,` , - (better/best) and , (worse/worst) are not of the ' form but are used in this way as
superlatives. (it is poor Arabic to say ` , ,` - ' and ' , ' ).

' , , The worst boy
` ,` , - .` , The best girl

If we make the ` .` ` , indefinite and plural, we have the following,

` - ' .` , ' `
The handsomest boys
(aHsan
u
awlaad
in
)
` ` - ' , .
The prettiest girls
(aHsan
u
banaat
in
)

Note that although the above are indefinite . constructions, they are ,` (definite) semantically or
in meaning. This is because, by definition, there can only be one person/thing that is most or least in
12
any given quality. That person/thing is therefore identifiable and anything identifiable is necessarily
,` (definite).

If we make the ` .` ` , definite and plural, we have the following

.` , . ` ` - '
The handsomest of boys, or
The handsomest of the boys
(aHsan
u
al-awlaad
i
)
` ` - ' .
The prettiest of girls , or
The prettiest of the girls
(aHsan
u
al-banaat
i
)
` ` - '
The handsomest/prettiest of us
(aHsan
u
naa)

(b) When the , . ` ` ,` (noun of preference) form ' is followed by the preposition ` it becomes a
comparative. Only the masculine singular form ' can be used for the comparative.

, ` ` ` - '
Handsomer than a boy
(aHsan
u
min walad
in
)
` ` - ' .`
Prettier than the girl
(aHsan
u
min bint
in
)
` ` ,` , -
Better than us
(khayr
un
minnaa)
, ` `
Worse than him
(sharr
un
minhu)


1.2.5

The word in an indefinite . construction means every or each

.`
Everything
(kull
u
shay
in
)
.
Every/each book
(kull
u
kitaab
in
)
. ,`
Every/each person
(kull
u
mri
in
)

Note that although these are indefinite . construction, they are ,` (definite) semantically or in
meaning. This is because if we refer to every member/unit of a group, we are referring to the group as
a whole, which then becomes identifiable and anything identifiable is necessarily ,` (definite).

13
If we make the . construction ,` (definite), means whole.

.
The whole book
(kull
u
al-kitaab
i
)

If we make the ` .` ` , (possessor) definite and plural means all. When used like this, ` _, - is
synonymous to .

` . / ` _, - ` .
All (of) the books
(kull
u
al-kutub
i
/ jamee
u
al-kutub
i
)
` ,` , / ` , - ` ,` ,
All of them
(kull
u
hum / jamee
u
hum)

The above can also be expressed as follows:

` .
All (of) the books
(kull
un
min al-kutub
i
)
` ,` ,`
All of them
(kull
un
minhum)



14
= . |
Vocabulary

.
1. possession (gram.);
2. addition
iDaafat
un

_ . in addition to . . . iDaafat
an
ilaa
` .` Possessed muDaaf
un

, ` .` Possessor muDaaf
un
ilayh
i

` . ~ , ` . ~ , ~ , student (m) Taalib
un
(Tullaab
un
, Talabat
un
)
~ , ` . ~ , student (f) Taalibat
un
(Taalibaat
un
)
` .` , , , ` .,` ,` , , house bait
un
(buyuut
un
)
` ` , . ` ` ` . ` , servant, slave

abd
un

(

ibaad
un
,

ubbaad
un
,

abadat
un
)
= ` `
1. the servant of Allah
2. Abdullah

abd
u
allah
i

` .` , , ` . , , girl; daughter bint
un
(banaat
un
)
, , ` .` , ' , boy; son walad
un
(awlaad
un
)
` - _ , - _ , man rajul
un
(rijaal
un
)
.` , / ' ,` / ` ,` ` , / . ,` ' a man mar
un
/ imra
un
/ imru
un
/ imri
un

.` , the man al-mar
u

'` , / ' ,` , . . ,` . ,` . ' , a woman; wife
mara
un
/ imraat
un
,nisaa
un
,
niswat
un
, niswaan
un
)
'` , the woman al-marat
u

' , ' ` . ,` , mother umm
un
(ummahaat
un
)
` , , ` ' , pen qalam
un
(aqlaam
un
)
` speech; statement kalaam
un

- , ` , ` - , truth; right; (pl) law Haqq
un
(Huquuq
un
)
- a word of truth kalimat
u
Haqq
in

' ` , ' , professor, teacher (m) ustaadh
un
(asaatidhat
un
)
` ' , ` . ` ' , professor, teacher (f) ustaadhat
un
(ustaadhaat
un
)
, . ` ` ,` noun of preference ism
u
at-tafDeel
i


' The word ' ,` (a woman/wife) is only used as , (indefinite). For the woman we say, '` , .
15

` ` - ' , ` - ' , handsomer/handsomest aHsan
u
(aHaasin
u
)
_ ` ` - , ` . , ` ` - , more/most beautiful Husnaa
u
(Husnaayaat
u
)
` _ , ` _ , big; old (in age) (m) kabeer
un
(kibaar
un
)
_ , _ ` . , big; old (in age) (f) kabeerat
un
(kabeeraat
un
)
` , ' , ` , , ' , bigger/biggest (m) akbar
u
(akaabir
u
)
,` , ` ., ,` , bigger/biggest (f) kubraa (kubraayaat
un
)
` , ' , , ' , first (m) awwal
u
(awaail
u
)
_ ` , ' , ` . , ` , ' , first (f) uulaa (uulaayaat
un
)
` , , ` , severe (m) shadeed
un
(shidaad
un
)
, , ` . , , severe (f) shadeedat
un
(shadeedaat
un
)
' ' more severe ashadd
u

, , ., , . , '' , few (m) qaleel
un
(qaleel
un
, qaleeluuna)
, , ` . , , few (f) qaleelat
un
(qaleelaat
un
)
' fewer aqall
u

_ ` ' higher/highest (m) a

laa
, ` higher/highest (f)

ulyaa
_ ` ' lower/lowest; closer/closest (m) adnaa
,` ` lower/lowest; closer/closest (f) dunyaa
, ` ' , similitude mathal
un
(amthaal
un
)
` ,` , - good/better/best khayr
un

, bad/worse/worst sharr
un

all; every; everyone kull
un

.` , . ,` ' , thing; something shay
un
(ashyaa
u
)
.` everything kull
u
shay
in

` _, - all jamee
un

` _, - ` all people jamee
u
an-naas
i


' ' The word , (few) can also be used as a plural.

16


Exercise 1.2.2

Express in Arabic

1. The servants of Allah on the Earth
2. The daughter of Muhammad
3. The doing of evil on your
part (lit. from you)
4. Our (male) teacher and our
(female) teacher
5. His house in the valley
6. People from Iraq and Greater Syria in
addition to Yemen
7. From Hasans daughter and son
8. The closest meeting
9. Heavier than the Earth
10. The first Man on Earth
11. The furthest of them from evil
12. A sign in everything
13. The best peace upon all people
Exercise 1.2.1

Express in English

. ` -` .
. ` ` `
. ` ,` , -
. .` ` ` , .
. , ,
. ` ` , , =
. , _ ` ' , ,` , - _ ` '
. ` , ` ` , ` . , '
. ` , _ ` , ` ,` , -
. ,` , - ` , '
. ` _ . `
. ` ., , ` . , '
. ` , ' , ,` , - _ _ ` ' ` ,` `

16
, v = , |
Chapter 1

Phrases

1.3 , _ = (Demonstration)

Phrases such as this student and that book contain _ (demonstration). In Arabic we produce such
phrases by placing a _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun lit. noun of demonstration) before a ` ,` (noun). In
English, the words this, that, these and those are demonstrative pronouns.

(a) ., , _ (demonstration of something close)

To demonstrate something close in English we say this. The masculine singular _ ` ,`
(demonstrative pronoun) meaning this in Arabic is (dhaa), from which variations of the feminine and
plural are derived.


Feminine Masculine
= / =
(haadhihi) (haadhii)
This
. / =
(haadhaa) (dhaa)
This
Singular
v
(haaulaai)
These
Plural

Note that the prefixes above are pronounced with an unwritten alif after them.


Morphology


The prefix is actually not part of the _ ` ,` (demonstrative
pronoun). It is a truncation of the particle (haa) which is called , ` ` '
(particle of alerting) and we might think of it as an interjection in English.
The actual masculine singular _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun) is . .
When is prefixed to ` ' . _ (demonstrative pronouns) the alif of
is pronounced but not written rendering,

i
17

This (m. sing.) (dhhaa haadhaa)
` ` This (f. sing.) (dhii haadhii)
This (f. sing.) (dhihi haadhihi)
. .` , . .` , ' These (m. & f. pl.) (ulaai haaulaai)

(There are in fact ten derivations for the feminine singular but the two given above are by far
the most common. (1) ` , (2) ` , (3) , (4) , (5) with a lengthening of the ,` on the
haa, (6) with a lengthening of the ,` on the haa, (7) ` , (8) ` , (9) ` . , (10) )
is used on its own to mean ha! look!.
,` / ,` look, there he is!.




(b) , _ (demonstration of something far)

To demonstrate something far in English we say that. The masculine singular _ ` ,` (demonstrative
pronoun) meaning that in Arabic is produced from (this) by suffixing , rendering (that). This is
called . = - ` (the kaf of address).


Feminine Masculine
c
(Tilka)
That
= . / c | .
(dhaalika) (dhaaka)
That
Singular
c | |
(ulaaika)
Those
Plural

The ` , in : ` , ' is not pronounced and an alif is pronounced but not written after the .








18

Morphology

The feminine _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun) is actually :,
produced by adding the . = - ` (the kaf of address) to ` which is
one of the feminine variations of given in the grey box above.

It is very common with the singular to insert a (lam carrying sukuun)
before the . = - ` (the kaf of address), rendering,

(for : ) :
That (m. sing.) (dhaalika)
(for : ` , ) : That (f. sing.) (tilka)
This is called ` ` ` . (the lam of distance) and is inserted to
demonstrate something farther away than and :, . In common
parlance today, this distinction is not unfortunately given due attention
and : and : are used loosely.


The _ . ` ' (demonstrative pronouns) given above are ` (indeclinable) and do not ever change in
ending.

1.3.1 When a ` ,` (noun) is demonstrated, it must always be ,` (definite). The _ ` ,` (demonstrative
pronoun) is placed before the , ` _ ` (demonstrated) noun.

= ` .
This student
(haadhaa aT-Taalib
u
)
: ` . That book
(dhaalika al-kitaab
u
)

As we know, the demonstrative pronoun is called _ ` ,` . The demonstrated noun is called , ` _ `
(lit. pointed to).

In Arabic, we say that the , ` _ ` (demonstrated noun) is a , (substitute) for the _ ` ,`
(demonstrative pronoun). Suppose I point to a book and say, I read that. I can express the same meaning
by saying, I read the book. Effectively, I have substituted the book for the demonstrative pronoun
i
19
that. When the two are combined in the expression I read that book, the , ` _ ` (demonstrated noun)
book is the , (substitute) of the _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun) that. We call the _ ` ,`
(demonstrative pronoun) the ` ` ` ` (substituted-for). In English, the , (substitute) is called apposition
or the permutative.
* The general rule is that a , (substitute) must always agree with its ` ` ` ` (substituted-for) in four
respects:

1. Definition: ,` (definite) or , (indefinite) ?
2. Gender: ` , ` (masculine) or .` ,` (feminine) ?
3. Word ending: ` . , ,` or -` ?
4. Number: ` , ` (singular), ` ` _ (dual) or ` _` - (plural) ?

(a) _ . ` ' (demonstrative pronouns) are always ,` (definite). This is because they involve pointing
to something and once pointed to, things are identifiable and therefore ,` (definite). If we point to a
house and say this house or that house, we are referring to this or that particular house, not a house or
any house. Since the , ` _ ` (demonstrated noun) must agree with the _ ` ,` (demonstrative
pronoun) it must always be ,` (definite).

= ` . / = ` .
This student
(dhaa aT-Taalib
u
/ haadhaa aT-Taalib
u
)

(b) The , ` _ ` (demonstrated) noun must agree with the gender of the ` ,` _ (demonstrative
pronoun).

= :
That student (f)
(tilka aT-Taalibat
u
)
/
This word (f)
(haadhii / haadhihi al-kalimat
u
)
: That word (f)
(tilka al-kalimat
u
)

(c) Since _ . ` ' (demonstrative pronouns) are ` (indeclinable), their endings never change. In
ordinary circumstances as in the examples above, the , ` _ ` (demonstrated) noun takes the default
ending, which is ` . . If the _ is preceded by a , - ` ` , - (preposition), the _ ` ,` (demonstrative
pronoun) becomes the object of the , - ` ` , - (preposition). Being ` (indeclinable), the _ ` ,`
20
(demonstrative pronoun) is not visibly affected. However, the effect of the , - ` ` , - (preposition) passes
over to the , ` _ ` (demonstrated) noun.

.
In this book
(fii haadhaa al-kitaab
i
)
: _ Upon that word
(

alaa tilka al-kalimat

i
)

We will introduce -` endings in chapters two and three.

(d) The , ` _ ` (demonstrated) noun must agree with the number of the _ ` ,` (demonstrative
pronoun).

-` , . .` ,
These men
(haaulaai ar-rijaal
u
)
: , ' ` .
Those women
(ulaaika an-niasaa
u
)
` -` , . .` ,
From these men
(min haaulaai ar-rijaal
i
)
_ : , ' ` . To those women
(ilaa ulaaika an-niasaa
i
)

1.3.2 _ = , (Demonstration) in the , - = construction

. ` ' _ (Demonstrative pronouns) can only be used to demonstrate the ` .` (possessed noun) and
` , ` .` (possessor) in a definite . construction. This is because, as we know, the , ` _ `
(demonstrated noun) must always be ,` (definite).

(a) Demonstrating a , ` .` (possessor)

This is the only instance when the integrity of the . construction is broken. A _ ` ,`
(demonstrative pronoun) may be placed before the last, and only the last , ` .` (possessor).

` . . =
The book of this student / This students book
(kitaab
u
haadhaa aT-Taalib
i
)
. . =
In the book of this student / In this students book
(fii kitaab
i
haadhaa aT-Taalib
i
)
21
.` ` ,` The name of this girl / This girls name
(ism
u
haadhihi al-bint
i
)
. ` ' . = . .` , The names of these students / These students names
(asmaa
u
haaulaai aT-Tullaab
i
)

(b) Demonstrating a ` .` (possessed noun)

To demonstrate the ` .` (possessed noun), we place the _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun) after the
. construction.

` . . = This book of the student
(kitaab
u
aT-Taalib
i
haadhaa)
` , ` This book of his
(kitaab
u
hu haadhaa)
. . = In this book of the student
(fii kitaab
i
aT-Taalib
i
haadhaa)
, : In that book of his
(fii kitaab
i
hi dhaalika)
.` ` ,` This name of the girl
(ism
u
al-bint
i
haadhaa)
- ` ' ` .` , This daughter of Hasans mother
(bint
u
umm
i
Hasan
in
haadhihi)
: ,` ` , That daughter of hers
(bint
u
haa tilka)
. .` , -` , ` . , These daughters of the men
(banaat
u
ar-rijaal
i
haaulaai)
` , ' ` ,` ,` , : Those daughters of theirs
(banaat
u
hum ulaaika)
` . : : That attribute of yours
(Sifat
u
ka tilka)
` ` , , This house of mine
(baytii haadhaa)
' ' This mother of ours
(umm
u
naa haadhihi)

If there is more than one ` .` (possessed noun), there is an ambiguity.

` ,` . = .
This name of the book of the student or
The name of this book of the student
(ism
u
kitaab
i
aT-Taalib
i
haadhaa)
22

= . |
Vocabulary


_ Demonstration ishaarat
un

_ ` ,` demonstrative pronoun ism
u
al-ishaarat
i

` , ` _ demonstrated noun mushaar
un
ilayh
i

, substitute badal
un




Exercise 1.3.2

Express in Arabic

1. On this edge
2. Until that meeting
3. Until this meeting of ours
4. That movement in the skies
5. The movement in these skies
6. Appropriate in this writing
7. A word to all these people
8. This word to all people
9. This meeting of Muhammad
10. This book of Allah and those signs of His
Exercise 1.3.1

Express in English

. ` . :
. ` ` `
. `
. ` _ . `
. ` _ . ` `
. , ` .` , ,
. , ` ` ` , ,
. ` _ = ,
. ` -` ` .` ,
. ` . .` , ` , ' ,` , -

23
, v = , |
Chapter 1

Phrases

1.4 . = , | (Description)

, ` .` . (description) in Arabic involves a ` ,` ` ,` .` , (described noun), often simply called ` ,` .` , and a
` ,` . (adjective), often simply called a . . In the expression the Arabic book, the word Book is the
` ,` .` , (described noun) and Arabic is the . (adjective).

* 1.4.1 There are two principles we need to remember about the Arabic . (adjective):
1. The . (adjective) always goes after the ` ,` .` , (described noun).
2. The . (adjective) always agrees with the ` ,` .` , (described noun) in four respects:
definition, gender, ending and number.

(a) If the ` ,` .` , (described noun) is , (indefinite), the . (adjective) must also be , (indefinite).

, , ` . An Arabic book
(kitaab
un

arabiyy
un
)

If the ` ,` .` , (described noun) is ,` (definite), the . (adjective) must also be ,` (definite).

' , , ` .
The Arabic book
(al-kitaab
u
al-

arabiyy
un
)
' , , ` . This Arabic book
(haadthaa al-kitaab
u
al-

arabiyy
u
)

(b) The gender of the . (adjective) must agree with the gender of the ` ,` .` , (described noun).

` , , ,
An Arabic word
(kalimat
un

arabiyyat
un
)
` , , , This Arabic word
(haadhihi al-kalimat
u
al-

arabiyyat
u
)

(c) The . (adjective) must agree with the ` ,` .` , (described noun) in ending. Agreement in ` . ending
has been shown above.

. , ,
In an Arabic book
(fii kitaab
in

arabiyy
in
)
24
. ` , ,
In this Arabic book
(fii haadtha al-kitaab
i
al-

arabiyy
i
)
` ` , , , From this Arabic word
(min haadthihi al-kalimat
i
al-

arabiyyat
i
)

The -` ending will be introduced in chapters two and three.

(d) If the ` ,` .` , (described noun) is a ` _` - (plural), the . (adjective) must also be a ` _` - (plural):

- _ . -
Handsome Men
(rijaal
un
Hisaan
un
)
. ` . , -
Beautiful women
(nisaa
un
jameelaat
un
)
-` , . .` , ` . -
From these handsome Men
(min haaulaai ar-rijaal
i
al-Hisaan
i
)
. ` : , ' _ . , - To those beautiful women
(ilaa ulaaika an-nisaa
i
al-jameelaat
i
)

(e) Arabic divides plurals into two types. Plurals of things that are (rational), which includes human
beings, jinn and angels and plurals of things that are ` ,` , (irrational), which includes dumb creatures
and inanimate objects.

* Plurals of adjectives, as shown above, are only ever used to describe things that are (rational). We
cannot say ` , ` .,` , ` _ for big houses or ` . , - ` . for new words.

* Plurals of things that are ` ,` , (irrational) are treated as grammatically ` ,` ` , ` . (feminine singular).
_ . ` ' (Demonstrative pronouns) and ` . . (adjectives) referring to ` ,` , (irrational) plurals are
therefore actually ` , ` .` ,` (feminine singular).

`, ` .`
Ancient books
(kutub
un
qadeemat
un
)
`, ` .`
These ancient books
(haadthihi al-kutub
u
al-qadeemat
u
)
. : ` , - From those new words
(min tilka al-kalimaat
i
al-jameelat
i
)

In poetry we often find ` ,` , (not intelligent) plurals treated as feminine plural a personification of
sorts.

25
` . , - ` . Beautiful words
(kalimaat
un
jameelaat
un
)

We recommend at this stage that you do not attempt such poetry .` , (at home).

(f) The superlative form ' can also be used as a . in which case, it does not remain masculine singular
as it did in the . construction and must agree with the ` ,` .` , (described noun) in all four respects.

The superlative remains
masculine and singular in
the . construction (cf. 1.3.4)


, ` ` - ' ` ` - . ` , The handsomest boy
(al-walad
u
al-aHsan
u
)
.` , ` ` - ' _ ` ` - ` .` The prettiest girl
(al-bint
u
al-Husnaa)
. ` ' ` ` - ' _ ` ` - . ` .
The most beautiful names
(al-asmaa
u
al-Husnaa)
., ` , ' . ,` ` .,
The greatest signs
(al-aayaat
u
al-kubraa)
.` , , ` , ' ` _ . ` , . ` .` , The first house
(al-bayt
u
al-awwal
u
fi al-arD
i
)
` , ' _ ` , . The first word
(al-kalimat
u
al-uulaa)
,` _ ` ' _ ` . ` ,` .
The loftiest name
(al-ism
u
al-a

laa)
_ ` '
_ ` .
` _ . , . , `
The loftiest similitude in the
heavens and the earth
(al-mathal
u
al-a

laa fi as-samaawaat
i

wa al-arD
i
)
_ ` ' , `
The loftiest word
(al-kalimat
u
al-

ulyaa)
. _ ` '
. _ ` '
, ` . `
. ` _ ,` '
From the highest heaven to the
lowest heaven
(min as-samaa
i
al-

ulyaa ilaa as-

samaa
i
ad-dunyaa)
, - _ ` ' ,` ' , -
The temporal (lit. lowest) life
(al-Hayaat
u
ad-dunyaa)
.` , ' ` ` - ' ` - . ` .` , .
The handsomest boys
(al-awlaad
u
al-aHaasin
u
)
` ` - ' , . ` . ` ., ` ` -
The prettiest girls
(al-banaat
u
al-Husnaayaat
u
)

26
Note that all the expressions above are ,` (definite). This is because superlatives are intrinsically
definite. It makes no sense for example to say a handsomest boy so we cannot say ` ` - ' ` , .

1.4.2 We may have a number of ` . . (adjectives) describing one ` ,` (noun). All ` . . (adjectives) must agree
with the ` ,` (noun) in the four respects mentioned above. Generally, multiple ` . . (adjectives) need not
come in any particular order.

` ,`, ` . ` _ . , -
A beautiful small ancient book
(kitaab
un
qadeem
un
Sagheer
un
jameel
un
)
` _ ` . ` ,`, ` . , -
The beautiful small ancient book
(al-kitaab
u
al-qadeem
u
aS-Sagheer
u
al-jameel
u
)
- , -
A good new word
(kalimat
un
jadeedat
un
Hasanat
un
)
: , ' -` , ., , - , =
Those tall handsome men
(ulaaika ar-rijaal
u
al-jameeluuna aT-Tiwaal
u
)
` . , - . ` . , , ~
Beautiful tall women
(nisaa
un
jameelaat
un
Taweelaat
un
)
` . , - _
In these big new books
(fii haadthihi al-kutub
i
al-jadeedat
i
al-kabeerat
i
)
, ~ . ` ` - . ` ,
The handsomest tallest boy
(al-walad
u
al-aHsan
u
al-aTwal
u
)

1.4.3 ` . . (Adjectives) describing proper names must be ,` (definite). This is often how epithets are given.

` ` -` ` .
Muhammad the Trustworthy
(lit. The trustworthy Muhammad)
(muHammad
un
al-ameen
u
)
,` -`, -
Khadeeja the great
(lit. The great Khadija)
(khadeejat
u
al-kubraa)


1.4.4 Negativising ` = = (adjectives)

In English we negativise adjectives by placing the word not before them. We negativise the word far by
saying not far. In Arabic, we negativise a . (adjective) by placing the word ` ,` , (not) before it in an
. construction. The negated . (adjective) agrees with the ` ,` .` , (described noun) in gender,
27
number, definition but not ending since as ` .` ` , (possessor) it ends in ,` . The ending agreement
happens on ` ,` , which does not otherwise change.

. ` , ,
A far place
(makaan
un
ba

eed
un
)
. , , ` ,` ,
A not far place
(makaan
un
ghayr
u
ba

eed
un
)

Other three Word ending
agreements here agreement here



, , ,` , .
In a not far place
(fii makaan
in
ghayr
i
ba

eed
un
)
, ` ,` , .
The not far place
(al-makaan
u
ghayr
u
al-ba

eed
i
)
` ' ` ,` , , ,
Not far places
(amkinat
un
ghayr
u
ba

eedat
in
)
` ,` - _ ` ,` , ,
They are men not far
(hum rijaal
un
ghayr
u
bi

aad
in
)

` ,` , means other than when the negativised ` .` ` , (possessor) is a ` ,` (noun) or ` _ . (pronoun).

. ` ,` , , - , ,
Other than (one) book
(ghayr
u
kitaab
in
waaHid
in
)
= ,` , `
From other than Allah
(min ghayr
i
allah
i
)
` ` ,` ,
Other than him
(ghayr
u
hu)
,` , _
To other than you
(ilaa ghayr
i
ka)


1.4.5 ` = = (Adjectives) in the , - = construction

Describing the ` , ` .` (possessor) is quite straight forward. We simply place the . (adjective) after it.

. = ` . , -
The book of the new student / The new students book
(kitaab
u
aT-Taalib
i
al-jadeed
i
)
We know that , - is describing . = here because it agrees with it in all four respects; it agrees with
` . in definition, gender and number but not ending..
28

Describing the ` .` (possessed noun) poses a problem for us. Can we put a . (adjective) between the
` .` (possessed noun) and ` , ` .` (possessor)? The answer is no. The . construction is
sacrosanct and violating it by interpolating a . (adjective) amounts to grammatical blasphemy. A .
(adjective) describing the ` .` (possessed noun) must be placed after the . construction.

. = ` . ` , -
The new book of the student / The students new book
(kitaab
u
aT-Taalib
i
al-jadeed
u
)

We know that ` , - is describing ` . here because it agrees with it in all four respects; it agrees with
. = in definition, gender and number but not ending.

_ ` ` - = . ` '
The most beautiful names of Allah / Allahs most beautiful names
(asmaa
u
Allah
i
al-Husnaa)
, ` =
The loftiest word of Allah / Allahs loftiest word
(kalimat
u
Allah
i
al-

ulyaa)

The same is true when the ` , ` .` (possessor) is a .` ` ` ,` , . (attached pronoun).

` ` , ` , -
His new book
(kitaab
u
hu al-jadeed
u
)
_ ` ` - ` ` , ` '
His most beautiful names
(asmaa
u
hu al-Husnaa)
, ` ` `
His loftiest word
(kalimat
u
hu al-

ulyaa)
, - ,` ` ,
Her beautiful daughter
(bint
u
haa al-jameelat
u
)
` . , - ` ,` ,` ,
Their beautiful daughters
(banaat
u
hum al-jameelaat
u
)
` ` ` .` , ' ` _ ` .
Their small children
(awlaad
u
hunna aS-Sighaar
u
)
, - :` .
Your beautiful attribute
(Sifat
u
ka al-jameelat
u
)
` _ ` . ` ` , ,
My small house
(baytii aS-Sagheer
u
)
, - ' '
Our beautiful mother
(umm
u
naa al-jameelat
u
)
,` ' ` , -
Our temporal (lit. lowest) life
(Hayaat
u
naa ad-unyaa)

29
A _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun) demonstrating the ` .` (possessed noun) is placed after the .
(adjective).

. = ` . ` , -
This new book of the student
(kitaab
u
aT-Taalib
i
al-jadeed
u
haadthaa)
` ` , ` , -
This new book of his
(kitaab
u
hu al-jadeed
u
haadthaa)
, - ,` ` ,
This beautiful daughter of hers
(bint
u
haa al-jameelat
u
haadthihi)
- ` ,` ,` , . .` , ` . ,
These beautiful daughters of theirs
(banaat
u
hum al-jameelaat
u
haaulaai)
: ., ' ` _ ` . ` ` ` .` , '
Those small children of theirs
(awlaad
u
hunna aS-Sighaar
u
ulaaika)
: , - :` .
That beautiful attribute of yours
(Sifat
u
ka al-jameelat
u
tilka)
: ` _ ` . ` , ,
That small house of mine
(baytii aS-Sagheer
u
dthaalika)
, - ' '
This beautiful mother of ours
(umm
u
naa al-jameelat
u
haadthihi)
,` ' ` , -
This temporal (lit. lowest) life of ours
(Hayaat
u
naa ad-dunyaa haadthihi)

In a chain . we can often tell which ` .` (possessed noun) the . (adjective) is describing from the
agreement pattern.

` ,` , - : .` ,
The name of the beautiful daughter of the king /
The name of the kings beautiful daughter
(ism
u
bint
i
al-malik
i
al-jameelat
i
)

We know that , - is describing .` , here because it agrees with it in all four respects; it disagrees with
` ,` in gender and ending and disagrees with : in gender.

It is possible in the . construction for a . (adjective) to appear to describe both the ` .` (possessed
noun) and the ` , ` .` , so that more than one translation is possible.

. . = , -
In the new book of the student or In the book of the new student
(fii kitaab
i
aT-Taalib
i
al-jadeed
i
)


_ ` . :` , _ ` ,`
The highest name of your Lord or The name of your Highest Lord
(ism
u
rabb
i
ka al-a

laa)

The ambiguity in this last example is created by the inability of the word _ ` . to carry a vowel ending.

30
The correct reading of such ambiguous expressions is determined by context, but may be resolved using the
preposition . which means to, for or belonging to. When written, it attaches to the ` ,` (noun)
following it. If the definite article . is preceded by . , we drop the (alif) and write . . When .
attaches to a word, it forms a ` ` - ` (quasi sentence), just like any other , - ` ` , - (preposition).

` . .` ,
A book in the house
(kitaab
un
fi al-bayt
i
)
` . .` ,
A book belonging to the house
(kitaab
un
lil-bayt
i
)
` . . =
A book belonging to the student,
A book of the student
(kitaab
un
liT-Taalib
i
)

We can use the preposition . to overcome the ambiguity in an . construction.

. . = , -
In the book of the new student
(fi al-kitaab
i
liT-Taalib
i
al-jadeed
i
)

. , - . =
In the new book of the student
(fi kitaab
i
al-jadeed
i
liT-Taalib
i
)
31
= . |
Vocabulary

` .` . , description waSf
un

` ,` .` , described noun mawSuuf
un

. adjective Sifat
un

, ., . . ` , rational

aaqil
un
(

uqalaa
u
,

aaqiluuna)
` ,` , irrational ghayr
u

aaqil
in

` _ . , ` _ . , small (m) Sagheer
un
(Sighaar
un
)
_ . , ` . _ . , small (f) Sagheerat
un
(Sagheeraat
un
)
` , - , ` ` ` - , new (m) jadeed
un
(judud
un
)
, - , `, - ` . , new (f) jadeedat
un
(jadeedaat
un
)
, , ~ , , ~ , tall; long (m) Taweel
un
(Tiwaal
un
)
, , ~ , `, , ~ ` . , tall; long (f) Taweelat
un
(Taweelaat
un
)
` ,` , not ghayr
u

. , ` ' . ` ' , place makaan
un
(amkinat
un
, amaakin
u
)
. _ , ` . ,` _ ' , lord rabb
un
(arbaab
un
)
. _ , ` _ ' ` . , , lord rabb
un
(arbaab
un
)
. to; for; belonging to li

Exercise 1.4.2
Express in Arabic

1. A heavy word
2. The few servants of Allah on the Earth
3. Our new (male) teacher and our
old (female) teacher
4. His beautiful house in this valley
5. This beautiful house of his in the valley
6. From Hasans young (small) daughter
7. The closest meeting (do not use . )
8. Heavier than the whole Earth
9. The first Man on this Earth (do not use . )
10. A great sign in everything new
Exercise 1.4.1
Express in English

. , `
. . ` -` .
. ` , - `
. ` , - `
. `, , , , -
. ,` ` ` , , , ` =
. ` , .` ` ` , .
. _ ` . ` _ . ,` ' ` , -
. ` ` ,` , . _ . , -
. . = ` . ` , -

32
_ | = , |
Chapter 2

The Noun Sentence


In chapter one, we produced the phrases an Arabic book and the Arabic book. In this chapter we
will learn how to produce the ` - (sentences) the book is Arabic and the books are Arabic.

Arabic is both an inflected and analytic language. This means that meaning is produced either by
inflection (vowel ending on a word) or by structure (the order of words in a construct). This chapter
will introduce to us how we can produce meaning in the Arabic language in these two ways.


2.1 The simple - - -, = (noun sentence)

The Arabic language is made up of two basic types of sentence, the ` ` - ` , ` (noun/nominal
sentence) and the ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence). If a ` ` - (sentence) begins with a ` (verb) it is a ` - `
` , ` (verb sentence) and if it begins with a ` ,` (noun), it is usually a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence), even
if it contains a ` (verb).

In English, every sentence must contain a verb. In the sentences, the book was useful (past), the
book is useful (present) and the book will be useful (future), we encounter the English verb to be.

Arabic also has a verb to be but we do not use it in present tense sentences such as the book is
useful and the books are useful. Arabic does not have a word equivalent to is and are. A definite
` ,` (noun) followed immediately by an indefinite ` ,` (noun) or . (adjective) requires us to read is
or are in between. This structure is called a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence).


` . ` _ The book is useful
(al-kitaab
u
naafi
un
)

` , - ' ` `
Predicate Subject



This is an instance of Arabic being an analytic language where structure produces meaning.

In the above sentence, ` . is the ' ` ` (Subject, mubtada
un
). The ' ` ` (subject) must be ,`
(definite). The word ` _ is the ` , - (Predicate, khabar
un
). The ` , - (predicate) must be , (indefinite).



33


Noun Sentence in a nutshell

The ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) is used to express the meaning, the x is
(a) y, in the present tense.

When we have a ' ` ` (subject) that is ,` (definite) and a ` , -
(predicate) that is , (indefinite), we read is/are in between.

The ` , - (predicate) agrees with the ` ' ` (subject) in 2. gender, 3. ending
and 4. number but not in 1. definition.



Here are a few more examples.

` , ` -` ` . =
The student is diligent
(aT-Taalib
u
mujtahid
un
)

, ` -` =
The (f) student is diligent
(aT-Taalibat
u
mujtahidat
un
)

` , ` -` ,
The man is a scholar
(ar-rajul
u

aalim
un
)

'` ,
The woman is a scholar
(al-marat
u

aalimat
un
)

. ` -` ,
The men are scholars
(ar-rijaal
u

ulamaa
u
)

. ` ` .
The women are scholars
(an-nisaa
u

aalimaat
un
)

2.1.1 The ' ` ` (subject) need not agree with the ` , - (predicate) if the ` , - (predicate) is a ` , ` (masculine)
noun that does not have a .` ,` (feminine) form or counterpart bearing the same meaning. Examples
are, . (m), ` , (m) and ` ,` . (m). When one of these nouns is the ` , - (predicate), it cannot agree with
a feminine ' ` ` (subject) in gender.

` ` _ . . ` _ ,
The earth is a wide place
(al-arD
u
makaan
un
waasi
un
)

` , ` .` , ~
Makkah is a good town
(makkat
u
balad
un
Tayyib
un
)

` ` ` ,` . , -
Damascus is a beautiful city
(dimashq
u
miSr
un
jameel
un
)

i
34
There are also some .` ,` (feminine) nouns that do not have a ` , ` (masculine) form bearing the same
meaning. Some examples are , ~ , (f), ` , (f) and ` , (f). When one of these nouns is the ` , -
(predicate), it cannot agree with a masculine ' ` ` (subject) in gender.

, - , `, , ` , ` ,
Iraq is a strong and beautiful country
(al-

iraaq
u
bilaad
un
Qawiyyat
un
wa jameelat
un
)

2.1.2 The ' ` ` (subject) may be described by ` . . (adjectives).

` _ ' , , ` .
The Arabic book is useful
(al-kitaab
u
al-

arabiyy
u
naafi
un
)

The . (adjective) agrees with the ' ` ` (subject) in 1. definition, 2. gender, 3. ending and 4. number.

In the above example, the ` , - (predicate) is a . (adjective). If the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun), it
may also be described by ` . . (adjectives).

` _ ` , ` -` ,
The man is a great scholar
(ar-rajul
u

aalim
un
kabeer
un
)

2.1.3 We can conjunct words onto the ` , - (predicate) with the conjunction , (and). The word , is always
prefixed to the word following it. In Arabic the conjucted word must always agree with the word it is
conjuncted to.

` ,`, ` . , , - ` _ ,
The book is old, beautiful and useful
(al-kitaab
u
qadeem
un
wa jameel
un
wa naafi
un
)
` _ , ` ,, =
Allah is All-knowing and Great
(allah
u

aleem
un
wa kabeer
un
)

* There are no commas in Arabic. A , must be placed before every item on a list.

2.1.4 We can simply juxtapose words to the ` , - (predicate) as , (substitute).

` . ` ,`, , - ` _
The book is old beautiful useful
(al-kitaab
u
qadeem
un
jameel
un
naafi
un
)
` _ ` ,, =
Allah is All-knowing Great
(allah
u

aleem
un
kabeer
un
)


2.1.5 We may use a _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun) as the definite ' ` ` (subject).

` _
This is useful
(haadha naafi
un
)

35
` , ~
This is good
(haadhihi Tayyibat
un
)
. ` . .` ,
These scholars
(haaulaa
i

ulamaa
u
)

In such sentences, the , ` _ ` (demonstrated noun) may be mentioned. As stated in chapter 1, the ` _ `
, (demonstrated noun) is a , (substitute) of the _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun).

` _ ` .
This book is useful
(haadha al-kitaab
u
naafi
un
)

` , ~
This word is good
(haadhihi al-kalimat
u
Tayyibat
un
)

. .` , ` -` , .
These men are scholars
(haaulaa
i
ar-rijaal
u

ulamaa
u
)

2.1.6 We know that ` , . (pronouns) are intrinsically ,` (definite) because they always sit in the place of
. ` ' (nouns) that are ,` (definite). We may use ` , . . ` ` (detached pronouns) as the definite
' ` ` (subject).

,` ` ,
He is a scholar
(huwa

aalim
un
)

,` ` _ ` ,
He is a great scholar
(huwa

aalim
un
kabeer
un
)

_
She is a great scholar
(hiya

aalimat
un
kabeerat
un
)

` ,` ` _ . `
They are great scholars
(hum

ulamaa
u
kibaar
un
)

2.1.7 The ' ` ` (subject) may be a definite ` .` (possessed noun).

. = ` . ` _
The book of the student is useful
(kitaab
u
aT-Taalib
i
naafi
un
)
(` . is the ' ` ` (subject). It is also a ` .` (possessed
noun). . = is its ` .` ` , (possessor). ` _ is the ` , -
(predicate)).

` ` , ` _
His book is useful
(kitaab
u
hu naafi
un
)
, = ` ` _ ' ,
And the earth of Allah is wide
(wa arD
u
allah
i
waasi

at
un
)
` - , ` ` , ` , ,
And your God is One God
(wa ilaah
u
kum ilaah
un
waaHid
un
)


36
2.1.8 The ` , - (predicate) may also be an indefinite ` .` (possessed noun).

-
This is a word of truth
(haadhihi kalimat
u
Haqq
in
)


2.1.8 Both the ' ` ` (subject) and ` , - (predicate) may have a ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) attached to it.

(a) Attachment to a ' ` ` (subject):

_ . ` _ . , -
Life on the earth is short
(al-Hayaat
u
fi al-arD
i
qaSeerat
un
)
(on the earth is expressed as ` _ . not _ ` _ . )

(b) Attachment to a ` , - (predicate):

` _ . , , ` ` `
The Sun is far from the Earth
(ash-shams
u
ba

eedat
un

ani al-arD
i
)
` , ` ' ' , _`
The woman is a teacher in a school in Iraq
(al-marat
u
ustaadhat
un
fii madrasat
in
fi al-

iraaq
i
)
` . = ` ,` -` , _`
The student is present in the school
(aT-Taalib
u
mawjuud
un
fi al-madrasat
i
)

(c) Attachment to an elliptical/omitted ` , - (predicate):

In the last example above, the basic ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) is,

` . = ` ,` -` ,
The student is present
(aT-Taalib
u
mawjuud
un
)

We can think of the ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) _` being attached in response to the question,
where is the boy present? We may reply,

` . = ` ,` -` , _`
The student is present in the school
(aT-Taalib
u
mawjuud
un
fi al-madrasat
i
)

If we remove ` ,` -` , from the above sentence, we are left with,

` . = _`
The student is in the school
(aT-Taalib
u
fi al-madrasat
i
)
(Note that this can also be interpreted as a phrase
meaning the student in the school cf. Chapter 1.1)

` ,` -` , remains the elliptical/omitted ` , - (predicate) to which the ` ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) is attached.
In general we import the word ` ,` -` , (present) or ` (existent), to make sense of all such ` - ` , `
(noun sentences) in which the ` , - (predicate) appears to be a ` ` ` - ` (quasi sentence).

37

,` _`
He is in the school
(huwa fi al-madrasat
i
)
(grammatically: ` ,` -` , ,` _` )
_`
This is in the school
(haadhaa fi al-madrasat
i
)
(grammatically: ` ,` -` , _` )
.
The word is in the book
(al-kalimat
u
fi al-kitaab
i
)
(grammatically: ,` -` , . )



2.2 The indefinite | = , - (subject)

We know that the ' ` ` (subject) in a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) must be ,` (definite). But what if
we want to produce an indefinite ' ` ` (subject) and say, a student is in the school? We are tempted to
render this as,

` . ~ _`

However, this expression is a phrase meaning a student in the school (cf. Chapter 1.1) and is not a
complete sentence. To say a student is in the school Arabic requires us to put the definite ` ` - `
(quasi sentence) first,


` . ~ _`
A student is in the school, or
There is a student in the school, or
In the school (there) is a student
(fi al-madrasat
i
Taalib
un
)

.
A word is in the book, or
There is a word in the book, or
In the book (there) is a word
(fi al-kitaab
i
kalimat
un
)

. -
A word of truth is in the book, or
There is a word of truth in the book, or
In the book (there) is a word of truth
(fi al-kitaab
i
kalimat
u
Haqq
in
)


We may state the rule as being,

* An indefinite ' ` ` is permitted if there is a ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) before it.

It may help to remember that as a general rule Arabic is averse to starting a ` ` - (sentence) with a ,
(indefinite) word.



38

First Aid

The third translation given above for ` . ~ _` in the school is a student,
is useful because the English word order is identical to the Arabic. However,
because the word student comes after the word is in the English, one might be
tempted to think that the school is the ' ` ` (subject) and a student is the ` , -
(predicate).

Prescription
It is clear that the school cannot be the ' ` ` (subject) and a student cannot be the
` , - (predicate). It makes no sense to say the school is a student!
It is essential to remember that . ~ is still the ' ` ` (subject) albeit , (indefinite).
The ` , - (predicate) is hidden at the beginning, rendering:

, ` ,` -` , , ` . ~ _` ((mawjuud) fi al-madrasat
i
Taalib
un
)



2.3 The definite ` , - (predicate)

We know that the ` , - (predicate) in a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) must be , (indefinite) as in the
sentence,

` -` , ` ,
The man is a scholar
(ar-rajul
u

aalim
un
)

But what if we want to produce a definite ` , - (predicate) and say the man is the scholar? Arabic, in
principle, has no objection to a definite ` , - (predicate) so long as there is no danger of the definite ` , -
(predicate) looking like a ` .` . , (description) of the ' ` ` (subject). When the definite ` , - (predicate) is
a . (adjective), this danger is quite real. To say, the man is the scholar, we cannot simply say,
` -` , ` , because that means the scholar(ly) man. To overcome this, we introduce between the ' ` `
(subject) and the definite ` , - (predicate) a ` _ . (pronoun) that agrees with the ' ` ` (subject). This is
called ` _ . ` . (the pronoun of separation). It prevents the ` , - (predicate) looking like a .
(adjective) of the ' ` ` (subject).

,` ` -` , ` ,
The man is the scholar
(ar-rajul
u
huwa al-

aalim
u
)

~ls .
~,
39
,` ` -` , ` ,
This man is the scholar
(haadhaa ar-rajul
u
huwa al-

aalim
u
)

,` ` ,
This is the scholar
(haadhaa huwa al-

aalim
u
)
(` , means this scholar)

'` ,
The woman is the scholar
(al-marat
u
hiya al-

aalimat
u
)

` ,` -` , . `
The men are the scholars
(ar-rijaal
u
humu al-

ulamaa
u
)

(a) Where there is no longer any danger of the ` , - (predicate) looking like a . (adjective) of the ' ` `
(subject), the ` _ . ` . (the pronoun of separation) is not required. There are numerous instances
when this occurs. Here are a few.

(i) When the ' ` ` (subject) is a ` ,` (noun).

` . ` -` ,
The man is the teacher
(ar-rajul
u
al-ustaadh
u
)


(ii) When the ' ` ` (subject) is a ` _ . (pronoun).

,` ` ,
He is the scholar
(huwa al-

aalim
u
)


She is the scholar
(hiya al-

aalimat
u
)

. ` ` ,`
They are the scholars
(humu al-

ulamaa
u
)

= '
I am Allah
(ana allah
u
)


(iii) When the ` , - (predicate) is a ` _ . (pronoun).

` , ,`
The scholar is he
(al-ustaadh
u
huwa)

,` ,`
He is he / It is it
(huwa huwa)

,`
This is it / him
(haadhaa huwa)
,`
He / it is this
(huwa haadhaa)


40
(iv) When the ` , - (predicate) is a definite ` .` (possessed noun).

` -` , , ` '
The man is the teacher of the boy
(ar-rajul
u
ustaadh
u
al-walad
i
)
( , ` ' ,` ` -` , is weak)
` ` ' :' '
Your mother is my mother
(umm
u
ka ummii)
` _ . , . , ` ' . _ ' , _
Our Lord is the Lord of the heavens and the earth
(rabb
u
naa rabb
u
as-samaawaat
i
wa al-arD
i
)
,` _ ` ` -` =
Muhammad is the messenger of Allah
(muHammad
un
rasuul
u
allah
i
)

(v) When there is simply no room for confusion.

` - ` `
My name is Hasan
(ismii Hasan
un
)
` ` - ' ` ` `
His name is Ahmad
(ism
u
hu aHmad
u
)

We may summarise the above in the following rule,

* A definite ` , - (predicate) must be separated from the ' ` ` (subject) by a ` _ . ` . (the pronoun of
separation), except when there is no danger of the ` , - (predicate) looking like a . (adjective) of the
' ` ` (subject). This occurs when,
1. the ' ` ` (subject) is a ` ,` (noun)
2. the ' ` ` (subject) is a ` _ . (pronoun)
3. the ` , - (predicate) is a ` _ . (pronoun)
4. the - ` , (predicate) is a ` .` (possessed noun)
5. there is simply no room for confusion.
41
= . |
Vocabulary

Chapter 2.1 The Noun Sentence


` - , one (m) waaHid
un

- , one (f) waaHidat
un

` ` - , ` - ,
1. sentence (f) (gram.);
2. group, sum total (f)
jumlat
un
(jumal
un
)
` , ` ` ` - noun sentence (gram.) jumlat
un
ismiyyat
un

' ` `
1. subject (gram.);
2. beginning
mubtada
un

` , - , ' ` _ ` - ,
1. predicate (gram.);
2. news
khabar
un
(akhbaar
un
)
. ` _ ` - the news al-akhbaar
u

` _ , .,` , useful (m) naafi
un
(naafi

uuna)
, ` . , useful (f) naafi

at
un
(naafi

aat
un
)
` , , . ` , . ` , '' , town (m or f) balad
un
(bilaad
un
, buldaan
un
)
` , , . ` , , country ( f) bilaad
un
(buldaan
un
)
` , ` -` , .,` , ` -` , diligent, hard working (m) mujtahid
un
(mijtahiduuna)
, ` -` , ` . , ` -` , diligent, hard working (f) mujtahidat
un
(mijtahidaat
un
)
` , , . ` , scholar (m)

aalim
un
(

ulamaa
u
)
, ` . , scholar (f)

aalimat
un
(

aalimaat
un
)
` .` , ~ , .,` ` , ~ , good (m) Tayyib
un
(Tayyibuuna)
` , ~ , ` . ` , ~ , good (f) Tayyibat
un
(Tayyibaat
un
)
` _ , , .,` , , wide (m) waasi
un
(waasi

uuna)
, , ` . , , wide (f) waasi

at
un
(waasi

aat
un
)
` _, - . , ` _ - . , correct (m) SaHeeH
un
(SiHaaH
un
)
-, - . , ` . -, - . , correct (f) SaHeeHat
un
(SaHeeHaat
un
)
_` , ` _ , school (f) madrasat
un
(madaaris
u
)
` . , , ' ` . ,` , , door baab
un
(abwaab
un
)
` ` , , ` ,` ,` , throne

arsh
un
(

uruush
un
)
42
` - ` _ , ` - ` . , meeting ijtimaa
un
(ijtimaa

aat
un
)

` ,` -` , , .,` ,` -` , , present (m) mawjuud
un
(mawjuuduuna)
,` -` , , ` . ,` -` , , present (f) mawjuudat
un
(mawjuudaat
un
)
` existent mawjuudat
un
(mawjuudaat
un
)
` . separation faSl
un

` . , ,` . , section; season faSl
un
(fuSuul
un
)
` . ` _ . the pronoun of separation Dameer
u
al-faSl
i




Exercise 2.1.2 Express in Arabic

1. Allah is One
2. Our word is one word
3. Muhammad is a good teacher
4. The short book is expansive (wide)
and useful
5. The sea is large, wide and beautiful
6. My house is close to the sea
and far from your house
7. They are senior professors
8. He is better than me
9. This sentence is not correct
10. The book of this student is useful
11. This book of the student is useful
12. The life of this world is short
13. Speech about the president is
forbidden in Syria
14. His signs are present in everything
15. This is one word from the sum total
of his speech
16. The meeting is in the school and the school
is far from our house
17. These women are the new teachers
18. She is the new teacher
19. My mother is your mother
20. Her name is Maryam and his name is
Ahmad
Exercise 2.1.1 Express in English

. ` , ' =
. ` , ~ ` _ ` - .
. , - ` - _ ` ` -`
. ` , - , ' ` ` ` , ` . ` ` -
. ` . , - ` . ~ ` `
. -, - . ` ,` , ` ` -
. ` .,` , , ` ` . .` ,
. ,` - ` ., , - ., , ` .` , ,
. ` _ :` , `
. ` - , ` ` , ` , ,
. ,` -` , ` ,` , ` _ . ` `
. ` _ . ` `
. _` . = _, - ` ` _ - =
. ` , _ ` ,
. _` ` ` -
. ` _ ` _ ` - .` ,
. -` , : ` , ' ` ,` ` ` ` - .
. ` , - ` . = ,`
. , ` = ,
. ` _ . , . , ` ' . _ ' , _


43
_ | = , |
Chapter 2

The Noun Sentence

2.4 Emphasising the - - -, = (noun sentence) using . ,

The ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) can be emphasised by placing . before it. In classical Arabic . is a
strong emphatic particle which we may translate as indeed or verily. In Modern Arabic, . has lost
much of its emphatic strength and is used simply as a stylistic device. Very often it is not translated.

* . changes the ending of the ' ` ` (subject) from ` . to -` .

. . = ` , ` -` Indeed the student is diligent
(inna aT-Taalib
a
mujtahid
un
)

Renamed Renamed
. ` , - . ` ,`


. = , ` -` Indeed the (f) student is diligent
(inna aT-Taalibat
a
mujtahidat
un
)

(a) When the ' ` ` (subject) is a . ` ` ` _ . (detached pronoun) as in ` , ` -` ,` (he is diligent) and
, ` -` (she is diligent), it changes to a .` ` ` _ . (attached pronoun) and attaches to . .

` ` ` , ` -`
Indeed he is diligent
(innahu mujtahid
un
)
,` , ` -`
Indeed she is diligent
(innahaa mujtahidat
un
)

(b) When the ' ` ` (subject) is one of the . ` ' _ (demonstrative pronouns) that we have
encountered, the effect of . is not visible on the . ` ' _ (demonstrative pronouns) because they
are ` (indeclinable), but is visible on the , ` _ ` (demonstrated noun).

. -
Indeed this speech is true
(inna haadhaa al-kalaam
a
Haqq
un
)
. -
Indeed this is true
(inna haadhaa Haqq
un
)
. ` _ . ` -` , . .` ,
Indeed these men are great scholars
(inna haaulaai ar-rijaal
u

ulamaa
u
kibaar
un
)
44
(c) When the ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) is an indefinite ' ` ` (subject) preceded by a ` ` - ` (quasi
sentence), . makes the indefinite ' ` ` (subject) end in -` .

. ~ _`
Indeed there is a student in the school
(inna fi al-madrasat
i
Taalib
an
)

. ~ _`
Indeed there is a (f) student in the school
(inna fi al-madrasat
i
Taalibat
an
)

If the ` , - (predicate) were visible in the above sentences, they would read, . ` ,` -` , ~ _`
and . ,` -` , ~ _` .

(d) When . enters upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) that has a definite ` , - (predicate), we have the
option of introducing the ` _ . ` . (pronoun of separation) or omitting it because there is no danger
of the ` , - (predicate) looking like a . (adjective) of the ' ` ` (subject)

,` ` -` , . ` ,
The man is the scholar
(inna ar-rajul
a
huwa al-

aalim
u
)

` -` , . ` ,
The man is the scholar
(inna ar-rajul
a
al-

aalim
u
)

` , ,` , .
Indeed the scholar is the one who understands
(inna al-

aalim
a
huwa al-faahim
u
)

` , , .
Indeed the scholar is the one who understands
(inna al-

aalim
a
al-faahim
u
)

` ` = '
Indeed I am Allah
(innii ana allah
u
)






Morphology

When . is attached to the first person attached pronouns, we have two
alternative spellings.

` / ` Indeed we
` / ` Indeed I






i
45
2.5 Transporting the - - -, = (noun sentence) to the past using .

The ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) can be transported to the past by placing . before it when the ' ` `
(subject) is masculine. When ' ` ` (subject) is feminine, we use the feminine ` . . We can think of
. as our Arabic time machine.

We will deal with . fully later. For the moment, let us confine ourselves to transporting only singular
` - ` , ` (noun sentences) to the past.

* . changes the ending of the ` , - (predicate) from ` . to -` . We can think of it as having the
opposite effect to . .


. ` . = , ` -` The student was diligent
(kaana aT-Taalib
u
mujtahid
an
)

Renamed Renamed
` , - . ` ,` .


. = , ` -` The (f) student was diligent
(kaanati aT-Taalibat
u
mujtahidat
an
)
(the ,` on . is a liaison vowel
introduced to avoid . ` , ` cf. P6).

(a) If the ' ` ` (subject) is a ` _ . (pronoun) as in ` , ` -` ,` (he is diligent) and , ` -` (she is
diligent), the ` _ . (pronoun) must be dropped when the ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) is transported to
the past by . .

. , ` -`
He was diligent
(kaana mujtahid
an
)
` . , ` -`
She was diligent
(kaanat mujtahidat
an
)

We can emphasise these sentences by placing before them . with a .` ` ` _ . (attached pronoun).

. ` ` , ` -`
Indeed he was diligent
(innahu kaana mujtahid
an
)
` . ,` , ` -`
Indeed she was diligent
(innahaa kaanat mujtahidat
an
)
. = . . , ` -`
Indeed the student was diligent
(inna aT-Taalib
a
kaana mujtahidat
an
)

46
(b) If the ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) is an indefinite ' ` ` (subject) preceded by a ` ` - ` (quasi
sentence), . must agree with the indefinite ' ` ` (subject).

. ` . ~ _`
There was a student in the school
(kaana fi al-madrasat
i
Taalib
un
)

` . ~ _`
There was a (f) student in the school
(kaanat fi al-madrasat
i
Taalibat
un
)


In the above sentences, the ` , - (predicate) is omitted so . does not bring about any visible change.
If the ` , - (predicate) were visible, the sentences would read, . ,` -` , ` . ~ _` and
` . ,` -` , ~ _` .




Kaana confusion

Note the difference in the following two sentences. If you grasp these two
simple structures now, it will save you a lot of confusion later.

. ` , ~ He was a student
. _` ` . ~ There was a student




2.6 Negating the - - -, = (noun sentence) using , |

The ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) can be negated by placing before it ` , when the ' ` ` (subject) is
masculine. When ' ` ` (subject) is feminine, we use the feminine ` , ` . . (Note that sentences are
negated and words are negativised).

We will deal with ` , fully later. For the moment, let us confine ourselves to negating only singular
` - ` , ` (noun sentences).

* ` , is a sister of . and likewise changes the ending of the ` , - (predicate) from . ` to -` .

` , ` . = .,` The student is not lazy
(laysa aT-Taalib
u
kasuul
an
)

Renamed Renamed
` , - ` , ` ,` ` ,
i
47

. ` , = .,`
The (f) student is not lazy
(laysati aT-Taalibat
u
kasuul
an
)
` , .,`
He is not lazy
(laysa kasuul
an
)
` . ` , .,`
She is not lazy
(laysat kasuul
an
)
` , ` ` .,`
Indeed he is not lazy
(innahu laysa kasuul
an
)
` . ` , ,` .,`
Indeed she is not lazy
(innahaa laysat kasuul
an
)
` , ` . ~ _`
There is not a student in the school
(laysa fi al-madrasat
i
Taalib
un
)

` . ` , ~ _`
There is not a (f) student in the school
(laysat fi al-madrasat
i
Taalibat
un
)

2.7 v = - ; , = (The interrogative particle)

The ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) can be rendered interrogative simply by intonation of the voice. We do
not have to change sentence structure as we de in English. This is why we often find Arabic speakers
asking questions in English using declarative sentences. When translating interrogative sentences from
English to Arabic, we simply turn them into declarative sentences.

` ,` - ` , ,
The sea is far?
(al-bahr
u
ba

eed
un
)
, ,` , -
It is true?
(huwa Haqq
un
)

Often, intonation is reinforced by placing one of the interrogative particles and ' before the ` ` -
(sentence). and ' are generally interchangeable. Modern Arabic often uses an inverted question mark
which it has borrowed from English.

` ,` - ` , ,
Is the sea far?
(hal
i
al-bahr
u
ba

eed
un
)
(the ,` on is a liaison vowel cf. P6)
,` ' -
Is it true?
(ahuwa Haqq
un
)
' . -, - .
Was it correct?
(akaana SaHeeH
an
)
' ` . ~ _`
Is there a student in the school?
(afi al-madrasat
i
Taalib
un
)
48
' . ` . ~ _`
Was there a student in the school?
(akaana fi al-madrasat
i
Taalib
un
)
` ,` ` ' ' ` .` , . . . ` ` - -` ,
Are you the boys? No, we are the men
(aantum
u
al-awlaad
u
laa naHnu ar-rijaal
u
)

When ' is followed by the definite article . a phonetic change occurs rendering, . (aal). It is far
more common however, to use before a definite article.

` ,` - ` , , . ` , . ` ,` - ` , ,
Is the sea far? Yes the sea is far
(aal-bahr
u
ba

eed
un
? na

am al-bahr
u
ba

eed
un
)

When ' is followed by a word beginning with ` . , ,` the ` . , ,` is dropped.

` - :` `
Your name is Hasan
(ism
u
ka Hasan
un
)
` - :` ` '
Is your name Hasan
(asm
u
ka Hasan
un
)
.` , ` ` - '
Is our meeting in the house?
(ajtimaa
u
naa fi al-bayt
i
)

It is common with interrogatives to switch the ` ' ` (subject) and ` , - (predicate) around.

,` ` _, - . '
Is it correct?
(aSaHeeH
un
huwa)
' ,` -
Is it true?
(aHaqq
un
huwa)

2.7.1 Negative interrogatives

To frame a question in the negative with a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) we use ` , ' (not ` , )

~ ` - ` , ' Is Hasan not a student?

For negatively framed questions, an answer of ` , , confirms the negation, so that ` , and . amount to
the same response

` , Yes (he is not a student)
.
No (he is not a student)
To answer in the positive, we must say _ , (yes indeed)

_ , Yes indeed (he is a student)
49


Summary Supplement

The Noun Sentence



- = : |
-, = v - | _


- - |

Examples

` _ ` .
The book is useful
` _ ,`
It is useful
` _ ` .
This book is useful
` _
This is useful
. = ` . ` _
The students book is useful
-
This is a word of truth
1. A ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) is constructed from a definite
' ` ` (subject) and an indefinite ` , - (predicate).


_` ` . =
The student is in the school

2. An indefinite ' ` ` (subject) is permitted if it is preceded by
a ` ` - ` (quasi sentence).


` . ~ _`

A student is in the school, or
There is a student in the school, or
In the school (there) is a student


3. A definite ` , - (predicate) must be separated from the ' ` `
(subject) by a ` . ` _ . (the pronoun of separation)

except when,



` . ,` ` -` ,

The man is the teacher
a) the ` ' ` (subject) is a ` _ . (pronoun) ` . ,` He is the teacher
b) the ` , - (predicate) is a ` _ . (pronoun ,` ` . The teacher is he
,` ,` He is he
c) the ` , - (predicate) is a ` .` (possessed noun)

` ' ` -` , , The man is the boys teacher

` , ` -` . = .

Indeed the student is diligent
` , ` -` ` ` Indeed he is diligent
. - Indeed this speech is true
. ~ _` Indeed there is a student in the school

4. The ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) can be emphasised by
placing . before it, which


` . ` -` , . Indeed the man is the teacher

, ` -` ` . = .

The student was diligent
, ` -` . He was diligent
, ` -` . ` ` Indeed he was diligent

5. The ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) can be transported to the
past by placing . before it, which changes the ending of
the ` , - (predicate) from ` . to -`


. ` . ~ _` There was a student in the school

, ` -` ` . = ` ,

The student is not diligent
, ` -` ` , He is not diligent
, ` -` ` , ` ` Indeed he is not diligent

6. The ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) can be negated by placing
` , before it, which changes the ending of the ` , -
(predicate from ` . to -`


` , ` . ~ _` There is not a student in the school





50
= . |
Vocabulary

Chapter 2.4 The Noun Sentence


. Indeed inna
.
was (transports noun sentence to the
past)
kaana

` , is/are not (negates noun sentence) Laysa

,` , _ , very lazy (m & f) kasuul
un
(kusaalaa)

` ,` - , , ` _ - , ` ,` -` , ' . , sea baHr
un
(biHaar
un
)
? hal

' ? a

, ` . ` ` , - interrogative particle (gram.) Harf
u
al-istifhaam
i
` , ` , ` . , ` , Enquiry istifhaam
un
(istifhaamaat
un
)

` , yes na

am

. no laa

_ , yes indeed (after negative question) balaa




Exercise 2.4.2 Express in Arabic

1. Indeed his name is written in everything
2. Indeed this speech of yours is severe
3. Indeed there is a sign in this good news
4. Hasans relatives house was close
to the sea
5. Was it a good book?
6. There was a great man on the earth
7. Was the meeting in the school? Yes, there
was a meeting in the school
8. Was there a boy on the throne? Yes, the
boy was on the throne
9. It is not close to the sea
10. Are the long sentences not correct?
Exercise 2.4.1 Express in English
. . ` _ ` ,, =
. ' - ,` .
. . .
. = ' `
. _ , = .
. ,` ' , - . ` `
. ` _ . :` .
. , . ' ` ,` , -
. ,` - , , ` .` , ` ,
. . ` . ` , '



51
. || = , |
Chapter 3

The Verb Sentence


A ` (verb) is a word that refers to an action. If an Arabic ` ` - (sentence) begins with a ` (verb) it is
a ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence). A ` ` - (sentence) beginning with a ` ,` (noun) is usually a ` ` - ` , `
(noun sentence).


3.1 - | _ = | (The perfect verb)

We will introduce ' (verbs) in their ` , ` ` , ` (masculine singular) third person perfect form
because conjugation into all other persons is derived from this.

` ` . (the perfect verb) refers to complete action, usually in the past.

. He wrote, or
He has written, or
He did write

In Arabic, every ` (verb) must have a or doer. In English, we call this the subject of the verb.
The (subject) of . is the ` _ . ` , ` ` (implied pronoun, lit. hidden) ,` . We need not say,
,` . .

The .` ,` (feminine) of . is,

` . She wrote
She has written
She did write

The (subject) of ` . is the ` _ . ` , ` ` (implied pronoun) .

With the perfect verb, the masculine and feminine singular are the only two persons for which Arabic
implies a ` _ . ` , ` ` (implied pronoun). To conjugate the verb into all other persons, we attach another
set of ` , . .` ` (attached pronouns), different to those we have encountered before.

The table below gives the full conjugation of . in the perfect. The ` _ . ` , ` ` (implied pronoun) for
. and ` . are given in brackets. The ` , . .` ` (attached pronouns) that are used to conjugate
. into all other persons are shaded in grey.



52
DRILL #3

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, ,
They wrote
(2)
,
They (two) wrote
(1)
, ,` , .
He wrote
Masculine
(6)
,
They wrote
(5)
,
They (two) wrote
(4)
, , . ,
She wrote
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, ,
You wrote
(8)
,
You (two) wrote
(7)
, .
You wrote
Masculine
(12)
,
You wrote
(11)
,
You (two) wrote
(10)
, .
You wrote
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
,
We wrote
(13)
, .
I wrote
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

3.1.1 The basic ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence) with a ` _ . (pronoun) subject

* A ` (verb) and (subject) on their own constitute a complete ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence), so all the
' (verbs) in the table above are complete ` - (sentences). All other perfect verbs are conjugated in
the same way.

, '
He read
(qaraa)
(the (subject) is the implied pronoun ,` )

' , ` .
She read
(qaraat)
(the (subject) is the implied pronoun )

` - ,
They (masc. pl.) sat
(jalasuu)
(the (subject) is the attached pronoun ` , )

- ` ` .
I sat
(jalastu)
(the (subject) is the attached pronoun ` . )

3.1.2 The basic ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence) with a ` ,` (noun) subject

With third person (not second and first person) verbs, the (subject) may be a ` ,` (noun) as
opposed to a ` _ . (pronoun). When this occurs, the implied or attached pronouns that conjugate the
` (verb) cease to be the (subject).

53
* There are three things we need to remember about such ` - ` , ` (verb sentences),
(a) The goes after the ` (verb)
(b) The ` (verb) makes the end in ` .

` - _ .
A man wrote
(kataba rajul
un
)
` -` , -
The man sat
(jalasa ar-rajul
u
)
' ,` .
A woman wrote
(katabat imraat
un
)
(the ,` on . is a liaison vowel to avoid ` . )
'` , . -
The woman sat
(jalasati al-marat
u
)
(the ,` on . - is a liaison vowel to avoid ` . )

(c) If the (subject) is ` _` - (plural), the ` (verb) before it remains ` , ` (singular).

- _ .
Men wrote
(kataba rijaal
un
)
-` , -
The men sat
(jalasa ar-rijaal
u
)
. ` .
Women wrote
(katabat nisaa
un
)
. ` . -
The women sat
(jalasati an-nisaa
u
)

If a ` (verb) comes after the (subject) it must agree with the (subject) in number as
well as gender.

,` , , ` . = ' ,
The students read and understood
(qaraa atT-Tullab
u
wa fahimuu)
. ` . - . ' , , ` _ . _
The women sat on the ground and read
(jalasati an-nisaa
u

ala al-arD
i
wa qarana)

If we have men and women performing the same action, the verb remains masculine singular.

-` , - , . `
The men and women sat
(jalasa ar-rijaal
u
wa an-nisaa
u
)


54
3.1.3 The , ,` (object)

The object of a ` (verb) is called , ,` (lit. done to it).
* The ` (verb) makes the , ,` (object) end in -` .

' , .
He read the book
(qaraa al-kitaab
a
)
` .
She wrote a word
(katabat kalimat
an
)
. ` ,` ' ,
You (masc. pl.) read the book
(qaratumu al-kitaab
a
)
(the ` . on ` ,` ' , is a liaison vowel to avoid ` . )


` .` ,
I understood the speech
(fahimtu al-kalaam
a
)

As illustrated in the above sentences, the normal word order in a ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence) is,

, ,` (object) (subject) ` (verb)
O S V

(a) In the above sentences, the (subject) is a ` _ . (pronoun). With third person (not second and
first person) verbs where the (subject) is a ` ,` (noun), the , ,` (object) usually comes after the
(subject) keeping to the O S V order.

' , ` , .
The boy read the book
(qaraa al-walad
u
al-kitaab
a
)
` . '` ,
A woman wrote a word
(katabat marat
un
kalimat
an
)
` - -` , .
The men wrote sentences
(kataba ar-rijaal
u
jumal
an
)
. ` . ,
The women understood the speech
(fahimati al-nisaa
u
al-kalaam
a
)

(b) When the , ,` (object) is a ` _ . (pronoun), we use a .` ` ` _ . (attached pronoun), not ` _ .
. ` ` (detached pronoun) (cf. P13). The .` ` ` _ . (attached pronoun) attaches directly to the `
(verb). The word order continues to be O S V.

` ' ,
He read it
(qaraahu)
,
He understood us
(fahimanaa)
(Note that ` , means we understood)
55
` `
She wrote it
(katabathu)
` , :`
I understood you
(fahimtuka)



Morphology


When the ,` , (object) is a ` _ . ` .` (attached pronoun) the following relate to
. , . (perfect verbs):

(i) When the pronoun is the ,` , (object) of a verb it becomes .

Rather than , , we say:
, He understood me

We add a . between the ` (verb) and the pronoun to carry the ,` . This
. is called , , .,` (the nun of protection) because it protects the vowels of the
` (verb) from any change.

(ii) The final alif of the third person masculine plural is dropped when a ` _ .
(pronoun) is attached to it.

` ,` , , .
They read the book
(Notice that the hamza of ' , sits on a , in ` ,` , , )
,` , , `
They read it

(iii) When a ` _ . (pronoun) is attached to the second person masculine plural, a
` , is inserted in between.

` ,` ` ,
You (pl.) understood
` ,` ` , .`
You (pl.) understood the books
,` ` ` ,
You (pl.) understood them
(Note: .` is ` _ (irrational) and therefore
grammatically feminine singular)





i
56
(c) With third person (not second and first person) verbs where the , ,` (object) is a .` ` ` _ .
(attached pronoun) and the (subject) is a ` ` , (noun), we have no recourse but to place the
(subject) after the , ,` (object), rendering a S O V word order. Remember also that if the
(subject) is ` _` - (plural), the ` (verb) before it remains ` , ` (singular).

` , ` ' ,
The boy read it
(qaraahu al-walad
u
)
(Note that ` ` , ' , means His boy read)

, -` ,
The men wrote them
(katabahaa ar-rijaal
u
)
` ` '` ,
A woman wrote it
(katabathu marat
un
)
` , ` , . `
The women understood you (pl.)
(fahimatkumu an-nisaa
u
)
(the ` . on ` , ` , is a liaison vowel to avoid ` . )

(d) The , ,` (object) in the above sentences are what we call in English direct objects. '
(verbs) which take direct objects are called ` (transitive) in Arabic. There are some ' (verbs) that
cannot take a direct object but require a , - ` ` , - (preposition) before the object. In English these are
called indirect objects. ' (verbs) that can only take indirect objects are called ` _ . (intransitive).
Arabic does not actually think of an indirect object as a ,` , (object) at all and thinks of it simply
as a ` ` - ` ` (quasi sentence) attached to a ` (verb).

` _ . _ -
He sat on the ground
(jalasa

la al-arD
i
)

3.1.4 Negating ` . (the perfect verb)

` . (the perfect verb) is negated by placing before it the negative particle .

` -` . , ` Muhammad did not write a book
` , They (masc. pl.) did not write

3.1.5 Emphasising ` . (the perfect verb)

` . (The perfect verb) may be emphasised by the particle ` or more emphatically, by ` .
The latter is only used initially in a sentence. ` and ` must always be followed by a ` (verb).

57
Arab linguists view these two emphatic particles as either foreclosing the possibility of anyone denying
the truth of the statement or responding firmly to any actual denial. The following dialogue illustrates
their usage,

` ,,` , . . ' , Maryam: Have you read this book?
` - ` , . ` ` ' , ` Hasan : Yes, I have read it !
` ,,` , . ' , . . , ` . Maryam : No, you have not read anything from this book
` - . ` . ' , ` Hasan : I did indeed read the whole of this book !

Nothing should intervene between ` and the ` (verb) so we cannot say ` or ` . It also would
not make much sense because one affirms while the other negates.


3.2 Word Order


3.2.1 We have encountered the O S V and S O V structures above. There is another instance
when the S O V structure is preferred even when both the (subject) and , ,` (object) are
nouns.

When the (subject) ends in ` , ,` and the , ,` (object) does not, it is better to put the
(subject) after the , ,` (object). This is to engender better euphonic harmony.

` - _ . . A man wrote the book
rather than
. ` - _ .

and
. . ` - Hasan wrote the book
rather than
. ` - .


3.2.2 The S V O structure

We may even bring the , ,` (object) before the ` (verb). This is used especially in poetry as a
rhetorical device to emphasise the , ,` (object). The sentence is still considered to be a ` , ` ` ` -
(verb sentence).

. , ` - A book did Hasan write


58
3.2.3 The O V S structure

We have seen above that if a ` ` - (sentence) begins with the ` (verb) or the , ,` (object) it is a
` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence).

If we place the (subject) before ` (verb) in a O V S structure, the ` ` - (sentence)
becomes a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence), even though it contains a ` (verb).

. . ` -` , The man wrote the book

It is useful here to make a distinction between grammar and meaning. Grammatically, in this
sentence, ` -` , is the ' ` ` (subject) of a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence). We say that the verb . is a
verb sentence , - - (in the place of the predicate). The , ,` (object) is not essential to
the ` ` - (sentence).

But in terms of meaning, ` -` , remains the , ` or semantic subject because as far as the
meaning of the sentence is concerned ` -` , is doer of the action.

In general, it is better practice to use the O S V structure rather than the O V S structure, and
you should try to avoid the latter at this stage in your Arabic lives.

59
3.2 - | g _ = | (the imperfect verb)

` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb) refers to incomplete action usually in the present or future.

` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb) for . is:

` .` ,
He is writing (continuous present), or
He writes (habitual present), or
He will write (future), or
He can write (ability)

` .` , is produced by prefixing , to the root, putting ., ` on the first root letter and ` . on the
second and last root letters. Verbs never end in ` , ,` . The prefixed letter changes as ` ` _ _ .` (the
imperfect verb) is conjugated into the different persons. They have been shaded in grey in the table
below. The four letters used can be summarised in the formula, ` .`, ' .

The table below gives the full conjugation of ` .` , in the imperfect. The ` _ . ` ` , ` (implied pronoun)
for those persons that have an implied pronoun (subject) is given in brackets. The ` _ . .` `
(attached pronoun) for the others is shaded in grey.

DRILL #4

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, , , .
They write
(2)
, , .
They (two) write
(1)
, ,` , , .
He writes
Masc.
(6)
, ,
They write
(5)
, .
They (two) write
(4)
, , .
She writes
Fem.
Third
Person
(9)
, , .
You write
(8)
, .
You (two) write
(7)
, .` ' , .
You write
Masc.
(12)
,
You write
(11)
, .
You (two) write
(10)
, ,
You write
Fem.
Second
Person
(14)
, ` ` - , .
We write
(13)
, ' , | .
I write
Masc.
First
Person


The points relating to verb, subject and object apply to the ` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb).

60
If a ` (perfect verb) has a -` on the middle root letter, such as . , the vowel above the
middle root letter in ` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb) is different for different ' (verbs). These
vowels will be indicated in the vocabulary lists in brackets after the perfect, as illustrated below.

Imperfect Perf.
` .` , , . ,
. He wrote
` ` -, , , , - He sat
' , , , . , ' , He read

If a ` (perfect verb) has a ,` under the middle root letter, like , , , the vowel above the
middle root letter in ` _ _ .` (the imperfect) is nearly always -` .

` , , , , . , , , He understood

If a ` (perfect verb) has a ` . over the middle root letter, like ,` , the vowel above the middle
root letter in ` _ _ .` (the imperfect) is always ` . .

` ,` , , . , ,` He grew

The , , . - form is very rare.

` . ` -, , , ,
. - He considered

You should learn ` _ _ .` (the imperfect) of each ` (verb) with . (the perfect), just as we learn
` _,` ` - (plurals) with , ` ` . (singulars). This is to ensure that ` _ _ .` (the imperfect) springs to
mind the moment . (the perfect) is mentioned.

3.2.1 Negating ` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb)

` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb) is negated by placing before it the negative particle . .

` ` -` ' , , .
Muhammad is not reading, or
Muhammad does not / will not / cannot read
(laa yaqra
u
muHammad
un
)

. ` , , '
I am not understanding
I do not / will not / cannot understand
(laa afham
u
)
61

3.2.2 The future tense

As noted above, ` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb) has a number of possible meanings. If we wish to
make the action clearly in the future, we place either . or ` , before ` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect
verb). The particle . attaches to the verb itself.

` .` , / ` .` , ` ,
He will write
(sayaktub
u
/ saufa yaktub
u
)

Nothing should intervene between ` , and the ` (verb) so we cannot say ` , . to mean, He will
not.

3.2.3 Placing ` before ` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb)

Placing ` before ` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb) emphasises its incompleteness and makes the
probability of the action uncertain.

` .` , `
He may write, or
He might write
(qad yaktub
u
)

In poetry and literature, ` can be used to affirm a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb) in the same way that it
affirms a ` (perfect verb), but this is not common.

` , , ' `
I do indeed understand
(qad afham
u
)

Again, nothing should intervene between ` and the ` (verb) so we cannot say . ` to mean He may
not. Nor can we say . ` or ` ` , to mean He might, though you may frequently hear this
modern barbarism.

` is not normally never placed before a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb).


62
3.3 _ = = | (The verbal noun)

The ` _ ` . (verbal noun or gerund) which literally means source, is a noun to which the ` (verb)
corresponds and may be rendered into English by suffixing ing, tion, ment, ness or by the
infinitive verb: to .

DRILL #5


Verbal
Noun
Imperfect Perfect
Writing , ` .` , , . , . He wrote
Sitting , ` - ` ` -, , , ,
- He sat
Reading . , ' , , , . , ' , He read
Understanding ` , ` , , , , . , , , He understood
Largeness ` , ` ,` , , . , ,` He grew (in size)
Considering;
Consideration
, - . ` ` - ` . ` -, , , , . - He considered

The above ` _ . (verbal nouns) have been presented ending in -` . This is because it is convention to
learn the ` _ ` . (verbal noun) as though it is a ,` (object). This will be explained fully later.

Although ` _ ` . (verbal noun) is essentially a noun, it has a certain verbal force, which is why we often
translate it into the English infinitive.

` , ` - ` ` , -
Sitting/to sit in the sun is nice
(al-juluus
u
fii ash-shams
i
jameel
un
)
` ,` , .` ` _, -` . , -
Correct understanding is a beautiful thing
(al-fahm
u
aS-SaHeeh
u
shay
un
jameel
un
)

Note that in the above sentences, sitting and understanding which are not preceded by the are
rendered into Arabic using the definite article . . This is because all verbal nouns used in this to refer
to general notions are ,` (definite) and require . .

Some ` _ . ,verbal nouns,, apart from their verbal meaning, have taken on a more concrete
nominal meaning. , means writing and to write, but it also means writing as in ink on
paper.

63

, ` , ' , ,
The boy is reading the writing
(yaqra
u
al-walad
u
al-kitaabat
a
)


First Aid


The ` _ ` . (verbal noun) is often confused with the ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb).
We find sentences such as the man is sitting translated as:

` , ` - ` -` , or ` -` , ` , ` -

Or sentences such as to sit is nice and sitting is nice translated as:

` ` -, , -

Prescription

Remember that the verbal noun is a noun, not a verb. A ` (verb) always has a
tense or a time in which the action happens. A ` _ ` . (verbal noun) has no tense.

In the sentence The man is sitting, the word sitting is in the present tense so it
must be a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb).

` -` , ` ` -,

In the sentences to sit is nice and sitting is nice, the word sit/sitting has no
tense so it must be a ` _ ` . (verbal noun).

` , ` - , -



3.4 The Passive Verb

All the ' (verbs) that we have encountered in this chapter so far are active verbs. In Arabic, an
active verb is called ` , ` ` (lit. a verb constructed for the known (subject)). It is named so
because the (subject) of an active verb is known. A passive verb is called ` ` ,` ,` - (lit. a
verb constructed for the unknown (subject)) because in Arabic the (subject) of a passive verb is
not known.

We know that . is a ` , ` ` (active verb) meaning he wrote. To say, it was written as a
` ` ,` ,` - (passive verb), we alter the vowels and say . . This is the same for all perfect
verbs. The ` ,` ,` - (passive) of the imperfect ` .` , is ` . `, (it is (being) written). Verbs that are
` _ . (intransitive) such as - (he sat) do not have a ` ,` ,` - (passive). It would not make much
sense to say ` - .
~ls .
64

` , ` . ,` ,` - (passive verbs) are conjugated in the same was as ` , ` . , ` (active
verbs).

The ` , ` ` (active verb) as we know, has a (subject) and may have a ,` , (object).

` . . . The professor wrote the book

When we make the verb ` ,` ,` - (passive), the (subject) of the active verb disappears and
becomes ,` ,` - (unknown). The , ,` (object) of the active verb takes its place and is called the
` . (deputy of the subject).

` . . The book was written

Since the , ,` (object) has to become the ` . (deputy of the subject), ` _ . (intransitive)
active verbs that have no , ,` (object) such as - (he sat) are often not used in the passive
` - form.

In Arabic the passive verb is called ,` ,` - ' ` or unknown. This is because the subject of the
active verb cannot be mentioned once we make the verb passive.

In English, the subject is often mentioned with a passive verb such as in the sentence, The book was
written by the professor. We render such sentences into Arabic using a simple active verb as in the
first example above. In Arabic, the (subject) of an active verb cannot be mentioned once we make
it passive.

3.4.1 We may introduce not the (subject), but the instrument with which the action is carried out.

, , . It was written with a pen
, . , It was written by hand
. , _ / ` `, ' It was written by the people

The last example above is a Modern Arabic rendition of a non-Arabic phrase and is as such not a
classical Arabic expression. It is unfortunately used frequently in Modern Arabic journalese as a way
of skirting around Classical Arabics insistence on keeping the (subject) of a passive verb ,` ,` -
(unknown).

65
3.5 The ten most common verb forms

All the verbs we have encountered so far may be considered Form I . Arab grammarians call this
, .` _ or the fa

ala form. There are fifteen verb forms in Arabic derived from the triliteral root by
affixing extra letters out of which ten are most common. Each form denotes certain meaning patterns
but it is best at this stage not to delve too deep into these, nor to consider them to be written in stone.
Rather, we will take the meaning of each individual verb as it is given.

We may summarise Form I as follows:

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
, ` .,` ,` , ` . `, . ` . ,` , ` .` , .
Writing Written So it is It is written It was written A writer So he is He is writing He wrote

3.5.1 Form II

Form II of the verb is ` .` _ , . It is produced by doubling the middle letter of the root, so from form I
, (to know), we have form II , (to teach lit. to make someone know). It may please you to know
that there is generally only one pattern for the ` _ ` . (verbal noun) of Form II: , and occasionally
. This is true for all derived forms. Note that the ` ,` (Active Participle) and ,` ` ,`
(Passive Participle) are identical apart from the vowel on the middle letter. This is true for all derived
forms.

We may summarise Form II as follows:

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
, ` ` , ` ,` , ` , `, , ` ` , ` ,` , ` , `, ,
Teaching Taught So he is It is taught It was taught A teacher So he is
He is
teaching
He taught

Form II is usually the causative of Form I. If a ` (verb) in Form I has one ,` , (direct object),
Form II of that verb can have two ,` , .

` -` , , ` _` The man knew the lesson
, ` -` , , ` _` The man taught the boy the lesson


66
3.5.2 Form V

Form V of the verb is ` .` _ , . It produced from form II by affixing a taa with a -` on it to the
beginning, so from Form II , (to teach), we have Form V , (to learn).

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf. Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` , ` ,` , ` , `, , ` ` ` , ` ,` , ` , , ,
Learning Learned So he is It is being learned It was learned A learner So he is He is learning He learned

Form V is usually the reflexive of Form II. That means that it refers to the action of the first ,` ,
(object) of Form II. If Form II has two ,` , (objects), Form V takes one and if Form II has one
,` , , Form V has none.

` _` ` , , The boy learned the lesson

3.5.3 Form III

Form III of the verb is .` _ , . It is produced by inserting an alif between the first and second letter
of the root. The ` _ ` . (verbal noun) of Form III is of the form or ` and occasionally both.

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
, -
-`
` -` ,` , ` -`, ,` - ` -` ,` , ` -`, -
Striving
Striven
against
So he is
He is striven
against
He was striven
against
A striver So he is He is striving He strove


3.5.4 Form VI

Form VI of the verb is ` _ , . . It is the reflexive of Form III and is produced from Form III by
affixing a taa with a -` on it to the beginning. Form VI generally, but not always, implies mutual
action, so that its (subject) must a dual, plural or collective.

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` ` , ` ,` , `, ` , , , ` ` , ` ,` , ` , , ,
(Mutual)
understanding
(Mutually)
understood
So it is
It is
(mutually)
understood
It was
(mutually)
understood
(Mutually)
understanding
So they
are
They are
(mutually)
understanding
They
(mutually)
understood

` , , ` -` , , The man and boy understood each other
67
3.5.5 Form IV

Form IV of the verb is ' .` _ , . It is usually causative and is produced by affixing a _ = ,` with
a -` on it to the beginning to the root, so from form I , (to know), we have form IV ` ' , (to inform
lit. to make someone know).

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` ` , ` ` ,` , ` , ` `, , ` ' ` , ` ` ,` , ` , ` `, , ` '
Informing Informed So he is
He is
informed
He was
informed
An
informer
So he is
He is
informing
He
informed

3.5.6 Form VII

Form VII of the verb is ` .` _ , . It is produced by affixing an alif and a nun to the root. The alif has
,` ` . , so any vowel preceding it will override it. If it is initial, it takes a ,` . Form VII is not
produced from roots beginning with . , _ , , . or .

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` ` . ` ` ,` , ` . ` `, . ` ` . ` ` ,` , ` . ` , . `
Uncovering - So he is - - Uncovered So it is
It is
becoming
uncovered
It became
uncovered

Form VII is an active verb but denotes a passive meaning, so it generally has no ` ,` ,` - (passive)
and takes no ,` , (objects). Compare:

` ,` . .
The matter was uncovered
` ,` . . `
The matter became uncovered

3.5.7 Form VIII

Form VIII of the verb is .` _ , . It is produced by affixing an alif before the root and a ta between
the first and second root letters. The alif has ` . , ,` so any vowel preceding it will override it. If it
is initial, it takes a ,` .

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
, ` - ` , ` -` ,` , ` , ` -`, ,` ` - ` , ` -` ,` , ` , ` -, , ` -
Hard work Worked at So it is
It is
worked at
It was
worked at
A hard
worker
So he is
He is
working hard
He worked
hard
68
3.5.8 Form IX

Form IX of the verb is .` _ , . It is produced by affixing an alif before the root and doubling the
last letter. The alif has ` . , ,` so any vowel preceding it will override it. If it is initial, it takes a
,` .

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
_ , ` - , ` -` ,` , ' , ` -, ` , ` -
Reddening
-

- -
Reddened So he is
It is becoming
red
It became red

Form IX is only used for colours and defects.

` ` ,` - , ` , ` - His face became red

3.5.9 Form X

Form X of the verb is ` .` _ , . It is produced by affixing an alif, a seen and a taa before the root.
The alif has ` . , ,` so any vowel preceding it will override it. If it is initial, it takes a ,` .

Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
So he
is
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
So he
is
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
, ` ` , , ` ` ,` , ` , , ` `, , , ` ` ` , , ` ` ,` , ` , , ` , , , `
Enquiry enquired So it is
It is
enquired
It was
enquired
An enquirer So he is
He is
enquiring
He enquired


3.6 ; , = v = - -, - | - | _ (The interrogative particle in the verb sentence)

Like the noun sentence, the verb sentences can be rendered interrogative simply by intonation.

` , , , ` -
Hasan understands?
(yafham
u
Hasan
un
)
We may also place or ' before it

, , ' . ` -
Did Hasan understand the book
(afahima al-kitaab
a
Hasan
un
)
(Note that the interrogative particle goes before the verb)

To frame a question in the negative with a ` , ` ` ` - (a verb sentence) we use ' (not ) for the
perfect and . ' (not . ) for the imperfect.

' . Did he not write?
69
` , , , . ' . ` - Does Hasan not understand the book?

An answer of ` , , confirms the negation, so that ` , and . amount to the same response

` , Yes (he does not understand the book)
. No (he does not understand the book)
To answer in the positive, we must say _ , (yes indeed)

_ , Yes indeed (he does understand the book)

3.7 , = ; , = v (The interrogative noun)

There are a number of ` . . ` ' , (interrogative nouns) we may place before a ` ` - (sentence) to
ask what? When? Where? Why? how? and how much? They are all ` (indeclinable) apart from ' ' .

.
What did he write?
(Note that this can also mean he did not write)
` .` What are you writing?
_ ,` ,` When did they grow?
` ` ` - `, ' Where did you (fem. pl.) sit?
' , , Why do we read?
` _ . _ ` ,` ` - Why have you (masc. pl.) sat on the ground?
.` , .` , How did you (masc. sing.) understand?
, , ` Who understood?
` ` , , , Who understands?
. ' , , ` ,
How many books did you read?
(` , must be followed by an indefinite word ending in -` )
. ' , . ' '
Which book did you read?
(' ' is a ` . ,` ` noun and works in an . construction)
70
= . |
Vocabulary

Chapter 3

. so fa
` ,` - dawn fajr
un

. , ` .` , , , he wrote kataba (yaktub
u
) kitaabat
an

, , ` . , , writing (f); (pl.) writings, essays kitaabat
un
(kitaabaat
un
)
- , ` ` -, , ` - , he sat jalasa (yajlis
u
) juluus
an

` , ` - sitting juluus
un

' , , ' , , , . , he read qaraa (yaqra
u
) qiraaat
an

. , , . , ` . , reading (f) qiraaat
un
(qiraaaat
un
)
, , , ` , , , , ` , he understood fahima (yafham
u
) fahm
an

` ,` , understanding fahm
un

` , ` , , ' . I dont understand anything laa afham
u
shay
an

,` , ` ,` , , ` , he grew (in size) kabura (yakbur
u
) kubr
an

, , ` , , , , he grew (in age) kabira (yakbar
u
) kibar
an

` , size; old age kibar
un

. - , , , , - , ` ` -
1. to calculate
2. to consider ( s.o. to be . s.th.) *
Hasiba (yaHsib
u
, yaHsab
u
)
Hisaab
an
, Husbaan
an

` . - calculation Hisaab
un

. ` ` - consideration Husbaan
un

` , ` ` ` - verb sentence (gram.) jumlat
un
fi

liyyat
un

- , ` ` - all at once, in one swoop jumlat
an
waaHidat
an

` , ' ,
1. verb;
2. action
fi

l
un
(af

aal
un
)

1. subject (in verb sentence) (gram.);
2. doer
faa

il
un

, ,` , , ,
1. object (in verb sentence) (gram.);
2. done to
maf

uul
un
bihi (mafaa

eel
u
)
` / ` ` . perfect verb / the perfect verb (gram.) fi

l
un
maaD
in
/ al-fi

l
u
al-maaD
ii

` ` _ _ .` / ` ` _ _ .` imperfect verb / the imperfect verb (gram.) fi

l
un
muDaari
un
/ al-fi

l
u
al-muDaari
u



* = s.o. (someone)
. = s.th. (something)
71
` transitive (gram.) muta

add
in

` _ . intransitive (gram.) laazim
un

negative particle (before perfect verb) maa
. negative particle (before imperfect verb) laa
, , ` , `, , , ` he taught

allama (yu

allim
u
) ta

leem
an

, , , , , he learned ta

allama (yata

allam
u
) ta

allum
an

- , ` -`, , -` . , - he struggled
jaahada (yujaahid
u
) jihad
an
,
mujaahadat
an

, , ` , , , ` they mutually understood tafaahama (yatafaaham
u
) tafaahum
an

, ` ' , ` , ` `, , ` , . , , he informed s.o. (of) a

lama (yu

lim
u
) i

laam
an

. ` , ` . ` , , ` it was uncovered inkashafa (yankashifu
u
) inkishaaf
an

, ` - , ` , ` -, , , ` - he worked hard ijtahada (yajtahid
u
) ijtihaad
an

` , ` - , ' , ` -, , _ , ` - it became red iHmarra (yaHmarr
u
) iHmiraar
an

, , ` , ` , , ` , , , ` he enquired istafhama (yastafhim
u
) istifhaam
an

'
interrogative negative particle
(before perfect verb)
amaa
. '
interrogative negative particle
(before imperfect verb)
alaa
. / ` , future particle (before imperfect verb) sa / saufa
what ? maa
what ? maadhaa
_ when ? mataa
, ' where ? ayna
` . , ' where is the book? ayna al-kitaab
u

, why ? lima
why ? limaadha
.` , how ? kayfa
` . .` , how is the book? kayfa al-kitaab
u

` who? man
` who? man dthaa
` -` , who is the man? mani ar-rajul
u

` , how much? kam
' ' which? ayy
u

. ' ' which book? ayy
u
kitaab
in

72
Exercise 3.1 Express in English

. , - , , ` .
. . . ` ` , ,
. ` _, - . ,` ` , ` _, - . ` . -
. , ` ` -` .
. `, ' - , ` ` - ` . = . -
. -, - . ` , ` ` -` , ,
. _ ` , , ,` ,
. ` , ` , ` - .
. .` , ` - .,` ` ,
. ` ` -` ' , , .
. ` ,` ` ` ,` ` '
. ` -, .` , , . ` -, . .
. , ` . = ' , - , ` ` -
. ` - . ` , , , . ' _ ,
. ' ` , , , ` , ` - ` , . , - ` _, -` . ` ,` , ,

Exercise 3.2 Express in Arabic

1. He did (indeed) read the book
2. The woman is writing a word
3. Where did the men and women sit all at once?
4. Is the boy a student? Yes he is a new student
5. They may mutually understand
6. How did the boys read the writing all at once?
7. Reading is nice (beautiful)
8. Sitting/to sit on the ground is nice
9. Is the short sentence correct?
10. The (female) student read a correct reading
11. Why is the professor writing a new book?
12. Muhammad made a correct calculation
13. How did she sit on the ground until dawn?
14. A tall boy is sitting and reading a long book and the sun is becoming red
15. Indeed I have informed you: The verb sentence is (constituted of) a verb and a subject
16. Is it not true? Yes, we read the book and we understand the book
17. When did the students read the book, what did they read and how did they understand?
18. Are you the boys? No, we are the men
SUMMARY OF VERB FORMS

Form I

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` .` . ` .`
, ` .,` ,` , ` . `, . ` . ,` , ` .` , .
Dont Write! Write! Writing Written So it is It is written It was written A writer So he is He is writing He wrote

Form II

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` , ` . ` ,
, ` ` , ` ,` , ` , `, , ` ` , ` ,` , ` , `, ,
Dont
Teach!
Teach!
Teaching Taught So he is It is taught It was taught A teacher So he is
He is
teaching
He taught

Form V

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf. Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` , ` ,
` , ` ,` , ` , `, , ` ` ` , ` ,` , ` , , ,
Dont
Learn!
Learn!
Learning Learned So he is It is being learned It was learned A learner So he is He is learning He learned

Form III

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` . ` - ` -
, -
-`
` -` ,` , ` -`, ,` - ` -` ,` , ` -`, -
Dont Strive! Strive! Striving
Striven
against
So he is
He is striven
against
He was
striven against
A striver So he is He is striving He strove


Form VI

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` , ` ,
` ` , ` ,` , ` , `, , , ` ` , ` ,` , ` , , ,
Dont
(mutually)
understand!
(Mutually)
understand!
(Mutual)
understanding
(Mutually)
understood
So it is
It is
(mutually)
understood
It was
(mutually)
understood
(Mutually)
understanding
So they
are
They are
(mutually)
understanding
They
(mutually)
understood

SUMMARY OF VERB FORMS


Form IV

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` , ` ` . ` , ` '
` ` , ` ` ,` , ` , ` `, , ` ' ` , ` ` ,` , ` , ` `, , ` '
Dont
Inform!
Inform! Informing Informed So he is
He is
informed
He was
informed
An
informer
So he is
He is
informing
He
informed

Form VII

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` . ` ` . `
` ` . ` ` ,` , ` . ` `, . ` ` . ` ` ,` , ` . ` , . `
Dont
be uncovered!
Be uncovered! Uncovering - So he is - - Uncovered So it is
It is
becoming
uncovered
It became
uncovered

Form VIII

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` , ` - ` , ` -
, ` - ` , ` -` ,` , ` , ` -`, ,` ` - ` , ` -` ,` , ` , ` -, , ` -
Dont work
hard!
Work hard! Hard work Worked at So it is
It is
worked at
It was
worked at
A hard
worker
So he is
He is
working
hard
He worked
hard

Form IX

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` , ` - ` , ` -
_ , ` - , ` -` ,` , ' , ` -, ` , ` -
Dont become
red!
Become red! Reddening
-

- -
Reddened So he is
It is becoming
red
It became red

Form X

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
So he
is
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
So he
is
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` , , ` ` , , `
, ` ` , , ` ` ,` , ` , , ` `, , , ` ` ` ` , , ` ,` , ` , , ` , , , `
Dont Enquire! Enquire! Enquiry enquired So it is
It is
enquired
It was
enquired
An enquirer So he is
He is
enquiring
He enquired

73
= , | _ ,|
Chapter 4

Government


This chapter is about Arabic syntactical society and how it is governed. The members of this society
are ` . (words) and they are divided into three classes, Regents, Subordinates and Slaves. We will
dedicate a later chapter to the Slave class. This chapter deals with Regents and their Subordinates.

The Arabic term for syntactical government is ' ,` -` (lit. grammatical work or function). A
governing word or Regent is called (lit. actor) and a Subordinate is called , ,` ` (lit. acted
upon). Arabic syntactical society is held together by a system in which some ` . (words) govern
others and cause them to hold certain subordinate ranks. We call these ranks ` . ,` (case). Let us
explore this notion in what we have already learned.



Review

We know that the ` ` , - , - (preposition) makes its ` _,` ,` - ` ,` (object)
end in ,` .
We know that in an . construction, the ` .` (possessed noun)
always makes the ` , ` .` (possessor) end in ,` .
We know that in a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) both the ' ` ` (subject) and
` , - (predicate) ordinarily end in ` . . The particle . enters upon it and
makes the ' ` ` (subject) end in -` . The words . and ` , enter upon
it and make the ` , - (predicate) end in -` .
We know that in the ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) the ` (verb) makes the
end in ` . and makes the , ,` (object) end in -` .




We can see from the above review that certain words govern or act upon others, causing them to take
on a particular vowel ending. Grammatically we say that a (regent) causes its , ,` `
(subordinate) to have a certain ` . ,` (case) or rank and each rank has a (insignia) by way of a
vowel ending. Using a different analogy, we can think of a (regent) infecting its , ,` `
(subordinate) with a ` . ,` (case) or virus and each virus has a (symptom) by way of a vowel
ending.

i
74
There are four ` . ,` (cases) or ranks / viruses (whichever way you want to think about it) in Arabic
and each is normally indicated by one of the three vowels or the ., ` .

- - : -
Normal vowel insignia
or symptom

Name given to word
of that case
, ` = -
Case
or rank / virus
` . , , ` _, ` , ` _ _
-` , , ` .,` .` ` .` .
,` , , ` _,` ,` - , -
., ` , , ` ,` ,` - ` ` , -


If the case of a word is ` _ _ we call it ` _, ` , . The last letter of a ` _, ` , word normally ends in ` . .
If the case of a word is ` .` . we call it ` .,` .` . The last letter of a ` .,` .` word normally ends in -` .
If the case of a word is , - we call it ` _,` ,` - . The last letter of a ` _,` ,` - word normally ends in ,` .
If the case of a word is ` ` , - we call it ` ,` ,` - . The last letter of a ` ,` ,` - word normally ends in ., ` .

The ` ` , - case never applies to . ` ' (nouns) and the - , case never applied to ' (verbs).


4.1 - | - , (The Regents)

A (regent) that causes another word to become ` _, ` , is called ` _ _ and the verb referring to this
action is _ _ , ` _ ` ,, , (lit. to raise)
A (regent) that causes another word to become ` _,` ,` - is called _ - and the verb referring to this
action is ` , - , ' ,` -, , (lit. to drag).
A (regent) that causes another word to become ` .,` .` is called ` . . and the verb referring to
this action is . . , .` , ` . , (lit. to erect).
A (regent) that causes another word to become ` ,` ,` - is called ` _ - and the verb referring to this
action is , - , ` ,` -, , (lit. to cut).

4.1.1 _ ` , , (Regents that govern the ` _ _ case)

These Regents are called ` _ _ , ` _ , _ , . They make their , ,` ` (subordinate) ` _, ` , which normally
ends in ` . .
75
(a) The ` (verb) - makes the (subject) ` _, ` ,
We say ` ` _ ` ,,

. , ` , The scholar wrote a book

In Arabic, every verb seeks a (subject).
The English infinitive verb that has no subject such as to write, is
often translated into Arabic using a ` _ ` . (verbal noun) such as , .

(b) The ` ' ` (subject) - makes itself ` _, ` , which normally ends in ` . .
- makes the ` , - (predicate) ` _, ` ,
We say ' ` ` ` _ ` ,, , -

` , ` -` ` . = The student is diligent

(c) . - makes the ` , - (predicate) ` _, ` ,
We say . ` _ ` ,, , -

. ` , ` -` . = Indeed the student is diligent

(d) . - makes the ' ` ` (subject) ` _, ` ,
We say . ` _ ` ,, ' ` `

. , ` -` ` . = The student was diligent

(e) ` , - makes the ' ` ` (subject) ` _, ` ,
We say ` , ` _ ` ,, ' ` `

` , , ` -` ` . = The student is not diligent

4.1.2 .` .` , (Regents that govern the ` .` . case)

These Regents are called . ` . , ` . . , , . They make their , ,` ` (subordinate) ` .,` .` which
normally ends in -` .

The examples for the section above serve as examples for this section.

(a) The ` (verb) - makes the ,` , (object) ` .,` .`
We say ` ` . .` , ,` ,

(b) . - makes the ' ` ` (subject) ` .,` .`
We say ` . .` , . ' ` `
76
(c) . - makes the ` , - (predicate) ` .,` .`
We say , - ` . .` , .

(d) ` , - makes the ` ' ` (subject) ` _, ` ,
We say ` , , - ` . .` ,

4.1.3 ` , - , (Regents that govern the - , case)

These regents are called _ - . They make their , ,` ` (subordinate) ` _,` ,` - which normally ends in
,` .

(a) A , - ` ` , - or _ - (preposition) - makes the ` ,` (noun) after it ` _,` ,` -
We say - ' _ ' ,` -, . ,`

. In the book

(b) The ` .` (possessed noun) - makes the ` .` ` , (possessor) ` _,` ,` -
We say .` ` ' ,` -, .` ` ,

. = ` . The students book

The ` .` (possessed noun) is a (regent) in relation to its , ,` ` (subordinate) the ` .` ` ,
(possessor), but is itself a , ,` ` (subordinate) of what precedes it,

. = . ' , He read the students book
. = . In the students book

We know that the first person singular attached pronoun , when attached to an ` ,` (noun), requires
that the letter preceding it carries a ,` liaison vowel. This ,` occupies the place of the vowel
indicating case and prevents it from appearing so that ` , (my book) is ` , in all three cases. We
call this - ` (occupation of the position).

, ` ` _ My book is useful
` . ' , ` , I read my book
` , In my book

77
4.2 Case and _ , - words

The notion of Case only applies to ` . ,` ` (declinable) words. ` (indeclinable) words such as ` , .
(pronouns), . ` ' _ (demonstrative pronouns) and ` . . ` ' , (interrogative nouns) (apart
from ' ') do not have case but are able to sit - (in the place of) words with case.

4.2.1 ` , . (pronouns)

The ` ` ` , . . (detached pronouns) that we encountered in P13 and the ` ` ` , . . (attached
pronouns) that we used in chapter 3 to conjugate most persons of the perfect and imperfect verb sit
- _ _ (in the place of the ` _ _ case).

(a) as ' ` ` ` , ` _, (marfuu

subject)

,` ` . ~
He is a student
(We parse the pronoun as follows: _ _ - _` _ ` . ` ` ` _ . ' ` ` )

(b) as ` , - ` _, ` , (marfuu

predicate)

,`
This is it
(We parse the pronoun as follows: _ _ - _` _ ` . ` ` ` _ . ` , - )

(c) as ` _, ` , (marfuu

subject)

.
He wrote
(We parse the implied pronoun ,` as follows: ` , ` ` ` _ . ... _ _ - )
` ` ,
They wrote
(We parse the attached pronoun ` , as follows: ` ` _ . .` _ _ - )

4.2.2 _ . ` ' (demonstrative pronouns)

The _ . ` ' (demonstrative pronouns) are able to sit in the place of all cases.

(d) as ' ` ` ` _, ` , (marfuu

subject)

` .
This is a book
(We parse the demonstrative pronoun as follows:
_ _ - ., ' _ ` _ ` ,` ' ` ` )

(e) as ` , - ` _, ` , (marfuu

predicate)

,`
It is this
(We parse the demonstrative pronoun as follows:
_ _ - ., ' _ ` _ ` ,` ` , - )
78

(f) as ` _, ` , (marfuu

subject)

` . = , ,
This student understood
(We parse the demonstrative pronoun as follows:
_ _ - ., ' _ ` _ ` ,` )

(g) As ` .,` .` , ,` (object) (manSuub
un
object)

. , ,
He understood this book
(We parse the demonstrative pronoun as follows:
- ., ' _ ` _ ` ,` .` . , ,` )

(h) as ` _,` ,` - ` ,` (majruur object of a preposition)

.
In this book
(We parse the demonstrative pronoun as follows:
` _ ` ,` - ., ' _ , - )

(i) as ` , ` .` ` _,` ,` - (majruur possessor)

. ` ,`
The name of this book
(We parse the demonstrative pronoun as follows:
_ ` _ ` ,` , - - ., ' ` .` ` , )


79
4.3 = =| - g, | (The Diptote)

All ` . ,` ` nouns are affected (or infected) by case and the case of a noun is indicated by the ordinary
vowel indicator for each case. However, some ` . ,` ` nouns, while they are affected by case, are not
always able to carry the normal vowel indicator. We may thus divide ` . ,` ` nouns into two types:
` , .` ` (triptote or fully declinable, lit. changeable) and ` ,` . ` _,` ` (diptote or partially
declinable, lit. forbidden from change). ` , .` ` (triptote) nouns are those that are able to end in all
three vowels such as the word book: ` . (this is a book), . , (he wrote a book) and
. (in a book).

* As stated in the Preliminaries, a ` _,` ` ` ,` . (diptote) word can be recognised by,
1. lack of ` , ,` , and at the same time,
2. lack of .

These are examples of words that are ` ` , ` _ ` ,` . (diptote):
Makkah ` ` Damascus . ,` - . Desert . _ _` , Ministers

We have been learning these words without , ,` ` even when they are , (indefinite).

* Nouns that are ` ,` . ` _,` ` (diptote), when made ` _,` ,` - (by a , - ` ` , - (preposition) for
example), cannot end in the normal vowel indicator for the ` _,` ,` - case which is ,` . Instead, the
` _,` ,` - case is indicated on ` ,` . ` _,` ` (diptote) words by a -` .

` _,` ` ` ,` . (diptote) nouns are of two types, proper noun diptotes and common noun diptotes and
there is a difference in the way they behave.

4.3.1 Proper noun diptotes

Proper nouns refer to particular things such as people and places.

* Proper noun diptotes have no ` , ,` and no . but are nevertheless always ,` (definite).

,
Makkah is a city
(makkat
u
madeenat
un
)

* lc ` _,` ,` - case on a proper noun diptote is always indicated by a -` .

We never say,
,`

The correct expression is,
,`
He is in Makkah
(huwa fi makkat
a
)
80
,` ` -`
He is in Muhammads Makkah
(huwa fi makkat
a
muHammad
in
)
- _ ` ,`
They are the men of ancient Makkah
(hum rijaal
u
makkat
a
al-qadeemat
i
)

Remember that in the above expressions is still grammatically ` _,` ,` - even though it ends in -` .
In chapter 1.3 we said that a . (adjective) must agree with the ` ,` .` , (described noun) in ending. In
actual fact, agreement is in ` . ,` (case), not vowel ending, which is a mere (indicator).

If we wish to describe with a triptote . (adjective), we must make it ,` (definite) with . and
` _,` ,` - with ,` so that it agrees with in definition and case.

,` `,
He is in ancient Makkah
(huwa fi makkat
a
al-qadeemat
i
)
,` ` -` `,
In Muhammads ancient Makkah
(huwa fi makkat
a
muHammad
in
al-qadeemat
i
)
- _ `,
The men of ancient Makkah
(rijaal
u
makkat
a
al-qadeemat
i
)


4.3.2 Common Noun diptotes

Common Nouns refer to classes of things rather than particular things.

Unlike proper noun diptotes, common noun diptotes can be , (indefinite) and can be made ,`
(definite) by attaching the definite article . .

, . ,` - .
This is a wide desert
(haadthihii SaHraa
u
waasi

at
u
)

` . . ,` - ,
This is wide desert
(haadthihii aS-SaHraa
u
al-waasi

at
u
)


* (a) When common noun diptotes are , (indefinite), they behave in the same way as proper noun
diptotes, indicating the ` _,` ,` - case with a -` instead of ,` . It is important to remember that they
are still ` _,` ,` - .

, . ,` - . ,`
It is in a wide desert
(huwa fi SaHraa
a
waasi

at
in
)
_ . _ _` , `
From senior ministers
(min wuzaraa
a
kibaar
in
)
_ , . =
From a thirsty boy
(ilaa walad
in

aTshaan
a
)
81
. , ` `
from ancient kings
(min muluuk
in
qudamaa
a
)


(b) Common noun diptotes are only considered to be ` ,` . ` _,` ` (diptote) when they are ,
(indefinite). When they are ,` (definite), they behave like normal triptote . ` ' (nouns).

, . ,` -` . ,`
He is in the wide desert
(huwa fi al-SaHraa
i
al-waasi

at
i
)
_ . _ _` ,
From the senior ministers
(min al-wuzaraa
i
al-kibaar
i
)
_ , . =
To the thirstly boy
(ilaa al-walad
i
al-

aTshaan
ui
)
. , `
From the ancient kings
(min al-muluuk
i
al-qudamaa
i
)


(c) When a common noun diptote is in a definite . construction, it no longer behaves like a ` _,` `
` ,` . (diptote) because it is ,` (definite).

. ,` . ,` - , ,
He is in the wide desert of Iraq
(huwa fi SaHraa
i
al-

iraaq
i
al-waasi

at
i
)
_ , . _ _` , `
From the senior ministers of Iraq
(min wuzaraa
i
al-

iraaq
i
al-kibaar
i
)
` - . _ _` ,
In the cabinet
(lit. In the council of ministers)
(fi majlis
i
al-wuzaraa
i
)



82
4.4 Case and = | - - - (weak nouns)

We encountered the two types of ` ` ` ,` (weak noun) in the Preliminaries (cf. P8). One can guess that
since it is a problem of vowel ending that makes such nouns weak, displaying vowel ending to indicate
case will be a problem in such words.

4.4.1 ` _,` . (The shortened)

Words such as _.` (meaning) are ` _,` . (shortened) words that are ` , .` ` (triptote). The final
vowel does change according to case, but it is invisible. Any adjective however, will agree with its
case and take the relevant vowel ending.


Definite Indefinite
` _ ` ` _, -` .
This correct meaning
` _, - . _.`
This is a correct meaning
` _, ` ,
, , ` _ ` _, -` .
He understood the correct meaning
, , -, - . _.`
He understood a correct meaning
` .,` .`
, ` _ ` _, -` .
With the correct meaning
, _, - . _.`
With a correct meaning
` _,` ,` -


Words such as ` _ - . (deserts) and ` _ ,` (moses) are ` _,` . (shortened) words that are ` _,` `
` ,` . (diptotes). This is evident in the lack of ` , ,` . Again, the final vowel does change according to
case, but it is invisible. Any adjective however, will agree with its case and take the relevant vowel
ending.

Definite Indefinite
` . ` _ - , -
They are the beautiful deserts
` _ - . , -
They are beautiful deserts
` _, ` ,
` _ -` . - , -
He entered the beautiful deserts
` _ - . - , -
He entered beautiful deserts
` .,` .`
` _ -` . , -
In the beautiful deserts
` _ - . , -
In beautiful deserts
` _,` ,` -
83
4.4.2 ` , ` (The reduced)

Words such as (past), , (valley) and _ (caller) are ` , ` (reduced) words that are ` , .` `
(triptote). As explained in the preliminaries, the anomalous ending of ` , ` (reduced) words are
arrived at in the following way,

, ` ,
, . , , Remove the , , ` `, , ,

As illustrated below, the final vowel only changes when it becomes ` .,` .` . The ` _, ` , and the ` _,` ,` -
look identical. Any adjective however, will agree with its case and take the relevant vowel ending.


Definite Indefinite
, - ` ,
This beautiful valley
, - ,
This is a beautiful valley
` _, ` ,
, - , -
He entered the beautiful valley
, - , , -
He entered a beautiful valley
` .,` .`
, - ` ,
In the beautiful valley
, - ,
In a beautiful valley
` _,` ,` -


Words such as _ ' (lands) and . (meanings) are ` , ` (reduced) words that are ` ,` . ` _,` `
(diptotes). This is not apparent at first instance, there being no evident difference between the words ,
and _ ' . The difference only manifests itself when it is , (indefinite) and ` .,` .` .


Definite Indefinite
` . _ . , -
These beautiful lands
_ ' , -
These are beautiful lands
` _, ` ,
- . _ . , -
He entered the beautiful lands
- = _ | _ , -
He entered beautiful lands
` .,` .`
` . _ . , -
In the beautiful lands
_ ' , -
In beautiful lands
` _,` ,` -


84
4.5 Case and , - | (verbs)

All perfect verbs are ` (indeclinable). All imperfect verbs on the other hand are ` . ,` ` (declinable)
apart from the two feminine plurals ` ` , and ` ` which are ., ' _ ` (fixed on sukuun) and
do not have case. The remaining imperfect verbs we learned in chapter three are of the ` _, ` , case. The
_ ` , (indicator of the raf

case) on the ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb) is:

` . for the imperfect verbs that end in ` .
.,' ` .,` (affixing of the .) for dual, masculine plural and second person feminine
singular verbs.


4.5.1 The ` .,` .` imperfect verb

The particle ` (will never) negates the ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb) in the future.

* ` is a (regent) that makes a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb) ` .,` .` .

The .` .` (indicator of the naSb case) on the ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb) is:
-` for the imperfect verbs that ended in ` . when ` _, ` ,
.,' ` - (omission of the .) for dual, masculine plural and second person feminine
singular verbs.
As noted above, the feminine plurals ` ` , and ` ` are ., ' _ ` (fixed on sukuun) and do not
have case so ` cannot make them ` .,` .` . The . on these two feminine plurals is called .,` ,` `
(the nun of women) and it is never omitted.

85
The ` .,` .` of ` .` , is conjugated as follows,

DRILL #6

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, , , | '
They will never write
(2)
, , |
They (two) will never write
(1)
, | .
He will never write
Masc.
(6)
| , , ''
They will never write
(5)
| ,
They (two) will never write
(4)
| .
She will never write
Fem.
Third
Person
(9)
, , | '
You will never write
(8)
| ,
You (two) will never write
(7)
| .
You will never write
Masc.
(12)
| , ''
You will never write
(11)
| ,
You (two) will never write
(10)
| _ ,
You will never write
Fem.
Second
Person
(14)
| .
We will never write
(13)
| | .
I will never write
Masc.
First
Person

' An alif is added after omitting the nun on the masculine plurals.
'' These are not ` .,` .` but ` ., ' _ (fixed on sukuun).


, ` -` ` ` , ... And we shall never enter it
` ` ,` , You (pl.) will never understand
4.5.2 The ` ,` ,` - imperfect verb

(a) The particle ` , (did not) is used to negate an imperfect verb. The peculiarity of ` , is that although it
negates an imperfect verb, the negation has a perfect meaning.

* ` , is a (regent) that makes a` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb) ` ` ,` ,` - .

The ` , - (indicator of the jazm case) on the ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb) is:
., ` for the imperfect verbs that ended in ` . when ` _, ` ,
.,' ` - (omission of the .) for dual, masculine plural and second person feminine
singular verbs.
As noted above, the feminine plurals ` ` , and ` ` are ., ' _ ` (fixed on sukuun) and do not
have case so ` , cannot make them ` ` ,` ,` - . The . on these two feminine plurals is called ,` ` .,` (the
nun of women) and it is never omitted.
86

The ` ` ,` ,` - of ` .` , is conjugated as follows,

DRILL #7

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, | , , , '
They did not write
(2)
, | , ,
They (two) did not write
(1)
, | , .
He did not write
Masc.
(6)
, | , , ''
They did not write
(5)
, | ,
They (two) did not write
(4)
, | .
She did not write
Fem.
Third
Person
(9)
| , , , '
You did not write
(8)
, | ,
You (two) did not write
(7)
, | .
You did not write
Masc.
(12)
, | , ''
You did not write
(11)
, | ,
You (two) did not write
(10)
, | _ ,
You did not write
Fem.
Second
Person
(14)
, | .
We did not write
(13)
, | | .
I did not write
Masc.
First
Person

' An alif is added after omitting the nun on the masculine plurals.
'' These are not ` ,` ,` - but ., ' _ ` (fixed on sukuun).


` , ` .` , He did not write
` ,` , ` , You did not understand

Note that ` .` , ` , and . bear the same meaning as do ` ,` , ` , and ` ,` ` , .

* The particle ` is a sister of ` , . It too is a (regent) that makes a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb)
` ` ,` ,` - . Like ` , the particle ` negates an imperfect verb with a perfect meaning but brings the
negation up to the present time and additionally suggests that it is imminently to happen. It may be
translated as not yet but soon.

` .` , ` He has not yet written (but will write soon)






87
(b) The negative imperative

The negative imperative is produced by placing the particle . before a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb).
This . is called the . ` ,` ` (lam of prohibition) and should be distinguished from the ` ` . (lam of
negation) that we encountered in chapter three.

The ` ,` ` . (lam of prohibition) is a (regent) that makes the imperfect verb ` ` ,` ,` - .

It may please you to know that the imperative is only produced in the second person. This is because
commands are only addressed in the second person. We do not command ourselves or those who are
absent.

DRILL #8

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
v , ,
Do not write
(2)
v ,
Do not write
(1)
v .
Do not write
Masc.
(6)
v , '
Do not write
(5)
v ,
Do not write
(4)
v _ ,
Do not write
Fem.
Second
Person

' This is not ` ,` ,` - but ., ' _ ` (fixed on sukuun).

The following are the masculine singular negative imperative verbs for forms II to X. The other
persons are conjugated in the same way as the verbs above.

Masculine Singular Masculine Singular Masculine Singular
v =
Do not struggle!
III
v , -
Do not learn!
V
v , -
Do not teach!
II

v . =
Do not be revealed!
VII
v , -
Do not inform!
IV
v ,
Do not mutually
understand!
VI

v , , .
Do not enquire!
X
v
Do not become red!
IX
v = ,
Do not work hard!
VIII

88
(c) The mild positive imperative

Imperative verbs normally only occur in the second person. We do not normally command ourselves or
those absent. However, we may have occasion to say let him become or he should become, which is
a mild positive imperative. This is achieved by placing the particle . before the ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect
verb).

* . is called . ` . ,` (the laam of command) and is a (regent) that makes the imperfect verb ` ` ,` ,` -

Most commonly used in the third person, it means let him . . ., i.e. he should . . .

` .` , Let him write/He should write

. may also be preceded by . or , to make . and . , .

, ` .` , Let him write a book

The mild positive imperative is rarely used in the first person or second persons. When it is used in the
first person, it means let me/I should or let us/we should.

` . ` - . Let me consider/I should consider
` ` - Let us sit/We should sit

In the second person it means you . . . / you should . . ..

` ` - You sit/You should sit

Rarely and only in poetry, the . may be omitted.

` ` - You sit/You should sit

4.5.3 The ` verb

We know that the ` (perfect verb) and the feminine plurals of the ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb)
are ` (indeclinable).

The positive imperative verb is called ,` . ` (lit. the verb of command). The ,` . ` (imperative
verb) is ` (fixed), but it looks like a ` ` ,` ,` - imperfect verb because it is produced from the ` ` ,` ,` -
imperfect verb. We say that it is _ ` ` _ _ .` ` , ` ,` -`, (fixed on what the imperfect verb is
made ` ` ,` ,` - upon). That is, it is ` (fixed) on the indicator of the ` ` ,` ,` - .
89
We start with the ` ` ,` ,` - imperfect ` .` . Then we drop the initial . . We are left with ` .` . This is
essentially our ,` . ` (imperative verb). But this word begins with ., ` so we place a ` . , ,`
(cf. P5) at the beginning rendering ` .` . The ` . , ,` has no , - (vowel) of its own and any
preceding , - (vowel) overrides it and goes directly to the first letter rendering ` .` , .

When ` .` is initial, we supply a ` , - (liaison vowel) on the ` . , ,` . If the vowel on the
middle root letter of the verb is a ` . we supply a ` . on the ` . , ,` . If the vowel on the middle
root letter of the verb is a -` or ,` , we supply a ,` on the ` . , ,` . The -` is never
supplied on the ` . , ,` of a ,` . ` (imperative verb).


DRILL #9

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, ,
Write!
(2)
,
Write!
(1)
.
Write!
Masc.
(6)
,
Write!
(5)
,
Write!
(4)
_ ,
Write!
Fem.
Second
Person



Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, . -
Sit!
(2)
. -
Sit!
(1)
-
Sit!
Masc.
(6)
. -
Sit!
(5)
. -
Sit!
(4)
. - _
Sit!
Fem.
Second
Person



Plural Dual Singular
(3)
|
Read!
(2)
|
Read!
(1)
| |
Read!
Masc.
(6)
. | |
Read!
(5)
|
Read!
(4)
_ |
Read!
Fem.
Second
Person

90
The following are the masculine singular imperative verbs for forms II to X. The other persons are
conjugated in the same way as the verbs above.

Masculine Singular Masculine Singular Masculine Singular
= -
Struggle!
III
, -
Learn!
V
, -
Teach!
II

. =
Be revealed!
VII
, - |
Inform!
IV
,
Mutually Understand!
VI

, , =
Enquire!
X
-
Become red!
IX
= , -
Work hard!
VIII




91





Summary Supplement

Diptotes



- = : |
| _ = =| - g,


Recognised by: No ` , ,` and no .
Proper noun:

Normal Always ends
in -` instead
of ,` :

Common noun:
. ,` -.
` _,` ,` - ` .,` .` , ` _, ` ,
Ends in -`
instead of ,` :
. ,` - .
Definite Indefinite Intrinsically Definite
` _,` ,` - ` .,` .` , ` _, ` ,
Normal Normal:
. ,` -` .
-
. _ _` ,
Recognised by: No ` , ,` and no . Recognised by: No ` , ,` and no .
Proper noun:

Normal Normal Always ends
in -` instead
of ,` :

Common noun:
. ,` -.
` _,` ,` - ` _,` ,` - ` .,` .` , ` _, ` , ` .,` .` , ` _, ` ,
Ends in -`
instead of ,` :
. ,` - .
Definite Indefinite Intrinsically Definite Intrinsically Definite
` _,` ,` - ` _,` ,` - ` .,` .` , ` _, ` , ` .,` .` , ` _, ` ,
Normal Normal Normal:
. ,` -` .
-
. _ _` ,





92
= . |
Vocabulary

Chapter 4


, , to work
, ` ' , work
` ,` - , . -` ' , direction
` ,` -` grammar
,` -` _ in this manner
` ` ,` - ... approximately
, . -` ' all over the world
' ,` -` syntactical government
, , ,
1. regent (gram.)
2. factor
, ., , worker
, ` ` , labourer
, ,` ` subordinate (gram.) (lit. acted upon)
_ _ , ,
1. to raise
2. to make ` _, ` , (gram.)
` _ _ raising
` , - , ' ,` -, , ` , -
1. to drag
2. to make ` _,` ,` - (gram.)
, - dragging
. . , , ` .
1. to erect
2. to make ` .,` .` (gram.)
- , - . ` . - , place
, .` , ` , To depart; turn away (from) (VII)
93
` , .` `
1. One who departs; turns away
2. fully declinable (gram.)
. = , _ = , thirsty (m)
_ = , ` = , thirsty (f)
` .,` affirmation
.,' ` .,` affixing of the nun
` will never
` , did not
` have not yet but will right now
,` ` .,` the nun of women
` ,, _ , , . _ _` , , minister (m)
,, _ , , ` . ,, _ , , minister (f)
- ' , , ` - ' he took
` - ' taking
- , , .,` -` he entered
,` -` entering

` .` _ many (prep.)
` - _ ` .` _ many a man (precedes verb)
` , , ` .` , , one instance
` .` _ ` , many a time (precedes verb
. , , , he went
` . going
. , with (prep.)
, ` . , indicator, sign

94
Review Exercise 2

Express in Arabic

1. Are there sentences in the books?
2. Where are the sentences in the books?
3. This book is the door to correct knowledge
4. Is there a boy on the throne? Yes, the boy
is on the throne
5. Why did he sit in one place until old age?
6. There is a good method in the old book
7. When did the caliph read the news from the
cities?
8. Many a king sat on the ground and many a
minister sat on the throne

Review Exercise 1

Express in English

. ` ,` ' , ' .
. ` . ` _ .
. ,` - _` - , , = _ ` . .
. _ . ,` - . , ` . ` , '
. ` ,` . ,` `
. _, -` . ,` , ` , , :`
. ` ` , . ,` ` ` . = ' , ` , ` .` _
The quasi sentence ` , ` .` _ goes before the verb. Keep this in
mind when doing Q.8 in Review Exercise 2

Exercise 4.1.2

Express in Arabic

1. Are you from Damascus? No we are men
and women from Iraq
2. There are people from all over the world in
Makkah
3. Hasan took me to old Damascus
4. They read the writing on the door in ancient
makkah
5. Makkah is in an ancient desert
6. The strong sun in the wide desert became red
7. The meaning of the ancient word was
uncovered
8. We learned the correct meaning of the word
9. Have you worked hard in this manner in
the near past?
10. Muhammad entered a city in an ancient valley
Exercise 4.1.1

Express in English

. -
. ` ` _,` ` , ` , `
. = .` , , ` , ' . `,
. . ` ` _
. . ` ` , ` . _
. - , _.` ,
. , ` - . _ ` ` _ :` ' ` ,
. , , = ` . _ ` ,` - '
. ` , ` , ` . ` , . -
. , - .
________________________________________

Exercise 4.5.2

Express in Arabic

1. They will never inform us of (` ) their
mutual understanding
2. I have not yet understood the meaning of
this illegible ( .,` , ` ,` , ) writing (but will soon)
3. Do not take this statement into
consideration (lit. in your consideration)
4. Let us read a word from this ancient book of ours
5. Read your books in this manner and work
hard. You will understand everything
6. It was written on the door: enter and learn
Exercise 4.5.1

Express in English

. . _ . ` -` `
. ` , ` , , ` , , ' , , ` , , ` _` ` ` `
. ` ` - , - ` , ` _` ,` - ` , _` ` ,
. ` , , `, ' ,` ` , .
(a little) . , ` _ . _ ` ` -
. ` , `, , ` -`
. , ,` , ,` - ,` , ` - , ,`

95
- | = , |
Chapter 5

Duals and Plurals


In Arabic, words may be ` , ` (singular), ` ` _ (dual) or ` _` - (plural).

5.1 | _ (The dual)

_` ` ` _, ` , (the marfuu

dual) is produced by suffixing . (aan

i
) to the , ` ` (singular).

` . - -
They (two) are teachers


` , ` ,`
He is a teacher
* _` ` (in the dual), case is not indicated by ` . , - (vowles), but by a ` ` , - (letter).
` . . _ ` , (the (alif) is the indicator of the ` _ _ case).

_` ` ` .,` .` (the manSuub dual) and _` ` ` _,` ,` - (the majruur dual) are produced by suffixing
`, (ayn
i
) to the ` , ` (singular). Effectively, the of the ` _, ` , dial becomes ` .

, , ` ` ,
He understood two teachers


, , `
He understood a teacher
` , `
From two teachers


, `
From a teacher

. , ` , - , .` .` (the ` is the indicator of ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - )



Orthography


If an ` ,` ` , ` (singular noun) ends in . / (taa marbuuTa), it changes
into a (taa maftuuHah) when the ` , ` (singular) is made _` ` (dual).

. `

` . - .

` .

`
(two) teachers A teacher



i
96
The . of the ` ` _ (dual) compensates for its lack of ` , ,` . However, when the ` ` _ (dual) is made ,`
(definite), we simply add the definite article . and the . remains: ` . and ` ` , for the
masculine and ` . and ` ` , for the feminine.



Orthography


Words ending in . are called ` ,` ` . If a ` ,` ` is feminine and the . is
not a root letter, the . changes into a , when the word is made ` ` _ (dual)

. , ,` - .

. ,` - .

This is frequently found in female names.

,` _ . ,

. ,` _


If the word is masculine or . is a root letter, it remains.

. .

.

For ` _,` . words ending in ,` ` ` . ' such as ,` ` , the ,` ` ` . '
changes into , when the word is made ` ` _ (dual).

. , ,` `

,` `

For ` _,` . words ending in _,` . ` . ' such as _.` , the _,` . ` . '
changes into when the word is made ` ` _ (dual).

. , `

_.`




The duals of the _ . ` ' (demonstrative pronouns) are,

Feminine Masculine
. / ` ,
haataani / haatayni
These two
. / `,
haadhaani / haadhayni
These two

: / : ` ,
taanika / taynika
These two
: / : `,
dhaanika / dhaynika
These two
i
97
5.1.1 Use of the ` ` _ (dual)

A . (adjective) describing a ` ` _ (dual) noun must be ` ` _ (dual).
. , - . , two new books

(a) We are not required to use the numeral two because the ` ` _ (dual) conveys its meaning.

. ` - _ ` They are two men
` , , In two books
` , ' , He read two words

We may place the number two, . (m) and . (f) which is itself a dual as a . (adjective) after a
` ,` (noun) to emphasise it.

. . , two books
` , , ` , In two books
` , ` , ' , He read two words

(b) For things that always come in twos, the ` ` _ (dual) must be used.

. ` , . , - two beautiful eyes
` , ` , _ ` , ` -` , From the feet to the eyes

(c) A . (adjective) describing two singular nouns is usually _` ` (dual).

` . ` .` , ` , _ . The small boy and girl
Rather than,
_ ` . ` .` , ` _ ` . ` , The small boy and the small girl

A ` ` ,` _ (dual noun) may be described , ` , , ` ` , . (by two singular adjectives).

_ ` . , _ ` , , ' , He read the two big and small books
(lit. He read the two books. The big one and the
small one)

98
5.2 | _ (The plural)

There are three types of ` _` - (plural) in Arabic:
1. _ ` ` _` - (the broken plural)
2. ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural)
3. ` _` - ` , ` .` ,` (the sound feminine plural)

5.2.1 _ ` ` _` - (The broken plural)

The _ ` ` _` - (broken plural) breaks the construction of the ` , ` (singular) by interpolating,
dropping letters and/or changing the vowels:

.` ,` , , ` .

` .` , ,
` ` .

. ` .

Most of the ` _,` ` - (plurals) introduced in the vocabulary lists so far are _ ` ` _` - (broken plural).

5.2.2 ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural)

` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural), like the ` ` _ (dual) is produced from the ` , `
(singular).

* _` - ` , , ` (in the sound masculine plural), case is not indicated by ` . , - (vowles), but
by a ` ` , - (letter).

The ` _, ` , sound masculine plural is produced by suffixing ` , . to the ` , ` (singular).

` ,` ` ` .,
They (two) are teachers


,` ` , `
He is a teacher

` , , _ ` , (the ` , is the indicator of the ` _ _ case). The . of ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound
masculine plural) compensates for its lack of ` , ,` .

The ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - sound masculine plural is produced by suffixing `, to the ` , ` (singular).
Effectively, the ` , of the ` _, ` , dial becomes ` .

. , ` , - , .` .` (the ` is the indicator of ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - )

, , ` , `
He understood teachers


, , `
He understood a teacher
99
` , `
From teachers


, `
From a teacher

The . compensates for the lack of ` , ,` on ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural). However,
when ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural) is made ,` (definite), we simply add the
definite article . and the . remains: .,` ` .

` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural) is indicated in the dictionary by pl. n and will
henceforth be indicated in the vocabulary lists by ( .,).


* ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural), apart from a few exceptions, is used only for ` , `
(male) human beings.

(a) If a noun or adjective for a male human being has a _ ` ` _` - (broken plural), the ` ` _` - ` ,
` , ` (sound masculine plural) is not normally used. The plural of ` - _ is - _ , not ., ` - _ .

There are, however, a few exceptions to this. There are _ ` ` _` - (broken plurals) for ` , and ` _
and ` ., , and ` , , , but ., ` , , ` _ ., , .,` , , and .,` , , are also possible.

` _ ` - . .,` ` , / ` _ / ` _ ., There are many teachers in the meeting

` , ` ,` / .,` , , ` - They are far from the truth

(b) There are a number of words that do not refer to ` , ` (male) human beings, but form a ` _` -
(plural) using ., . We may annex them to ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural).

Plural using . Broken Plural Singular
/ ' ` ., ` ' ' ` ' Folk
.,` / ` , , ` , World
.,` . _ ' / . _ ' _ ' ` ` _ ' Land
.,` / ` . , Year
.,` , / , . ` , ' ` ` , Son

` ` , , .,` , , does refer to male human beings but is placed in this list because the singular is broken to
produce the plural so it is not sound.
100



The Opening


The opening verse of the Quran,
Praise belongs to Allah, The Lord of the worlds

` . _ ` ` -



` . _ agrees with because it is a , (substitute) for it. In English we call
this apposition. It is as though we are saying, ` . , ` ` - .
A , (substitute) or appositional word is normally interchangeable with the
word it is appositional to:
I saw your brother, Hasan I saw Hasan, your brother.

5.2.3 ` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (The sound feminine plural)

` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (the sound feminine plural) is produced by suffixing ` . to ` , ` (the singular). If
the singular ends in . / , this is dropped.

` . . - ` . . .
Queens A queen

In ` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (the sound feminine plural) case is indicated by ordinary vowels.

The ` _, ` , is indicated by ` . .

` ` ` ` .
They are teachers (f)


`
She is a teacher

* When ` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (the sound feminine plural) is ` .,` .` it is indicated by ,` instead of -` .
Here, .` .` ,` (the kasra is the indicator of ` .,` .` ). This is because the ` , ` .` ,` ` _` -
(the sound feminine plural) is never able to end in -` .

, , ` .
He understood teachers (f)


, , `
He understood a teacher (f)
i
.lll
` ` - `
attached to
elliptical ` , -
' ` `
` _, ` ,
` .`
` _,` ,` -
` .` ` ,
` _,` ,` -
101

.` , _ . , - . ` . . , The teacher sent the new girls home

The ` _,` ,` - is indicated by ,` .

` ` .
From teachers (f)


` `
From a teacher (f)

` _` - ` , ` .` ,` (the sound feminine plural) is indicated in the dictionary by pl. at and will
henceforth be indicated in the vocabulary lists by ( ` .).

* (b) ` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (the sound feminine plural) applies to .` ,` (feminine) human beings, and also
to many ` . . , . ` ' (nouns and adjectives) that refer to ` , ` (masculine) and .` ,` (feminine) non-
human beings.

As a general rule, singular ` . . , . ` ' (nouns and adjectives) that end in . / and are feminine
take ` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (the sound feminine plural). You should assume this to be so unless otherwise
indicated.

(c) ` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (the sound feminine plural) is sometimes used for ` ` , (male) human beings as
_,` ` - ` _` - (plural of plurals), although this is rare.

- _ Men
_ ` . . - Important men, leading personalities
- _ ` . . - ` ' ` -
The leaders of the townspeople (lit. people of
the town) sat in the council

* (d) As we have noted before, all ` ,` , (irrational) ` _,` ` - (plurals) are considered to be
grammatically ` , ` .` ,` (feminine and singular). Any ' ` . . , ` , . , (verbs, pronouns and
adjectives) referring to such ` _,` ` - (plurals) are therefore ` , ` .` ,` (feminine singular).

. .,` ` The years have gone
` . ` , ` They are difficult sciences
` , ` , , . - ,` , . ` - Did the president attend many meetings?

In the last example above, . ` - is ` .,` .` , ,` (a manSuub object) but because it is a ` _` -
` , ` .` ,` (sound feminine plural), it is unable to end in -` so it ends in ,` instead. ,` , is its
102
. (adjective), so it is also ` .,` .` but in the normal way with -` because it is ` , ` (singular) and
not ` , ` .` ,` ` _` - (sound feminine plural).

5.3 , | - = _ | _ (Possession involving the dual and plural)


5.3.1 . .` ,` _` - , _ ` _` - , ` (possession involving the broken plural and the sound
feminine plural) behaves no differently ` . , ` (from possession of the singular).

` .,` ,` , -` , The houses of the men
` . ` - ` . The gatherings of the teachers (f)

5.3.2 Duals and Sound masculine plurals as ` .` ` , (possessor) .

= ` . ` , The book of the (two) students
` ,` ` , ` _ . ` , , ` . Charles Dickens wrote A tale of two cities
` . ` The book of the teachers


5.3.3 Duals and Sound masculine plurals as ` .` (possessed nouns).

We know that the ` .` (possessed) always loses its ` , ,` . A ` , ,` is in fact a . (nun) that is
pronounced but not written. ` .` , , , if written as it is pronounced, is ` ` ` , , . Therefore, when we drop the
` , ,` of the ` .` (possessed), we are in fact dropping an unwritten . (nun).

The . (nun) of _` ` (the dual) and ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural) compensates for
the loss of ` , ,` . For this reason, when _` ` (the dual) or ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine
plural) is a ` .` , the . (nun) is dropped.

= , . The two books of the student

Pronunciation

Note that there is . ` , ` here: = , . . This is
avoided not by a liaison vowel, but by not pronouncing the
so that it sounds like the ` .,` .` singular: = . . . The
i
103
listener deduces the fact that it is a dual from context. The
is nevertheless written so the reader can distinguish it from
the singular.


, = . In the two books of the student

Pronunciation

Note that there is . ` , ` here: , ` = . . This is
avoided by placing a ,` liaison vowel on the .


,, _ , ` , ,` ` The teachers of the ministers son
( . ` , ` is avoided by pronouncing it like the singular: ` , ` , ` )

` . - ` ,,` , _ ` _` Maryam sat with the school teachers
( . ` , ` is avoided by pronouncing it like the singular: _` , ` _ )


5.3.4 The first person singular pronoun as ` .` ` , (possessor) of a dual and sound masculine plural.

(a) On a dual, we have the following

. `, , ` - _ My (two) legs are strong



` , `, , ` ` - _ _ On my two strong legs

` ` - _ , ` ` - _ - ` ` - _ - , ` , ` - _ -
(4) (3) (2) (1)

(b) When is attached to ` , ` ` , ` ` _` - (the sound masculine plural), the , of the ` _, ` , chages
to . This change occurs between stages 3 and 4 in the example below so that we say ` ` rather
than ` ,` ` . The change is made for euphonic harmony.

` ` ` ,` They are my teachers


` ` , ` - ` ,` ` - ` ,` ` - , .,` ` -
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

When ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - , it is again ` ` .

` ` ` / ` ` - ' From my teachers / He took my teachers

` ` , ` ` - ` ` - , ` -
(4) (3) (2) (1)
` - _ , ` - _ - ` - _ - , ` - _ . -
(4) (3) (2) (1)
i
104


DRILL #10


Summary Supplement

Duals and Plurals



- = : |
_ _ | _ |



Sound Feminine
Plural
Sound Masculine
Plural
Dual Singular
` ` ` . `
They are teachers (f)

.,` ` ` ,`
They are teachers (m)

` . `
They (two) are teachers
,` ` , `
He is a teacher
` _, ` ,
, , . `
He understood
teachers (f)
, , `
He understood
teachers (m)

, , ` , `
He understood (two)
teachers
, , `
He understood
a teacher
` .,` .`
` . `
From teachers (f)

`
From teachers (m)

` , `
From (two) teachers
, ` `
From a teacher
` _,` ,` -



105
..| = , |
Chapter 6

Numbers One to Ten


6.1 Zero

The Arabic word for zero is ` , . and is written as a dot . It is not used on its own to count anything.


6.2 One

Most arabic numbers have a ` , ` (masculine) and .` ,` (feminine) form. When stating the number
one isolated, the ` , ` (masculine) is used.

. -
Feminine
` = -
Masculine
. = - |
Number
- , ` - ,


6.2.1 We have used ` - , ( - , (f)) as a . (adjective).

` - , ` . One book

` -` ` - , ` . Muhammad has one book
(lit. One book belongs to Muhammad)
,,` , - , ` .` , Mary has one daughter

In the above examples, both ` . and ` .` , are singular nouns so they do not require ` - , and - ,
after them to express their singularity. ` - , and - , serve as emphasis.

(a) ` - , may also be used as a ` , - (predicate) .

,` ` - ,
He / it is one
- , She / it is one

6.2.2 ` - ' (one) is an alternative to ` - , . It is an ` ,` (noun) and cannot be used as a . (adjective).

106
, ` - ' He is one

The feminine of ` - ' is ` - but ` - cannot be used on its own in this way.

` -

(a) ` - ' used on its own often to means someone , anyone or when negated, no one.

. ` - ' , , Did anyone understand the book?
_ - ' . , Did he send anyone to the town?
` - ' . No one went
6.2.3 There are three ways of expressing one of . For example, to say one of the houses we may say:

1. .,` ,` ` - ,
2. ` - ' .,` ,`
3. ` - ' .,` ,`

The latter two are better expressions in Arabic.
1. ` ` - , ...
- , . `
One of the women
-` , ` - ,
One of the men
We cannot use ` - , or - , in an . (possession)
- , . ` ` - , -` ,

2. ` - ' ...
` - . `
One of the women
` - ' -` ,
One of the men

Note that the above structure cannot be used for the feminine

3. ` - ' - , ` .`
. ` ` -
One of the women
-` , ` - '
One of the men
107

6.3 Two


. -
Feminine
` = -
Masculine
Case
. = - |
Number
. . ` _, ` ,
` , ` ,
` .,` .`
and
` _,` ,` -


As the table above illustrates, the number two in Arabic is . (m) / . (f) when ` _, ` , and ` , (m) /
` , (f) when ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - . In short the . ending changes to `, .

. may be used on its own as a ` , - (predicate).

. ` / . They are two

` . ... renders two of .

, . - . _ _` , . Only two (of the) ministers attended
. ' , . , . ` Two of the women read a book
` , - ' .` He took two of the books
- ` , . _ ` . He entered two of the lands


108

6.4 Three to Ten


. -
Feminine

` = -
Masculine
. = - |
Number
.

,` _ ' ` _ ,` _ '

` - ` ` -

` .

` ` _`

, .

` ` _`

, ` ,`


. is a ` , ` word and behaves the same way as , . The feminine , behaves normally.

6.4.1 When standing alone, the feminine numeral is used

` . ` , ' , ` - , , . , , ,` _ ' The boy read the numbers: one, two, three, four

Numbers are written from left to right.


5, 396

6.4.2 Counting between three and ten

* When counting between three and ten the ` (number) exhibits reverse gender agreement or gender
disagreement with the ` , ` (singular) of the ` ,` ` (counted noun). The thought process is as follows:
Suppose we want to say three houses. The ` ,` ` (counted noun) we shall use is ` .,` ,` , . Should we use
the maculine numeral . or the feminine ? To answer this, we need to look at the counted noun
(` .,` ,` ,) and find its singular (` .` , ,). This is masculine so we need to use the numeral that disagrees with
it, the feminine .

109
(a) There are two ways of saying three houses:

1. . (adjective) + ` ,` (noun)

` .,` ,` ,
2. indefinite . construction:

.,` ,` ,


Here are some further examples:

` .` , ' .` , ' Three boys
` . , . . , . Three girls
` , ` ` , ` ` Six kings
` . . . ' . Six queens
` . , , - , - .` , .
He wrote eight
new books
. ' , , , , ~ , , ~ . ' ,
He read eight
long words
,,` , ` . , . ` . , - ,,` , . , - . ,
Mary has eight
beautiful daughters

(b) If we make these expressions definite, we have the following

` ` .,` ,
The three houses
.,` ,`
Three of the houses


We can also express this as

] .,` ,`

Note that when we make both of these expressions definite, we are no longer counting.
Here are some further examples:

. .` , , -

He wrote the eight new books

, . .` , - /
, . .` , -
He wrote eight of the new books

' , . = , ,

He read the eight long words
' , . = , , /
, ' , . = , ,
He read eight of the long words


110
6.5 One hundred and One thousand


(, one hundred) and ` . ' (, one thousand) also work in an . construction.

* However, the ` ,` ` (counted noun) remains singular and there is no gender agreement.

. One hundred books
` . A hundred of the books
One hundred words
. ` . ' A thousand books
` . ' A thousand words
A hundred hundreds
. ' A hundred thousand
` . ' A thousand hundreds
` . ' . ' A thousand thousands


6.5.1 To count in hundreds and thousands between three and ten, we simply treat and ` . ' as the ` ,` `
(counted noun). The rules of gender disagreement for counting between three and ten apply. is
feminine so we will always use the masculine numeral for it and ` . ' is masculine so we will always
use the feminine numeral for it. Anomolously, remains singular when it is the ` ,` ` (counted noun)
but.

. Three hundred
. Three thousand
-` , ` . Hundreds of men
` . . ` Thousands of women

111
= . |
Vocabulary

, . , ` ' , ., , prophet nabiyy
un
(anbiyaa
u
, nabiyyuuna)

, , , he knew

alima (ya

lam
u
)

ilm
an

` , , ` , ` , knowledge; science

ilm
un
(

uluum
un
)

` , ` , ., , teacher (m) mu

allim
un
(uuna)
` , ` . , teacher (f) mu

allimat
un
(mu

allimaat
un
)
. , , , he went dhahaba (yadhhab
u
) dhahaab
an

` . going dhahaab
un
` .` . , ` . . , difficult Sa

b
un
(Si

aab
un
)
, . - , , _,` .` - he attended HaDara (yaHDur
u
) HuDuur
an

` _,` .` - attendance HuDuur
un
. / . two (m/f) ithnaan
i
/ ithnataan
i

three thalaathat
un

,` _ ' four arba

at
un

` - five khamsat
un

` six sittat
un

` seven sab

at
un

, eight thamaaniyat
un

` nine tis

at
un

, ten

asharat
un

, ` . , one hundred miat
un
(miaat
un
)
` . ' , ` . , one thousand alf
un
(aalaaf
un
)
112



. , ` ,` ' , ` , , water maa
un
(amwaah
un
, miyaah
un
)
` - very jidd
an

` , , ` , , , ., , world

aalam
un
(

awaalim
u
,

alamuuna)
, ` . , . .,` , year sanat (sinuuna, sanawaat
un
)
.`, ' also ayD
an

. , , , ` , he sent ba

atha (yab

ath
u
) ba

th
an

.` , Sending ba

th
un
` , ` ` ' , number

adad
un
(a

daad
un
)
` ,` ` , ., , ` . ,
1. counted
2. limited; numbered
ma

duud
un
(uuna, aat
un
)

only faqaT
` , , ., , ` . , sound saalim
un
(uuna, aat
un
)
` ' , ' , ., , people, folk ahl
un
(ahaal
in
, uuna)
` ` _ ' , _ ' , .,` . _ ' , earth, land, ground arD
un
(araaD
in
, araDuuna)
, , ` , minute daqeeqat
un
(daqaaiq
u
)
` , , ., , ` . , precise daqeeq
un
(uuna, aat
un
)
, ` . , hour saa

at
un
(saa

aat
un
)
` _,` ` ' , ` _, , ' , week usbuu
un
(asaabee
u
)
` ,` , , ` _,` ,` ` ,` ,` ' . , month shahr
un
(shuhuur
un
, ashhur
un
)


113
Exercise 6.1
Express in English

, ,
. ` - ' , . -
. ` , , `, ,, _ , ` - ' , . -
. ` ,` , ` , _ _` ~ -
. ` _,` ` -
. ` .` ,` _ '
. ` . , ` . , ` `
. _,` ,` ` -` , . , .-
. ` ` .` . = ` - ' ' ,
. , - ,` ` . ' ,
. = ` . ' - ` _ .

, . ,
. . ` , = .,` ` , = , , `1`6 ,
. .,` _ . _ _` , ` -
. = . , ` - _ ` -` , , ,` , _ _ ` ,`
. . ` - . _ _` , ` - ' , . - , , ~ _
. ` -` , . _ _` , ` - , ` - ` _ . ` .
. . , .` , ` . .
. ` _ . ,
. , ` . ' ,` , . '
` ,` . . ,` ` . ` ` , . ` .
. .`, ' , - .` , ` - _ ` , ` .`
. ` - .
. . ` ` - ` . ' , . = ` , = _ ` - .
. ` ` - .
114

Exercise 6.2

Express in Arabic

(A)

1. Did anyone sit on the chairs?
2. Yes, one of the girls sat on a chair.
3. He read two of the books.
4. Hasan has limited wealth (pl.).
5. They are many men.
6. They are new (f) teachers.
7. The student read the professors two books for three hours.
8. In the nine months.
9. He wrote a hundred words in eight minutes.
10. Noah (` _,` ) was on the earth for a thousand years.
(B)

1. They entered the two houses of the king.
2. Three students went to Damascus for knowledge.
3. Does Hasan know the good news too?
4. Did any of the presidents attend?
5. No, only two ministers attended.
6. Hasan read the two old and new books in two hours.
7. Hasan has very strong feet.
8. Muhammad goes to the important men of Makkah.
9. Mary has three boys and three girls.
10. The teacher sent the two boys home.
11. She read difficult sciences in many long years
12. A hundred (f) students went in one fell swoop
13. The student read one of the words in the sentence
14. He wrote many beautiful words in the book
15. The (f) student read seven of the new books in addition
to the many old books in only four weeks.
115
_ ,.| = , |
Chapter 7

The Five Nouns


There are five . ` ' (nouns) in Arabic that require special attention. These are called ` - . ` .
(the five nouns).

,
(5)
` ,
(4)
` , -
(3)
` _ '
(2)
` . '
(1)
Possessor of

Mouth Brother-in-law Brother

Father


, is slightly different from the other four so we will treat it separately.

7.1 ` = | , ` _ | , ` , - and ` ,

` . ' , ` _ ' , ` , - and ` , behave like ordinary nouns when they are not ` .` (possessed nouns) in an .
construction.

`, , ` . ' ,` He is a father to two boys
. _ _ . , . . He went to the father and the brother
` ` , _ . Nephew (lit. brothers son)

* When they are ` .` (possessed nouns) in an . construction, their case is indicated by ` ,` ,` -
(letters) not vowels.

` _, ` , is indicated by , not .
` .,` .` is indicated by not .
` _,` ,` - is indicated by not ,

` , loses its as illustrated in the table below. ` , can also behave like an ordinary noun with case
indicated by vowels, as indicated by the alternative given below.


` , ` , - ` _ ' ` . '
, / ` , ,` - ,` - ' ,` , ' ` _, ` ,
/ , - - ' , ' ` .,` .`
/ , - - ' , ' ` _,` ,` -
116
` _, ` , indicated by ,

,` , , | , , He is Abu Bakr
,` , , | ` He is his father
, , , - | - Hasans brother understood
, , / , , The boys mouth

` .,` .` is indicated by

` ` -` - ' , | , _ , , Muhammad took Abu Bakr to Madinah
` .` , - | - I understood Hasans brother
` .` , - | I understood your brother
,` - = ` . - , / , , A piece of meat entered the boys mouth

` _,` ,` - is indicated by

_ ` ` -` - _ , | , , Muhammad sat with Abu Bakr
_ ` .` _ - | - I wrote to Hasans brother
_ ` .` - | , I wrote to our brother
_ , / , , In the boys mouth


7.1.1 When ` _ ` . ` , ` , ` .` (the first person singular attached pronoun) is attached, the long
vowel is not imported. , ' (my father) for example, remains , ' in all three cases.

, ' , / - ' / - He is my father / brother / brother-in-law
` .` , , ' / - ' / - I understood my father / brother / brother-in-law
, ' ` / - ' / - From my father / brother / brother-in-law
117
My mouth is expressed as ` in all three cases.

` / This is my mouth
` - / It entered my mouth
` / In my mouth

7.1.2 The ` ` _ (duals) are as follows:

. , , . The (two) parents
. , - ' ` They are two brothers
`, , , . From the (two) parents
. , - Two brother in laws
. Two mouths

When ` _ ` . ` ` , ` .` , (the first person singular attached pronoun) is attached to the
dual, we have the following.

, , ' ` They are my parents



` , , ' ` From my parents





7.1.3 The plurals of called ` - . ` . (the five nouns) behave like ordinary . ` ' (nouns).

.` , . . , ` ,` They are the fathers of the children
- ' ,` - .` , _ He took the brothers home
. , ' ` - ' He took the statement from the professors mouths
,,` , . ` - ' ` ,` They are Maryams brother in laws
, , ' , , , ' - , , ' - , . , , ' -
(4) (3) (2) (1)
` , , ' , ` , , ' - ` , , ' - , `, , , ' -
(4) (3) (2) (1)
118
7.2 .

The fifth word, , , meaning possessor of is only ever used as ` .` in an . construction.

The dual , was originally a regular dual, . , when ` _, ` , and `, , when ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - . Since it
is only ever used as ` .` in an . construction, the . permanently drops.

The plural ,` , was originally a regular dual, ,` , . when ` _, ` , and , , when ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - .
Since it is only ever used as ` .` in an . construction, the . permanently drops.

The plural ,` , has an alternative form , , ' . The first , of , , ' is not pronounced so it sounds like ' , .

The following table illustrates the forms of ,

DRILL #11

` _` -
Plural
_` `
Dual
` , `
Singular

,` , / , , ' , , ` _, ` ,
, / , ' ` , ` .,` .`
, / , ' ` , ` _,` ,` -

7.2.1 , behaves like a , (indefinite) adjective:

Singular:
,` ` - _ . He is a rich man (lit. he is a much-of-wealth man)
` -` , . _ The man possesses much wealth / is rich
` - _ - ' . _ .` , He took a rich man home
` - _ _ - . He sat with a rich man

Dual:
` . ` - _ . They are two rich men
- ` , ` , , . ` , , , He entered two houses with two doors
119
` , ` - _ ` . From two rich men

Plural
- _ ` ,` . / , | | They are rich men
- . , . - _ , . / _ | | , _ ` The caliph sent men of justice to the city
_ - - _ . / _ | | ` He sat with men of justice

7.2.2 , is used for epithets and honorific titles. The ` .` , (possessor) often becomes ,` (definite).

, , - , Possessor of majesty and honour
` , ` , , The one of two horns
, Ezekiel (lit. The possessor of the burden)
,` . , , ' Rulers (lit. those of matter)
- ,` . , ' _ He sat with the rulers (lit. those of matter)

7.2.3 The feminine of , is ` . , which is also only ever used as in an . construction. It is not however,
one of ` - . ` . (the five nouns).

The dual has an alternative form , . The plural ` . , has an alternative form ` . ., ' . The first ,
of ` . ., ' is not pronounced so it sounds like ` . . ' .
The following table illustrates the forms of ` . :

DRILL #12


` _` -
Plural
_` `
Dual
, ` `
Singular

` . , / ' ` . ., / , ` . ` _, ` ,
. , / ' . ., ` / ` , . ` .,` .`
. , / ' . ., ` / ` , . ` _,` ,` -

120
` . ` .` , _ , She is a broad-minded girl
` , ` . - ' . _ , _ .` , She took a broad-minded girl home
. .` , _ ` . - _ , She sat with a broad-minded girl
. ` , ` / ` , , ` , , They are two broad-minded girls
` , ` . - ' ` / ` , _ , _ .` , She took two broad-minded girls home
_ ` . - ` , ` ` , ` , ` , , She sat with two broad-minded girls
` . , ` ` / ` . ., ' , ` , They are broad-minded (women)
. ` . - ' . , / , ` . ., ' , _ .` , She took broad-minded women home
. , . _ ` . - / ' . ., , ` , She sat with broad-minded women

7.2.4 when used as ` .` (possessed noun) ` . - . (lit. companion) and ` ` , / ` .` , , may also mean
possessor of. This is often used to render some idiomatic expressions.

` . , ` . - . The professor is erudite (lit. possessor of knowledge)
.` , - . _ ` . - She sat with the landlady
. ` ` , ,` / . , He is three years old
` .` , ` - / . , She is five years old
` ` , Local inhabitant
, ` ` ` , Wayfarer, wanderer

The plural is rendered by ` . ' ` . - , . ` , ' / ` . , or ` '
` - ` . -` . ' The inhabitants of paradise
. ` , ' Fellow countrymen
, ` ' Those of knowledge
` ' .` ,
Members of the Prophet Muhammads family
(lit. Those of the house)
` ' Those of rank
121


Summary Supplement on Case



- = : | = -, _

The following is a review of the instances in which we have encountered the three cases that
relate to nouns.

Case


Instance
1. ` _, ` ,


' ` ` (The subject)



- ` , (The predicate)



` ` _ _ .` (the imperfect verb)



(the subject of a verb)



` .
(the deputy subject of a passive
verb)



2. ` .,` .`


. ` ,` (the subject of inna)



` , - . (the predicate of kaana)



, ,` (the object)



After `
(An imperfect verb after the
future particle lan)



3. ` _,` ,` -


After , - ` , - (after a preposition)



` .` ` , (the possessor)


4. ` - ` ,` ,


After ` , and `
(An imperfect verb after these
negative particles)



After .
(An imperfect verb after the
particle la producing a negative
imperative)



After . , . and . ,
(An imperfect verb after these
particles producing a mild
positive imperative)

Indicators

Normal Diptote
Imperfect
verbs
ending in .
Dual
Sound Masc.
Plural
Sound Fem.
Plural
Five Nouns
` _, ` , .

,

,
` .,` .` .

Dropping of
.
,
` _,` ,` - , .




` - ` ,` , .

Dropping of
.



122
= . |

` , , today al-yawm
a

. . now al-aan
a

` . ' , . , , father ab
un
(aabaa
un
)
. , , . parents al-abawaani
` _ ' , . ,` - . ,` - , brother akh
un
(ikhwaan
un
, ikhwat
un
)
` , - , . ` - ' , brother-in-law Ham
un
(aHmaa
un
)
` , , ` , ' , mouth fam
un
(afwaah
un
)
, possessor of (m) dhuu
` ,` ' , ` _,` ' , matter, affair amr
un
(umuur
un
)
. ' , .,` ,` , matter, affair shan
un
(shuuun
un
)
. ' ,
Important, significant
(the name Zeeshan comes from
the Arabic . ' )
dhuu shan
in

` . , , ' , leaders uuluu al-amr
i

` . possessor of (f) dhaat
u

` . , ` . , , essence dhaat
un
(dhawaat
un
)
. , in itself bidh-dhaat
i

. , ` in Damascus itself fi dimashq
a
bidh-dhaat
i

,` / . , he himself / she herself huwa/hiya bidh-dhaat
i

` ,, . once upon a time; one day dhaat
a
yawm
in

` . - . , ' ` . -` . , ` .` - . , companion SaaHib
un
(aSHaab
un
, SaHb
un
)
- . , / _ . , O my companion! yaa SaaHibi / yaa SaaHi
` . - . , ' ` . -` . , possessor of SaaHib
u
(aSHaab
u
)
.` , ` . - . landlord SaaHib
u
al-bayt
i

123
, ` ' those of knowledge ahl al-

ilm
i

` justice

adl
un

, , .` ` , city madeenat
un
(mudun
un
)
, Medina (prop. name) al-madeenat
u

. , . , , ,` , . he hit Daraba (yaDrib
u
) Darb
an

` .` , . hitting Darb
un

, . , , ` , he sent ba

atha (yab

ath
u
) ba

th
an

.` , sending; resurrection ba

th
un

_ - ` _,` ,` - with ma

a
- : / : ' - you are right ma

aka Haqq
un
/ al-Haqq
u
ma

aka
:` , ' - you are wrong al-Haqq
u

alayka
, , ` ` , way sabeel
un
(subul
un
)
= , in the way of Allah fi sabeel
i
allah
i

` ` , / . ` , '
a local /
fellow countryman
ibn
u
al-balad
i
/ abnaa
u
al-bilaad
i

, , ,` , ' Abu Bakr abu bakr
in

. like (prep.) ka
` . , , ` . ` , ' , time waqt
un
(awqaat
un
)
` _ , . ` _ ' , time zaman
un
(azmaan
un
)
, , ~ ` - ` .` ` , by way of, via

an Tareeq
i

` _ . ` .` / ` . `
attached/detached pronoun
(gram.)
Dameer
un
muttaSil
un
/ munfaSil
un

124
Exercise 7.1
Express in English

, ,
. -
. _ ` .
. , . ` , ' , ,` , , , , ,` , , ,` ,
. ` . ` ` ,` , _, - . ,` ,
, - = ,` - ` ` _ ' ,` ` , . ` ` ` ` ,` , '
. ,` , ' . - ' , - ' ,
. _ , , . ` ` _ , , ` . ~ ' ,
(twice) . ` , _ , - ' .
. , ' - ' _ - ' .` , , _ _ ` . - '
. ` - , ' ,` ,
` ,,` , ` ,
, . ,
,` - _` - ` ` (authentic) . _ -` . .` ' , , ` . = -
. ` : , ` , - `
. , . = , _ ` , ` , ,
. ` , . - ` . ` , , , _ , - , . ` ,
` , ~ ,` . - . , ,` , . - .
, ` ` - ` , ` . (sum total) . ` ` - ` - , ,` ' , ,
` , , - ` ` , , , ' . _
. . ` .` _ , ` - ' . , . _ ' ` .` _ ` , ~ ` ` ` .
- ` .` , ~ :` , ` ` ` - . = ` - ` . , (aspects) . ` -` , ' ,` _ ' ,`
- _ , , . ` , ' , , . ` , ` (among them) . ` ` -` - ` ,` ,` , , -` . '
. ` . ` ,,` ,
(distant) . ` , , ` , ' ,` , ,` , , . -` , . ` , ' ` ` ,` ,
125
Exercise 7.2
Express in Arabic

(A)

1. I have only two pieces of meat.
2. Did your brother-in-law understand my two words.
3. My father took me to the school teachers (use ` , ` ).
4. He read the writing on the two doors of the kings two houses.
5. He is father of two girls.
6. Did he really take the statement from your mouth?
7. In a sentence of three words (use ` . ).
8. The boys father and mother attended.
9. My father took my brother from me.
10. My world is really difficult. Only my brothers understand me.

(B)

1. The professor sat writing his book at dawn.
2. Mary went to school today and her brother Hasan sat at home.
3. Muhammad and Abu Bakr went to Medina via the sea.
4. Mans days on ( ) Earth are limited. He will go from the world.
5. Are the presidents and leaders in our time ( . _) men of justice?
6. Hasan read the matter (` ,` ') in his fathers eyes.
7. The two students of law ( ` - ` , ) read their two books on (` ) human rights.
8. My teachers (use ` , ` ) possess precise (` , ) knowledge in their sciences.
9. He is a man of much wealth and has been to very many places.
10. Your brother will take me to his house by the sea.
11. Maryams father went to school for a meeting.

126
-| = , |
Chapter 8

Adverbs of Place and Time


Just as a . (adjective) describes an ` ,` (noun), a ,` , (adverb) describes a ` (verb), in terms
of . (place) or . _ (time). That is, it tells us about when an action happened or where it happened.
Those that refer to place are called ,` , . ` ` , ~ (adverbial of place) and those that refer to time
are called ,` , . _ ` ` , ~ (adverbial of time). Adverbials of how an action happens will be
introduced later.

* The ,` , (adverb) in Arabic is ` .,` .` and normally ends in -` .


8.1 The simple ,, - - -, (adverb of time/place)

8.1.1 Often a ,` , (adverb) is produced simply by making an ` ,` (noun) ,` .` ` . :

. - At once (from -)
Tomorrow (from ` )
Together
_ , By day (from ` _ , )
` , At night (from ` , )
` , For one night
` ,, One day
` Previously
` , later
` , Once
` , ` , Twice
.` , More than twice
_ .` , Many times
127
' , ` ` ` , ` We have read it once before
,` - _ ` ,, ` We went one day to the sea
`, ' ` ,` ` ` .` - / _
I stayed with them three days / many days
(All numbers can be used as adverbs)
` .` - , ` / / ,` ` ' / ,` , /
I stayed with him a minute / an hour / a week /
a month / a year

8.1.2 When ,` (definite), it usually refers to a particular time or place.

` , Tonight (from ` , )
` , , Today (from ` ` ,, )


Exceptions to this are ` ' (yesterday) which is _ ` ,` (fixed on kasra) and .. (now) which is
derived from . (time) and is _` _ ` (fixed on fatHa).


8.2 - = , adverbs

8.2.1 The ,` , (adverbs) produced above are general. ` for example, refers generally to the past and
` , refers generally to the future. In order to be more specific and say before x or after y we use a
different type of ,` , (adverb), again produced by simply making nouns that refer to place or time
` .,` .` . These adverbs are used only as ` .` (possessed) in an . construction and require a
` .` ` , (possessor) to immediately follow them.

. ` ` ,, He went a day ago (lit. before a day)
,` - ` _ , - He left before dawn
` , ` ,, ` , . , He arrived after two days
= ` , ` , `, ' , ` , , , 48:10 , The hand of Allah is over their hands
- , , , .` - , ` . She found her pen under her book
, - _,` .` , ` , - My talk is about a new subject
: ` , ` , - ,` - They sat around the kings throne
128
_ ,` , ~ , ` , , ~ ` ` . ' , I read my books all night and all day
,` - , , = _ ` - , - We went out on the road towards Mecca
, ` . ` ` ` - , I found it among his essays
. ,` , ,` . ` , , ,` - , - They left between mid-afternoon and sunset
: ` , , , ` , , Between me and you
( ` , , must be repeated if one of the parties is a . ` _ (pronoun).
` , _ ` , , , ` , , ` ,` . The matter is between me and my Lord
: ,` :` Your speech is below you
, .,` _` _ . He went to school without his book
.,` - , - He entered and sat without a word
, , = ` , ` ` - ,
We found him in the middle of the road
(Note: when , is used as an adverb, it becomes ` ,)
`, ' ` .` -
I stayed three days
(All numbers can be used as adverbs)
. ` .` - `, ,
I stayed three of the ten days
` , , ,` - ` - He called upon me at fajr today
. . _ ,` , ` ` .` - I stayed with him the month of Ramadan
` ` - _ , ,` - _ ` We went to the sea on Friday, during the day
` ` - ` , ,` - _ ` We went to the sea on Friday night
,` .` , , . , / ,` .` , . ,
We arrived the minute / hour he arrived
(lit. of his arrival)

Note the difference between the following two expressions:

` ` ,, ` ` - Friday
` ,, ` ` - On Friday (adv.)
129


_ (with) and ` (with/at) are two such ,` , (adverbs) that produce a meaning of possession.

_ (with) implies having the possessed article actually on ones person.

: ' - / - : You are right (lit. Truth is with you)
` ` . The book is with me

` is used to refer to . , . ` , (time and place), often implying at home.
` , , ` ` ` -` Muhammad is (staying) at my place today
, ` ` . ' , He read the book at the house of/with the teacher
, . , ` At the city gate
,` - ` At daybreak, dawn

Books of Arabic grammar written by English grammarians tend to list all the above as prepositions
because they appear to behave like prepositions. Although it may be useful at the outset for the student
to think of these as , - ` ,` ,` - (prepositions), they are in fact not so.


8.2.2 Some ,` , (adverbs) require that they are followed by a ` ` - (a sentence), usually a ` , ` ` ` -
(verb sentence). This ` ` - (sentence) is ` , .` - (in the place of the possessor).

` ` -` . .` , - ` - . Hasan went where Muhammad went
(the adverb .` , - is anomalously fixed on ` .)
. .` , - ` - , ` ` _ . Hasan went where the earth is wide
` . , - ` - ` . , ` ` -` Hasan will go when Muhammad goes
- ` - ` . , ` , ` -` ` ` ` Hasan will go when the Sun is red
. .` , - ` ` . ' , I read about where he went


8.2.3 Some ,` , (adverbs) can be followed both by a single word as the ` .` ` , (possessor) or by a
` ` - (a sentence) ` , .` - (in the place of the possessor).
130

` ` - ` ,, ,` - _ ` We went to the sea on Friday
` ` ,` ` ` ,, ,` - _ We went to the sea the day you went
-,` ,` - . , ` , ` _`
We went to him at the time of his leaving the
school
_` _ , - . , ` , `
We went to him at the time (when) he left the
school
.` , , ` - _ ` , `
We went to him at the time of his sitting at
home
.` , . _ ` , `
We went to him at the time (when) he was at
home


8.2.4 Often, we may precede the ,` , (adverb) that requires a ` .` ` , (possessor) after it with the
preposition , as suggested by the name. This makes it ` _,` ,` - and we no longer call it ,` ,
(adverb). This cannot be done all the time. For example, we cannot say ` .

` ` - ` ,, ,` - _ ` We went to the sea on Friday
, , = , ` ` - ,
We found him in the middle of the road
(Note: when preceded by , , remains , )


8.2.5 A ,` , (adverb) that is ` .` (possessed) followed by a ` .` ` , (possessor) produces a `
` ` - (quasi sentence). We may have an indefinite ' ` ` (subject) after it.

,` - ` , ` ` - The meeting is after fajr
` ` - ,` - ` , There is a meeting after fajr
` - ,` - ` , . Indeed there is a meeting after fajr
: ' - You are right (lit. The truth is with you)
- : You are right (lit. There is truth with you)
. - :
Indeed you are right (lit. Indeed there is truth with
you)
131
= . |

. , , ., , .,` .` , he arrived at

waSala

(yaSil
u
) wuSuul
an

,` .` , arrival wuSuul
un

. - at once, immediately Haal
an

` , night layl
un

` , , , , a night laylat
un
(layaal
in
)
` , tonight al-laylat
a

` , at night layl
an

` _ , day nahaar
un

_ , by day nahaar
an

. _ , ` , he wrote night and day kataba layl
a
nahaar
a

` ,, one day yawm
an

` , , today al-yawm
a

` previously qabl
an

` before qabl
a

` , later ba

d
an

` , after ba

d
a

` ' yesterday ams
i

- , , , ` - , ,` -` , he found wajada (yajid
u
) wujuud
an

` ,` -` , existence; being, presence wujuud
un

_ , - , , -,` ,` - , ` , he went out (of) kharaja (yakhruj
u
) khuruuj
an
(min)
` _,` ,` - exit; going out khuruuj
un

- , , .,` -` , / , he entered dakhala (yadkhul
u
) dukhuul
an

- , , .,` -` , _ , he entered (upon s.o.), called (on s.o.) dakhala (yadkhul
u
) dukhuul
an
(

alaa)
,` -` entry dukhuul
un

, . with (prep.) bi
,` . ` ` , ~ , / . _ adverbs of place/time
maf

uul
un
fiih
i
Dharf
u

makaan
in
/zamaan
in

` ` , ~ , ` ,` , ~ , situation Dharf
un
(Dhuruuf
un
)

132

` , over fawq
a

.` - under taHt
a

` , - around; about Hawl
a

, ~ throughout Tuul
a

` ,` - , . -` ' , direction, grammar naHw
un
(anHaa
un
)
` ` ,` - approximately naHw
un
min
,` - toward naHw
a

` . among Dimn
a

` , , between; among bayn
a

` , , ` , , so so bayn
a
bayn
a

` , , ` , , ` from among them min baynihim
.,` below, without duun
a

` with, at

ind
a

` ` in my opinion

indii
_ with ma
a

.` , - where Haythu
- when Hiin
a

` , / ` , ` , / .` , once/twice/more than twice marrat
an
/ marratayn
i
/ marraat
in

_ .` , many times (adv.) marraat
in
katheerat
an

.` , . three times (adv.) thalaath
a
marraat
in

` ` - / ` ` - ` ` ,, Friday al-jum(u)

at
u
/ yawm
u
al-jum(u)

at
i

` ` - ` ,, on Friday (adv.) yawm
a
al-jum(u)

at
i

. . _ / . . _ ` ,` , Ramadan ramaDaan
u
/ shahr
u
ramaDaan
a

` , , `, ' , , ' , hand yad
un
(ayd
in
, ayaad
in
)
, .` - at your disposal taHt
a
yadika
`, , ` , , in front of him bayn
a
yadayh
i

` _,` .` , , ` _, . , , subject mawDuu
un
(mawaaDii
u
)


133
Exercise 8.1
Express in English


. . , ` ' ` - ' - ' ` , , ` - ' ` - ',
. . - , ` -`
. ` , , . , , _ , ` ` - , -
. ` , ` . . ' , , .` , . ` ` ' ,
. ,,` , ` - _ .` ` ` ,,` , ` , ` .` ` ,
. = . , ` ' ` ,`
. _ .` , .` ` ` , ` ` `
. ` , ` - ., . ' _ , , ` - ` ` , , ` _ , - = . . ` , . , ,
. , . - . ` ,` ` ` - ,
. .` , ` . ` , ' .` . . - ,
. ` . ,` ` ` `
Exercise 8.2
Express in Arabic


1. I took my family to the sea.
2. Did you inform him? Yes, we informed him many times.
3. I didnt find four of my books yesterday. Did anyone take them? No, nobody took them.
4. Isnt he going out tonight? Yes indeed, he is going out with his parents.
5. The (f) students read their books night and day.
6. The two students worked hard after fajr
7. Hasan and Maryam understood each other immediately.
8. The matter will be uncovered one day after much hard work.
9. We entered and left at once
10. We arrived the day you left the house

134
_ =| = , |
Chapter 9

Further Possession


9.1 Possession using . |

In Chapter One we introduced the . construction. Possession can also be rendered using the
preposition . which means to, for or belonging to.

When written . attaches to the ` ,` (noun) following it. If the definite article . is preceded by . ,
we drop the (alif) and write . . When . attaches to a word, it forms a ` ` - ` (quasi sentence),
just like any other , - ` ` , - (preposition).

.` ,
In the house
(fi al-bayt
i
)
.` ,
For / To / Belonging to the house
(lil-bayt
i
)
. =
For / To / Belonging to the student
(liT-Taalib
i
)

9.1.1 This ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) may attach to an elliptical ` , - (predicate)

` . , ` ,` -` , , .` ,
The book is in the house
(al-kitaab
u
fi al-bayt
i
)
` . , ` ,` -` , , .` ,
The book is for / belongs to the house
(al-kitaab
u
lil-bayt
i
)
` . , ` ,` -` , , . =
The book is for / belongs to the student
(al-kitaab
u
liT-Taalib
i
)

9.1.2 If we make the ' ` ` (subject) indefinite, it must be deferred to after the ` ` - ` (quasi sentence).

` . .` ,
A book is in the house /
There is a book in the house
(fi al-bayt
i
kitaab
un
)

` . .` ,
A book belongs to the house /
The house has a book
(lil-bayt
i
kitaab
un
)

` . . =
A book belongs to the student /
The student has a book
(liT-Taalib
i
kitaab
un
)
135

` _ ` -` ,
Much wealth belongs to the man /
The man has much wealth
(lir-rajul
i
maal
un
katheer
un
)


As illustrated above, we use . to express (the) x has (a) y.
For example, Muhammad has a book would be ` . ` -` .

We saw in chapter eight that possession can also be produced with _ (with) and ` (with/at). _
implies having the possessed article actually on ones person and ` (with) can but not always implies
possessing the article at home.

` . . = The student has a book
_ ` . . = The student has a book (with him)
` ` . . = The student has a book (at home)
,,` _ , / ` ,,` _ , ` _ ` -
The president has a meeting

9.1.3 An . construction must be either completely ,` (definite) or completely , (indefinite). For
example, the expression ` . , .` , means the door of the house, suggesting that the house has one
door. To say a door of the house or produce any an x of the y expression, we use the preposition .
and not an . construction.

.` , ` . ,
A door of the house
(baab
un
lil-bayt
i
)
(Note that , .` , ` . means the house has a door)
, , - .` ,
He entered a door of the house
(dakhala baab
an
lil-bayt
i
)

This can also be expressed in the following way:

, ` . .` , . ,` , ' `
A door of the house
lit. a door from among the doors of the house
(baab
un
min abwaab
i
al-bayt
i
)

, , - .` , . ,` , ' `
He entered a door of the house
(dakhala baab
an
min abwaab
i
al-bayt
i
)

, ` ` .` , ` -` .
One of the daughters of Muhammad
(bint
un
min banaat
i
muHammad
in
)

136



Phonetics


The preposition . changes to .

` : ` ,
For him For us For you For you (pl)

But when attached to the first person pronoun . , it remains .

For me





` .` , , `
A house of his
lit. A house belonging to him
,` ,` , ` ` .` , ,
A house of his
lit. a house from among his houses


9.2 Idiomatic use of the definite - = ,

9.2.1 _ ` . . ,` .` , (possession of the adjective by the noun it describes)
Suppose we were to say,

` _, , ` - _
A quick man
(rajul
un
saree
un
)
In response, one may ask, quick at what?. This can be answered by extending the adjective with a
` .` ` , noun. The ` .` (possessed) must be a . (adjective) and the ` , ` .` (possessor) must
be an ` ,` (noun).

` _, , ` - _ ,` ,
A quick witted man (lit. a quick-of-understanding man)
(rajul
un
saree
u
al-fahm
i
)

` _, , ` - _
A quick speaking man (lit. a quick-of-speech man)
(rajul
un
saree
u
al-kalaam
i
)
` - _ ` _
A talkative man (lit. a much-of-speech man)
(rajul
un
katheer
u
al-kalaam
i
)
` - _ ` _
A wealthy man (lit. a much-of-wealth man)
(rajul
un
katheer
u
al-maal
i
)
i
137
` - _ ` - , ` -
A handsome man (lit. a handsome-of-face man)
(rajul
un
Hasan
u
al-wajh
i
)

What we have done is simply extend a , (indefinite) adjective. The adjective itself remains ,
(indefinite) despite the expression looking like a definite . construction. This is why it continues to
describe a , (indefinite) word. We may think of expressions such as ` _, , ,` , as extended .
adjectives.

* Agreement is exhibited only on the ` .` (possessed) noun.

(a) Agreement in case:
_, , ` - _ - ' ,` ,
He took a quick witted man
(akhada rajul
an
saree
a
al-fahm
i
)

_, , ` - _ ` ,` ,
From a quick witted man
(min rajul
in
saree
I
al-fahm
i
)
(b) Agreeement in gender:

, , ' ,` ,` ,
A quick witted woman
(imraat
un
saree

at
u
al-fahm
i
)

(c) Agreement in definition:

` _, ,` ` -` , ,` ,
The quick witted man
(rajul
un
saree
u
al-fahm
i
)
The last example above may appear odd because we put the definite article . on a ` .` (possessed)
noun. Think of this as the only instance of the ` .` (possessed) noun taking a definite article . .

(d) Agreement in number:

, , . ` - _ ,` ,
Two quick witted men
(Note the dropping of the . in . , , )
, , . ' ,` ,` ,
Two quick witted women
` , , - _ , ,` ,
Quick witted men
(Note the dropping of the . in ` , , ., )
, , . ` . ,` ,
Quick witted women
When extended . adjectives describe a plural noun, the sound masculine or sound feminine plural
must be used. extended . adjectives cannot be produced from broken plurals. It is incorrect to say,
` _ , - _ ,` , .

138
Extended . adjectives may be used as an indefinite ` , - .

` -` , ` _
The man is rich (lit. The man is much-of-wealth)
(ar-rajul
u
katheer
u
al-maal
i
)

9.2.2 Similar to the above, we have expressions in which we swap around a plural noun and adjective and
place them in an . construction. The expressions retain their meanings.

. ` ` _
The eminent scholars
(al-

ulamaa
u
al-kibaar
un
)
. ` ` _
The eminent scholars
(kibaar
u
al-

ulamaa
i
)
Unlike the earlier expressions, this expression does not change in meaning after becoming an . . It
is not an extended . adjective. This . is also wholly ,` (definite). These are given
expressions and students should not attempt to be creative.

9.3 Idiomatic use of the indefinite - = ,

The indefinite . is used idiomatically in a number of common expressions.

,` - = A piece of meat (qiT

at
u
laHm
in
)
,` - ` _ = Pieces of meat (qiTa
u
laHm
in
)
. - ' ` , A chair of wood (kursiyy
u
khashab
in
)
- A word of truth (kalimat
u
Haqq
in
)

We can dispense with . by using ` , which means from. It can also mean of in a partitive
sense, such as in the sentence, eat of the food i.e. part/some of the food.


,` - ` = / ,` - A piece of meat (qiTat
un
min laHm
in
/ min al-laHm
i
)
. - ` ` , / . - A chair of wood (kursiyy
un
min khashab
in
/ min al-khashab
i
)
- ` / ` - A word of truth (kalimat
un
min Haqq
in
/ min al-Haqq
i
)

It is better and more common to use the ,` (definite) of ,` - , . - and ` - after ` . The .
expression is better than both of these.

139
Note that = , ` , and - have ` , ,` . This is because we are not using an . construction.


` , - words in - = , constructions

When ` , ` words are a ` .` (possessed) noun, a ` is appended to them.

_ ` ,` ` ,
The valley of Moses
(waadii Muusaa)

- _ ` ,` ,
He entered the valley of Moses
(dakhala waadi
a
Muusaa)

, ` . _ '
The lands of Iraq
(araaDi al-

iraaq
i
)





Summary Supplement

Possession



- = : |
- = , _



- - |

Examples

1. . constructions




a) The definite . construction

. = ` .

The book of the student /
The students book

b) The indefinite . construction

. ~ ` .

A book of a student /
The book of a student /
A students book

2. non . constructions




a) The x belongs to the y

. = ` .

The book belongs to the student

b) An x belongs to the y, or
The x has a y

` . . = /
` . . = _ /
` . . = `

A book belongs to the student /
The student has a book




c) An x of the y

. = ` . /

. = .` ` ` .

A book of the student

A book (from among the books)
of the student



i
140
= . |
Vocabulary


. to; for; belonging to li
, ,` ' , wealth maal
un
(amwaal
un
)
` .` , , treasury (classical) bait
u
al-maal
i

= , ` _ = , piece qiT

at
un
(qiTa
un
)
` _ , ` , , .,` _ , ` _ , much (m)
katheer
un
(kuthur
un
,
katheeruuna, kithaar
un
)
_ , ` . _ , much (f)
katheerat
un
(katheeraat
un
)
` ,` - , ` ,` - , meat laHm
un
(luHuum
un
)
` , , ' , , chair kursiyy
un
(karaasiyy
u
)
` . - , ` . ` - ' , wood khashab
un
(akhshaab
un
)
, , , ., ` , , few (m)
qaleel
un
(qalaail
u
,
qaleeluuna)
, , ` . , , few (f) qaleelat
un
(qaleelaat
un
)
` _, , , .,` , , , fast (m) saree
un
(saree

uuna)
, , , ` . , , , fast (f) sareeat
un
(saree

aat
un
)

141


, ` , , intellect; mind

aql
un
(

uquul
un
)
,` , ` _, , quick of wit saree
u
al-fahm
i

` - , - . , handsome; beautiful (adj.) Hasan
un
(Hisaan
un
)
` - , .,` - , Hasan (prop. noun) Hasan
un
(Hasanuuna)
` ` - , , ` ,` -` , , Face wajh
un
(wujuuh
un
)
` ` - , , ` ` -` , ' , aspect wajh
un
(awjuh
un
)
, . , ' , rich ghaniyy
un
(aghniyaa
u
)
. so; because fa
, , ` , ' ,
1. middle;
2. (pl.) social circles, milieu
wasaT
un
(awsaaT
un
)
- , ` , ` - , truth; right; (pl) law Haqq
un
(Huquuq
un
)
- a word of truth kalimat
u
Haqq
in

. ` ` , ` - human rights Huquuq
u
al-insaan
i

- really, in reality Haqq
an

' - really? aHaqq
an

` ,` , , ' ` _ ,` , River nahr
un
(anhaar
un
)
` ` , . , ., ` , . , narrow (m) Dayyiq
un
(Dayyiquuna)
` , . , ` . ` , . , narrow (f) Dayyiqat
un
(Dayyiqaat
un
)
142
Exercise 9.1
Express in English

. , = ` ` _ ' , , 39:10 ,
. ,` , ` _, , , ` - , ` - ` ` -`
. . , ,` , , , ` -` `.` ,
. - .
. ` , ` .` , ` .` .
. , , , _ . ` , _ ` . = .
. ` , ` _ , , , , ~ ,` . ` ,` , '
. ,` - ` ., , ,` - ., , ` .` , , `, '
. , . ,` -` . , _ .,` - ' , ` ` - ` ,
. = ` , ` ` -` .
. ` . ` _ .,` ,` , _ ` . = ` . ,
. ` ` , . - , ` _ , ` ,` , ,
. , _ , ` . = . ' , ` . . ` - .` , , .,` , ' ` .

Exercise 9.2
Express in Arabic

1. Muhammad is the servant of Allah.
2. Muhammad is a servant of Allah.
3. Are you the daughter of a rich man? (do not use the word )
4. No I am the daughter of a poor man (use , ) from a distant desert.
5. Is it is an old method? Yes, an old method in a new book.
6. Why are they going to the middle of the desert?
7. Hasans mother is a scholar so she is a professor.
8. Muhammads face is beautiful.
9. Muhammad has a beautiful face.
10. The road to Damascus is long and wide.
11. Does Hasan truly sit in the councils of kings?
12. The students of law read about human rights in the country of Iraq.
13. How does the rich man go to the town centre?
14. What did the caliph write in the letter (. ) to the eminent scholars of Damascus / in Damascus.
143
= , | | - =
Chapter 10

Quantification and Comparison


10.1 Quantification

10.1.1 ` ` , means some or part. It occasionally also means one.

` ` , works in an . construction.

` ` , , ` , Part of a day
` , , ` , For part of a day (adv.)
. ` ` , Some/part of the book
` ` , ` . Some of the books / One of the books
. ` ` ` , Some of the women / One of the women
` , , .` , ` From some of them
` .` , ` . ~ ` ,` , Some of them are students
` . ~ ` ,` ,` ` ` , Some of them are students

10.1.2 ` Several or a number of

(a) ` requires a ` .` ` , (possessor) that is ` _` - (plural).

.` ` several books / a number of books
.` ` ` . ' , I read several books / a number of books
.` ` ` . ' , I read a number of the books
` .` - ` ,` ` `, ' `
I stayed (lit. sat) with them several days
( ` is , ,` (adverb) here)
` ' , ` .` , `
I read it several times
144
(` . is , ,` (object) and ` is , ,` (adverb))

(b) ` may be followed by ` to produce the same meaning as above.

` . ' , ` .` I read a number of the books

The word ` (number) may also be used in this way,
` . ' , .` I read a number of the books

(c) ` may also be used as . (an adjective), and it describes both ` , ` (masculine) and .` ,`
(feminine) nouns.

` ` ` . ' , I read several books
` ` . ~ ` , A number of students understood it
` ` . , ` . , . - Several girls attended
` ` .` ` I have a number of books
` `, ' ` ` .` - I stayed there several days

10.1.3 ` means generality

` ` , . - The common people / masses atended

10.1.4 (Every / Whole / All / both)

When is a ` .` (possessed) in an . construction, its exact meaning depends on the ` .` ` ,
(possessor).

(a) When the ` .` ` , (possessor) is , (indefinite)

When the ` .` ` , (possessor) is , (indefinite) means each or every. The ` .` ` , must
remain ` , ` (singular).

` ' , . - Every / each professor attended
, . - ` . ` ' Every / each (f) professor attended
145
` ,, ` . ,
He goes every day
( is , ,` (adverb) here)

When the ` .` ` , (possessor) is , (indefinite), any ` , - (predicate) must agree in gender with the
` .` ` , (possessor) and not , even though is the ' ` ` (subject). We call this semantic
agreement as opposed to grammatical agreement.

, ` , ` -` Every boy is hard working
.` , , ` -` Every girl is hard working
, ` _ ' Every land is vast
`, , Every word is strong

In the above sentences, the ' ` ` (subject) is and is , (indefinite) grammatically. An indefinite
' ` ` is allowed here because although it is indefinite grammatically, everything is in fact a definite
notion.

(b) When ` .` ` , (the possessor) is ,` (definite)

When ` .` ` , (the possessor) is ,` (definite) and ` , ` (singular) it means whole.

. ' ,

He read the whole book
(Note: is ,` , (object of the verb)

Any ` , - (predicate) may agree with or ` .` ` , (the possessor).

` _ . ` _ , / , The whole earth is beautiful
` , ` ,` , / . `
Every one of them is a scholar /
All of them are scholars

(c) When ` .` ` , (the possessor) is ,` (definite) and ` _` - (plural) it means all.

` ' , . He read all of the books
. , . -

All the professors attended
( is ` (subject of the verb))
` ,` , All of them
146
` _ , . _ . / , All the lands are vast

Note that the above can be expressed as follows:

, . - .

All the professors attended
` ,` ,` All of them

` _, - also means all.

. ` _, - , . - All the professors attended
` , - ` ,` , All of them
We cannot say
` ` _, - ` ,` ,

10.1.5 / (both)

(a) To say both of we use (m) and (f) which require a ` .` ` , (possessor) after them.

When the ` .` ` , (possessor) is a ` _ . ` .` (attached pronoun), and behave like _` ` (the
dual). When ` .,` .` and ` _,` ,` - they are ` and ` . As is self evident, the ` .` ` , (possessor)
must be a ` ` _ (dual) pronoun: ` , , or . Any ` , - (predicate) stays ` , ` (singular).

` / ` Both of them
Both of you
Both of us
` . ~ ` Both of them are students
,` , ` / ,` , From both of them
` , - ' .` , _ He took both of you home

(b) If however, ` .` ` , (the possessor) is an ` ,` (noun), and becomes ` . . _
(fixed on alif) which does not turn into , even when ` .,` .` or ` _,` ,` - .

147
` , ` - Both gardens ` , , Both books
` , ` - -
He entered both
gardens
` , , , ,
He understood both
books
` , ` - In both gardens ` , , ` From both books

(c) If the two items are two different entities, we use ` ... , ... .

. ,, _ , , ` , ` , Both the president and the minister went
.` , , , . - Both the boy and the girl attended


10.2 Comparison

10.2.1 , ` ' , means s.th. similar.

, , , ' ` ' The likes of Abu Bakr
` ,` ` ' , , , ' He is of the likes of Abu Bakr
` '
Three times as much
(lit. three of its like)

(a) may be used as a ` .` (possessed) to mean like .

:` ` , : Your son is like you
: ` , , ` , , My house is like your house

(b) Note that the preposition . may also express this meaning.

` , , : ` , My house is like your house

. cannot be attached to a ` _ . (pronoun) so we cannot say ` for like him. To overcome this,
we insert in between.

Like him
' : I am like you
148
` , .` ) 42:11 ( There is nothing like him


10.3 Negativisation of Verbal Nouns

` (non-existence/lack)

` as an isolated verbal noun means non-existence or lack and is the opposite of ` ,` -` , (existence).

` as a ` .` (possessed) noun is used to negativise ` _ . (verbal nouns) to produce constructs
which in English are expressed by the prefixes non-, un-, in- and dis-.

,` -` , ` Nonexistence (lit. Lack of existence)
,` -' .` , ,` -` , `
Your not being in the house prevented me from
entering
- .` : , ` - ` ` , Your not sitting with us is a new phenomenon

149
= . |
` . , ` . ` ' , reason, cause sabab
un
(asbaab
un
)
` ,` . , ` _,` .` , afternoon; age, era, epoch

aSr
un
(

uSuur
un
)
` . ,` , ` . _ ,
place or time of sunset;
west
maghrib
un
(maghaarib
u
)
` . ,` / ` , . ,` Maghrib, northwest Africa al-maghrib
u
/ bilaad
u
al-maghrib
i

` ,` , ` _ , place of sunrise, east mashriq
un
(mashaariq
u
)
_ , , _ , ` _ . throughout the world fi mashaariq
i
al-arD
i
wa maghaaribihaa
.` , . ,` ' , thing shay
un
(ashyaa
u
)
` people naas
un

. _ , ` . ,` _ ' , lord rabb
un
(arbaab
un
)
` ` , - , ` , - , ., / ` . , excellent; good jayyid
un
(jiyaad
un
, uuna / aat
un
)
` , - ` ,` , not good ghayr
u
jayyid
in

` ` ,` , ` - ' , . - did anyone else attend? hal HaDara aHad
un
ghayruhu
` non-existence, lack

adam
un

, ` ' , something similar mithl
un
(amthaal
un
)
like mithl
u

like him kamithlihi
` ` , some; one ba

D
un

` ` , ` some people ba

D
u
an-naas
i

` several, a number of

iddat
un

all; every kull
un

.` everything kull
u
shay
in

- _ in any case; in every case

ala kull
i
Haal
in

. , / - always fi kull
i
waqt
in
/ Hiin
in

150
, . -` ' all over the world fi kull
i
anHaa
i
al-

aalam
i

` ... , ... both and Kull
un
min wa
` _, - all jamee
un

/ ` _, - everybody al-kull
u
/ al-jamee
u

` generality

aammat
un

` `
the common people /
masses

aammat
u
an-naas
i

/ both of (m/f) kilaa / kiltaa
` ... , ... both x and y kilaa / kiltaa
.` ' ' anything ayy
u
shay
in

:` ` what is your name ? ma smuka
` here huna
` / : ` there hunaaka / hunaalika


151
Exercise 10.1
Express in English

. ` ,, , ` , , , ` .` ,`, 12:76 ,
. ` , ` - . , , ` _, - ` ` ,,` , ` . . ,
. ` -` ` ` ` . -` . ' - ` ` , - , , ,` , ' ` ,` , ` , , ,
. ` ` ,` - _ ` - . , . - , . -` ' ` .
` ,, ,` - (morphology) . ` ,` . , ,` -` ` ,` , ` . = ' ,
. _ - . ` , ` , ` . , , ` , . , ` , ` - `
. ' - = , , ` - , , , . , . ` . ,
. - ` ` - . ` ` , - ` , . - ` ` ` _ . ` _ , _ , ,
. _ ' . ` , ` , , _ ' . ` , , ` , , ~, 55:17 ,
. ` . , ` , , `, : , . , -
. ' ` ' , , , ` , ` , ` , ` - , _
. . ` ' ` : , `
. ' ` ' ` , - ,` , ' =, ` ,` ,` .` , , ` , - ` ` ` , ' =, : `
. ' - ` . , `, , ` , , ` , ` . ` , ` . , `,
. - ` ` . ` ` , , ` , ` .` - ` , , - . ` , ` ,


Exercise 10.2
Express in Arabic

1. Did anyone other than him enter? No, not before him and nor after him.
2. Non-being is the absence of being.
3. In any case, all our money is at your disposal at all times.
4. The matter is between him and his Lord.
5. We went where all the people went and arrived between mid-afternoon and sunset.
6. We found in his statement both the good and the not-good so we took only the good.
7. Hasan sat reading his six books throughout the night / all night.
8. We found a number of reasons for our lack of mutual understanding.
9. He said an incorrect word to me and didnt say any other word (lit. any word other than it).
10. He is a strong man and the likes of him are few in our time.
11. He hit him a number of times without reason.
12. Some people think you are not good, and I have found you (to be) very good.
13. Your son is like you in both your traits (qualities): patience and trust.
14. I read his statement a thousand times in several books by authors from all over the world.

152
= , | = - . |
Chapter 11

Doubled and Hamzated Verbs


In the Preliminaries chapter we learned that the letters , , and are weak letters. A weak letter is
called ` ` , - (lit. letter of weakness). When a verb is produced from a root containing a ` ` , -
(weak letter), we call it a ` ` ` (weak verb). We shall learn about ` ` ' (weak verbs) in chapter
twelve.

When the root of a verb does not contain any ` ,` ,` - (weak letters), we call it a ` ` _, - . (strong
verb). All the ' (verbs) we have encountered so far are ` _, - . (strong). The ` ` _, - . (strong verb)
is of three types,

1. ` , (sound: the root is made up of three different ` _, - . (strong) letters and does not
contain a ,` )
2. ` .` .` (doubled: the second and third root letters are the same)
3. ` _,` ` , (hamzated: the root contains a hamza)


11.1 .- = | - | (The doubled verb)

A ` (verb) in which the second and third root letters are the same is called a ` .` .` ` (doubled
verb). We have already encountered nouns derived from doubled roots such as, ` , - (from -),
, (from ) and ` . (from , .). In ' (verbs) derived from doubled roots, the identical
second and third letters are assimilated. This is called ` ` (assimilation) and is indicated by the
symbol called a ` above the doubled letter. Using the root template, we say that the `
` .` .` (doubled verb) derives from a root and assimilates to render . The ` _ _ .` (imperfect) is
, , , or , .

11.1.1 Form I

From the root _ we have the verb ` _ , ' ` ,, , (to return; reject) which unassimilated would have
read _ , ` ` ` ,, , like . , ` .` , , .

153
` _ , ' ` ,, , ` ` _ . ` _ ` , (to return) is conjugated ` . (in the perfect) as follows.

DRILL #9

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. _
They returned
(2)
. _
They (two) returned
(1)
. _
He returned
Masculine
(6)
. . _ .
They returned
(5)
. _
They (two) returned
(4)
. _ =
She returned
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
. . _ ,
You returned
(8)
. . _
You (two) returned
(7)
. . _ =
You returned
Masculine
(12)
. . _
You returned
(11)
. _ .
You (two) returned
(10)
. . _ =
You returned
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
. . _
We returned
(13)
. . _ =
I returned
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

Notice that from the third person feminine plural (box 6) onwards, the second and third root letters are
not assimilated.

` _ , ' ` ,, , ` ` _ . ` _ ` , (to return) is conjugated _ _ .` (in the imperfect) as follows.

DRILL #10

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. , .
They return
(2)
. , .
They (two) return
(1)
. ,
He returns
Masculine
(6)
. . , .
They return
(5)
. .
They (two) return
(4)
.
She returns
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
. .
You return
(8)
. .
You (two) return
(7)
.
You return
Masculine
(12)
. . .
You return
(11)
. .
You (two) return
(10)
`. ,
You return
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
.
We return
(13)
. _ |
I return
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
154
The ` .,` .` of the ` .` .` ` (doubled verb) obeys the same principle as the ` _, - . ` ` , (sound
strong verb).
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. , |
They will never return
(2)
. , |
They will never return
(1)
. , |
He will never return
Masculine
(6)
. . , | .
They will never return
(5)
. |
They will never return
(4)
| .
She will never return
Feminine
Third
person

(9)

(8)

(7)


The ` ,` ,` - of the ` .` .` ` (doubled verb) can be produced in two ways. We can use the regular
method and say ` ` ` ,, ` , (which is the most commonly found in the Quran) or we can say ` ` ,, ` , in which
the ` ,` ,` - is indicated by a -` so that it looks identical to the ` .,` .` . The first unassimilated method
does not occur with ` - . (the five verbs) in which the ` ,` ,` - is indicated by .,' ` -
(omission of the nun).


Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. , , |
They did not return
(2)
. , , |
They did not return
(1)
, | . . , / . ,
He did not return
Masculine
(6)
. . , , | .
They did not return
(5)
. , |
They did not return
(4)
, | . . / .
She did not return
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
. , |
You did not return
(8)
. , |
You did not return
(7)
. . , | / .
You did not return
Masculine
(12)
. . , | .
You did not return
(11)
. , |
You did not return
(10)
`. , |
You did not return
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
. . , | / .
We did not return
(13)
, | . . _ | / . _ |
I did not return
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person


The ` ,` (Active Participle) of the ` .` .` ` (doubled verb) is of the form so from ` _ we
have _ (one who returns; rejects).

155
The ,` ,` - ` (passive) of ` _ , ' ` ,, , is ` ` _ , ' ,`, , (it was returned). From the third person feminine
plural (box 6) onwards, the second and third root letters are not assimilated. For example, for the first
person, we have ` .` ` _ (I was returned).

The ,` ` ,` (Passive Participle) of the ` .` .` ` (doubled verb) is of the form , so from ` _
we have ` ,` ` , (returned; rejected).

The ` ,` ` (negative imperative verb) being ` ,` ,` - is of the form . or . .

(3)
. v
Do not return!
(2)
. v
Do not return!
(1)
v . . / .
Do not return!
Masculine
(6)
. . v .
Do not return!
(5)
. v
Do not return!
(4)
`. v
Do not return!
Feminine
Second
person

The ,` . ` (imperative verb) being `, _ ` ` ` _ .` ` , ` ,` - (fixed on what the imperfect is
made ` ,` ,` - upon) is of the form or rendering ` ` ` _ or ` ` _ (return!). Notice that it looks exactly
the same as the ,` ,` - ` (passive), ` ` _ (it was returned).

(3)
. _
Return!
(2)
. _
Return!
(1)
. . _ / . _
Return!
Masculine
(6)
. . _ .
Return!
(5)
. _
Return!
(4)
`. _
Return!
Feminine
Second
person

` _ ` ` ` Return in to me
` _ ' ` , = Refer it to Allah


We may summarise the above as follows.

Negative Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ` ` , / ` ` , ` ` ` _ / ` ` _
,` ` _ . ` _ ` ,` ` , ,` , ' ,`, ` ` _ _ ,` , ' ` ,, ` _
Dont return! Return! Return Returned
So he
is
He is
returned
He was
returned
A returner
So he
is
He
returns
He
returned


156
Like the ` , ` _, - . ` (sound strong verb), there is variation in the vowelling of the ` _ _ .
(imperfect). We have,

` , , , ' , , (to be complete) which unassimilated would have read , , ` , ` , , like - , ` ` -, , .

~ , =, , ., ~ (to continue to be) which unassimilated would have read ~ , =, , like , , , ` , , , , .
The first person is ` . ~ (I continued to be) like ` .` , .

You should assume that ` .` ' (doubled verbs) are conjugated in the perfect like ` , i.e. ` .` _ , .
Verbs of the ~ type are indicated in the dictionary and vocabulary lists by providing the first person
perfect in brackets after the imperfect in the following way, ~ , , , ~ ` . , . In derived forms II
onwards, the variations that exist in the perfect and imperfect of Form I do not occur.


11.1.2 Form II

Form II of the ` .` ` ` . (doubled verb) behaves in the same was as the ` , ` _, - . ` (sound strong
verb).

` - , ` ` -`, , , ` - (To renew)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` ` -` . ` ` -
, ` - ` ` -` ,` , ` ` -`, ` ` - ` ` -` ,` , ` ` -`, ` -
Dont renew! Renew! Renewal Renewed
So it
is
It is
renewed
It was
renewed
A renewer
So he
is
He
renews
He
renewed


11.1.3 Form V

Form V of the ` .` .` ` (doubled verb) also behaves in the same was as the ` , ` _, - . ` (sound
strong verb).

` , , ` ` , , , ' , (To hesitate)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` ` , . ` ` ,
' , ` ` , ` ,` , ` ` , `, ` ` ,` ` ` , ` ,` , ` ` , , ` ,
Dont
hesitate!
Hesitate! Hesitation -
So he
is
- - A hesitator
So he
is
He
hesitates
He
hesitated

157
11.1.4 Form III

` _ - , ' _ -`, , , ` .` - - - , - - - (to argue, dispute)

Negative Imper. Positive Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` _ - -` / ` ` _ - ` _ - - / ` _ -
- - - _ -` ,` , `, ' _ - ` _,` - ` _ - ,` , `, ' _ - ` _ -
Dont argue! Argue! Argument Argued
So it
is
It is
argued
It was
argued
An arguer
So he
is
He argues
He
argued


11.1.5 Form VI

` . - , ' . - , , , ` , - ` . , ` , - (to love one another)

Negative Imper. Positive Imper. Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` . , - / ` . - ` . , - / ` . -
` , - . ` , - . - ` ,` , ' . - `, ` .,` -` . - ` ,` , ' . - , ` . -
Dont love one another! Love one another! Mutual love -
So he
is
- - Loving
So he
is
They love
one
another
They
loved one
another


11.1.6 Form IV

` . - ' , ' . -`, , , ` .` ` - ' , , ` - (to love)

Negative Imper. Positive Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` . ` -` / ` . -` ` . ` - ' / ` . - '
, ` - . -` ,` , ' . -`, ` . - ' . -` ,` , ' . -`, ` . - '
Dont love! Love! Love Loved
So he
is
He is
loved
He was
loved
One who
loves
So he
is
He loves He loved


11.1.7 Form VII

` ` , ' ` , , , ` . ` , ` (to be split)

Negative Imper. Positive Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ` / ` ` ` ` / ` `
` ` ` ,` , ' ` `, ` ` ` ` ` ,` , ' ` , ` `
Dont split! Split! Splitting -
So it
is
- - Split
So it
is
It is split
It was
split

Notice that the Active and Passive participles look exactly the same.
158
11.1.8 Form VIII

` ` _ , ' ` ,, , , ` .` ` _ , ` _ (to turn back)

Negative Imper. Positive Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ` , / ` ` , ` ` _ / ` ` _
` _ ` ,` ,` , ' ` ,`, ` ` ` _ ` ,` ,` , ' ` ,, ` ` _
Dont turn back! Turn back!
Turning
back
-
So he
is
- -
One who
turns back
So he
is
He turns
back
He turned
back

11.1.9 Form X

` - ` , ' - ` , , , ` . ` - ` , ` - ` (to deserve)

Negative Imper. Positive Imper. Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ` - ` / ` - ` ` ` - ` / ` - `
` - ` - ` ` ,` , ' - ` `, ` -` ` - ` ` ,` , ' - ` , ` - `
Dont deserve! Deserve! Deserving Deserved
So it
is
It is
deserved
It was
deserved
One who
deserves
So he
is
He
deserves
He
deserved

11.1.10 | - | .- = _ - ,| (The doubled quadriliteral verb)

Most Arabic roots are made of three letters. These are called (triliteral). There are a few roots that
are made of four letters. These are called ,` _ (quadriliteral). They conjugate in the same way as the
(triliteral).

Quadriliteral Form I

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` , -` , ` . ` , ` , -
-` , ` , -` , ` ,` , ` , -` , `, , -` ,` ` , -` , ` ,` , ` , -` , `, ` , , -
Dont
translate!
Translate! Translation Translated
So it
is
It is
translated
It was
translated
Translator
So he
is
He
translates
He
translated

The quadriliteral ` .` .` ` (doubled verb) is of the form . The verb ,` , , ` ,` ,`, , means to
whisper. It is conjugated like the regular quadriliteral verb.

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ,` ,` ` ,` ,
,` , ` ,` ,` ,` , ` ,` ,`, ,` ` , ` ,` ,` ,` , ` ,` ,`, ,` ,
Dont whisper! Whisper! Whisper Whispered
So it
is
It is
whispered
It was
whispered
Whisperer
So he
is
He whispers
He
whispered
159
11.2 | - | _, , (The hamzated verb)

Verbs derived from roots containing a ,` are called ` _,` ` , (hamzated). They are generally
unproblematic apart from a few phonetic and orthographic changes. A ` _,` ` , ` (hamzated verb) may
have a ,` as the initial, medial or terminal root letter.

11.2.1 Verbs with initial ,`

(a) Form I

In Form I, the perfect and imperfect of initial ,` verbs behave like regular verbs, - ' , ` - ', , (to
take), ' , ', , (to eat), ' , ` ', , (to hope), . ' , ', . , (to permit) and , ' , ` ,` ', , (to order).



Phonetics


When . ,` (two hamzas) are consecutive, the first ` ` , - ` (vowelled) and
the second ` (vowelless), the second changes to a long vowel , , or
corresponding to the vowel on the first ,` . This is called , ,`
(pronouncing a long vowel in the place of ,` , lit. making easy).


, ,` (pronouncing a long vowel in the place of ,` ) occurs in first person imperfect of initial ,`
verbs, rendering,
` - (I take)rather than ` - ' '
(I eat) rather than ' '
` (I hope) rather than ` ' '
. (I permit) rather than . ' ' and
` ,` (I order) rather than ` ,` ' '.



Orthography


When a ,` carrying a -` is followed by an , the two are assimilated
and a ` (symbol representing elongation) is placed over the alif .


i
i
160
The above orthography change occurs in the ` ,` (Active Participle) of the initial ,` verb
rendering,
- (taker) for - '
(one who eats) for '
(one who hopes) for '
. (one who permits) for . ' and
` , (one who orders) for ` , '

The ,` ` ,` (Passive Participle) of the initial ,` verb is regular. We have ' ,` - (taken), , '
(eaten), ,` ' (hoped), ., ' (permitted) and ` _,` ' (ordered).

The ,` . ` (imperative verb) of initial ,` verbs usually follows the regular form. When it is at the
beginning of a ` ` - (sentence) and not preceded by any , - (vowel) the ,` undergoes , ,`
(pronouncing a long vowel in the place of ,` ). From ' we have ` ` , (hope!) for ` ` , and from . '
we have . `, (Permit!) for . . When it is preceded by a , - (vowel) there is no , ,` and the ,`
is retained, sitting on its seat, rendering ` ` , (hope!) and . (permit!). When preceded by , or .
the ,` sits on an alif and the ` . , ,` is omitted rendering ` ' , (and hope!) and . ' (so permit!).

, ` . , , ` ` ,` ,` ...
And among them are those who say, permit me
(al-Quran 9:49)

The ,` . ` (imperative verb) of the two verbs - ' (to take) and ' (to eat) is truncated by dropping
the initial ,` rendering ` - (take!) rather than ` -` , and (eat!) rather than ` , .

,` _ ' ` - ...
So take four (al-Quran 2:260)
` _ . ` , ...
Eat of what is on the earth (al-Quran 2:168)

The ,` . ` (imperative verb) of , ' (to order) can be produced using both the regular and the
truncated form. When it is at the beginning of a ` ` - (sentence) and not preceded by any , - (vowel)
it is obligatory to use the truncated form ` ,` (order!). When it is preceded by a , - (vowel), we are
given the choice of using the truncated form ` ,` or the regular form ` ,` ` , and ` ,` ' , .

,` , ` , ` . , ` . , : ` ' ` ,` ' ,
And command your folk to pray and persevere upon it
(al-Quran 20:132)

161
We may summarise the above as follows:

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` - ' . ` -
` - ' ,` - ' ,` , -` ,`, - ' - ,` , ` - ', - '
Dont take! Take! Taking Taken
So it
is
It is taken
It was
taken
A taker
So he
is
He takes He took
' .
' ' , ,` , ` ,`, ' ,` , ', '
Dont eat! Eat!
Eating;
food
Eaten
So it
is
It is eaten
It was
eaten
One who
eats
So he
is
He eats He ate
` ' .
` ` , /
` ` , /
` ' ,
' ,` ' ,` , ` ,`, ' ,` , ` ', '
Dont hope! Hope! Hope Hoped
So it
is
It is
hoped
It was
hoped
One who
hopes
So he
is
He hopes He hoped
. ' .
. `, /
. /
. ' ,
., ' ,` , . ` ,`, . ' . ,` , . ', . '
Dont
permit!
Permit! Permission Permitted
So he
is
He is
permitted
He was
permitted
One who
permits
So he
is
He
permits
He
permitted
' . ` ,`
` ,` /
` , ` ,` /
` ,` ' ,
,` ' ' ` _,` ,` , ` ,`, ` , ' , ` , ,` , ', ` ,` ' ,
Dont order! Order! Order Ordered
So he
is
He is
ordered
He was
ordered
One who
orders
So he
is
He orders
He
ordered

The following is exposition of the forms that usually cause students problems. Unproblematic forms
have been left out.

(b) Form III

In Form III we have the verb - (to reproach) from - ' .

- may be summarized as follows.

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. -` -
-` -` ,` , `, - ' ` , - ` - ,` , -`, -
Dont
reproach!
Reproach! Reproach Reproached
So he
is
He is
reproached
He was
reproached
A
reproacher
So he
is
He
reproaches
He
reproached


162
(c) Form IV

In Form IV we have the verbs (to believe) and , (to prefer) from ' ' and , ' ' . As is evident, the
perfect verb of Form IV looks the same as that of Form III. The imperfect verbs are of course different.

, ,` (pronouncing a long vowel in the place of ,` ) occurs in the passive perfect rendering ` , ' (it
was believed) for ` , ' and ` , ' , (it was preferred) for , ` , ' .

We also have , ,` in the ` _ ` . (Verbal Noun) redering . `, (belief) for . and ` _ `, (preference)
for ` _ .

and , may be summarized as follows.

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` . ` , ` `
`, ` ` , ` ,` , `, ` , ` ` , ' ` ` ,` ,` , ` ` ,`,
Dont
believe!
Believe! Belief Believed
So it
is
It is
believed
It was
believed
A believer
So he
is
He
believed
He believed
` . ` , ` , ` ,
_ `, ` ` , ` , ,` , `, ` , ` , , ' , ` ` , ` , ,` , `, ` , ` , ,
Dont prefer! Prefer! Preference Preferred
So it
is
It is
preferred
It was
preferred
One who
prefers
So he
is
He prefers
He
preferred


(d) Form VIII

In Form VIII two variations occur. We have the regular form , (to conspire; conference) in which
, ,` is permitted rendering , `, .

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` , ' .
` , /
` , `,
_ /
_ `,
` , ` ,` ,` , ` , ` ,`, , ` ` , ' ` , ` ,` ,` , ` , ',
, /
, `,
Dont
conspire!
Conspire! Conspiracy Conspired
So it
is
It is
conspired
It was
conspired
A conspirer
So he
is
He
conspires
He
conspired

163
In some verbs, the ,` changes to a . and assimilates with the . of Form VIII. From - ' (to take)
we have -` (to take up, adopt) rather than - .

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
-` . -`
-` -` ` ,` , -` `, -' ' -` ` ,` , -` , -`
Dont take
up!
Take up! Taking up Taken up
So it
is
It is taken
up
It was
taken up
One who
takes up
So he
is
He takes
up
He took up


11.2.2 Verbs with medial ,`

Verbs with medial ,` are in general regular.

An anomaly occurs with the ,` . ` (imperative verb) of ' (to ask). It can be prouduced using the
regular form rendering '` (ask!) and also by truncating it by dropping the ,` and shifting the -`
forward onto the . rendering (ask!). When it is at the beginning of a ` ` - (sentence) and not
preceded by any , - (vowel) it is obligatory to use the truncated form (ask!). When it is preceded
by a , - (vowel), we are given the choice of using the truncated form (so ask!)or the regular
form '` or '` .

, ,` ` , ...
Ask the children of Israel (al-Quran 2:211)
, ,` ` , ` ...
So ask the children of Israel (al-Quran 17:101)
= , ` , ...
And ask Allah (al-Quran 4:32)



164
= - _ | = , |
Chapter 12

Weak Verbs


In the Preliminaries chapter we learned that the letters , , and are weak letters. A weak letter is
called ` ` , - (lit. letter of weakness) and if positioned at the end of a noun, produces a ` ,` ` `
(weak noun).

When a verb is produced from a root containing a ` ` , - (weak letter), we call it a ` ` ` (weak
verb) and it undergoes certain phonetic changes. If the ` ` , - (weak letter) is initial we call it ` `
(initial weak). If it is medial we call it ` ` ` ,` - ' (hollow weak) and if it is terminal we call it ` `
` (terminal weak).

12.1 - | | , (The initial weak verb)

If the initial letter of the root is a ` ` , - (weak letter) the verb is called .

12.1.1 Form I

In form I, if the ` ` , - (weak letter) is a , it is usually dropped _ _ .` (in the imperfect).

- , , ` -, , To find
. , , ., , To arrive
, , ` , , To trust
_ . , , ` _ ., , To fall

However, there are some rare instances when the , is not dropped _ _ .` (in the imperfect).

,` . , , ` ,` .` ,, , To be pure

If the ` ` , - (weak letter) is a it is not dropped .` _ _ (in the imperfect).

, , ` ,, , To wake up


165
12.1.2 Form II

Form II of the ` ` (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the ` _, - . ` (sound verb).

` - , , ` ` - ,`, , , -` , (To unify; declare God is One lit. make one)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` ` - ,` . ` ` - ,
, -` , ` ` - ,` ,` , ` ` - ,`, ` -` , ` ` ` - , ,` , ` ` - ,`, ` - ,
Dont unite! Unite! Unity United
So it
is
It is
united
It was
united
A uniter
So he
is
He unites He united


12.1.3 Form V

Form V of the ` ` (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the ` _, - . ` (sound verb).

` - , , ` ` - , , , ,' - , (To face)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ` - , ` ` - ,
,' - , ` ` - , ` ,` , ` ` - , `, ` -` ,` ` ` - , ` ,` , ` ` - , , ` - ,
Dont face! Face! Facing Faced
So it
is
It is faced
It was
faced
One who
faces
So he
is
He faces He faced


12.1.4 Form III

Form III of the ` ` (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the ` _, - . ` (sound verb).

. , , . ,`, , . ,` . . . , (To continue)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. . ,` . ,
. . . ,
. ,`
. ,` ,` , . ,`, .` ,` , . ,` ,` , . ,`, . ,
Dont
continue!
Continue! Continuance Continued
So it
is
It is
continued
It was
continued
A continuer
So he
is
He
continues
He
continued

166
12.1.5 Form VI

Form VI of the ` ` (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the ` _, - . ` (sound verb).

. , , , . , , , ` . (To be interconnected)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. . , . ,
` . , . , ` ,` , . , `, .` ,` ,` ` . , ,` , . , , . ,
Dont connect! Connect! Connection Connected
So it
is
It is
connected
It was
connected
Connected
So it
is
It is
connected
It was
connected

12.1.6 Form IV

Form IV of the ` ` (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the ` _, - . ` (sound verb).
The , in the ` _ ` . (verbal noun) changes to as a phonetic change so that for ` ` , we have ` `, .

. ` , ' , ` . ` ,`, , `, (To stop s.o/s.th)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` . ` . ` , ` . ` , '
`, ` . ` ,` ,` , ` . ` ,`, . ` , ' ` . ` ,` ,` , ` . ` ,`, . ` , '
Dont stop! Stop! Stopping Stopped
So it
is
It is
stopped
It was
stopped
One who
stops
So he
is
He stops
He
stopped

12.1.7 Form VII

The ` ` (initial weak) verb does not permutate into Form VII.

12.1.8 Form VIII

Form VIII of the ` ` (initial weak) verb undergoes a phonetic change. The , changes to a .
which then assimilates with the . following it. From the root , . , we find that . ` , is rendered
into .` .

.` , .` , , . .` , . , , (To be connected (to))

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. .` .`
. .` .` ` ,` , .` `, .' .` ` ,` , .` , .`
Dont
connect!
Connect! Connection Connected
So it
is
It is
connected
It was
connected
One who
connects
So he
is
He
connects
He was
connecte
d
167

12.1.9 Form X

Form X of the ` ` (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the ` _, - . ` (sound verb).
The , in the ` _ ` . (verbal noun) changes to as a phonetic change so that for ` _` , ` we have ` ,` , ` .

_` , ` , ` _` , ` , , ,` , ` (To import)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` _` , ` ` _` , `
,` , ` ` _` , ` ` ,` , ` _` , ` `, _,` ` ` _` , ` ` ,` , ` _` , ` , _` , `
Dont import! Import! Importation Imported
So it
is
It is
imported
It was
imported
An
importer
So he
is
He
imports
He
imported



12.2 - | = , - v (The hollow weak verb)

If the medial letter of the root is a ` ` , - (weak letter) the verb is called ` ,` - ' (hollow).

12.2.1 Form I

In form I the medial , or is dropped ` . ` (in the perfect verb). The root of the verb to
say is, (qa-wa-la). The Arabs consider this heavy on the tongue and so they drop the , leaving:

(qa ala)

-` . (two fathas) are equivalent to an alif so we arrive at (qaala). The , reappears
` _ _ .` (in the imperfect verb) redering, , , (he says) and also in the ` _ ` . (verbal noun) ` ,
(statement).

168
, , , , .` , (to say) is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows.

DRILL #11

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, | |
They said
(2)
v |
They (two) said
(1)
, |
He said
Masculine
(6)
| '
They said
(5)
| |
They (two) said
(4)
| | .
She said
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
| ,
You said
(8)
|
You (two) said
(7)
| .
You said
Masculine
(12)
|
You said
(11)
|
You (two) said
(10)
| .
You said
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
|
We said
(13)
| .
I said
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

' originally ` ,

, , , , .` , (to say) is conjugated _ _ .` (in the imperfect) as follows.

DRILL #12

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
| , , , .
They say
(2)
v , , .
They (two) say
(1)
, , ,
He says
Masculine
(6)
,
They say
(5)
v , .
They (two) say
(4)
, ,
She says
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
| , , .
You say
(8)
v , .
You (two) say
(7)
, ,
You say
Masculine
(12)

You say
(11)
v , .
You (two) say
(10)
, , |
You say
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, ,
We say
(13)
, | | ,
I say
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
169


The ` .,` .` of the ` ` ,` - ' (hollow verb) obeys the same principle as the ` _, - . ` (sound verb).

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
| , | , ,
They will never say
(2)
| v , ,
They will never say
(1)
| , , ,
He will never say
Masculine
(6)
| ,
They will never say
(5)
| v ,
They will never say
(4)
| , ,
She will never say
Feminine
Third
person

(9)

(8)

(7)


The ` ,` ,` - of the ` ` ,` - ' (hollow verb) undergoes a phonetic change. Placing ` , before , , renders
` , , ` , . This suffers from . ` , ` (the meeting of two vowelless consonants cf. P6). This is
overcome by dropping the , rendering , ` , . The , remains on ` - . )(the five verbs) in
which the ` ,` ,` - case is indicated by .,' ` - (omission of the nun).

DRILL #13

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, , | | , ,
They did not say
(2)
v , , , |
They (two) did not say
(1)
, , |
He did not say
Masculine
(6)
, , |
They did not say
(5)
v , , |
They (two) did not say
(4)
, |
She did not says
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, | | , ,
You did not say
(8)
v , , |
You (two) did not say
(7)
, |
You did not say
Masculine
(12)
, |
You did not say
(11)
v , , |
You (two) did not say
(10)
_ | , , |
You did not say
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
| ,
We did not say
(13)
| | , |
I did not say
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

All the above is true for verbs in which the middle root letter is a . From the root _ , , we have the
verb _ , , ` _, , , ` , , (to sell). The ` .,` .` is ` _, , (he will never sell) and the ` ,` ,` - is ` _ , ` , (he did not
sell).

170
The ` ,` (Active Participle) of the ` ` ,` - ' (hollow verb) is of the form so from we
have (one who says) and from _ , we have ` _ , (seller).

The ,` ,` - ` (passive) of , , , , is , , `, , .

The ,` ` ,` (Passive Participle) of the ` ` ,` - ' (hollow verb) is of the form , for verbs with
medial , and , for verbs with medial so from (to say) we have , (something said) and
from _ , we have ` _, (something sold).

The ` ,` ` (negative imperative verb) being ` ,` ,` - is of the form . or . .

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
v , | ,
Do not say!
(2)
v v ,
Do not say!
(1)
v
Do not say!
Masculine
(6)
v
Do not say!
(5)
v v ,
Do not say!
(4)
v _ | ,
Do not say!
Feminine
Second
person

The ,` . ` (imperative verb) is of the form rendering (say!) and ` _ , (sell!).

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, | , |
Say!
(2)
v , |
Say!
(1)
|
Say!
Masculine
(6)
|
Say!
(5)
v , |
Say!
(4)
_ | , |
Say!
Feminine
Second
person


We may summarise the above as follows.

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
.
.` , , ,` , `, , ,` , , ,
Dont say! Say! Statement Said
So it
is
It is said It was said
One who
says
So he
is
He says He said


171
If the middle weak letter is a we have _ , , ` _, , , , ` .` , , ` , , (he sold),

. ` _ ` _ ,
` , , ` _, ,` , ` _ `, _, , ` _ , ,` , ` _, , _ ,
Dont sell! Sell! Sale Sold
So it
is
It is sold It was sold A seller
So he
is
He sells He sold

Sometimes, even though the middle weak letter is a , or a an alif is imported in its place in the
imperfect verb, rendering , ` , , , ` .` , ` , ,

. ` , ` ,
` , ,` , ` , ,` , ` ,
Dont
sleep!
Sleep! Sleep
So it
is
Asleep
So he
is
He sleeps He slept


12.2.2 Forms II, V, III and VI

Forms II, V, III and VI are regular.

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb

` ` , -` . ` ` , -
, ,` - ` ` , -` ,` , ` ` , -`, ` ,` - ` ` , -` ,` , ` ` , -`, ` , -
II
Dont improve! Improve! Improvement Improved
So it
is
It is
improved
It was
improved
An
improver
So he
is
He
improves
He improved

. ` _` , = ` _` , =
' , = ` _` , = ` ,` , ` _` , = `, =` _` , ` _` , = ` ,` , ` _` , = , _` , =
V
Dont
volunteer!
Volunteer! Volunteering Volunteered
So it
is
It is
volunteered
It was
volunteered
A volunteer
So he
is
He
volunteers
He
volunteered

. , -` , -
, -` , -` ,` , , -`, ,,` - , -` ,` , , -`, , -
III
Dont try! Try! Trial, attempt Tried
So it
is
It is tried It was tried
One who
tries
So he
is
He tried He tried

. . , . ,
` , . , ` ,` , . , `, . ,,` ` . , ` ,` , . , , . ,
VI
Dont
cooperate!
Cooperate! Cooperation Cooperated
So it
is
It is
cooperated
It was
cooperated
A
cooperator
So he
is
He
cooperates
He
cooperated



12.2.3 Form IV

In Form IV, the medial ` ` , - (weak letter) is dropped. For ,` _ ' we have _ ' (To want)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ,` ` _ '
_ ` ,` ,` , ` ,`, , _ ' ` , ,` ,` , ` , ,`, _ '
Dont
want!
Want! Want Wanted
So it
is
It is
wanted
It was
wanted
One who
wants
So he
is
He wants
He
wanted
172
12.2.4 Form VII

For , ` we have ` (To be driven)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ` ` `
` , ` ` ` ,` , `, ` ` , ` ` ` ` ,` , ` ` , `
Dont be
driven!
Be driven! Being driven Driven
So he
is
He is
driven
He was
driven
Driven
So he
is
He is
driven
He was
driven


12.2.5 Form VIII

For _ , ` - we have ` - _ (To need)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` _ ` - ` _ ` -
- , ` - ` _ ` -` ,` , ` _ ` -`, ` - _, ` _ ` -` ,` , ` _ ` -, _ ` -
Dont need! Need! Need Needed
So it
is
It is
needed
It was
needed
Needy
So he
is
He needs
He
needed

Note that the ` ,` (Active participle) and ,` ` ,` (Passive participle) are identical.


12.2.6 Form X

For , ` we have ` (To be straight)

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
. ` ` , ` , `
` ` ` ` ,` , ` ` `, ,, ` ` ` ,, ` ` ,` , ` ,, ` , `
Dont be
straight!
Be
straight!
Straightness Straight
So it
is
It is
straight
It was
straight
Straight
So it
is
It is
straight
It was
straight


173
| = , | . | = -
Chapter 13

Terminal Weak Verbs


In Chapter Twelve we encountered the ` ` ` (weak verb) in which the ` ` , - (weak letter) is
initial and we called it ` ` (initial weak). We also encountered the ` ` ` (weak verb) in which
the ` ` , - (weak letter) is medial and we called it ` ` ` ,` - ' (hollow weak). In this chapter, we
will be looking at the ` ` ` (weak verb) in which the ` ` , - (weak letter) is terminal. We call
this ` ` ` (terminal weak).


13.1 Form I

In Form I the ` ` ` (terminal weak) has four variations caused by the vowelising of the root letters
in the perfect and imperfect.

1. , ` ,` ` , , (To call)
2. , - , ` ,` -, , (To run)
3. _ , ' , ` _ , ', , (To refuse)
4. , , ` _ ` , , (To remain)

The imperfect verbs given above are ` _, ` , . This is indicated by a hidden ` . on the ` ` , - (weak
letter) which cannot appear either because of ` _ (impossibility) or (inelegance). The ` ` , -
(weak letter) carries a ., ` .
174
13.1.1 , ,` ` , , (To call)

is from the root , (da

awa). Just as we dropped the , of , to arrive at , we drop the , of ,

to arrive at (da

aa). Remember that the root is still , . The , reappears in the imperfect ,` ` , .

, ,` ` , , . ` . ,` is like . , ` .` , , and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, - .
They called
(2)
, - .
They (two) called
(1)
- .
He called
Masculine
(6)
. , - .
They called
(5)
- .
They (two) called
(4)
. - .
She called
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, , - .
You called
(8)
, - .
You (two) called
(7)
- . = ,
You called
Masculine
(12)
, - .
You called
(11)
, - .
You (two) called
(10)
= , - .
You called
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, - .
We called
(13)
= , - .
I called
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

The imperfect of is conjugated as follows

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
., - = ,
They call
(2)
. , - = ,
They (two) call
(1)
, - = ,
He calls
Masculine
(6)
., - = ,
They call
(5)
. , - =
They (two) call
(4)
, - =
She calls
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
., - =
You call
(8)
. , - =
You (two) call
(7)
, - =
You call
Masculine
(12)
., - =
You call
(11)
. , - =
You (two) call
(10)
_ - =
You call
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, - =
We call
(13)
, - . |
I call
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
175
13.1.2 , - , ,` -, , (To run)

, - is from the root , - (jaraya). We drop the and replace it with an _,` . ` . ' . The
reappears in imperfect ,` -, .

, - , ,` -, , is thus like - , ` ` -, , and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
-
They ran
(2)
, -
They (two) ran
(1)
; -
He ran
Masculine
(6)
, -
They ran
(5)
-
They (two) ran
(4)
= -
She ran
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, , -
You ran
(8)
, -
You (two) ran
(7)
. , -
You ran
Masculine
(12)
, -
You ran
(11)
, -
You (two) ran
(10)
. , -
You ran
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, -
We ran
(13)
. , -
I ran
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

The imperfect of , - is conjugated as follows

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. , '
They run
(2)
. , ,
They (two) run
(1)
,
He runs
Masculine
(6)
, ,
They run
(5)
. ,
They (two) run
(4)

She runs
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
.
You run
(8)
, .
You (two) run
(7)

You run
Masculine
(12)
,
You run
(11)
. ,
You (two) run
(10)
,
You run
Feminine
Second
person
(14)

We run
(13)
- |
I run
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

' Notice that the ,. has a ,` under it apart from the third and second person
masculine plurals, where it changes to ` .: .,` ,` -, & .,` ,` -
176
13.1.3 _ , ' , _ , ', , (To refuse)

(a) _ , ' is from the root , ' (abaya). We drop the and replace it with an ` . ' _,` . . The does not
reappear in imperfect _ , ', .
_ , ' , _ , ', , is thus like ' , , ' , , , and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, , |
They refused
(2)
, , |
They (two) refused
(1)
_ , |
He refused
Masculine
(6)
, , |
They refused
(5)
, |
They (two) refused
(4)
. , |
She refused
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, , , |
You refused
(8)
, , |
You (two) refused
(7)
. , , |
You refused
Masculine
(12)
, , |
You refused
(11)
, , |
You (two) refused
(10)
. , , |
You refused
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, , |
We refused
(13)
. , , |
I refused
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

The imperfect of _ , ' is conjugated as follows

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. , , | ,
They refuse
(2)
. , , | ,
They (two) refuse
(1)
_ , | ,
He refuses
Masculine
(6)
, , | ,
They refuse
(5)
. , , |
They (two) refuse
(4)
_ , |
She refuses
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
. , , |
You refuse
(8)
. , , |
You (two) refuse
(7)
_ , |
You refuse
Masculine
(12)
, , |
You refuse
(11)
. , , |
You (two) refuse
(10)
, , |
You refuse
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
_ , |
We refuse
(13)
_ ,
I refuse
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

' The . , in _ , ', , like the in _ ` , invariably has a -` on it.
177
(b) ' _ , ,, , (To see)

' _ , ,, , is from the root ' _ (raaya). It is like _ , ' , _ , ', , and in the perfect, it is conjugated in the
same way as _ , ' . The irregularity occurs in the imperfect, where we drop the hamza rendering ,, ,
rather than '` ,, .

' _ , ,, , is like ' , , ' , , , and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
| _
They saw
(2)
, | _
They (two) saw
(1)
; | _
He saw
Masculine
(6)
, | _
They saw
(5)
| _
They (two) saw
(4)
= | _
She saw
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, , | _
You saw
(8)
, | _
You (two) saw
(7)
. , | _
You saw
Masculine
(12)
, | _
You saw
(11)
, | _
You (two) saw
(10)
. , | _
You saw
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, | _
We saw
(13)
. , | _
I saw
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

The imperfect of ' _ is conjugated as follows

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. ,
They see
(2)
. , ,
They (two) see
(1)
; ,
He sees
Masculine
(6)
, ,
They see
(5)
. ,
They (two) see
(4)
;
She sees
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
.
You see
(8)
. ,
You (two) see
(7)
;
You see
Masculine
(12)
,
You see
(11)
. ,
You (two) see
(10)
,
You see
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
;
We see
(13)
; _ |
I see
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
178
13.1.4 , , _ ` , , (To remain)

The root of , is , itself. The imperfect is _ ` , .

, , _ ` , , is like , , , ` , , , , and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, ,
They remained
(2)
, ,
They (two) remained
(1)
_ ,
He remained
Masculine
(6)
_ ,
They remained
(5)
, ,
They (two) remained
(4)
. , ,
She remained
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, , ,
You remained
(8)
, ,
You (two) remained
(7)
., ,
You remained
Masculine
(12)
, ,
You remained
(11)
, ,
You (two) remained
(10)
., ,
You remained
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, ,
We remained
(13)
., ,
I remained
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

The imperfect of , is conjugated as follows

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, , , . '
They remain
(2)
. , , ,
They (two) remain
(1)
_ , ,
He remains
Masculine
(6)
, , ,
They remain
(5)
. , ,
They (two) remain
(4)
_ ,
She remains
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, , .
You remain
(8)
. , ,
You (two) remain
(7)
_ ,
You remain
Masculine
(12)
, ,
You remain
(11)
. , ,
You (two) remain
(10)
, ,
You remain
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
_ ,
We remain
(13)
_ , |
I remain
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

' Notice that the invariably has a -` on it. We say, ` , ` , . , not ` , ., for the
third person masculine plural.
179
13.1.5 ` ` ` ., (The doubly weak verb)

A verb containing two ` ` , - (weak letters) is called ` ` ` ., (doubly weak). We have two types.

(a) ` ` , ` ., : The first and last letter is weak

_ , , , , (To protect) is like , - , ,` -, , and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
| ,
They protected
(2)
| ,
They (two) protected
(1)
| _
He protected
Masculine
(6)
| ,
They protected
(5)
|
They (two) protected
(4)
| .
She protected
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
| , ,
You protected
(8)
| ,
You (two) protected
(7)
| . ,
You protected
Masculine
(12)
| ,
You protected
(11)
| ,
You (two) protected
(10)
| , .
You protected
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
| ,
We protected
(13)
| . ,
I protected
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

The imperfect of _ , is conjugated as follows

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
., ,
They protect
(2)
. , ,
They (two) protect
(1)
, _
He protects
Masculine
(6)
_ ,
They protect
(5)
. ,
They (two) protect
(4)
_
She protects
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
.,
You protect
(8)
. ,
You (two) protect
(7)
_
You protect
Masculine
(12)
_
You protect
(11)
. ,
You (two) protect
(10)
_
You protect
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
_
We protect
(13)
_ | |
I protect
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

180
(b) .,` , ` ., : The second and last letter is weak

, , ,` , , (To intend) is like , - , ,` -, , and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
,
They intended
(2)
, ,
They (two) intended
(1)
, ;
He intended
Masculine
(6)
, ,
They intended
(5)
,
They (two) intended
(4)
, =
She intended
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
, , ,
You intended
(8)
, ,
You (two) intended
(7)
, . ,
You intended
Masculine
(12)
, ,
You intended
(11)
, ,
You (two) intended
(10)
, . ,
You intended
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
, ,
We intended
(13)
, . ,
I intended
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

The imperfect of , is conjugated as follows

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. , ,
They intend
(2)
. , , ,
They (two) intend
(1)
, ,
He intends
Masculine
(6)
, , ,
They intend
(5)
. , ,
They (two) intend
(4)
,
She intends
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
. ,
You intend
(8)
. , ,
You (two) intend
(7)
,
You intend
Masculine
(12)
, ,
You intend
(11)
. , ,
You (two) intend
(10)
, ,
You intend
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
,
We intend
(13)
, |
I intend
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person




181
The ` .,` .` of the ` ` ` (terminal weak) verb obeys the same principle as the ` _, - . ` ` ,
(sound strong verb). Where the verb ends in a _,` . ` . ' the hidden ` . changes to a hidden -` but
there is no visible change because the ` ` , - (weak letter) must carry a ., ` owing to ` _
(impossibility).

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
| , - = ,
They will never call
(2)
| , - = ,
They will never call
(1)
, | , - =
He will never call
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, |
They will never run
(2)
, , |
They will never run
(1)
, |
He will never run
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , | , |
They will never refuse
(2)
, , | , |
They will never refuse
(1)
_ , | , |
He will never refuse
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, |
They will never see
(2)
, , |
They will never see
(1)
; , |
He will never see
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , , |
They will never remain
(2)
, , , |
They will never remain
(1)
_ , , |
He will never remain
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , |
They will never protect
(2)
, , |
They will never protect
(1)
_ , |
He will never protect
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
| , ,
They will never intend
(2)
, , , |
They will never intend
(1)
, , |
He will never intend
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


182
The ` ,` ,` - of the ` ` ` (terminal weak) verb is indicated by ` , - ` - (omission of the
weak letter). This is necessary because the ` _, ` , already ends in ., ` owing to ` _ (impossibility).

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, - = , , |
They did not call
(2)
, - = , , |
They did not call
(1)
g = , , |
He did not call
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , |
They did not run
(2)
, , , |
They did not run
(1)
, , |
He did not run
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , | , , |
They did not refuse
(2)
, , | , , |
They did not refuse
(1)
= | , , |
He did not refuse
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , |
They did not see
(2)
, , , |
They did not see
(1)
, , |
He did not see
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , , , |
They did not remain
(2)
, , , , |
They did not remain
(1)
, , , |
He did not remain
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , , |
They did not protect
(2)
, , , |
They did not protect
(1)
, , |
He did not protect
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)


(3)
, , , |
They did not intend
(2)
, , , , |
They did not intend
(1)
, , , |
He did not intend
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)




183
The ` ,` (Active Participle) of the ` ` ` (terminal weak) verb is of the form _ . This is
produced by dropping the ` ` , - (weak letter) leaving a ` , ` (reduced) word (cf. P8.2). We have
_ (caller), _ - (flowing), . (one who refuses), . _ (one who sees), , (one who remains), ,
(protector) and , (one who intends).

In the ,` ,` - ` (passive) of ` ` ` (terminal weak) verbs, the ` ` , - (weak letter) changes
to a rendering one pattern for all four ` ` ` (terminal weak) verb types in Form I. One example
will suffice.

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, - .
They were called
(2)
, - .
They were called
(1)
_ - .
He was called
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)



Plural Dual Singular
(3)
. , - = ,
They are called
(2)
. , - = ,
They are called
(1)
_ - = ,
He is called
Masculine
Third
person

(6)

(5)

(4)



The ,` ` ,` (Passive Participle) of the ` ` ` (terminal weak) verb is of the form ,` for the
, ,` , , type or for the rest. We have for example, ,` ` (called), ` , (seen, visible) and ,`
(intended).

We may summarise the above as follows.

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` _` . ` _`
,` . . ` ,` ` ,` , _ ` `, ` _ ,` , ,` ` ,
Dont call! Call! Prayer, Call Called
So he
is
He is
called
He was
called
A caller
So he
is
He calls
He
called
,` - . ,` -
, , - . ,` , -
-
,` ,
- -
_ - ,` , ,` -, , -
Dont run! Run! Running, flowing -
So he
is
- - A runner
So he
is
He runs He ran
. ' . .`,
. , , ' ,` , _ , '`, , ' . ,` , _ , ', _ , '
Dont refuse! Refuse! Refusal refused
So it
is
He is
refused
It was
refused
A refuser
So he
is
He
refuses
He
refused
184
. , _
,` ,` _ . , ' _ ` , ,` , ,`, ` _ . _ ,` , ,, ' _
Dont see! See! Opinion, vision
Seen,
visible
So it
is
It is seen It was seen A seer
So he
is
He sees He saw
` . ` ,
. ,
-
,` ,
- -
, ,` , _ ` , ,
Dont remain! Remain! Remaining -
So he
is
- -
One who
remains
So he
is
He
remains
He
remained
.
, , ` , ,` , _ ` ,`, ` , , ,` , , _ ,
Dont protect! Protect! Protection Protected
So he
is
He is
protected
He was
protected
A protector
So he
is
He
protects
He
protected
,` . ,`
` , ,` ,` , ,` `, ,` , ,` , ,` , ,
Dont intend! Intend! Intention Intended
So he
is
It is
intended
It was
intended
One who
intends
So he
is
He
intends
He
intended


13.2 Derived Forms

It may please you to know that the ` ` ` (terminal weak) verb in all the derived forms has only
one pattern in each form. The ` ,` (Active Participle) of all derived forms is ` , ` and the ` ,`
,` (Passive Participle) is always ` _,` . .


13.2.1 Form II

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` . ,` . ` . _
, ,` , _` , ,` ,` , _` , ,`, ` ,` _ . ,` ,` , ` , ,`, _` , _
Dont educate! Educate! Education Educated
So he
is
He is
educated
He was
educated
An
educator
So he
is
He
educates
He
educated


13.2.2 Form V

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` . `
, _ ` ,` , _ `, ` ` ,` , _ , _
Dont receive! Receive! Receiving Received
So he
is
It is
received
It was
received
A receiver
So he
is
He
receives
He
received


185
13.2.3 Form III

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` .
` . . ` ,` , `, ,` ` ,` , `,
Dont call! Call! Call Called
So he
is
He is
called
He was
called
A caller
So he
is
He calls
He
called

13.2.4 Form VI

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
, . ,
,. , _. , ` ,` , _ . , `, .,` ,` , ` ,` , _ . , , _ . ,
Dont
mutually
enjoin!
Mutually
enjoin!
Mutual
enjoining
Mutually
enjoined
So it
is
It is
mutually
enjoined
It was
mutually
enjoined
One who
mutually
enjoins
So he
is
He mutually
enjoins
He mutually
enjoined


13.2.5 Form IV

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` ` . ` '
. =` _=` ` ,` , _ =` `, =` ' ` ` ,` , =` `, _ =` '
Dont give! Give! Giving Given
So he
is
He is
given
He was
given
A giver
So he
is
He gives He gave


13.2.6 Form VII

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
_ ` . _ `
. ` _ ` ` ,` , _ ` `, ` ` _ ` ` ,` , ` , _ `
Dont be
necessary!
Be necessary! Necessity -
So he
is
- - Necessary
So it
is
It is
necessary
It was
necessary

The word _ ` , ` , , means to be necessary. Followed by ` it means it behoves him / is proper for
him. Followed by ` , it means he must / ought to. We have the following expressions:

` . : ` , It behoves you to go (obliged) (lit. going is proper for you)
` . :` , ` , You should go (obligated) (lit. going is necessary for you)
. ` . :` , ` , You should have gone
186
. ` . : ` , It does not behove you to go
` . :` , ` , . You should not go
` , . This should not be


13.2.7 Form VIII

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` , . ` _
. . ` _ _. ` ,` ,` , _ . ` ,`, .` ` _ ` ,` ,` , . ` ,, _ . ` _
Dont approve! Approve! Approval Approved
So it
is
It is approved
It was
approved
One who
approves
So he
is
He
approves
He
approved
. =` . . . =` .
. =` . _ =` .` ,` , _ =` .`, =` . . =` .` ,` , =` ., _ =` .
Dont choose! Choose! Choosing Chosen
So he
is
He is chosen
He was
chosen
One who
chooses
So he
is
He chooses He chose
. _` _`
. ` _` ` ,` , _ ` `, ' _` ` ,` , ` , _ `
Dont claim! Claim! Claim Claimed
So it
is
It is claimed
It was
claimed
A claimant
So he
is
He claims
He
claimed

Note that the of _ ` . from the root , . changes to owing to the emphatic preceding it,
rendering _ =` . . Also, the of ` _ from the root , changes to owing to the strong before it
and the two assimilate rendering _ ` .


13.2.8 Form X

Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)

Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)

Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
` . `
. ` ` ` ,` , _ ` `, ` ` ` ` ,` , ` , _ `
Dont except! Except! Exception excepted
So it
is
It is
excepted
It was
excepted
One who
excepts
So he
is
He excepts
He
excepted

187
= . |

_ . , , ` _ ., , ` . , To put down
` _` . , putting down
` _` . , , ` _ .` , ' , circumstance
, , ,` , . ` , _ , to call (to)
,` , , ` . , call
. ` , , ` ' , prayer
, - , , . ,` , - , , - to flow
` ` , - running
., , - flow
_ , ' , , . , to refuse
. , refusal
' _ , ,, , ,` ,` _ . , ' _ to see
` ' _ , . _ , opinion
,` ,` _ , ,` _ , seeing; vision, dream
, , , . , to remain
. , remaining
_ , , , , , , to protect
, , protection
, , ,` , , to intend
` , , , , . ` . , intention
` . ' , ,` . ' , root, origin
` . ' originally
_ much
- inside
- inside (adv.)
188
- - ` , ` .` inside (adv.)
` - from within
_ - ` _ outside; abroad
- _ - outside (adv.)
- _ - ` outside of, apart from (adv.)
_ _ - - ` , ` .` outside (adv.)
' - ` , ` .` in front of (adv.)
- - ` , ` .` during (adv.)
. _ , - ` , ` .` behind (adv.)
` , east
, eastward (adv.)
` .` , west
north
` .,` - south
` , right
, , toward the right (adv.)
` _ , left
, without (prep.)
. ~ , , ~ to seek, ask for
` . ~ , ` . ~ , request
, , - . , ` . , , - , animal
` _ , ` _, . ` _,` , home (land)
` ~ , ~ ' , food
, , quickly

_` , _ to educate
_ . to pray
189
.` one who prays
to call
_ =` ' to give
_ to receive

_ . , , . , , To mutually enjoin
_ ` , _ , . , To be necessary; to behove
_ ` To claim
_ . ` _ To be content
_ ` ` To summon

190
Exercise 15.1

Express in English


. ,` ` , , ' ` ,` ,` , _ , ` , , ' _ _ ` ` .` , `
. ,` ,` ,` ,` : ,` . ,` - ' : ` , , , , ~ ,` , , ` _ ,
. ` ` _ . _ , _ , - , , ` - - ` - , - ` ,` , ` ,` ' ` , `
. - . , _ , _` . , , ,` . ~ _ , ' ` , ,
. ` - _,` ,` - ` .`, , , , ` - ` .` , , '
. ` - , - ,` - _ ` _ . ,` ,` ., , - ,` ,` _
. ` - , ' ,` ,` _ , ' , = ` ' ` ` ` , , . ` .
. , , . - ` , `, , - -` , , ' ,` ` ` . ' _` _ _ - `
. ` . ' , ` ,` .
. _ ` , = ` ` ` . ' , ' , , ` , : ` , ` .`, ' .
. ` ,` _ , ` _` ,` - , . ,` . _ , , , , ` _ ` ` ,
.,` - , .` , , , ` ,` _ . : ` , ` . ,
. ` -` ` ` - , ,` . ,
. ` ` , , . = ,
. , , ` , , , , ` ` , ,, ` ,` ,`
. ` ,` ,' , _ ` ,` , ,


191
Exercise 15.2


Express in Arabic

1. His invitation was not clear and that prevented me from coming.
2. I have invited all my friends to my house for a meeting and they will stay tonight.
3. She has been to many places and seen many things, especially the East.
4. This invitation of his was originally for me only but the situation calls for us all to attend.
5. He mentioned your name after my name when he called our names yesterday.
6. He was a student in Egypt. After that he stayed in Damascus until his death.
7. Everything is as if it has reached its completion now.
8. He was outside, passing by his friends house when he heard their call from behind the door.
9. Hasan continued to be angry with me (` ) even though he saw clearly during our conversation
that the circumstances were difficult for me.
10. And apart from your many strange/far-fetched/outlandish (, ,) opinions, is there any basis to
this question of yours?
11. The meeting is running now and all the ministers intend to stay in the city throughout the three
days.
12. Perhaps they intend to stay throught the night and when they wake up tomorrow, they may
refuse to go.

192
| = , | _ , = -
Chapter 14

Revolution I

. , her sisters and half-sisters

In chapter two, we learned that . enters upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) and acts as a time
machine, transporting it to the past. We also learned that . enters upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence)
and emphasises it. The two have one thing in common. They abrogate the (grammatical
government) of the ' ` ` (subject). We call them ` _ , (abrogators).

In a regular ` ` ` - ` , the ' ` ` (subject) is the (regent), which makes itself and the ` , -
(predicate) ` _, ` , . When . enters upon a ` , ` ` ` - it abrogates the of the ' ` ` and
subordinates it. . makes the ' ` ` (subject) ` _, ` , and the ` , - (predicate) ` .,` .` . When . enters
upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) it again abrogates the of the ' ` ` and subordinates it. . makes
the ' ` ` (subject) ` .,` .` and the ` , - (predicate) ` _, ` , .

There are three groups of ` _ , (abrogators) in Arabic,
1. . , her sisters and half-sisters
2. . and her sisters
3. ` ~ and her sisters

In this chapter we shall meet . and her sisterhood.

14.1 . (the verb to be)

Though we have kept it secret so far, . (he was), like (he said), is a ` ,` - ' ` (hollow verb). The
triliteral root of . is , (kawana). The , reappears _ _ .` (in the imperfect) ., , (he is,
will be). ` _ ` . . (the verbal noun of kaana) is .` , (universe)
193
. , ., , , (he was) is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
,
They were
(2)

They (two) were
(1)
.
He was
Masculine
(6)
'
They were
(5)

They (two) were
(4)
.
She was
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
,
You were
(8)

You (two) were
(7)
.
You were
Masculine
(12)

You were
(11)

You (two) were
(10)
.
You were
Feminine
Second
person
(14)

We were
(13)
.
I was
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

` ' is an assimilation of `

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
., , ,
They are
(2)
. , ,
They (two) are
(1)
., ,
He is
Masculine
(6)
,
They are
(5)
, .
They (two) are
(4)
.,
She is
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
., ,
You are
(8)
. ,
You (two) are
(7)
.,
You are
Masculine
(12)

You are
(11)
. ,
You (two) are
(10)
_ ,
You are
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
.,
We are
(13)
., |
I am
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person



194
. is the Arabic verb to be. In English, the verb to be is called an auxiliary or helping verb because
it helps us to transport sentences into the past and future. In Arabic, the verb . is called ` `
(deficient verb, not to be confused with the ` ` ` ` (terminal weak verb) introduced in chapter
thirteen). . is called ` (deficient) because it refers to being something rather than doing
something. Although . is a ` (verb), it does not have a (subject) and , ,` (object) like a
` (a proper verb). Instead, . has a ' ` ` which we rename ` ,` . (the subject of kaana) and a
` , -, which we call ` , - . (the predicate of kaana).

We know that . enters upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence). Here we can distinguish between two
types of ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) and say that . is able to enter upon both,

1. A ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun). . makes this
` , - (predicate) ` .,` .` .

, ` -` ` . = . The student was hard working

2. A ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence).

` , ` -, ` . = . The student was working hard


14.1.1 Transporting a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun).

(a) In chapter two we transported the ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,`
(noun) into ` . (the past) by simply placing . before it.

. ` , ,` , - It was good for you

We can transport a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) _ ` ` (to the future) by placing ., , before it.

., , ` , ,` , - It will be good for you

(b) The imperfect ., , is sometimes used - (in the present tense) as a verb to be when making
assumptions.

:` ` , .. ` _ Your son is big now
195
. _ ` ` ` _ :` ` ,
.. _ ., ,
Your son went to Damascus many years ago so
he will be big now.
.. ` - ., , Hasan should/will be in Makkah (by) now

(c) In chapter two we encountered the indefinite ' ` ` (subject):

` . ~ _` A student is in the school; or
There is a student in the school

If we transport this ` ` - (sentence) _ . (into the past) using . or _ ` ` (into the future)
using ., , , we get,

. ` ' ` . ~ _` A student was in the school yesterday; or
There was a student in the school yesterday
., , ` . ~ _`
A student will be in the school tomorrow; or
There will be a student in the school tomorrow

In such ` - (sentences) where ` , - . is an elliptical or hidden ` ,` -` , , . expresses a meaning of
simple existence which we translate as there was or there will be as opposed to expressing a
meaning of x was y or x will be y. When this occurs, . is considered to be ` (a proper verb)
and not ` (deficient). ` . ~ is thus . not ` ,` . and we may bring it forward.

. ` . ~ ` ' _` A student was in the school yesterday; or
There was a student in the school yesterday

196

First Aid

Students often translate the sentence . ` . ~ _` (there was a student
in the school) as he was a student in the school.

Prescription

. may be summarised as follows:

. ` - ,
Hasan was a boy
(` - is ` ,` . (subject) and , is ` , - . (predicate))

, . He was a boy
(The ` ,` . (subject) is the implied pronoun ,` .
, is - ` , . (predicate)).



` , . , .` , ,

There was a boy (in the house)
(` , is . and there is no ,` (object). . is `
(proper verb).

14.1.2 Transporting a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) in which the - ` , (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence)

(a) The Pluperfect

A pluperfect is a perfect of a perfect. A ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a
` (perfect verb) is transported by . further _ . (into the past), usually in relation to
another event.

. He went
. ` -` , The man went
` -` , . . The man had gone
` -` , . . The man had gone
. . He had gone

~ls .
197
The particle ` (not ` which can only initiate a sentence) may be placed before the ` (perfect
verb) that is the ` , - . (the predicate of kaana) as a rhetorical flourish.

. ` ` -` , . The man had gone
` -` , . ` . The man had gone
. ` ` -` , . ` - . , ` When Hasan arrived the man had (already) gone


,` ` ` ` ,` - . ` - . , `
When Hasan arrived, his brothers had (already) gone
(,` is plural because it comes after ` ` , . ,

` ` ,` - . ` . ` - . , `
When Hasan arrived, his brothers had (already) gone
, . and . are singular here because they precede ` ,` . ,



(b) The past continuous

A ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb) is
transported by . into ` . (the past), producing a past continuous.

` . , He is going / he goes
` -` , ` . , The man is going / goes
. ` -` , ` . , The man was going / used to go
. ` . , He was going


(c) Intention in the past

A ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb) with the
future particle . attached to it is transported by . to ` . (the past), producing a past intention.

` .` , He will write
. ` .` , He was going to write
198

(d) The future perfect

A ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` (perfect verb) is transported
by ., , into ` ` (the future). Again, the particle ` (not ` ) may be placed before the `
(perfect verb) that is the ` , - . (the predicate of kaana) as a rhetorical flourish.

, ` . ` ` -` ., , . ` ` -
When Muhammad arrives tomorrow, Hasan will have (already) gone




199
14.2 - , = , - | . (some sisters of kaana)


All ' (verbs) bearing a meaning of being, becoming, not being or not becoming are sisters of
. , and like . are ' . (deficient verbs). Sisters of . behave like . by,

1. A ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun). . makes this ` , -
(predicate) ` .,` .` .
2. A ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence).

14.2.1 ` ,

We have used the verb ` , he is not to negate a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence). It is a ` (perfect
verb) but negates only in the present tense. It has no ` _ _ .` (imperfect).

Although ` , is a hollow root, it does not become . . This is anomalous in the Arabic language.

` , is conjugated as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
,` ` ,
They are not
(2)
` ,
They (two) are not
(1)
` ,
He is not
Masculine
(6)
`
They are not
(5)
` ,
They (two) are not
(4)
` . ` ,
She is not
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
` ,` `
You are not
(8)
` `
You (two) are not
(7)
.`
You are not
Masculine
(12)
` ` `
You are not
(11)
` `
You (two) are not
(10)
.`
You are not
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
`
We are not
(13)
` .`
I am not
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person


* (a) ` , like . makes the ` , - (predicate) ` .,` .` and does not affect the ' ` ` (subject).

` _ ` .` , The house is big
` , _ ` .` , The house is not big
200
_ ` , It is not big

The negative particle and . are able to do the job of ` ,

` .` , _ The house is not big
. _ ` .` , The house is not big

If the ' ` ` (subject) is a ` _ . (pronoun), unlike with ` , it does not drop when negated by .

` . ~ ,` He is a student
~ ,` He is not a student
. ~ ,` He is not a student

The preposition , . may be placed ` , - ` , (before the predicate of laysa) and also ` , -
(before the predicate of maa), without changing the meaning.

` , _ , ` .` , The house is not big
_ , ` .` , The house is not big
' ` , ` , , , ` .` , _ , ) 7:172 ( Am I not your Lord? They said, yes indeed
` _ ' , And I am a reciter
_ , ' , And I am not a reciter

(ii) We do not use ` , to say he/it was not. Instead we use . negated by .

. ` .` , _ The house was not big

` , -` _ - ' , ' ` ` -` . , 33:40 ,
Muhammad was not the father of any of your men folk

(iii) To say he will not be we use , . ., .

201
, . ., ` .` , _ The house will not be big

(b) ` , can be used, especially in poetry and literature, to negate both perfect and imperfect verbs.

. ` , / . He did not write
` .` , ` , / ` .` , . He is not writing


14.2.2 _ . , , ` _ . , , ` .` , . , _,` ,` , . (he became) is another ` ,` - ' ` (hollow verb) that is also a sister of . .

(a) _ . , , ` _ . , enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun).

` ' ` . _ . She became a professor

(b) _ . , , ` _ . , enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` -
(verb sentence) to mean to come to. The ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) must be a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect
verb).

_ . ` , , , He came to understand


14.2.3 _ ` . ' , ` _ ` .`, , (he became) is a sister of . . It is form IV.

(a) _ ` . ' , ` _ ` .`, , enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun).

. ` . . - ` . ' The girls became women
_ ` . ' . - _ ` .` , . The boys became men

(b) _ ` . ' , ` _ ` .`, , enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the - ` , (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` -
(verb sentence) to mean to come to. The ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence) must be a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect
verb).

_ ` . ' ` , , , He came to understand




202
14.2.4 . , , ` ., , , , ` . , , ` ` , , , (he became) is another ` ,` - ' ` (hollow verb) that is also a sister of . . The
first person perfect ` . , is an assimilation of . ` , .

(a) . , , ` ., , , enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun).

` , , ` ,` .` , . , His arrival has become imminent
,` ` - ` ,` .` , . , His arrival has become certain

Knowing when to use . , as opposed to _ . or _ ` . ' comes with experience. For the moment, it is
advisable to restrict yourself to the above two given expressions when using . , .

(b) . , , ` ., , , enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` -
(verb sentence) to mean to come to. The ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) must be a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect
verb).

` . ` ` -, . , He came to find it hard

203
14.2.5 _ / . ,, (he still is (lit. he has not ceased to be)) is only ever used negated. We may also negate
the perfect with . and the imperfect with rendering: _ . / ,, . Like ` , the perfect and
imperfect bear the same present tense meaning. _ / . ,, (he still is) should not be confused with
_ , ,` ,, , (to disappear).

_ / . ,, (he still is) is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
, _
They still are
(2)
. _
They still are
(1)
_
He still is
Masculine
(6)
_
They still are
(5)
_
They still are
(4)
` . _
She still is
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
` ,` _
You still are
(8)
` _
You still are
(7)
. _
You still are
Masculine
(12)
` ` _
You still are
(11)
` _
You still are
(10)
. _
You still are
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
_
We still are
(13)
` . _
I still am
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

(a) _ / . ,, enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,`
(noun).

_ / _ . , ` - ,, . Hasan is still a little boy
.` , ` ,` _ ' Are you still at home?
, _ _ We are still many
, _ They are still with us

(b) _ / . , , enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` -
(verb sentence) to mean to come to. The ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence) must be a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect
verb).

_ / . ,, ` ` ' , , He still reads / is still reading his books
204
14.2.6 (so long as, for as long as) is a sister of . . It must be preceded by which is not a negation
here. It has no ` _ _ .` (imperfect) and is conjugated . (in the perfect) as follows:

Plural Dual Singular
(3)
,`
So long as they are
(2)

So long as they are
(1)

So long as he is
Masculine
(6)
` `
So long as they are
(5)

So long as they are
(4)
` .
So long as she is
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
` ,` ` `
So long as you are
(8)
` ` `
So long as you are
(7)
.` `
So long as you are
Masculine
(12)
` ` ` `
So long as you are
(11)
` ` `
So long as you are
(10)
.` `
So long as you are
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
` `
So long as we are
(13)
` .` `
So long as I am
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person

(a) enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` ,` (noun).

` , - ` .` `
For as long as I am alive


., , ` , - ` .` ` _ . :`
Your speech will be in my conscience for as long as I am alive


` ` - ` ` , . ,` - ' `
We are with you so long as we are alive


, , . = ` ` `
Allah will be with us so long as we are with him

(b) enters upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` - (verb
sentence) to mean to come to. The ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) must be a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb).


` .` ` ` ` ., '
So long as I am a Muslim
205
14.3 Half-sisters of .

The expression half-sister of . is of my own coinage and is not found in Arabic grammar. I have
named these verbs so because they are only able to perform half the function of . . They enter upon a
` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , - (predicate) is a ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence) that is a `
` _ _ .` (imperfect verb). They are not able to enter upon a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which the ` , -
(predicate) is a ` ,` (noun). These verbs in Arabic are called . , _ ` (the related verbs).

14.3.1 Verbs meaning to begin

The perfect verb ' , may be placed before a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb) to mean he began to . . ., in
the same way as we placed the perfect of . before an imperfect verb to mean he was . . ..

. ` .` , He was writing
` .` , ' , He began to write
' , ' , , He began to read

The verbs - and - ' among others, also bear a meaning of to begin to apart from their other
meanings.

. , , He was saying
, - , He began to say
` ` -, - ' He began to sit

14.3.2 , ` , , (almost)

(a) , ` , , followed by a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb) renders almost

` ' , , . He was reading it
` ' , , He almost read it
, ` , ` , , He almost trusted them
, ` , ` , , ` , He almost trusts them
, , ' ., , He was almost like his father
206
, , ' ., , ` , He is almost like his father
` , - ,` , ` ` ., , ` , His speech is almost bad


(b) When negated, , ` , , means (can) hardly

` ' , ,
He could hardly read it
(lit. he almost couldnt read it)
` , , , ` , ` , . He can hardly trust them

(c) The structure / ` , . - ` - _` - - ` means hardly when or no sooner
than.

' _` - ` ' , , ` ` . ` . - He had hardly read it when
I took the book from him
- _` - .` , _ ` - ' , ` ,` , ' - No sooner had he sat than his father
entered and took him home


207
= . |

. , ., , , ` , , , he was kaana (yakuun
u
) kawn
an
, kiyaan
an

.` , , . , ' , universe; being kawn
un
(akwaan
un
)
. , existence kiyaan
un

` when (before perfect verb) lammaa
` when (before any verb)

indamaa
` , not (before noun sentence) laysa
_ . , ` _ ., , _,` ,` , .
1. to become
2. to come to
Saara (yaSeer
u
) Sayruurat
an

_,` ,` , . becoming Sayruurat
un

_ ` . ' , ` _ ` .`, ,
1. to become
2. to come to
aSbaHa (yuSbiH
u
)
. , , ` ., , ,
1. to spend the night
2. to become
3. to come to
baata (yabeet
u
)
` :, , imminent washeek
un

. , , , it has become imminent baata washeek
an

` ,` ` - certain maHtuum
un

,` ` - . , it has become certain baata maHtuum
an

_ / ,, . still Maa zaala / laa yazaal
u

_ , ,` ,, , , ` . ` _ , . , _ to disappear zaala (yazuul
u
) (zultu) zawaal
an

, _
1. disappearance
2. noon
zawaal
un

` :, , ,` , doomed to early ruin washeek
u
az-zawaal
i

so long as Maa daama
, , ` , To persist Daama (yaduum
u
) daum
an

- , . ,` - ' , alive hayy
un
(aHyaa
un
)
` , - ` .` ` so long as I am alive Maa dumtu Hayy
an

' , , , .` , to begin badaa (yabda
u
) bad
an

208
.` , beginning Bad
un

(imperf. verb) - / - ' - to begin Ja

ala / akhadha
, ` , , almost, about to kaada (yakaad
u
)
/ ` , . (could) hardly Maa kaada / laa yakaad
u

/ ` , . - `
- _` - - `
hardly when
no sooner than
maa kaada / laa yakaad
u
+
perfect verb + Hatta + perfect
verb
tomorrow (adv.) ghad
an

` ` since, for; ago (prep.) mundhu
,` , ` `
1. for a month (past);
2. since a month ago;
3. a month ago
mundhu shahr
in

.. ` ` from now onwards mundhu al-aan
a

, , ` ` from today onwards mundhu al-yawm
i

` ` .` since the beginning mundhu al-bad
i

_ . ` .` ` ` since I was young mundhu kuntu Sagheer
an

` ` period muddat
un

,` , ` ` for a month limuddat
i
shahr
in

` ` ,` - ' hollow verb fi

l
un
ajwaf
u

` proper verb fi

l
un
taamm
un

` ` deficient verb fi

l
un
naaqiS
un

. the past (tense) al-maaD
ii

,` ,` . / ` , . last month/year (adv.)
ash-shahr
a
al-maaDiy
a
/
as-sanat
a
al-maaDiyat
a

- the present (tense) al-Haal
u

` ` the future (tense) al-mustaqbal
u

. ` ,` subject of kaana ism
u
kaana
. ` , - predicate of kaana khabar
u
kaana

209
Exercise 14.1

Express in English

. -, - . ` ' ~ .
. ` _ ` _ ` - ,` - ` , .
. ` . _ , - ` . _,` .` , ` , - ,` , ` . ' , `
. ,` , , ` _ . _ ` ` -, . ` ` ` - , `
. ` _ ` , ` _ , - ` ., , ' , ` :
. ` ` , , , , '
. ` _,` . ,` , _ ` - . _ ` . ` . ` - _ . - _
. , , - ,` .` , . ,
. , _ , , _ ` . ` ,, ` - , _,` ` . ` ,
. , , = _ , , , . ` ` ' - ., ,
. . ` ` , , , , ~ , , ` - - '
. ` . = ' , , ` ` . `
. ` , ` , , , ` , .
. , ,` , . ` , , . , `, , , ` - ' _` - , ` ,
. = .

Exercise 14.2 Express in Arabic

1. Hasan was a new student last year.
2. Your presence in the council was a reason for many people leaving.
3. There were many men in the city.
4. When I arrived, Hasan had left the city four weeks ago.
5. Hasan used to go to the sea every day at

asr time.
6. When your brother takes you to the city tomorrow, Hasan will have arrived before you.
7. My book is not difficult. I have read it and understood it.
8. Maryam became an author and wrote beautiful books.
9. Their exit from the meeting became certain.
10. The book is still very difficult after many readings.
11. I am with you so long as I am alive.
12. When I entered, Hasan began to leave the meeting.
13. The boys statement is almost incorrect.
14. He can hardly begin to speak.
15. No sooner had be become a minister than he desired the presidents chair.
210
| = , | - = -
Chapter 15

Revolution II

. , and her sisters

15.1 . ,

The particle . is used in Classical Arabic for emphasis and may be translated as indeed or verily. In
Modern Arabic, it has lost much of its rhetorical strength and may have no translational value.

. is the second of our ` _ , (abrogators). It enters upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence), abrogates the
of the ' ` ` and subordinates it. . makes the ' ` ` (subject) ` .,` .` and the ` , - (predicate) ` _, ` , .
We may think of it as doing the opposite of . .

, ` -` ` . = . The student was hard working
. ` , ` -` . = Indeed the student is hard working

. cannot enter upon a ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence). If we wish to emphasise a ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence)
using . , we must bring the (subject) forward so that the ` , ` ` ` - (verb sentence) becomes a
` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence). The particle ` may be placed before the ` (verb) as a rhetorical flourish.

, . - ` -` , _ ` - . The man attended the meeting
` -` , . , . - ` _ ` - . Indeed the man attended the meeting

15.1.1 When the . ` ,` (subject of inna) is a ` _ . (pronoun), . it must be expressed as a ` _ . ` .`
(attached pronoun). This is because the . ` ` ` , . (detached pronouns) only sit _ _ - (in the
place of raf) and the ` , . ` .` (attached pronouns) only sit .` . - (in the place of naSb) or
, - - (in the place of jarr).

` < , ` `
He is generous


` < , ,`
He is generous

, ,`
She is generous




,
She is generous




211
` , ` , `
You (pl.) are generous

` , ` ,` ` '
You (pl.) are generous

` . , ` ` ,`
They (pl. fem.) are generous




` . , ` `
They (pl. fem.) are generous


15.1.2 When ` ,` . (the subject of inna) is a dual _ ` ,` (demonstrative pronoun) we have,

. , . . These (two) are (two) students
. ` , , . . These (two) were (two) friends
. . , . , Indeed these (two) are (two) friends

15.1.3 We know that . may introduce a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) in which an indefinite ' ` ` (subject) is
preceded by a ` ` - ` (quasi sentence).

` . ~ _` There is a student in the school
. ~ _` Indeed there is a student in the school
` - ,` - ` , ` There is a meeting after fajr
` - ,` - ` , . Indeed there is a meeting after fajr

The indefinite ` ,` . may be brought forward to immediately follow . .

. _` ~ Indeed there is a student in the school
,` - ` , ` - . Indeed there is a meeting after fajr

15.1.4 The particle . (not to be confused with the preposition . ) is another particle that may be used to
emphasise a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence). It is called . . ` , . ` (the lam of initiation) because, like . it
takes its position at the beginning of the sentence. Because of its emphatic value, it is often called ` .
'` , or ` ,` ` . , (the lam of emphasis).

` , ` -` .` ' You are hard working
212
.` . ` , ` -` Indeed you are hard working

The particle . may be used to further strengthen a ` ` - ` , ` (noun sentence) already emphasized by
the . ` , . ` . (the lam of initiation). When this occurs, there is a conflict between the two particles over
who should occupy prime position at the beginning of the sentence. . always wins and displaces the
. ` , . ` . (the lam of initiation) so it has to resign to preceding a later part of the sentence. It is then
called ` - ,` ` (the displaced lam).

(a) The particle . may precede an indefinite ' ` ` preceded by a ` ` ` - ` (quasi sentence).

. = _` Indeed there is a student in the school

(b) The particle . may precede ` , - . (the predicate of inna).

` , ` -` :` Indeed you are hard working
,` . . ` ,, = Indeed the matter is great

(c) The particle . may precede a ` ` ` - ` (quasi sentence) attached to an elliptical ` , - (predicate).

. . = _` Indeed the student is in the school
, ,, = ` - _ .` ' And you are upon a mighty character
, ,, = ` - _ :` , , 68:4 , And indeed you are upon a mighty character

(d) The particle . may precede a , - - ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb in the place of the
predicate).

. ` , ` - , . = Indeed the student does works hard

If it precedes a , - - ` (perfect verb in the place of the predicate) it must be
accompanied by ` .

. , ` - . = Indeed the student did work hard


213
15.1.5 . is used for indirect speech to mean that after (he said).

. ` ` , ' . He said that his father had passed away
., , . ` ` He said that he was ill

It is also possible in Arabic, as we do in English, to have direct speech after . We simply place the
quotation after without . and without quotation marks or any punctuation.

` , , ' He said, I am ill
` . ` . - ` . ' , - , ' .` , ` , ` .
She said to me, My life has become difficult
after the death of my father

15.2 - , = , - | . , (some sisters of inna , . )

The ` . , - ' . (sisters of inna) all enter upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) and abrogate the of the
' ` ` making it ` .,` .` and the ` , - (predicate) ` _, ` , .

15.2.1 . ' (that)

. ' is used to mean that in expressions such as he mentioned that, he heard that and the fact is
that.

. ' ` ,, _ , , . ` :
The minister mentioned that the king has died
., , .` :` ' ` .`
I heard that you were ill
, . . ' , . - It reached me / I heard that a friend of mine came
(lit. that a friend of mine came reached me)
` . ` -` . ' ` _ , The fact is that Muhammad is truthful
` . ` ` ' ` _ , The fact is that he is truthful
` _ , ` . , . ' The fact is that this boy is truthful
, . :` ' .
That you are my friend prevented me from going

(a) If we introduce . ' before a ` , ` ` ` - (a verb sentence), we must bring (the subject) forward,
to act as ` ,` ' . because . ' cannot be followed immediately by a ` (verb).
214

` , . . - A friend of mine came
. - , . . ' , I heard that a friend of mine came
Not: . - . ' , ` , .

., , ` . . The girl was ill
., , ` . .` . ' ` .` I heard that the girl was ill
Not: ., , ` .` . . ' ` .`

(b) If the (subject) is an implied ` _ . (pronoun), we have to insert a ` _ . ` .` (attached
pronoun) after . ' to separate it from ` (the verb).

, , . He was fast
, , . ` ` ' ` .` , I mentioned that he was fast
_ .` , ` ,` ` You (pl.) were ill
` ` ` , ` ' ` .` _ .` , ` , I heard that you (pl.) were ill
,` , . - They attended
,` , . - ` ,` ,` ' , I heard that they attended

(c) We have the following idioms produced using . ' :

. ' ,` , However, but
. - , ` , ` ` ' ,` , He came but he didnt say anything
. ' _ Despite, even though
. ' , _ Despite, even though
` ` ' _ . - / ., , . ` ` ' , _ He came even though he was ill
215
. ' _ (Considered) as
` , - ` ` ' _ ` ` - ' I took it as new
. ' , Since / because
. ' .` , - Since / because

:` ' , / ` , , :` ' .` , - , . ` , , ` - ` . ,
Since you are ill, Hasan will not go today

15.2.2 (b) ` / ` , (But)

, _` _ ` ` _, - ` , , _ .` , ,` `
We went to the school but all the teachers were ill today

15.2.3 . . (Because (lit. for that))

` , , . .` - . . ` ,` - ' . `
There is love among us because Man is brother to Man

15.2.4 (Perhaps)
` _ ` - . ` , ~ The news is good
` , ~ _ ` - . Perhaps the news is good
` .,` , , ` ,` , Perhaps they are close to us

15.2.5 . ' (as if / as though (lit. like that))

` ,` - , - ` ,` ,` ' ` , , ,` ,` , ` , ` They came out of their houses as if they are kings
.` :` ' (it is) as if you were with us

15.2.6 .` , / .` , , (if only)

.` , ` _ , If only the boy were big
` . ` -` .` , If only Muhammad were here
216
.,` ` , ` , .` , , , , 36:26 , He said, If only my people knew (36:26)
,` .` , , I wish I knew

15.2.7 . for absolute negation

. as a sister of . is used for absolute negation. That is, negating the very existence of a class of things.
The . ` ,` must be , (indefinite), but it does not have ` , ,` .
- . ~ . No student is ignorant
. _` . ~ There is no student in the school
. ~ . _` There are no students in the school
. - ' .` , There is nobody at home
. - ' : ` . , Nobody will go with you
. ` : : There is no doubt about that
. ` : ` . ` ` ' There is no doubt that he is truthful

Note the following idiomatic expressions:

. ' , Never mind, it doesnt matter, its all right
(lit. No detriment)
. :` , ' ,
Dont worry, dont be afraid
(lit. No harm upon you)
. ` ` ` , ... is necessary, inevitable
(lit. There is no escape from)
. ` ` ` , : That is necessary
. ` ` , : ` : You simply must do that
. ` ` , ` It is absolutely necessary to speak with him

(a) The word means equal, (a)like. We have the following expression:

` .` , ` They are both the same to me / in my opinion
217
` . ` They are both the same to me / in my opinion

When we negate using the . of absolute negation, we have the following idiomatic expression:

` , . , Especially (lit. and not equally)
` ., ,` , ` , . , .` ` - ' , , Hasan reads books, especially novels

The definite word after ` , . , is always ` _, ` , .

15.3 and her sisters


15.3.1 ` ~ , ' =, , (to think, consider)

The verb ` ~ , ` =, , enters upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) and turns both the ' ` ` (subject) and the
` , - (predicate) into ,` ` , (two objects).

` , ` -` , The man is a scholar
` -` , ` ~ He considered the man (to be) a scholar
` ~ -, - . He considered the speech to be correct

The first ,` , (object) was originally the ' ` ` (subject) and the second was originally the ` , -
(predicate). This is why the second ,` , (object) is , (indefinite).

15.3.2 ` ~ ` . , - ' (Sisters of Dhanna)

The ' (verbs) that mean to consider, deem, see, think, find, give etc. are sisters of ` ~ . Like ` ~ they
enter upon a ` , ` ` ` - (noun sentence) and turn both the ' ` ` (subject) and the ` , - (predicate) into
,` ` , (two objects).

` -` , ` .` - I considered the man a scholar
, , ~ -
He considered the speech long
(Also, He made the speech long. Here - is not a sister of ` ~)
` , ~ . - , He found the book good

218

219
= . |

. emphatic particle inna
. ... he said that qaala inna
` _ , . ' ... the fact is that al-waaqi
u
anna
` / ` , but laakinna / walaakinna
. . because lianna
perhaps la

alla
. ' as if / as though kaanna
.` , / .` , , if only layta / yaa layta
, , , ,` .` , if only I knew yaa layta shi

ri
. ' ,` , However, but ghayra anna
. ' _ / . ' , _ despite, even though ma

a anna / raghma anna

. ' _ (considered) as

alaa anna
. ' , / . ' .` , - since bimaa anna / Haythu anna
: , ` , ` , doubt shakk
un
(shukuuk
un
)
: ` : . there is no doubt about that laa shakk
a
fi dhaalika
. ' ` : . ... there is no doubt that laa shakk
a
anna
` ' , harm, detriment bas
un

. ' ,
never mind, it doesnt
matter, its all right
laa bas
a

. :` , ' , dont worry, dont be afraid laa bas
a

alaika
. ` ` ` , ... is necessary, inevitable laa budd
a
min
equal, (a)like siyy
un

` .` , `
they are both the same to
me
huma siyyaani

indi
` , . , especially walaa siyyamaa
_ , ` . , indication ishaarat
un
(aat
un
)
, '` ` . / ` ,` ` . , the laam of emphasis laam
u
at-takeed
i


220
Exercise 15.1

Express in English


. ` - ` , ` - . ` ` ` - .
. ` ' , - . _ . ,
. ` ` - ` , ` - ` ` , : ` : . ,
. , . :` . ` .` , ` :` , , :` , ` -
. . , , - , ` , , ` . ` . . ' : , ` -
. : : ` ' ` -, . ` ` , ` - ` _ . , ,` . .
. : , ` ` , _ ,` ,` . ` , - . , '
, ' , ` , ,` -
. , . -` ' ` . ,' , ` - _,` ` . ` , . ' _ ` - . . -
. . ,` . _ ` . ` ` _ ` , .`, ` , - . ' ` _ ,
` ,` ` - ` ` , . ' ,` , `, . ` ,,
. , .. . , , ` .` ` ` ` . ' , ` ,
. ` . :` ' ` : . . .`, ' ` . - '
. ` ` . ` ` , ` _ . ` , :` ' ` - :` ' , : , `
:` , ' , . . , ` , :` , : ` .` ,








221
Exercise 15.2

Express in Arabic


1. These are my two friends. They are noble of character.
2. The fact is that these subjects are very difficult.
3. Indeed I have come to your (pl.) house out of love for you and because you are my friends.
4. When I heard from my friends that they were ill, I had already left Damascus.
5. He came to me as if he had reached his death and was restless.
6. I found you (dual) to be generous so I mentioned your names to the minister. Perhaps he will
mention you to the king tomorrow.
7. I heard that you prevented your children from going to school.
Indeed you have killed their minds.
8. I heard that you came to my house yesterday but left immediately that night.
9. These teachers of mine are noble of character.
10. His statement was clear but I did not hear it.
11. He said that he was ill so he did not leave the house.
12. The fact is that we arrived yesterday but did not hear anything from you.
13. Hasans brother is my friend. We are friends for the sake of Allah.
14. The rich man understood that love of wealth prevented him from many good deeds.
15. Indeed the high and mighty of the world are kings and presidents, but death kills all.
16. The minister said in the cabinet meeting that the matter is very great.
17. He prevented his brother from going to school because he was ill.

222
| = , | . . = -
Chapter 16

. | and her sisters


16.1 . |

The particle . ' means to (as in he requested me to stay) or that (as in he requested that I stay). It
must be followed by a ` _ _ .` ` (imperfect verb) which it ` .` ` ., . The negative of . ' is .' which is a
conflation of . ' - . and means not to or that not.

. ' . ~ . , He requested to go / that he go
. ' . ~ . ' He requested me to go / that I go
. ~ .' . ' He requested me not to go / that I do not go
` , _ ' . ' . ' I want to go


16.1.1 . ' is called _ ` . ` ` , - (lit. verbal-nounish particle). This is because . ' and the ` ` - ` , ` (verb
sentence) it introduces expounds or explains a ` _ ` . (a verbal noun) and is therefore, interchangeable with
a ` _ ` . (a verbal noun).

(a) . ' and ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) it introduces may be - ,` , (in the place of the direct
object).

, ` - _ ' He wanted to sit
` -, . ' _ ' He wanted to sit
. ~ . He requested to go
. ' . ~ . , He requested to go / that he go
. ' . ~ . ' He requested me to go / that I go
223
. ~ .' . ' He requested me not to go / that I do not go
` ` .` - . ` ~ We requested not to remain in the sun
` ~ . ' _ ` ` ` .` - We requested not to remain in the sun
` ,` , ,` , , ` ~ We requested to go and invite them
` ~ . ' . ` ,` ,` ` ,
We requested to go and call them
( . ` , =` _ ` ,` ,` `
the second verb is conjuncted to the first)
` ,` , , ` , They said something to them
. , ` , , ,` , , . ' ` ,` , , , They said to them to be close to the city gate
, . , ` , , ,` , , . ' ` ,`, , They said to them not to be close to the city gate


(b) . ' and the ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) it introduces may be - (in the place of the subject of
the verb). This occurs especially with the following verbs that are usually used impersonally _ _ .` (in
the imperfect).

1. . - , , ` . -, , (to be necessary, obligatory):

, ` , ' ` . -, Gratitude is incumbent upon us
` . -, , , , , ` . ' Gratitude is incumbent upon us
:` , ` . -, Your going is necessary
. . ' ` . -,
It is necessary/obligatory that you go /
You must go
(lit. that you go is necessary)
-, . . ' ` .
It is necessary that you dont go /
you must not go
. . ' ` . -, .
It is necessary that you dont go /
you must not go
224
. . ' ` . -, .
You should have gone
(Use ` . -, . instead of . - , )

2. ` - , ' -, , (to be right(ful)):

:` , ' -, Your going is right(ful)
. . ' ' -, It is rightful that you go
. . ' ' -, It is rightful that you do not go
. . ' ' -, . It is not rightful that you go

3. ` ' , ` ` `, , (To be possible):

` , , . , . ' ` ` `, It is possible that he will go today
` , , . , . ' ` ` `, It is possible that he will not go today
` , , . , . ' ` ` `, . It is not possible that he will go today
` `, ` . ' . ' It will not be possible for me to go tomorrow
: . ' . ' ` ` `, . It was possible for me to go with you

4. . ' used impersonally means previously and is used as an alternative to , . . ' here is followed
by a ` (perfect verb). This is because the expression invariably refers to a complete action.

, . . ' , Have you read this book previously?
. . ' , . ' Have you read this book previously?
` ` . ' We have been there previously


225
(c) . ' and the ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) it introduces may be - , - ` , - ` , _,` ,` - ,` . (in the
place of the majruur noun after a preposition).

, , ' , ' _ . _` My father ordered me to go to school
, ' , , , ' , ' . _` _ . ' My father ordered me to go to school
` , , ,` , , , , '
He ordered that we dont go and that they should
not be invited
, ' , ` ,` ,` ` . ' , . . '
He ordered that we do not go and that we do not
call them
_ ` , - .,` ` ,, .` , They desire to run home
_ ,` ,` -, . ' .,` ` ,, .` , They desire to run home

In the above sentences, we can omit the , - ` ` , - (preposition). The elliptical , - ` ` , - (preposition)
remains part of the syntax so that the ` ` - ` , ` (verb sentence) introduced by . ' continues to be -
, - ` , - ` , _,` ,` - ,` . (in the place of the majruur noun after a preposition).

, ' , , , ' ' . _` _ . ' My father ordered me to go to school
` ,` ,` ` . ' , . . ' , '
He ordered that we do not go and that we do not
call them
_ ,` ,` -, . ' .,` ` ,, .` , They desire to run home

(d) . ' may be placed after prepositions and ,` , (adverbs) to produce a number of idiomatic
expressions. This allows us to introduce a ` , ` ` ` - (a verb sentence) after prepositions and ,` ,
(adverbs). . ' and the sentence it introduces are - ` , - ` , _,` ,` - ,` . .` - ` ,' , - ` ,
(in the place of the majruur noun after a preposition or in the place of the possessor).

(i) . ' _ (until)

: , _ ` _ ` , ' I will stay here until your departure
. . ' _ ` _ ` , ' I will stay here until you go

226
(ii) . ' _ (on condition that, provided that)

. ` , . ' _ : : ` . -
I told you that on condition that you dont tell
anyone

(iii) . ' ` / . ' ` ` (before)

. ' . ' ` , ` , You will see me before I go

(iv) . ' ` , / . ' ` , ` (after)

. . ' ` , ` _ ` , ' I will stay here after you go

In the above expressions, if the action in the clause introduced by . ' is complete,
we use a ` (perfect verb).

.` , ` .` - , - . ' ` ` ` -' I took it with me before I left the house
.` , ` - , - . ' ` , ` - . , Hasan arrived after we left the house

(v) . ' ,` , ` (without)

- ` - ' . ' ` , . , , ` ` . ' ,` , ` We must take this animal without killing it

(vi) . ' .` ,` (without)

. , , - ` - ' . ' ` , .` ,` ` ` . ' We must take this animal without killing it
.` ,` , ` ,` . ' :` , ,, . ' You must pass it without it seeing you

227
16.2 Sisters of . |

Like . ' , her sisters make the imperfect verb ` .,` .` :

(a)
. In order to

In order not to . . In order to

` , In order not to ` In order to

` , In order not to ` In order to



(b) . _` - So that not _` - So that



(c) ` Will never


(a) . , . . , ` , ` , , ` , , ` , (in order to/not to)

These particles are interchangeable.

,` ` , . - He came (in order) to invite me
` , ., , ` . - They (two) came to say something to us
` , ,, ,` They went in order not to see me
` , , , ` ,` , ` , , , = : _ . He went on that path in order not to pass by them

(Note: You should be careful not to mistake the particle . that goes ` ` _ _ .` (before an imperfect
verb) meaning in order to for the preposition . , that goes _ . ` , ' ,` ` (before a noun or pronoun) to
mean to/for/belonging to. They are two different words.)



228
(b) _` - (not to be mistaken for the preposition _` - )

As a sister of . ' , _` - has two meanings, which can only be distinguished from context.

1. so that

,` -` , ., _` - :` ` , I invited you so that you are present
., . _` - :` ` ,
I invited you so that you are not amongst the
absentees

2. until

. - _` - ` _ ` , ' I will stay here until you come
. - . ' _ ` _ ` ,' I will stay here until you come

When _` - means until it may be followed by a ` (perfect verb).

. - _` - ` He called him until he came
. - _` - ` ` ., , I stayed there until he came
. _` - ` ,` , , . They hit him until he died


(c) ` which means will never negates a ` ` _ _ .` (imperfect verb) in the future.

,` , ` ` ` , , `
Our Islam will never be complete without our
call
, ` ,` ` , . ' , - ' _ , ' Your two brothers will never refuse to invite me

229
= . |

. ' that / to
. ' that not / not to
. in order to
. . in order to
in order not to
` in order to
` , in order not to
` in order to
` , in order not to
_` - so that; until
. _` - so that not
` will never
. - , , ` . -, , . ' / . ' it is necessary/obligatory that
. . ' ` . -,
it is necessary/obligatory that you go /
you must go
. ' ` . -, . it is necessary that you dont go
. . ' ` . -, . you mustnt go
` - , ' -, , . ' / . ' it is rightful that
230
. . ' ' -, it is rightful that you go
. . ' ' -, it is rightful that you do not go
, . . . ' ' - it is not rightful that you go
` ' , ` ` `, , . ' it is possible that
` , , . , . ' ` ` `, it is possible that he will go today
` , , . , . ' ` ` `, it is possible that he will not go today
`, . ` , , . , . ' ` ` it is not possible that he will go today
` , , ., , ` . , former, previous
, formerly, previously
, . . ' , have you read this book previously?
. ' formerly, previously
. . ' , . ' have you read this book previously?
, ' , , ,` ' , . , , to order s.o. to do ( s.th.)
` , ' , ` , , ' , order, command
231
Exercise 16.1

Express in English


. , ` ` - ', . ' ` ` . ` - ', ` , ` `
. .` , ` ,` ,` .` , . , . ,` - , - ` ` ., , . _` ,` -, . ' ` ,` ~
. . = ` . ` . = . . ' , . ' ` ' , ' `
. ` . _,` ., , , _` - .` ', . ' ` . -,
. _ ,` , , _` - _, -` . ,` , ,` ` `
. ` , - ` ,` , . . , ` _ ` . ' ` ` `, .
. ' -, ` , , ` , ` - . , ` , ` , , , . ' ` ,
. ` ` ,, ` , ` , , -
. ` - , - , ,` ,` _ ` - ' ` , ,` ,` : , ` ,`
. , ` - ' , ` ` . - ` ,` , _` ,` - ' . ' ` .` , , ' ` - _

Exercise 16.2

Express in Arabic

1. Do not go to see them because they are not good.
2. I mentioned that I had heard this opinion before and that it was not new.
3. I will go out tomorrow in order to attend a meeting but I will not stay there long.
4. She went out every night during the month in order to see the moon, but she did not see anything.
5. He will never hear your demands until you demand many times.
6. You must understand that. Perhaps I did not make myself clear previously.
7. Your understanding of these difficult statements in these old books was good. Didnt they see that?
8. You have no right to demand all of these things from us.
9. It is possible that they will ask you about your previous statements.
10. They (two) invited you (two) so that you are not among the absent.
11. I ordered him to come to me and told him not to do that in the future.
12. Can my son go with you (pl.) for he has not been there before ? No, it is necessary for children to
stay with their parents.
1


Answers to chapter 1


Exercise 1.1.1

1. To China
2. In the sun
3. From Syria
4. Peace upon you
5. Peace upon us
6. And peace upon me
7. A word from me
8. Close to you (f) and far from me
9. Peace on the earth
10. A sign from Allah to people

Exercise 1.2.1

1. The meeting of Muhammad
2. The sun of Islam
3. A word of good from me
4. Spending something of wealth
5. In our Syria and our Yemen
6. Allahs word and His sign
7. The highest good and the lowest evil
8. Closer to him than you
9. The best of you to your women
10. The first of us in good
11. All the people on the earth
12. The closest relative to me
13. Closer to good and farther from evil (exercise is incorrect)
Exercise 1.1.2

. ` `
. , , -
. ` , - _
. . ` - . . _
~ . ` ,` . ` _,` `
. . , ` , -
. , ` . `
. ` _
- . :` ` , , , ` ` .,,
. ` , ` .` , ,

Exercise 1.2.2

. ` ` _ . =
. ` -` ` .` ,
. :` ` ,` `
. . , ` ' ` ` '
~ . ` , ` ` ` , ,
. , _ . ` , , ` `
. ` .` , , - ` , / - .` , ` , ,
. . ` . , '
- . ` _ . '
. ` _ . ` - _ ` , '
. ` ,` ` ,` ` ` , '
. .` ,
. ` _ ` ,` , -


2



Exercise 1.3.1

1. That book
2. From this sun
3. This word from me
4. Peace on this earth
5. This peace on the earth
6. A house in this valley
7. This house of his in the valley
8. This sign of Allah to Man
9. This daughter of Muhammad
10. The first of these people in goodness

Exercise 1.4.1

1. Little speech
2. The meeting of Muhammad the trustworthy
3. My new pen
4. This new pen of mine
5. In our beautiful Syria and our ancient Yemen
6. Allahs highest word and His greatest signs
7. Spending a little (thing) of this wealth
8. Our temporal life in this small earth
9. Inappropriate in this short life
10. This students new book
Exercise 1.3.2

. ` , - _
. . . : _` -
. _` -
. . . , ` , - :
~ . , - . , `
. , ` . `
. ` . .` , _
. ` _
- . ` -` .
. : ` ` , , = ` .

Exercise 1.4.2

. ,
. ` _ . ., , = `
. ` , - ` ' _ ` ` ' ,
. . ` , , - ` ` ` , ,
~ . ` , , - ` ` ` , ,
. ,` , ` . - .` , `
. ` . , . . .
. ` _ . ` '
- . . ` -` , ` _ . ` ,
. , - .` _ ,


3
Answers to chapter 2

Exercise 2.1.1

1. Allah is Greatest (Greater i.e. than all things)
2. The news is good
3. Muhammad is a beautiful/handsome man
4. The noun sentence is a subject and predicate
5. They are new (female) students
6. It is an incorrect sentence
7. These people are close to us
8. Hasans relatives house is close to the sea
9. This enquiry of yours is useful
10. And your God is one God
11. Peace on the earth is not present
12. This is speech from my heart/conscience
13. This student (f) is better than all the students in the school
14. The boy is on the throne
15. We are in the school
16. There is a big meeting in the house
17. Those men are the new teachers
18. This is the new student
19. And Allahs word is the highest
20. Our Lord is the Lord of the heavens and the earth

Exercise 2.4.1

1. Indeed Allah is All knowing Great
2. Indeed this is the truth
3. Indeed there is a word in the book
4. Indeed I am Allah
5. Allah was All knowing Great
6. He was a scholar in his earthly/temporal life
7. Your speech was in my heart/conscience
8. Was there good in it/him?
9. The house is not far from the sea
10. Is there not a word in the book?
Exercise 2.1.2

. ` - , = / ` - '
. ` - ,
. ` - ` ' ` ` -` / ` .` , ~
. . ` _ , ` _ , ` _ . ` .
~ . ` _ , , ` _ ` ,` - , - ,
. : ` , , ` ` , , , ,` - ` ., , ` ` , ,
. ` _ ' ` ,`
. ` ` ` ,` , - ,`
- . -, - . ` ,` , ` ` - / -, - . ` ` - ` . ` ,
. . = ` . ` _
. . = ` . ` _
. _ . ,` ' , -
. ` ` _,` ` , ` , `
. . .` ,` -` , ` ` ,
~ . ` ` - ` - ,
. _` ` _ ` - . ` , , ` , , _` ,
. . ` . .` , ` ` ` . , - ` . ` .
. , - ` .
- . ` ` ' :' '
. ,` ` ` ,,` , ` ` - ' ` ` ` ,

Exercise 2.4.2

. ` .,` ` ` . .`
. ` , : .
. . - , .` , = ,
. . ,` - , , - ., , ` .` , , .
~ . ` , ~ , . '
. . _ ` ,` , ` - _ ` _ . / = ` ,` ,
. . ' . . ` , _` ` _ ` - .
` _ ` - _`
. ` , _ ` , . . ` , ` , ` , _ . '
- . ,` - , , ` ,
. . , , = ` - . ` , ' -, -

4

Answers to chapter 3


Exercise 3.1

1. Why did the professor teach one book?
2. The women wrote a word and they understood
the speech
3. Is the calculation correct? Yes, it is correct
4. Muhammad did not write a book
5. Where did the female students sit all at once?
6. Muhammad understood a correct understanding
7. When did the boy grow (in age) and grow (in
size)?
8. Indeed we worked hard and we learnt the book
9. How will they (m) write the sentences?
10. Muhammad does not read / Muhammad is not
reading / Muhammad will not read?
11. Did you (m. pl.) not write? What did you write?
12. They (m. dual) cant calculate/consider and how
will they calculate/consider?
13. The students read the ancient writing all at once
14. Does Hasan not understand the book? Yes indeed
(he does)
15. Does the boy understand the sentences?
Yes, and to understand correctly is beautiful.
Exercise 3.2

. . ' , `
. '` , ` .`
. ` ` - . ` , -` , - `, '
- ,
. . ` . ~ ` , ` , - ` . ~ ,` ` ,
~ . .,` , `
. - , ` ` - , ` .` , . ' , .` ,
. , - . ,
. , - ` _ . _ ` , ` -
- . -, - . _ . ` ` -
. -, - . . , = . ' ,
. , - , ` . ` .` ,
. -, - . , - ` ` -` . -
. ,` - _` - ` _ . _ ` . - .,
. . = ` , ` ` -, , , ~ , ' , , , , ,
` ` ` ' , ` - ,
~ . :` ` ` ' ` , ` ` , ` ` ` -
. _ , -, - . ` , '
' , . ` , , , .
. , . ` . = ' , _ ,` , ,
,` , ., ,
. ` ,` ` ' / ` ` - . ` .` , . ` ,` ` ' '
-` ,

5
Answers to chapter 4
Review Exercise 1

1. Did you (m. pl.) not read the word in the book?
2. There are signs on the Earth.
3. The girls went on the path until the sea.
4. Is there not a big desert in Iraq?
5. Is this word is a diptote.
6. Your statement is far from the correct understanding.
7. Many a time the student read about the declinable and
indeclinable (lit. variable and fixed (in ending)).

Exercise 4.1.1

1. We entered Makkah
2. Is speaking about the president forbidden in
Damascus?
3. The first house of Allah was in ancient Makkah
4. This is from senior scholars
5. This enquiry is for senior scholars
6. All of this has one meaning (lit. is with one meaning)
7. I shall teach you a lesson in the meaning of hard work
8. Musa took his long staff
9. How many times have you entered this valley in the
past?
10. There are beautiful meanings in this word

Exercise 4.5.1

1. We shall never enter these lands
2. I taught him a lesson but he did not read and did not
learn a thing
3. With whom did you leave the school? We did not
leave
4. Do not raise your hands
5. Let us sit on the ground a little
6. Enter this city with peace
7. Learn and teach and strive and work hard
Review Exercise 2

. ` - .` '
. .` ` - `, '
. ` . , ,` , -, -` . ,` _ ` . /
_, -` . ,
. . , . ` , ` , ` , _ ' ` , _ `
~ . , _` - - , . -
. ` , ~ , , ~ ,`, .
. _ .` . _ ` - . , - ' , _
. ,, _ , ` .` _ , ` _ . _ - : ` .` _
` , _ -

Exercise 4.1.2

. , . , - _ ` ` - . ` ` ` ,` ` ' '
. , . -` ' ` `
. `, ` _ ` - ` - '
. . ` ,` , , , `, . _
~ . `, . ,` - .
. ` ` ` .` , ` - `, , , . ,` -` .
. _ ` . ` `,
. _, -` . _ ` `
- . ` - ., , ` . ,` -` _ .` ,
. ` ` -` - ,`, , ` ,
Exercise 4.5.2

. ` ,` ` `, ` , , ` `
. _ ` ` , , ' ` ,` , , ` , ` ,
. . ` - ' : ` ` -
. . ,`, , ` ' ,
~ . .,` , ` ,` , ` - , ,` -` _ ` , ` ` ,` , ,
.`
6
. . / . _ ,,` . ` , , ` -`

Answers to chapter 6

Exercise 6.1

(A)

1. Did anyone attend?
2. Yes, one of the (two) ministers attended.
3. The two school students (lit. students of the school)
sat on two chairs.
4. They are sound plurals.
5. The books are four.
6. They are broad-minded girls.
7. Three thousand (of the) men attended in nine
months.
8. Did any of the students read the six books?
9. The teacher read a hundred new names.
10. Hasan has a thousand pieces of land.

(B)

1. And good men are for good women.
2. There are many ministers in the council.
3. Allah sent Moses to the children of Israel and
Muhammad as a mercy to the worlds.
4. One of the ministers attended many long
meetings.
5. The number of men in the cabinet is very
many and the women are only three.
6. The professor wrote eight books in eight years
7. The scholar has status in the world.
8. In a thousand months there are a thousand
moons.
9.

ulamaa
u
and dimashq
u
are two words (that are)
diptotes.
10. There are very many sciences in the old books and
in the new books too.
11. He wrote eight sentences in eight minutes.
12. One of the teachers (f) read the good news to the
students.
Exercise 6.2

, ,
. , _ ` - ' - `
. - . ` , ` , _ . ` - ` .
. .` ` , ' ,
. . ,` ` ,` ' -
~ . ` , - _ ` ,`
. ` ` ` . , - ` . `
. ` . , ` . = ' , . .
. ` ` _,` ,'
- . . `
. ` _,` . / ` _ . _ . .
, . ,
. : ` , , , -
. , ` _ . ~ .
. .`, ' ` , = _ ` - . ` - ` , ` ,
. . . ,' , ` - ' , . -
~ . . . ,, _ , , . - . . / . _ _` , .
. ` , , - , ,`, ` , , ` - ,
. - . `, , . ` - _ -
. . . - _ _ ` ` -` ` . ,
- . . , . , .` , ' ,,` ,
. ., _ , , ` , ` . ,
. ` . , ` ` . ' , / , , ~ _ . ,
. - , ` ` - ~ ` .
. ` ` - . ` - ` . = ', / ` -
` ` - .
. . . , - _ . .
~ . .` ` = . ' , , - / `
_ `, .` _ . , - .`
7
13. He wrote only two sentences.
_, , ' ,` _ '

8
Answers to chapter 7
Exercise 7.1

(A)

1. There are only two words of truth in his speech.
2. The queen is very rich (lit. possessor of much
wealth)
3. Our fellow countrymen are the sons of our
fathers, our sons and the sons of our sons.
4. The scholars of Damascus possess correct
understanding
5. His name is Hasan and he is one of my good
brothers.
6. Your father went and took me and your brother.
7. A broad-minded student read about scholars of
much knowledge.
8. My two brothers went to Makkah twice.
9. My father took my little brother to my big
brothers house / my brothers big house.
10. Hasan: Did your father understand me?
Mary: Yes.

(B)

1. The student sat reading the six authentic books
until dawn. *
2. Your speech is far from the truth so we are
right.
3. Allah sent a prophet to the children of Israel
and sent with him his brother.
4. The scholar possesses broad understanding and
the ignoramus has a narrow mind.
5. Did he himself really come? And at fajr time
too? There is a good sign in the matter.
6. He understood one matter from the sum total of
the professors speech and writings : (that) he is
very strong in the sciences and of great
importance.
7. Many a brother hit his brother and many a good
quality did he lose (lit. went from him).
8. There are four aspects to the matter and they
are very difficult for new students so your
enquiry is very good.
9. Muhammad sat with his companions, among
them his fellow countrymen and men from
distant countries.
10. Mary possesses (high) standing with Allah
11. The sons of our sons are our sons and (as for)
our daughters, their sons are the sons of men
removed (lit. distant). **

* Notice that we use _ -` . , a broken plural to describe ` .` ,
a non-human object. This is usually found in poetry. The
expression ` .` _ -` . is commonly used to refer to the six
authentic books of prophetic traditions.
** In this line of poetry the predicate, ,` , precedes the subject,
,` , ` , ' . This is permitted because there is no ambiguity in
the meaning.
Exercise 7.2

, ,

. ,` - = ` `
. ` ,` - , ,
. _` ` ` _ ` , ' ` - '
. . : ` , , ` , , _ , ' ,
~ . ' ,` ` , ` , ` ,` , / ` , ` ` . '
. :, ` - ' - ' /
- :, ` - '
. . ` ` -
. ` ' ' , , ,` , ' , . - / , , , '
- . ` - ' ` , ' - ' ` `
. ,` ` . ` - . ` ,` - ` ` , ,
, . ,
. ,` - ` ` , ` .` , ` . -
. _ ` ,,` , ` . , ` , , _` -
` - ,` - ' .` ,
. . ` ` -` ` , ' , , , , ~ ` , _ , ,
,` -
. . ,` ` ` _ . . ` ` `, ' . , ` .
,
~ . ` , ` , ' , . ,' , _ ` ,` .
, - _ , ` ` ,` ,
. , , ' ` ` , ,` . ` - ' ,
. . ` ` , ` - ` ,` , , , ` - ~ ' ,
. ` , , , ` , , ,` , ` `
- . _ , ` - _ ,` ` , . ` ' _
` - _
. , ` ,` - ' ` ` - ' ,` - ` ` , , _
. _ ` - . _` _ ,,` , ,` , ' .


9
Answers to chapter 8


Exercise 8.1

1. Nobody took me yesterday and nobody is
taking / takes me today
2. Enter at once!
3. We left Makkah during the day and arrived at
Medina at night
4. Have you read this book before? Yes, I read it
three times
5. Hasan to Mary: Have you been to Makkah
before? Maryam: Yes, I went twice.
6. He is a prophet of Allah
7. I have taught you this thing many times
8. Will Hasan not arrive tonight? Yes indeed. He
left his house in Makkah at fajr time so he will
arrive tonight if Allah wills.
9. Did you (pl) find him to be knowledgeable (lit.
a possessor of knowledge)?
10. The two mothers found their three sons in the
house
11. His word was an enormity to me
Exercise 8.2

. ` ` ' ` . - ' / ,` - _ ` ` ' , ` .`
. ' ` ' . ` , ` ` ,` ` ` ` ` _ .` , `
. ` ` ` ,` _ ' ` .` - , /
` ' ` ` ,` _ ' . - ' ` - ' /
` - ' , , . ` - ' - ' . . /
` - ' , , . . .
. . `, , , ' _ ` _` ,` -, . _ , ` , ` _` ,` -, . '
~ . _ , ` , ` ` , ` ` . = . ' ,
. , ` - ,` - ` , . =
. . - ` ,,` , , ` - ,
. ,` , , ` - ` , ` ,, ` ,` . ` . ` ,
- . . - ` - , - , -
. .` , .` - , - ` ,, . ,


10
Answers to chapter 9

Exercise 9.1

1. And Allahs Earth is vast.
2. Muhammad is handsome and quick of wit.
3. Muhammads daughter is quick of wit so she
understood the speech.
4. A word of truth is in the book /
There is a word of truth in the book /
In the book is a word of truth
5. The possessive construction is a possessed and
a possessor.
6. Why did the students go to Makkah and
Damascus in addition to the country of Iraq ?
7. Is the river of Egypt long and wide? Yes.
8. Where is the house of Hasans relative ?
It is close to the sea.
9. Will they really go to the middle of the desert
on Friday ? And why ?
10. Muhammad was the son of Abdullah.
11. The students go to the houses of the senior
scholars in Damascus.
12. The scholar has a broad understanding and the
ignoramus* has a narrow mind.
13. The (female) students read the writing on a
door of the house of the ancient caliphs in
Damascus.

* Not to be translated as, the ignorant, which refers to a plural
an example of a singular adjective doubling as a generic plural
noun.
As a singular, the word ignorant can only be used as an
adjective. One would have to say, the ignorant person.
Otherwise, one can use a noun such as the fool or the idiot.
Alternatively, we can translate the sentence as, scholars have
broad understanding and the ignorant have narrow minds,
treating both , and - as generic.
Notice that the sentence is trying to convey the following
meaning: those with broad understanding are (true) scholars and
those with narrow minds are (in fact) ignorant.
Exercise 9.2

. = ` ` ` ` -`
. ` ` ` ` -` / = ` ` `
. _ ` - _ ` .` , .` ' '
. . . ,` - . ` , ` - _ ` .` , ' .
, ,
~ . `, , , ~ . ` , `, , , ~ '
, - .
. . ,` -` . , _ .,` ,
. ` ' , - ' '
. , - ` -` ` ` - ,
- . , ` -` , - ` ` -
. ` _ , , , , ~ ` _ ` , , = /
` _ , , , , ~ ` ` , , ~
. , ` - ` - ` ` -, - ' /
- , ` - ` - ` ` -, '
. , ` - ` . ~ ' , . ` , ` - `
,
. _ ` _ ` -` , ` . , .` ,
, / , ,
. . _ . , - .
` _ . ` /
_ _ ` . ` /
` . ` _ _



* ` - _ ` .` , is an indefinite . even though the English is
the daughter of a rich man. The daughter is indefinite
because a man is indefinite, just as the middle of a desert
is indefinite.


11
Answers to chapter 10


Exercise 10.1

1. And above every possessor of knowledge is
an all knowing.
2. Maryam arrived before all the people and
Hasan arrived after her.
3. The companions of the prophet Muhammad
sat around him and among them was Abu
Bakr.
4. Approximately a hundred authors from all
over the world attended the meeting.
5. All the students read their books on grammar
and morphology at fajr every day.
6. We called upon the professor between Asr
and Maghrib on Friday.
7. We took the path toward Makkah and arrived
at Asr time.
8. We sat under the strong Makkan sun where
the masses of people from all over the world
sat.
9. (The) Lord of the two easts and (the) Lord of
the two wests.
10. Everything is before you (at your disposal) at
all times.
11. The likes of Abu Bakr are non-existent in our
time.
12. My lack of trust in you is for a number of
reasons.
13. I am of the likes of you. Some people think I
am good and some people think I am not
good.
14. I took both his hands between my hands and
said some strong words to him.
15. I did not stay with him other than one night
I stayed one night, no other.
Exercise 10.2

. . ` ` ,` , ` - ' - . ` ` , . , ` ` .
. ` ,` -` , `
. , .` - ,` ' . - _
. , , - , ,
. . ` , _ ` , , , ` ` , , ` ,` .
~ . . , , ` ` _, - . .` , - `
. ,` , ,` . ` , ,
. , ` ` - ,` , , ` , - ` ,
` , - - ' ` , -
. , , ~ ` ` ` ` ' , , ` - -
_ ,` ,
. . ` ' ` ` - , / ` , ` ' ` - ,
`
- . ` ` ' , -, - . ,` ,
,` ,
. _ , ` ` ' , , ` -_ ,`
. .` , ` ` , , . / ` ,` ` .` , ` ' .
.
. =, ` ` , :` :` ` - , , ` , - ,` , `
` - ` , -
. :` , . : :` ` , ,` ` .
,
. . ` ` , . ' ` , ` . ' , .` ` /
` ` .` ` .` , . -` '


12
Answers to chapter 14


Exercise 14.1

1. His opinion/doubt was not correct.
2. There was a big meeting after fajr.
3. When I began my question about the subject
the professor had already left.
4. When I found him he was sitting on the
ground without speech.
5. When the king hears about his actions
tomorrow he will have left the country.
6. Not all people are like Abu Bakr.
7. Hasan became angry when he heard the news
and he is patient in all situations.
8. Hasans arrival has become imminent.
9. He still goes to the city centre every Friday,
once a week
10. We will be (in the) right so long as we are
patient upon the path.
11. Hasan began to speak at length to me (lit. say
to me a long statement) and almost prevented
me from going.
12. The student was about to read when the
professor prevented him.
13. He can hardly understand a thing.
14. No sooner did he trust him, than he took him
by his hands and hit him severely (lit. a severe
strike).
14. Allah is (lit. was)
Exercise 14.2

. , . ` , - ~ ` - .
. _,` ,` - ` - ` ,` -` , .
` _
. ` , - _ , .
. . _ , - ` ` - . ` . . , `
_, , ' ,` _ ' ` ` ,
~ . ` ,, ,` - _ ` . , ` - .
,` . . ,
. , _ ,` - ' ` - ', `
: ` . , ` ` - ., ,
. ` . , ` , . ` ` ` , , ` ` ' , `
. , - ` ` . , ` ,,` , ` .- ` . '
- . ,` ` - _ ` - . ` ,` ,` -,` ,` - . ,
. . . , ` , ` - ` . ` . ,, .
_
. ` , ' ` , - ` .` `
. ` _` ,` -, ` - - ` . - `
_ ` - .
. _, - . ,` , , ` , ., , ` ,
. . ` ' ` ,
~ . . _ _` - ,, _ , ` _ ` .`,
, ` , ` ` ,

13
Answers to chapter 15

Exercise 15.1

1. Indeed his love for this sister of his is very
strong.
2. Indeed life in this world is short.
3. I came to you out of love for you and there
is not doubt about that.
4. This sitting of yours with me and your going
(away) from me are the same to me because
you are my friend.
5. Have you heard that this professor wrote two
books on biology and ethics?
6. He said that this matter is very clear and that
he does not find any doubt in that.
7. My father said to me that there are many
doubts about this matter and he said to me that
he mentioned this to me out of fear of me
falling into these doubts.
8. It was mentioned (lit. it came) in the news that
after this week, there is a meeting for
presidents from all over the world.
9. The fact is that fear of death prevents Man
from many things but his death is certain
one day.
10. If only I had read my books when I was a boy,
for my knowledge now is little.
11. There is no doubt that you are truthful.
Perhaps your brother is truthful too.
12. I said to him: since you fear as if you are a
small boy, it is necessary for me to go with
you.
So he said to me: Dont worry. Your going
and your not going with me are the same to
me.
Exercise 15.2

. . . `, , ` , , ` -
. , _, . , . ' ` _ ` - ` .
. ` . ' ` , ` . , ` , ` ` - ` , ` , , `. - `
. . _ .` , ,` ` ,` ,` ' ` . ' ` ` .` `
` .` , - ` ` ` .` - `
~ . ` - ` , . . , ` ` , _ , ` ` ` ' . -
. ` ` - , ` .` , ` , `, , ,, _ , ` , `
: ` ` , , `
. .` , ' .` :` ' ` .` _ .
` ,` , , ` . ` _`
. . - :` ' ` .` , _ , :` , ` ' ` , ,
` , : . - .` - , -
- . `, , . .` , ` ` ` - . ,`
. - . , ` ` , . , ` ` ` ` / ` ` ` ' ` ,
. .` , _ , - ., , . ` `
. , ` , ` ` , ` ' . , ` ' ` _
/ .` ` ' ` , `
. - ,` - ' . ` ` - , . ` - . , `
. . ` ` .` - . ' ` _ ` -` , , ,
_ ` , ~ ` ' `
~ . . ,` _ , ` , ` ` . , , , . =` .
_, - ` , .` , ` ,
. ` ,, = ,` . . . _` _` , ` - ` ,,_ ,
` -
. ` ` . _` _ . ` - ' _
., , .

14
Answers to chapter 16


Exercise 16.1

1. I told him to take me with him but he did not
take me.
2. They demanded of us that the strong among
us go out so when they went out they hit each
other.
3. The teacher said to the student, have you read
this book previously? So the student said, I
have not read it yet (but will soon).
4. So the teacher said, you must read all of
these books so that you understand the
subject.
5. You will never attain correct understanding
until you read much.
6. You cannot stay here for this place is not
good.
7. It is right for you to make this statement of
yours for you are right and we are wrong.
8. We entered the city at night in order that the
people dont see us.
9. Let us pass that river for I find its sight very
beautiful.
10. The people came to take me to the council but
I refused to go out with them.
Exercise 16.2

. ` , ~ ` ,` , ` ,` ,` . ` ,` , ` . .
. , '` , ` .` ` ` ' ` .` ,
/ ` , ` ` ' , '` , ` .` . ' `` '
, - ` , / - . ,
. . ` _` ,` - ' ` , / . . / ` / `
` ` , ' ` ` , ` - ,` .` - '
, , ~
. . , ` ,` ,` - ` , ` . - ,-
,` , , / ,` ' ,` , .` ` ' , ` , /
` , , ` ,
~ . .` , . = _` - : ~ _ ` , `
_
. : , , . ' ` . -, . ` - ' ` ,
, - . ,
. . , :` ` , . ` ` . ,
` , - .` . : ` , ,, ` , '
. ` . ,` . . = . ' ' -, .
- . ,` : , ' ` , '` , . ' ` ``,
. , . _` - ,
. , -, . ' ` ` ` , ' / . ' ` ` . , ` _, -,
` : ,
. ` , ` ` , ` , ` , . , . ' ` ` `,
` ` _ ` . ,
, . ' ` . -, . . ` , , , _ ` .` , . _ ` /
` , , , _ . .` , . _ ` . -, . . /
` , , , _ ` , ` , . ' .` , . _ ` . -, . .