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Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and

associated companies around the world
Kerry Whalley
Carol Neville
Geoff Phillips
Faye Jeffery
Janette Ellis
Peter Roberson
Greg Rickard
Pearson Education Australia
A division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd
Level 9, 5 Queens Road
Melbourne 3004 Australia
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools
Offices in Sydney, Brisbane and Perth, and associated companies
throughout the world.
Copyright Pearson Education Australia
(a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2005
First published 2005
All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the
Copyright Act 1968 of Australia and subsequent amendments, no
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior permission of the copyright owner.
Designed by Polar Design
Edited by Kay Waters
Illustrated by Wendy Gorton, Bruce Rankin, Vasja Koman and John Ward
Prepress work by The Type Factory
Set in Melior 10 pt
Produced by Pearson Education Australia
Printed in Hong Kong
National Library of Australia
CataloguinginPublication data:
Science focus 4.
Includes index.
For secondary school students.
ISBN 0 1236 0447 8.
1. Science - Textbooks. I. Whalley, Kerry. II. Title.
500
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5 Motion 135
5.1 Describing motion 136
5.2 Acceleration 147
5.3 Newtons first law 153
5.4 Newtons second law 159
5.5 Newtons third law 164
5.6 Gravity 169
5.7 Work and energy 176
Chapter review 183
6 Health and disease 185
6.1 Health 186
6.2 Disease 192
6.3 Infectious diseases 196
6.4 Transmission and control of infectious
diseases 203
6.5 Non-infectious diseases 211
Chapter review 221
7 Evolution 222
7.1 The evolution of a theory 223
7.2 Evolution unravelled 232
7.3 Evidence for evolution 239
7.4 Human evolution 249
Scence focus: Putting flesh on old bones:
archaeology and Australia today 255
Chapter review 260
8 Global issues 262
8.1 Global warming 263
8.2 The ozone layer 272
8.3 Nuclear radiation: good or evil? 276
8.4 Energy crisis 285
Chapter review 293
9 Individual research
project 294
9.1 Being an individual 295
Science focus: Science can be funny 299
9.2 My investigation 302
Chapter review 308
Periodic table 310
Index 311
Acknowledgements iv
Introduction v
Syllabus correlation grid viii
Verbs 1
1 Chemical reactions 2
1.1 Writing chemical equations 3
1.2 More and faster! Rate and yield
considerations 10
1.3 100% organic 15
1.4 Maths in chemistry (on CD)
Chapter review 22
2 Materials 23
2.1 Pure metals and alloys 24
2.2 Mining and minerals 29
2.3 Corrosion of metals 38
2.4 Plastics and fibres 43
Science focus: Nanotechnology 54
2.5 Soaps (on CD)
Chapter review 58
3 Electricity and
communications
technology 59
3.1 Electricity 60
3.2 Electromagnetism 68
3.3 Waves in communication 76
3.4 The communications network 84
Scence focus: Microwaves cook from
the inside 91
3.5 Electronics (on CD)
Chapter review 93
4 Genetics 95
4.1 Inheritance 96
4.2 Human inheritance 106
4.3 The molecule of life 114
4.4 Controlling inheritance 120
Science focus: Biotechnology and
DNA fingerprinting 128
Chapter review 133
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iv
We would like to thank the following for permission
to reproduce photographs and text. The following
abbreviations are used in this list: t = top, b = bottom,
l = left, r = right.
The Age: figure 2.1.5.
Andrea Simonato: figure SF 9.1.
Auscape: figures 7.2.1, 7.2.8(l), 7.3.7.
Australian Associated Press: figure 1.2.1.
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organisation: figure 8.4.6.
Australian Picture Library: figures 4.2.3, 5.2.9; Joel
W. Rogers, figure 2.1.3; Sandro Vannini, figure 2.1.4;
William Taufic, figure 2.2.9; Penny Tweedie, figures
2.4.4, 2.4.9, 6.1.5, 6.4.5, 7.1.5; Rob Lewine, figure
4.2.1; Nick Rains, figure 6.1.6; Lester V. Bergman,
figure 6.3.8; Jonathan Blair, figure 7.3.11; Larry
Williams, figure 7.4.9; Pam Gardner, figure SF 7.5;
Les Stone, figure 8.1.9; Ric Ergenbright, figure 9.1.3;
Jim Sugar, figure 9.2.3.
Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety
Agency: figure 8.4.9.
Blackmagic Design: figure 3.5.13
Bureau of Meteorology: figure 8.1.7.
CSIRO: figures 4.4.11, 8.1.5; CSIRO Human
Nutrition. Reproduced from 12345+ Food and
Nutrition Plan (K. Baghurst et al., 1990) by permission
of CSIRO Australia, figure 6.1.3.
David Heffernan: figures 3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.5.5, 3.5.7,
3.5.9.
Dorling Kindersley: p. 2, figures 2.2.2, 3.1.8, 3.4.2,
7.3.5.
The DW Stock Picture Library: figure 7.1.1.
Fairfax Images: figures 5.1.9, 5.7.2.
Getty Images: p. 135, figures 5.7.3, 6.1.7, 6.2.2, 6.4.10,
p. 222, figures 7.1.3, 7.4.2, 8.3.9.
Greg Rickard: figure 2.1.2.
Jim Bowler: figures SF 7.2, SF 7.3(b), SF 7.4, SF 7.6.
Jim DeLillo: photo by Jim DeLillo, figure 3.4.10.
Dr Karl Kruszelnicki: reproduced with kind
permission from the author of Great Mythconceptions,
HarperCollins, 2004. Article can be found on his
website <www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments>:
p. 91.
NASA: figures 5.5.2, 8.1.1(l), 8.1.1(r), 8.2.6.
Newspix: Anthony Weate, p. 23; Susan Turner, figure
2.2.4; James Knowler, figure 4.4.7; David Crosling,
figure SF 7.7; News Limited, figure 8.4.8.
Pearson Education Australia: Ben Killingsworth,
figures 1.3.3, 4.4.4; Tricia Confoy, figure 2.3.1;
Elizabeth Anglin, figures 2.4.1, 2.5.2, SF 3.1, 4.4.2,
SF 4.3, 6.3.2, 6.5.13, 9.1.4, 9.1.5, SF 9.3; Anna Small,
figures 3.4.11, 4.2.11, SF 9.2; Peter Saffin, figures
4.2.4, SF 9.4.
Photolibrary.com: figures 1.1.5, 1.2.2, 1.3.12, 1.4.5,
2.2.6, 2.4.12, 2.4.13, 2.5.4, SF 2.2, SF 2.4, SF 2.5,
SF 2.6, SF 2.7, p. 59, 3.1.2, 3.2.3, 3.2.12, 3.3.6, 3.3.8,
3.3.10, 3.3.11, 3.4.3, 3.5.14, SF 3.2, p. 95, 4.1.1, 4.1.4,
4.1.6, 4.2.5, 4.3.6, 4.3.7, 4.4.1, 4.4.3, 4.4.9, SF 4.1,
SF 4.2, SF 4.7, 5.1.2, 5.1.3, 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.3.1, 5.3.2,
5.3.3, 5.3.5, 5.6.3, 5.6.4, p. 185, 6.3.5, 6.3.6, 6.3.7,
6.3.9, 6.3.11, 6.4.1, 6.4.2, 6.4.4, 6.4.7, 6.4.8, 6.4.9,
6.5.1, 6.5.2, 6.5.4, 6.5.7, 6.5.8, 6.5.9, 6.5.10, 6.5.12,
6.5.14, 7.1.2, 7.1.4, 7.1.7, 7.1.9, 7.1.12, 7.1.13, 7.2.2,
7.2.11(b), 7.2.11(t), 7.4.4, 7.4.6, 7.4.7, 7.4.8, 8.3.2,
8.3.8, 8.3.11, 8.4.2, 8.4.7, 8.4.12, p. 294, 9.2.1, 9.2.2.
The Picture Source: figure 2.4.10.
South Australian Museum: figure 7.3.3.
Willandra World Heritage Area Three Traditional
Tribal Groups: published with the consent of the
indigenous owners, figure SF 7.3(t).
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge
copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred,
the publishers tender their apologies and invite
copyright owners to contact them.
v
Coursebook
The coursebook consists of nine chapters with the
following features.
Chapter opening pages include:
the key
prescribed
focus area for
the chapter
outcomes
presented in
a way that
students
can easily
understand
pre quiz
questions
to stimulate
interest and test
prior knowledge.
Chapter units open with a context to encourage
students to make meaning of science in terms of
their everyday experiences. The units also reinforce
contextual learning by presenting theory, photos,
illustrations and science focus segments in a format
that is easy to read and follow.
Each PFA has one Science Focus special
feature which uses a contextual approach to focus
specifically on the outcomes of that PFA. Student
activities on these pages allow further investigation
and exploration of the material covered.
The Science Focus series has been written for the NSW Science syllabus, stages 4 and 5. It includes material that
addresses the learning outcomes in the domains of knowledge, understanding and skills. Each chapter addresses
at least one prescribed focus area in detail. The content is presented through many varied contexts to engage
students in seeing the relationship between science and their everyday lives. By learning from the Science Focus
series students will become confident, creative, responsible and scientifically literate members of society.
Each unit ends with a set of questions. These
begin with straightforward checkpoint questions
that build confidence, leading to think, analyse
and skills questions that require further thought and
application. Questions incorporate the syllabus verbs
so that students can begin to practise answering
questions as required in examinations in later years.
The extension questions
can be set for further
exploration and assignment
work and include a variety
of structured tasks including
research, creative writing
and internet activities
suitable for all students.
Extension questions cater
for a range of learning
styles using the multiple
intelligences approach, and
may be used for extending
more able students.
Online review questions
Auto-correcting chapter review questions can be
used as a diagnostic tool or for revision at school
or home, and include:
multiple choice matching
labelling fill in the blanks.
vi
Companion Website
The Companion Website contains
a wealth of support material for
students and teachers, which has been written to
enhance the content covered in the coursebook.
Destinations
A list of reviewed websites is available
these relate directly to chapter content
for students to access.
Interactive activities
These are activities that apply and review
concepts covered in the chapters. They are
designed for students to work independently, and
include:
interactive animations to develop key skills and
knowledge in a stimulating, visual and engaging
way
drag-and-drop activities to improve basic
understandings in a fun and engaging way
QuickTime videos to enhance the learning of
content in a visual way.
Key numeracy and literacy tasks are
indicated with icons.
Practical activities
follow the questions.
These are placed at the
end of the unit to
allow teachers
to choose when
and how to best
incorporate the
practical work.
Cross references
to practical
activities within
the units signal
suggested points
for practical work. Some
practical activities are design-your-own (DYO) tasks.
Chapter review
questions follow
the last unit in
each chapter. These
cover all chapter
outcomes in a
variety of question
styles to provide
opportunities for
all students to
consolidate new
knowledge and
skills.
The use of the Aboriginal flag in the coursebook
denotes material that is included to cover Aboriginal
perspectives in science.
DYO
Prac 1
Unit 1.2
vii
Homework Book
The Homework Book provides a structured program
to complement the coursebook. These homework
activities:
cover various skills
required in the syllabus
offer consolidation of key
content and interesting
extension activities
provide revision activities
for each chapter,
including the construction
of a glossary
cater for a multiple
intelligences approach
through varied activities
have Worksheet icons in the coursebook to
denote when a homework activity is available.
Teacher resource centre
A wealth of teacher support material is provided and
is password protected and includes:
a chapter test for each chapter, in MS Word to
allow editing by the teacher
Coursebook answers
Homework Book answers
Teaching programs.
Teacher resource pack
Material in the teacher resource pack consists of a
printout and electronic copy on CD. It includes:
curriculum correlation grids mapped in detail to
the NSW syllabus
chapter-based teaching programs
contextual teaching programs
Coursebook answers
chapter tests in MS Word
Homework Book answers.
Worksheet 2.4 Metal experiments
Worksheet 4.3 Pedigree analysis
viii
A fully mapped and detailed
correlation of the stage 5
curriculum outcomes is
available in the Science Focus 4
Teacher Resource Pack.
Note: indicates the Key Prescribed Focus Area covered in each chapter.
Chapters may also include information on other Prescribed Focus Areas.
Science Focus 4
Stage 5 Syllabus Correlation
chapter
o
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o
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e
s
5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5


5.6


5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11


5.12

5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
5.24
5.25
5.26
5.27
2 4 5 6 7 8 9
Materials
1
Chemical
reactions
3
Electricity
and
communi-
cations
technology
Genetics Motion
Health and
disease
Evolution
Global
issues
Individual
research
project
Explain relate cause and effect; make the
relationships between things evident;
provide the why
and/or how
Extrapolate infer from what is known
Gather collect items from different sources
Identify recognise and name
Interpret draw meaning from
Investigate plan, inquire into and draw conclusions
Justify support an argument or conclusion
List write down phrases only, without further
explanation
Modify change in form or amount in some way
Outline sketch in general terms; indicate the main
features of
Predict suggest what may happen based on
available information
Present provide information for consideration
Propose put forward (e.g. a point of view, idea,
argument, suggestion) for consideration
or action
Recall present remembered ideas, facts or
experiences
Recommend provide reasons in favour of
Record store information and observations for
later
Recount retell a series of events
Research investigate through literature or practical
investigation
State provide information without further
explanation
Summarise express concisely the relevant details
Verbs
Science Focus 4 uses the following verbs in the
student activities.
Account account for: state reasons for; report on
give an account of: narrate a series of events
or transactions
Analyse identify components and the relationships
among them; draw out and relate
implications
Apply use, utilise, employ in a particular situation
Appreciate make a judgement about the value of
Assess make a judgement of value, quality,
outcomes, results or size
Calculate determine from given facts, figures or
information
Clarify make clear or plain
Classify arrange or include in classes/categories
Compare show how things are similar or different
Construct make; build; put together items or arguments
Contrast show how things are different or opposite
Critically add a degree or level of accuracy, depth,
(analyse/evaluate) knowledge and understanding, logic,
questioning, reflection or quality to
(analysis/evaluation)
Deduce draw conclusions
Define state meaning and identify essential qualities
Demonstrate show by example
Describe provide characteristics and features
Discuss identify issues and provide points for and/or
against
Distinguish recognise or note/indicate as being distinct
or different from; note differences between
Evaluate make a judgement based on criteria;
determine the value of
Examine inquire into
1
>>>
By the end of this chapter you
should be able to:
write the formulas for some
common chemicals
construct word equations for
simple chemical reactions
explain why the equations for
chemical reactions need to be
balanced
construct balanced formula
equations for chemical
reactions
identify some compounds
that use covalent bonding
and others that use ionic
bonding
identify the characteristics
of some families of organic
compounds.
1 List two states that you are in
right now.
2 Write chemical formulas for
water, carbon dioxide and
hydrochloric acid.
3 What is dephlogisticated air?
4 Can matter be created or
destroyed? If so, how?
5 How can you get two flames
from a Bunsen burner?
6 Can ethanol be dangerous to
your health?
O
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t
c
o
m
e
s

5
.
2
,

5
.
7
.
3
P
r
e

q
u
i
z
1
1
Chemical
Chemical
Key focus area:
The nature and practice of science
>>>
reactions
reactions
Equations and formulas
Chemical equations take the form:
reactants

products
The substances present at the start of a reaction are
called the reactants, and the new substances formed
are called the products.
Chemical equations can be written as either word
equations or balanced formula equations. For example,
the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric
acid may be represented as the word equation:
magnesium + hydrochloric

magnesium + hydrogen
acid chloride
or as a balanced formula equation:
Mg + 2HCl

MgCl
2
+ H
2
Whichever way we write it, the reaction probably
looks something like that shown in Figure 1.1.1.
By now you should be able to write the symbols
for many elements and the chemical formulas of many
common compounds. If you are not yet sure how to do
this, refer to Science Focus 3, Chapters 1 and 2, before
going any further. It is essential that you can write
correct chemical formulas, or none of your equations
will be correct.
Here are a few facts you may have forgotten:
General:
An element consists of only one type of atom,
e.g. Fe, O
2
and S
6
.
A compound consists of two or more different
atoms, chemically bonded together, e.g. H
2
O,
H
2
SO
4
and CO
2
.
Ions are charged particles. Positive ions are formed
when metal atoms lose electrons, e.g. Na
+
, Mg
2+

and Al
3+
. Negative ions are formed when non-
metal atoms gain electrons, e.g. Cl

, S
2
and N
3
.
A polyatomic ion or radical is a charged particle
made up of more than one type of atom, e.g. NH
4
+
,
SO
4
2
and CO
3
2
.
Pure metals:
The bonding within metals (e.g. iron (Fe), gold
(Au) and calcium (Ca)) is called metallic bonding.
All metals are solid at 25C, except mercury (Hg),
which is liquid.
Covalent bonding:
Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons and
occurs only between non-metals and other non-
metals, like carbon (C) and oxygen (O), sulfur (S)
and hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and fluorine (F).
A molecule is composed of non-metals and is
the smallest number of atoms that exist bonded
together in a stable form. Atoms of the noble gases
(Group VIII) exist by themselves and are called
monatomic. For carbon dioxide (CO
2
), a molecule
consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen
atoms covalently bonded together. This molecular
formula represents the number and type of atoms
in the compound.
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3
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1
3
.
1
3
UNIT
UNIT
1
.
1
1
.
1
Chemical reactions occur around us all the
time. A colour change or release of heat are
signs that a chemical change is probably
taking place. Chemical reactions can be very
simple or highly complex. It is easy to record
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Mg Mg
2+
Cl
Cl
-
Cl
-
Cl
H
H H
H
+
+
Fig 1.1.1 The reaction between magnesium and
hydrochloric acid
our observations of chemical reactions, but we also
need to be able to represent what is going on at a
chemical level. The easiest way to represent reactions
is to use chemical equations.
4
>>>
Writing chemical equations Writing chemical equations
A diatomic molecule
consists of two non-metal
atoms covalently bonded
together. Elements that
exist as diatomic molecules
are the gases hydrogen (H
2
),
oxygen (O
2
), nitrogen (N
2
),
fluorine (F
2
) and chlorine
(Cl
2
), the liquid bromine
(Br
2
), and solid iodine (I
2
).
Ionic bonding:
Ionic bonding almost always
involves metals combined
with non-metals. Ionic
compounds are crystalline
solids, unless dissolved
in water as an aqueous
solution.
The formula of an ionic
compound is not a molecular formula, since
ionic compounds form large crystal lattices, not
molecules. Instead the formula shows the ratio
of ions in the crystal. For example, the ionic
compound magnesium oxide has the formula MgO.
This doesnt mean that one atom of magnesium
and one atom of oxygen move around together; it
just means that in any sample of magnesium oxide,
the ratio of magnesium ions Mg
2+
to oxide ions
O
2
is 1:1. A small crystal may contain a thousand
magnesium ions and a thousand oxide ions, while
a larger crystal may contain a million magnesium
ions and a million oxide ions. Either way, the
formula is simply MgO.
Two different ways of representing the structure
of the ionic crystal caesium chloride
Cs
+
ion
Cs
+
ion
Cl

ion
Cl

ion
Fig 1.1.2
The bends
When we breathe,
oxygen (O
2
) in the air is
absorbed and dissolved
into our blood and used
for respiration. Nitrogen
(N
2
) is also absorbed and
dissolved, but is not used.
If a diver who is breathing
compressed air rises from
the deep too fast, the
nitrogen forms bubbles in
the divers blood. Crippling
pain and paralysis (the
bends) often result.
Divers often use a mix of
compressed oxygen (O
2
)
and helium (He), to remove
much of the problem of
nitrogen bubbles. It allows
a diver to come to the
surface twenty times faster
than with compressed air.
Worksheet 1.1 Writing formulas
Sometimes more than one of a polyatomic ion is
needed in a formula. This is when brackets are used,
for example Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
, Ca(OH)
2
, (NH
4
)
2
CO
3
.
Balancing chemical equations
Lets take another look at the reaction between
magnesium and hydrochloric acid.
Mg + 2HCl

MgCl
2
+ H
2
In this equation there are a lot of twos! But does
each 2 mean the same thing?
The small numbers (like the 2 in H
2
) are called
subscript numbers. These show how many of that
type of atom or ion are in the formula. If there is
no subscript number after an atom or ion, it means
there is only one of that atom or ion in the formula.
Brackets with more subscript numbers simply
multiply everything inside. Take these examples:
H
2
O has 2 hydrogen (H) atoms and 1 oxygen (O)
atom.
MgCl
2
has 1 magnesium ion (Mg
2+
) and 2 chloride
ions (Cl

).
Ca(OH)
2
has 1 calcium ion (Ca
2+
) and 2 hydroxide
ions (OH

). The brackets indicate that overall there

are 2 hydrogen (H) atoms and 2 oxygen (O) atoms.
Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
has 2 iron (Fe
3+
) ions and 3 sulfate ions
(SO
4
2
). The brackets indicate overall that there are
3 sulfur (S) atoms and 12 oxygen (O) atoms.
You cannot fiddle with or change subscript
numbers. These numbers are determined by the place
of each element in the periodic table. If you change
subscript numbers then you are actually inventing
new chemicals! Water (H
2
O), for example, is the safe
liquid we drink and wash in. H
2
O
2
is also
a clear and colourless liquid but is a very
strong corrosive bleach called hydrogen
peroxide. See what happens if you fiddle
with subscript numbers?
The larger numbers in front of formulas
indicate how much of each chemical is being used
and how much is being produced in the reaction.
These are the numbers we can fiddle with to balance
an equation. The Law of Conservation of Matter states
that matter can be neither created nor destroyed; it
can only be changed from one form to another. This
means that there must be the same number of each
type of atom on each side of the equation. The atoms
Prac 1
p. 9
5
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1
The easiest way to
balance equations is to
follow steps. To show
this we will use another
example.
Sodium carbonate
is added to nitric acid,
producing sodium nitrate,
water and carbon dioxide.
Step 1: Write the word equation for this reaction.
sodium
+
nitric

sodium
+

water

+
carbon
carbonate acid nitrate dioxide
Step 2: Find the formula for each substance in the
word equation.
Sodium carbonate is Na
2
CO
3
and nitric acid is
HNO
3
.
Sodium nitrate is NaNO
3
, water is H
2
O and carbon
dioxide is CO
2
.
Step 3: Use these formulas to write an unbalanced
formula equation.
Na
2
CO
3
+ HNO
3

NaNO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2
Step 4: Balance each element, one by one, until
there are the same numbers of each type of atom
on both sides.
Sodium (Na): Two on the left, but only one on
the right. Put a big 2 in front of the formula for
sodium nitrate (NaNO
3
):
Na
2
CO
3
+ HNO
3

2NaNO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2
Carbon (C): One on each side. No balancing
required.
Oxygen (O): Six on the left, but nine on the right.
Placing a big 2 in front of the formula for nitric
acid (HNO
3
) solves the problem:
Na
2
CO
3
+ 2HNO
3

2NaNO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2
The other way to balance for oxygen would
have been to put a 2 in front of the formula for
sodium carbonate. This would have solved the
oxygen problem, but it would have unbalanced the
numbers of sodium and carbon.
Hydrogen (H): There are now two on each side, so
no more balancing is required.
Step 5: Double check the numbers of atoms on
each side to make sure your final equation is
correct.
Na
2
CO
3
+ 2HNO
3

2NaNO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2
are simply being rearranged by the reaction. The
unbalanced equation for the above reaction is:
Mg + HCl

MgCl
2
+ H
2
There is one magnesium on each side of the
equation, so they are already balanced.
However, while there is only one hydrogen atom
on the left, there are two on the right. These can be
balanced by doubling the amount of HCl we use. A
large 2 is added in front of the HCl, giving us two
hydrogen atoms on both sides.
Mg + 2HCl

MgCl
2
+ H
2
This also balances the chlorines. When an equation
is balanced, the mass of the products is equal to the
mass of the reactants. Nothing has been destroyed and
nothing new has been created. All the atoms
have just been rearranged. This is known
as the Law of Conservation of Mass,
and is another way of stating the Law
of Conservation of Matter.
Cl H
H H
Cl H
Putting a 2 in front of a formula means two of that species
e.g. 2HCl means
The smaller subscript numbers are different.
They show how many of each type of
atom are present.
H
2
O represents
CH
4
represents
O
H
H
H H C
Fig 1.1.3 What do the numbers in chemical
equations mean?
Prac 2
p. 9
H H
H H
O O
H H
O
H H
O
+
+ 2H
2
2H
2
O O
2
Fig 1.1.4 A balanced equation has the same number and
types of atoms on each side of the equation.
Fuel cells
The hydrogenoxygen fuel
cells used in the Apollo space
missions produced pure water
as a by-product. The astronauts
then used this for drinking. The
equation for this reaction is:
2H
2
+ O
2

2H
2
O
6
>>>
Writing chemical equations
Reactant side: 2 Na, 1 C, 9 O, 2 H, 2 N
Product side: 2 Na, 1 C, 9 O, 2 H, 2 N
Problem solved! Sometimes a bit of trial and
error is required before you successfully balance an
equation.
Following the steps above, you should find that
Al
2
O
3
+ C

CO + Al
becomes the balanced equation
Al
2
O
3
+ 3C

3CO + 2Al
Which state are we in?
The reaction between calcium and oxygen, forming
calcium oxide, may be represented as:
2Ca + O
2

2CaO
But what form is each
chemical in? Are they solid or
liquid, a gas or dissolved in
water? In order to complete the
picture of the reaction, we use
more subscripts to indicate the
physical states of the reactants
and products. These were briefly
introduced in Chapter 2 of
Science Focus 3. The subscripts
used are:
(s) for a solid substance
(g) for a gas
(l) for a pure liquid
Lights, action!
Calcium oxide (quicklime)
produces an intense white
light when it is burnt and
so was used as an early
spotlight in theatres. The
performers on stage were
in the limelight, a term
that is still used for a
person who is the centre
of attention.
(aq) to show that a substance is in aqueous
solution (i.e. dissolved in water).
Including states, the above reaction would look
like this:
2Ca
(s)
+ O
2(g)

2CaO
(s)
All the details of the reaction are now clear. Two
atoms of solid calcium react with one molecule of
gaseous oxygen, producing two
solid calcium oxide ion clusters.
This gives a lot more information
than before. From this point on, try
to write all your chemical equations
including state subscripts.
Unless told otherwise, you
should always write the states of
reactants and products as they
occur at Standard Laboratory
Conditions (25C and normal
1 atmosphere pressure).
For example, at Standard
Laboratory Conditions, mercury
(Hg) is a liquid and sulfur (S)
a yellow solid. They react to
form mercury sulfide (HgS), the
reaction being:
Hg
(l)
+ S
(s)

HgS
(s)
The fall of Rome
Lead poisoning probably
played a significant part
in the fall of the Roman
Empire. Infertility was
caused by drinking wine
from leaden vessels. Lead
was also used as a cure
for diarrhoea. Cosmetics
used by ancient peoples
included white lead on
the face, mercury sulfide
as lipstick, and arsenic
sulfide as eyeshadow; the
ultimate self-poisoners
make-up kit!
Worksheet 1.2 Writing and balancing chemical equations
Worksheet 1.3 Revising chemical equations
+
+
liquid mercury

solid sulfur solid mercury
(II) sulfide
Hg
(l)
HgS
(s)
S
(s)
Fig 1.1.6 Compounds have very different
physical properties from the
elements that made them.
Writing chemical equations
Normally we think of nitrogen as a gas but it can
also be cooled down to make it into a liquid.
Fig 1.1.5
7
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Questions
]
Checkpoint
Equations and formulas
1 Chemical equations have three main parts. State the
name of each part.
2 State what + and

mean in chemical equations.

3 List the three main types of chemical bonding.
Balancing chemical equations
4 State the Law of Conservation of Matter.
5 Explain how the Law of Conservation of Matter applies
to chemical equations.
Which state are we in?
6 State the symbols and name used to show the state of
matter of chemicals in chemical equations.
7 State the Standard Laboratory Conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Think
8 Compare the Law of Conservation of Mass with the
Law of Conservation of Matter.
9 Compare the use of subscript numbers in chemical
equations with the use of larger-sized numbers.
10 Contrast NaCl
(s)
with NaCl
(aq)
.
11 Identify the molecules in the list below.
a CO
2
b H
2
O
c NaCl
d Li
2
CO
3
e N
2
f CaO
g Ar
12 Calcium forms the ion Ca
2+
and chlorine forms the
chloride ion, Cl

. Identify the correct ionic formula for

calcium chloride.
A CaCl
B Ca
2
Cl
C CaCl
2
D Ca
2
Cl
13 Explain why Na
2
SO
4
is not a molecular formula, but
H
2
O is.
14 Identify the equation that is correctly balanced.
A HNO
3
+ MgO

Mg(NO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O
B 2HNO
3
+ MgO

Mg(NO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O
C 2HNO
3
+ 2MgO

2Mg(NO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O
D 2HNO
3
+ 3MgO

Mg(NO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O
15 Identify the equation that is not balanced.
A C
5
H
12
+ 8O
2

CO
2
+ 6H
2
O
B Mg + 2HCl

MgCl
2
+ H
2
C 2Zn + O
2

2ZnO
D 4Al + 3O
2

2Al
2
O
3
Skills
16 At Standard Laboratory Conditions (SLC), oxygen
exists as O
2(g)
. Construct the formula for each of these
substances at SLC, including the appropriate state: (aq),
(l), (s), (g).
a water
b carbon dioxide
c dilute sulfuric acid
d calcium chloride
e neon
f hydrogen
g magnesium carbonate crystals
h dilute nitric acid
17 For each of the following substances, state:
i the chemical formula
ii the type of bonding as metallic, ionic or covalent
a magnesium
b strontium sulfate
c oxygen gas
d carbon monoxide
e calcium chloride
f sulfur dioxide
g sodium
h argon
18 Modify the following equations so that they are
balanced.
a P
4
+ O
2

P
2
O
5
b KClO
3

KCl + O
2
c BaO + HNO
3

Ba(NO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O
d Pb
3
O
4

PbO + O
2
e Pb(NO
3
)
2

PbO + NO
2
+ O
2
19 Modify these equations so that they are balanced.
Include any missing states.
a H
2(g)
+ O
2(g)

H
2
O
b Na + Cl
2

NaCl
(s)
c CaCO
3(s)

CaO
(s)
+ O
2
d CH
4
+ O
2

CO
2
+ H
2
O
(g)
e HNO
3
+ Ca
(s)

Ca (NO
3
)
2(aq)
+ H
2
20 Jessica heated some bright blue copper(II) nitrate
crystals in a test tube. She noticed brown nitrogen
8
>>>
Writing chemical equations Writing chemical equations
[
Extension
]
Complete the following activities by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 1 and clicking on the destinations button.
1 Investigate green chemistry.
a Describe what is meant by green chemistry.
b Outline some examples of what is being done in
the study of green chemistry.
c Present your information as a poster to convince
the general public that green chemistry is important
for society and the environment.
dioxide gas being produced. A glowing splint held
at the top of the test tube re-lit, proving that oxygen
gas was also produced. A fine black solid, copper(II)
oxide, was left in the test tube.
a In this reaction state the reactants and the
products.
b Construct the word equation for this reaction.
c Construct the balanced chemical equation,
including states.
21 For each of the following reactions, construct:
i the word equation
ii the balanced formula equation, including states
a Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with grains of
sodium hydroxide. Water and sodium
chloride are the products.
b Ammonia (NH
3
) gas is produced when
nitrogen gas is added to hydrogen gas.
c Carbon monoxide gas combines with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas.
d Solid iron combines with chlorine gas
to produce solid iron(III) chloride.
e Dilute sodium hydroxide solution is added
to dilute sulfuric acid. Sodium sulfate and
water are produced.
f Ammonium nitrate dissolves in water to produce
ammonium and nitrate ions.
g Hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium metal. A
solution of calcium chloride is produced, through
which rise bubbles of hydrogen.
Mass of sodium Mass of oxygen Mass of sodium oxide
reacting (grams) reacting (grams) produced (grams)
2.00 0.70 2.70
3.00 1.04 4.04
4.00 1.39 5.39
Analyse
22 David added some dilute hydrochloric acid to some
solid limestone (calcium carbonate) in a beaker. When he
weighed the products after the bubbling had stopped,
he noticed that there had been a reduction in mass.
Explain why his results did not seem to agree with the
Law of Conservation of Mass.
23 Solid sodium reacts with oxygen to produce solid
sodium oxide. The following experimental data were
obtained for the reaction between sodium and oxygen,
producing sodium oxide:
a Construct a word equation for this reaction.
b Construct an unbalanced chemical equation for the
reaction, then balance it.
c Modify the equation to include the states of the
reactants and products.
d Explain how the above results prove the Law of
Conservation of Mass.
2 Connect to the CSIRO double helix website
and locate the Cool Experiments page.
a Identify an experiment that involves a
chemical reaction and can safely be done
at home.
b Perform the experiment and present a scientific
report on your findings.
3 Complete the tutorial on balancing chemical equations.
This may mean spending some time each day over
about two weeks working through the tutorial. Record
your self-assessment in a log during this time.
DYO
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Practical activities
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Studying a reaction
Aim To make quantitative observations of the
reaction of magnesium metal and an acid
Equipment
Magnesium strips, 1 M sulfuric acid, large beaker,
small filter funnel, 100 mL measuring cylinder,
cling wrap, gloves, lab coat, safety glasses
large beaker
water
filter
funnel
magnesium
inverted measuring
cylinder of acid
cling
wrap
Fig 1.1.7
Method
1 Cut a 4 cm long strip of magnesium. Place it under the
filter funnel in the beaker.
2 Fill the beaker with water until it covers the filter funnel.
3 Fill the measuring cylinder with acid and cover it in cling
wrap.
4 Carefully invert the measuring cylinder on top of the filter
funnel. Let the neck of the filter funnel pierce the cling
wrap.
5 After the bubbling seems to have stopped, measure the
volume of gas collected in the measuring cylinder.
Questions
1 Construct a word equation and the balanced formula
equation for this reaction. The products are hydrogen H
2

and magnesium chloride MgCl
2
.
2 Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas that you would
expect to have been produced if you had used instead:
a an 8 cm strip of magnesium
b a 1 cm strip of magnesium
Prac 1
Unit 1.1
Conservation of mass
Aim To investigate conservation of mass in a
chemical reaction
Equipment
Solid calcium carbonate, 0.5 M hydrochloric
acid, 200 mL conical flask, balloon, spatula,
100 mL measuring cylinder, lab coat, safety
glasses, access to an electronic balance
Prac 2
Unit 1.1
calcium
carbonate
30 mL acid
conical flask
balloon
Fig 1.1.8
Method
1 Measure out approximately 0.2 g of calcium carbonate
in the conical flask.
2 Measure out 30 mL of hydrochloric acid into the
measuring cylinder.
3 Place the conical flask, measuring cylinder and balloon
on the balance and record their total weight.
4 Pour the acid into the conical flask and quickly place the
balloon on top.
5 When the reaction is complete, re-weigh the flask (with
balloon attached) and empty measuring cylinder.
Questions
1 Construct a word equation and balanced formula
equation for this reaction.
2 Assess whether your results agree with the Law of
Conservation of Mass.
3 If your results do not agree with the Law, propose
reasons why.
10
1
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2
1
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2
Some reactions are slow. Others are fast.
When we take an antacid, we hope its
reaction with the acids in our stomach
will be a quick one, since it will relieve our
indigestion. Some reactions are so fast,
however, that they explode!
When solid potassium is added to
water, large volumes of explosive
hydrogen gas are rapidly
produced, the energy released by
the reaction setting the hydrogen
alight. Other reactions like the
rusting of iron, or milk turning
sour, are very slow. How quickly
a reaction happens can make the
difference between it being safe or
dangerous. The speed of a reaction
is also important in industry.
When producing chemicals a slow
reaction may be unprofitable.
Speeding up industrial reactions is
a very important area of chemistry.
An especially important Australian
example of this is the production of
sulfuric acid.
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
UNIT
UNIT
>>>
Industrial reactions
For a reaction to be carried out profitably in industry
it must occur fairly quickly, and it must give a good
yield. The yield is the amount of product obtained,
and can be expressed as the percentage of the
expected product that is obtained. For example, if 6 g
of aluminium reacts according to the equation:
4Al
(s)
+ 3O
2(g)

2Al
2
O
3(s)
we could expect to obtain 11.3 g of Al
2
O
3
.
Fig 1.2.1 For a long time, hydrogen was
blamed for the Hindenburg disaster.
If, for various reasons, only 5 g was
obtained then the yield was
5
/11.3 100 =
44%.
So how are a fast reaction rate and a good
yield achieved?
The Hindenburg disaster
On 6 May 1937, the hydrogen-filled
Hindenburg airship burst into flame
while landing in New Jersey, USA. The
hydrogen was viewed as the culprit
for many years. Extensive recent
research has, however, discovered
that hydrogen did not cause the initial
fire. The actual cause was the high
flammability of the fabric cover. It was
made of a cotton substrate with an
aluminised cellulose acetate butyrate
covering. The observations at the
scene were consistent with a huge
aluminium fire. The fabric was ignited
by electrical activity in the atmosphere.
The hydrogen only exploded once the
fire had burnt through the covering.
The electrolytic refinement of copper
produces copper bars like these.
Fig 1.2.2
11
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Methods commonly used to improve yield include:
carrying out the reaction at a reasonably high
temperature. The higher the temperature, the
greater the energy of the reactants, making the
reaction more likely to occur.
using a catalyst. Catalyst are substances that are
not consumed in a reaction, but help the
reaction to proceed more quickly.
removing the products as they are formed.
constantly adding reactants to replace
those used up.
Specific reactions may have
particular conditions associated with
them.
Sulfuric acid, H
2
SO
4
As an example of an industrial process, we will
look at the production of sulfuric acid, a chemical
very important to our everyday lives. Sulfuric acid
production dates back to the early alchemists. At one
stage, concentrated sulfuric acid was called oil of
vitriol because it was prepared by distilling hydrated
ferrous sulfate, FeSO
4
.7H
2
O, otherwise known as iron
vitriol.
Sulfuric acid is the cheapest bulk acid, and is
sometimes referred to as the king of chemicals because
it is produced in such huge quantities worldwide. A
countrys sulfuric acid production is considered an
excellent indicator of its industrial well-being.
Uses of sulfuric acid
In the nineteenth century, the German chemist Baron
Justus von Liebig discovered that when sulfuric
acid was added to soil, it increased the amount of
phosphorus in the soil for plants to use. The current
largest single use of sulfuric acid is in making
fertilisers, both superphosphate and ammonium
sulfate. It is also used to make many organic
compounds, including ether, nitroglycerine and dyes.
It is important in refining petroleum, making
paints and pigments, processing metals and
making rayon. It is found in car batteries
and used in the superconductor industry for
cleaning.
Some properties of sulfuric acid
Strong acid
Corrosive
Colourless liquid
Density 1.85 g/cm
3
Melting point 10.4C
Prac 1
p. 13
DYO
Some products made using sulfuric acid
rayon
dyes
car
battery
superconductors
nitroglycerine
Fig 1.2.3
Prac 3
p. 14
Boiling point 340C
Very soluble in water
Dissolving the concentrated acid in water releases
a lot of heat (highly exothermic).
Is a dessicant (absorbs water from surroundings)
Can cause severe burns to skin
Can cause blindness if it gets in eyes.
Production of sulfuric acid
The contact process is the most commonly used
method for producing sulfuric acid.
Drying tower
Heat exchanger
Converter
Storage tanks
SO2 SO2
+ air
SO3
SO3
SO2
+ air
air
Water
molten
sulfur
Diluter
Absorption
tower
Conc. H2SO4
Sulfur burner Deduster
Fig 1.2.4 The contact process for the production of
sulfuric acid
Step 1
Molten sulfur is burned in air to produce sulfur
dioxide gas.
S
(l)
+ O
2(g)

SO
2(g)
Prac 2
p. 14
12
>>>
The O
2
comes from air which has been dried with
96% H
2
SO
4
and then had dust particles removed.
The yield is increased by making sure that plenty of
oxygen is available.
Step 2
In the converter, the reaction rate is increased by
heating the sulfur dioxide in oxygen. The catalyst
vanadium oxide turns it into sulfur trioxide. This is a
reversible reactionit can occur in both directions.
2SO
2(g)
+ O
2(g)

2SO
3(g)
The converter used for
sulfuric acid production
10% SO
2
11% O
2
feed gas
heat
exchangers
to oleum or
intermediate
absorber
from
intermediate
absorber
to final
absorber
420C
600C 63% conversion
84% conversion
93% conversion
99.5% conversion
450C
510C
450C
475C
420C
535C
reaction bed 1
reaction bed 2
reaction bed 3
reaction bed 4
Fig 1.2.5
The gases are passed over several catalyst beds,
rather than just one, to give them more chance of
reacting, thus increasing the yield further.
Step 3
In the absorber, oleum (H
2
S
2
O
7
) is produced. Like the
other reactions involved in sulfuric acid manufacture,
this is exothermic. The energy released can be used
to make electricity, which helps maintain the cheap
price of sulfuric acid.
SO
3(g)
+ H
2
SO
4(l)

H
2
S
2
O
7(l)
Step 4
Oleum is hydrated to form sulfuric
acid.
H
2
S
2
O
7(l)
+ H
2
O
(l)

2H
2
SO
4(l)
You can see that to make
this series of reactions occur
faster and with high yield, they
are maintained at a reasonably
high temperature and a catalyst
is used. Products are removed
as they are formed, and fresh
reactants are injected. This
combination gives the industrial
process for sulfuric acid
production a 99% yield.
Who was the
False Geber?
The man who discovered
sulfuric acid around 1300
did not write under his
real name. Instead, he
borrowed the name of
Geber from a long-dead
Arabic alchemist. His real
name was never revealed,
so this great chemist has
always been known as the
False Geber.
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Questions
]
Checkpoint
Industrial reactions
1 State an example of:
a a fast reaction
b a slow reaction
2 Clarify what is meant by the yield of a reaction.
3 Clarify what is meant by the rate of a reaction.
4 State what the ideal yield of a reaction would be.
5 A fast reaction rate and a good yield are particularly
desirable for industrial reactions. Explain why.
Worksheet 1.4 Rates of reaction
6 Describe two ways to obtain a faster reaction rate.
Sulfuric acid
7 Sulfuric acid is known as the king of chemicals.
Explain why.
8 State three major uses of sulfuric acid.
9 State five properties of concentrated sulfuric acid.
10 Identify the catalyst used in the contact process.
11 State the formula for the following substances:
a sulfuric acid
b sulfur dioxide
c sulfur trioxide
d oleum
Think
12 Several catalyst beds are used in the contact process.
Explain why.
13 Propose a reason why it is called the contact
process.
More and faster! Rate and yield considerations More and faster! Rate and yield considerations
13
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Practical activities
] 1
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Rates of reactions 1
Aim To investigate the variables that affect
reaction rates
Equipment
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, magnesium strips, ice,
1 M HCl, hydrogen peroxide solution, solid manganese
dioxide, stopwatch, spatula, 4 test tubes, test-tube rack,
10 mL measuring cylinder, 2 100 mL beakers
Prac 1
Unit 1.2
14 Explain what happens in the converter, including how
the rate and yield are maximised.
15 Construct balanced equations for each step in the
production of sulfuric acid by the contact process.
16 Draw a simplified flow chart to demonstrate the four
steps in the contact process.
17 Evaluate the importance of considering the rate and
yield in an industrial reaction.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research a chemical reaction of industrial importance.
This may include one of the following:
the Haber process for producing ammonia
the Ostwald process for producing nitric acid
the production of margarine
the catalytic converter in car engines and power plants
the Solvay process for producing sodium hydrogen
carbonate
the production of superphosphate
a Construct a labelled diagram or flow chart outlining
the chemical process.
b Describe how the reaction conditions are controlled
to obtain:
i the maximum yield of product
ii a fast reaction rate
c Outline three significant uses for the product
obtained in the industrial process researched.
d Present your information in a form that is suitable for
display at a science fair.
2 The airbag in a car works because of a very fast
chemical reaction.
a Investigate how an airbag works.
b Present your findings in a brochure that explains
this clearly to car owners.
3 Sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide can cause problems
in the environment. Research what these problems
may be and produce a web page or PowerPoint
presentation that outlines your information.
Surf
4 Find out more about the Hindenburg disaster by
connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 1 and clicking on the destinations
button. Write a newspaper article to assess the true
chemical nature of the Hindenburg disaster.
1 Time the reaction from
the moment the magnesium
is dropped into the acid, until
there is no magnesium left.
2 For the second experiment,
cool the acid before adding
the magnesium.
acid + Mg ice water
acid
Fig 1.2.6
1
.
2
1
.
2
>>
Skills
18 Identify the elements that make up sulfuric acid.
19 It was expected that 2 tonnes of aluminium was to be
obtained from 4 tonnes of ore, but only 1.65 tonnes
was obtained. Calculate the percentage yield.
14
>>>
Method
1 Add a 2 cm strip of magnesium to a test tube.
2 Add 5 mL of acid and time how long it takes for the
reaction to finish. The reaction is
Mg
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)

MgCl
2(aq)
+ H
2(g)
3 Place 5 mL of acid in the second test tube and sit it in a
beaker of ice water.
4 Once again, add a 2 cm strip of magnesium and time
how long it takes for the reaction to finish.
5 Add 2 mL of acid and 3 mL of water to a third test
tube.
6 Add a 2 cm strip of magnesium and time how long it
takes for the reaction to finish.
Rates of reactions 2
Aim To investigate how the surface area affects
reaction rate
Equipment
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, marble chips
(large and small), powdered calcium carbonate,
dilute hydrochloric acid, stopwatch, spatula, 4 test
tubes, test-tube rack, 10 mL measuring cylinder,
electronic balance
Prac 2
Unit 1.2
DYO
7 Add 5 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution to each of two
beakers. Hydrogen peroxide gradually breaks down
according to the equation
2H
2
O
2(aq)

2H
2
O
(l)
+ O
2(g)
8 To one beaker, add a very small amount of manganese
dioxide.
9 Compare the two beakers and record your observations.
Questions
1 Identify factors that made the reactions proceed faster
or slower.
2 Predict the effect of heating the reactions.
3 Identify the role of the manganese dioxide in the
hydrogen peroxide reaction.
Method
1 Using the equipment listed, design and perform an
experiment to test the effect of surface area on the rate
of reaction.
2 Construct a graph to display your results.
Questions
1 Use your results to deduce how surface area affects
the rate of reacton.
2 Propose how your experiment could be improved.
TEACHER DEMONSTRATION
Dehydrating action of sulfuric acid
Note: This experiment should be performed in a fume cupboard.
Prac 3
Unit 1.2
Aim To observe the dehydration action of
concentrated sulfuric acid
Equipment
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, conc. H
2
SO
4
,
blue copper(II) sulfate crystals, glucose or sucrose,
2 100 mL beakers, 2 spatulas
Method
1 Add 23 spatulas of blue copper(II) sulfate crystals to a
beaker.
2 Carefully pour about 10 mL of conc. H
2
SO
4
over the
crystals.
3 Leave for a few minutes.
4 Add 23 spatulas of glucose or sucrose to another
beaker.
5 Carefully add about 15 mL of conc. H
2
SO
4
.
6 Leave for several minutes.
Questions
1 Describe your observations for each experiment.
2 Construct an equation for each reaction.
More and faster! rate and yield considerations More and faster! rate and yield considerations
15
It is common nowadays to see organically
grown produce in shops, and see labels
that say 100% organic or made from
organic ingredients. This means the food
has been grown by natural
methods, avoiding the use of
synthetic chemicals such as
insecticides. In chemistry, the
term organic refers to the
chemistry of substances in
which carbon is the main element. Organic substances
also contain other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, but carbon is always the backbone.
Organic substances are the basis of
all living things, and of everything that
was once living.
Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is
the chemistry of carbon
compounds. Carbon has
four outer-shell (or valence)
electrons and can covalently
bond with up to four other
atoms, usually other carbon
atoms, hydrogen or oxygen.
In this way, carbon is unique
Organic water
One brand of mineral water is
currently being marketed as
100% organic. Does this mean
that the water was grown by
natural methods or does it mean
that it is full of both living and
dead organisms? Marketing
campaigns frequently misuse
terminology and should be
treated with carefor example,
a brand of marshmallows is
currently being labelled as fat
free. Marshmallows have always
been fat free, but are full of
sugars, which will be converted
to fat if you eat too many!
Fig 1.3.1 This person contains many organic
compounds, including proteins, lipids
and carbohydrates.
in that it is able to form millions
of different stable compounds.
Compounds like carbon monoxide
(CO) and carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
are inorganic compounds, as are
methane (CH
4
) and vinegar (acetic
acid, CH
3
COOH).
Multiple bonds
Before we go any further, it is
important that you understand the
difference between single bonds,
double bonds and triple bonds.
Some information to help you
understand the bonds:
A single bond is one pair of electrons being shared
between two atoms.
A double bond is two pairs of electrons being
shared between two atoms.
A triple bond isyou guessed itthree pairs of
electrons being shared between two atoms.
Carbon has atomic number 6, which means it
contains six protons and six electrons. It has two
electrons in the first shell, and four electrons in
its outer (valence) shell, giving it an electronic
configuration of 2.4. Its four valence electrons place it
in Group IV of the Periodic Table. To achieve a stable
eight valence electrons, carbon needs to gain four
more electrons. It does so by forming four covalent
bonds.
These can be:
four single bonds, or
two double bonds, or
a single and a triple bond, or
one double bond and two single bonds.
Deadly rhubarb
Rhubarb contains high
levels of a deadly organic
compound, oxalic acid.
Although the edible stalks
contain a very low level of
oxalic acid, the level in the
leaves is high, so high that
during World War I, people
died from eating them
as a vegetable. Beetroot
and peanuts also contain
significant amounts of oxalic
acid, but you would have to
eat a lot to overdose. Oxalic
acid kills by lowering our
blood calcium below the
critical level.
My necklace was once
my grandmother!
Humans are built from
organic substances and are
therefore a good source of
carbon. Diamonds are one
of the forms pure carbon
takes. A company in the
United States, LifeGem
Memorials, is developing a
process to exploit these two
facts: they intend to convert
cremated human remains into
diamonds, which can then be
worn as jewellery by grieving
relatives!
c
o
n
t
e
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t
UNIT
UNIT
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3
16
>>>
Hydrocarbons
The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons.
These are compounds that consist only of carbon and
hydrogen. Hydrocarbon compounds are important in
our everyday lives. Cars run on hydrocarbon fuels and
other hydrocarbons lubricate their engines. The many
plastics we use are derived from hydrocarbons.
Multiple bonds
C C C C
C C
C C
H
H
H
H H
H
C C
H
H
H
H
C C H H
O shared
pair of electrons
T o shared
pairs of electrons
Th shared
pairs of electrons
Ethane contains
only single bonds
Ethene contains one carbon-carbon
double bond and four carbon-hydrogen
single bonds
Ethyne contains one carbon-carbon triple bond
and two carbon-hydrogen single bonds
Single bond Double bond
Triple bond
Fig 1.3.2
Fig 1.3.3 These items are all hydrocarbon-based.
where n is the number of carbon atoms. Put
simply, the number of hydrogen atoms equals double
the number of carbon atoms plus two.
For example, if the compound contains two carbon
atoms,
n = 2
then the number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule is
2n + 2 = (2 2) + 2 = 6
The molecular formula is therefore C
2
H
6
.
The alkanes form a related series of molecules
called a homologous series. Each molecule in the
series is a little bigger than the previous one: each
subsequent molecule has an additional CH
2
unit
added to it. The first two members in the homologous
series of alkanes are methane, CH
4
, and ethane, C
2
H
6
.
Methane and ethane
CH
4
C
2
H
6
H
H
H H C
H
H
H C
H
H
H C
C C
H
H
H
H H
H
C
H
H
H
H
methane
ethane
Fig 1.3.4
The first part of the
name indicates how
many carbon atoms
are in the compound.
The prefixes used for
naming are listed in the
table.
The second part of
the name indicates what
type of compound it is.
For alkanes, the
name ends in ane. For
example, the alkane
containing four carbons
is called butane. It has
the formula C
4
H
10
.
Prefix Number of
carbon atoms
Meth 1
Eth 2
Prop 3
But 4
Pent 5
Hex 6
Hept 7
Oct 8
Non 9
Dec 10
Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single
bonds. They have the general formula
C
n
H
2n + 2
100% organic 100% organic
17
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Crude oil is formed from the remains of plants
and animals that lived millions of years ago, and
is composed mostly of alkanes. The crude oil is
refined (separated into its components) by fractional
Fig 1.3.5 Crude oil forms from the remains of dead
animal and plants under the Earths crust.
Oil rigs are used to extract the oil.
cool
(25C)
very hot
(400C)
Name of
fraction
How many
carbons in
chain?
What is it
used for?
Fuel for cars
Fuel for jets
1620 Fuel for central
heating. Can also be
cracked to make
smaller molecules
Lubricating
oil
2030 Oil for machines like
cars. Can be cracked
Fuel oil 3040 Fuel for ships and
power stations
Paraffin wax 4050 Waxy papers,
candles, polishing
Gas 14 Fuel
Petrol 410
Kero 1016
Diesel oil
Bitumen 50 and
over
Roads
crude
oil in
Fig 1.3.6 Fractional distillation of crude oil
distillation. This means that the crude oil is
heated and passed into a column where the
components are separated according to their
boiling points into the different fractions.
Some of the fractions are used as is, while others
are cracked to produce shorter-chain alkanes and
some new chemicals, alkenes. Cracking involves
heating the large molecules in the presence of a
catalyst. An example of one of these cracking reactions
is shown in Figure 1.3.7.
A cracking reaction
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C
C
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C
C C
H
H
H
C
C
C
+
heptane
ethene pentane
heat
Fig 1.3.7
Alkenes
Alkenes contain a double bond and
have the general formula
C
n
H
2n
This means the number of hydrogen
atoms in the molecule is exactly
double the number of carbon atoms.
The two smallest alkenes are ethene
and propene. Alkenes are named in the
same way as alkanes, except that their
names end in ene.
The major use for alkenes is in
making plastics such as polyethene,
the material used to make shopping
bags. The double bond can break, and
the molecules can join end-on-end to
form long polymer chains. You will
learn more about this in Chapter 2,
Materials.
1
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18
>>>
Plastic bags kill thousands
of sea birds and marine
animals every year. Fig 1.3.10
Alkenes
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
H
C
C C
C
2
H
4
C
3
H
6
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H C
ethene propene
H
H
Fig 1.3.8
H H
H H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
2
H
4
heat
catalyst
Part of a polyethene polymer looks like:
Fig 1.3.9 The formation of
polyethene
Checking out
Twenty million Australians
use nearly seven billion
plastic check-out bags every
year! Organic chemicals have
changed the way we live and
the resources we use. But
we must also think carefully
about how we use them.
Many organic chemicals
are not biodegradable. This
means they do not break
down naturally, but instead
stay in the environment for
hundreds and sometimes
thousands of years. Plastic
bags in the ocean are a great
cause of concern as they
are mistaken for jellyfish by
turtles, whales, sea birds
and other animals that eat
them. Once in the gut the
bags slowly and painfully
kill the animal. The bag is
then released back into the
ocean, to kill again when the
animals body decomposes.
Do you use alternatives to
plastic bags when shopping?
Alkynes
H
H
H
C
2
H
2
C
3
H
4
C C C H
H
H
H
C H H C
ethyne propyne
C
C C H H C C H C
Fig 1.3.11
The simplest alkyne is ethyne, commonly called
acetylene. It is highly reactive due to the presence
of a triple bond. If acetylene is burned in a stream
of oxygen, very high temperatures (almost 3000C)
are reached. This is why the oxyacetylene torch is
used in welding. Other alkynes are used in many
manufacturing processes.
Fig 1.3.12 Welders use an oxyacetylene torch that
reaches temperatures of up to 3000C.
Alkynes
Alkynes contain triple bonds and have the general
formula
C
2
H
2n 2
The number of hydrogen atoms in an alkyne
molecule is equal to double the number of carbon
atoms minus two. Two alkynes are shown in
Figure 1.3.11.
100% organic 100% organic
Alcohols
Alcohols contain the hydroxy group, OH. The
hydroxy group is known as a functional group. A
functional group is an atom, or group of atoms, that
affects the properties of a compound.
19
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H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C C
H
O O
H
H H
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
H
C C
C C
H
H
H
H
H
C C
May be called ethanol
or hydroxyethane.
May be called 1-propanol
or 1-hydroxypropane.
The hydroxy group is attached
to the first carbon.
May be called 2-butanol
or 2-hydroxybutane. The
hydroxy group is attached
to the second carbon.
Fig 1.3.13 How to name alcohols
Ethanol is the alcohol in beer, wine and spirits
and is the best known of the alcohols. Ethanol has
many other uses, however: it is an excellent solvent, is
found in many glues, paints and inks, and is used as a
reactant to make rubbers and flavourings.
One way to produce ethanol is by fermentation
of fruit or vegetable matter. This reaction may be
represented as:
glucose

ethanol + carbon dioxide

C
6
H
12
O
6(aq)

2C
2
H
5
OH
(aq)
+ 2CO
2(g)
The catalyst for this
reaction is yeast.
Another widely
used alcohol is 1,2-
ethanediol, better
known as antifreeze.
The addition of this
molecule to radiator
fluid lowers the
melting point of
the liquid so that it
wont freeze in cold
weather. Methanol is
the main component
of methylated spirits.
Propanol is used
as rubbing alcohol.
1,2,3-propanetriol,
known as glycerine
or glycerol, is a
component of many
moisturisers.
Zero limit for L and P platers
Since May 2004 the legal blood
alcohol content in New South Wales
for all learner and provisional licence
holders has been zero. The reason for
this limit is that a little bit of ethanol
has a huge effect on your body. Low
doses affect the reticular systemthe
primitive part of the brain that maintains
consciousness and responsible
behaviour. The initial effect you feel
depends on how much sensory input
you are getting, as this determines
which brain pathways are affected. In
quiet settings, you may become drowsy.
In a social setting, you are more likely
to feel stimulated. This is the result
of the alcohol affecting the pathways
dealing with inhibition. Ethanol is not
a stimulantit is a central nervous
system depressant. Even in very small
amounts, it slows your reflexes and
impairs your judgement.
The biological molecule cholesterol is an alcohol and
an important component of our bodies.
Combustion of hydrocarbons and
alcohols
When hydrocarbons or alcohols burn in lots of
oxygen, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
This is called complete combustion. These reactions
also produce heat energy, which may be harnessed,
for example in coal-fired power stations, to produce
electricity.
In complete combustion:
ethane + oxygen

carbon dioxide + water

2C
2
H
6(g)
+ 7O
2(g)

4CO
2(g)
+ 6H
2
O
(g)
Sometimes, if the supply of oxygen is limited,
incomplete combustion may occur. This is usually
characterised by a black, smoky flame.
In incomplete combustion, two reactions tend to
occur simultaneously:
ethane + oxygen

carbon monoxide + water

2C
2
H
6(g)
+ 5O
2(g)

4CO
(g)
+ 6H
2
O
(g)
ethane + oxygen

carbon + water
2C
2
H
6(g)
+ 3O
2(g)

4C
(s)
+ 6H
2
O
(g)
Incomplete combustion produces less heat energy
than complete combustion and can also produce a
deadly pollutant, carbon monoxide gas.
Fig 1.3.14 Incomplete combustion in car engines
produces carbon, carbon monoxide and other
chemicals that contribute to photochemical
smog and air pollution.
Prac 1
p. 21 Worksheet 1.5 Organic chemistry
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Organic chemistry
1 Clarify what is meant by organic chemistry.
2 List the main elements in organic compounds.
3 Explain what is meant by a hydrocarbon.
Multiple bonds
4 Contrast single, double and triple bonds.
Hydrocarbons
5 List two examples of hydrocarbons that have:
a single bonds only
b a double bond
c a triple bond
6 List five important hydrocarbon products.
7 Explain what is meant by a homologous series.
Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes
8 Identify the three homologues series of hydrocarbons.
9 State the name and formula for the:
a first three alkanes
b fourth alkene
c first alkyne
d polymer made from ethene
10 State the purpose of:
a fractional distillation
b cracking alkanes
Alcohols
11 Identify the special functional group that alcohols
contain.
Combustion of hydrocarbons and alcohols
12 Distinguish between complete and incomplete
combustion.
Think
13 Identify one carbon-based compound that is not an
organic compound.
14 It is not possible for the molecules methene and
methyne to exist. Account for this fact.

15 Complete the table by identifying the molecule or its
formula.
16 Fractional distillation separates the alkane fractions in
crude oil. Outline how this is achieved.
17 State the name of the alcohol we drink.
18 State another name for:
a antifreeze
b acetylene
c methylated spirits
19 Identify the products formed from:
a the complete combustion of methane
b the incomplete combustion of methane
20 Compared with the blue flame of a Bunsen burner, the
yellow flame is relatively cool and very dirty, leaving
a layer of black carbon on anything heated in it.
Propose reasons why two flames can be so different
when they burn the same gas.
Analyse
21 a Identify the reactants and the products in the
fermentation equation.
b State two uses for fermentation.
22 Explain the meaning of the statement: Fermentation
is catalysed by yeast.
23 Evaluate complete and incomplete combustion in
terms of their efficiency in releasing the energy in fuel,
and their effect on the environment.
24 Discuss the importance of organic chemistry for
society.
Molecule name Molecular formula
Pentane
C
4
H
8
C
10
H
18
Hexene
Octane
C
3
H
8
Propyne
100% organic 100% organic
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[
Practical activity
] 1
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Complete and incomplete combustion
ethanol kerosene
Fig 1.3.15
Method
1 Light the candle and note things like the colour of the
flame and any sign of soot.
2 Put a few drops of ethanol on a watch-glass and light it
carefully. Observe the flame.
3 Light the kerosene burner and observe the flame.
Questions
1 Describe any evidence observed for:
a complete combustion
b incomplete combustion
2 The molecular formula of ethanol is C
2
H
5
OH. Kerosene
is a mixture of hydrocarbons with an average formula
of C
12
H
26
. Explain the difference in the way these
compounds burned, in terms of their formulas.
3 Is the burning of petrol in cars an example of complete
combustion or incomplete combustion? Justify your
answer.
Prac 1
Unit 1.3
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Carbon compounds play an important role in our
everyday life. Research information on ten useful carbon
compounds. For each compound:
a State the correct chemical name and common name.
b Construct a model.
c Describe one significant use.
ACTIVITY
Making molecules
Use a molecular model building kit to construct models
of some alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and alcohols. Draw
and name the models you make.
Aim To examine the products of complete and
incomplete combustion
Equipment
Ethanol, Pasteur pipette, kerosene with wick, lab coat, safety
glasses, heat mat, watch-glass, candle
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UNIT
UNIT
In any reaction billions of atoms, ions and
molecules are colliding with each other
and rearranging each other. A single drop
of water, for example, contains billions of
water molecules and a beaker of water has
many, many more. When chemists run an
experiment, they deal with very large numbers of
atoms, ions and molecules and not just single atoms
or small groups of them. The numbers involved are
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
so huge that a new way of counting is needed. This
is where the mole comes in. The maths involved in
chemistry is tricky at first, but very useful once you
get the hang of it!
The mole
If you were asked how many eggs are in a dozen, you
would of course say 12. We use a dozen instead of
counting individual eggs, so three dozen is 36 eggs,
10 dozen is 120 eggs and so on. The mole also stands
for a group of things, although a mole has many more
things in it than a dozen. The mole in chemistry
has nothing to do with small, furry, burrowing
animals but instead stands for a huge number, called
Avogadros number. This number is an incredibly
large 6.02 10
23
, or 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
or 602 thousand billion billion! There would be
6.02 10
23
eggs in a mole of eggs, and a mole of
people means 6.02 10
23
people. This is well over a
thousand billion times the current world population!
In chemistry, a mole of carbon atoms would contain
6.02 10
23
carbon atoms and a mole of water would
have 6.02 10
23
water molecules in it. The mole is
useful in chemistry because it gives us a number of
atoms or molecules that we can actually see and
measure out. A single atom or molecule is far too
small to work with.
Weighing a mole
The periodic table on page 310 of the Science Focus 4
coursebook includes all the details of each element. It
also includes the atomic mass (sometimes called the
atomic weight) of the element. The atomic mass is the
mass in grams of a mole of those atoms. For example,
the atomic mass of carbon C is 12, so the mass of one
mole of carbon atoms must be 12 grams. The mass of
one mole of oxygen atoms is 16 grams. Likewise, if we
weighed out 127.6 g of tellurium (Te) then we would
have a mole of tellurium atoms.
Typical information from the periodic
table. Some periodic tables may be
arranged slightly differently.
atomic
number
atomic mass
(the mass in
grams) of
1 mole of
these atoms
element
symbol
element
name
Fig 1.4.1
Fig 1.4.2 How big is a mole? A mole of cane toads would
cover an area the size of Queensland with a
layer of amphibians many kilometres thick!
Maybe we should call it a toad instead!
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Masses in a reaction
The mole is useful because it allows us to use the
periodic table and balanced chemical equations. We
can calculate exactly what mass of a reactant is
required for a reaction and how much product the
reaction will produce.
As an example, lets look at the reaction of liquid
mercury with sulfur powder to form mercury sulfide.
The word equation is:
mercury + sulfur

mercury sulfide
This formula equation is already balanced:
Hg
(l)
+ S
(s)

HgS
(s)
This tells us that one atom of mercury reacts with
one atom of sulfur to form one ion cluster of mercury
sulfide. It also tells us that one mole of mercury atoms
would react with one mole of sulfur atoms to produce
one mole of mercury sulfide. So:
1 mole Hg
(l)
+ 1 mole S
(s)

1 mole HgS
(s)
or, using the atomic masses from the periodic table
on page 310 of the coursebook:
200.6g Hg
(l)
+ 32g S
(s)

232.6g HgS
(s)
In words, this means that 200.6 g of mercury will
react with 32 g of sulfur to produce 232.6 g of mercury
sulfide.
Lets look at another reaction, this time between
gallium and oxygen. Its word equation is:
gallium + oxygen

gallium oxide
The balanced chemical equation is:
4Ga
(s)
+ 3O
2(g)

2Ga
2
O
3(s)
In other words, four gallium atoms react with three
molecules of oxygen gas to produce two ion clusters of
gallium oxide.
It also tells us that:
4 moles Ga
(s)
+ 3 moles O
2(g)

2 moles Ga
2
O
3(s)
Unlike the example above, here we need to do
some calculations for masses:
4Ga
(s)
+ 3O
2(g)

2Ga
2
O
3(s)
(69.7 g 4) (16 g 6) (69.7 g 4) + (16 g 6)
278.8 g 96 g 374.8 g
This means that 278.8 g of gallium reacts with 96 g
of oxygen to give 374.8 g of gallium oxide, or:
278.8g Ga
(s)
+ 96g O
2(g)

374.8g Ga
2
O
3(s)
Prac 1
p. CD7
Calculating formula masses
CALCULATING FORMULA MASSES
e.g. calculate the formula mass of C
2
H
6
O
2
This is made up of:
2 carbons
6 hydrogens
2 oxygens
The formula mass is then:
(2 atomic mass of carbon) + (6 atomic mass of hydrogen)
+ (2 atomic mass of oxygen)
2 carbons 2 oxygens
6 hydrogens
= (2 12 g/mol) + (6 1 g/mol) + (2 16 g/mol)
= 62 g/mol
Fig 1.4.3
The mass of 1 mole of a
compound is called the
formula mass. To calculate
formula mass, simply break the
substance down into its
elements. For example,
ammonium carbonate has the
formula: (NH
4
)
2
CO
3.
This is made from 2
nitrogen atoms, 8 hydrogen
atoms, 1 carbon atom and 3
oxygen atoms. From the
periodic table, the atomic
masses of these elements are:
Element Symbol Atomic mass (grams)
Nitrogen N 14
Hydrogen H 1
Carbon C 12
Oxygen O 16
Hence, the formula mass = (14 g 2) + (1 g 8) +
(12 g 1) + (16 g 3) = 96 g
This means that one mole of (NH
4
)
2
CO
3
has a mass
of 96 grams.
Taking it a step further
Lets look at the combustion of methane.
CH
4(g)
+ 2O
2(g)

CO
2(g)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)
Formula mass of methane (CH
4
)
= (12 g 1) + (1 g 4) = 16 g
Did Lecoq crow?
For a scientist to name a new
discovery after himself is simply
not done. The element gallium was
discovered and named in 1874 by
Frenchman Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisbaudran. The name gallium
came from Gallia, the Latin name
for France. But gallus is rooster in
Latin, while le coq is French for
rooster. A coincidence, or was this
Frenchman cleverly putting his
personal stamp on his find?
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Formula mass of oxygen (O
2
)
= 16 g 2 = 32 g
Formula mass of carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
= (12 g 1) + (16 g 2) = 44 g
Formula mass of water (H
2
O)
= (1 g 2) + (16 g 1) = 18 g
The combustion of methane
C
H H
O
H H
O
H
H
H H
O O
O O
C O O
+
+
Fig 1.4.4
This equation shows that 1 mole of methane
molecules (16 g) reacts with 2 moles of oxygen
molecules (2 32 g = 64 g), producing 1 mole of
carbon dioxide molecules (44 g) and 2 moles of water
molecules (2 18 g = 36 g). Another way this could be
written is:
16g CH
4(g)
+ 64g O
2(g)

44g CO
2(g)
+ 36g H
2
O
(l)
The mass of reactants is 80 g and so is the mass of
products: the Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed.
Lets say that we only have 8 grams of methane,
and not 16 g as assumed in the equation above. The
formula mass of methane is 16 g so this is equal to
8
/16
or half of a mole. Half a mole of methane will only
need half the oxygen and will obviously only produce
half the amount of carbon dioxide and water, i.e.:
Mass of oxygen used
=
1
/2 64 g = 32 g
Mass of carbon dioxide produced
=
1
/2 44 g = 22 g
Mass of water produced
=
1
/2 36 g = 18 g
Getting the hang of it? Lets try another example to
make sure. Hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine gas
to give hydrogen chloride gas and solid sulfur. The
balanced chemical equation for this reaction is:
H
2
S
(g)
+ Cl
2(g)

2HCl
(g)
+ S
(s)
Fig 1.4.5 A portrait of
Joseph Priestley
Using the atomic masses from the periodic table,
the formula masses are found to be:
H
2
S = 34 g
Cl
2
= 71 g
HCl = 36.5 g
S = 32 g
In terms of masses we have:
H
2
S
(g)
+ Cl
2(g)

2HCl
(g)
+ S
(s)
32 g 71 g 2 36.5 g 32 g
Another way of writing this could be:
32g H
2
S
(g)
+ 71g Cl
2(g)

73g HCl
(g)
+ 32g S
(s)
But what if we dont want 32 g of sulfur, but only
want to produce, say, 4.5 g? How much of each
reactant will we need to mix?
Mass of one mole of sulfur = 32 g
We dont need one mole of sulfur, but need only a
fraction of a mole. The fraction of sulfur produced =
4.5
/32 mole.
So we only need this mass of hydrogen sulfide
reacting:
= 4.5/32 34 g = 4.8 g
The mass of chlorine reacting needs to be:
= 4.5/32 71 g = 10 g
Breaking down formulas
If you take a look at the formula for carbon dioxide,
you can see that 12 g of its formula mass comes from
Dephlogisticated air
Joseph Priestley first isolated
oxygen in the eighteenth century,
calling it dephlogisticated air.
Priestley was an English clergyman
and was dubbed Dr Phlogiston
by newspaper reporters of the day.
He was delighted with the effects
of breathing his pure oxygen,
dephlogisticated air. He wrote that
my breast felt peculiarly light and
easy for some time afterwards. Who
can tell but that, in time, this pure
air may become a fashionable article
in luxury. Hitherto only two mice
and myself have had the privilege
of breathing it. Unfortunately, the
mice died soon after in Priestleys
experiments. As predicted by
Priestley, breathing pure oxygen
became fashionable for a short time
in the early 2000s, particularly in
California, USA. Patrons of oxygen
bars would be hooked up to breathe
bottled oxygen.
Maths in chemistry! Maths in chemistry!
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carbon, and the rest comes from oxygen. Calculated as
a percentage of the total mass of 44 g we get:
Percentage of carbon in carbon dioxide
=
12
/44 100 = 27%
Percentage of oxygen in carbon dioxide
=
32
/44 100 = 73%
Carbon dioxide can be formed in many ways. For
example:
C
(s)
+ O
2(g)

CO
2(g)
or
2CO
(g)
+ O
2(g)

2CO
2(g)
Whichever way carbon dioxide is formed, it will
always contain the same proportions of carbon and
oxygen. This is called the Law of Constant
Proportions: this simply states that a compound will
always have the same proportions of each element,
regardless of how it was made.
1
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[
Questions
]
Mass of lead Mass of oxygen Mass of lead oxide
reacting (g) reacting (g) produced (g)
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
Checkpoint
The mole
1 Clarify what is meant by the term mole in chemistry.
2 Outline why the mole is used instead of individual
atoms in chemistry.
Masses in a reaction
3 The large numbers that appear in front of compounds are
the only ones we can alter to balance a chemical equation.
Explain how these numbers relate to the number of moles
of each chemical taking part in the reaction.
4 The formula mass of water is 18 g. Explain how this was
calculated.
Taking it a step further
5 Explain how the mole ratios of reactants and products
can be used practically in chemistry.
6 The Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed in chemical
reactions. State how the mole can be used to show this.
Breaking down formulas
7 Outline how the percentage of carbon in carbon dioxide
can be calculated.
8 Clarify what is meant by the Law of Constant Proportions.
Think
9 Calculate the number of each in the following examples:
a socks in a pair of socks
b eggs in a dozen eggs
c gold atoms in a mole of gold
d H
2
O molecules in a mole of water
e dozens of eggs in a mole of eggs
f pairs of socks in a mole of socks
10 Iron reacts with sulfur, producing iron(II) sulfide.
a Given that iron(II) is Fe
2+
and sulfide is S
2
, construct
the formula for the compound iron(II) sulfide.
b Construct a balanced chemical equation for this
reaction.
c 55.9 g of iron completely reacts with sulfur.
Calculate the mass of sulfur needed and the mass
of iron(II) sulfide that will be produced.
Skills
11 Using the following equation:
2H
2(g)
+ O
2(g)

2H
2
O
(l)
calculate
a the number of moles of each reactant required
b the number of moles of water produced
c the masses of each reactant required and the
expected mass of the product
12 Use the information from the periodic table on page 310
of the coursebook to calculate the formula mass of:
a glucose, C
6
H
12
O
6
b calcium nitrate, Ca(NO
3
)
2
c hydrogen peroxide, H
2
O
2
d sodium phosphate, Na
3
PO
4
13 Given that the formula of lead oxide is PbO
2
calculate
the masses missing in the table below.
14 Calculate the percentage by mass of each element in
potassium hydrogen carbonate, KHCO
3
.
Analyse
15 Consider these two reactions:
Ca
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)

CaCl
2(aq)
+ H
2(g)
Mg
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)

MgCl
2(aq)
+ H
2(g)
In a flask, 2.5 g of calcium reacted with sufficient
hydrochloric acid. In another flask, 2.5 g of
magnesium reacted with sufficient hydrochloric acid.
a Identify the common product from both reactions.
1
.
4
1
.
4
CD6
>>>
b Which flask would produce more gas? Justify your
answer. (Hint: Think about how many moles of each
metal there are at the start.)
16 Copper(II) carbonate (CuCO
3
) decomposes when
heated, producing copper(II) oxide (CuO) and carbon
dioxide (CO
2
).
a Construct a formula equation for this reaction and
balance it.
b If 6 g of copper(II) oxide is produced, calculate the
mass of copper(II) carbonate that must have reacted.
17 When methane gas (CH
4
) burns in oxygen (O
2
), carbon
dioxide and water vapour are formed.
a Construct a balanced formula equation for this
reaction.
b Calculate the minimum mass of oxygen needed for
4 g of methane to completely burn.
18 Nitrogen forms many different compounds with oxygen.
One of these was found to contain 28 g of nitrogen for
every 64 g of oxygen.
a Calculate how many moles of nitrogen and of
oxygen this is equivalent to.
b Identify the probable formula of this compound.
19 Is it cheaper to buy sodium carbonate (washing soda)
as the anhydrous (waterless) salt Na
2
CO
3
at $2.00 per
kilogram, or as the decahydrate salt, Na
2
CO
3
10H
2
O, at
$1.00 per kilogram? Justify your answer.
20 A student produced a compound that he believed was
Al
2
O
3
. He found that his compound was 45% aluminium
and 55% oxygen. Is it Al
2
O
3
? Justify your answer.
21 Sarah conducted an experiment where she burned 0.3 g
of magnesium in oxygen. From her results she calculated
that 0.7 g of magnesium oxide was produced. Her prac
partner, Stephen, said that was impossible. Decide which
of them is correct, and justify your answer.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research information to discover how scientists have
contributed to the understanding of maths in chemistry.
a Describe how Amadeo Avogadro came to have a
very important number named after him.

Maths in chemistry! Maths in chemistry!
b Antoine Lavoisier deduced the Law of Constant
Proportions. Explain how he did this.
c Outline the contribution of one other chemist in this
area.
2 Estimate how many people are alive in the world today.
Is this equal to, more than, or less than a mole of people?
Mass of mysterium Mass of sulfur Mass of mysterium
reacted (g) reacted (g) sulfide produced (g)
1.00 1.41
2.00 2.82
3.00 4.23
4.00 5.64
5.00 7.05
6.00 8.46
7.00 9.87
ACTIVITY
Reacting ratios
The following table shows the results of an
experiment in which various masses of the fictional
metallic element mysterium, symbol M, were reacted
with sulfur, producing mysterium sulfide:
xM
(s)
+ yS
(s)

MxSy
(s)
1 List the reacting masses of sulfur in the table.
2 Construct a line graph of the mass of mysterium
reacting (vertical axis) against the mass of sulfur
reacting (horizontal axis).
3 Justify whether this graph proves the Law of
Constant Proportions.
4 Explain why logically the graph should pass
through the origin.
5 Use rise/run to calculate the slope or gradient of
the graph.
6 Construct an equation for the straight line in the
graph.
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[
Practical activity
] 1
.
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TEACHER
DEMONSTRATION
Reacting amounts
Aim To calculate the mass of the product that
should be obtained from reacting magnesium in air
and compare with experimental data
Equipment
5 cm magnesium strip, crucible with lid, tripod, Bunsen
burner, pipe clay triangle, electronic balance, heat-proof mat,
tongs, sandpaper, gloves, safety glasses, lab coat
crucible,
with lid,
containing
magnesium
pipe-clay
triangle
tripod
Bunsen
burner
heat mat
Fig 1.4.6
Method
1 Clean the magnesium strip with the sandpaper.
2 Curl the magnesium strip and place in the crucible.
Place the lid on, and weigh it.
3 Place the crucible on the pipe clay triangle over the
Bunsen burner.
DO NOT LOOK AT THE BURNING MAGNESIUM
DIRECTLY OR ALLOW STUDENTS TO VIEW
DIRECTLY.
4 Heat it until combustion starts. If necessary, lift the lid
slightly from time to time to keep the combustion going.
5 When the combustion is complete, let the crucible cool,
then reweigh it.
Questions
1 Constuct a balanced equation for the reaction of
magnesium with oxygen, O
2
, producing magnesium
oxide, MgO.
2 Record the mass of magnesium that reacted, and the
mass of magnesium oxide produced.
3 Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that you
should have obtained from this amount of magnesium.
4 Compare the theoretical mass with the actual mass.
5 Propose reasons why the theoretical and actual mass
are probably close, but not exactly the same.
Prac 1
Unit 1.4
1
.
4
1
.
4
22
>>>
Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 Clarify what the Law of Conservation of Mass means
with regard to reactants and products.
2 Explain the purpose of using a chemical equation.
3 List the possible states in which chemicals may
exist and list the symbols used for them in an
equation.
4 Write a chemical equation demonstrating the following
features: reactants and products, states of each
substance, correctly written formulas, and numbers
balancing the equation.
5 Define the term SLC.
6 State one thing that could make a reaction go faster,
besides using a catalyst.
7 State the percentage yield obtained in the manufacture
of sulfuric acid.
8 Summarise the four steps in the production of sulfuric
acid.
9 Using equations, outline how the yield and rate are
controlled in the contact process.
10 List three properties and uses of sulfuric acid.
11 Use an example to help define the term homologous
series.
12 List five important uses for organic compounds.
[
Thinking questions
]
13 Assess whether a fast reaction rate guarantees a good
yield.
14 Evaluate the need to consider rate and yield in industrial
reactions.
15 Which of the following two formulas is a molecular
formula?
SO
2
or Na
2
SO
4
Justify your answer.
16 Modify the following chemical equations so that they
are balanced.
a Al(OH)
3
+ HNO
3

H
2
O + Al(NO
3
)
3
b H
2
O + K

H
2
+ KOH
17 Describe organic chemistry.
18 Draw diagrams to demonstrate the molecular structure
of ethane, ethene and ethyne.
19 An organic molecule has five carbon atoms. State its
name if it is an alkane, alkene or alkyne.
20 Describe how a polymer is made from ethene.
[
Interpreting questions
]
21 Extrapolate in order to complete this word equation:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid

22 Describe in words what these equations are showing:

a 2Na + 2H
2
O

H
2
+ 2NaOH
b CuO + 2HNO
3

Cu(NO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O
23 Solid lithium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric
acid to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
a Identify the likely salt produced.
b Construct a word equation for the reaction.
c Construct a balanced formula equation for it, with
subscripts indicating the states of each chemical.
24 For each of the reactions below, construct:
i the word equation
ii the balanced formula equation, including states
a Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with a lump of
potassium hydroxide to produce water containing
dissolved potassium chloride.
b Sulfur dioxide is added to oxygen, producing sulfur
trioxide gas.
c Solid magnesium combines with chlorine gas to
produce solid magnesium chloride.
d Silver nitrate solution is added to sodium chloride
solution, producing sodium nitrate solution and a
precipitate of silver chloride.
25 Contrast complete and incomplete combustion.
26 Write the word and formula equations for the complete
combustion of propane.
27 a Outline the process of fermentation.
b Discuss the importance of fermentation as a
chemical reaction.
Worksheet 1.6 Chemical reactions crossword
Worksheet 1.7 Sci-words
>>>
By the end of this chapter you should be
able to:

relate the properties of substances to
their structures

relate the uses of substances to their
properties

explain how materials such as metals
and plastics have changed our world

construct word equations for the
rusting of iron and the corrosion of
aluminium

balance formula equations for the
rusting of iron, the smelting of iron,
and the electrolysis of sodium chloride

explain how metals can be protected
from corrosion

discuss the impact of mining on
Australian society and the environment

explain why conservation and recycling
of materials are important to our
continued well-being.
1 Why is it that gold can be found as a
nugget but sodium cant?
2 What is slag and what has it got to do
with iron?
3 Why do plastic objects often have a
bump or seam?
4 Why do we feel wet and clammy on
hot days if we wear nylon but not if we
wear cotton?
5 How does Thorpies Speedo swimsuit
help him go faster?
O
u
t
c
o
m
e
s

5
.
4
,

5
.
7
.
3
,

5
.
1
1
.
1
,

5
.
1
1
.
2
,

5
.
1
2
P
r
e

q
u
i
z
2
2
Materials
Materials
Key focus area
The implications of science
for society and the environment
>>>
24
>>>
The metals gold and silver have been much
prized since primitive times. Copper, its alloy
bronze, and later iron and its alloy steel,
replaced the stone spearheads and axes of
primitive humans, improving their chances
when hunting and waging tribal fights. Each
newly extracted metal allowed technology to change.
And society changed with them.
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Metal atoms lose control of their outer-shell
electrons, which are free to wander.
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
Electrons rapidly transfer heat.
free electrons, not bound
to any single atom
multidirectional bonding
bonding will
not break
even if
layers
shift
lattice (arrangement) of metal ions
Electrons can carry current.
Fig 2.1.1
Properties of metals
Most metals are very dense, because metal atoms pack
tightly together when they combine. Metal atoms also
have low electronegativity, meaning that they have
very little control over their outer-shell electrons.
These electrons move freely throughout the metal
without being bound to any one atom. This provides
multidirectional bonding between the atoms and
accounts for the following properties of metals:
They are malleablethe bonding allows them to
stay together and not break apart when hammered
or bent.
They are ductilethis is the ability to be drawn or
stretched into wires.
They are electrical conductorsthe free outer-shell
electrons enable them to carry electrical currents.
They are heat conductorsthese same electrons
rapidly transfer heat, making metals excellent
thermal conductors.
Pure metals
Very few metals can be used as pure elements because
they are generally too soft to be made into anything
useful. Copper and aluminium are two of only a
handful of metals that can be used in their pure form.
UNIT
UNIT
2
.
1
2
.
1
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Fig 2.1.2 Cast iron lace very beautiful, very hard,
but very brittle
Alloys
An alloy consists of a metal combined with one or
more other elements. An alloy has properties that are
different from those of its components. These new
properties are usually an improvement over those of
the main or base metal in the alloy. For example, brass
is more durable than its base metal, copper.
Pure iron is extremely soft, but if small amounts of
carbon are added, its strength increases dramatically.
The alloy formed is steel. Mild steel has 0.5% carbon,
while tool steel has about 1%. If the carbon content
increases to between 2.4% and 4.5%, cast iron
Pure metal Element symbol Uses Properties that make it particularly suited to its use
Aluminium Al Overhead electricity cables, Excellent conductor of heat and electricity, extremely light, non-toxic
saucepans and cans, Alfoil
Copper Cu Electrical wiring Excellent electrical conductor
Easily drawn into wires
Sodium Na Nuclear reactor coolant Conducts heat well
Melts at 98C, allowing molten sodium to flow along pipes in the reactor

Zinc Zn Coating for iron Protects iron from rusting
(galvanised iron)
Tin Sn Coating for steel cans for Stops steel from rusting, non-toxic, unreactive
food, liquid, etc.
Mercury Hg Thermometers Liquid at room temperature, expands rapidly when heated, leaves tubes
clean once it retreats, leaving no traces
Lead Pb Flashing around windows and Very soft and easily bent, resists corrosion
rooftops to stop water entry
Fig 2.1.3 Jewellery used for body piercings is usually
rust-resistant surgical-grade stainless steel
but infection may still occur.
is formed. This is strong but brittle and shatters easily
if hit or dropped. Stainless steel has chromium (20%)
and nickel (10%) added to stop rusting.
2
.
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2
.
1
26
>>>
2
.
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Properties of metals
1 State whether the following are true or false.
a Metal atoms pack tightly together, giving metals high
density.
b Metal atoms have high electronegativity.
c Free electrons in metals make the metals good
conductors.
2 List the properties that all metals exhibit.
3 Explain whether metal atoms have high or low
electronegativity.
Pure metals
4 Outline a factor that limits the use of pure metals.
5 List two metals that can be used in their pure form.
Pure gold jewellery would
break if it was used for normal
everyday wear. Instead, it is
alloyed with silver or copper to
increase its strength. The carat
scale measures the amount of
pure gold in jewellery, with
pure gold rated as 24 carat.
Jewellery is often 18 carat,
meaning that it is
18
/24 (three-
quarters or 75%) gold.
Some alloys and their
composition and uses are
listed in the table.
Prac 1
p. 28
Pure metals and alloys Pure metals and alloys
Wanted: muscular
slave for short job!
Damascus steel was used
in the ancient world to
manufacture swords of
extreme strength. The
exact technology was
lost about 200 years ago
but one recipe calls for
normal steel to be heated,
then cooled in two stages.
The final cooling was
supposedly achieved by
thrusting the sword into the
body of a muscular slave.
The strength of the slave
apparently transferred on
his death into the metal!
Alloy Composition Uses Advantages
Brass 70% Cu, 30% Zn Household and nautical Appearance, limited corrosion,
fittings, musical instruments harder than pure copper
Bronze 95% Cu, 5% Sn Statues, ornaments, bells Appearance, little corrosion,
harder than brass, sonorous
(rings well when struck)
Duralumin 96% Al, 4% Cu, Aircraft frames Strong, light
traces of Mg and Mn
Solder 60 to 70% Sn, Joining metals together, electrical Low melting point
40 to 30% Pb connections, low-friction bearings
Cupronickel 75% Cu, 25% Ni Silver coins Hard wearing, looks like silver,
attractive
EPNS (electroplated Cu, Ni, Ag Plated onto cutlery, plates and Looks like silver, cheaper, resists
nickel silver) bowls corrosion
Alnico Al, Ni, Co Magnets Aluminium is light, nickel and
cobalt can be magnetised
Dental amalgam Hg, Sn, Ag, Zn, Cu Tooth fillings Hardens slowly after being mixed
Money, money, money!
Australian gold $1 and $2
coins contain 92% copper,
6% aluminium, 2% nickel
and no gold. The silver
coins are 25% nickel, 75%
copper and no silver. Metal
was first used as money in
about 2000 BC, but coins
were not invented until
600 BC in Lydia, Anatolia.
They were crude beads
of electrum, a naturally
occurring alloy of silver
and gold.
Worksheet 2.1 Toothache!
Worksheet 2.2 Media analysis: Fry me to the moon
Fig 2.1.4 Tutankhamens dagger, with an
iron blade and gold scabbard
Gold cheaper than iron!
When the Egyptian Pharaoh
Tutankhamen was buried 3400
years ago, two daggers were
buried with him. One dagger had
a blade of gold, the other iron.
Because of its rarity at that time,
the iron dagger was far more
valuable than the gold one!
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% Cu 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Stress (N/m
2
10
6
) 19 16 12 8 5 32 58 40 23 21 33
a State the breaking stress of:
i a 50/50 alloy of copper/zinc
ii an alloy of 20% Cu and 80% Zn
iii an alloy containing 60% zinc
iv pure copper
v pure zinc
b Identify the proportions of copper that make the
alloy stronger than pure copper.
c Identify the proportions of zinc that make it weaker
than pure zinc.
d Identify the strongest copper/zinc alloy.
e Identify the composition of three alloys that all
break at a strain of 25 x 10
6
N/m
2
.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Lead and mercury are described as cumulative poisons.
a Explain what this means.
b Describe how these metals get into the environment
and into the bodies of animals.
c Summarise the main effects of these metals on the
human body.
d Present your information as a newspaper article
explaining the dangers of these metals to society and
the environment.
2 Schools generally use red or green alcohol thermometers.
a Investigate which metal was used in thermometers
before alcohol.
b Explain why this metal is no longer used.
c Account for the use of alcohol thermometers.
3 Some dentists are concerned about using dental
amalgam as fillings in teeth.
a Justify their concerns.
b Outline some alternatives to using amalgam.
4 a Research the Bronze and Iron Ages.
b Propose ways in which the discovery of copper/
bronze and iron/steel would have changed the way of
life of people at that time.
c Present your information as a poster or a creative
story showing what life was like then.
Alloys
6 Define the term alloy.
7 Alloys have advantages over their parent metals.
Clarify this statement using an example.
Think
8 Explain whether metals would be good or poor
electrical conductors if they had a tight hold on their
outer-shell electrons.
9 Are coins pure metals or alloys? Justify your answer.
10 List two properties of metals that make them ideal
for electrical wiring.
11 Aluminium is used for overhead electrical cables,
while copper is used for home wiring. Propose a
reason why.
12 List three reasons why mercury is ideal for
thermometers.
Analyse
13 State the base metal in a ferrous alloy. (Use element
symbols to help you.)
14 List the different types of steel, in order from the
lowest carbon content to the highest.
15 Use the table on page 26 to state which metal(s):
a is most abundant in Australian gold and silver
coins
b is the only metal that is a liquid at normal room
temperatures
c is the main component of steel
d is common to both the alloys brass and bronze
e is added to iron to make stainless steel
16 Use the information on page 26 to state what fraction
and percentage of pure gold is in:
a a 12-carat gold ring
b a 9-carat gold nose stud
c a 22-carat gold chain
Skills
17 The table below shows the stress that different
alloys of copper and zinc can take before breaking.
Construct a graph of stress (vertical axis) against the
percentage of copper (horizontal axis).
Analyse your graph to answer the following questions.
2
.
1
2
.
1
28
>>>
Pure metals and alloys Pure metals and alloys
[
Practical activity
] 2
.
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Prac 1
Unit 2.1
How much is it worth?
Aim To calculate the value of metal in Australian
coins
Equipment
$2, $1, 50 cent, 20 cent, 10 cent and 5 cent coins, the
business section from a recent newspaper (not Monday),
access to an electronic scale
Fig 2.1.5
Method
1 Find the following values and copy them into your
workbook:
the US to Australian dollar exchange rate
the prices of aluminium, copper and nickel
2 Convert any US dollar prices into Australian dollars
by dividing by the exchange rate. For example, if
A$1 = US$0.5064 and the price of aluminium was
US$1408.50 per tonne, then its price in Australian
dollars was 1408.50 0.5064 = A$2781.40 per tonne.
[put price per
gram here]
3 Convert any prices per tonne into prices per gram by
dividing by 1 000 000. For example, if aluminium is
A$2781.40 per tonne, the price per gram is 2781.40
1 000 000 = A$0.00278 or 0.278 cents per gram.
4 Convert any prices per ounce into prices per gram by
dividing by 28.35
5 Write a complete list of the prices in Australian dollars
per gram.
6 Use an electronic balance to find the masses of a $1
and a $2 coin.
7 Copy and complete this calculation for each gold coin:
Mass of coin = _____ g
[put mass of coin here]
Mass of copper in coin = 92% of _____ = _____ g
Mass of aluminium in coin = 6% of _____ = _____ g
Mass of nickel in coin = 2% of _____ = _____ g
[put mass of
metals here]

Cost of copper = _____ _____ = A$ _____
Cost of aluminium = _____ _____ = A$ _____
Cost of nickel = _____ _____ = A$ _____
8 Add the answers to find the total cost of the coin.
9 What percentage is this of its face value?
10 Use a similar method to calculate the value of the
silver coins.
Questions
1 Deduce whether any of the coins are worth more than
their face value.
2 Fifty-cent coins originally had silver in them, but now
dont. Explain why.
3 Use the prices of gold and silver to calculate the cost
of each coin if they were really gold or silver.
29
UNIT
UNIT
2
.
2
2
.
2
Metals have been used for thousands of
years, the first to be used being the native
metals such as gold. Unlike gold, most
metals are not found as pure elements, but
as compounds of oxygen. They need to be
released from their oxygen before they can
be used. Over the centuries, metallurgists (scientists
who specialise in metals) have developed a variety
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
of efficient and inexpensive ways of doing this. At first
they used heat. The discovery of electricity, however,
allowed for the extraction of
many more metals, particularly
aluminium. Imagine your life
without metals!
Metals in the crust
Metals make up only a quarter of the Earths crust.
Oxygen and silicon make up the rest. The oxygen does
not exist as a gas, but is chemically combined with
metal atoms as solid oxides.
aluminium
8.1%
oxygen 46.7%
silicon 27.8%
all the other
metals and
non-metals
1.2%
potassium 2.2%
sodium 2.8%
magnesium 2.2%
calcium 3.6%
iron 5%
Fig 2.2.1 The percentage abundance of elements in
the Earths crust. Oxygen is by far the most
abundant, being combined with metals as
oxides or with silicon as silicon dioxide in
sand or silicates.
Metals ready to go: native
elements
Native elements can be either non-metals, like carbon
and sulphur, or metals, like silver, platinum, copper
and gold. The metals can be found as pure elements,
as either a nugget or a vein of
the metal trapped in another
rock such as quartz. They just
need a little cleaning or the
surrounding rock removed.
Native elements are so stable
and unreactive that they have
survived without reacting with
the chemicals of the air, dirt or
water.
A vein of pure gold trapped in quartz Fig 2.2.2
Gold, gold, gold!
The earliest recorded
discovery of gold in
Australia was in 1823
at Bathurst, New South
Wales by James McBrien,
a Department of Lands
surveyor. At the time
McBrien was surveying
a road along the Fish
River, between Rydal and
Bathurst. The first gold
rush had begun!
30
>>>
Metals that need work: minerals
and ores
All other metals are found combined with other
elements as compounds.
Minerals are rocks containing large amounts of a
particular metal. If there is sufficient metal to make it
worth mining, it is called an ore.
Is it worth mining?
Mining produces valuable metals and creates jobs.
Sometimes, however, mining is not worth its expense
or the negative effects on society and the environment.
Ore Chemical composition Metal extracted
Bauxite Aluminium oxide, Al
2
O
3
Aluminium, Al
Chalcopyrite Copper iron sulfide, CuFeS
2
Copper, Cu
Galena Lead sulfide, PbS Lead, Pb
Haematite Iron oxide, Fe
2
O
3
Iron, Fe
Pitchblende Uranium oxide, U
3
O
8
Uranium, U
Rutile Titanium oxide, TiO
2
Titanium, Ti
Sphalerite Zinc sulfide, ZnS Zinc, Zn
Major ore deposits in Australia
N

Brisbane
Sydney
Melbourne
Hobart
Perth
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
QUEENSLAND
NEW SOUTH WALES
VICTORIA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
NORTHERN TERRITORY
TASMANIA
Geraldton
Cairns
Canberra
Bell Bay
Risdon
Mt Lyell
Henty
Rosebery
Savage River
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Kilometres
Adelaide
Darwin
Mitchell Plateau
Sorby Hills
Blendevale
Goongewa
Cadjebut
Admiral Bay
Yarrie
Bamboo Creek
Nifty
Marble Bar
Telfer
Nullagine
Kintyre
Robe River-Deepdale
Manyingee
Mt Tom Price
Paraburdoo
Channar
Newman
Jimblebar
Rhodes Ridge
Abra
Marymia
Plutonic
Peak Hill
Fortnum
Yeelirrie
Bronzewing Reedys
Weld Range
Cue
Mt Magnet Agnew-Lawlers Group
Scuddles
Mt Gibson
Worsley
Wagerup
Pinjarra
Jarrahdale
Del Park
Bounty
Norseman
Higginsville
Kambalda-St Ives
Coolgardie
Kalgoorlie Group Koolyanobbing
Mulga Rock
Copperhead
Mt Morgans
Youanmi
Nabarlek
Jabiluka
Barote
Ranger
Woodcutters
Union Reefs
Mt Todd
Coronation Hill
Bulman
Browns
Sandy Creek
McArthur River
Wollogorang (Redbank)
Pandanus Creek
Able
Echo Island
Nabalco
Orlando
Gecko
White Devil
Peko
Tanami
Callie
The Granites
Bigrlyi
Angela
Arltunga
Plenty River
Koongarra
Horn Island
Wenlock River
Weipa
Pera Head
Aurukun
Palmer River
Red Dome
Kidston Balcooma
Woolgar
Ben Lomond
Charters Towers Area
Thalanga
Wirralie
Mt Coolon
Lucky Break
Gladstone
Cracow
Dawson Valley
Mt Rawdon
Gympie
Westmoreland
Constance Range
Century
Lady Loretta
Gunpowder
Hilton
Mt Isa
Tick Hill
Selwyn
Cannington
Osborne
Broken Hill
Drake
Comet Valley
Hillgrove
Elura
CSA
Mineral Hill
Northparkes
Lake Cowal
West Wyalong
Temora
Kurri Kurri
Tomago
Newcastle
Port Kembla
Woodlawn
Ballarat
Stawell
Bendigo
Benambra
Woods Point
Geelong
Wedderburn
Portland
Hellyer
Nillinghoo
Tarcoola
Olympic Dam
Beverly
Beltana
Mt Gunson
Menninnie Dam
Whyalla
Kangaroo Island
Burra
Port Pirie
Mt Grainger
Radium Hill
Honeymoon
Aluminium (bauxite)
Copper (chalcopyrite)
Gold
Iron (haematite)
Lead (galena)
Uranium (pitchblende)
Silver
Titanium (rutile)
Zinc (sphalerite)
Bingara
Beaconsfield
Port Latta
Legend
Fig 2.2.3
Mining and metals Mining and metals
31
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
Before mining begins, many
important questions need to be asked:
How much ore is there and how
concentrated is it?
How deep is the ore? What type of
mine is needed?
Is the site close to existing ports
and rail lines?
Is there a population centre
nearby from which workers can be
employed?
Who owns or controls the land? If
they live there, will they be happy
to shift? What compensation is
appropriate?
What water and air pollution will
it cause?
What damage will be done to the
environment and how can it be
minimised?
What will be the cost of building
the mine and the processing
plants, and repairing the
environmental damage?
What is the current and expected
future price of the metal?
What profit is expected?
Fig 2.2.4 Pollution and environmental degradation can be
severe around mines and processing sites. This
photo shows the effect of the Ok Tedi mine in
Papua New Guinea.
The mining process
Underground mines are used for the mining of deep
ores but water penetration, possible collapse, venting
of poisonous and explosive gases and the provision
of fresh air for the miners are problems that must be
managed.
If the ore is close to the surface, open-cut
mining is easier. An overburden of soil is removed
and the ore is dredged out, creating benches, or
steps that spiral into the hole. These are also used
as access roads to haul the ore to the surface by
truck. Open-cut mines cause problems including
unsightliness, pollution of surrounding areas with
dust, pooling of water, destruction of land above
the ore, and the need to repair the land after mining
ceases.
Structure of an underground mine
well
winder house
head frame
ore conveyor
mill and
treatment
plant
two-compartment shaft
ladder
pump line
compressor
cage or skip
cross-cut
drive (along the
ore body)
overhead stope
No. 2 level
ORE
BODY
No. 3 level
underhand stope
No. 4 level
No. 1 level
Fig 2.2.5
2
.
2
2
.
2
32
>>>
An open-cut mine showing benches and
environmental degradation Fig 2.2.6
Concentration of the ore
Impurities and waste called gangue are mined with
the ore. The mined material is crushed by rollers
or by large steel balls that fill a large rotating drum
called a ball mill. Gravity and sieves separate some
of the gangue, with the remainder then separated
by froth-flotation. This is a technique pioneered in
Broken Hill, New South Wales, in which the crushed
ore floats away on a frothy emulsion of oil and water,
leaving the gangue behind. The ore is now ready for
extraction.
The activity series
When metals react, they lose electrons to form positive
ions. Some metals lose their electrons more easily
than others. These metals are reactive and are harder
to extract. Different extraction techniques are required,
depending on the metals position in the activity
series.
As we move up the activity series:
the chance of metals reacting with chemicals
becomes greater
the metals become less stable
there is less chance of finding the metals in their
natural state
the compounds of the metals become more stable
and more difficult to break down
the extraction process becomes more difficult and
more expensive.
Extraction by electrolysis
Electrolysis is such a powerful method that it could be
used to extract any metal from its ore. It uses a huge
amount of electricity, however, and is used only when
there is no cheaper method available.
A voltage is applied to a molten sample or solution
of the ore and the positive metal ions move to the
negative electrode. When it gets there, the ion is
forced to take back its outer-shell electrons to form
metal atoms that then plate the electrode.
Metal Extraction method
K Electrolysis
Na
Ca
Mg
Al
Zn Heating with C or CO
Fe
Ni
Sn
Pb
Cu Roasting in air
Ag Occurs naturally
Au
M
e
t
a
l
s

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r
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k
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Mining and metals Mining and metals
33
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
2
.
2
2
.
2
Sodium is made by electrolysis of sea water or,
more commonly, rock salt. The salt is melted to break
the salt crystals into its ions, then converted into pure
elements by electrolysis.
At the negative electrode:
Na
+
+ e

Na
and at the positive electrode:
2Cl

Cl
2
+ 2e

Overall,
2NaCl
(l)

2Na
(l)
+ Cl
2(g)
Extraction by heat
Heat is sometimes sufficient
to extract the pure metal.
This is called smelting. The
more reactive metals such
as lead, iron and zinc need
carbon or carbon monoxide
(CO) to help the conversion
along.
To extract iron, coke (a
source of carbon), limestone
(CaCO
3
) and iron ore
(Fe
2
O
3
) are heated in a
blast furnace.
The extraction of sodium from molten rock salt
by electrolysis
e
-
e
-
e
-
e
-
chlorine
gas
Cl
2
Cl
-
Molten Na
+
Cl
-
Na
+
ions
take back
electrons
to form
Na metal
Na
+
Fig 2.2.7
Aluminium, more
valuable than gold
Aluminium cookware is
reported to have originated
when the French Emperor
Napoleon III served the
King of Siam (modern-day
Thailand) at a state banquet
in 1867. The plates and
cutlery used were made
of aluminium, with less
important guests eating
from plates of pure gold.
Aluminium was so hard to
extract that it was very, very
expensive at the time.
molten slag
hot air blast
molten iron
iron ore
limestone
coke
exhaust gas
molten steel
water-cooled
mould
metal solidifies
as it is drawn
out by the
rollers
water
sprayed
on hot
metal
continuous
sheet is cut
into slabs
iron forms
and trickles
down (400C)
carbon
monoxide
forms and
rises (800C)
carbon dioxide
forms and
rises (1400C)
Fig 2.2.8 Smelting iron in a blast furnace and rolling it
into shape
Prac 1
p. 37
Smelting of iron occurs as a series of chemical
reactions.
First the coke reacts to form carbon dioxide:
C
(s)
+ O
2(g)

CO
2(g)
Limestone then decomposes, forming calcium
oxide and more carbon dioxide:
CaCO
3(s)

CaO
(s)
+ CO
2(g)
34
>>>
Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke, forming
carbon monoxide:
CO
2(g)
+ C
(s)

2CO
(g)
This reacts with the iron ore to form molten iron,
which then runs to the bottom of the furnace:
Fe
2
O
3(s)
+ 3CO
(g)

2Fe
(l)
+ 3CO
2(g)
Waste calcium oxide reacts with sand in the iron
ore, forming calcium silicate:
CaO
(s)
+ SiO
2(s)

CaSiO
3(l)
Calcium silicate is called slag and floats on the
molten iron.
Luckily, iron is relatively common, since iron
consumption is currently nine times that of all the
other metals put together.
Metals are non-renewable resources and all will
eventually run out.
Steel-making in action Fig 2.2.9
More stable metals only need roasting in air. Most
copper is extracted by roasting copper(I) sulfide,
found in an ore called copper pyrites:
Cu
2
S
(s)
+ O
2(g)

2Cu
(l)
+ SO
2(g)
Recycling versus
mining
Metals that make up less
than 0.1% of the Earths
crust are considered to be
scarce. Silver (abundance
0.000 01%) and gold
(0.000 000 5%) are scarce
and therefore expensive, but
some of our most commonly
used metals are considered
scarce too: copper (0.007%),
mercury (0.000 05%), zinc
(0.013%), lead (0.0016%)
and tin (0.004%).
Eating gold
In many cultures, it has been
traditional to decorate food with
pieces of gold leaf (fine layers
of hammered gold). Many of
Australias top restaurants are
now using it too, on top of
dishes such as risotto and even
in cocktails. The gold leaf is
eaten but has no taste, smell or
texture. Injections of gold have
been used for many years as
relief from arthritis, so maybe
this will help justify the cost of
eating it!
Fig 2.2.10 More than 50% of all aluminium cans in
Australia are collected and reprocessed.
Metal Element Amount used Estimated year
symbol per year at which known
(millions of reserves of the
tonnes) metal will run out
Iron Fe 800 2110
Aluminium Al 12 2350
Copper Cu 8 2040
Zinc Zn 4.5 2060
Lead Pb 4 2020
Tin Sn 0.25 2015
Worksheet 2.3 Extraction of metals
Recycling of aluminium is common, because the
production cost of new aluminium is twenty times
more than the cost of recycling it. Recycling of many
metals is often too expensive to make it worthwhile.
The difficulty of separating the iron from tin in food
cans makes it far too expensive to recycle iron at the
moment, despite millions of cans being thrown out
every year.
Mining and metals Mining and metals
35
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
2
.
2
2
.
2
2
.
2
U
N
I
T
[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Metals ready to go: native elements
1 Clarify what is meant by a native element.
2 List four examples of native elements.
3 State two forms in which native elements may be found.
Metals that need work: minerals and ores
4 Modify the following statements to make them correct.
a Metals that are not native elements are found as
alloys.
b Rocks containing large amounts of ores are known as
minerals.
c A mineral contains sufficient metal to mine.
5 Use the table on page 30 to list three ores and the main
metal they contain.
Is it worth mining?
6 A mining company decides not to mine a particular
metal. State three factors that might have led to this
decision.
7 State two features of a commercially successful mine.
The mining process
8 List the problems of an underground mine.
9 Construct a diagram showing the structure of an
underground mine.
Concentration of the ore
10 From the following list of words, identify the correct
terms to fill in the spaces below.
extraction, froth flotation, ball mill, gangue, crushed
Mined material is _________ by rollers or steel balls
within a _________. Impurities known as _________ are
separated by __________. The remaining ore is now
ready for _________.
The activity series
11 Define the term activity series.
12 State the reason why some metals are more reactive
than others.
13 Metals are extracted from their ores depending on
their position in the activity series. List the extraction
methods needed, in order from the least to the most
active metals.
Extraction by electrolysis
14 List three metals that can only be extracted by
electrolysis.
15 Use a diagram to explain how sodium is extracted from
sodium chloride by electrolysis.
16 State a disadvantage of using electrolysis for
extraction of metals.
Extraction by heat
17 List three metals that can be extracted by heat.
18 Construct a diagram of a blast furnace and label the
important parts.
19 State the chemical formula for slag.
20 Construct the chemical equations for the smelting of
iron ore.
Recycling versus mining
21 State whether the following statements are true or
false.
a Metals are known as renewable resources.
b Iron is the most common metal in the Earths crust.
c Metals that make up less than 0.1% of the Earths
crust are scarce.
22 State one disadvantage and one advantage of
recycling metals.
Think
23 Explain why a reactive metal atom like sodium (Na)
has a very stable metal ion, Na
+
.
24 State which metal(s):
a are extracted by electrolysis
b are extracted in a blast furnace
c are extracted by roasting in air
d are native
25 Contrast the following:
a slag and gangue
b mineral and ore
c overburden and ore
d electrolysis and smelting
e stable and reactive
26 Explain why metals higher up the activity series
are more likely to be found as ores than as native
elements.
27 Platinum is a native element. Explain where it should
appear in the activity series.
28 Mining companies regularly take out mining leases
on any land that may contain valuable mineral ores.
This may even include the land on which you live. If
the mining company holds the lease, it has the legal
right to buy the land. Do you consider this acceptable?
Justify your answer.
29 Contrast a shaft, a drive and a stope.
>>
36
>>>
over-
burden
Al Fe Cu Au
extraction
Fig 2.2.11
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research how car bodies can be recycled for their
metals. Construct a poster aimed at convincing the
public that recycling car bodies is a useful idea.
2 Research how to pan for gold and design an
instruction sheet.
3 Locate a current mining town in Australia.
a Describe the ore mined there.
b Use a map to summarise where it is processed
and extracted.
c Describe the transport facilities that probably
had to be built to mine and shift the ore, giving
consideration to whether it is near a large town.
4 Underground miners used to carry canaries
with them. Research why and use a cartoon to
summarise your research.
5 The mobile phone revolution has brought with it a
problem of recycling unwanted phones and batteries.
Research what metals are used in making mobile
phone batteries and the difficulties they produce if
not recycled responsibly. Construct a brochure that
could be used to inform the public.
Action
6 a Record the number of cans and types of cans
your household throws out in a week.
b Estimate how many cans are thrown out per year.
7 a Construct a bar chart of current prices of metals
listed in the commodity prices of the newspapers.
32 Use the activity series to predict whether these metal
ions and metal atoms would swap electrons:
a Na and Au
+
b Na
+
and Au
c Mg and Cu
2+
d Pb
2+
and Al
e Ca
2+
and Cu
Skills
33 Construct a bar graph showing the elemental
composition of the Earths crust.
34 The years for the
first successful
extraction of
different metals
are shown in the
table.
a Construct a time line showing these discoveries.
b Use the activity series to explain why different
metals were discovered at different times in history.
Analyse
30 List three sites where each of the major ores listed in
the table on page 30 are mined.
31 Use the words below to complete the flow chart in
Figure 2.2.11 summarising the process of mining an ore
and extracting the metal it contains.
exploration, electrolysis, gangue, froth flotation,
crushing, native-metal, roasting slag, blast furnace,
open-cut, underground
Mining and metals Mining and metals
Aluminium 1890 AD
Zinc 1500 AD
Iron 1400 BC
Lead 2000 BC
Copper 8000 BC
37
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
[
Practical activity
] 2
.
2
U
N
I
T
Prac 1
Unit 2.2
Electrolysis of copper
Aim To extract solid copper from a solution
Equipment
1 M sulfuric acid, black copper oxide, spatula,
50 mL beaker, glass stirring rod, Bunsen burner,
tripod, gauze mat, bench mat and matches,
12 V power pack, globe, electrodes and
connecting leads, filter paper/paper towel
Method
1 Pour approximately 20 mL of 1M sulfuric acid into the
beaker.
Fig 2.2.12
2 Add a small spatula of black copper oxide.
3 Carefully warm over a yellow Bunsen burner flame. Stir
with the glass rod until all the copper oxide is dissolved
and the solution is blue. Do not boil.
4 Remove the beaker from the tripod and place on the
bench mat.
5 Connect up the circuit as shown in Figure 2.2.12. Set
the power pack on 6 V DC and allow it to run for a
couple of minutes.
6 Draw a diagram of the set-up. Mark the electrode being
copper plated. What is happening at the other electrode
and to the colour of the solution?
7 Turn off the power and remove the electrodes. Carefully
remove any pure copper onto filter paper/paper towel.
Questions
1 Explain whether copper formed at the positive or
negative electrode.
2 Explain what happened to the blue colour of the
solution.
3 In this experiment, copper ions in the solution are taking
back electrons to form copper atoms. Describe the
evidence for this.
4 Construct a balanced chemical equation for what is
happening to the copper ions.
5 Propose a reason why electrolysis is never used
commercially to produce copper.
6 Aluminium can only be extracted by electrolysis.
Propose a reason why copper and not aluminium was
used in this experiment.
2
.
2
2
.
2
Creative writing
Gold rush!
A rich gold deposit has been discovered 100 metres under Richville,
a very wealthy suburb in your area. A multinational mining company
is deciding whether it should mine there. Prepare two letters to a
newspaper, one supporting a mine and one against.
Imagine that the gold had been discovered instead in a remote
area of the outback inhabited by its traditional indigenous owners.
What will you do now? Are your reasons for and against the same as
before? Prepare another two new letters, one in favour of a mine and
one against.
b Compare the current buy-back price of
aluminium cans with the price for new
aluminium from commodity prices in
newspapers.
Surf
8 Complete the activity called
Start a Mine by connecting to
the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 2 and clicking on the
destinations button. Construct a poster
showing how your mine progressed from
start to finish.
38
>>>
The steel body of a car eventually bubbles
and rusts away, but aluminium cans and
gold jewellery stay good forever. Why? They
are all metals arent they? Some metals are
more reactive than others. Reactive metals
corrode when exposed to water, air or
other chemicals, usually forming metallic oxides.
Pure sodium and potassium react with just about
c
o
n
t
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Corrosion of iron and steel
Iron is common and cheap. Its alloy, steel, is
extremely strong, making it the most commonly
used metal on Earthcar bodies, skyscraper frames,
concrete reinforcing, pins and needles are all made
from various grades of steel. Unfortunately, most
steels rustthey react with air and water to form a
red coating of iron(III) oxide, Fe
2
O
3
. Rust is flaky
and easy to dislodge, allowing the rusting process to
continue into the next layer.
The iron or steel gets thinner, loses its strength
and gradually returns to the compound that it was
extracted from. Although an extremely complex
reaction, it can be summarised as:
4Fe
(s)
+ 3O
2(g)

2Fe
2
O
3(s)
Fig 2.3.1 Rusted corrugated irona common sight
around Australia
anythingtheir corrosion is very quick and often
explosive! In contrast, iron corrodes very slowly, while
gold is extremely stable and corrosion is rare.
For rusting of iron to take place, both oxygen and
water must be present as either liquid or vapour. The
rusting process can be accelerated by salts or heat.
Corrosion protection
Stainless steel is an alloy that resists rusting and
is used for surgical apparatus, body piercings and
equipment in conditions of high heat and salt, such
as in kitchens and on boats. Other types of steel can
Rust is flaky and allows the rest of the iron
to rust away too.
Breaks between the rust flakes
allow water and oxygen to enter
into deeper layers.
Rusting causes
iron to thin.
iron(III) oxide (rust)
Fig 2.3.2
A stainless steel toaster Fig 2.3.3
UNIT
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Questions
]
Checkpoint
Corrosion of iron and steel
1 List three substances required for iron to rust.
2 State two things that speed up the rate at which iron
rusts.
3 Construct the equation for the conversion of iron
into rust.
Method of protection Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Painting Car bodies, cast iron lace Cheap, easy, attractive Chips and scratches easily
Layer of grease or oil Tools, machine parts Cheap, easy, lubricates parts Messy, needs to be reapplied regularly
Plastic coating Dishracks, outdoor furniture Cheap, attractive Cracks allow water to enter, plastic
deteriorates with age
Tin plating Food cans Does not react with food, non-toxic, Needs electrolysis to plate steel,
less reactive than iron/steel expensive, scratches will rust
Chromium plating Car parts Attractive Needs electrolysis to plate steel,
expensive, scratches will rust
be protected by coatings that stop air and water from
reaching the surface. A scratch or crack in the coating,
however, allows rusting to start again.
Another method is to coat the surface or attach
another more reactive metal. Galvanised iron is iron
dipped in molten zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron
and will react instead of it. This is called sacrificial
protection. Scratches and chips will not rust, as long
as some zinc is close by. Nails and roofing materials
are commonly made from galvanised iron.
Reactive magnesium blocks are often bolted
onto steel structures such as piers and
deepwater gas rigs and oil rigs at sea.
The magnesium sacrifices itself to protect
the structure.
Prac 1
p. 41
Aluminium: reactive but it doesnt
corrode!
Aluminium is a very reactive metal and the surface
reacts almost immediately with the air to form a fine
layer of dull grey aluminium oxide, Al
2
O
3
. Unlike
rust, this layer does not flake and acts like a tightly
bound layer of paint. Aluminium needs no further
Zinc sacrifices itself to protect
the iron it plates.
Water and oxygen
corrode zinc instead
of iron.
Zn Zn
Fe Fe Fe
scratch
Fig 2.3.4
protective treatment. Anodising is a technique where
the layer of aluminium oxide is deliberately built up
using electrolysis. Colours may be added
as the layers are deposited. Saucepans
and window frames are often made from
anodised aluminium.
Aluminium oxide tightly
binds to the metal.
water oxygen
aluminium
oxide layer
Aluminium oxide
does not flake.
Fig 2.3.5 Aluminium oxide acts like the perfect paint
layerhard to scratch and non-flaky.
Prac 2
p. 42
Worksheet 2.4 Metal experiments
>>
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Project
Which metal is that?
Find which metals or alloys are used for these
purposes:
1 The filament in light bulbs
2 Hot and cold water pipes
3 Turns black when exposed to light and is used as
film coating
4 Used in fireworks and single-use flash bulbs to
give brilliant light
5 Part of haemoglobin, the part of our blood that
carries oxygen
6 Added to super petrol to avoid knocking
7 Makes up the metal plates of a car battery
8 Is in the catalytic converters of car exhaust
systems to remove pollutants
9 Used in smoke alarms as a radioactive source
10 A radioactive element used in atomic bombs
11 The metal that is used in many street lamps,
giving an orange colouring
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the following information and write a report,
using illustrations where appropriate.
a Explain why roof decking is corrugated or ribbed.
b Outline what is meant by Colorbond roofing.
c Outline the advantages and disadvantages of various
metal roofing materials.
Action
2 Rust is red-orange. Red-orange rocks often have high
iron content. Find photos of rocks or landscapes that
are rusty. Construct a collage showing the pictures
collected.
Corrosion of metals Corrosion of metals
Corrosion protection
4 List three ways in which iron and steel can be protected
from corrosion.
5 Describe what is meant by sacrificial protection.
Aluminium: reactive but it doesnt corrode!
6 State the name of the corrosion-resistant coating
formed on aluminium.
7 Clarify what is meant by the term anodising.
Think
8 Use the equation from Question 3 to help you construct
a balanced equation for the corrosion of aluminium (Al)
in oxygen (O
2
) to form aluminium oxide (Al
2
O
3
).
9 Use the activity series to predict which metals would
show little or no corrosion.
10 Zinc doesnt rust but it does corrode. Explain.
11 The paint around a scratch on a car door will
eventually bubble. Use your knowledge of the flaky
nature of rust to explain why.
12 a Explain why the insides of cans of food are coated in
tin or a thin layer of plastic.
b You should never buy cans of food that are dented or
scratched. Explain why.
13 Use the activity series to identify metals that would
provide sacrificial protection to iron.
14 Galvanising gives better protection than painting an iron
surface. Explain why.
15 Explain why iron rusts and crumbles, but aluminium
just dulls.
16 Describe how you can tell whether an aluminium
window frame has been anodised.
17 The magnesium blocks attached to piers dissolve away
over time. Outline what needs to happen when they
dissolve.
Analyse
18 You need to protect a zinc structure from corrosion.
Predict which metals you could bolt onto the zinc to
protect it.
19 Iron is the most valuable metal on Earth. Justify this
statement.
20 Three sheets of iron are each coated in a different
metal: copper, magnesium and tin. Predict what will
happen to each sheet if the coating is scratched.
21 Steel window frames would be a silly choice near the
sea. Explain why.
22 The jewellery used in body piercing is surgical-grade
stainless steel, platinum or gold. Explain why these
metals, and not cheaper ones, are used.
41
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Prac 1
Unit 2.3
Corrosion of iron
Aim To investigate factors affecting the corrosion
of iron
Equipment
5 iron nails (not galvanised), copper wire,
magnesium ribbon, distilled water, salt (sodium
chloride) solution, fine sandpaper or steel wool,
4 test tubes, test-tube rack, Bunsen burner, bench
mat and matches, 250 mL beaker, peg or tongs,
marking pen
Method
1 Polish each nail with sandpaper or steel wool.
2 Fill the 250 mL beaker with cold water.
3 Heat a nail in a blue Bunsen flame until red hot.
Use the peg to drop it into the water. Record what
happens.
4 Tightly wind the magnesium ribbon around a nail, and
the copper wire around another nail.
1 2 3 4
peg
red-hot nail
250 ml
beaker
cold water
water salt solution
magnesium copper
Fig 2.3.6
5 Put both into test tubes containing salt water.
6 Put another two nails in the other two test tubes,
marking which contains fresh water.
7 Leave for three or four days.
8 Draw each nail, showing the location of any reddish rust
and any white corrosion on the magnesium or
blue/green corrosion on the copper.
Questions
1 Deduce which factors encourage rusting.
2 Describe the effect of heat on the rate of rusting.
3 List all the metals used, in order from most to least
reactive.
4 Which test demonstrated sacrificial protection? Justify
your answer.
5 Explain why one metal sacrificed itself and not the
other.
42
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Prac 2
Unit 2.3
Anodised aluminium
Aim To anodise a piece of aluminium
Equipment
Piece of aluminium, aluminium foil, 2 M sulfuric
acid, detergent, fabric dye solution, safety glasses,
2 x 250 mL beakers, tongs, tissues, 12 V power
pack with wires and alligator clips, retort stand,
bosshead and clamp, Bunsen burner, tripod,
gauze mat, bench mat and matches or hot plate
Method
1 Line one beaker with aluminium foil, then three-quarters
fill it with sulfuric acid.
2 Scrub the piece of aluminium in warm water and
detergent and dry well. Do not touch the aluminium
with bare handsuse tongs.
3 Place as shown in the diagram and connect to the
power pack.
aluminium foil
dilute
sulfuric
acid
aluminium
power pack
Fig 2.3.7
4 Set on the lowest voltage, then gradually increase until
it reaches 12 V. Leave for 15 minutes, then wash the
piece of aluminium in water.
5 In the other beaker, heat the prepared solution of fabric
dye, then place the aluminium piece in it. Leave for
10 minutes.
6 Rinse in fresh water and cool.
7 To seal the anodised surface, boil the piece in fresh
water for a further 10 minutes.
Questions
1 Explain why the aluminium piece must be handled only
with tongs after cleaning.
2 Aluminium is highly reactive but doesnt seem to
corrode as badly as iron. Explain why.
3 Describe what anodising produced.
4 Explain why anodising would not work with iron.
Corrosion of metals Corrosion of metals
43
Nowadays we take plastics for granted, but
before 1950 plastics were almost unheard of.
Think of all the things that you wouldnt have
if plastics had not been invented. Like metals
before them, plastics changed technology and
the way we build and use our world.
c
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Plastic:
carbon-based
compounds
Carbon is a Group IV
element and each carbon
atom can bond with up
to four other atoms. This
gives carbon the ability to
form continuous lattices
(e.g. diamond and graphite)
and an amazing variety of
molecules. Most molecules
found in living organisms,
fossil fuels, drugs, plastics
and fibres contain atoms of
carbon. This puts them into
the same categorythey are
all organic compounds.
Elephants on the
billiard table!
By 1868 elephants had been
slaughtered in such huge
numbers that the supply of
ivory could not meet demand.
The Phelan and Collender
Company offered a US$10 000
award to anyone who could
find a replacement for the
ivory used in their production
of billiard balls. In response,
brothers John and Isaiah Hyatt
developed a natural polymer,
celluloid nitrate or celluloid.
Although used for billiard
balls, it found more use as
photographic film. It was also
used for dolls and false teeth, a
worrying fact since celluloid is
highly flammable!
Fig 2.4.1 Plastics are everywhere. Most packaging and
many fibres are plastic.
C H
H H
H
H
H
H
C O C H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C C H C
C H
H
H
H
H
H O
O
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
methane
ethanol
(the alcohol
in beer, wine,
spirits, etc.)
methyl butanoate
(artificial rum
flavouring)
benzene
Fig 2.4.2 Some organic molecules made of carbon
The properties of plastics make them extremely
useful for a wide variety of applications.
Plastics:
are good thermal and electrical insulators, having
no free electrons to conduct electricity or heat
are strong and light and can be moulded into
different shapes
do not react with water or oxygen, making them
weather- and rot-resistant. This is both a good and
a bad propertyoutdoor furniture will not rot, but
plastic packaging wont decompose when thrown
out; plastics are not biodegradable.
become brittle over time if exposed to sunlight.
Chemicals can be added, however, to make them
more resistant.
can have other chemicals added to colour and
reinforce them (e.g. glass fibres are added to a
plastic resin to make fibreglass)
sometimes react with or dissolve in other organic
substances (e.g. turpentine, methylated spirits,
petrol)
can sometimes burn very easily, producing noxious
fumes when they doPVC produces hydrochloric
acid fumes when it burns!
UNIT
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Plastic Other names Uses
Polythene Polyethene Milk crates, rubbish bins, buckets, plastic bags, cling wrap, soft squeeze bottles
Acrylic Safety glasses, plastic screens
PVC Polyvinyl chloride, Waterproof clothing, guttering, pipes
polychloroethene
Nylon Brush bristles, fabrics, rope, carpets
Polystyrene Without bubbles (unexpanded): yoghurt and margarine containers; with bubbles (expanded):
insulation, Eskies, cups, packaging
Melamine Unbreakable dishes
Urea formaldehyde Electric switches and plugs
Phenol formaldehyde Door handles, saucepan handles
Monomers and polymers
Plastics start with small molecules derived from
the oil industry. A process called polymerisation
combines them into larger molecules that make up
plastic. The small molecules are called monomers
and the big ones polymers. Poly is a Greek word that
means many. Polyurethane
is made from many urethane
molecules, and polyethene
is many ethenes. Imagine a
monomer as a single paperclip.
The polymer
polypaperclip
would be a string of
connected paperclips.
Noxious aircraft!
Plastics and synthetic
fibres are used in the
interiors of aircraft because
they are light and can be
moulded into the shapes
required. The toxic fumes
and smoke they produce
on burning have been the
primary cause of death
in otherwise survivable
accidents. A fire started in
a luggage compartment of
a Saudi Arabian Airlines
Lockheed Tristar soon after
take-off from Riyadh in
1980, filling the cabin with
toxic smoke. The plane
returned to the airport and
landed safely. Instead of
evacuating as quickly as
possible, the captain taxied
and then ran the engines
for a total of 6 minutes.
All 301 people on board
died, including the captain.
H
H
C C C C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
C C C C C
Cl
H
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
Cl
H
Cl
H
C C
H
H
Cl
H
C C
polymerisation
polymerisation
ethene monomers polyethene polymer
chloroethene monomers polychloroethene (PVC) polymer
Fig 2.4.3 Many identical monomers join to make a polymer.
Thermoplastic and thermosetting
plastic
When lightly heated, many plastics soften and can be
remoulded into new shapes. When cool, they reset.
These materials are called thermoplastic, examples
being PVC, polythene and acrylic.
These polymers arrange themselves
into long parallel chains, which
slide over each other, allowing
flexibility and stretch. If heated they
retain their basic structure but can
slip over each other to fill whatever
moulds they are poured into.
Thermoplastics are manufactured
as powder, pellets or granules for
shipping to other factories to be
heated and moulded.
Its only natural!
Many natural polymers
exist, too. Wood is made
from the organic polymers
cellulose, lignin and resin.
Natural rubber, amber,
gum, asphalt and pitch
are all natural organic
polymers. Asbestos is an
example of an inorganic
(no carbon) polymer.
Prac 1
p. 51
Worksheet 2.5 Shape-shifter of modern medical science
Plastics and fibres Plastics and fibres
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Resin has been added to the hooked end of this
spear thrower and is being heated to make it sticky. Fig 2.4.4
The first use of thermoplastics?
Australian Aborigines have been using resins for thousands of
years. Resins from certain plants become soft when heated and
very hard when cooledthat is, they are thermoplastic. Resins
are obtained from both Porcupine Grass (Triodia species) and
Grass Trees (Xanthorrhea species). If a fire goes through an area
of grass trees, the resin oozes out and forms bubbles in the sand
around the base of the tree. The resin is collected and crushed
to a powder. The end of a spear is dabbed in the crushed resin,
and heated until the resin becomes sticky. This is repeated many
times until there is enough resin to adhere a spearhead. The soft
resin is also used to attach stone blades to the wooden handles
of tools or weapons using a process called hafting.
Thermoplastics are recyclable as they can be
re-melted and re-moulded many times. Recycling is an
important way of managing plastics as it keeps them
out of the environment. Plastics are not biodegradable
so they stay in tips and the environment for hundreds,
even thousands, of years. Plastic bags are a major
concern for birds, animals and sea life since these
creatures can become
tangled in them or try to
feed on them, with the
bag subsequently blocking
the animals digestive
tract. Because plastic bags
do not decay, they are
released once more into
the environment when the
animals carcass decays.
Thermosetting plastics
cannot be remoulded.
The polymers have strong
cross-linking bonds locking
them into a giant molecular
structure. Individual
strands cannot be shifted
without breaking part of
the structure. This makes
thermosetting plastics
hard (scratch resistant),
brittle (will shatter if
dropped) and rigid (not
able to be bent). When
Thermosetting and thermoplastic
Bonds break and the plastic
decomposes (chars).
Thermoplastic
long polymer chains
add heat
add heat
Chains slip over
each other and
the plastic melts.
Thermosetting
Fig 2.4.5
heated, individual strands cannot move
thermosetting plastics will char (burn at the
edges) but will not soften. They therefore
need to be manufactured and moulded at
the same time. Bakelite is an example of a
thermosetting plastic.
Prac 2
p. 52
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Working with plastic
Thermoplastics can be moulded into new shapes in
a number of different ways.
Extrusion moulding
Extrusion moulding is used to make many common
items such as pipes, hoses, plastic straws, curtain
tracks, rods and fibres.
Blow moulding
Bottles are commonly made by blow moulding. A sign
of blow moulding is the seam where the two halves of
the mould met.
compressed air
softened
thermoplastic
Mould
is closed.
Plastic expands to fill
mould, leaving seam.
Mould opens.
mould in open position
metal tube
metal tube
Fig 2.4.7 Molten plastic is expanded by compressed air to fill the mould in blow moulding.
Injection
moulding
This is the most
common method of
production. A knob of
plastic where the plastic
injection took place
is left behind. Toys,
bottle caps and outdoor
furniture are commonly
made by injection
moulding.
Plastics and fibres Plastics and fibres
Bugs inspire the first
synthetic plastic!
Shellac is a common natural furniture
varnish and wax, and is made from the
excretions of tiny Tachardia lacca bugs.
In 1907, Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland
was working in the United States to
make an artificial substitute for it. His
equipment became clogged when he
mixed phenol and formaldehyde. The
new material could not be dissolved
and was a superb thermal and electrical
insulator. The plastic, bakelite, had
been invented and found immediate and
widespread use as electrical fittings and
saucepan handles.
The nozzle creates the shape in extrusion moulding.
pellets of solid thermoplastic
motor screw
heaters
molten plastic
plastic pipe
nozzle
Slit die produces
a continuous strip.
Ring-shaped die
produces a
continuous
pipe.
Fig 2.4.6
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2
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pellets of solid
thermoplastic
mould (two parts)
Injection site is left as a bump.
molten plastic heating cylinder
ram
Fig 2.4.8 Molten plastic is squeezed into a two-part mould to fill it.
Natural and synthetic fibres
A fibre is any substance that can be woven or knitted
into a fabric. There are two main typesnatural and
synthetic.
Natural fibres
Wool, mohair, silk, cotton, linen (flax), hair, fur and
coir (the hairy covering of a coconut) are all natural
fibres. They have had many uses for thousands of
years.
In many Aboriginal societies, making
objects from plant fibres was an important
activity. Items needed for hunting as well
as for carrying and collecting food were made along
with ritual objects for use in religious ceremonies.
The parts of many plants provide fibre to make
string, bags, rope, baskets, fishing nets or baskets,
clothing and mats.
Fibres come from the following plant parts:
underground stems (rhizomes) of plants such as
the bulrush
leaves and stems of grass-like plants such as the
mat-rush
bark of trees and shrubs such as some species of
Acacia and native hibiscus.
After the plant parts have been collected, the
fibrous material is extracted and separated.
Some materials are soaked in water until the non-
fibrous tissue rots away. Chewing or scraping with
a sharp rock or shell then flattens and softens the
remaining fibres.
On some trees, such as the paperbark, little
preparation is needed. The bark is simply peeled from
the trees and used to make water containers, mats and
liners for babies baskets.
Synthetic fibres
Synthetic fibres are made entirely from chemicals
and are usually stronger than natural fibres. Nylon,
Terylene, Lycra, Kevlar, Spandex, Elastane, polyesters
and acrylics are all synthetic fibres.
Synthetic fibres are produced by the extrusion of a
polymer though a multi-holed head called a spinneret.
Some use natural fibres as their building block. Wood
and paper (a wood product) contain the natural
Fig 2.4.9 An Aboriginal woman using natural fibre to
make a basket
Are you stringing
me along?
Fibres were not just used as serious
tools in Aboriginal life, they were
used for fun! String games are
common in indigenous cultures
both in Australia and around the
world. In these games, string figure
designs were made that resembled
objects used in everyday life, such
as dilly bags and baskets. Designs
also showed animals and people, or
ideas such as the forces of nature.
String games were used for learning
and to help tell stories.
48
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polymer cellulose. If wood pulp is soaked in solutions
of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH), a sticky
cellulose gum forms. When extruded, the gum
forms a new fibreviscose, acetate, tri-acetate
and rayon all come from wood pulp.
Length and strength
The molecules in a synthetic fibre are aligned along
the thread, making them stronger than the plastics
they came from. The fibre will be particularly strong
if its molecules are longthe longer the molecule,
Prac 3
p. 53
the greater its attraction to
others that lie next to it, and the
stronger it will be. The fibre can
still tear, though, since the end of
each molecule represents a weak
spot.
Monofilaments are made
from molecules that are the same
length as the fibre. There are no
ends and therefore no weak spots.
Fishing lines are monofilaments
of nylon. Monofilament materials
are extremely strong and flexible,
making them ideal for uses
where a tear or puncture would
be catastrophic: Kevlar is a monofilament that is
five times stronger than steel, but half the density
of fibreglass. It is used in bulletproof vests, the sails
of ocean-going yachts and the fuel tanks (actually
fuel-bags) of Formula 1 racing cars. Ropes,
fibre-optic cables, automotive hoses, belts
and gaskets are often made of Kevlar. Goalie
masks in hockey use a fibreglass/Kevlar mix.
Other properties
The rough surfaces of natural fibres give them a large
surface area that can absorb and hold water and
dirt. In contrast, the surfaces of synthetic fibres are
smooth, making them stain-resistant, water-repellent
and ideal for clothing. Drip-dry or wash-and-wear
fabrics are synthetic. Synthetics are uncomfortable in
hot weather, however, as they do not absorb sweat.
Instead, it stays on our skin, making us wet and
clammy. Natural fibres
absorb sweat and keep
our skin dry.
Synthetic fibres
are thermoplastic and
will melt if heated:
ironing must be done
with care and tumble-
drying is usually not
recommended.
Prac 4
p. 53
Prac 5
p. 53 DYO
Longer molecules produce stronger fibres than
shorter ones. The strongest are monofilaments.
Force
Length
Each
molecule
is the
same length
as the
monofilament.
a pair of molecules
As molecules get longer the force of
attraction between them increases.
Molecules
separate at
their ends.
a monofilament
Fig 2.4.11
Plastics and fibres Plastics and fibres
Fig 2.4.10 Softened thermoplastic is squeezed out of a
multi-holed nozzle called a spinneret.
A synthetic fibre is formed.
New, improved
Concorde
In 2000 an Air France
Concorde took off from
Charles De Gaulle Airport
in Paris. A tyre burst,
sending fragments into
the wing, puncturing the
fuel tanks. The spilled fuel
ignited and spelt the end
for the plane. Concordes
once again took to the
sky in 2001, this time
with fuel tanks lined with
Kevlar. However, they never
regained the patronage of
before the catastrophe and
were finally removed from
service in 2003.
49
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Questions
]
Checkpoint
Plastic: carbon-based compounds
1 State what is meant by an organic compound.
2 List three examples of organic compounds.
3 List these facts about carbon (C):
a its group number
b its period
c the number of electrons in its outer shell
d the maximum number of bonds it can form
e two continuous lattices that it forms
Monomers and polymers
4 Identify the correct terms in the following list to fill in the
spaces below.
polymer, polymerisation, monomer, plastics
A small molecule capable of joining together in a long
chain is called a ________. When small molecules join
together they form a ________. Small molecules join
together in a process known as _______ and result in
the production of ________.
Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic
5 Define the term thermoplastic.
6 List three forms in which thermoplastics are
manufactured.
7 Define the term thermosetting.
8 List three properties of plastics made by thermosetting.
Working with plastic
9 Use a diagram to demonstrate how extrusion moulding
is achieved.
10 State the type of moulding used to make bottles.
11 List three plastic items made by injection moulding.
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Fig 2.4.13 Speedos Fastskin material directs water
flow in a similar way to that over a
sharks skin.
Other fibres
If synthetic fibres are heated
strongly with no air present,
they do not burn but char
until all that is left is a fibre
of pure carbon. Carbon
fibre is extremely strong
and when mixed with resins
can be used for making
lightweight and flexible
structures ideal for bike
frames and tennis racquets.
Glass fibre is produced by
running molten glass into a
perforated steel bowl (like the
barrel of a washing machine).
When spun fast, glass threads
fly out and then cool in the
air. When mixed with resins,
fibreglass is produced.
Fig 2.4.12 Shark skin has scales or
dermal teeth that reduce
drag as the shark swims.
Worksheet 2.6 Recycling
Swimming in shoes!
Australians have always loved the beach but
until 1900 it was illegal to bathe in daylight.
From 1902 bathing was allowed, although
men and women had to swim separately
and fully clothedmen wore neck-to-knee
woollen bathers and women wore huge
bathing dresses, caps, stockings and shoes!
Wool holds water and gets very heavy, making
swimming difficult and drowning easy. In the
1930s Jantzens Topper swimwear allowed
men to zip off their top at secluded beaches,
and in 1938 men were allowed to go topless
on the beaches of Perth. The bikini was
launched in 1952, but the newly developed
lastex fabric needed bone or metal stiffeners
to prevent it slipping off! Modern swimwear is
commonly made from nylon, Elastane or Lycra
blends. Swimmers once again are wearing
neck-to-knee bathers, to protect children
from UV radiation and to allow competitive
swimmers to reduce drag. Adidas makes a
competitive full body swimsuit made from
Teflon-coated Lycra, while Speedo makes suits
from Fastskin, which has a texture modelled
on shark skin.
>>
50
>>>
24 Explain how the length of a molecule affects the
strength of a fibre.
25 Where do fibres tend to break?
26 Explain why care must be taken when drying and
pressing synthetic fibres.
27 Explain how cross-links stop thermosetting plastics
from melting.
28 Use Figure 2.4.3 to construct a general equation for the
polymerisation reaction.
29 Evaluate the use of plastics in terms of their effect on
society and the environment.
Natural and synthetic fibres
12 State whether the following are true or false:
a A fibre is any substance that can be woven or knitted
into a fabric.
b Nylon, cotton and linen are all examples of natural
fibres.
c Natural fibres are produced using a spinneret.
13 a State the name of the method used to produce
fibres.
b State the name of the nozzle used to produce
fibres.
Length and strength
14 Use Figure 2.4.11 to outline what is meant by a
monofilament.
15 Use an example to demonstrate the usefulness of a
monofilament.
Other properties
16 Outline three desirable and three undesirable properties
of plastics.
17 Explain why natural fibres are able to absorb and hold
water.
Other fibres
18 List three examples each of natural fibres, synthetic
fibres made from plastics and synthetic fibres made
from wood products.
Think
19 Contrast:
a the surface of a natural fibre with that of a synthetic
fibre
b a monomer with a polymer
c thermoplastic with thermosetting plastics
d injection moulding with blow moulding
20 List examples of:
a five synthetic polymers
b three natural polymers
c one inorganic polymer
d three thermoplastic polymers
e one thermosetting polymer
f one monofilament
21 A train could be considered a polymer. State what the
monomer would be.
22 Explain how thermoplastics can melt and then reset on
cooling.
Analyse
23 Would the production of thermosetting plastic powder
be a good idea? Justify your answer.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Materials such as polystyrene are called foams.
Research how plastic foams are made. In your
answer, include the chemical equations involved.
Action
2 Use a paperclip to represent a monomer. Link
them together to construct models of a polymer, a
thermoplastic and a thermosetting plastic.
3 Inspect ten plastic items around your home for seams
or bumps. List the items as made by extrusion, blow
or injection moulding. Present your findings in a table.
4 Inspect the washing/drying/ironing instructions on six
different pieces of clothing. Present the information
in a table showing the fibre composition of each.
List any recommended washing instructions, noting
whether no heat is stated.
5 Gather information by counting how many plastic
bags are collected in one week in your home from
shopping. Discuss your results and include comments
on whether alternatives could have been used.
Surf
6 Find out more about how plastics are
recycled by connecting to the Science
Focus 4 Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.
au/schools, selecting chapter 2 and clicking on the
destinations button.
a Construct a graph showing the amount of plastic
used in Australia in each State.
b Produce a report which outlines how plastics are
recycled.
c Justify the need to recycle plastics.
Plastics and fibres Plastics and fibres
51
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Practical activities
] 2
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Prac 1
Unit 2.4
Identifying plastics
Aim To identify properties of some common
plastics
Equipment
Labelled pieces (each about 2 x 1 cm) of polythene,
polystyrene, PVC, perspex, nylon, mystery plastics,
dissection board/bench mat, scissors, turpentine, nail polish
remover, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl), detergent,
250 mL beaker, tongs, access to meths burner
set-up in fume hood
250 mL
beaker
turpentine
HCl
nail polish
remover
meths burner
This must be in
a fume hood
2 drops of
detergent
Fig 2.4.14
Method
1 Copy the table below into your workbook.
Your teacher may split you into groups to run all tests on
one plastic only or to run one test on all the plastics.
4 Explain what is
produced from
PVC when it is
burnt.
5 Deduce whether
any plastics sink
in, or react with,
water.
6 A sample of plastic
kept burning once
it was lit. Its flame
was blue with a
yellow tip. Identify
the plastic.
Polythene Polystyrene foam PVC Perspex Nylon
Appearance
Flexibility
Feel
Ease of scratching
Ease of cutting
Description of cut
Does it float?
Effect of flame
What dissolves it?
2 Describe the appearanceis it transparent, translucent or
opaque?
3 Describe its flexibilitydoes it bend or is it stiff?
4 Does it feel waxy?
5 Does your fingernail or the scissors scratch it?
6 How hard is it to cut with scissors?
7 Are the cut edges smooth or jagged? Does the cut show
bubbles or cells?
8 Add two drops of detergent to a 250 mL beaker of cold
water. Add a plasticdoes it float or sink?
9 Place a drop each of turpentine, HCl and nail polish
remover onto three small squares of each plastic. Leave
for five minutes and record whether each piece dissolved,
went soft or remained hard.
10 Break each plastic into smaller pieces and use tongs to
hold a piece in a meths burner flame.
WARNING: The meths burner must be in a fume hood.
If no fume hood is available, do not do any burning tests.
Do not smell any fumes or smoke.
11 Did the burning produce smoke? If so, what colour was
the smoke? What colour was the flame? Did molten plastic
drop from it? Did the drops burn as they fell?
12 Run tests to determine what each of the mystery plastics is.
Questions
1 Identify each plastic as either thermoplastic or
thermosetting.
2 Identify the mystery plastics.
3 Explain why the burning must be done in the fume hood
and not in the lab.
52
>>>
Prac 2
Unit 2.4
Making casein plastic
Aim To make a polymer called casein from milk.
Casein was an early plastic that is still used for
buttons and some wood glues. It is hardened
industrially with formalin.
Equipment
Full cream milk, vinegar, Bunsen burner, bench mat, tripod,
gauze mat and matches, 100 mL measuring cylinder,
2 x 250 mL beakers, thermometer, glass stirring rod, elastic
band, coarse cloth for straining, paper towel/filter paper,
assorted moulds (bottle caps, moulded chocolate trays etc.),
fine sandpaper, tongs
Method
1 Set up the Bunsen burner and tripod.
2 Place 100 mL of milk in one of the 250 mL beakers.
Warm gently until it reaches 50C. Do not overheat.
3 Add 10 mL vinegar and stir with the stirring rod.
4 The milk should curdle to form white lumps of curds
(casein) and yellowish liquid called whey.
5 Use the elastic band to secure the piece of cloth tightly
over the other 250 mL beaker. Strain through the curds
and whey.
6 Carefully remove the cloth and squeeze to remove as
much liquid as you can.
7 Empty onto the paper towel/filter paper. Pat dry, then
firmly press into moulds. Leave the casein to dry in
the sun.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
250 mL beaker
50C
100 mL milk
curds
cloth
curds
elastic band
whey
filter paper
10 mL vinegar
curds
mould
thermometer
Fig 2.4.15
Plastics and fibres Plastics and fibres
8 After a couple of days, remove the mould and polish
with the sandpaper.
9 Use tongs to hold a small amount of the dry casein in
a Bunsen flame. Does it melt, burn or char?
Extension
10 Chip off a piece of casein and find its mass.
11 For every 50 g of casein you chip off, measure out
20 g of borax and 40 mL of water.
12 Add the borax and water to a conical flask and swirl
until dissolved.
13 Crumble the casein into the borax solution and shake
until creamy glue is formed.
14 Use it to glue two chips of wood together. Use the
clamp or elastic bands to hold the pieces together.
Leave it overnight to cure, then try to separate the
pieces of wood.
Questions
1 Deduce whether the casein plastic produced was
thermosetting or thermoplastic.
2 State the purpose of the final test.
3 Identify a use of the casein.
4 Outline how casein is hardened industrially.
5 Little Miss Muffet ate her curds and whey. Explain
whether you would.
53
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Prac 3
Unit 2.4
TEACHER DEMONSTRATION
Making nylon
This demonstration must be done in a fume hood.
Aim To make a sample of nylon
Equipment
Fume hood, 1,6-diaminohexane, anhydrous sodium
carbonate, sebacoyl chloride or adipoyl chloride,
cyclohexane, 2 x 250 mL beakers, tweezers, glass stirring rod
Method
1 Dissolve 2.2 g of 1,6-diaminohexane and 5 g of
anhydrous sodium carbonate in 50 mL of water.
2 In another beaker, mix 2 mL of sebacoyl chloride or
adipoyl chloride in 50 mL of cyclohexane.
3 Gently pour the 1,6-diaminohexane solution down
the side of the beaker and onto the top of the
cyclohexane solution. The two solutions must not mix
but must form layers.
3 Explain why synthetic
fibres have smoother
surfaces than natural ones.
4 List the fabrics in order
from the safest near
a flame to the most
dangerous.
5 Clothing fires are more
common among children
than adults and more
common among girls than
boys. Propose reasons
why.
6 Recommend which
fibres should be used for
clothing for babies and
young children.
nylon
wool
cotton
linen
silk
Fig 2.4.16 Fibres
under the
microscope
Prac 5
Unit 2.4
Natural versus
synthetic
Plan and run an experiment to determine the
amount of water different fabrics can hold.
Questions
1 Construct a flow chart showing how you
conducted your experiment.
2 List the fibres tested in order from those
that held the least water to those that held
the most.
3 Identify which of the fibres were synthetic.
DYO
4 Use tweezers to lift part of the layer of nylon formed
between the solutions. Drape it over the glass stirring
rod and wind the fibre out.
Questions
1 Construct a three-frame cartoon or diagram to show
how the nylon was made.
2 Predict what would have formed if the two solutions
had been allowed to mix.
3 The nylon fibre formed is not very useful. Explain why.
Prac 4
Unit 2.4
Identifying fibres
Aim To compare and contrast natural and
synthetic fibres
Equipment
Labelled samples of fabrics (wool, cotton, linen, rayon, nylon,
polyester), microscope, microscope slide and coverslip, pins
or tweezers, metal tongs, matches, bench mat
Method
1 Remove an individual thread, about 2 cm long, from
each fabric sample.
2 Place it on the microscope slide and use the tweezers or
pins to tease the fibres apart.
3 Place a coverslip on top and inspect the fibres under the
microscope.
4 In your workbook, sketch and label each fibre, taking
note of its surface.
5 Cut/tear a strip about 2 1 cm from each fabric.
6 Use tongs to hold a strip over the bench mat. Hold a
lit match under the strip. Record your observations for
each fabric. Did it catch fire, melt or char? What colour
were the flame and smoke? What was left?
Questions
1 Match your samples with the diagrams in Figure 2.4.16.
2 Deduce which fibres were natural and which were
synthetic.
54
Science focus: Nanotechnology
Prescribed focus area: The implications of science
for society and the environment
Michael Crichtons novel Prey tells the story of
research going horribly wrong. In this future world,
self-replicating nanoscale robots take on their own
existence and start to cooperate with each other.
They prey on living creatures, including the research
scientists who created them, to gain the building
blocks they require to reproduce themselves. This
book caused a very strong response in some people
who saw nanotechnology as being far too dangerous
and thought that the book predicted the future.
At present, however, nanotechnology is still
evolving and there is little risk. There is also very
strong support within the scientific and medical
communities for the development of nanotechnologies
because of the huge benefits that might be gained. In
the future it is unlikely that nanoscale robots could
gain such independence, but they will certainly be
developed and become highly useful to society for
many reasons.
How small is a nanometre? As you move from left to right across the diagram, each step is ten times smaller.
Limit of human vision
Small fly
5.0 mm
Human hair
~0.05 to
0.10 mm
= 50 to
100 m
Mitochondrion
from
human cell
~500 to
700 nm
Human
red blood cell
~6.0 m
Width
of
DNA
molecule
~2 nm
Nanowire
chemical
detector
wires are
~10 nm
Rhinovirus
(common
cold)
~30 nm
Carbon
nanotubes
~1 nm
Diameter
of atoms
~0.10 to
0.30 nm
Domain of nanotechnology The future?
Limit of light
microscope
Note:
There are 1000 millimetres (mm) in 1.0 metre (m).
There are 1000 micrometres (m) in 1.0 millimetre (mm).
There are 1000 nanometres (nm) in 1.0 micrometre (m).
1
0

3
m

=
1
.
0
0

m
m
1
0

4
m

=

0
.
1
0

m
m
1
0

5
m

=

0
.
0
1
0

m
m
=

1
0

m
1
0

6
m

=
1
.
0
0

m
1
0

7
m

=
0
.
1
0

m
=

1
0
0

n
m
1
0

9
m

=
1
.
0
0

n
m
1
0

8
m

=
1
0
.
0

n
m
1
0

1
0
m

=

0
.
1
0

n
m
Fig SF 2.1
How small is a nanometre?
Nanotechnology involves making and manipulating
incredibly tiny objects. The size of the objects dealt
with in nanotechnology is in the order of 10s to
100s of nanometres. One nanometre is equal to just
one thousand millionth (one billionth) of a metre.
A single atom has a diameter of about 0.10 to
0.3 nanometres, which gives you an idea of just
how tiny the nanometre is.
A different approach
Multidisciplined
Working with incredibly small objects requires
cooperation between scientists from various
disciplines. Nanotechnology draws on chemistry,
physics, electrical engineering, molecular biology,
quantum physics and materials science. It offers a
55
huge range of possibilities, with applications already
being explored in medicine, computing, electronics,
engineering and lithography.
Top down
Until recently the manufacture of the smallest of
objects was a top down approach. This means the
substance would be engineered to reduce it down to
the desired size, like sculpting a small statue from
a large block of stone. This approach is suitable for
micro-sized objects such as silicon chips and micro
machines, which often use an etching process to make
small components out of a larger piece of substance.
Fig SF 2.2 These micromechanics components
were created using a top-down
approach to etch them out
of silicon. For scale,
a flys leg can be seen.
Bottom up
The development of the scanning
tunnelling electron microscope
(STM or STEM) finally made it
possible to produce images of an
atom. It was quickly realised that
with some modifications the STEM
would be the perfect tool to directly
manipulate the surface of a material
on the atomic scale. This provided
the opportunity to try and create
structures from the bottom up.
This means assembling a structure
atom by atom, like building a house
brick by brick. With STEM it is possible to manipulate
single atoms on the surface of a material and to lay
down incredibly thin surface layers on a substrate.
Figure SF2.3 shows how a STEM operates. The
STEM and sample are contained in a region which
has had the air evacuated using a vacuum pump.
The STEM piezotube probe is then moved over the
surface of the sample, maintaining a fixed distance by
ensuring the tunnelling current between the probe and
sample does not change. Through computer analysis
of the data collected, an image of the surface features
of the sample can be produced. Using a STEM,
individual atoms can be identified. With a secondary
voltage applied between the tip of the probe and the
surface, the chemical bonds holding a surface atom
in position can be broken and the single surface atom
moved. This ability to manipulate individual atoms
has made bottom-up engineering of nanoscale objects
a realityit is now becoming possible to assemble
something by moving individual atoms into position.
Figure SF2.4 shows a STEM image of a surface that
uses single atoms to represent data. The individual
atoms hold data just like pits on a CD. Such data can
be written and read using a STEM. Data storage at this
scale means that 300 copies of a 300-page book could
be stored on the cross section of a human hair.
The basic features of a scanning tunnelling
electron microscope (STEM)
Distance control for
piezotube to sample
and scanning unit
Tunnelling
voltage Tunnelling
electron
current
Data processing
and display of images
Sample
being
studied
Piezotube generates
a flow of electrons
that is focused at
the sample
Tunnelling
current
amplifier
Applied control voltage
for piezotube containing
electrodes
Fig SF 2.3
56
Fig SF 2.4 Individual silicon
atoms (yellow) sit
on this surface and
represent data, like
pits on a CD.
Red gold
With the nanoscale so
incredibly small, objects do
not behave in the way expected
at larger scales. Quantum
effects begin to act at the
atomic level and this produces
some very interesting results.
For example, the metal gold is
gold in colour when we look
at a sample large enough to
see with the human eye. But
when gold atoms are arranged
to produce tiny crystals of gold
on the nanoscale, the gold
appears red. These curious
results show that we have a lot
to learn about how substances
behave at the nanoscale.
The future of nanotechnology
A large amount of investment is going into
nanotechnology research and development to
produce innovative new products for the future.
The possibilities are endless.
Below are described some of the most promising
areas where nanotechnology will be applied in
the future.
Surfaces
The ability to lay down incredibly thin layers of
a substance onto the surface of other material can
improve the properties of a substance and offers
many advantages in chemistry and engineering. For
example, laying down an incredibly thin protective
coat on solar cells could improve transmission of light
into the cells, and thereby improve their efficiency.
Also, surfaces could be made self-cleaning by
applying a coating that repels dirt. Manipulating the
surface of materials can also make it possible to store
vast amounts of information in very small spaces.
A scanning beam interference lithography machine
can be used to create gratings or grids with structures
on the scale of a few nanometres. The structures
created are used in astronomical devices such as space
telescopes and satellites. A laser is used to create
the pattern on the target surface. In the future this
machine could be used to produce nanotechnology
components for computers and machines.
Medical
An application of nanotechnology being explored
is the creation of nanobots (nanoscale robots) to
be placed in humans. Nanobots could monitor the
internal conditions of the body, such as blood sugar
levels, temperature, nervous activity or production
of hormones by endocrine glands. Nanobots could be
designed to seek out and destroy viruses and bacteria
in the bloodstream. They could also be engineered
Fig SF 2.5 A scanning beam interference lithography
machine creates nanoscale grids and grates
for space technology.
Fig SF 2.6 This nanobot is injecting a drug to kill
cancerous cells in a human body. Could this be
how we treat disease in the future?
57
to target certain cells in the body, identifying the cell
and delivering a product to it. For example, a nanobot
could be designed to detect cancerous cells. Drugs
could be packaged inside the nanobots to be injected
directly into the cancer cells with no damage to the
normal cells of the patient.
Computing
Nanotechnology offers the potential to manufacture
new, smaller, faster and more efficient integrated
circuits for computing. It has made quantum computing
possible, with incredible processing speeds far beyond
the ability of present silicon-based microprocessors.
Quantum computers would store and process
information at an atomic level. A solid-state quantum
computer element can be made by positioning
phosphorus atoms 20 nanometres apart in very
pure silicon. The phosphorus atoms behave as an
incredibly tiny and extremely fast microprocessor.
Promising research into quantum computing is being
conducted at the University of New South Wales.
[
Student activities
]
1 Development of a quantum computer is being pursued
energetically in a number of countries. The University
of New South Wales (UNSW) has purchased a very
expensive STEM to assist in its research.
a Research the work being done on quantum
computers at UNSW.
b Summarise the work being done and any progress
made to this point.
c Compare this research with that being done in
another location.
2 As a molecular biologist and nanoengineer, you have
been given the task of designing a nanobot to help solve
an important medical problem.
a Identify a medical problem you would like to
solve using nanobots, e.g. diabetes, cancer, HIV,
haemophilia or another of your choice.
b Construct a poster or model of a nanobot that could
help solve this medical problem. Include labels or
a key to show the features of your nanobot, and
an explanation of how the nanobot will tackle the
medical problem.
3 Tests on carbon nanotubes show that they have
extraordinary, unexpected properties.
This image of carbon nanotubes was created
using a STEM. Carbon nanotubes have the
potential to be used in electrical devices and
have unusual properties. Much research is
being done with carbon nanotubes, and their
applications are likely to be diverse. Fig SF 2.7
a Research carbon nanotubes to find out:
i what they are
ii what special properties they have
iii their possible applications and uses
iv why it would be important to conduct
further research into carbon nanotubes
b You are a research scientist and you want to work
with carbon nanotubes but you need funding for
your project. There is $1 000 000 in funding for
nanotechnology available, but you have to appear
to be at the forefront of research to get this. Using
the information you have about carbon nanotubes,
construct an application that will get the funding
you need for your research. Include the possible
outcomes and products you will create, and how
they will benefit society.
4 Produce a poster, display or other presentation to
teach the general public about nanotechnology, and
what it may offer society in the future. You will need to
conduct research to include information about:
a examples of current and future research and
products
b public safety and any social issues
c the importance of continuing to invest in this area
of research
CD8
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
2
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5
2
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5
We always seem to be getting dirty or getting
covered in oils and grease. Dirt, oils and
grease are made from organic compounds
that normally dissolve only in other organic
substances. Although there are obvious
problems in washing ourselves in turpentine,
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Water
At home, water is our main
washing liquid. It is a polar
molecule, having small
electrical charges on each of
its atoms. Water will dissolve
other polar molecules, like
sugar, and ionic substances
such as salt or sodium
chloride (Na
+
Cl

), which have
positive and negative ions.
Water by itself will not
dissolve grease.
Water is a polar
molecule and
can use its slight
charges to dissolve
ionic substances.
a water molecule
+
+ +

means slight
negative charge
means slight
positive charge
Water
weakens
the forces
holding
salt
chemicals
together.
Once separated,
they are unlikely
to rejoin.
O

H
+
+
H
O

H
+
+
H O

H
+
+
H
O

H
+
+
H
+
O

H
+ +
H
O

H
+ +
H
Fig 2.5.1
Making grease soluble
Surfactants are molecules that assist water in
dissolving dirt and grease.
methylated spirits or nail-polish remover, dry-cleaners
use similar organic solvents to dissolve and remove
grease from clothes. At home you need to use soap
and water to get clean, but how does this work?
Australians are
too clean!
Many babies suffer
from eczema, or skin
hypersensitivity. It seems
that we are all using too
much soap, bubble bath
and shampoo, since all
remove essential oils
from the skin. This causes
dryness and makes us
susceptible to eczema.
Dermatologists recommend
using soap-free cleansers
instead. For babies all
that is generally needed
is some bath oil or
moisturiser.
Soap, shampoos and detergents are surfactants
and have both organic and ionic parts. Surfactant
molecules are similar to those of plastics in that they
are long and have an organic carbon backbone. This
will dissolve grease nicely. Unlike most molecules,
however, they have a charged or ionic end. This is
then joined to a metal ion (usually the sodium ion,
Na
+
). This end will dissolve in water nicely. We now
have the perfect molecule for dissolving greaseone
end dissolves the grease, while the other end dissolves
in water. Once the grease is dislodged, surfactant
molecules surround it and keep it from re-depositing
back onto the surface. These tiny dissolved liquid
Detergents, shampoos and soaps are surfactants. Fig 2.5.2
CD9
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grease patches and the water form
a mixture called an emulsion.
The water can now wash away
the grease.
Hot water and agitation
(vigorous movement) also
help loosen the grease from
the surface and keep it from
re-depositing on it. Lather
(bubbles) will also assist in
keeping grease from dropping
back and is particularly useful
in situations where little water
is used (e.g. shaving, washing
cars, hair shampoo). Many fibres
(including hair) take on a weak
negative charge when wet.
Once dissolved and carrying
their load of grease, the soap or
shampoo molecules also carry
a negative charge and are thus
less likely to
re-deposit the
grease back
onto the fibre.
hydrophobic
tail (organic
end dissolves
in grease)
hydrophilic
head (ionic
end dissolves
in water)
grease
surfactant
molecule
water
Fig 2.5.3 Surfactant (soap, detergent) molecules have a
hydrophobic end that hates water but loves grease.
The other end is hydrophilicit loves water.
Prac 2
p. CD11
Prac 1
p. CD11
What gorgeous
hair!
The molecules of most
hair conditioners tend to
have positively charged
ends that are attracted to
the weak negative charge
of the hair. They stay there
even when the hair dries.
(Fabric softeners work in
the same way.) Shampoos
and conditioners are
normally sold in separate
bottles because their
opposite charges interfere
with each other if they
are mixed. In combined
shampoo-conditioners,
the conditioner molecules
are trapped in crystalline
shells. When lathering
hair, the shampoo works,
but there is insufficient
water to break down the
conditioner crystals.
These only break down on
rinsing, when more water
is present.
Hard and soft water
Tap water contains many impurities. If it has a lot of
calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in it, then it is
hard. Soap reacts with these salts to produce calcium
and magnesium precipitates.
These are left behind as a
dirty grey substance called
scum, which deposits as a
dirty ring around basins and
baths, or as scale in pipes
and kettles. Soft water has
less dissolved salts and soap
produces less scum. Soap
lathers better, feels smoother
and more slippery
in soft water, and
less of it is required
to get clean.
Scum-free and
bubbles galore!
Many New South Wales
cities have excellent soft
water: it lathers well and
leaves very little scum. In
other areas, water softener
systems are attached to
each homes water supply.
Beads of zeolite replace
the offending calcium
and magnesium ions with
sodium. Soap doesnt react
with sodium.
Soap is made when natural
fatty acids found in materials
like vegetable oils and animal
fats react with an alkaline
(basic) solution such as sodium
hydroxide. The process is called
saponification and is summarised
by the reaction:
fat + alkaline solution

soap + glycerol
Prac 3
p. CD12
Skin soap
Bases such as caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide) and
their alkaline solutions are
extremely dangerous if they
come in contact with skin. The
skin becomes slippery as its
fats undergo saponification
and form soap!
Fig 2.5.4 Lather (bubbles) keeps
the dirt and grease from
re-depositing on the hair.
2
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CD10
>>>
2
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[
Questions
]
Soaps Soaps
c Research the dry-cleaning process. Describe how
it cleans clothes, making reference to the chemistry
involved. If necessary, use diagrams to assist your
explanation.
d Explain why soap films are often coloured.
e Describe the machine that can make three-storey-
high soap bubbles.
Action
3 Design a survey of soaps. Record your results in a
table showing the first six ingredients of at least three
different brands of soap, hair shampoos and shower
gels. Identify and discuss any trends you find.
Checkpoint
Water
1 Modify the following statements to make them
correct:
a Water is a non-polar molecule.
b Sodium chloride is a polar molecule.
c Water is able to dissolve grease.
2 State the types of substances that normally dissolve
in water.
Making grease soluble
3 Identify the type of compound that grease is
made of.
4 Some liquids are able to dissolve grease. List three
such liquids.
5 List three ways in which grease is prevented from
re-depositing on a surface.
6 State the reactants in saponification.
Hard and soft water
7 Lathering results in scum forming when water is hard.
List the chemicals that cause water to be hard.
8 Clarify what is meant by soft water.
9 State the advantages of soft water.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 a Use a dictionary to define the term phobia and
include some examples.
b One end of a surfactant molecule is hydrophobic
and the other end is hydrophilic. Clarify the
meaning of these terms and identify which end
is which.
2 Conduct research on the Internet to answer the
following questions:
a List what is in a soap-free cleanser like Dove.
b Scotch, 3M and ENJO all make cloths that clean
without the use of chemicals. Describe how they
do this.
Think
10 Explain how soap is able to dissolve both in water and
in grease.
11 Identify as many factors as you can that will affect the
cleaning of a piece of fabric.
12 If lather doesnt help to dissolve grease, explain how it
helps to remove grease from a fabric.
13 If shaving cream did not lather, state where the cut
whiskers would end up.
14 Identify three vegetable oils that could be used for the
production of soap.
15 If animal fat is needed to produce soap, propose some
sources of the fat.
Skills
16 Contrast detergent with soap.
17 Compare soap molecules with:
a plastics
b ionic compounds
18 Construct a word equation for the production of soap.
19 Construct a diagram showing how soap helps grease
to dissolve in water.
Create
20 Construct a three- to four-frame cartoon/diagram
showing how shampoo-conditioners work.
Whale soap?
In the past, whale blubber was commonly the fat from
which soap was made. Whales are now protected,
however, and the fat used in soap manufacture comes
mostly from cows slaughtered for their meat. Just about
any fat or oil can be used and many soaps are now
made with vegetable or plant oils. Palmolive soap is
named because it is made with palm oil and olive oil.
Detergents are produced from chemicals in crude
oil. The big advantage of detergents is that they dont
produce scum.
CD11
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Practical activities
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Prac 1
Unit 2.5
Make soap!
WARNING: The soap made here uses and contains very
corrosive sodium hydroxide. Do not get any sodium
hydroxide on your skin or in your eyes. Do not use the
soap produced.
Aim To produce a sample of soap
Equipment
Olive oil or coconut oil, 1 M sodium hydroxide solution,
saturated solution of sodium chloride, kerosene, 3 test tubes,
rubber stopper, 400 mL beaker, 100 mL beaker, 250 mL
beaker, hot plate (preferably) or a Bunsen burner, bench mat,
tripod, gauze mat, matches, filter paper or paper towel
Method
1 Pour about 5 mL of oil into a test tube.
2 Carefully add 10 mL of sodium hydroxide solution.
3 Place the test tube in a boiling water bath for
30 minutes. Shake the tube every few minutes to
mix the contents.
4 Place 50 mL of the sodium chloride solution in the
100 mL beaker, then pour the hot oil mix in. The soap
formed should float to the top.
5 Scoop up the soap and place it in the 250 mL beaker.
Rinse a few times with a little water.
6 Let the soap dry on filter paper/paper towel.
7 Two-thirds fill the other test tube with water and add a
little soap.
8 Stopper and shake. Does it lather?
test tube 250 mL
beaker
water
yellow
flame
bench
mat
5 mL oil
10 mL
sodium
hydroxide
solution
Fig 2.5.5
Prac 2
Unit 2.5
How good is it?
Aim To design and run an experiment that
compares liquid and powder laundry detergents
Equipment
Powder and liquid laundry detergents
Method
1 Identify all the variables or factors that would
influence the effectiveness of laundry detergent
in removing grease.
2 Choose one factor that you think would have a big
effect.
9 Fill a fresh test tube with water, then add 3 or 4 drops of
kerosene. This will be our grease. Stopper and shake.
10 Add some soap, then shake again. Compare with what
you saw before.
Questions
1 Draw a cartoon explaining how soap was made here.
2 Describe what happens to the kerosene in water alone.
3 Describe the effect that the soap had on it.
4 Construct a word equation for the reaction.
DYO
3 Design and run an experiment that would test it.
4 Write a report on the effect of the variable you chose
and why you think you obtained the result you did.
Questions
1 Draw a conclusion about the variable you tested.
2 Gather conclusions from other groups who tested
different variables. Assess which variables had an
effect and which didnt.
CD12
Soaps Soaps
Prac 2
Unit 5.2
How hard is it?
Aim To test water hardness
Equipment
Distilled water, dilute magnesium sulfate solution,
solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate,
suspension of calcium carbonate in water, small
chips of bath soap, shampoo, detergent, 5 test
tubes, rubber stoppers to fit test tubes
Method
1 Put about 2 cm of distilled water and 2 cm of tap water
into two separate test tubes.
2 Put about 2 cm of each solution into the other test
tubes.
3 Add a small chip of soap to all five tubes and stopper
lightly.
4 Shake the tubes vigorously and watch for any lather that
forms.
5 Record your results in order from the solution that
produced the most lather (the softest) to the one that
produced the least lather (the hardest).
6 Repeat the experiment but use a few drops of shampoo.
7 Repeat again with a few drops of detergent.
Questions
1 Describe what soap does in hard water.
2 Identify the solution that was the hardest. Justify your
answer.
3 Deduce whether the water showed any hardness when
it contained shampoo or detergent.
4 Outline the advantage of detergent over soap.
5 Design a test to see if temperature has an effect on
water hardness.
Hold stopper
and shake.
stopper
Look for
lather.
solution of
different salts
small chip
of soap
Fig 2.5.6 Is the water hard or soft?
>>>
58

Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 State an example of an alloy and its base metal.
2 State whether the additives in alloys are usually metals
or non-metals.
3 List the carbon content of:
a cast iron b tool steel c mild steel
4 State how many carats are in pure gold.
5 If gold is 18-carat, state the percentage of gold present.
6 State a use for each of these materials:
a aluminium d Duralumin g bauxite
b zinc e bronze h celluloid
c cast iron f haematite i Kevlar
7 State one example each of:
8 Identify a metal that is extracted by:
a electrolysis b smelting c roasting
9 List the ingredients for a blast furnace.
10 State the special name given to the corrosion of iron.
11 Outline what is meant by anodised aluminium.
12 List four properties of a thermosetting plastic.
[
Thinking questions
]
13 Rose-gold is a pink-gold colour. Propose a metal that
could be added to the base metal to create this colour.
14 It is thought that iron simply oozed out of the rocks
used to surround the cooking pits of ancient hunters.
Compare these conditions with those of a blast furnace.
15 Primitive prospectors found gold and silver before any
other metal. Explain why.
16 Salt is often used in Europe and North America to help
melt ice on roads. Their cars also rust more quickly
than ours. Explain why.
17 Explain why stainless steel is ideal for use as
replacement bone (hips, tooth implants, knees).
18 Corrugated iron (steel) is galvanised and is commonly
used for roofing.
a Explain what will happen after all the zinc coating has
corroded away.
b Explain whether the zinc can be replaced.
19 If car bodies are galvanised, propose reasons why they
are also painted.
20 Identify problems associated with using plastic
shopping bags.
21 An optic fibre is transparent fibre that carries light
unbroken from one end to the other. Explain whether an
optic fibre needs to be a monofilament.
22 Explain why natural fibres cannot drip-dry.
[
Interpreting questions
]
23 Use a diagram to describe the bonding in metals that
allows:
a conduction of electricity
b conduction of heat
24 Use the data in the table on page 34 to construct
the following graphs:
a a pie chart showing the amount of metals used each
year
b a bar graph showing when each metal is estimated to
run out
25 Construct a diagram showing what happens in the
electrolysis of copper chloride. Label the diagram and
use chemical equations to show the chemical reactions
at each electrode.
26 Aluminium metal is high on the activity series, yet is a
commonly used metal. Use Figure 2.3.5 to explain why
it does not rust.
27 Phenylethene is an ethene molecule with one hydrogen
replaced by benzene, C
6
H
6
.
a Construct a diagram of a phenylethene molecule.
b Polystyrene foam uses phenylethene as its monomer.
Construct a diagram showing ten phenylethene
monomers joined to form the polymer polystyrene.
Worksheet 2.7 Materials crossword
Worksheet 2.8 Sci-words
a an alloy of copper
b an alloy of iron
c an impurity commonly
added to iron
d a commonly used pure
metal
e a non-metal abundant in
the Earths crust
f a scarce metal
g a metal that is cheaper to
recycle than to produce
h an ore
i a native metal
j a natural fibre
k a synthetic fibre
made from wood
products
l a monofilament fibre
m a surfactant
n an organic solvent
>>>
>>>
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
use an analogy to describe voltage, current and
resistance
compare series and parallel circuits and
describe everyday applications of each
describe the relationship between voltage,
resistance and current, and use Ohms law to
calculate values of each
contrast AC with DC electricity
describe how some electromagnetic devices
operate
describe the main components needed for
efficient transmission of electricity
explain how waves transmit energy
list and describe the different forms of
electromagnetic radiation
contrast analogue with digital signals and their
use in communication
explain how communication signals can be
transmitted
1 What do AM and FM on the radio dial stand for?
2 What are the voltage and frequency of the AC
electricity that comes from our power points?
3 How do mobile phones find each other?
4 Describe an appliance that uses
electromagnetism.
5 Who invented the telephone?
6 What is a digital message made up of?
O
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P
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3
3
Electricity
Electricity
Key focus area:
The applications and uses of science
>>>
communications
communications
technology
technology
and
and
60
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
We live in an electrical society. Every day
you use a wide variety of appliances that
need electrical energy to run. Discmans,
iPods, toasters, televisions, microwave
ovens, computers and even the family car
all need electricity.
You might not appreciate
how much you rely on
electricity until you have
to go without.
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
A simple circuit
A circuit is a path from
one side of a power source
(e.g. a cell, battery or
power pack) to the other.
The four basic parts of a
simple circuit are:
an energy source, such
as a cell or battery. A
cell or battery can be
thought of as a charge
pump.
a conducting path
(wires) for the electricity
to flow through
an energy user or load, such as a globe, motor,
buzzer, heating element or resistor
a switch to turn the current on and off.
A major blackout
On 14 August 2003 an electrical
failure suddenly hit the United
States and Canada. About 50
million people in cities from New
York to Toronto had no power.
People were trapped in subway
trains and elevators for hours.
The loss related to the blackout
was estimated at $6 billion. One
month later, Italys 57 million
people also were affected by a
blackout. Luckily it occurred on
a weekend so its initial impact
was less dramatic and caused
less economic damage. Some
developing countries have regular
brownouts because their need for
electricity exceeds their ability to
generate it. Electricity supply must
be rationed, and so suburbs and
towns have times each day when
no electricity is available.
Fig 3.1.2 Imagine this scene without electricity.
What problems would it cause?
A simple circuit and its equivalent circuit diagram
connecting
wire
cell
1.5 V
globe
circuit diagram
switch
circuit
1.5 V cell
+

Fig 3.1.1
3
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1
3
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1
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Water in pipe Units Electricity in wire Units
Pressure (P) Pascals Voltage (V) Volts
Flow rate (F) Litres/second Current (I) Amps
Resistance to flow (W) Newtons Resistance (R) Ohms
A
V
Conductor/lead
Globe
Closed switch
Open switch
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Leads connected
Cell
Battery
Fixed resistor
Variable resistor
Leads crossing
Fig 3.1.3 Common components in simple circuits
3
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1
3
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1
Inside a circuit
There are three very important values in circuits that
we can measure and calculate.
Whenever charge moves, we have a current. In
most circuits the moving charges are electrons
and current is defined as the rate of flow of those
electrons. Current is measured in amperes (A) or
amps for short. Sometimes in a circuit there will be
more than one path that the current can take. More
current will flow down the easier path and less
down the harder one. In mathematical formulas,
current is given the symbol I.
Depending on what part of the circuit we are talking
about, voltage is a measure of how much energy:
is available from the battery or power pack
to push current through the circuit. It may be
thought of as the size of the push.
is used when current passes through a load.
Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is sometimes
referred to as potential difference. Voltage is given
the symbol V in mathematical formulas.
Resistance is a measure of how much a load (e.g.
globe, motor, resistor) restricts and reduces the flow
of current. Resistance is measured in ohms, or for
short. In mathematical formulas, resistance is given
the symbol R.
To help you understand these terms we will use the
analogy of a water pump circuit.
In a water circuit, the pressure supplied by the
pump (P) drives the water around the closed loop of
a pipe at a certain flow rate (F). The waterwheel (W)
The water pump and electrical circuits
water reservoir
current ()
switch
battery
hiqh voltaqe +
low voltaqe -
qround
water
wheel
valve
resistance
hiqh
ressure
um
low ressure
Fig 3.1.4
restricts the flow, slowing down the water, using
up its energy. The valve turns the flow of water on
and off.
In an electrical circuit, the energy or voltage (V)
supplied by the battery drives the electrons around the
circuit, causing an electric current (I). The resistance
(R) slows the electrons, using up their energy. A
switch turns the flow of electricity on and off.
Voltage
A battery or power pack is the pump of an electrical
circuit. A water pump takes in water at low pressure,
supplies energy to it and ejects it at high pressure. A
battery or power pack takes in charge at low voltage,
adds energy to it and ejects it at a higher voltage.
62
>>>
low
voltage
valve
If closed, pressure is
behind valve but no
flow of water.
high pressure
low pressure
high
voltage

+
A switch has
voltage behind it,
but no current if
not switched on.
Fig 3.1.5 Voltage can be compared to the
pressure of water in a pipe.
Current
When current flows through a wire
it moves freely, losing almost no
energy. This is just like water in a
pipe where there is little resistance
to slow the water down. A higher
current means more electrons flow
past a point in a circuit every
second.
A current of 1 ampere means
that 1 coulomb of charge passes
by a point in the circuit each
second. A coulomb is an amazing
6 250 000 000 000 000 000 electron-
sized charges!
Electricity Electricity
Fatal currents
A current as small as 0.1 to
0.2 amps can kill! Most deaths
associated with electric shock
happen because the electricity
interrupts the heartbeat, which
is controlled by small electrical
currents in your body. High
voltages are more dangerous
than low ones because they can
drive a higher current through
your body. The 240 volts in our
home power supplies is easily
enough to drive a deadly current
through your body.
Current can be compared to the rate
of flow of water through a pipe.
Thick wire offers little
resistance to flow of electrons.
A large pipe offers little
resistance to flow of water.
Fig 3.1.6
Resistance
A waterwheel restricts the flow of water, slowing the
water down and taking away its energy. Light globes,
buzzers, motors, heating elements and resistors are
loads that restrict the flow of current and remove
energy from the electrons. These loads change the
electrical energy into other forms such as sound, light,
heat and kinetic (moving) energy.
The filament of a light globe is a very thin wire.
As the current tries to squeeze through, it encounters
resistance and uses up some of its energy. In a thick
wire, electrons move more freely and with little
resistance. Little energy is lost.
Increasing the resistance of the circuit will cause
a decrease in the current, and results in more energy
being used up by the load.
Resistance in a circuit can be
compared to a water wheel.
A resistor acts as a load,
converting electrical
energy to heat and light.
A water wheel is like a load
in the circuit. It converts
kinetic energy of water to
movement of the wheel.
Fig 3.1.7
Fig 3.1.8 Heat energy being released in a glowing
resistor of an electric bar heater
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3
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Types of circuits
There are two basic types of circuitsseries and
parallel.
Series circuits
If you arrange two globes one after the other in a line
with the battery, the globes are said to be in series.
The voltage supplied is split between the two globes,
but the current passing through each is the same. The
two globes glow more dimly than a circuit with only
one globe.
If a globe in this circuit is removed or blows, the
circuit is broken, so the other globe will not work
either.
A series circuit with two globes
6 V
3 V 3 V
6 V
bulb removed
bulb goes out
no current
1 A 1 A
1 A
Fig 3.1.9
Parallel circuits
If you arrange the globes next to each other but on
separate branches you have built a parallel circuit.
The voltage used by each globe is the same, but the
current is split between each branch. Each globe glows
with equal brightness.
If a globe in this circuit is
removed or blows, the other globe
will remain lit as there is still a
circuit through which current
may flow.
current divides
6 V
6 V
4 A
2 A
4 A
2 A
2 A
2 A
2 A
6 V
6 V
6 V
no current
Fig 3.1.10 A parallel circuit with two globes
Prac 2
p. 66
Prac 1
p. 66
Ohms law
Ohms law describes the relationship between the
current, voltage and resistance in a circuit.
Typical results from this experiment may be:
A
Variable
resistor
to alter
current
E
D
C
B
A
V
Resistor
Fig 3.1.11 Ohms law can be
found using a circuit
where the resistance
is changed.
Voltage, Current,
V (volts) I (amps)
A 0 0
B 3 1
C 6 2
D 9 3
E 12 4
Graphing these results shows that the electric
current is directly proportional to the voltage (V I).
This means if the voltage is doubled, so is the current.
A graph of Ohms law is therefore a straight line
passing through the origin.
The slope or gradient of the graph gives us the
resistance. It can also be calculated by dividing the
voltage by the current, R =
V
/I.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Current (A)
12
10
8
6
4
2
1 2 3 4 5
6
2
=
V
I
Slope =
vertical rise
horizontal run
=
6
2
= 3
R = 3
= slope R Ohms law
Fig 3.1.12 Ohms law is shown by this graph.
Ohms law is stated as:
Voltage = Current Resistance
V = I R
64
>>>
AC/DC
The difference between AC and DC
is in the way the electrons move in
the wire.
In direct current (DC) the
electrons flow in one direction
only. A battery or DC power pack
provides a source of electrons and
the potential difference or voltage
between the terminals causes
them to move from the negative
Worksheet 3.1 Ohms law
You may find the triangle in Figure 3.1.13 helpful
when calculating V, I and R.
Electricity
Using Ohms law
1
Find the voltaqe used when a resistor
ol 1O 7 has a current ol 2 A llowinq
throuqh it.
v
Resistance
Current

voltaqe
Ammeter
voltmeter
6
2 )
2 )
To use the trianqle simly use a linqer
to cover what you wish to lind.
There are only three combinations.
8
Find the resistance ol a circuit ol a
12 v battery that draws a current ol 2 A.
2
Find the current llowinq throuqh a
resistor ol 12 7 il the voltaqe sulied
is 24O v.
v = R
= 1O s 2
= 2O volts
=
v
R
=
24O
12
= 2O A
R =
v

= 12
2
= G 7
6
2
6
)
6
) 2
A R
Fig 3.1.13
Prac 3
p. 67
Animal electricity
The electric eel
(Electrophorus electricus)
is an unusual species
of fish that is capable
of generating powerful
electrical shocks. It can
grow up to 2.5 metres in
length and 20 kg in mass,
and can produce 500 volts
and 1 ampere of direct
current. This is enough to
kill a human!
() towards the positive (+) terminal. The flow of
electrons through a wire can be thought of as similar
to water in a hose: it only goes one way. Remember
that conventional current flows in the opposite
direction to the flow of electrons. That is, current
(I) flows from the positive (+) towards the negative
() terminal.
In alternating current (AC) the electrons shuttle
back and forth in the wires. This occurs because the
voltage at the power point or the AC power pack
constantly changes from positive to negative to
positive and so on. The back and forth voltage change
is measured in hertz, one change or cycle per second
being 1 Hz. In Australia the AC electricity that we use
at home has a voltage of 240 V and moves back and
forth 50 times every second or 50 Hz. Imagine the
water in a pipe constantly changing its direction
of flow.
Electricity
65
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
A simple circuit
1 Clarify what is meant by a circuit.
2 List the four parts of a simple circuit.
Inside a circuit
3 Define the terms voltage, current and resistance.
4 State the units for voltage, current and resistance.
5 Complete the following table to compare an electrical
circuit with a water pump circuit.
Electrical circuit Water pump circuit
Battery
Pipe
Voltage or energy
Switch
Water flowing through pipe
Water wheel
6 Draw diagrams to demonstrate all of the components
in both the water pump and electric circuits. Label each
component.
7 Describe how a waterwheel causes resistance.
8 List three examples of a load that could be included in
a circuit.
Types of circuits
9 Outline how components in a circuit are connected:
a in series
b in parallel
10 A series circuit and a parallel circuit were set up, each
with two globes. Compare the brightness of the globes
in each case.
Ohms law
11 State Ohms law in both words and symbols.
12 Sketch a graph to demonstrate the relationship of
voltage, current and resistance in Ohms law.
AC/DC
13 Contrast direct current with alternating current.
14 Identify the type of electricity used:
a in your home
b in a battery-operated appliance
Think
15 Explain what an electrical appliance marked with
240 V, 50 Hz means.
16 A series circuit and a parallel circuit each have two
globes in them. Describe what would happen in each if
one of the globes was to blow.
17 Propose reasons why the lights in a home are wired in
a parallel circuit.
18 Construct diagrams for the following circuits:
a two lights and a switch in series
b two lights in parallel and a switch to turn both lights
off at once
c three lights in parallel, each of which can be turned
off individually
d two lights in series, parallel to a single light. One
switch should turn off all lights at once, and another
switch should turn off the single light only.
Skills
19 Use Ohms law to calculate the missing values in the
table.
Current (amps) Voltage (volts) Resistance (ohms)
3 15
5 6
240 18
10 240
0.5 14
12 1.5
20 A circuit has a 12 volt battery connected to a 50 ohm
resistor. Calculate the current in the circuit.
21 Ming constructed a series circuit with a 75 ohm
resistor. He connected the circuit to an 8 volt battery.
a Draw a diagram to demonstrate the circuit.
b Calculate the current in the circuit.
66
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[
Practical activities
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Prac 1
Unit 3.1
Simple series and parallel circuits
Aim To compare the brightness of globes in
series and parallel circuits
Equipment
Three globes, connecting wires, switch, power pack
Method
1 Connect a series circuit containing one globe and
observe its brightness.
2 Modify the circuit by inserting a second globe and then a
third globe in series. Note the brightness of each globe.
3 Investigate the effect of removing each globe one at a
time, by gently unscrewing them a little.
4 Repeat all the steps but use a parallel circuit instead.
[
Extension
]
Action
1 Use an interactive program such as Crocodile Clips
to construct circuits that can be used in different
situations, including:
a a doorbell that can make a buzzer operate
b a doorbell for the hearing impaired that has a light as
well as a buzzer
c a circuit for a light that can be switched on or off at
the top or bottom of stairs
d a circuit for a refrigerator door to turn the light on and
off
e light circuits for home
Electricity
2 Construct an electrical circuit for a simple appliance
or game that runs on batteries. You could, for example,
build a model lighthouse, a bedside lamp or torch, a car
with motor and lights, or a game like The Nervy, where
you have to manoeuvre a loop of wire along a bent coat
hanger without the loop touching the wire and setting
off the buzzer and light.
Surf
3 Research Ohms law and complete
interactive tutorials about it by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 3
and clicking on the destinations button.
Questions
1 Draw circuit diagrams to demonstrate the three series
and parallel circuits.
2 Construct a table showing the number of globes and
brightness in each.
3 Compare the brightness of globes in series with that of a
single globe.
4 Compare the brightness of globes in parallel with that of
a single globe.
5 State the effect of removing a globe when they are:
a in series
b in parallel
Prac 2
Unit 3.1
Measuring voltage and current in circuits
Aim To compare current and voltage in series
and parallel circuits
Equipment
Three globes, connecting wires, switch, power pack,
ammeter, voltmeter
Warning: Before completing this activity you will need to know
how to correctly connect a voltmeter and ammeter into a circuit.
Incorrect connection of meters can damage them. Check with your
teacher before starting.
Method
For each of the circuits listed below:
1 Use an ammeter to measure the current on each side of
the battery, and in each branch of the circuit (or between
each globe in the series circuits).
2 Use a voltmeter to measure the potential difference
across each globe, and across the battery.
Electricity
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3 Draw each circuit and record your results on the circuit
as you go.
Circuit 1: a single globe in series
Circuit 2: two globes in series
Circuit 3: three globes in series
Circuit 4: two globes in parallel
Circuit 5: three globes in parallel
Questions
1 Describe how the current changes in different parts of:
a a series circuit
b a parallel circuit
2 Describe how the voltage is split between globes in a
series circuit.
3 Compare the voltages of globes in a parallel circuit.
Prac 3
Unit 3.1
Ohms law
Aim To investigate Ohms law
Equipment
Two resistors of known
(but different) resistance value,
connecting wires, switch,
12 volt power pack, ammeter,
voltmeter
Method
1 Assemble the circuit shown in
Figure 3.1.14.
2 Set the power pack to 4 V, close
the switch and record the current
displayed on the ammeter and
voltage on the voltmeter.
3 Repeat step 2 but increase the
voltage by 2 V.
4 Continue to increase the voltage in 2 V steps up to 12 V.
Record the current and voltage readings.
5 Enter the results in a table like the one below and use
Ohms law to calculate the resistance at each voltage
setting.
6 Repeat steps 2 to 5 using the other resistor.
7 Calculate the average resistance for each resistor.
8 Construct a graph of voltage versus current for each
resistor on the same set of axes.
A
1
0.2
0
0
1
0.2
2
0.4 3
0.6
0
0
2
.2
4
.4
6
.6
8
.8
10
1.0 V
+

voltmeter
ammeter switch
power pack
resistor
Fig 3.1.14
Resistor 1 Resistor 2
Voltage Current Resistance Current Resistance
(V) (A) (ohm) (A) (ohm)
4
6
8
10
12
9 Calculate the slope of the graph for each resistor. The
slope of the graph is the resistance value. Compare this
to the known values of the resistors.
Questions
1 Compare the average resistance calculated using
Ohms law with the actual resistance from the slope of
the graph. Suggest reasons for any differences.
2 Describe the shape of the graphs and use it to predict
what would occur if:
a the voltage was doubled
b the resistance was doubled
68
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UNIT
UNIT
3
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You use electricity every day in many different
ways. Although magnets are less common,
you will also have used them. They are the
basis of all compasses and are used to hold
notes on our fridge and to keep cupboard
doors shut. There is an important connection
between electricity and magnets: electricity can
make magnetic fields and magnetic fields can make
c
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card
iron filings
current
field
compasses
Fig 3.2.1 The magnetic field around a straight, current-
carrying wire. The right-hand grip rule can be
used to determine the direction of the field, which
is the way a small compass needle would point.
<Fig.2.2.1> <Exploding fire-
works.>< new AW Corbis
CB066635>
An electric current causes a
magnetic field
In 1820, Danish physics professor Hans Oersted was
carrying out experiments with electric circuits when
he noticed that the needle of a compass on his desk
moved whenever an electric current flowed nearby.
Oersted was able to move a compass needle without
touching it, as if by magic.
The compass was doing what compasses doit
was reacting to a magnetic field. In this case, the
fingers indicate
current direction
N
S
N S
thumb points
to N pole
iron core
N S
a
b
c
Fig 3.2.2 The magnetic fields from several loops are
combined and concentrated in an electromagnet.
magnetic field was produced by the electric current.
Oersted had discovered that electricity could cause
magnetism. Later in this unit we will see that the
reverse is also truethat magnetism can cause
electricity. This connection between two quite
different phenomena is known as electromagnetism.
The magnetic field produced around a straight,
current-carrying wire is circular. If the wire is looped,
several circular magnetic fields combine to produce
a stronger field down the centre of the loop. If a wire
is coiled so that several loops are placed together, the
magnetic field is stronger again and we have what
is called a solenoid. An electromagnet is
a solenoid with an iron core that further
concentrates the field down its centre.
Unlike permanent magnets, electro-
magnets can easily be switched on and off.
electricity! This connection is responsible for most of
the appliances you useeverything from speakers to
televisions, trains to vending machines.
Prac 1
p. 74
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Uses for electromagnets
There are many applications for electromagnets that
are essential to our everyday life. Many are not easily
noticed and range from large industrial electromagnets
to the tiny speakers in your mobile phone.
Industrial electromagnet
Industrial electromagnets are used extensively in
metal scrap yards and allow the movement of large
amounts of steel.
3
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Door latch
Door latches are usually found in high-security areas.
To open a door a button is pressed, resulting in a
current flowing to a coil. The resulting magnetic field
attracts the latch out of the door recess, opening
the door.
The ability to switch magnetism on and off is
extremely useful in industry. Fig 3.2.3
An electromagnetically operated door latch
switch
door latch
spring attached
(1) to latch
(2) to recess
electromagnet
door recess
door frame
Fig 3.2.4
Electric bell
You hear it every daythe school bell. How does it
work?
switch
electromagnet
spring
contacts
electromagnet
attracts striker
bell
circuit
breaks
Fig 3.2.5 An electric bell
When the switch is pressed, the electromagnet
effect begins and attracts the striker, causing it to
sound the bell and simultaneously break the circuit
by moving the contacts apart. With the contacts apart,
current no longer flows and the electromagnet is
turned off. This allows the striker to return to its rest
position where the contacts touch once more, causing
current to flow again, and the cycle repeats, resulting
in the familiar bell-ringing sound.
Relay
Electromagnetic relays are found in cars and industrial
machinery. The starter motor in a car allows a small
current within a thin wire to control a much larger
current within a larger cable, thereby reducing the
cost of connecting wires and increasing safety.
battery
heavy duty cable
light duty cable
coil
contacts
ignition switch
turning ignition
key activates
electromagnet, which
attracts contacts and
closes the starter
motor circuit
starter motor
Fig 3.2.6 A car relay
Speakers
Loudspeakers are an essential part of a teenagers
life, being part of nearly everything that makes
noise. Mobile phones, answering machines, stereos,
70
>>>
televisions and surround-sound systems all have
speakers of some sort.
A speaker receives varying electrical current
that flows through a coil, causing it to become an
electromagnet. The speaker also contains a permanent
magnet which interacts with the electromagnet. The
two magnets attract when the current fed into the
speaker flows one way and repel when the current
flows the other way, producing vibrations in the cone.
These vibrate molecules in the air to create sound
waves.
Trains
Japans experimental maglev (short for magnetic
levitation) train uses superconducting electromagnets
to lift it 10 centimetres above the track, position
it correctly and propel it at speeds of over 500
kilometres per hour. Such high speeds are possible
because of the trains streamlined shape, and the lack
of friction between the train and track.
Electromagnetism Electromagnetism
A typical loudspeaker Fig 3.2.7
coil
permanent magnet
cone
Television
Electromagnets control which pixels (coloured spots
or rectangles) are illuminated on a television screen.
Although the actual electron beams are not coloured,
they are shown coloured in Figure 3.2.8 to show that
there is one beam for each colour pixel in a section of
screen.
beam of electrons
electron beam sweeps
across screen
shadow mask keeps
electron beam aligned
electromagnet for
deflecting electron beams
Fig 3.2.8 How a television works
Superconductors
When metals like tin and lead are cooled to 270C they lose
all electrical resistance, and so allow large currents to flow with
little loss of energy. But there is a problemit costs a lot to cool
metals this far. A more recent development are the so-called high-
temperature superconductors made of ceramic material such as
yttrium barium copper oxide. Ceramics like this need to be cooled to
only 200C, a huge saving compared to previous superconductors.
Applications of high-temperature superconductors include maglev
trains (see below) and devices that can detect tiny magnetic fields
such as those produced by the brain.
Worksheet 3.2 Inside MLX01
The maglev train floats due to the repulsion
between electromagnets, providing a
frictionless track. Fig 3.2.9
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A magnetic field causes an
electric current
In 1831, English scientist Michael Faraday
demonstrated that if a magnet is moved into a coil
of wire, a current was produced in the coil. If the
magnet stopped, so did the current. If the magnet
was removed, a current was produced but in the
opposite direction. By continually moving the magnet
in and out of the coil, he produced a continuous but
alternating current (AC). Faraday
had found that by changing the
magnetic field inside a coil, he could
generate an electric current. He had
produced a simple generator.
A current is produced if the coil of wire moves
relative to the magnetic field.
V
V
magnet and coil
move closer together
S
S
N
N
moving wire
induced current
Fig 3.2.10
Prac 3
p. 75
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Prac 2
p. 74
Applications of generators
Apart from battery-powered devices, most of the
electricity we use is AC and comes from electrical
generators. These can be small (as on a bike) or huge,
feeding the power grid of a city.
Bikes often have a small AC electric generator
called a dynamo attached to their wheel rim.
A rotating magnet inside the dynamo produces
alternating current similar to that produced by moving
a magnet in and out of
the coil in Faradays
experiment. More than
a dynamo is needed to
power a city, however.
To generate sufficient
electrical power, massive
turbines are spun by
water or steam. The
principle is the same
though: the turbines are
attached to magnets that
then spin in a coil to
produce AC electricity.
Fig 3.2.11 A bicycle
dynamo
Fig 3.2.12 Compare the size of the person in this photo
with the steam-driven turbine used to generate
electricity.
Microphone
A moving coil-type microphone contains a diaphragm
which vibrates a coil in response to sound waves,
generating a current which varies with the strength
and frequency of the vibrations. This current can be
fed into an amplifier and converted into a louder
sound by attaching speakers.
A moving coil-type microphone
coil
diaphragm
magnet
Fig 3.2.13
72
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Vending machines
Its not just coils that have
currents induced in them
by magnetic fields. A solid
coin passing through an
electromagnet in a vending
machine creates swirling
currents within it. These
currents in turn create
magnetic fields, and interact
with the electromagnet to
slow the coin down. Coins that are not the
correct weight or made from a non-metal are not
slowed the right amount, and are rejected.
The operation of a vending machine
E PLURIBUS UNUM
FIVE CENTS UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Coins of the
wrong metal
slow down
and fall into
the reject
chute.
Non-metallic
objects are not
slowed down, hit
the upper plate
and fall into the
reject chute.
Coins of correct metal slow just enough to
pass over the reject chute into the vending machine.
Upper plate
Fig 3.2.14
Traffic light magic
How do traffic lights know
there is a car waiting at them?
Pads under the road have
a coil in them that carries a
current. The electromagnetic
field it produces induces
a current in the car, which
in turn interferes with the
current in the road. When this
interference is detected, the
lights know that they should
change to let the car through.
Transformers
Sometimes the voltage provided is either too much or
too small for the intended use. For example, laptop
computers only need 16 V and mobile phones need
only 5.7 V to recharge. The 240 V available from the
power point would damage both if used directly.
For efficiency reasons the best voltage for long-distance
transmission of electricity is between 220 000 and
500 000 V, whereas the electricity is generated at a
much lower voltage. In all these cases a transformer is
needed. Transformers use solenoids and the magnetic
fields they produce to either increase (step up) voltage
or reduce (step down) voltage to the value required.
Transformers use electromagnetism to step
up or step down voltages. This is a step-up
transformer.
iron core
primary coil
input voltage
output
voltage
secondary
coil
Fig 3.2.15
How electricity reaches our homes from the
power station
power station
16.5 kV
step-up
transformer
step-down
transformer
step-down
transformer/sub-station
step-down
transformer
transmission lines
220 kV500 kV
consumer 66 kV 11 kV
underground cable to home
(or overhead lines)
240 V
Fig 3.2.16
Power transmission
Power stations use energy from burning coal, flowing
water or other sources to spin turbines in large
generators, and transmit power through an extensive
network of overhead and underground power lines.
Because high-voltage transmission is more
efficient, a transformer is needed close to the
power station. These high voltages would be far too
dangerous, however, if fed directly into your suburb
or home, and so a series of transformers are used to
reduce the voltage to the final (but still deadly) 240 V
we use.
Electromagnetism Electromagnetism
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[
Electromagnetism
]
Checkpoint
An electric current causes a magnetic field
1 State the year when Oersted discovered that a current
produced a magnetic field.
2 Construct a diagram showing the shape of the
magnetic field around a straight wire.
3 Outline the difference between a solenoid and an
electromagnet.
4 State the key advantage of an electromagnet over a
conventional magnet.
Uses for electromagnets
5 a List three devices that use electromagnets.
b State the job done by the electromagnet in each case.
A magnetic field causes an electric current
6 Use Figure 3.2.10 to outline the result of:
a placing the magnet in the coil of wire
b removing the magnet from the coil of wire
c continually moving the magnet in and out of the coil
of wire
7 List two devices that contain a simple generator.
Transformers
8 State what a transformer is used for.
9 Use Figure 3.2.16 to state the main stages in electricity
transmission.
10 List the two main types of transformer.
11 State what type of transformer would be needed:
a for a laptop computer
b for long-distance transmission
c at a substation on the outskirts of a town
d to recharge a mobile phone
12 Count the number of primary and secondary coils in
Figure 3.2.15 and propose a way of deciding whether
the transformer is step-up or step-down.
Think
13 Use an example to explain how an electromagnetic
device operates.
14 Propose a way in which a soft drink machine might
know when an incorrect coin has been inserted.
15 From the following, identify those situations in which an
electric current is generated.
a A magnet enters a wire coil.
b A magnet sits still inside a wire coil.
c A magnet is removed from a wire coil.
d A wire coil moves towards a magnet.
e A wire coil moves away from a magnet.
f A current is turned on in a wire coil facing another
wire coil.
16 Compare the voltages of transmission lines with that
used at home.
17 Explain why power companies bother increasing the
voltage of power lines if it is only going to be reduced
again before reaching homes.
18 Propose a reason why high-voltage power lines are
always kept well above the ground by tall pylons.
Skills
19 Design and sketch a circuit that uses electromagnets
to release a trapdoor when a person steps on a certain
section of floor.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research how electromagnetism is used to record and erase
magnetic audio or video tapes. Use a diagram to explain your
information.
2 Research some of the discoveries made by Joseph Henry
(17971878) in the area of electromagnetism and give a
one-minute oral presentation on one discovery. Use props
to assist you in your explanation.
3 Use an example to explain how Flemings left-hand rule gives
the direction of the force on a current in a magnetic field.
4 a Research whether it is dangerous to live near high-voltage
power lines.
b Write a letter to the government outlining the potential
dangers of electromagnetic radiation. Be sure to support
your ideas with evidence.
c In your letter, recommend what should be done to reduce
the risk of electromagnetic radiation to the community.
d Conduct a class debate on this issue.
Surf
5 Find out more about electromagnetics and
Japans maglev train by connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 3 and clicking on the destinations
button. Select one example of a device that uses
electromagnetism and present your information in the
form of an advertisement.
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Prac 1
Unit 3.2
Questions
1 Explain what happens to the strength of a magnetic
field as you move further from a wire.
2 Explain whether a larger current produces a stronger or
weaker magnetic field.
3 Would several coils cancel each others magnetic fields
or reinforce them? Justify your answer.
4 Explain whether an electromagnet is stronger or weaker
with an iron core.
5 Describe how the magnetic fields differ at each end of
the nail.
Prac 2
Unit 3.2
A simple generator
Aim To investigate the correlation between
magnetism and current electricity
Equipment
Solenoid, bar magnet, connecting wires,
galvanometer or microammeter
Method
1 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3.2.19. Note:
A galvanometer is like a very sensitive ammeter, and
detects small currents. In each step below, observe the
reading on the galvanometer as you carry out the step.
2 Move the north end of the magnet into the solenoid.
3 Leave the magnet resting in the end of the solenoid for
several seconds.
4 Withdraw the magnet from the solenoid.
Oersteds experiment
and the electromagnet
Aim To investigate the magnetic field around a
current-carrying wire
Equipment
Power supply, switch, insulated copper wire (1 m),
tape, switch, small compass, cardboard tube,
large iron nail
Electromagnetism
>>>
VOLTS
power pack
0
2V
compass
switch
1 m section of
connecting wire
+

Fig 3.2.17
VOLTS
0
2V
power pack
compass just
inside tube
switch
+

tape tape
Fig 3.2.18
Method
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.2.17.
Ensure the power supply is set to 2 volts.
2 Hold the switch down and note any effect on the
compass needle.
3 Investigate the effect of moving the compass further
away from the wire.
4 What happens if the voltage is turned down (and the
current reduces)?
5 Now wind the wire around the cardboard tube as
shown in Figure 3.2.18. Use tape to secure the coils
to the tube.
6 Compare the strength of the magnetic field inside the
tube with that produced in step 2.
7 Now wind the wire around the nail instead of the
cardboard tube. Use tape to secure the coils if required.
8 Hold the pointed end near the compass while holding
the switch down.
9 Hold the head of the nail (the non-pointy end) near the
compass while holding the switch down.
Electromagnetism
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solenoid
G
galvanometer
N S
Fig 3.2.19
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4, but move the magnet more quickly.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 5, but move the south end of the
magnet into the solenoid.
Questions
1 Explain why a globe was not used to detect current.
2 Explain whether a magnet in a solenoid always
produces a current.
3 Describe the effect of varying the speed of the magnet.
4 Contrast the effect of the magnet when it is withdrawn
with its effect when it enters the solenoid.
5 Describe whether changing the pole (north or south)
that approaches the solenoid has an effect.
6 Predict the effect a stronger magnet would have.
Prac 3
Unit 3.2
A simple electric motor
Aim To construct a simple electric motor
Equipment
1.5 volt battery (D size), Blu-Tack, 2 rubber
bands, 2 paperclips, 1.5 metres of enamelled
copper wire, a small but strong disc magnet or a
bar magnet, emery paper, pliers (optional)
Method
1 Wind the enamelled copper wire around the battery to
make a solenoid.
2 Remove the wire from the battery and straighten 5 cm
or so at each end.
3 Wind a centimetre or two of the ends around the loops
of wire to keep them together.
4 Using emery paper, scrape the underside of
each straight end to expose the copper
(see magnified view of straight ends in
Figure 3.2.20).
5 Use fingers or pliers to shape the two
paperclips as shown.
6 Use the rubber bands to attach the
paperclips to the battery.
7 Place the magnet so it sticks to the top of
the battery (see Figure 3.2.20). Alternatively,
hold a bar magnet near the coil.
8 Stabilise the battery using Blu-Tack.
9 Add the loops to complete the motor and
check that measurements and positioning
match the figure.
View from above
coil
magnet
Ensure part of coil is
directly above magnet
enamelled
copper wire
less than
1 cm
less than
1 cm when
coil is
vertical
paper clip
strong magnet
rubber band
battery
(1.5 volts)
enamelled/insulated copper wire
exposed copper
Blu-Tack
Fig 3.2.20
10 Give the loops a nudge (you may need to try spinning
the coil both ways) to start the motor. You may need to
experiment with the position of the magnet.
Questions
1 Explain why several loops are better than a single one.
2 Predict what would happen if the entire wire (loops
included) was not insulated.
3 Explain how scraping half the coating from the straight
ends of the wire helps. Predict what might happen if
you didnt do this.
4 Identify possible improvements to your model motor.
5 Take apart a small electric motor (e.g. from a broken toy)
and compare the parts with your model.
3
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UNIT
UNIT
Visible light is only one section of a wide
variety of waves known as the electromagnetic
spectrum. While visible light allows us to see,
other invisible forms such as X-rays enable us
to see into the body without invasive surgery.
Other invisible forms give us the radiant heat
of sunlight and the basis of most communication,
from radio to TV to mobile phones. Its fairly easy
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to visualise ocean waves or ripples caused by a stone
dropped in a pond, or even those in a slinky, but
what exactly are the waves that make up light and the
electromagnetic spectrum?
Two kinds of waves
There are several different types of waves, but the
main two are transverse and longitudinal (sometimes
called compression) waves. These are
illustrated in Figure 3.3.1 using a slinky.
One of the special
characteristics of waves is their
ability to transfer energy from A
to B without particles actually
moving along the full route. When
a transverse wave travels from A to
B, the actual particles in the wave
merely vibrate up and down. In
a longitudinal wave the particles
vibrate back and forth.
Think of a surfer on a board
or a boat floating in the ocean.
Two kinds of waves
wave direction Lonqitudinal wave
wave direction Transverse wave
comression rarelaction
article
movement
article
movement
A
A
B
B
Fig 3.3.1
Rather than moving along with the waves, both simply
bob up and down on the spot.
If the coils of a slinky or the particles of
water did move the full distance from A to B,
they would all end up at B, leaving nothing
at Athis clearly does not happen!
Properties of waves
Imagine you are shaking a slinky back and forth to
generate transverse waves at a steady rate. This rate
has another name: frequency. If you are producing two
waves every second, the wave frequency is 2 waves
per second, or 2 hertz (2 Hz for short). The unit hertz
is used to describe anything that has regular repetitive
behaviour, and can be taken to mean per second. For
example, a wheel that rotates 10 times per second has
a frequency of 10 hertz. Likewise, a sound wave that
hits your eardrum with 200 compressions per second
has a frequency of 200 hertz.
Breaking waves
When an ocean wave reaches
shallower water, friction from
the sea bed slows the bottom
of the wave more than the top,
with the result that the top may
break away, allowing some
particles of water, possibly
carrying a surfer, to move with
the remains of the wave.
Prac 1
p. 83
wavelength
wavelength
wavelength
wavelength
wavelength
Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave
particles
middle
position
middle
position
amplitude
maximum
movement
amplitude
Fig 3.3.2 Amplitude and wavelength for two kinds of waves
77
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The distance between successive crests or
successive troughs in a series of transverse waves is
called the wavelength. The height of crests above their
normal, middle position is called the amplitude of the
wave. In a longitudinal wave, the wavelength is the
distance between compressions or rarefactions, and
the amplitude is the distance that particles vibrate
from their normal, middle position.
Light waves
When sound or light travels from A to B, energy is
transferred but no particles actually move from A to B.
This suggests that these phenomena behave just like
the water and slinky waves described above.
As discussed in Science Focus 1, sound waves
are longitudinal waves requiring particles to pass
vibrations from one layer to the next. Hence sound
can travel through gases, liquids and solids but cannot
travel through a vacuum. But
how can light be a wave? Nothing
seems to be vibrating back and
forth when we shine a torch,
though we can see where its beam
strikes an object. Also, light can
travel through the vacuum of
space.
We saw in Unit 3.2 that an
electric current causes a magnetic
field and that a changing
magnetic field causes a current.
A mass will only fall if there is a
gravitational field, and likewise
an electric current only flows
when there is an electric field.
What all this means is that a
magnetic field can cause an
electric field and vice versa.
Both magnetic fields and electric
fields are invisible, but can
be detected by the effect they
havefor example, the electric
field around a Van de Graaf
generator can make your hair
stand on end and the magnetic
field of a magnet will move iron
filings around.
Light can be considered a
series of changing magnetic
and electric fields where the
changes in a magnetic field
Spirit warning
Aboriginal tribes used
a device called a bull
roarer, or kooladoo,
to communicate using
sound waves. The bull
roarer is used by tribes to
warn women and young
children away from mens
ceremonies, particularly
during initiation. It is made
from a flat piece of wood,
about 30 centimetres in
length and fastened at
one end to a string. When
swung around in the air
it produces a whirring or
howling sound likened to
those of animals or spirits.
The sound was regarded
as the voice of a spirit
that comes to take the
young boys away. In some
cases bull roarers were
associated with various
objects known as churinga
which women or uninitiated
men were forbidden to see.
Penalties were severe
blinding by fire-stick or
even death.
cause a changing electric field, which causes another
magnetic field, which causes another electric field
and so on and so on. For this reason, we say that light
consists of electromagnetic waves that travel at an
incredible speed of 300 000 kilometres per second.
magnetic field
electric field
Fig 3.3.3 The magnetic and electric fields of light
waves are perpendicular to each other.
The range of colours we are able to see is called
the visible spectrum. White light is really a mixture
of all the colours of the visible spectrum, and consists
of waves of different wavelengths and frequencies all
travelling at the same speed.
The human eye is more sensitive to some
colours than to others.
400 500 600 7400
Wavelength (nanometres)
S
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y

o
f

t
h
e

e
y
e
1 nanometre =
1 000 000 000
of a metre
1
Fig 3.3.4
Other types of electromagnetic
waves
The visible spectrum is only a small part of a wide
group of electromagnetic waves. In order from
smallest to largest wavelength, these are: gamma rays,
X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infra-red rays,
78
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microwaves and radio waves. These make up the
electromagnetic spectrum. Though we cannot see
these other types of waves, they can be detected and
are used in a variety of applications.
Gamma rays
Gamma rays are extremely high-energy
waves released in bursts from the nucleus of certain
atoms including uranium and plutoniumhence
qamma rays Xrays ultraviolet rays visible liqht inlrared rays radio waves microwaves
1O
2O
1O
1O
1O
18
1O
17
1O
1G
1O
15
1O
14
1O
18
1O
12
1O
11
1O
-12
1O
-11
1O
-1O
1O
-O
1O
-8
1O
-7
1O
-G
1O
-5
1O
-4
1O
-8
1O
-2
1O
-1
1O
O
1O
1
1O
2
1O
8
1O
5
1O
1O
1O
O
1O
8
1O
7
1O
G
1O
5
shortwave
radio
lonqwave
radio
Frequency in hert/ (h/)
1 qiqahert/
(h/)
1 meqahert/
(Mh/)
AM radio
FM radio
wavelenqth in metres (m)
1 ico
metre (m)
1 nano
metre (nm)
1 millimetre
(mm)
1 metre
(m)
1 kilometre
(km)
1 micro
metre (m)
Fig 3.3.5 The electromagnetic spectrum. Although wavelengths and frequency vary, speed is the same (300 000 000 metres per second)
for all types of electromagnetic waves.
they are a form of nuclear energy. Substances that
release nuclear energy such as gamma rays are said
to be radioactive. Gamma rays can be detected using
photographic film or a Geiger counter, and can be
used to destroy cancer cells, which are more sensitive
to radiation than normal cells. Some normal cells are
still killed, however, resulting in the unpleasant side
effects of radiotherapy.
X-rays
X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons lose
energy suddenly, for example when smashing into a
metal target. Short-wavelength X-rays can penetrate
dense metals such as lead, while long-wavelength
X-rays penetrate flesh but not bone, and so may be
used to photograph inside the body. The term
X-ray is also used to refer to the actual photograph
produced.
Fig 3.3.6 Gamma rays are used to produce scans like this one of a human skeleton. A radioactive isotope is injected into the blood
vessels supplying the region, and tends to concentrate in tumours and cancerous bone. Variations in emitted gamma ray
intensity result in different areas showing up in the image.
An X-ray machine
electron gun electron beam target
X-rays
Fig 3.3.7
Waves in communication Waves in communication
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Ultraviolet radiation
Whenever the Sun shines on
us, we receive both visible
light and invisible ultraviolet
(ultra means beyond) or UV
radiation. A small amount
of UV radiation is vital as it
helps produce vitamin D. Too
much, however, causes damage
to the skin in the form of a
suntan, sunburn or various
skin cancers. Some washing
powders contain special
chemicals which absorb
ultraviolet light and then re-
emit it as visible light to give
the impression of whiter-
than-white clothes. Ultraviolet light can be used to
kill bacteria, and is used in hairdressing salons and
air-conditioning systems.
Visible light
Visible light includes the colours of the rainbow
(ROYGBIV) and various combinations, including
white. Though we can see an amazing range of
colours, these colours are a very small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Fig 3.3.8 A coloured X-ray photograph of a womans foot
in high-heeled shoe
A handy discovery
In 1895, Wilhelm Konrad
Roentgen was passing
electrons through a gas in
a device called a discharge
tube when he noticed that a
card coated with a barium salt
nearby began to glow.
He noticed that the card even
glowed when he placed objects
between it and the tube. When
he placed his hand in the
way he was amazed to see a
shadow of his hand bones
on the card! Roentgen had
discovered X-rays.
electric field vibrating
in one direction
electric field vibrating
in several directions
Fig 3.3.9 Polarisation
Polarisation
Sunlight consists of waves
in all sorts of orientations.
Polarising materials
allow only waves whose
electric fields vibrate
in a certain direction to
pass, absorbing all other
waves. This reduces
glare dramatically. Hence
polarising materials are
often used in the lenses of
sunglasses.
Infra-red rays
Infra is Latin for below and infra-red (or IR) rays
have a frequency below that of red light. They are
often associated with heat and are released from
vibrating atoms or molecules. All objects contain
vibrating atoms and molecules, so all objects emit
infra-red radiation. The hotter the object, the more
the vibration, and so the more the energy released as
infra-red radiation.
When high-energy waves are emitted they become
visible as red lighthence the expression red hot.
Remote control devices emit infra-red waves which
are detected by special components within televisions
and sound systems. They are then converted to
electrical energy to control functions such as volume
and channels.
Prac 2
p. 83
An infra-red image of a
person using a mobile phone Fig 3.3.10
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Microwaves
Sometimes called short-wave radio waves,
microwaves are generated by vibrating electrons in
electrical devices, and typically have a wavelength
of a few centimetres. They are easy to direct, can
pass through the Earths ionosphere and are used
in satellite communication, radar and mobile
phones. Water molecules in food vibrate at the same
frequency as microwaves. Hence food strongly absorbs
microwaves, converting their energy into heat energy
in a microwave oven.
Fig 3.3.11 This dish receives microwave and satellite
signals and relays them to Earth-based parts
of the communications network.
Radio waves
Radio waves are also generated by
vibrating or oscillating electrons
(e.g. in a transmitting aerial), and
are used in radio and television
broadcasting. Radio waves have
wavelengths of hundreds of
metres to tens of centimetres
and are classified into several
categories. Long radio waves
are useful for communicating
around the Earth, as they bend
to follow the Earths surface
Marconi
Italian engineer
Guglielmo Marconi is
generally credited with
inventing radio. In 1895
he transmitted a signal
2.4 kilometres in the
grounds of his fathers
property. He patented the
first wireless telegraphy
system in 1896.
The behaviour of different types of radio waves
space satellite
ionosphere
reflects
medium
radio waves
long radio
waves
diffract round
the Earth
short radio waves
(microwaves)
pass through
the ionosphere
microwaves
used for
line-of-sight
links
Fig 3.3.12
(bending around objects like this is called diffraction).
Short waves may also travel around the Earth, by
reflecting from the ionosphere.
AM and FM
You are probably aware of the terms AM and FM
when referring to radio stations, but what do they
really mean?
Electromagnetic waves such as radio waves can
carry information (e.g. sound or vision) as changes
or fluctuations in either frequency or amplitude.
Receivers detect these changes and convert them back
to sound or vision or some other form.
This information first must be converted into a
wave, in a process called modulation.
Amplitude modulation, or AM, is the process
in which information is carried as changes in wave
amplitude. Similarly, frequency modulation or FM is
the process in which information is carried as changes
in wave frequency.
Radio stations transmit sound using both AM
and FM, while television stations transmit sound
using FM, and vision using AM. Australias national
broadcaster, the ABC, transmits AM carrier waves of
frequency 774 kilohertz (1 kilohertz = 1000 hertz),
which will be detected by a radio tuned to this
frequency.
The higher frequencies of FM stations are less
affected by interference, and provide a better quality
sound than AM, though they have less range.
Waves in communication Waves in communication
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Sound
wave
(pressure
wave)
Microphone
Oscillator
Amplifier
Amplified
electrical
signal
Electrical
signal
Electric
carrier
wave
added
FM (frequency
modulation)
AM (amplitude
modulation)
Radio
antenna
Receiver
Waves cause electrons
in radio antenna to vibrate.
Modulated
waves
transmitted
by radio mast
Electrical signal
created and amplified.
Carrier wave removed
from electrical signal
(demodulation).
Speaker converts
electrical signal
to sound waves.
Fig 3.3.13 Modulation is one of many steps in the
transmission of sound via radio waves.
Worksheet 3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Two kinds of waves
1 State the names of the two kinds of waves.
2 Outline the main differences between them.
Light waves
3 Copy and complete the following statement:
A light wave is made up of changing ________ and
________ fields that are ________ to each other, and
moves at ________ metres per second.
4 State whether the following statements are true or false.
a All electromagnetic waves move at the same speed.
b Each different colour of light has a different
wavelength.
c The visible spectrum contains the electromagnetic
spectrum.
d Waves transfer energy by moving particles along
with them.
Other types of electromagnetic waves
5 State one similarity and one difference between the
waves of the electromagnetic spectrum.
6 State the speed of light.
7 List the main types of waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum in order from shortest to longest
wavelength.
AM and FM
8 AM and FM radio have modulated wavelengths.
State the full name for AM and FM.
9 Outline the purpose of modulating radio waves.
10 State an advantage of each type of carrier wave.
Think
11 Explain why it does not make sense to talk about the
wavelength of white light.
12 Identify which colour of light has the:
a greatest wavelength
b highest frequency
13 State which colours the human eye is most sensitive to.
14 Infra-red cameras can help find a lost bushwalker.
Outline how this is possible.
15 Identify the radio wave that can penetrate the Earths
atmosphere.
16 State the name of the harmful rays that are released in
a nuclear explosion.
17 Is UV radiation good, bad or both? Justify your
answer.
18 Explain how a Geiger counter and gamma radiation
can be used to measure the thickness of an object.
>>
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Fig 3.3.15
Fig 3.3.14
Analyse
19 State the wavelength of this wave.
20 A student shakes out
20 waves on a slinky in
10 seconds. Calculate the
frequency of the waves.
21 The time between each wave
passing is called the period.
a Identify the period for the
waves in Question 20.
b If the wave frequency
increases, predict what
effect this will have on the period:
A The period will increase.
B The period will stay the same.
C The period will decrease.
D There is not enough information to answer the
question.
22 Identify which type of electromagnetic wave has a
wavelength of:
a 1 m
b 1 km
c 0.5 mm
d 1 millionth of a millimetre
23 Explain what you would expect to see if the following
polarising filters were placed in front of a light source
as shown.
a a wavelength of 3 cm and amplitude
of 2 cm
b a wavelength of 10 cm and amplitude
of 1 cm.
25 Convert:
a 600 nanometres to metres
b 0.000 000 850 metres to nanometres
26 Construct a table with the following
headings and enter information about each
type of electromagnetic wave.
Type of Typical Source How it is Use/s
electromagnetic wavelength detected
radiation (approx.)
Visible light 1 millionth The Sun, Cones in the eye, Sight,
of a metre very hot objects photographic film photography
27 Construct a diagram of:
a a frequency-modulated carrier wave
b an amplitude-modulated carrier wave
28 Calculate the frequency of carrier waves transmitted
by:
a 107.5 ZZZ FM
b 1278 2AW (an AM station)
Skills
24 Construct a diagram of a transverse wave that has:
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Outline the contribution to science of one of the
following people by writing a brief biography of their
life.
a Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell and his
work on electromagnetic wave theory
b the development of radio communications by the
American engineer Edwin Armstrong
c the first transmission of radio waves by Guglielmo
Marconi
d John Logie Bairds contribution to the development
of television
Waves in communication Waves in communication
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Practical activities
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Prac 1
Unit 3.3
3 Describe what happens
when waves meet:
a on the same side of
the slinky
b on opposite sides of
the slinky
4 If time permits,
investigate longitudinal
waves produced by
bunching up and
releasing the coils.
Waves in a slinky
Aim Investigate the movement of waves in a
slinky
Equipment
A slinky, masking tape, stopwatch, floor or corridor
space in which to generate waves between points
5 to 10 metres apart
Method
1 With a partner, stretch a slinky to a length of 5 metres or
so without permanently deforming it.
2 Use masking tape to mark points along the slinky every
metre or two.
3 Generate a horizontal transverse wave as shown,
carefully observing the masking tape labels as the wave
passes them.
4 Generate a small wave and measure the time it takes to
get to the other end. Calculate the speed of the wave.
5 Keeping the slinky stretched by the same amount,
generate a bigger wave and calculate its speed.
6 Generate waves at a high frequency and calculate their
speed.
7 Repeat but for waves of low frequency.
8 Investigate what happens when waves are generated
simultaneously from both ends of the slinky:
a on the same side
b on opposite sides
Questions
1 Describe the direction in which the masking tape labels
move compared with the travelling wave.
2 Describe whether the wave speed is affected by:
a the size of the wave
b the frequency of the waves
side to side movement
direction
in which
wave
travels
Fig 3.3.16
2 Radio waves include LW, MW, SW, VHF and UHF.
a State what these stand for and why the waves are
classified like this.
b Describe uses for each type of wave in
communications.
Action
3 Design an experiment to investigate how
ripples in a tank or pond are affected by a
change in water.
DYO
4 Find a design for a simple radio or crystal
set (e.g. from an electronics shop or the
Internet), then construct and test it.
Surf
5 Complete a tutorial on waves and the
electromagnetic spectrum and record the
outcome of your tutorial in your notebook. You can find
a link by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 3 and clicking on the destinations button.
DYO
Prac 2
Unit 3.3
Polarised!
Aim To investigate the interaction of two
polarising filters
Equipment
Two polarising filters, window or other
light source
Method
1 Look through one of the filters at a nearby window or
other light source.
2 Now hold a second filter in front of the first, and rotate
it while keeping the first filter still.
Questions
1 Describe what you saw in each case.
2 Explain your observations.
3
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UNIT
UNIT
The first Europeans who settled at Sydney
Cove received all their messages from
the outside world by sailing ship. Most
communication was with England, messages
taking a year to get there and another for the
answer to return. Communication is obviously
very different now from what it was in 1788 and
will continue to develop in the future. Many of these
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
methods might seem to be science fiction right now,
but remember that email and the Internet were hardly
known ten years ago! There are many possibilities for
how we will communicate that we do not even know
about yet.
Communications history
The telegraph
Communication was once based on drums, smoke
signals, mirrors and flags (semaphore). Then the
invention of the telegraph (tele means at a distance)
changed communication forever. It was a system that
sent electrical pulses along a wire. The first telegraph
was demonstrated in 1835 by Professor Moncke of
Heidelberg, Germany. In 1837, Englishman William
Cooke demonstrated his own system (developed with
Charles Wheatstone), transmitting a signal a distance
of 1.6 kilometres. These early telegraphs used the
magnetic effect of a current to move small pointers.
In 1844, American Samuel Morse used a code
involving dots and dashes to send a message
60 kilometres by telegraph. By opening and closing
a simple switch (telegraph key), dots or dashes were
sent along the telegraph and transferred to a
paper tape printout or converted to sounds for
translation by a telegraph operator.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
FULL STOP
COMMA
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
(zero)
Fig 3.4.1 In Morse code, the most commonly
used letters have the shortest codes.
Fig 3.4.2 A telegraph receiver used to print
Morse code messages
The first telegraph cable was laid across the English
Channel in 1851, and in 1858 the first cable across
the Atlantic Ocean was laid, although it failed after
a monththe tiniest hole in a cables insulation was
enough to provide an alternative path for the current and
so destroy the signal. In 1866 the transatlantic cable was
successfully re-laid. By 1869, a cable under Bass Straight
connected Tasmania to mainland Australia. During
1872, the Overland telegraph line was completed from
Adelaide to Darwin, where it was joined to an undersea
cable to Java. From Java, the line connected to Europe
and England, allowing overseas communication within
hours instead of the customary two months by ship. The
telegraph was the main form of telecommunication until
the emergence of the telephone.
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The telephone
In 1874, Scottish inventor
Alexander Graham Bell came
up with the idea of converting
sound (e.g. speech) into
varying electrical impulses for
transmission along a wire and
then converting the impulses
back to sound at the other
end. On 10 March 1876, in Boston USA, Bell spoke
to his assistant, Thomas Watson, in Cambridgeport,
3.2 kilometres away. This was the first ever telephone
call. Bells words were: Mr Watson, please come here.
I want to see you.
Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone Fig 3.4.3
A telephone system
requires the following
main features: transmitters,
receivers, exchanges and a
network connecting users.
Early manual exchanges
required an operator to use
a switchboard to physically
connect a wire from the
callers telephone to one going
to the telephone of the person
being called. This was called
a line. As the number of
calls on a system increased,
mechanical exchanges
were developed that were able to find free lines and
connect callers automatically.
The first fully automatic exchange in Australia
came into operation in Endeavour Hills, Victoria, in
1981. Nowadays all Australian exchanges are fully
automatic and switching is computerised, resulting
in a system that is quick and very reliable, with calls
able to be continually rerouted to make best use of
available lines.
Todays communications
networkanalogue and digital
Our current global communication network must
handle a huge amount of traffic including voice,
image and computer data. It copes by transmitting
several signals at once in each line.
When you talk into a telephone,
the initial input is in the form of
smoothly varying sound waves. These
are converted into smoothly varying
electrical signals, otherwise known
as an analogue signal. Most homes
today are connected to the network
via copper wires designed for use
with analogue signals. Different
signals can be sent simultaneously
by using different frequencies. They
can then be separated or filtered at
the receiving end. Hence, one way
of transmitting several calls at once
is to use several carrier waves of
different frequencies. This is known
as frequency division multiplexing,
or FDM.
Patent problems
Italian inventor Antonio
Meucci is credited in his
home town of Florence
with inventing the first
telephone, but was unable
to afford the US$250 to
patent his idea.
The call of the dead!
Almon B. Strowger was an
American funeral director who
invented the first automatic
telephone exchange. It is
rumoured that his incentive was
to stop the flow of business
going to his opposition. The
operator at his local manual
exchange was apparently
directing all funeral queries to
her husbands funeral business!
By establishing an automatic
exchange, his competitors wife
could no longer manipulate calls.
The numbers 5 and 13
in digital form
5
only 1 or 0 allowed
4 2 1
1 0 1
a 3-bit binary number
13
only 1 or 0 allowed
8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1
a 4-bit binary number
Fig 3.4.4
Digital codes
Information can
be represented by
combinations of the
digits 1 and 0. This
makes it much easier to
accurately transmit since
short pulses of light or
electricity can represent
the 1 and 0 combinations.
For example, any number
can be represented as
combinations of 1 and 0
by imagining place value
columns as shown below.
Starting from the right, we
use 1 or 0 to build up the
number in digital form. For
example 5 in digital form
is 101 (or pulse, no pulse,
pulse). Numbers in this
form are also called binary
numbers. Each 1 and 0 is
called a bit, so the binary
number 101 is composed
of three bits.
3
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Digital signal is particularly
suited to transmission by optical
fibres. Each call is sampled 8000
times per second and is converted
into a signal comprising bits (a bit
may be considered as a 1 or a 0, or a
pulse or no pulse, or on and off).
Several different calls may be cut
into chunks, interspersed, and sent
in the one data stream at a single
frequency, and sorted out again at
the end of the transmission. This is
called time division multiplexing or
TDM.
Frequency division multiplexing
(FDM), in which streams of
data are sent at different rates
or frequencies, may be used
combined with TDM to maximise
the bandwidth, or the amount of
information that can be carried.
Multiplexing
frequency 1
frequency 2
Time division multiplexing
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data stream 1
data stream 2
Second signal/call First signal/call
Second signal/call First signal/call
Fig 3.4.5
While small-scale links in the network are through
copper wire, major links are provided by coaxial
cable, fibre-optic cable and radio waves (including
microwaves), sometimes via satellites. Signals are
converted from analogue to digital as required,
depending on the section of the network.
Coaxial cable
Most coaxial cables contain several tubes, each
consisting of an inner copper core and an outer
cylindrical copper mesh layer separated by an
insulating material. A tough outer sheath surrounds
Digital to analogue
and back again
A modem converts
digital signals from a
computer into analogue
waves in a process called
modulation. Most of the
telephone network is made
from copper wires that
are only designed to carry
analogue waves. Hence
the need for a modem. A
modem can also convert
analogue signals received
into digital ones (called
demodulation) for
processing by a computer.
This dual capability is
where a modem gets
its name: modulator
demodulator.
these and protects the cable from damage. The inner
core carries analogue or digital signals, while the outer
copper layer protects the signal from interference
between tubes in the same cable or from outside
sources. The outer layer also reduces attenuation, or
loss of signal strength. The first major coaxial cable in
Australia opened in 1962, linking Sydney, Canberra
and Melbourne.
electrical signal
insulation
copper wire
braiding
tough plastic
sheathing
copper core
Fig 3.4.6 Coaxial cable can carry both analogue and
digital electrical signals. Several of these may
be packed into one larger cable.
Optical fibres
In the 1930s, the inventor of optical fibre patented
a method for manufacturing it just in case anyone
ever finds a use for it. Today, optical fibre forms the
backbone of the global communications network.
An optical fibre is a hair-thin tube or strand of glass
surrounded by a protective cladding which traps
and conducts light, thanks to a phenomenon known
as total internal reflection (see Chapter 4 in Science
Focus 3). To use optical fibres for communication of
voice, fax or computer data, the original signal first
must be converted into an electrical signal, which is
in turn converted into pulses of light, the light being
provided by a laser. Laser light is coherentthat is, all
its waves are of the same frequency and wavelength
and are in step, resulting in a powerful beam that
can carry vast amounts of information with little
dispersion or spreading out. Lasers can be switched
on/off many millions of times every second, making
them ideal for transmitting digital data. Sydney and
Melbourne are currently linked by over 1.5 million
kilometres of optical fibre.
The communications network The communications network
87
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Microwaves
Microwave links can be used to
transmit digital signals through the
air from repeater station to repeater
station. These stations transfer signals
from one area to another, and boost
signals as required. Microwaves travel
in straight lines, so each repeater
station must be in sight of the next
one in the network. Signals may be
modulated to carry pulses of two different frequencies
within the waveone representing 1 or on, the other
representing 0 or off.
Microwaves are used to link satellites for long-
distance communication, as well as within the mobile
phone network. The first microwave link in Australia
was established between Melbourne and Bendigo in
1959.
Many optical fibres can fit in a single cable.
optical
fibre
plastic
sheath
protective
layer
outer
covering
laser light
steel core
Fig 3.4.7
fully reflective mirror partially reflective mirror
(allows some laser light to leave)
laser beam
Fig 3.4.9 How a laser works
LASERS
In a ruby laser, energy from a flash tube excites chromium atoms
in the ruby. These atoms then emit light, which reflects between
the ends of the ruby rod, stimulating more atoms to emit light
of the same wavelength. The partially reflective end allows some
light to escape as a laser beam. The ruby also gives laser light its
characteristic red colouring. LASER is an acronym that stands for
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Incoherent light
(many wavelengths, not in step)
Coherent light
(one wavelength, waves in step)
Fig 3.4.8 A light bulb produces a mixture of light of
various wavelengths which we perceive as white
light. A laser produces coherent light of only
one wavelength.
Teacher demonstration
The laser
WARNING: Never look directly at the source of a laser
beam, and never direct a laser beam towards anyones
eyes. Beware of possible reflections that may redirect a
beam near peoples eyes.
Your teacher may demonstrate a laser beam by
directing a beam into some chalk dust scattered in
the air in a darkened room.
Its that clear!
The glass used in optical
fibres is so clear that
you would be able to see
through a 100 kilometre
thick window made of it.
A microwave repeater station Fig 3.4.10
3
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88
>>>
The global
communications
network
diqital siqnal
/RDINARY
PHONE
&AXMACHINE
lax transmissions
are sent over the
telehone network
&AXMACHINE
/PTICALFIBRES
transmittinq diqital inlormation
by liqht ulses enables many
calls to be sent down one libre
simultaneously
-OBILEPHONEEXCHANGE
calls are routed to the
main exchanqe or
direct to a base station
by the mobile
hone exchanqe
-AINEXCHANGE
the main exchanqe
handles
communications
between ordinary
hones and the
mobile hone
network and
routes lonq
distance and
international calls
,OCALEXCHANGE
local exchanqe
diqitises calls
lor lonqdistance
transmission
!NALOGUESIGNAL
analoque siqnals
lrom ordinary
hones are
carried by
coer cable
to the local
exchanqe
#ELL
the mobile hone
network is divided into
hexaqonal cells, each
with a base station in
the middle
-ICROWAVES
diqital inlormation
is sent lrom mobile
hones to base
station usinq
microwave
lrequencies
"ASESTATION
the base station
receivinq the
stronqest siqnal
lrom a mobile
hone routes the
call to the mobile
hone exchanqe
5RBANCELLS
cells are smaller
in urban areas,
qivinq the network
qreater caacity
$IGITAL
SIGNAL
3EAMLESSRECONNECTION
as the mobile hone moves lrom one
cell to another, the call is rerouted
lrom one base station to the next,
without a break in the conversation
Movinq mobile
hone
mobility is the
rime asset ol
the cell hone
7EAKENINGSIGNAL
as the mobile hone moves
lurther away lrom the base
station, the siqnal weakens
3ATELLITEUPLINK
encryted diqital
inlormation is
sent to satellites
usinq microwave
lrequencies
#OMMUNICATIONSSATELLITE
orbitinq satellites are used to route calls
between laces not linked by cable
$IGITALSIGNAL
diqital inlormation is multilexed,
allowinq multile siqnals to be
transmitted simultaneously
,INEOFSIGHTMICROWAVELINK
diqitised calls lrom local
exchanqes are routed to the
main exchanqe via terrestrial
microwave links
-OBILEPHONEEXCHANGE
the mobile hone exchanqe sends
out control siqnals to locate the
base station receivinq the stronqest
siqnal lrom a mobile hone
-OBILEPHONENETWORK
base stations send diqital inlormation
to the cell hone exchanqe over
oticallibre or coer cable
-OBILE
PHONE
,ONGDISTANCEOR
INTERNATIONAL
CONNECTION
otical libres are
used to transmit
lonqdistance calls,
many oticallibre
cables are laid on the
seabed
Fig 3.4.12
Mobile phones
Mobile phones use microwaves to transmit digital
signals within a network of regions called cells.
Each cell uses a different set of frequencies, with
no adjacent cells using the same frequency. When
you turn on a mobile phone, it sends a signal to the
network, which registers your location. As you move
from place to place, base stations within the network
detect signals from your mobile phone, and the base
station receiving the strongest signal sends it to the
exchange. When a call is made to your mobile phone,
the exchange detects where you are and sends the call
to the base stations in the cell you are in.
All the above methods of
transmission require repeater
stations every 50 kilometres or
so to boost weakened signals.
The table opposite shows the
different capacities of each
type.
Transmission Maximum number of
method two-way conversations
Copper 600
Coaxial cable 2700
Optical fibre 28 720
Microwaves 1920
Worksheet 3.4 ADSL: Digital communication
The communications network The communications network
Fig 3.4.11 A modern, and some
would say essential,
communication
devicethe mobile
phone
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The future
It is likely that in the future our homes will be
connected to one cable which provides a broad
range of services including telephone, fax, Internet
connection, video on demand, video conferencing,
pay TV, interactive video and games, and on-line
shopping, news and medical diagnosis. Known as
B-ISDNshort for Broadband Integrated Services
Digital Networksuch a system is the next step in
our ever-expanding global communications network.
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[
Questions
]
18 The world is sometimes referred to as a global village.
Explain why.
19 Your behaviour would probably change if you were
having a video-phone conversation. Contrast your
behaviour on a video-phone with that on a normal
phone.
Analyse
20 Explain why the
Strowger switch shown
in Figure 3.4.13 is for
set connection to a
telephone that has
the number 33.
21 Explain why repeater
towers in the mobile
phone network are
arranged in a zigzag
pattern, as shown in
Figure 3.4.14.
Checkpoint
Communications history
1 List some older forms of communication.
2 Outline the origin of the term Morse code.
3 State the distance over which the first telephone call
was made.
Todays communications networkanalogue
and digital
4 State whether the telegraph used digital or analogue
signals.
5 Many signals on the communications network are not in
digital form. Explain why not.
6 a List the two types of multiplexing.
b Describe how each type of multiplexing allows
several calls on the one phone line.
The future
7 State the name of the network predicted for future use.
8 Outline the main advantage of this system.
Think
9 List some of the communication services/devices
available today that were not available 50 years ago.
10 Propose a way of remembering the Morse code for the
digits 1, 2, 3, 0.
11 State two advantages of digital signals over analogue
ones.
12 The word signal is used a lot in this chapter, rather
than call. Explain why.
13 If several single-core copper wires were used instead of
coaxial cable to carry phone calls between two cities,
predict the effect.
14 Explain why laser light is ideal for use in fibre-optic
communication.
15 Mobile phones are sometimes called cell phones.
Explain why.
16 Propose the main advantage of having several different
communication paths between two cities.
17 B-ISDN will provide many services in the future. List as
many as you can.
return spring
vertical-drive
finger
rotary-
drive
finger
contacts
contact
arm
Fig 3.4.13
Fig 3.4.14
Skills
22 a Estimate the number of words per minute you could
send using a telegraph device and Morse code.
b Estimate the number of words per minute you can
say at normal conversation pace.
23 Construct your name in Morse code.
3
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>>
Strowger switch
90
24 Decode the following and record the message.
Fig 3.4.15
25 Construct a suitable graph showing the different call
capacities of the various cables and microwaves.
26 Although Sydney and Melbourne are only 1000 km
apart, there is about 1.5 million kilometres of optic fibre
between the two cities. Calculate the number of lines
or individual optic fibres this represents.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 There is concern about the effects of mobile phone
radiation on the users brain.
a Gather evidence supporting or denying this effect.
b Evaluate your evidence and decide whether it is a
concern.
c Propose ways in which users of mobile phones can
reduce the possible risk.
d Present your information as an advertisement
(radio, print or television) to pass on your findings
to others.
2 Research the lives of one of the early
telecommunications inventors and write an
autobiographical account of their achievements.
The communications network
>>>
The communications network
3 The original Overland telegraph line was a single strand
of wire that transmitted signals using pulses of electric
current. There must be a complete circuit for electricity
to travel. Explain how the Overland telegraph works
with just one wire connecting two places.
4 Research the development of the Internet/World Wide
Web. Explain the role of routers and servers in this
vast network.
Surf
5 Visit the Telstra classroom to choose
and complete a tutorial kit in an area
of communication that interests you. Construct a
PowerPoint presentation on advances in the field
of your interest. You will find a link to the site by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 3 and clicking on the destinations button.
Create
6 Design a home that uses several futuristic
communications services and devices, and explain
how each is used.
91
Science focus:
Microwaves cook from the inside
Prescribed focus area: The applications and uses
of science
By Karl S. Kruszelnicki 2004
Microwaves are very weird. They will make food hot,
but they are not hot themselves! We humans started
using fire to heat our food about one million years
ago. And for most of that million years, we used
variations on that themesuch as baking, boiling,
steaming, poaching, roasting, grilling, frying and so
on. There was no really new way to cook food until
we started using microwaves, about half-a-century
ago. Even today, most people dont really understand
microwaves. But whatever the reason, most people
wrongly believe that microwaves cook the food from
the inside first.
The first real use of microwaves was in radar
units during WW II. Radar gave the British the huge
advantage of being able to detect the approaching
enemy planes at night, or through thick cloud.
Wartime radar began in 1940, when Sir John
Randall and Dr. H. A. Boot invented the magnetron,
a device to generate microwaves. The magnetron
squirted out the microwaves for only a brief instant,
and then stopped transmitting. A different part of the
radar unit then listened for the echo bouncing back.
There would be an echo only if the transmitted radar
beam happened to land on a target. Some of the radar
beam energy would be bounced off the target back to
the radar unit. If the radar unit had to wait for a long
time, the incoming planes were far awaybut if there
was only a short time before the echo arrived, then the
planes were very close.
During WW II, the British government got the
American government to help with the development
of radar. The Raytheon Corporation in the USA
became involved. Dr. Percy L. Spencer, an engineer
with Raytheon, redesigned the radar units, and
worked out how to boost the production from 17 units
per week, to 13,000!
The idea of using microwaves to cook food came
accidentally, around 1946. It was the same Dr. Spencer
who hit on the idea. He had been working long and
hard, testing a magnetronand he needed a break.
Luckily, he had a stash of chocolate in his pocketbut
not so luckily, the chocolate bar had melted, and had
ruined his trousers, leaving him still hungry. But why
had the chocolate melted? After all, it wasnt a hot
day.
He was an engineer with both an appetite, and a
good sense of curiosity. So he got a bag of popcorn
kernels, and blasted then with microwaves out of
his magnetron. Soon, he had delicious popcorn all
over the laboratory floor. He also tried cooking raw
eggs, but that experiment wasnt so successful. The
pressure inside rose so rapidly that the eggs burst. So
the microwaves could cook foodbut with varying
degrees of success.
Raytheon took up his ideas and developed a
commercial microwave oven, the Radar Range. It was
enormous (as big as a fridge and weighing 300 kg)
but with a very small cooking volume (roughly
the same as a modern microwave oven). The sales,
unsurprisingly, were quite modest.
Fig SF 3.1 Blasting popcorn with microwaves led to the
development of the microwave oven.
92
So how did the microwaves cook?
The Raytheon engineers soon found out that
microwaves pass right through glass, paper, pastry,
fats and most china. On the other hand, water absorbs
microwaves very well indeed. The microwaves
shake the water molecules directly. The molecules
of water vibrate about 2.45 billion times each
second, and as they rub against each other, this
friction produces the heat for cooking. This is how
microwaves cook.
microwave, the pastry crust wont get very hot, but
the contents inside will. As you bite into the potato or
pie, you pass through the cool (low water) pastry crust
into the hotter innardsand you burn your mouth.
Second, in that original post-War experiment by
Spencer, the egg that he exploded did seem to cook
from the inside. But that was because it had a shell
that was low in water, and an inner core that was high
in water. So the egg looked normal until the water
on the inside turned into steam and exploded the egg
apart. In this case, the inside (the water) cooked, and
the outside (the shell) did not.
So while the invention of radar turned the Art of
War upside down, it did not turn the Art of Cooking
inside out
So what about microwaves cooking from
the outside in?
Think of the food as being in spherical layers, like
an onion. Lets assume that each layer is a centimetre
thick, and that it absorbs 10% of the incoming
microwave radiation. After the first centimetre, only
90% of the energy is left. After the second centimetre
only 81% is leftand so on. You can see that more
of the microwave energy is absorbed in the outside
layers, with hardly any getting to the very centre.
Food in a microwave oven cooks from the outside
to the inside. So how did this myth that microwaves
cook from the inside start?
There are two possible explanations.
First, pastry and other fatty crusts are low in water.
So if you heat a baked potato or a meat pie in your
Fig SF 3.2 This X-ray of a microwave oven shows the
magnetron (purple, lower right). The magnetron
is the tube in which electrons are generated.
These electrons are affected by magnetic and
electric fields to produce microwaves that are
directed at the food.
[
Student activities
]
1 a Examine the use of microwaves further. This
could include one of the following applications:
ovens, satellite communications, mobile phones,
radar.
b Construct an advertisement to sell the microwave
technology you have investigated. Think about
who you are aiming the advertisement atthe
target audience. Include information about the
following:
i How can the technology be used?
ii What are the advantages of this
technology over alternatives?
2 Microwave ovens have recently been the target of
safety campaigns because a number of children
have been badly burnt while using these devices.
a Research how a microwave oven can be a risk to
children, and what types of injuries are commonly
caused by them.
b Propose a set of safety guidelines for microwave
use to keep children safe.
c Synthesise your information into a safety poster to
be placed above a microwave oven.
3 a Research the history of microwaves, their
discovery and early uses further. This could include
researching one of the people discussed in the
feature article above.
b Give a visual presentation of your information.
CD14
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UNIT
UNIT
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Mobile phones and the communications
network, security systems, televisions,
computers, supermarket barcode scanners,
microwave ovens, digital watches, CD and
DVD players all involve electronicsthe
use of electric circuits containing miniature
components to control electric current and hence
perform a variety of useful tasks.
c
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x
t
Resistors
Resistors are commonly made as small, banded,
cylindrical devices made of compressed carbon, or a
glass or ceramic tube coated with a thin film of metal.
They are used to control current and voltage in a
circuit, converting electrical energy into heat.
Compared to normal electric circuits like that
in a torch or in a house, the miniature components
of electronic circuits are designed to work with very
small currents. The resistors used must therefore have
Fig 3.5.1 A circuit board containing several different
electronic components
high resistances. The multiplier prefix k is used to
indicated 1000 ohms (1000 ), while M is used to
indicate 1 000 000 .
For example, 8 k = 8000 , and 3 M = 3 000 000 .
Variable resistors may be used as volume controls
on radios, TVs and sound systems.
The resistor colour code
The coloured bands on resistors are not decoration
they are a code representing the resistance in ohms.
The digits 0 to 9 are represented by colours as shown
in Figures 3.5.2 and 3.5.3.
Resistors resist the flow of current, and
can be used to control voltages. Fig 3.5.2
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Prac 1
p. CD20
The resistor colour codes
Digit Colour
0 black
1 brown
2 red
3 orange
4 yellow
5 green
6 blue
7 violet
8 grey
9 white
4 band resistor
first
digit
second
digit
number
of zeros
yellow
4
violet
7
red
2 zeros (00)
= 4700 V
5% tolerance
5 band resistor
yellow
4
violet
7
black
0
brown
1 zero (0)
= 4700 V
5% tolerance
tolerance (4th band)
gold 5%
silver 10%
no colour 20%
Fig 3.5.3
Thermistors
A thermistor is a device
whose resistance drops
when it is warmed up. This
property makes thermistors
useful in circuits that need
to respond to changes in
temperature (e.g. a fire
alarm).
Fig 3.5.4 Heat decreases the resistance of a thermistor. This is
the opposite of what happens with most conductors.
Light-dependent resistors
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photoresistor also
has a variable resistance. Its resistance decreases when
the intensity of light falling on it increases. LDRs are
ideal in circuits that need to respond to changing light
conditions (e.g. to control street lights).
More light decreases the resistance of an LDR. Fig 3.5.5
Capacitors
Capacitors store small amounts
of charge, but not for very long
as the charge eventually leaks
away. The charge is stored on
two metal foil sheets separated
by an insulating material called
a dielectric. Because the metal
sheets are separated, charge can
flow into a capacitor for only a
short time (like the flow of people
getting onto an empty bus) before
the plates fill. The larger the metal
sheets, the more the charge that
can be stored, so the various layers are rolled up like
a Swiss roll to allow a larger surface area to fit into a
small volume. The charge-storing ability of a capacitor
is called capacitance, and is measured in farads (F) or,
more usually, microfarads (F). Capacitors are used in
metal
foil
dielectric
Fig 3.5.6 A capacitor is like a Swiss rollbut dont try to
eat one!
Off, but still
dangerous!
Many electronic devices
such as the television
contain capacitors. Because
of the charge-storing ability
of capacitors, it is still
possible to be given an
electric shock by meddling
with circuitry after the
power is switched off.
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>>>
sound wave
fixed plate
battery
processing
circuit
electric
signal
moveable
plate
Fig 3.5.8 A condensor microphone
circuits to control the
time taken for various
actions (e.g. lights
flashing), and to block
steady currents
but allow
changing ones
to pass.
Prac 2
p. CD20
The microphone
A condensor microphone contains
two plates acting as a capacitor.
The first of the plates vibrates back
and forth as sound waves strike it,
causing the separation of the plates
(and hence their charge-storing
ability or capacity) to change.
Changes in charge-storing ability
cause charge to flow on and off
the platesin other words, an
alternating current is produced. This
signal may then be connected to an
amplifier and converted into sound.
Diodes
A substance that conducts electricity is called
a conductor, while one that doesnt is called an
insulator. A pure semiconductor is an insulator
when it is cold, and a conductor (though a poor
one) at room temperature. The two most commonly
used semiconductors are silicon and germanium.
A semiconductor diode is made from two different
layers of specially treated semiconductor and has
special properties that make it a very useful electronic
component.
A diode may be considered a one-way
valve for current. It conducts very well when
connected one way (we say it is forward
biased), and very little when connected
the other way around (we say it is reverse
biased).
Prac 3
p. CD21
Two very different results using the same diode
AMPS

A
0
0.2 0.4
0.6
0
.8
1
.0

5
A
1
A
no current flows
(or very small
current flows)
diode reverse biased
ammeter
+

9
V
AMPS

A
0
0.2 0.4
0.6
0
.8
1
.0

5
A
1
A
9
V
current flows
diode forward biased
ammeter
+

Fig 3.5.10
Electronics Electronics
Fig 3.5.7 Capacitors
store charge.
Fig 3.5.9 The band indicates the negative side of a diode.
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The legs or terminals of a transistor connect
to these layers and are known as the
emitter, base and collector or E, B and C
for short. When placed in a circuit with
other components, a transistor can behave
amazingly.
A transistor may act as a switch (with
no moving parts apart from electrons!) and
a current amplifier. When no current flows
through the base, the transistor is off, and
no current flows from collector to emitter
either, despite a voltage being applied.
When a small current flows through the
base, the transmitter is on and allows a
larger current (an amplified copy of the base
current) to flow from collector to emitter.
Integrated circuits
Miniaturisation did not stop with the invention of the
transistor. Photographic processes are used to form
millions of connected semiconductor components on
thin wafers of treated silicon, sometimes called silicon
chips. The finished product is called an integrated
circuit (IC) or microchip. Microchips are now used in
most electrical products, such as burglar alarms, car
indicators and computers. Scientists are continually
finding ways to pack more components onto a single
chipin fact, the number has roughly doubled each
year since 1965.
Diodes may be used to protect
circuits from current going the wrong
way and damaging sections of the
circuit, and for converting AC to DC. A
special kind of diode is the light-emitting
diode (LED), which is used in indicator
lights and digital displays.
Transistors
The transistor is the most famous
electronic component of all and was
invented in 1947 by a team from Bell
telephone laboratories led by William
Shockley. Like the diode, it is made
from treated silicon, and is a type of
semiconductor. The transistor, however,
contains three layers of treated silicon.
Transistors come in many shapes and sizes. Fig 3.5.11
C
B
E
emitter
current
basic
current
Fig 3.5.12 Note the position
of each leg
in this diagram
of a transistor.
LED the light shine
LEDs are far more energy
efficient than light bulbs,
but you need a lot of them
to produce the same light.
Traffic lights are gradually
being changed from single
bulbs to banks of LEDs.
The main advantage here is
that LEDs dont all blow at
once there are always
some left to keep the traffic
light operating until its next
regular servicing.
Modern printed circuit boards connect
integrated circuits and separate components
together in a compact way.
Fig 3.5.13
integrated circuit
resistor
integrated circuits
capacitors
CD18
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Resistors
1 Outline the function of a resistor in a circuit.
2 Identify the feature that distinguishes different-sized
resistors.
Thermistors
3 Define the term thermistor.
4 State three potential uses for a thermistor.
Light-dependent resistors
5 Modify the following statements to make them correct.
a An LDR has a constant resistance.
b More light increases the resistance of an LDR
c An LDR cannot be used in changing light conditions.
Capacitors
6 Outline the purpose of a capacitor.
7 A dielectric assists in storing the charge in a capacitor.
Use a diagram to demonstrate how this works.
8 Identify the units used to describe capacitance.
Diodes
9 State two uses for a diode.
10 Two elements are often used to make semiconductors.
State their names.
11 A diode is considered a one-way valve for current.
Outline how this is achieved.
Transistors
12 State the name of the members of the team that
developed the first transistor.
13 Construct a diagram explaining how to identify the
base, collector and emitter legs of a transistor.
14 Transistors were a major advance in electronics. Explain
why.
Integrated circuits
15 A microchip is also called an integrated circuit or a
silicon chip. Explain how these terms are connected.
16 Microchips are a major breakthrough in electronics.
List two uses of microchips.
Think
17 Identify the type of component described in this unit
that may be a key part of:
a the control of an air conditioner
b automatic doors
18 Many bicycle lights involve one or more flashing LEDs.
Outline the advantages of having the LEDs flash.
19 a Evaluate whether ENIAC would fit in your bedroom.
b If not, calculate how many rooms of that size would
be needed.
20 Estimate how many components may be fitted on a
silicon chip next year compared to this year.
Analyse
21 Calculate the resistance of each
of the following resistors:
a blue, grey, brown
b brown, green, orange
c red, violet, yellow
d red, green, green
22 For each of the following
resistors identify the
colours (in order) of the
first three bands:
a 560
b 3300
c 470 000
d 1 200 000
Electronics Electronics
Fig 3.5.15
Fig 3.5.14 ENIACElectronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculatorwas the first electronic computer.
Prac 6
p. CD22
Prac 5
p. CD22
Prac 4
p. CD21
ENIAC
The first fully electronic digital
computer, called ENIAC, was
completed in 1947the same year
that transistors were invented.
It took up 170 square metres of
floor spacecompare this to
todays computers, which can fit
in your hand!
CD19
U
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3
.
5
3
.
5
Component Sketch Use Symbol
Resistor
Detects light
Transistor
Skills
23 Complete the table opposite, identifying words
from the text for the missing names of electronic
components.
24 Use several small rectangular light-emitting diodes
to demonstrate how the digits 0 to 9 on a digital
clock display may be constructed.
25 Construct a circuit diagram for the circuit shown
here.
26 Calculate how many times smaller a transistor is
than an old-style valve.
9
V
+

330 F
Fig 3.5.16
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 3K8 is another way of labelling a 3800
resistor.
a Explain what 4K9 means.
b Explain what 2M5 means.
2 a Clarify what is meant by p and n
type germanium.
b Describe how it is used to make diodes.
3 a Explain how diodes can be used to convert
alternating current to direct current.
b State the name given to such a circuit.
4 a Describe what is meant by logic gates.
b Use diagrams to demonstrate different types
of logic gates.
5 Describe what is meant by a microprocessor.
6 Justify the use of the term Silicon Valley.
7 Explain what is meant by CSIRAC.
Surf
8 Complete the tutorials on resistors and
resistor colour codes and record the
results in a table showing the coloured
bands on the resistors and the resistance
they correspond to. You will find a link by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 3
and clicking on the destinations button.
CD20
>>>
Prac 2
Unit 3.5
The capacitor
Aim To investigate the properties of a capacitor
Equipment
A selection of capacitors (e.g. 100 F, 470 F,
100 F) and above, resistor (about 470 k or so),
9 volt battery, 1 LED
Method
1 Charge a capacitor as shown, ensuring that the
positive terminal on the capacitor touches the positive
battery terminal for a couple of seconds.
Connecting the wrong way is dangerous and could
damage either object. Carry out step 2 as soon as
possible.
[
Practical activities
] 3
.
5
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Prac 1
Unit 3.5
2 Complete a row of the table for each resistor.
The resistor colour code
Note: Depending on experience and equipment, the
following circuits may be constructed using a variety of
methods, e.g. card/sticky tape, soldering, breadboard,
drawing pins/balsa wood, etc. The card/tape method is not
recommended for more complex circuits such as those in
Pracs 5 and 6. Resistor colours below are based on the
four-band system.
Method
1 Draw a larger version of the table shown below.
Resistor Colours (first 3 bands) Value
A
B
C
2 Connect the capacitor to an LED and resistor as shown.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 for different capacitors, noting any
differences in your results.
9

V
+

100F
Fig 3.5.18
Aim To determine the values of resistors using
the colour code
Equipment
A selection of resistors mounted on small pieces of
cardboard (as in Figure 3.5.17) and labelled alphabetically.
Fig 3.5.17
100F
+
+

470 resistor
LED
Fig 3.5.19
Questions
1 Predict the effect of using a larger capacitor in
step 2.
2 Explain why it was important not to wait too long after
step 1 before performing step 2.
3 a Predict the effect of placing another capacitor side
by side with the original one.
b You may wish to combine with another group to
investigate this effect.
Electronics Electronics
CD21
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Prac 3
Unit 3.5
A diode/resistor circuit
Aim To investigate a circuit of a capacitor, diode
and resistor
Equipment
A light-emitting diode (LED), 330 resistor (orange, orange,
brown), 470 resistor (yellow, violet, brown), 1 k resistor
(brown, black, red), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting
wire (2 pieces, each 10 cm), a piece of card on which to lay
out the circuit, sticky tape or Blu-Tack
Method
1 Assemble the circuit exactly as shown in Figure 3.5.20,
otherwise you could damage the components.
Blu-Tack or tape
9

V
Fig 3.5.20
2 Notice that one of the legs of the LED is longer than
the other. Try placing the LED in the circuit both ways
around. Note whether the longer leg must be as close
to or as far away as possible from the positive terminal
of the battery.
3 Try different resistors in the circuit, both ways around.
Questions
1 When an LED lights up, the positive leg is the one that
goes closest to the battery. Identify which leg (long or
short) is the positive one on an LED. Justify your answer.
2 Predict the effect of a larger resistance on the LED.
3 Discuss whether it matters which way around a resistor
goes.
4 Explain why a resistor is used in this prac.
5 Construct a circuit diagram for this prac.
Prac 4
Unit 3.5
Blu-Tack or tape
9

V
E
B
C
long leg
short leg
Fig 3.5.22
The transistor
Aim To investigate the properties of a
transistor
Equipment
A transistor (type BC548), 1 light-emitting diode (LED), 470
resistor (yellow, violet, brown), 1.5 k resistor (brown, green,
red), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting wire (2 pieces,
each 10 cm), piece of card on which to lay out the circuit,
sticky tape or Blu-Tack
Method
1 Connect and observe
the circuit shown in
Figure 3.5.22. Note that
the transistor terminals
can be identified as
shown here.
2 Add a 1.5 k resistor
and extra LED in series
between the transistor
base and the positive
battery terminal, as
shown in Figure 3.5.23.
Blu-Tack or tape
9

V
E
B
C
long
leg
short
leg
Fig 3.5.23
BC548
collector
base
emitter
Fig 3.5.21
>>
CD22
3 Explain why a transistor is sometimes referred to as an
electronic switch.
4 Construct a circuit diagram for step 2 of this prac.
Questions
1 Explain how you can tell when current is flowing
(or not flowing) in the circuits on page CD21.
2 Compare the size of the current going into the base
of the transistor with that going into the collector in
the second circuit.
3 Lie detectors work by using circuits similar to but
more sensitive than the one in this prac. Explain how
such a circuit could detect when a person supposedly
tells a lie.
470
9
V
E
B
C
long
leg
short
leg
+

BC548
transistor
probe
probe
Fig 3.5.24
Prac 5
Unit 3.5
A moisture detector
Aim To construct a circuit that detects
moisture
Equipment
A transistor (type BC548), 1 light-emitting diode (LED),
470 resistor (yellow, violet, brown), 100 k resistor (brown,
black, yellow), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting wire
(2 pieces, each 10 cm), piece of card on which to lay out the
circuit, sticky tape or Blu-Tack
Method
1 Assemble the circuit as shown.
2 Touch the probes together to test the circuit. The LED
should glow brightly.
3 Keeping the probes apart by a few millimetres, touch
them to a dry object, then a damp one (e.g. lick a finger
if its clean).
Questions
1 Discuss how this circuit could be used as:
a a water detector b a soil moisture content detector
2 Predict the resistance of:
a a dry finger b a wet finger
Prac 6
Unit 3.5
Flasher
Aim To construct a circuit containing flashing
lights
Equipment
A circuit breadboard, 2 transistors (type BC548), 2 100 F
capacitors, 2 light-emitting diodes (LED), 2 470 resistors
(yellow, violet, brown), 2 10 k resistors (brown, black,
yellow), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting wire (8 pieces,
each 10 cm), other capacitors (e.g. 470 F, 330 F, 220 F)
Method
1 Use the circuit diagram in Figure 3.5.25 as a guide to
construct a flasher circuit.
2 Once the circuit is working, try exchanging one of the
capacitors with a different one and note the effect on
the circuit.
9 volt
battery
470 10K 10K 470
LED
LED
100F 100 F
BC548
BC548
+
+ +
+

Fig 3.5.25
Questions
1 Deduce what effect the size of a capacitor has on the circuit.
2 Explain your answer to Question 1 in terms of charge movement.
3 Predict what else you might change (besides a capacitor) to alter
the flashing rate. If you have permission, the time to do so and
the equipment, design an experiment to test your prediction.
4 Construct a circuit diagram for this circuit.
Electronics Electronics
>>>
93
Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 State the units used for the following measurements,
giving the full name and short version in each case.
a voltage
b resistance
c current
2 Distinguish between a series circuit and a parallel
circuit.
3 Match the following terms to their definitions.
Term
load
voltage
current
conducting path
resistance
switch
Definition
Uses up electrical energy
The ability of a substance to reduce
the flow of current
Wires for the electricity to flow
through
The flow of charge, usually electrons
Turns the current on and off
The energy available to push current
through a circuit
4 Distinguish between AC and DC.
5 Copy the following and modify any incorrect statements
to make them true.
a A magnetic field is produced by a coil or coils of wire,
not by a straight wire.
b Electricity can cause magnetism and magnetism can
cause electricity.
c Electromagnets can be turned on and off.
d A relay is an electromagnetic switch.
e A generator produces current when a magnet sits
inside or near its coils.
f More energy is lost in power transmission lines when
the voltage is higher.
6 List two types of wave that are possible in a slinky.
7 Explain why not all power is transmitted at 240 volts.
8 List five modern electronic devices.
9 List four categories of electromagnetic waves and state
a use for each type.
10 Outline how early telegraphs used electromagnetism.
11 State what each of the following people are famous for.
a Samuel Morse
b Alexander Bell
c Almon Strowger
d William Shockley
[
Thinking questions
]
12 Construct diagrams of the following circuits:
a a series circuit with two lights and a switch
b a circuit with three lights in parallel, and switches to
turn all lights off separately
c a circuit with three lights in parallel, and a single
switch to turn all lights off
13 Complete the following table comparing a water circuit
to an electrical circuit.
Electrical circuit Water pump circuit
switch
battery
resistor
voltage or energy
current
wire
14 a Construct a graph of Ohms law using the
experimental results listed below.
b Identify what the slope of the graph represents.
c Calculate the slope of the graph.
15 Use Ohms law to complete the following table:
Voltage, V (volts) Current, I (amps)
0 0
2.5 2
5 4
7.5 6
10 8
Current Voltage Resistance
3 amps 15 V
10 amps 6 k
240 kV 32
94
[
Interpreting questions
]
24 The following wave was produced in 10 seconds.
Calculate the:
a frequency
b wavelength
c amplitude
25 The following signal consists of two messages sent using
time division multiplexing in groups of four characters:
MYHO THEP VERC RICE RAFT OFEG ISFU GSHA
LLOF SGON EELS EUP!
Analyse the signal and record its two messages.
26 Propose how 0s and 1s could be used to send a digital
message originally written in words.
16 Correct the following statements by identifying the
correct word in brackets:
Series circuits:
a The voltage is shared (unequally/equally) between each
resistor.
b The current is (the same/different) for each resistor.
c If any component is removed, the circuit (will/will not)
work.
Parallel circuits:
d The voltage is (the same/different) for each resistor.
e The current (divides into/is the same in) each branch of
the circuit.
f If one branch of the circuit is broken the other
branches (will/will not) still work.
17 State which type of transformer is used close to homes,
and explain why.
18 Contrast the visible spectrum with the electromagnetic
spectrum.
19 State what happens to the wavelength of electromagnetic
waves as the frequency increases.
20 Contrast laser light with light from the Sun.
21 State three ways in which messages are sent within
todays global communications network and outline
an advantage of each method.
22 Predict what might happen if the same frequency was
used for two different calls in a mobile phone cell.
23 Explain why radios were so large and heavy before
transistors were invented.
Worksheet 3.5 Electricity and communications technology crossword
Worksheet 3.6 Sci-words
>>>
>>>
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
explain the terms gene, chromosomes and DNA
identify how genetic information is passed to
offspring
explain how recessive and dominant genetic
characteristics are inherited
predict the probability of a person being affected
by a particular characteristic
recall that sex cells have half the chromosomes
of body cells
explain two different ways in which cells
reproduce
identify the likely inheritance of genes from a
pedigree.
1 Blue-eyed parents can produce
brown-eyed children. True or false?
2 Why are approximately the same number of boys
and girls born?
3 Why is colour blindness rare in girls
but common in boys?
4 Why can one ear of corn produce kernels of many
different colours, as in the picture on the left?
5 What is a clone?
6 What is GM food?
7 Could a dinosaur fossil be used to create a
live dinosaur?
8 List techniques that forensic scientists use to
prove guilt.
9 Jeans for Genes Day is held each August to raise
money for gene research. Why is gene research
important?
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P
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e

q
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4
4
Genetics
Genetics
Key focus area
Current issues, research and
development in science
>>>
96
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
Have you ever been told that you have your
fathers nose, your mothers eyes or perhaps
your grandfathers ears? Although each of us
is unique, we all resemble our parents and
grandparents in some way. Two influences
make you what you are at this moment:
heredity and environment. Heredity is those
characteristics you inherited from your parents.
c
o
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t
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x
t
Mendel: the father of genetics
The story of genetics begins in a monastery in Austria
in 1856. Here a monk, Gregor Mendel, taught science,
carrying out experiments in his spare time to study
how characteristics are inherited. He was not the first
to try this, but he was the most successful, and so is
known as the father of genetics.
Mendel grew garden peas and studied their charac-
teristics, which occurred in two specific forms, called
traits. The traits that Mendel examined included:
seeds that were round or wrinkled
seeds that were yellow or green
pods that were smooth or constricted
pods that were green or yellow
stems that were long or short.
Environment is all the factors that have acted on you
throughout your life. Where do hereditary influences
end and environmental influences begin? Genetics is
the study of heredity and attempts to provide some
answers to this question.
Gregor Mendelthe father of genetics Fig 4.1.1
Parental cross F
1
generation F
2
generation
Probability
ratio
round round wrinkled
5474 round
1850 wrinkled
3:1
yellow
yellow
yellow green
green green
6022 yellow
2001 green
3:1
3:1
3:1
smooth smooth
882 smooth
constricted
299 constricted
428 green
152 yellow
3:1
long
stem
long
stem
short
stem
787 long
277 short

Fig 4.1.2 Results of Mendels cross-breeding experiments

True-breeding plants are those that consistently
produce offspring the same as the parents for a
particular trait. Yellow-pod plants that always produce
more yellow-pod plants would be considered true-
breeding. Mendel cross-pollinated true-breeding
plants with contrasting traits. For example, he took
the pollen from a plant with round seeds and placed
it on the flower of a plant with wrinkled seeds. He
found that all the offspring (called the F
1
generation)
were like one of their parents. When these offspring
were cross-pollinated among themselves, their
offspring (the F
2
generation) showed both traits. Some
of Mendels results are shown in Figure 4.1.2.
4
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Dominating genetics
Mendel studied 28 000 pea plants,
consistently obtaining similar results. He
found two traits, which he called:
the dominant traitthis is the trait that
appeared in the first, F
1
, generation
the recessive traitthis is the trait that
was masked in the F
1
generation and
reappeared in the second, F
2
, generation.
Based on his observations, Mendel
concluded that pea plants possess two
hereditary factors for each characteristic.
These factors separate from each other
and pass into gametes. Gametes are the
reproductive cells, called ova (eggs) in
females and sperm in males, that combine to form
the first cell of a new organism. Each new organism
receives one hereditary factor from each parent.
The factors do not blend with each other, but act as
independent units.
Mendel published his work in 1866, but it
was poorly understood and largely ignored by the
scientific world. It was not until 1900 that his work
was rediscovered and its importance appreciated.
Three scientists (H. De Vries in Holland, C. Correns in
Germany and E. van Tschermak-Seysenegg in Austria)
working independently reached the same conclusions
that Mendel had 34 years earlier.
Genes
We now call Mendels factors genes. A gene is a
hereditary unit that controls a particular characteristic.
Many thousands of genes are located in each of
the cells of your body. Together, your genes can be
thought of as a set of instructions or genetic program
that determines your eye colour, body size, skin type
and the many other characteristics that make you
what you are. Each gene is made of a chemical called
deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for short.
Chromosomes
Genes are located on structures called chromosomes.
These are found in the nucleus of your body cells.
Chromosomes are long, coiled, thread-like structures
made of DNA and protein. Each chromosome has
many thousands of genes along its length.
As shown in the table opposite, each species of
organism has a fixed number of chromosomes in the
cell nuclei.
Organism Total number of Number of Number of
chromosomes homologous chromosomes
(diploid number) pairs from each sex
cell or gamete
(haploid number)
Human 46 23 23
Dog 78 39 39
Chicken 78 39 39
Cow 60 30 30
Potato 48 24 24
Tomato 24 12 12
Fruit fly 8 4 4
Pairing up
Chromosomes exist in pairs in each body cell, the
members of each pair being similar in size and
shape. One of the pair was inherited from the father,
the other from the mother, making what is called a
homologous pair. Most cells in your body therefore
contain two of each type of chromosome. They are
referred to as diploid cells. In contrast, gametes
contain only one of each type of chromosome. Hence,
half of the chromosomes in a diploid cell come from
dad, the other half from mum. Gametes are known as
haploid cells.
Bees or peas?
Before starting work with
peas, Mendel tried to
breed a hard-working but
easily managed honey
bee. He tried crossing an
industrious German bee
with a gentle Italian bee.
The result was a bee that
was neither hard working
nor gentle! He moved his
attention to peas, which
were much easier to
handle.
protein
genes
DNA
nucleus
cell
chromosome
Fig 4.1.3 Chromosomes are made of protein and DNA.
Each chromosome has many genes along
its length.
4
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.
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98
>>>
The chromosomes in your cells right now are a
copy of those that were present in the single fertilised
egg cell from which you grew. How does this copying
process take place?
Cell reproduction
Mitosis
When cells such as those in your skin reproduce, they
duplicate their chromosomes. When each cell divides,
the resulting daughter cells each receive a copy of
the parent cell chromosomes. This type of
cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is an
organised series of steps that ensures that
each daughter cell is an exact copy of the
parent cell. The major steps in mitosis are
shown in Figure 4.1.5.
Prac 1
p. 104
Inheritance Inheritance
Mitosiscell division to produce new cells
identical to the parent cell
Membranes form to produce
two daughter cells.
a skin cell
two skin cells
Two pairs of
chromosomes
are visible.
Chromosomes are
doubled but attached
at a point called
the centromere.
Chromosomes line
up along the equator
of the cell.
Chromosomes separate
and move to the ends
of the cell.
Fig 4.1.5
Fig 4.1.6 Mitosischromosomes separate at opposite
ends of the cell.
Human chromosomes treated with stain, then
arranged and numbered Fig 4.1.4
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Meiosis
A different type of cell division,
called meiosis, occurs in the cells
in the ovaries and testes, which
produce eggs and sperm. Each
gamete contains only one of each
type of chromosome. When a
sperm meets an egg, the resulting
cell will have the correct number
of chromosomes. During meiosis
the chromosomes are duplicated, as
for mitosis. This is followed by two
divisions.
In the first division, the
individual chromosomes of each
homologous pair separate to form
two cells, each containing only one copy of each
kind of chromosome.
In the second division, the duplicated
chromosomes separate to produce a total
of four daughter cells.
The major steps in meiosis are shown in
Figure 4.1.7.
Meiosis, and the subsequent joining of
gametes, allows for the passing of chromosomes from
two parents to an offspring. In this way you have
acquired chromosomes, and therefore genes, from
both your parents. But you do not simply have half
your fathers characteristics and half
your mothers characteristics. A closer
look at genes and how they interact is
needed to give you an understanding of
how this happens.
Four types of
daughter cells
are possible
due to the
random way in
which pairs
separate
during meiosis.
Homologous pair
of chromosomes
one inherited
from each parent
Cell divides
by meiosis.
Fig 4.1.8 During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate
randomly to produce different types of gametes.
Worksheet 4.1 Cell division
Prac 2
p. 104
Will there ever be another me?
Homologous chromosomes randomly
separate during the first division of
meiosis. Hence a cell with only two pairs
of chromosomes will produce four different
possible gamete types (shown in Figure
4.1.8). For three pairs of chromosomes,
eight gamete types are possible. This in
turn means that there are 64 possible
combinations when two gametes join.
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
The number of possible combinations of
chromosomes in offspring of the same two
parents is 70 million million! It is therefore
extremely unlikely that there will ever be
another you!
Meiosiscell division to produce
gametes with half the chromosome
number of the parent cell
Membranes form
to produce four
daughter cells.
an ovary cell
four
egg
cells
(ova)
Two pairs of
chromosomes
are visible.
Chromosomes
are doubled but
attached at a
point called the
centromere.
Homologous
chromosomes
line up along
the equator
of the cell.
One of each
pair of
chromosomes
moves to the
ends of the cell.
Chromosomes
line up along
the equator
of each cell.
Chromosomes
separate and
move to the
ends of each
cell.
Fig 4.1.7
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>>>
Inheritance of pod colour in Mendels peas
G G
G g
g g
G G g g
g g g
First cross
parent cells
Meiosis
produces
gametes.
Fertilisation
produces a
zygote.
F
1
generation
homozygous
green pods (GG)
homozygous
yellow pods (gg)
(all heterozygous green pods)
Second cross
heterozygous
green pods (Gg)
heterozygous
green pods (Gg)
parent cells
Meiosis
produces
gametes.
Fertilisation
produces a
zygote (four
possibilities).
(homozygous
green pods)
(heterozygous
green pods)
(homozygous
yellow pods)
Gg Gg Gg Gg

G g
G
GG gG gg Gg
G G g G
G
g
G g G g
g g g
F
2
generation
Fig 4.1.10
Simple inheritance
The gene that controls pod colour in pea plants comes
in two forms: one codes for green pods, the other for
yellow pods. Different forms of the same gene are
called alleles. In his experiments, Mendel observed
that green pods were more numerous or dominant,
suggesting that:
the allele for green pods is a dominant gene. We
can represent the allele for green pods as G. A
capital letter is used to indicate dominance.
the allele for yellow pods is a recessive gene. The
allele for yellow pods can be shown as g. A lower
case letter is used to indicate that it is recessive.
Each pea plant contains two genes for pod colour,
one received from the female, the other from the male.
The different combinations of the parents genes are
known as the genotype of the plant. For pea pods, the
possible genotypes are:
GG (called homozygous as both alleles are the same)
Gg (called heterozygous as the two alleles are
different)
gg (also homozygous).
The appearance produced by a genotype is called
the phenotype of the organism. The genotypes GG and
Gg would both be green since G is a dominant allele,
while gg would be yellow. Hence there are two possible
phenotypes: green (GG and Gg) and yellow (gg).
With these definitions we can explain
Mendels observations in terms of genes. The
diagram shows the inheritance of pod colour
in Mendels pea plants.
Prac 3
p. 105
Inheritance Inheritance
Cells in the
testes divide
by meiosis.
mothers cell
Cells in
ovary divide
by meiosis.
egg cell
(ovum)
diploid cells
with two
pairs of
chromosomes
haploid cells
with two
chromosomes
Gametes join.
first cell of new organism
sperm cell
fathers cell
Fig 4.1.9 Meiosis and gamete fusion
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1
Punnett squares
A much simpler way to represent the inheritance shown
in Figure 4.1.10 is to use a Punnett square. Figure
4.1.11 shows the Punnet squares for Mendels pea pods.
First cross
parents 1 and 2
P
1
P
2
possible gametes from parent 2
(homozygous yellow pods)
Squares show possible
zygotes formed by
union of gametes
during fertilisation
(all heterozygous
green pods).
Second cross
GG, gG, Gggreen pods
Probability of 3/4 (75%)
ggyellow pods
Probability of 1/4 (25%)
G
g
Gg
g
Gg
G
Gg
Gg
P
1
P
2
G g
G GG gG
g Gg gg
Fig 4.1.11 Punnett squares show the inheritance of pod
colour in Mendels peas.
Punnett squares can be used to predict the
results of reproduction (crossing) between different
organisms. In rats, the gene that codes for coat colour
occurs as two alleles. The gene for black coat (B) is
dominant over the gene for brown coat (b). Using
a Punnett square we can predict the coat colours
of potential offspring. Consider the cross of two
heterozygous black rats (Bb) shown in Figure 4.1.12:
P
1
P
2
B b
B BB bB
b Bb
Bb
Bb
bb
heterozygous black
heterozygous black
Fig 4.1.12 Punnett squares to show inheritance of
coat colour in rats from a cross of two
heterozygous black rats
75% of offspring can be expected to be black
(either BB or Bb)
25% can be expected to be brown (bb).
These results show the typical 3:1 (75%:25%) ratio
seen in Mendels experiments.
Other types of inheritance
Some characteristics are inherited in a simple way
with dominant and recessive alleles. In other cases
the effects of the two genes may blend in some way.
Codominance
In codominance the phenotype of the heterozygous
organism is a combination of the phenotypes of
the homozygous organisms. Consider the case
of shorthorn cattle. Three genotypes and three
phenotypes occur, as shown in Figure 4.1.13.
Worksheet 4.2 Heterozygous or homozygous?
pure red
(RR)
pure white
(WW)
roan
(RW)
Fig 4.1.13 Phenotypes and genotypes in shorthorn cattle.
Inheritance of coat colour in shorthorn cattle is
an example of codominance.
Using Punnett squares we can predict the results
of crosses between these three types of cattle. Crossing
two homozygous cows, a red one and a white one,
will produce all heterozygous, roan offspring. Crossing
two roan cows will produce heterozygous roan
offspring (50%), homozygous red offspring (25%) and
homozygous white offspring (25%).
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Incomplete dominance
Sometimes the heterozygous offspring may have
a phenotype between the phenotypes of the two
homozygous organisms. In snapdragons, allele R
produces red flowers and allele W produces white
flowers. The genotype RW produces pink flowers. This
blending of colours is sometimes called incomplete
dominance, but many geneticists consider it to be
another case of codominance.
Simple? I think not!
The study of inheritance would be relatively simple if
the one gene for one characteristic model studied so
far worked for all characteristics. But rarely do single
genes control a characteristic. Many characteristics are
controlled by a number of gene pairs, producing even
more variation in the characteristic. Examples include
your height and skin colour.
Punnett squares to show inheritance of colour
in shorthorn cattle
homozygous
white (WW)
homozygous
red (RR)
P
1
P
2
W W
R WR WR
R RW RW
heterozygous
roan (RW)
heterozygous
roan (RW)
P
1
P
2
R W
R RR WR
W RW WW
Fig 4.1.14
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Questions
]
Checkpoint
Mendel: The father of genetics
1 a Define the term genetics.
b Explain why Mendel is known as the father of
genetics.
2 Mendels findings were based on experiments using
garden peas. List the traits that he observed.
3 Explain what is meant by a true-breeding plant.
4 In the study of genetics state what is meant by the F
1

and F
2
generations.
5 Define the terms dominant trait and recessive trait.
6 State the conclusion Mendel drew from his pea plant
observations.
Genes
7 Define the term gene.
8 State the name of the chemical from which genes are
made.
Chromosomes
9 a Clarify what is meant by a chromosome.
b Describe the relationship between genes and
chromosomes.
10 State how many chromosomes are contained in a human:
a body cell
b sperm cell
Pairing up
11 Define the term homologous.
12 With the aid of an example, contrast diploid with
haploid cells.
Cell reproduction
13 a Define the terms mitosis and meiosis.
b Identify where each occurs.
14 Construct a table to compare mitosis and meiosis.
Include comparisons of the number and type of
daughter cells produced, and the type of cells where
each process occurs.
Simple inheritance
15 Identify the correct description for each term.
Term Description
Alleles
Phenotype
Genotype
Homozygous
Heterozygous
The physical appearance of an organism
for a particular characteristic
An organism with different genes for a
particular characteristic
Alternative forms of the same gene
The genes for a particular characteristic
present in an organism
An organism with the same genes for a
particular characteristic
Inheritance Inheritance
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a a dominant allele
b a recessive allele
c the genotype of a
heterozygous organism
d the genotype of a
homozygous organism
e a phenotype
V gg
W green pea pods
X G
Y Gg
Z g
Analyse
22 In fruit flies, there are two alleles that control eye colour,
the allele for red eyes (R) being dominant over the allele
for white eyes (r). The following questions refer to the
cross of two fruit flies as shown in the Punnett square.
P
1
P
2
R r
r Rr rr
r rR rr
Fig 4.1.15
Punnett square to show inheritance of
eye colour in fruit fly
Other types of inheritance
16 Use an example to clarify the meaning of the term
codominance.
17 Use an example to clarify the meaning of the term
incomplete dominance.
Think
18 Use an example to explain how two organisms can
have the same phenotype but different genotypes.
19 State whether the following are examples of complete
dominance or codominance.
a In snapdragons, red flowers crossed with white
flowers produce pink flowers.
b In fruit flies, when red-eyed males are crossed with
white-eyed females, all the offspring are red-eyed.
c When a green watermelon is crossed with a striped
watermelon, half the offspring are green, and the
other half are striped.
20 Calculate how many different types of gametes could
be produced by an individual with the genotype XxYyZz.
(Possible gametes include XyZ, xyZ, etc.)
21 Identify which of the options V to Z shown in the list
below represents:
For each of the following examples predict:
a the eye colour of parent 1
b the eye colour of parent 2
c which parent is homozygous for eye colour
d the percentage of offspring expected to have white
eyes
e the percentage of offspring expected to be
heterozygous for eye colour
23 In Andalusian fowls, black plumage (B) is codominant
with white plumage (W). Heterozygous fowls have
blue plumage.
a State the genotypes of black, white and blue
Andalusian fowls.
b Predict the chances of each phenotype occurring
in the offspring when two blue fowls are crossed.
c A poultry farmer wishes to establish a true-
breeding strain of blue Andalusian fowl. Explain
why this is not possible.
Skills
24 In cats, short hair (H) is dominant over long hair (h).
Two cats heterozygous for hair length are crossed.
Use a Punnett square to predict the:
a genotype of the heterozygous cats
b possible genotypes of the offspring
c possible phenotypes of the offspring
d probable percentages of each phenotype
25 In hogs, the gene that produces a white belt around
the animal (W) is dominant over the gene for uniform
colour (w). A hog heterozygous for colour is crossed
with a hog homozygous for uniform colour. Use a
Punnett square to predict the:
a possible genotypes of the offspring
b percentage expected of each genotype
c percentage of offspring that would be expected to
have a uniform colour
26 Assume that the genotypes of Mendels pure-
breeding long-and short-stem plants are LL and ll
respectively. Long stem is dominant over short stem.
a Using a Punnett square, predict the ratio of long-
and short-stem offspring in the F
2
generation.
b Does your prediction agree with Mendels
observations shown in Figure 4.1.2? Justify your
answer.
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[
Practical activities
] 4
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Observing mitosis
Aim To observe mitosis in a series of prepared
slides
Equipment
Microscope, prepared microscope slide showing
onion root tips
Method
1 Set up the microscope ready for viewing the slide.
2 Observe the slide under low power. Near the central
part of the root is a section with cells in various stages
of cell division. Focus on cells in this region.
Prac 1
Unit 4.1
3 Move to high power. Re-focus if necessary.
4 Draw five cells in different stages of cell division.
Questions
1 Present the five cells you have drawn in the order in
which they would occur during mitosis.
2 Explain how you can be sure that the cells are
undergoing mitosis and not meiosis.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the contribution of each of the following
scientists to our understanding of genetics. Summarise
the contribution of each:
T.H. Morgan, H. de Vries, W.L. Johannsen, W.S. Sutton
2 Different species have different numbers of
chromosomes. Cross-breeding between species is
unusual, but it does occur. For example, a mule is the
result of crossing a horse and a donkey. Research such
unusual hybrid organisms and write a report outlining
your findings.
Surf
3 Find out more about Mendel and his work by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 4
and clicking on the destinations button.
Modelling meiosis
Aim To construct models to demonstrate the
process of meiosis
Equipment
6 pieces of pipe cleaner to represent 6 chromosomes;
1 short, 1 medium and 1 long piece of pipe cleaner of colour I;
1 short, 1 medium and 1 long piece of pipe cleaner of colour II
(colour I represents chromosomes from your mother, colour II
from your father); large sheet of paper for sketching cells
Method
1 Draw a circle to represent a parent cell. Place the pipe
cleaners in the cell to represent three pairs of homologous
chromosomes. Sketch this cell in your book.
2 Draw two smaller circles to represent daughter cells.
Move the pipe cleaners into these two cells to represent
two gametes formed when the parent cell divides by
meiosis. The gametes should each contain three pipe
cleaners, one of each length.
Prac 2
Unit 4.1
3 Sketch the gametes in
your book.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3
until you have drawn all
possible gametes.
Questions
1 Predict how many
possible gametes can
be produced from a
cell with three pairs of
chromosomes.
2 During meiosis, there is
a random assortment
of chromosomes.
Explain what the term random assortment means.
3 Meiosis is described as a reduction division. Explain
what this means.
4 Describe one feature of meiosis that was not shown in
this modelling exercise.
colour II
(from your
father)
colour I
(from your
mother)
Fig 4.1.16 Modelling meiosis
Inheritance Inheritance
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Modelling inheritance
Aim To model the random nature of inheritance
Equipment
60 counters or beads or buttons (30 each of two
different colours), 2 paper bags
Method
1 Place 15 counters of each colour in each bag.
2 Draw up a table for recording results, using two letters
to represent the colours of the counters, e.g. R for red,
G for green.
Prac 3
Unit 4.1
RG RR GG
3 Take one counter from each bag (without looking in the
bags).
4 The counter from one bag represents the gene from a
sperm, the counter from the other bag the gene from an
egg cell. Record the genotype of the offspring resulting
from your first selection of counters by placing a tick in
the appropriate column of the results table.
5 Replace the counters and shake the bags.
6 Repeat the selection process until 20 results have been
obtained.
7 Record the totals for each genotype.
8 Continue until 100 results have been obtained (or
combine results from several groups).
Questions
1 The modelling used represents a cross between two
heterozygous individuals. Explain what heterozygous
means.
2 Predict the pattern for the three genotypes that you
would expect to see.
3 State whether the expected pattern was observed after
20 selections.
4 State whether the expected pattern was observed after
100 selections.
5 Explain how the 60 counters would need to be arranged
in bags to represent each of the following crosses:
a homozygous x homozygous
b homozygous x heterozygous
106
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UNIT
UNIT
4
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4
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2
Can you roll your tongue? Many people
cant. Although you collected your genes
from your mum and dad, you are probably
different to them and to any brothers and
sisters. You might more closely resemble
your grandparents or even an uncle or aunty.
Where do all these characteristics come from?
Does human inheritance follow special rules or
does it follow the same rules as for peas, rats and
cows?
c
o
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x
t
Simple human
inheritance
In humans, some characteristics are
under the control of a single gene.
Some of these characteristics are fairly
trivial ones, such as the ability to roll
your tongue. Others like right- or left-
handedness affect your everyday life.
Some produce severe conditions such
as albinism.
Fig 4.2.1 We inherit our parents characteristics, but do
not look exactly like them. Why?
Characteristic Dominant Recessive
Tongue rolling Able to roll tongue Unable to roll tongue
Right- or left-handedness Right-handed Left-handed
Hair colour Dark or light Red
Hairline Widows peak present Straight hairline
Night blindness No night blindness Night blindness
Earlobe attached or free Attached Free
Albinism Normal pigment production No pigment
Some characteristics controlled by a single gene in
humans are listed in the table.
Albinism is the inability to make the pigment
melanin, which normally colours our skin. An albino
has white hair and pink eyes. Normal colour (A) is
dominant and lack of colour (a) is recessive. Suppose
two people who are heterozygous for albinism
produce offspring. What are the chances that the
offspring will be albino? The Punnett square method
tells us that the chances are 1 in 4 (25%).
Punnett square showing the inheritance of
albinism
heterozygous female (Aa)
heterozygous male (Aa)
A
P
1
P
2
a
A AA aA
a Aa aa
Fig 4.2.2
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Fig 4.2.3 Albinism is a genetic disorder caused
by a single recessive gene.
Blood groups
Do you know your blood group? You will probably
know only your ABO and Rh groupings. The Rh
system is controlled by two alleles, one dominant
over the other. A person may be homozygous or
heterozygous Rh positive, or homozygous Rh negative.
The ABO system involves three different alleles,
identified as I
A
, I
B
and I
O
.
I
A
and I
B
are codominant.
I
O
is recessive to both I
A
and I
B
.
Possible genotypes and phenotypes are shown in
the table.
Genotypes and phenotypes for the ABO blood grouping
Genotype I
A
I
A
I
A
I
O
I
A
I
B
I
B
I
B
I
B
I
O
I
O
I
O
Phenotype
A A AB B B O
(blood group)
Using this information we can determine the
possible blood groups of a child, given the blood
groups of the parents. Alternatively, if the blood
groups of mother and child are known, the possible
blood groups of the father may be determined.
Example: Consider the following cross:
mother with blood group A, and the genotype I
A
I
O
father with blood group B and the genotype I
B
I
O
.
Using a Punnett square we can
predict the possible genotypes and
phenotypes of their offspring.
The chances of each of the
possible blood groups of a child are:
25% of having blood type AB
25% of having blood type A
25% of having blood type B
25% of having blood type O.
Other types of human inheritance
While some of your characteristics were inherited in a
relatively simple way, the vast majority were not.
Eye colour
In white-skinned people, eye colour is to some extent
determined by a single gene. Brown eyes (allele B) are
dominant over blue eyes (allele b).
Genotypes BB and Bb therefore produce brown
eyes.
Blue-eyed people are homozygous, bb.
Green and grey are genetically considered to be
forms of blue. Hazel and black are forms of brown.
While the basic colour is determined by one pair of
alleles, other genes may modify the effects. At present,
three gene pairs are known to influence human eye
colour. The first gene, on chromosome 15, has a brown
and a blue allele. A second gene, on chromosome
19, has a blue and a green allele. A third gene, on
chromosome 15, is a brown eye colour gene.
Eye colour is inherited, with brown eyes
dominant over blue eyes. Fig 4.2.4
An often fatal
problem
Albinos appear in
almost every plant
and animal species.
In plants it is lethal
because the plant
cannot make food
without the pigment
chlorophyll. In animals
it is often fatal because
it makes the animal a
more obvious target for
predators. The animal
also has no protection
from the Suns
ultraviolet rays and is
more likely to get skin
cancer or eye damage.
I
A
I
O
I
B
I
A
I
B
I
B

I
O
I
O
I
A

I
O
I
O
I
O
P1
P2
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Fig 4.2.5 Identical twins have the same genotype.
Do they have the same phenotype?
Continuing on
Sharply defined characteristics
such as left- or right-handedness
are described as showing
discontinuous variation. The
opposite is continuous variation,
shown by characteristics such
as height or eye colour, where a
continuous
range of characteristics may occur.
People are not simply tall or short,
but show a wide range of heights.
Tall parents seem to produce
tall children. Height is partly
inherited, but probably under
the influence of several genes.
Environmental factors must also
play a part. For example,
an undernourished child
may not grow as tall as
genetically expected.
Nature or nurture?
Identical twins have the same
genotype. Do they always have
the same phenotype? Several
studies of identical twins
raised together and separately
have been conducted. The
IQ scores of identical twins
correlate more closely than
those of non-identical twins,
even when they are raised
apart. In one case, identical
twins raised separately both
developed schizophrenia
within two months of their
sixteenth birthday. How much
is inherited, and how much is
environmental?
Prac 1
p. 113
Studying human inheritance
Using pedigrees
Humans take a long time to breed, so we cannot
study human inheritance the way Mendel did with
his peas. To overcome this problem, pedigrees of
families are recorded and analysed, especially those
with rare characteristics. A pedigree is a pictorial
family tree where individuals who show a particular
disease or characteristic are marked on it. A little
detective work follows, to find patterns of inheritance.
The symbols used when drawing pedigrees are shown
in Figure 4.2.6.
Analysing pedigrees
Consider the pedigree shown in Figure 4.2.7,
which shows the inheritance of night blindness. In
generation III, the parents who partnered both had
night blindness, but they had a daughter (2) who was
not affected. This suggests that night blindness is a
dominant gene. If it was recessive the parents would
1 2 3
1 2 3
4 5
I
II
III
IV
Fig 4.2.7 This pedigree for night blindness shows a strange pairing.
Why are genetic disorders more likely in children born
from parents who are closely blood-related
(e.g brothers/sisters/cousins)?
Human inheritance Human inheritance
Bright sparks
Intelligence seems to be
partly inherited under the
influence of several genes.
Environmental influences
also affect intelligence.
There is a long and
ongoing debate about how
much of intelligence is
inherited (nature) and how
much develops (nurture).
offspring shown in birth
order from left to right
male
female
male with the
characteristic
non-identical twin girls
identical twin boys
generation I
mating of a female
and a male
generation II
1 2 3
deceased female
Fig 4.2.6 Symbols used when drawing
pedigrees
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have to be homozygous to show the disease, and all
their children would also show night blindness. The
generation III parents must have been heterozygous,
and by chance produced a daughter who was not
affected. This also shows that sometimes a dominant
gene can be less common in a community than a
recessive gene.
Now consider the pedigree in Figure 4.2.8. How
can we know whether the characteristic shown is
dominant or recessive? Look at generation II. An
unaffected male partners an unaffected female (1),
to produce an affected child. This indicates that the
characteristic is caused by a recessive gene and that
the generation II parents are both heterozygous.
1 2 3
I
II
III
Fig 4.2.8 Pedigree showing the inheritance of a
disease. Is it recessive or dominant?
Prac 2
p. 113
Worksheet 4.3 Pedigree analysis
Sex-linked inheritance
Figure 4.2.9 shows a pedigree for the disease
haemophilia, sometimes called the bleeders disease.
People with this disease have a defective gene and
as a result lack a particular blood-clotting chemical.
Without this chemical, even a simple wound can
cause severe bleeding. Untreated, the disease is almost
always fatal. Notice that in the pedigree all those
affected by the disease are male. To understand why,
we first need to understand what makes one person
male, and another female.
X and Y chromosomes
Look back at Figure 4.1.4, which
shows the chromosomes of a
human. In 22 of these chromosome
pairs, the members of each pair
are the same size and shape.
For pair number 23, however,
there is a distinct difference.
These are known as the X and Y
chromosomes. The X chromosome
carries many genes, the Y
chromosome carries few.
A male has the genotype XY.
A female has the genotype XX.
All ova contain an X
chromosome from the mother.
Sperm have either an X or a Y
chromosome from the father.
It is the type of sperm (X
or Y) from the father that
determines the sex of the
offspring.
1
1 2
2 3
I
II
III
Fig 4.2.9 Pedigree showing the inheritance of haemophilia.
Haemophilia and many other genetic diseases
affect far more males than females.
Boys or girls?
Since there are an equal
number of X- and Y-
carrying sperm, there
should be an equal number
of girls and boys born.
However, in most parts of
the world there are slightly
more boys than girls born.
Why is not clear, but it may
be that the sperm carrying
the Y chromosome are
lighter, and therefore they
are more likely to reach the
ovum first, to produce a
male. However, the balance
of males and females in the
population is later restored,
since the mortality rate
for boy babies and men is
slightly higher than for girl
babies and women.
Sex determination in humans
X
X X
X
Y
X X X
Y
Y
X
Zygote has genotype XX.
All ova contain an
X chromosome.
Sperm may
contain an
X or a Y
chromosome.
Y-bearing
sperm
MALE
Zygote has genotype XY.
X-bearing
sperm
FEMALE
Fig 4.2.10
110
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conditions and include colour blindness, some forms
of haemophilia and one form of muscular dystrophy.
These conditions are far more common in males than
females. For example, 8% of males are colour blind,
compared with only 1% of females.
Example: Consider again the pedigree for
haemophilia shown in Figure 4.2.9. Haemophilia is
a recessive X-linked disease. The genotypes can be
worked out by using
X
H
for a normal gene and
X
h
for a recessive gene for haemophilia
on an X chromosome.
All affected males have the genotype X
h
Y. In
generation II, the females 2 and 3 must have an X
h

gene inherited from their father. Since they are not
haemophiliacs they must have the genotype X
H
X
h
. In
generation II, male 1 must have inherited an X
h
gene
from his mother, and a Y from his father. Female 1 in
generation I must therefore have the genotype
X
H
X
h
. Females who have a hidden gene for
a disease are called carriers of the disease.
X-linked diseases
The Y chromosome is
small and carries very few
genes. The X chromosome
is longer and has many
genes on it. In males (XY)
many of the genes on the
X chromosomes do not have
a matching allele on the
Y chromosome. Therefore
a single gene on the
X chromosome, regardless
of whether it is recessive or
dominant, will control the
phenotype of the male.
More than 50
conditions caused by
recessive genes on the
X chromosome have been
identified. They are called
sex-linked or X-linked
A royal disease
The gene for haemophilia has
influenced history. Born in 1819,
Queen Victoria was an unknowing
carrier. She gave birth to four
boys and five girls, one son being
haemophiliac. Two daughters went
on to have haemophiliac sons and,
through marriage, introduced the
gene into the Russian and Spanish
royal families. The illness of one of
the Russian heirs, Alexis, set off a
chain of events that contributed to
the Russian revolution in 1917. The
Tsarina, mother of Alexis, thought
Rasputin had magical powers which
could cure Alexiss haemophilia.
Because of this, she allowed
Rasputin to influence Russias
foreign and domestic policies,
leading in part to the revolution.
Career profile
Medical laboratory technician Medical laboratory technicians carry out routine laboratory
tests and other procedures for use in the diagnosis and
treatment of diseases and disorders of the human body.
Medical laboratory technicians can be involved in:
setting up equipment used in the laboratory and
maintaining it in a clean condition
preparing and staining slides of micro-organisms for
examination
testing and analysing blood, tissue or other body
samples to determine blood types and composition,
and to identify diseases
analysing DNA samples to screen for diseases
communicating the results of tests to the medical
officers who have requested them.
A good medical laboratory technician will be able to:
work as part of a team with doctors, scientists and
laboratory assistants
work accurately and with minimal supervision
do repetitive work without losing concentration
keep accurate records and communicate well with others
apply scientific method to problems.
Fig 4.2.11 A medical laboratory technician
preparing DNA for analysis
Human inheritance Human inheritance
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Simple human inheritance
1 List three human conditions inherited through a single
gene.
2 Two normal parents produce a child with a recessive
genetic characteristic being expressed. Identify
whether the parents have homozygous or heterozygous
genotypes.
3 State the probability of a recessive characteristic being
expressed in the child of parents who are:
a both homozygous for that characteristic and are
themselves affected by it
b both heterozygous for that characteristic
Blood groups
4 Describe the type of inheritance involved when Rh
blood groupings are inherited.
5 Outline the type of inheritance for the ABO blood group
system.
6 List the alleles of the ABO system.
7 Identify the codominant ABO allele, and the recessive
allele of the ABO system.
Other types of human inheritance
8 State the number of gene pairs thought to influence
eye colour.
9 Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous
variation.
10 List the two influences on intelligence.
Studying human inheritance
11 Studying human inheritance is complex. Identify the
main method of gathering information.
12 Draw the symbols used in pedigrees for a female,
identical twin boys, non-identical twin girls, and parents.
Sex-linked inheritance
13 Modify the following statements to make them correct.
a The X chromosome is responsible for female
characteristics only.
b Males have the genotype XX.
c The Y chromosome carries more genetic coding than
the X chromosome.
d Sex-linked diseases occur because the Y
chromosome has fewer genes than the X.
e Diseases like haemophilia are inherited through males
in a family.
14 a Clarify what is meant by the term a carrier of the
disease haemophilia.
b Explain whether a male can be a carrier of
haemophilia.
Think
15 Listed here are some characteristics:
height, ability to roll the tongue, skin colour, blood group
a From the list, identify two examples of characteristics
that show discontinuous variation within a population.
b From the list, identify two examples of characteristics
that show continuous variation within a population.
16 Cystic fibrosis is a disease carried by a single recessive
gene. Two unaffected parents have a child who suffers
from the disease. Predict whether they will produce a
child without the disease.
17 For each of the blood group genotypes listed below,
identify the blood group phenotype.
a I
A
I
A
c I
A
I
B
e I
B
I
O
b I
A
I
O
d I
B
I
B
f I
O
I
O
18 An albino female and a non-albino male have two
children. One is non-albino, one is albino. Using the
letters A for the dominant gene and a for the recessive
gene, identify the genotypes of each of the children.
19 a If two albino people partner and produce a child,
predict whether the child will be albino.
b If an albino person partners a person heterozygous
for albinism, predict the chances of their children
being albino.
20 Explain why approximately half the human population
is female.
21 A genetic abnormality occurs where a person has the
genotype XXY. Would the person be male or female?
Justify your answer.
22 The ability to roll the tongue is a dominant characteristic.
Two people who cannot roll their tongue have four
children. Predict how many of these children would be
likely to be able to roll their tongue.
23 A child has blood group AB. The mother has blood
group A.
a Identify the possible blood group genotypes of the
father.
b Identify the possible blood groups of the father.
Analyse
24 Sperm are either male or female. Analyse this
statement, explaining whether the writer is correct,
incorrect, or a bit of both, and justifying your answer.
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26 Some people can roll their tongue into a U-shape.
Tongue rolling is controlled by a dominant gene (R) and a
recessive gene (r). A pedigree for tongue rolling is shown
in Figure 4.2.12. Identify the genotypes of each of these
individuals.
a I male (generation I male)
b II 1
c III 1
2 1
1 2
3 4
2 1 3
I
II
III
IV
Fig 4.2.12 Pedigree for tongue-rolling ability
Symbol Meaning
A Mating of a male and female
B Male with the inherited characteristic
C Identical twin boys
D Female without the inherited characteristic
E Deceased male
25 Identify the meaning that matches the pedigree symbol.
Skills
27 Construct a pedigree from the following information.
Jim and Jean are partners. They have four children: Scott,
James, Natasha and Alan. James has a partner, Kylie.
[
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Investigate
1 a Gather information about the pedigree of a
champion horse or show dog.
b Construct a pedigree for your chosen animal.
c Discuss the factors and outcomes that were
important when matings were chosen at each
stage of the pedigree.
2 a Research the genetics of human blood groups,
and the problems raised by blood transfusions.
b Present a case study on one problem that has
occurred with a transfusion, explaining why the
problem arose.
3 a Research some studies that have been conducted
concerning twins.
b Evaluate the evidence, summarising whether
heredity or environment is the major factor
responsible for patterns of inheritance.
They have two children: Susan and Alison. Susan has
a partner, Paul. They have three children: Anne, Emma
and Colin. James, Natasha, Susan and Anne are all
albino.
28 A man with blood group B and a woman with blood
group A produce a child. Predict the possible blood
groups of the child by constructing a Punnett square.
29 Colour blindness is an X-linked recessive condition.
The symbols used to show the relevant genes are
Xn for the recessive allele on the X chromosome and
XN for the normal gene on the X chromosome.
a Identify the genotypes of a non-colour-blind female,
a colour-blind female, a non-colour-blind male and a
colour-blind male.
b If a colour-blind female partners a non-colour-blind
male, predict the chances of:
i their daughters being colour blind
ii their sons being colour blind
30 Haemophilia is an X-linked recessive disease.
A heterozygous female does not show the disease.
Her genotype is X
H
X
h
.
a Identify the genotype of:
i a haemophiliac male
ii a non-haemophiliac male
b If the heterozygous female partners a non-
haemophiliac male, predict whether their sons will
be haemophiliacs.
Human inheritance Human inheritance
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Variation within a population
Prac 1
Unit 4.2
2 Survey 25 people of about the same age. For each
person, record their height (in cm) and the heights of
their parents.
3 On the same axes, plot graphs showing the heights
of the 25 people surveyed, and the heights of
their parents.
Questions
1 Based on your results explain whether there appears
to be any link between height and parental heights.
2 Do your results support the conclusion that height
shows continuous variation in a population? Justify
your answer.
Surf
4 Complete the following activities by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations button.
a Research a human genetic disease such as cystic
fibrosis or muscular dystrophy. Contact the relevant
society for information.
b Design a website or pamphlet explaining the cause,
occurrence and treatment of the disease.
5 Complete the activity on constructing pedigrees, and
give a PowerPoint presentation of your resulting
pedigree. The tutorial contains instructions on how to
do this.
Person Height Height of Height of
(cm) mother (cm) father (cm)
1
Aim To analyse continuous variation in humans
Equipment
25 people to survey (e.g. the students in your
class), graph paper
Method
1 Draw a table for your results.
Fig 4.2.13 Inherited features
Construct a pedigree
Aim To analyse your family and construct a
pedigree for different characteristics
Method
1 Figure 4.2.13 shows four pairs of human characteristics
that are inherited. Select one of these pairs. Survey as
many members of your family as possible (brothers, sisters,
parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts etc.) to determine
which characteristic of the chosen pair they have.
2 Construct a pedigree for the chosen characteristic for
your family.
Prac 2
Unit 4.2
Questions
1 Discuss whether your pedigree gives any information
about how the characteristic is inherited. For example,
does it appear to be a simple dominant/recessive
characteristic?
2 Discuss whether your findings agree with how the
characteristic is actually inherited. You may have to
conduct research to find out.
Widows peak or not?
Can roll the tongue
or not? Which thumb is on the top? Length of second toe?
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We have seen a little of how the genes on
chromosomes interact to produce certain
inherited characteristics. How does it all
work on a chemical or molecular level?
Genes are made of DNA. So how does the
DNA actually lead to the appearance of a
characteristic such as eye colour?
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The structure of DNA
Imagine getting a ladder and twisting it into a spiral.
Well, a twisted ladder is the same shape as a molecule
of DNA! The DNA molecule is called a double helix.
The uprights are made of a chain of alternating
sugar and phosphate units. The ladder rungs are pairs
of molecules containing nitrogen (called nitrogen
bases) which form cross-bridges.
There are four different nitrogen base molecules,
represented by the letters:
Aadenine
Tthymine
Ccytosine
Gguanine.
Because of their
chemical structure, each
base can pair only with
one other. The only
possible complementary
base pairs are:
A with T
C with G.
If one upright
of the ladder (one
strand of DNA) has
a base sequence of
ATTCGTC, the opposite strand would have the
complementary sequence, TAAGCAG. It is the
sequence of these bases along the length of the
DNA strands that is the basis of heredity.
A
A
T
A T
T A
T A
T
G C
C G
C G
sugarphosphate chain
base pair
phosphate unit
sugar unit
Fig 4.3.1 DNA structurethe lower part is shown
untwisted to illustrate the pairing of bases.
Khan you get a
free meal?
In 2004, Shish, a
restaurant in London in
the United Kingdom,
offered its customers
free DNA testing to
determine whether they
were descended from
the Mongol chief and
warrior Genghis Khan.
If found to be related,
you got a free meal!
Worksheet 4.4 Model DNA
Copying DNA
When a cell is undergoing mitosis, the DNA is
copied exactly in a process called replication. The
strands are first unzipped. An exact copy is then
made by matching each base with
its complementary base. Once a
section is copied, one old and one
new strand are zipped together to
produce the duplicate DNA.
Replication of DNA
2 new
DNA
strands
original
DNA
Fig 4.3.2
Prac 2
p. 119
Prac 1
p. 119
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The genetic code actually consists of sets of three
bases, called codons. Each set of three bases codes for
a particular amino acid.
For example, the base sequence CGG codes for the
amino acid alanine, TTT for lysine, CAA for valine,
and so on. Most of the 64 different codons code for
the 20 different amino acids. A small number code for
stop and start type instructions. The order of the
codons on a length of DNA spells out the order of the
amino acids on a length of protein. The code appears
to be universal. The same codon almost always
specifies the same amino acid in all organisms.
The genetic code
A gene consists of a segment of DNA with a sequence
of up to 1000 bases. The difference between one gene
and another is the order of bases. The base order forms
the genetic code. This code describes the type and
sequence of amino acids that cells use to make protein
molecules. Proteins are polymers made up of small
units called amino acids, joined together like beads on
a string. There are 20 different amino acids that join
together in different combinations to create thousands
of different proteins.
T
T
C
C
G
G
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
T
T
T
C
C
C
G
T
G
nucleus
Proteins act alone or in complexes
to perform many cellular functions
Genes contain
instructions for
making proteins
proteins
DNA
genes
chromosomes
cell
Each cell: 46 human chromosomes
2 metres of DNA
3 billion DNA subunits
(A, T, C, G)
Approximately 32 000 genes
code for proteins that
perform life functions
Fig 4.3.3 Proteins determine characteristics by controlling cellular functions.
The monkey in me
The universal nature of the genetic
code strongly supports the idea that
all living things are related to each
other, and have evolved from common
ancestors. Comparisons of DNA
are used to provide evidence of the
relatedness of different species. The
genetic make-up of a chimpanzee is
98.5% identical to that of a human.
protein
strand
alanine lysine valine
Amino acids make up a protein.
DNA strand
C G G T T T C A A
3 bases form a codon
Fig 4.3.4 Using the genetic codeeach codon on a DNA strand codes for an amino acid.
Amino acids are joined together to form a protein strand.
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Determining characteristics
It is proteins that actually determine characteristics such
as eye colour. Most proteins are enzymes that control
chemical activities in the cell, and therefore affect the
nature of the cell. The normal functioning of organisms
is the result of hundreds of chemical reactions
catalysed by hundreds of enzymes. In this way, many
characteristics are influenced by many genes.
Consider the following example involving skin
pigments. Tyrosine is a colourless amino acid but
in the presence of an enzyme called tyrosinase, it is
converted to melanin, a dark-coloured pigment. If the
gene for the production of tyrosinase is missing or
defective, the enzyme is not made, so tyrosine is not
converted to melanin. Without melanin there is no
pigment, and albinism results.
melanin
a dark-coloured pigment
A gene codes for
production of the
enzyme tyrosinase.
Tyrosinase
catalyses
a reaction.
section
of DNA
tyrosine
a colourless amino acid
Fig 4.3.5 From genes to characteristics. If a gene defect
occurs, tyrosinase is not produced. Therefore
melanin is not produced, resulting in albinism.
Gene expression
Each cell contains the same type and quantity of DNA
with the same code. Why then does a cell grow into
a muscle, nerve or blood cell? Why do some cells
produce chemicals such as insulin while others do not?
Gene expression refers to the appearance in the
organism of the characteristic that the gene codes for.
Genes contain information about where and when the
gene is to act. As the body develops, certain genes are
switched on or off. For example, in animals the gene
for haemoglobin production is switched off in nervous
tissue. This switching may be done by chemicals
within the cell, but the exact mechanism is not
fully understood. Sometimes this mechanism is also
affected by environmental factors.
Mutations
What happens if there is an accident in the copying of
the DNA strands during replication? Suppose one base
was substituted for anotherwould it matter? Such
accidents do occur, although they are reduced by the
action of enzymes that correct copying mistakes.
A mutation is any spontaneous change in a gene
or chromosome that may produce an alteration in the
related characteristic.
Mutations that occur in non-sex cells (normal body
cells) may affect the organism, but these mutations
will not be inherited. Only those mutations occurring
in gametes, or the cell that forms when they join, will
be inherited.
Mutagens
The rate of gene mutation is low, but as each
individual has a large number of genes, mutations
constantly occur within a species. The rate is
increased by exposure to mutagens (mutation-causing
agents). These include X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet
light and a range of chemicals such as benzene.
Single-gene mutations
Mutations may involve only one gene, with a section
of DNA being incorrectly copied. The disease sickle
cell anaemia results from such a single-gene mutation.
As a result of the altered gene, the protein making
up the haemoglobin in red blood cells of people with
this disease has one altered amino acid. This results
in distorted haemoglobin, and red blood cells shaped
like a sickle. These distorted cells may form clumps
and clog small arteries. Victims of the disease usually
die young.
Normal disc-shaped red blood cells and distorted
red blood cells that result from a single-gene
mutation, causing sickle-cell anaemia Fig 4.3.6
The molecule of life The molecule of life
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Whole-chromosome
mutations
Parts of chromosomes may break off and
rejoin, or whole chromosomes may be
lost or added. Sometimes during meiosis,
a pair of homologous chromosomes fails
to separate. The gamete then has an extra
chromosome. The cell resulting from
gamete fusion will have three chromosomes
instead of a pair. Many such changes result
in spontaneous natural abortion long before
birth. One that is not always fatal is Tri-21
(Down syndrome), where the individual has
an extra chromosome number twenty-one.
Chromosomes of a person with Tri-21 Fig 4.3.7
Helpful mutations?
Generally mutations cause more
damage than improvement. However,
sometimes a mutation may prove
beneficial. The Granny Smith apple
was the result of mutation in an apple
tree in a Sydney backyard. Breeders
of various species use mutations to
develop new and improved varieties
of organisms, including dogs, cats,
horses, sheep and crop plants.
Mutations are responsible for
much of the genetic variation we
see today. Maybe all humans had
brown eyes until a blue mutant gene
appeared!
Mutant bacteria
A mutation that produces drug
resistance in bacteria may occur
in one in every 1 000 000 000 cell
divisions. This seems to be of little
concern until we realise that a colony
of only 10 bacteria dividing every 20
minutes will carry out this number
of divisions in around 45 hours.
If the colony was treated with an
antibiotic such as penicillin, almost
all the bacteria would die. Only those
few carrying the mutated, resistant
gene would survive. These would in
turn produce an entire generation of
penicillin-resistant bacteria.
Fig 4.3.8 The Granny Smith is a mutant apple.
4 State how one DNA segment differs from another.
Copying DNA
5 Define replication.
6 Explain why DNA must replicate.
7 Use a diagram to demonstrate the replication of DNA.
The genetic code
8 Outline how one protein differs from another.
Checkpoint
The structure of DNA
1 List the three chemicals that make up the structure of
DNA.
2 Identify what the letters A, T, C and G in a DNA base
sequence stand for.
3 Outline what is meant by complementary bases in
the structure of DNA.
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[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 The 1962 Nobel Prize for medicine was shared by
J. Watson, M. Wilkins and F. Crick for their work in
creating a model of DNA. Write a short biography of
each of these scientists, outlining their contributions
to our understanding of genetics.
2 Research the contribution made by Rosalind Franklin
to the discovery of the model of DNA. Write a short
biography, including the difficulties she encountered
as a female in a male-dominated field.
3 Research human genetic abnormalities that involve
having the wrong number of chromosomes. Write
a report on the types, symptoms, occurrence and
treatment of the abnormalities for one disease.
9 Clarify what is meant by a codon.
10 Use a diagram to demonstrate how DNA is a code for
constructing a protein.
Gene expression
11 Explain what is meant by gene expression.
Mutations
12 Clarify what is meant by a mutation.
13 List three mutagens.
14 Disease can be due to mutations involving one gene
only. State an example.
15 State the name of a disease that is caused by
mutation of a whole chromosome.
Think
16 The following base sequence is part of a gene that
codes for a protein: CGGATAAGCTA
Identify the complementary DNA base sequence.
17 Calculate the minimum number of bases a section
of DNA would need to code for a protein that has
200 amino acids.
18 Mutations are usually harmful. Describe an example
of a beneficial mutation.
19 Explain why mutations in a body cell are unimportant
to the species as a whole.
20 Discuss the large-scale use of antibiotic drugs
used to treat bacterial infections. Could they lead to
untreatable infections in the future?
Analyse
21 Use information from Figure 4.3.5 and your
knowledge of mutations to predict an effect on skin
appearance from excessive exposure to UV radiation
from the Sun.
22 Figure 4.3.7 shows the genes of a person with Down
syndrome.
a Identify the abnormality on the gene map.
b Identify the sex of the individual.
Skills
23 a Draw a diagram to demonstrate a simplified DNA
molecule as shown in Figure 4.3.1 but change the
base sequence.
b Add a genetic mutation to the genetic code
in your DNA drawing and predict a possible
outcome of this mutation.
4 Research gene switching and gene expression.
You could start by considering the work of F. Jacob,
J. Monod and H. Harris. Summarise your findings
using a time line.
5 Research mutagens and use one example to
summarise your findings while answering the following
questions.
What are they?
Can we avoid them?
Do regulations exist to limit our exposure to
mutagens?
Surf
6 Complete the activity on DNA replication
by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations button.
Record your results using a diagram of the model you
constructed in the interactive program.
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Modelling DNA
Prac 1
Unit 4.3
2 Your model should show all the basic features of
DNA, and be able to demonstrate the process
of replication.
1 Construct a model of DNA. You might use
cardboard for the uprights and coloured
paperclips for complementary bases.
You might use construction blocks or
polystyrene pieces. Liquorice, jelly beans and
skewers make a very tasty model! Use your
imagination!
DYO
Extracting DNA
Aim To extract a DNA sample from wheatgerm
Equipment
250 mL beaker, 15 mL test tube, test tube rack,
measuring cylinders (10 mL and 100 mL), meat
tenderiser, non-roasted fresh wheatgerm,
ice-cold 95% ethanol, thermometer, stirring rod,
dishwashing detergent, water bath, compound
microscope
Method
Note: To get good strands of DNA it is essential to be very
gentle while stirring!
1 Add 100 mL of water to a beaker and warm to 5060C
in a water bath.
2 Add one heaped tablespoon (6 grams) of wheatgerm
and mix.
3 Add 3 mL of detergent to break down the cell
membranes of the wheatgerm. Maintain the temperature
at 5060C and stir for 5 minutes. Be careful not to form
froth or scrape the sides of the beaker.
4 Add one level teaspoon (3 grams) of meat tenderiser.
5 Maintain the temperature at 5060C and stir for
10 minutes.
6 Remove the beaker from the water bath, and transfer
some of your solution from the beaker to fill one-third
of a test tube.
7 Allow the test tube to cool to room temperature.
Prac 2
Unit 4.3
8 The DNA is still dissolved in solution. Pour 6 mL of
ice-cold ethanol down the side of the test tube into
your solution to form a layer. The DNA will precipitate
into the alcohol.
9 Let the mixture stand until it stops bubbling (2 or 3
minutes).
10 The DNA will float in the alcohol. Swirl a glass stirring
rod at the junction between the layers to see strands
of DNA.
11 Drag some DNA strands out of the test tube and view
under a microscope.
Results
You can expect three basic results from your DNA
extraction. The actual result will depend on how careful
you have been:
No DNA. Something went wrongrevise your
method.
Fluffy-looking DNA. This means that it has been
broken into many small pieces during extraction.
Usually caused by rough stirring.
Thin threads of DNA. Perfect.
Extension
Try extracting DNA from another plant such as
strawberries.
Questions
1 Describe your DNA after extraction.
2 Explain why each of the following chemicals was
added during the process:
a detergent
b alcohol
3 Deduce what factors affected your success in
extracting DNA.
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Is it possible to change your inheritance?
How would you like to have gills to breathe
underwater, or the feathers of a bird?
This may sound extreme, but the idea of
controlling inherited characteristics is not
new. For thousands of years farmers have
selectively bred plants and animals with desirable
characteristics. Recent scientific research has
increased the precision and control with which
we can select characteristics. Genes from animals
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have already been placed into plants, and genes from
humans have been placed in bacteria. Parents can
select the sex of their child. Who knows what else
may be possible in the future!
Selective breeding
Selective breeding takes place all the time and is
a simple process. Merino sheep produce more and
better-quality wool than the breeds from which they
were originally bred. Australian wheat was once
attacked by a fungal rust disease. Resistance and good
yield were gained when wild rust-resistant relatives
of wheat were crossed with wheat plants that produce
lots of seed.
Fig 4.4.1 Reality or fantasy? A square tomato would
allow easier stacking and slicing.
Keeping the seeds from only the best plants for
next years crop is a simple example of selective
breeding. Other examples include selecting a male and
a female with the right mix of desirable characteristics
to produce tomatoes that stay ripe longer, dairy cattle
with more milk, beef cattle with more meat, or rice
that produces more seeds.
Sometimes variation is produced by deliberately
introducing mutations into a population, then
selecting those individuals with desirable
characteristics. For instance, nectarines are a mutant
form of peach.
Genetic engineering
Why use gene technology?
Increased research into inheritance and DNA has
allowed selective breeding to be carried out in a much
more precise and efficient way. Genetic engineering
Nectarines are a mutant form of peach. Fig 4.4.2
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uses gene technology to manipulate the DNA within
an organism. Gene technology allows us to:
1 Isolate a gene
2 Alter the gene
3 Copy the gene and
4 Reinsert the gene into another organism, or into a
new position on the DNA of the same organism.
The use of gene technology has helped to develop:
larger harvests
plants with greater disease resistance
crops with improved storage and handling
properties
fruit and vegetables that last longer and taste better.
Organisms that have had their gene sequence
altered are called genetically modified (GM) plants or
animals.
Genetically modified cotton contains an inserted
gene. This insertion produces a protein that kills the
Heliothis caterpillar when it eats the cotton leaves.
The inserted gene comes from a naturally occurring
bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensils, or Bt. The modified
cotton is called Bt cotton. Australians currently use a
number of products from genetically modified crops
in their foods. These include canola oil, soy beans in
some soy-based products and potatoes in processed
snack foods.
Genetic modification may have other benefits
such as:
producing plants that can reverse the effects of
salinity
Fig 4.4.3 You may already be eating some genetically
modified foods.
creating bio-fuel bacteria that can produce energy
producing bacteria that can clean up oil spills and
process industrial waste
helping to eliminate genetic diseases.
Some GM foodpotatoes, corn, wheat
and soy beans Fig 4.4.4
Manipulating genes
Scientists have known how to manipulate genes
since the early 1970s. Gene technology uses naturally
occurring enzymes that either cut DNA or join it
back together. The enzymes recognise particular base
sequences, and cut the DNA near these sequences.
Scientists can use different enzymes to cut and join
DNA in much the same way as a film editor cuts
and splices lengths of film to make a movie. DNA
segments may be inserted into bacteria, which then
act like factories to copy the segments.
Using bacteria
DNA segments are not directly inserted into bacteria.
Circular pieces of DNA called plasmids are used.
These occur naturally in bacterial cells. A plasmid is
cut open using an enzyme, the foreign DNA inserted,
and the plasmid rejoined. This creates a mixed
molecule called recombinant DNA.
Altered plasmids may be put into bacteria, and
the bacteria cultured to provide many copies of
the introduced DNA. The bacteria will obey the
instructions of the inserted DNA and manufacture
the protein it codes for. Nearly all the insulin used by
diabetics in Australia is now made by this method.
Other substances produced using this technology
include human growth hormone, some antibiotics,
and vaccines against diseases such as hepatitis B.
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Transgenics
Inserting modified genes into plant and animal cells
is also possible. In animals the gene is inserted into
the single-celled embryo from which all the animals
cells will develop. In plants, the gene may be shot
into host cells using a miniature gun. The chance
of the inserted gene becoming permanently fixed
into chromosomes is very low. Many cells are
therefore exposed, and the successful ones isolated.
Some arguments against gene technology
Genetic modification is not natural. Interfering with
a highly evolved and delicate system may upset it in
unpredictable ways.
GM plants with inbuilt pesticides may kill insects that are
not pests.
Pests will, in time, develop resistance to the inbuilt
pesticides in GM plants.
GM herbicide-resistant plants may transfer their resistance
to other plants, creating superweeds.
GM herbicide-resistant plants may encourage the
excessive use of herbicides.
GM crops will not necessarily solve the worlds food
problems. Food shortages have more to do with
economics and politics than with agriculture.
Multinational companies own the rights to most GM
plants. Farmers will incur costs to use the modified plants.
Some religious groups have specific arguments against
the use of GM foods.
Some arguments for gene technology
Gene technology is faster and more efficient than
conventional selective breeding techniques.
Food production will be increased due to better disease
and drought resistance in plants.
Animals will produce leaner meat, thicker wool and have
increased productivity.
GM foods may be more nutritious, cheaper and keep
better than conventional foods.
GM crops with pest resistance will reduce the use of
harmful chemical pesticides.
GM crops may be produced that tolerate poor soils and
salinity, allowing more areas to be farmed.
Gene technology can be used to locate and study genes
causing human disease, and genes that predispose
people to other diseases.
Gene technology can be used to create new, improved
medical treatments, such as insulin.
The plant or animal with the new gene is called
transgenic.
Are there risks?
All new technologies have benefits and risks. Gene
technology is no exception. There are many issues
surrounding the use of gene technology, as people weigh
the potential benefits against the potential risks. Listed
below are some of these issues. Can you think of others?
Controlling inheritance Controlling inheritance
7. Bacterial cells grow and divide to produce
many copies of the introduced gene.
1. Plasmids are removed
from a bacterium.
2. Plasmids are cut
using an enzyme.
3. DNA is removed
from a human cell.
4. DNA is cut using
an enzyme to isolate
a gene.
5. Human gene is inserted into the
plasmid to form recombinant DNA.
6. The recombinant DNA
is put into a bacterium.
Fig 4.4.5 Gene technology using recombinant DNA
Who owns your
genes?
The use of gene technology
has paved the way for the
patenting, marketing and
sale of genetic materials and
techniques. Biotechnology
firms patent the data of gene
sequences, together with a
use for that data. For example,
a firm might patent a gene
it hopes to use to produce
a drug to overcome obesity.
There is considerable debate
surrounding these patents.
Some argue that they are
necessary to support the
costly research needed to
produce new drugs. Others
argue that patents inhibit
research by giving one firm
exclusive rights to a gene, and
that monopolies may control
genetic remedies.
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Further uses of gene technology
Prenatal testing
Prenatal testing involves identifying genetic defects
or diseases before a baby is born. Prenatal testing is
carried out using gene probes. A gene probe is a small
piece of DNA with a base sequence identical to part of
a gene. This means that a probe can stick to a specific
gene. Probes are made that recognise the base sequences
of genes associated with diseases. DNA samples from
embryos can be tested with probes to determine whether
a disease like sickle-cell or cystic fibrosis is present.
Prenatal testing is usually carried out in the
first 8 to 12 weeks of pregnancy. Cells to be tested
are obtained by amniocentesis or chorionic villus
sampling. These techniques, shown in Figure 4.4.6,
involve inserting a needle into the uterus to obtain
cells that fall off the foetus during its normal
development. Cells are also tested for the type of sex
chromosomes and counted to identify chromosome
abnormalities (such as Down syndrome). Testing for
certain enzymes is also carried out to give further
clues to the presence of genetic disorders.
If a disease is detected then the pregnant parents
undergo genetic counselling to see what action they
can take in regards to the disease.
Forensic analysis
Gene probes are also used in DNA fingerprinting
in criminal cases to identify the parents of children
in disputes. DNA fingerprinting relies on the fact
that each person has a unique sequence of bases in
their DNA (identical twins are an exception). The
fingerprinting process is explained in the
Science focus section on page 128.
Cloning
In 1997, a lamb born in Scotland
captured the worlds attention. The lamb,
called Dolly, was genetically identical to
its mother, and was the first successful
clone of an adult mammal. Cloning refers
to the production of an organism from a
single cell. Each body cell contains all
the information needed to make a new
organism. A clone results when one of
these body cells is grown to produce a
new individual.
In May 2000, Australias first cloned
merino sheep (Matilda) and first cloned
calf (Suzi) were born. They were
produced using techniques similar to
those used to produce Dolly.
7. Test for XY
chromosome.
cells which
fall off the
foetus
amniotic
cavity
a fluid-filled
region
around
the foetus.
2. Fluid is
centrifuged
to separate
cells.
3. Cells are isolated
and grown in a
culture.
4. Test for genetic
diseases using
gene probes.
5. Test for
enzymes.
6. Test for abnormal
number of
chromosomes.
1. Fluid is removed
through the mothers
abdomen.
wall of
uterus
placenta
Fig 4.4.6 Prenatal testing by amniocentesis. Cells for testing may
also be obtained from the placenta in a process called
chorionic villus sampling.
To clone a sheep, a cell from a donor
sheep is obtained. An egg cell from
another sheep is also obtained, and the
DNA is removed from the egg cell. The
egg cell and the donor cell are fused to
Woolly flocks
Why are scientists so
excited by the cloning
of Matilda and Suzi?
The technology used
to produce them could
help Australias wool
and dairy industries.
It takes many years of
selective breeding to
develop a flock of sheep
with improved qualities
such as finer wool and
good disease resistance.
Given one sheep with the
desired qualities, cloning
could produce that flock
in a single generation!
Matilda, the first cloned sheep in
Australia, was born in April 2000 but died
of unknown causes in February 2003.
Fig 4.4.7
124
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create a single cell, the first cell of the new sheep. The
fused cell grows as a normal embryo. The embryo is
grown for several days in a glass dish, then implanted
into a host ewe to develop and be born in the usual
way.
Cloning Matilda
Matilda is born.
cell from the
donor sheep
egg cell from
another sheep
DNA removed
egg cell without
DNA
two cells
fused
together
Embryo is grown
for several days in
a glass dish.
Embryo is implanted
into a host ewe.
Fig 4.4.8
Fig 4.4.9 Removing DNA from a sheep egg during cloning
Therapeutic cloning involves taking cells from a
person, extracting the DNA, and cloning the cells by
inserting the DNA into an egg. The egg grows and after
a few days the stem cells are removed from the egg.
These stem cells are special as they can grow into any
type of cell in the body given the right conditions. The
cells can then be placed back into the person the DNA
came from in order to achieve a desirable outcome.
These cells will not be rejected by the body since
the cells have the same DNA as the original donor.
Maybe we will be able to grow whole organs for
transplant this way!
Worksheet 4.5 Human cloning
Controlling inheritance Controlling inheritance
Therapeutic cloning
Therapeutic cloning can be used to repair injuries by
placing new nerve cells into a damaged spinal cord,
growing skin for burns victims, or growing muscle
cells to repair damage after a heart attack.
Fertilised
eqq
Alter 5-7 days
the eqq qrows
into a blastocyst
nner stem cells
are collected
lrom blastocyst
Muscle cells Skin cells herve cells
Stem cells are
laced in
qrowth mediums
healthy normal
cell taken
BhA ol cell translerred
into an eqq
Transorted
back
without
rejection
Fatient
Fig 4.4.10 Therapeutic cloning may also be used to cure
many diseases in the future.
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Gene cell therapy
Another future prospect is the use of gene cell
therapy. This involves removing the genetic material
from some body cells, manipulating it and reinserting
it into the person.
Gene cell therapy could be used to overcome
diseases such as cancer, by fixing the cancer-causing
mutation. More controversial is the use of gene
technology to alter the DNA passed from parent to
child, with a view to overcoming diseases such as
haemophilia, or even just to select eye colour.
Managing the risks
Cloning and gene cell therapy clearly offer benefits,
but they are not without risks. Can you think of some
of these risks, and of ethical questions raised by the
possibility of altering or selecting the genetic material
of a child? In Australia, the Genetic Manipulation
and Advisory Committee currently reviews all
experimental and commercial uses of genetically
modified organisms.
The human genome
Gene technology relies to some degree on knowing
where specific genes are. A genetic map shows the
positions of specific genes along the chromosomes.
Maps have been worked out for many organisms,
including bacteria, fruit flies, some fungi and corn.
The Human Genome Project was an international
effort to determine the complete genetic code for
humans. It identifies every gene that codes for each
characteristic, as well as the base pairs that make
up the genes. The mapping stage of the project was
completed in 2003.
Some findings of the project were
that much of the genetic code that
makes each person unique is in fact
99.9% the same for all people. Only
6% of the DNA actually codes for
genes; the rest is termed junk DNA.
The map contains 32 000 genes, far
fewer than the expected 100 000. The
code specifies 26 000 proteins, but
how these proteins all function and
interact is unknown. There is still
a great deal to be learned. Armed
with the map, many trials are now
under way to attempt to use gene
technology to cure diseases ranging
from haemophilia to cancer.
Living longer
Francis Collins, head
of the Human Genome
Project, said that by 2030
the genes involved in the
ageing process will be fully
catalogued. By 2040 gene
therapy and gene-based
designer drugs will be
available for most diseases,
and the average human
lifespan will then be
90 years.
Career profile
Geneticist
A geneticist studies how biological traits pass from one
generation to the next. They also determine how the
environment contributes to the transmission of inherited
traits. Geneticists may also alter or produce new traits in a
species.
Geneticists can be involved in:
studying the genetic, chemical, physical and structural
composition of cells, tissues and organisms
determining the influence of the environment on
genetic processes in animals (including humans),
plants and other organisms
studying organisms in controlled environments to
gain an understanding of their survival and growth in
real environments
applying the findings of research to maximise the
long-term economic, social and environmental return
from living resources
writing scientific reports on research
diagnosing or calculating the risk of passing on
genetic diseases in humans, and advising parents on
these risks.
A good geneticist will:
enjoy and have an aptitude for science and
research
be able to think logically and analytically and carry
out detailed and accurate work
have good communication skills
maintain accurate records
be able to work as part of a team, in both the field
and the laboratory.
Fig 4.4.11 A geneticist and an agricultural scientist
examine transgenic sheep designed to
produce more milk and more wool.
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Questions
]
Checkpoint
Selective breeding
1 Describe two examples of selective breeding.
2 List two advantages of selective breeding.
Genetic engineering
3 Define the term genetic engineering.
4 State two examples of how gene technology has been
used to benefit humans.
5 a Clarify what is meant by a genetically modified plant.
b Clarify what is meant by a transgenic animal.
6 a Use a diagram to demonstrate what is meant by a
plasmid.
b State where plasmids are found.
c Outline how plasmids are used in gene technology.
7 Describe what is meant by recombinant DNA.
Further uses of gene technology
8 Explain what is meant by a gene probe.
9 Outline two uses of gene probes.
10 List three characteristics of an embryo that may be
determined by prenatal testing.
11 Outline how the cells used in prenatal testing are
obtained.
12 Distinguish between cloning and therapeutic cloning.
13 Clarify what is meant by gene cell therapy.
14 List two possible uses of gene cell therapy.
The human genome
15 Outline what is meant by the human genome.
16 Describe two features of the genome discovered by the
Human Genome Project.
Think
17 Bt cotton produces a protein that kills its major pest,
the Heliothis caterpillar. Predict two ways in which
other organisms might be affected by the modified
cotton.
18 Scientists have suggested that, within five years, pet
lovers may be able to clone their dog or cat.
a Outline what is meant by cloning.
b Would a cloned cat or dog have all the
characteristics of the original animal? Justify your
answer.
19 Imagine that a persons genetic code was mapped and
a gene predisposing that person to heart disease was
identified.
a Explain how the person might use this information.
b Predict how an insurance company or a prospective
employer might use this information.
Analyse
20 Figure 4.4.5 shows a section of DNA being inserted into
a plasmid. Do you consider this procedure beneficial to
humans? Justify your answer.
21 Discuss whether the procedure shown in Figure 4.4.6
is ethical.
22 Evaluate the arguments for and against genetic
engineering presented in this unit to decide whether it
should continue to be investigated.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 It has been suggested that extinct animals could be
re-created using preserved DNA and cloning.
a Research efforts to conduct such a project.
b Present a report of your findings, including
arguments for and against the re-creation.
2 Research the use of DNA fingerprinting in criminal
cases or in cases involving disputes over who is the
father of a particular child.
a Present the findings of one example illustrating
the DNA fingerprinting.
b Discuss whether the findings are foolproof.
3 Research arguments for and against the use of
prenatal testing and early abortion for family planning.
Organise a class debate on the issue.
4 Stem cells can theoretically turn into any of the many
cell types that make up your body.
a Research why stem cells are of great interest to
scientists, and why their use is controversial.
b Write a newspaper article aimed at informing the
public about this issue.
Controlling inheritance Controlling inheritance
127
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Creative writing
How do you see it?
1 A genetically modified soybean that can tolerate
a commonly used weedkiller has been produced.
Using this soybean would allow farmers to spray
to kill weeds without killing the soybean crop. It is
proposed that this soybean be planted in Australia.
Write a letter to the newspaper explaining why
you think the planting should be allowed. Write a
second letter explaining why you think it should
not be allowed.
2 Suppose an experiment is being conducted to
genetically modify cows milk so that it has a
composition more like that of human breast milk.
To achieve this, a single human gene is to be
inserted into the DNA of a cows zygote (the first
cell of a new cow). Imagine you are the human
gene. Describe what happens to you during the
course of the experiment, and explain how you feel
about being used in this way.
Surf
Complete the following activities about
genetics by connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations
button.
5 Research the Human Genome Project and summarise
your information under the following headings:
What is it?
Goals
Progress
History
Benefits
Ethical issues
6 Imagine that a multinational company owns the patent
on a genetically modified variety of wheat that is high
yielding and drought tolerant.
a Research ways in which this patent could affect an
Australian wheat farmer.
b Outline the main issues in a letter written to the
farmers local Member of Parliament.
7 Complete the electrophoresis experiment online to
separate your own samples of DNA.
128
Science focus: Biotechnology
and DNA fingerprinting
Prescribed focus area: Current issues in research
and development
What is biotechnology?
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and
the substances produced by them or biological
techniques developed through basic research.
Biotechnology products include antibiotics, insulin,
interferon, recombinant DNA, and technologies
such as waste recycling, bio-batteries and DNA
fingerprinting.
Humans have already exploited biotechnologies
in many ways, such as selectively breeding plants
and animals and extracting chemicals from animals
and plants to make medicines, glues, health products
and fibres. With our ability to manipulate genes and
determine the genetic code of any organism, many
new biotechnologies are using the manipulation of
DNA and particular genes.
Biotechnology and crime
Forensic scientists have always sought a universal
identifier that could be used to accurately identify
the perpetrator of a crime. Fingerprints were
originally thought to have provided the answer but
criminals soon learned to wear gloves or to make
sure they wiped clean any surface they touched
while committing the crime. The discovery of the
genetic code as a base-pair sequence within the
DNA molecule made it obvious that within the cells
of each person was a unique genetic code. This
code represents a universal identifier that cannot
simply be wiped away. A person can leave DNA on
anything they touch, by losing a hair or even dead
skin cells.
Developing biotechnology
There are a few key biotechnologies that are used in
the DNA fingerprinting process.
Restriction enzymes
Restriction enzymes are protein molecules that can
bind to a particular sequence of base pairs in a DNA
molecule and then cut the DNA into sections.
Electrophoresis
After cutting the DNA molecule into smaller pieces,
scientists need to be able to separate these pieces
of DNA for analysis. The process for separating
DNA is called electrophoresis and is similar to
chromatography. The DNA samples are placed in a
gel, and an electric current is applied. The current
makes the pieces of DNA move, with larger pieces
moving more slowly through the gel, and smaller
pieces moving faster. Pieces of DNA separate across
the gel according to their size.
Fig SF 4.1 A fingerprint can easily be wiped away from
a crime scene, but DNA cannot.
129
Gene probes
There is a huge amount of DNA in a human cell
and much of this genetic material is very similar in
different people. To use DNA for solving crimes it is
necessary to find sections of the DNA that represent
genes that produce different but comparable results for
different people. For example, the gene for a physical
trait such as hair or eye colour can be used for this.
Once these genes are identified, a way to mark
them while analysing DNA is needed. This is where
a gene probe is used. A gene probe is a small piece
of DNA with a base sequence identical to part of a
gene, which enables it to stick to a specific gene. By
attaching a radioactive atom (radioisotope) to the gene
probe, the radiation released from the sample can
be analysed to determine where the gene probe has
become attached.
Gene probes that attach to the sections of DNA
required for analysis have finally enabled forensic
scientists to use the information provided by DNA
evidence.
PCR
Only very small amounts of DNA are now needed
to conduct DNA fingerprinting. The DNA required
for the process can even be obtained from a corpse
or sample where the DNA may have started to break
down. Where only a very small amount of DNA is
available for analysis, a technique called polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) is used. This technique uses
enzymes to copy the DNA sample many times,
producing much more of the DNA collected. When
enough DNA has been produced, the sample can
undergo DNA fingerprinting.
DNA fingerprinting
Crime scene investigation
The process of DNA fingerprinting is outlined
in Figure SF4.4. DNA fingerprinting produces
a barcode-type result that is unique to each
individual. By comparing the DNA found at a crime
scene with that of a suspect, the perpetrator of a
crime can be identified.
Fig SF 4.3 DNA fingerprints on X-ray film
Fig SF 4.2
This technician is placing DNA samples into
the wells at the end of the electrophoresis
gel ready for separation. The result will be a
DNA fingerprint.
<Fig SF4.2> <Photo of electro-
phoresis set up, SPL G210/216>
130
1 DNA is extracted from blood or a cell sample.
DNA fingerprint on X-ray film
7 The radioactive DNA pattern is transferred
to X-ray film, giving the DNA fingerprint.
6 The excess probe material is washed away,
leaving a unique pattern.
5 A radioactive DNA probe is added that binds
to specific sequences in the DNA bonds.
4 DNA band pattern in the gel is transferred
to a nylon membrane.
3 Pieces of DNA are separated in a gel using
electric current. This process is called
electrophoresis and is very similar to
chromotography. Small DNA pieces move
faster and further than larger ones.
2 DNA is cut into fragments using enzymes.
DNA sample
power
supply
DNA samples move and
separate in electric current
gel
nylon
radioactive probe
agarose
gel
DNA samples
placed in wells
in the gel
conducting
solution
Fig SF 4.4 The process of DNA fingerprinting
131
Paternity disputes
DNA fingerprinting is also finding roles in other
applications and has become a tool in legal cases
where the identity of a childs parents might be in
doubt. Figure SF4.6 shows the results for two men
Possible
father 1
Possible
father 2
Fig SF 4.6 Who is the father?
[
Student activities
]
1 Some in the community have expressed concern
that the increasing use of human DNA and genetic
information could lead to an invasion of privacy
and that the information obtained by screening a
persons DNA might then be used for the wrong
reasons.
a Discuss this issue with classmates and
propose the advantages and disadvantages that
screening of each persons DNA could have for
society.
b Evaluate this information and make a judgement
as to whether the collection of DNA-related
information should be allowed in the future, and if
so, under what conditions.
2 a Gather information about how one of the
following biotechnologies works: electrophoresis,
restriction enzymes, gene probes.
b Draw a flow chart using a series of diagrams
and text to demonstrate how your chosen
biotechnology works.

C S1 S2 V St
Fig SF 4.5 Whodunnit? DNA fingerprints from
suspects (S1 and S2), the victim (V),
the crime scene (C) and a standard
(St). Can we tell who is guilty?
who were DNA fingerprinted after a challenge as to
who was the father of the child. The results for the
childs mother were also included. The arrows in the
diagrams show where the woman has been clearly
identified as the mother. For the man to be identified
as the father, the childs DNA must match his result.
Which of the two men do you think is the father of
the child?
Other uses
DNA is a very stable molecule and, under the right
conditions, and in certain tissues, it can remain
intact for a very long time. For example, DNA in
bones or hair can remain intact for hundreds of years.
Armed with these new techniques for DNA analysis,
archaeologists and anthropologists are able to analyse
samples of DNA extracted from ancient corpses, such
as the Egyptian mummies. The results obtained in
these studies are providing information about the
relationships between the different races of humans,
and about human evolution.
>>
132
3 The diagram above represents a gene located in
a section of DNA that a forensic scientist wants
to analyse. Only one strand of the DNA is shown.
The code for the gene is shown in red.
To cut up the DNA, a restriction enzyme that
recognises a particular sequence of six bases is to be
used. The restriction enzyme uses the base sequence
GATATC to allow it to identify the place where the DNA
should be cut.
a Copy the base sequence shown above and
identify each location where the restriction enzyme
will attach to the section of DNA for cutting.
b Propose reasons why this particular restriction
enzyme was chosen to locate the place to cut
the DNA.
c Construct a sequence of six bases for a gene
probe that will attach to the gene shown in
the diagram.
4 It has recently been suggested that the use of DNA
for crime solving might have serious flaws. The
technology is now so freely available that a criminal
could potentially take someone elses DNA, use a PCR
(polymerase chain reaction) to make lots of it, and then
deliberately spread it around at a crime scene.
a Conduct research to find out how DNA is
replicated using PCR.
b Produce a poster or cartoon to demonstrate how
a sample of DNA can be replicated by PCR.
c Using an example, assess whether criminals using
this technique could influence the use of DNA as
evidence of their crime.
5 Imagine you are in a small town where a serious
crime has been committed. In order to help catch the
criminal, the police have asked everyone to give a
DNA sample for analysis. This would either eliminate
people as suspects or, hopefully, confirm the criminals
identity.
AATGCGTCTGATATCTCCCATGCACGCGCCCGGGATTACGTACCCGGGATCCGCGTAACACTGATATCTATT
a Discuss whether giving a DNA sample should
be voluntary or compulsory.
b A person has chosen not to give a DNA sample
as they fear their genetic information may be
misused. Account for this persons decision.
c Do you think that a person who chooses not
to give a DNA sample should be treated any
differently than a person who does give one?
Justify your answer.
d Propose a set of guidelines that could be used
when collecting DNA samples for analysis in this
town, to convince people that their DNA would
not be misused.
Fig SF 4.7
Police collect DNA using a cottonbud-like
swab and seal the sample in a tube for
testing. A swab to collect cells is usually
taken from the inside of the cheek.
133
Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 List two influences that make you what you are, giving
an example of each.
2 a List two ways in which you resemble your mother.
b List two ways in which you resemble your father.
c List any of your own characteristics that are like
those of your grandparents and not like your
parents.
3 In Mendels pea plants, long-stem flowers were
dominant over short-stem flowers. Stem length is
controlled by a single gene with dominant and recessive
alleles. Using this example, explain what is meant by
the following terms:
a allele
b genotype
c phenotype
d homozygous
e heterozygous
4 a Define the term gene.
b State what the letters DNA stand for.
5 Distinguish between genes, chromosomes and
DNA.
6 For each term in the table, identify the relevant
description.
7 Use examples to explain the difference between
dominant and codominant inheritance.
8 Using examples, explain the difference between
continuous and discontinuous variation within a
population.
9 Briefly outline the process of replication of DNA.
10 For each term in the table, identify the relevant
description.
11 Explain what is meant by:
a gene technology c gene cell therapy
b cloning d therapeutic cloning
12 a State three arguments for the use of genetically
modified foods.
b State three arguments against the use of genetically
modified foods.
[
Thinking questions
]
13 Select the statements from i to v that are correct for:
a mitosis
b meiosis
i It involves replication of DNA strands.
ii Two daughter cells are produced.
iii Four daughter cells are produced.
iv It produces cells with half the chromosome number
of the parent cell.
v It occurs in most body cells.
14 The ability to taste a bitter chemical known as PTC is
dominant over the inability to taste it. Three children in
a family can taste PTC; one cannot. Explain whether
it is possible for both parents to be:
a non-tasters of PTC
b tasters of PTC
Term
Meiosis
Mitosis
Diploid
Haploid
Gene
DNA
Description
Chemical that carries the genetic code
A hereditary unit
Cell division that produces gametes
Cell division that produces daughter cells
identical to the parent cell
A cell that has two of each type of
chromosome
A cell that has one of each type of
chromosome
Description
Causes a spontaneous change
in a gene or chromosome
A small piece of DNA that
recognises a gene
An organism with a new gene
Shows the positions of genes
on chromosomes
A circular piece of DNA
A molecule containing DNA
from two organisms
A sequence of three bases that
codes for an amino acid
Term
Codon
Genetic map
Plasmid
Gene probe
Recombinant DNA
Transgenic organism
Mutagen
134
1
1 2
2
1 2
3
I
II
III
IV
15 Colour blindness is an X-linked recessive disorder. The
symbols used to show the relevant genes are X
n
for
the recessive gene on the X chromosome and X
N
for
the normal gene on the X chromosome. A colour-blind
female partners a non-colour-blind male.
a State the two possible genotypes of their offspring.
b Their daughters will be carriers of the disorder.
Explain what this means.
16 The structure of DNA may be likened to that of a twisted
ladder. State:
a what forms the uprights of the ladder
b what forms the rungs of the ladder
c the name given to the structure formed when the
ladder is twisted
17 Explain how a mutation may be:
a harmful to an individual but have no effect on the
species
b harmful to the species but not to the individual
c beneficial to the species
18 a State the approximate percentage of your total
DNA base sequence that is the same as that of your
classmates.
b State whether it is possible for two people to have
exactly the same total DNA base sequence. Justify
your answer.
[
Interpreting questions
]
19 In humans the ability to roll the tongue (R) is dominant
over the allele for being unable to roll the tongue (r).
A tongue-rolling heterozygous person is crossed with
a person who cannot roll their tongue.
a State the genotype of each person.
b State the possible genotypes of their offspring.
c Predict the percentage of offspring that would be
expected to have each of the genotypes listed in b.
d Predict the possible phenotypes of the offspring.
e Predict the percentage of offspring that would be
expected to have each of the phenotypes listed in c.
20 For snapdragons, a cross between a plant with red
flowers (RR) and a plant with white flowers (WW)
produces a plant with pink flowers. Predict the expected
ratio of red, white and pink flowers in the offspring of a
cross between:
a a red-flowered plant and a pink-flowered plant
b two pink-flowered plants
Worksheet 4.6 Genetics crossword
Worksheet 4.7 Sci-words
21 The father of a child has blood group AB; the mother
has group O. Predict the possible blood groups of the
child.
22 Albinism is caused by a single recessive gene (a). Two
people heterozygous for albinism produce a child.
a Predict whether the parents are albino.
b Predict the chances that the child will be albino.
23 A pedigree for a rare X-linked disease is shown in
the figure below. The symbols used to show the
relevant genes are X
m
for the recessive gene on the
X chromosome and X
M
for the normal gene on the
X chromosome.
a State the genotypes of the following individuals:
i II male 3
ii the female partner of II male 3
iii III male 1
b Is the disease carried by a dominant or a recessive
gene? Justify your answer.
c Predict the probability that a male child of female
III 2 and her partner will have the disease.
>>>
>>>
By the end of this chapter you should
be able to:
explain the terms speed,
acceleration, force and energy
contrast Newtons Laws of Motion
analyse motion using Newtons
Laws
explain how gravity and air
resistance affect falling objects
sketch graphs that illustrate
various motions
calculate speed, force and
energies.
1 Where would feathers and
hammers fall at the same rate?
2 How long does it take you to react
to something?
3 Passengers are thrown forward in
a head-on car crash. True or false?
4 Are headrests in cars for comfort
or for some other reason?
5 What are the differences between
kicking a football and kicking a
brick?
6 How does a jet engine propel an
aircraft forward?
7 How can the footballer in the
photo still be moving if his feet are
not touching the ground?
8 Why is motion often blurred in
photos?
O
u
t
c
o
m
e
s

5
.
3
,

5
.
6
.
2
P
r
e

q
u
i
z
5
5
Motion
Motion
Key focus area
The applications and uses of science
>>>
136
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
5
.
1
5
.
1
Distance and displacement
How would you describe your journey to school this
morning? Apart from boring, you might mention
the distance travelled and the time it took. Scientists
use two terms, distance and displacement, when
describing a journey.
Distance can be measured in any length units,
but is usually converted into metres (m) for
calculations. Likewise, time is usually converted
into seconds (s).
Displacement is distance with a difference.
Displacement is how far you end up from where
you started, and in which direction (up, left, north,
towards the window). It is distance with direction.
You travel a considerable distance each day, but
your overall displacement is likely to be zero. You
will end up in the same bed that you crawled out
of this morning.
Speed and velocity
Speed
In a car, speed is measured continuously by the
speedometer in kilometres per hour (km/h or
km h
1
). This is its instantaneous speed or its speed
at any moment in its travels. Speed is the rate at
which distance is covered.
You are in motion all the time. Even when
you are asleep, you are travelling at a speed
of about 1300 km/h. How can this be? Its
because the Earth is rotating on its axis and
revolving around the Sun, carrying you with it.
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
A B
8 m
A to B
distance = 8 metres
displacement = 8 metres
to the right
A to B back to A
distance = 16 metres
displacement = 0
Fig 5.1.1 The difference between distance and displacement
Its a journey that you take for granted, but what about
other movements like running for the school bus in the
morning? Lets now look at how scientists describe
motion.
A cloud of ice crystals forms as an aircraft
reaches an instantaneous speed of 1200 km/h. Fig 5.1.2
Physics facts
Distance and displacement
Symbol in formulas: s (distance has no direction,
displacement has direction)
Unit: metres
Unit abbreviation: m
137
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Police radar guns measure instantaneous speed.
Fig 5.1.3
We do not always have a speedo or radar gun with
us to measure instantaneous speed. Some simple
measurements, however, allow us to calculate average
speed:

average speed =
distance travelled
time taken

or v =
s
t
Physics facts
Speed and velocity
Symbol in formulas:
v (speed has no direction,velocity
has direction)
Unit: metres per second
Unit abbreviation: m/s or m s
1
Time
Symbol in formulas: t
Unit: seconds
Unit abbreviation: s
If your school bus took half
an hour to travel 10 kilometres to
school, its average speed would
be:

v =
10
= 20 km/h
0.5
This seems slow, but is an average of all the
instantaneous speeds the bus did on its journey. The
bus went faster than 20 km/h, but also stopped at
traffic lights and bus stops. It also had to reduce its
speed through school zones and shopping areas.
How to convert speed
units
3.6
km/h m/s
3.6
Averages are useful but tell
little about what is actually
happening. If the distance or
time chosen for the average is
small, however, average and
instantaneous speeds become
closer to each other. A runner
might be timed at completing the
100 metre sprint in 12 seconds,
but it would be better to measure
the times taken to run past markers spaced
at, say, 10 metres. The average speed of
each section would show any changes that
happened along the way. Spacings of one
metre would be even better.
Velocity
A weather report of 60 km/h wind gusts is useless to
pilots, sailors, surfers and people fishing unless they
also know the winds direction. Velocity is speed in
a given direction. Wind movement is an example of
velocity.

Average velocity =
displacement
time
The ticker-timer
A ticker-timer is an instrument
that breaks movement into a
series of small intervals. It gives
us a way of accurately measuring
distances travelled and times
taken, and provides the data from
which speeds can be calculated.
A small electric hammer strikes
a piece of carbon paper at the
same frequency as the AC power
supply, 50 times a second or
50 Hz. Motion is then recorded
as dots on a strip of paper that
passes under the hammer. Fifty
dots are produced every second,
so a space between dots takes
only one-fiftieth of a second or
0.02 seconds to produce.
Thats slow!
The speed limit for cars
in France was 13 km/h
in 1893. Originally all
cars in Great Britain
had to have a man
walking in front of them
with a red flag to alert
horseriders! In 1896
the speed limit was
raised to 20 km/h, and
in 1904 to 33 km/h.
The first Australian
speeding ticket was
given to a Tasmanian,
George Innes, who was
recklessly driving a car
through Sydney at
13 km/htourists!
Thats fast!
Measurements are only
as accurate as the device
that measures them,
and faulty equipment
will never give accurate
measurements. This was
particularly true when a
driver in Belgium was
fined after a radar gun
measured his speed at
3500 km/h!
Dont even think
about stopping!
In about 700 BC, King
Sanherib of Assyria
built a road from his
capital, Nineveh, to
nearby temples. It was
so wide that it would
have been equivalent
to a modern freeway
of eighteen lanes! The
king was justifiably
proud of his road and
didnt want it spoiled
by chariots parked
along it. Death was the
penalty for doing so,
with offenders being
impaled on spikes!
DYO
Prac 1
p. 142
5
.
1
5
.
1
138
>>>
paper ticker tape
vibrating arm or hammer
carbon paper
disk
dots produced
to AC
power
pack
Fig 5.1.4 Although useful, the ticker-timer can record
only motion in a straight line.
at constant speed
accelerating
decelerating
start
Fig 5.1.5 The spacing of dots gives
an accurate idea of what is
happening in the motion.
Graphing motion
Distancetime graph
Graphs are very useful in representing the motion of
an object travelling in a straight line.
Distancetime graphs show the total distance
travelled by an object as time progressed. Time is
always placed on the horizontal axis. Steep graphs
indicate that the object is covering more distance and
travelling faster than flatter graphs. A horizontal graph
indicates no movement at all: the object is at rest or
stationary. The slope or gradient of a distancetime
graph gives us the objects average speed.
DYO Prac 2
p. 143
The steeper a distancetime graph is,
the faster the object is going.

I
s
I
a
n
r
a

(
m
)
1O
O
8
7
G
5
4
8
2
1
O
O 1 2 8 4 5
TIma (s)
To calculate
qradient ick
any 2 oints qradient =
rise
run
= G
8
= 2 m/s
rise = G
run = 8
D
T
slow
D
T
last
D
T
at rest
Fig 5.1.6
Speedtime graph
A graph of speed against time gives another picture
of what is happening in the motion of an object. As
before, time is placed on the horizontal axis. If the
object is getting faster, the graph rises. If slowing, the
graph falls. Constant speed gives a flat graph. The area
under a speedtime graph gives the distance that the
object has travelled up to that point. You can count
the squares or use area formulas to find the distance
travelled.
Describing motion Describing motion
139
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5
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Distance and displacement
1 State the symbol, metric units and their abbreviations
for:
a distance
b time
2 Use an example to demonstrate the difference between
distance and displacement.
Speed and velocity
3 State the meaning of the term speed.
4 State the symbol, accepted units and unit abbreviation
for speed.
5 Define the term instantaneous speed.
6 Use an example to demonstrate the difference between
speed and velocity.
S
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
area = 8
area = 6
v
t
v
t
v
t
speed is increasing
speed is decreasing
constant
speed
Fig 5.1.7 The total distance travelled is
the area under the graph. The
area here is 6 + 8 = 14. The
object has moved 14 metres.
DYO Prac 3
p. 143
Calculating distance
The average speed formula can be rearranged to give
another useful formula:
distance = speed time
or s = vt
A car travelling at an average speed of 20 m/s for
5 seconds will have travelled a distance of:
s = 20 5 = 100 m
Humans do not respond immediately to
emergencies, but take up to 1.5 seconds to react. This
is their reaction time. This means that when in a car,
a driver will not begin braking until well after they
see an emergency. Meanwhile the car is travelling fast
towards it.
To calculate the distance a car travels while the
driver reacts, the speed must be converted into m/s
to match the units used for time. Assume a car is
being driven at 60 km/h (16.7 m/s) by a driver with
a reaction time of 1.5 seconds. The distance the car
travels before the driver brakes is then:
s = 16.7 1.5 = 25.05 m (equivalent to five to six car lengths).
A driver who is distracted (using a mobile phone,
changing a CD, or who has drunk alcohol) may take as
long as three seconds to react.
Prac 5
p. 145
Worksheet 5.1 Distancetime graphs
Prac 4
p. 144
7 Identify the formula used to calculate:
a average speed
b distance
c average velocity
8 To calculate time, t = s/v can be used. Write this
formula in words.
The ticker-timer
9 Ticker-timers produce a series of dots on a strip of
paper. Outline the information that can be obtained
from such data.
10 State one disadvantage of ticker-timer data.
Graphing motion
11 Outline the type of information found from a distance
time graph.
>>
5
.
1
5
.
1
140
>>>
start
2 km
2 km
a b
1 km
8 km
7 km
5 km
end
time taken = 4 h
time taken = O s
5 m
2 m
1 m
G m
4 m
u
h
start
end
Fig 5.1.8
a Calculate the speed in
mm/y at which his hair
grew.
b State any assumptions
made in the calculation.
c Explain whether the
speed calculated is
instantaneous or average.
26 Light travels at a speed of
300 000 km/s. Calculate
how long it takes to travel:
a from the Sun to Earth,
a distance of
149 600 000 km
b the 384 403 km distance
between the Moon and
Earth
c from Earth to Pluto,
5 750 400 000 km away
Skills

20 Complete the conversions in the table below
(round answers to one
decimal place).
21 Calculate the
average speed of:
a a car that
travelled 990 km
in 9 h
b an ant that ran
24 cm in 2 s
22 Calculate the
distance travelled
by:
a a jet in 6 h at
800 km/h
b a sprinter running
at 11.7 m/s in 8 s
23 Use the formula t =
s
/v to calculate the time taken
to travel:
a 75 m at 2.5 m/s
b 300 km at 60 km/h
24 Scott leaves home for the 1.5 km walk to school at 8.15
and arrives at quarter to 9. Calculate his average speed
in km/h.
25 Thai tribe member, Hoo Sateow, died at the age of 77 in
2001, having made it into the Guinness World Records
for having the worlds longest hair. Its length was 5.15 m.
Speed km/h m/s
Athlete sprinting 11.7
Bushwalker 4.0
Race horse 19.0
Cheetah 100.0
Greyhound 18.3
Cockroach 4.5
Speed of sound 334
Antelope 88.0
12 A motion graph is horizontal. State what this indicates if
the graph is a:
a distancetime graph
b speedtime graph
13 Outline how a distancetime graph can be used to
determine speed.
14 Outline how a speedtime graph can be used to
calculate total distance travelled.
Calculating distance
15 State the formula used to calculate distance.
16 a Clarify what a driver is doing during his/her reaction
time in an emergency.
b Discuss why differing blood alcohol limits apply to
different levels of drivers licences.
Think
17 A distancetime graph always increases and never
drops down, while a displacement graph could drop
down. Explain why.
18 List three factors that could be expected to influence
reaction time.
Analyse
19 For the motions shown in Figure 5.1.8 calculate:
i the distance travelled
ii the displacement
iii the average speed for the whole trip
iv the average velocity for the trip
Describing motion Describing motion
141
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5
.
1
5
.
1
27 Copy and complete the following table to calculate the
distance a car would travel while the driver is reacting.
Speed Speed Reaction Reaction
(km/h) (m/s) time (s) distance (m)
20 0.7
50 0.6
60 0.9
100 0.5
110 0.8
28 Eight Zuni rockets launched
a craft from Woomera, South
Australia, in 2001 to gauge its
impact in falling back to Earth.
It reached a height of 5.9 km
in 40 s.
a Construct a scale
for distance from the
photograph.
b Calculate the average
speed of the craft.
c Calculate the distance
the craft travelled before
landing.
d Calculate the approximate
displacement of the craft
from launch to landing.
Fig 5.1.9
a
b
r
Fig 5.1.10
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
Fig 5.1.11
8
p
a
a
d

(
m
l
s
)
8
p
a
a
d

(
m
l
s
)
8
p
a
a
d

(
m
l
s
)
G
5
4
8
2
1
O
O 1 2 8 4 5 G O 1 2 8 4 5 G O 1 2 8 4 5 G
TIma (s)
G
5
4
8
2
1
O
TIma (s)
G
5
4
8
2
1
O
TIma (s)
a b r
Fig 5.1.12
30 Calculate the gradients of the graph in Figure 5.1.11 to
find two different speeds.
e The shape of the trajectory is a familiar one in
mathematics. State its name. (Hint: turn the photo
upside down.)
29 Measure the distances travelled on the sections of
ticker-tape shown in Figure 5.1.10 and calculate the
average speed.
31 Calculate the area of the shaded parts of the
vt graphs in Figure 5.1.12 to find the distance
travelled.
>>
142
>>>
[
Practical activities
] 5
.
1
U
N
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Theyve got the runs!
Aim To collect data and construct a distancetime
graph
Equipment
Stopwatches (one per person preferably), chalk or
other markers, access to a tape measure
Method
1 A student is to run a short distance (say, 50 metres). Design
an experiment that will enable a group of other students to
collect as much data as they can about the run.
2 Make sure you have selected somewhere flat and safe for
the run.
3 Gather all the data and display it in an appropriate table.
Prac 1
Unit 5.1
DYO
4 Repeat for another students run.
5 Plot the results obtained for each run as a distancetime
graph.
Questions
1 Identify where the student became faster or slower on
the run. Describe what happened to the shape of the
graph in these areas.
2 Identify where the speed would be reasonably constant.
3 Normally, experiments are repeated a number of times.
However, only one set of measurements should be
taken in this case. Explain why.
4 Describe what the graph would look like if the student
was cycling and not running.
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
k
m
)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (h)
Fig 5.1.13
32 Sharnika graphed
a trip she took
at the weekend.
She drew the
displacementtime
graph shown in
Figure 5.1.13.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 a Investigate how one of the following devices works:
i a radar gun or speed camera for measuring speed
ii a fish finder for measuring depth and locating
schools of fish
b Present your information as a booklet to explain your
findings to someone who has just purchased the
device.
2 a Research the meaning of sonic boom and the
speed at which it occurs.
Calculate the following:
a the distance Sharnika travelled in total
b her displacement for the journey
c the time she was away
d her speed for the first leg of the trip
e her return speed
f the times when she was stationary
g her average speed for the whole trip
b Use a diagram to demonstrate your information,
including how a sonic boom is created.
Action
3 Research the times taken for the same race
(e.g. the mens 100 m sprint) in each Olympics since
1896.
a Construct a graph showing the variation in time for
the race through the past century.
b Convert these times to speed, and construct a
graph of speeds through the century.
c Modern athletes can analyse their movement by
viewing videos of their races. They can then correct
faults in style that may slow them. The way athletes
move and the equipment they use has changed over
the past century to increase speed. Gather photos
to show how the sprint sports of running, cycling
and swimming have changed.
Describing motion Describing motion
143
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5
.
1
5
.
1
Ticker-timer experiment
Prac 2
Unit 5.1
8 Add axes to the cut-and-paste graph and use the
values in the table to mark appropriate scales along
each axis.
9 On graph paper, plot a distancetime graph for your
hands motion using the values from your table.
Questions
1 Explain why it was important to number the sections
before cutting.
2 Describe any trends or patterns in the graphs you have
constructed.
3 State how many dots an AC ticker-timer makes in one
second.
4 Once started, describe how long the ticker-timer takes
to produce:
a a new dot (this is equivalent to a single space
between the old dot and the new one)
b five new dots (equivalent to five spaces)
measure in mm
measure in mm

O.1 s
5 dots
O.1 s
5 dots

O O.1 O.2 O.8 O.4 O.5 O.G O.7

TIma (s)
8
p
a
a
d

(
m
m
l
s
)
Fig 5.1.14
Aim To analyse motion using a ticker-timer
Equipment
AC ticker-timer, carbon paper circles and tape,
power pack, scissors, ruler, graph paper, paper glue
Method
1 Tear off about 1 m of tape and thread it through the timer.
2 Start the timer, then pull the tape through, changing
speed as you go.
3 Repeat with new tape, until everyone in the group has
their own tape.
4 Draw a line through the first clear dot, then every fifth dot
after that. There should be five spaces per section. This
represents a time of 0.1 seconds.
5 Number each section, then cut along the lines.
6 Paste the pieces in order onto paper to produce a
speedtime graph as shown in Figure 5.1.14.
7 Measure the length of each section in millimetres and
enter your results in a table like the one below.
Section Elapsed time Distance of each section Total distance Average speed (mm/s)
(s) (mm) (mm) Column 3 0.1
0 to 5 dots 0.1
6 to 10 0.2
11 to 15 0.3
16 to 20 0.4
21 to 25 0.5
Measuring speed
Design experiments that
will measure:
the speed of a moving
object
the speed of sound.
Prac 3
Unit 5.1
DYO
You could use simple equipment such as tape
measures and stopwatches, or use datalogging equipment
with appropriate sensors (light gates, ultrasonic sensors,
microphones).
144
>>>
Chain reaction
Aim To measure reaction time
Equipment
Stopwatch, paper and pen to record results
Method
Part A
1 Gather into groups of 10 to 15 students.
2 Stand in a ring, with everyone facing outwards, about
50 cm apart.
3 One in the group (the starter) has a stopwatch. Another
will record the group results.
4 The starter is to touch the shoulder of the neighbour
to their right, starting the stopwatch when they do.
When a shoulder is touched, the message is to be
passed on.
5 Time how long it takes for the message to get back to
the starter. Record the time taken and the number in
the ring.
6 Repeat at least three times.
Part B
7 Repeat, but send the message to the left, using the
left hand.
Prac 4
Unit 5.1
Fig 5.1.15 Measuring group reaction times
Part C
8 Send the message back to the right.
9 The starter can now touch either the left shoulder of
their neighbour or they can lean behind them and
touch their right shoulder.
10 If the left shoulder is touched, pass the message onto
your neighbour by leaning behind and touching their
right shoulder and vice versa.
11 Have a few practice runs before you record any
times.
Questions
1 Record all results.
2 Calculate the average reaction time for each person,
for parts A, B and C.
3 Discuss whether there was any difference between
sending the message to the right and sending it to
the left.
4 Part C needed complex thinking. Explain what
happened to reaction times when you needed to
process information.
Describing motion Describing motion
145
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5
.
1
5
.
1
Driving reaction times
Aim To measure your reaction time as a driver
of a car
Equipment
Metre ruler, access to a calculator, access to the Internet
Method
1 Form groups of three.
2 Copy the table below into your workbooks.
Prac 5
Unit 5.1
3 Place a desk close to a wall, leaving a small gap
between them. Place a chair on top.
4 One student holds the chair securely. Another (the
driver) sits on it. The driver places their right heel on
the desk, their toes against the wall, in the position of a
car accelerator.
5 The third student holds a metre ruler against the wall.
This is the brake pedal. Align the ruler so that the
zero is level with the top of the drivers toes.
6 Without warning, let the ruler go.
7 The driver must pivot their foot onto the ruler and stop
it falling.
8 Read off the position of the toes now and enter the
reading in the table.
9 Repeat at least three times. Each student must have
a turn as driver.
10 Repeat the test, but now distract the driver (touch their
neck, tickle them etc.).
11 Use this formula and your own data to calculate your
reaction time:

t =
d
490
where t = reaction time (s)
and d = average ruler drop (cm)
Check that you are doing the calculation correctly.
If d = 10 cm the time should come out as 0.14 s.
If not, find out what you are doing wrong with your
calculator.
12 Copy the new table shown on the next page into your
workbook.
Without distractions With distractions
Ruler drops Average drop Average reaction Ruler drops Average ruler Average reaction
(cm) (cm) time (s) (cm) drop (cm) time (s)

Fig 5.1.16 Measuring reaction time
>>
146
>>>
Speed of car Without distractions With distractions
(km/h) (m/s) Reaction time Reaction distance Reaction time Reaction distance
(s) (m) (s) (m)
Column 2 Column 3 Column 2 Column 5
10
30
50
60
80
100
3 Explain what distractions do to reaction times.
4 List some distractions a driver might logically
encounter.
5 Explain what alcohol in the blood does to reaction
time.
6 The Road Traffic Authority estimates that the reaction
time of an average driver is between 0.5 s and
1 s. Times from this experiment are probably less.
Propose reasons for the difference.
13 Use your reaction times to calculate the distance a car
travels before braking.
14 In the yard or corridor pace out each reaction distance.
Assume one large pace is about 1 metre.
15 On the Internet, find the site www.happyhub.com/
network/reflex or use the words reflex tester to find
other similar sites. Compare the reaction time obtained
from that test with the time obtained in this experiment.
Questions
1 It was assumed here that the ruler dropped without any
resistance. Explain whether this is true.
2 Your first drop was probably the worst. Discuss what
this suggests about inexperience in an emergency.
Describing motion Describing motion
147
UNIT
UNIT
5
.
2
5
.
2
The sudden changes in speed and direction
of a rollercoaster give us the sensations and
thrill that we are after. The culprit responsible
for all this fun is acceleration: the rate at
which speed or velocity changes.
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Acceleration
Imagine two cars taking off at traffic lights. Both reach
60 km/h, but their accelerations are not necessarily
the same unless you are told how long each took. If
one took 6 seconds, while the other took 16 seconds,
it becomes perfectly obvious which one is accelerating
the fastest!

Acceleration =
change in speed
time taken for the change
or a = (v u)
t
where
v is the final speed
u is the initial or starting speed
t is the time taken for the change in speed to
occur.
Fig 5.2.1 Acceleration is one factor that makes the
rollercoaster a thrill.
Physics facts
Acceleration
Symbol in formulas: a
Unit: metres per second squared
Unit abbreviation: m/s
2
or m s
2
If an object slows, it is decelerating. Deceleration is
negative acceleration.
Calculating acceleration
If the speed of a car changes from 0 to 60 km/h in
6 seconds, then its acceleration is:
a =
(60 0)
= 10
6
Acceleration is
measured in speed
units per time unit.
The most common
unit for acceleration
is metres per second
per second, m/s
2
or
m s
2
.
The unit here would be speed units (km/h) per
time unit (s) or k/h/s: the car gained an extra 10 km/h
every second.
For an athlete, speed is better measured in m/s. For
example, a runner is jogging along at 2 m/s but then
slows her speed over the next 5 seconds until she is
running at 1 m/s. Her acceleration would be:
a =
(1 2)
=
1
= 0.2
5 5
148
>>>
Fig 5.2.2 A multiple-exposure photograph shows
different stages in a motion. The spacing
between each image gives some idea of speed.
Increasing spacing shows acceleration.
The units here would be her speed units
(m/s) per time unit (s), i.e. m s
2
or m/s
2
.
You can say that her speed decreased by
0.2 m/s every second, or her speed changed
by 0.2 m/s every second. The negative sign
tells you that it is a deceleration.
If a = 50 m/s
2
, then 50 m/s is added
every second.
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
v = 0
v = 50 m/s
v = 100 m/s
v = 150 m/s
v = 200 m/s
v = 250 m/s
t = 0
t = 1 s
t = 2 s
t = 3 s
t = 4 s
t = 5 s
Fig 5.2.3
Acceleration and graphs
High acceleration is a rapid increase in speed. The
speedtime graph would be a steeper one than if
you accelerated at a lesser rate; that is, the slope or
gradient of a speedtime graph gives us the rate of
acceleration (see Figure 5.2.4).
Prac 1
p. 152
Calculating speed
Lets say a rocket launches with an acceleration of
50 m/s
2
. It started at rest, but 50 m/s is added to its
speed every second that passes.
Its speed will then follow the pattern shown in
Figure 5.2.3.
If the rocket was already moving at, say, 500 m/s,
then the speeds would be those shown in the figure
with another 500 m/s added to them.
You can write this as:
final speed = starting speed + acceleration time taken
or v = u + at
Acceleration Acceleration
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Prac 2
p. 152
Worksheet 5.2 Plotting car performance data
5
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Acceleration
1 Define the term acceleration.
2 State the formula used to calculate acceleration.
3 Identify the values, and their symbols and units, needed
to calculate acceleration.
4 Identify an alternative term for negative acceleration.
Calculating acceleration
5 A car accelerates at 10 km/h/s. Write a sentence to
outline what this means.
6 A runner has an acceleration of 0.2 m/s
2
. State what
she is doing.
Calculating speed
7 State the formula required to calculate the speed of an
accelerating object.
8 Record the formula v = u + at in words.
Acceleration and graphs
11 Calculate the speed of an object every second for the
first 4 s if:
a it starts at rest and accelerates at 5 m/s
2
b it started at a speed of 2.5 m/s instead of from rest
12 Which is the most appropriate unit for acceleration for
a car? Justify your answer.
13 An object has zero acceleration. Identify the answer
that best describes its behaviour.
A The object is at rest.
B The object is travelling at a constant speed.
C The object is travelling at a constant velocity.
D All of the above are possible.
14 Explain why deceleration is always a negative number.
Analyse
15 a Analyse Figure 5.2.2 to decide whether the
divers head and shoulders were moving faster
than his legs.
b Analyse whether the diver was increasing or
decreasing speed.
c Describe what an even spacing of images
suggests about speed.
d Describe what increased spacing suggests.
e List the information that would be needed to
calculate speeds from this picture.
16 Describe the motion shown on the ticker-tapes in
Figure 5.2.6.
S
p
e
e
d
Time
A
B
C
D
Fig 5.2.5
v
t
v
t
v
t
deceleration
(negative acceleration)
no acceleration
constant speed
slow acceleration
quick acceleration
Fig 5.2.4 The gradient or slope of a speedtime graph
is the same as acceleration.
5
.
2
5
.
2
9 Identify the graph
in Figure 5.2.5 that
shows:
a slow acceleration
b quick acceleration
c no acceleration
d deceleration
Think
10 Explain how much speed is gained every second if
acceleration is 15 m/s
2
.
a
b
r
Fig 5.2.6
>>
150
>>>
17 The graph in Figure 5.2.7 shows data on distances that
the average driver needs to stop a car.
a Analyse the graph to complete the missing
information in the table below.
Speed Reaction Braking Stopping
(km/h) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)
20
50
60
80
100
b In November 2003, New South Wales dropped
the urban street speed limit from 60 km/h to
50 km/h. Contrast the stopping distances at
each speed limit.
c It is recommended that the distance between your
car and the car in front be equivalent to the reaction
distance at that speed. Evaluate how many car
lengths a driver travelling at 60 km/h and 100 km/h
should leave in front of them.
Starting speed Final speed Time taken Acceleration
(m/s) (m/s) (s) (m/s
2
)
0 50 10
10 50 4
50 30 5
At rest 25 10
60 Stationary 12
19 Use the table below to calculate the final speed that
these objects would have.
Starting speed Acceleration Time taken Final speed
(m/s) (m/s
2
) (s) (m/s)
0 15 3
20 8 5
16 1 4
30 2 10
15 5 3
20 A car accelerates from rest to 50 km/h in 5 s. Calculate
the acceleration of the car in:
a km/h/s
b m/s
2
21 Calculate the area and the gradient of each section of the
vt graph in Figure 5.2.8 to find the distance travelled and
the acceleration.
S
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s)
Fig 5.2.8
Total
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed of car (km/h)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Stopping
distance
Braking
distance
Reaction
distance
Fig 5.2.7
Skills

18 Copy the following table and calculate the acceleration.
Acceleration Acceleration
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DYO
Fig 5.2.9
22 Linh, Beth and Brianna had a race. All accelerated
smoothly from rest. Linh reached a speed of 24 km/h after
5 s, Beth reached 1.8 m/s after 2 s and Brianna took half
a minute to reach 3.0 m/s.
a Without changing units, calculate the accelerations of
each.
b Record the measurements as m/s and s and
re-calculate their accelerations.
c Assess who broke away the quickest.
d Evaluate the accelerations and place the three girls in
ascending order.
23 Construct a speedtime graph for the girl opposite
accelerating on a skateboard as she drops into the
half-pipe.
5
.
2
5
.
2
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 The braking distance of a car is affected
by the factors listed below. Research
one of them and present your
information as a print, radio or TV
advertisement about the importance of
this feature in car safety.
a tyre design and tread
b disc or drum brakes
c ABS braking
2 Investigate why cars sometimes skid
when braking and what a driver should
do to regain control. Explain how that
action works.
Action
3 a Gather data from car magazines or
the Internet on at least two different
cars.
b Plot speedtime graphs to
demonstrate their performance
from rest.
4 a Estimate the acceleration and
braking decelerations happening in
the normal travels of your family car.
b Explain how you
collected the data
and show your
calculations.
ACTIVITY
Construct an accelerometer
tape (inside lid)
glass jar
paper-clip
fill with water
cotton thread
Fig 5.2.10 An effective acceleration indicator
Use Figure 5.2.10 to build an acceleration indicator, or accelerometer.
Get it moving along a bench, push it so that it travels at a constant
speed or allow it to slide to a stop. Draw what the paperclip needle
does in each case.
152
>>>
[
Practical activities
] 5
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Braking distances
When cars brake in an emergency, the best
deceleration on a dry road is about 90% g or
8.82 m/s
2
(you will find out more about g in
Unit 5.6).
Aim To calculate the breaking distances for a car
travelling at various speeds
Equipment
Access to a calculator
Method
1 Copy the table below into your workbook.
2 Convert all the speeds from km/h into m/s.
3 Use the formula d =
v
2
to calculate the braking distance
for a typical car. v stands for the speed of the car (in
m/s) and b stands for the braking deceleration (in m/s
2
)
You will need to follow this order:
i Put the speed (in m/s) into your calculator.
ii Square it, then divide by 2 and divide again by the
braking deceleration (b).
iii The answer is the braking distance.
Prac 1
Unit 5.2
Car speed Braking deceleration Braking distance Reaction distance (m) Stopping distance (m)
(km/h) (m/s) 90% g (m/s
2
) (m) (from Prac 5, Unit 5.1) Column 4 + Column 5
10 8.82
30 8.82
50 8.82
60 8.82
80 8.82
100 8.82
110 8.82
4 Get your reaction distances from Prac 5 in Unit 5.1.
5 Find the total stopping distance.
6 In the yard or the corridor, pace out the stopping
distances you found at each speed. Assume one pace
roughly equals 1 m.
Questions
1 a Predict what would happen if brake performance
was less.
b Test your prediction by halving it.
2 Once the brakes are applied, the ability and state of the
driver have little to do with the braking distance. Assess
which of these factors affect reaction distance and
which affect braking distance:
alcohol and drugs in the blood, bald tyres, tiredness,
wet road, noisy kids in the back, icy road, poorly
serviced brakes, old car, age of driver, talking on a
mobile phone
2b
Acceleration and
datalogging
Use datalogging equipment and
sensors such as light gates and
ultrasonic sensors to measure and
plot the speeds and accelerations
of a moving object.
Prac 2
Unit 5.2
DYO
Acceleration Acceleration
153
UNIT
UNIT
5
.
3
5
.
3
Forces act on us every day, causing many
different effects. How do these forces act
and what is the interaction between them? In
1687, Isaac Newton asked the same question.
He then formulated three laws to explain how
objects move when a force acts on them.
They are often referred to as Newtons Laws.
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
What is a force?
A force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to
either:
increase its speed (accelerate)
decrease its speed (decelerate)
change its direction, or
change its shape.
If any of these things happen, then a force caused it.
Newtons First Law
Newtons First Law examines the forces on an object
that is:
at rest
in motion.
No force and not moving
Place a pen on the desk. Watch what it is doing. Of
course, its not moving. This effect is called inertia.
Sir Isaac Newton described it in his First Law.
Newtons First Law states:
Anything at rest will stay that way unless pushed
or pulled.
That is, a force is required to get something moving.
No force but still moving
Why do you wear seatbelts in a moving car? If you
answered, Because you are thrown forward in a
car accident, then youre wrong! This suggests
that something pushed you the seat must have
shoved you so hard in the back that you were flung
towards the windscreen! This is of course ridiculous:
it implies that seats are capable of throwing you
Types of forces
The force you apply is very obvious when you physically
push or pull something. This is an obvious contact force.
A summary of other forces that you will have met before
is given below. Some will be discussed in this chapter.
Contact forces
Friction: acts between any two surfaces that try and
slide over one another. Acts in the opposite direction
to the movement or attempted movement.
Air resistance and drag: friction of air (or liquid or
other gases) as it travels across a moving object.
Like friction, it acts in a direction opposite to the
movement.
Buoyancy: floating force. Acts upwards, opposing
the weight force.
Surface tension: tiny forces between particles on the
surface of a liquid that form a skin on the liquid.
Lift: caused by air moving over a wing or airfoil. Acts
at 90 to the surface of the airfoil.
Thrust: caused by gases or liquid being pushed out
the rear of an engine, jet or rocket.
Non-contact forces
Weight: caused by gravity. Acts downwards, towards
the centre of the planet.
Electrostatic: repulsion of like charges (+/+ or /) or
attraction of unlike charges (+/).
Magnetic: repulsion of like poles
(N/N or S/S) or attraction of
unlike poles (N/S).
Physics facts
around whenever they like! In an
accident, you dont get thrown
forward: the car stops moving but
you keep moving like you were
beforeuntil you hit something,
like the windscreen, dash or
steering wheel, which will
provide a stopping (and injuring)
force. This continued movement
is called inertia, too.
Deadly dogs
In accidents, an unrestrained
family dog becomes a
projectile and can potentially
kill or injure anyone in the
seating area. Most dogs
range from 10 to 50 kg
and will not be prepared
for the accident when it
happens, losing their balance
and flying forward, with
disastrous results.
154
>>>
Newtons First Law further states:
Anything that is moving will keep
moving at the same speed and in the
same direction unless a force changes it.
Fig 5.3.1 The crash test dummy on the motorbike
continued at the same speed until it hit the car.
Prac 1
p.157
If a car is travelling at
60 km/h, then so are you. If the
car is involved in an accident,
it will stop very quickly
(typically in about 0.1 to 0.2 of
a second). Unbelted passengers
will keep travelling, however,
at 60 km/h, until stopped by
the windscreen or dash. Our
head tends to be the first part
of the body struck. Seatbelts
provide a restraining force and
allow you to decelerate with
the car. They also spread the
stopping force across the chest
and waist. Airbags also allow
us to stop with the car.
The crash test dummy on the motorbike
with an experimental airbag fitted Fig 5.3.3
Fig 5.3.2 Inertia pushes John Stapp back as he accelerates, and his body continues moving forward when the sled stops.
Crash test humans
Crash test dummies were first developed by the US Air Force to
determine the injuries that pilots would sustain if they ejected from
aircraft in flight. Live humans were tested before the invention of
the dummies, and Colonel John Stapp underwent 26 tests. In one,
he sat in a rocket-powered open sled that accelerated to a speed
of 1000 km/h in five seconds, but then was stopped in less than a
second. Inertia kept his internal body parts and blood moving and
he stated later that he felt as if his eyes would fly out of his skull.
Blood vessels in his eyes burst and they bled profusely for 10
minutes after the test. His lungs also collapsed, but he recovered
quickly, proving that it was possible to survive such extreme forces.
Newtons First Law Newtons First Law
Project BBQ
Crash test dummies have
been used for over 30
years to develop safer
cars. Before that, live but
anaesthetised pigs were
used in crash tests. A large
pork BBQ often followed.
Human corpses (cadavers)
were also used in tests.
Accelerometers and force
meters were implanted in
the cadavers to measure
what was occurring.
The results from these
experiments led to the
development of the modern
crash test dummy, the
Hybrid 3.
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Inertia explains why you sometimes
feel lighter or heavier when in a lift as it
first moves off or slows to a stop. It also
tells why you move sideways when a
car corners: you keep trying to travel in a
straight line.
Prac 2
p. 158
Fig 5.3.5 The inflatable seatbelt promises to slow
passengers in an aircraft accident.
We keep travelling in a straight line unless a force
changes our direction.
passengers keep moving
in a straight line
car
turns
left
passengers appear to move to right
Fig 5.3.4
Inflatable seatbelts
Most modern cars have airbags, but aircraft generally dont. Apart
from mid-air explosions, most aircraft accidents are survivable and
one company is producing an inflatable seatbelt for aircraft to make
them even more so. The Aviation Inflatable Restraint Belt inflates in
0.070 s to form a large pillow into which the passenger collapses as
the aircraft comes to a halt in an accident. Some airlines have already
installed them in their Boeing 777 and Airbus 340600 aircraft.
Worksheet 5.3 All over in 200 milliseconds!
5
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[
Questions
]
c A typical accident takes 1 to 2 seconds.
d You have enough time in a collision to brace yourself
to avoid injury.
e To keep something moving on Earth, you need to
keep pushing.
7 Explain what happens to the occupants of a car when
it:
a turns left
b suddenly accelerates
c goes fast over a speed hump
d goes over a deep dip in the road
e collides head-on with a wall
f is parked, but is hit from behind by another car
g is parked, but is hit from the left by another car
8 Outline the features of a car that are designed to
comfortably stop our forward inertia.
9 Propose why it is preferable to have the stopping force
in a car applied to the chest and waist instead of the
head.
Checkpoint
What is a force?
1 Define force.
2 List four possible outcomes when a force is applied to
an object.
3 Classify the following forces as either contact or
non-contact forces:
electrostatic, lift, thrust, weight, friction, buoyancy, air
resistance, magnetic, drag
Newtons First Law
4 Recall the two parts of Newtons First Law.
5 Define inertia.
Think
6 Assess whether the following statements are true or
false.
a An object needs a force to start moving.
b Passengers are thrown forward in a head-on collision.
>>
5
.
3
5
.
3
156
>>>
Fig 5.3.6
X
Fig 5.3.8
19 Figure 5.3.7 shows three frames of a collision.
a Predict the type of collision that probably happened
here.
b Account for what is happening in each diagram.
c Use this diagram to explain why modern cars are
fitted with headrests.
20 Johanna lets a bucket go at point X when swinging it.
Trace the diagram and add an arrow at X to show in
which direction the bucket will fly.
10 Explain why rockets will keep
moving in deep space, needing
no engines to do so.
11 A car on ice is almost impossible
to stop or control.
a Use the concept of inertia to
explain why.
b Identify the force required to
gain control.
12 People sometimes hold their baby
while travelling in a car, thinking
that they will react and hold the
child in any accident. Assess
whether these people are seriously
risking the life of the baby.
13 Evaluate whether passengers in the rear of a car are
safe when not wearing seatbelts.
14 Assess whether buses should be required to have
seatbelts for all passengers and whether passengers
should be allowed to stand.
15 Even when a person is not wearing a seatbelt, their
lower body is less likely to be influenced by inertia than
their head. Identify which force(s) slow the lower body.
16 Seatbelts leave bad bruising and can crack ribs in a car
accident.
a Explain why they do this.
b A friend is arguing that this is a good reason not to
wear seatbelts. Propose three reasons that would
convince them to buckle up.
17 Truck cabins need to be rigid and able to withstand a
heavy blow from the rear. Explain why.
Analyse
18 a Use the diagram in Figure 5.3.6 to explain how a
magician can pull a tablecloth out from under a table
set with china.
b In reality, the china will probably shift slightly in the
direction of the tablecloth. Explain why.
then then
Fig 5.3.7
Newtons First Law Newtons First Law
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[
Practical activities
] 5
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Crash test dummies
Aim To perform your own crash tests
Equipment
Dynamics trolley, ramp, ruler, chalk, a solid barrier
such as a brick or wall, plasticine or playdough,
talcum powder, sticky tape
Method
1 Mould a small plasticine person. Lightly powder it so
that it loses its stickiness.
2 Sit it on the dynamics trolley.
Part A
3 Set the ramp up on a shallow slope and let the trolley
run down it and onto the floor. Carefully note what
happens to the plasticine person.
Prac 1
Unit 5.3
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the use of airbags in cars. Present your
information as a poster of a car that illustrates their use
and features, including:
a how an airbag is triggered and inflated
b where airbags can be installed in a car
c how much safer a car is with airbags than without
d why most cars in Australia only have driver airbags
2 a Research the development of crash test dummies
and the current model, the Hybrid 3.
5
.
3
5
.
3
CHALLENGE
The yokes on you!
Your task
Use your knowledge of inertia to design a safe container
that will protect a fresh hens egg from injury in a high-
speed collision (vegans can use a light bulb).
The collision
Drop from a first floor window or balcony onto concrete
or bitumen.
The material
1 piece of cardboard of roughly A3 dimensions, sufficient
string/sticky tape/staples/glue/other fixings to hold it together
You cannot use:
tape etc. as reinforcing or padding
extra paper or cardboard for padding or parachutes.
All fittings must be made from the original A3 sheet of
cardboard.
b Imagine you had to sell the Hybrid 3 to car
companies. Present your findings as a brochure on
its benefits.
Surf
3 Investigate Newtons First Law by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 5
and clicking on the destinations button. You will
need to complete a tutorial including animations and
questions. Record a log of your progress, outlining
any misconceptions you may have discovered and
corrected.
4 Place a chalk mark every 20 cm up the ramp, and
place a brick on the flat near the ramps end.
5 Model a head-on collision by releasing the trolley from
a 20 cm mark on the ramp (see Figure 5.3.9). Repeat
from the rest of the marks. Note what happened to the
plasticine person, particularly to any parts of the body
that moved a lot and any parts that moved little. Test
which 20 cm mark you consider to be life threatening
to the plasticine driver.
Part B
6 Build a sticky-tape seatbelt for the driver and repeat.
Are there any differences in the results? Which 20 cm
mark is now the life-threatening one?
7 Take the belt off, but this time add a crumple zone to
the front of the trolley. Once again, which 20 cm mark
do you consider to be life-threatening?
>>
158
>>>
Part C
8 Place the trolley and its driver on
a flat desk.
9 Model a rear-end collision by
hitting or flicking the back of the
trolley with your hand or a ruler.
Once again, note which parts
moved. Build a safety feature
that would minimise injuries in
this type of collision.
Questions
1 Your backside is probably the
least affected part of your body
in a car crash. Explain why
inertia keeps heads, arms and
legs moving but seems to be
less effective on your backside.
2 Predict what would stop the forward movement in a car
when no seatbelts are worn.
3 Predict the injuries that are likely to occur in a head-on
collision while not wearing a seatbelt.
Inertial eggs
Aim To determine whether an egg is raw or
hard-boiled
Equipment
1 hard-boiled but unpeeled egg, 1 fresh raw egg,
smooth desk, pen or pencil
Method
1 Copy the following table into your workbook.
Prac 2
Unit 5.3
2 Mark one egg 1 and the other 2 with a pen or pencil.
3 Place both eggs on a smooth desk and spin each
equally hard.
Egg 1 Egg 2
Fast or slow spin?
Began to spin again?
Fresh or hard-boiled?
4 Note which egg spun the fastest.
5 Spin each egg separately again. Place a finger on
the egg to stop it briefly, but let go immediately. Note
which egg remained stationary and which began to
spin again.
6 Repeat step 5 to confirm your results.
7 Crack each egg over a sink. Which was hard-boiled
and which was fresh?
Questions
1 If the shell of the fresh egg was spun, predict what its
liquid insides would do.
2 Predict whether this would slow the spin of the shell.
3 In the experiment, once the whole egg was moving the
shell was then stopped. Explain what inertia suggests
happened to the liquid inside the egg.
4 Explain why this would get the shell moving again
when you let go.
5 Discuss why the hard-boiled egg spun faster and why
it remained stopped when you let go.
trolley and person
bricks/books
20 cm marks
brick
Fig 5.3.9 Modelling a head-on collision
4 Modern cars are designed to crumple in an accident.
Propose reasons why.
5 Propose reasons for the use of headrests in a car.
Newtons First Law Newtons First Law
159
UNIT
UNIT
5
.
4
5
.
4
Newtons Second Law
Newtons Second Law states:
Something will happen if a
force is applied: the object
will accelerate and the
acceleration will depend on
the mass of the object.
force = mass acceleration
or F = ma
This formula can also be arranged to give:
m =
F
/a and a =
F
/m
Acceleration
Acceleration applies to any change in velocity. This
may be a change in speed (e.g. from 10 to 20 m/s) or a
change in direction (e.g. from north to east).
When you ride a bike, you have to apply a
force to the pedals to get the wheels turning.
The larger the force applied, the faster you
accelerate. When you want to stop you
have to apply a force, using the brakes, to
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Acceleration depends on mass and the force applied. Fig 5.4.1
Force
Acceleration
Twice the force Twice the acceleration
Force
Bigger mass,
smaller
acceleration
Physics facts
Mass
Symbol in formulas: m
Unit: kilograms
Unit abbreviation: kg
All acceleration requires a force. The bigger the
force, the greater the acceleration. Two people pushing
a car will be more effective than just one person
pushing it. But if the car is a big one, the acceleration
will be less: mass affects acceleration. Mass is the
amount of matter in an object. It never changes unless
you remove a bit from it or add more to it. A 2 kg
mass stays as 2 kg regardless of where it is in the
universe.
Prac 1
p. 162
slow you down. The harder you squeeze the brakes,
the faster you slow, or decelerate. This is Newtons
Second Law! Too easy ...
Crumpling crashes
The force that you
experience in an accident
depends not on your speed,
but the rate at which you
come to a stop. If you
decelerate more slowly, then
the impact force is less.
Modern cars are designed
to extend the time you
take to stop in a collision.
Crumple zones slow
the crash, and seatbelts
and airbags allow you to
decelerate with the car.
Without this protection you
will strike something hard.
Deceleration and impact
force will then be high.
160
>>>
Spongy heads
needed
Our head has very little
padding and comes to a
stop very quickly if you fall
from a bike and it hits the
road or kerb. Bike helmets
extend the time during
which your skull comes to
a stop, thereby protecting
your brain. The wearing
of motorbike helmets has
been compulsory since
1963 throughout Australia.
In New South Wales,
cyclists have been required
by law to wear helmets
since 1991. If only our
heads were more spongy!
Physics facts
Force
Symbol in formulas: F
(force needs direction)
Unit: newtons
Unit abbreviation: N
DYO Prac 2
p. 163
A matter of balance
There is usually more than one force acting on
any object. Some of these forces may balance by
cancelling each other out. If cancellation is complete
then the overall force is zero and can cause no
15 000 N
(force of ground on car)
2000 N
resistance
(air resistance,
drag, friction)
8000 N
driving force
(force from
driving wheels)
weight (force of car on ground)
15 000 N
total force
6000 N
Fig 5.4.2 Forces often balance or cancel.
acceleration. You dont speed up, nor do
you slow down (Newtons First Law). You just
remain stationary, or keep travelling, like you
were before.
Worksheet 5.4 Calculating F = ma
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[
Questions
]
8 Running is more comfortable and less likely to jar if you
wear sport shoes with spongy soles. Identify the most
likely reason.
A They have better grip.
B They reduce acceleration and impact force.
C They shorten impact time, making the force less.
D They stop the foot from rolling.
9 Rugby players often slide to a stop.
a Compare the deceleration obtained this way with
the deceleration if they dropped to the ground.
b Predict the resultant impact force on stopping when
sliding.
10 Airbags are designed to inflate rapidly. Explain why
they need to deflate as a person collapses into them.
11 Because they need to apply huge forces, hammers are
made hard.
a Predict whether the deceleration on hitting a nail will
be high or low.
b Explain why a rubber hammer would provide less
force and be less effective.
Checkpoint
Acceleration
1 Define the term mass.
2 Describe what happens to acceleration when the same
force pushes larger and larger masses.
3 Describe what happens to the acceleration of an object
if the force pushing it is increased.
Newtons Second Law
4 State Newtons Second Law of Motion in words.
5 Use a mathematical formula to demonstrate Newtons
Second Law of Motion.
A matter of balance
6 Use Newtons First Law to predict what will happen to
acceleration when forces are balanced.
Think
7 A car turns a corner without any change in speed.
Identify the incorrect statement:
A It has no acceleration.
B Velocity has changed.
C Force was required to do the turn.
D Speed was constant.
Newtons Second Law Newtons Second Law
161
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same mass as car
equivalent to
mass of 2 cars
Fig 5.4.3
15 Calculate the force being applied if:
a a 5 kg box accelerates at 4.1 m/s
2
b a 1.3 tonne car accelerates at 2 m/s
2
c a 400 g ball accelerates at 4 m/s
2
16 Calculate the acceleration caused by:
a a 40 N force applied to a 0.5 kg mass
b a 0.5 N force applied to a 50 kg mass
17 A 35 N force causes a mass to accelerate at 7 m/s
2
.
Calculate the mass.
18 A 3.5 kg body accelerates from rest to 20 m/s in 5 s.
Calculate:
a its acceleration
b the force required
2OO q
8OO q
O.5 m/s
2
1OO q
Fig 5.4.4
Force (N) Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s
2
)
5.0 4.0
6.1 2.0
12.0 4.0
16.4 2.0
9.3 3.1
Analyse
Use this key to answer questions 12 and 13:
A: Tripled
B: Doubled
C: The same
D: Halved
E: One-third of what it was
12 Compare the maximum accelerations away from traffic
lights of the three identical cars shown.

13 Sarah measured the acceleration of a trolley using
the set-up shown in Figure 5.4.4. She found it to be
0.5 m/s
2
. She then replaced the 100 g with 200 g and
then with 300 g. Calculate what she would expect
the new accelerations to be.
Skill

14 Calculate acceleration or force to complete the table.
>>
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162
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[
Practical activities
] 5
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F = ma
Aim To investigate Newtons Second
Law
Equipment
Dynamics trolley, 50 g masses, pulley and clamp,
block and clamp, string or fishing line, ruler,
access to electronic balance or beam balance
Either
Ticker-timer, tape and carbon paper circles
Or
Stopwatch
Or
Appropriate light gates and datalogging equipment
to measure acceleration
Prac 1
Unit 5.4
5O kq
15O h
2OO h 2OO h
77O h
8OO h
4OO h
2O kq
a
b
Fig 5.4.5
19 Calculate the overall force and acceleration on
the masses shown in Figure 5.4.5.
20 The brakes of a car can exert a stopping force
of 3000 N. The car is 1.5 t. Calculate the following:
a the mass of the car in kg (note: 1 t = 1000 kg)
b the deceleration of the car
c how long it would take to stop if it was travelling
initially at 10 m/s
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the different types of seatbelts installed
in cars and the advantages of each. Present your
information in the form of an advertisement designed
to sell a model you think is effective.
2 Research bike helmets or sports shoe design and how
they reduce deceleration and impact forces. Write an
article for a consumer magazine explaining the special
features of these products.
Surf
3 Investigate Newtons Second Law
by connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.
au/schools, selecting chapter 5 and clicking on the
destinations button. You will need to complete a
tutorial including animations and questions. Record
a log of your progress, outlining any misconceptions
you may have discovered and corrected.
Hanging mass (g) Mass on trolley Acceleration of
= pulling force (g) trolley
Method
1 Copy the following table into your workbook:
Newtons Second Law Newtons Second Law
163
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5
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5
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Part A: Changing trolley mass
3 Find the mass of the trolley and record it.
4 Measure the acceleration using one of the three
methods described below.
5 Add a mass to the trolley and measure the new
acceleration.
6 Repeat with at least three different masses.
Part B: Changing force
Hang 50 g on the line.
Method 1: Ticker-timer
Attach 1 m of ticker-tape to the back of the trolley.
Turn on and let the trolley pull the tape through.
Draw a line through every fifth dot and measure the
distance between the lines in millimetres.
Calculate the speed (in mm/s) of each section by
dividing the distance by 0.1.
Plot a speedtime graph and then calculate the slope of
the graph. This will be the acceleration in mm/s
2
.
Change the mass and repeat.
Each member of the group should analyse one tape.
Method 2: Mathematical
Accurately measure out a 2 m track on the desk.
With the stopwatch, time the run. Repeat three times
and find the average time taken.
Use the formula below to find the acceleration of the
trolley in m/s
2
. d is the distance of the run.

a =
2d
t
2
Method 3: Datalogging
Each equipment manufacturer will have instructions to
determine the acceleration of a trolley.
Use appropriate sensors to find the acceleration.
Questions
1 Copy and complete:
a When the mass of the trolley increased, acceleration
______________
b When the mass and the force pulling the trolley
along increased, acceleration ______________
2 Explain Newtons Second Law in your own words.
3 Deduce what effect mass had on the acceleration of
the trolley.
Forces in sport
Many datalogging companies have
specific pracs that test the force
and acceleration involved in sport.
TAIN has two experiments:
shock-absorbing footwear
starting blocks.
Run one of these experiments, or another
sport-related one, and report on it.
Prac 2
Unit 5.4
DYO
50 g masses
50 g masses
trolley
single
pulley
block and
clamp
bench
Fig 5.4.6 The basic experimentmeasure the trolleys
motion using one of the three methods
described.
2 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.4.6.
164
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
5
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5
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A hose flicks about if it is turned on, its
nozzle moving in a direction opposite to the
water. The hose is pushing the water out, but
the water is also pushing the hose back in
the opposite direction. This is known as an
action/reaction force pair.
A similar situation occurs whenever
a weapon is fired. The weapon recoils (moves
backwards) as the ammunition is shot. The explosion
c
o
n
t
e
x
t of gunpowder in a cannon will push a cannonball out
(the action) and the cannon recoils because of the force
the ball applies back on it (the reaction).
Newtons Third Law
Newton explains the action/reaction phenomenon
in his Third Law:
For every action force there is an equal and
opposite reaction force.
The forces on both the cannon and the ball
are the same (but in opposite directions) but their
accelerations are very different. The ball has a
relatively low mass and so has a high acceleration
and therefore velocity. Having more mass, the
cannon is much less affected.
In sport an action force is applied on a ball by
a bat, racquet or foot. When you hit a golf ball,
the club pushes the ball and is pushed back by it.
The ball is light, so its acceleration is high. The
club is much heavier and the force is usually only
enough to slow, not stop, the
swing. It might also cause a
shudder through the handle.
You would feel reaction force
even more if you played
footy with a brick!
Newtons First Law
Any object at rest will stay that way unless a force acts on it.
Any object that is moving will keep moving at the same speed
and in the same direction unless a force changes it.
Newtons Second Law
If the forces on an object are unbalanced then its motion will
change. The larger the force the bigger the change in motion.
A change in motion is called acceleration and will depend on
the mass of the object.
force = mass acceleration
F = m a
Newtons Third Law
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. That
is, there is an action and reaction pair of equal and opposite
forces, acting on a different object. The action and reaction
forces never act on the same object.
NOTE: When speaking of an action/reaction pair of forces,
there can be more than two forces involved but one group will
be action forces, and the other group will be reaction forces.
Summary: Newtons three laws
Fig 5.5.1 Weapons recoil due to Newtons Third Law.
Worksheet 5.5 The history of forces
165
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3, 2, 1, lift-off!
Rocket engines are sometimes called reaction engines,
as they use the action/reaction pair of forces to provide
the thrust needed for launch. Rockets expel massive
quantities of gases in one direction, which push the
rocket in the opposite direction, usually upwards.
Fig 5.5.2 The space shuttle and all rockets lift off
because of action/reaction.
The exhaust gases are tiny particles but their effect
is dramatic due to their high acceleration.
The exhaust is produced when fuel, called
propellant, undergoes chemical combustion.
A liquid propellant engine uses two liquefied
gases (for example, hydrogen and oxygen), which are
combined in a combustion chamber. The resulting
exhaust stream produces thrustthe
force which propels the rocket.
The thrust produced by the space
shuttle at lift-off is 35 meganewtons
(35 000 000 newtons), and accelerates
the vehicle at three times the
acceleration of gravity, or 3 g
(i.e. 30 m/s
2
).
Initially the thrust is not enough
to overcome the weight of the
rocket, so the rocket sits on the
launchpad, making a lot of flames,
but not going anywhere.
When thrust equals weight
the rocket begins to hover,
and when thrust is larger
than weight, it lifts off.
Rockets may also contain
engines that use solid
propellant. These engines are
generally simpler, cheaper
and safer than liquid fuel
engines. The solid fuel
is composed of several
chemicals in proportions
that allow it to burn quickly
without exploding. Once
started, a solid fuel engine
cannot be stopped until
all the fuel is used. The
space shuttle uses two solid
rocket boosters (SRBs),
which burn for a little over
two minutes before falling
into the ocean by parachute
to be retrieved and re-used
in future missions. These
are the two thin engines on
the side of the main tank
attached to the shuttle.
Jet engines work in
a similar way to rocket
engines: air is compressed
by a series of large fans, and is
then pushed out the rear of the
engine with high acceleration.
Animal rockets
The purpleback flying
squid (Sthenoteuthis
oualaniesis) squirts out
jets of water in order to
leap out of the sea to feed.
It can then easily glide a
distance of over 10 metres
in the air.
Flying frozen chickens!
Birdstrikes have been around as
long as aviation. It is estimated
that 30 000 occur worldwide
each year, leading to damaged
aircraft windscreens and even
engine failure. The US Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA)
designed a unique device for
testing the strength of windscreens
on aeroplanes. It is a gun that
launches a dead chicken at a
planes windscreen at about the
speed the plane flies. The theory is
that if the windscreen doesnt crack
from the impact of the carcass, it
will survive a real collision with
a bird during flight. The British
needed to test a windscreen on a
new ultra-fast train. They borrowed
the FAAs chicken launcher,
loaded a chicken and fired. The
ballistic chicken shattered the
windscreen, smashed the drivers
seat and embedded itself in the
aluminium back wall. The British
were stunned and contacted the
FAA to see if everything had
been done correctly. The FAA
reviewed the test and had only
one recommendation: Dont use a
frozen chicken.
Exhaust gases push a rocket in the
opposite direction.
liquid
hydrogen
flow-valve
control
combustion
chamber
exhaust
gases
coolant liquid
oxygen
Fig 5.5.3
Prac 1
p. 168
5
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5
.
5
Prac 2
p. 168
166
>>>
air
fuel
(kerosene)
combustion
chamber
fast moving air
turbine
compressor
fan
Fig 5.5.5 A jet engine works by action/reaction.
5
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Newtons Third Law
1 State Newtons Third Law of Motion.
2 Describe three examples that show Newtons Third
Law of Motion in action.
Newtons Third Law Newtons Third Law
landing
solid rocket
booster
separation
external tank
separation
main engine and
solid rocket booster
ignition at lift-off
orbit
manoeuvring
before re-entry
orbiter engines
fired to slow
descent
re-entry into
atmosphere
approach
Fig 5.5.4 The main stages of a space shuttle mission
Summary: Newtons three laws
3 For each of the following statements, identify the
correct Newtons Law:
a The larger the force the bigger the change in motion.
b Any object at rest will stay that way unless pushed
or pulled.
c For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
d Any object that is moving will keep moving at the
same speed and in the same direction unless a
force changes it.
3, 2, 1, lift-off!
4 Use Newtons Third Law to outline how a rocket
achieves lift-off.
5 Use a diagram to demonstrate how a jet engine works
using Newtons Third Law.
Think
6 Explain why a balloon shoots around the room when
it is allowed to deflate.
7 a Firefighters often need to brace themselves or
have extra help to hold a firehose while it is on.
Explain why.
b Predict what would happen if they did not have
this help.
8 Michael is stranded on ice that is so slippery that he
cannot walk. Recommend a way that he could get
himself to nearby hard ground.
9 Pat throws a netball.
a Identify the action force.
b Explain what the action force did in this situation.
c Identify the reaction force.
d Explain what the reaction force did in this situation.
10 Deduce which part of the launch these rockets are in:
a thrust = weight of rocket
b thrust > weight of rocket
c thrust < weight of rocket
d thrust = 0
11 Explain why the acceleration of a rocket increases as
its fuel is consumed.
12 Rockets normally discard used fuel tanks soon after
launch. Discuss the advantage of this.
Analyse
13 Ben kicks a football. Use a diagram to demonstrate
the action/reaction pair of forces acting on the football:
a as it lies on the ground before being kicked
167
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b as it is kicked, Bens boot touching the ball
c as it flies through the air, having no more contact with
the foot
14 Copy the diagrams in Figure 5.5.6 into your workbook
and draw action/reaction force pairs in each.
centre of mass
gases
gases
gases
gases
gases
gases
Fig 5.5.7
Fig 5.5.6
a
walking
b
15 The arrows in Figure 5.5.7 show gases being expelled
out the back of the rockets. The longer the arrow, the
more gases are being expelled. Copy or trace these
rockets. Identify any thrust forces produced and the
direction the rocket would go or turn.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 a Research how squids move and record your
findings using a diagram.
b List any other animals that propel themselves
forward like a rocket.
2 Research the development of either the jet engine or
the rocket. Use a time line to summarise the major
developments.
3 The V1 and V2 rockets were developed in Nazi
Germany and were the first missile-based weapons
used in warfare. Use a diagram to demonstrate how
these rockets use Newtons Third Law of motion.
4 Write a brief journal article on the contribution of
Werner Von Braun to the understanding of motion.
Action
5 Using Figure 5.5.8 as a guide, take a whirly rocket for a
spin. Record your observations and deduce whether
Newtons Third Law is obeyed.
tape
pivot pin
flexible straw
stick
balloon
Fig 5.5.8
Surf
6 Investigate Newtons Third Law by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 5 and clicking on the destinations
button. You will need to complete a tutorial including
animations and questions. Record a log of your
progress, outlining any misconceptions you may have
discovered and corrected.
168
>>>
[
Practical activities
] 5
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5
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Water rockets
SAFETY WARNING: The launch of this rocket must
be done outside. Everyone must stand clear of
the launch area.
Aim To observe action/reaction forces in action
Equipment
1.25 L plastic softdrink bottle, champagne cork (other
corks or rubber stoppers may do, but the fit must be tight),
sandpaper, Vaseline, safety glasses, access to bike pump or
electric pump, access to power drill with fine drill bit, access
to hacksaw, retort stand, clamp and ring
Method
1 Cut the champagne cork with the hacksaw, shortening
it so that it is a little shorter than the valve of the bike
pump.
2 Sand the sides of the cork so that it fits neatly into the
neck of the plastic bottle.
3 Drill a hole through the centre of the cork. Lightly smear
the sides of the cork with Vaseline.
4 Fill the bottle to about one-third with water.
5 Push the valve of the pump through the cork and then
secure the cork in the neck of the bottle.
6 Quickly place the bottle upside down in the ring.
7 Start pumping, standing well clear of the rocket.
8 Repeat, trying different amounts of water.
9 Repeat, trying different-sized plastic softdrink bottles.
Prac 1
Unit 5.5
A two-stage rocket
Aim To construct a two-stage rocket using
balloons
Equipment
Plastic cup, scissors, 2 balloons (1 long, 1 round), tape
Method
1 Cut the bottom out of one of the paper cups.
2 Partly inflate the long balloon and pull it through the
bottomless cup, taping the opening to the side of the
cup as shown in Figure 5.5.10.
3 Place the round balloon inside the cup and blow it up so
it wedges inside the cup. Hold the opening shut.
4 Remove the tape holding the long balloon on the side
of the cup and release the end of the round balloon to
launch your rocket.
Prac 2
Unit 5.5
tape
long
balloon
cup
Fig 5.5.10
long
balloon
round
balloon
cup
Fig 5.5.11
retort stand
bosshead
and ring
sanded and
cut cork
bike
valve
bike
pump
1
fill with water
3
1.25 L plastic bottle
Fig 5.5.9
Questions
1 Identify the action/reaction force pair in this situation.
2 Identify the fuel for this rocket.
3 List the forces that slowed its ascent.
4 Recommend how these forces could be reduced.
5 More water did not necessarily produce increased
height. Discuss why.
7 Evaluate the effect of different-sized plastic bottles on
height.
6 Trigonometry can be used to find the height reached by
the rocket. Describe how this can be done.
Questions
1 Account for the propulsion of the rocket.
2 a Explain how the rocket could be enlarged to include a
third stage.
b Assess whether there would be a limit to how many
stages you could attach.
Newtons Third Law Newtons Third Law
169
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UNIT
UNIT
Rock climbers appear to defy gravity.
Climbers push down on handholds and
footholds to advance up the rock. By
maintaining a balanced position, climbers
can remain stable regardless of their weight.
An upward frictional force on the hands and
shoes opposes gravity and allows the climbers to
move upwards. Gravity is that unseen quantity that
is always trying to pull you down.
c
o
n
t
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x
t
Gravity
Gravity is the rate of acceleration at which objects
fall. It seems logical that heavier objects should fall
faster than lighter ones but Galileo found that the
acceleration due to gravity is the same for all similarly
shaped objects. Newton later discovered that the
acceleration due to gravity depends on the mass of the
planet you are on and the distance you are from the
centre of the planet, but not on the mass of the falling
object.
On the Earths surface the
acceleration of all objects is
9.8 m/s
2
. This means that
the speed of a falling object
increases about 10 m/s every
second of its fall. This value
is for objects falling in a
vacuum. In air, acceleration
will be slightly less.
An object pushes air out
of its way as it falls. The
air pushes back with an
equal, upward force called
air resistance. The more the
air resistance, the lower the
acceleration of the fall.
Weight
The force on a mass that is
caused by gravity is called
weight. It is the force that
pulls objects down to the
surface of a planet. Weight
depends on the mass of the
object and the acceleration
due to the gravity of the
planet itself. You can write
this as:
weight = mass acceleration due to gravity
or w = mg
Terminal velocity
Air resistance increases as speed increasesthe faster
you are falling, the more the resistance. Eventually it
balances weight, and so the total force acting is zero.
There can be no more acceleration and the object falls
at a constant speed, called its terminal velocity. All
objects have a terminal velocity, but its value will
depend on the shape and size of the object. A sheet
of paper has high air resistance and a low terminal
velocity, while the same paper crumpled has lower air
resistance and will reach higher speeds.
g-forces
Our weight often seems to increase
because of inertia and g-force is
used to describe this. Normally
you only feel 1 g (i.e. normal
gravity, g). If you experience 2 g,
then you are being pushed into
your seat twice as much as normal.
The body responds, squashing
muscles and bones.
Formula 1 drivers experience
forces of up to 5 g when cornering:
neck muscles strain to hold in
place a head five times heavier
than normal and blood is pushed
sideways. Blood flow to the
edges of the eye is disrupted,
causing peripheral (side) vision to
deteriorate, distorting perspective
and making it difficult to judge
distances.
If an aircraft suddenly increases
altitude, blood moves down to
the feet and away from the brain.
At 8 g to 9 g this reduced blood
supply to the brain will cause
blackouts.
Fig 5.6.1 The rock climbers weight force is balanced only
by her hand grip on the rocks and the friction of
her boots.
Prac 2
p. 173
Prac 1
p. 172
DYO
170
>>>
Water is weightless
in a falling cup.
water
polystyrene
cup
small hole
punched
through
does
water
exit?
Fig 5.6.5
Worksheet 5.6 Losing and gaining weight
Fig 5.6.3 Skydivers can change their terminal velocities.
Falling from the sky
Without a parachute humans have a terminal velocity of about 50 m/s.
However, skydivers can control their descent by changing the shape of
their body as they fall, enabling them to hang back or catch up to others
to create group formations. An open parachute reduces the terminal
velocity to 5 m/s, which is just about the terminal velocity of a raindrop
(7 m/s). Pulling on the chutes strings changes its shape, which changes
its speed and direction.
Leonardo Da Vinci (painter of the Mona Lisa) sketched his ideas for a
parachute in 1485. In 1797, Andre Gamerin completed the first successful
parachute jump, having dropped 680 m from a hot air balloon.
Prac 3
p. 174
Fig 5.6.2 A falling object travels at a constant terminal
velocity if the weight is equal to the air resistance.
Air resistance increases with speed
Weight = mg
Physics facts
Gravity
Symbol in formulas: g
Unit: metres per second squared
(gravity is acceleration)
Unit abbreviation: m/s
2
or ms
2
Weight
Symbol in formulas: w
Unit: newtons (weight is a force)
Unit abbreviation: N
Weightlessness
You have weight whenever gravity is
around. True weightlessness (where
g = 0) only happens far from the
influence of stars and planets. You
sometimes feel weightless, however,
in rides such as the Tower of Terror
and the Giant Drop at Dreamworld,
when the seat (with you in it) falls.
During the fall, the seat cannot
push back to give your normal
feelings of weight. When in orbit,
the space shuttle and space stations
fall towards Earth. They dont hit,
however, since they are travelling
at such high speed horizontally
that they always miss the planet.
Astronauts aboard them have the
feeling of weightlessness because
both they and the floor fall at the
same rate. Try the experiment in
Figure 5.6.5 as evidence.
Prac 4
p. 174
Fig 5.6.4 Leonardo Da Vincis 1485 sketch of a parachute
Gravity Gravity
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[
Questions
]
A B C
Fig 5.6.6
hammer shotput feather bullet
Earth Moon
Fig 5.6.7
20 Complete the photographs in Figure 5.6.7 by
predicting where the missing object is at each
indicated time.
Checkpoint
Gravity
1 Define gravity.
2 State the symbol, abbreviation and units for gravity.
3 On the Earths surface all objects accelerate at the same
rate. State this rate.
4 Define air resistance.
5 Define weight.
6 Record the relationship between weight and mass in
words and a formula.
Terminal velocity
7 Define terminal velocity.
8 List factors that affect terminal velocity.
Think
9 Copy the following, modifying any incorrect statements
to make them true.
a Heavier objects fall faster than light ones.
b Air resistance is high in a vacuum.
c Mass changes as you move between different planets.
d Weight is measured in kilograms.
e You would feel weightless in a falling lift.
10 Contrast weight with mass.
11 Identify a place that has no air resistance.
12 Spacecraft often have fragile solar panels and antennae
projecting from them, but move at very high speeds.
Explain why these things dont get ripped off the craft.
13 Compare the rate at which a hammer and a feather
would fall on the Moon.
14 Account for the fact that skydivers could throw a
pumpkin back and forth between them before they
release their chutes, but not once the chutes are open.
(Hint: The terminal velocity of a pumpkin is 50 m/s.)
15 a Explain what is meant when it is said that a person
experiences a force of 8 g.
b Predict what will happen to a human experiencing 8 g.
16 a Propose ways in which the g-forces on a human
can be increased.
b Propose ways in which these forces can be
decreased.
17 Assess whether it is possible to be truly weightless,
even in space.
18 When the space shuttle is in orbit, the gravity on its
occupants is still approximately 7 m/s
2
. Account for the
fact that they seem weightless.
Analyse
19 Identify the diagram in which the ball will be:
a accelerating
b getting blown upwards
c travelling at terminal velocity
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[
Practical activities
] 5
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Finding g graphically
Aim To experimentally determine acceleration
due to gravity
Equipment
Ticker-timer and about 2 m tape, G-clamp, 50 g mass, sticky
tape, ruler, access to a calculator
Prac 1
Unit 5.6
22 Angelo lands on the Planet X. His mass is 70 kg on Earth.
a State his mass on Planet X.
b If his weight on Planet X is 350 N, calculate the
acceleration due to gravity on Planet X.
c Contrast the size of Planet X with that of Earth.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research Galileos gravity experiments on top of the
Leaning Tower of Pisa. Summarise your findings by
drawing a cartoon.
2 Write a biography of Sir Isaac Newton, highlighting his
major scientific achievements.
3 a Research the history of the parachute, and present
your information in a style of your choice.
b Construct a series of diagrams to show the forces
acting during the different stages of descent of a
parachute.
4 a Record the value of gravity on different planets of
the solar system.
b Calculate your weight on each planet.
Surf
5 Investigate terminal velocity further by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 5 and clicking on the destinations button.
a You will need to complete the interactive animation
investigating the physics involved when you drop a
ball. Make changes to mass, radius and height of
drop, and graph the results.
b Record your results in a table and state a
conclusion about your findings.
PROJECT
Cartoons for homework!
Videotape a cartoon on TV. Watch carefully the
movements that it shows, particularly anything that is
falling. (Roadrunner cartoons are ideal!)
Prepare a presentation on a short snippet of motion
shown in the cartoon. Were the laws of physics
displayed correctly? If not, what should have happened?
Show the snippet of video to the class and explain the
correct/incorrect use of physics.
Method
1 Tape a 50 g mass to the bottom of a 2 m long strip of
ticker-timer tape.
2 Clamp, or hold securely, the ticker-timer against a wall
or doorframe.
3 Thread the tape into the timer and hold it.
Skills

21 Amal has a mass of 50 kg. Calculate her mass and
her weight on:
a Earth (g = 9.8 m/s
2
)
b the Moon (g = 1.63 m/s
2
)
c Mars (g = 3.7 m/s
2
)
Gravity Gravity
Creative writing
Convincing Aristotle
This ancient Greek philosophers views on gravity
shaped thought for over 1500 years. Unfortunately,
Aristotle thought heavier objects always fell faster than
light ones.
You have travelled back in time to explain to Aristotle
what gravity is and what it does to falling objects.
Because your ancient Greek is not good, you will need to
prepare some simple demonstrations to convince him.
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5
.
6
5
.
6
4 Turn on the timer and let the tape fall.
5 Rule a line through every fifth dot. Measure the distance
between each line.
6 Copy the table below and enter your results.
ticker tape
to AC
power
pack
sticky tape
50 g mass
clamp or hold
flat on
doorframe/wall
ticker-
timer
Fig 5.6.8 Using a ticker-timer to measure g
Section Elapsed time Time taken for Distance of each Average speed in Time at which this
(s) each section (s) section (mm) each section (mm/s) happened (s)
Column 4 Column 3
0 to 5 dots 0.1 0.1
6 to 10 0.2 0.1
11 to 15 0.3 0.1
16 to 20 0.4 0.1
21 to 25 0.5 0.1
Datalogging and g
Use datalogging equipment,
appropriate sensors (e.g. light
gates) and equipment (e.g. TAIN
has combs) to measure and plot
acceleration due to gravity.
Prac 2
Unit 5.6
DYO
7 Calculate the average speed of each five-dot section.
8 Plot a speedtime graph for the drop, drawing a line
of best fit through your points.
9 Find the gradient of the graph. This is acceleration
due to gravity in mm/s
2
. To convert to m/s
2
, divide by
1000.
10 How does your result compare to the actual value of
the acceleration of gravity of 9.8 m/s
2
?
Questions
1 Calculate how long it would take for one new dot
(equivalent to a space between two dots) and for
five new dots (five spaces between 6 dots) to be
produced if the AC supply was:
a 10 Hz
b 100 Hz
2 Explain what the slope of a speedtime graph
indicates.
3 Discuss whether your graph indicates constant
acceleration as the mass fell.
4 Why would the acceleration measured here be less
than 9.8 m/s
2
? Justify your answer.
5 From the tape, describe how you can tell when the
mass hit the ground.
174
Measuring height with a stopwatch!
Prac 3
Unit 5.6
The formula h = 4.9t
2
gives the height that an
object drops (measured in metres) when the drop
time t is measured (in seconds). It assumes that
the object falls with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s
2

due to gravity.
Aim To find height using a stopwatch
Equipment
Any small mass that wont break, stopwatch, metre ruler/
tape measure, string with mass attached
Method
1 Find appropriate safe spots around school where you
can drop a small mass.
2 Measure the time taken for the drop at each place.
Repeat to obtain consistent results.
3 Use a calculator and the formula h = 4.9t
2
to calculate
the expected height of the drop.
Place of drop Time of drop Average time Height from formula Measured height
(s) (s) (m) (m)
4 Use the tape measure to find the actual drop.
5 Place all your results in a table like the one below.
6 If time allows, test whether the formula works for the
mass being thrown down (instead of being dropped)
and for masses that have high air resistance.
Questions
1 You both measured and calculated the height of the
drop. Compare your results.
2 Evaluate whether the formula would give inaccurate
results for the drop of things like a feather.
3 Identify the starting speed required for the formula to
work.
4 Present any assumptions made by the formula.
Finding the centre of gravity
Prac 4
Unit 5.6
Mass is spread all through an object. Weight,
however, acts as if it is concentrated at one
particular point, called the centre of gravity or
centre of mass.
Aim To locate the centre of gravity of different objects
Equipment
A photocopy of a map of Australia, scissors, 2 sheets of
cardboard, cotton line, small mass (e.g. some paperclips),
sticky tape, access to a hole punch, access to photos of
athletes (e.g. running, jumping, kicking, throwing)
Method
Part A
1 Trace a map of Australia onto a piece of cardboard and
cut it out.
2 Punch a hole anywhere near its edge.
3 Tie the line to the hole and attach the small mass to the
other end.
4 Attach another line at the hole and suspend Australia
from it.
5 Use a pencil to trace onto the cardboard the vertical
line the mass line makes.
6 Repeat, but place the hole somewhere else on the
map.
7 The centre of gravity is where the two lines intersect.
Mark its position.
Part B
8 Make a larger version of the person shown in
Figure 5.6.9 on the other piece of cardboard.
Gravity Gravity
>>>
175
9 Arrange in a pose and use tape to connect the body
parts. Find the centre of gravity using the above
method.
10 Arrange the body into the poses of various athletes of
different sports and find the centres of gravity.
Questions
1 Propose another method of finding the centre of
gravity.
2 Refer the position to an atlas and identify which town
is the closest to the heart of Australia.
3 Is the centre of mass the same for all human poses?
Justify your answer.
4 There are two styles of high jumping: the scissors and
the flop.
a Identify which one has the lowest centre of mass.
b Propose why the flop is the favoured style.
5 Skiers try to keep their centre of gravity as low as
possible. Explain why they do this.
6 Predict how the centre of gravity affects the stability
of cars and trucks.
Fig 5.6.9 Finding the centre of a mass
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UNIT
UNIT
5
.
7
5
.
7
That was hard work! You have probably said
that recently, but what does work actually
mean in science? Basically if you apply a force
and move an object, you have done work.
That is why the phrase hard work really
makes sense when you start lifting rocks and
stacking boxes. But you probably use a little less
energy doing your homework, which, scientifically
speaking, is not really hard work after all.
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Work
Movement involves energy. Energy is the ability to do
work. Work happens whenever things are shifted or
rearranged by a force. The bigger the force, the more
work done. Likewise if something is shifted a long
way, then more work is done than if it only moves
slightly. If it doesnt move, then no work has been
done on it.
work = force applied distance shifted
or W = Fs
Force is always measured in newtons (N) and
distance in metres (m). Work is a form of energy and,
like all energy, is measured in joules, abbreviated as J.
If a heavy box takes a force of 500 N to shift it 3 m,
then the work done on it is:
W = 500 3 = 1500 J
Physics facts
Energy
Unit: joules
Unit abbreviation: J
Fig 5.7.1 If the crate shifts 3 m, then 1500 J of work
has been done.
500 N force
The work done in a car crash
is very obvious. The car and its
occupants can undergo radical
rearrangement: bonnets crumple,
windscreens shatter, bones break.
Forces are applied and things
moved. Work is done. Where did the
energy to do this work come from?
The Trabi
West Germany produced
Mercedes Benz, BMW,
Porsche, Audi and VW, but
East Germany made the
Trabant. Its 660 cm
3
two-
cylinder engine accelerated
it to a maximum speed
of 80 km/h, a terrifying
speed, given that much of
the cars body was made
of compressed recycled
cardboard! Collisions at
speeds as low as 16 km/h
were often deadly. Although
the Trabant is no longer
being produced, there are
still lots of old ones on
the roads of the old East
Germany.
Kinetic energy
Movement is needed for cars to crash: no accident will
happen if everything is stationary. When something
moves it has kinetic energy. The heavier the car, the
more kinetic energy it has and the more work and
damage it can do. Likewise, the faster you travel, the
more work will be done. In fact, if you double your
speed, the work done in a collision and the damage
caused will be four times what it was at the slower
speed.
Kinetic energy =
1
/2 mass speed speed
or KE =
1
/2 mv
2
Kinetic energy is measured in joules (J), mass in
kilograms (kg) and speed in metres per second (m/s).
Compare the kinetic energies of a typical 1.5 tonne
car (1500 kg). At 50 km/h (13.9 m/s), the car has a
kinetic energy of
KE =
1
/2 1500 13.92
= 144 908 J
At 100 km/h (27.8 m/s), the kinetic energy is
quadrupled:
KE =
1
/2 1500 27.82
= 579 630 J
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On braking, all this kinetic energy is converted into
heat energy that is dissipated by the brake pads or
discs. In a collision, it converts into heat and sound,
but mainly into work as the car crumples or crumples
other cars or objectsa lot of rearranging is done in an
accident.
Gravitational potential energy
Similar damage would be sustained if a car ran off
a cliff. The higher the cliff, the worse the situation
becomes. Obviously height gives you energy too.
Potential energy is stored energyit gives the object the
potential to do work. If you lift an object to a height you
give it gravitational potential energy. The heavier the
object and the higher you lift it, the more energy it will
have, and the more damage it will cause when let go.
Mathematically it can be written as:
gravitational
= mass
acceleration
height
potential energy due to gravity
GPE = mgh
GPE is measured in joules (J), m in kilograms
(kg) and h in metres (m). Like all accelerations, g is
measured in metres per second squared (m/s
2
). On
Earth g is 9.8 m/s
2
.
As something falls it picks up speedgravitational
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
When it hits the bottom, most will be converted into
work done on the ground and the object itself. Both
the ground and the object will dent and change shape
or break.
Elastic potential energy
Elastic bands and springs store energy when they
are stretched or extended. They store it as elastic
potential energy. They have the potential to release
energy and do work when they are let go, bouncing
back to their original shape. This is very obvious
when a slingshot is stretched and let go. You put your
own energy into stretching the elastic band. The more
a slingshot is stretched, the more energy it stores, the
more kinetic energy the projectile will have, the faster
it will go and the more damage (work done) it will do.
This is also the energy that puts the fun into bungee
jumping.
Fig 5.7.2 Gravitational potential energy converts first
into kinetic energy (and high speed), then
work done (crumpling of the panels).
A bungee rope stores elastic potential energy
ready to release at the bottom of the fall. Fig 5.7.3
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Work
1 Define the term energy.
2 Use words to explain the following equation:
W = Fs
3 State the name, abbreviations and units for all terms in
the equation: W = Fs
Kinetic energy
4 State the type of energy a moving object possesses.
Springs also store energy when squashed or
compressed. Tennis balls act as a store of elastic
potential energy when compressed on a bounce
or when hit. The more the ball stores, the more it
releases and the higher it will bounce.
Some materials are stiffthey need high forces
to change their shape. Others are highly elastic. One
measure of stiffness is the spring constant of the
material. The higher the constant, the stiffer (and less
elastic) it will be.
Elastic potential energy =
1
/2 spring constant extension
2
EPE =
1
/2 kx
2
Here, x is the extension or compression
of the elastic band or spring (measured
in metres) and k is its spring constant (in
newtons per metre, N/m).
extension x
F = weight = mg
m
k = spring constant = slope
F
x
Fig 5.7.4 Calculating the spring constant
Prac 1
p. 180
Efficiency
Friction between moving surfaces wastes
useful energy, converting some of it into
heat and sound. Efficiency is a measure of
how much useful energy is retained in a
conversion:
efficiency =
useful energy after the conversion
100%
energy before the conversion
A rolling ball will eventually stop due to friction.
All the kinetic energy it once had has been converted
into heat and sound: the efficiency is 0%. A 100%
efficient machine would be perfectly quiet and would
run forever, because all the energy conversions would
be perfect.
A ball loses a little of its useful energy
each time it bounces. Squash balls have very
little bounce and are incredibly inefficient,
losing most of the energy to heat. The ball
gets hot quickly, which then gives it more
elasticity and better bounce.
Prac 2
p. 181
Prac 3
p. 182
DYO
Worksheet 5.7 Work and energy
5 Use words and symbols to describe the formula used
to calculate kinetic energy.
6 State the units for the terms in the kinetic energy
equation.
Gravitational potential energy
7 Define the term potential energy.
8 Use words and symbols to describe the formula used
to calculate gravitational potential energy.
9 State the units for all terms in the formula:
GPE = mgh
Elastic potential energy
10 Define the term elastic potential energy.
11 List two objects capable of storing elastic potential
energy.
12 Use words and symbols to describe the formula used
to calculate elastic potential energy.
13 State the units for the terms in the equation:
EPE =
1
/2kx
2
Efficiency
14 Describe how friction wastes energy.
15 Define the term efficiency.
16 Write an equation to demonstrate how efficiency
can be calculated.
Work and energy Work and energy
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F
o
r
c
e
A
B
C
D
Extension
Fig 5.7.6
5
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5
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7
25 Figure 5.7.6 shows the graphs for the extensions
of the elastic band combinations shown. Identify
the graph that matches each elastic band
combination.
Extension
Force
A
B
C
D
Fig 5.7.5
Think
17 Identify the situations in the list below that do not
involve any work being done.
A A 10 kg crate is lifted up 2 m.
B A car is pushed along a road.
C A spacecraft travels through the solar system
without being affected by air resistance or gravity.
D A skateboard rolls to a stop.
E A book sits on a desk.
18 State the names given to:
a moving energy
b height energy
c spring energy
d rearranging energy
19 If speed is doubled, the car accident will be twice as
bad. Use your knowledge of kinetic energy to evaluate
this statement.
20 Crumple zones are incorporated into the front and
rear of modern cars to convert the energy of the
collision into work on the panels. It does this by
allowing them to buckle instead of remaining rigid.
If these zones were not there, predict what would
absorb the collision energy.
21 A tennis ball that was 100% efficient would bounce
forever. Assess this statement.
22 In reality, a tennis ball will bounce a little less each time.
Explain why this occurs.
23 A slingshot that is stretched twice as far does roughly
four times the damage. Explain why.
Analyse
24 List the springs in Figure 5.7.5 in order from stiffest to
least stiff.
Skills

26 Calculate the work done:
a by a 7 N force that shifts a box 2 m
b in shifting a trolley 50 cm by a 20 N force
27 Calculate the kinetic energy in the following:
a A 400 kg motorbike travels at 25 m/s.
b A 50 kg skateboarder is freewheeling at 9 m/s.
c A 20 g stone is thrown at 2 m/s. (Note: 1000 g = 1 kg)
d A 30 mg spider runs about at 5 cm/s.
(Note: 1000 mg = 1 g)
28 Calculate the gravitational potential energy that the
following objects have:
a Travis stands on a diving board, 11 m above the
surface. His mass is 60 kg.
b A 2.5 kg textbook is on a desk that is 70 cm high.
(Note: 100 cm = 1 m)
c Matthew (65 kg) is on the Centrepoint observation
deck, 250 m above the street.
d Yee is piloting Flight 007 at a height of 9500 m. Her
mass is 55 kg.
>>
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[
Practical activities
] 5
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Prac 1
Unit 5.7
Extension of an
elastic band
Aim To measure the elasticity of elastic bands
Equipment
Three similar elastic bands, retort stand,
bossheads and clamps, 50 g masses, ruler
Method
1 Copy the table opposite into your workbook.
Mass attached (g) Length (mm) Extension (mm)
0
50
100
150
200
250
29 Tanya is about to dive off the 10 m board. Her mass is
50 kg.
a Calculate her gravitational potential energy before
the dive.
b This energy had to come from somewhere. Predict
where. (Hint: How did she get there?)
c When she dives, predict the potential energy
conversion.
d Specify evidence for the energy conversion in part c.
e Calculate her kinetic energy just before she enters
the water.
f Describe where all this kinetic energy goes when she
enters the water.
30 a Calculate the gravitational potential energy before
and after a bounce, if a 30 g ball is dropped from 2 m
and bounces to a height of 1.5 m.
b Calculate its efficiency.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the methods used to stop a lift falling if
the cables break. Record your findings in the form of
a safety report that might appear on an advertising
brochure.
2 Some cars and trucks have leaf springs in their
suspension. Use a diagram to explain how a leaf
spring works.
3 Active safety features are those that allow a driver
to avoid an accident in the first place (e.g. brakes,
Work and energy Work and energy
31 Compare the elastic potential energy stored in an
elastic band (spring constant 6 N/m) that is stretched
0.1 m with an identical band that is stretched exactly
double the distance.
32 Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in each
spring (make sure all lengths are in metres):
a A slinky spring with a spring constant 5 N/m is
extended 3 m.
b A spring (k = 25 N/m) is squashed 0.5 m.
c A slinky has a natural length of 15 cm, but is
stretched to a new length of 90 cm. Its spring
constant is 30 N/m.
d The slinky in part c is stretched from 15 cm to 4 m
in length.
tyre tread, headlights). Passive safety features protect
the occupants when an accident occurs (e.g. seatbelts,
energy-absorbing bumpers). Search the websites of the
major car manufacturers to:
a identify the safety features included in modern cars,
and list them as active or passive features
b design a new safety feature for cars, one that does
not currently exist, but you think may be worth
including in cars in the future.
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5
.
7
2 Measure the natural, unstretched, length of an elastic
band.
3 Hang a single band from the retort stand and attach a
single 50 g mass.
4 Measure its new length and calculate the extension the
50 g mass has caused.
5 Repeat for 100 g, 150 g, 200 g and 250 g.
Efficiency of a roller coaster
Prac 2
Unit 5.7
Measuring efficiency
start
finish
measure
height
measure
height
Fig 5.7.8
Aim To design a roller coaster and determine
the efficiency of different-shaped curves
Equipment
Material to make a track out of (clear plastic tubing is
ideal), ballbearing or marble, retort stands, bossheads and
clamps, metre ruler, access to electronic scales
6 Plot a graph of mass (g) (vertical axis) against
extension (mm). Draw a line of best fit through the
points.
7 Repeat the process for the other elastic band
arrangements shown in Figure 5.7.7.
8 On the same graph as before, plot the graphs of
these arrangements.
9 Repeat the experiment using elastic bands of
different thicknesses.
Method
1 Set up the roller coaster as shown.
2 Let the marble run from one end of the track to the
other.
3 Measure the starting and finishing height.
Questions
1 Identify the energy being stored
in this experiment.
2 Discuss which arrangement of
the elastic band was the stiffest.
retort
stand
elastic band
50 g mass
100 g mass
measure extensions
Fig 5.7.7 Measuring elasticity
>>
182
4 Determine the mass of the marble.
5 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the marble
at the beginning and end of the track.
6 Calculate the efficiency of the track.
7 Change the shape of the track and repeat.
8 Find the most efficient and inefficient shapes for the
track. Draw them.
Prac 3
Unit 5.7
Ball bounce
The coefficient of restitution of a ball is a
measure of the rate at which a ball regains its
shape on a bounce. It can be calculated by the
formula:
coefficient of restitution = height of bounce
height of drop
Aim To calculate the coefficient of restitution of
various balls
Equipment
A variety of balls (tennis, squash, superball, basketball),
metre ruler
Method
1 Design an experiment to measure the coefficient of
restitution of different balls from a particular height.
2 Run a further test to see if the coefficients change when
the starting height is changed.
DYO
Questions
1 List the balls in order from highest to lowest
coefficients of restitution.
2 Deduce whether the coefficient of restitution was the
same for each ball for each drop height.
3 A coefficient of 1 is impossible. Explain why.
4 Use your observations to discuss where the energy
goes in a bounce.
5 Apart from ball type and height, identify other
variables that could affect the coefficient of
restitution.
Questions
1 Gravitational potential energy is converted into other
forms as a marble drops. Deduce what forms it is
converted into.
2 Identify the type of energy the marble had at the
bottom.
3 The track will never be 100% efficient. Explain why.
Work and energy Work and energy
>>>
183
[
Summary questions
]
1 From the following list identify the most appropriate unit
for the quantities below:
J N m/s
2
m/s m s C
a energy
b displacement
c time
d velocity
e acceleration
f force
g work done
2 Record the symbols normally used for the following
quantities:
a distance
b speed
c acceleration
d force
e mass
3 Contrast the following:
a average and instantaneous speeds
b mass and weight
c work and force
4 State what a driver is doing during reaction time and
braking time.
5 Use examples to explain what is meant by inertia.
6 List two things that need to happen for work to be
done.
7 Outline Newtons three laws.
[
Thinking questions
]
8 Identify the Newtons law that best explains these
situations:
a You feel a gun recoil.
b You are pushed back into the seat when a car
accelerates away at traffic lights.
c A hose flicks about when the water is turned on.
d A hand passes through a piece of wood in a karate
chop.
e A soccer ball is kicked.
f Sand moves under your feet when you run.
Chapter review
9 Calculate any missing values in the following table
and select the appropriate units for each.
Distance travelled Time taken Speed
20 m 5 s
6 h 80 km/h
1000 km 100 km/h
2.5 cm 0.5 s
7.0 m 35 m/s
v
t
A
v
t
B
v
t
C
v
t
D
10 Identify the graphs below that represent an object that
is:
a at rest or stationary
b moving at constant speed
c accelerating
d decelerating
11 All things fall at the same rate. Is this statement true,
false or a bit of both? Justify your answer.
12 Station wagons are more dangerous than sedans. Use
your knowledge of inertia to explain why.
13 Use F = ma to explain why high-jumpers and pole-
vaulters land on a spongy mat and not the hard ground.
184
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Writing chemical equations Writing chemical equations
>>>
14 Dashboards are generally padded but once were made
of metal. Explain how a padded dash reduces impact
force.
15 Predict what doubling the speed would do to the
kinetic energy.
16 Predict the forms into which a cars kinetic energy will
get converted in an accident.
17 Squash balls dont bounce well and get very hot after a
little play. Explain how these two facts are connected.
[
Interpreting questions
]

18 Calculate the distance and displacement of a ball that
is thrown vertically, rises to a height 3 m above your
hand, and then returns to it.
19 The same ball is thrown up to the same height, but
is dropped on its return, falling 1 m to the ground.
Calculate its distance and displacement.
20 A cricket pitch is 20.1 m long. The ball is released
0.5 m behind the wicket and reaches the batters
wicket 0.83 s later. Calculate the average speed of
the ball in m/s and km/h.
21 Calculate the final speeds of these objects:
22 Construct separate speedtime graphs for these
motions:
a A car accelerates away from traffic lights.
b A car travels at 100 km/h along a freeway.
c A car brakes hard.
23 On the one graph, construct speedtime graphs for
these drops:
a A shotput is dropped from 2 m.
b A tennis ball falls 2 m to the ground.
c A piece of crumpled paper falls.
d A parachutist jumps out of the plane, waits a short
time, opens the chute and then floats to the ground.
Worksheet 5.8 Motion and energy crossword
Worksheet 5.9 Sci-words
Starting Accelerated Rate of Final
speed for this time acceleration speed
0 5 s 15 m/s
2
0 12 s 4 m/s
2
18 m/s 6 s 2 m/s
2
40 km/h 5 s 5 km/h/s
20 m/s Half a minute 3 m/s
2
185
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By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
explain the factors that influence our health
use the food pyramid to create a balanced diet
contrast infectious with non-infectious diseases
describe the agents that cause different
infectious diseases
explain various methods that the human body
uses to defend itself from disease
explain how vaccinations give immunity
describe how lifestyle and environmental factors
can produce disease
describe how the diet and health of Aboriginal
people has changed since the arrival of
Europeans.
1 Rank your health from 1 (very poor) to 10
(excellent). Why have you given yourself this
number?
2 How much exercise should you do each week
to stay healthy?
3 What diseases have you had so far?
4 What vaccinations/needles have you had in the
past?
5 It is usually a waste of time and money taking
antibiotics to cure you of a cold or the flu.
Why?
6 What do kJ, GI, HIV+, AIDS and DVT stand for?
7 What problems are associated with smoking?
8 Is the brain shown in the scan on this page
healthy?
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Key focus area
The implications of science for
society and the environment
>>>
Health
Health
disease
disease
and
and
186
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UNIT
UNIT
6
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Are you healthy? What about you indicates
that you are healthy or not? How can you
tell? The term good health means different
things to different people. A person in the
Indian slum of Dharavi may think that they
are in good health because they are able
to walk and work while many others around them
cant. You probably look at that same person and
think they are in very poor health because they
may be malnourished or have skin diseases from
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contaminated water. This example shows that health
is a relative term. In general, a person with good
health has an overall sense of wellbeing and is able to
function well within their environment.
What is needed for good health?
There are many factors that contribute to the overall
sense of well-being that makes good health. Three
vital components are good nutrition, a healthy mind
and adequate exercise.
It is important to pay attention to all these factors
or you can quickly become unhealthy. It is not enough
to eat well but never exercise, or to have a healthy
mind but eat only cheeseburgers.
Fig 6.1.1 Philippinos living in this Manila slum are prone
to malnutrition and infectious diseases.
Good nutrition
To survive, organisms
must take in nutrients. A
nutrient is any substance
that is used by an organism
either as a source of energy
or to build living tissue.
Fats, proteins and
carbohydrates can all be
used by the human body to
make energy and so these
are our main nutrients.
These people might be said to have good
health because they are able to function
effectively in their environment. Fig 6.1.2
Health facts
Energy is measured in joules
(J) or kilojoules (kJ).
1000 J = 1 kJ
An older unit of energy is
the calorie: 1 calorie = 4.2 kJ.
Fat supplies about 38 kJ
of energy per gram, while
carbohydrates and protein each
supply about 17 kJ per gram.
A balancing act
A balanced diet should consist of a variety of foods
including fresh fruit and vegetables, breads and
cereals, dairy products, fish, lean meats and water.
The food pyramid shows the proportions of the
various food groups needed for a balanced diet.
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Chips, fried foods and lollies are fine occasionally, but
should make up the smallest part of your food intake.
As well as needing energy for movement and
normal body functions, your body needs to be kept
at 37C, the temperature at which your organs work
best. The amount of energy that different people need
depends on their age, health and
activity levels.
Children need more energy
than adults because they are
still growing. Highly active
people require more energy than
inactive people. If more energy
is taken in than the body can
use, the excess is stored as fat. If
you use more energy than you
take in, fat and carbohydrates in
your body are broken down to
use for energy. If carbohydrates
and fats run out, your body
starts to break down muscle
protein.
How much energy?
An average teenager requires about 10 000 to12 000 kJ
of energy per day. This is roughly the same as the
amount of energy it would take to raise the temperature
of 38 litres of cold water to boiling point (100C).
In addition to energy-giving nutrients, your bodies
need other types of nutrients to stay healthy. Dietary
fibre, which cannot be digested, is important for the
health of your digestive system. Vitamins and minerals
are essential in small amounts. They are naturally
supplied in a balanced
diet, and so vitamin and
mineral supplements are
usually unnecessary. In fact,
too much of some
vitamins can be just
as dangerous as too
little.
GI Joe
The glycemic index (GI) is
now used to rate carbohydrate-
containing foods. Sugars are a
form of carbohydrate and the GI
measures how quickly the sugars in
food are absorbed into the blood.
Foods are given a GI score out of
100, with pure glucose being taken
as the standard (GI = 100). Foods
that take longer to be absorbed are
called low GI and fast-absorbed
carbohydrates called high GI.
Some experts recommend that
everyone should eat low-GI foods
most of the time. Low-GI foods give
a long-lasting and more sustained
supply of energy. This means that
you will be able to concentrate
better and be more active for longer
periods of time. Eating low-GI foods
two hours before endurance events
such as long-distance running (and
even homework!) may improve
performance. Low-GI foods are
particularly important for diabetics.
The low-down on fat
Be careful about following
the current trend of eating
low-fat food. While a low-
fat diet can be healthy,
many products advertised
as low in fat are in fact very
high in sugar. They have
to add something to make
it taste good! A high-sugar
diet can lead to many
health problems.
Prac 1
p. 191
The uses of some vitamins and minerals in the
body and the effects of deficiency Fig 6.1.4
Vitamin A is important
for healthy sight
Fluoride strengthens
tooth enamel and bones
Cracks at the corner
of the mouth show
a lack of B
1
Calcium is important
in bone and teeth
formation
Skin problems
could mean a
lack of zinc
A lack of folate leads
to anaemia and
intestinal damage
Vitamin K is involved
in blood clotting
Potassium helps
carry nerve impulses
Chromium
helps maintain
the glucose
concentration
of the blood
A lack of iron
results in anaemia
Vitamin C helps
form connective
tissue
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indulgences or extras
meat and alternatives
milk and milk products
fruits
vegetables
breads and
cereals
no more than 2
1 serve (2)
2 serves (3)
4 serves (4)
5+ serves
(912)
3 serves (3)
Fig 6.1.3 The food pyramid, showing the relative
proportions of each food group for a
balanced diet
188
>>>
Aboriginal healing:
applying white clay in
a healing ceremony Fig 6.1.5
A healthy mind
An old saying states that the mind is the greatest
healer, implying that the mind strongly influences
our well-being. Many alternative
healing methods are based on this
idea. Thoughts and feelings have the
power to affect every system in the
body.
Depression and the eating
disorders anorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa are examples of
mental illnesses. There are many
triggers for depression, including
stress, drug use and family conflict.
Some individuals may be more
at risk because of their genetic
make-up, which may cause
variation in the chemical message
systems of the brain. Anorexia
nervosa is characterised by
starvation, while bulimia nervosa
is distinguished by a bingepurge
cycle. Other disorders, including
acne and constipation, can be made
much worse by negative thoughts
and feelings.
Aboriginal healing
Traditional Aboriginal
medicine is a complex
system linked to the belief
and culture of the people,
their knowledge of the land
and of its flora and fauna.
Traditional medicine and
health care are holistic,
taking a whole-being
approach. It recognises
the social, physical and
spiritual dimensions
of both health and life.
Sorcery remains a potent
belief and the casting
and removing of spells is
still practised. Aboriginal
Australians perform
ceremonies consisting
of singing songs and
painting designs on the
sick person. They may also
be massaged with fat and
red ochre, as well as being
given herbal medicines to
treat the body.
Adequate exercise
You need to exercise to become healthy and stay
healthy. Exercise can range from playing vigorous
sports like tennis to a brisk walk. It is important to
choose something you enjoy or else you will stop
doing it. The exercise you do will need to change as
Fig 6.1.6 Sydneys yearly City to Surf fun run attracts
more than 50 000 entrants.
Fig 6.1.7 Some forms of exercise are not for everyone.
Health Health
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
What is needed for good health?
1 Clarify what is meant by the term good health.
2 Copy the following passage and select words to fill the
missing spaces.
Three things needed for good health are ______ ______,
a healthy ______ and adequate _______. A ______ diet is
essential to good health. Animals must take in _______
to survive. Energy-giving _______ can be either ______,
_______ or ______.
3 Define the term nutrient.
4 Select the word that best matches each definition.
you get older. Whatever your age and fitness, most
people should aim to do some type of weight-bearing
exercise that increases their heart rate for at least
20 minutes, three times per week.
Aboriginal diet

Traditional diet
Before White settlement the Aboriginal people were
hunter-gatherers. This involved collecting plants,
seeds, nuts, fruits and hunting animals. This food was
low in fat and sugars (low in kilojoules), but high in
carbohydrates, fibre, protein and nutrients. Overall it
was a healthy diet.
The daily diet of Aboriginal people varied
depending on the season and plants or animals
available. Some foods like kangaroo meat, honey,
witchetty grubs and insects were energy-rich. The
hunter-gatherer lifestyle also gave the Aboriginal
people plenty of exercise.
Diet-related diseases such as cardiovascular
disease and diabetes were uncommon. Modern
Aboriginal diets are very different to the diets of their
ancestors and have led to an exceptionally high rate of
cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
New foods
After Europeans arrived, the traditional Aboriginal
diet began to include foods such as flour, sugar and
processed meat. Aboriginal people had less chance
to gather traditional foods. Settlement had often
destroyed the hunting areas of those who remained
on the land. New animals, plants and more frequent
bushfires further restricted their food-gathering
activities. Others had been shifted to government
settlements or worked on cattle stations. Here,
movement was either restricted or they did not have
the time needed to go out foraging in the old way.
As a result the typical Aboriginal diet began to lack
nutrients such as protein, vitamins and minerals.
Modern diet
The typical Aboriginal diet today is much more
Westernisedhigh in fats and sugar, high in
kilojoules, but low in nutritional value. Exercise has
also decreased because now there is no longer a need
to gather food. The range of foods available to outback
communities is limited, particularly fresh fruit and
vegetables. Surveys indicate that urban Aboriginal
people eat more fast food and salt than non-Aboriginal
people. Aboriginal people of the Northern Territory
consume more sugar, white flour and carbonated
soft drinks than the Australian average. The typical
modern Aboriginal diet, whether city or country, is
especially low in vitamin C, calcium and magnesium.
You will find out about some of the diseases that this
diet causes in Unit 6.2.
Worksheet 6.1 The glycemic index and load
Psychosomatic
Nutrient
Organism
Calcium
Substance taken in and used for
energy or to build tissue
Caused by the mind
A mineral used by the body
Any plant or animal
7 State the name of a vitamin and how it is used in the
body.
Aboriginal diet
8 Aboriginal Australians were traditionally hunter-gathers.
List foods that fit this description.
9 Outline the nutritional benefits of the traditional
Aboriginal diet.
10 List three food types introduced by colonisation.
11 List three nutrients that were reduced after
colonisation.
5 State the ideal body temperature.
6 State the name of a mineral and how it is used in the
body.
>>
190
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[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 a Choose a vitamin (if you need ideas, look at the
side of a jar of multivitamins) and research what
happens if you have too much of it (toxicity) or too
little (deficiency).
b Design a label for a bottle of your chosen vitamin.
You should include enough information so that
people reading the label will understand exactly
how it should be used and what the effects will be.
2 a Investigate the diseases prevalent in slum areas in
order to find out:
i why these diseases are so common in slums
ii how these problems could be eradicated
b Write a letter to the World Health Organisation in
which you recommend action that should be taken
to reduce the amount of disease in slums.
Think
12 State whether the following statements are true or false.
a Protein provides more energy per gram than fat does.
b Energy is measured in joules or kilojoules.
c Your body doesnt need energy when you are asleep.
d Children need more energy than adults.
13 Every day, a teenager needs enough energy to heat
38 litres of water to 100C just to keep them warm.
Identify what this volume is equivalent to. Is it a bucket,
a rubbish bin, a bathtub or a swimming pool?
14 Discuss how health is a relative term.
15 Do teenage girls need to eat more than teenage boys?
Justify your answer.
16 List these people in order from the person who would
need to take in the most energy per day to the person
who would need the least:
a baby
the NRL players in Figure 6.1.7
an active teenager
a postie
17 Psychosomatic illnesses are those caused by thoughts
and feelings.
a List examples of two negative thoughts or emotions.
b Predict how these thoughts would affect the body.
18 Astronauts tend to lose muscle mass in space. Propose
a reason for this.
19 List age-appropriate activities to keep these people
healthy:
a a Year 10 student
b a 40-year-old man
c a 70-year-old woman
20 a List three things you currently do that will keep you
healthy.
b List three unhealthy things you do that you could
change.
21 Explain why the traditional Aboriginal diet was
considered a balanced one.
22 Compare the traditional Aboriginal diet with:
a a modern Aboriginal diet
b your own diet
23 Compare a modern Aboriginal diet with your own diet.
24 a Propose reasons why the Aboriginal diet changed so
much after European settlement.
b Recommend ways in which society could support
Aborigines to improve their diet.
Skills
25 a Construct a daily menu for a balanced diet. Think
carefully about what you might include.
b Have another person evaluate the balanced diet
you have designed. Is it really balanced? Could it be
improved?
3 a Research some alternative healing methods like
acupuncture, cupping, candle waxing, homoeopathy,
massage, Reiki or reflexology.
b Explain how the healing technique works.
c Evaluate whether the healing techniques studied are
effective.
d Write an article for a medical journal to explain your
findings. Remember that your information should be
backed by scientific evidence.
Action
4 a Construct a journal to record what you
eat for one week.
b Analyse your findings to determine
whether you are eating a balanced diet
according to the food pyramid in Figure 6.1.3.
c Recommend changes to your diet to make it healthier.
DYO
Health
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Prac 1
Unit 6.1
Vitamin C
Aim To investigate which brand of orange juice
has the most vitamin C
Equipment
Starch suspension, iodine solution, 4 test tubes, test-tube
rack, vitamin C solution (dissolve vitamin C tablet or powder
in 50 mL of water), 200 mL beaker, 3 different brands of
fresh orange juice, stirring rod, dropper, lab coat, safety
glasses, gloves
5 Design an exercise routine, and put it in place to ensure
that you do a healthy amount of exercise every week.
Surf
6 Find out more about nutrition by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 6
and clicking on the destinations button. Visit the
nutrition caf and complete the following activities:
a Solve the mystery of the missing nutrients for the
case studies in the Nutrition sleuth. Record how
many cases you solved.
b Find out whether your diet is healthy or not by
visiting the Have-a-Bite Caf. Use your findings
to deduce which aspects of your diet are already
healthy and which aspects could be improved.
7 Visit the Better Health Channel and select a healthy
menu for one day that provides some of the nutrients
you have discovered are missing from your diet.
1. Starch solution
+ 3 drops iodine
4. Repeat for juices.
test solution
3. Continue
until colour
disappears.
2. Put 3 cm in
each tube.
Fig 6.1.8
Method
1 Half-fill the beaker with starch suspension. Add 3 drops
of iodine solution. Stir well. The colour of the mixture
should now be purple.
2 Pour 3 cm of this into each test tube (make sure your
test tubes are the same size).
3 Using the dropper, drop vitamin C solution into the first
tube until the blue colour disappears. Record how many
drops it took.
4 Do exactly the same for the other three test tubes,
but use the different juices instead of the vitamin C
solution. Record how many drops of each it took until
the solution was colourless. The more drops it took, the
less vitamin C that juice contained.
Questions
1 Deduce which brand had the most vitamin C and which
had the least.
2 List five foods that you know are good sources of
vitamin C.
3 Construct a bar graph to show your results.
192
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UNIT
UNIT
Not feeling well? Then you could have a
disease. A disease is anything that makes you
feel unwell, or makes you unable to function
properly in a given environment. Diseases cause
symptoms like nausea, rashes, stiffness in your
joints, fever or blurred vision. These symptoms
indicate that your body is no longer working properly
and that you may need to see a doctor.
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Disease
The study of disease is called pathology (pathos =
suffering, logos = study) and people working in this
field are called pathologists. Before examining diseases
in more detail, it is important to become familiar with
some of the common terms used in pathology.
Some common diseases and their symptoms Fig 6.2.1
An organism is any plant or
animal.
A micro-organism (often
called a microbe) is a very
small organism that can
be seen only by using a
microscope. Sometimes
micro-organisms consist of
only one cell.
An agent or pathogen is
something that causes
disease.
A host is the organism
being affected by the agent.
A parasite is an agent that
uses the host for food or
shelter.
Forensic pathology
Whenever a person dies, a cause
of death must be established
before the death certificate can be
signed. For unexpected deaths,
this is the job of the forensic
pathologist. Even when the cause
seems obvious (e.g. a gunshot
wound or drowning), they must
still try to find out as many facts
as possible. Sometimes they find
out unexpected things.
When American President John
F. Kennedy was gunned down in
Dallas in 1963 the cause of death
was clear. However, the autopsy
revealed a well-kept secret. His
adrenal glands were shrivelled
up, a clear sign that he had
been suffering from Addisons
disease. Addisons disease can
cause chronic fatigue, nausea,
weak muscles, irritability and
depressionnot a good image
for a world leader, especially one
who took the USA and USSR to
the brink of nuclear war!
botulism (a type of food poisoning)
causes blurred or double vision
and difficulty swallowing
mumps causes fever,
swelling and tenderness
of the salivary glands
influenza causes headaches,
fever, chills, cough and
body aches
the common cold produces
headache and a runny nose
chickenpox causes an itchy,
blister-like rash. Measles also
causes a red, blotchy rash.
tuberculosis causes night
sweats and a persistent cough
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Fig 6.2.2 Child with chickenpox
An infection is an invasion of the body by foreign
organisms. If the agent can multiply easily in the
host and be passed on to
other host organisms it is
said to be infectious.
Virulence is a measure
of how much damage a
disease does to the host.
Highly virulent diseases
cause very serious
symptoms, perhaps death.
There will always be
disease in the world.
Endemic means that a
disease regularly affects a
small number of people in
the population.
An epidemic is when
there are higher than
normal numbers of
people being affected by
a particular disease in a
certain place.
An outbreak has
happened when a
disease has suddenly
gotten out of control.
Legionnaires disease
In July 1976, the Bellevue-
Stratford hotel in Philadelphia
hosted the fifty-eighth state
convention of the American
Legion Department of
Pennsylvania. Not long after,
34 of the participants were
dead of a pneumonia-like
illness and a further 221 were
seriously ill.
The following year, the
bacterium that had caused the
outbreak was identified. It was
named Legionella in honour
of those it had infected.
Legionella organisms
reproduce best in warm,
stagnant water of the type
found commonly in hot-water
tanks, cooling towers, or large
air-conditioning systems.
Outbreaks occasionally occur
in city offices where the air-
conditioning systems have not
been correctly maintained.
A newspaper article warning of the
1919 flu epidemic in Australia

Fig 6.2.3
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[
Questions
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Checkpoint
Disease
1 Clarify the meaning of the term disease.
2 Use an example to outline the features of a disease and
its symptoms.
3 Identify the definition that best matches the term.
Causes of disease
Disease can be caused by many factors, some
infectious, some avoidable and others you
are born with:
The body could be invaded by micro-organisms
such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. These
diseases are usually infectious.
Parasites such as worms could be caught from
other infected people. These would then invade
the body.
Some part of the body could malfunction due to
some imperfection or fault. For example, diabetes
can develop if the pancreas isnt working properly.
Environmental factors might cause your body not
to function properly (e.g. air and water pollution,
normal but still damaging exposure to UV
radiation).
Lifestyle factors can also cause disease. These
factors are self-inflicted and include drug abuse,
overuse of alcohol, smoking, sunbaking and high-
fat, high-sugar diets.
Genetic disorders or diseases that your parents
either had or carried. You do not catch these
diseases, but are born with them.
Civilisation arrives in
Australia?
Spreading like the plague!
Early European settlers brought in many new diseases
for which Aborigines had no resistance and no
traditional remedies. Smallpox plagues swept through
Aboriginal Australia, killing as much as half the
population. Influenza, tuberculosis, syphilis and other
diseases all reduced the Aboriginal population even
further.
Diet-related diseases
The change of diet in Aboriginal communities has
led to many lifestyle diseases, including obesity,
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure,
certain cancers and stroke. Because these diseases
are more common in Aboriginal communities that in
non-Aboriginal ones, health organisations are trying to
improve the diets of Aboriginal people.
Symptom
Pathology
Microbe
Agent
Host
Parasite
Infectious
Study of disease
Causes disease
Can be passed on to another host
Outward sign of disease
Agent using host for food or shelter
Very small organism
Organism being affected by agent
4 State the role of forensic pathologists.
5 Contrast the terms endemic and epidemic.
Causes of disease
6 List possible causes of disease, classifying them as:
a infectious
b lifestyle-related
c built into the body
7 Define the following terms:
a micro-organism
b infectious disease
c parasite
Civilisation arrives in Australia?
8 Aborigines caught many diseases from the first colonising
Europeans. List four of these diseases.
9 List two reasons why Aborigines were vulnerable to these
diseases.
10 Diet-related diseases have also affected the health of
Aborigines. List three examples of such diseases.
Think
11 Distinguish between an epidemic and an outbreak.
12 Very small infectious agents spread disease easily.
Propose reasons why the size of the agent influences the
spread of a disease.
13 Describe three behaviours or actions that could spread
disease.
Disease Disease
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14 a List three diseases that you have had.
b Describe the symptoms and treatment for each
disease.
15 Copy and modify the following statements so that they
are all correct.
a Diseased people can still function well in their
environments.
b A host uses a parasite for food or shelter.
c Not all diseases are infectious.
d Symptoms like blurred vision are not signs of disease.
16 Propose a definition for a non-infectious disease.

[
Extension
]
Surf
Complete one of the following activities related
to diseases by connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 6 and clicking on the destinations button.
1 a Carry out research to find an example of a virulent
disease and a non-virulent disease.
b The outcome of each type of disease is very
different. Write a report to demonstrate the
difference.
2 a Investigate an outbreak that has occurred in
Australia in the past five years. You could look at
outbreaks of flu, Legionnaires or meningococcal
disease.
b Present your data using a table. Write a conclusion
on the cause of the outbreak and whether it is
under control.
3 a Choose a disease, such as meningococcal
disease, that has occasional outbreaks in Australia.
Research how many deaths have occurred each
year in the past 10 years.
b Present your findings as a table and graph
using an electronic spreadsheet such as MS Excel.
6
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Worksheet 6.2 Outbreak!
Creative writing
There have been many films made about outbreaks.
Some of these are based on true stories, and others
are pure fiction. Imagine that you are writing a scene
for a movie about an outbreak of a very serious
illness. You are a doctor, in a meeting with local
authorities, trying to convince them that the area must
be quarantined (isolated) immediately. How do you
do it?
196
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UNIT
UNIT
Relative sizes of
some viruses,
bacteria, protozoa
and fungi
yeast
25
20
15
10
5
0
Viruses Bacteria Protozoa Fungi
E
b
o
l
a
H
I
V
s
m
a
l
l
p
o
x
c
h
o
l
e
r
a
s
y
p
h
i
l
i
s
T
B
malaria
L
e
n
g
t
h

(

m
)
Fig 6.3.1
One sneeze or cough can send thousands
of individual bacteria or viruses into the air.
These pathogens have direct access to
another host if they are breathed in directly,
or if they land on someones food or on a
bench where a hand is placed. Only a few
need to gain entry to infect the new host, making
infectious diseases very easy to spread. There
are many ways that pathogens can be shared.
An infectious communicable disease is a disease
that is transmitted easily from person to person.
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Diseases caused by
micro-organisms
Not all micro-organisms are harmful to humans. In
fact, some are very helpful. Some micro-organisms
serve as food sources, others help decompose wastes,
some help protect us from disease and others aid
digestion. Only a few micro-organisms cause disease.
The micro-organisms that cause disease are known as
pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses,
protozoa and fungi.
The table below show examples of
disease-causing micro-organisms and what
they cause.
The disease is said to be endemic
if small numbers of cases are
present in the population and an
epidemic if large numbers of
people are affected. An outbreak
happens when the disease is
suddenly out of control.
Plague
The Yersinia pestis
bacterium, formerly called
Pasteurella pestis, is the
pathogen responsible for
bubonic plaguethe Black
Death. Between 1347 and
1352, an outbreak of this
disease killed a third of
Europes populationan
estimated 25 million
people. It was spread by
the fleas on rats!
Agent Type Disease caused Symptoms
Rabies Virus Rabies Paralysis, spasms, fever, overproduction of saliva
Varicella Virus Chickenpox Fever, itchy blister-like rash
Vibrio cholerae Bacteria Cholera Diarrhoea, vomiting and dehydration
Clostridium botulinum Bacteria Food poisoning Blurred vision, weakness, difficulty swallowing and possibly death
Giardia lamblia Protozoa Giardia Nausea, flatulence, diarrhoea
Toxoplasma gondii Protozoa Toxoplasmosis Acute form causes fever, chills, rash, exhaustion
Candida albicans Fungi Thrush Creamy mucus, can be oral or vaginal
Tinea corporis Fungi Ringworm Rounded areas of scaling on the body
Prac 1
p. 201
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Fig 6.3.3 Doctors who wear a tie may infect their patients.
Fig 6.3.2 All these things were produced with the help of
bacteria. The holes in Swiss cheese are bubbles
left after gas was produced by bacteria.
Does your doctor wear a tie?
In 2004, Israeli researchers found that the neckties worn by
doctors might transmit disease from one patient to another! A
comparison of the ties worn in a New York hospital showed
that doctors ties were eight times more likely to be covered in
disease-causing microbes than the ties worn by the security
guards working there. Doctors ties get sneezed on and coughed
on many times each day. They then go home, but unlike all the
other doctors clothes, they rarely, if ever, get cleaned. They then
go to work the next day, loaded with the microbes collected the
day before. The doctors ties are known as fomites, non-living
materials that can transmit disease-causing bacteria.
Bacteria
One characteristic that is used to identify bacteria
is their shape. They may be rod-shaped
(bacilli), spiral (spirilla) or spherical (cocci).
All bacteria consist of only one cell, but they
can join together in pairs, chains or clusters.
Common bacteria shapes
syphilis
cocci (singular: coccus)
gonorrhoea
tonsillitis
sarcina
staphylococcus
diphtheria, typhoid
Appearance Type Examples
diplococci
streptococci (chains)
tetrads (groups of 4)
clusters
bacilli (rods)
spirilla (spiral forms)
coccidiosis
Fig 6.3.4
Prac 2
p. 202
Bacteria can multiply very quickly under the right
conditions. If conditions are not favourable for growth,
some types of bacteria can form thick-walled spores
that allow them to withstand cold, heat and prolonged
drying. They can remain inactive for days or even
years. Antibiotics can kill many types of bacteria.
Electron micrograph of rod-shaped
Salmonella bacteria (bacilli). Fig 6.3.5
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Viruses
Viruses are so small that they
can be seen only with an
electron microscope. Viruses
are not considered to be living
things because they do not self-
reproduce, feed, grow, produce
waste or move. They do move
from place to place, but only if
they hitch a ride on something
else, like other organisms, wind
or water.
Viruses are parasitic invaders
made of DNA (or a similar
material called RNA) in a
protein coat. If viruses come
into contact with a suitable cell
(called a host cell) they can
attach to the cell and enter it.
They hijack the cell and force
it to make more virus particles.
The cells make so many virus
particles that they burst open,
releasing the virus particles,
which then invade other cells.
Some viruses invade cells
and remain dormant or inactive
for long periods of time. An
example is the herpes simplex
virus, which is responsible
for cold sores. Cold sores
come and go, but the virus is
always there, awaiting the right
Bird flu
Bird flu, or more correctly avian
influenza A virus, usually only
infects birds. But sometimes
these flu strains mutate into more
dangerous forms. This happened
in Hong Kong in 1997 when avian
influenza A (H5N1) infected both
poultry and humans. This was
the first time a bird flu had ever
transmitted directly to humans.
During this outbreak, 18 people
were hospitalised and six of them
died. To control the outbreak,
authorities killed about 1.5 million
chickens to remove the source
of the disease. Further outbreaks
occurred in 2003 and 2004.
Pathologists are concerned about
the possibility that genes might
swap between bird flu and human
flu. This could happen if a person
got infected with both diseases
at the same time. The new bug
would then have the potential
to be as deadly as bird flu, and
as easy to catch as human flu.
It could then bring us the next
pandemic. Similar pandemics
have occurred in the past:
195758, Asian flu [A (H2N2)]
caused about 70 000 deaths.
196869, Hong Kong flu
[A (H3N2)] caused
approximately 34 000 deaths.
This virus still circulates today.
conditions for rapid reproduction
and re-appearance. Others do
not kill the cell they infect, but
re-program it in a way that causes
it to become cancerous.
Viruses are hard to treat
as they are not stopped by
antibiotics. With most viral
infections you have to wait
until your body itself stops the
invading virus.
Protozoa
Diseases caused by protozoa (sometimes called
protists) are most often seen in tropical and
subtropical areas. Like bacteria, protozoa are single-
celled. Most protozoa are harmless to humans,
but some parasitic types can cause serious illness.
Protozoa sometimes form protective cysts around
themselves if conditions are unfavourable, allowing
them to survive between outbreaks. Giardia and
Cryptosporidium are both examples of protozoa that
contaminate water supplies.
Another example is the common tropical disease,
malaria. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium, which
live in the red blood cells and cells of the liver.
Falciparum malaria, the most dangerous type, is fatal
in about 20% of untreated cases. Initial infection
occurs through a female Anopheles mosquito bite.
The fat virus
A virus known as SMAM-1
is a relative of the common
cold but has very different
symptoms. Instead of
coughs and sneezes,
SMAM-1 is thought to
cause obesity!
Fig 6.3.6 Cold sores on the lower lip due to the
herpes simplex virus (type I)
An Anopheles mosquito, capable of carrying
malaria, biting into human skin Fig 6.3.7
Infectious diseases Infectious diseases
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Fungi
Very few fungi cause disease in humans and those
that do commonly invade the hair, skin and nails.
Fungi are opportunistic pathogens. They are not
usually associated with infection, but they can cause
infection if the conditions are ideal or if the persons
immune system is not working properly. People
can have lowered immunity due to a number of
causes and all are more susceptible to these fungal
infections. HIV/AIDS lowers immunity, and so do the
cancer treatments of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
After transplants, patients are given anti-rejection
drugs that also lower immunity. Tinea (athletes foot),
ringworm and thrush are all opportunistic fungal
infections.
A fungal skin infection causing tinea Fig 6.3.8
Diseases caused by macroscopic
parasites
Parasites that can be seen without a microscope are
called macroscopic parasites.
Flukes
The most common type of disease-causing
macroscopic parasite is the flatworm. Parasitic flukes
are flatworms, best known for causing disease in many
animals, including humans. Intestinal flukes, blood
flukes, lung flukes and liver flukes all affect humans,
causing damage to the organs they inhabit, resulting in
serious illness for the host. For example, blood flukes
can damage blood vessels near major organs like the
bladder and kidneys.
cercaria
When they are ready to
lay eggs, they push their
way into capillaries of
the heart, lungs and
intestine wall. The eggs
cause capillaries to rupture;
in the intestinal capillaries,
eggs reach the faeces.
Fully grown
eggs pass
out of the
human (in
the faeces)
into water.
Upon contact
with water,
the eggs hatch
into tiny,
immature
flukes.
The young flukes
swim about and
penetrate the
soft parts of the
snail host,
feeding on it.
In the snail host, the
young flukes reproduce
to form new flukes.
Individuals of the
free-swimming
(infective) stage
leave the snail
and swim about
until they contact
human skin.
Cercaria
penetrate
skin and
find their
way into
blood
vessels.
Cercaria
mature
into adults.
miracidium
The adult worms
live in blood vessels.
Fig 6.3.10 Life cycle of a blood fluke
Fig 6.3.9 Electron micrograph of a cercaria or
blood fluke
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Diseases caused by micro-organisms
1 List one way in which micro-organisms can be helpful to
humans.
2 Define the term pathogen.
3 List the four types of pathogens responsible for
infectious disease.
4 There are three common shapes found in bacteria. State
the name of each and draw an example.
5 Identify the bacterium that causes bubonic plague.
6 List the symptoms of
a rabies
b giardia
7 Explain what viruses do to cells.
8 Viruses are not considered to be living things. Outline
two reasons for this.
9 Clarify what is meant by the term protozoa.
10 Explain what an opportunistic pathogen is.
Diseases caused by macroscopic parasites
11 Explain the term macroscopic parasite.
12 List three examples of macroscopic parasites.
13 Outline why tapeworms would cause malnutrition.
14 Hydatid disease can cause death in humans. Explain
how this may occur.
Think
15 Distinguish between macroscopic and microscopic.
16 Explain why it is important to describe all your
symptoms to your doctor when you are sick.
17 Contrast an endemic disease with an epidemic.
18 Propose a definition for the term pandemic.
19 Copy the following statements and modify them to
make them correct.
a Spherical bacteria are called spirilla.
b Viruses are larger than bacteria.
c Many fungi cause disease in humans.
d Parasites always kill their hosts.
20 Use a diagram to explain the structure of
Staphylococcus bacteria.
21 Explain why many more diseases are caused by
bacteria than by fungi.
22 Explain why you should wash your hands after going
to the toilet and before eating.
23 Compare the means by which bacteria and protozoa
protect themselves in unfavourable conditions.
24 Ebola is an extremely virulent virus that kills incredibly
quickly. Propose why this virus rarely spreads beyond
the African villages it appears in.
25 a State the name of a tropical region on Earth.
b Discuss why malaria is more common in tropical
regions.
26 Explain how you could protect yourself from malaria
when travelling in tropical regions.
27 Propose some precautions you could take to avoid
becoming infected with blood flukes.
Tapeworm
Another type of flatworm is the tapeworm, which
can sometimes live in human intestines. One type of
tapeworm causes hydatid disease. If the tapeworms
eggs are swallowed by humans, the tiny embryos will
hatch from the eggs and move from the intestines into
the bloodstream. Cysts develop wherever the embryos
end up, most often in the liver. Here they are capable
of killing the host human.
Worksheet 6.3 Infections
Infectious diseases Infectious diseases
Fig 6.3.11 Electron micrograph of a parasitic tapeworm
showing suckers and hooks used to attach to
the intestine
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Practical activities
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Prac 1
Unit 6.3
Making yoghurt
Aim To produce yoghurt using bacteria
Note: This prac involves observations over several
days.
Equipment
250 mL beaker, spoon, plastic cling wrap, 1 cup new UHT
milk, 1 large spoon of natural yoghurt with live bacteria,
incubator
Method
1 Half-fill the beaker with milk.
2 Stir in the yoghurt. This will start the process.
3 Cover the beaker with cling wrap and place in the
incubator at 40C.
4 Record any changes in its smell and consistency over
the next few days.
Questions
1 Explain why you needed to add yoghurt to start the
process.
2 Explain why the mixture was left at this particular
temperature.
3 Describe the changes in the mixture over three days.

[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Three ways of preserving food are dehydration,
canning and radiation.
a Research what is done in each process.
b Describe how each method kills or slows down the
growth of microbes.
c Evaluate each method in terms of effectiveness
and safety.
d Recommend the best method for preserving the
following foods: tomatoes, grapes, meat, peanuts.
Justify your answer in each case.
2 The most serious outbreak of the bubonic plague
occurred in Europe between 1347 and 1352.
a Conduct research to find out if this disease exists
today.
b Present a time line of dates for major outbreaks
since 1352.

3 a Investigate different types of malaria and list the
symptoms of each type.
b Construct two scenarios, with symptoms as clues
to the type of malaria.
c Present the case studies you researched as
information so that another student can identify
the type of malaria.
Surf
4 Visit the Infection Detection Protection website
by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 6 and clicking on the destinations button.
a Play the game Bacteria in the Cafeteria. Use
your findings to construct a poster that can be
placed in your school cafeteria to keep it safe from
disease.
b Play the Infection game and construct a leaflet
that could be used in a doctors waiting room to
protect people from disease.
Analyse
28 Look at the life cycle of a blood fluke in Figure 6.3.10.
Explain in words what this diagram is showing.
29 Imagine a recently discovered parasite, Cowium, that
lives mainly in cows. Cowium eggs are present in the
cows milk. If the milk is not treated before drinking,
humans become infected. Once inside the infected
person, the eggs become mature worms and live in the
intestines. They cause severe digestive problems and
malnutrition. Draw a diagram to outline the life cycle of
Cowium.
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Prac 2
Unit 6.3
Micro-organisms around us
3 Very lightly brush
over the agar surface
and quickly replace
the lid.
Bunsen
burner
1 Sterilise the
wire loop.
2 Touch the wire loop
to a surface. Try not
to expose the surface to
the air for too long.
Fig 6.3.12
Aim To grow a variety of microbes on nutrient
agar
Equipment
5 Petri dishes containing nutrient agar (agar plates),
wire loops, heat-proof mat, Bunsen burner, masking tape,
gloves
Method
1 Tape one agar plate closed, label it and put it aside.
This will be the control.
2 Take another agar plate and expose it to the air. Each
prac group should sample the air in different locations,
for example the toilets, corridor or classroom. Seal your
agar plate and label it.
3 Light the Bunsen burner and heat the wire loop to
sterilise it.
4 Carefully touch the wire loop to a dirty surface, then
brush it lightly over the surface of the agar of a new
plate. Each prac group should sample a different
surface.
5 Seal and label your plate.
6 Put all your plates, including the control, in a warm
place for 48 hours.
7 Without un-taping the lids, examine and note the
numbers and types of colonies that have grown on your
agar plate. Fungal colonies appear fuzzy, while bacterial
colonies are smooth.
Questions
1 Explain the use of a control in this experiment.
2 Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3 Construct a table of the class results. Include the
different colours and shapes of the colonies formed.
4 Evaluate which locations had the greatest numbers of
micro-organisms present.
5 Contrast a fungal and a bacterial colony.
Infectious diseases Infectious diseases
>>>
203
You almost certainly have had the flu before.
Did you know that you cannot get the same
flu again? If you get sick with the flu next year
it will be a different one. This is because your
body builds its own defence to any disease
that you have had, so that you will not get it
again. This idea is also used to make vaccinations
that build up your defences by artificially introducing
you to a safe form of the disease. Vaccinations stop
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you getting a disease in the first place! Although many
infectious diseases are easily spread, modern medicine
has some very effective ways of controlling them.
Pass it on
You can get infectious diseases by direct or indirect
transmission.
Direct transmission comes about by direct contact
with the infected person or by contact with droplets of
body fluid. Diseases transmitted by direct contact are
called contagious diseases.
Indirect transmission occurs through
an intermediary agent like an insect, air or
contaminated water. Carriers of disease are
called vectors. An example of a vector is the
mosquito that carries malaria from person to
person.
Fig 6.4.1 Direct transmission can occur by pathogens
expelled from the mouth during a sneeze.
Natural control
The first line of defence
The human body has several mechanisms for coping
with disease. The first defence is the outer layer of
the skin, consisting of dead cells. Harmful pathogens
on the skin can be shed with the dead cells. There are
also a lot of good bacteria on your skin, which help
fight the invaders.
The second line of defence
The second line of defence is in your blood, as white
blood cells or leucocytes. They travel in the blood to
the site of infection, converge on the pathogens, digest
them and engulf their remains. Dead micro-organisms
and dead white cells are left behind and form the
discharge call pus.
Prac 1
p. 210
Normal leucocytes, or white blood cells
that fight disease Fig 6.4.2
UNIT
UNIT
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Artificial control
Good nutrition, clean water and
adequate sleep and exercise will give
us a degree of natural protection from
disease. However, we need additional
and artificial protection against some
particularly dangerous diseases.
Vaccinations
The threat of many of the killer
diseases of the past has been greatly
reduced, and sometimes eliminated,
by the development of vaccines.
A person can be immunised
against a certain disease by being
injected (inoculated or vaccinated)
with a vaccine. Most children in
Australia are routinely vaccinated
against diseases like polio, tetanus
and measles, chicken pox and
tuberculosis. In Australia there have
been no cases of polio since 1986. Girls
are commonly vaccinated against rubella.
Why? Although rubella is a nasty disease
for anyone, it is particularly dangerous
to unborn children, often causing birth
abnormalities, if the babys mother contracts
rubella during pregnancy. Some parents
choose not to immunise their children
through fear of rare side effects. It is
estimated, however, that for every dollar
spent on immunisation programs, four
dollars are saved in public health costs.
Two types of immunity can be produced
by vaccines:
Active immunity: the body is stimulated
to make its own antibodies. This usually
involves injecting a live but disabled
version of the virus or bacteria. An
example is the Sabin polio vaccine,
which uses a live but non-contagious
strain of the disease.
Passive immunity: the body is injected
with antibodies previously produced
by another organism. This is good in
emergency situations, where immunity
is needed quickly. Unfortunately it does
not last as long as active immunity.
The third line of defence
When invaded by a pathogen your body responds
by making antibodies. These antibodies are
produced in a process called acquired immunity.
The antibodies float around in the blood and
attach to a specific part of the pathogen, which
is called an antigen. The antibody disables the
pathogen, which is then easily consumed by
white blood cells, thus destroying the threat.
A particular antibody will act against the
antigens on only one type of pathogen. The body
can continue to produce antibodies long after the
pathogen has been destroyed. The body will be
immune to that particular pathogen as long as the
antibodies are present. For example, if you had
measles in the past then you may still be carrying
antibodies for measles. These antibodies allowed
you to recover and may protect you from measles
in the future. Unfortunately they cannot protect
you from chickenpox or any other disease.
8 The lymphocytes which make this
particular antibody may remain in
the blood for many years, giving
protection against further attack by
this particular virus.
Blood vessel Bone marrow
1 White blood cells called B
lymphocytes are made in
the bone marrow in large
numbers. Each lymphocyte
makes an antibody which
recognises one particular
antigen. Many copies of
this antibody can be made
by a lymphocyte.
lymphocyte
2 Millions of different
lymphocytes are made
in the bone marrow.
Thus an almost
unlimited number
of antigens can be
recognised.
3 The lymphocytes move out into the body
and the blood. The antibodies are carried
on the surface of young lymphocytes.
4 Foreign particles (e.g. bacteria,
viruses) arrive in the blood. The
antigens are on the surface of
the virus particles.
5 A lymphocyte comes in contact
with an antigen to which its
antibody can bind. This
stimulates the lymphocyte to
reproduce rapidly.
6 The lymphocytes
release their antibodies,
which bind to the
antigens on the viruss
surface and make the
virus inactive.
7 Other types of white
blood cells then engulf
the inactivated viruses
and destroy them.
antibody
Fig 6.4.3 The process of acquired immunity
Transmission and control of infectious diseases Transmission and control of infectious diseases
Relenza
TM
, relief
from influenza
Even though there is a new
flu virus every year, there
is one drug that works
against them all. This can
happen because the different
versions of the flu always
have one little part of the
virus that stays the same.
The drug called Relenza
TM

acts against exactly this part
and so can tackle every flu
that has been caught for the
past 100 years! Although
Relenza
TM
was developed in
Australia and is extremely
effective, the government
is yet to put this drug on
the Pharmaceutical Benefits
Scheme (PBS). Hence it is
quite expensive to purchase.
Most people do not even
know it exists!
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Many different antibiotics
are available to fight
bacterial infections. Fig 6.4.6
Even active immunity does not
last forever. Production of antibodies
can reduce with time and a booster
shot (re-injection with the vaccine)
may be needed. It is recommended,
for example, that tetanus booster
shots be given every 10 years.
Tamarind seeds, which
are traditionally used
to treat headache Fig 6.4.5
Aboriginal medicines
Aboriginal Australians
use a range of remedies
for illnesswild herbs,
animal products, steam
baths, clay pits, charcoal,
mud, massages, string
amulets and secret chants.
Many of the remedies
directly assist healing.
The medicinal properties
of goanna oil, aromatic
herbs and the tannin-rich
inner bark of certain trees
have long been known
to Aboriginal people.
Compounds coming from
the Moreton Bay chestnut
or black bean are currently
showing promise as a
treatment for AIDS.
500 million people worldwide during the twentieth
century, ending in 1977 when the last case of naturally
transmitted smallpox was reported in
Africa. In 1980, the WHO officially
announced the end of smallpox. Two
stocks of the virus remain in high-
security laboratories in the United
States and Russia.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are drugs that are able to
selectively kill off certain pathogens
while leaving the patients own body
cells intact. Although antibiotics can
fight many bacterial infections, they
are ineffective against viruses.
Ancient vaccination
The earliest evidence of
vaccinations goes back to
around 500 BC. Chinese
physicians noted that
exposing healthy people
to particles from smallpox
scars gave them a milder
form of the disease. This
protected them from
the more serious form.
Only 4% died from this
procedurea phenomenal
success rate for that era.
The first successful vaccination
In 1796, the English physician Edward Jenner noticed
that milkmaids rarely contracted smallpox. He
hypothesised that this was because most had been
infected with a similar, milder disease of cows, known
as cowpox. James Phipps was then an eight-year-old
boy whose family was dying of smallpox. Jenner
exposed him first to cowpox, then to smallpox. The
boy survived and, within a few years, widespread
vaccinations began, with Jenner predicting that
eventually smallpox would be completely eradicated.
Nearly 300 years later, the World Health Organisation
(WHO) started a program of worldwide smallpox
vaccination. It is estimated that smallpox killed
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics have led to
the development of antibiotic-resistant strains of
bacteria. The more antibiotics are used, the more
quickly resistant strains emerge. It takes up to 20 years
to develop new drugs and soon doctors might be
left without any drugs to fight the new strains.
Particularly worrying is the recent rise of drug-
resistant tuberculosis (TB). This form of TB seems to
have originated in the overcrowded jails of Russia.
Prisoners often did not complete the prescribed course
of antibiotics, leading to the development of super-
TB. This TB has recently appeared in New York,
and there is no effective way of treating it. If you are
prescribed antibiotics, make sure you complete the
course set by your doctor. Unless the infection is
severe, it is best to let your body recover naturally.
The problem with viruses
Because they are so small, viruses are difficult to
isolate in the laboratory. They also multiply so rapidly
that new strains are appearing all the time. Control of
6
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Fig 6.4.4 A doctor injecting a vaccine into the arm of
a patient
206
>>>
viral infections has relied mainly on vaccines. With
so many different strains, however, it is difficult to
find effective vaccines. There are so many strains of
the common cold virus, for example, that no one can
ever become immune to them all. Some chemicals,
like AZT which is used for HIV/AIDS patients, are
effective in reducing virus effects, but as yet
no chemicals can eradicate a viral infection.
People in Science
Joseph Lister
Lister is always remembered whenever we rinse
our mouths with Listerine. Joseph Lister was born
on 5 April 1827. Lister was an outstanding student
and graduated from University College, London, in
1852 with an honours degree in medicine. In 1861
he became surgeon at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary.
At that time, almost half of the patients undergoing
surgery died of post-operative wound sepsis infection,
known then as hospital disease.
In 1865 Louis Pasteur found that decay was
caused by fermentation when living matter in the air
entered the body. Lister made the connection between
Pasteurs ideas and wound infection. Having heard
previously that carbolic acid was being used for the
treatment of sewage, he began cleaning wounds and
dressing them with a solution of carbolic acid. Soon
his wards were completely free of wound sepsis. It was
not long before
Listers antiseptic
methods were
used worldwide,
saving countless
lives.
Prac 2
p. 210
Fig 6.4.7 Joseph Lister
Worksheet 6.4 AIDS
CASE STUDY
HIV/AIDS
Consider these worldwide statistics for HIV/AIDS:
10 people are infected with it every minute
6 people die from it every minute
42 million people live with it
28 million people have died from it since the
epidemic was first identified in the early 1980s.
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome. It is a condition caused by infection with the
virus known as HIVHuman Immunodeficiency Virus.
Where did it come from?
The earliest known case of HIV-1 in a human was
from a blood sample collected in 1959 from a man in
Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In 1999,
an international team of researchers discovered the
origins of HIV-1, the main strain of HIV. A subspecies of
chimpanzees native to west equatorial Africa has been
identified as the original source of the virus. Primates
carry their own version of HIV, called SIV (simian
immunodeficiency virus) and are usually immune from it,
suffering little, if any, illness. HIV seems to have emerged
through a combination of two monkey viruses.
Fig 6.4.8
The surface of a T cell (green) infected
with HIV (red), the agent that causes AIDS
Transmission and control of infectious diseases Transmission and control of infectious diseases
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It is believed that HIV-1 was introduced into the human
population when hunters became exposed to infected chimp
blood. In 2003, the same team found that the chimpanzees
could acquire the disease from eating one of their favourite
prey: monkeys. Did a human eat infected chimp meat? We will
probably never know for sure.
What does it do?
HIV is a type of retrovirus. These viruses incorporate their DNA
into the host cells DNA. This means that when the host cell
reproduces, the virus is also replicated. The HIV retrovirus is
unusual because it invades CD4 white blood cells. These are the
cells that are supposed to protect the body from disease! This
means that the body has trouble fighting off other infections.
Transmission
Although the virus is present in all the bodily fluids of an infected
person, fluids such as saliva, tears, breast milk and sweat are
considered safe since the concentration of the virus in them
is very low. In contrast, blood, semen and vaginal fluid have
high concentrations of the virus and so pose the greatest risk
of transmission. Sexual contact, or sharing of drug-injecting
equipment, are the most common means of HIV transmission.
It can also be transmitted through blood transfusions or blood
products. This is now extremely rare, however, due to rigorous
screening procedures in blood banks. The virus can also be
passed from mother to child in the womb.
Prevention
Prevention is better than cure: understanding and applying the
following information can help stop transmission of HIV:
Practise safe sex: this means using condoms during
sexual intercourse.
Do not share drug-injecting equipment: this includes
syringes, spoons, water, water containers and tourniquets.
Infection needs to be managed when dealing with physical
injuries, especially when someone is bleeding: standard
procedures for first aid, such as wearing gloves, are
effective in preventing HIV transmission.
Tattooing and body piercing release fresh blood and give
ideal conditions for HIV entry unless equipment is correctly
sterilised. Hairdressing procedures too are required to
comply with infection control and sterilisation guidelines.
Symptoms
Many people infected with HIV develop symptoms of a viral
illness within a few weeks, much like the flu, although these
symptoms soon disappear. It can take many years before
AIDS develops, and a small percentage
of people who test positive to HIV never
develop AIDS.
Early signs of HIV infection are
night sweats, fever, swelling of lymph
nodes, fatigue, unexpected weight loss
and concentration problems. AIDS is
not really a defined disease. Rather,
it is a collection of symptoms caused
by opportunistic infections that have
thrived due to the sufferers struggling
immune system. Although symptoms
vary from patient to patient, commonly
they include: purple markings on the
face (Kaposis sarcoma, a type of skin
cancer), continued diarrhoea, fungal
infections such as thrush of the mouth
and skin, bleeding, bruises, dementia
and an extreme form of pneumonia.
Fig 6.4.9 Many children in Third World countries
contract HIV/AIDS from their parents before
they are born. This child is suffering from
pneumonia as HIV/AIDS has weakened his
immune system. In these countries familles
cannot afford expensive HIV/AIDS drugs.
HIV but no AIDS!
Not all HIV-infected people
develop AIDS. A few remain
symptom-free long after the time
when AIDS would normally have
developed. Everyone has human
leucocyte antigen (HLA) proteins
in their bodies that attach to
virus fragments in infected cells
and destroy the cell. Some types
of HLA proteins are better at
attaching themselves to certain
viruses than other HLA proteins.
It is currently thought that those
HIV-infected people who do
not develop AIDS have in their
bodies a special type of HLA
protein which is good at killing
HIV-infected cells.
Diagnosis
HIV is diagnosed by a blood test, which detects whether HIV
antibodies are present. If they are, then you are HIV+. It also
tests for other indicators of HIV infection such as a very low
white blood cell count or a T4 to T8 lymphocyte cell ratio lower
than 1 to 1. This ratio is normally 2 to 1 in healthy people.
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Pass it on
1 Clarify what is meant by direct transmission of disease.
2 State another name for diseases transmitted by direct
contact.
3 Indirect transmission needs an agent or vector to carry
the disease. State one example of a vector and the
disease it carries.
Natural control
4 Explain how skin acts as the first line of defence against
disease.
5 Outline the role of leucocytes in protecting the body from
disease.
6 Identify the components of pus.
7 Distinguish between an antigen and an antibody.
8 Explain how your body knows when to produce antibodies.
9 The following passage contains some incorrect facts,
spelling and punctuation. Copy it into your workbook,
modifying it to correct any errors.
antibodies are part of a group of chemicals called
imunnoglobens once your body has produced an
antibody it can never produce the same one again.
Your body is immune as long as antigens are present.
Treatment
There is currently no cure or vaccination for HIV/AIDS. The huge
amount of research being conducted in this area means that
treatments for HIV/AIDS sufferers are improving. One major
advance was the development of azidothymidine, known as
AZT. It prevents new HIV particles being correctly made in cells.
It cannot cure the disease, but improves health and adds one
to two years of quality life to about 60% of AIDS patients. The
main problem with AZT is that it is extremely expensive, has
unpleasant side effects and is not effective in all patients.
[
Questions
]
1 State what HIV and AIDS stand for.
2 Identify when the first known case of HIV occurred.
3 Explain how HIV can be passed from person to
person.
4 Describe the three early signs of HIV infection.
5 Explain what HIV+ means and how HIV is diagnosed.
6 Propose ways to minimise your risk of becoming
infected with HIV.
7 Propose reasons why AIDS is spreading so quickly
in Third World countries.
8 HIV/AIDS is currently devastating the African
continent, with up to 40% of the population in some
countries being HIV+. Discuss some of the likely
effects that HIV/AIDS may have in these countries.
9 It could be said that no one has ever died of AIDS.
Explain what kills people infected by HIV.
10 What hope is there for a vaccine for HIV/AIDS in the
future? Evaluate the information listed in this case
study to decide whether it is possible.
11 Evaluate AIDS as a disease. Why is it so effective?
How does it avoid our control measures so well?
Fig 6.4.10 A weeks supply of HIV/AIDS drugs
Transmission and control of infectious diseases Transmission and control of infectious diseases
209
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Infection
DROPLETS
FROM
SNEEZING
OPEN
WOUND
MOSQUITO
BITE
CONTACT
WITHFAECES
BLOODCLOT
OVERWOUND
WHITE
BLOODCELLS
ANTIBODIES
BACTERIA
Fig 6.4.11

[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the arguments for and against vaccination
and answer the following questions.
a Discuss the use of vaccination in stopping the
spread of disease.
b Evaluate the importance of vaccination to society.
c If you had children, would you get them vaccinated?
Justify your answer.
2 How do you think the worlds usage of antibiotics is
related to the emergence of new diseases? Gather
information about the following issues and present
your information as a brochure for doctors and patients
on why they should limit the use of antibiotics.
a the rate of antibiotic consumption in the world today
b the rate at which new diseases or new strains of
known diseases are being discovered
c how a high rate of use of antibiotics leads to new,
more dangerous strains of disease
d other factors that could contribute to the emergence
of the new pathogens
Surf
3 Research a communicable disease by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 6 and
clicking on the destinations button. Some diseases you
may like to investigate are anthrax, chickenpox, diphtheria,
gonorrhoea, hepatitis A, malaria, rubella, shingles, yellow
fever, Giardia, influenza, the common cold, or another of
your choice.
a For the disease you have chosen, research:
i what causes the disease
ii how it is contracted
iii parts of the world in which it mainly occurs
iv how it is spread
v signs and symptoms
vi how rare/common it is
vii the treatment used
b Present your information in an electronic format for
display (e.g. PowerPoint, Microworlds or a website).
10 Use a diagram to demonstrate what is meant by the third
line of defence.
Artificial control
11 Outline how a vaccine is used to protect against disease.
12 State why antibiotics are ineffective against viruses.
Think
13 The overuse of antibiotics is dangerous. Discuss this
statement.
14 Identify the correct words in the following list to complete
the sentences below: infection, immunity, vaccine,
inoculated, antibodies, leucocytes
a White blood cells are also called ________.
b An invasion of foreign organisms is called an ________.
c Being _______ with a ________ can give a person
________ against certain diseases.
d A vaccine makes a persons body produce ________.
15 Contrast active with passive immunity.
16 Evaluate the effectiveness of active immunity.
17 Propose a reason why you are unlikely to get measles
twice.
18 Propose a reason why immunity does not occur after one
cold virus infection.
19 Jenner found that infection with cowpox gave immunity
against smallpox. Describe how an infection with one
pathogen could give immunity against a different pathogen.
Analyse
20 Explain in words what Figure 6.4.11 is showing.
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Prac 1
Unit 6.4
Modelling the
transmission of disease
Aim To demonstrate the transmission route of a
disease
Equipment
1 test tube per person, phenolphthalein indicator, 0.1 M sodium
hydroxide, 1 Pasteur pipette per person
Method
1 Each student is given a test tube containing 3 cm
3
of liquid.
One of you will have 3 cm
3
of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide
solution. If it happens to be you, then you are infected
with NaOH disease, but you wont know it! Only the
teacher will know who the infected person is.
All other students have 3 cm
3
of water.
2 You will have 30 seconds to walk around the room, putting
five drops of your solution into the tubes of everyone you
come into contact with. Note the names of your contacts.
3 After the 30 seconds, add 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator to your test tube. All infected people will see a
purple colour in their tubes. Note the number of infected
people.
4 Repeat the activity but this time allowing 1 minute for
everyone to move around the room.
Half of the students will have 3 cm
3
of 0.1 M
hydrochloric acid in their test tube. This represents
an immunisation since the acid will neutralise any
infection with NaOH disease.
One person will still be infected with 3 cm
3
of 0.1 M
sodium hydroxide solution.
The rest of the students will have 3 cm
3
of water in
their tubes.
The infected and the immunised people will not
know who they are until later.
Questions
1 Is it possible to work out who was the original infected
person? Justify your answer.
2 Describe any difference you observed in the spread of
your disease when the time for infection became longer.
3 The spread of disease was different when half of the
people were immunised. Describe how.
Prac 2
Unit 6.4
Effectiveness of
antiseptics
Aim To investigate the ability of various
antiseptics to kill disease
Equipment
5 Petri dishes containing the nutrient agar, cotton buds,
masking tape, 4 different antiseptics e.g. tea-tree oil,
eucalyptus oil, commercial antiseptics, gloves
Method
1 Expose all agar plates to the air.
2 Tape one dish shut. This is your control.
3 Dip a cotton bud in one of the antiseptics and carefully
brush it in an s pattern over the surface of one of the
agar plates as shown in Figure 6.4.12.
4 Repeat step 2 for the other three antiseptics.
5 Tape all dishes shut and put them in a warm place for
48 hours.
6 After 48 hours, take them out and record your results.
Remember: Do not open the dishes. Look at them through
the plates.
Questions
1 Sketch the appearance of the control and one other plate.
2 Describe the effect that each antiseptic had on the
growth of bacteria.
3 Compare the effectiveness of the four antiseptics.
3 Which was the most effective antiseptic? Justify your
answer.
Rub the cotton bud over
the agar in this pattern.
Fig 6.4.12
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There are many diseases that are non-
infectious. They are not caught, meaning
they are not transmitted or caused by
pathogens. The causes of non-infectious
diseases are varied and frequently unknown.
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Genetic disorders
Genetic disorders are caused by abnormalities in one
or more genesthis means that the code contained on
the chromosomes for building new cells is faulty.
These genetic abnormalities may be caused by
mutations (see Unit 4.3, page 116 to revise mutations).
Sometimes a disorder like diabetes may show up
suddenly in a family that has no previous history of
the disease. This is caused by a new gene mutation
in the sex cells. The cause of gene mutation is often
unknown, but mutagens such as radiation, drugs,
chemicals and some viruses may be responsible. Once
a new gene mutation has happened, the disorder it
causes will be passed on to future generations.
Some are genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome,
while others, like cancers, seem to be linked to environ-
mental factors such as exposure to certain chemicals
and radiation. The cause of others is still unknown.
Young girl with Down syndrome Fig 6.5.1
Haemophilia is an example of an inherited genetic
disorder where people lack an important clotting
factor in their blood.
Down syndrome is not usually inherited, but some
women have anomalies in their genes that could
increase their risk of having a child affected with the
disorder. The chance of a woman having a child with
Down syndrome increases with her age. At 25 the risk
is 1 in 1250, but by the time a woman is 45 the chance
has risen to 1 in 30.
It is possible to test for some genetic disorders
while the child is still in the womb. The methods
used were explained in Unit 4.4.
Diseases caused by diet
Malnutrition
People in developing countries generally do not have
the quantity or range of foods that you have, making
them susceptible to malnutrition. Vitamin and mineral
deficiencies can easily cause death.
Fig 6.5.2 This refugee child is getting adequate
carbohydrates, but is at risk of kwashiorkor,
caused by protein deficiency.
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In Australia most people have access to sufficient
food. Despite this, many have poor diets, eating
too much of one type of food. They therefore have
deficiencies in certain essential nutrients, fibre,
vitamins and minerals.
Obesity
Obesity is a widespread problem in Australia and
much of the Western world. Excessive weight places
a strain on all body systems, causing high blood
pressure, joint and blood vessel problems and an
increased chance of developing diabetes.
Eating disorders
Anorexia nervosa results in severe weight loss, often
enough to cause massive organ failure and death.
Bulimia nervosa is a related disorder characterised
by a bingeing and purging cycle. The imbalance of
electrolytes (mineral salts) that results from this cycle
may cause heart failure. Electrolytes are substances
that conduct small electric currents through our
nerves to our muscles and are responsible for
maintaining a regular heartbeat.
Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which glucose, the
energy source for your bodies, is not used correctly
due to lack of a substance called insulin. Diabetes
seems to have some sort of genetic component but
there is no defined pattern of inheritance. There are
two types of diabetes:
juvenile onset (Type I)
mature onset (Type II).
Being overweight is a
common factor in Type II
cases.
If the insulin deficiency
is serious, regular monitoring
and injections are needed
throughout the patients life.
Diseases of the
circulatory
system
In Australia, heart disease
is the leading cause of
death in males over 35
and females over 60.
Monkey magic
Recent research may
soon end the daily
insulin injections
needed by millions
of diabetics. After
receiving a transplant
of insulin-secreting
cells, diabetic monkeys
did not require
injections of insulin.
They did, however,
need to keep taking a
drug that stopped the
bodys natural rejection
of the transplanted
cells.
Many of these diseases
are caused by poor diet,
smoking and a lack of
regular exercise.
Thrombosis and
embolism
Thrombosis is a disease that
causes a large, solid mass
(a thrombus) to form on
the inside wall of a blood
vessel. Sometimes these
large masses can detach
and end up blocking major
arteries, causing death.
The blockage of a
blood vessel is called an
embolism. The embolism
can result from a thrombus,
gas, fat, tumour cells or
some type of foreign body.
Economy Class
Syndrome
Passengers on long flights
do not get much chance to
move about, and this inactivity
sometimes causes a thrombus
to form in blood vessels in
the legs or feet. This deep-
vein-thrombosis (DVT) is
in itself not a major problem,
but quickly becomes so when
the passenger gets moving
again. The thrombus will often
start moving, only to block
more vital blood vessels in
other parts of the body, maybe
in the lungs, heart or brain.
Death often results, perhaps
in the terminal after departing
the plane. All age groups can
suffer from DVT and airlines
now recommend that on long
flights you exercise your legs
and feet to keep blood flow
moving in them. You will find
these exercises in the in-flight
magazines and sometimes on
one of the video channels.
Fig 6.5.3 Regular exercise is
a key to avoiding
diseases of the
circulatory system.
Non-infectious diseases Non-infectious diseases
213
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Varicose veins
Irregularities in vein walls and weaknesses in the
valves can stop blood flowing back to the heart
normally. Varicose veins are the result and are usually
seen in the legs, where blood must fight gravity to get
back to the heart. Unsightly, bulging veins develop
wherever blood is trapped.
They are more likely to occur in women than in
men, and are usually inherited. If you are female and
one of your parents has varicose veins, then there is a
very good chance that you will develop this condition.
Stroke
A stroke occurs if the blood supply to part of the brain is cut off by
either a blockage (embolism) or a burst blood vessel (haemorrhage).
Brain cells immediately start to die. One third of stroke victims die
soon after, another third eventually fully recover. The other third
need intensive care since they are often left paralysed, particularly
down the left side of the body. Forty-eight thousand Australians
suffer stroke every year: this amounts to one stroke happening every
11 minutes! Stroke is the biggest cause of disability in Australia and
the third biggest killer. Health costs associated with it amount to
$1.3 billion per year. Although little can be done for a haemorrhage
stroke victim, new research shows that injecting special chemicals
soon after the attack can sometimes dissolve embolisms in the
brain. Another approach is to use a microscopic corkscrew that is
inserted into the blood vessel. It burrows into the embolism and bits
of it can be pulled away, eventually clearing the blockage.
Fig 6.5.4 A thrombus (blood clot) in red, blocking about
30% of a coronary artery
High blood pressure
Hypertension is the name given
to persistent high blood pressure.
It can cause arteriosclerosis, or
hardening of the arteries, and
coronary heart disease. The worst
type of arteriosclerosis is called
atherosclerosis. It is characterised by
fatty deposits within arteries. These
deposits can eventually cause arteries
to become blocked. Atherosclerosis
can occur in any part of the body,
not just the heart. It can be inherited,
but is also strongly linked to
environmental factors like smoking
and diet.
Heart
disease
Coronary heart disease refers
to anything that reduces blood
flow to the heart and is usually
caused by arteriosclerosis. It
can cause milder attacks of
chest pain, called angina, or
a serious heart failure, called
a heart attack. About 25% of
people with coronary heart
disease die suddenly from a
Varicose veins are caused by a fault in the valves.
spider vein
deep vein
superficial vein
connecting vein
varicose vein
Fig 6.5.5
Magic margarine
Cholesterol is a vital
component of all your
cells, but too much of
it in a diet can lead to
arteriosclerosis. There are
now margarines available
that contain plant sterols,
substances which can
actually lower the amount
of blood cholesterol. This
is good news for all those
heart patients condemned
to low-fat dietsfor
the first time, margarine
may actually make them
healthier!
Flossy hearts
Want to know one easy
way to help keep your
heart healthy? Floss your
teeth! Gum disease can
result in your mouth
having an extremely high
concentration of bacteria.
These bacteria can end up
in your bloodstream and
cause damage to your heart.
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heart attack. Other diseases, including diabetes, can
cause weakening of the heart.
Cancer
Cancer is one disease that is on the increase in
Australia. Cancer occurs when the cell division
that produces new cells occurs uncontrollably. Cell
division is a carefully controlled process and even
tiny changes within cells can be enough to disturb the
process and produce cancer.
A tumour is any abnormal growth in the body.
There are two types:
A benign growth is one in which the cells are not
rapidly dividing. A wart is an example of a benign
tumour.
A malignant growth is one in which uncontrollable
growth is occurringthis is cancer.
A biopsy is carried out to determine whether
a tumour is malignant or benign. A small sample
of tissue is taken, and is then analysed under a
microscope.
Cancer can occur anywhere in the body. The most
common sites for cancers are the skin and prostate in
men, and the breasts in women. Factors that can lead
to cancer are:
environmentalcigarette smoking (lung cancer),
exposure to the sun (skin cancer), poor diet (bowel
cancer), and exposure to certain chemicals, called
carcinogens
genetic predispositiona family history of breast
or prostate cancer suggests that you have a higher
risk of developing those cancers.
If a malignant growth is found, it needs to be
treated before metastasis occurs. Metastasis is when
cancerous cells find their way into the circulatory
or lymph systems and travel to other parts of the
body. The disease becomes very difficult to treat once
secondary cancer sites (called metastases) develop.
Leukaemia is a type of cancer of the bone marrow
and the tissues that produce blood cells. The first
symptoms are usually fatigue, unexplained bruising
What happens during a heart attack. Not everyone experiences all of these symptoms. Fig 6.5.6
A heart attack is initiated by a blockage in a major blood vessel. This stops blood and oxygen getting to the heart. Within 20 minutes the heart
starts to die, leading to a heart attack.
1 2 3
4 5 6 7
1 Stabbing sensation in chest
2 Great pain which can last for hours
3 Dizziness, cold sweat, dry mouth
4 Tingling in wrists, hands, fingers
5 Pain radiates down left arm
6 Chest feels like it is being crushed often described as
like being in a vice or like a great weight is on the chest
7 Vomiting, indigestion
One in three people die within a few
hours of the chest pain starting.
Anyone experiencing any of the above
symptoms combined with chest pain
should call an ambulance immediately.
Fig 6.5.7 A coloured MRI scan showing a malignant
breast cancer (blue) at right. Note the
increased blood supply to the tumour.
Non-infectious diseases Non-infectious diseases
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and anaemia, caused by the lack of red blood cells.
An abnormal number of white blood cells appear.
Like most cancers, there is no known cure, but many
treatment options are available.
Common treatments for cancer are surgery,
radiotherapy (using radiation to kill localised growths)
and chemotherapy (using chemicals to poison cells).
These treatments can have serious side effects. The
best chance for surviving cancer is to detect it early
while it is still small. Never ignore an unexplained
lump anywhere on your body. Get your doctor to
check it out immediately!
Fig 6.5.8 Surgery is one way to remove tumours from
the body.
are those that alter mood. Drug use is the controlled,
beneficial use of a substance. Drug abuse is when a
drug is used in a way that causes negative effects.
People who use so-called recreational drugs like
Ecstasy or marijuana are often unaware of the serious
side effects that can occur. Often, users develop
mental disorders that stay with them for life.
The table below shows the long- and short-term
effects of some psychoactive drugs.
Alcohol and smoking
Two of the most widely used and abused drugs in
modern society are the legalised drugsalcohol and
nicotine. Because they are legal, their use is much
more widespread, open and accepted than illegal
substances like heroin and amphetamines. However,
their results can be just as devastating, both to the
user and to those around them.
Drug Short-term effects Long-term effects
Marijuana Euphoria, poor coordination, affects sense of time, increased Respiratory problems, depression, memory problems and
or reduced appetite, thirst, dizziness. levels of sex hormones.
Ecstasy Feeling of closeness to others, stimulant effect. Can cause Long-lasting, possibly permanent, brain damage, especially
(MDMA) increase in body temperature, leading to death. affects memory.
Speed Stimulant, increases heart rate, decreases fatigue, feelings of Can lead to brain damage, memory loss, psychotic behaviour
agitation, excited speech. and heart problems.
Ketamine Delirium, amnesia, affects movement. Can cause fatal Affects attention span and can cause learning difficulties.
breathing difficulties. Also affects memory.
LSD Hallucinogen. Increased heart rate, higher body temperature, Can result in persistent psychosis and flashbacks, where
tremors. Effects often unpredictable. hallucinations recur.
Abuse of psychoactive drugs
Many people frequently use substances that cause
them harm. It is very wrong to think that nasty side
effects only occur with prolonged use. Long-term
problems can arise just as easily in first-time users.
A drug is any substance that has the ability to
alter a persons body chemistry. Psychoactive drugs
Alcohol and smoking lead to an
unhealthy lifestyle. Fig 6.5.9
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Alcohol
In Australia approximately 7% of all male deaths and
4% of all female deaths can be directly attributed to
alcohol.
Alcohol is technically a depressant drug. Although
it doesnt necessarily make you depressed, it does
depress your central nervous system, slowing down its
responses. Alcohol has different effects depending on
how much is consumed:
Alcohol initially gives a sense of warmth and well-
being, and a loss of inhibitions.
With a little more alcohol, muscle coordination
becomes difficult and speech slurred. Reactions are
slower and the senses become dulled. Alcohol is a
cause of around one-third of all road deaths. Hence
the legal blood alcohol limit in New South Wales
for all learner and provisional licence holders was
reduced to zero in May 2004.
If more alcohol is ingested, intoxication occurs.
The person will be staggering, nauseated, possibly
vomiting, and will have difficulty speaking. People
are likely to fall into a coma if their blood alcohol
content gets to 0.40%. Death through heart and
respiratory failure can occur at around 0.60%. This
rarely happens, however, since unconsciousness
and vomiting have usually forced the person to
stop drinking before then.
Alcohol also stimulates urine production,
dehydrating body cells. Part of the liver is put out
of action while it works on
processing alcohol. A by-
product of all this processing
are poisonous chemicals that
are then released back into
the blood. It is a combination
of dehydration and these
chemicals that give the
symptoms of a hangover.
Binge-drinking is
particularly harmful since it
gives no time for the body to
process the alcohol.
Chronic alcohol abuse
causes many ill-effects
including:
digestive problems
alcohol destroys the
lining of the stomach.
Sexist alcohol!
Alcohol affects different
people very differently.
Its effects will depend
on your body weight,
fat content, age, mood,
previous exposure to
alcohol and many other
factors. Womens bodies
have a higher fat content
than mens and so are not
able to metabolise as much
alcohol as men. Women
will therefore be affected by
smaller amounts. In both
sexes, even small amounts
of alcohol can make
the symptoms of mood
disorders like depression
and anxiety much worse.
malnutrition and vitamin deficienciesdiet
is often neglected. Although alcohol is rich in
kilojoules, it has no nutrients.
destruction of the liveralcohol can cause
cirrhosis, a disease where cells are replaced by
fibrous tissue
heart damagealcohol can harden artery walls
destruction of brain cells
slow deterioration of the central nervous system.
The abuse of alcohol can result in the disease
called alcoholism, where drinking is compulsive and
the person dependent on it. This dependence is most
often psychological, but can develop into a physical
dependence.
Smoking
The harmful effects of smoking have long been well
documented. Despite this, every year young people
take up the habit. More young women than men are
currently smokers, one common reason being that it
Fig 6.5.10 This lung from a heavy smoker shows tar
deposits as black spots that would not be
present in a healthy lung.
Non-infectious diseases Non-infectious diseases
Worksheet 6.5 Blood alcohol concentration
217
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is an appetite suppressant. The nicotine in tobacco
is addictive and once the habit is formed, it is not an
easy one to give up. Withdrawal symptoms include
intense craving, anxiety, sweating, depression, sleep
problems and difficulty concentrating. It often takes
many attempts before people are able to kick the habit
for good.
Before you think about lighting up, think about
these statistics. Smokers are likely to have:
more accidents than non-smokers, due to the
slowing down of their reflex actions following a
cigarette
constriction of blood vessels, which means that
smokers brains dont work as well as non-smokers
brains
a middle-age death rate twice that of non-smokers
an increased risk of developing many diseases, not
just lung cancer
an increased risk of having low birthweight babies
with health problems and reduced intelligence if
the mother smokes during pregnancy
bad breath
stained teeth and fingers.
Prac 1
p. 220
Environmental
hazards
Exposure to radiation, heavy
metals such as lead, and
chemicals such as asbestos are
all environmental hazards that
can cause diseases. Although
these hazards are usually
avoidable, some people are
exposed to them without
warning. Many environmental
diseases have only been
diagnosed relatively recently,
since many take a long time
to develop. Asbestos was once
thought to be safe and many
people innocently exposed
themselves to it in the past.
What diseases will develop
in the years to come from the
materials society uses today?
Fig 6.5.11 Some effects of smoking
This cancer of the lower lip was
caused by radiation. Fig 6.5.12
Increased chance
of cancer and
heart disease
prone to lung
infections,
persistent
cough
cant smell or
taste as well
aging
bad breath, smelly
hair, hands, etc
expensive
unfit
Radiation
Radiation can come from natural sources, like the
Sun, or can be generated from artificial sources like
X-rays, mobile phones, overhead power lines and
nuclear explosions. Radiation most commonly causes
mutations in cells, producing various cancers.
6
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Fig 6.5.13 Whether radiation from mobile phones causes
cancer is still a cause for debate and research.
Heavy metals
The heavy metals include mercury, thallium, lead
and bismuth. The human body has no method of
ridding itself of these metals and they build up with
each exposure to them. Hence, they are often called
cumulative poisons. Throughout history, mercury
and lead were used for many purposes before their
ill-effects were known, poisoning people as they
were used.
Lead poisoning has been linked to the exhaust
from cars and from flaking old-fashioned lead-
based paint. Lead is rarely used in paint these
days, but renovators of old homes need to take care
when sanding and ripping down walls. Chronic
lead poisoning has many ill-effects, including
foetal deformities in pregnant women and mental
impairment in children.
Mental illness
Diseases of the mind can be the most devastating
of all. Not only do sufferers have to deal with the
disease itself, they must also deal with the terrible
stigma that society places on those with mental
disorders. In spite of their widespread natureit is
estimated that one in four Australians suffers from
a mental health problem severe enough to affect
their ability to maintain a normal lifestylemental
illnesses are not discussed with the same openness
as many other illnesses.
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Genetic diseases
1 Outline the causes of genetic disorders.
2 State how errors in genetic coding can occur.
3 Identify some causes of genetic mutations.
4 State the names of two genetically related disorders.
Diseases caused by diet
5 Identify four diseases associated with diet.
6 Describe two effects of obesity on the body.
7 Diabetes is a disease connected with diet. Describe
how diabetes affects the body.
Diseases of the circulatory system
8 Describe three causes of circulatory diseases.
9 Define the following terms:
a thrombosis
b embolism
c hypertension
d arteriosclerosis
Non-infectious diseases Non-infectious diseases
Fig 6.5.14 Depression is a common mental illness that
can be overcome with support and counselling.
Societys attitude towards sufferers of mental
illness results in them feeling even more isolated,
rejected and shamed. Hopefully this attitude will
change as people become better educated about
mental disorders.
Mental illnesses include schizophrenia, depression
and bipolar disorder. Mental illnesses are no different
to other types of illnessthere are symptoms and
treatments. They can be inherited or caused by other
factors such as drug abuse. All sufferers of illness
need acceptance, understanding and respect. Those
suffering from mental illness need it too.
219
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Fig 6.5.15
34 Figure 6.5.16 shows a normal vein. Construct a
diagram showing what you think a varicose vein might
look like.
direction of blood flow
Fig 6.5.16 A normal vein
10 Describe three things you can do to keep your heart
healthy.
11 Explain what can happen if an embolism forms in:
a the brain
b the legs of a plane passenger on a long flight
Cancer
12 Identify four factors that can lead to cancer.
13 Cancer can be treated in a variety of ways. Describe
three of these.
14 Explain why metastases make it difficult to treat cancer.
Abuse of psychoactive drugs
15 Define the term drug.
16 Use an example to clarify what is meant by a
psychoactive drug.
17 List the side-effects of a particular psychoactive drug.
Alcohol and smoking
18 List three positive and three negative effects of drinking
alcohol.
19 Describe the effects of blood alcohol levels above
0.60%.
20 It is well known that long-term alcohol consumption
damages ones health. Describe some of the effects of
long-term alcohol abuse.
21 List six withdrawal symptoms that occur when a person
is trying to quit smoking.
22 Use Figure 6.5.11 to list six effects of smoking.
Environmental hazards
23 List three types of environmental hazards and the
diseases they may cause.
Mental illness
24 List three examples of mental illness.
Think
25 Compare the genetic origins of haemophilia and Down
syndrome.
26 Distinguish between a benign tumour and a malignant
tumour.
27 State whether the following statements are true or false.
a Gene abnormalities are always inherited.
b Older women have less chance than younger women
of having a child with Down syndrome.
c Vitamin and mineral deficiencies can cause death.
d An imbalance of electrolytes is not a serious health
problem.
e Heart disease is the leading cause of death in
Australian men over 35.
28 Contrast drug use with drug abuse.
Analyse
29 Propose reasons why young people are tempted to
use illegal drugs like marijuana.
30 The use of ecstasy has some long-term effects. In the
light of these effects, assess its use by young people.
31 Discuss the law that prohibits P-plate drivers from
drinking alcohol and driving.
32 Mental illness is a common problem. Propose
reasons why it is not discussed openly like most other
diseases.
33 Look at the person in Figure 6.5.15. Evaluate which
non-infectious diseases he is at risk of getting.
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[
Practical activity
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Prac 1
Unit 6.5
TEACHER DEMONSTRATION
Effects of smoking
Questions
1 Describe your observations as the cigarette was being
smoked.
2 Identify what the cotton wool represented.
3 State one poisonous substance produced as a result of
cigarette smoking.

[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Construct a poster warning people about a health risk.
Examples include heart disease, skin cancer, smoking,
drug abuse or something else you find interesting.
2 Research what exercises are recommended by airlines
to minimise the risk of getting DVT.
3 As the head of the local health care service, you have
$1 000 000 to spend per annum.
a Explain how you will distribute this money.
b Justify your choices. Remember: all age groups must
be catered for.
c Discuss this with your class.
Surf
4 Explore smoking, alcohol and drug use/abuse further by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 6
and clicking on the destinations button.
a Produce a list of reviewed websites that could be
recommended to someone who needs support to
quit their habit.
b Present your reviewed sites as a web page for
people looking for help in this area.
retort
stand
tap
rubber
hosing
vacuum
pump
glass tube
cotton wool
cigarette
bosshead
and clamp
Fig 6.5.17
Equipment
Glass tubes, cigarette, cotton wool, sink vacuum
pump, matches
Method
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 6.5.17.
2 Turn the pump on and light the cigarette.
Non-infectious diseases Non-infectious diseases
221
Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 Outline how health is different from disease.
2 List three types of nutrients.
3 State an example of a psychosomatic illness.
4 Specify an example of a disease and its symptoms.
5 Clarify what is meant by virulence.
6 Use an example to clarify what is meant by a
pathogen.
7 List the types of micro-organisms that cause disease.
8 Describe ways in which natural control of disease
occurs in our bodies.
9 Describe ways in which artificial control of disease is
achieved.
10 a Outline the role of chromosomes.
b Describe what a mutation is.
c List factors that may cause a mutation to occur.
11 List the diseases that can occur in the circulatory
system.
12 Distinguish between benign and malignant tumours.
13 Outline the results of metastasis.
14 Recreational drugs often have long-term effects on
health. Identify the effects caused by marijuana.
15 Identify three heavy metals.
16 Outline the effects of lead poisoning.
[
Thinking questions
]
17 Identify the correct words needed to complete this
statement.
The study of disease is called _________. A plant or an
animal is an ________. A very small ________ is called
a _________. An _________causes disease. Parasites
use a ________ for food and _________. _________ is
a measure of how much a disease damages the host.
Another name for an epidemic is an _________.
18 Explain why pathologists carry out autopsies.
19 Describe how the spread of a disease can be prevented
if it is:
a water-borne
b air-borne
20 Some very old bacteria have been found still alive,
trapped in ice in polar regions. Explain how they have
survived for so long.
21 Explain why fungi are called opportunistic pathogens.
22 Explain how immunity is achieved as a result of
vaccinations.
[
Interpreting questions
]
23 Use Figure 6.1.2 to assess whether the people shown
have good health.
24 Contrast the effect on health of the activities shown in
Figures 6.1.6 and 6.1.7.
25 From Figure 6.2.1 it is possible to say that many
diseases have common symptoms. State one symptom
that all diseases have in common.
26 Use the table on page 196 to state the name of the
pathogen that causes:
a cholera
b thrush
c food poisoning
27 Look at the
diagram opposite.
Specify what
is acting as:
a the host
b the vector
28 Identify the types of things vaccines can be made of.
29 Construct diagrams showing the shape of bacteria
that cause:
a syphilis
b sarcina
c gonorrhoea
Worksheet 6.6 Health and disease crossword
Worksheet 6.7 Sci-words
Evolution
Evolution
>>>
Key focus area
The history of science
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By the end of this chapter you should be
able to:

explain natural selection, the theory of
evolution and their relationship

describe the contributions that Buffon,
Lamarck, Wallace and Darwin made to our
ideas of evolution

explain how organisms change when their
environment changes

explain why organisms with different
ancestry might look similar

describe alternative theories on how life
came to be

describe evidence that supports the theory
of evolution

trace the development of modern humans.
1 What was the first life on Earth like?
2 How did giraffes get their long necks?
3 The bright colours of some animals make
them easy-to-see prey. Why arent they
camouflaged instead?
4 What does survival of the fittest mean?
5 Charles Darwin is only famous because
Darwin was named after him. True or
false?
6 Dolphins and sharks have very similar
features despite being very different
creatures. Why?
7 What is a fossil and what can it tell us?
8 How many different types of humans
have there been?
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UNIT
UNIT
Nearly two million different kinds of plants,
animals and micro-organisms are known to
be currently living on Earth. More are being
found each year. Many more have come and
gone, with the average time that a species
lasts on Earth being about four million
years. Some, like the dinosaurs, are long extinct,
and the extinction of others is far more recent.
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How did this tremendous diversity of life come to exist
on our planet? Evolution suggests that all forms of
life stem from the same remote beginnings and that
the different species we now know have developed
gradually over millions of years.
Surviving in different
environments
Adaptations
Organisms survive
and breed in their
environments because
they have characteristics
suited to that
environment. Specific
structures, functions and
behaviours increase their
chances of surviving, at
least until the organism
is able to reproduce.
These characteristics
are called adaptations.
They are inherited and
are passed from parents
to offspring. Adaptations
take many forms and can
be classified as either
structural (where the
adaptation is physical) or
behavioural (where the
adaptation controls the
way they act).
Structural adaptations:
Many animals blend
with their background
so that they cannot be
seen by predators.
A few change colour to blend with changing
backgrounds.
Others resemble non-living objects such as leaves,
twigs or even bird droppings.
With some animals it is difficult for a predator to
tell which end is which. The predator attacks the
wrong end, giving the prey a chance to escape.
Some extremely colourful animals look like they
would be easy prey. Their bright appearance,
however, warns predators to stay away, because
these animals usually sting, taste bad or are
poisonous.
A tricky variation on this is the mimic. The mimic
is not dangerous to predators, but has copied
the colourings and shape of another animal, so
predators avoid it.
Some animals have features that make them look
larger and more frightening to predators. For
example, the neck frills of some lizards can be
opened to make the head seem like that of a much
larger lizard.
Cuddles the furry shark
New species are usually found in
wild and unexplored places, but
in 2004 a radically new species
of shark was found in a fish tank!
Cuddles the shark is a 70 cm
female that looks much like other
sharks, except that it is covered
in red bristles, has bigger nostrils
and an extra gill. Cuddles doesnt
swim, but instead hops along
the floor of the tank by clapping
together its shorter-than-normal
and more muscular fins. Cuddles
now lives in the Sea Star aquarium
in Coburg, Germany, but it is
thought that Cuddles probably
originally came from southern
Africa, where, it is suspected,
it lived in dark ocean caves. Its
bristles are thought to be an
adaptation that gives it increased
sensitivity to water movement
that might suggest food or prey.
Cuddles wont get a mate, however,
until scientists find out exactly
where it came from. It is very likely
that this newly discovered species
of shark will disappear when
Cuddles eventually dies.
Fig 7.1.1 The shingleback skink or two-headed lizard will
wave its tail around to try to distract the predator.
If the tail is bitten off, it will slowly grow back.
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The wings of the owlet moth have bright yellow
and black eyespots that mimic the eyes of an owl. Fig 7.1.2
Behavioural adaptations:
Some animals have learned to sit very still or move
slowly to avoid predators.
Others are active only at certain times of the day
or year to avoid unfavourable conditions such as
extremes of heat or cold.
Some have learnt to use tools to access difficult
food. For example, chimpanzees commonly use
broken twigs to extract termites.
Fig 7.1.3 Chimpanzees have learnt to use a stick to get to
the tasty termites without destroying the nest.
Some collect and store food for future use.
Many larger animals form herds to provide
protection from predators.
Adaptations serve many purposes. Arctic fish
contain a kind of antifreeze in their blood, allowing
them to survive in waters that would freeze the blood
of other fish. The long mane of a male lion makes it
appear larger to opponents. This kind of adaptation for
intimidation is common. Intimidation also involves
behaviours such as puffing out the chest and standing
up as tall as possible.
Plants also have adaptations. One orchid achieves
pollination by imitating the shape, colour and smell of
a female bee. When a male bee attempts to mate with
the orchid, pollen is transferred from flower to flower.
The silvery coloured, narrow-shaped leaves of the
wattle tree help reduce water loss by evaporation.
All organisms have adaptations that assist their
survival in their environment.
Fig 7.1.4 To a male bee this orchid looks and smells like
a female beewhat happens when the bee tries
to mate with the orchid?
Variation
Although individuals within a species are very
similar, they are not identical. Variation occurs
within all species. Much of this variation comes
The evolution of a theory The evolution of a theory
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observable, measurable and testable. Like all theories,
it is constantly subject to scrutiny, re-evaluation and
change.
Alternatives to evolution
The theory of evolution is not the only explanation
for the existence and diversity of life on Earth. Most
societies have stories about the origin and
diversity of life. Creation is the view that
regards the world and everything in it as
having been made by supernatural means, by
a god or gods.
The ancient Greeks suggested that the
world grew out of Chaos, a dark mass where
everything was hidden. From Chaos emerged a
god and/or a goddess. The ancient world was
peopled by them, producing other gods and
goddesses, and then mortal men and women.
from the differences in genes and chromosomes that
each individual inherits from their parents. These
differences are the result of the random assortment of
chromosomes during meiosis, and the combination
of gametes (sex cells) during fertilisation.
Further genetic variation occurs as a result of
mutations. Other variations come from environmental
factors such as the amount of exposure to the Sun and
differences in diet.
Variation and survival
The survival of a species relies on
at least some individuals producing
offspring. The organisms best adapted
to their environment are the most
likely to produce offspring. These are
the organisms that have favourable
characteristics, enhancing their
ability to survive and reproduce. Their
offspring will inherit these favourable
characteristics. Over several generations,
individuals with favourable characteristics
will become the most common. In
contrast, those with less favourable
characteristics will find the environment
inhospitable. They will be more likely to
die before they get a chance to reproduce
and so will become less common. We can
say that favourable characteristics are selected.
Variation in a species is particularly important if
environmental conditions change. Some individuals
will have characteristics that are favourable, allowing
the species to survive the change.
The theory of evolution
The theory of biological evolution states that life
on Earth has changed over time. Although the
idea of a gradual unfolding of life goes back to the
ancient Greeks, the modern theory of biological
evolution has only been developed in the past 200
years. This gradual development of different species
from a common ancestor is called evolution. The
word evolution is derived from the Latin evolutus,
meaning unrolled.
It is important to remember that the theory of
evolution is just thata theory. In scientific terms a
theory is not just a guess or a piece of speculation.
It is a collection of hypotheses that have been tested
and supported consistently by available evidence.
Scientific theories are concerned with what is
The Biblical account includes stories of the
creation of the Earth and all life on it in six days.
There is also an account of the first man, Adam, being
created from clay and the first woman, Eve, being
created from his rib.
Fig 7.1.5 A rock painting showing dreamtime figures
Dreamtime
Some Australian
Aborigines view the Earth
at the beginning of time
as a flat, featureless plain.
Later, in the Dreamtime,
creatures partly resembling
humans arose out of this
plain. They suddenly
disappeared, but left their
mark as mountains, rivers,
animals, plants and all the
other features of Earth.
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Fig 7.1.6 Most societies have stories about the origin of life. This painting (15081512)
by Michelangelo is called The Creation of Adam and is part of the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.
A major problem arises when
considering these accounts of
creation. Are they to be seen as
factual? Some people believe the
events happened exactly as stated.
Other people interpret these
accounts as stories with symbolic
meaning, as teachings about the
relationships between God or gods,
the universe and humans. The
whole question of the origin of life
then becomes bound to religious
belief.
Early theories of
evolution
Until the late 1700s most scientists
believed that the different types of
organisms and their characteristics
had been fixed for all time. This
idea of the fixity of species was
questioned in the late 1700s by the French naturalist
Georges Buffon (170788), who suggested that
species could change. Erasmus Darwin (17311802),
grandfather of Charles Darwin, also suggested that
The evolution of a theory The evolution of a theory
ET and me?
There have been various
suggestions that life on
Earth originated somewhere
out there. In his 1969 book
Chariots of the Gods, Erik
von Daniken proposed
that beings from outer
space visited Earth and
created human intelligence
through deliberate genetic
mutation. These visits
were supposedly recorded
and handed down through
religion and myths, and in a
few physical signs, such as
the Nazca lines in Peru. In
more recent times, a well-
known astronomer, Sir Fred
Hoyle, also proposed that
life originated from outer
space.
A busy week
in 3928 BC
In 16421644, Dr John
Lightfoot of Cambridge
University in England wrote
that the world was created on
Sunday, 12 September
3928 BC and that man
was created on Friday
17 September 3928 BC at
9 am. In 1650, an Irish
Archbishop, James Ussher,
counted the generations of
the Bible, adding them to
modern history, and fixed the
date of Biblical creation as
Monday 23 October
4004 BC.
one species could change to another, but he had no
evidence to support his ideas.
The first detailed account of how species could
change and evolve came from French naturalist Jean
Baptiste Lamarck (17441829).
Jean Lamarck, French naturalist Fig 7.1.7
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Charles Darwin, 18 years
after his famous voyage on
the HMS Beagle Fig 7.1.9
Lamarck, a tutor of Buffons son, spent many years
classifying plants and invertebrates. He thought that
the similarities and differences between living things
made sense only if species were evolving. In the
1800s he published several works arguing the case for
evolution.
Lamarck believed that organisms were guided
through their lives by a creative force that enabled
them to overcome adverse environmental conditions.
Organisms adapted through their struggle to survive.
In 1809 he wrote Zoological Philosophy, where he
stated two laws:
Organs are improved with repeated use and
weakened by disuse.
Any improvements in or weakening of organs due
to the environment are preserved by reproduction
[and pass] to the new individuals which arise.
These changes are acquired characteristics, which
Lamarck thought were then passed on to the offspring.
Giraffes, for example, stretched their necks to reach
food high in the trees. This acquired characteristic (a
longer neck) was passed on, so that offspring inherited
the characteristic of a longer neck. Lamarck pictured
evolution as a ladder of life from the simplest to the
most complex organisms.
Lamarck had no experimental evidence for
his ideas. Modern genetics shows his ideas to be
wrong. Acquired characteristics cannot be inherited.
Inherited characteristics come from the chromosomes
passed to the offspring via the gametes. These
chromosomes are not altered by changes that occur
during the life of the organism.
Cut off their tails with
a carving knife
Experiments have been
conducted to test whether
acquired characteristics
can be inherited. In one
experiment, the tails of mice
were removed. The offspring
of these tail-less mice were
all born with tails. The
experiment was repeated for
twenty generations. All mice
were born with tails. The
acquired characteristic was
not inherited.
Lamarckian evolution of the giraffes long neck Fig 7.1.8
Ancestral giraffes with short necks
stretched to reach the tree tops.
The stretched neck (acquired
characteristic) was inherited
by the offspring.
Continual stretching and inheritance
produced the modern giraffe.
Darwins theory
Charles Darwin (180982) abandoned his studies in
medicine and theology (religion) to follow a career as
a naturalist. In 1831, aged 22, he took a position as
naturalist on the HMS Beagle, a ship commissioned
to survey and chart the coast of South America. For
the next five years Darwin observed the geographical
distribution of plants, animals, fossils and rocks
in various parts of the world. He puzzled over the
enormous variety and adaptations of the organisms
he saw, and became convinced that species could
develop from a common ancestral type.
Darwin in Australia
Darwin visited Australia
aboard HMS Beagle in
January 1836. His journal
states that The climate
is splendid, and perfectly
healthy; but to my mind
its charms are lost by the
uninviting aspect of the
country. My opinion is
such that nothing but rather
sharp necessity should
compel me to emigrate.
Darwin in the Northern
Territory was named in
honour of Charles Darwin
when the Beagle made a
further voyage to Australia
in 1839.
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Darwins finches
Some of the most significant of Darwins observations
were of the wildlife on the Galapagos Islands, about
1000 km off the coast of Ecuador. These islands were
of volcanic origin, and much of the wildlife, including
flowers, tortoises and birds, differed in small but
significant ways from island to island. The islands
were effectively isolated from one another by strong
ocean currents and a lack of winds blowing from one
island to another. Darwin marvelled at the diversity of
forms on these islands. He also noted some similarity
between island organisms and mainland organisms.
Perhaps the most famous of the islands organisms
are the finches, now known as Darwins finches.
Darwin found 14 species of finches, all with similar
colourings, calls, nests, eggs and courtship displays.
They differed, however, in habitat, diet, body size
and beak shape. Darwin believed these 14 species
had come from a common ancestor, and proposed the
process of natural selection to explain it.
He suggested that a few finches had arrived on
the islands at some time in the past. These finches
showed natural variation in their beak shape. On one
island, those with beaks of one shape were better
able to feed on the cacti found there. Finches with
other beak shapes found it difficult to survive. On
other islands, other beak shapes gave some finches
a feeding advantage. The birds most suited to their
island survived to produce offspring, which inherited
that beak shape. This is sometimes called survival of
the fittest. The fittest were the birds that were able
to feed and reach breeding age. The characteristic that
gave some beak types an advantage were selected for.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
large ground
finch
(one species)
vegetarian
tree finch
(one species)
woodpecker
finch
(one species)
warbler finch
(one species)
insectivorous
tree finches
(several species)
cactus ground
finches
(several species)
2
10
1
3, 4, 5
8
6, 7, 9
Fig 7.1.10 Darwins finches. This evolutionary tree shows
how different beaks might have been selected
for the food available on each particular island.
Over many generations, the birds on different islands
became sufficiently different from each other to be
recognised as a different species.
Challenging Darwin
Darwin spent 20 years collecting and sorting evidence
for his natural selection theory of evolution. He used
artificial selection techniques to breed various types
Who said that?
The phrase survival
of the fittest is usually
attributed to Darwin but
was first stated by the
philosopher Herbert
Spencer in 1867, eight
years after Darwin first
published his theory.
Darwinian evolution of the giraffes long neck Fig 7.1.11
Eventually all giraffes had long necks.
By natural selection, those with longer
necks survived and produced offspring
with long necks.
Ancestral giraffes had necks of
various lengths.
The evolution of a theory The evolution of a theory
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of fancy pigeons. It was not until 1858 that Darwin
presented his ideas to the scientific world. He was
prompted to publish his work by the publication of
a paper by another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace
(18231913).
Wallace, unlike Darwin, was raised in poverty and
had no formal higher education. Instead he had gained
his knowledge of biology through extensive fieldwork
in the Amazon and East Indies. Wallace developed
his theory of evolution while suffering from a severe
malarial fever in the Malayan jungles.
Alfred Russel Wallace Fig 7.1.12
Darwin completes his work
Darwins major work, titled
On the Origin of Species
by Natural Selection or
Preservation of Favoured Races
in the Struggle for Life, was
published in 1859. Although all
1250 copies of the first edition
sold out within a day, much
of the reaction did not support
him or his theory. Throughout
England, religious leaders
denounced his work as heretical
or against the word of God. The
biblical account held that man
was formed in the image of God.
How then could he have apes as
ancestors? Although the Church
opposed his theory, Darwin
was given a state funeral in
Westminster Abbey in 1882.
Fig 7.1.13 Caricature of Charles Darwins theory of
evolution: a pig transforms into a bull, then into
Darwin himself.
Surely these are not
my relatives!
Although Darwin did not
initially state that humans
were descended from apes,
it was implicit in his theory.
There was much shock
and alarm at this idea.
Newspapers and magazines
printed cartoons showing
the shock of people (and
apes) at the idea of being
related. Religious opposition
to Darwins ideas has not
disappeared. Even today,
some US states require equal
time to be given in science
classes to the teaching of the
biblical story of creation and
to evolution.
During one of these fits, while again considering
the problem of the origin of species, it suddenly
flashed upon me that this process would
necessarily improve the race, because in every
generation the inferior would inevitably be killed off
and the superior would remainthat is, the fittest
would survive. In 1855 Wallace published his first
paper on the origin of species. This made Darwin
realise how close Wallaces research was to his own.
Based on his observations, Wallace had reached a
conclusion similar to Darwinsthat evolution occurs
by natural selection. His second paper on evolution
was presented jointly with Darwins in 1858.
Neo-Darwinism
Although Darwin was not the first to suggest evolution,
he was the first to give a scientific explanation for it.
Darwins explanation that evolution occurs through
230
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Surviving in different environments
1 Use an example to help you outline what is meant by
an adaptation.
2 Identify one example of an adaptation that involves the:
a structure of the organism
b behaviour of the organism
3 State two reasons why individuals within a species are
not identical to one another.
The theory of evolution
4 Explain what a theory is.
5 Outline why evolution can only ever be considered a
theory.
Alternatives to evolution
6 Clarify what is meant by a creationist view of the origin
of life.
7 Creation accounts can be interpreted in a variety of
ways. Present two examples.
Early theories of evolution
8 Use an example to demonstrate the failure of
Lamarcks theory of evolution.
Darwins theory
9 Darwin observed 14 species of finches on the
Galapagos Islands. Propose two possible explanations
for this large number of species.
natural selection is one of the most important theories
of science and is still regarded as being essentially
correct. Darwin formulated his theory with no
knowledge of heredity or genetics as there was no
understanding of inheritance at that time. Darwin was
therefore unable to explain the source of the variation
in species that was central to his theory.
Worksheet 7.1 Evolution crossword 1
Adaptation Survival value Habitat
Body colour that blends with the background Avoidance of the hottest parts of the day Saltwater
Production of small volumes of concentrated urine Avoids dislodgement by moving fluids Desert
Hooks and suckers on the head end of the organism Enables waste removal with minimal water loss Rainforest
Broad, flat, bright green leaves Avoidance of predators Intestines of a sheep
Live underground by day, and are active at night Maximum absorption of sunlight Any
10 Copy and complete the following statements regarding
Charles Darwin by identifying the correct alternative.
a Darwin (was/was not) the first to think of the idea of
evolution.
b Darwin was the first to explain how evolution
occurred by (natural selection/use or disuse of certain
characteristics).
c Darwin believed that the evolutionary process involved
(inherited/acquired) characteristics being passed on to
offspring.
d Darwin published his theory (immediately/many years
after) he returned from his five-year voyage on HMS
Beagle.
11 Explain how the work of Alfred Wallace affected that of
Darwin.
12 State what is meant by neo-Darwinism.
Think
13 Identify whether the red bristles on Cuddles the shark
are an adaptation to its tank environment or its original
environment of dark ocean caves.
14 Jack rabbits, bilbies and fennec foxes all live in desert
habitats, have very large ears and are nocturnal.
Explain how their adaptations allow them to live in their
environment.
15 Like the males of many bird species, male peacocks
are very colourful and carry out spectacular displays
with their tail feathers. Propose how these displays and
colours allow them to continue their species.
16 Identify the adaptations that match their survival value
and the habitat in which they are likely to occur.
Darwins theory can be restated in terms of modern
genetics. This is sometimes called neo-Darwinism.
Evolution is natural selection based upon the natural
genetic variation that appears in all populations.
The evolution of a theory The evolution of a theory
231
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Ancestral form Long-legged
tree-grazing form
Fig 7.1.14
22 Darwin was unable to explain the natural variation that
existed within a species.
a Explain how we account for this variation.
b Propose reasons why Darwin was unable to explain
it as we do.
17 State which of the following are likely to be inherited
characteristics.
a a good suntan
b black hair
c the athletic ability of a gymnast
d high resistance to a bacterial infection
e blue eyes
18 Explain what is meant by biological evolution.
Analyse
19 Describe what the phrase survival of the fittest means
when used in connection with Darwins theory.
20 Draw and label a series of sketches to demonstrate how
the long-legged, tree-grazing animal shown in Figure
7.1.14 evolved, according to
a Lamarcks theory
b Darwins theory
21 Present the main objection to Darwins theory by religious
leaders when it was first published.
Creative writing
What did Darwin see?
Trace the voyage of HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836.
Write a page of Darwins journal for one place that he
visited. Describe the plants and animals he may have
seen, and how his observations might have influenced
his ideas on natural selection and evolution.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the significance of the Wallace Line. Write a
journal article summarising your findings.
2 Research the Latin name for shark and propose a
scientific name for Cuddles.
3 The steady state theory proposes that species did
not have a beginning at all but have always existed.
Research this theory and write a report evaluating any
evidence available.
4 Investigate extraterrestrial theories for the origin of life
on Earth. Write a report summarising any evidence for
such theories.
5 Research the unique wildlife of the Galapagos
Islands and construct a poster showing the variety of
organisms. This could be a class project with groups
working on different aspects.
Action
6 Even if Darwin had not proposed his theory of evolution
by natural selection, he would have been remembered
as a renowned biologist.
a Work in small groups, each choosing a different
aspect of Darwins work and research what he did.
b Present your information in a five-minute talk
summarising Darwins other achievements.
7 Read about religious views on evolution and hold a
debate on whether religion or science is correct about
evolution.
Surf
8 Complete the following activities on evolution by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 7
and clicking on the destinations button.
a Complete the interactive activity on the peppered
moth.
i Record observations for the changes in the
peppered moths.
ii State your deductions about the observations
made.
b Complete some tutorials and quizzes on the history
of the theory of evolution, and construct a time line
showing the development of these theories.
232
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UNIT
UNIT
7
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able to tolerate the cold, having thicker coats or some
other favourable characteristic. They are better suited
to the new, colder conditions than the rest of their
species. Over time, natural selection would increase
the proportion of individuals with this tolerance of
the cold and decrease the proportion of those who
dont. Natural selection takes several generations to
become obvious and so it is extremely difficult to
observe in large plants and animals. It is more obvious
in organisms that reproduce quickly. Bacteria and
insects are two organisms in which natural selection
can occur quickly enough to be observed.
Selection of peppered moths
Over the past 150 years, dramatic changes have
been seen in the populations of peppered moths in
England. In the mid-1800s, scientists noticed that
populations of the peppered moth, Biston betularia,
were changing from mostly light-coloured (typica) to
mostly dark-coloured forms (carbonaria).
How can rabbits survive a virus designed to
kill them? How do bacteria become resistant
to antibiotics? Why does a dolphin look like
a shark, when one is a fish and the other a
mammal? How could a bat, a whale and a
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Natural selection at work
Natural selection is the process in which the
environment selects favourable characteristics,
reducing the frequency of unfavourable characteristics.
This means that after many generations of selection, a
species will become better adapted to its environment.
Individuals will become highly adapted
if their environment doesnt change. Except
for mutations, each individual will be very
similar, because the amount of variation
will have declined. Environments are rarely
constant, however!
Suppose the environment suddenly got colder for
a couple of generations of a particular animal. Some
individuals within the species may naturally be better
Prac 1
p. 238
Fig 7.2.1 Will alpine species such as the mountain pigmy
possum evolve quickly enough to survive our
predicted warmer climate, or is their extinction
imminent?
wolf all come from one ancestor? These questions
may be answered by looking more closely at how
evolution works.
Two colour varieties of the peppered moth
Biston betularia. In nature the light-coloured
form, called typica, is the most common. Fig 7.2.2
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The change occurred during the Industrial
Revolution, when coal-burning factories produced a
lot of pollution in the form of soot.
When on the soot-darkened trees, the light-
coloured form of the moth was easily seen by birds,
their main predator. The dark-coloured moth blended
with the blackened background, increasing its
chances of survival. The dark colour is an inherited
characteristic. Hence, more dark-coloured moths
survived to produce dark-coloured offspring.
After clean-air regulations were implemented,
lichen began to regrow on tree trunks and the
trees returned to their original paler colouring.
nearly all dark
nearly all light
mixed light
and dark
Manchester
London
Fig 7.2.4 Peppered moth populations in England in 1950.
The moths were nearly all dark in industrial
areas, and nearly all light in rural areas.
Moth populations in many of these areas
have shifted back towards the light-
coloured forms. Natural selection seems
to have taken the moths from light to dark
and back to light again.
Selection and rabbit control
In Australia, rabbits overran the land for
many years, digging burrows, stripping
vegetation and causing erosion. The
myxoma virus, carried by fleas and
mosquitoes, was released in Australia
in December 1950 to control the rabbit
population. Within two months, 90% of rabbits in
certain areas had died. Ten years later over 99% of
infected rabbits were dead. This means less than 1%
of rabbits infected with the virus survived. Ten years
later, only 25% of rabbits in those same areas would
die as a result of the virus, and around 40% of those
infected with the virus would survive. These dramatic
changes were the result of natural selection acting on
both the rabbits and the virus.
Consider what would occur if only one rabbit in
every thousand had a natural, genetic resistance to
the myxoma virus. These resistant rabbits would have
survived the initial myxoma spread, and produced
offspring with an inherited resistance. A healthy
rabbit may produce seven or more litters of young
per year, and therefore within a few
years the number of resistant rabbits
would have increased dramatically.
The myxoma-resistant rabbits were
selected for survival.
Natural selection also works on
the virus. The highly virulent form of
the virus (the one most able to kill)
kills the rabbit within 610 days of
infection. A less virulent form might
take 34 weeks to kill the rabbit.
Since the virus can multiply only
within a live rabbit, it is beneficial to
the virus for the rabbit to live longer.
The less virulent form was therefore
selected for survival.
Selection and diseases
There have also been several well-
documented cases of populations
acquiring resistance to introduced
chemicals. Mosquitoes, which
carry the diseases yellow fever and
Superbugs
When penicillin was
first introduced it was
very effective in treating
infections caused by
Staphylococcus aureus,
known as golden
staph. Now, MRSA
(methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus)
is resistant to penicillin
and around twenty other
substances, including
antibiotics, antiseptics and
disinfectants. Recently,
several strains of MRSA
have become resistant
to the drug of last
resortvancomycin. If
vancomycin fails, the death
rate from MRSA will rise
dramatically.
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Fig 7.2.3 (Left) Peppered moths on a lichen-covered tree trunk. (Right)
peppered moths on a soot-blackened tree trunk. Which form
of the moth would be selected for in each situation?
234
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Will the cheetah become
extinct from a lack of
genetic variation? Fig 7.2.6
malaria, were treated with chemical pesticides. By
natural selection, populations of mosquitoes with
a natural resistance to the pesticides developed
over the 20-year period following the introduction
of the pesticides into their environment. Similarly,
many bacteria are now resistant to certain types of
antibiotics.
Speciation
A species is defined as a group of organisms that
normally interbreed in nature to produce fertile
offspring. The formation of a new species is called
speciation. Natural selection over long periods of
time, combined with other factors such as isolation
and mutations, can lead to new species forming.
Speciation occurs over long periods of time, too long
to watch in a lifetime, or even in the recorded history
of humans.
Geographic isolation
The first step in speciation is geographic isolation of
the populations. Suppose a particular population of
rabbits was divided, as shown in Figure 7.2.5. If the
environments differed on each side of the river, each
population would change through natural selection
'EOGRAPHIC
ISOLATIONOF
POPULATIONS
-UTATIONSAND
NATURALSELECTION
OPERATETOFORM
TWOSUBSPECIES
2EPRODUCTIVE
ISOLATION
PRODUCES
TWOSPECIES
!NCESTRAL
POPULATION
Fig 7.2.5 Stages in speciationgeographic isolation
leads to different evolutionary paths and
eventually reproductive isolation.
and the occasional genetic mutation. Eventually
the two rabbit populations would have their own
characteristics, sufficiently different from each other
to be called a variety, or subspecies. Subspecies
appear different but are still capable of interbreeding.
Reproductive isolation
If the isolation of the populations
was long enough, the change
might be sufficient to make them
incapable of interbreeding. They
would then have reproductive
isolation. At this point a new
species has emerged.
Factors that might cause
reproductive isolation are:
a change in colour patterns
so that mates are no longer
recognised
seasonal differences in mating
times
a changed chromosome which
prevents the sperm of one
group from fertilising eggs of
the other.
Will the cheetah
survive?
There is very little genetic
variation among cheetahs.
The differences are about
the same as are found in
brothers and sisters in
other species. It is thought
that at one time all but one
mating pair of cheetahs
died. This means that
all cheetahs are closely
related. Interbreeding
between close relatives
usually results in the
population becoming
homogeneous, with very
little genetic variation.
Such a population is
less likely be able to
respond to environmental
change, and could easily
become extinct.
Evolution unravelled Evolution unravelled
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Types of evolution
Divergent evolution
The Galapagos Island finches and the
geographically isolated rabbits illustrate
the idea that many new forms can evolve
from a single ancestor. This is known as
divergent evolution. The idea is that new
environments are inhabited, causing the
evolution of new species.
Divergent evolution results in a
phenomenon known as adaptive radiation.
As the ancestral organisms adapt and
evolve in their different environments,
they take on new forms. The various
pentadactyl limbs shown in Figure
7.3.10 in the next unit are an example of
adaptive radiation. Australias marsupial
ancestors have evolved and radiated into
many different forms, from tree-dwelling,
fruit-eating possums to blind, meat-eating
underground moles, and the more familiar
kangaroos and koalas.
Adaptive radiation among mammals. The mammals
shown are all thought to have evolved from the shrew-like
ancestor in the centre.
bear
deer
bat
flying
squirrel
sloth
monkey
sea cow
whale
seal
beaver
shrew
gopher
wolf
antelope
Fig 7.2.7
Australias marsupial ancestors
have evolved into many different
forms including the spotted cuscus
and the red kangaroo. Fig 7.2.8
Convergent evolution
Evolution can produce similar structures in organisms
of quite different origins. For example, even though
they are not closely related, Australias different
marsupials show resemblances to cats, wolves, moles,
mice and squirrels.
Convergent evolution, or convergence, occurs
when organisms evolve and end up having similar
adaptations. This is due to:
living in similar environments, and
having similar habitats and lifestyles.
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In similar habitats the same types of characteristics
are selected for, resulting in organisms that look
similar despite having very different genes. These
organisms may have analogous structures, structures
that look similar but which have come from different
ancestors. One example is the gliding membrane
found between the front and rear limbs of Australias
gliding possums. Similar membranes are found in the
flying squirrels of North America, Europe and Asia,
Placental mammals Marsupial mammals
wolf
the extinct
Tasmanian
wolf (tiger)
flying
squirrel
flying
phalanger
Fig 7.2.9 Convergent evolutionAustralian marsupials and
placental mammals of other continents have many
similarities, but are not closely related.
and in the flying lemurs of South-East Asia. These
three animals are similar in their lifestylethey are
nocturnal herbivores.
Parallel evolution
A third type of evolution is parallel evolution,
which occurs where related species evolve similar
features while separated from each other. The result is
organisms that look alike and have common ancestry,
but are found in different locations. Old and New
World monkeys share many features. New World
monkeys like the vervet have prehensile tails to hold
onto branches, whereas Old World monkeys lack
prehensile tails since they have evolved to live on the
ground.
shark
(cartilagenous fish)
ichthyosaur
(extinct reptile)
dolphin
(mammal)
Fig 7.2.10 Convergent evolutiondespite having quite different
ancestors, the shark, ichthyosaur and dolphin have
evolved a similar set of characteristics (streamlined
body, bilobed tail, fins and flippers).
Fig 7.2.11
Parallel evolution. (Top) This monkey can
use its prehensile tail to hold onto a branch.
(Bottom) Old World monkeys like the mandrill
lack a prehensile tail.
Worksheet 7.2 Natural selection
Evolution unravelled Evolution unravelled
237
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[
Questions
]
19 Humans have developed new breeds of domestic
animals by artificial selection in a relatively short time.
Explain why natural selection takes so much longer to
develop new breeds or subspecies.
20 Contrast convergent, divergent and parallel evolution.
21 Predict which species are most likely to become
extinct if a dramatic change in environmental conditions
happens.
22 The African aardvark and the South American anteater
have similar feet and tongues, but they are not closely
related.
a Identify the type of evolution that gives rise to these
similarities.
b Propose ways in which these similarities are
explained.
Analyse
23 In Figure 7.2.3, which form of the moth will be selected
for in each situation? Justify your answer.
24 Discuss whether alpine species such as the mountain
pigmy possum are likely to survive in the warmer
climates caused by global warming.
25 Discuss whether the cheetah will become extinct
because of a lack of genetic differences.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Examine the special problems posed by living in a
rainforest, a desert, the ocean or the tundra.
a Research the adaptations of plants and animals
living in your chosen habitat.
b Construct a poster showing your findings. (A good
place to start would be David Attenboroughs The
Living Planet.)
2 Extensive studies have been made of populations of
brown-lipped snails, Cepaea nemoralis.
a Gather evidence from these studies.
b Describe how changes in these snail populations
illustrate the process of natural selection.
3 a Research the use of DDT and other chemicals in
programs to control mosquito populations.
b Write a report to assess how the problem of the
acquired immunity of mosquitoes is being tackled.

Checkpoint
Natural selection at work
1 Define the term natural selection.
2 State the main advantage of natural selection.
3 Using the peppered moth example, explain what is
meant by:
a natural variation
b natural selection
4 Following its release to control rabbits, propose a
reason why the less virulent strain of the myxoma virus
was naturally selected for.
5 List two examples of where natural selection is a
disadvantage.
Speciation
6 Propose two reasons why isolated populations of a
species might evolve differently from one another.
7 Present the following events in the order in which they
occur during the process of speciation:
reproductive isolation, natural selection, formation of a
species, further natural selection, geographic isolation,
formation of a subspecies
8 Describe three events that might lead to geographic
isolation of a population.
9 State the criteria needed for two subspecies to be
classified into two different species.
Types of evolution
10 Identify three different types of evolution.
11 Define the term divergent evolution.
12 State the conditions required for divergent evolution to
occur.
13 With the aid of examples, explain what is meant by
adaptive radiation.
14 Use an example to define what is meant by analogous
structures.
15 Use an example to define what is meant by parallel
evolution.
Think
16 Propose a definition for the word virulence.
17 Explain how natural selection can give rise to a
population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
18 Mosquitoes carrying the disease yellow fever have
an acquired resistance to chemical pesticides once
sprayed to kill them. Propose ways in which the gene
for the chemical resistance might have originated.
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[
Practical activity
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Prac 1
Unit 7.2
Natural selection
Aim To model natural selection
Equipment
100 green toothpicks (to represent green worms),
100 reddish-brown toothpicks (to represent brown
worms), a grassy area and a brown earth area
Method
1 Draw up a results table.
4 Record the number of each colour toothpick
collected.
5 Gather up all the toothpicks.
6 Repeat the procedure until five feedings have
occurred.
7 Repeat the procedure on the brown earth area.
8 Total the numbers of each type of worm in each area.
Questions
1 Account for the differences (if any) between the
numbers of worms caught in each area.
2 This experiment is testing one factor that might affect
the ability of a worm to survive.
a Describe this factor.
b State three other factors that affect the survival of
worms in their normal habitats.
3 Discuss the relevance of this experiment to the study
of natural selection.
2 Scatter the 200 toothpicks on the grassy area.
3 Allow your partner (acting as a predator of the worms)
30 seconds to pick up (feed on) as many toothpicks as
possible, picking up one at a time between the thumb
and forefinger.
Feeding 1 Feeding 2 Feeding 3 Feeding 4 Feeding 5 Total
Green worms on grass
Brown worms on grass
Green worms on brown earth
Brown worms on brown earth
4 a Investigate the use of artificial selection to develop
breeds of cattle or dogs.
b Write a report comparing artificial selection with
natural selection.
Surf
5 Complete the interactive activity on the
peppered moth by connecting to the
Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 7
and clicking on the destinations button.
a Record observations for the changes in the
peppered moths.
b State your deductions about the observations
made.
Evolution unravelled Evolution unravelled
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239
The theory of biological evolution is the
most widely accepted scientific explanation
of life on Earth. It is also one of the most
controversial scientific theories ever
presented. It still causes arguments among
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The fossil record
Direct evidence for evolution comes from
palaeontology, the study of fossils. The fossil record
from all over the world provides evidence of continual
ERAS
PERIODS
EPOCHS
Cenozoic
Mesozoic
Palaeozoic
Pre-
Cambrian
Formation of
Earth's crust
Quaternary
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carbon-
iferous
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Recent
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Palaeocene
Devonian
0
65
248
570
4500
1.8
65
141
195
248
280
345
395
435
500
570
0
1.8
5.5
22.5
37
54
65
Fig 7.3.1 The geological time scale. Ages are shown in millions of years before
the present.
scientists, and provokes strong disagreement from
some religious groups. What is the evidence for the
theory, and why is there still disagreement?
changes in life forms from over 3500 million years ago
until the present. Fossils are the preserved evidence of
past life usually found in sedimentary rocks.
Fossils may be the:
actual remains of organisms (e.g. mammoths frozen
in ice, insects trapped in a type of sap called
amber)
hard parts of organisms (e.g.
shells, teeth and bones)
impressions of organisms (e.g.
hollowed casts, moulds where
substances have replaced the
organism) or
evidence of the presence of
organisms (e.g. footprints).
The ages of fossils, and
the rocks in which they are
found, can be estimated using
radioisotope-dating techniques.
These techniques have enabled
scientists to devise a geological
time scale, dividing the history
of the Earth into eras. These eras
are subdivided into periods,
which are further subdivided into
epochs.
Using the fossil record
The fossil record allows us
to trace major events in the
history of life on Earth. Life
seems to have begun around
3500 million years ago. The
first organisms were probably
simple, single-celled, anaerobic
(no oxygen was available)
bacteria which fed on organic
compounds in the primitive
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seas. Later, photosynthetic bacteria and blue-green
algae appeared, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere.
This oxygen release allowed ozone (O
3
) to form and
accumulate, screening out some of the ultraviolet (UV)
radiation. This gave some safety to the newly evolving
organisms.
An explanation for the appearance
of life?
One hypothesis to explain the initial appearance
of life was put forward by a Russian scientist,
A.J. Oparin, in 1924. The early atmosphere is thought
to have consisted of gaseous methane (CH
4
), ammonia
(NH
3
), hydrogen (H
2
) and water vapour (H
2
O). Energy
from lightning, ultraviolet rays or gamma rays split
some of these gas molecules. New bonds formed to
create complex organic molecules, which collected
in pools to form an organic soup. Over millions of
years this organic soup became concentrated, more
complex molecules formed and the first cells appeared.
In 1953, S. Miller and H. Urey tested the idea in a
laboratory experiment at the University of Chicago.
Electric sparks were passed into a gas mixture that was
thought to be similar to the early atmosphere of the
Earth. Organic molecules were produced! While the
electrodes
spark
condenser
mixture
of
NH
3
CH
4
H
2
H
2
O
mixture containing
amino acids and
other complex
organic molecules
to vacuum
pump
Fig 7.3.2 The Miller/Urey experiment. Given suitable
conditions, molecules can combine to form
organic molecules.
gases used in the experiment are no longer believed
to represent the atmosphere of early Earth, later work
using a more accurate composition of gases produced
similar results. No experiments, however, produced a
living cell.
More complex life evolves
Around 1500 million years ago, organisms with
more complex cellular structure appeared. Sexual
reproduction appears to have begun at around this
time. Organisms recognisable as animals appeared
around 600 million years ago. Thousands of
specimens of these invertebrates have been collected
from sandstone deposits at Ediacara, in the hills north
of Adelaide. They are possibly related to present-day
jellyfish and earthworms.
Ediacarans are life forms that appeared 600 million
years ago. Were they the first animals? The fossil
shown is of Dickinsonia, a primitive flatworm. Fig 7.3.3
From bacteria to humans
An abundance of fossils from the Palaeozoic era
(570 to 248 million years ago) show the existence
of bacteria, algae, soft-bodied invertebrates and
representatives from all the major animal groups we
know today. Characteristic organisms from the earliest
Palaeozoic era were the trilobites. The earliest known
land organisms (vascular plants) appeared around
400 million years ago. The first land vertebrates
(amphibians) appeared slightly later. At this time
the greatest diversity and number of species lived
in the sea.
Evidence for evolution Evidence for evolution
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First
land
organisms
Organisms
with
complex
cellular
structure
Oxygen
builds up
in the
atmosphere
First
organisms
(single-
celled)
Organic
compounds
form
DIVERSITY
OF
LIFE
ORIGIN
OF
LIFE
Years before
present (millions)
Cenozoic
(modern
life)
Mesozoic
(middle life)
Palaeozoic
(ancient
life)
Pre-Cambrian
(primal and
primitive life)
65
248
570
1000
2000
3000
4000
0
First
animals
Origin of the Earth
Fig 7.3.4 The evolution of life on Earth
Worksheet 7.3 When am I?
The Mesozoic era (248 to 65 million years ago)
is often called the age of the reptiles because of the
abundance and diversity of reptilian forms (including
dinosaurs) that lived in this era.
The earliest mammals, flowering plants and birds
also appeared in this era. Fossils from the most recent
era, the Cenozoic era (from 65 million years ago),
show the increasing dominance of mammals and the
appearance of humans (around 200 000 years ago).
A fossil of the Composognathus, one of the
smallest known dinosaurs Fig 7.3.5
Pre-Cambrian
Palaeozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
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Life begins
First complex cells
First animals First land
organisms
Dinosaurs
extinct
First human-like
ancestral organisms
Fig 7.3.6 The history of life on Earth recorded as a one-year period.
Each day represents approximately 10 million years. The
recorded history of humans is less than one minute.
A changing record
The fossil record provides evidence of continual
change. A vast number and variety of species have
emerged from the earliest life forms. Whole groups of
organisms have appeared, become abundant and then
disappeared. Some of these changes include:
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Dramatic climate change and altered sea levels
may have caused the disappearance of 50% of all
shallow-water marine invertebrates around 225
million years ago.
The impact of a large asteroid, and consequent dust
storms, are thought to have caused the extinction
of the dinosaurs around 65 million years ago.
Fig 7.3.7 A living fossil. Coelacanths, the ancestors of which
are thought to have given rise to amphibians, have
remained unchanged for 400 million years. Why didnt
they evolve further?
Other organisms, like clubmosses and jawfish, have
appeared, been abundant, but now survive in small
numbers only.
Others, like the flowering plants, insects, mammals
and birds, were present in small numbers for some
time, then became abundant.
Mammals increased dramatically after the demise
of the dinosaurs.
An incomplete record?
The fossil record is, however, far from complete. Only
a small proportion of the plant and animal species
thought to have existed are preserved as fossils. While
the fossil history of aquatic organisms is extensive and
detailed, the fossil history of land animals is far less
so. Fossilisation is a rare occurrence. Organisms must
fall into conditions where decay does not occur. The
soft tissues of organisms usually do not form fossils.
Fossilisation is more likely in seas, lakes, swamps and
caves, but unlikely on land. Geological processes, and
human activity, are constantly moving and destroying
the sedimentary rocks that contain fossils.
Fossil evidence shows an excellent record for the
evolutionary development of some organisms such as
the horse.
An eye problem
Major adaptations such
as the lens in the eye
of vertebrates present a
problem. The eye would
be of use only when fully
developed. The eye lens
and retina must coexist to
be of any use. It is hard
to see any sequence of
evolutionary development
in which each one is
separately of adaptive
value. How then did such
an intricate organ come
into existence?
grazing horses
browsing horses
3
4
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
2
Recent
Pleistocene
from 1 mya
Pliocene
from
10 mya
Miocene
from
30 mya
Oligocene
from
40 mya
Eocene
from
60 mya
enamel
crown
cement
Structure of
forefeet
Structure of
molar teeth
Pliohippus
Merychippus
Mesohippus
Hyracotherium
(Eohippus)
1.6 m
1.0 m
1.0 m
0.6 m
0.4 m
Equus
Fig 7.3.8 The evolutionary history of the horse, showing reconstructions of the fossil species.
Many branches have left no modern descendants (mya = million years ago).
Worksheet 7.4 Evolution of the horse
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Transitional forms
For major groups of organisms, transitional forms have
been found in their evolutionary pathway. Modern
vertebrates appear to have evolved first as jawless
fish, then bony fish, then amphibians, reptiles, birds
and finally mammals. Transitional forms provide the
links between them all, including the air-breathing
crossopterygian fish, and the bird-like reptile,
Archaeopteryx.
Transitional fossil forms in the evolution
of vertebrates. (Top) An air-breathing fish
(400 million years ago). (Bottom) Archaeopteryx,
a small dinosaur with feathers (170 million
years ago) Fig 7.3.9
For many groups of organisms there are large gaps
in the fossil record, often with no transitional forms
being found. This lack of transitional information
may possibly be explained by considering the process
of speciation. Speciation is most likely to occur in a
small, isolated population. Environments where the
conditions are changing are the most likely sites for
natural selection to operate and ultimately give rise
to new species. Speciation may therefore occur in
too small a group and in too small an area for fossil
records of the transitional stages to be seen.
Evidence from other studies
Anatomical studies
Comparisons of the anatomy of
various plants and animals provide
indirect evidence of their evolution
from common ancestors. The front
flipper of a seal, a cats paw, a
horses front leg, a bats wing and
your own hand all look different
and perform different functions.
However, they all consist of the
same number of bones, muscles,
nerves and blood vessels arranged
in a similar basic pattern. The
basic pentadactyl limb (a limb
with five digits) can be traced back
to the fins of certain fish from
which the first amphibians are
thought to have evolved. These
fundamentally similar structures
are called homologous structures.
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
1
2
3
3 3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
bat
(flying)
monkey
(grasping)
pig (walking)
horse
(running)
anteater
(tearing)
whale
(swimming)
Fig 7.3.10 Homologous structuresall limbs have the
same basic structure but have been modified
for different uses.
Useless structures
A number of structures
such as your appendix
and the muscles near your
ears have no apparent
function. They are called
vestigial organs. Why
do we have these useless
structures? It is thought
that they had some
function in our ancestors,
but that evolution has
reduced these structures
so much that they are no
longer functional. Since
there is no evolutionary
disadvantage to these
structures, they remain
today.
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This 49 million year old fossil of a monkey hand
shows a basic pentadactyl limb. Fig 7.3.11
The differences seen in the structures may
reflect adaptations to different environmental
conditions. Their similarity strongly suggests
a common ancestor.
Embryonic
development
The development of embryos
provides further evidence of
evolution. One of Darwins
contemporaries, German
biologist Ernst Haeckel,
proposed that by examining
an embryo you could see its
entire evolutionary history
as it developed from one
stage to another. Although
there are similarities present,
Haechels original drawings
exaggerated the embryonic
similarities between species.
Prac 1
p. 248
shark lizard chicken chimpanzee human
Fig 7.3.12 Comparison between the embryos of five chordates. What similarities can be seen?
Humans with gills!
The early stages of all vertebrate
embryos are very similar. The
early human embryo resembles a
fish embryo with gill slits, a tail
and a fish-like heart and kidney.
The later human embryo has a
reptile-like heart and kidney.
Later again, the seven-month
embryo is covered with hair and
has the body proportions of a
baby ape. These developmental
stages are thought to reflect
evolutionary history, and indicate
common ancestry.
Evidence for evolution Evidence for evolution
245
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The relationship between
evolution and embryonic
development is more complex
than was once thought.
The distribution of
plants and animals
Biogeography is the study
of the distribution of plants
and animals, both now and
in the past. As Darwin saw
in the Galapagos Islands, the
organisms found on oceanic
islands resemble those living
on the nearest mainland, yet
include species found nowhere
else. As oceanic islands have
never been attached to the
mainland, their inhabitants
are thought to have somehow
arrived from the mainland, to then evolve in isolation.
There are two main mechanisms involved, as
described below.
Mechanism 1: Isolation followed by divergent
evolution
This is shown by Australian flora and fauna. Modern-
day monotremes (the platypus and the echidna) are
found only in New Guinea and Australia. Fossils have
been found only in Australia,
not in Asia. This suggests
that monotremes probably
evolved in Australia and
diversified here. Many
groups of organisms found
in Australia are distributed
only across the southern
hemisphere.
An example is the group
of flightless birds known as
the ratites, which occur in:
New Guinea (cassowary)
Australia (emu and
cassowary)
New Zealand (kiwi)
South America (rhea)
Africa (ostrich).
Studies of DNA show the emu to be most closely
related to the cassowary, with the kiwi a second
cousin. The rhea and ostrich are more distantly
related.
One hundred and thirty-five million years ago,
Africa, India, South America, Antarctica, Australia
and New Zealand were all part of one southern
supercontinent, Gondwana. Around 80 million years
ago, this large southern continent started to move.
First Africa separated from South America. India
drifted northwards, and New Zealand separated from
the eastern edge of Australia. The ancestral ratites
evolved in isolation in each of the separated southern
continents. The order of separation of the continents
suggests the same degree of relatedness among the
different birds as the genetic information.
Mechanism 2: Migration followed by divergent
evolution
The fossil record of the camel family is relatively
complete. Distribution of fossils suggests that the first
camels developed in North America. Some of these
migrated to Asia across an ancient land bridge, and
then into Africa. Others migrated to South America.
Once isolated, the ancestral camels evolved, giving
rise to the llama in South America, the dromedary
camel in Africa, and the bactrian camel in Asia.
How can the southern distribution of the flightless birds
known as ratites be explained?
ostrich
cassowary
kiwi
emu
rhea
Africa
Australia
New Zealand
South
America
Papua New
Guinea
Fig 7.3.13
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A bird with teeth?
Birds do not have teeth and
have not had them for the
past 60 million years. In an
experiment, tissue from the
mouth of a mouse embryo
was placed near the mouth
tissue of a chicken embryo.
After incubation, the chicken
began to grow teeth, not like
mouse teeth, but like those
of the oldest known fossil
with feathers. Although
modern birds do not have
teeth, they still have genes
that code for making them.
All they appear to lack is
the mechanism to switch
on these genes. Are these
teeth-making genes
evidence of the evolutionary
past of the bird?
246
>>>
Genetic evidence
The structure of DNA and the genetic code provide
us with more evidence for evolution. The code is
universal. Apart from some viruses, all organisms
use the same basic code. This supports the idea that
all living things are related and have evolved from
common ancestors. Comparisons of DNA are used
to provide evidence of how closely different species
are related. For example, the genetic make-up of a
chimpanzee is 98.5% identical to that of a human.
Gorilla DNA matches human DNA except for the last
2.6%. The genetic make-up of other primates is also
similar to our own.
Gene duplication
Scientists are examining the idea of gene duplication,
where an organism may have an extra gene for a
particular characteristic. For example, an essential
difference between reptiles and mammals is milk
production by mammals. One protein in mammalian
milk is very similar to a protein (protein X) present
in reptile eggs, and in some mammalian fluids such
as tears. Mammals produce both the milk protein
and protein X. It is possible that an error in meiosis
produced an organism with a duplicated gene for
production of protein X. While one gene continued to
code for the usual protein, the extra gene mutated and
began to code for milk production.
Biochemistry
The biochemistry of different organisms is very
similar. Chemicals such as the energy-carrying
molecule, ATP, and organelles such as mitochondria,
are almost universal. Chemical reactions, such as
respiration, are very similar in all animals and plants.
Biochemical evidence for evolution comes from
studies of amino acid sequences of the same protein in
different organisms. Proteins are large molecules made
up of small units called amino acids. The longer ago
two species had a common ancestor, the more likely
it is for gene mutations to have occurred to produce
small changes in their protein structure.
Studies have been made of protein in haemoglobin.
A particular sequence of 340 amino acids is identical
for humans and chimpanzees. Gorillas are different by
two amino acids, and monkeys are different by twelve.
Similar results are obtained for other protein studies.
This supports the idea of evolution due to mutation
and natural selection.
Past distribution
Probable point of
origin
Current distribution
dromedary
bactrian
llama
Africa
Europe
Asia
Australia
North
America
South
America
Fig 7.3.14 The distribution of members of the camel family can be explained by migration and then
independent evolution.
Human mice
The genetic make-up
of mice is very similar
to that of humans. In
fact it is so similar
that mice are one of
the best animals to
use for testing medical
techniques before
applying them to
humans. The results
shown in tests with
mice are very similar
to results gained with
humans.
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247
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[
Questions
]
17 Propose a reason why it is unlikely that the first
organisms on Earth were able to carry out photosynthesis.
18 Stromatolite fossils help date evolution. Explain how
they do this.
19 Present two reasons why fossils are relatively rare.
20 Identify the times of occurrence that match the events.
Era Time (millions
of years ago)
Cenozoic 24865
Pre-Cambrian 570248
Mesozoic 65present
Palaeozoic 4500570
Event Time
(millions of years ago)
Life on Earth begins 0.2
First land organisms appear 4500
Humans first appear 1500
Complex cellular structures appear 3500
Dinosaurs become extinct 600
Earth forms 65
First animals appear 400
Analyse
21 Figure 7.3.6 shows the history of life on Earth as a
calendar year. Explain why the history of humans is
less than one minute.
22 Use Figure 7.3.14 to account for the worldwide
distribution of members of the camel family
23 The map in Figure 7.3.15 shows the distribution of
members of the family Proteaceae, a group of plants
that includes banksias and proteas. Species of the
genus Banksia are found only in Australia and New
Guinea. Species of the genus Protea are native only to
South Africa.
>>
Proteaceae
distribution
Fig 7.3.15 Distribution of the family Proteaceae
Checkpoint
The fossil record
1 Define the term palaeontology.
2 a Define the term fossil.
b Use examples to demonstrate two different types of
fossils.
3 Identify the time
that matches its
era.
4 List three gases
thought to be
present in the
early Earths
atmosphere.
5 Coelacanths are
considered to be
living fossils. Explain why.
6 Outline why Archaeopteryx is considered to be a trans-
itional form in the evolutionary pathway of vertebrates.
Evidence from other studies
7 List three types of evidence for evolution that come
from other studies.
8 Use an example to demonstrate how anatomical
studies can provide evidence of evolution.
9 a Outline what is meant by homologous structures.
b State how homologous structures are useful in the
study of evolution.
10 Explain how vestigial organs are used as evidence of
evolution.
11 Describe how embryological studies support the idea of
evolution.
Genetic evidence
12 Describe how DNA supports the theory of evolution.
13 a Clarify what is meant by gene duplication.
b State how gene duplication could arise.
c Propose a way in which gene duplication contributes
to the evolution of organisms.
14 Based on DNA studies, identify the organism that:
a humans are thought to be most closely related to
b humans would be least closely related to
15 Use one example to present evidence of how
biochemical studies other than DNA support the theory
of evolution.
Think
16 Contrast analogous with homologous structures.
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[
Practical activity
] 7
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Prac 1
Unit 7.3
Investigating fossils
Design an activity or series of activities to
investigate fossils. Bones are a good way to begin.
You can prepare bones by following these steps:
1 Thoroughly cook a chicken or a rabbit (a
pressure cooker is handy for this).
2 Remove the meat from the bones.
3 Soak the bones overnight in detergent to help
remove any remaining meat pieces.
4 Bleach the bones by soaking overnight in a
bleaching liquid like White King.
5 Dry the bones in the sun.
6 Using your prepared bones, design a fossil.
For example, you might bury some bones
in rock using plaster mix and an ice-cream
container.
DYO
a Explain why the family Proteaceae has the southern
distribution shown.
b Explain why different types (Banksia and Protea) are
found on different continents.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 a Investigate how scientific theories are proved or
disproved. You might start with the ideas of Karl
Popper and Thomas Kuhn.
b Assess whether the evidence for evolution actually
proves the theory.
2 a Examine the origins of Australias marsupials.
b Write a report to account for the fact that
marsupials are widespread in Australia but almost
non-existent elsewhere.
3 The ear bones of mammals seem to have evolved from
the jaw bones of reptiles! Fossils have been found that
document the steps.
a Research this strange evolutionary story.
b Write a report analysing the information, and
identifying problems with this story.
24 Use diagrams to explain how homologous structures
can support the theory of evolution.
25 Draw diagrams to demonstrate how comparative
embryology can be used to support the theory of
evolution.
4 Research gene frequencies and how they change as
a result of natural selection. You might start with the
HardyWeinberg principle, and the idea of genetic drift.
a Gather information on an inherited characteristic.
b Analyse your information using the Hardy-Weinberg
principle.
Surf
5 Complete the activities on evolution of the
horse by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 7 and clicking on the destinations button. View
the Amazing Feets link to learn about the evolution
of the horse. Using illustrations, account for the
evolutionary adaptation of horses feet.
Questions
1 Can the bones be unearthed without breaking them?
Justify your answer.
2 Can a skeleton be reconstructed from a set of bones?
Justify your answer.
3 Evaluate whether a mixture of bones from different
animals can be sorted effectively to reconstruct their
skeletons.
4 Compare your activities with the work of
palaeontologists.
Evidence for evolution Evidence for evolution
>>>
249
Evidence from the fossil record and other
studies supports the theory that modern
humans evolved from a common ape-like
ancestor. However, not everyone agrees with
this theory. The evidence suggests that there
c
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n
t
e
x
t
Primates
Humans belong to the order Primates and have
many of the features of the primate group. Primates
(including us) have:
forward-facing eyes that allow binocular vision
pentadactyl digits (five fingers/toes on each limb)
four upper and four lower incisor teeth
opposable thumbs (for grasping things)
nails (not claws) on the fingers and toes
large brains for their body size
a flexible skeleton, with arms that rotate in the
shoulder socket to allow them to reach behind
their body (great for swinging in trees!).
Humans are unusual, as we also:
walk upright (are bipedal)
have fewer and smaller teeth than the apes
have a flattened face
have a very large skull capacity, and large brain,
about three times larger than that of apes
make and use tools
use various verbal and visual
languages to communicate
are self-aware.
Fossil evidence suggests
that primates arose from tree-
dwelling, shrew-like insectivores
around 50 million years ago.
This group soon split into
several divergent evolutionary
lines, giving rise to the modern-
day primates. These are the
prosimians (pre-monkeys,
similar to lemurs), New World
monkeys, Old World monkeys
and hominoids.
have been many species of humans, some of which
have become extinct, while others evolved into modern
humans. Among scientists there is ongoing debate
regarding the details of human evolutionary pathways,
and even the mechanisms of evolution.
Old is new and new
is old!
Figure 7.4.1 might be a
little confusing since it has
the New World monkeys
being older than the Old
World monkeys! Here, Old
World refers to those areas
of the world long known to
the Europeans, i.e. Europe,
parts of Africa and of Asia.
The New World is those
areas discovered later by
Europeans (predominantly
North and South America).
0
2
4
6
8
Prosimians
e.g. lemurs
New World
monkeys
Old World
monkeys
Apes Humans
Ancestral tree-dwelling
shrew-like insectivores
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
M
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

y
e
a
r
s

a
g
o
Fig 7.4.1 A possible evolutionary tree for primates
UNIT
UNIT
7
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250
>>>
Typical primatescan you see any similarities? Fig 7.4.2
Evolution of humans
The most recently evolved group of primates is called
the Hominoids. The hominoids include the lesser
apes (gibbons), great apes (gorillas, chimpanzees and
orang-utans) and humans. The earliest humans almost
certainly arose from the same common ancestor that
produced the other hominoids. Although they have
similar ancestors, apes and humans are very distantly
related, taking different evolutionary pathways
millions of years ago.
Relatively few human fossils have been found,
and the human evolutionary process is not definitely
known. There is no accurate record of the emergence
of modern humankind, and the exact relationships
linking the few existing fossil remains to todays
humans are controversial.
Our distant relatives
A picture of the common ancestor of modern
apes and humans is based largely on the fossils of
Dryopithecus, an ape-like animal that first appeared
25 million years ago. Ramapithecus, another ape-like
animal, appeared 1416 million years ago and lasted
another 6 million years. Some believe Ramapithecus
to be the ancestor of the Asian orang-utan, while
others see a relationship to other apes and humans.
There are significant gaps in the fossil records of 5 to
8 million years ago.
The Southern ape
Although apes and humans had similar ancestors in
the past, the Homo line diverged from the apes. The
first true human-like fossils belong to the genus
Australopithecus (meaning southern ape, after the
first fossils found in South Africa).The oldest known
fossils, Australopithecus afarensis (A. afarensis), are
around 45 million years old.
A. afarensis is most likely to have evolved into
a number of new species, including A. africanus,
A. robustus and A. boisei. These species were fully
bipedal, walked on two legs, and had a brain size of
400 cm
3
, less than one-third that of modern humans.
All fossil australopithecines have been found in
Africa. One of the most famous is a 40% complete
skeleton of a female named Lucy.
Fossil hominoid skeleton known as Lucy Fig 7.4.4
Human evolution Human evolution
Dryopithecus
(appeared approximately
25 million years ago)
Ramapithecus
(appeared approximately
15 million years ago)
Fig 7.4.3 Dryopithecus and Ramapithecuspossible
ancestors of modern apes and humans
251
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
Recent finds indicate that some australopithecines
lived alongside the early members of the genus Homo
(the genus to which modern humans belong). This
suggests that A. afarensis is the ancestor of both the
Homo and australopithecine lines.
!USTRALOPITHECUS
AFARENSIS
!USTRALOPITHECUS
AFRICANUS
!USTRALOPITHECUS
BOISEIand
!USTRALOPITHECUS
ROBUSTUS
(OMOHABILIS
(OMOERECTUS
(OMOSAPIENS
(OMONEANDERTHALENSIS
-ILLIONS
OFYEARS
%XTINCTION
%XTINCTION
4.O
8.5
8.O
2.5
2.O
1.5
1.O
O.5
Fig 7.4.5 A possible family tree for humans
More recent ancestors
The first clear representation of the Homo line is
Homo habilis (handy man). Fossils found in East
Africa dating to 1.52 million years ago reveal
major anatomical and behavioural changes from
Australopithecus afarensis. The brain size was 50%
larger, and they used tools.
Homo erectus (upright man) came next. Although
fossils have been found in Europe, China and Africa,
Homo erectus is often called Java man, after the
initial discovery site. The oldest fossils are 1.5 million
years old. Homo erectus had an average brain size of
1000 cm
3
, lived in caves and used fire.
The evolution of Homo erectus into Homo sapiens
(intelligent man) is the subject of considerable
debate. Some maintain that Homo erectus evolved
worldwide into Homo sapiens but retained local
features. This gave rise to different forms in different
areas, such as Asia and Africa. Others maintain that
Homo sapiens evolved in Africa, and spread from
there some 200 000 years ago. This would mean that
all present-day variation in humans has arisen in the
past 200 000 years.
The seven daughters of Eve
Mitochondrial DNA is a peculiar form of DNA
that is passed directly from mother to child. It
can therefore be used to trace a chain of female
ancestry. Using this method, Bryan Sykes, a
geneticist at Oxford University, has proposed
that 90% of Europeans can trace their maternal
ancestry to one of only seven women (hence the
title of his book, The Seven Daughters of Eve).
The most distant of these seven lived 45 000
years ago, and the most recent 10 000 years
ago. Sykes supports the idea of a relatively
recent expansion of Homo sapiens from its
African origin. Despite these findings, the use of
mitochondrial DNA is now being questioned.
Other fossil humans
Other species of the Homo line
have also been identified. These
include Homo neanderthalensis
(Neanderthal man), which is thought
to be approximately 35 000100 000
years old. The Neanderthals were
cave dwellers who used tools and buried their dead,
indicating some religious beliefs. They are thought
to have become extinct due to a change in climate
or through competition with other human species
in Europe. The common ancestor of humans and
Neanderthals probably lived in Europe around 600 000
years ago.
Cro-Magnon man (10 00040 000 years old)
was a nomadic hunter-gatherer who used tools and
developed art. Anatomically Cro-Magnons were similar
to modern humans, but more robust. Cro-Magnons
lived in Europe and the exact reasons for their
extinction are not known.
Anatomical changes
While the exact details are the subject of debate,
there are a number of identifiable changes in the
evolution of Homo sapiens from an ape-like ancestor.
Anatomically, the various forms have walked more
7
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4
7
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252
>>>
Fig 7.4.6 Fossil human skulls. The three skulls from bottom left
to top centre are Australopithecus africanus, Homo
habilis and Homo erectus. The black skull in the upper
right is from a modern human, Homo sapiens, around
92 000 years old. The pale skull at the front is from a
Cro-Magnon human about 22 000 years old. Note the
changes in face shape and brain capacity.
Fig 7.4.7 Human form during the stages of evolution
upright than their ancestors.
They have also developed
smaller teeth, reduced eyebrow
ridges, shorter arms, flatter feet,
non-opposable big toes, flatter
faces and a progressively larger
brain size.
Cultural evolution
Humans have changed in many
non-physical ways. We have
learned how to use tools, and
have developed speech, forms
of writing, artistic creativity,
reasoning powers and a sense of right and wrong. It is
these changes that most distinguish modern humans
from their ancestors. Humans have highly complex
social structures, and an accumulation of learning
and knowledge. This stored experience is passed from
generation to generation, and affects survivalthat is,
a type of cultural evolution occurs.
Human evolution Human evolution
A convincing hoax
The skull of Piltdown man
was discovered in a grave
pit in southern England in
1912. It had an ape-like
jaw, with a large, modern-
looking cranium. The
scientific world was excited
by the find, particularly the
English, who thought that
the first human was one of
them! It was not until 1955
that the skull was revealed
as a forgerya human
skull joined to an orang-
utans jaw and treated to
give an aged look.
proconsul
(hypothetical
African ape)
Australopithecus
afarensis
Homo
habilis
Homo
erectus
Homo
neanderthalensis
Modern
Homo
sapiens
253
U
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U
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7
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4
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Primates
1 List the characteristics of primates.
2 List the following primates in correct order of evolution:
Old World monkeys, apes, humans, prosimians, New
World monkeys
3 Primates are thought to have a common ancestor.
Outline what this ancestor was like.
4 State the name of the genus (group) to which the first
true human-like fossils belong.
5 List two examples of non-physical features that
distinguish humans from other primates.
Fig 7.4.9 Cultural evolutionthe
knowledge of fire is passed
from one generation to the
next through practice and
observation.
It is estimated that of all the animal species
that have ever existed, only 1% are alive now. The
ultimate fate of most species appears to be extinction.
Homo habilis lasted for around 1 million years,
Homo erectus around 1.5 million. Modern humans
have existed for about 200 000 years. With cultural
evolution, humans continue to acquire knowledge,
enabling them to exert more control over their
environment than any other species ever has, but we
have probably done more damage also. What does this
mean for the future of Homo sapiens?
Cultural evolutionstored experience is
passed from generation to generation. Fig 7.4.8
Fire starter
Fire is probably the most
important tool that humans
have learned how to control
and use. Aborigines in
Australia traditionally used
fire to hunt and manage
the land. The knowledge
of using fire, and the skill
of starting a fire, is passed
from one generation to the
next. This is an example of
cultural evolution.
Worksheet 7.5 The Hobbit
Evolution of humans
6 State two evolutionary trends that have occurred in
primates.
7 Use examples to clarify the meaning of the term
hominoid.
8 List the following in their probable order of evolution
from earliest to most recent:
Ramapithecus, Neanderthal, Australopithecus afarensis,
Homo habilis, Dryopithecus, Cro-Magnon
9 State three physical changes that have occurred in the
evolution of humans from an ape-like ancestor.
>>
7
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7
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254
[
Extension
]
1 Research the work of the Leakey family in searching
for hominoid fossils in Africa. Write a biography to
summarise their discoveries.
Action
2 When anthropologists study fossils to determine
whether they are ape or human, they look particularly
at the teeth and jaw, and at skeletal modifications for
bipedalism.
a Research the structural differences and similarities
between apes and humans.
b Work in small groups to construct various models
of examples that demonstrate your research.
19 Use Figure 7.4.3 to answer the following questions.
a Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus looked very
different. Contrast their appearances.
b Propose reasons for the differences in appearance.
A B C
Fig 7.4.10
Cultural evolution
10 Clarify what is meant by cultural evolution.
11 List three examples of cultural evolution.
Think
12 Contrast humans with primates.
13 Bipedalism was a major development in
the evolution of humans.
a Define the term bipedalism.
b Propose two reasons why bipedalism
would be an advantage to an organism.
14 Contrast Homo habilis, Homo erectus
and Homo sapiens in relation to what they
were capable of doing.
15 Larger brain sizes allowed early human-
like forms to develop rapidly. Explain the
advantages of a larger brain.
16 Contrast cultural evolution with
Lamarckian evolution.
Analyse
17 Use Figure 7.4.1 to compare the two typical primates.
18 Propose an order in which you think the skulls shown in
Figure 7.4.10 evolved. Justify your choice.
>>>
Human evolution Human evolution
255
Science focus:
Putting flesh on old bones:
archaeology and Australia today
Prescribed focus area: The history of science
The landscape we know in Australia today was very
different during the last ice age, from about 100 000
to 10 000 years ago. How does science discover and
tell us just how the land has changed during ice age
events?
We would expect more ice on the mountains of
south-eastern Australia and in Tasmania during an
ice age. But what happened to the dry inland areas at
this time? How did they change? Were people actually
living there during such times?
In 1967, geologist Jim Bowler was studying ancient
inland lake basins in western New South Wales.
Though these basins are now completely dry, in the
past they acted as giant rain gauges, filling when
the climate was wet, and drying and forming dunes
during dry phases.
In 1969, while mapping evidence of ancient
shorelines in the dry basins of western New South
Wales, Bowler discovered some burnt human bones
buried in the beach sands of an ancient lake. This
discovery sparked a major archaeological program.
Bowler named this previously unknown lake as Lake
Mungo. Lake Mungo is one of a series of lake basins
formed by a channel of the ancient Lachlan River,
known as the Willandra Creek. The bones proved to be
the cremated remains of a young woman, now known
as Mungo Lady.
Four years later and just 400 metres away on the
same beach sands where Mungo Lady was found,
Bowler noticed the tip of a cranium being uncovered
by natural erosion. Excavation by archaeologists
revealed this to be the fully articulated skeleton of a
human male, now known as Mungo Man.
Goulburn
Sydney
Canberra
Melbourne
B
o
g
a
n
R
Albury
Echuca
Wagga Wagga
Griffith Griffith
M
u
rray
River
L
a
c
h
la
n
R
iver
Mildura
D
a
r
l
i
n
g
R
i
v
e
r
Katoomba
Bathurst
Murrumbidg
e
e
R
iv
e
r
Y
anco
C
r
Lake Mungo
W
i
llan
dra Billabo
Fig SF 7.1 Lake Mungo is located in western
New South Wales.
Fig SF 7.2 Mungo Lady and Mungo Man were discovered
400 metres apart on the same beach sands of
ancient Lake Mungo.
How old are Mungo Lady and
Mungo Man?
The Mungo discoveries changed our understanding
of when the earliest Australians arrived, and of
the changing landscape in which they lived. Before
the Mungo discoveries, the oldest known evidence
of human occupation in Australia was from about
Mungo Lady
Mungo Man
256
20 000 years ago. Suddenly at Lake Mungo that
evidence was nearly doubled.
Mungo Lady was first thought to have been buried
about 26 000 years ago, and Mungo Man about 30 000
years ago. Following additional work on the geology
of beach and dune sands, Bowler later revised Mungo
Mans burial age to near 44 000 years ago.
How does science actually provide burial ages?
Grave sites can be dated by two different methods:
by dating the actual bones or human remains, or
by dating the age of the layers below and above the
grave.
Dating is a complex business and often provides
only approximate answers. Because some doubt
remained about the age of Mungo Man, a group
of scientists at the Australian National University
attempted to date the bones. Their results ranged from
50 000 to 70 000 years, and from this they estimated
the most probable age as near 62 000 years.
As this disagreed markedly with earlier estimates,
a team from four universities used a second dating
methoddating the age of the sand layers below and
above the grave. The results provided firm evidence
that both the Mungo Man and Mungo Lady burials
had occurred between 40 000 and 44 000 years ago.
An ancient people in a now
dry land
During the recent drought, landholders even on large
properties in this now dry region of western New
South Wales had great difficulty making a living
from the parched, dry landscape. It was too dry for
wheat and there was not enough water for sheep.
The occupants experienced extreme financial and
psychological stress.
By comparison, the occupants of that same
land 40 000 to 50 000 years earlier had enjoyed an
abundance of water and food, including fish and
freshwater mussels. Animals were abundant and
stone tools readily available. People lived and died on
sandy lakeshore beaches. The environment was almost
certainly able to sustain a larger population per square
kilometre than it supports today.
But the period of abundant water was not
permanent. The ice age, which had entered its early
phase of cooling 80 000 years ago, involved gradual
further cooling of the Earth as the ice caps expanded
in the northern hemisphere, particularly in North
America and Scandinavia. As temperatures dropped,
evaporation from the oceans decreased. Less water
was available for atmospheric transport, and so less
rainfall was available on the continents. In this way,
cold climates became drier.
By 40 000 years ago, the once abundant water had
begun to diminish. Some basins across Australia dried
Fig SF 7.3 Mungo Man being unearthed approximately
44 000 years after being buried
257
completely and the dune fields expanded. People
gathered close to drying water bodies, living on the
remaining beaches and burying their dead there. At
about this time, large numbers of animals disappeared
completely from the land. This included giant
kangaroos, the giant lizard (Megalanea), the marsupial
lion (Thylacaleo) and many other
megafauna.
Many people believe this may have
been due to excessive hunting by
Aboriginal people. Others think it
may have been due to climate change.
It may have been aspects of both,
but certainly something of major
importance happened to the Australian
large animal populations at about
that time.
For the next 20 000 years the climate
oscillated between wet and dry. By
20 000 years ago, in the coldest part
of the ice age, the Willandra basins
had dried completely. Under these
conditions Bass Strait was dry and
dunes extended even as far as north-
east Tasmania. People adapted, learning
to live in these cold, harsh,
dry conditions.
Much of this story of landscape
change and human occupation has
emerged from Lake Mungothis is
such an important site that it was
declared a national park in 1979. In
1981 it was listed as one of Australias
first World Heritage areas, known as
Willandra Lakes World Heritage area.
The significance of the
Lake Mungo area
Lake Mungo has national and
international significance, as it
provides us with a new understanding
of two important aspects of Australia:
how the Australian landscape
evolved during dry ice age
conditions
the antiquity and cultural patterns
of the earliest inhabitants of this
land.
We now know that, like Lake Mungo, every part
of Australia was affected by ice age conditions,
which were sometimes wetter, sometimes drier than
today. We now have a picture of people doing battle
with droughts and floods, just like us, only some
40 000 years ago.
Gravel beach
Soil formed in
earliest dunes
Earliest dune sands
in excavations
Lower Mungo quartz sand dune
Mungo man burial
Carbonate soil formed
over burial site
Golgol
Golgol
to Joulni
Joulni
Lake Mungo
6040 000 years ago
About 3225 000 years ago
2018 000 years ago
About 40 000 years ago
Dust
Dust
Final dune layer
Fig SF 7.4 Australias landscape at Lake Mungo has changed dramatically
over the past 40 000 years. People had to adapt to the changing
conditions in order to survive.
A
B
C
D
E
A North-south diagram through Lake Mungo shoreline near the Mungo Man
burial site. Lake flooding extends north and south of the dune ridge.
B Shoreline enlargement shows vegetated beach and dune sands on
margin of freshwater lake with fish and shellfish used as human food
resources. Mungo Man was buried here as the lake began to dry near
44,000 years ago.
C Dry lake generates dust clouds sweeping across dry land adding to the
growth of Lake Mungo dune.
D Water returned briefly to the lake system approaching the time of maximum
glaciation in the upland catchments.
E Cold dry period of maximum glacial phase. Clouds of dust and salt were
swept from the dry lake floor.
N S
258
Scientists and Aboriginal
communities at Mungo devised a
way of working together. In 1992,
on the sands at Mungo where
Mungo Lady had been buried
so long ago, her remains were
ceremonially handed back to the
tribal community. Politicians also
introduced laws that recognised
Aboriginal ownership of all
artefacts of indigenous cultural
heritage, and such ownership
remains with the traditional
owners of the appropriate region.
Today it is illegal to remove
or interfere with any object of
archaeological significance,
including stone tools, shell middens, ancient fire
places and, of course, human remains.
This has resulted in a new relationship between
Aboriginal people and the scientific community. At
Lake Mungo and other places, members of indigenous
communities must approve any scientific investigation
of their past. Entire tribal communities now work
side by side with scientists in ongoing investigations,
exploring and expanding our understanding of
Australias past, with its important implications for all
Australians about the dignity and cultural status of the
original occupants of this land.
Fig SF 7.6
Handing back the remains of Mungo Lady
to the tribal community was a step towards
ongoing collaboration between Aboriginal
communities and scientists.
Fig SF 7.5 Lake Mungo today is affected by droughts.
Dunes and erosion can be seen clearly.
The discoveries at Lake Mungo took on new
significance in the early 1970s during the early battle
for Aboriginal land rights. The Aboriginal peoples
claim that they have been here for more than 40 000
years was enshrined in their banners of protest, and
was supported by science. Their claim later gained
political recognition.
Cultural battles
The contributions of science to Aboriginal
people have not always been so positive. For many
years through the early twentieth century, human
biologists collected large numbers of Aboriginal
skeletons, trying to prove that the dark-skinned races
were inferior to whites. They did this by measuring
brain size from human skulls. Hundreds of graves
were robbed, and the bones collected and sent to
universities and museums around the world. In this
way science had been used as a partner in committing
a great injustice against the Aboriginal people
reverence for the dead had been forgotten and the
feelings of living descendants had been completely
disregarded.
Following the discoveries of Mungo Lady and
Mungo Man, the Aboriginal people of the region
protested that science, by once again disturbing their
dead, was committing a great offence against their
cultural traditions. At the same time some Aboriginal
people acknowledged the value of documenting their
own history, as this proved to the world their long-
established rights of occupancy.
259
Fig SF 7.7 Jim Bowler on the Lake Mungo dunes
More information
Special thanks go to Jim Bowler for writing this
feature. Jims dedication to understanding Australias
past, present and future has also led him to produce
an interactive CD that covers geology, archaeology and
scientific history, including:
Australias natural history and evolution
swings in Australias ice age climate and
environment
how ice age Australians lived
early humanland relationships essential to
understanding the present
more about the tensions between science and
indigenous traditions.
To obtain a copy of this CD, connect to
the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, select chapter 7
and click on the Destinations button.
1 a Outline some methods that might be used to
explore and develop our understanding of ice age
Australia.
b Propose reasons why such information is important
today.
c Compare life in arid regions of Australia today with
that of the people at Lake Mungo 40 000 years ago.
d Describe how the land near where you live may
have been affected by conditions in the last ice age.
2 Research your local area to answer the following
questions.
a Who are the traditional owners of the area in which
you live?
b What archaeological research has been carried out
near where you live?
3 Where did the first Australians come from and how did
they get here?
There are many theories about how people came
to occupy Australia. Conduct research to answer the
above question, and then share your findings with others
through an interactive presentation or display.
4 a What is the relationship between Aboriginal
people and your own familys ancestry?
b Where do you think your ancestors may have
been 40 000 years ago? Describe what their life
would have been like.
5 Lake Mungo National Park has tourist facilities to
allow people to explore the area.
a Investigate the features of the Mungo area that
make it an interesting tourist destination.
b Produce an information brochure, website or
display for tourists. Your brochure should outline:
some of the attractions that may interest
tourists
the cultural history of the area
the discovery of Aboriginal remains at the site
the importance of the scientific research that
has been done at Lake Mungo.
[
Student activities
]
260
>>>
Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 A whale has many adaptations that make it suited
it to its marine environment.
a Define the term adaptation.
b List some of the whales adaptations.
2 Natural selection is the process whereby the
environment selects favourable characteristics.
a Outline the meaning of the term favourable
characteristics.
b State the main outcome of natural selection acting on
a species.
3 Specify the events that are missing in the following
process:
Geographic isolation, .. ., formation
of a subspecies, r. i., further natural
selection, formation of a species
4 Fossils can support the theory of evolution. Describe
how they do this.
5 a Clarify what is meant by homologous structures.
b Identify the type of evolution that gives rise to
homologous structures.
c Clarify what is meant by analogous structures.
d Identify the type of evolution that gives rise to
analogous structures.
6 Natural variation can occur within species. Identify two
sources of this.
7 Describe two ways in which knowledge of genetics has
improved our understanding of Darwins theory.
8 a Define the term biogeography.
b State one example of how biogeography provides
evidence of evolution.
9 Identify three anatomical features that distinguish
humans from primates.
10 List two ancestors of Homo sapiens.
11 Homo sapiens have undergone much non-physical
evolution. State a general term for this.
[
Thinking questions
]
12 Two scientists who have contributed to our understanding
of evolution are Lamarck and Darwin. For each idea
below, identify the scientist who developed it.
a evolution by inheritance of acquired characteristics
b adaptive radiation of the Galapagos Island finches
c evolution by natural selection
d organisms are guided through their struggle for
existence by a creative force
13 a Describe how Lamarck would account for the
evolution of an elephants trunk.
b Describe how Darwin would account for it.
c Compare the theories of Darwin and Lamarck.
14 List the following statements in sequence to explain the
process of natural selection.
i Rabbits with a gene for cold resistance survive, while
other rabbits die.
ii Over several generations the number of rabbits with
cold resistance increases.
iii Members of a rabbit population show variation in their
resistance to cold.
iv Offspring of the surviving rabbits inherit the gene for
cold resistance.
v The rabbits habitat becomes colder due to a major
climate change.
15 a State two ways in which a population may become
geographically isolated.
b Propose ways in which a geographically isolated
population would be likely to evolve differently from the
remainder of the species.
c Identify two factors which might cause a population to
become reproductively isolated from the remainder of
the species.
16 Chemical reactions are thought to have formed the first
living things on Earth. It is not possible for these reactions
to occur on Earth today. Explain why.
17 Present three possible reasons for the gaps in the fossil
record of life on Earth.
18 a State two similarities between an early human embryo
and a fish embryo.
b Explain how these similarities may have come about.
261
19 Identify the description that matches the correct term.
Term
Parallel evolution
Convergent evolution
Divergent evolution

Description
Results in structurally similar but unrelated organisms
Evolution that results in adaptive radiation
Produces structurally similar, closely related organisms that live in different places
20 Use the theory of evolution to account for the following
observations.
a The scales on a birds legs are similar to the scales on
a reptiles body.
b The ocelot (a placental cat found in South America)
and Australias marsupial cat are not genetically similar,
but have many similar features.
c Many plant-eating mammals have a large, useful
appendix. Humans have a small, useless appendix.
21 Describe two changes which are thought to have
occurred in the evolution of
a Australopithecus afarensis to Homo habilis
b Homo habilis to Homo erectus
c Cro-Magnon to modern humans
22 Copy the following statements and modify each to make
them correct.
a Adaptations are inherited characteristics.
b Speciation usually involves reproductive isolation
followed by geographic isolation of a population.
c Charles Darwin was the first to think of the idea of
evolution.
d DNA testing shows that the closest species to humans
is the chimpanzee.
e The fossil record shows clearly that all organisms have
evolved slowly and gradually.
f A bats wing, a seals flipper and a human arm are all
homologous structures.
g Modern humans evolved from modern apes.
h Most of Darwins ideas regarding evolution are now
thought to be incorrect.
23 Present three alternative explanations for the existence
and diversity of life on Earth.
[
Interpreting questions
]
24 Identify the fossil names that match the correct
classifications and approximate times of appearance.
25 Suppose the approximate 3600 million year history
of life on Earth were condensed into a 24-hour day.
Select proposed times to match the events listed.
Each hour would represent approximately 300 million
years.
Name
Upright man
Cro-Magnon
Handy man
Neanderthal
Lucy
Classification
Homo sapiens
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Australopithecus
Homo sapiens
Time of appearance
(years ago)
40 000
1.5 million
5 million
100 000
2 million
Event
Complex cells first appear
Australopithicines first appear
Dinosaurs become extinct
The Palaeozoic era begins
Land organisms first appear
Time
10.40 pm
11.47 pm
7.00 am
11.59 pm
10.00 pm
Worksheet 7.6 Evolution crossword 2
Worksheet 7.7 Sci-words
>>>
By the end of this chapter you should
be able to:
explain how greenhouse gases
cause global warming
explain how certain chemicals can
deplete the ozone layer
predict the consequences of
both global warming and ozone
depletion, and describe ways to
reduce these
identify commonly used fuels
describe the effects of different
energy sources
explain what happens when an
atom emits nuclear radiation
list some of the properties, uses
and problems of nuclear radiation
describe how energy is released
in a nuclear fission reaction
describe alternative energy
sources.
1 Most people like warm weather,
so why is global warming a
concern?
2 Is El Nio a type of Mexican food
or a change in weather patterns?
3 You probably have some very
radioactive material in your home.
Where is it?
4 Radiation can both cause cancer
and be used to treat it. How?
5 What is an alternative energy?
O
u
t
c
o
m
e
s

5
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4
,

5
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6
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5
,

5
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1
0
,

5
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1
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1
,

5
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1
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,

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8
8
Global
Global
Key focus area
The implications of science
for society and the environment
>>>
issues
issues
263
In the movie The Day After Tomorrow
extreme blizzards and colossal storm waves
devastate New York, tornadoes rip apart Los
Angeles, and huge hail pounds Tokyo. While
all this made a good film plot its not what
we can really expect from global warming.
UNIT
UNIT
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The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is caused by the gas carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) together with other trace gases in
the atmosphere. These gases, commonly called
greenhouse gases, provide a blanket that keeps the
Earth warm. Too little carbon dioxide, and the planet
would be too cold to sustain life. Too much, and the
resulting high temperatures would also be unsuitable
for life. The greenhouse effect is natural and is
required for the continued survival of all Earths
species.
The hot car effect
A car left in the sun on a fine day can become very
unpleasant inside. The temperature can easily reach
50C even when the temperature outside is only
between 20C and 30C. Heat enters the car easily
but much of the heat cannot escape. For this reason,
animals and young children should not be left in cars:
these high temperatures can kill. The greenhouse
effect could well have been called the hot car effect,
but it is named after greenhouses that trap heat from
the Sun to help plants grow more quickly.
How does it work?
Carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere
behave like the glass in a greenhouse or car
windows. Energy from the Sun reaches the Earth
as electromagnetic waves with a short wavelength.
These waves are able to pass through the atmosphere
(and glass). The energy is absorbed by the Earth and
re-emitted into the atmosphere as long-wavelength
radiation. Carbon dioxide (and glass) effectively
blocks the transmission of long-wavelength radiation,
stopping it from reaching space. Much of this energy
is therefore trapped in the atmosphere, warming the
Earth to a temperature suitable for life. If not for the
greenhouse effect, the Earth would be about 30C
colder on average!
Fig 8.1.1 a The surface temperature on Mars is 100C. Its atmosphere is too thin to produce a life-sustaining greenhouse
effect. b The Earths atmosphere is just the right thickness to keep its average temperature at around 22C. c A massive
greenhouse effect caused by Venuss thick carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere causes surface temperatures of 500C.
Scientists have investigated climate change for several
decades. It is only recently that they have looked at
its likely impact on specific locations. Will it be as
devastating as the events portrayed in the movie?
a b c
264
>>>
The enhanced greenhouse effect
Over the past century the levels of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide, have
increased. The blanket of greenhouse gases in the
Earths atmosphere has effectively become thicker.
This results in the enhanced greenhouse effect, where
the same amount of heat energy is coming
in from the Sun, but less is escaping back
into space. The enhanced greenhouse effect
is leading to global warming, increasing the
average temperature of Earth.
Greenhouse gases:
where do they come
from?
The main greenhouse gas is
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide
is naturally cycled through
the environment during
photosynthesis and respiration.
Over Earths history the amount
of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere has stayed fairly
stable since it is both absorbed
into living systems and released
back into the atmosphere.
CO2 revolution
The factories, steamships and
locomotives of the Industrial
Revolution needed fuel to
fire their boilers. This came mainly in the form of
timber or coal. The modern world also needs fuel. In
mainland Australia, coal is still used, mainly to fire
the boilers of electrical power stations.
Coal, and the other main
fuels, gas, petrol and oil, are
termed fossil fuels, since they
are made from the fossilised
remains of long-dead plants
and animals. Carbon dioxide
is released whenever fossil
fuel is burnt. In effect, burning
unlocks carbon that has been
stored in the Earth for millions
of years, producing CO
2
as it
does so. Car exhausts, coal
and gas power stations and
industry are leading producers
of carbon dioxide. The clearing
of land (deforestation) by
burning forests has a double
effect. Not only are greenhouse
Fig 8.1.2 a The natural greenhouse effect b The enhanced
greenhouse effect will lead to global warming.
Short wavelenqth radiation
enetrates atmoshere
Some enerqy
escaes back
into sace
Most enerqy
is traed in
the atmoshere,
warminq the
Earth
nner layer ol
qreenhouse qases
in atmoshere acts
like a qreenhouse
Earth absorbs radiation
and emits lonqer
wavelenqth radiation
Short wavelenqth radiation
enetrates atmoshere
Less enerqy
escaes back
into sace
More enerqy is
traed in the
atmoshere
nner layer ol
qreenhouse qases
in atmoshere acts
like a qreenhouse
Earth absorbs radiation
and emits lonqer
wavelenqth radiation
Prac 1
p. 271
Emergency!
Have you ever noticed
those green and white
exit signs in cinemas and
shopping malls? There
are lots of them and they
all need electrical power.
It is estimated that in New
South Wales alone they
generate 126 000 tonnes of
greenhouse gases (mainly
CO
2), equivalent to the
output of 25 000 cars!
Self-illuminating signs
that draw their power from
sunlight or from other light
sources are available, but
make up only 1% of the
worlds exit signs.
Youve got gas!
If we spread Australias
yearly production of
CO2
over the surface of
mainland Tasmania (area
64 103 km
2
) it would form
a three-metre high blanket
over the island.
Each year Australia
produces 542 600 000
tonnes of greenhouse
gases, of which 70% is
CO2
. One tonne of CO2

occupies 556 000 litres or
556 m
3
(about the volume
of a four-bedroom house).
Global warming Global warming
a
b
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gases released when forests burn, but the destroyed
trees are no longer available to store carbon dioxide.
With our modern demand for fuel and electricity,
humans are making more carbon dioxidearound
27 billion tonnes per yearthan ever before. Some is
absorbed, but the rest builds up in the atmosphere. Of
this 27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide output, about:
7 billion tonnes are absorbed by oceans
7 billion tonnes are taken up by forests
13 billion tonnes accumulate in the atmosphere
each year.
Other gases
Although carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas,
others include the following:
Methane (CH
4
) is produced when vegetation
breaks down in the absence of oxygene.g. in
rice paddies and rubbish tips, and when cattle
(or you!) burp or pass wind. Methane is 21 times
more effective than carbon dioxide in blocking the
escape of radiant heat from Earth. Luckily, less
methane than carbon dioxide is produced.
Nitrous oxide (N
2
O) is produced from burning
forests, car exhausts and artificial fertilisers.
CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons were, until recently,
used in aerosol spray cans, refrigerators and
air conditioners, to clean circuit boards and
in the manufacture of polyurethane foam used
in packaging. They are now banned in many
countries and are becoming less commonly used
worldwide.
Surface ozone is generated as part of
photochemical smog, produced by the action of
sunlight on motor vehicle and industrial pollution.
a Burning fossil fuels is a leading source of excess CO2 in the atmosphere. b Land clearing releases stored CO2 into the air. Fig 8.1.3
Fig 8.1.4 Concentrations of carbon dioxide and
methane between the years 1000 and 2004
6

Z

(
p
p
m
)
88O
87O
8GO
85O
84O
88O
82O
81O
8OO
2OO
28O
27O
1OOO 12OO 14OO 1GOO 18OO 2OOO
Yaar
6
h
4

(
p
p
m
)
18OO
17OO
1GOO
14OO
12OO
1OOO
8OO
GOO
1OOO 12OO 14OO 1GOO 18OO 2OOO
Yaar
ce core samles
a b
Source: CSIRO
266
>>>
Australia produces
approximately 1.4% of
the worlds greenhouse
gasesper person this
makes it one of the worlds
worst greenhouse-polluting
countries.
Hanging around
Greenhouse gases remain
in the atmosphere for many
years. Carbon dioxide
persists for more than 100 years, and methane remains
for 11 years. You can see why we need to take action
now to reduce emissions.
Evidence in the ice
Scientists collect ice cores from Antarctica by drilling
into the ice. The deeper you go into the ice, the older
the ice is, as new snow falls on top each year. When
the snow falls, air bubbles are trapped in the ice.
Analysis of these trapped gases reveals the amount of
carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere in the past.
So far scientists have drilled down 3.27 kilometres,
which means we have data about carbon dioxide
levels going back roughly 900 000 years.
The graph in Figure 8.1.6 shows carbon dioxide
levels in the Earths atmosphere for the past 420 000
years. It is normal for the level of carbon dioxide
Part of an Antarctic ice core showing
hundreds of tiny trapped air bubbles Fig 8.1.5
to go up and down, but the
amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is now at its highest
level ever. Notice that the Earths
temperature changes when the
amount of carbon dioxide in
the air changes. The troughs on
the temperature graph represent
the ice ages, when average
temperature was up to six
degrees lower than today. The
peaks are when warmer periods
occurred on Earth.
The future
Predicting the
temperature rise
Over the past 100 years or so,
the Earths average surface
temperature has increased
by about 0.5C and a further increase of between 1C
and 4C is expected by the end of this century. Such
a rise, though seemingly small, is enough to raise sea
levels by an estimated half a metrepossibly up to a
metreand cause flooding of low-lying coastlines due
to the increase of water in the oceans and melting of
land ice. Many of the island nations in the Pacific and
Indian Oceans would virtually disappear.
Australian greenhouse
gas production
(excluding land clearing)
Carbon dioxide 60%
Methane 26%
Nitrous oxide 6%
Other 8%
Source: CSIRO 2002 National Greenhouse
Gas Inventory, released April 2004.
Killing Kyoto
In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol
called for developed nations
to reduce emissions of
greenhouse gases by 5%
by 2012. The Australian
Government has decided not
to ratify the Kyoto Protocol
because it is not in Australias
economic interest to do so.
The government is committed,
however, to Australias target
level agreed under the Kyoto
Protocol. Over the period
20082012, greenhouse gas
emissions will be limited to
only 8% more than the levels
emitted in 1990. To achieve
this, all Australians will need to
conserve energy.
Global warming Global warming
20
10
0
10
CO
2
and temperature over 420 000 years
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

C
)
C
O
2

(
p
p
m
)
400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 now
Years before present
CO
2
Temperature
Current level
Predicted level CO
2
in 2100
Predicted
temperature
rise by 2100
Fig 8.1.6 Carbon dioxide levels over the past 420 000
years. The graph shows a prediction for the
year 2100 if humans keep increasing carbon
dioxide levels at the current rate.
267
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See us while were still here!
The island nation of the Maldives is only a little above the waters
of the Indian Ocean. Breakwaters have been constructed in the past
ten years to protect its capital, Mali, from rising waters. In 2004, the
Maldives completed construction of a rectangular artificial island
that will accommodate the population of Mali, which is expected to
go under in the next 40 years. The tourist board is now marketing
the Maldives as a destination that will be impossible to visit in the
future. Some cities around the world, such as New Orleans (USA),
are already below sea level. Others, such as London (UK) and
Venice (Italy), are just above sea level and are threatened with every
storm surge or king-tide. Barriers to protect them have been built for
New Orleans and London, and are planned for Venice. Will this be
commonplace in the future? Imagine a wall between Sydney Heads!
T
a
m
p
a
r
a
I
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a

a
n
o
m
a
I
I
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s

(
6
)
1.O
O.5
O
-O.5
-1.O
-1.5
1O1O 1O2O 1O8O 1O4O 1O5O 1OGO 1O7O 1O8O 1OOO 2OOO
Yaar
Relerence eriod
5 year mean
Fig 8.1.7 Temperatures in Australia compared to the
19611990 average
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
h
a
n
g
e

(

C
)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
Year
range due to emissions
uncertainty and climate
response uncertainty
range due
to emissions
uncertainty
Fig 8.1.8 Predicted global warming compared to 1990
Predicting local effects
We do not fully understand the implications of
global warming for society and the environment.
Some regions will be drier, some wetter, some cooler
and most will be hotter. We can also expect more
storms, droughts, floods, hurricanes and temperature
extremes.
Australian scientists predict that some of the
following changes may occur:
The melting of much of the polar ice caps will
raise sea levels, flooding coasts, cities and some
entire island countries.
Liquid water expands slightly when warmed and
so the oceans will expand, also raising sea levels,
causing further flooding.
Source: Bureau of Meteorology
268
>>>
Increases in the numbers of wild storms and
cyclones. Cyclones could move further south.
More droughts and heatwaves
More bushfires
Less rain and snow. Managing and saving water
will become more important.
Habitats will change, causing the extinction of
some animals and plants.
Increased temperatures may cause bacteria to grow
faster, causing more disease in humans and other
organisms.
Some plants may grow faster with higher
temperatures. This would be good for farmers, but
less rain may mean fewer plants grow and fewer
varieties can survive.
Increased heat may cause more
heat stroke and illness.
Fig 8.1.10 Antarctica covers twice
the area of Australia.
El Nio
Another factor adding to weather
extremes, possibly blurring the
effect of global warming, is the
El Nio effect. The water of the
Pacific Ocean is warmer than
other oceans. In a normal year,
trade winds push this warmer
water west towards the east coast
of Australia, where high levels
of evaporation cause normal
amounts of rainfall. Every few
years, the El Nio effect occurs,
in which trade winds weaken or
reverse, allowing warmer water
to move towards the west coast of
South America around Christmas
time (El Nio means Christ
child in Spanish). The result
is that Australia experiences
drought and South America
experiences increased rainfall.
Will this become a more common sight in the future? Fig 8.1.9
Trade winds lail to kee
warm water in the west
Evaoration ol warm
water roduces
storm clouds over
South America
0ACIFIC/CEAN
water cooler
than usual
Current hels to ush warm
water towards South America
cold water traed under warm water
water warmer
than usual
Fig 8.1.11 The El Nio effect
Prac 2
p. 271
Global warming Global warming
An angry beast
Historical records show that abrupt climate change is not only
possibleit is the normal state of affairs. The present warm, stable
climate is a rare anomaly. Scientists need to learn as much as they can
about the climate system to enable them to predict when the next abrupt
shift in climate will come. In the words of geochemist, Dr Wallace S.
Broecker, the climate system is an angry beast, and we are poking it.
Worksheet 8.1 Temperature change predictions
Worksheet 8.2 Global warming revision
Antarctic meltdown
If all the ice in Antarctica
were to melt, sea levels
would rise by 61 metres!
If the rest of the ice in
the world were taken into
account, the rise would
be 68 metres, with many
inland areas becoming
beachfronts!
Antarctic statistics
Area: 14.2 million square
kilometres or 10% of Earths
surface (double that of
Australia)
Ice thickness: average
2.5 kilometres, maximum
4.7 kilometres
Elevation: average
2300 kilometres (Australias
average elevation is
340 metres)
Ice content: 90.6% of the
worlds ice
Fresh water: 70% of the
worlds fresh water
269
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Questions
]
Checkpoint
The greenhouse effect
1 State the name of the main gas responsible for the
greenhouse effect.
2 Explain why greenhouse gases are useful to the Earth.
3 Explain how greenhouse gases trap heat from the Sun.
4 Without greenhouse gases outline how the temperature
of Earth would change.
The enhanced greenhouse effect
5 State the cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
6 Describe how the enhanced greenhouse may affect
Earths climate.
Greenhouse gases: where do they come
from?
7 List two causes of carbon dioxide build-up in the
atmosphere.
8 Clearing land can enhance the greenhouse effect.
Explain how.
9 State the amount of carbon dioxide now being released.
10 List all the greenhouse gases.
11 Use an example to clarify how long greenhouse gases
persist in the atmosphere.
Evidence in the ice
12 Scientists use ice cores to determine the levels of
greenhouse gases in the past. Explain how air becomes
trapped in the ice.
13 Outline how the levels of carbon dioxide in air bubbles
in ice cores have changed in the past 420 000 years.
14 Describe the relationship between the level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and the Earths temperature
over the past 420 000 years.
The future
15 Identify the average temperature rise during the past
100 years.
A 0.3C
B 1.0C
C 0.5C
D 5C
16 The effects of global warming on the weather are largely
uncertain. List three possible effects.
El Nio
17 Clarify what is meant by the term El Nio.
18 Outline two effects of El Nio on Australia.
Greenhouse gas Chemical formula Sources
Think
19 Methane blocks the escape of radiant heat much more
than carbon dioxide. Explain then why carbon dioxide
and not methane is considered the main greenhouse
gas.
20 Imagine that all greenhouse gas emissions stopped
today. What impact would this have on concentrations
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere? Justify your
answer.
21 Discuss how global warming might cause greater
rainfall.
22 Many believe that the technology exists to produce cars
that travel twice as far on each tank of fuel. Assuming
that such technology does exist, propose reasons why
such cars are not being manufactured.
Analyse
23 Given adequate rainfall and suitable temperatures,
wheat yields may actually increase in response to higher
CO
2
concentrations. Assess why.
24 Analyse whether population control would reduce
global warming.
25 Permafrost is permanently frozen soil and is found in
many resorts and villages in European mountain ranges.
Predict a dangerous phenomenon that may occur in
these regions as a consequence of global warming.
26 Use Figure 8.1.1 to identify which planet near Earth has
a very enhanced greenhouse effect.
Skills
27 Copy and complete the following table to summarise
the main greenhouse gases, their chemical formulas
and sources.
28 The following question relates to the graphs of carbon
dioxide and methane concentrations in the atmosphere
in Figure 8.1.4.
a Describe atmospheric levels of each gas between
the years 1000 and 1400.
b Identify when the amount of carbon dioxide and
methane in the atmosphere suddenly increased.
>>
270
>>>
c Estimate the rise in CO
2
and CH
4
concentrations
between the years 1800 and 2000.
d Calculate as percentages your answers to part c.
29 Construct a pie chart showing Australian production of
greenhouse gases.
30 A single cow emits an amazing 280 litres of methane
as burps and farts every day. The number of cattle in
Australia (referred to as the national herd) is about
27 million. Estimate the volume of methane emitted by
the national herd:
a per day b per year
31 Carbon dioxide emissions per person for several
countries are listed below.
a Construct a column graph showing this information.
b Use these figures to deduce which countries produce
the most or least carbon dioxide per person.
Country Carbon dioxide emissions per capita,
2003 (tonnes per 1000 people)
Australia 18.9
United States 19.8
Canada 16.2
New Zealand 8.3
Germany 10.2
United Kingdom 9.3
Japan 9.6
32 Use the temperature change graph in Figure 8.1.8 to
answer the following questions.
a There are two pairs of lines on the graph due to two
factors affecting temperature rise. Describe what
they are.
b Assess the range of the global average temperature
rise (compared to 1990) in:
i 2040 ii 2080
33 There is roughly one car for every two people in the
United States (population 293 million people). In China
(whose population is over 1300 million or 1.3 billion
people) the figure is approximately one car for every
1400 people. There are currently about 500 million cars
in the world.
a Estimate how many cars are in the United States.
b Estimate how many cars are in China.
c Estimate how many cars would be in China if the
car-to-person ratio was the same as that in the
United States.
d Analyse the consequences for global warming if China
had the same car-to-person ratio as the United States.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the climate projections of organisations
like the CSIRO and the United States Environment
Protection Agency and construct a poster that
summarises their findings.


2 a Research the Kyoto protocol in order to
summarise Australias position on this.
b Write a letter to the government arguing whether or
not Australia should sign the Kyoto protocol. Back
your arguments with as much evidence as possible.
3 Research and construct a map showing the
countries or islands most at risk of partially or totally
disappearing due to rises in sea levels.
4 a Research El Nio, La Nia and the North Atlantic
Oscillation (NAO).
b Explain how each of these is thought to be linked to
global warming.
c Evaluate the impact of these phenomena on the
Australian climate.
Surf
5 Use the Australian Greenhouse Calculator to
investigate the household gas emissions in your house by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 8 and
clicking on the destinations button.
a Complete the investigation and write a report including
bar graphs to show your household emissions
compared to green and typical household usage.
b Recommend actions that can reduce your greenhouse
gas emissions.
Global warming Global warming
Creative writing
Greenhouse politics
Several countries (including Australia) are reluctant to
agree to definite targets for reduction of greenhouse gases
because their governments think this could harm their
economies. What does this mean? What is your opinion?
271
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The greenhouse effect
Prac 1
Unit 8.1
Aim To simulate the conditions
required for the greenhouse effect
Equipment
Small cardboard box (e.g. a shoebox),
2 thermometers or temperature probes and
datalogging equipment, sheet of glass or polythene
plastic, lamp
Method
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.1.12.
light source
glass or perspex sheet
shoebox
temperature probe
to
datalogger
Fig 8.1.12
2 Turn on the lamp and measure the temperature at
regular intervals (e.g. every minute) for 10 minutes.
3 Turn off the lamp, but continue to measure temperature
for another 10 minutes.
4 If time permits, investigate the effect of an additional
layer of glass or plastic.
Questions
1 Construct a graph showing temperature versus time
for each section of the box.
2 Summarise any differences in the temperature patterns
in each section.
3 Describe what takes the place of the glass or plastic
sheet in the global greenhouse effect.
4 Identify what adding another layer of glass or plastic
represents if modelling the Earth.
Icebergs
Aim To investigate the effect of melting ice on
water levels
Equipment
Ice cubes (46), cold water, beaker, another identical beaker
containing frozen water as shown in Figure 8.1.13.
Method
1 Place some ice cubes (representing icebergs) in the
empty beaker.
2 Add the same amount of water to each of the two
beakers and mark the water level on the outside of each
beaker.
Prac 2
Unit 8.1
water
ice cubes
mark water
levels
ice
Fig 8.1.13
3 Allow each beaker to warm enough so a significant
amount of ice melts in each.
4 Compare the water level to that initially marked on
each beaker.
Questions
1 Deduce whether the melting of floating icebergs
contributes to a rise in sea levels.
2 Deduce whether the melting of land ice contributes
to a rise in sea levels.
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UNIT
UNIT
8
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The ozone layer acts as a shield, absorbing
around 90% of the harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the Sun. Though we need
some UV rays on our skin for production
of vitamin D for healthy bones, high levels
c
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What is ozone?
Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally in the stratosphere
at about 20 to 30 kilometres above the Earths surface.
When people refer to oxygen, they usually mean the
oxygen we use when we breathe. This type of oxygen,
O
2
, consists of molecules each made of two oxygen
atoms. Ozone, O
3
, is another naturally occurring form
of oxygen, the molecules being made of three oxygen
atoms. Ozone is a colourless gas that has a very
pungent odour. Although ozone performs a vital role
in the stratosphere, at ground level it is a pollutant. It
is poisonous, causing eye, nose and throat irritation
and lung damage, and has even been found to cause
asthma.
oxygen molecule
(used when we breathe)
oxygen
atom
ozone molecule
Fig 8.2.1 Oxygen atoms, O, may combine with each other
to form oxygen, O2, or ozone molecules, O3.
The ozone layer
Ozone is created when UV light splits oxygen
molecules in the stratosphere into single oxygen
atoms. These single oxygen atoms then join other
oxygen molecules to form triplets of oxygen atoms, or
ozone molecules.
O
2
+ O

O
3
Ultraviolet light also splits ozone molecules, so
ozone is continually being created and destroyed, with
UV light being absorbed in the process. The region of
the stratosphere in which ozone is thinly distributed
is called the ozone layer.
increase the likelihood of skin cancers and eye
damage. High UV levels also slow photosynthesis
in plants. The ozone layer is vital to life on Earth.
Its depletion poses a major threat to us all.
Ozone creation in the atmosphere
oxyqen molecules
in atmoshere
bv liqht
lree oxyqen atoms
newly created
o/one molecule
Fig 8.2.2
Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented in the
1920s and were once called wonder chemicals
because they were non-poisonous, odourless, stable
and cheap to produce. Until recently they were used
extensively as propellants for aerosol sprays and as
coolant gases in refrigerators and air conditioners.
They also made the bubbles within polystyrene
and other foam packaging. We now know that CFCs
are greenhouse gases and can destroy ozone. They
do this by drifting upwards into the stratosphere
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where they break down, releasing chlorine. Each
chlorine molecule released this way reacts with
ozone molecules, breaking them apart into oxygen
molecules and oxygen atoms. The chlorine acts
as a catalyst and is not part of any new substance
formed. It is then free to go on and destroy more
ozone molecules!
Common ozone-depleting gases and their average
life in the atmosphere
Gas Chemical formula Average life in
atmosphere (years)
CFC 11 CCl
3
F 65
CFC 12 CCl
2
F
2
110
CFC 13 CClF
3
160
Freon (Halon 1301) CF
3
Br 110
Nitrous oxide N
2
O 130
Methane CH
4
11
Chlorine atoms continue a cycle of
ozone destruction.
ozone
molecule
chlorine atom
released by
CFC molecule
that has drifted
into stratosphere
chlorine
monoxide
oxygen
molecule
chlorine released to attack
another ozone molecule
+
+
Fig 8.2.3
Other ozone attackers
CFCs are not the only ozone destroyers.
Nitrogen oxides also speed up ozone destruction.
These gases are produced when jet aircraft engines
burn fuel. Supersonic aircraft fly higher and inject
these gases directly into the stratosphere.
The space shuttle releases ozone-attacking
hydrogen chloride when its boosters fire during
launch. Each launch releases 68 tonnes of
hydrogen chloride gas (gaseous hydrochloric acid!)
into the atmosphere.
Volcanoes also release hydrogen chloride.
Lightning causes reactions that split ozone
molecules.
The hole story
The thickness of the ozone layer is measured in
Dobson units or DU. Remember that the ozone is
spread throughout a region of the stratosphere, so
the term thickness is somewhat misleading. In
considering ozone layer thickness, we imagine all the
ozone brought down to ground level and concentrated
into a pure ozone layer. One hundred Dobson units
correspond to a layer of pure ozone one millimetre
thick at ground level. Remote-sensing satellites collect
data on the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. If all
the ozone molecules in the ozone layer were brought
to ground level, it would form a layer averaging only
500 DU (5 mm) thick.
A value of less than 220 DU is considered to be an
ozone hole. The ozone hole situated over Antarctica
was discovered by British scientist Dr Joseph Farman
in 1985. The Antarctic ozone hole appears at around
the end of winter in August each year, and is most
pronounced by the end of October, when the day
breaks after the Antarctic winter. At this time chlorine
is very effective at breaking down ozone molecules.
In November, winds carry ozone-rich air from other
regions over the Antarctic, repairing the hole, but
leaving lower ozone levels over Australia and New
Zealand.
4OO
85O
8OO
25O
2OO
15O
1OO
5O
O
T
o
I
a
I

o
t
o
n
a

(

o
b
s
o
n

u
n
I
I
s
)
Yaar
1OGO 1O7O 1O8O 1OOO 2OOO
Monthly averaqes lor 0ctober
Fig 8.2.4 Ozone layer thickness over Antarctica
in past years
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
What is ozone?
1 State where ozone can be found in the atmosphere.
2 Draw a diagram to demonstrate the difference between
oxygen and ozone.
3 List two physical properties of ozone.
4 Outline the harmful effects of ozone.
The ozone layer
5 Use a diagram to demonstrate how ozone is formed in
the upper atmosphere.
6 Define ozone layer.
Chlorofluorocarbons
7 List three properties of CFCs.
8 Use a diagram to describe how CFCs destroy ozone.
9 List four ways in which CFCs have been used.
10 Identify the element in CFCs that does the actual damage
to ozone.
11 Identify two other sources of the element identified in
Question 10.
12 Apart from CFCs, describe other ways in which ozone
can be destroyed.
The hole story
13 State the name and abbreviation of the units for
measuring ozone.
14 Clarify how much ozone is described by 100 DU.
15 Identify the level of ozone measurement that indicates an
ozone hole.
k
r
a
a

(
m
I
I
I
I
o
n
s

o
I

s
q
u
a
r
a

k
m
)
8O
25
2O
15
1O
5
O
1
O
7
O
1
O
8
1
1
O
8
8
1
O
8
5
1
O
8
7
1
O
8
O
1
O
O
1
1
O
O
8
1
O
O
5
1
O
O
7
1
O
O
O
2
O
O
O
2
O
O
1
2
O
O
2
2
O
O
8
Yaar
area ol Australia
Fig 8.2.5 A graph of the size of the ozone hole between 1979
and 2003, obtained from satellite-based instruments
The future
One hundred nations agreed in the Montreal Protocol
of 1987 to either stop manufacture of, or limit their
use of, CFCs by 2000 or earlier. Despite most nations
honouring their commitment to the protocol, levels
of CFCs in the atmosphere are still rising, as it takes
10 years or more for them to reach the ozone layer.
Unfortunately, many developing countries still use
CFCs as they are cheap and easy to make. It is expected
that ozone levels will return to normal by 2045.
Worksheet 8.3 Analysing ozone
Already there is some evidence that the reduction
in the use of CFCs is starting to have an effect. Recent
monitoring has indicated that the ozone hole is now
not as big as the record hole in September 2000. It
is hoped that international cooperation to repair the
damage is working. Only time will tell the whole
story. Meanwhile, apply that sunscreen!
The ozone layer The ozone layer
Fig 8.2.6 A NASA satellite image of the recorded ozone
hole, taken on 9 September 2000. Blue
denotes regions of low ozone concentration.
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31 Construct a graph to estimate the ozone thickness
we could expect if:
a CFC use stopped immediately
b CFC use continues at the present rate
c CFC use increases
16 The Antarctic ozone hole varies throughout the year.
Identify the time of year when the ozone layer is the
thinnest.
The future
17 List the major outcome of the Montreal Protocol.
18 CFC levels in the atmosphere are still rising. Explain
whether the levels will ever reduce.
Think
19 Contrast the effects of ozone in the stratosphere with
ground level ozone.
20 List some harmful and beneficial effects of UV radiation.
21 A thinner ozone layer could affect food supplies. Propose
reasons why.
22 The ozone layer occupies a space between 20 and 30
kilometres above the Earth. This is a layer 10 kilometres
thick. Account for it also being described as 5 millimetres
thick.
23 The term ozone hole is not entirely correct. Explain why.
24 The ozone hole is not directly over Australia but we are
still concerned about it. Discuss why.
25 High levels of UV can reduce the number of plankton
(microscopic plants and animals in the oceans). Predict
some possible consequences of this.
26 Identify a way of telling whether a spray can is ozone
friendly.
Analyse
27 Use Figure 8.2.5 to identify:
a the largest area of the ozone hole recorded.
b when this record-sized hole occurred.
28 Explain why there are short lines extending on each side
of the points on the graph in Figure 8.2.4.
29 Analyse Figure 8.2.5 to clarify the following:
a the area of the ozone hole (in millions of square
kilometres):
i in 1982
ii in 1995
b when the ozone hole first measured:
i 20 million square kilometres
ii 150 DU
c when the ozone hole became larger than Antarctica
(which has an area of about 14 million square
kilometres)
Skills
30 If all the ozone in an ozone layer that measures
220 Dobson units were brought to ground level, calculate
the thickness of this pure ozone.
[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 a Investigate specific types of eye damage caused
by UV radiation.
b Produce a brochure aimed at increasing the
publics awareness of the risk of UV exposure to
the eyes.


2 TOMS is an instrument carried by a satellite to
measure the ozone layer.
a Conduct Internet research into TOMS
measurements.
b Examine the data presented and produce a news
report commenting on the current status of ozone
over Australia.


3 a Research details of the Montreal Protocol.
b Summarise Australias participation in the
agreement.

Action
4 a Construct and report on a survey of chemicals
used as propellants in spray cans.


b Assess whether the ozone layer is at risk from
these products.
c Ozone-friendly chemicals are being used in place
of CFCs. Investigate two of these chemicals and
evaluate their effectiveness.
8
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Creative writing
Ozone holefact or fiction?
Articles have appeared in the press suggesting
that the ozone hole is part of a natural cycle, and
will disappear without the need for humans to take
corrective action. Write an article in response, either
supporting or arguing against these articles. Include
an attention-grabbing headline and scientific evidence
to back your opinions.
276
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UNIT
UNIT
Sunlight is a form of radiation, as are radio
waves. The term radiation refers to energy
in the form of fast-moving particles or
electromagnetic waves. Nuclear radiation,
as the name suggests, is radiation that
comes from the nucleus of an atom.
Controlled nuclear radiation can be very useful. It
can treat medical conditions like cancer and can be
used to generate electricity. It can also be extremely
dangerous if it leaks accidentally from nuclear
waste from medical use or from power plants.
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Radiation and radioactivity
There are 92 protons in the nuclei of uranium atoms.
They are all positively charged and each one repels
the others. Logic says they should fly apart and the
nucleus should disintegrate into 92 parts. But this
doesnt happen. Protons in a nucleus stay together
because of another more powerful force, called the
nuclear force. Nuclear force acts
between all particles in
a nucleus and is more
than sufficient to hold
the nuclei of small atoms
together. When a nucleus
becomes very large,
however, the nuclear
force might not be strong
enough to hold the nucleus
together and bits might
break off. In doing so,
the nucleus gets smaller
and more stable. Nuclear
radiation is the energy
and the particles that are
released from the nucleus
in its break-up. An element
whose atoms emit nuclear
radiation is said to be
A radioactive
discovery
When French scientist
Henri Becquerel placed
some uranium in a dark
drawer containing some
wrapped photographic
plates in 1896, he was
surprised to find later that
the plates had become
foggy. He deduced that they
must have been affected by
something coming from the
uranium, something able to
penetrate the wrapping. He
had observed one effect of
radioactivity.
radioactive. Uranium and most of the elements after it
in the periodic table (atoms of higher atomic number)
are radioactive.
Atoms and isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the
same element. Isotopes are atoms of the same element
that have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
For example, all lithium atoms have three protons.
Ninety-three per cent of all lithium atoms have three
neutrons. The rest have four. Hence lithium has two
isotopes, which we can write as:
MASS NUMBER = number of protons + neutrons
6
Li
7
Li
3
and
3
ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons
Uranium atoms always have 92 protons. The
most common isotope has 146 neutrons, a less
common isotope has 143 neutrons and a few have
142 neutrons. Hence we can write them as:

238

U
235

U
234

U

92

92

92
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3
Not surprisingly, a radioactive isotope is called a
radioisotope. When referring to a radioisotope, we
often give just its mass number. Because all uranium
atoms are radioactive, the radioisotopes of uranium
could be written as uranium-234, uranium-235 and
uranium-238. Actinium, astatine, carbon, francium,
thorium, protactinium, polonium, radon and radium
are all radioactive elements and, like uranium, occur
naturally. Many synthetic or artificial elements are
also radioactive.
Hydrogen has three isotopes. Approximately 99% is
normal (stable and not radioactive), 1% is deuterium
(stable but toxic in high doses) and a few are tritium.
Tritium is unstableit is a radioisotope.
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Three isotopes of hydrogen
hydroqen1
(hydroqen or
rotium)
hydroqen2
(deuterium)
hydroqen8
(tritium)
Key. Froton heutron Electron
h
1
1
h
2
1
h
8
1
Fig 8.3.1
Fig 8.3.2 Marie Curie
Three types of nuclear radiation
When a radioisotope emits radiation, it usually
transforms into another element. We say it has
undergone radioactive decay. There are three main
types of radioactive decay, each emitting a different
type of radiation:
alpha radiation
beta radiation
gamma radiation.
Alpha radiation
One way in which radioactive nuclei can get smaller
and more stable is by throwing out a cluster of two
protons and two neutrons. This cluster is known as
an alpha particle (denoted by ), but is really just a
helium nucleus,
4
2
He.
Uranium-238 emits an alpha particle and in doing
so decays into thorium-234, as shown in Figure 8.3.3.
Alpha decay
uranium-238 thorium-234
alpha
particle
238
92
U
234
90
Th
4
2

+
Fig 8.3.3
The equation is balanced, with the same number
of protons and neutrons on each side. You can check
by adding up the mass numbers on the product side
of the reaction: they add up to 238, the same as we
started with. Likewise, the atomic numbers add up to
92.
Alpha particles move at speeds of up to one-tenth
the speed of light. Alpha decay can be thought of as
nuclear fission, since a parent nucleus splits into two
daughter nuclei.
Beta radiation
When there is an imbalance of neutrons and protons
in a nucleus, a neutron may change into a proton and
an electron. The newly created electron is called a
beta particle (denoted by ), which is then emitted
from the nucleus.
Carbon-14 is a radioisotope that decays into a
new element, nitrogen, by emitting a beta particle
from its nucleus. We can represent this decay as in
Figure 8.3.4.
Marie and Pierre Curie
Polish-born Marie Curie and her French-born husband Pierre
Curie are famous for their pioneering work with uranium and
other radiation-emitting elements. Marie was first to use the term
radioactivity, her birthplace gave us the name for the element
polonium, Po, and the Curies surname became the name for
curium, Cm. The couple shared the 1903 Nobel Prize for physics
with Henri Becquerel. In 1911, Marie became the first person to
win two Nobel Prizes when she was awarded the Nobel Prize for
chemistry for her discovery of radium and polonium. Pierre was
killed in an accident with a horse-drawn vehicle in 1906 and Marie
died of leukemia in 1934, probably as a result of working so closely
with radioisotopes for most of her life.
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An extra proton has been created from a neutron,
so the atomic number of the atom increases from 6 to
7, meaning that a new element has been formed. The
mass number of the beta particle is zero since it really
is just an electron, and they have negligible mass. The
1 at the bottom indicates the negative charge on a
beta particle. Once again, the atomic numbers give the
same total (6 = 7 + 1).
Beta particles move at speeds of up to nine-tenths
the speed of light and so pass through materials better
than alpha particles.
Gamma radiation
Both alpha and beta radiation consist of particles.
Earlier it was mentioned that radiation may also be in
the form of electromagnetic waves or rays. Sometimes
when an alpha particle or beta particle is emitted from
a nucleus, the new nucleus is still unstable, and emits
extra energy in the form of a gamma ray to become
more stable. A gamma ray (denoted by ) is a burst of
high-frequency electromagnetic radiation that has no
mass or charge. Gamma rays are more powerful than
X-rays.
The beta decay of iodine-131 is accompanied by
gamma emission as shown in Figure 8.3.5.
Like all electromagnetic radiation, gamma rays
move at the speed of light (300 000 km/s). Their
incredible speed means they penetrate materials even
more than beta particles.
Gamma decay
iodine-131 xenon-131
beta particle
gamma ray
I
131
53
Xe
131
54

0
1

0
0
+ +
+
Fig 8.3.5
beta
particle
gamma
ray
alpha
particle
thick sheet
of paper
1 mm sheet
of aluminium
several centimetres
of lead or concrete
Fig 8.3.6 The penetration abilities of alpha, beta and
gamma radiation. Alpha particles are stopped
by a thick sheet of paper or human skin;
beta particles are stopped by a thin sheet of
aluminium; and most gamma rays are stopped
by a thick layer of lead or concrete, though
some still get through.
Worksheet 8.4 Uranium decay series
Beta decay
carbon-14 nitrogen-14
beta particle
14
6
C
14
7
N
0
1
+
+
Fig 8.3.4
Half-life
The time required for half of the atoms in any given
quantity of a radioactive isotope to decay is the half-
life of that isotope. Each particular isotope has its own
half-life.
Some common radioisotopes and their half-lives
Radioisotope Half-life
Radon-222 4 days
Iodine-131 8 days
Cobalt-60 5.3 years
Americium-241 460 years
Carbon-14 5730 years
Plutonium-239 24 000 years
Uranium-238 4.5 million years
Nuclear radiation: good or evil? Nuclear radiation: good or evil?
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after 1
half-life
after 2
half-lives
after 3
half-lives
Fig 8.3.7 The number of atoms of a radioactive element in a sample halves
after each half-life. How many radioactive atoms would you expect
to remain after one more half-life?
A 1 kg sample of pure uranium-238 would decay
over time to leave the following amounts:
Time Mass of U-238 in sample
0 years 1 kg
4.5 million years 500 g
9 million years 250 g
13.5 million years 125 g
18 million years 62.5 g
Prac 1
p. 284
Sources of nuclear radiation
Nuclear radiation may be produced artificially by
bombarding atoms with neutrons or other subatomic
particles. Most radiation we receive comes from
natural sources, however. The Earth is continually
being struck by solar radiation and cosmic radiation
produced, for example, by collapsing stars. Terrestrial
radiation originates from substances in the Earths
crust. The decay of natural underground uranium
produces radioactive radon gas, which we inhale in
the air we breathe.
Source Approximate percentage of
annual radiation received
Terrestrial (from natural radioactive underground deposits) 75%
Solar and cosmic (from space) 13%
Medical (from medical procedures and X-rays) 10%
Manufactured (from burning coal, electromagnetic devices, fallout from weapons testing) 2%
Effects of radiation
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation
are sometimes called ionising
radiation because of their ability to
ionise (knock electrons off) atoms or
molecules, causing them to become
charged. Charged atoms or molecules
are called ions. Alpha particles have
high ionising ability, while beta and
gamma radiation have low ionising
ability. Because ions attract other
atoms and molecules, they are more
likely to become involved in chemical
reactions. If these radiations hit body
cells, they may cause chemical reactions that can:
destroy cellsthis may appear as
a burn. Cells on that site may not
be replaced.
cause abnormal cell growththis
may appear as a tumour or
cancer.
Measuring radiation
Nuclear radiation may be detected
using a Geiger counter. Gas
molecules within a tube are ionised
by any radiation that enters. The
resulting ions produce a pulse of
electrical current that is fed to a
small speaker and counter. The
speaker makes a clicking sound
with each pulse of current. The
activity of a radioactive sample is the number of
disintegrations per second, and gives an indication of
the number of radioisotopes present.
People working in areas of high radiation levels,
such as at nuclear facilities or medical staff, wear
special detectors called dosimeters.
Radioactive water
In Fujian province in
China, millions of people
obtain drinking water
from wells in granite rock.
Radon-222 leaches from
the granite into the water,
making it 150 times more
radioactive than water in
more developed counties.
Not surprisingly, cancer
rates in the region are the
highest in China.
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Uses of nuclear
radiation
Nuclear medicine
Nuclear radiation is not
always bad. Radioisotopes
can cause cancers but are also
used in nuclear medicine
to diagnose and treat them.
Radiotherapy involves
directing high, localised doses
of radiation to cancer sites
by using an external focused
beam or a surgical implant, or
by swallowing a radioactive
medicine. Rapidly dividing
cells such as cancerous cells
are more sensitive to nuclear
radiation than other cells
There are several units for measuring nuclear
radiation doses. One of the main units is sieverts (Sv).
The table below refers to millionths of a sievert, or
microsieverts (Sv).
A dose measured in sieverts or microsieverts takes
into account the energy per kilogram delivered
by nuclear radiation and its ability to ionise. You
receive a dose of about 300 Sv annually from cosmic
radiation, and 1400 Sv from terrestrial radiation.
Fig 8.3.8 A researcher using a Geiger counter
to monitor radiation
Biological effects of nuclear radiation
Dose (Sv) Short-term effects Long-term effects
Less than 10 000 None Possible effect on unborn babies
10 000 to 100 000 None Unborn babies likely to contract leukemia
100 000 to 500 000 Cell damage Increased likelihood of cancer (including leukemia)
500 000 to 1 000 000 Radiation sicknesssymptoms include nausea, vomiting, Greater likelihood of contracting cancer
diarrhoea, hair loss, internal bleeding; white blood cell
count drops
1 000 000 to 8 000 000 Severe radiation sickness, possible death within a month Very high probability of developing cancer
This device directs gamma rays from cobalt-60
onto cancerous growths within the body. Fig 8.3.9
Nuclear radiation: good or evil? Nuclear radiation: good or evil?
Radioactive money!
Between 1945 and 1989
Germany was divided into
two separate countries (East
and West Germany). As part
of the cold war, East German
secret police used radioactive
scandium-46 to invisibly label
political opponents so they
could be tracked using hidden
Geiger counters that vibrated
in response to radioactivity.
Labelling occurred in a variety
of ways. Floors were treated,
as were documents and
money. This practice exposed
victims and anyone near
them to dangerous levels of
radioactivity, since scandium-46
is both a beta and a gamma
emitter. Radioactive cash in your
pocket would both give you
away to the secret police and
very likely reduce your fertility!
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Carbon dating
All living things contain radioactive carbon-14.
It is continually decaying but is constantly being
replenished. While the organism is alive the percentage
of carbon-14 it contains will remain constant.
they self-destruct if their DNA
is damaged. Unfortunately,
some nearby healthy cells are
also killed, leading to short-term
illness and side-effects.
Nuclear medicines are also
used to give images of internal
organs, blood vessels and bones.
Gamma-emitting radioactive
tracers are swallowed or injected
and tend to collect in particular
parts of the body. They are then
detected by a gamma ray camera
placed outside the body. The
gamma rays coming from inside
the body are then converted to an
image. For example, iodine-123
concentrates in the thyroid gland and so may be used
to help diagnose thyroid conditions.
Industrial
applications
Nuclear radiation can be
added to liquids or gases
flowing in pipes to trace
leaks or check for fractures.
The thickness of metal or
rubber sheets can be verified
by measuring the amount of
radiation transmitted through
the material.
Smoke detectors
Smoke detectors contain a
small amount of americium-
241. Alpha particles emitted by
the americium ionise the air and
create a small current, which
keeps the alarm from sounding.
When smoke enters, the ions
are attracted to the larger smoke
particles, and move more
slowly. The reduced current is
then unable to stop the alarm
sounding, and a high-pitched
sound is emitted.
Radiation may
be used to check
the thickness of
materials.
beta or
gamma
source
radiation
detector
roller
control
sheet
of metal
rollers
Fig 8.3.10
Fig 8.3.11 Samples of bone being prepared for
radiocarbon dating
When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14
reduces due to its continuous beta decay into nitrogen-
14. In contrast, the amount of normal non-radioactive
carbon (carbon-12) stays constant. The approximate age
of once-living matter can be determined by comparing
the amounts of both types of carbon in it and then
using the graph shown in Figure 8.3.12.
C
a
r
b
o
n

1
4

a
t
o
m
s

r
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g

(
%
)
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5730 11460 17190 22920 28650 34380 40110 45840
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (years)
Half-lives
Fig 8.3.12 Decay graph for carbon-14
8
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8
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3
Golden poo!
The source of the balls
of matter washing up
on Sydney beaches was
uncertain. Did they come
from sewage or another
source such as waste
from a passing tanker?
Scientists labelled
outgoing sewage with
radioactive gold-198, a
radioisotope with a half-life
of 2.7 days. Soon after,
the balls washing up on
beaches were found to be
radioactive, showing that
they indeed came from
discharged sewage.
282
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Dirty bombs
A dirty bomb is not a traditional nuclear bomb. It
is basically any bomb that has radioactive material
such as nuclear waste in it. This radioactive material
is spread as very fine particles across large areas
when the bomb explodes, floating in the air and
contaminating water and food. It would be impossible
to clean up the radioactive material and it could cause
contamination problems for hundreds of years. There
has been talk of terrorist organisations using dirty
bombs and therefore it is important that radioactive
waste is tightly controlled to ensure it does not fall
into the wrong hands.
Other uses
Food that has been exposed to gamma radiation
lasts much longer than normal, without becoming
radioactive itself. Bacteria and fungi are killed by the
radiation, but vitamins may also be destroyed and
new chemicals might be created within the food. For
this reason, many consumers are uncomfortable with
the idea of food irradiation.
Nuclear radiation is also used to sterilise medical
and surgical equipment. Needles used by diabetics are
sterilised in this way.
Radioisotopes can be injected into or fed to
animals in order to trace their movement using
radiation detectors, or to trace the movement of
nutrients through the food chain.
Fertilisers with added radioisotopes are used to
study the uptake of nutrients by crops.
Radioactive material left over from nuclear power
generation is used to make nuclear bombs and
ammunition that can pierce the heavy armour of tanks.
8
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Radiation and radioactivity
1 Copy and modify the following statement so it is
correct.
Radiation can be fast moving ________ or
electromagnetic ________.
2 State the type of force that acts on particles in the
nucleus of an atom to:
a hold them together
b push them apart
Atoms and isotopes
3 Define radioisotope.
4 List four radioactive elements.
5 Explain why large atoms are more likely to be
radioactive than small ones.
6 Identify which atom is an isotope of atom
40
20X. Is it atom
42
22Y or atom
42
20Z?
Three types of nuclear radiation
7 List the three main types of radiation.
8 Identify the type of nuclear radiation that:
a is the same as in a helium nucleus
b can pass through paper but not aluminium
c is not made of particles
d requires the conversion of a neutron into a proton
and an electron.
e is the product of nuclear fission.
9 Contrast the speeds and penetrating abilities of the
three radiation types.
Half-life
10 Clarify the meaning of half-life.
11 Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days. Calculate the amount
left from a 2 kg sample after:
a 8 days
b 16 days
c 24 days
Sources of nuclear radiation
12 List two natural ways in which radiation is produced.
13 Radon gas is present in our atmosphere. Outline how it is
produced.
Effects of radiation
14 Explain why ions produced by radiation are more likely to
affect our cells than other atoms.
15 Nuclear radiation may be detected in several ways.
Describe two of these.
16 State the size of the radiation dose you are likely to
receive over the next year.
Uses of nuclear radiation
17 List two uses of nuclear radiation in industry.
18 State an advantage and a disadvantage of food
irradiation.
19 Describe what is meant by a dirty bomb.
Nuclear radiation: good or evil? Nuclear radiation: good or evil?
283
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[
Extension
]
Investigate
1 Research the lives of the Curies and use a time line to
summarise key events in their lives.
2 a Research other methods of nuclear radiation
detection such as film badges or cloud chambers.
Use a labelled diagram to explain the workings of
one method.
b There are a large number of units for measuring
nuclear radiation including gray, rem, rad, curie,
becquerel and roentgen. Explain what one of these
really means, and give the abbreviation for the unit.
3 Choose one example where a PET scan is used. With
the aid of a diagram, explain how it works.
Think
20 Gold-198 does not exist naturally. Describe how it can
be made.
21 Radioactive decay of uranium in the ground produces
radon gas, which bubbles up through the ground
to reach the air. Radon in turn decays to produce
polonium, an alpha particle emitter. Although alpha
particles cannot penetrate the skin, uranium-miners are
at increased risk of radiation diseases. Account for this
increased risk.
22 Explain why
radiotherapy harms
cancer cells more than
healthy cells.
23 Outline how nuclear
radiation is used to
obtain images of
internal organs.
Analyse
24 Would an alpha particle
emitter be suitable
for measuring the
thickness of cardboard
in a packaging manufacturing plant? Justify your
answer.
25 Propose two reasons why alpha particles are never
injected for medical diagnosis.
26 Propose a reason why hair cells are often damaged
during radiation therapy.
27 In the Gulf War, ammunition made of depleted uranium
was used to pierce tanks. Burning uranium from such
ammunition forms tiny particles that may be inhaled.
Explain why this is of concern even today, more than
ten years after the war.
28 Explain why young children are more likely to be
affected by radiation doses than adults.
29 Evaluate the danger of the following doses of
radiation:
a 1 microsievert received in a short burst
b 500 microsieverts received over the course of a
year
c 100 000 microsieverts received in a short burst
Skills
30 Copy the following table and summarise the details
for each of the main types of nuclear radiation.
8
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3
8
.
3
Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays
Sketch
Charge
Mass
Speed
Penetration ability
(High, medium or low)
Stopped by
Ionising ability
31 Modify the following nuclear reactions so that they are
complete:
a
218
84Po

___ Pb +
4
2
b
24
11Na

___ Mg +
0
1
c
133
54Xe

___ Xe +
d
59
26Fe

___ Co +
0
1 +
32 Calculate the fraction of a sample of pure radon-222
that would remain after 12 days.
33 Assess whether the radioactivity of a sample of
plutonium would be very different after 10 years.
34 Construct a pie graph, a stacked bar graph or a
column graph showing the percentage of radiation we
receive from major sources.
35 A fossil is found to contain one-sixteenth of the
amount of carbon-14 of a living specimen. Calculate
the age of the fossil.
>>
284
[
Practical activity
] 8
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Half-life of polonium-218
Prac 1
Unit 8.3
4 Assess how long after this it took for the activity to
halve again.
5 Assess how long after this it took for the activity to
halve a third time.
6 Calculate the average of the half-lives determined in
questions 3, 4 and 5 above.
7 Predict the count rate at the end of another
30 seconds.
The table below shows the activity of a sample of
polonium-218 measured at 1 minute intervals for
20 minutes.
Questions
1 Construct a graph showing activity (vertical axis) versus
time (horizontal axis).
2 Draw a curve of best fit through the data.
3 Use your graph to calculate the time it took for the
initial activity to halve.
Time (mins)
Activity
(counts
per minute)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
200 161 127 115 86 67 56 33 31 22 17 15 13 11 7 7 5 4 3 2 2
4 a The Shroud of Turin has been claimed to be the burial
cloth of Jesus Christ. Explain how carbon dating has
been used to date the Shroud.
b Use this evidence to make your own deduction
about the age and authenticity of the Shroud.
5 a Investigate dirty bombs and how they work.
b Discuss whether this type of terrorist attack is likely,
supporting your information with evidence.
Nuclear radiation: good or evil? Nuclear radiation: good or evil?
Action
5 Simulate decay of a radioisotope using computer
software or a model to present your information in
visual form.
6 a Arrange an excursion to ANSTO to investigate the
products made there.
b Working in small groups, give oral presentations on
a range of ANSTO products.
>>>
285
Einstein predicted that nuclear energy could
be calculated using the equation E = mc
2
. Fig 8.4.2
The world has an impending energy crisis.
We need to quickly find alternative sources
of energy, as fossil fuels will run out in
the next 50 years if we
continue to use them
at current rates. Many
countries have invested heavily
in nuclear power, and although
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Generating nuclear
energy
Fission
When uranium-235 absorbs
a stray neutron, it becomes
extremely unstable, and
something very interesting
happens. Instead of emitting an
alpha or beta particle or a gamma
ray, the uranium-235 isotope
splits into two smaller atoms
along with two or three neutrons.
Heat energy is released in the
process. The splitting of an atom
is called fission. Lone or stray neutrons are produced
this way in the atmosphere by cosmic rays.
Australia has no nuclear power stations it is one of
the biggest suppliers of uranium for them. Nuclear
energy is an alternative energy source to fossil fuels.
Although not a renewable resource, it provides vast
amounts of energy from a small amount of fuel. For
example, 1 kilogram of uranium ore can produce as
much energy as 100 kilograms of coal and does so
with far less of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide
being released. Is nuclear power the future of energy,
or should we be investing in other alternatives?
neutron
235
U
very unstable
nucleus
neutron
absorbed
fission fragments +
heat energy
Fig 8.4.1 Nuclear fission
Comparing wastes
Australian consumption
of electrical energy is
about 8000 kilowatt-hours
per person every year.
To generate this much
electricity, 3000 kg of
black coal is required.
This produces wastes
including up to 500 kg of
ash as well as 8000 kg
of carbon dioxide and
sulfur dioxideenough
to fill three Olympic-sized
swimming pools. In
comparison, only 30 to
70 kg of uranium ore is
required to generate the
same amount of electricity,
producing just 0.006 kg
or 6 grams of highly
radioactive waste.
E = mc
2
Einsteins famous equation is often quoted, but what does it
really mean?
In normal chemical reactions, mass always stays the same. Not so in nuclear fission, however! During nuclear fission, there is a slight loss of mass. Einstein found that this lost mass is converted to energy, and that the amount of energy created (E) is equal to the lost mass (m) multiplied by the
speed of light (c) squared. Although only around 0.1% of
each tiny nuclear mass is converted to energy, the energy released quickly builds up due to the incredibly large number of atoms in any radioactive sample (1 gram of uranium-235
contains 2.5 billion trillion atoms!), and the fact that the
speed of light equals 300 000 000 metres per second.
UNIT
UNIT
8
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286
>>>
Each piece by itself was smaller than the critical
mass needed for a chain reaction, but when forced
together by an explosive charge, they formed a
supercritical mass which then exploded.
Nuclear reactors
A nuclear reactor is like a controlled nuclear bomb,
but uses uranium that has been enriched to about
2.5% uranium-235. To prevent an uncontrolled chain
reaction, control rods made of neutron-absorbing
boron or cadmium are used to soak up neutrons so
that on average only one escapes from each fission to
go on to cause another fission.
Heat generated by nuclear fission in a reactor core
is used to generate steam, which spins a turbine and
produces electricity in the same way as conventional
electricity generators (see Unit 3.1).
Nuclear reactors currently provide around 17%
of the worlds electricity. Several countries obtain
about half their electricity from nuclear power plants.
Submarines and space probes often use on-board
nuclear reactors.
Chain reaction
Normally the extra neutrons released by the fission of
uranium-235 escape the sample or are absorbed by the
more stable and more numerous uranium-238 atoms
(natural uranium contains only about 0.7% uranium-
235).
A chain reaction will occur, however, if these
neutrons strike other uranium-235 atoms. This causes
more fission and more neutrons, which then hit more
uranium-235 atoms, which then release even more
neutrons ... and so it goes on and on. Huge amounts
of energy are released in a fraction of a second. For a
chain reaction to take off, the uranium sample needs
careful preparation by either:
enriching it so that it contains 2.5% or more
uranium-235
forming it into a shape to prevent too many
neutrons escaping without first interacting with
other atoms (spherical is good), or
making it large enough (the required mass is called
the critical mass).
A fission chain reaction
neutron
uranium-235
fission
fragments
heat energy
released
Fig 8.4.3
Nuclear bombs
A nuclear bomb uses uranium enriched so that over
90% of the sample will be uranium-235. A massive
and uncontrolled chain reaction results. The bomb
dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on
6 August 1945, nicknamed Little Boy, contained two
half-spheres of 90% pure uranium-235.
1
2
R
6
.
3
R
7
.
9
R
12.5
R
Fig 8.4.4 A sketch used by doctors to determine
the radiation doses received by those near
Slotins accident
Energy crisis Energy crisis
A fatal slip
On Tuesday 21 May 1946 during a critical mass experiment
in a secret laboratory in New Mexico, USA, Louis Slotin
was gradually moving two halves of a beryllium-coated
plutonium sphere closer together, using a screwdriver to stop
them coming suddenly too close. Tragically the screwdriver
slipped, allowing the two masses to come together. The
plutonium went supercritical, causing a massive increase in
fission. There was a blue flash as air in the room was ionised
by gamma and neutron radiation and Slotins Geiger counter
went off the scale. He knew he had received a lethal burst of
radiation, and heroically shielded his nearby colleagues while
he quickly separated the two plutonium masses. He died a
few days later.
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Australias only nuclear reactorthe HIFAR
reactor at ANSTO in southern Sydneyis a small
reactor used for the production of nuclear medicines
such as those discussed in the previous unit.
Nuclear dangers
Nuclear power at one time seemed like the
answer to the worlds energy needs, but the initial
enthusiasm has been tempered by a series of
accidents and the problem of how to safely store
deadly waste products.
Fuel rods contain uranium
oxide fuel pellets.
Water surrounding the fuel rods slows down
neutrons so they are more likely to be absorbed
and cause fission. Neutrons that are not slowed
down tend to ricochet off uranium atoms.
A substance that slows neutrons is called a moderator.
Control rods
absorb neutrons to prevent an
uncontrolled chain reaction.
High pressure water transfers heat
to a separate water system where it
forms steam to spin a turbine.
Another water circuit acts as a coolant to remove
excess heat and turn steam back into water.
pump
reactor core
turbine
Fig 8.4.5 A nuclear reactor, showing the
main components
Country Electricitygeneratedby
nuclearpowerplants
Australia 0%
Britain 21%
USA 22%
Japan 24%
South Korea 48%
Sweden 52%
France 73%
Fig 8.4.6 Australias nuclear research reactor at ANSTO
(the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organization)
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288
>>>
Nuclear accidents
There have been several well-documented accidents
at nuclear power plants in which radiation has been
released into the environment. The most dramatic
occurred at Chernobyl in the Ukraine (then part of
the USSR, now an independent country) on 25 April
1986. Automatic safety systems were turned off during
a test of reactor number 4, to measure the turbines
power output as it slowed after its steam supply had
been shut off. When power levels fell dangerously
low, engineers withdrew most of the control rods.
Fuel rods then heated up and turned the moderator
water into steam. The steam absorbed fewer neutrons,
causing a power surge that heated the fuel rods even
more.
The super-heated fuel rods then exploded, and in
turn caused a steam explosion which lifted the 1000
tonne steel-and-concrete lid off the top of the reactor.
A five-kilometre-high plume of
debris released more radioactivity
into the atmosphere than 100
Hiroshima bombs. The explosion
started a fire that burned for five
days. There were 31 immediate
casualties. Nearby Belarus lay downwind of Chernobyl
and much of it remains uninhabitable. Cancer rates
there have also risen dramatically and the long-term
toll may reach many thousands. A gigantic concrete
structure called a sarcophagus was built around
the damaged reactor to help contain the radiation,
although this structure itself is now decaying and
needs replacement.
Nuclear waste disposal
Nuclear waste is classified into three levels.
Low-level waste does not require a great deal of
protective covering and includes things like air
filters and gloves used by people such as nuclear
power plant workers and hospital staff who handle
radioactive substances. Low-level waste may be
incinerated, stored in strong containers or buried at
special sites.
Intermediate-level waste is more radioactive and
includes things like reactor parts. It is typically
packaged inside cement within steel drums and
buried in deep trenches.
High-level waste is lethal and consists of wastes
from either used fuel rods or generated from
reprocessing the rods to obtain uranium and
plutonium. Used fuel rods are stored under
water for several years while they cool and their
radiation levels drop before being reprocessed or
disposed of. High-level waste is
melted to form glass blocks and
may be stored underground in
stainless steel drums.
Two sides of the story
Because nuclear waste products
can remain radioactive for
many thousands of years (the
half-life of plutonium is 24 000
years), there is plenty of time
for something to go wrong. Deterioration of storage
containers or natural disasters could both cause
leakage into the environment. Many people argue that
the consequences of potential accidents involving
Fig 8.4.7 The Chernobyl nuclear power station shortly
after disaster struck in 1986many clean-up
workers, photographers and their pilots died
in the years after the accident from cancers
caused by massive doses of radiation received
as they worked around the devastation.
Deadly speck
If inhaled, a pinhead-sized
speck of plutonium-239
is enough to cause lung
cancer!
Energy crisis Energy crisis
Radioactive coal
A coal-fired generator
releases more radioactivity
into the environment than
a nuclear power station
unless theres an accident!
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Nuclear fusion has a couple of big attractionsno
radioactive waste products are created, and there is a
vast supply of deuterium in the ocean. But theres a
catch! Temperatures of millions of degrees are needed
to force two positively charged nuclei together and
temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees are
needed to keep it going. It is nuclear fusion reactions
that power the Sun. Even if we could generate a
sustained fusion reaction, how could it be contained?
Current research involves the use of a powerful
toroidal (doughnut-shaped) magnetic field within
a device called a tokamak to hold the superheated
deuterium. The word tokamak is from the Russian
Fig 8.4.9 Four giant electrodes can be seen at the top
of the in-situ vitrification equipment. The large
pipe connected to the truck channels exhaust
gases from the melt for analysis.
Fig 8.4.8 A nuclear explosion
at Maralinga in South
Australia in 1956.
Dangerous levels of
radioactivity remain.
nuclear waste or nuclear power plants are just not
worth the risk. Others argue that damage being
done to the environment (e.g. pollution and global
warming) from the use of fossil fuels is greater than
that resulting from the use of nuclear energy. Coal
miners suffer more ill-health as a result of their work
than nuclear workers. Oil spills
from supertankers regularly kill
huge numbers of marine and bird
life. There are risks associated with
both fossil fuels and nuclear power.
What do you think?
Australia also needs to consider its involvement
in dealing with nuclear waste. As we supply much
of the worlds uranium, should we be responsible for
helping to deal with the waste produced? How much
Australian uranium has already been used for illicit
purposes such as nuclear weapons?
Alternative energy sources
There are many alternatives to fossil fuels and
nuclear energy that will meet our energy needs in
the future.
Fusion
One of those alternatives is in fact another form of
nuclear energy! Nuclear fusion is when two small
nuclei combine or fuse, releasing an enormous
amount of energy as they do so. An example of
nuclear fusion is the combination of a deuterium
nucleus and a tritium nucleus to form helium.
Maralinga meltdown
Between 1952 and 1957
the British government
conducted a series of
tests, setting off twelve
major nuclear explosions
and hundreds of smaller
ones at Maralinga in
South Australia, forcing
the relocation of the
local Aboriginal people.
Britain assured Australia
that it had cleaned up the
Maralinga site by 1967. In
1984 Australian scientists
measured radiation more
widely spread and at levels
10 times higher than
predicted. The clean-up
of the site was finally
completed in 2000 with
financial contributions
from Britain. One process
used in the clean-up,
in-situ vitrification
(ISV), involved generators
providing up to 5
megawatts of power to
electrodes implanted in
nuclear waste pits to melt
waste into huge glassy
masses. This prevents
nuclear waste from
leaching into surrounding
soil and eliminates the
need for excavation or
removal of hazardous
material.
An example of a nuclear fusion reaction
tritium (
3
H)

1
helium (
4
He)

2
neutron (
1
n)

0
deuterium (
2
H)

1
heat
released
Fig 8.4.10
Worksheet 8.5 Nuclear devastation
8
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290
>>>
word for toroidal. If the costs and difficulties involved
in sustained fusion generators are overcome, fusion
may provide the bulk of the worlds energy in the
future.
An experimental tokamak fusion reactor
superheated deuterium
contained within a
magnetic field
Fig 8.4.11
Other alternatives
Other alternative sources of energy that offer potential
for the future include:
solar
wind
hydro-gravitational, wave or tidal
geothermal
fuel cells
bio-batteries.
Some alternative energy sources for the future.
A: hydro, B: wind, C: geothermal, D: solar
Fig 8.4.13
Energy crisis Energy crisis
Fig 8.4.12 Spherical ball of plasma (pink) inside a tokamak
A
B
D
C
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[
Questions
]
8
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8
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Checkpoint
Generating nuclear energy
1 Use a diagram to explain the term nuclear fission.
2 In a chain reaction, huge quantities of energy are
released. Outline how this happens.
3 Describe how a nuclear bomb works.
Nuclear reactors
4 Compare a nuclear bomb with a nuclear reactor.
5 Describe how an uncontrolled chain reaction is
prevented in a nuclear reactor.
6 Nuclear fission reactors produce lots of energy.
Identify three situations where a nuclear reactor may
be used.
7 Identify which part of a nuclear reactor:
a slows down neutrons to speeds at which they are
more likely to cause fission
b absorbs neutrons to prevent them causing other
atoms to split
c transfers energy to a turbine
Nuclear dangers
8 Describe two dangers of using nuclear energy.
9 Outline how high-level nuclear waste is stored.
10 There are risks involved in storing nuclear waste.
Describe some of these risks.
Alternative energy sources
11 Use a diagram to demonstrate how nuclear fusion
occurs.
12 State the main advantage of nuclear fusion.
13 Explain why using nuclear fusion is technically
difficult.
14 List three other types of alternative energy.
Think
15 Copy and modify the following statements so they are
all true.
a Uranium provides much more energy per kilogram
than coal.
b Unstable atoms absorb radiation.
c Natural uranium contains 93% uranium-235.
d A critical mass of uranium-235 is one that will not
start a chain reaction.
e Fission is the splitting of an atom.
f One type of fusion reactor is a tomahawk.
16 With the aid of diagrams, demonstrate why a sphere
is a more effective shape than a flat sheet for a critical
mass of enriched uranium.
17 Identify a word that means less than critical mass.
18 Identify two countries that would be most affected if
uranium ceased to be mined and processed.
19 Explain why Australia has a nuclear reactor.
20 Propose a meaning for the term magnetic bottle.
Analyse
21 The following questions relate to the Chernobyl nuclear
accident.
a Propose ways in which the disaster could have
been prevented
b Propose how Swedish scientists became aware of
a nuclear accident in Russia.
c The likely death toll will be far greater than the initial
31 people killed. Explain why.
22 Predict whether waste plutonium would be safe in:
a 100 years
b 1000 years
c 10 000 years
23 Explain how fallout from the Chernobyl accident could
result in children drinking radioactive milk.
24 Explain why the air pressure inside nuclear reactors is
kept lower than the outside atmospheric pressure.
25 Classify each of the following as low-, intermediate- or
high-level nuclear waste:
a spent fuel rods
b gloves used by nuclear reactor technicians
c a non-fuel-rod reactor part
26 Discuss whether we should be investing in nuclear
power or other alternative energy sources for the
future.
292
Energy crisis Energy crisis
>>>
[
Extension
]
Action
1 There are many alternative energy sources apart from
nuclear power. Work in small groups, with each group
selecting a different type of alternative energy source.


a Describe how energy is produced in this way.
b Assess the efficiency of this energy source.
c Outline the advantages and disadvantages of your
alternative energy source.
d Evaluate whether this energy source would be
suitable for use in the future.
e Present your information as an oral presentation.
2 Have a class debate to discuss whether nuclear
energy should be used.


Investigate
3 a Research a significant nuclear accident such as
Chernobyl, the Three Mile Island disaster in the
United States or the leak at Britains Windscale
(now called Sellafield) plant.
b Propose a set of safety rules that would prevent
this type of accident in the future.
4 So-called fast breeder nuclear reactors use
plutonium and produce more fuel than they consume.
Use chemical equations to demonstrate how this is
achieved.
5 Research an Australian invention called SYNROC
designed to store radioactive waste. Use a diagram
to explain how the waste is stored.
6 Construct a poster that shows where uranium is
mined in Australia and the steps in the process
needed to produce yellowcake.
Creative writing
Wasteland
Some people have suggested that outback Australia
(even the interior of Uluru!) be used as a long-term
storage site for the worlds nuclear waste. This is
because of the areas geological stability. Write two
letters/e-mails to a newspaperone supporting and
one opposing the proposal.
Creative writing
Four futures
You may have read a novel in which the reader has a
choice of paths for the story to follow. Write an essay
describing life in the future when reserves of fossil
fuels finally run out. You must write four different
endings that are based on the following scenarios:
1 The world becomes totally reliant on nuclear
energy.
2 Both fossil fuels and uranium reserves run out,
and the world concentrates on the development of
renewable energy sources such as wind, wave and
solar energy.
3 Nuclear fusion technology improves to the point
where fusion reactors become the most economical
source of energy.
4 A totally new and plentiful energy source is
discovered.
293
Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 List three main greenhouse gases.
2 List three ways in which greenhouse gas emissions
could be reduced.
3 List some possible future consequences of continued
global warming.
4 Use a diagram to identify the location of the ozone
layer.
5 Identify an ozone-unfriendly element.
6 Four types of radiation may be emitted from a nucleus.
List them.
7 Identify the subatomic particles emitted during fission
that cause a chain reaction.
8 State the lethal dose of radiation in sieverts.
9 Outline how each of the following work:
a Geiger counter
b smoke detector
c radioactive tracers
d radiotherapy
e carbon dating
10 Construct a simplified sketch showing the main parts
of a nuclear reactor.
[
Thinking questions
]
11 There are many older refrigerators still in use that
contain CFCs. Explain how these CFCs could still end
up being released into the atmosphere.
12 Propose reasons why it is more difficult for less-
developed countries to comply with the Montreal
protocol.
13 Identify the type of radiation that would be suitable for
measuring the thickness of a sheet of
a metal
b thin rubber
14 It has been calculated that a lump of nuclear reactor
fuel the size of a bowling ball would provide enough
energy for one person for their lifetime. Estimate how
many bowling balls of coal would be needed.
15 Contrast nuclear fission with nuclear fusion.
16 Explain why uranium ore in the ground does not
explode.
17 A so-called fast breeder reactor uses plutonium fuel
and does not require a moderator to slow the neutrons
hitting it. Contrast the ability of plutonium to absorb
neutrons with that of uranium.
18 One older method of disposing of nuclear waste was to
simply dump it in the ocean in sealed drums. Discuss
why this is not desirable.
19 Propose reasons why fusion reactors are currently not
economical.
[
Interpreting questions
]
20 Australia releases about 320 million tonnes of carbon
into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuels.
Given that our population is approximately 18.5 million
people, estimate Australias carbon emission per
person.
21 Sulfur has an atomic number of 16. Calculate the
following numbers for the atom formed after sulfur-35
undergoes beta decay:
a atomic number
b mass number
22 Radium (atomic number 88, mass number 226)
undergoes radioactive decay and changes into radon
(atomic number 86, mass number 222). Assess the
type of radiation that radium emits.
23 Construct a balanced equation for the chemical
reaction for Question 22 (the symbol for radium is Ra,
and for radon is Rn).
24 Xenon-133 has a half-life of 2.3 days. Calculate how
much would be left of an 8 gram sample of xenon-133
after almost a week.
25 It has been estimated that the worlds oil reserves may
run out in 45 years, gas in 60 years and coal in 300
years. Construct a graph to show this information.
Worksheet 8.6 Global issues crossword
Worksheet 8.7 Sci-words
>>>
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
identify different types of investigations, then
independently plan and carry out one of these
describe different types of skills required for
working independently
gather information from first- and second-hand sources
plan and carry out a controlled experiment
analyse, present and evaluate information and data
collected
draw conclusions based on the information gathered in
an investigation
solve problems creatively as they arise
work to planned time lines and goals
communicate the findings of an investigation through
various media, including a written report.
1 Do you prefer to work by yourself or as part of a team?
Why?
2 Identify a complex task you completed predominantly
by yourself.
3 What task have you done in the past that you are
particularly proud of?
4 Apart from a written report, how else can you pass on
information to others?
5 What skills would you need in order to construct a
model in science?
6 What should be included in a report on an experiment?
7 Research can take you to interesting places. What do
you think the diver in the photo is trying to find out?
O
u
t
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o
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5
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2
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5
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1
3
,

5
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5
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8
,

5
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2
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P
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q
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9
9
Individual
Individual
Key focus area
The nature and practice of science
>>>
project
project
research
research
Independent work skills
Performing and assessing a science investigation is
like any other task you undertake in life. Decisions
need to be made, plans need to be set out and good
organisation is required. This project will allow you
to apply and develop important skills, some being:
setting suitable time lines
designing, conducting and evaluating an
investigation
working safely with a variety of equipment in
different environments
developing and applying scientific thinking and
problem-solving techniques
identifying problems and applying creative
solutions to them
finding a mentor to support you in difficult times
presenting data and information in appropriate
forms
communicating information, and your
understanding of it, to your peers.
Surviving on your own
On the following page are some of the characteristics
required for success when working alone. As an
individual you will be good at some of these, and
probably not so good at others. Each person is
different, with their own strengths and weaknesses.
When working by yourself you have to build on
your strengths and find ways of dealing with your
weaknesses. As you complete your project, try to
identify the characteristics that you already have and
which ones need improving.
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295
UNIT
UNIT
9
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9
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Everyone is good at something: each one of
us has certain skills that we excel at. When
we work as a group, the different skills of
each group member can be used. When you
work as an individual, however, you need
to have all those skills yourself. Individual
research can be very demanding. You need to be
able to take an idea, put it into practice and see it
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
Fig 9.1.1 Sometimes it is necessary to complete
a task by yourself. This requires
organisation and self-discipline.
through to completion. Working by yourself does
not mean you are alone, though. Finding people to
support you and offer advice is one skill that may
get you through when your ideas run low. Lets look
at some of the skills that are needed for success in
individual research.
296
>>>
Fig 9.1.2 Individual work skills
Being an individual Being an individual
Resourcefulness: being resourceful involves thinking outside
the square. It involves making the most of the resources you have
available. It may also include changing or modifying the plan as new
ideas emerge, and taking advantage of any opportunities that arise.
Self-motivation: self-motivated people know why they
want to do something. Make sure you choose a topic for
investigation that you will find interesting and challenging,
since this is likely to keep you motivated.
W
h
a
t

t
o

d
o
?
Creativity: a creative person will be able to come up
with new ideas, see relationships between results and
information, and invent new ways of doing things.
They will often solve problems in unusual ways.
Organisation: an organised person will plan time lines and
resources carefully. They might make lists, find out what
they need, and collect resources before they start working.
They will often proceed in a series of planned steps.
Dedication: dedicated people want to achieve. They are
able to meet goals and see a project through to completion.
297
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Science teacher
Science teachers in secondary schools teach science to Year 7
to 10 students. In Years 11 and 12 they specialise in teaching
physics, chemistry, biology, earth and environmental science
or senior science. They will have studied the subjects they
teach at university as well as undertaken special studies in
education.
Fig 9.1.4 A science teacher presenting a
genetics lesson
Science teachers are involved in:
preparing daily lessons and long-term teaching
programs
teaching, using different techniques such as classroom
activities, discussions, experiments, projects,
assignments and excursions
taking into account the different needs of students
using information technology to assist in lesson
preparation, delivery and reporting
setting assessments, projects, assignments and
homework, marking these and collating the results
evaluating and reporting on the progress of students,
and discussing individual performance with students
and parents
participating in the wider school community through
activities such as sports, camps, student support
groups and extra-curricular activities.
A good science teacher will be able to:
plan and organise various activities on a daily basis
show enthusiasm for learning and a love of science
communicate concepts and instructions clearly
enjoy working with young people and other teachers
relate well to and communicate with people of all ages
and backgrounds
be patient in dealing with people
work as a member of a team
keep accurate records and prepare reports.
Career profile
Fig 9.1.3 A shearer drags 6750 kg of sheep a day. Research
into how to make this easier is helping Australians
get the job done.
Sheep drag
Scientists in Australia have carried out research on the forces
required to drag sheep over various surfaces. Their aim was to find
a simple and inexpensive way to make it easier for shearers to drag
sheep in for shearing. The results showed that the dragging forces
for different floor textures and slopes ranged from about 360 N to
420 N. Their analysis indicated that a timber floor with a slope of
1:10 (about 6) and boards parallel to the sheeps drag path reduced
the force by 64 N. This research could make life a lot easier for
shearers, who each drag around 150 sheep per day, each with a
mass of up to 45 kg. Thats a total of 6750 kg of sheep!
298
Writing chemical equations
9
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Independent work skills
1 From those listed in this unit, identify four skills that
you are good at.
2 List the eight skills in order from what you consider to
be most important, down to least important.
3 Explain what is meant by a mentor.
Surviving on your own
4 Match the characteristic below with the correct
description.
5 Which characteristics are your individual strengths?
Identify two of them from the list below. Explain why
you chose each.
Fig 9.1.5 The winner: older, hairy males with an innie
have the most belly button lint.
Characteristic
Resourcefulness
Self-motivation
Creativity
Organisation
Dedication
Description
Make lists and collect resources before starting work and then proceed in a series of steps.
Meet goals and see a project through to completion.
Make the most of the available resources and take advantage of opportunities.
Comes from being interested, and knowing the reason why you want to do something.
Invent new ways of doing things and solve problems in unusual ways.
Think
6 The five characteristics of independent learning listed
below are not the only ones that you may possess.
Describe another characteristic that you may need to
be successful when working alone.
7 Evaluate the importance of having a mentor when
working alone.
8 Describe an example of when a person you know was
resourceful.
9 Propose ways to keep self-motivation high.
10 Compare the characteristics of creativity and
resourcefulness.
11 a Although part of a team, teachers do a lot of
independent work. State the key
characteristics of a good science teacher.
b Justify your choice in each case.
Analyse
12 Imagine you are a lone astronaut orbiting Earth in a
space station. Suddenly there is an explosion and
cabin oxygen slowly begins to leak into space. What
will you do?
a Identify the two main skills you will need to solve
this problem.
b Identify the two main characteristics that you think
will be required to get out of this situation alive.
c Is one skill or characteristic more important than
others in this situation? Justify your answer.
13 You have been chosen to spend six months in an
undersea research centre off the coast of New South
Wales. During this time you will perform a series of
experiments. You will be able to communicate with
other scientists onshore but will be working alone.
a Identify the three key characteristics you will
require to complete this task.
b Identify three key skills you will require.
c Which skill or characteristic do you think will be
most important in this situation? Justify your
answer.
>>>
Fluffy belly buttons
Dr Karl Kruszelnicki carried
out the worlds first belly-
button lint (BBL) survey.
Some variables included in
the survey were the degree
of overall body hair, innie
or outie belly buttons, skin
type and whether you have
a navel ring. The study
collected information about
whether the colour of your
belly-button lint is related to
clothing colour and whether
clothes were washed in a
top-loader or front-loader.
The results showed that you
are more likely to have BBL
if youre male, older, hairy,
and have an innie. This
important research won Dr
Karl an Ig Nobel Prize for
Popular Science.
Being an individual Being an individual
299
Science focus:
Science can be funny!
Prescribed focus area: The nature and practice
of science
Can you believe that science can be funny? To be
a good scientist requires not just reasoning and
objectivity, but creativity and curiosity, which usually
come from people with interesting and even funny
personalities!
Classic investigations
Believe it or not, scientists engage in some very
amusing research. There are subjects you would never
have thought of unless you were a scientist with too
much time on your hands. Some classic investigations
have included:
Why toast often falls on the buttered side
The five-second rule
The best way to dunk a biscuit
How to levitate frogs and a sumo wrestler with an
electromagnet
The effects of ale, garlic and sour cream on the
appetites of leeches (sour cream was the biggest
appetite stimulant)
Chicken plucking as a measure of tornado wind
speed
The role of elevator music in preventing the
common cold
How herrings communicate by farting
Chickens preference for beautiful people
The belly-button lint survey conducted by
Australian scientist Dr Karl Kruszelnicki
How to make a teapot spout that doesn't drip
The invention of software that detects when a cat
is walking over your computer keyboard
Why shower curtains billow inwards.
All of the above investigations have been awarded
Ig Nobel Prizes. The Ig Nobel prizes are awarded for
science that first makes people laugh, and then makes
them think. The idea of these awards is to celebrate
unusual science, to honour the imagination and
promote popular science in the wider community.
It is said that the Ig Nobel prizes honour those
Fig SF 9.1
Can frogs really levitate? One scientist
proved that they can, with the help of
an electromagnet.
achievements that cannot and should not be
reproduced.
Prizes are awarded at Harvard University in the
USA, and the prizes are handed to the Ig Nobel
winners by genuine Nobel Prize winners, who are
amused at their colleagues investigations. Many Ig
Nobel winners are actually serious scientists.
One Ig Nobel prize winner is physicist Dr Len
Fisher. Dr Fisher is an Australian (based at Bristol
University in England) who has devoted much of his
time to understanding the science behind everyday
life. He combines scientific reasoning and method
with an enthusiasm for the bizarre. Dr Fishers Ig
Nobel prize was awarded for his research into dunking
biscuits. The following outlines some of Dr Fishers
more unusual research projects.
The physics of dunking biscuits
Dr Fisher and his research team showed that a dunked
biscuit releases up to 10 times more flavour than a dry
biscuit. A biscuit is basically lumps of starch glued
together with sugar. When dunked, the hot tea or
coffee enters the pores in the surface of the biscuit and
is absorbed by the starch grains that swell. The sugar
300
also begins to melt, giving a biscuit that is purely
starch but much softer than the original biscuit, which
in turn makes it unstable.
Eventually the team used an old formula devised
in 1921 that describes the dunking process. This is
how it works: the perfect dunking time is equal to
the height (L) the liquid rises up the biscuit squared,
multiplied by four times the viscosity (, density of
liquid) divided by the surface tension () of the tea,
multiplied by the average pore diameter (D).

t =
L
2
4

D
The research is yet to be completed as Dr Fisher
believes that the temperature of the tea also has an
impact on dunking times.
This research was sponsored by a biscuit company
that will print advice for consumers on its biscuit
packets. The best dunking time for a gingernut biscuit
was three seconds, and eight seconds for a digestive
biscuit. Soon a more user-friendly version will be
available that gives the best time for dunking for
different types of biscuits. If you want to get the most
out of your biscuits, keep an eye out for it!
Fig SF 9.2 The optimum dunking time for gingernut
biscuits is three seconds.
The perfect cheese sandwich
The perfect cheese sandwich is another of Dr Fishers
great discoveries. This work was sponsored by the
British cheese board. Being a physicist, Dr Fisher
could not help but develop an equation to describe
this phenomenon:
% cheesiness = (
100
/2.8) thickness of cheese (mm)
This equation is specific to cheddar cheese,
and the value 2.8 changes with different types of
cheese. This formula was derived using a series of
experiments that involved inserting a tube up the nose
to measure the concentration of aromas produced
while chewing and swallowing a cheese sandwich.
This formula shows that the perfect cheese
sandwich requires a slice of cheddar cheese 2.8 mm
thick, to gain maximum percentage cheesiness.
Thinner slices will have lower percentage cheesiness
and not be as tasty. Try working it out yourself with
the formula!
Fig SF 9.3 Testing the cheesiness of a sandwich using
an aroma-detection device
After a certain thickness no amount of extra cheese
will add to the cheesy aroma impact of the sandwich.
Dr Fisher also discovered that adding butter or
margarine enhances cheesiness, probably because the
fat in butter and margarine dissolves the flavours, and
the fat then coats the mouth and tongue and holds the
flavours in the mouth longer.
What is the impact of this research? It is thought
that more research should be undertaken that will
allow us to better understand the design of healthy
and tasty foods, in order to produce maximum flavour
release.
Wasted gravy
Want more? Another bizarre example of Dr Fishers
work comes from British people wasting 681 912 litres
of gravy a week. This is gravy poured onto plates and
then not consumed.
301
To solve this problem the gravy absorbency index
was developed:
% gravy uptake = (W (D/S))
D 100
where: W = weight of uncooked food
D = weight of cooked food
S = shrinkage factor
Scientific method was used to measure the weight
of gravy absorbed according to time at different gravy
temperatures.
Research findings:
Absorption times can be accelerated by 20% if
gravy is very hot.
A foods ability to mop up gravy is also dependent
on the time it is in contact with the gravy, and the
density of the food.
For efficient gravy absorption, food should be eaten
in the correct order.
Start with meat as it absorbs no gravy.
Green vegetables should be eaten next as they
absorb up to 15% of their dry weight within
30 seconds.
Roast potatoes should be
eaten last as they absorb up
to 30% of their dry weight,
and take as long as five to
ten minutes to absorb this
amount.
Ciabatta, an airy Italian bread,
is better than ordinary bread
at soaking up leftover gravy,
absorbing 120% of its dry weight.
Dr Fisher even has a suggestion
for using popcorn. Popcorn has
an off the scale gravy absorption
rate of 600% plus. Fisher added,
You just have to move fast before
it goes all soggy.
The study showed that there is a
scientific reason for gravy wastage.
People eat their food in the wrong
order!
[
Questions
]
1 Find out more about the Ig Nobel Prizes by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 9 and clicking on the destinations
button. Watch past presentation ceremonies online,
see a list of past winners and their research ideas,
and be amused.
2 a Use the formula for the perfect cheese sandwich
to complete the following table:
Thickness of Calculation %
cheddar cheese (mm) cheesiness
2.8 % = (
100
/2.8) x 2.8 100%
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Nuts for physics
A bowl of mixed nuts may
be good Christmas food,
but for physicist Paul Quinn
its a nutty physics project.
Quinn was puzzled by an
odd nut-bowl phenomenon.
Brazil nuts always seem to
sit on the top of smaller nuts.
But shouldnt gravity pull the
heavy nuts to the bottom of
the bowl, while lighter nuts
rest on top? Quinn calls the
phenomenon the Brazil-nut
problem, or BNP.
Quinn found that a nut sinks
or swims depending on the
ratio of two properties: mass
and diameter. If a fat nut is
twice the mass and diameter
of the other nuts in the bowl,
it surfaces. But if the nut is
six times the mass and only
twice the diameter of smaller
nuts, it sinks.
b Gouda cheese was discovered to have a percent-
age cheesiness of 100% at a thickness of 3.1 mm.
Calculate the percentage cheesiness of a sandwich
containing a slice of gouda that is 2.3 mm thick.
3 Gather information from the Internet about an
unusual science research project that involves
creativity and curiosity, and is funny. Present your
information to the class, outlining how the research
was done, what was discovered, and how this
information is thought to be useful. Remember not
to take yourself too seriously.
Fig SF 9.4
Bread should be swirled in a circular motion
around the plate using both sides of the
bread for maximum gravy absorption.
302
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UNIT
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Performing an investigation can be fun! As
well as completing belly-button lint research
Dr Karl also completed the Great Fart Survey.
This unusual scientific research showed
that Aussie kids fart 24 times a day. It also
revealed that although boys like to talk a
lot more about their farts than girls, there was no
difference between the amount and types of farts
that boys and girls do. A baked bean experiment
was included which showed that beans make girls
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fart more than boys, although the types of farts were
different, with girls doing more silent but friendly (the
opposite to a silent but deadly, a silent but friendly
fart is quiet with no smellthe only type you can get
away with in public) or squirter farts, and boys doing
more common and thunder farts.
Selecting an interesting investigation will make your
research more successful. It may be something that
interests you during science classes or at home, or it
may even be to do with your favourite hobby, sport
or pastime. Otherwise, be creative and investigate
something unusual!
Types of investigation
Selecting an investigation is a very important part of
your project. The investigation should allow you to
apply the skills that you have learnt in science. When
choosing your investigation make sure:
you are interested in
learning about your chosen
topic
it is challenging enough for
your level of ability
it is safe and does not pose
a danger to people or the
environment
you can get the required
equipment and materials
it can be finished in the
agreed time
it is open-ended, meaning
there are many possible
solutions and it cannot
be answered with simple
answers such as true/false
or yes/no.
There are three main types
of investigation that you may
undertake for your individual
project. Each type is explained
here, with examples to help you
in selecting a topic.
The five-second rule
High-school student Jillian
Clarke investigated the
scientific validity of the
five-second rule You know
the rule: If food falls to the
floor and its in contact with
the floor for fewer than five
seconds, its safe to pick it
up and eat. She found that
70% of women and 56%
of men are familiar with
the rule, and most use it to
make decisions about tasty
treats that slip through
their fingers.
The rule dates back to the
time of Genghis Khan, who
first determined how long it
was safe for food to remain
on a floor when dropped.
Khan had slightly lower
standards, howeverhe
specified 12 hours!
First-hand investigation
A first-hand investigation can be an experiment or
series of experiments to investigate a topic of your
choice. By completing this type of investigation you
will show your skill at planning, conducting and
reporting on an area of interest in science. You will
need to design a fair test that will give accurate and
clear results.
Examples:
Do people listen to their headphones at potentially
dangerous levels?
Does heart rate increase with music type or
increasing volume?
Who is generally fittermales or females? Who has
the lowest average heart rate, and how long does
heart rate take to return to normal after exercise?
Which type of sausage contains the most fat?
Which home insulation works best?
What factors affect the growth of bread mould?
Which type of sunglass lens blocks the most light?
How does coffee affect blood pressure?
What percentage of lawn seed in a package will
germinate?
How much water is in different fruits?
Does the human tongue have definite areas for
certain tastes?
303
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What are the effects of different fertilisers on plant
growth?
How does light direction affect plant growth?
What is the best insulation for making an insulated
coffee mug?
How does the colour of a material affect its
absorption of heat?
How does our hearing change as we age?
Which soft drink has the most bubbles or dissolved
gas?
Demonstration of a scientific
principle
By completing this type of investigation you will
show your skill in understanding a basic principle of
science. You will have to interpret this principle and
then design and conduct an experiment or series of
experiments to prove that it is correct.
Examples:
Conservation of matter in chemical reactions
Conservation of energy
Simple inheritance of a characteristicdominant
and recessive
Natural selection
Bioaccumulation
Sound travels by waves
Gravity acts at 9.8 m/s
2
Newtons Laws of Motion
Brownian motion
Fig 9.2.1 A student performing a first-hand investigation
in chemistry to find out how acidic different
lemonades are
Ohms law
Chemical and physical change
Photosynthesis and respiration
Diffusion
Refraction, reflection and dispersion
A student demonstrating the scientific
principle of photosynthesis by measuring
oxygen produced by a plant Fig 9.2.2
Construction of a model, either static
or working
By completing this investigation you will show your
skill at building a model and manipulating materials
in order to demonstrate a scientific principle or
investigate an aspect of science of your choice. You
will have to plan, design and construct your model.
This will involve understanding the scientific
principles behind your model in order to make it
informative and accurate.
Examples
Build a model to demonstrate or investigate:
The greenhouse effect
Collisions: airbags or crumple zones
Generation of electricitywind power
A solar car or device
An electrical device
A speaker
The carbon cycle
Part of the body such as the ear or heart
Atoms: solids, liquids and gases
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Scientific method
You will be required to produce a report based on your
work and findings, whichever type of investigation
and topic you choose. The following is a review of the
scientific method to help you in designing, conducting
and reporting on your investigation.
Aim
The aim outlines the idea or scientific question you
are trying to test.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a prediction or educated guess about
what you might find in an experiment. A hypothesis
is something that can be tested in measurable terms.
Variables
Identify all the variables that may affect your results.
Remember that variables can be classified into three
groups:
independent variablethe variable that is changed
dependent variablethe variable that is being
measured
controlled variablesthe variables that are kept
the same throughout the experiment.
Equipment
List all the equipment and materials that you need.
Method
The method is a step-by-step set of instructions that
other scientists at your level of experience could
follow to accurately repeat your experiment.
Atoms: molecules and chemical reactions
Reproduction of a virus or other microbe
Ohms law
The structure of DNA
Newtons Laws of Motion
The operation of a remote-sensing satellite
Different types of earthquake waves
An optical device such as a microscope, telescope,
projector or binoculars, showing how it works
A nuclear reactor, showing how it works
The best direction for a house to facehow do we
keep sunlight out in summer, and let sunlight in
during winter?
How a lung workshow does the movement of the
diaphragm relate to the volume of air inhaled?
How the current and voltage in a circuit affect the
power of an electromagnet
The perfect beachhow the depth of water affects
the height of waves
How infectious disease can be spread
The amount of tar in cigarettesyou may need
teacher and parent permission to complete this
investigation
How the mass of an object affects stopping distance
How lifting an object is made easier by ramps or
pulleys
Reproduction rates in bacteria using computer
modelling
The aerodynamic shape of different car designs
using a wind tunnel.
Note: There are many other investigations that you
could do, but you will need to negotiate with your
teacher if you select a different problem. Further ideas
can be found by searching the Internet.
Fig 9.2.3 A student using a model to investigate the
structure of DNA
My investigation My investigation
Murphys Law and others
You will have heard of Murphys Law:
Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.
There are other similar rules that you may encounter throughout
your project, so be prepared.
Nothing is as easy as it looks.
Everything takes longer than you think.
Always keep a record of data. It indicates that youve been working.
In case of doubt, make it sound convincing.
Experiments should be reproduciblethey should all fail in the
same way.
When you dont know what you are doing, do it neatly.
If it is green or it wiggles, its Biology. If it stinks, its Chemistry.
If it doesnt work, its Physics.
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When writing the instructions, include the
following information:
the one variable that you are going to change
how you are going to change it and by how much
how you are going to control all the other variables
diagrams, drawings or photographs
how you are going to measure the changes
how you are going to record the changes, such as
in a results table.
Your experimental method should be replicated a
number of times so that a more accurate conclusion
can be drawn.
Results
Results can be of two types:
Results or data that are numerical are called
quantitative as they usually measure amounts or
quantities.
If you are using your senses to observe, you are
making observations. Qualitative observations are
written down as a description or recorded as a
picture or diagram.
You should also record any other things you
notice, particularly any problems you had with your
investigation. If appropriate, include a photographic
essay of your project steps or results. These will assist
in your final analysis.
You may be asked to keep a detailed process diary
of observations, data, and results while completing
your experiment.
Discussion
In the discussion you should analyse and evaluate
your results in detail:
Analyse and present your data or observations in
different ways to show any patterns or trends. This
is where a graph may be useful. Line graphs should
be used when both the independent and dependent
variables are numerical.
Explain any trends or patterns in your
observations, data and results.
Explain why the results occurred and what they
demonstrated.
Evaluate the success of your investigation.
Outline any errors that may have affected your
results. Errors are unavoidable, but mistakes are
because of clumsiness. Report your errors, not your
mistakes.
Describe any difficulties or problems you had in
doing the investigation.
Explain how your experiment could be improved
to gain better or more dependable results.
Conclusion
A conclusion is simply a summary of the results
of your experiment. A good conclusion will:
answer your aim
identify whether your
experiment proved or disproved
your hypothesis. Use any trends
you saw in the results as proof.
identify any changes that you
would make if you had to repeat
this investigation.
Resource list
This is sometimes called a
bibliography and is a list of all the
resources and references you used.
You may also wish to make any
acknowledgements here.
Communicating
When working independently it is vital to be able to
communicate your results and knowledge to others.
As well as your written report you may be required to
present your findings in another way.
When selecting your topic, consider the type of
presentation that would best suit your investigation.
As you perform your investigation, collect any
information that will allow you to present your
findings in a creative and interesting way.
Presentations could take the form of:
an oral presentation (use props to assist you)
a demonstration of a model to the class
a website
a PowerPoint presentation
a poster or visual display
photographic, video or audio material
a journal article
a newspaper article.
Use worksheets 9.1 and 9.2 to help you plan your
investigation.
Nuclear beer froth
A scientist in Germany
demonstrated that the
volume of beer froth decays
exponentially with time,
just like radioactive decay.
The experiments showed
that the decay constant
depended on the brand and
type of beer.
9
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Worksheet 9.1 Proposing my big idea
Worksheet 9.2 Planning my investigation
306
>>>
Science laboratory assistant
Laboratory assistants prepare experimental equipment and
chemical solutions and maintain a chemical storage area in
accordance with safety requirements. They support science
teachers and scientists in their work, ordering stock, disposing
of waste and helping them improve experiments. They often
help with research, carrying out preliminary experiments.
Laboratory assistants can be involved in:
working with teachers or scientists in planning
experiments
cleaning, maintaining and setting up equipment for use
in experiments
performing calculations to prepare correct chemical
solutions
completing routine experiments to help in an
investigation
checking chemical and equipment supplies and ordering
stock
keeping records of stock
checking that all equipment and chemicals are stored
safely
disposing of waste in a safe manner.
Fig 9.2.4 Laboratory assistant preparing for an experiment
A good laboratory assistant will be able to:
enjoy scientific activities
work as part of a team
communicate and negotiate effectively with people
solve problems in creative ways
keep accurate and detailed reports
follow detailed experimental instructions.
Career profile
Flatus odour judge
Odour judges are common in the research laboratories of mouthwash
companies. Volunteers with bad breath blow gusts of air in the judges faces
to test product efficiency. Gastroenterologist Michael Levitt recently took
the job to another level. Sixteen healthy subjects volunteered to eat baked
beans and insert small plastic collection tubes into their anuses. After each
episode of flatulence, Levitt syringed the gas into a sterile container. The
odour judges then sat down with at least 100 samples, opened the caps one
at a time, and inhaled. For comparison with the judges comments Levitt also
chemically analysed the samples. He found that the smelliest component
of the human flatus was hydrogen sulfide (H
2S). Make sure you read the job
description very carefully before taking on any laboratory job!
My investigation My investigation
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9
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[
Questions
]
Checkpoint
Types of investigation
1 Describe three things to consider when selecting a
topic for investigation.
2 List the three types of investigation that may be
undertaken.
3 Distinguish between building a model to demonstrate
a scientific principle, and building a model to
investigate an aspect of science.
Scientific method
4 List the sections of a scientific report.
5 Distinguish between a dependent variable and an
independent variable.
6 Define controlled variable.
7 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative
observations.
8 Clarify the purpose of a conclusion.
Communicating
9 Identify two ways in which you could communicate
the findings of your investigation.
Think
10 Compare an aim and a hypothesis.
11 List three ways in which you could present the results
of an investigation.
12 Explain why you should only change one variable at a
time in any experiment.
13 The following types of information could be collected
in an experiment. Classify each as quantitative or
qualitative data.
a colour f force
b mass g texture
c smell h length
d time i current
e weight j temperature
14 Everyone has different learning styles. Explain why
it is important to use different techniques when
communicating information.
15 Describe two props that could be used in an oral
presentation to help you pass information in visual
form to learners.
16 Distinguish between a newspaper article and a journal
article.
17 Discuss the purpose and contents of a discussion in
an experimental report.
18 Evaluate the need for a conclusion when writing an
experimental report.
19 Explain why an experiment should be replicated.
Skills
20 Classify the following as either open or closed
questions.
a Is it possible to reduce friction using oil?
b Is the average weight of boys in your class greater
than the average weight of girls?
c Which type of material is best for making a
shopping bag?
d What is the best colour for a flashing light so that it
can be seen easily at night?
e Is it further to Mars than to Venus?
f How does the amount of sugar in water change
the boiling temperature?
21 You have been asked to design an experiment
to test the amount of light that can pass through
different types of glass. You have the following
equipment available: different glass samples including
transparent, opaque, translucent and coloured; a light
sensor and data logger; torch; ruler.
a Construct an aim for this experiment.
b Construct a hypothesis.
c Identify the independent and dependent variables.
d List the variable(s) that would need to be
controlled.
e Outline any observations you would make.
f Outline any measurements you would make.
g Propose a method for this experiment.
h Design a table in which you could record your
results.
22 Marika completed an experiment to test the effect of
fertiliser on the growth of plants, using the equipment
shown in Figure 9.2.5.
a Identify the independent variable.
b Identify the dependent variable.
c List the controlled variables.
d Propose a hypothesis for this experiment.
>>
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>>>
Marika recorded the results shown in the table below.
e Construct a line graph to show these results. You
will need three lines on the one graph.
f Describe any patterns and trends that you see in
the results.
g Use these results to deduce what effect the
fertiliser had on the height of the plants.
h Could you rely on these results, or believe any
conclusion based on them? Justify your answer.
i Evaluate the experiment to decide if it is a fair test.
j Propose any improvements to the experiment.
Chapter review
[
Summary questions
]
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph about
the skills required for completing an independent
investigation.
communicate, time lines, conduct, data, identifying,
evaluate, safely, creative, scientific, mentor, solving,
alone
When completing an independent investigation you will
need to set suitable _____________. You will need to
work ___________ while you design, ___________ and
___________ your investigation.
As problems arise you may need to apply ___________
thinking and problem-_____________ techniques. This
will involve _____________ problems and coming up with
_____________ solutions to them. Having a ___________
___ to support you through difficult times can help when
working __________. After completing an investigation it
is necessary to______________ information and results
to others. This will involve presenting _________ and
information in suitable forms.
2 Outline three personal characteristics needed for
working independently.
3 Construct three open-ended questions that may be
suitable for investigation.
4 Identify whether the following statements are true or
false.
a The topic you select for investigation should not pose
a danger to people or the environment.
b A closed question cannot be answered with a
true/false or yes/no.
c A conclusion sums up the results of an investigation.
d An aim and a hypothesis are the same thing and
only one of them should be included in a report of
an investigation.
e A graph of results would appear in the conclusion of
an investigation.
Amount of fertiliser Height of plant (cm)
(grams) Start Day 2 Day 4 Day 6 Day 8 Day 10
0 5.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
5 5.0 6.5 8.6 10.5 12.8 14.7
10 5.0 6.4 8.2 9.2 11.0 12.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 cm
250
200
150
100

20
50
Measuring
cylinder
Water
Ruler
Amount of fertiliser added
electronic balance
0 grams 5 grams
10 grams
Plant
fertiliser
Fig 9.2.5
My investigation My investigation
308
[
Thinking questions
]
Worksheet 9.3 Sci-words
Report section Purpose Description of what should be included
Title To identify the project and what it is about A title
Aim A statement about what you will be finding out about
Hypothesis A prediction or educated guess about
what you may find in an experiment.
Equipment List of equipment and resources
Variables
To provide clear, unambiguous instructions
that other scientists could follow to accurately
repeat your experiment
Results
Discussion To analyse and evaluate your results in detail
Whether you answered the aim. Whether the hypothesis was proved
or disproved and why
Bibliography Lists of resources including books, websites, journal articles etc.
5 Copy and complete the table above to summarise the
structure of a scientific report.
6 Explain the difference between an investigation to
demonstrate a scientific principle and an investigation into
an aspect of science of your choice.
[
Interpreting questions
]
7 Peter decided to investigate the solubility of gases
in water and apply the results to explain the El Nio
effect. From texts and the Internet he found that marine
animals depend on oxygen in the same way as animals
on land. He also found that the gases oxygen and
carbon dioxide are soluble in water.
Peter then used datalogging equipment to test the
solubility of oxygen in water. His experiment produced
the results shown opposite:
a Construct a line graph to display these results. You
will need four lines on the one graph.
b Identify any experimental results that may be wrong.
Predict the correct values for these points.
c Describe any patterns and trends that you see in
the results.
d Use these results to deduce how oxygen solubility is
affected by temperature.
e Evaluate the experiment to decide whether it was a
fair test.
Peter searched the Internet to find information about the
El Nio effect. His search allowed him to summarise the
effect as follows:
Temperature Tap water Boiled Sea water Boiled
C tap water sea water
5 13.1 7.1 10.9 6.8
10 11.8 6.8 9.5 5.9
15 10.5 6.6 8.7 4.8
20 9.7 6.9 8.0 4.4
25 8.4 6.1 7.2 4.1
30 7.7 5.9 6.7 3.9
35 7.1 5.7 6.1 3.7
40 6.8 5.6 5.7 3.5
On the west coast of the South American continent,
a cool ocean current (called the Humboldt or Peru
current) brings nutrient-rich water to the coast.
This provides valuable food for the fish. But every
two to seven years, at about Christmas time, a warm
current comes and leaves the coastal fishermen with
empty nets. The fishermen called this phenomenon
El Nio, meaning Christ Child.
f Use the findings from Peters experiment to
propose an explanation for the empty fishing nets.
309
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l
o
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g
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s
l
-
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i
v
e
d

i
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o
p
e
Australian Aboriginal
diet, 189
dreamtime, 225
healing, 188
medicines, 205
use of resins, 45
use of natural fibre, 47
AC/DC, 64
acceleration, 147
acquired characteristics, 227
acquired immunity, 204
action/reaction forces, 164
adaptations, 2234
adaptive radiation, 235
ADSL, 88
agitation, CD9
air resistance, 169
albinism, 106
alcohol, 1819, 21516
alkanes, 16
alkenes, 17
alkynes, 18
alleles, 100
alloys, 256
alpha radiation, 277
alternating current, 64
aluminium, 39
AM-FM, 80
amino acids, 115
amplitude, 77
analogue network, 85
anatomical studies, 243
anodising, 39
antibiotics, 205
antibodies, 204
antigen, 204
attenuation, 86
atomic mass, CD2
Australopithecus, 250
Avogadros number, CD2
bacteria, 197
balanced forces, 160
balancing equations, 45
bandwidth, 86
base pairs, in DNA, 114
behavioural adaptations, 224
beta radiation, 2778
biotechnology, 128
blast furnace, 33
blood groups, 107
blood pressure, 213
blow moulding, 46
Bowler, Jim, 259
broadband, 89
Buffon, Georges, 226
cancer, 214
capacitors, CD15
carat, 26
carbon dating, 281
carbon dioxide, 2645
carbon fibres, 49
careers
geneticist, 125
medical laboratory technician,
110
science laboratory assistant, 306
science teacher, 297
cell division, 989
chain reaction, 286
chemical formulas, 3
chemistry, organic, 15
Chernobyl, 288
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), 265,
2723
chromosomes, 97
circuit types, 63
cloning, 1234
therapeutic, 124
coaxial cable, 86
codominance, 101
combustion, 19
communicating, 305
communication
waves in, 7680
history of, 845
communication network 859
contagious disease, 203
convergent evolution, 2356
copying DNA, 114
corrosion of metals, 389
protection against, 389
covalent bonding, 3
cracking, 17
creation, 225
cultural evolution, 2523
Curie, Marie, 277
current, 61, 62
AC/DC, 64
Darwin, Charles, 227
theory of evolution, 2279
Darwins finches, 228
deceleration, 147
diabetes, 212
diatomic, 4
diet, Aboriginal, 189
digital network, 85
diodes, CD16
diploid cells, 97
direct current, 64
disease, 192
contagious, 203
control of, 2034
heart, 213
infectious, 196
non-infectious, 211
transmission of, 203
X-linked, 110
displacement, 136
distance, 136
distancetime graph, 138
divergent evolution, 235
DNA, 97
copying, 114
fingerprinting, 12930
recombinant, 121
structure of, 114
dominant trait, 97
door latch, 69
drug abuse, 215
dynamo, 71
eating disorders, 212
Einstein, Albert, 285
El Nio, 268
elastic potential energy, 177
electric bell, 69
electric circuit, 602
types of, 634
water analogy, 612
electricity, 60
electrolysis, 32
311
electronics, CD1417
electromagnet, 68
electromagnetic spectrum, 778
electromagnetism, 68
embryonic development, 244
emulsion, CD9
energy, 176
elastic potential, 177
gravitational potential, 177
kinetic, 176
potential, 177
enhanced greenhouse effect, 264
epidemic, 193, 196
evolution, 223
convergent, 2356
cultural, 252
Darwins theory of, 2279
divergent, 235
evidence for, 23946
human, 24953
parallel, 236
theory of, 225
experiments
cheese sandwich, 300
dunking biscuits, 299300
gravy, 3001
extrusion moulding, 46
eye colour, 107
fermentation, 19
fibreglass, 49
fibres
natural, 47
synthetic, 478
fission, 285
flatworm, 199
flukes, 199
food pyramid, 187
forces, 153
action/reaction, 164
balanced, 160
types of, 153
forensic analysis, 123
formula mass, CD3
fossil record, 23943
fossils, 23940
fractional distillation, 17
frequency, 76
fungi, 199
fusion, 2889
galvanised iron, 39
gametes, 97
gamma radiation, 278
iron, smelting of, 33
isotopes, 2767
Jenner, Edward, 205
kinetic energy, 176
Kyoto Protocol, 266
Lamarck, Jean, 226
theory of evolution, 227
lasers, 87
lather, CD9
Law of conservation of mass, 5
Law of conservation of matter, 4
Law of Constant Proportions, CD5
life on Earth, 241
light-dependent resistors, CD15
light waves, 77
Lister, Joseph, 206
maglev trains, 70
magnetic field, 71
malnutrition, 211
manipulating genes, 121
Maralinga, 289
measuring radiation, 27980
meiosis, 99
Mendel, Gregor, 96
mental illness, 218
metals, 3, 24
extraction, 32
mining, 31
properties of, 24
pure, 24
methane, 265
micromechanics, 55
microphone, 71
microwave ovens, 92
microwaves, 80, 87, 91
minerals, 30
mining process, 31
mitosis, 98
mobile phones, 88
mole, CD2
monofilaments, 48
monomers, 44
Morse code, 84
motion graphs, 138
distancetime, 138
speedtime, 1389, 148
multiple bonds, 15
multiplexing, 86
Mungo man, 2559
gamma rays, 78
gangue, 32
gene cell therapy, 125
gene expression, 116
gene probes, 129
gene technology, 1201, 122
generator, 71
genes, 97
genetic code, 115
genetic disorders, 211
genetic engineering, 1201
genetic evidence, 246
genetic map, 125
genetically modified organisms, 121
genotype, 100
geographic isolation, 234
geological time scale, 239
glass fibres, 49
global warming, 2668
glycemic index (GI), 187
graphs
distancetime, 138
speedtime, 1389, 148
gravitational potential energy, 177
gravity, 169
greenhouse effect, 263
enhanced, 264
greenhouse gases, 264
half-life, 2789
hard and soft water, CD9
health, 186
heart disease, 213
hereditary factors, 97
HIV/AIDS, 207, 208
Homo sapiens, 251
homologous pair, 97
human evolution, 24953
human genome, 125
human inheritance, 10610
hydrocarbons, 16
incomplete dominance, 102
independent work skills, 2956
individual research project, 294
industrial reactions, 10
inertia, 153, 155
infection, 193
infectious diseases, 196200
infra-red rays, 79
injection moulding, 46
integrated circuits, CD17
investigations, 3024
ionic bonding, 4
Index Index
>>>
312
I
N
D
E
X
I
N
D
E
X
mutagens, 116
mutations, 116, 117
nanobots, 56
nanometre, 54
nanotechnology, 54
native elements, 29
natural fibres, 47
natural selection, 2324
Newtons laws, 164
First law, 153
Second law, 159
Third law, 164
nitrous oxide, 265
non-infectious diseases, 211
nuclear accidents, 288
nuclear dangers, 287 9
nuclear energy, 2856
nuclear radiation, 27680
sources of, 279
uses of, 2802
nuclear reactors, 2867
nuclear waste disposal, 288
nutrients, 186
obesity, 212
Ohms law, 634
optical fibres, 86
ores, 30
organic chemistry, 15
alkanes, 16
alkenes, 17
alkynes, 18
ozone, 272
destruction of, 273
hole, 2734
layer, 272
pandemic, 198
parallel circuits, 63
parallel evolution, 236
pathogen, 192, 196
pedigrees, 1089
pentadactyl limb, 2434
peppered moth, 2323
phenotype, 100
plant and animal distribution, 245
plasmids, 121
plastics, 43
properties of, 43
thermoplastic, 43
thermosetting, 44
polar molecules, CD8
polarisation, 79
polymers, 17, 43
potential energy, 177
power transmission, 72
prenatal testing, 123
Priestley, Joseph, CD4
primates, 249
products, 3
properties of metals, 24
protozoa, 198
Punnett square, 101
quantum computing, 57
rabbit control, 233
radiation, 217, 276
effects of, 279
types of, 2778
uses of, 2802
radio waves, 80
radioactivity, 276
radiotherapy, 280
rates of reactions, 1112
reactants, 3
reaction engines, 165,
recessive trait, 97
recombinant DNA, 121
recycling, 34
relay, 69
reproductive isolation, 234
resistance, 62
resistor code, CD1415
resistors, CD14
rockets, 165
rusting, 38
saponification, CD9
science fun, 299301
scientific method, 3045
selection, 225
selective breeding, 120
series circuits, 63
sex linked inheritance, 109
smelting, 33
smoking, 21516
soap, CD811
solenoid, 68
speakers, 69
speciation, 234
speed, 1367
speedtime graph, 1389, 148
spring constant, 178
states of matter, 6
steel, 25
stem cells, 124
stroke, 212
structural adaptations, 223
sulfuric acid, 1112
synthetic fibres, 478
synthetics, 48
tapeworm, 200
telegraph, 84
telephone, 85
television, 70
terminal velocity, 169
theory of evolution, 225
therapeutic cloning, 124
thermistors, CD15
thermoplastic, 43
thermosetting plastics, 44
thrust, 165
ticker-timer, 137
tokamak, 28890
traits, 96
transformers, 72
transgenics, 122
transistors, CD17
true breeding, 96
tuberculosis (TB), 205
tumour, 214
ultraviolet radiation, 79
vaccinations, 204
vaccines, 204
variation within a species, 108, 224
varicose veins, 213
vector, 203
velocity, 1367
terminal, 169
vending machine, 72
viruses, 198
visible light, 79
voltage, 61
Wallace, Alfred, 229
water, CD8
wavelength, 77
waves, 76
weight, 169
work, 176
X and Y chromosomes, 109
X-linked diseases, 110
X-rays, 78
yield, 10
313