Erg

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE

Includes 1998 Supplement
Edited by Joseph A. Demkin, AIA The American Institute of Architects Wa s h i n g t o n , D . C .
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

NEW YORK
/ CHICHESTER / WEINHEIM / BRISBANE / SINGAPORE / TORONTO
Important Notice
Although the information presented on the following pages is set forth in good faith and believed to be correct, The American Institute of Architects (hereafter AIA) on behalf of itself and others who have contributed information to this publication makes no representation or warranty to prospective users of this information as to the completeness or accuracy thereof. Information is supplied on the condition that the persons receiving same will make their own determination as to its suitability for their purposes prior to its use. In no event will the AIA be responsible for damages of any kind resulting from the use or reliance upon the information presented herein or the materials, products, processes, systems, or applications to which such information refers. Nothing contained herein is to be construed as a recommendation to use any material, product, process, system, or application, and the AIA makes no representation or warranty, express or implied. No representation or warranties,
either express or implied, of fitness for a particular purpose are made hereunder with respect to information or the material, product, process, system or application to which information refers.
This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 1998 by The American Institute of Architects. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Environmental resource guide / American Institute of Architects. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-471-14043-0 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 0-471-18376-8 (Supplement); ISBN 0-471-34618-7 (CD-ROM) 1. ArchitectureEnvironmental aspects. I. American Institute of Architects. NA2542.35.E73 1996 720'.47dc20 95-49568 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
E PA D i s c l a i m e r
Although the research described in the material and application reports has been funded wholly or in part by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through Cooperative Agreements Nos. X817837010 and CX823877010 to the American Institute of Architects, it has not been subjected to Agency review and therefore does not necessarily reflect the views of the Agency and no official endorsement should be inferred. Mention of firms, trade names, or commercial products in this document does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Contents
Introduction Foreword Preface ERG Overview Preface: 1997 Supplement Preface: 1998 Supplement Project Reports 01 Queens Building 02 Energy Resource Center 03 Boyne River Ecology Centre 04 Environmental Showcase Home 05 Thoreau Center for Sustainability 06 Duracell Corporate Headquarters 07 Reeves Residence 08 Real Goods Solar Living Center 09 C. K. Choi Building 10 Ridgehaven Green Office Building 11 Environmental Science and Engineering Building 12 NEXT21 Experimental Housing Application Reports 01 Light Framing 02 Insulation 03 Claddings 04 Wall Finishes 05 Resilient Flooring 06 Architectural Coatings 07 Glazing 08 Carpeting 09 Structural Framing 10 Metal and Plastic Plumbing Pipe 11 Fabric and Paper Wall Coverings
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998
CONTENTS
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Material Reports 03100 Concrete 04210 Brick and Mortar 04220 Concrete Masonry 04450 Stone Veneer 05410 Steel Framing 06110 Wood Framing 06118 Plywood 06180 Glued Laminated Timbers 06240 Plastic Laminates 07200 Thermal Insulation 07310 Asphalt Shingles 07400 Fireproofing 08810 Glass 08840 Non-glass Glazing 09200 Plaster and Lath 09250 Gypsum Board Systems 09300 Ceramic Tile 09400 Terrazzo 09510 Acoustical Ceiling Systems 09651 Linoleum 09652 Vinyl Flooring 09680 Carpets, Cushions, and Adhesives 09900 Paint 09930 Stains and Varnishes 09950 Wall Coverings 12610 Fabrics for Workstations 15410 Pipe
Appendixes Appendix A: Methodology Appendix B: Publications Appendix C: Organizations Appendix D: Glossary
Index
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CONTENTS
Foreword
Foreword
Most people, including architects, used to think of the natural environment as an unlimited resource only waiting to be exploited by humans. We rewarded businesses and individuals who could find faster ways to extract oil or remove minerals. We honored people who could clear-cut more efficiently or re-channel riversall without regard to the effects these actions would have on the future of the planet. Times and attitudes have changed. The AIAs 1996 Environmental Resource Guide is ample evidence. Im happy to introduce this valuable reference to you in the hope that it will, as it aims to do, help you make environmentally conscious evaluations and choices. Making such choices is not easy for individuals or for corporations, but making them is patently the right thing to do. Making environmentally conscious choices also pays off in many ways for our planet, for organizations, and for people. Herman Miller, Inc., has a traditional connection to architecture and design, part of which includes a respect for the environment. For some time now, Herman Miller has tried in its buildings and its manufacturing operations to make the right choices regarding the environment. The right choice hasnt always been clear, but the important thing is to make a choice. We at Herman Miller have chosen to use tropical woods only from sustainably managed forests. We incinerate all VOCs from wood finishing lines. By burning waste wood, we generate all the steam needed to heat and cool our main site, saving the natural gas we would otherwise use and keeping tons of waste out of landfills. This year we will send a million pounds less material per month to landfills than we did last year. We are building a new facility that will help its inhabitants recycle 85 percent of their by-products; the site is carefully sculpted so that runoff water is filtered through a series of basins before returning to a nearby river. Many corporations are protecting the environment in similar ways with the help of their employees, architects, and others. Architects have made a special contribution to Herman Miller over the years and have taught us many things about how buildings can help preserve the environment. From George Nelson and Charles Eames to William McDonough, wise architects have guided us in the choices we make as a corporation about the environment. After several decades of trying to make informed decisions about the environment, we at Herman Miller can say one thing for certainmaking the right choices about the environment does not result from a marketing plan or a public relations campaign. It is possible only when there is a deep-seated, corporate-wide respect for our world. The right choices always seem to pay offboth financially and socially. This volume will help you and your clients meet the convergence of two not always congruent goals: fiscal responsibility and civic duty. The two are not mutually exclusive and protecting the environment is part of both.
Michael A. Volkema President and Chief Executive Officer Herman Miller, Inc.
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Preface
Preface
The American Institute of Architects is pleased to present this newly revised and updated edition of the Environmental Resource Guide (ERG). As the AIAs environmental centerpiece, the ERG continues to provide information to help architects and design professionals achieve environmentally responsible architecture. Starting with this edition, the AIA is also pleased to have John Wiley & Sons, Inc., as its publishing partner for the ERG. This team combines Wileys production and subscription service capabilities with the AIAs development efforts. Since its inception five years ago, the ERG has compiled a unique body of information about the environmental aspects of building materials. To make this information easier to use and of more practical value, several format and content changes have been introduced. With new page layouts, new typography, and restructured sections, the ERGs core of information is now presented in three formats as material reports, application reports, and project reports. Material reports, as they did in earlier editions, continue to provide detailed environmental life-cycle profiles for building materials. This edition includes assessments for twenty materialstwelve have been previously published, six are new, and two have been fully revised. The technical content of the previously published reports remains the same, but all have been edited to be consistent with newer reports. Some previously published reports in need of further updating have not been included and will be revised in subsequent updates. Application reports are the ERGs most significant new feature. Presenting information in several levels of detail in narrative and graphic formats, these reports are intended to help architects, designers, and specifiers make more informed choices about alternative materials. Project reports profile environmentally responsive building projects, carrying forward the case study concept in a more consistent manner. A new Appendixes section contains the current version of the ERG methodology, updated reference sources, and a new glossary. As the ERGs operating manual, the methodology establishes the framework and procedures for developing environmental assessments of building materials. Although the methodology requires further development, it is included here with the hope of stimulating discussion. Many individuals contributed to the research, development, and preparation of this document. Particular thanks go to James White, senior project scientist with the Environmental Protection Agencys Air Pollution Prevention Control Division, National Risk Management Research Laboratory. His insight and advice have been helpful, particularly in the development of the ERG methodology. The ERG Steering Committee has provided ongoing conceptual and technical guidance that helped shape this edition and brought architectural considerations into the framework of the methodology. Special notes of appreciation for these efforts go to committee members Robert J. Berkebile, FAIA; Harry T. Gordon, AIA; Pliny Fisk III; and Donald Watson, FAIA. The Scientific Consulting Group, Inc., has provided ongoing research and development for the material reports and the methodology. The efforts of SCGs staff are appreciated and specific thanks are given Joel Ann Todd, project director; David Natella, deputy project Director; and research associates Carol Natella, Beverly Campbell, Jetter Watson, Charles M. Knapp, and Rick Pike.
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Preface
Based on concepts developed by the ERG Steering Committee, Alex Wilson and Nadav Malin of West River Communications, Inc., developed the final format and content for the new application reports. In addition, their suggestions have helped coordinating content issues. Individuals from industry, the design community, and academia contributed time and expertise to technical reviews of the material and application reports. Although these reviews do not constitute an endorsement, the comments, suggestions, and recommendations of these individuals have helped us to achieve a more balanced and comprehensive treatment of the information. Special thanks go to the following for participating in reviews of the material report drafts: Walter Anderson, Resilient Floor Covering Institute; Christine Beall, AIA; Frank Borrelli, Vinyl Institute; Alan Donaldson, North Carolina State University College of Textiles; Paul Fisett, University of Massachusetts Natural Resources Center; Peter B. Fleming, 3M Company; Bill Foley, Guilford of Maine; William A. Freeman, Armstrong World Industries; Derrick Hardy, National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association; W. F. Iselin, Harris Specialty Chemicals; Zafar Kahn, American Fibers Manufacturing Association; Fred Morgan, DePaoli Mosaic Company; Kelly Mortenson, FORBO; Douglas Slack, TEC, Inc; E. C. Steiner, Celotex; James Strobridge, Steelcase, Inc; James A. Tshudy, Armstrong World Industries; Matthew S. Waite, Tarkett, Inc; and Thomas Williamson, American Plywood Association. The AIA is also indebted to the following individuals for their reviews of the application report drafts: Christine Beall, AIA; Linda Brock, MAIBC, University of British Columbia; John Carter, AIA, Gensler and Associates, Architects; Kirsten Childs, Croxton Collaborative; Mary Guzowski, AIA, University of Minnesota School of Architecture; John Holton, AIA, BurtHill-Kosar-Rittlemann; Gail Lindsey, AIA, Harmony Design; Richard C. Master, AIA, USG Corporation Research Center; Sandy Mendler, Hellmuth Obata Kassabaum; Jean StarkMartin, AIA associate, Burt-Hill-Kosar-Rittlemann; Sarah Woodhead, AIA, Maryland State Department of Education; David W. Yarbrough, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; and Peter A. Yost, National Association of Home Builders Research Center. Alan Short; Larry Wolff, AIA; Doug Pollard; David Pijawka; and Tom Hahn were extremely helpful in pulling together information for the project reports. Contributing editors for the project reports included Kim Shetter, Richard Nemec, and Michael Wagner. Dan Sayre, senior editor of John Wiley & Sons, and John Hoke, FAIA, AIA Press publisher, both provided many discerning suggestions. Brad Collins and the staff of Group C provided graphic design services, Steve Walker created the flowcharts, and Elizabeth Laking prepared the desktop layouts. Considerable progress has been made in constructing the knowledge base the design community needs to achieve environmentally responsible design. However, more work remains to be done. In its goal to become the premier environmental information source for building materials, the ERG can make a continuing contribution to building this body of knowledge.
Joseph A. Demkin, AIA Editor
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Overview
Overview: The Environmental Resource Guide

The Environmental Resource Guide project is based on the premise that architects and other members of the building design community can make a significant contribution to efforts to enhance the quality of the environment. However, in order to do this, they must have the information and tools necessary to consider environmental factors in the hundreds of decisions they make on each project. Responding to this need, the American Institute of Architects (AIA), with support from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, initiated the Environmental Resource Guide project in 1990. The project has two components: research/development and the dissemination of information through the Environmental Resource Guide (ERG). Since the ERG was first published in 1992, the AIA Committee on the Environment (COTE)a network of environmentally conscious practicing design professionalshas provided guidance for development of the publication and served as a technical resource for it. In 1994 the AIA formed the ERG Steering Committee to bring a greater focus to the effort. As a subcommittee of COTE, the steering committee serves as an advisory group for the ERG. Purpose and Scope The primary goal of the ERG is to help design professionals make environmentally informed choices when they select and specify building materials. Generally, alternative materials are available for any given architectural application, and each alternative carries environmental burdens and may offer environmental benefits. The ERG addresses these issues along with other considerations relevant to functionality, interactions with adjacent materials, installation, etc. The ERG analyzes materials on a generic basis and does not advise which product or material to use. Instead, the ERG presents information to enable architects, designers, and specifiers to make better environmental selections and to use materials more wisely. Reports on specific projects published in the ERG demonstrate how environmental concepts and principles have been integrated into these designs and what results the projects have achieved. The ERG also leads the reader to other information sources that address environmentally responsible building design comprehensively as well as to sources on specific facets of the subject (e.g., energy-efficient building design, lighting design, and health and indoor air quality). The Core Concept The heart of the ERG lies in the concept of life-cycle analysis, sometimes referred to as cradle-to-grave or cradle-to-cradle analysis. This concept considers the environmental effects of building products before and after they become part of a building. The processes associated with the manufacturing of materials; their installation and use in buildings; and their eventual reuse, recycling, or disposal at the time buildings are renovated or demolished are all evaluated. The life-cycle concept provides a way of understanding the consequences of design decisions within a perspective that extends beyond the buildings boundaries. Considering the project comprehensively, from start to finish, before actually beginning the design enables architects and designers to avoid having choices made early in the process dictate less than optimal decisions later.
Overview
The Streamlined ERG Methodology The life-cycle analysis designed for the ERG departs from traditional methods in that it uses a modified or streamlined approach that combines quantitative and qualitative analyses. Most life-cycle studies base their environmental impact evaluations only on measurable quantities (e.g., tons of material, barrels of oil, etc.). For the ERG, when numerical data are unavailable or where issues are difficult to quantify (e.g., alterations to habitat and loss of biodiversity), narrative descriptions are used to denote those impacts. In the life-cycle analysis, the ERG draws upon information and data from existing sources (as distinct from using independent tests). Although there can be gaps in the database, the ERG methodology provides a framework for further study; compiles useful information the design community can use today, and strives to involve product manufacturers and relevant trade associations during the data-gathering process. Environmental Analysis of Building Materials After setting goals and boundaries in what is called scoping, the ERGs life-cycle analysis of building materials proceeds in four steps. The first step, inventory analysis, is a fact-finding effort to identify and quantify the environmental inputs and outputs associated with the material being analyzed over its entire life cycle (e.g., inputs of raw materials, energy, and water and outputs in the form of releases to air, land, and water). The second step, impact assessment, characterizes the above inputs and outputs in relation to the environmental impacts they produce. Specific impacts are classified under category groupings of environment and ecocsystems, human health and welfare, energy use, and building operation. The third step, impact valuation, synthesizes impacts with the values of stakeholders. This involves weighting impact information to reflect both quantitative and qualitative values. The fourth step in the analysis is improvement assessment. This involves identifying opportunities for improving the life-cycle performance of materials. Examples of design opportunities include using materials produced locally to reduce transport energy, selecting materials with low or no levels of toxicity, using products with low embodied energy and high recycled content, and using more durable products. In addition to identifying design opportunities, improvement assessment can be used by manufacturers to identify opportunities to improve the environmental effectiveness of materials in manufacturing and production stages. Environmental life-cycle analysis is a field in which new information is constantly being developed. Therefore, analyses of environmental impacts need to be periodically updated to reflect new information and data. Presentation of Information The principal contents of the ERG are presented in three sectionsproject reports, application reports, and material reports. In addition, appendixes contains supplemental information relative to the entire ERG. The following is a description of the purpose and contents of each of these sections in the order in which they appear:
Project Reports These reports profile projects in which architects and designers have woven environmental concepts and technologies into the fabric of the building design. Depending on the particular
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Overview
emphasis or focus of the project, the subjects addressed in each report vary among the following: A background discussion identifies environmental goals, significant constraints, and the approach taken to infuse environmental considerations into the design process. A design response section highlights the strategies and methods used to apply environmental concepts and technologies. These strategies may cover passive and active energy systems, envelope and daylighting design, measures to improve the environmental effectiveness of materials and indoor air quality, the integration of waste management and recycling systems, and approaches to water conservation. A discussion of construction issues may address contractor selection approaches, special bidding and negotiation requirements to manage construction waste and materials to be recycled, procedures used to protect worker health, and the like. A profile of performance during the buildings use and operation presents available information and data on energy consumption, lighting levels, water consumption, and indoor air quality. Commentaries and observations about the project, including any problems encountered, round out the profile.
Application Reports The application reports present comparisons of alternative materials for specific building applications (e.g., light framing, claddings, resilient flooring). For each alternative, the reports describe the benefits and environmental concerns of available materials beginning with brief summaries and providing increasingly detailed information in narrative and graphic formats.
Application reports also address design considerations. For example, a report on the light framing of wood or steel would include discussion of the need for thermal barriers if steel is used in exterior walls. A report on glazing might discuss the different requirements for glazing on north and south facing walls and the appropriate uses of glazing in daylighting; these choices can contribute to how much operational energy a building requires. Since the use and operation of buildings can have significant environmental impacts, emphasis is placed on the opportunities for architects, designers, and specifiers to make improvements in this stage. Selecting the best alternative for a specific application is very complex; these reports do not attempt to reduce this complexity to a single rating. In many cases, the better alternative for a given application depends on how the material is used or which manufacturing process was used. These factors may be under the control of the architect or designer, and the reports present these opportunities. Information in the application reports is presented in the following outline: A highlights sheet describes the major environmental considerations associated with the alternative materials and provides a summary of recommendations. A comparative environmental performance chart graphically depicts the performance of each material in several environmental impact groupings and categories. Recommendations for architects, designers, and specifiers address such issues as choosing a material, reducing material use, and using materials wisely. A narrative discussion describes the environmental life cycle of each alternative material, based on detailed information contained in the material reports for the materials being compared. A list of references details publications cited in the report along with organizations associated with the manufacture or use of the materials covered.
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Overview
Material Reports Organized by CSI Masterformat divisions, the material reports provide detailed environmental profiles for selected building materials on a generic basis. The information and data are presented in narrative, tabular, and graphic form to communicate the environmental impacts throughout each life-cycle stage of a building material. The basic elements of each material report are outlined here:
A highlights sheet summarizes environmental considerations under headings of waste generation, natural resource depletion, energy consumption, and indoor air quality. A background discussion addresses the materials origin and history, types and classifications, and its uses in buildings. A narrative discussion presents key environmental considerations for the material being analyzed supported with flow diagrams identifying constituents, key activities, and processes for each life-cycle stage of the material. A narrative presentation describes the inventory of inputs (materials, energy, and water) and waste outputs (air emissions, waterborne waste, and solid waste) associated with each of the constituent materials and processes Stressors (i.e., conditions leading to environmental impacts) and the potential impacts associated with the inputs and outputs of these processes, are identified and presented in narrative and tabular formats. Organization perspectives provide industry representatives and environmental groups an opportunity to refute points in the report, add material they feel is important, or explain particular points of interest. A regulatory status section describes relevant regulations that apply to the material and the processes in its life cycle. A reference list identifies the publications and information sources cited in the development of the material report. Supplemental Information The appendixes contain the current working version of the ERG methodology, lists of publications of interest to environmentally conscious architects and designers, lists of organizations involved in environmental issues relating to the built environment, and a glossary.
Appendix A: Methodology Part I of the methodology describes the concept of life-cycle analysis, part II outlines a materials research framework, and part III describes the approach and methods (including detailed step-by-step procedures) for performing inventory analyses, impact assessments, and improvement assessments. Attachment A of the methodology presents the potential criteria the AIA is considering for the assessment and valuation of environmental impacts. Appendix B: Publications Publications in this section are listed under the headings of books, periodicals, catalogs, and guidebooks. Brief descriptions of the scope and contents are provided for each entry. Appendix C: Organizations This section lists nonprofit organizations, associations, and government agencies. Brief descriptions are given for the mission and activities of each organization along with any publications they offer. Appendix D: Glossary The glossary contains definitions of energy, environmental, and life-cycle analysis terms found in the ERG and other publications about environmentally responsible building design.
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Overview
Using the ERG The ERG can be helpful to staff members of design firms, consulting firms, corporations, associations, public agencies, and educational institutions. Individual users may include the following: Architects, designers, and specifiers can use the ERG to help make more environmentally informed design decisions about building materials and to understand the consequences of those decisions in the context of a life-cycle perspective. Building owners, builders, and facility managers can use the ERG in their efforts to plan, construct, operate, and maintain more environmentally responsive facilities. Architectural educators and students can use the ERG as a reference source to gain knowledge of environmentally responsive approaches and the role that materials play in environmentally responsible design. Manufacturers of building products can use the ERG to guide their efforts to enhance the environmental performance of their products. Private organizations and public agencies concerned with pollution prevention and other issues relating to the built environment will find useful data and information in the ERG. Researchers wishing to prepare custom life-cycle environmental assessments may use the ERG methodology as a guide and a tool. Corresponding with the ERG Readers wishing to submit comments, suggestions, or recommendations to the ERG are encouraged to do so. Please address all communications to: The American Institute of Architects 1735 New York Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20006 Attention: ERG Editor
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Preface: 1997 Supplement

The 1997 Environmental Resource Guide supplement is the first annual update of the 1996 ERG. The primary contents of the supplement package include five material reports, three application reports, three project reports, revised appendixes, and a new index. The material report on non-glass glazing presents an environmental life-cycle assessment of acrylic and polycarbonate materials. The report on pipe addresses metallic and plastic piping used in and around buildings for water distribution systems; soil, waste, and vent systems; and storm drain systems. The material reports on concrete; carpets, cushions, and adhesives; and paint are thoroughly revised and updated versions of earlier reports included in the 1994 edition of the ERG. Application reports continue to provide comparative information, design recommendations, and summary life-cycle profiles for selected product categories. The application report on architectural coatings compares the environmental performance for various paints, stains, and finishes under several groupings (e.g., oil-based, waterborne, and alternative paints, etc.). The report for glazings compares glass with non-glass glazing materials, while the report on carpeting looks at various carpet facings (e.g., nylon, wool, polyester, polypropylene) as well as materials used for backings, cushions, and adhesives. Three project reports profile environmentally responsive projects located in different regions of the United States. The first project, located in the Presidio National Park in San Francisco, renovates a cluster of historic buildings for new uses. The second project develops a new corporate facility located in rural Connecticut. The third is a beachfront residence located in an environmentally inspired community on Dewees Island off the coast of South Carolina. The supplement also updates portions of the appendixes and the index. Appendixes B and C contain new and revised listings for environmental publications and organizations. The new index combines entries for the 1997 supplement with the index from the 1996 ERG. The American Institute of Architects is grateful to the many individuals who participated in the development of the supplement. Thanks are extended to 1996 ERG Steering Committee members Robert J. Berkebile, FAIA; Harry T. Gordon, FAIA; and Pliny Fisk III, who provided overall direction and guidance for the ERG project. Special thanks go to David Natella and Carole Natella, of the Scientific Consulting Group, Inc., for their work on the material reports, and to Alex Wilson and Nadav Malin of West River Communications, Inc. for their able efforts in bringing the application reports together. The review comments and recommendations of the following individuals are sincerely appreciated in helping develop the material reports: Christine Beall, AIA; Robert J. Festerheim, Styrene Butadiene Latex Manufacturers Council, Inc.; Zafar Kahn, American Fibers Manufacturers Association; Lionel Lemay, Portland Cement Association; William LeVan, Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute; William Oler, Carpet Cushion Council; Brian Pugliese, Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association; Susan Reilly, P.E., Enermodal Engineering, Inc.; Will Roudebush, Ph. D., College of Technology, Bowling Green State University; Stephen R. Sides, National Paint and Coatings Association; and Carroll Turner, Carpet and Rug Institute. Reviewers of the application reports deserving an expression of thanks include Marilyn Black, Ph.D., Air Quality Sciences; Mark R. Brower, Fazee Paint Company; William Dupont, D&R International; David Lehrer, AIA, Gensler and Associates; Mary McKnight, National Institute of Science and Technology; Dru Meadows, AIA, BSW; Susan Reilly, P.E., Enermodal
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Engineering, Inc.; Lynn Simon, Simon and Associates; Jim White, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation; and Sarah Woodhead, AIA, Maryland State Department of Education. Thanks are also extended to those who contributed to the development of the project reports. Marsha Maytum, AIA, of Tanner Leddy Maytum Stacy Architects; Joseph Schiffer, AIA, of Herbert S. Newman and Partners, P.C.; and Gail Lindsey, AIA, and Cheryl Walker, AIA, of Design Harmony were all extremely helpful in pulling together project information and data. The efforts of Jane Koleeny and Lynn Simon were also very helpful, along with many other participants from the project teams too numerous to mention. Appreciation is also expressed to those who helped in bringing the 1997 supplement into print. Thanks go to Pamela James Blumgart and Janet Rumbarger for copyediting, Elizabeth Laking for creating desktop layouts; Steve Walker for the design of the flow charts; and Editorial Services, Inc. for updating the index.
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The first of two material reports in this supplement presents an environmental life-cycle assessment of wood, adhesives, and preservatives used in plywood (MAT 06118). This updates a report that appeared in the 1994 ERG. The second material report is a new report covering fireproofing products (MAT 07400) with a focus on sprayed-on materials used to protect steel structural members in buildings. Three new application reports (09, 10, and 11) compare the environmental performance of the following: concrete, steel, heavy timber, and glulam timbers used in structural framing; fabric and paper materials used for interior wall coverings; and plastic and metal pipe used for distribution piping systems and for drain, waste, and vent piping systems. Five new project reports provide environmental profiles of buildings located in the United States, Canada, and Japan. A retail facility for the Real Goods Trading Company in Hopland, California, is the product of an intense collaboration between the client and design team, who worked to achieve commonly shared ecological design goals. The C. K. Choi Building at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, pushes green design further through the application of several technologies, one of which removes the facility from the public sewage grid. The Ridgehaven Green Building project in San Diego, California, demonstrates the use of environmentally friendly materials in remodeling and the update of older support systems to achieve dramatic energy savings. The Environmental Sciences and Engineering Building at Michigan Technological University in Houghton, Michigan, is an example in which environmental considerations were addressed on a more mainstream institutional project. The NEXT 21 Experimental Housing project in Osaka, Japan, offers a glimpse of environmentally responsive urban multidwelling design aimed at achieving a better quality of life and higher energy efficiency through the application of advanced and innovative technologies. Appendixes B and C have been updated with new listings and previous listings have been updated when appropriate. The updated index combines the previous index with entries for topics in the 1998 supplement. Several pages in the 1998 supplement update previously published information. The most significant of these updates are for several pages in reports for linoleum (MAT 09651) and stains and varnishes (MAT 09930). Revised page 19 of the linoleum report contains corrected embodied energy figures. In stains and varnishes, the two pages for figure 1 have been expanded to three pages containing figures 1a, 1b, and 1c. Some process and transport flow lines in figure 2b have also been revised. Subsequent pages of this report have only been repaginated. The American Institute of Architects extends its appreciation to the 1997 ERG Steering Committee for providing continuing direction to the ERG effort. Members of the committee included Robert J. Berkebile, FAIA; Harry T. Gordon, FAIA; and Pliny Fisk III. In addition, the committee benefited from the participation of Gail Lindsey, AIA, chairperson of the 1997 AIA Committee on the Environment (COTE). Thanks go to Scientific Consulting Group, Inc., staff members Joel Ann Todd, David Natella, and Carole Natella, for their continuing work on ERG building materials assessment procedures and their painstaking research in preparing material assessments. Thanks are extended to Alex Wilson and Nadav Malin of West River Communications, Inc. for their efforts and excellent work in bringing out new application reports.
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The quality of the material and application reports was enhanced by comments and suggestions received from individuals who reviewed the drafts. Thanks go to each of these individuals: Curt Bigby, APAThe Engineered Wood Association; Dr. James L. Bowyer, University of Minnesota Department of Wood and Paper Science; Gary Gramp, Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association; Russell C. Moody, the Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Agriculture; and James M. Ramsey, W. R. Grace and Company. Individuals participating in the review of application reports included James B. Adkins, P.E., HOK, Inc.; Paul Fisette, University of Massachusetts Building Materials Technology and Management Center; Sandy Halliday, Gaia Research; B.J. Harris, The Harris Directory; Charles Kibert, University of Florida Center for Construction and Environment; Z. Y. Liu, Smith Hinchman & Grylls; Dru Meadows, AIA, BSW; Kirk Mettam, HLW International; and Lynn Simon, Simon & Associates. The process of gathering information and data for the project reports was greatly aided by several individuals who deserve special mention. Jeff Oldham, of Real Goods Trading Company, and David Arkin, AIA, were very helpful in this regard for the preparation of Real Goods project report. For the C. K. Choi Building, thanks go to Eva Matsuzaki and Joanne Perdue of Matsuzaki Wright Architects; Eva Pagani and John Anderson with the University of British Columbia Campus Planning and Development Department; Jeanette Frost of Keen Engineering Company, Ltd.; Andy Arink of R. Freundlich & Associates Ltd.; and Eleanor Laquian of the Institute of Asian Research. Dr. Stephen Kendall, AIA, provided useful background and insight about the NEXT21 Experimental Housing project in Osaka, and Toru Kamoi, of Osaka Gas, graciously served as a contact and conduit for information from Osaka Gas headquarters. Finally, thanks goes to Lynn Froeschle, AIA, for preparing the report on the Ridgehaven Green Building project. Thanks go to the efforts of those who helped bring the 1998 supplement into print. These include Janet Rumbarger and Pamela James Blumgart for copyediting and proofreading; Elizabeth Laking for creating the desktop layouts; Steve Walker for flowchart designs; Jennifer Taylor for updating appendix data; and Jennifer Rushing-Schurr for updating the index.
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Project Report
The Queens Building, De Montfort University

Leicester, England
Peter Cook
Short Ford and Associates Architects YRM Anthony Hurt Associates Structural Engineers Max Forham Associates Mechanical Engineers Livingston Eyre Associates Landscape Architects Laing Midlands General Contractor
The Queens Building at De Montfort University School of Engineering and Manufacture in Leicester, England, takes an integrated approach to environmental performance, but its principal success lies in its use of natural ventilation. Through the application of this and other passive strategies, the 9,940-square-meter (107,000-square-foot) engineering laboratory (the largest naturally ventilated building in Europe) is achieving significant efficiencies in energy use.
Background
In their drive to have the institution become a full-fledged university (rather than remain a less prestigious polytechnic school), the De Montfort trustees wanted a flagship building for the campus to symbolize the schools emerging importance. In addition, Graham Chapman, the head of engineering and a prominent figure in the field of sustainable engineering, wanted a building that could serve as a teaching tool for the environmental engineering courses he wished to formulate. The new structure had to accommodate the entire engineering school, including the departments of mechanical, electrical, and electronic engineering. The project budget was 845 per square meter ($150 per square foot in 1992 U.S. dollars). Sixty-six percent of the projects funding came from the Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council (PCFC), while the balance was funded by the universitys own reserves. The building had to be designed and built within the PCFCs funding cycle, in time to open for the 1993-94 academic year. Cost indices, such as floor area allowances per student, staff, and laboratory type, were strictly enforced and audited several times during the design and precontract stages. The university selected the London firm of Short Ford and Associates as the buildings architect because of the firms success with a naturally ventilated brewery for Simonds, Farsons, Cisk, in Malta. The firm was awarded a grant from the Department of Trade and Industry to pay for specialist design advice, some of it in-house, some from the Department of Applied
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Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Cambridge University, and some from the ECADAP Group at De Montfort. De Montfort University is located in the Midlands industrial city of Leicester, England. The setting is urban, and the project sitelocated on a busy streethad been densely occupied by late nineteenth-century row housing, until this was demolished in the 1960s. Although the climate is not harsh, it is relatively dry. The temperature drops to below freezing for periods in January, and rarely rises above 75 to 77F (24 to 25 C) in the summer. In June 1994, however, when heat load tests for the facility were being conducted, a temperature of 88F (31C) was recorded.
Design Response
Short Ford and Associates was charged with creating a major new laboratory facility with seminar rooms, auditoriums, staff offices, and libraryusing as little of the customary mechanical air handling and electrically lighted spaces as possible. It was not clear at the outset how far the strategy could be taken. Laboratory buildings in Europe rely heavily on mechanically ventilated and electrically lighted spaces, and no prototypes were available. Given the projections for heat gain and the accepted standards for human comfort, it initially seemed that the predicted cooling demands might make natural ventilation infeasible. But when the architects started to consider the idea of designing thermally massive lab spaces, they realized it might be possible to condition the entire building naturally except for a few clean rooms. To do this, the building would be configured to be naturally lit, resistant to solar gain, and cross- or stack-vented with additional night purging.
Building Form Conventional buildings of this type usually feature a deep rectangular plan with three to four floors of offices and laboratories arranged around a double-loaded, racetrack corridor encircling a large central volume such as an open laboratory. The Queens Building is the inverse of this. It features longer and more narrowly proportioned laboratories, which can be easily daylighted and naturally cross-ventilated. These spaces are configured into a deep footprint that saves site area and reduces internal walking distances. The resulting volume is intermittently punctured to admit top light and to exhaust warmed stale air.
The west end of the complex contains a hall-like mechanical engineering lab, full of heavy machinery, with a computer control room at one end and classrooms and offices along one side. At the east end, two two-story wings, partly enclosed by an atrium, house the electronics laboratories. The buildings main central block accommodates labs and teaching spaces arranged on either side of a full-height atrium. On the north side are two lecture halls with raked floors. Brick and block are widely available and provide an economical means of construction in the United Kingdom. However, these materials are normally used as cladding supported by a structural frame of steel rather than as load-bearing components. Short and Ford, however, enthusiastically embraced the latter approach. Says Short: The essence of the passive strategy is to make a heavyweight thermally massive building envelope with a high thermal admittance to be very robust to swings in external temperature.... This intent coincides with our enthusiasm for the load-bearing approach, its expression, and the way in which one might manipulate it to develop openings, large voids, large freestanding panels, all unframed. The Queens Building thus captures an intrinsic property of brick and concreteto readily absorb, store, and release heatat the same time it fulfills a range of structural and architectural needs.
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Figure 1: Queens Building Plans
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Top Floor
l a c l o s m administrator classroom laboratory open space seminar machine hall s
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First Floor
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l c c l concourse s l c c c c c c c l
Ground Floor
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Figure 2: Queens Building Isometric

mechanical engineering laboratory with traveling crane Specialist laboratories. printed circuit boards, dark rooms, metrology
Breaking buttresses restrain traveling crane computer library for whole school common rooms
shared electro-mechanical laboratory, mechatronics and robotics
staff offices on top floor
stacks to promote through ventilation to teaching rooms
engine test cell building Combined heat and power plant design studios air intakes for naturally ventilated auditorium
electronics and computing laboratories
everyday entrance through protected courtyard
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Heating In the winter, the only heating source in the Queens Building is provided by ordinary waterfilled radiators, which are served by the buildings heating and power plant. Since electrical energy is expensive in the UK, the architects installed an efficiently combined heating and power plant that runs on natural gas and generates its own electricity. Heat gain from computers, people, and machinery is intermittently greater than 9.3 w/sq ft (100 w/m2) in the mechanical laboratories, and almost constantly greater than 7.9 w/sq ft (85 w/m2) in the electrical laboratories. N a t u r a l Ve n t i l a t i o n a n d C o o l i n g Mechanical cooling, has been eliminated in the Queens Building through the use of a natural ventilation system that has been integrated into the building elements. Fresh air enters through windows and louvers around the extensive perimeter, while stale air leaves via roof ventilators and chimney stacks that rise through the central concourse.
There are 1,600 operable windows or panels throughout the building. Some windows (containing the minimum free area required to cope with base conditions) are connected to the buildings energy management system, which uses 1,200 points to monitor and control the interior environment. The remaining windows can be manually operated by the occupants. For example, about 60 percent of the windows in the electronics labs can be opened on an occasional hot day when all of the lab equipment is in use. (Note: Conventional approaches would normally size the air-handling system to cope with this infrequent occurrence and would possibly include additional capacity as a safety measure.) In each auditorium, the natural ventilation scheme consists of a plenum below the raked wooden staging supporting the seats. This plenum is fed from the outside, and the air enters the auditorium through grilles below the seats. The outlet consists of a 13.5 m (44-foot) vertical chimney, connecting an air extract grille at the front of the auditorium to the outside above the roof level. In winter, heating is provided by fin convectors behind inlet grilles in the seating risers. To prevent excessive temperature fluctuations, the side walls and ceiling were made of heavyweight concrete.
Ventilation analysis: Two methods were used to determine if natural ventilation could be
achieved and, if so, how best to achieve it. The first method used ESP, a computer simulation program. This was conducted by the Environmental Design Unit at Leicester Polytechnic. The second method employed a physical modeling technique and was undertaken by the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Cambridge University. The ESP computer analysis at Leicester focused on the ventilation for the two auditoriums, where it was uncertain whether natural ventilation would be adequate to prevent summertime overheating, which might require mechanical ventilation and perhaps full airconditioning. The 870 m3 (30,720 ft3) auditorium is designed to seat 150 people. The program indicated this level of occupancy for 8 hours per day, 5 days per week. The 100 watts of heat produced by each occupant, together with 15w/m2 (1.4 w/ft2) from lighting and 500 watts from equipment, resulted in an internal heat load of 18.3 w. Thermal comfort conditions in the two auditoriums are dictated by the convective and radiant heat from people and lights and the stack (buoyancy) driven airflows which these induce; wind-driven infiltration; and heat flow into and out of the thermal mass. These complex time-varying interactions could be adequately investigated only by use of a dynamic computer simulation program like ESP, which was capable of solving simultaneously the equations governing heat transfer and those describing the airflow.
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Figure 3: Cross-Section of the Queens Building
Cross section through concourse. Mechatronics laboratory, auditoriums and design studios.
Some initial simulations were undertaken to identify the factors that would most influence the results. Weather data for a typical hot sunny day were used to study the influence of design changes on the hourly variations in temperatures and airflow rates. In the next stagedesign optimizationdesign options were refined, and simulation results were compared with a reference or base case. An attempt was made to compare these simulation results with the results obtained from the physical modeling conducted at Cambridge. Finally, the projected occurrence of warm conditions in the auditoriums was studied for a typical year. The summer sizing weather data used in this stage of work were devised by analyzing the 310 July days in the 10 years of hourly weather data collected at Kew, London, from 1959 to 1968. Only 1 percent of July days were hotter and sunnier. Analysis of CIBSE (the British equivalent of ASHRAE) weather data shows that no more than 5 days in July and no more than 10 days in the whole year, can be expected to be hotter than this design day. The ESP simulations revealed the strong relationship between the rate of heat generation and the reduced airflow. For the base case, rates of more than six air changes per hour occurred during the occupied periods. The progressive warming of the structure during the day led to peak temperatures during the afternoon. ESP predicted that, for the basic design with acoustic tiles, there would be only 9 hours per year with dry resultant temperatures above 27 C (81F) and none of these would occur during the normal academic year. Increasing the air inlet and outlet areas reduced by 50 percent the number of occupied hours in which summertime overheating occurs. The addition of a window reduced this by an additional 20 percent. Dr. Paul Lyndon at Cambridge tested airflow patterns by immersing a perspex model of the auditoriums in a tank of saline solution. Increases in internal heat gains were simulated by injecting further concentrated solutions into the model. The experiment is based on a direct analogy between various air temperaturesand therefore densitiesand various fluid densities. The procedure includes taking spot samples of the diluted fluids with a syringe. Complex mathematics are required to calculate the results, but this is a very graphic modeling techniquegood for designers, clients, and funding agencies.
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It is difficult for computer models such as ESP to deal with temperature stratification and complex geometries. Conversely, the perspex physical modela steady-state methoddoes not adequately treat the dynamic processes that occur during the use of a real building. However, the two approaches are complementary and their combined results give the client and the architect valuable insight into the effects of ventilation on thermal comfort. In addition, the models provided a means of assessing the overheating risk. Partly on the strength of these results, a natural venting strategy was adopted.
Lighting The mechanical laboratories in the Queens Building required lighting at 750 lux (70 fc), while the electrical laboratories needed well-distributed and well-controlled lighting at 300 lux (28 fc). In a traditional engineering school building, laboratory lighting would rely primarily on electrical lighting. This in turn produces residual heat and requires compensatory cooling, thus driving up energy costs. Because the Queens Building configuration features relatively shallow spaces, much of the space could be daylighted. In spaces where students can work on computers and other tasks, windows are equipped with deep reveals, overshading transoms, and internal light shelves. Skylights and large windows are also shaded to prevent solar heat gain when the sun is shining, but on cloudy days they rid the building of unwanted heat produced by machinery and computers.
As the design developed, physical models were continuously used to analyze and evaluate daylighting, solar penetration, and solar gain. A 1:500 scale model that included all surrounding buildings and obstructions was placed under a heliodon. A large 1:50 model of the whole building was combined with an artificial sky to simulate the likely natural light levels450 to 500 lux expressed as a daylight factorachievable under the northern European standard overcast sky. The architect discovered that more important than the quantity of light is its distribution across the space. The model was hugely helpful in communicating the design to the client committee.
Building Materials The architects specified few applied finishes in the building. The basic objective was to reduce toxicity and off-gassing, which are associated with a variety of health problems, particularly asthmatic allergic reactions. In addition, the exterior of the two-story electronic labs that faces the atrium is clad in white mineral fiber panels (rather than the reddish brick used in the rest of the complex) to reflect light into the middle of these spaces. Unfortunately, in some cases, the budget precluded the use of specific materials the architects would have preferred; for example, a low-electrostatic vinyl, rather than linoleum, was used as flooring.
Construction
The main contract for the Queens Building was established with the UK contract form JCT 1980 with Quantities. This is the traditional procurement document in new building construction, in which the clients design team specifies absolutely everything that constitutes the building. Under this protocol, the design team interfered as little as possible with the contractors traditional way of working in order to avoid higher construction costs. As the contractor bore no responsibility for the success of the buildings natural ventilation scheme, the buildingalthough unusual in its designwas constructed primarily using traditional methods. According to the architect, tight cost control is the only effective constraint on construction waste available in the UK and was exercised in this case by the clients on-site quality control observer, Michael Moate. The project construction costs met the projects budget, but the distribution of those costs is different from that of a more typically designed building. For example, the costs of the Queens Building superstructuredue to the quantities of material in its massive load-bearing assembliesare about 7 percent higher than those for a traditional building. On the
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other hand, its mechanical and electrical systems constitute 24 percent of the budget, compared to about 30 percent or even higher for a conventional laboratory. Figure 4 provides a further breakdown for these comparative cost allocations.
Figure 4: Allocation of Construction Costs
Building Element Substructure Superstructure Finishes Mechanical Electrical External works Total Traditional Building (%) 5.0 50.2 9.7 17.1 12.3 5.7 100.0 Queens Building (%) 4.5 59.3 7.3 14.0 10.3 4.6 100.0
Use and Operation

Initial metered data reveal a high degree of energy efficiency. For the 11-month period between September 1993 and July 1994, the Queens Building consumed 4.33 x 109 Btus of gas and 1.47 x 109 Btus of electricity, for a total of 5.8 x 109 Btus. This equates to a total of about 54,200 Btus/sq ft/yr. This is about half of that expected for a conventional building of this size and type. This was a factor in the selection of the Queens Building to receive the Green Building of the Year award in 1994. Environmentally, the building appears to be performing well. However, monitored data on indoor air quality and airflows are not yet available, although efforts are under way to gather this information. During its initial period of operation, the auditoriums experienced downdrafts from the stacks during the winter. This occurred when the fresh-air inlets and rooflights were opened to combat rising temperatures during full occupancy. This problem has since been resolved by closing the roof lights if an air temperature below 12C (54F) is sensed at the stack. Using the buildings small heating and power plant in combination with the operation of the large number of ventilation flaps and dampers is crucial to making the building work, and the operation will have to be continuously fine-tuned over time. The universitys School of the Built Environment will conduct a major natural lighting research project for the building in the latter part of 1995. Meanwhile, initial readings by the architect and those by Max Fordham Associates indicate that the physical modeling predictions were somewhat pessimistic. A 1 percent daylight factor was achieved on the concourse floor, four stories below the rooflights (this floor was also indirectly sidelighted).
Commentary The design process necessary to develop a building like the Queens Building goes against the grain of the building industry. Buildings are increasingly interpreted as assemblages of discrete packages, both of design input and of the resulting products and components erected on the site. The interface between these packages is more about efficient programming and sequencing by construction managers than about the long-term environmental consequences.
Professor Peter Carolin at Cambridge has described the Queens Building as holistic to the extent that the design is highly integrated. But with this approach, Short points out that the contribution of each consultant can impinge much more on the work of the other consultants than is now customary. Consequently, the design process is more stimulating, but it
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has to be programmed more carefully. Many more full-team meetings than usual are necessary, with involvement by pure scientists who may not be attuned to the speed at which design decisions must be made. The design of the auditorium and concourse area is a notable example of how the multidiscplinary process worked: Good visibility for the 168-seat auditorium invited the notion of using a steep raked wide-fan amphitheater (architect). This prompted the idea for delivering fresh air (tempered in winter) below the seats, which are coupled to a massive concrete slab (M&E). The latter concept required the creation of large voids in the slab connecting with large voids in the exterior walls for the admittance of air (structural engineer/architect). It was also decided that the walls had to be massive for Bridge over concourse passive thermal performance (architect/scientists/M&E) and that walls would be loadbearing (architect/structural engineer). In addressing these considerations, the consulting physicists fed the structural, architectural, and M&E teams with data on the free area required to admit fresh air. Concurrently, the architects modeled natural light levels and with the structural engineersexplored how structural integrity could be maintained while accommodating the required openings.
Lessons Learned The architect observes that one uninterested consultant can be very damaging to the design process and that from the start the team had to be very clear about the idea of sustainability. As the design evolved, the design team became more ambitious about the concept of omitting mechanical environmental systems. And now that a prototype is operating, this will allow designers to start out being ambitious.
Because the project required more work than one with traditional services, cutthroat fee bids would not have permitted the development of a holistic design. The projects capital savings along with the savings from operating the building, however, will rapidly recapture any differences between bid fees and regular-scale consultant fees.
Peter Cook
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Project Report
Energy Resource Center

Downey, California
Wolff/Lang/Christopher Architects Wheeler and Gray Structural Engineers Mathaudhu Engineering, Inc. Mechanical Engineers RWR & Pascoe Electrical Engineers
Through the reuse of building materials, this project recycles a thirty-five-year-old building and transforms it into a new facility that is environmentally responsive and energy efficient. The Energy Resource Center was developed by the Southern California Gas Company to house an assistance program to help its large energy users achieve efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
Robert Bein, William Frost & Associates Energy Analysis E2 Environmental Enterprises, Inc. Environmental Consultants RJM Design Group Landscape Architect Healthy Buildings, Inc. Building Commissioning Turner Construction General Contractor
Background
The push for environmental considerations in the Energy Resource Center (ERC) came from Southern California Gas Companys (SoCalGass) core businessthe distribution of natural gas, the cleanest fossil fuel but one that nevertheless has environmental impacts. Conceived as a one-stop idea shop, the ERC would be designed to exhibit resource-efficient materials and equipment to help SoCalGass industrial and commercial customers make informed choices about energy consumption and conservation. SoCalGas wanted the design of the facility to useto the fullest extent possibleenergy-efficient and environmentally responsive concepts and technologies. The vision was to make the ERC a world-class, high-tech facility that would gain national and international attention and use. It would be designed and constructed in less than 18 months at a cost not to exceed $10 million. The project was approached in a highly collaborative, interdisciplinary manner. The traditional construction disciplines of architecture, engineering, and building/contracting were joined with environmental, indoor air quality, and mechanical system commissioning experts. Early in the planning stages, SoCalGas created an advisory committee to supply the projects design team with knowledge that was outside their realm. The firm of Wolff/Lang/Christopher Architects, Inc., was selected as the architect through a process that considered several firms.
S i t e S e l e c t i o n a n d P ro j e c t R e q u i re m e n t s Because SoCalGass commercial and industrial customers are spread over central and southern California, the center needed to be readily accessibleboth for visits to the facility and for electronic link-up through phones, fax, and computer networking.
After extensive analysis of several sites that would require a totally new facility, the project team settled on a site in the city of Downey that contained an existing building owned by
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Background
SoCalGas. Downey, only a 20-minute freeway ride southeast from downtown Los Angeles, is undergoing an economic resurgence of sorts after years of slow decline following its more prosperous times in the 1950s and 1960s. The existing facility included a 32,000-square-foot one-story administrative building that was built in 1957. The building, situated on a 300 ft x 515 ft lot on a major east-west commercial thoroughfare, in sandwiched between two automobile dealerships and across the street from a regional shopping center.
Original Building
The new Energy Resource Center required a total of 44,000 gross square feet to accommodate an 11,000-square-foot exhibit hall, a 700-seat auditorium, numerous specialty rooms (to house product displays as well as meeting facilities); administrative spaces for the centers staff; and various support spaces. Because of budget limitations, not everything that had been envisioned was incorporated in the initial complex. At least two subsequent phases have been specified to incorporate additional energy-saving and environmental features in the new facility, which has been described by its designers as purposefully flexible and never finished. The fact that the ERC was a renovation of an existing structure and that SoCalGas was committed to using as much of the existing structure as possible imposed limitationson such considerations as building orientation, flexibility of design, and configuration of the heatingcooling systemson the project.
E n v i ro n m e n t a l G o a l s The environmental thrust for the effort was given expression by a member of the original ERC Advisory Committee, who stated that modern buildings and their construction processes rival automobiles and factories as sources of harm to the environment today, contributing to deforestation, air and water pollution, stratospheric ozone depletion, and the risk of global warming. Because of this, modern building exemplifies our three most worrisome environmental concerns: the ozone layer, disappearing rain forests, and waste processing. Buildings account for one-sixth of the worlds fresh water withdrawal, one-quarter of its wood harvest, and two-fifths of its materials and energy flows.
With this recognition, strategies were developed for materials selection with environmental considerations in mind. Emphasis was given to reusing existing materials (specifically from the existing structure, as well as from other sources) and using materials with low or no toxicity, materials with recycled content, and materials contributing to operational energy efficiencies.
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Figure 1: Floor Plan
1 Lobby 2 Main hall 3 Exhibit supervisor office 4 Event staging room 5 vestibule 6 Corridor 7 Shipping and receiving area 8 ERC alcove 9 Large equipment demonstration space 10 Storage 11 Multi-purpose room 12 Stage 13.Restroom 14 Seminar classroom
15 Seminar classroom 16 Residential new construction 17 Information and resource center 18 Combustion demonstration space 19 Stairs 20 Design solution and simulation room 21 NGV display space 22 Elevator 23 Managers office 24 Conference room 25 Major markets office
26 Telephone alcove 27 Core C/1 manager office 28 Special and technical displays area 29 Open office studio 30 Natural daylighting demonstration space 31 Mechanical equipment 32 Food service administration office 33 Testing Office 34 Staging platform 35 Teleconference room 36 Sales office
37 Commercial demonstration kitchen 38 Customer service 39 Catering kitchen 40 HVAC design center 41 Building envelope demonstration area 42 Microwave and telephone equipment room 43 Balcony 44 Existing tower
The projects energy goal was to exceed California Title 24 base standards by 30 percent, with a three-year payback for the initial capital costs. An alternative energy goal was a 45 percent energy reduction, with a five-year payback for the initial capital costs.
Design Response
Equipped with functional, energy, environmental, and budgetary goals, the projects next step included the analysis and evaluation of the existing facility so that an appropriate design direction could be solidified. Since the existing building contained only 32,000 square feet, an additional 12,000 square feet would have to be constructed. To help develop a final design approach, the client asked Wolff/Lang/Christopher to conduct a survey of the existing facility and prepare a feasibility study to identify those portions of the existing building deemed to be beneficial, critical, or necessary for retention. In addition, the capacities of existing structural, electrical, and
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Design Response
Various approaches for expansion were also explored and evaluated. For example, additional space could be built at grade level, which would reduce the area available for additional parking, or added as a second floor, which might restrict ceiling heights and restrain interiors for the main exhibition hall. After evaluating several approaches, a final direction was taken that called for dismantling one-third of the centers structure and replacing it with a two-story, arched-steel framed middle section (see figure 1). The remaining one-story wings on either side of the new portion were upgraded for the facilitys new mission. A commercial cooking center that was in place in the original facility, continued to operate throughout the demolition and construction phases. More than $1 million worth of energy-efficient kitchen equipment remains in place and serves as a resource for commercial and institutional kitchen operators.
The parabolic roof form over the center section of the building was inspired by SoCalGass gas-flame logo.
Energy Strategies To exceed the requirements set by the California Title 24 standards, strategies were developed to optimize use of the building envelope for thermal and daylighting performance; integrate electrical and natural lighting systems; make use of high-efficiency HVAC equipment; and apply an energy management system to regulate building systems. The impacts of the concepts used were analyzed by the DOE 2.1 energy analysis program.
Building Envelope
Building envelope features in the ERC include extra insulation, detailed caulking/sealing, reflective roof coatings, and special double-pane windows. Non-CFC rigid foam insulation at higher than standard R-values is used for walls (R-19) and ceilings (R-30). In addition, exterior walls include insulation combined with the outer finish to provide extra insulation value and a more aesthetic finish. No-leak, no-loss design is used for careful caulking and sealing of all wall seams and connection points. In conjunction with east- and west-facing glass in the ERC design, roof trestles are used to reduce the amounts of direct solar radiation. Similarly, a reflective white coating is used on the old roof covering the one-story sections and on the new metal roof on the two-story addition. Finally, double-pane, low-emissivity (low-e) film, Argon-gas-filled glass windows are used throughout. One pane of glass is coated with a low-e film, creating a heat mirror that more than doubles the insulating value of standard single-pane windows.
Electrical and Natural Lighting Systems
Advanced equipment, controls, and design all combined to lower the watts/sq ft in the ERC to 0.99 from 1.7 watts/sq ft in the old facility. This was calculated through the DOE 2.1E model. Occupancy and light sensors and automatic dimmers are used throughout the facility. During days of full sun, natural lighting from the second story reduces electric lighting needs by as much as 80 percent, which is what the automatic dimmers are programmed to reduce electric lighting to, given sufficient natural light.
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Design Response
Lighting equipment, controls, and design are coordinated to reduce electricity to about onethird or one-sixth of what it was in the old structure. Translucent wall sections are used in the two-story middle addition to maximize the use of natural daylighting. Three skylights in the main ERC first-floor corridors incorporate a sun-tracking system that uses mirrors, reflective light ducts, and efficient diffusing lenses to create an advanced interior lighting system for daytime use. Equipment includes the latest advances in one-inch-diameter T-8 fluorescent lamps and energy-saving electronic circuitry ballasts. Occupancy and light sensors are used throughout. Ultrasonic or infrared sensors switch lights on or off, depending on available light levels and occupancy of rooms. Within the limitations of the orientation of the old building, the use of natural light was maximized in the design to reduce electric lighting needs significantly.
Heating and Cooling Systems
Combined natural gas and electric systems using four different types of equipment were used, carefully designed through use of the DOE 2.1E model to control the peak-load uses of both energy sources. The four types of equipment are gas-fired double-effect absorption chiller/heaters, desiccant units, indirect/direct evaporative cooling, and package units. They are described as follows: Two absorption chiller/heaters and several air handlers were reused from the original office complex. They were installed in 1990, with space for a third unit created at that time, and were used as part of the ERC creation. They serve most of the old building areas on the first floor and the entire second floor in the new center portion. Two dual-wheel desiccant units serve the catering kitchen and a multipurpose room in parts of the western wing of the single-story portion of the facility. They reduce heating and conventional cooling requirements by 40 percent through cooling and dehumidifying, as analyzed by the DOE 2.1E model. The indirect/direct evaporative cooling unit and custom air-handling unit serve the first floor of the new center portion consisting of the 10,000-square-foot main hall and adjacent lobby. On a seasonal basis, this system is 50 percent more efficient than conventional constant-volume mechanical systems, as analyzed by the DOE 2.1E model. Tied to the indirect/direct system is a standard mechanical refrigeration system that is electrically driven and air cooled, exceeding California Energy Commission Title 24 requirements (8.0 EER vs. the units 10.5 EER). Two gas heating/electric cooling units (11.0 SEER vs. Title 24s 10.0 SEER) serve the 24hour, 7-day-a-week operations and highly temperature-sensitive equipment in a microwave telecommunications room that is highly critical to SoCalGass overall utility operations. A 100 percent back-up is required; hence, the two units.
Air Distribution System
All major air-handling systems in the ERC use variable frequency drive (VFD) technology to minimize energy used for fans in the mechanical system. As climate conditions change, the fan speeds are automatically changed. Digitally controlled variable air volume (VAV) terminal units regulate the quantity of conditioned air delivered to different parts of the facility. VFD drives also are used to electronically vary the frequency of electric current to change the speed of motors used in the heating-cooling-ventilation system. One drive being demonstrated at the ERC is a clean power unit that virtually eliminates the need for costly electronic filtering systems, or so-called harmonic devices used to prevent electronic feedback (static that is created when electrical frequencies vary). The air distribution system has an additional feature. CO2 sensorslocated in the return air ducts of the main hallcontinually monitor CO2 levels to determine if additional air flow is necessary. The use of the sensors allows air flow rates to maintain air quality with a minimal amount of flow and thus contributes to energy savings.
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Design Response
Energy Management System
A computerized central management system optimizes energy use by monitoring direct digital controls and controlling all mechanical systems, including building temperature, lights, and air flow. At first, more than 300 control points were used, allowing the isolation of very discrete areas; after completion, additional control points were added. A computer workstation operating in a Microsoft Windows environment provides the nerve center. Three-dimensional graphics help the operator select a variety of screens that pinpoint operations. Small parts of the facility can be manually controlled when necessary. A series of controllers is used throughout the system to help optimize overall system performance by automatically sequencing equipment. Another controller provides digital control to air-handling equipment, rooftop units, chilled water systems, etc. It is rated industrial grade and can withstand extremes in vibration and temperature, exceeding the guidelines for most HVAC controllers.
Energy Analysis
The DOE 2.1E energy analysis program was used to calculate hourly building energy consumption over an entire year. Operating economics and life-cycle analyses were calculated, using varying lighting and HVAC system configurations. With this information, the project team was able to integrate some equipment from the original building into its heating/cooling system, maximize sophisticated lighting approaches (natural and electric), and enhance the envelope design performance within the limitations of a recycled, reconfigured structure. Preliminary design analysis showed that the ERC would require about 200 tons of chiller capacity to meet 1993 California Title 24 Energy Standards and ASHRAE Standard 90.1 (see figure 2). This load, however, was reduced to 117.5 tons through a series of measures that reduced individual loads for ventilation, occupancy, lighting, equipment, and the building envelope. These measures included the following:
Figure 2: Title 24 Allowable Base Loads
Element or System Ventilation Occupant load Lighting Equipment Building envelope TOTAL Assumptions 900 person occupancy and minimum 20 cfm 900 persons using 600 Btus/hr per person 1.5 watts/sq ft for 44,000 square feet 1.5 watts/sq ft for 44,000 square feet Using the proposed building envelope Load (tons) 75 45 15 15 50 200
Ventilation load: The project team decided that 1.25 cfm/sq ft should be provided for proper air circulation and acceptable indoor air quality. For 44,000 gross square feet, a total supply air demand of 47,500 cfm was calculated. Total outside air was calculated to be 18,000 cfm, which resulted in 38 percent of the total air demand. By prechilling the outside air with high-efficiency washers, desiccant coolers, or direct/indirect evaporative cooling, the ventilation load could be reduced by 35 tons, with the ventilation requiring 15 tons. Occupant load: By reducing the peak occupancy to 750 persons (700 attendees and 50 SoCalGas staff), a reduction of 7.5 tons was possible, requiring a total of 37.5 tons for the proposed occupant load. The effects of reducing peak occupancy could be mitigated by increasing the number and frequency of events and programs scheduled Lighting load: By calculating actual lighting demand loads, combined with the use of high-efficiency lighting and natural daylighting elements, lighting loads could be decreased from 15 tons to 10 tons.
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Equipment: Although equipment loading and lighting loads for display and exhibit areas were exempt from Title 24, an estimated 15 tons was used in the final design. Building envelope: A minimum 20 percent savings in the cooling load for the building was assumed because of the use of high-efficiency materials, the proposed building shape, and thermal mass. Thus, cooling loads for the building were estimated at 40 tons. Figure 3 compares the final results for the Title 24 allowable loads with those as designed.
Figure 3: Title 24 Allowable Loads Versus Designed Loads
Element or System Ventilation Occupant load Lighting Equipment Building Envelope TOTAL Total reduction Title 24 (tons) 75 45 15 15 50 200 ERC Design (tons) 15.0 37.5 10.0 15.0 40.0 117.5 82.5
As a result of this analysis, the project team concluded that the original goal of a 30 percent saving was easily achievable and that a saving of 40 percent was more realistic. A solarassisted water heating system was considered but rejected because the payback times were too long. Instead, high-efficiency, condensing-type water heaters were selected to achieve 98 percent rated efficiency, as compared with conventional equipment ratings of 83 percent. The DOE 2.1E analysis showed that compared with the former building, the ERC should decrease source energy use by about 45 percent. The old facility used approximately 224 kBtus/sq ft/year of source energy (gas and electric); source energy use for the ERC use is estimated at 124 kBtus/sq ft/year. These figures will be verified during the ongoing formal commissioning of the center, which will be completed by the end of 1995.
Materials The project emphasized preserving and minimizing the use of natural resources by decreasing consumption, reusing materials (wherever reuse made economic sense), recycling, incorporating products that contain postconsumer recycled content, and using sustainable sourcing that does not threaten fragile ecosystems. In addition to recycling and reusing materials, the technique of source reduction was appliedeliminating the need to use resources or to have to recycle them.
Reuse of Materials from Existing Building
To avoid a traditional demolition approach that sends dismantled materials to local landfills, the existing building was carefully dismantled. More than 62 percent of the removed materials were either reused in the new facility or recycled. The items separated for recycling included 232 tons of concrete sent to crushers and recyclers, 23 tons of roofing materials, 820 tons of asphalt, 27 tons of drywall, and 57 tons of metal. Brick facing from the old building was removed, stockpiled, and eventually used as site paving material. Between 5 and 10 percent of the acoustical ceiling tiles found in open office areas of the former building were cleaned, trimmed down to 11 x 24 inches, and reinstalled in the two ERC seminar rooms. Nine hundred square feet of wood wall paneling from the former auditorium was removed, refinished, and reused as flooring in the daylighting room.
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As suggested by the electrical subcontractor, approximately 1 ton of electrical conduit and fittings salvaged from the former building was reused throughout the ERC. In addition, the existing UPS electrical system was reused, eliminating the need for a $20,000 expenditure for a new system. The buildings automatic transfer switch was also reused, for a saving of $5,000. Although these items may require some overhauls, their reuse is preferable to what many view as the easy fixsimply purchasing new equipment for each remodeling project.
Recycled Materials
Recycled materials include old aircraft aluminum used as a decorative lobby accent wall. Guns and knives confiscated by local law enforcement helped to create steel reinforcing bars used in the reconstructed sections. Broken glass makes a countertop in the lobby. Broken-up plastic gas distribution piping is used in the entrance walkway paving. Federal Reserve Bank notes are recycled into display panels used throughout the center; and several movie-industry set props are used for functional parts of the center, including the lobby stair.
New Materials
New materials and products for the ERC were aimed at optimizing indoor environmental quality. At the start of the design phase, E2 Environmental Enterprisesthe projects environmental consulting firmprepared a catalog of several hundred environmentally and energy-responsive materials and products that offered nontoxic or low-toxic content, recycled content, water conservation features, air quality features, and energy efficiency. The catalog was used by the architect as a guide for material and product selection and was later incorporated into the contract documents as part of the project manual. Examples of new materials used in the ERC include nontoxic interior paint and flooring sealers free of VOCs and other solvents; linoleum flooring; adhesives for tile, carpet, and padding made from nontoxic ingredients; carpet tiles with face fiber made from 35 percent recycled postindustrial nylon; systems furniture panels covered with a 40 percent recycled plastic material and treated with an antimicrobial agent; and special linings in ducts to minimize mold and bacteria growth.
ERC during open heart surgery construction
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Construction
The project team realized early in the planning process that recycling a building required a new definition of roles. The team felt that contractors would have to become more understanding of environmental goals, while designers needed to keep in mind real-world and practical concerns. Therefore, the project team issued a request for proposal (RFP) to overcome problems anticipated with traditional design/build approaches and to tailor a fast-track design and construction process. Turner Construction was one of six qualified firms responding to the RFP. In discussions, when the Turner team referred to the design concept as performing open heart surgery, the project team knew that Turner grasped the critical nature of the construction methods that would be required. The contractor would have to ensure that, as much as possible, construction methods reinforced the projects energy and environmental goals, including the recycling concept in the dismantling of the old structure. Related operational requirements also required the contractors attention. The commercial kitchen facility and the microwave facilityboth located in the west wing of the one-story portion to be left in placehad to be kept in operation during the entire construction process. After the contractor was brought on board, detailed site recycling approaches and procedures were developed to define how construction materials would be handled, stored, reused, or recycled. A list of local recyclers, recycling centers, waste haulers, and reuse programs was prepared and a solid-waste management and environmental protection plan was developed. This included detailed demolition plans for the old building and covered landscaping, earthwork, water resources, land resources, dust control, and noise control during the dismantling.
Use and Operation

Operating data are still limited, since the ERC went into use in early 1995. However, some preliminary information has been produced in connection with commissioning activities of the project, which will be completed at the end of 1995. At that time, results will be available
Administration area
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for first-year energy use, ventilation rates, lighting levels, indoor air quality, and water consumption.
Indoor Air Quality During the ERC initial shakedown period (January through March 1995), and prior to the formal indoor-air-quality survey that was to be completed in August 1995, air samples were taken every two weeks. The last three samples, in March 1995, showed very acceptable levels of airborne total volatile organic chemicals (TVOCs) as being under 600 micrograms/m3. Most of the readings on the TVOCs molecular weight were well below 500 micrograms/m3.
The goal of an indoor air quality consultants work is to maximize the probability that a building will in fact be a healthy place for employees and patrons alike. The consultant for the ERC has stated in preliminary reports that this goal should be achieved. The consultant has verified that adequate design specifications have been written to address concerns regarding the internal environment in the center.
Observations Paul Cardenas, vice president of energy distribution support services for SoCalGas, said that we did not demolish the building. We did not remodel it. We recycled the building and incorporated many of the most advanced, environmentally sensitive technologies available today. We also reused many of the materials that were already there.
ERCs architect, Larry Wolff, describes the project as a case study of the adaptive reuse of an existing, underutilized facility. It demonstrates how the total value of the existing building, site improvements, infrastructure, land cost, embodied energy, and expended professional and company-provided services can be leveraged to meet the three essential expectations of value, performance and image. Environmental consultant John Picard, of E2 Environmental Enterprises Inc., observed that every major feature had to be just as financially feasible as it was environmentally correct. Were not painting a future thats out of reach. This technology is available for people who are building right now. The ERC will never really be finished. As technology improves, new lighting, air conditioning and other technologies and materials will be adopted. The U.S. Energy Information Administrations Commercial Building Characteristics (1994), shows that there are 4.8 million existing commercial buildings in the United States containing 67.9 billion square feet of floor area. If this space were placed in a single facility on one floor, it would cover about 75 percent of the continental United States! This statistic dramatically portrays the enormous resource potential offered by the existing stock of commercial buildings. The recycled building concept offers a significant opportunity to diminish the demand on our remaining natural resources and to alleviate the environmental degradation that goes with the development of those resources.
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Project Report
Boyne River Ecology Centre

Shelburne, Ontario
Jeff Goldberg/Esto
Douglas B. Pollard, Architect Architect-Designer Allen Associates Co-Designer, Structural, Mechanical & Electrical Engineers Trehin Engineering, Ltd. Electrical Systems Engineer
Designed as an environmental learning laboratory, the Boyne River Ecology Centre illustrates a cluster of ecological and self-sufficient concepts, including that of an off-grid electrical power system. The project provides insight into the challenges of integrating sustainable technologies into building design and offers important lessons about the relationships between system capabilities and the way facilities are operated.
Lowans and Stephens Environmental Consultant Ocean Arks Institute Solar Acquatics Design Clemmensen and Associates Construction Manager
Background
For more than twenty years the Toronto Board of Education has conducted a natural science program at the Boyne River Natural Science School and Preserve, located on a 400-acre tract about 100 km (62 miles) north of Toronto. The tract lies in the westerly section of the Niagara Escarpment, a region of high undulating terrain stretching from the intersection of Georgian Bay and Lake Huron down to the Lake Erie-Lake Ontario intersection. In 1990, responding to a need for additional enclosed teaching space, the board of education decided to develop another building at the site. An association with the Ontario Ministry of Energy and Environment was formed, and a decision was made to design and construct an ecology center. The architectural mandate was to design and build a teaching center to be used for indoor activities in conjunction with outdoor environmental and ecology studies. In the words of the projects architect, Doug Pollard, It was the aim of the board that the building be perpetually self-reliant, teach the concept of proper stewardship...and demonstrate that sustainable technologies and methodologiesand the adjusted attitudes and behavioral patterns that match these technologiescan be delightful, uplifting and aesthetically rewarding. The specific performance objectives for the effort required that the building be built with minimal environmental impact; be self-sustaining, producing its own energy and treating its own waste;
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be designed to house classroom activity and actively demonstrate the principles of conservation and respect for the environment; prove that an environmentally sensitive public structure is technologically and economically viable in Ontario today; and demonstrate that the above goals can be accomplished without compromising the inherent beauty and delight of a well-designed structure. Scheduling and budget were not primary factors in the projects development, although they certainly played a role. The overriding concern was to demonstrate the principles and methods of environmentally sensitive construction and to excite the interest of the students so that they would carry their enthusiasm into further studies and pursuits. Another aim was to make the students experiences special and even magical (i.e., the camp memories most of us keep) so that a mental association would be made between the methodologies of the place and the unique experiences found there.
Design Response
The projects mechanical, electrical, and structural concepts evolved in concert with the development of its architectural systems. From the first conceptual sketch the engineers endeavored to eliminate their own systems. In addition to the architect and engineers, participants at many meetings included the contractor, the structural engineer, and electrical suppliers and installers. The schools teaching and maintenance staff were also consulted and involved throughout the decision-making process. To achieve the projects goals, the design weaves together sustainable methods and techniques in a series of interrelated strategies. These include the integration of passive solar energy elements into the overall design in order to minimize the buildings total energy demand; design of a hybrid power-generating system to capture on-site available energy; incorporation of an on-site wastewater and sewage treatment system to return clean water to the site; and the selection and application of materials based on a range of environmental considerations aimed at reducing demands on natural resources and achieving healthier environments.
Building Orientation The site faces south with a protective treed hill to the north (see figure 1). At the foot of a hill, fronted by a large pond complete with waterfall, the setting is rich in available resources wind, water, sun, and foliage. Sufficient space was available for proper wintertime solar exposure, and shading was available to complement summertime cooling strategies. The decision was made to align the building along the north-south axis, thus creating a solar compass (the points of the compass were later integrated into the internal floor pattern). Building Form and Configuration A segmented, 16-sided, near-circular shape was selected by the architect for several reasons (see figure 2). Drawing upon the tradition of native Canadian lodges, the shape produces a building with a low visual impact on the landscape. It also reduces the amount of material needed for construction and offers a number of energy-related advantages. The form is efficient for warming a building with the use of a central fireplace, since heat radiates outward. The form allows a portion of the building to be earth sheltered, yet permits enough of the exterior to be exposed so that it can capture an ample quantity of sunlight. The lack of sharp corners reduces wind turbulence and virtually eliminates the possibility of shadows on the heat-collecting windows.
Circulation occurs within the buildings central space, thereby reducing the need for spaceconsuming entry sequences. An immediate understanding of the buildings layout is gained at the entry vestibule. The resulting panoramic views from the classrooms provide students with a solid and constant connection to their natural surroundings.
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Figure 1: Site Plan

a
c a wind machine b photovoltaics c micro-hydro
battery room
classroom stor.
arts and crafts nature studies
water treatment
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View of earth-covered roof
Insulation The centers energy performance relies on a thermally efficient building envelope, which is dominated by the tempering effects of a sod roof and an earth embankment that wraps around the north half of the building. A wooden curtain wall constructed with 2 x 8 in. and 2 x 10 in. spruce members is attached to a heavy timber frame. To prevent thermal losses, the 2 x 8 in. verticals are completely filled with R-28 fiberglass batt insulation and clad on the outside with R-6.7 semirigid fiberglass insulation. This combination results in a total R value of 34.7 for the walls. An outer layer of draining insulation is placed over a spun-bonded Olefin air barrier, which is taped at the joints and window frames. Further, the interior of the wall has a vapor barrier beneath the finished layer of cedar siding. Below-grade insulation applied to the walls, floor perimeter, and footings also greatly reduces thermal losses.
Most of the exposed surfaces are south-facing windows, consisting of triple-glazed, double low-E, argon-filled units with low conduction edge spacers and insulated frames. The edge spacers improve the overall window performance to approximately R-8. Using non-CFC insulation, a structural air barrier, and high-quality window seals and gaskets, the design achieves a high degree of airtightness. A heavy timber truss system with wood decking supports the sod roof. The plant growth on the roof reflects 20 to 30 percent of the heat before it can be absorbed in the soil. The result of this natural process is that the building requires greatly reduced cooling loads. The roof has another, less-obvious benefit. With increased solar exposure, the sod grows more vigorously on the roof than it would on the ground, thus compensating for the biomass that was removed in the buildings construction.
Daylighting/Lighting The extensive use of daylighting reduces the demands on electrically operated lighting. Primary entry points for daylight include classroom windows, the water treatment room, and the cupola. To maximize the light from the cupola windows, the concrete slab over the fireplace was painted white to reflect light up to the underside of the pale-colored roof decking. Some portions of the interior (e.g., battery storage room, restrooms) are windowless because the northernmost side of the building is pushed into the hillside. Electrical lighting systems include task lighting, provided by compact fluorescent lights controlled individually by panels in each classroom; large fluorescent lamps located above chalkboards in the classrooms;
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Design Response
and low-voltage halogen lights to illuminate circulation paths on the north side of the building. The restroom lights are controlled by occupancy sensors.
S p a c e H e a t i n g a n d H o t Wa t e r S y s t e m Energy analysis using the ENERPASS program was used to determine hourly and monthly thermal loads as well as the energy needed for space heating and cooling and for domestic water heating. The building was conceived without a mechanical heating system.
Heat sources in the building come from the solar energy collected by the walls, roof, and windows and heat given off by the occupants, of which there may be as many as 100 at a time; light fixtures, equipment, and other powered devices; and a centrally located fireplace, which was conceived as a multipurpose design element. In this scheme, the fireplace provides space heating and supplemental domestic water heating (water is also heated by solar collectors). The fireplace was also conceived as an element providing the physical and spiritual focus of the building. Designed to receive combustion air directly from the outside via two one-foot diameter pipes beneath the concrete floor slab (see figure 3), the fireplace has exterior dampers controlled by a chain device. The masonry chimneyuninsulated and plaster cladwas intended to absorb heat from rising combustion gases and re-radiate it to the interior central space.
Figure 3: Building Cross-Section
classroom
water treatment
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The system for heating domestic water was designed as a split system, allowing it to be seasonally adapted. When the fireplace is lit, water passes through radiators (located at the edges of the fire pit) by natural thermosiphon loops and goes to a 60-gallon heavily insulated hot water tank above the fireplace. When sunlight is available, a glycol solution is pumped through two 4 x 8-ft flat-plate solar collectors mounted on the south-facing slope of the roof and then back through the water tank, where it discharges heat. Any excess heat in the system is dumped into the air via fins mounted on piping.
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Ve n t i l a t i o n a n d C o o l i n g A major environmental benefit of the sod roof is the evaporative cooling it provides in the summer. When the soil is damp it dissipates heat accumulated during the day through evaporation. The thermal mass of the one-foot-thick bed of soil provides about a nine-hour time lag in temperature variation before re-radiating the heat gained during the day back into the night sky.
In the winter, outside air is drawn through a cupola and passes through an air-to-air heat exchanger, where it is warmed by outgoing air before being forced downward with high-efficiency fans into large metal ducts on the classroom floors. As the air further heats up from solar, body, and lighting sources, it rises slowly along the sloping ceiling and returns to the cupola. It exits through the same heat recovery ventilator via another, identical fan, giving up its heat to the incoming fresh air. In the summer, operable windows eliminate the need for any mechanical assistance. Located high in each room and on all four sides of the cupola, hopper windows allow fresh air inside and nudge stale air toward exit grilles adjacent to the chimney. Passive cooling is fostered through metal screens on the outside of the building, and natural ventilation is aided by interior partitions that drop short of the ceiling.
Hybrid Electrical Power System Electricity available from the grideven though produced by hydropowerwas deliberately ignored at the outset because the board of education desired to create a facility with self-sufficient energy systems. In response to this mandate, the decision was made to develop an autonomous on-site electrical energy system powered by a mix of wind, hydro, and photovoltaic technologies. This approach was chosen so that students could observe and learn about various energy alternatives in a real-life context.
Total electrical requirements: Electrical equipment and devices expected to be used were identified, and estimates were made for their expected daily hours of use. A worst-case scenario was calculated, then adjusted to reflect anticipated use profiles. The analysis determined that on average, a total of 11.1 kwh/day would be required, with the highest demand of 17.5 kwh/day occurring in December. Subsequent steps addressed the specific sizing for the three sources of power generation: a wind generator, a photovoltaic array, and two microhydro generators. Wind power: Wind analysis of the site showed good correlation with data from two nearby weather stations. The generator site was on a forested ridge about 70 m (230 ft) above the center. Anemometer data were collected at two heights on the ridge, and the LBL Model was used to make projections of wind speed at different heights. The available selection of generators for the site was limited. There are very few wind generators manufactured in the range of 1.0 kw to 10.0 kw, but eventually a Bergey BWC1500 was selected. The generator is mounted on a mast at a height of 31 m (100 ft) about 175 m (191 yds) north of the building. The generator is rated at 1,500 watts with a voltage of 48 V DC delivering approximately 9.3 kwh/day. Hydropower: The stream flowing through the site has an existing dam and waterfall. The head3.5 m (11.5 ft) over a horizontal run of about 5.0 m (16.5 ft)is quite low compared to most microelectric generation sites. To determine its potential power output, flow calculations were made using two methods. The first physically measured the flow rate at the dam. Several measurements taken over a four-week period established an average rate. A second methodthe Equivalents Watershed Analysiscompared flow rates for water bodies in a region based on the size of the watershed. The values obtained from the first method were about 50 percent lower than those based on the watershed analysis (this is because the entire
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water flow over the dam cannot be physically measured). For the power production estimates, the lower values were used and were correlated for the other months of the year. The theoretical hydropower for the site is about 500 watts. Currently available microhydro generators are generally designed for higher heads and lower water flows. A single generator could not accommodate the amount of water available at this site; therefore, the system was designed to use two Pelton wheel generators producing 200 watts peak power with an output voltage of 48 V DC. The mean power produced was projected to be 3.9 kwh/day. The water flow was expected to allow for the operation of both generators for at least five months of the year at 100 percent peak capacity. For the remaining months, water flow would be regulated by closing down the valves feeding the two units. Photovoltaics: With the overall electrical needs for the center determined and the availability of the electricity from wind and water known, the size of the photovoltaic array was calculated. (Note that the energy output of the water and wind resources is limited to the power available and the type of generator selected. Photovoltaics have the advantage of being more modular, allowing them to be added to incrementally to match energy needs.) The PV array is sized for use in fall and early winter, when operating temperatures of the modules at 25C (77F) are lower than the normal temperature of 40 to 50C (104 to 122F). As a result, an array of Solec S40 modules was installed directly behind the building. This produces 2.3 kwh/day with a peak power of 640 watts. Total electrical power: Depending on the season, the contributions from each power source will vary. For example, at this location, wind is the most productive in the winter, photovoltaics in the summer, and hydropower in spring and fall when water flow is highest. Analyses revealed that the average combined power could be between 15.2 and 16.9 kwh/day. This showed that the hybrid system could theoretically supply the projected power needs most of the time except for possible periods in Decembera month when the facility might not be in full use. Battery storage: Battery storage requirements were determined more intuitively than scientifically, since no information is available on battery sizing for hybrid systems using two or more sources. In single-source wind systems, battery storage is typically designed for 10 to 15 days, since wind is often erratic. For more steady hydroelectric generation, only two days storage is required. Many photovoltaic stand-alone systems use up to 15 days of storage, but most systems for houses and small buildings use five days of storage. Professional judgment suggested that battery storage for this hybrid mix would be considerably less than that required for one source. A decision was made to size the battery array for approximately five days of storage, recognizing that the center is not used on weekends. The battery system is designed to last five years instead of the typical 10 to 15 years, since it is expected that battery technology will advance significantly and that in the future the system can be reappraised and possibly restructured. The banks of lead antimony batteries are wired together to produce 48V DC current. The batteries are visible to the students through the large windows of the battery room. The available electrical power is indicated on a panel (also behind the windows) that can be seen from the circulation space.
Wa s t e w a t e r Tre a t m e n t S y s t e m The goal of making the Boyne River Ecology Centre environmentally self-sustaining is dramatically illustrated by its unusual solar aquatic waste-treatment system. Isolated in a glass enclosed space on the centers south facade, the system is used to treat and purify the facilitys wastewater. Students observe firsthand the actual processes taking place. Developed by Massachusetts-based biologist John Todd, this living machine simulates natural ecosystems by cycling raw sewage through four sealed equalization tanks and then pumping it into an array of plastic cylinders where bacteria, algae, protozoa, worms, and a variety of fish and
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plant life form diverse ecosystems that filter the water. Gravity alone draws the water from cylinder to cylinder. The treated water is eventually pumped into a display pond where other plants and animals are exhibited. The pond is more of a teaching and observation tool than a critical component of the system, but in case of imbalances, the system allows for redirection and modification of the water flow. The volume of water flowing through the system is controlled by toilets that consume 1.5 gallons of water per flush and by faucet sensors. The system can process up to 800 gallons per day. Currently the systems primary benefit lies in its educational value, since its full potential is not being realized. In fact, installation of the system is redundant, since code officials required a conventional treatment system as well. The treated wastewater presently flows into the septic system. It is hoped that after observation and assessment, government authorities will allow the treated water to be recycled.
Wastewater treatment room
Materials Selection The architect evaluated materials according to a number of criteria that can be loosely described as components of the environmental analysis known as life-cycle assessment (LCA). The process analyzes materials and products for their environmental impact at each stage in the life cyclefrom extraction of raw materials to manufacture, distribution, use, and disposal. However, standardized data to support this method in architectural practice are difficult to obtain. In the case of Boyne, the method was employed informally, using comparisons that are based more on intuition sensitized through experience than on scientific method. The criteria analyzed included local availability, embodied energy, environmental impact, chemical makeup, recyclability, and maintenance.
Regional availability: The architect started with the desire to support local economies by using locally produced products. Initially, local was interpreted as the Province of Ontario, with priority given to materials that could be obtained closest to the site. In some cases, this approach worked; in others, it did not. The centers main structural columns, for example, were made of peeled pine logs, which were available in Ontario. Similarly, the interior wall
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Construction
finishes made of one-inch-thick cedar boards were obtained locally. Both woods came from well-managed Ontario forests. In contrast, roof trusses were fabricated from small Douglas fir members since those trees can be regrown faster than trees supplying equivalent beamsize members. However, choosing a source for the trusses involved a trade-off between local availability and assurances of environmental quality. Eventually, a wood source in Oregon certified for eco-friendly forest management was selected over one in Ontario where certification was not available. Low-embodied-energy materials: Materials with a high embodied energy, such as aluminum, were limited to small flashings and conduits. Embodied energy is the total of all energy used in the extraction, processing, distribution, and installation of a material. Since energy use is usually directly related to air, water, and land emissions, determinations of embodied energy provide a glimpse of the environmental impact of a material. Embodied energy, however, should never be taken as the only indicator of environmental impact. Other environmental factors, such as effects on animal and plant habitats, are indirectly related to energy consumption. Wood, with a relatively low embodied energy, was widely used in the center, although only after the architects additional evaluation regarding wood sources, as described above. Low-toxicity materials: In terms of the chemical makeup of materials, the architect tried to avoid the most common irritants and select materials that either very benign or primarily organic in composition. Counters made of local polished stone slabs are supported on a light metal frame, avoiding the need to use solvent-laden plywood, particleboard, and laminates. Paint was limited primarily to metal surfaces and was latex rather than oil based. The interior wood walls were finished with a lemon/beeswax clear finish. Carpet, vinyls, plastics and adhesives, and other interior finishes with either high embodied energy or toxic substances were avoided. Linoleummade of wood flour, linseed oil, and natural pigmentswas selected for flooring. Linoleum is soft and warm to the touch and acoustically absorbent. Recyclability: The trusses can be easily disassembled and used in another building. Wall tiles made out of local clay were selected and can be reused or pulverized and made into new tiles. The earth on the sod roof can be put back into the excavation, but the EPDM membrane would have to be reused elsewhere. Maintenance considerations: If a maintenance procedure was simple or did not take too long (the architect had a time budget of two to three person-hours per day for all maintenance), it was considered an acceptable method. In the interest of reducing energy demands, the design team searched for materials that could be cleaned by hand. To reduce the use of harmful solvents, they looked for methods that employed soap and water or simple dusting or dry mopping.
Construction
A construction management approach was used, and the construction project manager who participated in the design process from the startbecame intimate with the goals and intentions of the design team. Several major suppliers (timber systems, electrical power sources) were preselected and participated in the design process as well. All other subcontractors were preselected by the construction manager and were interviewed twiceonce before submitting their bid, and again after the bid was received. Successful bidders were interviewed a third time before contracts were signed to verify that every facet of the program was clearly understood. Construction requirements included minimizing construction site waste. All scrap wood was to be set aside for firewood. Metal scrap was recycled and packaging materials sent back to the manufacturer as much as possible. The main structural components were cut off site and
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View from southwest
assembled without on-site scrap. All forming lumber was reclaimed and reused elsewhere. Wall patterns for the clay tiles were carefully calculated. A few leftover tiles were reused as shelf supports. Some linoleum scraps were left behind for art supplies. After one year of construction, there was less than one 20-cubic-yard bin of construction waste to be removed from the site.
Use and Operation

The center has been well received since it opened in June 1993. In its first year, 6,000 students and 2,000 adults visited the facility. One educator remarked that this is a true pilgrimage building that all should visit. A student commented that seeing this building gives me a lot of excitement and happiness because it makes me feel good that there is a chance of one day having all buildings like this and saving the environment. The facility admirably fulfills its educational role as a learning laboratory by vividly showing the potential of off-grid and ecologically sensitive technologies. However, refinements to these technologies and to ways of using them need to be considered to address some operational difficulties. The hybrid electrical power system has the potential to furnish all of the buildings own electricity, with wind supplying 60 percent, hydro 25 percent, and solar photovoltaics 15 percent. These energy sources, however, depend on the vagaries of microclimatic conditions, a fact that was underlined in January 1995. During an unusual spell, the site experienced 13 days without wind or sun. Power was substantially reduced and the batteries came close to being fully discharged. As a precaution, the school elected to connect the building to the utility electrical grid. Jeff Lancaster, the building engineer at Boyne, indicated that the school intends to acquire data monitoring equipment so that the energy system can be tracked, better understood, and fine-tuned. The schools goal is to get off the grid once things are worked out with the electrical system. To provide adequate heat on cold days, the fireplace had to be carefully monitored and attended. Unfortunately, staffing resources and responsibilities did not permit the fireplace to be attended often enough for it to reach full heating capacity. Neverthelesseven with sporadic monitoring, relogging, and stokingindoor temperatures of 68F were reached during winter days. During Christmas break of the first winter, the fireplace was not used
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Jeff Goldberg/Esto

Use and Operation
and the building was without heat. Outdoor temperatures ranged every day between -20 and -30C (-4 and -22F), but the building displayed its passive potential by maintaining a steady indoor temperature of 13C (55F). Jeff Lancaster felt that with constant care (which would require adjusting operational procedures, staff resources, etc.), the system as designed could achieve higher indoor temperatures. Opting not to change operating procedures, school officials elected to remove the fireplace and install a wood pellet furnace in November 1994. The furnace is connected to the utility grid on a separate circuit rather than through the hybrid system. When it was installed, the new furnace was also connected to the domestic hot water loop originally heated by the fireplace. The school is considering installing a wood stove where the fireplace stood, but this installation is on hold because of fiscal constraints. On balance, the Boyne project gives a glimpse of the possibilities offered by an integrated approach to ecologically based building design. It suggests, however, that further research is needed, especially with respect to the design and specification of autonomous, off-grid power systems. In addition, the project underlines the importance of post-occupancy policies, operation, and monitoring with regard to achieving design goals. This importance is significantly magnified when the goal is to reach energy self-sufficiency.
BOYNE RIVER
PROJ 3
11
Project Report
Environmental Showcase Home

Phoenix, Arizona
Courtesy of Arizona Public Service
Jones Studio, Inc. Architect-Designer Slaysman Engineering, Inc. Structural Engineers McNulty and Associates, Inc. Mechanical Engineers Grommes-Mead Electrical Engineering Lighting Dynamics Lighting Design Robert Emik and Associates Landscape Architect Homes & Son, Contractors General Contractor
The Environmental Showcase Home (ESH) demonstrates the benefits that can be attained by integrating environmental strategies into the design of a single-family dwelling. Although tailored to climatic conditions in the southwestern United States, the design approach and concepts used for the ESH can be adapted anywhere. Embodying principles of sustainability, energy efficiency, and resource efficiency, the design features environmentally responsible materials, passive and active energy technologies, and water conserving systems.
Background
The Environmental Showcase Home, located in Phoenix, Arizona, was designed in response to an extreme climate, in this case the Sonoran desert. Earlier builders in this environment dealt with such issues as orientation, shade, cross-ventilation, planting around the house, and the desirability of verandas, sleeping porches, shaded patios, and indoor-outdoor rooms such as the Arizona Room. The indigenous peoples of the desert Southwest developed buildings that offered deep shade in the summer and access to the sun in the winter. The early Hispanic settlers favored shady courtyards with fruit trees and fountains, whereas early Anglo settlers surrounded their buildings with deep porches that shaded the interiors and provided protected outdoor living spaces. Later, the ranch house developed as an enduring climateresponsive type: typically a simple rectangle, with its long sides oriented north and south and a porch on the south side. The ESH projectsponsored, ironically, by a power company whose electricity drives the airconditioning that has all but destroyed the above traditionsclearly reestablishes these traditions. But it does so not in a self-conscious, historically revivalist way. Instead, it is a carefully researched, technologically up-to-date, rationally ordered building, which takes advantage of recent developments in our understanding of what it means to be environmentally conscious. The Arizona Public Service (APS), the Wests largest utility company, commissioned and built the house to demonstrate attainable methods of saving energy, water, and material resources. The Jones Studio, a Phoenix architectural firm, was selected to design the project, and the firms efforts resulted in a 2,640-square-foot house that is uniquely suited to the Southwestern desert climate.
ENVIRONMENTAL SHOWCASE HOME
PROJ 4

Design Response
Design Response
The designers of the ESH employed both passive strategies and active systems to achieve the goal of reducing residential energy use. Water conservation, waste recycling, and use of environmentally sensitive building materials were other considerations in the design process.
Passive Energy Strategies The ESH takes advantage of both passive energy strategies and technological innovations in order to reduce energy consumption. Saving energy through passive design, however, requires different approaches in the Southwest from in most other parts of the United States. In some regions, passive solar gain is desirable, but here heat mitigation is of utmost importance for a significant part of the year. As a result, considerations of orientation, insulation, ventilation, and sun control are critical.
b
e a b c f a b c d e f g h i j k l m garage patio kitchen m. bedroom dining living bedroom/den computer area bedroom guest drying area lawn pool b m
g k h i j n b l
The ESH has a length-to-width ratio of approximately 3:1 and is oriented with its longest sides facing to the solar north and south. The house is also zoned internally to the orientation. The bedrooms at either end serve as buffers to the heat. Living spaces are located on the south side for solar access and daylighting, leaving utility spaces to the north (see figure 1).
Insulation
Contrary to popular thought, thick-walled adobe-type construction is not an appropriate solution for the low desert (such as Phoenix). This type of construction has little total insulation value and retains too much heat in midsummer, when low temperatures often remain above 90F (32C). Highly insulated low-mass exterior construction is a better answer for the ESH. Integrabrand concrete masonry units are used for most of the exterior walls because of their R-24 insulating performance when filled with CFC-free SuperGreen polyurethane insulation. Frame walls and vaulted ceilings are insulated with NatureGuard cellulose insulation (rated R-21 in the walls and R-38 in the ceiling). One portion of the garage is insulated with Air Krete, a nontoxic, nonflammable cementitious foam with an insulation level of R-40. Three inches (R-15) of rigid Amofoam RCY insulation (with 50 percent recycled polystyrene) is placed in a 2-foot strip around the perimeter of the slab-on-grade floor.
PROJ 4

Design Response
Once envelope elements are well insulated, the openings in a house become the weak energyefficiency link. For fenestration the ESH uses ultrahigh-performance Hurd wood windows with an Insol-8 glazing system. Two layers of low-E-coated Heat Mirror film are placed between double glazing, effectively making a quadruple-glazed window with an R-8+ centerof-glass insulation value and total unit performance of R-4. The color of the glass is attuned to the location: clear in the clerestory for maximum daylighting, gray for the lower windows to control reflected heat, and blue-green for the patio for maximum light and minimum heat gain. The doors are Peachtree Avanti, R-11 polyurethane-insulated, thermally broken steel doors chosen for warpage control, tight seal, durability, and recyclability. The window area is reduced from a traditional dwelling norm of 18 to 25 percent of floor area to 17 percent. This reduces energy by approximately 1,000 kwh per year.
Figure 2: Cross Section Showing Clerestory Windows and Mechnical Plenum
1 Reflected south daylight 17 ( o ff s u n s p o n g e ) 2 D i ff u s e n o r t h d a y l i g h t 18 3 S u n s p o n g e f a b r i c s h a d e / re f l e c t o r 4 H i g h l y i n s u l a t e d c l e re s t o r y ( R - 8 ) 19 5 F i n g e r- j o i n t e d l u m b e r i n a f e w a re a s 6 R e c y c l e d / re c y c l a b l e m e t a l ro o f i n g 20 7 O r i e n t e d s t r a n d b o a rd ro o f s h e a t h i n g 8 Parallel stand lumber woodbeam 21 9 Ve n t f o r a i r- v e n t c h u t e s 1 0 E n g i n e e re d w o o d ro o f I - j o i s t 22 1 1 P h o t o v o l t a i c p a n e l a rr a y 12 Unglazed solar pool heat 23 collector array 1 3 R e c y c l e d p a p e r / r a d i a n t b a rr i e r 24 a i r- v e n t c h u t e 25 14 Recycled paper (cellulose) insul. (R-38) 15 Laminated strand lumber wood 26 subfascia 1 6 R e c y c l e d / re c y c l a b l e o v e r s i z e d g u t t e r s 2 7
High summer solstice midday sun angle Spring/fall equinox midday sun angle Low winter solstice midday sun angle R e c y c l e d / re c y c l a b l e p l a s t i c / w o o d comp. lumber G re e n , h e a t - a b s o r b i n g , h i g h l y insulated glass (R-9) R e c y c l e d p o l y s t y re n e p e r i m e t e r insulation (R-11) I n t e g r a l c o l o r, p o l i s h e d c o n c re t e f l o o r w i t h re c y c l e d f l y a s h P l a s t i c v a p o r / r a d o n b a rr i e r Perforated drain pipe vented out ro o f / p a s s i v e r a d o n c o n t ro l Recycled metal supply ducts with taped joints Return air plenum (inside triangular chase)
2 8 Va r i a b l e a i r v o l u m e c o n t ro l box beyond 2 9 S u p p l y a i r d i ff u s e r / b u t t e r f l y damper 30 Plumbing/electrical/home a u t o m a t i o n c o n t ro l r u n s 3 1 R e c y c l e d / re c y c l a b l e m e t a l framing (interior walls) 32 Recycled paper face sheet g y p s u m w a l l b o a rd 33 No-VOC interior paint (white) 34 Sandblasted, insulated CMU walls with flyash (R-24) 35 CMU wall system past tension ro d ( n o e - b a r i n w a l l ) 3 6 N o n - C F C b l o w n p o l y u re t h a n e insulation (R 6.5 per inch)
PROJ 4

Design Response
Ve n t i l a t i o n
Natural ventilation is an effective cooling strategy in the low desert. In the ESH, this passive technique is accomplished by the creation of a thermal chimney, wherein warm air is vented through the operable clerestory windows and cooler air is drawn in through the roomwindows. The high and low opening areas are balanced, and walls and other obstructions are designed to minimize drag and eddies. On most spring days, with the windows open, there is a soft breeze in the home, despite often-calm winds.
Sun Control and Daylighting
Daylight without solar gain can be a challenge, so the daylighting design was architecturally modeled at a scale of 1 in. = 1 ft and tested under real sky conditions to assess shading and light gain. Two features contribute to the daylight efficiency of the house. First, clerestory windows gather the north light and send it into the living areas. They are protected from late afternoon sun by a series of sun sponges or vertical translucent banners that absorb and redirect rays in the summer into the clerestory without heat gain. The light enters the living areas and is reflected by a mechanical plenum spline with a white gypsum board surface. This triangular structure is continuous below the clerestory windows, evenly distributing the daylight from above (see items 1 and 2 in figure 2). South windows open up to light and winter sun but are shaded from summer sun. An operable large south awning can block spring and summer sun but allow winter sun to enter the living area (see 17, 18, and 19 in figure 2). Fabric shades are also used in other outdoor areas. The lower exterior walls of the house reduce total load by exposing less envelope area to sun and heat. Landscape design is used effectively to shade the west end of the house and prevent reflected heat gain in the south windows in the summer. To reduce total heat load, it is important in the desert climate to shade not only the openings but also the walls themselves.
Active Energy Systems As a demonstration project, the ESH makes use of more energy-saving systems than a house would actually have. For example, three different water heating systems are featured. The first water heating system is provided by the primary heating and air-conditioning system (the Intertherm Power Miser). This is a triple-function heat pump that also heats water efficiently, saving approximately 80 percent over a typical water heater. The second system, a solar heating system (Copper Cricket), can provide nearly 100 percent of the ESHs water heating needs, saving more than 2,000 kwh per year. Based on geyser pumping action, the solar collector heats a water/alcohol solution, which is then sent to a heat exchanger, where it gives up its heat to the potable water. This feature obviates the need for a pump, further reducing energy requirements.
The third water heating system is the Heliocol system for the pool. It uses six simple unglazed solar collector panels on the roof to heat the pool water, extending the swimming season by three to four months. (Although an environmentally sensitive approach might have been not to have a pool, the ESH team decided to include a small play pool to acknowledge life-style considerations and the demands of the home-buying public. While fitting in with these expectations, the pool is designed to demonstrate ways to save both water and energy over a standard swimming pool).
Outdoor living area
PROJ 4

Design Response
The ESH uses photovoltaic cells that convert the suns energy into usable electric power. The house contains 42 photovoltaic modules, each approximately 44 inches by 20 inches, generating a peak total of 2.2 kw of electricity. The cells are tilted 18.4 degrees to provide an optimum angle to the sun. This angle maximizes the output during May to August, when energy demands for cooling are highest. Total annual energy production would increase with a tilt angle of 33.4 degrees, but meeting the summer seasonal peak demand was considered more important than total annual output. The two goals of maximum summer output and total annual production could not be satisfied by the same tilt angle. Photovoltaic use is becoming more cost-effective. Cell efficiency is increasing, while the cost of photovoltaic energy is decreasing. In 1950 the cost of using photovoltaic power was $600 per watt; by 1990 it was $8.50 per watt. Photovoltaics are expected to become competitive with standard generation methods some time after the turn of the century.
Thermal and Energy Analysis The designers of the ESH evaluated passive energy-saving strategies and active systems with computer programs such as DOE 2.0 (for energy simulation), BLAST (a Department of Defense energy-modeling program for mass requirements), AZHERS (a home energy rating system), and EcoSmart (an APS-sponsored environmental rating system). Sun angle calculations and scale modeling were also done to evaluate shading and daylight performance.
Computer energy analysis (using the DOE 2.0 program) of the house showed that the materials selected delivered a highly cost-effective level of insulation. The BLAST simulation showed that there would be sufficient mass in the exposed and finished concrete floors, with aid from the mass in the inside face of the Integra CMU. Hot weather operation has shown that the existing mass is functioning well in its role as a cooling flywheel.
To t a l E n e r g y S a v i n g s a n d E n v i ro n m e n t a l B e n e f i t s The energy technologies and passive design features used in the ESH were analyzed by Energy Simulation Specialists of Arizona to determine the total energy savings of the ESH as compared to a traditional house. Figure 3 shows the savings in kwh for five of the energy
Figure 3: Energy Savings of Various Systems in the ESH
Energy System Space conditioning Feature Nordyne PowerMiser (SEER 20) heating, ventilating, and airconditioning system (HVAC) with water-heating function Trane Super Efficiency heat pump system Electric hot water options EPRI E-Tech heat pump water heater Integrated heat pump with space conditioning (Nordyne PowerMiser) Lighting Energy-efficient appliances Solar technologies Fluorescents and halogens Refrigerator, clothes washer, dishwasher, etc. Copper Cricket solar water heater and 2.7 kw of Solarex photovoltaic panels Source: Figures 36, 8 reproduced from Pijawka and Shetter, The Environment Comes Home (1995) 3,000 650 770 1,970 1,600 1,800 Savings (kwh) 3,100
PROJ 4

Design Response
Figure 4: Energy Use Comparison

Energy use (kwh)
18,000 15,000 12,000 9,000 6,000 3,000 0
15,700
6,600 3,000
Energyinefficient home
ESH without solar technology
ESH with solar technology
systems in the house. The four key elements of energy use (i.e., HVAC, the heat pump water heater, the energy-efficient appliances, and the lighting systems)together with the passive energy design of the houseare estimated to reduce electric use by 60 percent over a less energy-efficient house of a similar size. When solar water heating and photovoltaic electricity are included, then the ESH is estimated to use only 20 percent of the energy of a typical less energy-efficient dwelling. Figure 4 shows these savings comparisons. What kind of environmental benefits can be expected from the reduced energy requirements of the ESH? The impact on air emissions alone is considerable. Based on the local utilitys energy fuel mix and pollution control technology, the amounts of air emissions released by the generation of energy for the ESH and for a typical Phoenix house were calculated. For every kwh of electricity used, the power plants in the APS system emit 0.0030 lb of sulfur dioxide, 0.0038 lb of nitrogen oxide, 0.002 lb of suspended particulates, and 1.62 lbs of carbon dioxide. Based on these data, energy use in the energy-inefficient house would result in 12.8 tons of air pollution per year from the power generating plants. The ESH would produce only 2.5 tons of air emissions, an annual avoidance of nearly 10 tons over a typical house (figure 5).
Figure 5: Air Emissions Comparison
Air emissions (lbs/yr) 25,544 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 4,881 5,000 0 Energyinefficient home ESH
PROJ 4

Design Response
Wa t e r C o n s e r v a t i o n The ESH uses several techniques and methods to demonstrate that it is possible to achieve savings in water use of around 55 percent:
Demand reductionlimiting the use of water through the installation of low-flow features, drought-tolerant landscaping, and evaporation-limiting devices for irrigation. Water managementcontrolling water demand through use patterns that minimize need. For example, sensor systems monitor environmental conditions before determining a watering schedule. Rainwater harvestinggathering and storing rainfall for landscape irrigation. Gray water reusetaking gray water from bathtubs and laundry rooms and using it on the landscape (gray water from a family of four, together with rainwater harvesting, can produce enough water to supply total landscape needs for a house). The gray water/rainwater reuse system in the ESH is linked to the ROOTGUARD system, a subsurface drip irrigation system manufactured by Geoflow, Inc. The underground drip system supplies irrigation at the root zone, eliminating common irrigation problems such as water flow away from the vegetation, pooling water, and evaporation. Made from durable polyolefins, parallel drip-lines (12 to 14 inches apart) are buried 6 to 8 inches below grade and connected by PVC pipe to the gray water system. The ROOTGUARD irrigation system is operated by a computerized controller (Calsense). Working in conjunction with the AGWA Systems gray water/rainwater system controller, Calsense allows the homeowner to program cycles and soak periods for each station and design timed programs for landscape irrigation. The program also generates water use data by month and year. The AGWA System is selfcleaning and maintenance free and can be linked to most irrigation controllers. ESH indoor water systems are expected to reduce water use by 43 percent (see figure 6) over use for a comparably sized house (51,000 gallons versus 90,000 gallons). Outdoor water use, without the gray water system, is estimated to save more than 50 percent (20,000 gallons versus 58,000 gallons). With the operation of a gray water system, no municipal water will be required for outdoor uses once the landscaping is established.
Figure 6: Water Use Comparison
Water use (gallons/yr) 90,100 57,574 20,106 0 Conventional home ESH Conventional home ESH
100,000
51,100 50,000
Indoor water use
Outdoor water use
Wa s t e R e c y c l i n g S y s t e m s A recycling station is built into the kitchen cabinetry, and an organic waste composting system has been established near the vegetable garden. With these in place, the total outgoing waste during the use of the house might be reduced to one-quarter of the typical volume. Surprisingly, just as many recycled construction materials become new building products, much recycled residential waste can be turned into building materials. If this waste is successfully diverted and reused, then one of the primary approaches to environmental responsibilityclosing the loopis closer to being achieved.
PROJ 4

Design Response
Materials Selection The range of factors that determines the environmental friendliness of a product makes it difficult to select materials that meet all environmental goals. One problem is that there is no definitive set of criteria: these vary from region to region and even from project to project. Research is ongoing, but when this project was under way, the data were still relatively scarce. For the ESH team, the materials selection process was in many ways intuitive and relied on reviewing the processes going into a material or system, reviewing obscure cutting-edge sources detailing the latest thought and concerns about those materials, and gathering information on measures of relative impact (see figure 7).
Five major factors guided the choice of materials: energy efficiency, resource responsibility, social/public health responsibility, economic/functional responsibility, and the responsibility of the manufacturer to all of these factors (see figure 8).
Figure 7: Embodied Energy Costs of Building Materials

Building Material Lumber Cement Glass Fiberglass Steel Plastic Aluminum Cost of Energy 1 2 3 7 8 30 80
Source: EcoGroup, Inc., Design Issues Guide; and Center for Resourceful Building Technology, APS document (1995).
Figure 8: Factors Considered in Choosing Products and Materials for the ESH
Energy efficiency Energy-efficient production methods Energy-efficient use Use of renewable source of energy Resource responsibility Minimal need for other materials Low maintenance, durability Efficient use of resource material Recycled content Recyclable Social/public heath responsibility Avoidance of harmful chemicals in production Reduction of off-gassing Avoidance of harmful chemicals in disposal and reuse Economic/functional responsibility Cost-effectiveness Availability Acceptability Qualities of supplier or manufacturer Local resource Local manufacture Local economic benefit In-house environmental programs
PROJ 4

Design Response
Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency can refer to energy savings in the products manufacturing process. A good example of this in the ESH is the use of 100 percent recycled newsprint (cellulose) insulation, which requires about one-eighth the energy to produce as fiberglass insulation of comparable R-value. Energy efficiency also refers to the fact that a products use in the house can contribute to operational energy savings. The combined placement, function, and structural qualities of a material or product can produce lower energy use than that of a comparable product. For example, the SuperGreen polyurethane foam insulating the Integra concrete block wall system has higher insulating capabilities than block wall insulation products using polystyrene inserts or pour-ins such as perlite or vermiculite. The block itself is designed to create more cavity space and less thermal bridging. Since the foam is blown in, it can completely fill the cavities. Becoming rigid in a few hours, the foam cannot settle, which circumstance would lessen the insulating value. Another factor in its selection was the use of HFC-134a as a blowing agent rather than a CFC-based ozone-depleting agent, which is used in many urethane foams. The designed wall system achieves an R-value of 24 in 712 inches, as compared to R-19 or less in an equally thick 2-by-6 wood-framed wall with fiberglass batt insulation and common sidings. Finally, products can be used to help generate renewable sources of energy such as sun or wind, to lessen reliance on grid electricity or natural gas. Photovoltaics and solar water heating panels, as used in the ESH, fulfill this function.
Resource Responsibility
The criterion of resource responsibility leads a designer to make the most of the resources available, first by simply reducing the amount of resources used. To achieve this, each material in the ESH was selected for its ability to accomplish at least two tasks. For example, the Integra insulated concrete-masonry-unit wall system not only serves as the structural wall for the house but also encloses the insulating material. In addition, after being lightly sandblasted and sealed against moisture, the block becomes the final exterior and interior finish. Resource responsibility also implies durability and minimum maintenance. Those requirements, too, the Integra block met very well in the extreme desert climate. Another aspect of resource responsibility is how efficiently a resource is used. Wood, for example, is often held up as a sustainable product because trees can be regrown. Wood, however, may not be sustainable if it comes from the logging of old-growth forests. As the supply of large trees becomes more restricted, farming of trees becomes more viable. However, smaller farmed trees do not produce the long, large boards needed for such uses as roof framing. The ESH team first sought to minimize the amount of wood used by seeking efficient alternatives. For example, in areas where wood was required, engineered wood was used. Engineered wood allows small trees to be used in making long-span, high-strength, large cross-section members. Most technically advanced, perhaps, are the Parallam heavy timber beams used in the ridge beams of the ESH house and garage. These 5-1/4-inch by 16-inch members are made from farmed, fast-growing, peeler trees as small as 10 to 12 inches in diameter. These trees are peeled and the sheets cut into 8-foot by 1-inch strips, which are mixed with adhesive, extruded, and milled into timbers as large as 7 by 18 inches. They are a much more efficient solution to long spans in timber than even the common glue-laminated beam. The ESH design team also sought out alternative recycled-content products. Two good examples are the Trex composite lumber used for siding and for landscape edging and the
PROJ 4

Design Response
Stoneware Traffic Tile used in the bathroom areas. Trex is a composite of 50 percent recycled HDPE plastic (milk jugs and grocery bags) and 50 percent recycled wood (pallet and cabinet waste), each functioning to make the other component better. The plastic binds and protects the wood from weather, while the wood makes the plastic more dimensionally stable and more slip resistant (when used in its primary application of outdoor decking). Even in the Phoenix climate, the Trex should never need paint, sealing, or maintenance, but if painting or staining, is desired, it takes most paints and stains. The Stoneware Traffic Tile chosen for the bathroom floors is made from 70 percent recycled auto-windshield glass. The glass content gives it strength and makes it exceptionally resistant to water and stains. The design team also sought out materials that can be easily recycled, thereby helping alleviate the need for landfills and their associated environmental impacts. Unfortunately, many modern building products are not readily recyclable, since they are composites of different materials that cannot be easily separated. The most important example of a recyclable material in the ESH is the standing-seam metal roof. Roofing materials in the desert take much abuse from sun, wind, rain, hail, and even freezing temperatures. Since asphalt shingles might last only fifteen years in these conditions, many homes are built with either real clay or concrete roofing tiles, either flat or rounded (Spanish tile roofing). Although durable, these materials are heavy (up to 600 to 800 lbs per square) and not recyclable. The metal roof, on the other hand, is lighter (80 to 100 lbs per squarehalf the weight of asphalt shingles) yet equally durable, and is completely recyclable. Its lighter weight results in fewer roof, wall, and foundation structures, and most important, its lighter mass means less heat retention. In addition, the roofing metal contains more than 60 percent recycled source material.
Social/Public Health Responsibility
Materials relate to health issues in several ways. Manufacturing processes of building materialsthrough emissions to air, water, and landcan affect public health. In addition, the performance of materials installed in the building can affect the health of the buildings occupants. This is linked to indoor air quality (IAQ) through off-gassing, a factor that contributes to Sick Building Syndrome. The ESH addresses the health issue in two ways. First, it considered the products manufacturing process. The most chemically intensive building products tend to be adhesives and finish products (sealers, paints, etc.), for which the ESH team sought alternatives, including a completely nontoxically-produced clear wood sealer. Another example of avoiding harmful by-products in manufacturing is the use of a particleboard material called Environ used in some of the millwork. In it, agricultural by-product soy-bean flour, recycled newsprint, and water are mixed. When properly mixed and exposed to heat and pressure, the parts bond into a strong, naturally finished material. The ESH also attempts to use certain materials with discretion. For example, only 25 percent of the house is carpeted, and none of the carpet is installed with adhesives. This reduces the pollution from possible chemicals in the adhesives, and also reduces potential IAQ problems caused by dust, mites, and funguses that can invade even the best-maintained carpets. In addition, the carpet pad selected is natural jute fiber with a nontoxic binder. None of the paint throughout the house contains volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Disposal of a product in a landfill also represents potential health impacts through the leaching of harmful chemicals into the soil, water, or air. The ESH team took two approaches to this problem: first, it looked for products that could be recycled or reused and removed them from the waste stream, and second, it searched for products that, when returned to the earth, do not leave a harmful legacy.
10
PROJ 4

Design Response
Economic/Functional Responsibility
Economic issues were considered as carefully as the environmental criteria. Since the ESH is aimed at the production building market, factors such as affordability, availability, and acceptability were especially important. An example of affordability is the use of plastic laminate for surfacing millwork. Because it is applied with a nontoxic adhesive and is composed primarily of paper (sometimes recycled), using it makes sense. An example of availability was the interior wall finish material. Gyp-board is commonly available, has recycled content, and is recyclable in some communities. Ease of construction was also an important economic criterion, as exemplified by the passive radon-gas mitigation system. This simple EPA-recommended system uses perforated drain pipe laid in common ABC gravel subgrade under a plastic vapor barrier below the slab-ongrade floor of the house. The pipe is laid along with other plumbing and is connected to a dedicated riser venting through the roof of the house.
Qualities of Manufacturer
If a finished product must be transported great distances, some environmental benefits of the product may be reduced. Environmental responsibility can be enhanced by seeking out regional product sources, since energy use and pollution for transportation contribute to the environmental evaluation of a product. In Arizona a large percentage of the states electricity is produced by coal-fired plants using antipollution scrubbers that recover fly ash. Most fly ash is landfilled, but it also makes an excellent cement replacement in concrete. This use of fly ash is growing around the country, but in Arizona, although the product is regionally available, only 20 percent is reused. The ESH team sought to show the possibilities for its use by selecting suppliers able to include it in nearly every cement-based product in the home, including the concrete slab and footings, the concrete masonry units, and the cementitious stucco. A product with local economic benefit has environmental benefits as well: with profits benefiting the local economy, the use of such a product is less likely to encourage distant mass production of materials and the consequent pollution from their transport. The ESH team also saw this benefit in the use of locally produced organic cottons (especially FoxFibre colorganic cottons grown in central Arizona) for some of the furnishings.
Life-Cycle Assessment
Subsequent to the selection of materials for the ESH, the APS engaged Scientific Certification Systems of Oakland, California, to provide an environmental life-cycle assessment study. The study compared the environmental effectiveness of the wall, roof, and flooring materials selected for the ESH with those that would normally be used in a traditional or standard house. Figure 9 shows the materials included in the analysis. Care was taken to ensure that the EHS and the standard house were compared in similar detail. The assessment methodology uses the Boustead Life-Cycle Inventory Model developed by Dr. Ian Boustead of Great Britain. The model provides a cradle-to-gate analysis for raw material extraction, raw material process, and materials fabrication (it does not address construction, use, and disposal stages). Inputs for the analysis include raw material resources and energy (in this model, energy inputs include fuel-producing activities to supply electricity, transport energy, and process energy). Outputs include emissions to air, emissions to water, solid wastes, products, and co-products. The model does not directly address issues of toxicity, health, etc.
PROJ 4
11

Construction
Figure 9: Comparisons of Walls, Roofs, and Floors in the Environmental Showcase Home and a Typical Home in Phoenix, Arizona*
Typical home wall 53 1,080 230 3 66 ESH % home change wall ** 38 3 300 9 55 +39 +359 39 200 +17 Typical home roof 49 1,040 110 6 60 ESH home roof 36 460 210 1 43 % change ** +27 +126 91 +500 +28 Typical home floor 75 0 10 25 112 ESH home floor 71 0 23 22 92 % change ** +5 130 +12 +18
Resources Water Wood Oil and gas feedstocks Ores and minerals Energy: all forms * **
Units kg g g kg MJ
All values shown in this table represent quantities per square foot of structure. The percentage change represents the positive contribution (i.e., the reduction in measured quantities) between the ESH and typical home construction.
Figure 9 summarizes the results of materials life-cycle analyses for the standard house and the EHS. For each resource, the percentage difference between the two is shown. A positive figure represents a positive contribution over the standard base case, while a negative figure means there is a greater environmental impact. It is important to stress that the results in figure 9 do not account for the potential savings in energy and materials associated with the operation and use of the housean important component of the cradle to grave assessments for buildings. When this is taken into account, an assessment of the house could be many orders of magnitude greater. This fact is important because it puts the choice of materials into perspective. That is, materials can be chosen to improve specific environmental performance factors (e.g., lower embodied energy, reduced use of natural resources, reductions in solid waste, etc.), but these choices should not be made at the expense of energy savings obtained during the use stage, since such savings can often exceed any improvements in environmental performance achieved through materials selection alone.
Construction
To ensure that the projects construction was as environmentally responsive as its design, the specifications and documents for the ESH were carefully crafted, edited, and reviewed. Most of the specifications were proprietary, with strict or equal clauses to ensure use of the correct products. Each specification section required contractors to handle materials in a manner that minimized waste and disposed of it correctly. Recycling and measurement of on-site construction waste were required. This even covered the soda bottles used by the workers. Some of the materials and techniques were familiar to the subcontractors management but not to the crews. As a result, diligence was needed to make sure the intentions survived the transition from design team to contractors office to the field. The use of the right materials, products, and strategies was monitored during construction. However, substitutions were sometimes made without a formal process, in the interest of meeting deadlines. Construction debris, which constitutes a large portion of the material destined for landfills, is one of the most frequently overlooked areas for resource conservation. According to Steve Loken of the Center for Resourceful Building Technology, the construction of a typical single-family house produces an average of 4 to 6 tons of waste per building site. It is anticipated that 18,000 new dwellings will be built annually in the Phoenix area in the 1990s, a rate that could generate more than 100,000 tons of construction waste yearly.
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APS, together with Browning-Ferris Industries, a waste disposal company, and Homes & Son, the general contractor, established a waste management/reuse program at the ESH job site, consisting of the following elements: separation of construction waste material into separate bins at the site purchase of material in required dimensions to minimize waste reuse of as many discarded materials as possible in the building process reuse of material from sources other than the ESH An example of the last element was the use of discarded carpeting material to protect the concrete floors during construction. On its way to a local landfill, the used carpet was discovered and diverted to the ESH, where it was used one more time before disposal. The use of the construction-site recycling bins was not without problems. The pickup and delivery process was cumbersome. In addition, the bins took up a large amount of space on the site. Another problem, discovered after the house was completed, was that a larger amount of waste went to the landfill than had been expected. A possible reason is that, being a showcase house with several systems displayed for a specific function, it simply produced more waste. These problems should be solved in the future so that reusing and recycling construction waste can be implemented more easily.
Living room with clerestory windows
Use and Operation

As a demonstration project, the primary goal of the ESH was to spread the word about the reality of environmentally better ways to build. In that sense, the disappointments, of which there were a few, were just as important as the successes, of which there were many.
Successes The most successful aspect of the design was perhaps the process itself. Through strong support from APS, the design was approached from the ground up, without preconceptions about style or solution. This allowed the project design team to question everything, which in turn led to several significant solutions. One example was the sun sponge devices (for day-
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lighting and shading), an idea that did not come from any residential style in this country. The team was also allowed to explore in depth the numerous facets of environmentally responsive design, including energy, water, materials efficiency, and indoor air quality. The process led to other specific successes. The daylighting and natural ventilation exceeded even the carefully studied expectations. The water conserving systems were also a bit of a surprise: the water reuse system is supplying the underground irrigation system well, keeping the desert vegetation on a lean water budget and slowly weaning it from future irrigation. Another pleasant surprise was the ready availability of many of the specific materials. Often, suppliers would tell the team they had stocked them previously and could easily get them again, or they had offered the materials for some time but no one had ever asked for them. Though to the average home buyer in Phoenix it is unconventional in appearance, the EHS is changing the perception of what constitutes good design in the Arizona desert. Architect Eddie Jones succeeded in combining a collection of seemingly incompatible materials into a well-integrated and harmonious whole.
Drawbacks/Disappointments The concept of a single-family house has been criticized as an environmentally inefficient response to the need for housing in the future. It was not the task of this project to address that issue. The single-family ideal will not likely be changed by one demonstration project. The goal for the ESH team was directed toward taking small but manageable steps toward achieving better building.
Though it is very common in commercial HVAC systems to supply 100 percent outside-air economizer cycling, it is unusual in residential applications. It took more time and money to integrate outdoor temperature sensing, damper positions, VAV control, compressor cycling, and remote control window operation than anyone had planned, although the efforts with the manufacturers may make it easier in the future. Despite the best efforts to assess the quality of many of the alternative building materials and products, some slipped by that were of lesser quality. This in turn sometimes caused difficult installation, requiring many on-site modifications. Since many building components were not having finishes applied to them, extreme care was necessary to ensure that they were installed without blemishes. The skills to achieve this have slowly disappeared, and the few contractors able to do the work are significantly more expensive.
Implications and Impact As many as 1,000 people visit the ESH each month. Major local builders have sent representatives to tour the house, and many have taken up ideas presented there. Two builders have begun subdivisions meeting the Good Cents Home environmental criteria, many derived from the ESH project. The local media have covered the essentials of the house, both in print and on television. A book has been written about the project (see The Environment Comes Home in appendix B). The house is fulfilling its showcase function, and current plans call for it to be used for this purpose until January 1998.
This report was co-authored by Thomas J. Hahn, Jr., David Pijawka, and John Meunier.
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Project Report
Thoreau Center for Sustainability

The Presidio of San Francisco, California
Tanner Leddy Maytum Stacy Architects Architect

Photograph by Richard Barnes
Steven Tipping & Associates Structural Engineer Flack + Kurtz Mechanical and Electrical Engineer Architectural Lighting Design Lighting Design The Office of Cheryl Barton Landscape Architect Simon and Associates Environmental Materials Consultant GL&A Civil Engineer Plant Construction General Contractor
The Thoreau Center for Sustainability is the first project in the effort to transform the historic Presidio site in San Francisco into a model national park. The project adapts a cluster of older structures to make a new home for several nonprofit organizations and integrates measures to make the remodeled facilities environmentally responsive and energy-efficient.
Background
The Presidio National Park, a reserve of 1,480 acres, sits at the edge of the San Francisco peninsula near the Golden Gate Bridge. During the course of its 220-year history as a military base, the flags of Spain, Mexico, and the United States flew over the site. Over this span of time, the Presidio has evolved as a rich cultural, architectural, ecological, and environmental landmark. In 1994 the Presidio was transferred from the U.S. Army to the National Park Service to be developed into a model national park for the 21st century. Beyond fulfilling the traditional goals of a national park, its mission includes preserving, improving, and interpreting natural and cultural resources for future generations. As the National Park Service states, The transformation of post to park redefines protection [recognizing] that security is not only based on political and military strength, but also on stewardship of the worlds human and physical resources through global cooperation. Given the current budgetary limitations of government and the growing emphasis on private operation of selected government functions, the National Park Service looked to the private sectorin partnership with the governmentto assist in the transformation of the Presidio. In the spring of 1994, the first public call for park partners was announced. Private organizations were invited to submit proposals to renovate and occupy certain park structures. The Tides Foundation, a California-based organization promoting stewardship of the natural environment, and Equity Community Builders, a San Francisco-based developer of infill
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Background
housing and mixed use projects, responded with a proposal to rehabilitate the historic wards of the Presidios Letterman Hospital complex. The effort would create a center to serve as a home for several nonprofit organizations. (It would be named after Henry David Thoreau, who introduced into American literature the notion of human interrelatedness with nature, a concept that still underpins modern environmental thought). Tenants of the Thoreau Center would include the Tides Foundation, the Energy Foundation, the Institute for Global Communications, and 16 other organizations involved in sustainable and environmental activities at local and global levels. After being selected for the effort, the Tides Foundation and Equity Community Builders formed Thoreau Center Partners (TCP) to serve as the lessee in a 55-year master lease with the National Park Service. TCP then retained a team of architects, engineers, and consultants to analyze the structures and systems in the buildings proposed for renovation and to develop plans for the tenants. Under the leadership of the San Franciso firm of Tanner Leddy Maytum Stacy Architects, the team collaborated closely with the developer, tenants, National Park Service, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory to determine project requirements and delineate energy and environmental goals before developing plans for the renovations.
E n e r g y a n d E n v i ro n m e n t a l G o a l s The impetus for the projects environmental thrust was set in September 1994, when a joint resolution was signed by the U.S. Department of Energy and the Department of the Interior (including the National Park Service) calling for the Greening of the Presidio. The goal was reiterated by Vice President Albert Gore, who stated that the Presidio will be a special place where environmental policies for the future will be shaped and translated into action.
Sustainability as defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development is meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Historic rehabilitation is a fundamental act of sustainable development, and the projects overarching goal was to recycle and transform existing historic building resources into new uses for the next century. In support of this primary goal, the project team identified the following environmental and energy strategies: Integrate state-of-the-art energy-efficient systems and environmentally friendly building materials within the limitations and constraints of historic landmark structures. Maximize daylighting in the new office spaces. Provide ventilation with only minimal use of mechanical air conditioning. Use energy-efficient mechanical, electrical, and lighting systems throughout. Use recycled and environmentally responsible materials and products. Integrate alternate energy systems. Provide a safe, healthy working environment. Apply sustainable landscape practices Reduce overall energy use and minimize ongoing operating costs Incorporate environmentally appropriate maintenance, operations, and recycling procedures. On a broader scale, other critical environmental issues such as transportation, waste management, infrastructure, and natural habitat management will be addressed in the ongoing development of the new park. The National Park Service, U.S. Department of Energy, Department of the Interior, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory are actively involved in research studies and recommendations for the future development of the Presidio.
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Aerial view of the Presidio circa 1926
P ro j e c t C o n t e x t The Thoreau Center is housed in remnants of the Presidios Letterman Hospital complex which was constructed between 1899 and 1933. Letterman Hospital served as the Armys first permanent general hospital and was in continuous operation through five wars until 1969. In the 1970s, the Army demolished many of the buildings in the complex (see figure 1).
Remaining structures of the Letterman complex reflect the architectural and cultural history of the Presidio. The Greek and Mission Revival styles of the late 19th and early 20th century exteriors are typical of other Presidio buildings of this period. The interiors, although modified over time, are also important examples of clinic/hospital architecture of that era. The important medical innovations developed over the decades at Letterman and the countless lives saved contribute to the cultural significance of this landmark. The Thoreau Center will be developed in two phases. The first phase (covered in this report) involves Buildings 1012, 1013, 1014, and 1016. In 1996 and 1997, a subsequent phase will renovate Buildings 1007, 1008, and 1009 to the north. Building 1016, a three-story wood frame building, once served as an administration headquarters. Built in 1899, it is the oldest remaining building in the Letterman complex and has the most significant intact historic interiors. The adjacent two-story, E-shaped concrete structure is made up of buildings 1012, 1013 and 1014. Constructed between 1924 and 1933, these buildings once contained hospital wards, research laboratories, and operating rooms. The Presidio falls within Californias climate zone 3. This is a temperate zone that has frequent coastal fog providing a natural air-conditioning. Summer temperatures are relatively cool and only occasionally exceed 80 degrees F. As is typical throughout the San Francisco Bay region, the Presidio can experience a variety of microclimates within its own boundaries.
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U.S. Army and National Park Services

Background
Figure 1: Site Plan
note: shaded areas represent buildings demolished by the u.s. army
P ro j e c t R e q u i re m e n t s To satisfy tenant needs, the program called for renovating and remodeling approximately 73,000 square feet of space within a budget of $4.1 million for both the base building work and tenant improvements. This figure comes to approximately $56 per square foot, but excludes the cost for sitework.
To meet the mandate for the greening of the Presidio, the project would be required to integrate environmental strategies and new energy-efficient building systems into the design while maintaining the historic integrity of the structures. For the latter, the effort had to fulfill the National Park Services rehabilitation requirements for historic buildings and landscaping and had to conform to rehabilitation requirements for the federal tax credit program for historic buildings. The latter was critical to the efforts financial viability. Project requirements also mandated that new architectural features be designed in ways that could be reversible. This meant that if the building use changed in the future, new building elements and components could be removed without damaging the basic original structure. For example, key existing elements such as original windows could not be altered, thereby limiting the potential of energy performance that might be achieved.
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Design Response
The design for the renovated Thoreau Center retains the general plan and circulation patterns of the existing buildings, uses original materials and finishes, and preserves their overall architectural character. Building 1016 serves as the main public entry to the center. The upper floors of the building are devoted to incubator space for a variety of small nonprofit organizations. The two floors of Buildings 1012, 1013, and 1014 are occupied by the Tides Foundation, the Tides Center, the Institute for Global Communications, the Energy Foundation, and other tenants. These former hospital wards were converted into reception areas, office spaces, conference rooms, and library. The design also enclosed the original south-facing porte-cocheres in buildings 1013 and 1014 to create additional tenant space. New restrooms, elevators, and handicapped access were carefully integrated into the plan. A new gallery running along the north side provides a Main Street linking the elements of the complex together. The gallery also contains exhibit space and a small cafe (see figure 2).
Figure 2: First Floor Plan
1016
1014
1013
1012
The original buildings relied heavily on natural lighting and ventilation rather than on electrical lighting and large mechanical systems. This is reflected in the buildings narrow wings and numerous operable windows. Retaining this concept, the renovated office spaces contain a layering of private and open work areas designed to maximize penetration of daylight and natural ventilation. Private and semiprivate offices are located at the perimeter of the building, defined by a seven-foot-high glass and aluminum wall system to assure that both the natural light and air flow will reach the interior open work area (see figures 3 and 4).
Building Envelope In Building 1016, new cellulose insulation (made from recycled newspaper and paper products) was installed in the attic, in wall cavities, and in the crawl space. One difficulty, however, occurred during installation in the existing walls. A historic stained wood wainscoting covers almost all walls in this building. Due to the diagonal blocking behind the wainscoting, the cellulose insulation could not be installed without severe damage to the woodwork. The decision was made to install insulation only in the upper plaster wall through drilled access holes that could be easily patched. While the thermal insulation was compromised, the integrity of the wood wainscoting was not. New windows installed at the entry to Building 1016 are double glazed with low-E glass and a new entry skylight also has dual glazing.
Buildings 1012, 1013, and 1014 have 12-inch thick concrete exterior walls; therefore, cellulose insulation was only installed in the attic area of these buildings. Cotton batt insulation, rather
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Figure 3: Typical Section at Building 1013
roof vent attic vent new cellulose insulation eave vent
natural air circulation sunlight
uplight recycled aluminum storefront operable double-hung window sustainably harvested maple veneer casework medite work surface homasote panel ergonomic adjustable work surface
Figure 4: Axonometric of Building 1013
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than fiberglass insulation, was installed in the interior walls where acoustic insulation was required. As previously noted, the existing windows in these buildings were not retrofitted (e.g., double glazing or window film) in order to preserve their historic integrity.
Mechanical and Electrical Systems Both the local climate and the geometry of the buildings (manifested by shallow floor plates) provided an opportunity to use a natural (rather than a mechanical) means of cooling through the use of operable windows. From an engineering perspective, the project appropriately does not embrace a technologically driven comfort solution. (It is worth noting that the elegance of providing comfort with a minimum of equipment should always be considered, even when a project may not have the advantages of a benign climate and optimum building floor plate. Design teams should explore how buildings and nature can work together prior to applying the brute force of energy-intensive mechanical equipment).
In addition to the use of natural ventilation, the following concepts and technologies were considered for mechanical and electrical systems: High-efficiency boilers Hot water radiators with greater heat transfer surface High-efficiency motors Simple and effective controls Variable speed pumps Reduced-flow plumbing fixtures Pulse combustion water heaters were initially proposed because of their greater efficiency (90 to 95 percent, depending on water temperature). These heaters were also proposed because smaller, modular equipment could be used to reduce part-load inefficiencies and standby losses. However, due to the moderate weather conditions, the operational savings were estimated to be too small to justify the cost premium. Consequently, a standard combustion boiler was selected. The decision to use radiators allowed for the evaluation of heat transfer efficiency. The high efficiency of these units allowed the hot water supply temperature to be reduced. This results in both lower thermal losses in the piping distribution and greater efficiency in boiler use. High-efficiency, or premium efficient, motors were specified because they are known to have an immediate cost payback and typically operate more reliably. System part-load efficiencies are important to consider because the building seldom operates at its peak design condition. Therefore variable speed pumping was seen as an essential feature of the hot water distribution system as it allows the pump output to vary to match the building requirement. Variable speed drives (VSD) have become more popular in the marketplace, and the cost-effectiveness of this measure has been demonstrated on numerous projects. Building controls were considered for their simplicity and effectiveness. Following the projects underlying theme that less is more, a central computer-based system was deemed unnecessary. Instead, simple on-off controls were selected because they provided the greatest value. Radiators were equipped with local thermostat control to monitor comfort conditions for small, discrete areas. At the system level, the hot water heating temperatures were reset based on outdoor air temperature to reduce thermal distribution losses.
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Low-flow plumbing fixtures were specified because they conserve water as well as reduce distribution pumping energy and lower domestic hot water heating energy. Electrically operated cars are encouraged in California to help reduce pollution. In response to this, special outlets were provided at select parking stalls to enable electric-powered cars to be charged during the day, ensuring a fully charged vehicle for the trip back home.
Photovoltaics A separately funded photovoltaic demonstration project by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and the National Park Service is part of the Thoreau Center project. This includes the installation of photovoltaic (PV) panels at the centers lobby skylight and canopy (see figure 5).
The project schedule and warranties precluded integrating the PV panels into the skylight system itself. Instead, the laminated glass panels (provided by Atlantis Energy and Solarex) will be installed as a separate layer above the skylight glass. The electricity produced by the panels will be fed back into the buildings electrical system. The panels will produce approximately 2 kilowatts at peak power or 8 kilowatt-hours per day. The lobby will contain a public display on photovoltaics, a meter monitoring the amount of energy produced by the panels, and an interactive computer program to explain this alternative energy system. The U.S. Department of Energys Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), in conjunction with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories, has assisted the National Park Service in installing a photovoltaic electric vehicle charging station near the Thoreau Center. The mobile photovoltaic array can be used as a stand-alone system for battery recharging or, when connected into the grid, it can send excess electricity produced by the PV system back into the utility system.
Figure 5: Entry Canopy at Building 1016
photovoltaic panel double-glazed skylight new steel structure
new steel sunscreen
operable transom
new double-glazed low-e glass windows
operable hopper
new wood storefront
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Energy Analysis The energy performance of the project was modeled using the DOE 2 energy analysis program with special assistance from Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and the Department of Energy. Flack + Kurtz Engineers and Architectural Lighting Design also provided input and review. To evaluate the energy efficiency of the planned renovation, a hypothetical base case was defined for the proposed renovation without any conservation measures.
The base case assumed no additional thermal insulation, standard mechanical and electrical systems, a lighting level assumed to be 1.5 watts/square foot, typical office internal loads, and normal occupancy schedules. This scenario represented how the buildings would perform if they were used as offices without any attempt to improve their energy efficiency. The planned design was then modeled incorporating the energy efficiency measures integrated into the renovation design. Figures 6 and 7 show the estimated annual energy use and costs for the analysis of base and planned designs. (This information is included in a Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report dated April 16, 1995.)
Figure 6: Estimated Annual Energy Use for Base Case versus Planned Design
Gas (Mbtu) Heat 1,159.4 1,218.1 472.6 335.0 1,632.0 1,553.1 Electricity (Mwh) Pumps Fans Lights 4.69 2.55 220.57 4.89 2.49 1.82 7.18 6.71 2.55 0.82 0.82 3.37 3.37 130.80 125.70 36.51 346.27 167.30
Buildings 1012, 1013, 1014
Base case Planned
DHW 48.3 48.3 30.8 30.8 79.1 79.1
Total 1,207.7 1,266.4 503.4 365.8 1,711.1 1,632.2
Heat 3.02 3.22 1.05 0.88 4.07 4.10
Cool 1.26 0.47 0.00 0.00 1.26 0.47
Misc 74.01 74.01 45.71 45.71 119.72 119.72
Total 306.10 215.94 175.77 85.74 481.87 301.67
1016
Base case Planned
All
Base case Planned
Figure 7: Estimated Annual Energy Costs for Base Case versus Planned Design
Gas Cost ($) Heat DHW Total 6,956 289 7,245 7,308 2,835 2,010 9,792 9,318 289 184 184 474 474 7,597 3,019 2,194 10,266 9,792 Electricity Cost ($) Cool Pumps Fans Lights 151 562 306 26,468 56 0 0 151 56 586 298 218 861 805 306 98 98 404 404 15,696 15,084 4,381 41,552 20,076 Total Cost ($) Misc 8,881 8,881 5,485 5,485 14,366 14,366 Total 36,730 25,911 21,092 10,287 57,822 36,198 43,975 33,508 24,111 12,481 68,088 45,990
Buildings 1012, 1013, 1014
Base case Planned
Heat 362 386 126 105 488 491
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Base case Planned
All
Base case Planned
Compared to the hypothetical base case, the planned design will have an estimated annual energy savings of $22,000 or a one-third reduction in the total energy budget of the buildings. Almost all of the savings is in electricity use from the typical office lighting wattage of 1.5 watts/square foot to the 0.59 to 0.9 watts per square foot in the planned design. The lighting electrical use in the base case accounts for nearly half of the entire energy bill. The savings in space conditioning energy use is minuscule in comparison, roughly $500 in heating and $100 in cooling. The reduction in energy consumption will provide meaningful cost savings ( $1,210,000) for the facility over the life of the 55-year lease. Energy and cost savings are summarized in figures 8 and 9. While the Thoreau Center will likely not set records for low energy use, it demonstrates that a historic rehabilitation with a challenging budget can successfully integrate energy-conserving measures and reduce the energy usage of the buildings, resulting in substantial operating cost savings.
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Figure 8: Estimated Annual Energy Use Savings with Conservation Measures

Gas (Mbtu) Heat 58.7 -137.6 -78.9 Electricity (MWh) Pumps 0.20 -0.67 -0.47
Buildings 1012, 1013, 1014 1016 All
Heat 0.20 -0.17 0.03
Cool -0.79 0.00 -0.79
Lights -89.77 -89.19 -178.97
Total -90.16 -90.03 -180.20
Figure 9: Estimated Annual Energy Cost Savings ($) with Conservation Measures
Gas Heat 352 -825 -473 Electricity Pumps 23 -80 -56 Gas + Electric Grand total -10,467 -11,627 -22,096
Buildings 1012, 1013, 1014 1016 All
Heat 24 -20 3
Cool -94 0 -94
Lights -10,772 -10,702 -21,476
Total Elec -10,819 -10,802 -21,623
Lighting Design Because of the mild climate and moderate heating requirements in the San Francisco Bay Area, the use of electricity for lighting represents a significant opportunity for energy efficiency. Therefore, the primary goal for the projects lighting design was to minimize electrical energy use while still providing a pleasant quality of light.
Although exposed fluorescent lighting has bad connotation for many users, fluorescent uplighting was used by the lighting consultant because of its soft, shadow-free, low-glare quality. Some of the fixtures used in the buildings also emit a small quantity of downlight, which adds visual interest and increases fixture efficiency. This approach is particularly suited for illuminating the numerous spaces that contain computers. Fixtures were kept generic to make it possible for several manufacturers to bid on the lighting systems. The project also uses proven technology with low initial cost and fast payback. For example, F32T8/730 fluorescent lamps and electronic ballasts are used for silent, flicker-free, low energy lighting with a warm color that complements the natural wood finishes of the casework. Incandescent lighting is limited to a few locations where adjustable accent lighting was required. Corridors are lit with pendant lights using compact fluorescent lamps in schoolhouse white glass globes that blend harmoniously with the historic architecture of the old hospital buildings. Lighting controls in large office areas and common corridors were equipped with occupancy sensors to switch off lights automatically when the building is not occupied. Occupancy sensors were chosen for the flexibility they give tenants for after hours use and to avoid timed overrides by each user. Because of budget constraints, more advanced technologies using daylight sensing combined with fluorescent dimming were rejected. The lighting consultant calculated and plotted lighting levels for the buildings to ensure the light levels would be adequate. Light levels in the Tides Foundation and Tides Center offices range from 15 to 45 footcandles, and the connected power density is 1.06 watts per square foot. Figure 10 shows a plot of the lighting intensities for a sample plan section of Building 1013.
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Figure 10: Plot of Lighting Intensities

offices open work area corridor open work area offices
Materials Selection The projects environmental consultant, Simon & Associates, provided research and input to help the design team make informed environmental material choices. As with all design choices, environmental considerations had to balanced with other factors such as schedule, costs, availability, and aesthetics. To begin identifying materials and products with various degrees of greenness, a preliminary set of criteria was developed that included:
recycled content; sustainably acquired or renewable resource; manufacturing energy efficiency and recycling; low-emissions manufacturing processes; minimum recycled, recyclable packaging; maximum transport efficiency; minimum installation hazards; low-toxic emissions; durability; ease of maintenance; reusability and ability to be salvaged; recyclability. Next, manufacturers who had established credentials as environmentally concerned companies or as having products that offer environmental or health benefits were identified and their products researched. This process included reviewing available product literature, and requesting and evaluating materials safety data sheets (MSDS). These sheets provide a summary of the chemical composition of a material, including all hazardous substances and a list of health risks. Each product was then evaluated with regard to the preliminary criteria, and a menu of materials exhibiting environmental benefits was developed for use by the design team. Figure 11 lists the primary materials eventually selected and installed in the Thoreau Center. For each material, the list shows the name of the manufacturer, a brief product description, the primary environmental issues associated with the material or product, and location where the material or product is installed.
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Figure 11: Summary of Primary Materials Used for Environmental Performance

Product / Material Acoustical ceiling tile Manufacturer Armstrong Description Ceiling tiles are glued to the original plaster ceiling for acoustical control. Armstrong mineral fiber and wood fiber ceiling products contain recycled material (primarily slag wool and cellulose fiber). Medite MDF is a homogenous woodbased panel manufactured from softwood fibers combined with formaldehyde-free synthetic resin. The panel was engineered to exceed worldwide standards for low formaldehyde boards. Architectural Forest Enterprises offers a finishing system for low formaldehyde MDF. It has a semitransparent top coat, available in 12 colors. It encapsulates the substrate of MDF to produce a monolithic appearance. Fiberboard product made from 100% recycled paper, with no formaldehyde or asbestos additives. Contributes no contaminants or pollutants to the atmosphere. Environmental Issues Ceiling tile contains 85% recycled content. Slag wool is made from slag, a recycled waste product of steel production. Cellulose fiber is made from recycled newsprint. Made from 90% preconsumer recycled wood. The wood includes residuals that were previously burned or placed in landfills. Independent testing has revealed that Medites formaldehyde emissions are below ambient outdoor levels for much of rural U.S. Product complies with Californias Air Quality Management District regulations. Locations Selected ceiling locations
Medium density fiberboard (MDF)
Medite
Substrate for wood veneers; substrate for cabinetry; work surfaces at workstations
MDF Weather Finish Enterprises
Architectural Forest
Work surfaces at workstations
Homasote panels
Homasote
Homasote is fully biodegradable, except Low partitions and workfor products laminated with other stations materials. Homasote building products help in the conservation of more than 1,370,000 trees per year and eliminate more than 160,000,000 pounds of solid waste annually. Veneers come from certified forestry sources: EcoPanels used in the Tides reception are American sycamore from well-managed forest in Indiana and the maple veneers used throughout the office are from the Menominee forest in Wisconsin. Workstations and case work of the Tides Foundation; wall panels and reception desk at Tides Foundation; reception desk at Institute for Global Communications; casework at 2nd floor corridor in Building 1014 Aluminum windows at the porte-cocheres; interior aluminum window wall systems at perimeter offices in Buildings 1014 and 1013; aluminum corridor doors and sidelights Existing perimeter walls in Building 1016; attic in buildings 1012, 1013, 1014
Wood panels
EcoPanels
EcoPanels, from Architectural Forest Enterprises, are architectural quality wood veneer panels made from sustainable raw materials.
Aluminum doors and Windows
Skyline Contract Glass and VistaWall Architectural Products
Aluminum used in new interior and exterior window systems is approximately 80% recycled content. The door and window manufacturer located a company in Texas to supply the recycled aluminum billets.
Aluminum is derived from extraction of bauxite, resulting in severe damage from strip mining and deforestation. Aluminum produced from recovered and recycled aluminum rather than bauxite ore saves about 80% of total energy consumption of production process. Product is nontoxic, safe to install, and nonflammable. The fire retardant chemicals added are borax, boric acid, and ammonium sulfate. There is nothing in this product that is considered a hazardous material, and it carries no hazardous warning messages. The insulation is composed of approximately 95% postindustrial recycled fabrics, 25% of which is polyester fiber. The fabrics are treated with a nontoxic flame retardant which is absorbed into the fibers. The product is nontoxic and biodegradable.
Cellulose insulation
GreenStone Industries
The cellulose fiber insulation is made from 85% recycled newsprint and can be pneumatically blown or sprayed into place. The loose fill insulation seals around irregular objects, resulting in less air infiltration and greater sound absorption. This cotton insulation is the only patented insulation product containing fibers made from recycled textile fabrics.
Cotton insulation
Greenwood Cotton Insulation
Attic in Building 1016; crawl spaces under Building 1016; new acoustical wall partitions
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Design Response
Figure 11: Summary of Primary Materials Used for Environmental Performance (continued)
Product / Material Carpet Manufacturer Collins & Aikman Description Powerbond has a dry adhesive backing in response to concerns over sick building syndrome. By eliminating the wet adhesive, the offgassing of the hazardous fumes is avoided. Environmental Issues C & A has instituted a reclamation program for vinyl-back floor coverings after their useful life. Used carpet is returned to the manufacturer, where it is processed to produce other products, such as parking stops, also being used at the Presidio. The high linseed oil content of the linoleum provides the material with natural antibacterial properties and renders surfaces resistant to grease, oil, and diluted acids. Locations Tenant spaces and public corridors
Linoleum
DLW Linoleum
Linoleum is a traditional flooring material processed with natural renewable ingredients including a high linseed oil content. It can be used for floors, counters, desk tops. It is resilient, static free, flexible, nonconductive, nonflammable, and durable. Traffic tile is glass-bonded ceramic tile produced from a combination of ground recycled glass and traditional ceramic elements.
Gallery floor; floor at entry of Building 1016; kitchen and cafe at gallery; kitchen, coffee, and copy/fax room countertops within tenant areas; miscellaneous rooms
Ceramic tile
Terra Green
The body of the tile contains over 70% Floors and walls at new post-industrial and post-consumer waste toilet rooms glass mostly derived from mirrors and automotive windshields. The products manufacturing processes are designed to have minimal environmental impact. The adhesive meets and exceeds all federal and state air quality regulations, and contains no formaldehyde. Safecoat is formaldehyde-free with low volatile organic compound content. The paints are almost odor free upon application and are designed to prevent or alleviate indoor air pollution. Tile in floors and walls at new bathrooms
Tile adhesive
American Formulating and Manufacturing (AFM) American Formulating and Manufacturing (AFM)
Safecoat 3-in-1 adhesive is designed for hard composition walls and floors.
Paint
Safecoat paint has been developed by AFM for the chemically sensitive and environmentally ill.
All painted walls, ceilings, trim, and casework
Landscape Design The landscape features of the Thoreau Center are included in the landmark designation. The large open grass areas, significant historic plantings, and exterior circulation patterns are all part of the historic cultural landscape. Therefore, the design of new landscape elements had to meet the requirements of the Secretary of the Interiors Guidelines for Historic Rehabilitations. In addition to restoring and maintaining the existing features, the landscape design also incorporates the following sustainable landscape practices:
rehabilitation rather than removal of historic plant materials minimization of earthwork (new grades work with the existing slopes) soil building with organic amendments in lieu of synthetic fertilizers water conservation through the introduction of drought tolerant plants, low flow irrigation systems, and the capture of rainwater for supplemental irrigation excavation and use of historic drainage structures to minimize runoff removal of evergreen trees (replaced with deciduous trees) on south side of buildings to maximize interior daylighting reduction in asphalt paving and parking areas installation of alternatives to turf lawns such as low growing ground cover, unmown grasses and wildflowers, and decomposed granite updated National Park Service standard landscape specifications via research from green databases and product literature on sustainable materials and products
THOREAU CENTER
PROJ 5
13

Construction
Buildings 1012, 1013, and 1014 after renovation
The Thoreau Courtyard has been created to the north of Buildings 1012, 1013, and 1014 where two ward wings had been demolished by the U.S. Army. This area will be developed over the next few years as a public garden and demonstration area for sustainable landscape practices, medicinal and herbal plants, and wind and solar energy demonstration projects.
Construction
Given the nature and complexity of the renovation and the fact that this was the first private project to be undertaken in the Presidio, the developers decided it was important that a qualified contractor experienced in renovation be part of the initial planning. As a result of this, Plant Construction Company was selected at the beginning of the project and remained an integral part of the design team from the feasibility phase onward. Plant Construction Company is experienced in the challenges of historic renovation and has an ongoing commitment to environmentally sound building practices. The firm provided cost estimating and review through all phases of the project. Through negotiated bidding, subcontractors were brought in at the design development phase to provide field research and input to the team engineers. In addition to complying with the environmental requirements of the specifications for materials and systems, the construction team supported the goals of the project by recycling building materials and debris. With a long-term commitment to recycling building materials, Plant Construction donates the money received from material recycling to local charities. During construction, Plant designated separate debris bins for scrap metal, brick and concrete, wood, and general debris. The contractor also trained all personnel on the job site to separate and use the designated debris bins. Wood removed from the project during demolition was used for new infill framing wherever possible, while other wood items were removed and stored at the contractors yard for use on future projects. Golden Gate Disposal, the local refuse company, accepted presorted materials from the job site for recycling and monitored the quantities of those materials. California Assembly Bill 939 requires a 50 percent reduction in the amount of solid waste disposed by the year 2000. Currently, the typical recovery rates for recycled construction material at Golden Gate Disposal range from 40 to 50 percent. For the Thoreau Center, more than 73 percent of all construction debris was recycled. Figure 12 provides a summary of recycled construction material for the project.
Use and Operation

The Thoreau Center opened in April 1996. Current plans call for the complex to be installed with a series of submeters, so that energy consumption can be monitored. While the exact system has not been worked out by building management and the National Park Service,
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PROJ 5
THOREAU CENTER

Use and Operation
Figure 12: Construction Waste Materials Recycled

Scrap metal Inert fill 19.2 tons recycled (metal was sent to Circosta Metals.) 380 tons recycled (inert fill includes: concrete, bricks, soil, and terra-cotta. The fill was sent to Ryan Engineering or Brisbane Recycling, where it was either dumped for fill or screened for topsoil and sand. Bricks were cleaned and became used bricks. At Brisbane Recycling, concrete is chipped and prepared for a variety of uses). 137 tons recycled 199 tons discarded (general debris was not recyclable because of the presence of various contaminates). 735.2 tons of material hauled 536.2 tons of material recycled 73% of material was recycled
Wood General debris
Total
energy use will be tracked and compared to the projections developed during the design phase. In addition, building management will track quantities of recycled materials from the site. In commenting on the most significant lesson learned from the design process, Marsha Maytum, AIA, the architects principal-in-charge, stated that it was the shared vision and commitment by all the parties involved, from the tenants, the developer, the National Park Service, and design team members, that was critical to making this a model project. Noting that the design approach searched for commonsense solutions, with simple, user friendly systems, Maytum said Another important lesson was learned [from using] the existing building to the best advantagemaximizing natural ventilation and daylight already available. At the building dedication ceremonies, U.S. Representative Nancy Pelosi said, If anyone were to choose the right organization to be a part of the Presidio, the Thoreau Center is it. Drummond Pike, president of the Tides Foundation and Tides Center, noted that the Thoreau Center embodies what Tide, and many other organizations housed here are striving fora marriage of environment and people. The next decade will see unprecedented opportunities to restore and renovate building facilities at closed military bases across the United States. The Thoreau Center provides a model for private/public partnership approaches, and serves as an example of how sustainable development strategies can be addressed in the process of renovating historic structures. In addition to preserving important architectural and cultural landmarks, adapting older buildings for new uses results in a reduction of resources and building materials. More important, building rehabilitation reinforces the concept of reusing existing built resources, tempering the further development, decentralization, and sprawl that is indicative of our urban and suburban areas.
Corridor view
THOREAU CENTER
PROJ 5
15
Project Report
Duracell Corporate Headquarters

Bethel, Connecticut
Courtesy of Herbert S. Newman and Partners, P.C.
Herbert S. Newman and Partners, PC Architect and Site Planner Haines Lundberg Waehler Interior Architect Rolland/Towers, PC Landscape Architect Haley & Aldrich Geotechnical Engineer Barakos-Landino Design Group Civil Engineer Speigel Zamecnik & Shah, Inc. Structural Engineer
A corporate environmental commitment inspired the integration of green strategies into the planning and design of Duracells new headquarters. The effort resulted in a facility that is functional and respectful of its woodland setting, reinforcing a companywide spirit that is supportive of the buildings natural surroundings.
Cosentini Associates Mechanical/Electrical Engineer Lighting Design RPM Systems, Inc. Environmental Consultant Turner Construction General Contractor LaSalle Partners Project Manager
Background
The new worldwide headquarters of Duracella familiar name in the manufacturing of consumer batteriesis located on a rural tract of land within the Berkshire Corporate Park in Bethel, Connecticut. Prior to this, Duracells corporate operations were located in leased spaces in eight separate buildings in the park. The new facility consolidates the companys U.S. sales and marketing division with its European, Asian, and Latin American sales and marketing divisions, and accommodates its new products and technology groups. The setting for the 43.8-acre project site is heavily wooded and boasts a variety of flora and fauna. Native trees include red maples, sweetgum, black tupelo, and swamp white oak, and native shrubs include shadblow serviceberry, summersweet, silky dogwood, and winterberry. Among the native wildlife inhabiting the region are deer, hawks, and wild turkeys. From the outset, Duracell wanted its corporate headquarters to reflect the companys commitment to becoming an environmental leader in the worldwide consumer battery industry. This commitment was expressed by Wade Lewis, senior vice president and chief financial officer, who stated that Duracell wanted to ensure that we did not end up with the standard corporate headquarters of a gray monolith with tinted glass set in immaculately manicured lawns with no sensitivity or relationship to the surrounding environment. It was particularly important that as the building matures, it should grow old gracefully, integrating with the environment in which it resides.
DURACELL HEADQUARTERS
PROJ 6

Background
P ro j e c t A p p ro a c h Duracell laid the environmental groundwork for the project in 1993 by retaining the services of RPM Systems, Inc., an environmental management consultant. This predesign effort resulted in a set of preliminary guidelines addressing recycling strategies, energy-efficient technologies, water conservation, and storm water runoff control. In addition, RPM coordinated an environmental assessment of nearby wetlands and wildlife habitats, which were to be left undisturbed. Later during the design phase RPM, as a member of the project team, identified recycled-content building materials for consideration by the team and performed energy analyses for various HVAC and lighting options.
After preliminary environmental studies, Duracell expanded its project team. In addition to the companys executive steering committee and the environmental consultant, the team included a project management firm and an interdisciplinary design team consisting of the building architect, interior architect, civil engineer, geotechnical engineer, landscape architect, structural engineer, mechanical and electrical engineer, and general contractor. To reinforce the environmental dimension of the project team and to ensure follow through on its environmental commitment, Duracell also established an ecology task force composed of the companys Green Team employees (it has seven Green Teams at its various facilities throughout the world). The ecology task force, representing all of the major organizations to be housed in the building, provided recommendations to the project manager, architects, engineers, and various contractors. The task force also coordinated input from local conservation groups such as the Wildlife Habitat Council, the American Bird Association, and others. Figure 1 illustrates the components and structure of Duracells project team.
P ro j e c t R e q u i re m e n t s Programmatic analysis called for 302,000 ft of space to house the required administrative areas, maintenance and laboratory facilities, and support areas including a cafeteria, conference center, TV studio, and a fitness center. Figure 2 summarizes the square footage distribution of spaces and functions to be used by Duracells 650 staff members. In addition, the
Figure 1: Duracell Project Team
Project Team
Senior Management Steering Committee
Architects Engineers Contractors
Project Manager
Duracell Employees
Ecology Task Force
Wildlife Habitat Council
RPM Environmental Consultants
Other Groups
such as American Bird Association
PROJ 6

Design Response
Figure 2: Space Distribution for Duracells Headquarters

Space/function General office space Core and circulation Maintenance/support services Laboratories Conference/training center Dining services Fitness facility TV production studio Total Area (s.f.) 195,000 41,000 24,000 14,000 11,000 8,600 5,300 2,500 302,000
project had to accommodate on-site parking spaces for employee and visitor vehicles.1 The total project budget was $70 million with the construction portion set at $44 million.
E n v i ro n m e n t a l G o a l s Environmental goals for the project grew out of a mission statement shaped by the project team, stating that, our intent is to embody the underlying principles of sustainable development in a design that reflects Duracells commitment to the environment and our own professional responsibilities to create places that are friendly to all of their potential users. Using this statement as a springboard, the project team crafted a set of environmental objectives encompassing such issues as site planning, landscaping, watershed management, habitat and wildlife, building design, energy conservation, water conservation, building material selection, and waste management. Figure 3 provides a summary of these objectives.
Design Response
The project teams environmental strategies are presented below under the headings of site design, building design, energy conservation, building materials selection, sewage and waste systems, and water conservation (project initiatives for waste management during building use and actions regarding habitat and wildlife preservation are discussed later in the use and operation section since these activities are aligned with the operation of the facility).
Site Design Major considerations in the planning and design of the site included how the buildings were placed on the site; the layout of roadway and utility alignments, how native vegetation was retained or restored, and how water runoff was controlled. Strategies for these issues are discussed below.
Building Placement
The building location was selected primarily because of its topography. Straddling a small ridge, this location had the flattest area on the property. Moreover, the area had been cleared by a previous owner for a helicopter landing area. The of choice of this location eliminated the need for regrading, which would have further disrupted the existing woodlands and drainage patterns. Woodland areas cut off from the surrounding forest by roadways and buildings were kept as large as possible to avoid forest fragmentation. See site plan in figure 4.
1 Local
zoning regulations require 5.0 parking spaces per 1,000 gsf of building area, but Duracell asked for and received a variance to reduce the quantity to 2.25 spaces per 1,000 gsf, thereby alleviating the extent of site development.
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Design Response
Figure 3: Environmental Goals

Site Design Minimize the impact of the new corporate office facility on the environment. Enhance the landscape by preserving native vegetation; create meadows in open areas and along roads; and design wildlife gardens to attract songbirds, hummingbirds, and butterflies. Manage the stormwater runoff in a manner that enhances wetlands and protects downstream quality. Habitat and Wildlife Preserve the natural habitat. Build awareness of environmental issues including wildlife resources. Serve as a model for others who wish to preserve the habitat in new construction projects. Develop a comprehensive management plan that focuses on enhancing the land to make it more supportive to native plants and animal species. Create educational and recreational opportunities for employees and their families, visitors, and the local community. Building Design Build a facility that complements the landscape and reinforces the connection between the inhabitants and the site. Use planning principles that support the goals of site energy conservation. Energy and Water Conservation Building Materials Selection Minimize energy consumption Minimize water use and discharge, and contaminants in wastewater. Maximize the number of building materials containing recycled content. Minimize the use of hazardous materials in construction. Minimize the negative effects of building materials on employee health and safety. Waste Management Properly manage all construction waste material (including recycling unavoidable waste). Encourage and maximize recycling. Minimize the amount of waste generated
Duracells decision to build a parking structure rather than develop on-grade parking was probably the single most important site planning and habitat preservation strategy of the project. Creating a multistory garagetucked unobtrusively into the side of a hillsaved approximately nine acres of land from development. By setting the parking structure well back from the roads, the project team was able to maintain more tree cover and shading around it.
Ve g e t a t i o n a n d P l a n t i n g
Trees were preserved on much of the site, including those along the entry road, within the circular drop-off area, and immediately adjacent to the building to the north and northwest. A distinctive quality of the site is the absence of understory plants. The few small trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants that were disturbed were replanted at the newly created forest edge, just as one would expect to find in naturally occurring woodland transition zones. Meadow grasses were used rather than turf in open areas and along the roadsides to benefit wildlife and to avoid areas that would require chemical fertilizers, watering, and energyintensive maintenance. In the selection of grasses, special attention was given to enhancing the habitat of the wild turkeys that live nearby.
Wa t e r R u n o f f C o n t r o l
The site has two drainage basinsone drains to the north, the other to the east. Approximately a quarter of the site drains to the north through a wetland area in the northwest quadrant. Although the original plan called for the creation of a detention pond in this area, the project team developed a stormwater drainage system that allowed water to be detained in the wetlands without the need for a pond. The water flows naturally from the drainage system down into the wetlands without changing the outflow from the site. In this way, the wetlands area has been preserved. 4
PROJ 6 DURACELL HEADQUARTERS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997

Design Response
Figure 4: Site Plan
4 1 5 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
headquarters structure parking structure entry plaza dining courtyard service dock visitor parking entry employee parking entry main entry drive service drive
The remainder of the site drains generally to the east toward an adjacent section of the corporate park. There are no wetlands near the bottom of this system; therefore, a detention pond was created to avoid any change in surface water outflow from the site. This pond also served as a temporary sedimentation basin during and after construction, and the stormwater runoff maintained or slightly improved water quality downstream. The detention pond was carefully located to minimize disruption to the aesthetics of the natural environment. Plantings around the pond consist of native, water-tolerant plants that provide forage and shelter for wildlife.
Roadway and Utility Alignments
Grading and layout studies helped to determine road and utility corridor alignments with the goal of retaining as much native vegetation as possible.
Site Development Results
The final site development of the 43.8-acre tract uses 6.1 acres for buildings, roads, and related site elements. This leaves 24.9 acres untouched, 8.7 acres preserved and restored as natural woodlands, and 4.1 acres developed as managed planting or lawn areas.
PROJ 6

Design Response
Building Design The project team took conscious steps to respond to environmental objectives when addressing the architectural design of the headquarters and the parking structure. These steps are discussed below under the headings of massing and configuration, envelope and structure, and parking garage design.
Massing and Configuration
The headquarters building is designed to blend visually with the natural characteristics of the site and to provide occupants with open views of the nearby woodland. The plan is configured with relatively narrow wings, which permitted more flexibility in placing the buildings large footprint and allowed the design to minimize disturbance to the rolling terrain. The wings enclose a south-facing entry court and define the dining pavilion/garden to the north. The headquarters building has three main levels containing a total of 302,000 gsf (two of the floors contain 96,500 gsf each and one has 97,000 gsf). The main entrance is on the second level (see figure 5). A smaller fourth level (approximately 12,000 gsf) is situated below the northwest wing, which closely follows the terrain. The structures connection to the landscape makes its impact on drainage patterns minimal. On the south and east, only two floors are above grade for the most part. The north and west facades are three stories high, and the small lower level is visible on the northwest corner of the structure. The configuration of the plan, as already noted, lends itself to the existing topography and offers flexibility in tenant configurations. A centralized conference and training center made departmental conference rooms unnecessary, thereby reducing the number of rooms. In addition, centralized storage and a cafeteria that serves as a dining, seminar , and staff gathering area make efficient use of space.
Envelope and Structure
The building envelope is predominantly of masonry construction with a brick facing. Windows are in all enclosed offices, in 75 percent of shared conference spaces, and in a significant portion of the interior general office space. The use of ceiling-high windows and continuous interior clerestory glazing at the private office/corridor wall allow natural light to reach the center of each wing. The roof uses a fully ballasted single-ply EPDM membrane system. Four gabled penthouses contain mechanical equipment. The structural system uses composite steel framing with 30 x 30 ft bays.
Parking Garage Design
The 239,700 sq ft parking garage covers approximately 64,500 sq ft of the site. The configuration of the structure follows existing slopes. As previously noted, Duracell was able to reduce the size of the garage by obtaining a variance to provide substantially fewer parking spaces than the zoning code required. The size of the structure was also controlled by making the transitions between levels as rapid as possible. An arcade connects the parking garage to the main entry lobby to protect building users from bad weather (see figure 6).
Energy Conservation The intended result of the Duracell design was an environmentally sound green building with a high degree of energy efficiency that incorporates intelligent and adaptive systems capable of handling technologies now and in the future. From the outset, the design team established energy and environmental goals to exceed code minimums for life-cycle economic criteria. Two factors stand out in the effort to achieve energy efficiency. First, the owner, contractors, design team, and local utility companies worked together from the beginning to evaluate opportunities and make decisions. Second, the project team balanced the need for energy efficiency with economics, environmental concerns, and technological requirements. No single criteria outweighed the others in the decision-making. (Note:
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PROJ 6 DURACELL HEADQUARTERS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997

Design Response
Figure 5: Plan of Second Level
2 2
3 3 1 2 5 2 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 main lobby corporate division sub-lobby elevator lobby entry plaza arcade garage
Figure 6: Section at Parking Structure

arcade
previous grade
N
PROJ 6

Design Response
Duracells payback criteria were generally set between three and five years, but evaluations were done on a case-by-case basis. Paybacks beyond five years were accepted when the environmental benefits appeared to be worth the increased incremental costs.) Design strategies used to achieve energy efficiency and their outcomes are presented below under the headings of envelope characteristics, heating and cooling systems, lighting systems, and energy rebates.
Envelope Characteristics
All windows have double-paned glass with a low-emissivity coating to prevent heat loss and maximize passive solar heating in winter and to minimize cooling loads from direct sun in summer. Windows have an insulation value of R-3.0, which is more than 50 percent higher than the R-1.9 ASHRAE standard. This additional insulation is expected to save more than 200,000 kWh per year. Exterior walls have vapor seals and an insulation value of R-20, which is approximately 60 percent better than the R-12 ASHRAE standard. This additional insulation is expected to save 37,000 kWh per year. The roof has an insulation value of R-20, which complies with ASHRAE energy standards. Higher R-value constructions were examined but did not meet corporate economic criteria.
Heating and Cooling Systems
Several HVAC systems were evaluated for the project. (Geothermal heat pumps appeared feasible for the site, but this technology was dropped from consideration because of uncertainties about cost and reliability.) Following extensive performance analysis using a DOE 2.1E computer model, the team selected a gas-powered HVAC system, consisting of two gas-fired chillers totaling 900 tons. Although the gas system had an incremental capital cost of $300,000 above an electric chiller system, it was selected for the following reasons: It avoided the use of ozone-depleting refrigerants (it fully complies with the Federal Clean Air Act). Fuel costs are lower with gas because of special incentive rates. For example, the electric chiller would use expensive electricity in the summer while the gas system uses inexpensive gas in the summer, resulting in major cost savings. Although an equivalent electric chiller uses slightly less overall energy, the gas system uses less electricity and therefore has an overall fuel mix with considerably less environmental impact (e.g., it emits fewer pollutants).2 By using gas instead of electricity for cooling in the summer, the following emissions are avoided each year: - 284,922 lb of carbon dioxide - 5,280 lb of sulfur dioxide - 497 lb of nitric oxides - 1,077 lb of methane - 5.7 lb of lead - 304 lb of airborne particulates
2 Gas
fuel is "winter peaking" (greatest demand in the winter) whereas electricity is "summer peaking" (greatest demand in the summer). Electricity used during the peak summer period involves the use of less clean burning fuels (59 percent oil, 22 percent coal, and 19 percent gas), while electricity used during the winter involves a much cleaner "nonpeak" fuel mix (68 percent nuclear, 19 percent oil, 7 percent coal, and 6 percent gas). As a result, large quantities of pollutants are avoided for each additional kWh of demand by not consuming electricity for cooling during peak periods (when Northeast Utilities needs to burn fossil fuel). The winter and summer fuel mixes were provided to Duracell by Northeast Utilities in October 1993.
PROJ 6

Design Response
HVAC fans and motors: The medium-velocity variable air volume systems selected use highly efficient vancaxial fans, which respond to building loads. Variable frequency drives reduce fan horsepower to the minimum required. Air distribution and heat recovery: Room terminal units, consisting of fan-powered mixing boxes, capture waste heat from lights before hot water is used from boilers. This reduces natural gas consumption by 20 to 30 percent. Extra quiet fan-powered boxes provide high ventilation rates year-round. Additional features: The following additional system features reflect the goals of energy conservation and occupant comfort and well being: 100 percent outside air economizer operation of all building air-handling systems, which provides free cooling when weather permits. Direct Digital Control system and electric actuators for building system monitoring, control, and alarm functions. Variable speed pumping and fan systems provide efficient part-load operation. Variable speed drives were used on all major air and water systems. Ventilation rates selected at 25 cfm/person, which is above code minimum. Humidification to 30 percent RH in winter for enhanced human comfort. Air filtration to remove 90 percent of particulates. Extensive system acoustical attenuation.
Lighting Systems
All lighting for the project, including lighting for exterior roadways, the parking garage, interior public spaces, and office areas, had to satisfy following: Does the lighting perform the function? Does the lighting enhance the architecture? Is the lighting efficient for the purpose? Is the lighting cost-effective?
View of reception area
PROJ 6

Design Response
Exterior areas are illuminated with color-improved high-pressure sodium lamps, which have a color rendering index (CRI) of 65 and appear as incandescent sources. Site and roadway lighting is kept to a minimum in order to reduce light trespass. This technique also enhances the entrance points to the building, where the lighting is brighter. Interior lighting uses T8 and T4 compact fluorescent sources with CRIs above 80. All fluorescent light sources are powered by high-efficiency solid-state ballasts. Halogen infrared lamps are used where highest quality color rendering is required or where dimming is needed for conference and audiovisual use. Public spaces are illuminated using combinations of fluorescent and high-efficiency tungsten sources. The tungsten sources are used to highlight premium materials installed in the lobby and main street corridors. All office department reception areas are illuminated with decorative round luminescent luminaires and niche wall washers. Adjacent to each reception area are a series of conference rooms illuminated with dimmable fluorescent wall washers and decorative tungsten pendants. The open office areas have indirect luminaires with perforated metal banding. The ambient light levels are designed to 35 footcandles and are supplemented by local task lighting. The soft shadow-free environment provides appropriate light levels for reading as well as low contrast ratios to enhance VDT viewing. Circulation zones are illuminated with artwork display lighting, fluorescent downlights, and sconces integrated into the wall construction. The overall power density for the project is 1.1 watt/s.f. All enclosed offices have occupancy sensors and all public, open plan, and exterior areas ar equipped with programmable relay lighting control systems. The programmable controls work as a manual on-auto off system similar to the occupancy sensors. This strategy is a highly efficient method of lighting control. Users must manually turn on their lights when they occupy a space but the lights turn off automatically when the space is unoccupied or when the scheduled workday is over. The controls are also set up to allow for extended hours of operation and multilevel switching.
Energy Rebates
By participating in the local utility companys Energy Conscious Construction Program, Duracell received approximately $300,000 in rebates from Northeast Utilities. The energy conservation measures are projected to save approximately $125,000 in energy costs annually. It is estimated that the overall annual energy consumption will be from 15 to 20 percent better than typical office buildings designed to current standards.
Building Materials Selection One goal of the Duracell Ecology Task Force was to ensure that at least 50 percent of the interior and exterior building materials contained recycled content. Bidding procedures called for contractors to meet this goal, and by the end of the project, 50.8 percent of the installed building materials contained recycled content. The cost for these materials was approximately $200,000 more than what standard materials would have cost. However, the project budget specifically set aside funds for this purpose. The following represents the variety of recycled-content materials used:
Floor tiles containing 70 to 100 percent recycled glass (including crushed lightbulbs) Bathroom partitions made from recycled plastic Recycled steel in the superstructure, 25 percent of which is from such sources as automobiles and demolished buildings Water main piping containing 50 percent recycled steel All paving material containing recycled asphalt Acoustical ceiling made from recycled newsprint, wood fibers, and wool Roofing shingles containing 95 percent recycled aluminum
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PROJ 6

Design Response
Recycling of site materials, including 100 percent reuse of cut timber for mulch and firewood and of rock for pavement fill and riprap walls Bricks containing scrap manganese dioxide powder (1.3 percent by weight) obtained from Duracells manufacturing processes.3 A concerted effort was made to use nonfiberglass insulation in exterior walls. Numerous options were evaluated including mineral wool, a cotton-based material, a foam material, and a wood pulp product made from recycled newspapers, but none of these materials could meet fire, insulating, and dimensional requirements at an acceptable cost. As a result, an insulation containing fiberglass was used. However, it should be noted that the insulation selected contains recycled materials and is installed in the exterior walls in conjunction with a plastic barrier that prevents friable glass fibers from entering the building. In selecting interior finishes and new furniture4, the interiors architectural team used green pages as a basic resource along with a Rainforest Action Network publication to identify acceptable wood species for veneers and millwork. Some interior steps taken include the use of: Low volatile organic compound (VOC) paints Water-based adhesives Carpets made of stable recycled plastic with natural fiber backings Furniture made from low VOC particleboard manufactured from recycled waste wood chips Furniture specified to be delivered blanket wrapped to minimize waste packaging Wood veneers from renewable species and wall coverings selected from sustainable fibers
S e w a g e a n d Wa s t e S y s t e m s To facilitate recycling of solid waste by users of the building, several pantries are located on each floor. Each pantry has three recycling chutes: one for trash (such as food material), one for metal, and one for glass. The chutes flow into an adjacent recycling room, which is used to sort and store collectibles.
Sanitary waste flows into the local sewage system. Liquid waste from the testing laboratories is distributed to a holding tank where it is picked up by a disposal company on a regular basis.
Wa t e r C o n s e r v a t i o n The landscape architect did not prepare a quantitative analysis of the comparative water requirements for native versus non-native plants. However, plant types were carefully selected to match on-site environmental conditions. This eliminated the need for an irrigation system, which in turn will help reduce water consumption significantly. Another water conservation measure was the use (where practical) of low-flow bathroom fixtures.
In early 1997 a special water filtration system will be installed to remove trace impurities from incoming city water. Removal of these impurities will have both environmental and
3 Scrap
manganese dioxide powder from Duracells own manufacturing processes in Lexington, North Carolina, was used in the bricks for the exterior of the building. This powder, an important raw material in batteries, gives the brick its dark color. Duracell began sending waste manganese powder to brick makers several years ago. Currently it sends approximately 460,000 pounds per year to manufacturers in North Carolina and in Belgium. Cunningham Brick Company of Lexington, North Carolina, and Cherokee Sanford Brick of Sanford, North Carolina, used approximately 5,400 pounds of scrap manganese in supplying more than 400,000 bricks for the new building.
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11

Construction
Testing laboratory
economic benefits. The amount of chemicals needed to treat the water will be reduced, and the quantity of water and energy needed to maintain and operate building equipment (including HVAC systems) will be lowered. The payback for this system was estimated at less than three years.
Construction
During the construction phase of the Duracell Headquarters, special care was taken to protect and preserve vegetation. In addition, specific construction waste materials were either recycled or salvaged by the contractor. Economic incentives for preservation of trees and other vegetation were incorporated into the design teams construction specifications, including penalties if designated trees and other vegetation were damaged. Protecting the bark and structure of the trees and preventing soil compaction around their roots during construction were critical design objectives. In addition, tree protection fencing was used in all woodland areas to be preserved. Trees that had to be removed were recycled either as firewood, which was given to Duracell employees, or as wood chips for use on nature trails to minimize compaction and erosion. Salvageable scrap metal was collected and sold for reclamation. All refuse (e.g., cardboard, wood, metal) was separated and recycled. Approximately 8,000 cubic yards of blasted rock were collected and used as structural fill. All tree wells and a stone wall behind the cafeteria were created from on-site material.
Use and Operation

Duracell moved into the facility in November 1995. When this report was being prepared, the facility had not yet experienced a full year of operation, and Duracells facility staff had not yet assembled operating data for gas, electric, and water consumption. Nevertheless, two current environmental initiatives are being carried out by Duracell that are worthy of mention. The first involves Duracells recycling program and the other its habitat and wildlife preservation program for the site.
4 Duracell
donated its existing furniture to charity to avoid disposition in landfill and pledged a monetary donation to a rain forest fund.
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PROJ 6
Courtesy of HLW International, Interiors Architect

Use and Operation
R e c y c l i n g P ro g r a m Each office is equipped with its own recycling bin, and daily pickup of trash is provided. The unique Copper Top recycling bins were designed, ordered, assembled, and distributed by the Green Team. More than 900 of these bins are located throughout the building. (The bins are also available to all of Duracells worldwide Green Teams and are now in use in Puerto Rico, the United Kingdom, Argentina, and Lexington, North Carolina).
Daily pick-up from the collection bins is performed by clients of DATAHR, a Danbury rehabilitation center for physically and mentally handicapped people. As a result of the Green Team recycling program, two DATAHR employees are employed full-time. With only a few exceptions, paper products (e.g., plates and cups) used in the cafeteria and pantries have been replaced with more permanent products that can be washed and reused. For example, conversion to plastic take-out trays eliminated use of more than 1,000 cardboard trays every week.
H a b i t a t a n d W i l d l i f e P ro g r a m To preserve habitat and encourage wildlife on the site, Duracell developed a habitat management plan and established a wildlife committee to administer it. The committees goals are to improve the wildlife plantings, manage the right-of-way, and maintain a suitable habitat for wildlife. In addition, the committee works with local groups such as the Wildlife Habitat Council, Ducks Unlimited, and Girl Scout and Boy Scout troops.
Five project teams operating under the wildlife committee are responsible for nature trails, bird boxes, bird feeders, a wildflower garden, and associated events, including a photography contest. Duracell employees participate in these programs. The Nature Trails team develops and maintains three nature trails and manages the Hand in Hand With Nature program, a joint effort of Ducks Unlimited, Duracell, and the Boy and Girl Scouts of Bethel. This program supports suitable wildlife breeding habitats, tree identification, trail maintenance, and other activities. The Bird Box team enables Duracell employees to own a bird box, maintain it, count eggs and fledglings, and monitor it for undesirable species. An associated effort includes the Wildlife Habitat Council (WHC) certification program that certifies corporate lands as wildlife habitats. The Bird Feeder team maintains bird feeders provided by the Scouts, team members feed the birds from late October to April, and work closely with local bird groups to ensure that proper food is provided. The Wildflower Gardens team maintains and enhances designated areas of the Duracell property for aesthetic reasons and to benefit wildlife. Activities include planting wildflowers, creating meadows, and managing right-of-ways. The Photography Contest team runs a contest about the site and places winning wildlife photographs in the lobby and/or cafeteria.
Conclusion
Comments made by team members participating in the design process exemplify Duracells leadership in encouraging the process of environmental design and in establishing a team mind-set: With regard to the overall effort, Joseph Schiffer, AIA, managing partner of Herbert S. Newman and Partners, PC, observed that the most telling lesson to be drawn from the Duracell headquarters experience is the value of developing a broad-based approach to the innumerable opportunities to incrementally improve the design, energy use, conservation, and operations in projects of this scale.
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Entrance view from the southwest
Shavaun Towers, landscape architect with Rollan/Towers, PC, stated that it has been an unusual project in that I was impressed by Duracells concern for the environment. Their sensitivity to all levels of environmental planning and habitat enhancement is unique in the corporate community. Commenting on energy-related project issues, Stephen Margulies of Cosentini Associates observed that during the design process we were constantly challenged on the energy issue. When one walks through the Duracell Headquarters you cannot point to any corner of the project and say that doesnt look good but its okay because we did it to save energy. Energy efficiency should happen by itself if the design goals have been achieved. Footcandles and watts may be measures of light levels and power but they are not qualitative measures. Good design goals, architectural integration, and having a smart user is always the best formula for success. The degree to which Duracells new headquarters fulfills the projects environmental goals and expectations will be determined over time. In that process, understanding how the facility is contributing to environmental and energy performance needs to be objectively evaluated. Meanwhile, business organizations wishing to cultivate a greener business cultureand designers tasked with creating greener corporate buildingsmight look to the Duracell effort as an example to help guide their own efforts.
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Project Report
Reeves Residence
Dewees Island, South Carolina
Photograph by Michael Cox
Design Harmony, Inc. Architect and Environmental Consultants Lysaght and Associates, PA Structural Engineer R. S. Structures, Inc. General Contractor
The owners chose to build a permanent residence on Dewees Island because of its natural beauty and proximity to historic Charleston and because of the developers strong philosophy of low-impact development and preservation of the natural environment. Within its unique setting, the design incorporates environmental and energy concepts responsive to community guidelines and to the owners own requirements.
Sun Coast Heating and Air Conditioning Company, Inc. Mechanical Contractor Frampton Electric Electrical Contractor
Background
Dewees Island is one of a series of barrier islands that lies 12 miles northeast of Charleston, South Carolina. Until 1992 the approximately 1,200 acres of marine forest, lake, salt marsh, and beach that make up the island had only four residential structures. Following the establishment of the Island Preservation Partnership, plans for high density development were abandoned and an environmentally sensitive master plan was created. The state-approved master plan allows a maximum of 150 houses to be built on 225 acres in the southeast quadrant of the island (see figure 1). The building lots include both inland and beachfront properties. As part of the environmentally friendly way of life on the island, no automobiles are permitted. All transportation is by foot, electric-powered golf cart, or bicycle. The master plan sets aside in perpetuity a 350-acre wildlife sanctuary on the northeast portion of the island. Educational awareness projects of the Dewees Nature Center also contribute to making the island a habitat where wildlife can flourish. (Much of the island vegetation and natural wildlife habitats were destroyed by hurricane Hugo in 1989, but they are reestablishing themselves successfully thanks to the low-impact development practiced on the island.) To support the islands development, the Island Preservation Partnership has built an infrastructure that includes telephone, electrical, and water hookups; a state-of-the-art sewer
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Figure 1: Dewees Island Master Plan
system; docks; and ferry service. To make transportation to and from the island more efficient, residents share a boat with regularly scheduled arrivals and departures. Now that it is becoming more developed, Dewees Island is installing a community water systema 10,000-gallon capacity reverse osmosis systemto provide communal filtration in place of more energy-intensive individual systems. As well, a state-of-the-art sustainable sewage treatment system was installed on the island to minimize environmental impacts. This efficient low-tech wastewater treatment system is designed to accommodate all levels of occupancy on the island and can be pressurized by the pump from just one homesite. Liquid hydrogen sulfide is metered into the system for disinfection, and the pressurized system is connected to the absorption field for waste distribution. The low-tech design of the system reduces the need for human operations, preserves and enhances the island environment, and significantly reduces operation and maintenance costs. The Dewees Utility Corporation routinely samples water from the Dewees Inlet, the impoundment area, and six monitoring wells. The South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Concerns performs quarterly water inspections. The purity of samples obtained in 1995 by both testing sources indicates the sewer system is performing well.
Design Guidelines The Dewees Island Architectural & Environmental Design Guidelines, developed by Burt Hill Kosar Rittelmann, provides guidance on environmentally sensitive strategies for site planning, building design, landscape design, and construction practices. The guidelines are administered by the Dewees Island Architectural Resource Board (ARB) in a two-step process that involves preliminary approval and submission of final construction documents by each owner.
The guidelines have as their objective the harmonious integration of the built environment with Dewees Islands native environment. While the ARB does not favor a particular architectural style, the guidelines require the use of features that reflect South Carolinas Low Country and sea island architectural styles. Such features include wide overhanging eaves,
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Courtesy of the Island Preservation Partnership
Reeves Residence
Background
deep porches, working shutters, narrow wings that foster cross-ventilation, and use of pilings for the foundation (see figure 2). To preserve the natural environment, the guidelines promote the use of native grasses and shrubs. All vegetation must be indigenous to the island or natural to the Charleston County barrier islands. The guidelines contain a comprehensive list of recommended species for planting on the island.
E n v i ro n m e n t a l G o a l s The design of the house had to be appropriate for the owners year-round residence, which also contains two home-based offices and guest quarters for extended visits by the owners five married children, grandchildren, and other guests. Along with fulfilling these requirements, the owners wanted to build a house that sits lightly on the site. Consequently, they conducted extensive interviews with a number of ecologically sensitive architectural firms recommended by the developer. This effort resulted in the selection of Design Harmony as their architecture firm.
Before the start of design, the owners and architects identified and delineated a list of lowimpact environmental and energy goals. In subsequent design development, environmental and energy considerations were balanced with functional issues, the project budget, schedule constraints, and product availability. In order to achieve a house that establishes a sound environmental fit with its surroundings, the following environmental goals were developed to: Develop the site with as little disturbance as possible. Site and build the house to minimize the number of trees to be removed. Employ passive solar strategies to conserve as much energy as possible. Establish and maintain good indoor air quality. Use resources efficiently with respect to both available site resources and product/material/system selection and production. Reduce transportation (energy use) by using regionally available products and materials. Reduce construction waste.
Figure 2: South Carolina Low Country Vernacular Housing Forms
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Design Response
The house contains 5,000 square feet of finished space, which is the maximum permitted for a single residence by the covenants for Dewees Island. This amount of space was needed to accommodate the living areas, guest quarters, and two home offices. The size was also influenced by the fact that the owners were consolidating two existing residences into a single year-round residence. The linear plan of the house is due in part to the elongated shape of the lot and to the desire for narrow, single-room deep wings typical of the regions vernacular styles. Other regional features incorporated into the design include wide overhanging eaves, deep porches, working interior shutters, and pilings. The house has four levels. The grade level contains a utility space and provides access to an elevator that runs to the first and second floors. A Charleston-style stair on the northeast side of the house provides exterior access from grade to the first floor. The first floor level is 16 feet above grade. This level contains the main living space, featuring a two-story barrel-vaulted living room that frames a dramatic ocean view, a kitchen and dining area, a family room/study, and a master bedroom suite. The second floor contains separate quarters for guests, including a kitchenette and bedrooms. The third floor contains a study (used as a home office) with unfinished attic space on either side (see figure 3). The environmental concepts and technologies integrated into the design are discussed below under the headings of site, energy efficiency, air quality, materials selection, and water conservation.
Site The two-acre lot is 100 feet wide and approximately 950 feet deep. With its width fronting the beach, its length runs back inland in a southeast to southwest direction. Sideyard setbacks of 25 feet result in a 50-foot side-to-side strip on which the structure is located.
The southeast-southwest orientation of the house accommodates passive solar heating, maximizes protection from winter winds and summer sun, takes advantage of natural breezes, and provides as many views as possible. Site analysis considered the direction of storm winds (particularly northeasters) and summer breezes (usually from the east and southeast here), as well as where views of seasonal sunrises and sunsets would be optimal. The Dewees Island guidelines limit the disturbed land for each lot (including one driveway) during construction to 7,500 square feet. To maintain vegetation indigenous to the island, the ARB required the owners to provide a survey of existing vegetation, an approved landscape plan using only indigenous plants, and an approved tree removal plan before construction began. In response to the landscaping requirement, the architects surveyed the existing site features to identify the location, type, and size of all vegetation. As much existing vegetation as possible was preserved and trees proposed for removal were identified. The site plan was then reviewed and approved by the ARB before sitework began. A composting area was designated for disposal of food and other organic waste. When the ARB expressed concern that construction of the house might create a wind shadow (areas of turbulence) on the next site to the north, a local weather expert was consulted. The consultant analyzed the prevailing breezes, the size and height of the Reeves house, and the
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Figure 3: Floor Plans
7 6
4 3 first floor 8 2 1 entry 2 living 3 dining 4 kitchen 5 office/den 6 washer/dryer 7 m. bedroom 8 porch 9 kitchenette 10 guest room 11 office/study 12 attic
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10
9 second floor
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11
12
third floor
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distance and topography of the adjacent lot to determine possible impacts on the northern neighbor. It was found that no wind shadow would be created. In fact, the northern neighbor may benefit from an increased southern air current. The owners driveway of pine straw blends with the beach access drive. (All other roads on the island are of sand and crushed limestone.)
E n e r g y E ff i c i e n c y Energy efficiency was a significant consideration in the design of the building envelope and in the selection of the HVAC system, lighting fixtures, and appliances.
Building Envelope
The envelope incorporates a number of passive solar features, including minimal glazing on the northwest face of the house; a trellis on the southeast deck to shade living spaces during the summer; and tinted windows, covered porches, and wide roof overhangs on the south face to minimize solar gain during the summer. The envelope uses R-19 recycled-content cotton fiber batt insulation in 2 x 6 inch (rather than the typical 2 x 4 inch) stud walls; a radiant barrier; and low-E, argon-filled glazing. Andersen windows were chosen because of their quality and the cost-competitiveness of the companys standard high-performance glazing system. In addition, the contractor received good service from the local Andersen dealer. A further reason for their selection was the companys initiatives in the areas of environmental management, pollution prevention, and recycling (Andersen reported that in 1995 it recycled 2,348 tons of waste material, which was used in the creation of other products and as a supplemental fuel in power plants). Andersens high-performance Sun glazing was specified to increase winter comfort, reduce heating and cooling bills, and reduce heat buildup during the summer. On the southeast exposures, High Performance Sun II tinted glazing was used for additional solar control. Features of Sun II glazing include a microscopically thin metallic coating bonded to an inner surface of the sealed pane of glass, a low-conductivity spacer made of stainless steel (which resists conducting heat better than aluminum), and argon gas sealed between the two panes of glass. Performance characteristics are enumerated in figure 4.
Figure 4: Performance of Specially Glazed Windows
Season Winter Summer Andersen with Sun II Glazing 35 percent more efficient than common double-pane windows At 0F outside and 70F inside, inside glass temperature is 57F 41 percent more efficient than common double-pane windows Active heat gain under hot sun is 78 BTU/sq ft/hr
H VA C S y s t e m
The orientation, solar control, and efficiency of the building envelope helped to lessen the loads on the HVAC system, which uses a closed-loop geothermal heat pump with an air distribution system to heat or cool the house. Because of structural constraints and lengths of runs and to allow for greater control, the house has four HVAC zones each equipped with a separate heat pump/furnace. The four combined zones are capable of delivering up to 3,200 cfm. Two fireplaces can provide additional heat, but their function is primarily aesthetic. In cool weather, the heat pump removes heat from the earth via underground piping that extends up to 200 feet below grade. The extracted heat is transported through a water-based
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solution in the closed-loop piping to exchangers in each furnace where air passing over the exchangers is warmed. (In colder weather, supplemental heat can be added by electrical resistance units in each furnace.) In warmer weather, the process is reversed. Heat is extracted from the indoor spaces, absorbed by the same liquid medium in the piping, and transferred to the earth. Before deciding on the geothermal system, the architect and owners compared it with the performance of an air-to-air heat pump system with respect to efficiency, longevity of components, initial cost, and operating costs. While both systems exceeded the South Carolina Building Code standard of 10 SEER, there are differences between the two. Figure 5 shows the parameters for the analysis of the two systems and figure 6 provides comparative data from the analysis.
Figure 5: HVAC System Design Parameters and Maximum Loads
Season Winter Parameters 28F outside temperature 70F indoor temperature Maximum (peak) heating load = 95,868 BTU/hr Summer 94F outside temperature 76F indoor temperature Maximum (peak) cooling load = 100,968 BTU/hr
Figure 6: Results of Analysis for HVAC Systems

System Type Geothermal Air-to-air Initial Cost $27,000 $15,000 Operational Cost $1,500 per year $ 2,500 per year Efficiency Rating 17 SEER (15 EER) 12 SEER (9 EER)
Despite a cost of $12,000 more, the owners selected the geothermal system over the air-to-air system because of its greater efficiency and reduced operating costs, estimated to be about $1,000 per year less. Beyond the lower operating costs, the geothermal system has other advantages. Its heat pump/furnace units are located inside the house. Their life spans are therefore estimated to be roughly twice that of air-to-air units that must be located outside in the salt air environment. The geothermal system offers better humidity control and improved thermal comfort since it can deliver higher air temperatures than air-to-air systems. This is due to the fact that underground earth temperatures remain rather uniform (in the upper 50F range). Air-to-air systems, on the other hand, have a greater drop off in extracting heat from outside air when temperatures drop to freezing or below.
Lighting
Natural lighting is sufficient to illuminate most spaces in the house during daylight hours. (A portion of the interior kitchen space is the only exception, and it needs supplemental lighting.) Daylight is introduced deep into the structure through windows punched high in the upper portion of the two-story barrel vault. When the builder suggested eliminating the barrel in favor of simpler construction, the architects and owners held fast to their conviction that the added quality of light and rounded form (which mirrors the half-round east-facing
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window wall) would outweigh the additional construction effort. The barrel vault has proved to be an outstanding feature of the house. A variety of lighting fixture types were used, including compact fluorescent lamps and energy-efficient downlights. A programmable controls system made by Hybrid Technologies governs the lighting, hot water, and HVAC systems. It was installed to decrease energy use.
Appliances
ASKO washers, dryers, and dishwashers were selected for the main kitchen and the kitchenette on the second floor. Although the Swedish manufactured appliances cost almost twice as much as standard domestic models, they were chosen because of their highly efficient use of water and energy. In addition, their stainless steel construction makes them more durable than conventional units when used with island water. The dishwashers heat their own water and use very little water and detergent (less than one tablespoon of detergent per load of dishes). The washing machines use less than a quarter cup of detergent per load of clothes, and the spin cycle removes all water from the clothing, dramatically reducing drying time and energy use. The Good Sense Rebate program of the South Carolina Electric & Gas Company requires participants to exceed building code requirements for insulation values and energy efficiency and requires that the HVAC system be optimally sized (i.e., not oversized).The utility also conducts on-site inspections to ensure the proper system components are installed correctly during construction. The utility company obtains construction plans, specifications, and window and door schedules for the proposed house and runs computer analyses to see if its standards are met. After analysis of the Reevess plans, the house qualified for a Good Sense rebate of $1,650.
Air Quality Indoor air quality concerns were underlined by the owners allergies as well as the potential humidity problems of mold and mildew found in an island environment. In response to these concerns, attention was specifically given to how the air was distributed and moved, maintenance systems, and the selection of materials.
To maximize cross ventilation, the house is essentially one room deep and has operable windows. Supply and return air grilles are carefully positioned in each room to provide for proper air distribution. Ceiling fans, installed throughout, help to improve air movement and reduce heating and cooling costs. To better remove dust and particulates from the indoor air environment and assist in the control of allergens, the owners requested installation of an AIR VAC central vacuum system during construction. The system is powerful and transports dust, dirt, and other particulates through a sealed system to a holding bin for later removal. The system offers the added convenience of hooking up the vacuum tube to a number of wall receptacles. The owners feel this system is effective in particulate removal, but they find the tube heavy and somewhat awkward to use. An acceptable alternative for the owners would have been an ORECK vacuum with a sealed bag.
Building Materials Selection In addition to the consideration of IAQ issues discussed above, materials selection also took into account a range of other factors. The criteria established for the use and application of the primary materials, components, and systems for the project included
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aesthetics; cost-effectiveness; energy efficiency; operation, maintenance, and durability (due to harsh island weather conditions); low toxicity (IAQ); availability; and regional sources. Hardiplank (pressed concrete boards) was chosen for the exterior siding because of its low maintenance requirements and durability in the island environment. The labor cost for this product was slightly higher than that for regular siding. Despite concerns about potential petroleum toxicity in cistern rainwater, an asphalt shingle roof was chosen in view of the higher costs of other roofing options. An alternate roofing material considered was Eternit recycled-content roof shingles, which had a fifty-year warranty but cost approximately five times more than asphalt shingles. Standing seam metal roofing costing four to five times that of asphalt shingles was not judged to be durable enough for an oceanfront environment. The selection of indoor materials and products gave weight to effects on IAQ. For example, hardwood, marble, or ceramic tile flooring was specified to avoid the problems associated with carpeting. No-VOC Glidden interior paint was specified and used throughout. The air quality benefits of cotton batt insulation overruled concerns about any possible toxicity of its flame retardant. The environmental impacts associated with manufacturing the products were also considered in product selection. For example, initial concern for the environmental impact caused by manufacturing Corian was ultimately outweighed by the owners desire for durable, low maintenance countertops. Finger-jointed, recycled wood trim was used because it is cost-effective and makes use of waste materials. Andersen windows were cost-effective and energy-efficient, and the company has developed a window recycling plan that appealed to the owners.
Living area and view from deck
Along with new greener materials, salvaged materials were incorporated into the house as a conservation measure. The owners found an antique beveled-glass front door; refurbished beveled glass panels, which were used as transoms; and a salvaged wood mantel. In addition, many of the furnishings are antiques; secondhand, early attic pieces; and found objects. An old bureau was reconfigured to form the base cabinet for the guest bathroom sink. Figure 7 profiles the primary materials and products selected and used in the design because of their environmental qualities and performance.
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Figure 7: Product Summary

Application Wood pilings Deck materials Product Description Salt-impregnated wood pilings TREXTM wood-polymer decking (woodpolymer composite from reclaimed plastic and wood waste) Cotton insulation (recycled cotton and polyester batt insulation from recycled textile scraps) HardiPlank siding (fiber-reinforced cement siding planks from recycled plastics and wood; noncombustible with 50-year warranty) SE exposures use Sun II High Performance window system with low-E, argon-filled glazing with an R-value of 3.2 and shading coefficient of 0.35. Other locations use shading coefficient of 0.51. Optix heat reflective window blinds, reduce heat gain and glare, eliminates UV rays by 100% Manufacturer No manufacturer available Mobile Chemical Company Composite Products Division Norwalk, CT 800-BUY-TREX Greenwood Cotton Insulation Products, Inc. Roswell, GA 404-998-6888 James Hardie Building Products Fontana, CA 909-356-6300 Andersen Windows Bayport, MN
Insulation (batt)
Siding
Windows and glazing
Window treatment
Nanik Division of Springs Winslow Window Fashions 7200 Stewart Avenue Wausau, WI 54401 800-422-4544 Settemio Flooring Bona-Kemi USA, Inc. Aurora, CA 303-371-1411 The Glidden Company Cleveland, OH ASKO Richardson, TX 214-644-8595 Kohler M & S Systems, Inc. Dallas, TX Waterfurnace International Fort Wayne, IN 800-934-5667 Built on site
Flooring Sealers
Oak tongue and groove hardwood quartersawn for stability Ultra-Cure (waterborne sealer for hardwood floors) Spred 2000 (no- and low-VOC; less than 1g/liter VOC) Energy/water-conserving washer, dryer, and dishwashers with stainless steel construction Low-flush (1.6 gals./flush) commercial grade fixtures installed with high riser AIR VAC central vacuum system (for removal of particulates and dust) Closed loop, geothermal, heat pump system with three #SXH024 units rated at 15.5 EER and one #SXH030 unit rated at 14.3 EER. Fuel source is electricity Cistern collection system of standard components; gutters and downspouts conduct water into a tank with a 500-gallon capacity Energy-efficient downlights, compact fluorescents Low-voltage controls (with Levitron controls for lighting), heat and hot water control system
Paint (interior) Appliances
Toilet fixtures Central vacuum system HVAC system
Rainwater storage
Lighting Control system
Various Hybrid Technologies
Wa t e r C o n s e r v a t i o n To lessen the demand on the water from the islands system, the house design incorporates several water conservation measures. The first includes a rainwater-collection cistern for outdoor use. The 500-gallon cistern, built of standard components, receives water via gutters and downspouts from the roof. The tank has a spigot to allow for connection to a garden hose. Overflow water goes into the groundwater. The capacity of the rainwater cistern was based on requirements for watering landscape materials in the immediate vicinity of the house. Indigenous plants were specified for landscaping to reduce landscape water use and eliminate chemical use. (The mortgage company did, however, mandate sprayed pesticides on the foundation, which could contaminate the water.)
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Other water conservation measures included using low-flow (1.6 gal per flush) toilets and the water-efficient Asko washer and dishwashers. Garbage disposals are not allowed as they put too much strain on the wastewater system. The kitchen sink, however, has a compost drop that sends food waste directly into a designated container. The waste is taken twice weekly to the community composting area. This system located at the central landings building, works well.
Construction
A traditional project team of owner, architect, and contractor was employed in constructing the Reeves residence. However, traditional construction methodologies were altered in some ways by the island location and the construction requirements in the Dewees Island Architectural and Environmental Design Guidelines. As in the selection of the architect, John Knott, CEO of the Island Preservation Partnership, recommended builders to the owners. Each had experience in sustainable design and a commitment to the Dewees Island environmental philosophy. After a series of interviews, the owners decided on R. S. Structures as their general contractor. The firm had already constructed three projects on the island and had mastered the logistics of transporting workers, materials, and other resources by barge. Moreover, the president of the company, who holds a Ph.D. in chemistry, had experience with the selection of alternative materials and offered expertise in making material choices. Employed at the beginning of the project, the general contractor functioned as an integral part of the project team. The design guidelines call for material waste to be minimized because it has to be transported off the island by barge for recycling and disposal. Island regulations also limit the amount of land that can be disturbed during construction, which further discourages waste of materials by limiting staging space and prohibiting many traditional on-site disposal methods, such as burning or burying waste. Among a host of other construction requirements, the contractor is not permitted to use any toxic chemicals during the building process. The project was within budget; however, the costs for certain aspects of the construction were higher due to the logistics of building on an island and the use of some products with higher up-front costs. An additional 10 percent of the construction cost can be attributed to the use of green products or systems. While some items increased initial costs, they had paybacks as low as two years with considerably decreased operational costs. The following green products and systems added to initial costs: A closed-loop geothermal heat pump cost almost twice as much as a 17 SEER air-to-air system but is only 60 percent as costly to operate. ASKO appliances cost 50 percent more than traditional domestic appliances. Quarter-sawn oak flooring cost 25 percent more than carpeting or other flooring. TREX decking was 50 percent higher in cost than traditional treated wood. Cotton batt insulation was 10 percent higher in initial cost than fiberglass batts. Building on the island involves complex transportation issues for the labor force and for building materials. For example, the island ferry could transport only six workers to the island on one trip, with round trips requiring approximately 30 minutes. To help alleviate this limitation, a boat capable of carrying 18 passengers was added during construction. The contractor estimates that transporting building materials to the island by barge added 25 percent to the total cost of the job. If the same house were built on the mainland or nearby Isle of Palms, which is accessible by automobile, the cost to build the house would have been about 25 percent lower. This meant that material quantities had to be carefully calculated and
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ordered from the outset so they were on hand when needed. Since the builder had other projects under construction on Dewees, grouping material deliveries and sharing crews and equipment among the projects offered some efficiencies.
Use and Operation

The owners have occupied the house since July 1995 and have been satisfied with its overall performance. Their observations and comments provide insight into how they perceive the house is working, what changes they might have made in the design, and what improvements could be carried out. To date, the owners have noticed a significant drop in allergy problems they had previously experienced. While it is difficult to attribute the specific reasons for this, the owners sense that the collective design and systems in the house are a contributing factor. Natural ventilation works well. The single-room depth, placement of windows, and ceiling fans take advantage of prevailing breezes. However, the owners feel that operable transoms above the double-hung windows would have allowed more breezes into the main living spaces. Most zones in the house provide good solar control because of overhangs, porches, and sunscreening devices, but the second-floor bedroom and sitting area on the narrow west elevation receive too much sunlight. To remedy this condition, the owners are adding Bahamian shutters to the west-facing windows on the second floor. This will provide solar control as well as storm control. The owners feel the energy control system is perhaps too elaborate for their needs. The system is sensitive to electrical noise disturbance, and maintenance is a problem because there is no local system support. Electricians must be specially trained to work on the system, making repairs and modifications difficult. The geothermal heat pump delivers excellent cooling in the summer and good heating in the winter. However, during two unusual winter storms in 1995 the indoor temperature sometimes only reached 55F. If harsher winters than average are anticipated in the future, a modification to the system will be made to increase its heating capacity. For an eightmonth period from November 1995 through June 1996, the house consumed 25,603 kwh for heating and cooling needs. The project may not set new benchmarks, but it illustrates how design can be environmentally responsive by applying a reasonable number of strategies. Gail Lindsey, AIA, of Design Harmony points out, Rather than trying to deal with too many environmental issues and considerations, the project purposefully addressed only a handful. This helped to ensure that the design process for the effort did not become unwieldy and that chances remained high for effective results. Such an outlook can be useful for firms just starting to incorporate environmental concerns into their designs, and it works well for firms that are expanding their environmental capabilities.
View from east
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Project Report
Solar Living Center

Real Goods Trading Corporation, Hopland, California
Richard Barnes
Architect Ecological Design Institute/ Van der Ryn Architects Sim Van der Ryn, Principal David Arkin, AIA, Project Architect Adam Jackaway, Climate/Site Analysis Structural Engineering Bruce King, P.E. Civil Engineering Mendocino Engineering Terry McGillivray
The Solar Living Center (SLC) is a retail facility, a place for learning, and a demonstration site wrapped into one. Supporting the mission and business philosophy of the Real Goods Trading Corporation, the SLC embodies in its design restorative approaches, climate-responsive design, and renewable energy systems.
Landscape Design Land & Place Chris and Stephanie Tebbutt Contractor TDM Construction Tom Meyers, Owner Retail Design and Planning Otto Design Group
Background
Living and working as an urban refugee in northern California in the 1970s, John Schaeffer became attracted to solar energy and other emerging self-sufficient technologies. Seeing their potential, Schaeffer decided to introduce these technologies to the public. To do this, he started the Real Goods Trading Company in 1978. Today, the company is a flourishing publicly traded business offering hundreds of environmentally geared products through mail order catalogs and several retail outlets.
Wa l k i n g t h e Ta l k Throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, Real Goods rented a series of buildings. Jeff Oldham, the companys special projects manager, described those facilities as dungeonesque, industrial-like with little or no daylight, and energy-intensive. By the early 90s, Schaeffer and his staff decided they needed to start walking the talk by constructing a new retail facility that would embrace the companys philosophy and values.
After looking at several sites, a reasonably priced 12-acre tract of land was purchased in the Sanel Valley near Hopland, California. Hopland lies about 90 miles north of San Francisco and 15 miles south of the companys headquarters in Ukiah. Once a landfill dump site, only one-third of the property was suitable for building since the other two-thirds was in a floodplain. Located on well-traveled Route 101, the location offered a high degree of visibility for a retail facility.
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A Parallel Universe In the fall of 1993 John Schaeffer set down thoughts for the development of the property in an eloquent four-page vision statement. He wrote The site plan and style of layout and construction should maximize elements of beauty, serenity, and spiritualitythis should be a sanctuary and a testament to sustainable building practices, sustainable energy systems, sustainable living, agriculture, and community. From the sterile highway, he envisioned visitors entering a green, cool, comfortable parallel universe.
Schaeffer went on to detail ideas for a retail showroom, a bed and breakfast facility, and restaurant and described concepts for several site amenities, including an orchard, lake, solar oven, sewage treatment plant, solar-charging station for electric vehicles, and a special sculpture that would be a monument to renewable energy and a sustainable life-style. In the team spirit that would permeate the project, the Real Goodss staff reviewed and refined the vision statement several times before emerging in its final form.
Mini-Competition To select an architect, a small team of Real Goodss staff invited five design firms to participate in a mini design competition. Each firm was given a stipend and asked to develop a conceptual master plan for the site based on the ideas contained in the vision statement.
The selection team was impressed with several of the schemes but was most attracted to the one prepared by Sim Van der Ryn. They felt his design best captured the vision statements oasis concept and gave the design commission to his firm, the Ecological Design Institute.
Design Framework Van der Ryn and his associates developed a set of five principles to provide a design framework for the project. These principles are derived from ecologically based precepts presented and described in Van der Ryns Ecological Design.1
Create a climate-responsive building. Create an educational environment. Design for low-impact construction. Involve everyone and have fun. Measure successes and failures (feedback).
Design Response
The design approach was organized around an interdisciplinary team concept. From the outset, the architect, structural engineer, landscape designer, and the project manager for Real Goods met frequently to exchange and share ideas. David Arkin, project architect with the Ecological Design Institute, noted that it didnt matter who proposed an idea or whywhether or not it improved the project was the criterion used in decision-making. The team realized that to achieve a climate-responsive solution, they must address many interrelated factors, responses to which often have a rippling effect. For example, in addition to influencing thermal and lighting strategies, climate analysis can also affect the selection of materials. Material choices, in turn, may influence the type and design of the structure. The structure itself influences the final building form, and so forth and so on.
Climate and Context The design started with an analysis of the local climate which is characterized throughout much of the year by abundant sunshine and clear skies with low humidity. Data gathered
1
Van der Ryn, Sim, and Stuart Cowan. Ecological Design. Island Press, 1996. (See Appendix B for a synopsis of this book.) SOLAR LIVING CENTER ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998
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from weather stations revealed that summer daytime temperatures can be intense, often exceeding 100F. Nighttime summer temperatures can drop to 50 or 60F. Winter temperatures average 50 F during the day, dipping to near-freezing or freezing conditions at night. The average annual precipitation for the region is 38 inches a year, most of which occurs between November and April. A prevalent winter fog usually dissipates by afternoon. Winds are primarily from the north or northwest, while storm systems enter from the south or northwest.
Along with climatic conditions, the contextual character of the surrounding region provided a starting point for site design and development. This context is expressed in the patterns of the flora associated with the The contextual character of the region floodplain, the pronounced grid and regular influenced the approach to the site design. rhythm of the local agriculture, and, as observed by the landscape architect, the certain wildness present in the surrounding hills. In addition to the climate and geographical context, the site design was driven by the orientation of the sun and by the use of water, especially moving water.
Site Design The elements of the site are illustrated in figure 1. Its western boundary is defined by Route 101, which runs north and south. The Feliz Creek, a tributary of the Russian River, flows along the sites northern edge. To the east beyond a railroad track is the local wastewater treatment plant. A property to the south contains a vineyard.
The access road enters from the northwest side of the property and curves through heavily landscaped areas before arriving at the parking area in the southeast sector. The shrimp-like shape to the west of the parking area denotes the footprint of the retail structure. The main entrance to the showroom is from the large circular courtyard area to the southwest of the building. The courtyard is the symbolic epicenter of the SLC. From the center of this space, a solar calendar radiates out over the siteeven into the building itself. Selected points of this land calendar are marked to indicate moments of sunrise and sunset for the solstices and equinoxes. The calendar was a collaborative design effort of the architect, landscape architect, and sculptor. Regarding their approach to the site and landscape design, landscape architects
Courtesy David Arkin, AIA
Roof structure
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Courtesy David Arkin, AIA
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Figure 1: Site Plan
3 2 A B C
A retail showroom building B future solar house C future headquarters 1 2 3 4 5 6 entrance from highway 101 pond marsh creek restoration parking Berm 1 6
Courtesy Van der Ryn, Architects
Stephanie Kotin and Christopher Tebbutt comment that Taking our cues from the [retail showroom] building, we chose a spiral to project the central oasis out into the landscape at large. It is bisected by the traditional agricultural grid, which has been realigned to honor the cardinal directionsThrough this dialogue between compass and the solar calendar, one senses the tilt of the earththe source of our seasons.
Landscaping
A copse of nut trees near the entrance contains several species of nuts and blueberries. The access road winds through a heavily forested area in the sites northeast section, which is populated by evergreens, coastal and Sierra redwoods, and cedars. The central portion includes a Mediterranean orchard near the ponds. An olive bosque is located in the southwest sector of the site. (Bosques are groves reportedly used by early Persian philosophers as a place of contemplation.) Together with an earth berm, the olive bosque helps mitigate highway noise. Other landscaping has been creatively integrated and intertwined with several structural frames of different shapes. These living structures include a willow dome, a hops tipi, and a bamboo pyramid.
E n e r g y a n d Wa t e r E l e m e n t s
The reliance on renewable on-site energy at the SLC is visually communicated by the collecting or harnessing components of the energy system. These include a 70-foot tower supporting a wind generator, a cluster of photovoltaic panels mounted on tracking devices, and additional photovoltaic panels mounted on the south side of the office/storage structure. (This system is described later in more detail.) The site design celebrates water in several statesstill, moving, and mistedto evoke refreshing, playful, and aesthetic experiences. A tank made from a recycled wine vat stores
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Figure 2: Floor Plan and Courtyard
1 1 2 3 4 retail showroom photovoltaic display room solar calendar/pool walk from parking area
water that will be used for landscape irrigation. The agave cooling tower sprays cool refreshing mists of water. Children can romp in a series of playful forms that channel the water from the storage tank to the ponds from where it is pumped to irrigate trees, plants, and shrubs.
Building Design Evoking an organic quality, the curvilinear form of the plan reinforces the circular shape of the courtyard to the south. The buildings structural grid pattern springs up from points along the radii emanating from the center of the courtyard (see figure 2).
The design of the structure attempts to take full advantage of the local climate, which is wellsuited to passive heating, daylighting, natural ventilation, and evaporative cooling. The major design challenge involved mitigating the effects of summer sun.
A n a l y s i s Te c h n i q u e s
The design team made extensive use of scale models to evaluate various aspects of the design. Early in the process, the architects studied the effects of daylighting, glare, shading, etc. through the use of a Heliodon at the Pacific Energy Center in San Francisco. By simulating solar azimuths and angles for the site throughout the year, the Heliodon mimics the effects of the sun on the models. Time-lapse videos assisted the team in understanding these effects.
Structure and Enclosure
Although the site is located in an area of high seismic risk, the structural design was driven by the loads from the powerful southern winds. The structural system consists of poured concrete columns that support a roof assembly of curved glued-and-laminated wood (glulam) beams and manufactured wood joists.
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Courtesy Van der Ryn, Architects
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Design Response
Figure 3: Straw-bale Wall Construction Detail

meadowood trim 2 x 4 frame @ 6-0 o.c. 5 1/8 x 5 1/2 glulam beam 2 x 8 nailer w/temporary 2 x 4 screed Min. 15 lb. felt moisture barrier at all wood Galv. mesh, fasten to frames w/8d or 10d sinkers @ 6 o.c. and staple to bales with 12 ga. x 6 staples @ 12 o.c. vertical, 24 o.c. horizontal Truth window
Illustration by David Arkin, AIA; Courtesy Van der Ryn, Architects
1 layer of 5 sack mix gunite shot onto the bales and mesh 3 layer of 3 sack/yard PISE veneer 25 x 16 x 42 three-string wire rice straw bales #4 rebar pins 30-mil vapor barrier between bales and concrete footing PA23 holddowns @ 2x 4 redwood sill plates 2 foam glass insulation 2 sand base over vapor barrier over 4 gravel
The highly glazed south wall is designed to capture daylight and solar radiation. The glazing consists of insulated low-E glass and integrates a series of light shelves to enhance daylighting and overhangs to provide shading. Straw-bale construction is used in the north and west walls of the building. The straw bales represent an environmental use of a local agricultural waste product that is routinely burned. The bales are finished on the exterior and interior with PISE (pneumatically impacted stabilized earth) made from cement and soil.2 The three-inch thick coating protects the straw and also provides some extra structural rigidity to help the walls resist movement in the event of an earthquake. The earth in the coating came from the Fetzer Vineyards about 11/2 miles away. In addition to providing high thermal insulation (almost R-65), the walls provide excellent sound insulation (see figure 3).
Thermal Systems
The passive thermal systems for the building are illustrated by figures 4 through 7. In the cold day heating mode (figure 4), solar radiation, entering through the south wall, is captured and stored in the mass of the concrete floors. Other heat sources include occupants and several wood stoves. During the first winter season, however, the stoves were used more for atmospheric reasons than for heating except on several colder mornings. In the night heating mode (figure 5), the wood-burning stoves are a heat source on colder nights. Heat within the building is maintained by the high R-values of the walls and roof and by the ability to cover the high south-facing windows with the hinged light shelves in order to reduce radiation to the night sky. In the hot day cooling mode (figure 6), solar gain is controlled by the reflectivity of the white roof surface, and the shading provided by overhangs and the trellis on the south side. In the night cooling mode (figure 7) heat is radiated to the night sky through the glazed areas. The building shape supports venting of the interior space by drawing cooler air in near the lower
2 PISE was developed by David Easton, a longtime authority on and builder of earth structures. For an in-depth discussion of earth structure design and construction techniques, see Eastons The Rammed Earth House (Chelsea Green, 1996).
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Figure 4: Cold Day Heating Mode

A the mass of the highly insulated straw-bale and PISE walls produce a thermal flywheel effect, storing and releasing heat. B stored heat in the thermal mass of the concrete floor and columns is also released to help maintain comfort. C efficient wood-burning stoves (working display models) are the only source of supplemental heat. D lightshelves control glare and direct gain, reflecting light onto the curved ceiling. E doors and windows can be opened to provide immediate cooling if the temperature indoors is too warm. F the low winter sun penetrates the building through substantial south-facing glazing.
F D
B C
Figure 5: Night Heating Mode
Illustration by David Arkin, AIA
A the insulation in the straw-bale walls and roof helps to retain the days heat inside the building mass. B the 12 cellulose insulation in the roof provides an R-value greater than 60. C the wood-burning stoves can be left on a slow burn on the coldest nights, balancing heat loss. D lightshelves are hinged and can be folded against the high glazing to reduce heat loss to the night sky.
D
level and allowing hot air to be dissipated through higher openings. The clerestory windows in the stepped-roof locations are operable for this purpose. Five evaporative cooling units (often referred to as swamp coolers) installed on the roof provide backup cooling on hotter days. Because the units run on direct current, they can be run directly from the solar cells without converting the power to alternating current. During the first summer of operation, the water to these units was never turned on, although the fans in the units were operated on still summer nights to flush out hot air. The ability of the building to stay cool in hotter weather is demonstrated by an incident that occurred on a summer afternoon when the temperature was more than 100F. A customer admonished a sales clerk for having the air conditioning set so low in a building purporting to be environmentally responsive. The customer was astonished to learn that nothing was running (neither the evaporative units nor the fans) and that there wasnt a traditional cooling system installed the building.
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A fans in the evaporative coolers run after hot (100 F+) days for additional air changes. B roof and high windows radiate heat to the night sky. C a stack effect draws out warm air through opened clerestory windows and draws in cooler air through openings near the floor. D night sky radiation and cool night temperatures are used to charge the thermal mass of the building with cool for the next day.
Figure 7: Night Cooling Mode
B B C
Lighting
The building is designed to capture and control daylight. The former function is achieved through the use of a shallow floor plan; a curved or bowed building section with the large south wall; the use of light-colored interior surfaces, including a white ceiling; light shelves on the interior perimeter to reflect light back to the rear portion of the ceiling; east-facing clerestories within the stepped facets of the roof; and north-facing glazing for additional lighting and views. Daylight is controlled through the use of south-facing overhangs that shade the upper horizontal band of the south wall in summer; roll-up hemp awnings for shading the middle horizontal band; a trellis that shades the lower horizontal band of the south wall; and the limited use of glazing on the east and west facades. 8
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A the thermal mass and high insulation of the straw-bale and PISE (sprayed soil-cement) wall protects against the transfer of 100 F + outdoor summer temperatures. B air space in roof ventilates heat from radiant barrier over 12 cellulose insulation (R-60). C clerestory windows are closed when outside temperature exceeds interior temperature. D white Hypalon (synthetic rubber) roof membrane reflects gain from solar radiation. E thermal mass of concrete floor and columns absorbs heat from people and equipment; stores cool from previous night flush. F overhang and awnings shade windows, controlling solar gain. Light shelves and curved white ceiling distribute daylight evenly reducing need for heatproducing lighting fixtures. G trellis shades walls, windows, and walkway in summer; allows gain in winter; and controls glare.
Figure 6: Hot Day Cooling Mode
F B C G
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Design Response
When daylight is low or absent, electric lighting is used. This consists primarily of fluorescent fixtures with T-8 electronically ballasted lamps hung by cables from the ceiling. Other lighting fixtures use compact fluorescent lamps. Because the showroom closes in the early evening, the need for electrically powered lighting is minimized.
Materials Selection The selection of materials for the building emphasized use of recycled products, nontoxic ingredients, and materials with recycled content and low embodied energy. Research and selection of the materials were carried out by Real Goods project staff in collaboration with the project architect.
The building incorporates many products obtained from recycling sites, junkyards, and other local sources. These items are used for fencing, outdoor play equipment, restroom wainscoting, and decorations and display props among others. Figure 8 lists the major materials used in the project indicating the application, a brief description, and the source. Selecting materials did involve compromises, as exemplified by material used for the roofing membrane. David Arkin noted that the membrane originally proposed was so nontoxic that you could practically eat it. However, the contractor would not guarantee installation of an unproved material above the highly moisture-sensitive straw-bale construction. This resulted in a decision to use Hypalon for the roof membrane since it met the UV reflectance needs, and had a reliable track record and long-life expectancy.
On-site Energy System Power from the Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) electrical grid is largely derived from geothermal wells near Cobb Mountain in Geyserville, California. However, to be as self-sufficient as possible, the design incorporates an on-site renewable energy system that uses both photovoltaic solar power and wind power. The primary components of the system include the following:
10 kw photovoltaic modules (Siemans PC-4 and M-55 modules) Four inverters (Trace Engineering SW548) Three small active trackers (Power Systems) One power center and 2 controllers (Anada Power Tech. APT5-444-48) One wind generator (World Power Tech. Whisper 3000LV) 16 batteries (Interstate U2200 deepcycle, 6v220Ah) The original intent was to sell excess power from the on-site system back to the utility company. Therefore, the system is connected to the utility grid and has two electric metersone measures the power purchased from the grid and the other measures power sent back to the grid.
Light shelves in daytime position
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Courtesy Jeff Oldham, Real Goods
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Figure 8: Materials Used at the Solar Living Center

Application Site paving Play equipment Poles for PV trackers Fencing Picnic tables and benches Product / Material Description Made with crushed and compacted rock base to avoid petroleum-based products. Kids tunnel made from re-used 3-foot diameter culvert pipe. Reused 6-inch scrap pipe. Reused material from beer barrels. Made from recycled plastic or recycled redwood. Source Local quarry 3 miles away Local grading contractor 2 miles away Junk yards via Ukiah Recycled Lumber works Old Falstaff Brewing Company via Ukiah Recycled Lumber Works Redwood tables made by Real Goods employees; recycled plastic from Northward Industries Local cement plant
Concrete
Fly-ash was used in place of 15 to 20% of the portland cement in the concrete. Source was verified as not being from toxic waste-fired kilns. Douglas Fir from first certified harvest plans. (The 30% premium on lumber costs added less than 2% to the project costs). Salvaged material from old wine barrels. Hardipanel: a 4x 8 x 1/4 panel made from recycled paper and cement. Durable, waterproof and smooth grey finish that can be left unpainted. Exterior and interior use.
Framing for bale walls and restrooms Redwood in showroom cabinet units Exterior over stress skin and interior over cabinet faces
California forests
Segashio Winery, Healdsburg, CA, via Ukiah Recycled Lumber Works James Hardie Building Products 1-800-942-7343
Interior trim bands Countertops in restrooms
Meadowood Industries Meadowood: a 4 x 8 x 1/4 panel made from wheat straw, with a nontoxic binder from Germany. 503-259-1303 100% post consumer waste glass mixed with cement. Counter/Production 1075 Dwight Way Berkeley, CA 94710 510-843-6916 Old turkey barn No-torch application; 85% reflective; long-lasting From local agricultural waste in cooperation with California Rice Industry Association Insteel Construction System, Inc. 2610 Sidney Lanier Drive Brunswick, GA 31525 1-800-545-3181 Developed by Dave Easton of Rammed Earth Works. Earth obtained from Fetzer Vineyards 1.5 miles away. Nature Guard Pacific Gold Board 916-243-4032
Roofing for office/storage facility Roofing for retail facility
Metal: Reused corrugated steel Hypalon
Wall structure (retail building) Straw bales: High performance and quiet. Easy to build with. Wall panels (office/storage building) 3-D Panel: 4 x 8 panel made from recycled modified expanded polystyrene, mesh made of recycled steel, and concrete. Durable, CFC-free, waterproof, with two coats of latex paint PISE (pneumatically impacted stabilized earth). Has low-embodied energy.
Wall finish (exterior)
Insulation Panels between the TJls in the storage/office building.
Cellulose with low embodied energy and 100% . post consumer waste content Pressed wheat straw made with high pressure and steam for binding, pressed into lx 8 x 2-1/4 thick panels with paper or foil facings. Serve as a sound absorber, insulation, and radiant barrier. A foil and paper based radiant barrier with an air space on both sides providing 97% heat rejection. Stain made of organic fertilizer and ferrous oxide (developed and specified by Otto Design Group).
Radiant barrier
ETC 8095 S. Lake Circle Loomis, CA 95650-9119 Otto Design Group Retail Design and Planning 415-485-0420
Floor finish
Paint (interior)
All paint has near-zero VOCs, with little tint. The Glidden Company The ceiling did not get painted on top of an already Cleveland, OH white texturing compound. Building was well vented before move in.
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Figure 8: Materials Used at the Solar Living Center (continued)

Application Paper towels/toilet paper Product / Material Description 100% post consumer. Source Wisconsin Tissue 1-800-462-7546 Junk yards, abandoned cars, dumps, garage and yard sales, etc. From Recycle Town located at the Sonoma County dump 60 miles away
Decorations and display props Reused and recycled products for wall hangings, fixtures, etc. Toilet tank lids and wainscot in restrooms 100% post consumer waste.
Conceptually, selling back excess power sounds good. However, the current economics of the approach do not warrant installing a system with a large capacity. This situation is reflected by the fact that Real Goods pays about $0.14 per kwh for purchased energy and receives only $0.02 per kwh for the power it sends back!
Thermal Load Analysis Sol Data of Santa Rosa, California, ran a thermal analysis for the retail facility to determine heating and cooling loads. The COMPLY 24 program took into account the effects of mass, shading, and related dynamic factors. The analysis assumed two building zonesone northerly and one southerly. The analysis showed the peak heating load occurring in January with the most significant portion of the load being produced by heat conduction through glazing. Solar gain is the most significant factor for the peak cooling load that occurs in August. The project was exempt from the Title 24 energy requirements for California because the facility uses renewable energy sources and has only evaporative cooling units. Wa t e r S u p p l y S y s t e m s The SLC has three water systems. The first is for potable water, which comes from the community water system. Real Goods will develop an on-site well in the future for this purpose.
The second water supply comes from an 80-foot well powered by solar energy. The system pumps the water to a 3,000-gallon storage tank. From the storage tank the water is channeled to a fountain and to ponds through a series of water forms. From the ponds the water is used to irrigate landscaped areas. The third water system recycles graywater from the restroom sinks. After processing through a filtration system, the purified water is used to irrigate plants and landscaping in the courtyard. The system saves an estimated 100 to 150 gallons per day or 50,000 gallons per year.
Sanitary Systems Sewage from the restrooms is piped to the community waste treatment facility just to the east of the property. Early in the planning process, Real Goods took steps to collaborate with the county to convert the community treatment plant into a living system similar to the one conceived by biologist John Todd.3 The idea never materialized after the plant manager who was committed to the conceptleft his position. Real Goods intends to disconnect itself from the system and build its own on-site treatment system.
The mens restrooms use waterless urinals, which conserve a significant amount of water. These fixtures were developed and first used in Switzerland in 1891, and a similar system has been used in other parts of Europe for many years. The updated system for the U.S. has been approved in several states for both new and retrofit uses. Each unit is estimated to save approximately 45,000 gallons of water per year. (The urinals are manufactured by the Waterless Company of Del Mar, California, 1-888-663-5874.)
3 See the Boyne River Ecology Centre project report (03) for a description and application of Todds living machine wastewater treatment system.
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Construction
Real Goods wanted to retain a contractor at the start of design on a time and materials basis, but the bank required that the construction work be bid. Therefore, during early design, Real Goods asked several general contractors (on a fee basis) to review the proposed construction concepts and provide preliminary technical and budgeting advice. TDM Construction, the successful bidder, did not participate in the early design phase, but once on board they rapidly grasped and entered into the environmental spirit of the effort. Site preparation and grading began in June 1994. In an order reversed from the usual, landscaping was started in August 1994 so plantings would achieve adequate growth by the completion of construction. The office/storage facility was finished in December 1994. The retail structure was started in July 1995 and completed in April 1996.
P ro j e c t C o s t s The final project cost was $1.86 million. This included the cost for land, site development, buildings, support systems, landscaping, and furnishings. To provide a realistic cost picture, this figure takes into account the $100,000 retail value of items donated by the projects corporate sponsors (see figure 9). Real Goods did not use the donated systems and products merely because they were donated. Selection criteria required that each item be commercially available and reasonably priced and that it represent state-of-the-art technology an average visitor could relate to.
The project bid was higher than the budgeted cost. Jeff Oldham, Real Goodss project manager, noted that this occurred for several reasons. During the design process the team continued to search and substitute materials they felt did a better job, even if they were sometimes more expensive. Also, the three landscaping phases were originally planned for completion over a five-year period, and instead were fully complete by opening day in order to achieve the full effect of the site development. Higher costs also resulted from financing hassles and delays. The design team worked closely with Tom Myers of TDM to carve $180,000 from the bid price. One change alonereducing the number of window mullions specified for the south facade of the showroom buildingsaved $40,000. In addition, louvers originally designed for this facade were not used.
Figure 9: Corporate Sponsors for Solar Living
Sponsor Siemens Solar Industries (805-482~800) and Solar Electric Specialties (707-459-9496) Trace Engineering (360-435-8826) California Rice Industry Association (916) 458-5206 Ananda Power Technologies (916) 478-7616 James Hardie Building Products (408) 437-7740 Small Power Systems (800) 972-7179 Waterless Company (800) 244-6364 New World Manufacturing (800) 523-8853 In-Line Plastics (800) 364-7688) Pittsburgh Corning Corporation (412) 327-6100 Skylark Inc. (414) 642-9665 Leviton Manufacturing Co. (707) 763-9141 AGWA Greywater Systems (818) 562-1449 Northward Industries (909) 699- 8145 Insteel Construction Systems (800) 545-3181 Product Description Photovoltaic panels (over 10 kw) Two large 5500 watt sine wave inverters Straw bales to build with Power center and controllers Hardipanel Photovoltaic trackers Waterless urinals Water tank liner Pond liners Foam glass slab insulation Flow Forms Electrical finish Graywater system Recycled plastic benches Building panels
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Embodied Energy Data During construction, Real Goods wanted to determine the energy used to transport building materials and personnel to the site. The intent was to develop a more complete picture of the embodied energy for construction. To do this, Real Goods developed a form to record the number of miles traveled, fuel type used, miles per gallon of vehicles, weight of materials, etc.
Unfortunately, there are many gaps in the data since the task of recording it proved more difficult than anticipated. What information is in hand has not yet been tabulated. However, the use of the forms produced an interesting side effect. As the workers became more familiar with the environmental implications of the project, there was a significant increase in carpooling to the site. In addition, workers made concerted efforts to consolidate material deliveries, cutting down on the number of delivery trips.
C o n s t r u c t i o n Wa s t e M a n a g e m e n t Committed to managing construction waste, the Real Goods staff took on this task themselves in order to hold down project expenses. Waste materials, such as wood, were organized into piles of two-foot increments so that construction workers could easily locate what they needed rather than rummaging through single heaps. Sheet rock waste was ground up and placed in a compost pile at the site. Wood scraps were saved as fuel for the two woodstoves. Metal, plastic, cardboard, and other recycled materials accounted for 70 to 80 percent of the construction waste.
Use and Operation

The facility appears to be achieving what it set out to do both functionally and environmentally. Overall, it is a success, with visitor reactions ranging from positive to ecstatic. During the first summer months, the temperatures in the buildings stayed in the 70s even when the outdoor temperature frequently climbed above 100F. Another indication of the thermal effectiveness of the structure occurred during the stores summer solsticegrand opening celebration in June 1996. With masses of people wedged into the showroom throughout the weekend, the interior temperature never exceeded the mid 80s.
Thermal Monitoring In the fall of 1996, an architecture class under the leadership of Professor Gail Brager from the University of California at Berkeley conducted a month-long study of the building that included on-site monitoring over a 10-day period. Indoor and outdoor temperatures were recorded at selected locations, and stratification patterns and humidity levels were evaluated. The following is a summary of the study findings:
The retail buildings humidity levels are likely caused by moisture exhaled by occupants. The thermal mass of the straw bale walls provides about a 12-hour lag from the outdoor ambient temperature. The inside surface temperature of the wall had a twohour lag in relation to the peak indoor space temperature. On average, the inside wall surface temperature is about 5.4F (3C) lower than the interior air temperature, thus providing some radiant cooling. The temperature stratification in the high space of the showroom was between 5.4F (3C) and 14.4F (8C). When windows and doors were opened the stack temperatures approached each other, indicating air movement through the space. Interior temperatures remained below 82 F (28C) despite outdoor temperatures of 91F (33C) and high occupant densities.
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Operation and Use
Energy Use Jeff Oldham estimates the facility uses on average 100 kwh of electrical power each day. Approximately 70 to 80 kwh are generated by the on-site energy system. The photovoltaic panels provide between 70 and 80 percent of on-site power, and the wind generator provides from 10 to 15 percent.
During periods of less sunlight and less intensive winds, the power deficit is made up with electricity from the grid. To date, Oldham estimates that on a daily basis, Real Goods buys about 26 kwh and sells back about 6 kwh to the electric utility company.
Conclusion Real Goods president, John Schaeffer comments that Our 12-acre Solar Living Center turned out to exceed our wildest expectations in terms of functionality, educational opportunities, and general public inspirational quality. Our entire design team collaborated to create not only a living monument to renewable energy and sustainable technologies, but a work in progress that will continue to inspire visitors well into the new millennium.
In reflecting on the endeavor, Sim Van der Ryn states The Real Goods Solar Living Center is an example of what happens when a clients clear vision coincides with the vision and abilities of the design team. The design evolved out of a true collaboration across many disciplines and demonstrates my adage that if nature is designed into a project, beauty is an integral, un-self-conscious by-product of the process. I expect the lessons and experiences of the Real Goods project will become part of mainstream architectural practicea practice that takes less from the earth and gives more to people; an architecture that lowers environmental costs while raising spirits. The ecological underpinning of the Solar Living Center has resulted in a design closely connected to its setting, one in tune with natures ebbs and flows. Both the building and the process that created it will inspire us to look at architectural design through a more powerful environmental lens.
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SOLAR LIVING CENTER
Richard Barnes
Project Report
C. K. Choi Building
Institute of Asian Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia
Mike Sherman/Reed Jones Christoffersen
Architects Matsuzaki Wright Architects, Inc. Structural Engineers Read Jones Christoffersen, Ltd. Mechanical Engineers Keen Engineering Company Electrical Engineers Lundlich & Associates, Ltd. Landscape Architect Cornelia Hahn Oberlander General Contractor Country West Construction Ltd.
With the C. K. Choi Building, the University of British Columbia has taken a significant step to position itself in the forefront of green design. Aiming to place less stress on the environment, the design uses natural ventilation and daylighting strategies, recycled materials, and unique approaches for sewage and wastewater systems.
Background
The Institute of Asian Research (IAR) was established by the University of British Columbia (UBC) in 1978 to facilitate and foster growth of Asia-Pacific research expertise at the university. In the early 1990s, through gifts from private donors, plans were initiated to construct a new facility for the IAR to house its research centers for China, Japan, Korea, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Freda Pagani, associate director for project development with the UBC campus planning and development department, had been inspired by buildings embracing environmental and sustainable principles. She proposed that similar approaches be used in the new IAR building and university officials granted approval to develop the facility as a demonstration of sustainable design. In selecting an architect for the project, the university staff placed more weight on a firms attitude about environmental design than it did on actual environmental design experience. After interviews with several firms, the university awarded the design commission to Matsuzaki and Wright Architects, Inc. Pagani noted that the firm brought an intense dedication to the idea of making the project as environmentally responsive as possible.
S h a re d V i s i o n The UBC planning department brought the project team together in a two-day workshop to set the environmental tone and framework for the effort. Pagani invited Bob Berkebile, then chairman for the AIAs Committee on the Environment (COTE), to serve as the workshop
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facilitator. (It was a lecture given by Berkebile at a conference sponsored by the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada that stimulated Paganis interest in cutting edge environmental design.) Participants in the workshop included representatives from various UBC departments and the IAR and staff from the offices of the architect, structural engineer, mechanical engineer, electrical engineer, and landscape architect. Through open discussions the group crafted a set of broad-based goals. Collectively, these goals succinctly express what has been called the shared vision of the project: The facility should establish the benchmark for state-of-the-art collaborative research. The facility should express the character of the cultures participating in the research. The facility should set new standards for sustainable design, construction, and operation. Participants amplified the last goal with the statement that the building should make the occupants feel so comfortable they wouldnt want togo home. The team felt that engendering this attitude about the building would contribute to how long the building would ultimately be used, thus helping to delay environmental impacts associated with demolition or renovation. During the second day of the workshop, the team set objectives for specific aspects of the project, including site development, energy reduction, material use reduction, water use reduction, waste production reduction, indoor environmental quality, construction, operation, and overall character of the building. The workshop provided a rallying point from which to shape the projects design framework and nurtured a collaborative spirit that would last through the effort.
P ro j e c t S e t t i n g a n d S i t e The project site is located within the UBC Forest Precincta less dense and less urban sector of the campus. Sitting on a well-traveled thoroughfare, the site had once accommodated a parking lot (see figure 1). To the west, on the other side of a forested area, is the Asian Centre, where the IAR originally shared space with other university departments. Nearby buildings and landmarks include the Nitobe Memorial Garden, the International House, and the Fraser River Parkade.
The Vancouver coastal climate is similar to that of Seattle. Summer temperatures range from 67F (19C) to 79 F (26C) with few days exceeding 90 F (32C). Winter temperatures drop below 32F (0C) for an average of 47 days per year and can go as low as 15F (-9C). Prevailing summer winds are from the west and northwest and winter winds are from the east. Relative humidity in summer is about 60 percent and in winter about 80 percent. The region receives about 57 inches of precipitation annually.
Design Response
In addition to creating a livable working space, the project team considered how to reduce consumption of resources, environmental impact from the resources used, embodied energy in construction, and operating energy over time. These issues were incorporated into strategies for the site design and the architectural elements and support systems of the building.
Site Design According to landscape architect Cornelia Hahn Oberlander, the site design preserves the natural ecosystem of the forest to the west of the building and retains and extends the arbo-
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Figure 1: Location Plan
A B
Campus Planning & Development Department, The University of British Columbia
F D E
A museum of anthropology B international home C site for c. k. choi building D asian centre E fraser river parkade F first nations home of learning
real sense so the building occupies a clearing in the forest.1 In achieving this goal, the design team elected to place the building in a former parking lot area along West Mall (see figure 2). This approach, however, limits the amount of sunlight reaching the site because of the stand of 100-foot conifers to the southwest and west. In addition, since the configuration of the building follows the configuration of the parking area, the buildings shortest dimension is on the south side. As a result, most of the sunlight enters the building through its long eastern facade during morning hours. Team members recognized that these conditions are less than ideal for passive solar strategies. Nevertheless, the team was determined to demonstrate how they could work with ambient conditions to reach a design solution. For example, to capture more sunlight, the south wing (near the corner of West Mall and Memorial Road) is slightly skewed in a more southerly direction. The southern edge of this wing is also held back to create a corner plaza, which serves as a gateway to the Forest Precinct. Other features of the design (discussed below in more detail) exploit the advantages of the long, shallow floor plate, which supports daylighting and natural ventilation strategies. Consistent with maintaining the integrity of the forest zone, the site plan incorporates pathways through the treed area to connect the Choi Building with the Asian Research Centre. The paths are constructed of tamped earth with a gravel topping. (Originally, the building program called for a covered connection between the buildings, but the design team felt this would be too disruptive to the natural setting.)
Building Form and Plan The building contains 30,000 gross square feet with an aspect ratio of almost 9 to 1 (33 feet x 295 feet). Three floors and a small basement accommodate office and support spaces for 117 full-time staff, meeting spaces for about 60, and utility functions.
The building has a central core and two wings (see figure 3). The core contains public areas and central support spaces for the IAR. The two wings house the IARs five constituent research centers. Three centers are in the north wing and two are in the south wing. The first floor of the core contains a large lobby (also used for exhibits), a lounge area, and a large conference room. A three-story atrium extends from the west side of the lobby up
1
Laquian, Eleanor R. Design for the Next Millennium (Institute of Asian Research), 1996, p. 20. C. K. CHOI BUILDING PROJ 9
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Figure 2: Site Plan
Figure 3: Isometric View
through the building, providing an inviting vista of the forest. The second floor of the core contains the IAR reception area, the directors office, IAR staff offices, and the boardroom. The buildings resource center is located on the third floor of the core (see figure 4). The north and south wings to either side of the central core contain offices, meeting areas, and support spaces for each of the five research centers. Within each wing, a series of small atria run between the second and third floors. On the West Mall facade, the middle bay of the core expresses the resource centers reading room and the office of the IAR director. The five bays and projecting curved-roof forms of
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C. K. CHOI BUILDING
Matsuzaki Wright Architects, Inc.
C. K. Choi Building
Design Response
third floor
second floor
first floor
the wings define the IARs five research centers. (Photographs of historical Chinese buildings provided the inspiration for the roof forms. Functionally, they are designed with photovoltaic power in mind. With a southern orientation, they are shaped to maximize solar collection, which can be achieved through the installation of solar panels at a later date.)
N a t u r a l Ve n t i l a t i o n The building does not have a traditional ducted air system. Instead, it uses passive ventilation, which is mechanically assisted at certain times. The ventilation and cooling effect is achieved through natural ventilation induced by the atria. Warm air collecting in high spaces is vented through louvers or periodically by fans. Cooler fresh air is drawn in through vents and windows in work spaces throughout the building (see figure 5).
Fresh air enters through the windows in two ways. A series of slotted openings in the window frames provide trickle ventilation on an ongoing basis (see figure 6). The openings are adjustable, but have been set to deliver 20 cfm per person as recommended by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). During summer, spring, and autumn occupants may also open windows, which are operable. The majority of workstations are located adjacent to operable exterior windows for user control of daylight and air changes, thereby reducing reliance on mechanized systems. Workstations not adjacent to windows are directly under or adjacent to the atria.
Daylighting The two-story atria introduce daylight without incurring direct solar gain since the clerestories in the atria face north. Other daylighting strategies include extensive glazing on the
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Figure 5: Building Ventilation
south facing roofs optimize direct gain at photovoltaic panels
high north facing windows admit diffuse light
reflective surfaces enhance daylighting atria admit daylight into second floor work spaces
windows are operable
windows with low flow ventilation apertures for continuous flushing of building
higher ceilings at ground floor facilitate daylighting
chimney facilitates ground floor stack ventilation
exterior walls and finishes with high reflectance values throughout the interior. The daylighting effects for specific spaces such as the atria and selected offices were analyzed using the Lumen Micro, Version 5.0 program.
Figure 6: Window Frame Detail
Structural System A flat-plate concrete frame was initially proposed for the structural system. However, during the design phase, the nearby 65-yearold armory building was scheduled for demolition by the UBC. Salvaging oldgrowth timber posts and beams from the armory helped achieve the project objective of minimizing resource consumption and the environmental impact of construction.
The structural engineers completed a quantity takeoff of the armorys structural components and identified the orientation of each beam, noting any flaws. The survey revealed that many of the structural components could be used in the new structure. With a slight adjustment in the original structural module, the designers were able to use about 65 percent of the armorys framing components in the Choi Building. The final structural system of the Choi Building contains wooden posts and beams
slots in window frame for continuous trickle ventilation
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Courtesy ANG Window Tech, Ltd.
C. K. Choi Building
Design Response
and metal decking with a lightweight concrete topping. Most of the columns consist of new lumber, although some were made from recycled lumber. The basic structural module is 10-0 and 12-6 at the atria. During the demolition of the armory, some of the timber components were damaged, preventing their use as recycled materials. The usable parts were stockpiled at the demolition site. In order to reduce the environmental impact of transportation, all cutting and milling of the recycled pieces to be used in the Choi Building was completed at the demolition site.
Materials In choosing the building materials for the Choi Building, the designers attempted to minimize embodied energy, promote energy efficiency, and foster building longevity (see figure 7). Materials used include the following:
Exterior cladding: reused brick, metal spandrels, preformed roofing, modified PVC window frames; low-E double glazing with a shading coefficient of 0.81 and coefficient of heat transmission of 0.35 Btu/(ft2 x F). Overall effective R-values for wall and roof assemblies are 20.4 and 23.0 respectively. Primary structure: heavy timber post and beam with 50 percent of the systems from reused sources. Partitions: wood frame from reused and finger-jointed material; steel studs, gypsum board, and insulation with specified recycled content. Finishes: high durability, low maintenance, minimal VOC, stand-alone materials that do not require finishes.
Mechanical Systems Heating is supplied by steam from the universitys central system, which uses natural gas as a fuel source. Environmental mechanical features include a water-saving composting toilet system, a graywater system for irrigation purposes, and a heat exchange to preheat water.
Figure 7: Materials Used in the Choi Building
engineered wood products reused red brick cladding formwork materials reused for framing reused gravel ballast on loose-laid recyclable insulation and membrane
reused doors and frames reused heavy timber structure miscellaneous metal with 70 percent recycled content
natural fiber recyclable carpet polished concrete floors concrete specifications reduce high embodied energy cement content
interior wall board with 20% recycled content
low emission, solvent free paints, caulking, etc.
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H e a t i n g a n d Ve n t i l a t i o n
Through a heat exchanger in the basement, centrally supplied steam heats a water-glycol solution that circulates to baseboard radiators under the windows. The units can be individually controlled by occupants. In winter, air passing through the windows and vents is heated by the radiators. From this point, the air travels through the interior spaces (picking up heat from people and equipment) and rises to the top of the atria, where it can be vented. When the air temperature at the top of the atria reaches a preset value, sensors trigger exhaust fans to eject the hot air through electrically operated dampers. Locally activated fans are also used to ventilate offices on the ground floor not connected to an atrium, and mechanical ventilation is used for toilet rooms and photocopy areas. The latter are activated by occupancy sensors.
Wa t e r a n d S a n i t a r y S y s t e m s
The only water connections in the building are for domestic water and fire protection. Lavatories and sinks are designed for low-water consumption and the building sanitary systems (which include composting toilets and waterless urinals) are designed to work without water. These systems save about 1,500 gallons of water daily and allow the building to be off the sewage grid. The composting toilet system (illustrated in figure 8) consists of toilet fixtures connected by stainless steel tubes dropping vertically to a series of tanks in the basement. In the tanks, a bulking agentcombined with the toilet wastepromotes the growth of aerobic bacteria that break down the waste into two by-products: compost and a liquid tea. Both products are safe and excellent fertilizers. When the humidity drops in the tanks, the system introduces a water mist to increase the moisture (this is the only water use in the system).
Figure 8: Compost Toilet System
water vapor carbon dioxide
air vent waste fan
air intake
composting waste air channel

Courtesy Clivus Multrum
liquid outflow to graywater system
finished compost
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C. K. Choi Building
Design Response
Composting toilets originated in Sweden in the early 1930s and were introduced into North America in the 1970s. Initially used in recreational and public facilities, they are being used in a greater variety of buildings today. However, the Choi Building represents one of the first applications of composting toilets in a North American institutional building. (The units are manufactured by Clivus Multrum, 1-800-425-4887.) The waterless urinals in the mens restrooms (also manufactured by Clivus Multrum) are also connected to the composting system. The buildings graywater system achieves further water savings. The system captures water from sinks and uses the tea from the composting toilets in combination with rainwater runoff (see figure 9). The tea is piped to an 18-inch deep trench along the sunlit street side of the building. The trenchlined with recycled PVC and filled with gravelprovides a subsurface biological marsh, planted with reeds, sedges, and iris. As the water trickles through the trench, it is purified by natural processes and gradually released into the subsurface irrigation system. (According to John Anderson, UBC Choi project manager, the Vancouver Health Department has monitored, tested, and verified that the water emerging from the treatment system has a lower coliform count than water from the citys water supply.) Impact on the existing storm water system and water consumption is also reduced by directing rainwater from roof areas to a holding tank. This water is used for irrigation during dry months.
H o t Wa t e r P r e h e a t i n g
The hot water demand in the building is low and water heating is accomplished with an electric hot water heater. (Since there is no natural gas service in the building, the cost to install a gas heater was too expensive.) To help reduce the electrical load on the water heater, a lowcost preheating arrangement uses waste heat originating in a steam manhole in the UBC central steam system. This arrangement consists of a domestic cold water line running from the buildings water entry room to a steam-condensate manhole on West Mall. Here, the uninsulated copper piping (with aluminum fins) is looped inside the manhole. The design is intended to heat the water to about 90F (32.2C) before it returns to the water heater. The electric heater can then boost the temperature of the preheated water to 140F (60C).
Figure 9: Graywater System
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Courtesy Keen Engineering Company
C. K. Choi Building
Design Response
Electrical Systems Andy Arink, an electrical engineer with Lundlich & Associates, Ltd., describes the approach to the design of the electrical systems as one of simplicity. An electrical service of minimum size was achieved through accumulated reductions for the electrical loads. (A battery storage room on the third floor awaits the anticipated addition of photovoltaic technology.)
The lighting design emphasized task lighting and the quality of light, which resulted in lower ambient lighting levels. Photocells and occupancy sensors monitor the need for electrically powered light based on actual available daylight at workstations. When activated, supplemental lighting is provided by high-efficiency, indirect fluorescent luminaires with electronic ballasts. Automated on-off functions and dimming ensure that power is consumed only as required. Occupancy sensors also control the operation of ventilation fans for all copy areas.
Landscaping Landscape design emphasized preservation, recycling, and use of indigenous plants. Strategies in the landscaping design included preservation and enhancement of the existing forest, planting along the street side of the building, and planting of the plaza at the south end of the building.
So the forest to the west of the building could be experienced from many parts of the building, the vigor and structure of the trees were analyzed. Specifications for tree preservation and pruning were developed, and during construction boarding was erected to provide protection. On the street side of the building a columnar form of Gingko bilboa is planted at 7 meters (23 feet) on center. These trees absorb pollutants and allow maximum light penetration into the building. The service yard at the north end of the building is seeded with sheep fescue, a tufted native grass that does not require mowing. The plaza on the south end of the building contains five large rocks representing the five Confucian virtues of humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness. The rocks are surrounded with paperbark maple (Acer griseum) and bearberry (phylos uva ursi).
Energy Incentive BC Hydro awarded the building a $44,000 incentive through its Power Smart program. To qualify for the incentive, the project team used a DOE-2E (Micro-DOE 2 PC version) computer simulation program to compare the buildings predicted energy performance and costs with those of a prototype ASHRAE building. The analysis calculated that the Choi Building would save the equivalent of 191,630 kwh over the prototype building. This represents an energy saving cost of about 34 percent.
Construction
The general requirements in the project specifications called for the development and submission of a solid waste management plan and an environmental protection plan. The contractor was required to separate, collect, and dispose of recyclable construction waste materials, including asphalt, concrete, face brick, concrete block, metal, wood, glass, drywall, paint, paper, plastic, rubber, and aluminum cans. These requirements were relatively new to the local construction community; therefore, the UBC was concerned that they would create higher bids. As it turned out, however, the bids were not higher, which could have been due in part to the fact that the full intent and scope of the requirements were not fully understood. The contractor, however, readily picked up on what was required. In fact, the effort proved so successful that by the end of construction the contractor expressed a desire to use the approach on future projects. In addition to being
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environmentally sound, the recycling process appeared to be profitable. John Anderson, the UBC project manager, pointed out that the handling of most of the waste materials (e.g., wood, metal, concrete, asphalt, cardboard) went well. However, plastics presented problems. Many times, the construction crew did not possess the expertise or ability to distinguish between specific plastic types. On some occasions some plastic waste was not accepted by local recycling sites. Anderson felt this problem could be remedied if manufacturers devised improved methods for identifying plastic content. Along the same line, Anderson observed that most building products are grossly overpackaged. He cited the example of another UBC project in which each of 1,400 new auditorium seats arrived at the site broken down into six components, each of which was packaged in a separate cardboard carton. Similar packaging approaches occur frequently with other building construction products.
Atrium view to forested area
The contractor submitted waybills monthly to the UBC for the weights and volumes of the recycled materials. The waybills were consolidated at the projects end and are being evaluated to determine overall results. The construction waste management process produced some interesting side effects. One of these was the way the demolition fraternity thought about recycled or waste products. For example, a used door wasnt just a door. Now it was a 3-0 x 7-0 door, with frame, lefthand swing, etc. This awareness carried over to the tradespeople. Anderson recalls that bricklayers were throwing many of the recycled bricks into a heap because they were chipped. Approval from the UBC to use these bricks gave the masons a new way of viewing things.
Use and Operation

There have been favorable comments about the thermal and lighting performance of the Choi Building. Staff, visitors, and others enjoy being in the building, describing it as light and airy and having a warm feeling. There have been, however, a few operational matters worth noting. During the first winter of operation, the water temperature in the baseboard units had to be set higher because some occupants were not warm enough. Since this adjustment was made, the system has provided acceptable heating conditions. Another initial problem was caused by noise produced by ventilation fans in the atria. This situation was addressed by switching the pulleys in the fans. This lowered the rpms of the units and reduced the air noise. Another acoustical issue relates to outside sounds coming in through the small air vents of the window frames. Eleanor Laquian, IAR manager for administration and programs, noted that street sounds are more readily accepted when they enter through open windows. Sounds seem to be psychologically more annoying when their source isnt readily perceived.
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(In future designs of this nature, some type of baffle in the frames might dampen sound transmission.) A buildup of odors has been experienced from the waterless urinal units. As of May 1997, measures were underway to evaluate and address this issue. A possible solution might include replacing the fiberglass units with porcelain units. Capturing the full environmental potential of a building of this nature requires those who use it to have a better understanding of the buildings features. There is general agreement by UBC campus development staff and the IAR staff that this aspect of the project fell short. To remedy this situation, plans are underway to develop approaches (e.g., briefing sessions, brochures, manual, or other related means) to educate occupants and users about the nature and operation of the facility.
Interior view looking west
Energy Use Since occupancy, steam and electrical use in the building has not been rigorously monitored. This can be attributed in part to the fact that two separate entitiesthe planning and development department and the plant operations departmentare involved in the planning, delivery, and operation of university buildings. Steps now have been initiated to establish a coordinated approach to monitor, record, and evaluate data with respect to this project.
Preliminary findings indicate that the building uses significantly less steam for heating purposes than traditional buildings do. This is suggested by the temperature differential between the steam temperature and the condensate temperature, which is registering about half the normal 15 to 20F difference. On a related energy issue, the preheating of domestic water is working far better than expected. Rather than returning from the manhole at 90F, the water has been found to be heated to 140F and sometimes higher, which means it requires little, if any, heating by the electric water heater.
Conclusion Raymond Cole, environmental authority and member of the UBC architectural department, sums up the project by saying that the C. K. Choi Building currently stands out as a significant contribution to the University of British Columbia Campusinforming us of the potential that building design offers in nurturing environmental change and providing tangible direction toward a sustainable built environment.2
Blending environmental considerations with traditional design parameters, the design process resulted in what architect Eva Matsuzaki views as a way of seeing with new eyes. In that process, the normally more distinct roles of individual team members became blurred. In a parallel way, the buildings systems, subsystems, and components become more interrelated and synergistic to fulfill overall performance needs.
2
Laquian, p. 7.
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Project Report
Ridgehaven Green Office Building

The City of San Diego Environmental Services Department, San Diego, California
Architect of Record Platt/Whitelaw Architects, Inc.

Lynn Froeschle, AIA
Environmental Consulting Architect Lynn Froeschle, AIA, Architects Mechanical Engineer McParlane and Associates Electrical Engineer Turpin and Rattan Engineering, Inc. Energy Efficiency Consultant Gottfried Technologies, Inc. Energy Analysis Flack + Kurtz Consulting Engineers Building Commissioning Steve Taylor Engineering Project Partners San Diego Gas & Electric Electric Power Research Institute Public Technology, Incorporated
The Ridgehaven Green Office Building project provides an environmental, energy-responsive building renovation for the City of San Diego Environmental Services Department (ESD). The ESD vision was to create a facility that was not only an environmental showcase but one that would serve as a real world example to educate the public and other agencies about the benefits of building green.
Background
The Environmental Services Department had outgrown its existing space and had a lease coming up for renewal. After examining the options of leasing new space, building a new structure, or purchasing and renovating an existing building, the city determined that the latter option would be the most cost-effective. An existing office building was purchased not far from the previous location of the ESD on Kearny Mesa in San Diego. The new building would accommodate about 100 employees from four divisions of the ESD and 60 employees from the San Diego Development Services Department. Built in 1981, the 73,000-square-foot, three-story building contains two offset wings with a central lobby core (see figure 1). The structure is wood frame faced with marblecrete. Wall openings are chamfered, creating recesses for the fixed windows. The site was already landscaped and included parking areas.
P ro j e c t R e q u i re m e n t s The intent was to rehabilitate the building in the most environmentally friendly manner possible. Richard L. Hays, the department director, explained that the vision of Mayor Susan Golding and the ESD was to provide staff with an environmentally sound work place while providing the city as a whole with a model for the energy, environmental, and economic benefits of green building. The ESD also wanted the Ridgehaven project to demonstrate to the public what it means to build green.
Budgetary constraints became an important factor in the decision-making process. The budget was very tight, although the initial $2.4 million figure was later expanded to $2.7 million (about $37.00 per square foot) to accommodate the higher initial costs for more energy-effi-
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Background
Figure 1: Site Plan
2 3 1
2 4 1. 2. 3. 4. entry plaza parking dining courtyard main entry drive
cient electrical and mechanical systems. Partners SDG&E and EPRI arranged a financing plan that provided the ESD with a loan to cover most of the added initial costs for energyefficient systems.
P ro j e c t Te a m The city interviewed candidates to select a design team for the project. The final team members included Platt/Whitelaw Architects, Inc. (architect of record); Lynn Froeschle, AIA, Architect (environmental consulting architect); McParlane and Associates (mechanical engineer); and Turpin and Rattan Engineering, Inc. (electrical engineer). The team members were chosen in part because of their demonstrated knowledge of green buildings. Later on, the city added several project partners. San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E) and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) brought added energy and environmental expertise, and Public Technology Incorporated (PTI) provided support for the educational aspects of the project. SDG&E later retained Gottfried Technologies to address energy-saving measures and expand the green building program. E n v i ro n m e n t a l a n d E n e r g y G o a l s Environmental quality, energy efficiency, and water conservation were important project goals. Healthy indoor air quality was important since some ESD employees had chemical sensitivities. The department also wanted to avoid sick building syndrome and create a healthful working environment.
Resource efficiency was another important environmental goal since the ESD operates a citywide recycling program and manages the city landfill. In addition to diverting debris from the landfill, the department wanted to set an example of the construction recycling process. To meet the green building goals of healthy indoor air quality, resource efficiency, and efficient building operations, the team developed environmental and energy criteria that were later incorporated into the specifications:
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Minimize the environmental impact of selected materials, systems, and construction. Create a healthful work environment by minimizing material chemical emissions. Improve indoor air quality through mechanical systems. Maximize resource conservation and recycling in both material selection and construction. Maximize energy conservation through mechanical and electrical system efficiency.
E n v i ro n m e n t a l B u i l d i n g R e g u l a t i o n s a n d S t a n d a rd s In California, buildings are required to meet the state energy code, Title 24, but SDG&E encouraged the city to exceed these standards. For example, Title 24 requires 15 cfm per occupant for outside ventilation air. Most spaces in the building, however, meet ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality for office buildings, which requires 20 cfm per occupant.
The South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) regulates exterior chemical emissions in the Los Angeles basin and defines what constitutes a low-VOC (volatile organic compound) coating. Because these requirements were more stringent than those of the local jurisdiction, they were incorporated into the project specifications. The State of Washington indoor air quality guidelines require that new state buildings use materials that meet comprehensive emissions criteria. This document provided a source to use in evaluating chemical emissions from materials for which the manufacturer offered independent lab test data. California Law AB939 requires a 50 percent reduction in municipal waste by the year 2000. The fact that the ESD manages the city landfill (which will reach its capacity in 2011) provided an added incentive for resource efficiency.
Design Response
The Ridgehaven building has a total of six 11,000-square-foot zones. These are located within the two wings on each of the three floors. The four ESD divisions and the Development Services Department staff were located in five of these zones. Common spaces (e.g., a training room, display areas, cafeteria, and library) were located in the sixth zone to serve all of the buildings occupants. Platt/Whitelaw Architects determined that the existing interior office areas would require extensive remodeling as they could not effectively accommodate the functional needs of ESD. The architects original concept called for locating open office areas adjacent to the exterior windows in order to allow natural light to penetrate the fixed windows of the enclosed offices, which would have been located in the center of the floors. However, the desires of senior staff prevailed in some departments. In general, the enclosed offices were located on the building perimeter and the open office spaces were located in the center. Some daylight reaches the interior open areas through the glazed portions of the interior office walls. The building shell was to remain basically intact and to be recycled, receiving only repairs for roof leaks and wall cracks. The architect determined early in the design process that replacing the fixed windows with operable units was not economically feasible. The possibility of creating a light well or atrium space in the center of each building wing was also investigated, but there was not enough space or budget to support the concept. Lobby areas were to be cleaned and refurbished. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) accessibility modifications were made to the existing bathrooms. The only spaces undergoing major demolition and renovation were those that would house office functions.
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Design Response
Existing building features provided both challenges and benefits. For example, the third story corner offices had corner windows with exposed, sloped overhead glazing, making the southwest and southeast corner offices unpleasantly warm in the summer months. Even installation of a dual layer of window film did not prevent the excessive solar heat gain. The problem was resolved with the addition of exterior awnings. On the benefits side, the wall recesses help to shade windows and the exterior wall and roof assemblies were adequately insulated to help lower the cooling load. The environmental consulting architect identified a number of building components that could be reused or salvaged. Both the mechanical and electrical engineers determined that the existing mechanical and lighting systems were too outdated and energy consuming to reuse, but the systems could be salvaged for reuse by third parties.
E n v i ro n m e n t a l M a t e r i a l S e l e c t i o n Before environmentally friendly products were specified, the environmental consulting architect, Lynn Froeschle, AIA, developed criteria for material selection. The environmental building material criteria are summarized below (although not listed, aesthetics was always an important consideration):
Products with minimal chemical emissions No toxic or carcinogenic compounds Installation methods that minimize VOCs Materials with recycled content Products that are also recyclable Recycling within the manufacturing process Durable, long-lasting materials Materials from sustainable sources Products that inhibit biological contaminants Healthful material maintenance Local building products where possible Attention to material cost Research of environmentally friendly materials was a lengthy process that included collecting product data, samples, and material safety data sheets (MSDS) for review. OSHA requires manufacturers to list all known hazardous ingredients in their product on the MSDS. However, chemicals that are actual trade secret ingredients do not have to be listed by name and chemicals below a certain level are exempt. Indoor air quality test data from independent labs were reviewed when available.
E n v i ro n m e n t a l S p e c i f i c a t i o n A p p ro a c h The materials specified by the environmental consulting architect met the selection criteria, and a specification section of general environmental procedures was created for the contractor to follow (e.g., protection of finishes, temporary ventilation, and minimizing airborne particulates and VOCs). Chemicals (pollutants) to avoid, including formaldehyde and petroleum-based solvents were also listed. Other specification requirements contained provisions for construction recycling, salvaging, and reuse of existing materials.
Specification of the environmental products became a delicate task. Because the building was a public project, the bidding document had to list three comparable products per material category. However, the unique characteristics of most of the environmental materials limited the specifications list in most cases to only one product. Before the environmental materials were included in the specifications, the city attorney reviewed the single source product listings. 4
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Design Response
Materials Used Materials selected for their environmental performance and incorporated into the project specifications are described here:
Carpet tiles, installed in office areas throughout the building, are manufactured by Interface Flooring Systems. The tiles contain up to 13 percent postindustrial recycled content in the nylon face fiber and have an antimicrobial backing. The carpet can be recycled within the building by moving the tiles from high use areas to low use areas. The tiles meet State of Washington requirements for a low-VOC product. A grid of low-VOC adhesive was used in installation to minimize the amount of adhesive. ESD is leasing the tiles from the manufacturer, who will recycle them at the end of their useful life. Rubber carpet base was manufactured with approximately 10 percent postindustrial content and is recyclable. Linoleum sheet flooring by Forbo Industries contains a natural mixture of renewable resource materials such as cork, linseed oil, and jute. The flooring contains up to 10 percent postindustrial recycled content and is recyclable. Linoleum has antimicrobial properties and is very durable, which is why it was installed in kitchen areas, the cafeteria, and entry lobbies. Low-VOC paints, sealers, and stains by AFM Enterprises meet the SCAQMD requirements for low-VOC coatings and contain no formaldehyde or other carcinogens. The manufacturer states the paint contains no toxins, silicas, or heavy metals and is designed for use by those with chemical sensitivities. All the walls were coated with the low-VOC paint. Formaldehyde-free fiberboard manufactured with up to 90 percent preconsumer wood residual was installed as cabinetry. The high-density fiberboard is also recyclable. Acoustical ceiling tiles manufactured by Eurostone Products contain up to 10 percent postindustrial content recycled perlite and are themselves recyclable. Since perlite is an inert mineral, the tiles emit no VOCs and contain no man-made mineral fibers. The tiles are naturally nonflammable and antimicrobial. Cellulose insulation manufactured by Louisiana Pacific Corporation is made from 100 percent recycled newspapers collected by the ESD. The insulation was manufactured only a few miles from the project. A boric acid derivative was added as a fire retardant for a class 1 fire resistive rating. The insulation contains no formaldehyde and is recyclable. It was installed as acoustical insulation for interior walls. Ceramic tile manufactured by Terra-Green Technologies is made from up to 70 percent postconsumer recycled glass bottles. The material inherently emits no VOCs and is recyclable. The ceramic tile was installed in all new bathroom/locker room areas. Toilet partitions are manufactured from up to 70 percent postconsumer recycled plastic bottles. The partitions contain no added formaldehyde and are recyclable. Countertops are manufactured from approximately 10 percent postindustrial acrylic without the use of formaldehyde. The solid surfacing material is also recyclable. Gypsum board is manufactured from 5 percent postindustrial gypsum and contains up to 100 percent postindustrial content in the paper face. Gypsum board emits no VOCs and is recyclable. Steel studs were specified to contain a minimum of 50 percent recycled content. Steel is inert, has no chemical emissions, and is recyclable.
M i n i m i z i n g E n v i ro n m e n t a l M a t e r i a l C o s t s On average, most green products were more expensive than comparable conventional products. To help defray the added costs, the energy consultant helped the ESD partner with environmental material and systems vendors. This meant the city could purchase the materials directly from a manufacturer based on the single source environmental product listing. In some instances, the savings were offset by the added costs of installation, which had been removed from the contract documents.
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Design Response
The team addressed the added cost of environmental materials in other ways. For instance, design trade-offs were made: No wall fabrics were specified; instead, the walls were coated with a low-VOC paint. The more expensive formaldehyde-free fiberboard was sealed with a low-VOC coating in place of laminates. Less costly cellulose insulation replaced conventional mineral fiber batt insulation where possible.
E n e r g y - E ff i c i e n t B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s The cooling load is driven by heat from occupants, lighting, and office equipment. Therefore, reducing the building-generated heat and improving the cooling efficiency of the systems became a design goal. To help reduce solar heat gain and maximize daylighting, solar control window film was installed at all windows, except those facing north. The solar control film improved the window shading coefficient from 0.7 to 0.34 (see figure 2).
Both the mechanical engineer, McParlane & Associates, and the electrical engineer, Turpin & Rattan, researched various options for the building systems. Energy-efficient options that were economical and would function within the design constraints of the project were recommended. The addition of SDG&E as a partner along with their energy consultant helped pave the way to an even more efficient building. Gottfried Technologies in conjunction with Flack + Kurtz Consulting Engineers performed a DOE-2 energy analysis and computer simulation of the building, fine-tuning the energy enhancements. Recommendations as to the most efficient options and relative payback periods were provided to the ESD and the design team. The DOE evaluation indicated the building could perform at the lowest 10 percent of energy use for a comparable office building in the area. With the backing of SDG&E and EPRI, the city included the goal of 9 kWh/sq. ft./year or less as a project goal. The more energy-efficient systems had higher initial costs than conventional systems but provided higher long-term monetary savings. The energy-efficient systems averaged a four-year payback period, which also met the ESD economic goal of a fiveFigure 2: Solar Control Window Film year average payback period on the building systems (see representative paybacks in figure 3). The following energy-efficient mechanical and electrical systems were implemented in the building design: High-efficiency water source heat pumps manufactured by the Trane Company replaced the existing less efficient heat pumps, which were past their useful life. The efficiency ratio (EER) of the new units is 14.9 compared with 10.5 EER for the existing units. Two energy-efficient cooling towers replaced the original cooling towers, which were in poor condition. Condenser water isolation valves for the heat pumps allow pumped water to be turned off when not in use, saving energy. Condenser water pump adjustable speed drives consume less energy by allowing the pump to operate at various speeds depending on the amount of heating or cooling required.
B A. sloped glazing conditions B. typical recessed window
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Courtesy of Platt/Whitelaw, Architects, Inc.

Design Response
Figure 3: Payback Times for Building Measures*

Measure Description Incremental Cost ($) $15,000 $05,100 $19,100 $21,000 $40,100 $24,000 $45,500 Incremental savings ($/year) $20,270 $03,432 $08,865 $05,931 $13,248 $04,231 $06,695 Payback (years) 0.74 1.49 2.15 3.54 3.03 5.67 6.80
High-efficiency heat pumps Occupancy sensor interlock Variable speed drive for pumps Occupancy sensors for computers Light fixture revisions Reflective window film Lighting controls * This represents a partial list of measures
Courtesy San Diego Gas & Electric, an Enova Company
Variable air volume boxes on the outside air fans at the conference rooms allow for outside air to be turned off, saving energy when the conference rooms are not in use. The conference room ventilation was designed at 15 cfm per person. The office space ventilation operates at 20 cfm per person as recommended by ASHRAE 62-1989 for improved indoor air quality, but it can be lowered to 15 cfm per person and still meet California Title 24 requirements. Direct digital controls (DDC) were specified to operate the mechanical system at the utmost efficiency. Energy-efficient task lighting was installed at all the workstations. Under-cabinet T-8 lamps provide individualized downlighting depending on the occupants needs. Energy-efficient T-8 fluorescent lamps were installed in open office areas with enough ceiling height for this indirect lighting system. The Genlyte/Lightolier T-8 lamps maximize efficiency by reflecting light off the ceiling to provide a soft ambience with no glare from the actual lamp. Energy saving 2 x 4 parabolic light fixtures manufactured by Genlyte/Lightolier were installed throughout the building. The deep parabolic lenses of the fixtures help to diffuse the light and minimize glare. Ballasts installed at all the fluorescent lighting fixtures prevents flickering of light. Electronic dimming ballasts allow for light levels to be dimmed from 100 percent (62 watts) to 10 percent (16 watts). Depending on the amount of daylight entering a space, this feature saves energy by accommodating different light conditions. Ceiling-mounted occupancy sensors sense motion in a space with infrared technology. The sensors operate on a time delay basis. After approximately 10 minutes, if no motion is sensed, the sensors automatically turn off the lights. A lumen maintenance control device directs the dimming ballast to dim or turn the light off if enough daylight is sensed by daylight-saving sensors that identify the amount of daylight entering a space. Occupancy sensor plug strips save energy usage at individual computer workstations. Similar to the occupancy sensors, these sensor plug strips power down if no motion is sensed after a certain period. Water-conserving systems include water-saving fixtures such as low-flush toilets (replacing the existing inefficient models) and a waterless urinal in the locker room. Due to budgetary constraints, the existing landscaping and irrigation systems remain. Installation of xeriscaping and drip irrigation systems is planned at a later date.
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Construction Process
The Construction Process

Because the Ridgehaven building was a public project, the bidding was open with no requirements for previous environmental building experience. Three bids were received and the lowest bid was accepted by the city, as required by law. A pre-construction meeting was held with the general contractor, all subcontractors, and the design team to discuss the green aspects of the project. However, when the construction process actually began, it was clear the general contractor did not fully understand the meaning of the environmental specifications. The original schedule called for completion of construction in three months. This was later extended to five months because of some changes made by the ESD, change orders entered by the general contractor, and delays caused by longer delivery times for a few system components and materials. The design team was highly involved in the construction process, and the city Building Inspection Services provided site assistance. Site visits were also made by the environmental consulting architect to help educate the general contractor about the ecological construction aspects of the effort.
R e s o u rc e - E ff i c i e n t C o n s t r u c t i o n Some existing building components were refurbished for reuse, such as existing doors and frames, demountable walls, and a portion of the ceiling tiles. Existing window blinds and ESD office furniture systems were also reused.
Other components were salvaged and removed by construction recyclers for reuse off site. These included much of the existing carpet, light fixtures, and water source heat pumps. The ESD set up construction dumpsters that became recycling bins in which the construction debris was separated by type. Steel, aluminum, ceramics, glass, gypsum board, cellulose insulation, wood, and cardboard were collected for recycling.
A paper walkway over the carpet and the lighting lens wrapped with a plastic membrane help meet the specified environmental procedures to protect finishes during construction.
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Lynn Froeschle, AIA

Construction Process
Lynn Froeschle, AIA
Low-VOC and nontoxic paint used at Ridgehaven meets requirements set by the South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD).
Cabinets are made from recycled materials and formaldehyde-free MDF board.
During demolition, lead sheets were discovered inside some interior wall panels and were collected for the construction recycling program. However, the lead sheets disappeared from the site and were presumably recycled by an unknown party. This provided added evidence that recyclable building materials are valuable.
Construction Indoor Air Quality A number of fixed window units were removed during construction to provide for added ventilation. The mild climate made this possible during the winter months of construction. Later, fans were used to increase ventilation. Workers commented on the noticeable improvement in indoor air quality during construction.
The new HVAC ducting was protected from airborne construction dust and particulates. Foil-faced insulation on the ductwork was applied for added energy savings. The insulation was applied to the exterior of the ducting to prevent man-made mineral fibers from becoming airborne within the new HVAC system. High-efficiency filters were included to remove airborne allergens and pollutants from the air. Wet finishes (e.g., paints. coatings, etc.) were applied sparingly before dry finishes were applied (e.g., carpeting, ceiling tiles, etc.). This helped to avoid the creation of a sink effect in which chemical emissions from materials can attach themselves to other more fibrous materials. Finishes and new systems were protected from dust and particulates. Fabrication of some components such as cabinetry took place off site. A building maintenance plan was developed with environmental considerations in mind.
S y s t e m C o n t ro l S u b s t i t u t i o n The general contractor convinced the ESD to install a less costly direct digital control system for the building support systems, which they claimed would perform as well as the specified control system. Against the recommendation of the mechanical engineers and energy consultants, but with written assurances from the substituted controls manufacturer, the ESD felt
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Lynn Froeschle, AIA

Use and Operation
they had no choice but to have the substitute system because of contractual obligations regarding alternative yet equal products. (The Use and Operation section addresses the impact of this substitution).
Construction Lessons Learned Chuck Angyal, AIA, chief architect for project partner SDG&E, summed up some frustrations experienced during the construction process, stating, The delivery of a green building in a low-bid situation with this level of energy efficiency and environmental enhancements is still a pioneering effort in a construction industry that can be resistant to change.
As a result of these difficulties, the team discussed the possibility of having contractor prequalifications for future green building projects. Suggestions included requiring either environmental building experience or, at a minimum, the knowledge and desire to construct in an ecologically sound manner.
Use and Operation

SDG&E has been recording and monitoring the energy performance of the building since June 1, 1996. Total monthly energy consumption from June 1996 through May 1997 is illustrated in figure 4. During the initial building commissioning period from June through August 1996, monthly energy use climbed as high as 11 kWh/sq. ft. in August. The higher levels of use in June, July,
Figure 4: Monthly Energy Use (kWh)
69,715
66,000
68,227
55,643
68,503
45,505
41,870
38,168
39,688
40,483
50,521
53,520
January 1997
June 1996
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Use and Operation
and August 1996 may be due in part to some building commissioning that was still in progress and additional cooling loads associated with the warmer summer months. In addition, the building operations engineer was optimizing communications between the controls and the systems. Subsequent energy use dipped as low as 6.4 kWh/sq. ft. for the month of November 1996. Between September 1996 and February 1997 the building averaged an annualized rate of 7.2 kWh/sq. ft., an energy consumption rate lower than that modeled in the DOE-2 analysis. During the first 12 months of use, the building support systems could not achieve peak efficiencies due to the inability of the substitute control system to perform as specified. When the controls were replaced in March 1997 with the originally specified system, a second commissioning was required. During this time, the mechanical systems were run 24 hours a day including weekends. This produced higher levels of energy use than usual. Despite operating the mechanical system for one year with the substitute mechanical control system, the building energy consumption at 8.7 kWh/sq. ft./year is only slightly over the 8.3 kWh/sq. ft./year modeled in the DOE analysis.
Comparative Energy Use Data about comparative energy use in the ESD building is presented in two ways. The first looks at the energy use of the building before and after its renovation. The second compares energy use at Ridgehaven and an adjacent structure of similar size, construction, and use.
Ridgehaven: Before and After
SDG&E compared the original Ridgehaven energy consumption records (three-year average) to the renovated green building one-year average and has extrapolated that the renovated building uses nearly 60 percent less energy annually than the original structure. This translates into annual energy savings of approximately $76,000 per year for the ESD. (See figure 5
Figure 5: Energy Consumption and Energy Costs Before and After Renovation
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,520,000 kWh Annual energy cost: $129,000 Based on a 3-year average
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
634,600 kWh Annual energy cost: $53,000 Based on June '96-May '97 annualized average
200,000
Original Office Building
Renovated Green Building
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for cost comparison chart.) The building should perform even more efficiently, with added energy savings, once the building mechanical systems are operating on the specified computer controls.
R i d g e h a v e n v e r s u s t h e S h e r i f f s B u i l d i n g
A nearly identical office building stands next to the Ridgehaven Office Building. The two buildings are mirror images of each other with similar orientations. The adjacent building houses the San Diego County Sheriff s administrative department. Both structures were constructed at the same time and have almost identical construction features and materials. This situation has provided SDG&E with a unique opportunity to monitor and compare the energy consumption of the newly renovated building for ESD and the existing Sheriff s office building. The Sheriff s building has approximately the same number of occupants as the ESD building and is operated in a similar fashion with two exceptions. A division occupying one wing of the Sheriff s Building operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week, while another division, which occupies two wings, has many field workers who are not in the building on a regular basis. Despite this, the ESD Green Building uses on average, 60 percent less energy than the Sheriff s building, which has had no energy-efficiency upgrades. See the table in figure 6 for a comparison of energy consumption for the two buildings. The renovated Ridgehaven building consumes approximately 8.7 kWh/sq. ft. of energy per year compared to 21 kWh/sq. ft. for the Sheriff s building.
Figure 6: Green Building versus Sheriffs Building Energy Consumption
Sheriff's Building (kWh) Jun-96 Jul-96 Aug-96 Sep-96 Oct-96 Nov-96 Dec-96 Jan-97 Feb-97 Mar-97 * Apr-97 May-97 Total kWh/sq.ft./yr 127,781 150,826 146,570 142,751 111,442 139,600 113,290 110,204 114,621 116,287 139,137 123,897 1,536,406 21.0 Green Building (kWh) 62,763 69,714 68,227 55,462 45,506 38,168 39,688 41,869 40,482 68,502 50,521 53,520 634,422 8.7 Green Building Energy Savings (kWh) % 65,018 81,112 78,343 87,289 65,936 101,432 73,602 68,335 74,139 47,785 88,616 70,377 901,984 50.9% 53.8% 53.5% 61.1% 59.2% 72.7% 65.0% 62.0% 64.7% 41.1% 63.7% 56.8% 58.7%
* During March 1997, the energy management system was being replaced and the HVAC system was operated in the manual mode, resulting in increased consumption.
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Use and Operation
Building Maintenance Environmentally responsive maintenance practices help to ensure healthy indoor air quality once occupants have moved into a building. To assist in this at Ridgehaven, an operations and maintenance manual containing guidelines was developed for attaining energy efficiency, resource efficiency, and indoor environmental quality. Intended for use by the building engineer, the manual establishes procedures for regular maintenance and mechanical systems monitoring. Criteria are provided for cleaning products, which are specified to be nontoxic, water-based, with minimal VOCs. In addition, least-toxic pest control methods without the use of pesticides were addressed. Educational Display To achieve the goal of educating the public about the benefits of green buildings, the city with funding from the partnersdeveloped an educational display about the project on the first floor, next to the lobby. The project team collectively contributed to the content of the display, which explains the environmental enhancements and energy-saving aspects of the building. The display has been viewed by numerous public groups, ranging from schoolchildren to international visitors. Summary of Results The Ridgehaven project has received both local and national awards for its environmental enhancements and energy-saving efforts. The local AIA chapter, Public Technology, Inc., and the U.S. Department of Energy have recognized the project. Some of the more pertinent results of the project include the following:
Energy efficiency. Ridgehaven exceeds California Title 24 energy requirements by more than 50 percent and is in the top 10 percent of energy-efficient usage for similar-sized office buildings in the region. The building also exceeds the project energy consumption goal of 9.0 kWh/sq. ft./yr. by operating at 8.7 kWh/sq. ft. for the first year of operation. Resource efficiency. More than 40 tons of construction debris such as scrap metal, wood, cardboard, and ceramics was recycled. In addition, 3,700 square yards of carpet, 450 two-by-four light fixtures, and 60 mechanical heat pumps were salvaged for reuse off site. (These figures do not include the reuse of approximately one-third of the existing ceiling tiles along with most of the doors and frames and many of the demountable wall panels.) Resource efficiency was also achieved in other ways such as through the use of materials with recycled content. The ESD also has a recycling program for building-generated waste. Water is another resource that was used efficiently, with a 50 percent reduction in water use through the water conserving fixtures.
Lynn Froeschle, AIA
Air quality. Although budgetary constraints prevented performance of indoor air quality tests either before or after construction, anecdotal evidence indicates that chemically
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Use and Operation
sensitive employees are doing better in the Ridgehaven building. Approximately two weeks after the city had moved into the building, there was no noticeable new building odor, in part because of the combination of materials with minimal chemical emissions and more than adequate ventilation. Cost. The Ridgehaven project demonstrates that a green building project can be built on a limited budget. At $37.00 per square foot, the interior renovation compares with the average cost of tenant improvements in conventionally remodeled projects. In addition, the ESD expects a four-year payback period for most of the energy-saving features.
Conclusion The project shows that an ordinary office building can be environmentally enhanced for a reasonable cost. Through the design of affordable renovations like Ridgehaven, owners can realize an improved built environment while conserving natural resources and enhancing the quality of everyday life for occupants.
This report was written by Lynn Froeschle, AIA.
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Project Report
Environmental Sciences and Engineering Building

Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan
Architects and Engineers SHG, Inc. Landscape and Civil Engineers JJR, Incorporated
Courtesy SHG Inc.
Wind Tunnel Testing Rowan, Williams, Davies & Irwin, Inc. Acoustics Geiger Hamme Recycling Systems Resource Recycling Systems, Inc. Mechanical Controls Peter Basso Consultants General Contractor Gundlach-Champion Mechanical Contractor John E. Green Company Electrical Contractor M. J. Electric, Inc.
The Environmental Sciences and Engineering Building (ESEB) is the flagship facility for the Initiative for the Environment program at Michigan Technological University (MTU). Intended to be environmentally responsive and energy efficient, the facility is also designed to foster interdisciplinary teaching and research.
Background
MTU was founded in 1885 as the Michigan Mining School. Today, MTU is a nationally recognized and accredited institution where 6,000 students pursue degrees in science, engineering, and forestry as well as in business, liberal arts, and social sciences. The 900-acre MTU campus is located in Michigans upper peninsula in the city of Houghton. The picturesque setting is in the heart of the Keweenaw Peninsula jutting into Lake Superior. Through its Initiative for the Environment, MTU is launching major programs, creating new facilities, and upgrading older facilities to enhance ecological, conservation, and environmental studies. The ESEB represents one of the first steps in this initiative.
P re d e s i g n A p p ro a c h A program committee appointed by MTU president Curtis J. Tompkins was charged with defining the type of facility to be developed, setting its basic design parameters, selecting the site, and participating in the selection of a design firm. Made up of representatives from the environmental and engineering departments of the university and chaired by William Predebon of the Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Mechanics Department, the committee evaluated different building types (e.g., research only, teaching facility, analytical lab facility, etc.) and considered ten different occupancy models.
Ultimately, the committee decided to locate those departments involved in the most environmental teaching and research activity in the new structure. These included the departments of biology, civil/environmental engineering, and geology. Besides grouping science and
ESEB
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ESEB
Design Response
engineering disciplines in the same facility, the committee called for a design that would promote interaction among its occupants, accommodate float space that could be used intermittently by other departments, and demonstrate and serve as an example of sustainable design. After interviewing six design firms, MTU awarded the design commission to SHG. Although SHG had experience and a commitment to environmental design, Predebon noted that the decision to use the firm was mostly influenced by its overall capabilities, its track record with national projects, and by creative ideas the firm put forth about approaching the project. After awarding the commission, the committee continued to work with the architect and other consultants throughout the programming phase. Prior to design, the SHG design team gathered information to define the state of the art in environmental design in order to establish a team awareness about environmental building design practices. The initial step in this process included studying several environmentally responsive projects as benchmarks of current environmental design. These included the NMB Bank, Netherlands; the Audubon Headquarters, New York; West Bend Headquarters, Wisconsin; and the Rocky Mountain Institute, Colorado. Information on these projects was obtained from case studies in the 1994 AIA Environmental Resource Guide and from direct communications with project contacts.
E S E B E n v i ro n m e n t a l M o d e l Before design was started, SHG created an ESEB environmental model, which provided a comprehensive guidelines for the design development of the facility. The guidelines were developed based on the following precepts:
Recognize the interconnectedness and interdependence of life. Optimize the life cycle of all natural and human systems. Minimize depletion of natural resources. Respond to the Great Lakes bio-region. Document the design and construction process to increase sustainability learning . Promote personal commitments toward responsible stewardship. Work in context of and with the environment and earth processes rather than against them. The environmental model consists of eleven primary categories, from sun through construction. Figure 1 summarizes the guidelines set for each category. The full model contains more detailed information under each guideline describing opportunities and specific actions commensurate with that guideline. The guidelines document includes a column in which to record the status of each action as the project evolves. [Note: Although labeled environmental, the guidelines are more holistic in scope, covering such issues and considerations as functionality, the psychological aspects of the interior environment, teamwork, etc.] Although the model is structured for use with a new building, it can be readily adapted for renovation and remodeling projects.
Design Response
The ESEB design responds to many of the environmental and energy considerations identified in the model. However, factors such as cost and feasibility overrode inclusion of some features. The approaches taken to the design of the site, building, systems, and materials selection are summarized below.
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ESEB
ESEB
Design Response
Figure 1: Primary Categories of ESEB Environmental Model

Sun S.1: S.2: S.3: Water W.1: W.2: W.3: W.4 W.5 W.6 Air A.1: A.2: A.3: Land L.1: L.2: L.3: L.4: L.5: L.6: L.7: L.8: Plants and animals P&A.1: P&A.2: P&A.3: P&A.4: P&A.5: People P.1: P.2: P.3: P.4: Building ecology BE.1: BE.2: BE.3: BE.4: Energy E.1: E.2: E.3: E.4: Solid waste SW.1: SW.2: SW.3: SW.4: SW.5: SW.6: SW.7: SW.8: Materials M.1: M.2: M.3: Construction C.1: C.2: C.3: C.4: Design facility for solar light Design facility for solar warmth Design facility for solar energy Understand, improve, and protect the Portage Lake and Lake Superior regional ecosystems Understand water cycle (source, transport, use, reuse, waste) Minimize impact from utilities Maximize on-site absorption/filtration of surface water Optimize water conservation Demonstrate potential uses of rainwater Understand respiration cycles (intake/exhaust) of building and systems Minimize toxic emissions/exhausts Exceed minimum indoor air quality standards Respect/enhance existing vegetation Document history of site and project Document current environmental conditions of site Minimize on-site disturbance Balance earthwork cut/fill Maximize on-site absorption/filtration of run-off Use landform to promote energy conservation Use landform to delineate and define different site areas Understand the Houghton environment of the Great Lakes bioregion Protect plant and animal species indigenous to the region Enhance plant and animal species indigenous to the region Utilize plant materials to provide indoor/outdoor conservation for the building Control undesirable pests Recognize cultural diversity as necessary to human survival Increase our awareness of our responsibility to the planet Create and maintain a functional and effective facility Design to respect basic human needs Improve indoor physical environment Improve indoor chemical environment Improve indoor biological environment Improve indoor psychological environment Maximize energy conservation Minimize health risks from energy systems Begin transition towards renewable sources of energy Increase awareness of current energy issues Work to eliminate the concept of waste Identify sources of waste, types of waste products, wastestream, sinks Understand the solid waste policies of the university Design to minimize waste during the construction phase Select materials/products for minimal packaging Select materials/products for ability to be reused or recycled Design to accommodate easy recycling procedures for facility users Study potential for on-site composting of organics Understand materials life cycle Minimize depletion of natural resources Minimize impact from toxic and irritant by-products Teamwork Use of site Construction procedures Conservation of resources
ESEB
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Figure 2: Site Plan
pheonix drive
A eseb B dillman hall C eerc D courtyard E portage lake
D A
Site Design The program committee looked at several site locations before settling on a three-acre tract at the edge of Portage Lake between Dillman Hall and the Electrical Energy Resource Center (EERC). The grouping of the ESEB with Dillman Hall and the EERC (see figure 2) serves to reinforce the relationship between academic and research activities at MTU.
The plateau between Dillman and the EERC was originally occupied by a parking lot; the remaining portion of the site slopes steeply down to Portage Lake with a 70-foot drop in elevation. The ESEB footprint is oriented perpendicular to the downhill slope to reduce the amount of cut into the hill and to preserve more of the existing vegetation. By bridging Cliff Drive, the ESEB establishes a link from the main campus to the Portage Lake waterfront. The site layout forms a courtyard with a southern exposure that leads to the main entrance of the ESEB. This entrance is located at the point where the north-south axis of the ESEB intersects with the east-west axis between the three buildings. East-west links between the buildings provide year-round access to lecture, teaching, and research facilities. The links are in response to the cooler year-round climate (mean temperatures range from 7 to 20F in January and from 55 to 75F in July). In addition, the links help protect the courtyard from the prevailing north winds, which should create a more desirable microclimate not easily found in this region. Landscaping in the courtyard will be hardy enough to withstand the harsh conditions of the environment.
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Courtesy SHG Inc.
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Design Response
Service entrances to the EERC are relocated to the north side of the new pedestrian link between the EERC and the ESEB. This creates better access to Cliff Drive and hides it from view. The service access for the ESEB is located on the north side of the building, from Phoenix Drive. The orientation of the ESEB minimizes the southern exposure of the structure and provides for direct natural lighting on the east, south, and west elevations. The north elevation, facing Portage Lake, will receive reflected light in summer from the waters surface and from snow cover over the frozen lake in winter. (The mean annual snowfall for the region is 227 inches, or about 19 feet). During the design phase, snow drift analysis and wind tunnel testing was done to evaluate proposed site landscaping and building massing as a means of protecting surrounding outdoor spaces, to assist in the development of the roof forms, and to determine wind pressure for window and curtain wall design.
Building Design The building has 167,000 gross square feet on nine levels. Floors 1 through 8 contain laboratory, teaching, and related support spaces. The ninth (rooftop) level contains air quality and atmospheric sciences laboratories, a greenhouse, and a mechanical penthouse. Typical floors are laid out around a utility spine to serve the centrally positioned laboratories. Major circulation corridors run north to south, with faculty and graduate student offices ringing the perimeter of each floor (see figures 3 and 4).
The main two-story lobby at the south end is entered on the sixth level, providing direct access to the lecture halls. The second level of the lobby provides access to laboratories and teaching spaces on the seventh floor; floors six through nine are served by the elevators. A three-story atrium at the north end of the sixth floor offers panoramic views of Portage Lake. The elevator and stair core adjacent to the atrium serve floors 1 through 9 with the elevators positioned for efficient access to service docks. Special high-bay research spaces are located on the first floor where they have direct service access from Phoenix Drive.
E n v i ro n m e n t a l F e a t u re s High performance exterior envelope: The roof is insulated to R-30 and exterior walls are insulated to R-14.05. The mass of the masonry in the walls helps to minimize heat loss and dampens the thermal swings that occur during the day, resulting in less energy use. The glass area is sized to take advantage of natural light but controls glare. Low-E insulating and reflective glass aids in energy performance.
Heating and cooling systems: Steam from the central campus plant passes through a heat exchanger in the ESEB to heat water. The hot water is distributed to radiant ceiling panels in the perimeter offices and to fin-tube units in public areas. Because of MTU's location along Lake Superior, free cooling, using outdoor air to cool the building is an important environmental feature. The mechanical systems are capable of bringing in 100 percent outside air. The building is not air conditioned except for a few critical laboratory test facilities. Mechanical system demonstration: The lungs of the building, the mechanical system, are housed in the roof penthouse. Graphic displays in the corridor will illustrate building systems operations and energy flows. Windows in the corridors will allow visitors to view the mechanical equipment in operation. The equipment, piping, and process flows will be labeled. Heat recovery: Because the laboratories use only outside air, a runaround heat recovery system is used to capture heat from the three large 50,000 cfm exhaust fans in the laboratories.
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Design Response
2 3
ninth floor (roof level)
1 greenhouse 2 mechanical room 3 laboratories 4 Lobby 5 grad student offices 6 faculty offices 7 tunnel 8 lecture hall 9 winter garden seventh floor 5 9 3 4 3
5 8 3 9 7 4
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Courtesy SHG Inc.
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Figure 4: Building Sections
5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6
5th 4th 3rd 2nd
1st
longitudinal section
1 office 2 research lab 3 high-bay lab 4 utility spine 5 mechanical 6 lecture hall 5 9th 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 3 1st
Courtesy SHG Inc.
7 greenhouse
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd
2 1 cross section
Natural lighting and ventilation: All offices are located on the perimeter of the building and contain operable windows permitting the occupants to control ventilation without air conditioning. Sensors will turn off lights when daylighting is adequate. Electrical systems: All lighting is fluorescent. Dimming throughout, provided by controllable electronic ballasts, eliminated the need for incandescent fixtures. Lamps will mainly be type T8 with full spectrum color. Variable frequency drives are used on most motors for fans and pumps. Recycling systems: SHG employed Resource Recycling Systems of Ann Arbor, Michigan, to investigate the infrastructure for recycling at MTU and Houghton, Michigan. Currently, the university recycles only office paper products. The recycling system proposed for the ESEB is
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Design Response
a high-rise system that will allow multiple types of materials to be recycled efficiently when the market in the area becomes viable.
Materials Selection Materials for the facility were evaluated and selected with regard to embodied energy, levels of toxicity, recyclability, and levels of natural resource depletion. For example, tropical hardwoods were not considered because of the threat to the rain forest. Instead, reconstituted wood veneer finishes and substrates were used for wall panels, doors, and furniture. The use of materials indigenous to the region (e.g., copper, maple, and oak) will help reduce the fossil fuels required for their transport. (MTU used the ESEB project to introduce a study of building materials by undergraduate students. A course was offered in the fall term of 1994 to investigate the choices of specific interior materials.)
Brick is the primary exterior material. Glass curtain wall systems are also used at the main entrance, in the building links, and in the north atrium. The rooftop level uses a combination of painted aluminum panel siding, glass, and masonry wall construction with barrel-vaulted, copper-clad roof forms. Interior finishes include low maintenance, environmentally safe choices with an emphasis on acoustical balance to maintain an atmosphere conducive to research and teaching. Terrazzo is used for the floor in the south lobby entrance because of its ability to withstand wear and tear from heavy use and to serve as a heat sink. The walls in the lobby space are a continuation of brick and glass from the exterior. The south lobby is shaded by a large visor to prevent overheating in the summer. The visor is designed to allow maximum heat gain during the cold winter months. The north-south corridors, linking the south lobby to the north atrium, use vinyl flooring and wood paneling on the walls. (Linoleum was considered for several areas, but had to be omitted because of its higher cost.) Water-based low-VOC paints are used for most wall finishes. Nylon fiber carpet is used in department head suites and lecture halls. Some lobby areas and offices are also carpeted. Laboratories have sealed concrete floors. The table in figure 5 shows the palette of materials used in the ESEB. It also lists those that were considered but not specified. The remarks in the second column give the reason a material was used or not.
Opportunities for Interaction Environmental research and teaching requires a greater degree of interaction and communication between different disciplines than traditional academic work. By design, the building strives to increase opportunities for such exchanges in both structured and informal settings through the use of the following:
Scattered support labs: Departmental support labs are located throughout the building, not just within the floor that is occupied. The winter garden: The atrium on the north side of the building provides a threestory informal gathering and meeting space. Visually, the atrium connects the departmental offices and serves as a focal point for the exchange of ideas. This space is intended to attract faculty and students within and outside of the curriculum housed in the ESEB. Clustered support services: Mail, copying, and coffee stops are major interaction points. These have been located with the intent of increasing the chance for informal meetings. Polar common spaces: The atrium at the south and the winter garden at the north are located at opposite ends of the circulation system to provide anchors. These two common areas are intended to attract faculty and students from the areas they normally occupy. 8
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Figure 5: ESEB Materials Palette

Materials used Acoustic wall panels Aluminum curtainwall Aluminum metal panel systems Aluminum Windows Ceiling tile Cellulose insulation Concrete Concrete masonry units Copper roof system Copper shingles and sheathing Exterior guard rail Extruded polystyrene Glazing Gypsum wallboard Homasote-backed tackboards Insulation (fiberglass) Nylon carpet Paints Particleboard (Medite 11) Rubber stair treads and bases Sealant systems Single-ply roof system Steel structural frame Terrazzo flooring Wallboard (gypsum reinforced) Waste and recycling chutes Wood doors Wood preservation Materials considered but not used Adhesive-free carpet system Concrete pavers (at grade) Earth-covered roof system Environ biocomposite surfaces Linoleum tile and sheet flooring Reconstituted casework veneers Recycled glass based ceramic tile Slate casework countertops Remarks Nonadhesive type (Velcro) High efficiency, durability, low maintenance, recycled content Recyclable components Thermal breaks / operable units Recycled content Recycled content Recycled content (fly-ash) Recycled content (local mined tailings) Low maintenance and long life (30 years) Low maintenance and long life (30 years) Recycled content Recycled content High efficiency, low-E, argon-filled, reflective coating on N, E, and W Recycled content (variable) Recycled content Recycled content (variable) Limited areas of use Water base / low VOC Formaldehyde free MDF Recyclable material Long life and low maintenance Rubber content Recyclable, recycled content, light weight Durability, long life Recycled content Four-chute system Reconstituted veneers Arsenic and chromium free Remarks Shortage of bidders, cost Problems with snow removal and heaving Maintenance and cost Concerns over product performance (warpage) Regional cost 20 percent higher than other resilient materials Costs were 25 to 30 percent higher than veneers offered by manufacturer Shortage of bidders, cost Higher cost than resin types
Just in Time Flexibility The research to be carried out in the ESEB is still emerging and will likely change over the life of the building. Moreover, the mix of faculty to graduate students will change monthly, and these changes must be accommodated as effectively as possible. The approach to meeting these varying needs is called just in time flexibility. This is in contrast to past practices of trying to design for every eventuality through just in case flexibility. The primary features of just in time flexibility include the following:
Modular offices: All faculty offices are the same size, and graduate offices are subdivisions of faculty size offices. As the mix changes, minor furniture changes permit office sizes to change.
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Modular labs: Specialized support labs are located at the base of the building, allowing the large blocks of modular labs (10-foot modules) to be grouped together. This, combined with the central utility shaft running the height of the building, makes it easy to change functions and services without major disruption. A benefit of this approach is that the longer the building can perform without major alteration, the fewer demolition materials end up in landfills.
Construction
The specifications required the general contractor to develop a waste reduction program during construction. Scrap H-piles are being sold to a local scrap steel dealer. Scrap hardwood planks were taken from the site by workers and used as firewood as were the wooden forms for the concrete foundations. Plumbing valves and fittings are delivered on reusable wooden pallets. Products such as waterproofing, mastic pails, and cement grout bags that cannot be reused are crushed and compressed as much as possible before being deposited in dumpsters. The total project cost is $43.8 million, with the State of Michigan providing $30 million for construction and MTU providing $13.8 million for equipment, furnishings, and other expenses. To date, the project has stayed within budget. Groundbreaking occurred in May 1996 and the scheduled occupancy date is July 1998. ERG readers with access to the Internet can view the construction on a website in real time at <http://bigmac.civil.mtu.edu/ground.html>.
Operation and Use

A university engineer will be assigned to the ESEB to oversee the commissioning process and to observe all building testing. This individual will also be responsible for facility startup by users and will document operation and maintenance procedures. Energy consumption will be monitored, recorded, and compiled monthly and compared with the performance of similar buildings on campus. Special attention will be given to the energy recovery system. Indoor air quality (IAQ) will be monitored on an occupant response basis. The combination of clean Lake Superior basin air, a ventilation system capable of providing 100% outside air, proper placement of intake and exhaust louvers (as determined by wind tunnel testing) and limited (1530 days/year) of required mechanical cooling, assures that the facility will be well ventilated.
Conclusion The ESEBusing proven and cost-effective featuresprovides an example of how a mainstream institutional project can infuse environmental considerations into the building planning and design process. Bolstered by a committed client, that process was further augmented by the design teams use of the environmental model for the ESEB. This tool permitted the design team to view environmental choices comprehensively and anticipate more effectively which actions would contribute to the projects environmental performance.
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Courtesy SHG Inc.
Project Report
NEXT21 Experimental Housing

Osaka Gas Company, Osaka, Japan
Project Committee Yositika Utida, Meiji University Kazuo Tatsumi, Fukuyama University Seiichi Fukao, Tokyo Metropolitan University Mitsuo Takada, Kyoto University Shinichi Chikazumi, SHU-KOH-SHA Architectural and Urban Design Studio Suburo Takama, Scientific Air-Conditioning Institute Shazo Endo, Osaka Gas Gas Utilization R&D Department Masahiro Sendo, Osaka Gas Marketing Planning Department Structural Engineers Kimura Structural Engineers and Matsumoto Structural Design Office General Contractors Obayashi Corporation
The NEXT21 housing project provides a stage on which to carry out continuing experiments to develop viable urban housing solutions for the next century. Using the framework of open building design, the project uses innovative concepts and technologies for its environmental, energy, and functional dimensions.
Background
Urban centers in Japan, as well as those of other industrialized countries, are experiencing a declining residential population. This trend is exemplified by the disparity between the daytime and nighttime populations of many metropolitan areas. Yet, large cities such as Osaka, with their abundant conveniences, cultural facilities, and related amenities, can provide excellent places to live. To revitalize and improve the quality of city living, new housing concepts and new technologies must be seriously considered. Within this context Osaka Gasone of Japans major energy companiesinitiated the NEXT21 project in the early 1990s to demonstrate and test creative urban housing solutions. In its roles as a provider of natural gas and a developer of innovative gas appliances for residential use, Osaka Gas was committed to ensuring that the effort would address energy efficiency and the detrimental effects current energy use has on the environment. The project development was coordinated by a committee chaired by Yositika Utida, professor of architecture at Meiji University. In the planning phase, the committee consisted of representatives from the Osaka Gas gas utilization research and development and marketing departments, the Scientific Air-Conditioning Institute, the SHU-KOH-SHA Architectural Design and Urban Design Studio, Fukuyama University, Tokyo Metropolitan University, and Kyoto University. The project committee envisioned a facility that would last a long time as a consistent part of the townscape while allowing for perpetual alterations to its individual dwelling units. The designated objectives of the project were these:
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998 NEXT 21 PROJ 12
Courtesy of Seiichi Fukeo
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Design Response
Use resources more effectively by employing systematized building methods. Create a variety of residential units that meet the demands of a variety of households. Introduce natural greenery and create housing that is attractive to urban wildlife. Treat everyday waste and drainage within the building to ease the burden on the environment.1 Use energy efficiently by means such as fuel cells and solar power to make possible a more comfortable life without increasing the amount of energy consumed. In the design phase, the committee was expanded to include architects, structural engineers, mechanical engineers, and construction specialists. Jointly supervised by Yositika Utida and the SHU-KOH-SHA Architectural Design and Urban Design Studio, the project committee was subdivided to address specific issues of building design, dwelling design, facilities, and environment. The project site is located in Osakas Tennoji Ward, not far from the citys famed Castle Park. The park is the location for one of Japans oldest castles and is a well-known habitat for many species of birds, insects, and other wildlife. An older building (owned by Osaka Gas) that once occupied the site was demolished to make way for the NEXT21 facility.
Design Response
NEXT21 employs an open building approach to meet the projects first two objectives, which call for using resources more effectively (through systematized building methods) and creating a variety of residential units to accommodate different life-styles that can change over time. Open building is defined as a way of designing and producing built environments in which parts making the whole are given optimal freedom for layout, construction and adaptation. It thus concerns the interplay of physical parts and those controlling them.2 Open building projects distinguish between base building and fit-out. The base building relates to the common or shared elements of the building while fit-out relates to those portions that define each occupancy. Base building elements include the load-bearing structure, common circulation spaces, and that portion of the mechanical systems to which individual occupancies can attach. Fit-out elements consist of non load-bearing walls, fixtures and equipment, and all piping, wiring, and ductwork belonging to each unit. Specific base building and fit-out elements are considered to have different life cycles, i.e., they will be replaced or upgraded at different times.3 Open building has come to be recognized in Japan, the Netherlands, Finland, and China for residential uses. In addition, this strategy has been used in North America and many other countries over the past 40 years for both commercial office and retail facilities where technology and responsibilities are routinely divided into base building and fit-out levels of work.
Building Design The building footprint occupies about 60 percent of the site, which is 1,543 sq. meters (16,609 sq. ft.) in area. The gross building area is 4,577 square meters (49,268 sq. ft.) distributed among six floors and a basement. The U-shaped footprint of the building defines an open space that allows for better daylighting and contains elevated circulation systems and a garden at the ground level (see plans in figure 1).
1
At the time of planning and design, useful data were not available in Japan about the environmental performance of building materials. Consequently, the environmental aspect of building materials was not a project criterion (communicated in unsigned letter from Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. via Toru Kamoi [6 February 1997]). Dekker, Karel, and Stephen Kendall, Open Building, unpublished paper prepared for the initiation of a new task group of the International Council for Building Research Studies and Documentation (July 1996). Kendall, Stephen, Developments Toward Open Building in Japan, a report on the status of open building issues and developments in Japan (1995). Report is available from author.
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roof
10 10 6 7 5 8 10
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1 garbage and wastewater treatment 2 energy center 3 electrical 4 control room 5 nature information center 6 entrance hall 7 elevator hall 8 parking 9 next 21 hall 10 dwelling unit 11 rooftop garden 12 solar cells
first floor
sixth floor
3 2 4
10
10
10 10 1
Courtesy Osaka Gas
basement
fifth floor
The basement contains mechanical equipment areas and a parking facility that uses a vertically stacked system to conserve space. The first floor contains the entrance lobby, a nature information center (run by the Wild Bird Society of Japan), and access to parking. The ground floor and basement areas have larger structural bays to accommodate future technological improvements. Floors 2 through 6 include two to five dwelling units per floor. Dimensions of the spaces in the dwellings are based on the modular planning principles of traditional Japanese timber frame houses. Spatially, the building contains three major zones. The public zone includes a shared vestibule, an assembly room on the ground level, mechanical rooms, etc. The house zone consists of the dwelling units and their subspaces located on floors 2 through 6. The street zone includes stairs, corridors, and voids leading to the dwelling units. The subfloor space of this zone accommodates shared pipes and trunk wiring.
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E n v i ro n m e n t a l C o m p o n e n t s The primary environmental components of the project consist of an ecological garden that is threaded throughout the facility, a nature information center, and an integrated garbage and wastewater system.
Ecological Garden
The ecological garden responds to the goal to provide greenery within the project. In essence, the garden is a series of green tracts threaded throughout the building from the ground floor court area, to the terraces of individual floors, and onto the roof. (see figure 2). Besides providing a pleasing visual environment and helping to shut out solar radiation, these green spaces create a welcome haven for wildlife. As exemplified in nearby Osaka Castle Park, wild creatures can coexist with people in cities when the conditions are right. To help create the proper environment at the project, the Wild Bird Society of Japan studied local wildlife behavior for two years before the start of the project.
Nature Information Center
The Nature Information Center, managed by the Wild Bird Society of Japan, is located on the ground floor. The center cares for the cultivation of plants and conducts continuing surveys and research into the attraction of wild birds to the facility. The center also offers a place where people can reflect on the regeneration of nature in the city and exchange information with others.
A q u a l o o p G a r b a g e a n d Wa s t e w a t e r S y s t e m
Growing use of landfills and exhaust emissions from the incineration of societys waste products deteriorates the environment. From 1985 until 1990, the waste index in Japan increased 15 percent. NEXT21 attempts to address this problem by providing a garbage and wastewater treatment system capable of reducing the load on the public sewage system. Figure 3 illustrates the primary components of the projects Aqualoop system, which is intended to reduce the amount of clean water used. Wastewaterafter being mixed with air and heated and pressurized to a fixed temperatureis fed to a solubilization reactor. Next, the solubilization liquid from the reactor is fed to a catalyst reactor, where the organic subFigure 2: Ecological Garden
in addition to providing greenery, the green areas on the terraces, roof, and ground level shut out solar radiation and help eliminate latent heat caused by evaporating moisture.
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Courtesy Osaka Gas
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Figure 3: Aqualoop Garbage and Wastewater Treatment System
stances are oxidized into carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen gas after being converted to intermediate products such as low-molecular carboxylix acid. Some of the biologically treated water and the water treated by the Aqualoop system passes through a reclaimed water treatment system with an active carbon treatment and is used as rinse water in toilets, etc.
Recycling Facilities
Trash bins for sorting metal cans and paper waste products are provided in each household. Compactors are located in common areas of the building for compressing cans and other waste as well as for separating steel and aluminum cans. Some living units also have compactors for reducing the volume of plastic and other bulky waste.
E n e r g y F e a t u re s NEXT21 incorporates an array of energy-efficient features. Among these are an on-site electrical power system using fuel cells and solar cells, waste heat recovery, a DC power distribution system, and a load forecast control system to maximize energy efficiency.
To t a l E n e r g y S y s t e m
The total energy system at NEXT21 aims at achieving a 30 percent savings over conventional energy systems. Electric power comes from a self-contained power supply system comprised of fuel cells, solar cells, and 100 Ah storage batteries (see figure 4 ). The 100 kw fuel cells are the heart of the energy system.4 Producing little NOx and SOx, the fuel cells are expected to become core elements in co-generation systems in the 21st century. The 7.5 kw solar cells mounted on the roof level provide a small amount of supplemental electrical power that is fed into the system.
Thermal Energy Systems
The hot water supply system has both high- and low-temperature storage tanks. The lowtemperature waste heat from the fuel cell and the heat recovered from the garbage treatment
4
Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy and do not require recharging. Used effectively in the space program, fuel cells are highly efficient, produce low contaminant emissions, are quiet, and have no moving parts. NEXT 21 PROJ 12
Courtesy Osaka Gas
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Design Response
system are stored in the low-temperature tank and used for preheating hot water. The high-temperature waste heat can be stored in the high-temperature tank when little load is placed on the air-conditioning system or during intermediate periods (see figure 5). Two types of heated media are extracted from this system: high-temperature steam of 160C and low-temperature water of 55C. The steam is used to make the chilled and heated water used in air-conditioning; this is achieved through the dual-effect absorption chiller-heater.
Courtesy Osaka Gas
The fuel cells are the heart of the NEXT21 total energy system.
Direct Current Power System
DC power is used for electrical equipment such as common lighting, elevators, and pumps that can run on this form of power to ensure an efficient electric power supply. Electrical devices and appliances in the living units, however, run on AC power. (DC power from the fuel cells and solar cells is converted to AC via an inverter and an energy loss results.)
Energy System Control
The energy system controller (ESC) forecasts the loads placed on the electrical and thermal systems and automatically controls the entire energy system so consumption is kept to a minimum. By predicting heating and cooling loads, electrical power loads, and electrical power produced by the solar cells, the ESC creates an optimum operating schedule, determines the operating capacities of the fuel cells and other equipment, and issues the required control signals.
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r- H e a t e r U n i t
Using high-temperature waste heat of 160C (320F) from the fuel cells, two steam-driven absorption chiller-heaters produce chilled and heated water. A third unit is available when waste heat is insufficient during high-load situations. There is no Freon gas in the systems.
Figure 4: Electric Power System
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Courtesy Osaka Gas
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Figure 5: Thermal Energy System
Insulation
Two levels of thermal insulation were applied in the building to evaluate the relationship between insulation, air-conditioning load, and energy consumption. On the third and fourth floors, the insulation complies with energy-saving standards in Japan. On the fifth and sixth floors the insulation conforms to R-2000 standards. The insulation ratings are shown in figure 6. (Osaka Gas reports that the insulating effectiveness of the building has helped to keep the heating demand several times lower than that of an ordinary single house.)
Dwelling Amenities The 18 dwelling units in the building were designed by 13 different architects. The design of the units began after the design of the building frame and continued as the frame was being constructed. The descriptive names of the dwelling designs reflect the range of life-styles they are intended to accommodategarden house, independent family, house with office, threegeneration family, fitness room house, and young family house among others.
Each architect was free to design the interior layout and enclosure of the units. This was accomplished by use of materials and components making a kit of parts produced both off site and on site. Rules for positioning the various elements were provided in a design manual.
Figure 6: Heat Transfer Performance Criteria
Heat Transmission Coefficient (Kcal/m3hC) Outer walls Floors 5 and 6 Floors 3 and 4 0.18 0.14 Window specifications Double-glazed windows. Low-E glass on north wall Double-glazed windows Roof planting area
Courtesy Osaka Gas
0.12
Equivalent to R2000 housing Equivalent to Energy Conservation Law II zone
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Courtesy Osaka Gas
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Design Response
Each dwelling design incorporates many concepts and features that contribute to the projects design objectives of improving comfort and livability. Several of these are discussed in some detail here:
Kitchens
NEXT21 extends the role of the kitchen to accommodate opportunities for more interaction and communication between family members. Specific kitchen features include highly automated rice cookers, new gas ranges that occupy the same floor space as conventional units but provide 25 percent more cooktop with other functional features, and the ability to control appliances remotely.
Baths
Providing an opportunity for relaxation and a means to relieve daily stress, bath areas in NEXT21 are spacious, functional, and pleasing. Bathroom features include remote control of hot water flow in showers, an automatic bathtub cleaning system, and an audiovisual system. Double piping in parts of the hotter supply system reduces the time it takes for hot water to arrive. Bathtubs are fitted with automated filling and reheating devices and have touch-operated electronic faucets.
A i r- C o n d i t i o n i n g S y s t e m
Variable air volume (VAV) dampers can operate to provide heat from floors vents in winter and cooling from ceiling vents in summer. Humidity control mats are provided on floors where humidity is likely to form. The supply and exhaust chambers are built to supply fresh, healthy air so that mold is less likely to form (see figure 7). Exhaust air is discharged through airflow windows that are double-glazed with built-in blinds, bringing the surface temperature of the windows close to the room temperature.
Information System
The building contains a PBX-LAN network conforming to INS64 (ISDN) standards as the core building information and communication system. The system is used for various personal uses as well as for monitoring building energy usage.
Flexibility
The use of prefabricated components allows for a high degree of architectural adjustment to suit tenants future spatial needs. Along with this, piping systems are designed to permit relocation of wet areas. Wastewater linesinstalled horizontally in subfloor spacesare pumped while supply lines in those spaces use flexible piping. Prefabricated piping is used in vertical shafts. In this way, kitchen and bathroom spaces can easily be relocated when dwelling layouts are changed.
Construction
Construction of the building was completed in October 1993. The total project cost of 2.5 billion yen (about $21 million U.S.) is about five to ten times higher than for conventional multifamily housing of this size built for normal market consumption. The cost reflects the fact that the building is actually a laboratory equipped with numerous innovative concepts and features are being modified, monitored, and controlled. One of the most significant aspects of the projects construction is the two-stage process used to accompany the open building approach. The first step involved the construction of infrastructure elements, including the structural frame, floors, subfloors, and other common components. The second step involved the construction of the individual dwelling units.
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Construction and Operation and Use
Figure 7: Ventilation and Air-conditioning System

exhaust air heat exchange duct (100 mm dia.) supply air
ra
sa
living room
bedroom
bathroom
Courtesy Osaka Gas
twenty-four hour ventilation and air-conditioning system collects waste heat while the building is being ventilated, helping to maintain steady indoor air temperature.
Operation and Use

Osaka Gas reports there has been a high demand by occupants for tatami-mat rooms, especially for families with children. Larger bathrooms equipped with audiovisual systems have also been popular.5 As occupancy turnover occurs, some dwelling units are being reconfigured and their exterior facades are being adjusted to suit. The building is heavily metered. Each dwelling unit is equipped with individual meters for gas, electricity, domestic water (hot and cold), and water for air-conditioning (hot and cold). Since April 1994 Osaka Gas has monitored various aspects of the buildings performance.
P re l i m i n a r y F i n d i n g s To date, little data have been released on the projects performance. However, a technical study prepared jointly by the Scientific Air-Conditioning Institute and Osaka Gas Co. Ltd. provides some preliminary findings.6
Round-the-clock temperature readings were taken in the garden in the court area and at points along adjacent roads to the north and south of the building. Analysis of these readings revealed that the temperatures at the garden location are consistently cooler than those at other locations. Osaka Gas technical staff state that the performance of the fuel cells has been virtually trouble-free. The most common breakdowns or stoppages in the system occur when other system components (e.g., pumps or cooling tower) experience trouble.7
5 6 7
Letter from Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. (unsigned) via Toru Kamoi (6 February 1997). Takama, Saburo, and Toru Shiba, technical paper of Scientific Air-conditioning Institute and Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. , entitled Study on Evaluation of NEXT21 Future Housing (no date). Letter from Toru Shiba, Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. via Toru Kamoi (20 February 1997). NEXT 21 PROJ 12
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Operation and Use
Figure 8: Electrically Produced by Solar Cells (kWh x 100)

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 January 1995 0.2 0.1 January 1996 April 1994
monthly electricity produced by solar cells between april 1994 and august 1996
Figure 9: Electricity Produced by Fuel Cells (kWh x 1000)

50
40
30
20
January 1995
no data
10
January 1996
April 1994
monthly electricity produced by fuel cell between april 1994 and august 1996
Figures 8 and 9 show the respective outputs for the fuel cells and the photovoltaic rooftop array for the period between April 1995 and August 1996. The chart in Figure 10 profiling the monthly demand and use of energy for heating, cooling, and hot water shows the highest consumption occurring in the summer. Through simulation analysis, the study also compared the facility to other buildings. One of these is normally insulated and has a conventional HVAC system; the other has a conventional HVAC system but is insulated to the equivalent of NEXT21. The comparison revealed that the fuel cell energy system of NEXT21 produces a 27 percent savings over the standard insulated building (17 percent was attributed to insulation and 10 percent to the energy system itself).
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Courtesy Osaka Gas
Courtesy Osaka Gas
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Operation and Use
Figure 10: Monthly Demand and Energy Consumption (kWh x 1000)
80,000
Demand
60,000
Cooling Heating Hot Water
40,000 Electricity
20,000
0 November December September October January August February March

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Courtesy Osaka Gas
April
June
20,000
40,000 Fuel Cell Boiler Ab. Chiller Energy Consumption 80,000

monthly electricity produced by fuel cell between april 1994 and march 1995
60,000
May
July
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Operation and Use
Conclusion MIT professor emeritus N. John Habraken states that NEXT21 shows a better way to design with high density environments, combining dignity and freedom of the individual dweller with the coherence and permanence of the urban neighborhood.8
Three-dimensional framework of public circulation and gardens
Although the project may not achieve an ideal open building solution, it produces a sitefocused response that provides flexibility and comfort while achieving environmental and energy objectives through sophisticated technological means. Although many of the technologies used are not yet available (or financially feasible) in many markets, NEXT21 gives a glimpse of the possibilities that can make a city habitat more comfortable, healthful, and adaptable.
Habraken, N. John, NEXT21 in the Open Building Perspective in special edition of SD NEXT21 (August 1994). NEXT 21 ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998
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Courtesy Dr. Stephan Kendall, MA
The study noted that the total energy system of the facility places a lighter load on the environment than more traditional systems. For example, the NEXT21 system results in 74 percent less of NOx gas production than a traditional building (56 percent of this reduction is attributed to the energy system and 18 percent to the insulation).
Cover Sheet
Application Reports
Application reports are intended to help building design professionals make informed environmental choices about building materials. To achieve this goal, the application reports in this section compare the environmental performance of materials and products within given product categories (e.g., light framing, insulation, glazing, carpeting). Each application report begins with a highlights page followed by sections containing increasingly detailed levels of information. First is a matrix chart that graphically depicts the comparative environmental performance of each of the materials being considered. Next, a set of tables summarizes environmental impacts by various groups and categories. These tables are followed by a discussion of selection considerations, tradeoffs, and suggestions presented in the recommendations for architects section. The final report section contains a condensed description of the life-cycle phases (extracted from the detailed life-cycle assessments in the ERG material reports) for each of the materials being evaluated. A list of references and further resources is included at the end of each report. The table below shows the application reports in the ERG through the 1998 supplement. It also identifies the material reports referenced for environmental life-cycle assessment information. Normally, application reports refer to two or more material reports. However, when a material report addresses multiple materials or products, the application report will refer to a single material report, as in the case of thermal insulation and carpets, cushions, and adhesives.
No. 01 02 03
Report Title Light Framing Insulation Claddings
Related Material Reports 05410 Steel Framing 06110 Wood Framing 07200 03100 04210 04220 04450 09300 09200 09250 09651 09652 09900 09930 08810 08840 09680 03100 05410 06110 06180 15410 09950 12610 Thermal Insulation Concrete Brick and Mortar Concrete Masonry Stone Veneer Ceramic Tile Plaster and Lath Gypsum Board Systems Linoleum Vinyl Flooring Paint Stains and Varnishes Glass Non-glass Glazing Carpets, Cushions, Adhesives Concrete Steel Framing Wood Framing Glued Laminated Timbers Pipe Wall Coverings Fabrics for Workstations
04 05 06 07 08 09
Wall Finishes Resilient Flooring Architectural Coatings Glazing Carpeting Structural Framing
10 11
Metal and Plastic Plumbing Pipe Fabric and Paper Wall Coverings
COVER SHEET
APP
Application Report
Light Framing Systems: Wood and Steel

Highlights and Summary Recommendations
The majority of houses and small commercial buildings in the United States are framed with wood, using studs, joists, and trusses or rafters. Because of concerns about overcutting of forests, unstable lumber costs, and poor lumber quality, light-gauge steel framing is gaining popularity among some architects and builders. Use of steel instead of wood raises other important environmental considerations, however. This report compares the environmental impacts of wood and light-gauge steel as framing materials for residential and small commercial buildings.
Highlights
s
The extremely high thermal conductivity of steel makes it a poor choice for framing insulated building envelopes, unless measures are taken to counteract thermal bridging. The resource base for woodforests and plantationsis quite variable in environmental performance. Well-managed forests can provide an extremely low-impact resource base, while poorly managed forests can be environmentally destructive. Forest management claims should be independently certied to be credible. Steel is energy intensive to produce, and some pollution from mining and manufacturing is inevitable. Wood framing is less energy intensive on a pound-per-pound basis, but it weighs more for a given structural application, partially offsetting the difference. Light-gauge steel framing typically contains 20 percent or more recycled steel. A few products contain as much as 95 percent recycled steel. Wood is renewable, though forests damaged through poor management may not be. Steel scrap is extremely easy to recycle and is collected at a very high rate. Wood is much more difcult to recycle. Untreated wood is biodegradable. Wood treated with toxic preservatives constitutes a signicant solid-waste disposal problem as it is bulky, emits toxins when burned, and will not easily decay.
s s s s s
Summary Recommendations
s s s s s
Use wood from certied, well-managed forests when it is available. Consider using steel when moisture or insects can compromise woods durability or necessitate the use of toxic chemical preservatives. Consider specifying steel for interior framing and wood for exterior. Do not specify steel framing for the building envelope without taking measures to control thermal bridging. Consider alternative framing systems that might avoid the thermal bridging problem and make more efcient use of the material.
LIGHT FRAMING
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Comparative Environmental Performance Light Framing Systems
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceLight Framing Systems*

Environment and ecosystems Health and welfare Building operation
Energy Impacts on operational energy use b
Building occupant health IAQ a
Land and soil quality/availability
Air quality/atmospheric impacts
Community health and welfare
Maintenance requirements
2
Production/manufacturing
Life expectancy/durability
Virgin resource depletion
Water quality/availability
Biodiversity/habitat loss
Worker/installer health
Wood framing Steel framing Steel with exterior

XPS foam insulation
Notes
Performance good varies from good to reasonably good reasonably good varies from reasonably good to poor varies from good to poor poor
1
General Each cell in the above matrix is further explained in the Environmental Impacts gures in this report.
a
b
Softwoods can be a problem for some chemically sensitive individuals Over time, environmental impacts from high energy use may far outweigh all other factors.
Performance Range This range is a function of forest management; higher performance applies when the lumber used comes from forests that are managed to maintain functions other than timber yield alone, such as ecosystem health. This range depends on proper detailing and building maintenance. Transportation ranges all depend on distance from the resource.
2 3 4
This range depends on measures taken to counteract thermal bridging through steel framing members. This range depends on the particular product chosen: high value applies when recycled-content XPS is used.
*This chart represents an interpretation of environmental impacts identied in the material reports for a generic product group. Because manufacturing methods for proprietary products vary, the chart may not reect the environmental performance of a given product.
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Reusability/recyclability
Transportation

Environmental Impacts Wood Framing
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsWood Framing (Constituents: Wood from spruce, pine, r, or other softwood trees)
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Deforestation eliminates an important sinkof atmospheric CO2, while well-managed forests help to maintain this sink. Clear-cutting on slopes and cutting too near waterways increase siltation of streams and rivers, damaging aquatic ecosystems. Logging on steep slopes can cause severe erosion. Plantation forestry depletes soil and requires fertilizers. Excessive cutting in natural forests can harm the forest as a resource. Well-managed, diverse forests can support biodiversity, while those managed solely for timber yield may eliminate large areas of habitat for many species. Plantations do not support biodiversity or provide wildlife habitat. Sawdust may be irritating. Contact with preservative-treated wood and breathing its sawdust may be hazardous. Volatile organics from aromatic wood species may affect chemically sensitive individuals. Trace toxins may escape from preservative-treated woods. Well-managed forests can support local forest-based industries indenitely. Otherwise, depletion of the resource can have severe local and regional economic impacts. Relatively little energy is required for harvesting and for milling logs. Kiln drying uses the most energy, much of which comes from burning mill waste (hog fuel). Usually by train and truck. Energy use depends on distance from wood supply. Wood insulates better than most other structural materials and thus can be used to frame insulated walls, ceilings, and oors, with only minor energy penalties. Wood can last for a long time as long as it is protected from extended contact with moisture and from harmful insects. Wood framing must be kept dry and protected from harmful insects. Preservative treatments may be needed in some areas. Wood scraps from new construction and clean used wood are recyclable into particleboard or lower-value products, such as mulch. Lumber is sometimes salvaged for reuse.
Health and welfare
Building occupant healthIAQ
Energy
Transportation
Impacts on operational energy use
Building Operation
LIGHT FRAMING
APP 1

Environmental Impacts Light Gauge Steel
Figure 3: Environmental ImpactsLight Gauge Steel (Constituents: Iron ore, limestone, coal, zinc, scrap steel, nickel, and other metals)
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Fuel combustion emissions from energy use at all stages. Similar air emissions, along with ammonia and dust, from coking ovens. Contaminated runoff from mine tailings delivers toxins to lakes and rivers. Signicant water use to quench coal after coking, and to rinse steel during galvanizing and nishing. Severe erosion and solid-waste problems at some mining sites for iron ore, limestone, and coal. Domestic supplies of steels major constituents are all plentiful in United States. Nickel and certain other metals are largely imported. Light-gauge steel typically contains 20 to 25% scrap, about 14% of which is postconsumer. Steel from a small fraction of manufacturers can contain up to 95% recycled content. Mining of iron ore, limestone, and coal causes severe environmental disruption, but to limited areas. Worker safety in steel making can be a concern.
Health and welfare
Steel framing does not offgas, so its impact on indoor air quality is negligible.
Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing Steel is relatively energy intensive to produce, requiring about 19,200 Btus per pound (44,660 kilojoules per kilogram) of product. Usually by train and truck. Energy use depends on distance from raw material supply and from steel mill. Used in the exterior walls, ceilings, or oors, steel framing members can compromise the thermal integrity of the building envelope. Very good if protected from corrosion. Little or no maintenance required. Steel is easily separated magnetically and recycled into new steel. Overall, as much as 60% of the steel produced in the United States is recycled.
Transportation
Building operation
Life expectancy/durability Maintenance requirements Reusability/recyclability
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Environmental Impacts Steel Fasteners
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsSteel Fasteners (Constituents: Iron ore, limestone, coal, zinc, scrap steel, nickel, and other metals)
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Fuel combustion emissions from energy use at all stages. Similar air emissions, along with ammonia and dust, from coking ovens. Contaminated runoff from mine tailings delivers toxins to lakes and rivers. Signicant water use to quench coal after coking, and to rinse steel during galvanizing and nishing. Severe erosion and solid-waste problems at some mining sites for iron ore, limestone, and coal. Domestic supplies of steels major constituents are all plentiful in United States. Nickel and certain other metals are largely imported. Steel fasteners often contain up to 95 percent recycled content. Mining of iron ore, limestone, and coal causes severe environmental disruption, but to limited areas. Worker safety in steel making can be a concern.
Health and welfare
Building occupant healthIAQ Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing
Negligible impact.
Steel is relatively energy intensive to produce, requiring about 19,200 Btus per pound (44,660 kilojoules per kilogram) of product. Usually by train and truck. Energy use depends on distance from raw material supply and from steel mill. Minimal. Large fasteners extending through the building envelope can slightly compromise thermal integrity. Good except where subject to corrosive conditions. Little or no maintenance required. Steel is easily separated magnetically and recycled into new steel. Fasteners must be collected separately to be recycled.
Transportation
Impacts on operational energy use Building operation Life expectancy/durability Maintenance requirements Reusability/recyclability
LIGHT FRAMING
APP 1

Recommendations for Architects

Below are some guidelines for choosing between wood and steel as framing systems and for reducing the environmental impact no matter which material is selected. Many of these recommendations are further explained in the life-cycle narratives that follow.
steel stud plywood deck
runner track
doubled channel
clip angle steel joist continuous runner
Figure 5: Interior Steel Stud Framing. (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 262, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
no header in non-bearing wall single top plate drywall stops at junctions header hangers instead of jack studs insulated heads single stud at rough opening two or threestud corners
Figure 6: Reduced Use of Wood in Framing (Courtesy of NYSTAR, Inc. All rights reserved)
Choosing a Material Where wood is available from a certied well-managed forest, using it is not only less damaging but also may actually have a positive environmental impact. To ensure that the source is well managed, choose wood certied by an independent, third-party certifier recognized by the Forest Stewardship Council. Air-dried lumber has lower embodied energy than either steel or kiln-dried lumber. It should be specified if available with a suitably low moisture content. Consider specifying engineered wood members in place of large-dimension joists, rafters, or beams, which come from increasingly rare, old-growth trees. Consider specifying nger-joined lumber instead of solid studs, as ngerjoined lumber uses the wood resource more efficientlyand usually performs better. Consider specifying steel for interior framing and wood for exterior framing. Using steel for interior walls avoids the thermal bridging problem, and thinner (~25 gauge) studs for non-load-bearing applications use less steel per member. They are also easier to work with than load-bearing 18- or 20-gauge steel (see gure 5). Where high moisture or wood-destroying insects are a problem, use steel or preservative-treated wood. The additional environmental burden of the preservative treatments usually makes steel environmentally preferable. Consider safer borate-treated wood where framing will be protected from the elements. Among exterior rigid insulation materials, rigid fiberglass and expanded polystyrene (EPS) are environmentally preferable to extruded polystyrene (XPS) or polyisocyanurate, because the former are not made with HCFCs, which deplete stratospheric ozone and are believed to contribute signicantly to global warming. Reducing Material Use Avoid overbuilding or using more wood than necessary. Framing at 24 inches (600 millimeters) on center saves wood and improves the thermal performance of the building envelope. Corners and rough-openings in walls are also frequently overbuilt (see gure 6). Steel-framed exterior walls should be constructed at no less than 24 inches on center. Some pre-engineered packages allow even wider spacing. With steel framing, fewer studs mean less steel, which saves resources and, more importantly, reduces thermal bridging. With either material, design ceiling heights and room widths to make optimal use of standard framing member dimensions, which are usually in 2-foot (600-millimeter) increments. Minimize long clear spans in floor and ceiling framing as these require much more structural material than shorter spans. Using Materials Wisely Do not specify steel for exterior wall framing without taking measures to control thermal bridging. When comparing framing systems, consider the environmental impact of these measures, which may require additional materials (see gure 7).
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Steel structural systems need not follow the model of wood framing, with studs and joists every 16 or 24 inches (400 or 600 millimeters). Consider alternative framing systems that might avoid the thermal bridging problem and make more efcient use of the steel. Specify only low-cost, conventional cavity insulation when framing with steel. The advantage of thicker walls or higher-density insulation drops off quickly when the walls are being thermally short-circuited by steel studs. Create the minimum cavity you need for structural and utility purposes, and install insulation to ll the cavity (using full 24-in. batts, not the more common 2212-in. batts). Specify insulating sheathings to cover the steel studs with a complete layer of insulation. Dont fasten insulating sheathing directly to the studs with metal connectors. Screws or other fasteners will continue the thermal compromise of the stud, reducing the effectiveness of the insulation. Instead, specify that plywood or OSB sheathing or wood strapping be installed on the studs, and fasten the insulation to the panels or strapping.
interior nish insulation
steel studs
insulating sheathing continuous runner concrete foundation
Figure 7: Exterior Steel Stud Framing When using steel framing in exterior walls, add insulating sheathing to reduce thermal transfer. (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 263, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
LIGHT FRAMING
APP 1

Wood Framing Life Cycle

Of the four primary phases of the life cycle of wood framing, the rstraw material acquisitionis generally the most significant. The timber resource base can have a positive environmental impact if the forest is carefully managed for multiple ecological goals. Or it can have a destructive impact, as when old-growth forests are cleared without concern for wildlife habitat, soil erosion, or forest regeneration.
Forestry operations are the most signicant environmental concern with wood framing.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Since transcontinental shipments became feasible, the U.S. wood framing industry has relied on Pacic Coast Douglas r as its mainstay, although many other species continue to be used more locally throughout North America. In the 1950s hemlock, western red cedar, spruce, western larch, and eastern white pine began to supplement the r, and in the 1960s Southern pine began to be used. Southern pine forests now account for 32 percent of lumber production. Forty-one percent of structural wood is still derived from western forests, and 27 percent comes from Canada.
There are two basic methods of tree harvesting, depending upon terrain. The rst method involves felling trees with chain saws. The other method uses a feller-buncher, a tractor-based logging tool with an articulated arm. The arm has both a grapple, which resembles a huge pair of tongs, and a pair of hydraulic shears that can snip through a tree up to 22 inches (560 millimeters) in diameter. In mountainous and sloped areas, trees are typically felled with chain saws and transported by overhead cable to landing areas accessible by vehicle. Haul roads are usually cut into the forest to allow trucks access to the stacked logs. Although this cable hauling method is generally associated with clear-cutting, it does reduce the number of roads that have to be cut into hillsides to reach the trees. Feller-bunchers, used on gentle terrain, sheer a tree at ground level, lift it slightly, and then stack it in a pile. Other logging processes sometimes used include tractor, skidder, and even airlift logging with helicopter or balloon. The environmental effects of timber harvesting for lumber production include habitat alteration and destruction; soil erosion and runoff; air pollution from burning of slash and from combustion of fuel to power logging machinery and to haul logs to the mill; and depletion of old-growth forest. Other environmental effects may be less obvious. Many scientists believe that forests play an important role in maintaining climate by storing carbon through photosynthesis and by mediating water movement from soil to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. Depletion of forests as a result of converting forest lands to other uses and overharvesting could, therefore, result in a net increase in atmospheric CO2 and a decrease in atmospheric moisture, both of which could contribute to global climate change. There is some evidence that young forests sequester more carbon than mature forests because of their more vigorous growth rates.
Mature forests may play a role in global climate stabilization.
Forests account for a signicant source of biological diversity, both from the trees themselves and from the large variety of habitats created within the forests. Logging operations and logging roads can disturb these ecosystems, and there is some question as to whether clear-cut forests can regain comparable species diversity compared with the original forests. Forests stabilize soil and control water runoff, especially on hillsides; clear-cutting can remove this protection. Logging runoff can result in increased turbidity of surface waters from suspended solids. EPA has estimated that this erosion can be as much as 12,000 tons per
APP 1
LIGHT FRAMING

square mile (4,200 tonnes per square kilometer) per year, or approximately 500 times the erosion from undisturbed forests. Logging also contributes to or causes soil compaction, damage to soil biota, and soil destabilization. Timber harvesting generates some solid waste, including tree limbs, treetops, broken and inferior logs, and stumps, which are usually left in the forest. This is generally considered a good forestry practice, since nutrients and humic materials from these wastes are added by decay to the forest soil. In addition, roots from the remaining stumps help prevent erosion and runoff. Depending on proximity to other wood processing facilities, some of the waste has traditionally been used for pulp or chips, or sold for rewood. There has been an increasing economic incentive to use this waste. In fact, some experts are concerned that too much of the biomass may be removed from the forests with whole-tree harvesting, not leaving enough to replenish the soil. A primary environmental concern is the depletion of old-growth forests. Forests originally covered about half the land area of the United States After very heavy cutting and land clearing as the country was settled, forest land area is increasing today and is back up to 32 percent of the U.S. land area. By the estimates of some environmentalists, only about 15 percent of undisturbed old-growth forest remains, mostly located in Alaska. In the lower 48 states, where most of the harvesting presently takes place, estimates of remaining old-growth forest vary considerably. Whereas the Wilderness Society estimates that only 2 to 5 percent of the old-growth forests in Washington and Oregon remain, forest industry sources put the gure at closer to 20 percent. The estimate depends on the denition of old growth and how dynamically the forest process is viewed. A considerable amount of softwood lumber is logged in the Pacic Northwest states. This is also where most of the remaining old-growth forest is located, along with substantial secondand third-growth forest. Whereas the forest industry is interested in meeting projected growth in lumber demand through increased harvests, the conservation movement is concerned with preserving the remaining old-growth forest and its ecosystems as well as promoting what it terms sustainable forestry practices in those areas that continue to be cut. These potentially competing public needs frame the current debate over the future of forestry and conservation of forest areas in the United States. This debate has important implications for forests worldwide, the potential increase in rates and amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and the resulting effect on global climate. Forest management practices are at the heart of the issue. Clear-cutting areas and replanting them with a single species, which lowers costs and enhances quick yield, has become a routine forestry practice (although clear-cutting is not the only harvesting technique). However, these single-species, monoculture plantation forests may be more susceptible to attack from insects and other pests than multispecies forests and thus may require more extensive management. Clear-cutting contrasts with forest management systems that attempt to maintain the biological diversity of the forest ecosystem. The term sustainable forestry has been used to describe such systems, though many environmentalists prefer the phrase well-managed forests, arguing that there are too many variables to dene any practice as ultimately sustainable. In wellmanaged forests, all species found in the logging area are used, a similar diversity is replanted or encouraged to regenerate naturally, and woody debris and dead trees are left to fertilize the soil and provide cover to wildlife.
Well-managed forests provide species diversity, wildlife habitat, and protection against silting of streams. Removal of too much biomass during logging operations can deplete soils of necessary nutrients.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Harvested logs are sawn into dimension lumber in a sawmill, planed smooth, dried in a controlled kiln environment, and packaged for distribution to construction sites.
LIGHT FRAMING
APP 1

Logs are striped of their bark in a debarking machine before being milled. If the logs are mature and of high quality, they will yield lumber that falls within all ve basic grading categories: dimension lumber; boards or commons; beams, posts, and timbers; shop lumber; and select and nish lumber. Dimension lumber is used for manufacturing most wood framing.
Figure 8: Energy Required to Make Framing Lumber
BTUs per cu ft 92,000 MJ per cu m 3,400 BTUs per 8-ft 2x4 30,000 Megajoules per 2x4x2,400mm 26
During sawing, a steady stream of water cools the blade. The heat of friction vaporizes the water. After the first slices are removed, the squared-off log, or cant, is fed into an edger, which is guided by lasers as it cuts the cant into usable pieces. Finally, the rough ends are removed at a trim table, where defective pieces are also removed for resawing. Lumber exits the mill and is then seasoned in temperature- and humidity-controlled dry kilns, or stacked and air dried until the moisture content reaches the desired level of 12 to 19 percent. Kilns are often heated with hog fuel, that is, wood waste including bark, sawdust, and trimmings. In some operations hog fuel is also burned to generate electricity for sawmill operation. Petroleum and natural gas are also used to re kilns.
Preservative-treated wood introduces another level of environmental impact.
Wood ash from the hog fuel boilers is either landlled, used to make adhesives, or sold for other purposes. Combustion gases from burning the hog fuel consist of various air pollutants, including particulates. Some framing lumber is treated with preservatives to protect it against insect attack or fungal decay brought on by excessive moisture. Wood members installed in direct contact with concrete foundations or slabs are commonly preservative treated, and in highly termite-prone areas entire structures may be treated. The most common treatment chemicals are arsenical salts, including chromated copper arsenate (CCA) and ammoniacal copper arsenate (ACA). These salts are forced into the wood ber in pressurized chambers. Higher quality pressure-treated wood is kiln dried after treatment to remove the excess moisture that the treatment process introduces into the lumber. Wastewater from wood preserving facilities may contain water-soluble preservative chemicals, such as arsenic salts that are toxic to sh and mammals when ingested. Although the treatment plants recycle all of their process water, accidental spills can contaminate local groundwater. The soil at many treatment plants is contaminated.
Job-site wood waste can be minimized by designing buildings on two-foot and four-foot modules and planning wall height for standard-size studs.
Lumber is typically banded, packaged, and shipped in bulk by rail or truck to wholesale and retail establishments.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Materials are generally trucked to the building site for construction. A platform wood frame, the most commonly used type, is made of nominal 2-inch-thick members, which are actually 112 inches (38 millimeters) thick. These members are typically supplied in 2-foot-length (600-millimeter) increments and cut as needed on site. Wall studs can also be ordered precut to a standard nish length to minimize on-site cutting and waste.
Wood dust can be a problem for workers during construction, since long-term exposure to any kind of irritating dust can be harmful. If wood is pressure treated with preservatives, the surface may contain white arsenic powder that can cling to skin and clothing. Those handling
10
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Steel Framing Life Cycle
treated wood should take proper precautions by washing hands thoroughly before eating and by washing exposed clothing separately from other fabrics. During installation, solid waste is generated in the form of wood scraps, bent nails and fasteners, and sawdust. Clean wood waste may be burned, landlled, recycled (in some areas), or sent to a composting operation. Wood waste from treated lumber is usually disposed of in landlls, where it will resist decay and occupy space for many decades. On-site burning of preservative-treated wood releases toxic air pollutants and should never be done. Even municipal incineration of treated lumber may result in hazardous emissions. Wood framing materials generally have little impact on indoor air quality once construction is completed. However, softwoods do release a wide variety of organic compounds that can affect chemically sensitive individuals. If such concerns are raised, framing lumber can be isolated from the interior living space behind a vapor barrier, or alternative framing materials, such as steel, can be used.
Offgassing from softwood lumber can affect chemically sensitive individuals.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Most wood framing used in the construction of a building is meant to last the life of the building. Some large-dimension timbers from older commercial buildings are recycled into new buildings in the form of smaller timbers or decorative woodwork. Contemporary dimension lumber is much smaller, however, and is only occasionally salvaged for reuse.
Wood waste from building demolition is sometimes chipped and screened for use in particleboard, as mulch, or for fuel. More commonly, however, wood waste is landlled with other construction and demolition waste, where it will biodegrade naturally if exposed to oxygen. Clean wood waste can also be composted with yard waste in some solid-waste facilities.

Whereas the primary environmental impacts of framing lumber fall at the material acquisition stage, the environmental impacts of steel framing span the rst three life-cycle stages. If steel framing is used unwisely, its impact on the thermal envelope of a building can result in energy use far exceeding its other environmental impacts. Steels high recyclability makes it most benign in stage four.
Environmental impacts from mining can be severe, but land areas involved are relatively small.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Steel is made from pig iron, which in turn is made from iron ore, limestone, and coal. Each of these raw materials requires some degree of processing before all of them are combined in a blast furnace to make raw iron. Other materials used in steel manufacturing include oxygen, nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc, as well as various lubricating oils, cleaning solvents, acids, and alkalines. Of these additional materials, the zinc used to galvanized sheet steel is the most signicant in the manufacture of steel framing. Large quantities of scrap steel are also used in steel manufacturing.
All of the major raw materials used to make steel framingiron ore, limestone, coal, and zincare mined from the earth.The environmental impacts associated with this mining include mineral resource depletion, land and habitat loss from strip and pit mining, air emissions from mining operations, the combustion of fuel to power mining equipment and transport mined materials, and pollutant runoff and erosion from mining sites and tailings piles. Erosion from surface mining is estimated at 48,000 tons per square mile per year (17,000 tonnes per square kilometer), or 2,000 times the runoff from stable forest land. Domestic iron ore is mined primarily in the Mesabi Range area around Lake Superior. In 1994, 62.8 million tons (57.0 million tonnes) of iron ore were extracted in the United States, nearly all of which came from the Mesabi Range. Over 90 percent of iron ore is extracted
Nearly all U.S. iron ore comes from the Mesabi Range in Minnesota and Michigan.
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from open-pit mines, with deep, vertical shaft mines accounting for the remainder. Ammonium nitrate is commonly used for blasting in the mines. The quality of ore deposits has declined dramatically over the past century, so almost all iron ore mined today is beneciated to increase its iron content and make it easier to transport. In beneciation, the ore is ground, screened, and converted into pellets or sinter. Pellets are usually made by mixing a small quantity of binder (usually bentonite, sometimes hydrated lime) with nely ground concentrated ore. The mixture is red in gas- or oil-red furnaces or kilns at about 2,400F (1,300C). Sinter is made by heating the ore particles together on a grate with coal dust, fusing them together. Coke used to make iron is made from bituminous coal, which is primarily mined underground. Stabilizing coal mine spoils with vegetation can be difcult because these soil wastes are usually acidic and laden with concentrations of coal that are toxic to many plants. Drainage though mines or through spoils deposited on the surface may pick up high concentrations of sulfur, which in turn reacts with the water to form sulfuric acid. This acidic runoff can make surface waters toxic to aquatic life. Although it can be neutralized with special treatment facilities, acidic mine drainage remains a persistent problem. To make coke, the coal is pulverized and screened. It is then charged into coking ovens, where it is heated to over 2,000F (1,100C) in the absence of oxygen. This process drives off all volatile matter, leaving nearly pure hydrocarbon. The volatile gases are collected from the ovens and burned to provide the needed heat. After being removed from the oven, the hot coke is immediately quenched with water.
Coke, produced from bituminous coal, is a key ingredient in steel making. There are signicant environmental impacts associated with bituminous coal mining and runoff from tailings piles. Converting coal to coke can also release substantial pollution.
Coke oven emissions are complex mixtures of coal and coke particles, vapors, gases, and tars. The emissions include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, -naphthylamine, cadmium, arsenic, beryllium, and chromium. There is sufficient evidence that coke oven emissions are carcinogenic to both animals and humans. EPA data indicate that there may be over 30 coke operations in the United States that pose cancer risks well above the accepted maximum allowable risk standard of one-in-one-million to the surrounding population. Many technologies to control these emissions are in use in North America. Material handling, which includes the unloading, storing, grinding, and sizing of coal and coke, is an open source of fugitive dust. The quench tower requires thousands of gallons of water to cool the coke mass. This wastewater contains dissolved solids and other organics. Sludge from coking operations is designated a potential carcinogen and is considered a hazardous waste. Limestone is mined in twenty U.S. states, led by Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio. Because it is expensive to transport, limestone is usually mined near its market. Most limestone is quarried from dolomite deposits, in open pits. Suspended solids from limestone mine runoff can affect surface waters, but the runoff is not considered toxic. Limestone is converted to lime through high heat in a kiln which converts the mineral calcite (CaCO3) into lime (CaO) by driving off the carbonate as carbon dioxide (CO2). Although
Figure 9: Energy Required to Prepare Raw Materials for Steel Making
Collecting and processing steel scrap Million BTUs per ton Gigajoules per tonne 0.6 0.7 Making pig iron 13.9 16.2
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notable amounts of CO2 are released into the atmosphere in this process, the amount is negligible compared with the CO 2 and other pollutants released by the combustion of fuelscoal, oil, or natural gasused to re the kiln. In addition to by-products of combustion, particulates from the mineral itself can be a serious pollution problem and must be contained. Oxygen for steel making is extracted from air using high pressure and supercooling. Since liquid oxygen evaporates at -300F (-184C), most oxygen plants are located at the steel mills to reduce waste and energy-expenditure losses in the process. No information on waste produced or energy requirements for oxygen separation is available. Zinc, used for galvanizing metal framing members, is an abundant metal in the earths crust. Zinc ores, usually mined in open pits, contain from 3 to 11 percent zinc. To further concentrate the zinc, ores are crushed and processed by floatation. The ores are converted into metallic slab either by electrolytic or by pyrometallurgical smelting. Many heavy-metal contaminants from zinc ores can be released during the smelting process, including lead, cadmium, chromium, copper, silver, and selenium. Additionally, chlorinated compounds may form during smelting from reactions with the chlorine present in the water supply. As a result, a number of zinc smelter facilities have been listed as Superfund sites, and there is no longer sufficient smelter capacity in the United States to process the zinc ore mined or the metallic zinc used. Unfortunately, the environmental impacts of imported zinc may be even greater when the zinc comes from areas with lesser controls.
Mining and processing zinc used for galvanized steel have resulted in signicant pollution problems.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Pig iron is produced in blast furnaces from iron ore, lime, and coke. The large, refractorylined furnace is charged through its top with processed iron ore in the form of pellets and/or sinter, with limestone or another material as ux, and with coke for fuel. Iron oxides, coke, and uxes react with the blast furnace air to form molten reduced iron, CO, and slag. The molten iron collects at the bottom of the furnace, while the slag oats to the top, and the gas is collected off the furnace top for use as fuel.
Steel is made in one of three types of furnace: the basic oxygen furnace, the electric arc furnace, or the older open-hearth furnace. Electric arc furnaces are common in smaller steelmaking operations because they can operate entirely from scrap, omitting the blast furnace and coking stages. The vast majority of sheet steel used to make light-gauge framing is made at large integrated mills with the capital-intensive steel-rolling machinery. These integrated mills generally use basic oxygen furnaces. In the basic oxygen furnace, molten iron is combined with scrap iron or steel and injected with oxygen, which reacts with carbon and other impurities to remove them from the metal. The reactions are exothermic; no external heat source is necessary to melt the scrap and to raise the temperature of the metal. Impurities that have been separated out are removed as steel slag (which is different from blast furnace slag). Gases can be burned off or trapped and puried for use in the plant.
Figure 10: Energy Required to Make Steel in a Basic Oxygen Furnace

Steel from iron and scrap Million BTUs per ton Gigajoules per tonne 15.9 18.5 Casting steel 1.6 1.9 Forming, nishing, and annealing 4.6 5.3 Total 22.1 25.7
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Molten steel removed from the furnace can be cast into ingots, which are later heated and formed into slabs and other shapes. In some operations the steel is cast directly into long slabs, which are subsequently rolled into thinner sheets and surface treated. The temperature at which the rolling is done affects the density and strength of the nished steel. Hot rolled steel is normally cleaned in a bath of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid to remove the surface oxide scale formed during the hot rolling process. This cleaning occurs in an apparatus called a pickler, and the acid bath is termed pickle liquor. Sheets are frequently cold-rolled after pickling to increase their strength. Before forming, the sheet must be softened in an annealing furnace to render it more formable.
Most of the light-gauge steel used in steel framing is made in basic oxygen furnaces, which typically use less than 30 percent recycled iron and steel.
Light-gauge steel for metal framing is generally galvanized by dipping in a hot zinc bath. This coating protects the steel from corrosion. If any part of the steel becomes exposed under the zinc coating, galvanic reaction between the zinc and steel causes the zinc to corrode and form compounds that cover and continue to protect the steel as long as zinc remains. The zinc coating typically accounts for about 3 to 5 percent of the framing member by weight. Liquid wastes from the nishing processes may include oils and lubricants used in pressing, drawing, and machining steel, galvanizing wastes, pickling solutions, and water used to wash or cool the product during the process. Many of these wastes are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms when discharged into surface waters. Various technologies have been introduced to reduce the liquid wastes from steel nishing processes.
Figure 11: Material Inputs and Outputs for Steel Manufacturing Process
Iron ore 3,170 lbs. (1,438 kg) Limestone 300 lbs. (136 kg) Coke 900 lbs. (408 kg) Air 2,575 lbs. (1,168 kg) Oxygen 80 lbs. (36 kg) Hydrocarbon fuel 100 lbs. (45 kg)
Steelmaking
Steel 1 ton (907 kg)
The number-one environmental concern with steel framing is steels high thermal conductivity, which will result in increased energy consumption unless a thermal break is incorporated into the design.
Gases 4,550 lbs. (2,064 kg)
Dust 50 lbs. (23 kg)
Slag 600 lbs. (272 kg)
The coated steel is then shaped into framing members through cutting, bending and welding processes. Any scrap from this forming process is recycled into new steel. The zinc is commonly captured and reused as well.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Lightweight, cold-formed, steel framing systems are assembled in various combinations to provide efcient, versatile, structurally sound frames for load-bearing walls, curtain walls, partitions, oors, and roofs. Steel studs, runners, and joists have a high strength-to-weight ratio and are compatible with other conventional building materials. These steel-framing systems are quickly and easily erected and afford the exibility of construction either on or off the job site. The connections are made with self-tapping screws or by welding. Light-gauge metal studs for load-bearing assemblies are typically 18- or 20-gauge (1.3 or 1.0 millimeters thick), whereas non-load-bearing partitions can be framed with 25-gauge (0.6-millimeter) metal studs.
APP 1 LIGHT FRAMING ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
14

A primary environmental concern with steel framing is the thermal performance of the building envelope. Steel itself is over 400 times more conductive of heat than wood. A 20gauge (1.0-millimeter-thick) standard steel stud conducts roughly 10 times more heat than a 112-inch-thick (38-millimeter) wood stud. This high conductivity causes severe thermal bridging wherever steel spans from the inside to the outside of the building envelope.
Some architects specify steel
If appropriate measures are not taken to control this thermal bridging, it can cause a number of problems: excessive energy use for heating and cooling; the need for larger space conditioning equipment to handle the larger loads; and condensation of moisture on the warm side of a wall, leading to dust or mildew stains. The problem is exacerbated at corners and other framing junctions, where multiple studs are used to provide connections and nailing surfaces for nish materials. Several manufacturers are producing steel studs that are modied to reduce the direct heatflow paths through the material. To date, no independent tests are available verifying the performance of these modied studs. To maintain the thermal integrity of the building envelope, it is usually necessary to specify insulating sheathing that covers the studs. Some tests indicate that adding such sheathing can enhance a walls R-value by as much as 20 percent more than the R-value of the added sheathing. Thermal performance can also be improved by reducing the number of framing members and increasing their spacing. From an indoor air quality perspective, steel is quite inert and therefore makes a good material to use in structures designed for chemically sensitive clients. The light film of oil that frequently coats steel members when they leave the factory can be washed off if building occupants may be sensitive to its fumes.
framing for clients with chemical sensitivities.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Magnetic separation makes steel one of the easiest and most economical materials to remove from the solid-waste stream. Additionally, the steel manufacturing process readily accommodates large quantities of recycled steel, with no loss of quality. As a result, the overall recycling rate of steel products in the United States is about 66 percent, the highest rate of any material. This gure includes both postconsumer and postindustrial recycling, and a portion of the recycled scrap is exported.
There are no limitations on the reuse of steel in new products. However, the coatings and other foreign materials on the original steel components may add minor contaminants to the new production process. Such contaminants are a minor consideration in view of the positive energy and resource savings involved in recycling. For every pound (0.45 kilogram) of steel that is recycled, 5,450 Btus (5.7 megajoules) of energy are conserved. Zinc can be recovered from both new and old galvanized steel scrap, and recovery has risen dramatically over the past several years. Scrap steel is generally trucked to the disposal site or recycling center. Therefore, the energy for truck fuel and vehicular air emissions are the major environmental concerns associated with recycling. Some pollution results from the remanufacture of steel products from scrap steel; however, this pollution is considerably less than the pollution resulting from production of the same product from raw materials. Disposal of unrecycled steel products poses no particular hazard to the environment except that they take up valuable space in landlls. Steel framing coated with paint or other coatings could pose a threat to soil and groundwater if it contained toxic metals or pigments. Paints are largely oxidized if steel is recycled by furnace remanufacturing.
Because steel can be magnetically separated and easily remelted, it is one of the easiest building materials to recycle.
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Framing Fasteners Life Cycle
Figure 12: Comparison of Steel-Making Processes

Energy to make steel from scrap in an electric arc furnace Million BTUs per ton Gigajoules per tonne 14 16 Energy to make steel from pig iron and scrap in a basic oxygen furnace 22 26
Framing Fasteners Life Cycle

Both wood and steel framing systems for light construction can be assembled using a wide variety of fasteners: nails, spikes, screws, bolts, lag screws, staples, and various sheet metal plates, hangers, and ties. The vast majority of these fasteners are made of steel. The material acquisition and processing for the manufacture of steel are described in the previous section: Steel Framing Life Cycle.
Steel fasteners fabricated from wire, including most nails and staples, generally have very high recycled content.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Nails, spikes, staples, and some screws, which are fabricated from steel wire, are frequently made almost entirely out of scrap steel remanufactured in electric arc furnaces. Other steel fasteners, such as sheet-metal connectors, are generally made out of steel from basic oxygen furnaces. As described in the previous section, these furnaces typically use 20 to 25 percent scrap steel, mixed with molten pig iron from a blast furnace.
The environmental impacts associated with mining the raw materials used to make iron include mineral resource depletion, land and habitat loss from strip and pit mining, air emissions from mining operations, the combustion of fuel to power mining equipment and transport mined materials, and pollutant runoff and erosion from mining sites and tailings piles. To the extent that scrap steel is used instead of pig iron, the impacts are reduced to the air emissions and pollution from the collection, transportation, and processing of the scrap.
Manufacturing and Fabrication The manufacture of framing fasteners and the associated environmental impacts are similar to those described in the primary report on steel. Some fasteners have special coatings for specfic purposes or conditions that utilize special raw materials and manufacturing processes. Nails used with pneumatic nailers are frequently coated with heat-activated glue to increase their holding power in wood. Screws or nails intended for use with preservativetreated lumber may be made of stainless steel (high in nickel content) or entirely different metals such as copper alloys or silicon bronze, because of the corrosive effect some preservative chemicals have on steel. Construction, Use, and Maintenance Pneumatic nailers and other power fasteners require electricity for use. Precise estimates of the energy used are unavailable. Damaged or discarded fasteners can be collected, magnetically or by hand, and recycled into new steel products. In practice, however, they are frequently disposed of in landlls with other job-site waste. Indoor air quality and health impacts associated with fasteners are negligible. Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal In theory steel fasteners can be separated magnetically from demolition waste and recycled. The large number of small pieces rmly attached to nonsteel building components makes such recycling impractical, however.
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References
References
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1993. Steel Framing: Technical report. Washington, DC. . 1993. Wood Framing: Technical report. Washington, DC. American Iron and Steel Institute. 1995. Thermal Design Guide for Exterior Walls. Publication RG-9405. Malin, Nadav. 1994. Steel or Wood Framing: Which Way Should We Go? Environmental Building News 3:4.
Organizations
American Forest and Paper Association, 1111 19th St., N.W. Washington, DC 20036; (202) 463-2700 American Iron and Steel Institute, 1101 17th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036-4700; American Wood Preservers Institute, 1945 Old Gallows Road, Suite 150, Vienna, VA 22182; (703) 893-4005 (tel.); (703 893-8492. American Zinc Association, 1112 16th Street, N.W. Suite 240, Washington, DC 20036; (202) 835-0164 (tel.) (202) 835-0155. Forest Stewardship Council, RR 1, Box 188, Richmond, VT 05477; (802) 434-3101 (tel.); (802) 434-3171 (fax). Steel Recycling Institute, Foster Plaza 10, 680 Anderson Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15220-2700; (412) 922-2772 (tel.); (412) 922-3213 (fax). Western Wood Products Association, Yeon Building, 522 SW 5th Avenue, Portland, OR 97204-2122; (503) 224-3930 (tel.); (503) 224-3934 (fax).
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Application Report
Insulation
When considering the environmental issues associated with insulation materials, one should keep in mind that, to the extent they help conserve energy, all insulation materials are environmentally benecial. By reducing heating and air-conditioning requirements of a building, insulation materials reduce pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion. This benet almost always outweighs environmental problems associated with certain materials, including the energy use and other impacts associated with manufacture.
Highlights
s
Perhaps the most signicant environmental issue associated with insulation manufacture in recent years has been the use of chlorouorocarbons (CFCs) as foaming agents. By 1993 virtually all CFCs had been eliminated from insulation manufacture; hydrochlorouorocarbons (HCFCs) have been substituted in most products. These are signicantly better than CFCs, but they still result in some ozone depletion, and they contribute to global warming. Partly because aesthetic demands are minimal, insulation can be a good use for waste materials from other industrial processes or recycled solid waste. Some insulation materials are available with very high levels of recycled content. A great deal of controversy surrounds potential health concerns of contact with synthetic mineral bers, including berglass and mineral wool. Until the controversy is resolved, installers and other workers should be well protected when handling the materials, and great care should be taken to prevent the materials from inltrating occupied spaces in the building. Many plastic foam insulation materials are made using potentially toxic intermediate chemicals, and most release pollutants when burned. Safety of factory workers and the environment depends on the effectiveness of measures used to control these chemicals. Because of the insulation materials low density, their transportation can be relatively energy intensive. Transportation energy is reduced for materials that are manufactured locally or shipped in a condensed state and expanded onsite.
s
Seek to maximize the energy efciency of building envelopes, using as much insulation as is appropriate. Environmentally, it may be justiable to add more insulation than is generally considered cost-effective in strictly economic terms. Environmentally, increasing a buildings energy efciency is more important than concerns about the embodied energy or pollution impacts of manufacturing the insulation materials. Insulation is only one component of a building envelope system. When choosing insulation materials, consider how the entire system will perform in terms of energy efciency, durability, maintainability, and reusability or recyclability. Design buildings to avoid excessive thermal bridges through the thermal envelope. Factors affecting thermal bridging include choice of structural material, number and size of members spanning the building envelope, and placement of insulation (whether it is installed only inside cavities or also covers the building surface). Detail the thermal envelope to minimize moisture condensation on or in insulation materials, where it can compromise performance and/or cause structural decay. Look for high recycled content in all insulation materials. Be aware of potential hazards or problems related to some types of insulation: for example, vermin infestation or reactions by chemically sensitive occupants.
s s
INSULATION
APP 2
Insulation
Comparative Environmental Performance Insulation Materials
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceInsulation Materials*

Energy Impacts on operational energy use a
Air quality /atmospheric impacts
6
Fiberglass Mineral wool Cellulose Extruded polystyrene Expanded polystyrene Polyisocyanurate Polyurethane Phenolic foam Open-cell isocyanurate Magnesium silicate Cotton Perlite Vermiculite
7
Transportation
APP 2
INSULATION
Insulation
Comparative Environmental Performance Insulation Materials
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceInsulation Materials (continued)
Notes
a
For most insulation materials in most applications the impact on operational energy use is far more signicant environmentally than the other impact categories.
Performance Range Range depends on the amount of recycled glass in the insulation. may depend on how carefully ducts have been routed and/or sealed to prevent distribution of any loose-ll bers to the occupied space. the new, highly compactible type of berglass is used it can be transported more efciently than standard berglass. materials have thermal resistance values per unit thickness on the low side. They can still signicantly reduce building energy use, but only if they are properly detailed and installed. of recycled-content extruded polystyrene results in lower impacts.
2 IAQ
3 When
4These
5 Use
6 Durability
of expanded polystyrene can be enhanced by the use of higher-density material (particularly below grade) and/or material that has been treated against insect infestations. of expanded polystyrene may be greatly enhanced if it is installed for easy separation from other materials in the building system.
7Reusability/recyclability
INSULATION
APP 2
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Fiberglass Insulation
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsFiberglass Insulation

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Pollution from diesel fuel combustion in mining and transporting raw materials. Air emissions from glass-melting furnaces. Air emissions from curing phenol formaldehyde binder. Siltation of surface waters from runoff of water from mining operations. Localized impacts in areas being mined for sand, limestone, borax. Solid-waste impacts from disposal of scrap insulation and demolition waste. Abundant supplies of all raw materials, with the possible exception of boron. Increasing use of glass cullet from at-glass manufacturing and postconsumer recycled beverage containers is reducing raw material use. Minimal impacts or concerns. Signicant concern over occupational exposure to respirable bers. Fiberglass designated as possibly carcinogenic to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer. Minimal concern. As long as there is a barrier between the berglass and the occupied space, there should be little if any risk. Pollution control equipment on berglass factories prevents release of most air toxics. Fiberglass manufacturing very centralized, with economic benet only to communities with plants. Medium energy intensity compared with other insulation materials. Plants often located close to raw material sources to minimize shipping. Shipping of nished product is energy intensive owing to low density of packaged material. New berglass material from one manufacturer packs more tightly and improves shipping efciency signicantly. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Excellent durability. Should last the life of the building. Must be kept dry to remain effective. No maintenance required after installation. Fiberglass is potentially reusable, though this is rarely done. Contamination with dust and other materials would make recycling difcult. Scraps from installation can be shredded and used as loose-ll insulation.
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and Welfare Worker/installer health
Building occupant health (IAQ)
Energy
Transportation
Impact on operating energy use
Building operation
Maintenance requirements Reusability/recyclability
APP 2
INSULATION
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Mineral Wool Insulation
Figure 3: Environmental ImpactsMineral Wool Insulation

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Minimal pollution from mining and transporting raw materials. Air emissions from melting rock or slag. Air emissions from curing phenol formaldehyde binder. Minimal siltation of surface waters from runoff of water from mining operations. Minimal impacts on land from mining. Solid-waste impacts from disposal of scrap insulation and demolition waste. Abundant supplies of all raw materials used in rock wool. Slag used in 80 percent of mineral wool is an industrial waste product from iron ore rening. Not a concern. Signicant concern over occupational exposure to respirable bers. Mineral wool designated as possibly carcinogenic to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer. Minimal concern. As long as there is a barrier between the mineral wool and the occupied space, there should be little if any risk. Pollution control equipment on mineral wool factories prevents release of most air toxins. Mineral wool manufacturing is very centralized, with economic benet only to communities with plants. Medium energy intensity compared with other insulation materials. While lower embodied energy than berglass on a perweight basis, mineral wool is installed at a higher density, so the embodied energy per insulating unit is about the same. Plants often located close to raw material sources to minimize shipping. Shipping of nished product is energy intensive. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Excellent durability. Should last the life of the building. Insulation is effective only if kept dry. No maintenance required after installation. Mineral wool is potentially reusable, though this is rarely done. Contamination with dust and other materials makes recycling difcult. Batt insulation scraps from installation can be shredded and used as loose-ll insulation.
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
INSULATION
APP 2
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Cellulose
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsCellulose

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Water quality/availability Environmental Impacts Little or no impact. Although newsprint manufacturing is responsible for signicant water pollution, that pollution cannot be attributed to cellulose insulation, because cellulose is produced from recycled newspaper. Deinking is not required. By creating a market for recycled newspaper, cellulose reduces landll pressures. The boric acid or borax used as re retardant in some cellulose insulation is the only virgin resource that is potentially in limited supply. Fiber is 100 percent recycled. Indirectly may lead to virgin resource depletion by using recycled newspaper that could be recycled back into the paperthus increasing logging pressures. No impact known. Dust and respirable bers are a concern. Airborne cellulose generally considered nontoxic, but some evidence exists of pulmonary brosis when bers are surgically implanted in hamsters. Dust and bers a concern only with improper installations in which insulation becomes airborne or enters duct system. If moisture is trapped in walls, mold and mildew may cause health problems. Cellulose manufacturing benecial to community because it creates local markets for recycled newspaper. Cellulose plants can also be decentralized and located in small communities, strengthening local economies. Very low energy, since the energy required for producing newspaper is not included. Estimated at one-sixth the embodied energy of berglass and one-twentieth that of polyisocyanurate on a comparable-insulation basis. Transportation costs of shipping raw materials often low because plants located close to recycled-newspaper supply. Transportation expense of nished insulation higher because of low density, but cellulose plants rarely ship more than a few hundred miles from plants. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Generally good. Some concern over loss of re-retardant properties over time, but not veried experimentally. Protection from moisture is critical, however. Cellulose is susceptible to moisture absorption, which can lead to mold and mildew growth. No maintenance should be required after installation. Reuse of old cellulose insulation not recommended because of uncertainty about whether proper re retardants were used. May not be up to todays standards.
Land and soil quality/availability Virgin resource depletion
Energy
Transportation
Impact on operating energy use Building operation Life expectancy/durability
APP 2
INSULATION
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Extruded Polystyrene
Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsExtruded Polystyrene

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts HCFC-142b used in extruded polystyrene manufacture. While a much less signicant ozone depleter than the CFC-12 it replaced, this blowing agent is still an ozone depleter and a greenhouse gas. Also, air emissions from fossil fuel combustion or electricity use to operate plants, and concern about styrene release into the air during manufacture. Possibility of pollutants in wastewater emissions, including chlorinated organics and phenols. Solid waste generation a concern if scrap not recycled, though compacting waste greatly reduces volume. Produced from petrochemicals: natural gas and benzene. One manufacturer of extruded polystyrene uses 50% recycled content (half postconsumer, half postindustrial), signicantly reducing virgin resource use. Not a signicant concern. Primary impact petrochemical extraction. Benzene, a suspected carcinogen, is one of primary constituents. With proper pollution controls, this should not be a problem. Generally not a signicant concern. People suffering from acute chemical sensitivity could be sensitive to emissions from extruded polystyrene. Potential emissions of air toxics in communities with styrene manufacturing plants. Among the highest embodied energy of any insulation material. Data specically on extruded polystyrene not available, but extrapolating from EPS data, assuming twice the density for extruded polystyrene, the embodied energy per insulating unit would be higher than for either EPS or polyisocyanurate. High transportation costs owing to small number of plants, nationwide distribution, and relatively low density of material. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Rigid boardstock insulation is particularly effective because it provides a monolithic insulation layer on roofs of commercial buildings and walls of light-frame buildings. Excellent durability, though damage by wood-boring insects is possible. There may be a slight reduction in R-value over time with extruded polystyrene. Generally no maintenance. In above-grade foundation insulation, periodic coating with stucco may be required to keep sunlight from damaging material. Generally can be reused. In commercial roong, a protected roof membrane system permits easy reuse of extruded polystyrene when reroong is required.
Water quality/availability Land and soil quality/availability Virgin resource depletion
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (IAQ)
Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing
Transportation Impact on operating energy use
Building operation
INSULATION
APP 2
Insulation
Environmental Impact Expanded Polystyrene
Figure 6: Environmental ImpactsExpanded Polystyrene

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts EPS is the only rigid foam boardstock insulation with a blowing agent that is neither an ozone depleter nor a greenhouse gas. The pentane used may contribute to localized smog. Some plants capture and destroy 95 percent of pentane. There may also be air emissions from fossil fuel combustion or electricity use to operate plants, and concern about styrene release into the air during manufacture. Possibility of plant emissions, including chlorinated organics and phenols. Solid-waste generation a concern if scrap not recycled, though compacting waste greatly reduces volume. EPS building insulation can be recycled into packaging foam. Produced from petrochemicals: natural gas and benzene. While EPS can be produced from recycled polystyrene, the recycled EPS must be from building insulation because of special ingredients to impart re-retardant properties. EPS building insulation cannot be produced from recycled packaging foam. Very little if any EPS is currently produced from recycled foam. Not a signicant concern. Primary impact petrochemical extraction. Benzene, a suspected carcinogen, is one of primary constituents of EPS. Benzene is used only at the EPS constituent plant, not at EPS boardstock plants, which expand and mold EPS beads. With proper pollution controls, this should not be a problem. Generally not a signicant concern. People suffering from acute chemical sensitivity could be sensitive to emissions from expanded polystyrene. Potential emissions of air toxics in communities with styrene manufacturing plants (not at EPS boardstock molding plants). Fairly high embodied energy. On a Btu/lb basis, EPS has very high embodied energy, but low density in normal applications brings the embodied energy per insulation unit down below polyisocya nurate. High transportation costs owing to very low density of material. EPS is generally shipped within a several-hundred-mile radius, while extruded polystyrene is shipped much greater distances. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Rigid boardstock insulation is particularly effective because it provides a monolithic insulation layer on roofs of commercial buildings and walls of light-frame buildings.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
APP 2
INSULATION
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Expanded Polystyrene
Figure 6: Environmental ImpactsExpanded Polystyrene (continued)

Impact Group Building operation Impact Category Life expectancy/durability Environmental Impacts Very good durability in most applications. Damage by woodboring insects is possible unless borates are added to the product. Standard (low-density) EPS may absorb moisture in below-grade applications; for foundation or sub-slab insulation, higher-density EPS is often recommended. There is some concern that EPS in structural insulated panels must be properly cured, or panel warpage may result. Generally no maintenance. In above-grade foundation insulation, periodic coating with stucco may be required to keep sunlight from damaging material. Generally can be reused. In commercial roong, some systems using EPS permit easy reuse of insulation when reroong is required.
INSULATION
APP 2
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Polyisocyanurate
Figure 7: Environmental ImpactsPolyisocyanurate

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts HCFC-141b blowing agent is both ozone depleter and greenhouse gas, though it is far less damaging than the CFC-11 it replaced. Minimal concern; some possibility of pollutant emissions from industrial processes involved in manufacture of chemical components. Minimal impact. Manufacturers compact plant waste to minimize landll area required. Manufactured from petrochemicals. The polyol component (polymeric methylene diisocyanate, or PMDI) may be made from waste-stream petrochemicals, particularly PET bottles. Polyisocyanurate industry is largest user of colored plastic bottle scrap, using about 30 million pounds per year. Minimal. Primary impact is petrochemical extraction. PMDI is potentially toxic and requires special handling in polyisocyanurate manufacturing plants. Minimal impact. People with acute chemical sensitivities may have problems with offgassing from polyisocyanurate foam. If pollution control equipment is not properly functioning, plant emissions could be a local health threat. Fairly energy intensive to manufacture. More than 20 times the embodied energy of cellulose and three times the embodied energy of berglass per insulating unit. High transportation costs owing to relatively low density of material. Shipped over considerable distances. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Rigid boardstock insulation is particularly effective because it provides a monolithic insulation layer on roofs of commercial buildings and walls of light-frame buildings. Good durability in most applications, though the R-value will drop over time as HCFC gas leaks out of closed-cell foam and air leaks in. R-value may drop from R-7 or R-8 per inch down as low as R-5.6 per inch. Damage by wood-boring insects is possible, and polyisocyanurate foam may absorb moisture in below-grade applications. Generally no maintenance in wall systems. In commercial roong applications, polyisocyanurate insulation is typically removed and landlled at time of reroong. Reuse is possible but rarely done. Polyisocyanurate foam is a thermoset resin that is not currently recyclable. Can be compacted and used as ller.
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (IAQ) Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing
Building operation
10
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INSULATION
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Phenolic Foamboards
Figure 8: Environmental ImpactsPhenolic Foamboard

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts HCFC-141b blowing agent is both ozone depleter and greenhouse gas, though it is far less damaging than the CFC-11 it replaced. Minimal concern; some possibility of pollutant emissions from industrial processes involved in manufacture of chemical components (benzene, formaldehyde). Minimal impact. Manufactured from petrochemicals. Use of recycled feedstocks not known. Minimal. Primary impact is from petrochemical extraction. Formaldehyde is considered a probable carcinogen. Special precautions may be necessary in plants. Possible offgassing of formaldehyde, though far less offgassing than occurred with urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI). People with acute chemical sensitivities may have problems with offgassing from phenolic foam. If pollution control equipment is not functioning properly, plant emissions could be a local health threat. Embodied energy unknown, but probably on the same order of magnitude as other foam insulation materials. High transportation costs owing to relatively low density of material. Shipped over considerable distances in Canada. No longer sold in the U.S. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Rigid boardstock insulation is particularly effective because it provides a monolithic insulation layer on roofs of commercial buildings and walls of light-frame buildings. Good durability in most applications, though the R-value may drop over time as HCFC gas leaks out of closed-cell foam and air leaks in. R-value may drop from R-8 or R-9 per inch down as low as R-5.6 per inch, though R-value retention is generally better than with polyisocyanurate. Damage by wood-boring insects is possible, and phenolic foam may absorb moisture. Generally no maintenance in wall systems. In commercial roong applications, phenolic foamboard insulation is typically removed and landlled at time of reroong. Reuse is possible but rarely done. Phenolic foam is a thermoset resin that is not currently recyclable. Can be compacted and used as ller.
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
INSULATION
APP 2
11
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Spray Polyurethane
Figure 9: Environmental ImpactsSpray Polyurethane

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts HCFC blowing agents used in polyurethane manufacture are both ozone depleters and greenhouse gases, though far less damaging than the CFC-11 they replaced. Some polyurethane is produced with non-ozone-depleting HFC or with CO2. HFCs are signicant greenhouse gases. Minimal concern; some possibility of pollutant emissions from industrial processes involved in manufacture of chemical components. Minimal impact. Poor installation practices can generate considerable job-site waste, which takes up landll space. Manufactured from petrochemicals. As with polyisocyanurate foam, the polyol component (polymeric methylene diisocyanate, or PMDI) may be made from waste-stream petrochemicals, particularly PET bottles. Minimal. Primary impact is from petrochemical extraction. PMDI is potentially toxic and requires special handling in polyisocyanurate manufacturing plants. Minimal impact. People with acute chemical sensitivities may have problems with off-gassing from polyurethane foam. If pollution control equipment is not properly functioning, plant emissions could be a local health threat. Fairly energy intensive to manufacturesimilar to embodied energy of polyisocyanurate. Lower transportation costs than rigid foam boardstock materials, because polyurethane is shipped in non-expanded chemical components and foamed on-site. However, truck must be brought to job site for installation. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. If used as cavity-ll insulation, bypass heat loss through framing members may offset high insulation value, especially if highconductivity steel framing is used. Good durability in most applications, though the R-value will drop as HCFC gas leaks out of closed-cell foam and air leaks in. Because spray-applied polyurethane has no foil facing, reduction in R-value is more rapid than with polyisocyanurate and phenolic foam boardstock. Damage by wood-boring insects is possible, foam may absorb moisture, and sunlight exposure can degrade foam. Expected lifespan when used in roof or wall surface application is unknown. Generally no maintenance. If used to provide exterior wall or roof skin, protective coatings may need to be periodically reapplied. Reuse is not possible. Polyurethane is a thermoset resin that is not currently recyclable. Can be compacted and used as ller.
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (IAQ) Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing Transportation
Building operation
12
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INSULATION
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Open-Cell Polyisocyanurate
Figure 10: Environmental ImpactsOpen-Cell Polyisocyanurate

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Similar to polyisocyanurate, but reduced because of signicantly lower density of insulation. See polyisocyanurate. See polyisocyanurate. Very high rate of expansion during application generates large quantities of waste, which is often landlled. See polyisocyanurate. See polyisocyanurate. Unknown. Unknown. Because this is an open-cell foam and there are no facings (as there are with boardstock polyisocyanurate), chemicals could escape into the air more easily. But any offgassing would also occur more rapidly, so the foam might quickly become inert. See polyisocyanurate. See polyisocyanurate. Lower energy by a factor of four because material has one-quarter the density of polyisocyanurate board stock. Lower transportation costs because material shipped as chemical componentsprior to expanding into foam. However, truck must be brought to job site for installation. Product not available in all areas. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Lower R-value than HCFC-based foams, but seals extremely well around wiring, framing members, etc., so provides air sealing as well as insulation. Relatively new material with limited track record, but appears to hold up well. None. Not reusable or recyclable.
Water quality/availability Land and soil quality/availability
Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (IAQ)
Transportation
Building operation
INSULATION
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13
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Magnesium Silicate (Air Krete)
Figure 11: Environmental ImpactsMagnesium Silicate (Air Krete)

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts No ozone-depleting blowing agents; foamed with air. Primary components are inorganic: calcium chloride and mangnesite, which are obtained with relatively little processing. Unknown. Probably minimal. Possible runoff from calcium chloride storage. Magnesium compounds are in abundant supply worldwide and often extracted from seawater. Unknown. No known impact. No known impact. Considered one of the safest insulation materials from an indoor air quality standpoint. Unknown. Quite low. Estimated at 1,000 to 1,500 Btus/insulating unit. Shipped unexpanded, so less energy intensive to ship than board stock or ber insulation, but requires specialized equipment to install and transportation to job site for installation. Product not available in all areas. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Material insulates to R-value of about 3.9 per inch. Some concerns about durability in areas with a lot of vibration; cured insulation quite friable and might crumble in wall cavities. The extent or seriousness of this concern is unknown. No maintenance required after installation. Not reusable or recyclable.
Water quality/availability Land and soil quality/availability Virgin resource depletion
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (IAQ)
Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing Transportation
Building operation
14
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INSULATION
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Cotton Insulation
Figure 12: Environmental ImpactsCotton Insulation

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts New material. Air pollution and atmospheric impacts believed to be low or negligible. Information on re retardants not available. Although impacts from cotton farming are considerable, cotton insulation is made from scrap that would otherwise be landlled. Water impacts of cotton insulation very low. Use of textile scrap reduces burden on landlls. Recycled material. Use of cotton insulation in place of insulation materials made from virgin resources reduces overall resource depletion. Minimal. Unknown. Cotton ber dust in some work environments can cause health problems. Considered very safe, but experience very limited. This is one of the materials of choice for people concerned about indoor air quality. May be particularly appropriate for interior partitioning where sound control needed. Unknown. Unknown. Probably similar to cellulose. Only one plant producing material currently. Shipped regionally in the southeast. Used appropriately, all insulation materials play a crucially important role in reducing the operating energy use in buildings. Claimed R-value similar to berglass, but some concerns about proper lofting to achieve rated R-value. Unknown. Probably very good. None. Potentially reusable. Recyclability unknown.
Building operation
INSULATION
APP 2
15
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Perlite
Figure 13: Environmental ImpactsPerlite

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Pollution from diesel fuel combustion in mining and transporting perlite ore and air emissions from heat-expanding material. Possible siltation of surface waters due to runoff of water from mining operations. Localized impacts in areas being mined. Produced from naturally occurring siliceous, volcanic glass; magnitude of resource base unknown. Minimal impact. No known concerns, though dust is a possible concern. No known concerns. Noncombustible. Resistant to rot. No known concerns. Perlite is expanded in a furnace at 1,400 to 2,000F. Energy intensity unknown. Wide range in density (2 to 11 lbs/ft3), which will affect shipping costs/impacts. Lower R-value than most insulation materials: R-2.7 average; range 2.5 to 4.0, depending on density (lower density material has higher R-value). Excellent, though perlite can become water saturated. Resistant to rot, vermin, termites. None if properly installed and protected from moisture. Reusable. Could be recycled as an aggregate in gypsum and cement plaster.
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (IAQ) Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing
Transportation
Building operation
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INSULATION
Insulation
Environmental Impacts Vermiculite
F i g u r e 1 4 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s Ve r m i c u l i t e
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Pollution from diesel fuel combustion in mining and transporting the micaceous ore and air emissions from heat-expanding material. Possible siltation of surface waters due to runoff of water from mining operations. Localized impacts in areas being mined. Produced from naturally occurring micaceous rock primarily in Montana and South Carolina; magnitude of resource base unknown, but probably very large. Minimal impact. Depending on the source, vermiculite may contain asbestos. Dust may also be a concern. Noncombustible. Resistant to rot. Depending on the source, vermiculite may contain asbestos. No known concerns. Vermiculite is expanded in a furnace at 1,600 to 2,000F for 4 to 8 seconds. Energy intensity unknown. Wide range in density (4 to 10 lbs/ft3), which will affect shipping costs/impacts. Lowest R-value of any insulation material covered here: R-2.1 to 2.3 per inch. Excellent, though vermiculite can become water saturated. None if properly installed and protected from moisture. Reusable. Could be recycled as an aggregate in gypsum and cement plaster.
Transportation
Building operation
INSULATION
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17
Insulation

These recommendations offer some guidelines for selecting and using insulation materials to minimize environmental impacts.
6 6 4 1 4 3 5 3 6 4 Recommended Minimum Thermal Resistances (R) of Insulation zone ceiling wall oor 1 19 11 11 2 26 13 11 3 26 19 13 4 30 19 19 5 33 19 22 6 38 19 22 2 5 4
Figure 15: Insulation Zones (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 354, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
foundation concrete slab rigid insulation vapor retarder
Figure 16: Slab on Grade Insulation (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 355, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Specifying Insulation Reducing the operating energy requirements of a building is usually the single most important strategy for reducing the buildings overall environmental impact. In low-rise residential and light commercial buildings (and to a lesser extent in high-rise residential and commercial buildings), specify high levels of insulation, no matter what type of insulation is to be used. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 (for commercial buildings) and Standard 90.2 (for low-rise residential buildings) should be used to determine minimum insulation levels. To satisfy goals of minimizing the environmental impact of buildings, it may be appropriate to exceed the optimal levels typically suggested for economic reasons (see gure 15). Do not substitute a green insulation material for a nongreen material if doing so will result in lower overall energy performance. Even though the environmental impacts of the insulation material might be lower for the green product, the overall environmental impact of the building would likely be greater by virtue of increased heat ow through the thermal envelope. If substituting a green insulation material for a higher R-value conventional material, increase the specified thickness accordingly. With rigid insulation, for example, when substituting an R-4/inch expanded polystyrene for an R-7/inch polyisocyanurate, the specied thickness should be increased by at least 75 percent. Fiber insulation materials (cellulose, berglass, mineral wool, cotton) generally have lower environmental impacts associated with their manufacture than foam plastic insulation materials, although they usually do not offer as high per-inch R-values. When insulation thickness is not unduly restricted, specify ber insulation. In considering ber insulation materials, keep in mind the fact that ber insulation requires a structure to support it. Increasing the insulation thickness may require increased framing thickness or a modied curtainwall design (with the associated material use and environmental impacts). Making a good environmental decision requires balancing these various impacts. Air leakage can be as signicant a factor as conduction through the building envelope. Well-designed curtain-wall systems should block air leakage extremely well. In light frame construction, fiber insulation materials blown or sprayed in at higher densities (>3 lbs/ft3) and spray-in-place foam insulations can greatly reduce air leakage. A continuous layer of rigid foam insulation can also be effective if the joints are sealed. In situations where the structural framing material has high thermal conductivity (e.g., steel studs), cavity-ll insulation alone is rarely adequate particularly with light framing. Specify a layer of rigid insulation to cover the framing and reduce thermal bridging. Because even the best cavity-ll insulations performance will be compromised by the framing, use an inexpensive cavity-ll insulation, and invest more of the insulation budget in the rigid insulation. Pay particular attention to construction detailing at headers, corners, intersecting walls, band joists, plates, etc. These locations contribute disproportionately to heat loss in both commercial and residential buildings. Specialized reective lms or coatings can be employed in some situations to help reduce heat loss and/or heat gain. There are three distinct types of products: radiant barriers, radiation control coatings, and reective insulation, none of which is discussed in detail in this report. Radiant barriers are used primarily in residential attics to reduce heat gain and are effective
18
APP 2
INSULATION
Insulation
only if adjacent to a dead air space and if the reective surface is situated to protect against dust buildup. Radiation control coatings can be very effective in commercial building roofs. For more information, contact the Florida Solar Energy Center or Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Look for high recycled content in all insulation materials. Cellulose and mineral wool generally offer the highest recycled content of common materials, followed by fiberglass. In mid-1995 only one manufacturer of extruded polystyrene offered a high-recycled-content material. Most expanded polystyrene, polyisocyanurate, and polyurethane insulation has minimal recycled content. Ideally, recycled content should be certied by an independent party. To reduce atmospheric impacts from foam insulation, specify material that is not produced with ozone-depleting HCFC blowing agents. Currently, extruded polystyrene, polyisocyanurate, and most spray polyurethane are produced with HCFCs. In some situations the higher R-value or superior performance of these insulation materials will justify their use. As an alternative to HCFC-based extruded polystyrene for below-grade applications, expanded polystyrene (EPS) at higher density than the standard 1 lb/ft3 can often be used. There are many specialized all-in-one insulated forms for concrete foundation walls made out of EPS, most using higher-density EPS. Some manufacturers offer EPS with borate treatment against termites and carpenter ants, which is an important advantage (see gure 16). With commercial roof applications, consider an insulation system that permits reuse of the insulation with reroong. This may justify the use of a higher-impact insulation material if the insulation will last two or three times as long. Using extruded polystyrene in a protected membrane roof is an example of such a system (see gure 17). In projects for clients with chemical sensitivities, special insulation materials with low offgassing characteristics may be called for. Foamed magnesium silicate insulation, recycled cotton insulation, and binderless berglass insulation (produced without a chemical binder) are examples of materials that should result in extremely low offgassing. Proper detailing of an air barrier or vapor diffusion retarder will help keep VOCs out of the living or working space.
insulation
pavers
membrane
Figure 17: Roof Insulation (Courtesy of T. Clear Corporation)
insulated sheathing
Installing Insulation Protect insulation performance and durability by providing a continuous air barrier in the building envelope. In addition to reducing convective heat loss, an air barrier will retard movement of warm, moist air into building cavities, where it can condense if it reaches a cooler surface. Accumulated condensation can cause decay in a structure. An air barrier is particularly important with ber insulation materials, which may allow air to circulate. In cold climates the air barrier should be on the inside (warm side) of the building envelope and can be provided by sealing all joints between framing and nish materials (airtight drywall approach) or by installing a lowpermeability film (vapor diffusion retarder). For information on proper design and placement of air barriers and vapor diffusion retardersparticularly in warm and mixed climatesrefer to the Moisture Control Handbook. Make sure insulation is installed carefully so that it will perform with maximum effectiveness. Batt insulation is often installed poorly, resulting in voids at the back of the cavity and around wiring, or causing gaps at edges due to inaccurate cutting, etc. Always inspect the insulation work before wall or ceiling cavities are closed in. If using wet-spray cellulose insulation, nd an insulation contractor who can install the cellulose with the correct amount of water. The drier the cellulose is installed, the more quickly it will dry out and the less likely it will
support clip
rigid insulation
headers
Figure 18: Exterior Corner Header (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 355, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
INSULATION
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19
Insulation
2 x 6 or 2 x 4 2x4 vapor retarder
insulated sheathing
support clip
Figure 19: Partition Intersection (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 355, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
cause moisture damage. Wet-spray cellulose can be installed at or below 50 percent moisture content (1 lb. of water for every 2 lbs. of cellulose), although it is often installed at 100 percent moisture content or even higher. Provide for a period of drying prior to installation of drywall. With light framing and cavity-ll insulation, use framing systems that will minimize bypass heat loss through the framing. Strategies include twostud corners with drywall stops, single exterior studs at partition wall intersections, and insulated headers over openings (see gures 18, 19). When insulating ceilings below sloped roofs in light framing, avoid compressing insulation at the eaves (see gure 20). Design rafters to rest on a raised rafter plate, or use specialized raised-heal trusses so ceiling insulation can continue all the way to the exterior wall surface at full thickness (with space for ventilation as well). Try to find insulation contractors willing to reuse or recycle insulation scrap. Wall insulation scraps can often be mixed in with loose-fill attic insulation as long as the material will meet fire-resistance properties required of loose-fill insulation. Some insulation contractors have a machine to chop up scraps of batt insulation for use as loose-ll insulation. If HVAC ducts are installed in spaces to be insulated with ber insulation, make sure ducts are properly sealed to reduce the risk of insulation bers entering the duct system and being spread through the building. Ducts should be sealed with mastic, not standard duct tape. Whenever possible, HVAC ducting should be run totally within the insulated building envelope. Make sure installers follow accepted safety precautions, particularly with berglass and mineral wool.
air path bafe
insulated sheathing eave vent
Figure 20: Eave (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 355, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
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INSULATION
Insulation
Insulation MaterialsGeneral
Environmental Advantages All insulation materials reduce pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions by reducing heating and air-conditioning requirements of a building. This benet almost always outweighs environmental problems associated with certain materials. All insulation materials strengthen local and regional economies by reducing expenditures on fossil fuelswhich are generally imported from outside the region. Embodied Energy Embodied energy is the energy invested in producing, transporting, and installing a material. For insulation materials produced from petrochemicals, embodied energy values include the caloric value of the petrochemical feedback.
Unfortunately, available embodied energy data for insulation materials come from many different sources. Often, different assumptions are used for calculating the embodied energy of different materials, so simple comparisons may not be accurate. Data in the table below were obtained from Environmental Building News and a presentation on insulation materials by EBN Editor Alex Wilson.
Figure 21: Estimated Embodied Energy of Several Insulation Materials
Embodied energy (Btus/lb) 750 12,000 6,500 32,000 31,000 Mass per insulating unit1 (lbs) 0.90 0.38 0.76 0.39 0.48 Embodied energy per insulating unit1 (Btus) 676 4,550 4,950 12,700 14,800
Environmental benets of insulation usually outweigh the problems.
Material Cellulose2 Fiberglass3 Mineral EPS5 Polyurethane and Polyisocyanurate 6 Notes

1 2
Accurate information on the embodied energy of various insulation materials is hard to nd.
wool4
Insulating unit refers to the mass of insulation required for R-20 for one sq ft at standard density. Cellulose embodied energy data from personal communication with manufacturers. Calculations assume a density of 2.0 lbs/ft3, R-value of 3.7/inch. 3 Fiberglass embodied energy data from the nal report: Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, 1991, Franklin Associates, Ltd., prepared for the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. Calculations assume a density of 0.75 lb/ft3, R-value of 3.3/inch. 4 Mineral wool embodied energy data from Roxul, Inc. Calculations assume a density of 1.66 lbs/ft 3, R-value of 3.6/inch. 5 EPS embodied energy data from the German report, Lebenswegbilanz von EPS-Dammstoff, Interdisziplinre Forschungsgemeinschaft (InFo), Kunstoff e.V. Includes caloric Btu value of EPS. Calculations assume a density of .94 lb/ft3, R-value of 4.0/inch. 6 Polyurethane and polyisocyanurate embodied energy data from the nal report: Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, 1991, Franklin Associates, Ltd., prepared for the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. Includes caloric Btu value of foam. Calculations assume a density of 2.0 lbs/ft3, R-value of 7.0/inch.
Compiled by Environmental Building News, March 21, 1995
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21
Insulation
Status of CFCs and HCFCs in Insulation Materials Most foam insulation materials are blown or foamed with agents that have been found to degrade the earths stratospheric ozone layer, which lters out much of the potentially damaging ultraviolet (UV) radiation for sunlight. In addition many of these agents contribute to the so-called greenhouse effect, which is suspected of leading to a global temperature increase.
Chloroourocarbons (CFCs), which degrade the ozone layer most signicantly, have been phased out of use in insulation by international agreement. They have largely been replaced with hydrochlorouorocarbons (HFCFs), which have signicantly less impact on the ozone layer but are, nevertheless, slated for phase-out in the near future. Some HCFCs have signicant global warming impacts. The gures below show estimated impact of each material on the ozone layer and on global warming (gure 22) and identify which blowing agents are used in each insulation materials(gure 23). Note that even though HCFCs have signicantly lower global warming potential than CFCs, they are still far more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide (CO2). Although hydrouorocarbons (HFCs) have zero ozone depletion potential, they are signicant greenhouse gases.
Figure 22: Environmental Characteristics of CFCs and HCFCsa
Common name CFC-11 Formula CCI3F Useb Formerly used in polyurethane polyisocyanurate phenolic foams Formerly used in extruded polystyrene board replaces CFC-11 replaces CFC-11 replaces CFC-12 replaces CFC-12 in extruded polystyrene board Atmospheric lifetime (years) 60 ODPc 1.0 GWPc 1.0
CFCs have now been eliminated from all insulation materials.
Though less damaging to the ozone layer than CFCs, HCFCs are also slated for phase-out.
CFC-12
CCI2F2
120
0.9-1.0
2.8-3.0
HCFC-123 HCFC-14lb HCFC-124 HCFC-142b
CCI2HCF3 CCI2FCH3 CHCIFCF3 CCIF2CH3
1.6 6.6 7.8 19.1
0.013-0.022 0.016-0.024 0.07-0.11 0.05-0.06
0.017-0.020 0.092-0.010 0.084-0.087 0.34-0.39
Notes
a
Table adapted from Ian R. Shankland. March 1990. CFC alternatives for thermal insulation foams, from Rev. Int. Froid. Vol. 13, pp. 113-121. Data from Scientific Assessment of Stratospheric Ozone: 1989, from Chemical Manufacturers Association Report (July 14, 1989), as cited in Shankland. b Additional information on use from Alex Wilson. February 1991. Insulation Update, from Architecture. p. 95. c Ozone depletion potentials (ODPs) and global warming potentials (GWPs) are relative to CFC-11.
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Insulation
Figure 23: Blowing Agents in Rigid Boardstock and Spray Polyurethane Insulation
Original blowing agent CFC-12 Current blowing agent Date of CFC phase-out Date of HCFC phase-out Prod. cap by 2010; Phase-out by 2020 Dec. 2002 Rapid phase-out of HCFC-141b because of high ozonedepletion potential Using HCFC-22 or HFC-134a requires shipping chemicals under pressure; lower R-value with waterblown No longer produced in the U.S.; two Canadian manufacturers Several manufacturers now reclaim pentane and burn it. In the U.S. only commercial products are available.
Product Extruded polystyrene (XPS) Polyisocyanurate
Examples Styrofoam Amofoam FormulaR Diversifoam Thermax R-max ENERGy Tuff-R Not generally sold by name
Comments
HCFC-142b Varies: Jan. 90 to Dec. 93 HCFC-141b 1993
CFC-11
Spray polyurethane
CFC-11
HCFC-141b 1993 (or water, HCFC-22 HFC-134a)
Dec. 2002
Phenolic foam boardstock Expanded polystyrene (EPS) Rigid Fiberglas
Manville CFC-11 (discontinued) Domtar; Fiberglas Canada AFM afliates, many small manufacturers Fiberglas Canada GlasClad Pentane
HCFC-141b 1992 and/or recycled CFCs Pentane N.A.
Dec. 2002 (HCFC-141b)
N.A.
None
None
N.A.
N.A.
Environmental Building News. Vol. 4, no. 1.
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23
Insulation
Fiberglass Life Cycle

Spun-glass fibers are matted into batts, chopped into loose-fill insulation, or formed into semirigid boardstock. This is the most widely used insulation in the United States.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation High-silica-content sand, dolomitic limestone, and borax are the primary constituents of fiberglass. Sand is obtained from glacial, river, lake, marine, residual, and wind-blown deposits, primarily from formations east of the Mississippi River.
Limestone, generally quarried from open pits, is the source of calcium or magnesium in the glass. There are widespread deposits of limestone almost everywhere that oceans once existed, so depletion is unlikely. Limestone from the mineral dolomite is abundant in the Midwest and Ohio Valley as well as in the West. Blasting is used to recover the stone.
Borax is not as plentiful as the other two resources used in berglass insulation.
Borax is the source of boron in glass. It is obtained by surface mining (quarrying) in the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Supplies are more limited than those of the other two primary constituents of berglass, but a near-term shortage is not likely. Blasting and stone crushing are required in borax mining. All of these mining operations potentially affect the environment by generating localized dust, disturbing the ecology of the immediate area being mined, and silting or polluting surface waters with runoff. Air pollution and resource depletion also result from diesel fuel use in excavating and transporting raw materials. Glass cullet is increasingly used as a raw material in berglass. Postindustrial cullet from at glass manufacturing is the most commonly used recycled glass, but postconsumer recycled beverage-container glass is also used. One of the three major U.S. berglass manufacturers has developed a process to use higher percentages of recycled bottle glass. This company has had its berglass certied independently as containing a minimum of 25 percent recycled glass (18 percent postconsumer bottle glass and 7 percent postindustrial cullet). The three largest berglass manufacturers all claim recycled glass content of at least 20 percent to meet EPA procurement guidelines, and some foreign berglass plants use up to 90 percent postindustrial glass cullet. There are also environmental impacts associated with the phenol formaldehyde (PF) binder used to hold bers together. The PF binder may account for 5 to 7 percent of the raw material and 10 to 15 percent of the total material cost. Phenol formaldehyde is a synthetic material produced from fossil fuel. Phenol is produced from benzene, which is derived from crude oil, and olens, which are derived from natural gas. Formaldehyde is is produced from methanol, which is derived from natural gas.
Phenol formaldehyde binder is a signicant component of most berglass insulation.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Fiberglass insulation is produced primarily through a rotary process similar to that used in making cotton candy. Molten glass is poured into a rapidly spinning disc that has thousands of ne holes in its rim. Centrifugal force extrudes the molten glass through these holes, creating the glass bers.
The bers are made thinner by jets of air or steam (occasionally ame) and are immediately coated with a binder and/or de-dusting agent. The material is then cured in ovens and formed into batts, blankets, or boards, or chopped into loose-fill insulation. The curing process burns off most of the phenol formaldehyde (PF) binder, which is captured with pollution control equipment in the plant. With most products, a colorant is added to provide a characteristic pink or yellow color. Batt insulation is typically faced on one side with asphalt-
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Insulation
impregnated kraft paper or aluminum-foil-backed kraft paper to serve as a water vapor retarder. Binderless fiberglass has been on the market for loose-fill applications for about fifteen years, and more recently one berglass manufacturer has developed a new type of berglass insulation that does not require the use of a binder. Two different types of glass are used in the bers of this product, making them stronger and naturally twisted; as a result the bers hold together without use of the PF binder. This product is less expensive to manufacture because the PF binder is not used and expensive pollution control equipment is not required. In berglass manufacture, air pollution emissions result from fuel combustion by the furnaces. Most glass furnaces burn natural gas. Fiberglass insulation takes an estimated 12,000 Btus/lb (27.9 MJ/kg) to produce, including transportation. The embodied energy of berglass insulation per insulating unit is about seven times higher than for cellulose insulation and one-third as high as for polyisocyanurate. There is believed to be little waste from berglass manufacturing plants. Most solid waste is recycled back into the process.
A new binderless berglass from one of the major manufacturers has signicant environmental benets.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance There is a certain amount of waste generated with use of berglass batt insulationapproximately 5 percent, according to one insulation contractor. A similar level of waste is likely with rigid berglass board insulation. There should be little or no waste associated with loose-ll berglass insulation. On projects in which loose-ll attic insulation is installed, it should be possible to reuse insulation scraps.
The primary concerns relating to installation and use of berglass insulation have to do with indoor air quality. Numerous studies have been conducted to examine the levels of exposure and potential health effects of fiberglass and mineral wool insulation. Most of the health studies of these synthetic vitreous ber materials (also known as synthetic mineral bers) have been directed at occupational exposure from manufacturing and installation, where the highest exposure levels are observed. In June 1987 the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) designated berglass wool and mineral wool as possibly carcinogenic. This is one of ve IARC designations: carcinogenic, probably carcinogenic, possibly carcinogenic, not classifiable, and not carcinogenic. Because this designation was based primarily upon studies in which fibers were implanted into abdominal and thoracic cavities of laboratory animalsrather than upon inhalation studiesthe berglass industry has been critical of it. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires warning labels on berglass material. The labels must contain information stating its possible carcinogenicity. In addition to concern about respirable ber particles from berglass insulation, there is also some concern about volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. Most berglass insulation materials contain coloring agents and thermosetting resins (binders) that may emit VOCs, including formaldehyde. One study found berglass insulation to have a formaldehyde emission rate of about 0.09 mg/m2/day. After studying formaldehyde emissions from berglass, the Consumer Product Safety Commission concluded that these products will have little impact on in-home levels of formaldehyde.
Some scientists believe that airborne glass bers are carcinogenic.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Although berglass insulation reuse or recycling is feasible, very little occurs now. Most berglass insulationboth new construction waste and demolition wasteis currently disposed of in landlls.
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Insulation
Mineral Wool Life Cycle
Mineral Wool Life Cycle

Spun bers made from natural rock or iron ore blast furnace slag are matted into batts or chopped into loose-ll insulation. Although mineral wool was at one time the most prevalent building insulation in the United States, berglass overtook mineral wool during the 1960s and 1970s. Mineral wool has a higher degree of re resistance than berglass and is often used for reproong. It also has very good sound-control properties because of its high density.
Close to one billion pounds of ironore blast furnace slag are used annually to produce mineral wool.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation There are two types of mineral wool: rock wool and slag wool. Rock wool is produced from natural diabase or basalt rock. Slag wool is produced from iron ore blast furnace slag, an industrial waste product. Some mineral wool products include both materials. Industrywide, mineral wool in North America is composed of about 80 percent slag wool and 20 percent rock wool. The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association estimates that 938 million pounds (425 million kg) of slag were used in 1992 to produce slag woolwhich is used both as an insulation material and in acoustical ceiling tiles.
Because slag is a waste material, the production of slag wool does not deplete natural resources, and its use may actually reduce problems of runoff and surface water siltation by processing material that would otherwise be exposed to erosion. Impacts associated with rock wool resource extraction are similar to those associated with other mining operations, although the rock being mined is highly stable and should have little impact on surface water acidity (compared with limestone mining, for example, where alkaline salts can leach out). There are also environmental impacts associated with the phenol formaldehyde (PF) binder used in holding mineral wool bers together. Phenol formaldehyde is a synthetic material produced from fossil fuel. Phenol is produced from benzene, which is derived from crude oil, and olens, which are derived from natural gas. Formaldehyde is produced from methanol, which is derived from natural gas.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Rock wool and slag wool are manufactured in several ways, including a rotary process similar to that used in producing berglass. As the material berizes, the bers are usually coated immediately with a PF binder and/or de-dusting agent. The ber is then collected, cured in ovens, and formed into batts, blankets, boards, or loose-ll insulation. An asphalt-impregnated or aluminum-foil-covered draft facing is generally applied to batts.
During manufacture, most of the PF binder is burned off, but the resulting pollutants are captured by emission control equipment. Pollution results from fossil fuel combustion to melt the rock or slag. On the basis of available information, mineral wool appears to be about half as energy intensive as berglass on a per-pound basis. But because mineral wool is installed at a signicantly higher density, it has slightly higher embodied energy per insulating unit. There is believed to be little waste from mineral wool manufacture; waste is recycled back into the process.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance As with berglass, there is a certain amount of waste generated with use of mineral wool batt insulation, but on projects in which loose-ll attic insulation is installed, it should be possible to reuse insulation scraps.
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Insulation
Cellulose Life Cycle
The primary concerns relating to installation and use of mineral wool insulation have to do with indoor air quality. Concerns are similar to those for berglass. See the previous section for details.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Mineral wool insulation can be reused or recycled, but very little occurs now. Most mineral insulationboth new construction waste and demolition wasteis currently disposed of in landlls.

Cellulose is a ber insulation material that can be dry blown into ceilings or walls, or mixed with water and/or an acrylic binder and sprayed into open wall cavities, where it adheres and lls the cavity. In some attic insulation applications, stabilized cellulose is installed, which has a small quantity of acrylic binder to prevent or reduce settling. All cellulose insulation is treated with re retardant. Ammonium sulfate, borates, and boric acid are used most commonly and account for 10 to 20 percent of the cellulose insulation by weight.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation The primary constituent of cellulose insulation is wood-based cellulose ber from recycled newspaper. The cellulose insulation industry used approximately 840 million pounds (381 million kg) of recycled newspaper in 1994, according to Environmental Building News. In part because of rising costs of recycled newspaper, cellulose insulation manufacturers are increasingly switching to a new manufacturing process that breaks down or berizes the newspaper into constituent bers. This berized cellulose installs at lower density, so a given weight of insulation goes further.
The borates used as re-retardant chemicals in some cellulose insulation are mined in the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Supplies are nite, but no near-term shortages are projected. Ammonium sulfate, the other primary re retardant used, is less expensive and is produced from widely available chemical feedstocks. Because a recycled material is the primary raw material used in cellulose insulation manufacture, because little processing is required, and because the nished insulation is not shipped over distances as large as the distances for most other types of insulation, the embodied energy in cellulose is extremely low: about one-seventh that of berglass per insulating unit and less than one-twentieth that of polyisocyanurate.
As the price of recycled newspaper increases, cellulose manufacturers are switching to a berized manufacturing process.
Manufacturing and Fabrication The primary environmental concern with cellulose insulation manufacture is generation of dust. This is effectively controlled in newer plants with baghouses and other ltration systems.
Because the old newspaper used in producing cellulose insulation does not require deinking or bleachingas is usually required when newspaper is recycled back into paperthere should be very little (if any) pollution efuent associated with cellulose insulation production. As discussed above, energy requirements are very low for cellulose insulation production.
The embodied energy of cellulose insulation is extremely low.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Cellulose insulation is typically blown or sprayed into place. In either process, installation usually results in large quantities of dust. Proper care must be taken by installers to protect against inhalation of cellulose dust. Cartridge-type respirators or high-quality paper-filter dust masks are recommended.
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Insulation
Loose-ll cellulose insulation in both ceilings and walls can settle over time, resulting in a loss of R-value. Care must be taken to follow coverage charts carefully and to ensure that adequate levels of insulation are installed. ASTM Committee C-16 is currently studying installed-thickness test methods for all loose-ll insulation materials.
Settling of loose-ll cellulose must be planned for, or adequate insulation levels will not be achieved.
The Insulation Contractors Association of America recommends installing dry cellulose at 1.5 times the nominal settled density in attics. Some cellulose installers are now using a dense-pack system in which the cellulose is installed at signicantly higher densitiesusually over 3.0 lbs/ft3 (48 kg/m3). At this high a density, settling will be very unlikely (and the cellulose provides a very good air barrier to block inltration). To be sure of properly filling wall cavities that are already sheathed, installations can be checked with infrared scanners. If scanning is done when there is a high temperature differential between indoors and out, it is easy to identify cavities or parts of cavities that were incompletely lled. In wet-spray cellulose applications, cellulose insulation is mixed with water (and sometimes with a binder) as it is sprayed into open wall cavities (before drywall is applied). This system provides a very airtight wall insulation system, but there is risk of moisture problems if the insulation is not able to dry out properly before the insulation system is enclosed, or if the wall system has inadequate drying potential. Some experts recommend this insulation system only if high-permeability exterior sheathing (gypsum, for example) is used. All cellulose insulation needs to be carefully protected against moisture. Moisture absorption by cellulose can dramatically reduce its R-value and, more seriously, can lead to mold, mildew, decay of wood framing, and corrosion of metal framing. There are some concerns about occupant health effects from cellulose insulation, though concerns about cellulose are not as widespread as concerns about mineral insulation. Most researchers agree that airborne cellulose is nontoxic. However, one study conducted by Donald Milton at the Harvard School of Public Health found evidence of pulmonary brosis in hamsters after repeated surgical implantations of cellulose in their trachea. Milton believes that the cellulose particle size is usually too large to cause problems. In retrot installations of blown cellulose it is possible to introduce large quantities of dust into the building air, and there are anecdotal reports of resulting health problems. In addition to concern about respirable particles, some healthy-house experts are concerned about VOCs from printing inks, printing press cleaning solvents, and other chemicals found in newspaper. VOC problems with cellulose have not been veried. The re retardants in cellulose insulation are considered quite safe, though with borate re retardants there is some concern that they may lose their effectiveness over time. Loss of reretardant properties has not been conclusively demonstrated. Under some conditions, ammonium sulfate can become corrosive, which could reduce building durability if truss plates or fasteners were corroded.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal During installation, excess cellulose is typically added back into the hopper for reblowing or is simply placed by hand in wall or ceiling cavities. Cellulose insulation taken out of old buildings should not be reused, because of uncertainty about the type or quantity of reretardant chemicals used in the material (cellulose insulation was not always produced under todays standards).
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Insulation
Polystyrene Life Cycle

Polystyrene is a rigid foam plastic boardstock insulation used as insulative sheathing for walls and roofs, as foundation insulation, and as the insulative core in structural insulated panels (stress-skin). Extruded polystyrene (XPS) is a closed-cell foam produced in a continuous extrusion process. Expanded polystyrene (EPS), or beadboard, is produced by expanding polystyrene beads in a mold. Extruded polystyrene is generally produced at higher densities (2 lbs/ft3), provides a higher R-value, offers superior moisture resistance, and is stronger than EPS. Although nominal 1 lb/ft3 EPS is standard, when produced at higher densities (up to 2 lbs/ft3), EPS is closer to XPS in performance. Both materials are generally sold unfaced, though on some products polyethylene facings are available.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Polystyrene insulation is produced from styrene plastic polymer (polystyrene) and a blowing or foaming agent. Styrene is synthesized from ethylene (from natural gas) and benzene (from crude oil), as shown in gure 18. There are various environmental impacts associated with extraction, shipping, and processing crude oil and natural gas. These include oil spills, groundwater and surface water contamination from drilling operations, VOC emissions from distillation of petroleum compounds, air and water emissionsincluding biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in surface watersfrom catalytic cracking of petroleum, and atmospheric emissions of methane.
Figure 24: Material Flow for Expanded Polystyrene
Polystyrene insulation is produced from crude oil and natural gas.
Crude oil
Natural gas
Benzene
Ethylene
Pentane
Styrene monomer
Styrene polymer
Expanded polystyrene
Extruded polystyrene was traditionally made with CFC-12 as the blowing agent, but in the early 1990s it was replaced primarily with HCFC-142b. Hexabromocyclododecane is typically added as a re retardant. Expanded polystyrene is produced from the same primary raw materials, but it is made with pentane as the expanding agent. The polystyrene beads are expanded in a mold and cut into the desired panel sizes. Both HCFC-142b and pentane are derived from fossil fuels and result in the same environmental impacts as those discussed in the paragraph above.
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Insulation
Recycled polystyrene can be used in extruded polystyrene manufacture.
One of the major extruded polystyrene insulation products contains 50 percent recycled polystyrene, half of which is postindustrial scrap and half of which is postconsumer recycled polystyrene. No other manufacturers of extruded or expanded polystyrene are known to use high levels of postconsumer recycled material, though industrial polystyrene spray is often incorporated back into the manufacturing process.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Of the ethylene and benzene constituents of styrene, both have associated environmental impacts. Air emissions from ethylene production include VOCs and benzene, while wastewater emissions include chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals. Benzene production from crude oil results in a wider range of air and water emissions, including release of benzene, which is considered a carcinogen.
Benzene, a chemical intermediate in polystyrene production, is considered a carcinogen.
The HCFC blowing agent used in extruded polystyrene is a chlorine-based hydrocarbon. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are implicated in a wide range of environmental impacts from both air and water emissions. In addition, HCFC-142b is both an ozone-depleting compound and a greenhouse gas. Though much less signicant than CFC-12, which it replaced, HCFCs are also slated for phase-out early in the next century. Pentane emissions from EPS manufacture contribute to ground-level smog, but pentane is neither an ozone depleter nor a greenhouse gas. One styrene bead producer offers a low-pentane bead that will result in half the pentane use of conventional styrene beads. Several EPS plants in California have pentane recovery systems that reduce pentane emissions by 95 percent. Because polystyrene insulation is derived almost entirely from fossil fuels and some of these fuels require multilevel synthesis, the material is fairly energy intensive. European data for EPS manufacture show it to be the most energy-intensive insulation material on a per-weight basis, though the higher density of polyisocyanurate makes that material somewhat more energy intensive per insulating unit. Because extruded polystyrene typically has double the density of EPS but only slightly higher R-value per inch, the embodied energy of XPS is expected to be signicantly higher than that of either EPS or polyisocyanurate (data were not available). Shipping of polystyrene is energy intensive (compared with insulation materials that can be compressed or that are shipped unexpanded) because trucks cannot be lled nearly to their weight limits. EPS is produced and shipped locally and regionally, whereas extruded polystyrene is shipped nationally.
HCFC-142b is both an ozonedepleting compound and a greenhouse gas.
Shipping polystyrene is energy-intensive because of low density.
Manufacturing waste from polystyrene is either recycled back into the manufacturing process or compacted for landlling.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Polystyrene is widely used in commercial roong, in exterior below-grade applications on all types of buildings, and as wall sheathing in residential and light commercial buildings. In roof and wall sheathing applications, polystyrene and other types of rigid insulation can be more effective than cavity-ll insulation because the rigid foamboard covers framing members and blocks bypass heat loss through framing members. Covering metal framing is particularly important.
One durability problem with polystyrene insulation is the tendency of insects, such as termites and carpenter ants, to tunnel and nest in it. These tunnels not only degrade the insulation performance but can also allow the wood-destroying insects hidden access routes into wood structures. To counter this hazard, some EPS manufacturers add a borate pesticide,
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Insulation
Polyisocyanurate and Polyurethane Life Cycle
which is considered nontoxic to humans, to the foam panels. Preliminary testing indicates that this method is effective against insect infestations in the foam. When used in structural insulated panels, EPS must be properly cured prior to fabrication. Otherwise, panel warpage may result. From an indoor air quality standpoint, polystyrene insulation will emit various VOCs. There are few data on VOC emissions from polystyrene insulation, but architects and speciers specializing in low-toxic buildings generally shy away from use of foam plastic insulation, including polystyreneat least in locations where off-gassing would deliver VOCs to the building interior.
Polystyrene insulation may release VOCs.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Polystyrene is a thermoplastic that can be heated and remolded into new products. (Polyisocyanurate, by contrast, is a thermoset plastic that cannot be melted.) As mentioned above, one manufacturer of extruded polystyrene uses 25 percent postconsumer recycled polystyrene in producing new XPS. The manufacturing process for XPS permits use of recycled polystyrene from packaging and food/beverage containers.
With EPS, only material properly formulated for building insulation may be recycled back into insulation products. Packaging or food container EPS cannot be recycled into building insulation, because the EPS for these uses does not have re-retardant additives. However, building insulation EPS (as well as XPS) can be recycled into packaging and food container polystyrene, where re-retardant properties are not required. So scrap EPS insulation can be recycled if a recycling location is available. For locations to recycle polystyrene, contact the Association of Foam Packaging Recyclers (AFPR) at 800-255-0176.
Packaging EPS cannot be recycled into building insulation because it lacks the required re retardants.

Polyisocyanurate is a widely used foam sheathing for both roofs and walls. With the low-conductivity HCFC blowing agent trapped in the closed-cell foam structure, polyisocyanurate foam provides initial insulating values as high as R-8 per inchthe highest of any commonly available insulation material. Most, but not all, products are foil faced. At least one product has carbon black in it to reduce radiant heat transfer. Polyurethane is sprayed into open cavities as an insulation material and injected around windows and doors to provide air sealing.
Polyisocyanurate foam offers the highest R-value of any commonly available insulation material.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Polyisocyanurate and polyurethane insulation are produced from polymeric methylene diisocyanate (PMDI), a polyol that reacts with the PMDI, and a blowing agent. PMDI, which composes 50 percent or more of the polyisocyanurate foam, is made from petrochemical feedstock (crude oil and natural gas) and salt (a source of chlorine). Polyol can be manufactured from petrochemicals, by-product petrochemicals, or waste-stream (recycled) petrochemicals.
Recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is used in one polyol. Polyols are also made from by-products of other chemical industries, including antifreeze manufacture. The polyisocyanurate insulation industry recycles more than 30 million pounds of plastic waste annually and is one of the single largest users of colored plastic bottle scrap, a difcult material to recycle. Until 1993 polyisocyanurate and polyurethane insulation were foamed with CFC-11, a major contributor to ozone depletion and a very significant greenhouse gas. Since 1993, HCFC141b has been used in place of the CFC-11. HCFCs are derived from petrochemicals.
Recycled PET is a component of one polyol used in polyisocyanurate manufacture.
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Insulation
There are various environmental impacts associated with extraction, shipping, and processing petrochemicals. These include oil spills, groundwater and surface water contamination from drilling operations, VOC emissions from distillation of petroleum compounds, and air and water emissionsincluding biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in surface waters from catalytic cracking of petroleum.
The HCFC-141b used in polyisocyanurate and polyurethane has the highest ozone depletion potential of any HCFC.
Manufacturing and Fabrication The most serious environmental concern with polyisocyanurate and polyurethane insulation is emission of the HCFC blowing agents. Though less damaging than the CFCs they replaced, HCFCs deplete stratospheric ozone and are signicant greenhouse gases. The HCFC-141b used in these materials is the most damaging of the commonly used HCFCs, and it is slated for phase-out by the year 2003.
Currently, no polyisocyanurate boardstock insulation is known to be blown with anything other than HCFC-141b. There is one spray-applied, open-cell polyisocyanurate that is blown with carbon dioxide, however, and a similar product is expected to be introduced soon. Because of the open-cell structure and the lack of low-conductivity gas, this material insulates only to R-4.3 per inch, but that value will not drop over time. Another environmental advantage to this product is its low densityabout 0.5 lb/ft3 (8.0 kg/m3), or one-quarter the density of standard polyisocyanurate. Closed-cell polyurethane insulation can also be produced with CO2 as the blowing agent, and this is often done with nonbuilding applications, such as coolers and boat hulls. One CO2-blown polyurethane for building applications is expected to be introduced soon. Another polyurethane, blown with HFC-134a (a non-ozone-depleting hydrouorocarbon), is currently available and marketed in the Northeast. Several different spray polyurethane sealant products (sold in aerosol cans) are now produced with hydrocarbon propellants in place of the HCFC. There are many chemical intermediates in the production of polyisocyanurate and polyurethane insulation. Some of them are of particular environmental concern, including phosgene (a chlorine derivative), benzene, and formaldehyde.
Polyisocyanurate and polyurethane waste cannot easily be recycled.
Most of the waste generated in manufacturing these materials cannot be recycled back into the process, because polyisocyanurate and polyurethane are thermoset resins. Polyisocyanurate manufacturers are experimenting with adding small quantities of compacted waste into the foam insulation as inert ller. Most of the foam waste is compacted for landlling. Polyisocyanurate and polyurethane insulation are fairly energy intensive: approximately 31,000 Btus/pound (72,000 kJ/kg), nearly half of which is energy contained in the petrochemical feedstocks. On a per-insulating-unit basis, these are among the most energy-intensive insulation materials. In terms of shipping energy use, polyisocyanurate insulation is more energy intensive for long-distance shipping because the material is shipped fully expanded, whereas polyurethane is shipped in chemical components, so more material can t on a truck. However, for contractor-applied polyurethane installations, a truck with installation equipment must be sent to the site.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance As the boardstock insulation with the highest R-value commonly available, polyisocyanurate is particularly effective on commercial roofs, where a high R-value and minimal thickness are desired, and in applications where thick cavity-ll insulation is not feasible or where highconductivity steel framing is used. If used as a cavity-fill insulation, polyurethane makes sense only with low-conductivity wood framing systems; with steel framing, the effectiveness
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Insulation
Less Common Insulation Materials
of high-cost, high R-value polyurethane would be compromised by heat loss through the framing. With conventional polyisocyanurate and polyurethane, the R-value will drop over time as the HCFC blowing agent leaks out of the cell structure and air leaks in. Polyurethane will lose its R-value more quickly than polyisocyanurate with foil facing, because foil retards gas diffusion. The R-value may drop as low as R-5.6/inch, according to most experts. Neither material should be used in below-grade applications, because they can absorb moisture. From an indoor air quality standpoint, polyisocyanurate and polyurethane insulation will emit various VOCs. There are few data on such VOC emissions, but architects and speciers specializing in low-toxic buildings generally shy away from use of foam plastic insulationat least in locations where off-gassing would deliver VOCs to the building interior.
The R-value of most polyisocyanurate and polyurethane will drop over time.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Polyisocyanurate and polyurethane insulation scrap generated during construction or demolition cannot be recycled. Waste can be a particular problem with polyurethane if an unskilled applicator overlls cavities. Waste is either landlled or burned in municipal solidwaste incinerators.
Selected Life-Cycle Characteristics of Less Common Insulation Materials

Phenolic Boardstock Insulation Phenolic boardstock insulation is no longer produced in the United States, but it is produced by two manufacturers in Canada. Phenolic insulation is made by foaming phenol formaldehyde (the resin used as a binder in berglass and mineral wool insulation). Like polyisocyanurate, it is blown with HCFC-141b, which depletes ozone and is a moderate greenhouse gas. All of the components of phenolic foam are derived from crude oil and natural gas. Benzene, an environmental toxin, is one of the chemical intermediates. Environmental impacts will be similar to those of polyisocyanurate. Formaldehyde off-gassing levels from phenolic insulation are unknown, but far less off-gassing occurs than was the case with urea-formaldehyde foam insulationa cavity-ll insulation made by foaming urea-formaldehyde. Foamed Magnesium Silicate Magnesium silicate foam (Air Krete) is produced from magnesium oxide (obtained from seawater or brine), calcium chloride, a ceramic talc ller, water, and proprietary agents to facilitate foaming. The material is foamed on-site with compressed air to the consistency of shaving cream and is injected into cavities, where it sets. It can be installed in open cavities covered with a berglass mesh to hold it in place while setting. The cured insulation is stable but friable; it must be protected in a wall or ceiling cavity. There is some concern that vibration over time could physically degrade the insulation. Information is not available on embodied energy. The cured foam is highly re resistant, and very little, if any, off-gassing occurs. This is often the material of choice for architects with clients who are chemically sensitive. Cotton Insulation A cotton ber insulation has recently been introduced in the southeastern United States. It is produced with postindustrial textile scrap (75 percent cotton, 25 percent polyester) and treated with re-retardant chemicals used in the textile industry. Because the insulation is made from a waste material that was previously landlled, environmental characteristics are very good. Although there are significant environmental impacts associated with cotton farming, these impacts should not be attributed to cotton insulation manufacture. The material is popular with designers of low-toxicity buildings and installers concerned about health
Cotton insulation produced from textile mill scrap is now available.
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Insulation
Less Common Insulation Materials
impacts of mineral bers. There is some concern about lofting of cotton batt insulation, and the material is difcult to cut.
Perlite Perlite is produced from naturally occurring volcanic rock found in the western United States. The rock generally contains 65 to 75 percent silicon dioxide and 10 to 20 percent aluminum oxide. Small quantities of water in the rock result in roughly 20-fold expansion upon heating in a furnace to 1,400 to 2,000F (760 to 1,100C). Density of the expanded perlite ranges from 2 to 12 lbs/ft3 (32 to 384 kg/m3). Primary environmental impacts result from mining the volcanic rock and operating furnaces to expand it. The R-value is lower than for most other types of insulation. Off-gassing is not believed to be a problem. Other environmental characteristics are unknown. Vermiculite Vermiculite is produced from a naturally occurring type of mica primarily in Montana and South Carolina. Upon heating in a furnace to 1,600 to 2,000F (870 to 1,100C), the material expands about 16-fold in one direction in a wormlike fashion (thus its name). Vermiculite is highly re resistant. Environmental impacts may occur at mining sites and through fuel use for mining, transporting, and expansion of the material. Specific impacts are unknown. Because vermiculite has a low R-value relative to that of most other insulation materials, it will not be as effective at reducing environmental impacts associated with reduced operating energy use in buildings. The most significant concern with vermiculite is the presence of asbestos in vermiculite. The minerals mined for vermiculite production are typically found in close association with asbestos-containing minerals, so vermiculite insulation may contain asbestos ber, which could get into the air.
There may be asbestos ber in vermiculite.
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Insulation
References
References
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1993. Thermal Insulation Highlights. Environmental Resource Guide. Washington, DC Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Prepared for the Society of the Plastics Industry. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials Types, Uses, and Applications, 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Labs, Kenneth, et al. 1988. Building Foundation Design Handbook. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Lstiburek Joseph, and John Carmody. 1991. Moisture Control Handbook: New, Low-Rise, Residential Construction. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Wilson, Alex. 1995. Insulation Materials: Environmental Comparisons. Environmental Building News 4:1.
Organizations
Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association, 136 Keowee Street, Dayton, OH 45402; 513/222-2462; 513/222-5794 (fax). Florida Solar Energy Center, Building Design Assistance Center, 300 State Road 401, Cape Canaveral, FL 32920; 407/783-0300. North American Insulation Manufacturers Association, 44 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 310, Alexandria, VA 22314; 703/684-0084; 703/684-0427 (fax). Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Building 4508, Oak Ridge, TN 37831; 615/574-4160; 615/576-7866 (fax). Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association, 1001 Pennsylvania Ave N.W., Washington, DC 20004; 202/624-2709; 202/628-3856 (fax). Society of the Plastics Industry, Expanded Polystyrene Division, 1275 K Street, N.W. Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005; 202/371-5226; 202/371-1022 (fax).
INSULATION
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Application Report
Claddings
Exterior cladding materials, including brick, stone, ceramic tile, concrete masonry, and precast concrete panels, are commonly used on commercial and institutional buildings with both curtain-wall and structural concrete or masonry construction. Brick, masonry, and stone facings are also used on residential and light commercial buildings over light framing and structural concrete masonry construction.
Highlights
s s s
All of these materials have minimal impact on indoor air quality in buildings because they are inert and separated from building interiors. All materials used to produce masonry facings are in plentiful supply, with the possible exception of certain types of stone. All the cladding materials discussed here are in themselves highly durable. Cladding systems using these components, however, are only as durable as their weakest link, and must be detailed with care. The primary environmental impacts associated with production of masonry facings include quarrying impacts from raw material extraction (soil disturbance, runoff, siltation of surface waters, etc.), energy use for high-temperature kiln operation (required for cement production and for curing brick and tile), and pollutants from chemical production for synthetic adhesives. Of the masonry facing materials, stone veneer requires the least processing, but the shipping distance can be the greatest. Environmental impacts are associated with metal support structures required for certain masonry facing systemsespecially steel and aluminum curtain-wall systems. The weight of masonry veneers also requires stronger building structures, increasing the environmental impact of their construction. Environmental impacts are associated with joint sealants required with most masonry facing systems; sealants are not addressed in this report. Certain brick, concrete masonry, and tile products are manufactured using recycled or waste materials. Although landlling is the most common form of disposal, salvage and reuse are possible, or these materials can be crushed and used as clean ll under roadways, parking lots, or around buildings. Crushed concrete also may be used as part of the aggregate in manufacturing new concrete brick and block.
s s
s s s
s s s
Choose local masonry facings to reduce transportation requirements and support local economies. Select brick, tile, or concrete masonry products with recycled content when possible. Consider possible impacts of the exterior facing on operating energy use of a building; a high-mass material can reduce energy use in climates with large diurnal temperature swings. To reduce cooling loads in hot climates, it may make sense to specify light-colored facing material. Make sure masonry facings are properly installed and maintained to ensure optimal, long-term performance, particularly relating to moisture resistance. Use of masonry backing wall is preferred.
CLADDINGS
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Claddings
Comparative Environmental Performance Claddings
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceCladdings*

8 9 8
Life expectancy/durabilityb
Brick and mortar Stone veneer Ceramic tile Concrete masonry Precast concrete Notes
1
General Cells in the above matrix are explained in the Environmental Impacts gures. a Heavy mass construction with any of the materials listed can improve thermal wall performance when a signicant diurnal temperature swing exists. b All the materials are generally quite durable in themselves, but the systems that anchor, adhere, or seal them may not be. Careful veneer or cladding system design for durability may be the single most important factor. Performance Range 1 Atmospheric impacts and energy use are more signicant for metal-framed curtainwall systems than for veneers laid in mortar. 2 Better ratings for brick and clay tile products made with recycled materials and for concrete products made with y ash. 3 Waste-derived fuels can reduce the need for virgin fossil fuels. 4 Curtain-wall systems with aluminum frames may decrease biodiversity because of bauxite mining in sensitive areas. 5 If hazardous wastes are used as fuel without adequate pollution controls, localized health hazards may result. 6 Transportation energy use depends on distance traveled. Manufactured products may require signicant transportation; local stone or brick may require little. 7 Light-colored glossy tile can reect solar radiation and reduce cooling loads. 8 Curtain-wall systems, because of their many components, are generally less durable than simpler systems. Softer types of stone are also less durable. 9 Structural clay tiles are generally more durable than at ceramic tiles mounted as a thin skin.
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Transportation
Claddings
Environmental Impacts Brick and Mortar
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsBrick and Mortar

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Particulates from mining. Combustion emissions from the fuels used to re brick (primarily natural gas) and in cement kilns (natural gas, oil, coal, waste-derived fuels). Fluorine and chlorine emissions from brick ring contribute to acid precipitation. Surface water contamination from mining operations for clay, limestone, sand (also dredging), mineral ores. Soil erosion and topography alteration at mining sites for all raw materials. Use of waste material in some products reduces landll burdens. All primary materials used are in good supply. Use of some waste materials in brick reduces stress on supply even further. Habitats altered or damaged at mining sites for most raw materials used in both brick and mortar. Cement dust from mixing of mortar can cause respiratory problems over the long term. No impact. Materials are considered inert. Hydrogen uoride and chlorine emissions from brick kiln can be a local environmental hazard. Reliance on on-site labor for installation benets local economy. Both bricks and cement require signicant energy for ring kilns, but overall energy intensity is moderate. Can be signicant if raw materials and manufacturing are not both within region. Low R-value, but thermal mass can store heat, reducing peak loads and possibly conserving energy. Good life expectancy if properly detailed to drain moisture and if fasteners are durable. Regular inspection for water penetration. Replacement of sealants every 5-20 years, repointing every 20-40 years. Bricks may be reusable but only after extensive testing. Can be used as clean ll.
Health and welfare
Building occupant healthIAQ Community health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
CLADDINGS
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Cladding
Environmental Impacts Stone Veneer
F i g u r e 3 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s S t o n e Ve n e e r
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Particulates from quarries. Fuel combustion emissions from cement kilns (for mortar) or from aluminum or steel manufacture (for curtain-wall structure). Various toxic emissions from petroleum rening and chemical synthesis to produce adhesive. Surface water contamination from mining operations for mortar componentsclay, limestone, sand (also dredging), iron ore/bauxite. Surface and groundwater contamination from extracting and transporting petroleum. Soil erosion and topography alteration at mining sites for raw materials. Most types of stone and other raw materials in adequate supply. Habitats altered or damaged at sone quarries and mining sites for most raw materials used in mortar production. Bauxite mining for aluminum results in signicant impact on sensitive rain forest sites. Stone dust can be an occupational hazard. Some adhesives may offgas VOCs, and many have chemical precursors that are potentially hazardous to chemical plant workers. No impact. Economic benets if local stone, or if stone veneer is assembled with local labor. Relatively small energy requirements for stone quarrying, shaping. Mortar is moderately energy intensive. Metal frames, adhesives, quite energy intensive. Can be very signicant, depending on distance from source of stone. Low R-value, but thermal mass can slow heat ow, reducing peak loads and possibly conserving energyunless curtain-wall frame conguration conducts signicant energy through facing. Stone veneers, if properly detailed, should be extremely durable. Durability of curtain-wall systems will probably depend on engineering and performance of nonstone components. Periodic resealing of joints. Stone slabs typically landlled. Stone for masonry veneer may be reused. Most metal frames are readily recycled.
Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss
Health and welfare
Building occupant healthIAQ Community health and welfare
Energy
Production/ manufacturing
Transportation
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Ceramic Tile
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsCeramic Tile

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Particulates from mining. Combustion emissions from the fuels used to re tile (primarily natural gas) and in cement kilns (natural gas, oil, coal, waste-derived fuels). Hydrogen uoride from tile ring contributes to acid precipitation. Surface water contamination from mining operations for clay, limestone, sand (also dredging), mineral ores. Soil erosion and topography alteration at mining sites for all raw materials. Use of waste material in some tile products reduces landll impacts. All primary materials used are in good supply. Use of some waste materials in tile reduces stress on supply even further. Habitats altered or damaged at mining sites for most raw materials used in both tile and mortar/grout. Cement dust from mixing of mortar and grout can cause respiratory problems over the long term. Except for possible VOC emissions from some latex mortar/grout, materials are inert. Use on outside of building further reduces potential impact. Hydrogen uoride emissions from brick kiln can be a local environmental hazard. Reliance on on-site labor for installation benets local economy. Tile and cement use signicant energy for ring kilns, but overall energy intensity is moderate. Latex additives, if used, increase energy intensity. Material is heavy but, except for structural tile, is used in thin layer so overall transportation load is moderate; regional sources are preferred. Depending on surface color and nish (matte or gloss), tile surface may reect solar energy or absorb it, affecting operating energy use accordingly. Tiles are generally durable. System durability depends on quality of installation and other materials used. Minimal. Used tile is generally not recyclable. Can be disposed of as clean ll.
Biodiversity/habitat Loss
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Concrete Masonry Units
Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsConcrete Masonry Units

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Particulates from mining, from cement kilns, and from mixing concrete. Combustion emissions from fuels used to re rotary kiln. Surface water contamination from mining operations for clay, limestone, sand (also dredging), mineral ores. Soil erosion and topography alteration at mining sites for all raw materials. Use of waste fuels in kilns reduces landll impacts. All primary materials used are in good supply. Signicant use of fossil fuels, which are in limited supply. Use of waste-derived fuels relieves pressure on fossil fuels. Habitats altered or damaged at mining sites for most raw materials used in both cement and concrete. Cement dust from mixing of mortar and grout can cause respiratory problems over the long term. No impact. If hazardous wastes are used as fuel without adequate pollution controls, localized health hazards may result. Cement is quite energy intensive, but concrete overall is not. Some additives may be energy intensive, but data not available. Raw materials available in most regions of U.S., so transportation over large distances is rarely necessary. Low R-value, but thermal mass can slow heat ow, reducing peak loads and possibly conserving energy. Good life expectancy with appropriate design and maintenance. Periodic repair of mortar joints. Other maintenance depends on nish. Not generally reusable. May be crushed for use as clean ll.
Health and welfare
Building occupant health (IAQ) Community health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
Life expectancy/durability Maintenance requirements
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Environmental Impacts Precast Concrete
Figure 6: Environmental ImpactsPrecast Concrete

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Particulates from mining, from cement kilns, and from mixing concrete. Combustion emissions from fuels used to re rotary kiln. Surface water contamination from mining operations for clay, limestone, sand (also dredging), mineral ores. Soil erosion and topography alteration at mining sites for all raw materials. Use of waste fuels in kilns reduces landll impacts. All primary materials used are in good supply. Signicant use of fossil fuels, which are in limited supply. Use of waste-derived fuels relieves pressure on fossil fuels. Habitats altered or damaged at mining sites for most raw materials used in both cement and concrete. Particulate emissions may be a concern for some workers.
Health and welfare
Building occupant health (IAQ) Community health and welfare
No impact. If hazardous wastes are used as fuel without adequate pollution controls, localized health hazards may result. Cement is quite energy-intensive, but concrete overall is not. Some additives may be energy-intensive, but data not available. Raw materials available in most regions of U.S., so transportation over long distances is rarely necessary. Low R-value but thermal mass can slow heat ow, reducing peak loads and possibly conserving energy. Good life expectancylimited primarily by curtain-wall frame and fasteners. Periodic resealing of joints. Other maintenance depends on nish. Not generally reusable. May be crushed for use as clean ll. Steel reinforcing is often recycled.
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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Claddings

gutter roof joist 1" min. air space insulation brick veneer metal tie at studs sheathing wallboard ashing steel lintel weep hole window head
These recommendations address selection and use of various cladding materials to minimize overall environmental impacts of buildings.
adjustable tie at studs building paper 1" min. air space window jamb sealant sill ashing end dam windowsill brick sill ashing building paper insulation between studs brick veneer wallboard sheathing plywood oor joist
Building Design Issues Because of the durability of brick and stone construction, consider renovating rather than demolishing existing masonry structures. Structures with masonry or other veneers must be carefully inspected and reinforced as needed to ensure safety and suitability for reuse. When designing systems with many components, such as curtain walls, endeavor to make all components equally durable to prevent premature failure of one part of the system. When possible, provide for easy inspection, maintenance, and/or replacement of less durable components. Provide a veneer or curtain wall of suitable thickness to provide optimal thermal lag for passive cooling and heating, considering the entire wall system (see gure 7). This strategy is especially useful in regions that commonly experience large temperature differences between day and night.
Figure 7: Thermal Characteristics of Masonry Wall Construction
Time Lag (Hours) 6
Wall Section
Wall Description 10" Brick and lightweight concrete (100-lb density) block cavity wall with 2" polystyrene insulation board in cavity
U-Value (Winter) 0.071
8" Brick and lightweight concrete (100-lb density) block, 2" polystyrene insulation board, 12" gypsumboard
0.073
8" Brick and lightweight concrete (100-lb density) block, 1 x 2 furring, 12" gypsumboard
0.263
adjustable tie at stud ashing with weep holes 24" o.c. (typ.) exterior insulation system dampproong building paper/wire mesh parging
4" Brick curtain wall (partially reinforced or with high-bond mortar), 2" polystyrene insulation board, 12" gypsumboard
0.082
Source: AIA, Architects Handbook of Energy Practice: The Building Envelope (1982).
Figure 8: Brick Veneer on Wood Stud Backup (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 213, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Specifying Exterior Cladding Systems Local stone may be the best choice for a facing material if it is available in good supply and from quarries that are not in especially sensitive areas. When considering stone veneer, choose local or regional stone whenever possible. In addition to reducing transportation energy requirements and supporting local economies, using local stone can contribute to community appreciation of local natural resources. When considering brick or tile products, seek out products with high recycled content. A few brick and tile products are produced using
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Claddings
industrial waste materials. Use locally or regionally manufactured brick to reduce transportation energy. Except in extremely mild climates, use only Grade SW brick for exterior wall facings. This grade is designed for rigorous exposure with heavy rainfall and freezing conditions. When specifying mortar and grout for tile walls, keep in mind that manufacturing impacts of straight portland cement mortar are lower, but latex-cement systems may have durability advantages. Indoor air quality concerns with latex grouts and mortars should not be a factor on exterior walls. The initial absorption rates of any brick or tile component and the mortar should be matched to prevent rapid moisture absorption from the mortarreducing bond strength. If absorption rate may be too high, care must be taken during installation to wet clay masonry units adequately prior to installation. To reduce cooling loads in hot climates, specify light-colored, shiny facing materials, such as tile with a glossy glaze. In cold climates, glazed exterior surfaces may contribute to moisture problems, so use them advisedly.
reinforced concrete spandrel
dovetail anchor slot
Installation Install steel anchors and ties as recommended by a structural engineer or architect with expertise in lateral loading to ensure proper connection of facing material to backing wall system (see gure 8). Provide suitable drainage space between veneer and backing wall system, with a moisture-resistant barrier protecting the structural system. This space should be designed as a pressure-moderating rain-screen detail, with suitable air and/or vapor barriers. With brick facing walls, drainage may be provided with weep holes created by leaving mortar out of head joints in every other brick or 24 in. o.c. along the bottom course. Keep weep holes clear of mortar. Provide a quality flashing system to drain moisture to the exterior of masonry walls (see gure 9). Stainless steel and copper sheet ashing are generally considered most durable. Avoid lead-coated copper flashing because of concern about leaching lead into the environment. In curtain walls, use a suitable sealant system to keep out moisture and ensure good durability. It is usually advisable to incorporate a pressureequalization mechanism (rain-screen detail) to reduce water migration behind the facing or cladding (see gure 10). Arrange for recycling of packaging materials, such as cardboard, especially from products like structural clay tiles that are heavily packaged to prevent damage during shipping. Low-density polyethylene shrink-wrap from brick pallets is also recyclable.
Figure 10: Rain Screen Concept Applied to Precast Concrete Joint Design
precast element sealant backing rod inner seal (tight) vent tube to facilitate pressure equalization outer seal (leaky) pressureequalized cavity a: plan Source: Moisture Control Handbook b: plan precast element sealant backing rod inner seal (tight) bafe (leaky) pressureequalized cavity expansion volume to allow pressure drop in horizontal joint and to prevent capillary intrusion of moisture c: section
continuous ashing continuous ashing reglet continuous steel angle dovetail anchor slot horizontal soft joint
weep holes, alternative courses, stagger 24" o.c.
Figure 9: Cavity Wall Flashing (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 198, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
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Brick and Mortar Life Cycle

Brick has a long history as a durable building material. Traditionally, fired clay and other types of brick have been used as primary structural components. Currently more than 93 percent of the roughly 7 billion red clay bricks manufactured in the United States are facing bricks, while less than 4 percent are building bricks. Bricks can be solid or can contain voids of up to 60 percent of their volume. Glazed facing bricks, accounting for only 0.5 percent of bricks sold, are not discussed in this report. Bricks are set in mortar to create a continuous wall surface. Mortar can constitute up to 20 percent of a walls surface. Mortars are classied according to their strength and durability. Historically, mortars of lime and sand were used. Today mortar mixes generally include portland cement. Proprietary mortar mixes in the form of masonry cement usually include cement and lime, as well as other additives.
Bricks are manufactured from inertand plentifulraw materials.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Fired clay brick is made of clay or shale (see gure 11). Various sands are sometimes applied to the bricks surface to create a range of colors and patterns. A clay slip, called an engobe, may also be applied to the surface. Unlike a glaze, an engobe is vapor permeable. Either the engobe or the entire brick may be modied with coloring agents (usually iron oxide or manganese dioxide).
Figure 11: Materials Flow for Brick
Sand
Sand coatings
Manganese ore
Manganese oxide (coloring agent) Iron oxide (coloring agent)
Engobes
Unfired brick
Iron ore
Water
Tempered clay
firing
Shale
Clay
Brick
Clay used for brick is categorized as common clay and shale by the Bureau of Mines. Clay consists primarily of silica, alumina, and water. Shale is a laminated sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay, mud, or silt. Deposits of common clay and shale are found throughout the United States and are mined commercially in most states. In 1991 nearly 12 million metric tons (13 million short tons) were mined in the United States. Clay and shale are mined in open-pit mines using power shovels, front-end loaders, backhoes, and scraper-loaders. The primary environmental impact is the land disturbance associated with this mining. Estimates are that for every ton of usable material extracted, up to one-quarter ton of removed overburden and unusable material is displaced. Much of this
10
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Claddings
material is stockpiled for later use in reclamation of the site. Some stormwater runoff is generated at mining sites, causing erosion and other surface water impacts. Fossil fuel energy is used to operate the mining equipment and transport the mined material to the processing plant. Because of the weight of clay, processing plants are usually within 2 miles (3.2 km) of the mine. In some cases certain waste materials are incorporated into bricks. These include sewage sludge, incinerator ash, y ash, waste glass, papermaking sludge, metallurgical wastes, rice husks, and slag. The high ring temperatures and chemical changes (vitrication) of the clay are believed to encapsulate effectively any toxins in these wastes. To the extent that waste material is safely locked up in this manner, it can be considered a benecial environmental impact of the brickmaking process. Sand, used both in mortar and to create surface textures on bricks, is also mined, using either open-pit or dredging methods. The impacts of open-pit mining are described above; contamination of surface waters is even more of a concern with dredging. Airborne dust emissions are also a concern with sand mining. Colorants applied to the surface of brick in an engobe, added to the body of brick, or used in mortar are derived primarily from iron oxide and manganese dioxide. Iron oxide is processed from one of four types of iron orehematite, limonite, siderite, and magnetiteall of which are mined from open pits. Prolonged inhalation of iron oxide dust can cause a lung disorder called siderosis, as well as skin and eye irritation. Manganese dioxide comes from imported manganese ore. Manganese can be toxic but only through exposure to extremely high doses, which are not normally encountered. Portland cement, used in mortar, is made primarily from limestone (or other calcium-rich minerals) and a source of silica such as clay or sand (see gure 12). Smaller amounts of iron and alumina are added in the form of other minerals or industrial waste products (see gure 13). All these materials are heated to temperatures approaching 3,000F (1,650C) in a rotary kiln, with fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, or even waste fuels including tires and spent solvents. A small amount of gypsum is added to the nished cement.
Figure 12: Materials Flow for Portland Cement Mortar/Grout
Waste materials such as sewage sludge, y ash, and slag may be incorporated into bricks.
Portland cement
Sand
hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose
Portland cement mortar/grout
Gypsum and the components of portland cement are surface mined as described above. The manufacture of portland cement produces large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), both from the fuel that is burned and from the calcining of limestone. Other air pollutants include emissions from the fossil fuels burned and fugitive dust from the kiln. Lime is made from the mineral calcium carbonate, found primarily in limestone. Limestone is mined primarily in open pits, though about 5 percent of the U.S. production is from underground mines, which do not require the removal of overburden material. The limestone is heated in a kiln, driving off the carbonate as carbon dioxide (CO2). The resulting quicklime (calcium oxide) is stored in water for at least two weeks, becoming hydrated lime
CLADDINGS
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11
Claddings
Figure 13: Materials Flow for Portland Cement

Sand, sandstone, quartzite
Limestone
Clay
Sources of iron*
Sources of alumina**
Gypsum
Lime
Silicacontaining material
Processes in box take place inside rotary kiln
Clinker
*iron ore, scrap metal, coal fly ash, shale **bauxite processing waste, iron smelting waste, shale, mud, clay, coal fly ash
grinding
Portland cement
or calcium hydroxide. Environmental impacts of lime preparation include the impacts of mining, primarily in open pits, and the resource depletion and emissions from fossil fuel combustion for the kilns. Masonry cements usually contain portland cement, ground limestone (rather than lime), and various proprietary additives that enhance workability, water retention, and air entrainment. No information is provided here on the environmental impacts of the additives.
Manufacturing and Fabrication The manufacture of red clay brick begins with processing of the clay. The clay is crushed, ground, and screened for particle size. It is then mixed with water (tempered) to an even consistency in preparation for forming. Most brick is formed by extrusion through a die, which produces a uniform column of clay. The column moves through an automatic cutter, which cuts off individual bricks. At this stage any surface treatments are applied. About 40 percent of bricks may be nished with a sand coating, and about 20 percent with engobes (clay slips or slurries).
The prepared bricks are then dried, often using waste heat from the kiln. Once dried, the bricks are red for at least 15 and up to 50 hours, depending on the kiln type, the clay, and the desired properties. Peak temperatures in the kiln are from 1,600 to 2,400F (870 to 1,300C). Fuels used include natural gas (77 percent), coal (10 percent), sawdust (10 percent), propane, and oil. After a controlled cooling period, the bricks are sorted, graded, and packaged. The main emissions from brickmaking include particulates in the form of dust from the grinding and screening of the clay, combustion products from fuels used to re the kiln, and certain gases emitted from the raw materials themselves. Fluorine in the form of hydrogen uoride accounts for a small fraction (40 to 225 ppm) of the stack gases. Emissions above the threshold limit value (TLV) of 3 ppm hydrogen uoride can cause irritation, laryngeal and bronchial spasms, pulmonary edema, and burns. Chlorine also appears in the emissions at 0.7 to 4 ppm. Chlorine has a permissible exposure limit of 1 ppm and can cause burning of the eyes and nose, choking, nausea, chest pain, headache, pulmonary edema, and other symptoms. In the environment both these chemicals contribute to acid precipitation, with its associated effects. Clay also contains crystalline silica, which is considered an animal
12
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Stone Veneer Life Cycle
carcinogen and may be a human carcinogen. Occupational exposure to crystalline silica during brick manufacture is not considered a health threat, however. Brick manufacture generates almost no solid waste, as any rejected product can be either crushed and reused in the process or sold as landscape chips. In addition, use in the brickmaking process of waste material from other industries reduces disposal impacts and conserves raw materials. Total energy required to extract the materials and manufacture brick is about 4,000 Btus/lb (9.3 MJ/kg), or 14,000 Btus (14.8 MJ) per typical brick unit. The manufacture of mortar consists simply of mixing together the prepared materials. Dry materials may arrive at a job site in bulk or packaged in bags. Ready-mix mortar is delivered in a wet state in bulk. Mixing the mortar can generate particulate emissions of cement and lime dust, which can cause respiratory problems in workers after long-term exposure.
Little solid waste is generated from brick manufacture.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Installation of brick follows the same basic procedures used for centuries. Human labor is used to lay each brick in mortar to create a wall. Little waste is created in the process. Extra bricks can usually be returned to the manufacturer, and packagingconsisting of steel straps and shrinkwrap around each cube of bricks and a wooden palletmay be recycled. (The pallets may be sent back to the manufacturer for reuse.) Excess mortar that has hardened is usually buried on-site or disposed of in landfills. It may also be crushed along with brick fragments and used as clean ll.
Properly detailed and maintained, a brick-and-mortar veneer wall is durable and should last 75 years or more. To attain such a life span, any sealants must be inspected regularly and replaced every 5 to 20 years, and the mortar joints must be repointed as needed, usually at least every 40 years. The crystalline silica contained in brick is possibly carcinogenic, but it is less of a health threat in nished brick than it is during brick manufacture. Gasoline or diesel fuel is used to transport the brick and mortar to the construction site. In a building, brick facing can help to conserve energy because of its thermal mass. The massive brick heats up slowly and releases heat gradually, creating a time lag in the movement of heat through the building envelope. This time lag can reduce peak energy loads and may also reduce total energy use.
Reuse, Recycling, or Disposal The durability of brick facings (they have a long service life) should help to reduce disposal impacts. Brick installations that are demolished can be considered clean fill or can be deposited in solid-waste landlls. Reuse of bricks in construction applications is generally not recommended, because their structural integrity and mortar-bonding ability cannot be safely established without extensive testing.
Reuse of old bricks for construction is generally not recommended.
S t o n e Ve n e e r L i f e C y c l e
Stone is one of the worlds oldest building materials. Stone veneers consist of thin slabs of natural stone, either laid with mortar against a structural wall or suspended from a structure in a curtain-wall system. The major types of dimension stone used in construction and considered here are granite, marble, limestone, slate, and sandstone. Also addressed in this section are mortar, the steel and aluminum used to hold the stone veneers in a curtain-wall system, and four common adhesives used to afx stone veneers: polyester, acrylic, silicone, and epoxy. Sealants used at joints between stone panels are a critical part of curtain-wall systems and must be replaced periodically. As adequate background information on sealants has not yet been collected, they are not discussed here.
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Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stone is quarried primarily in open pits, though some underground quarrying is also done. Preparation for open-pit quarrying includes removal of overburden material and unusable rock, and construction of roads to the site. Stone is extracted through the use of various cutting and splitting equipment as well as by the use of explosives. Little dust is created because the cuts are continuously cooled with water. Rock particles typically settle out in pools at the quarry bottom. Large stone blocks are delivered by truck or front-end loader to a nearby fabricating plant or to a rail yard for transportation to a more distant plant. Equipment used to quarry and transport stone is powered either by fossil fuel or by electricity, producing air and other emissions.
Disturbance of the natural environment in and around the quarry is perhaps the most significant environmental impact of stone extraction. Restoration of a site by replacing waste material and plantings can mitigate much of this damage, but this is not always done effectively. Companies sometimes go out of business, leaving unreclaimed sites. From 45 to 80 percent of quarried granite becomes waste during quarrying and processing. For limestone the gure is 15 to 20 percent. Waste material not stockpiled for later site restoration is usually disposed of as ll or used for local road construction. World supply of dimension stone is considered adequate for the foreseeable future. Portland cement, used in mortar, is made primarily from limestone (or other calcium-rich minerals) and a source of silica, such as clay or sand. Smaller amounts of iron and alumina are added in the form of other minerals or industrial waste products. All these materials are heated to temperatures approaching 3,000F (1,650C) in a rotary kiln, with fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, or even waste fuels, including tires and spent solvents. A small amount of gypsum is added to the nished cement. The manufacture of portland cement produces large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), both from the fuel that is burned and from the calcining of limestone. Other air pollutants include emissions from the fossil fuels burned and fugitive dust from the kiln. Lime is made from the mineral calcium carbonate, found primarily in limestone. Limestone is mined primarily in open pits, though about 5 percent of the U.S. production is from underground mines, which do not require the removal of overburden material. The limestone is heated in a kiln, driving off the carbonate as carbon dioxide (CO2). The resulting quicklime (calcium oxide) is stored in water for at least two weeks, becoming hydrated lime or calcium hydroxide. Environmental impacts of lime preparation include the impacts of mining, primarily in open pits, and the resource depletion and emissions from fossil fuel combustion for the kilns. Masonry cements usually contain portland cement, ground limestone (rather than lime), and various proprietary additives that enhance workability, water retention, and air entrainment. No information is provided here on the environmental impacts of the additives. Aluminum for curtain-wall systems is made from bauxite, a mineral usually mined in tropical locations. Because of the ecologically sensitive surroundings, bauxite mining can have severe environmental impacts. Rening bauxite and manufacturing aluminum not only generate large volumes of mud containing traces of hazardous waste but are extremely energy intensivealuminum manufacture accounts for 1.4 percent of the worlds annual energy consumption. Most aluminum products can be made largely from scrap aluminum, which avoids the impacts of bauxite mining and reduces the manufacturing energy requirement by an estimated 80 percent.
The environmental impact of stone quarrying is limited to the immediate site.
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The primary components of steel are iron ore, limestone, and coke (rened coal). Other metals, such as nickel and zinc, are commonly used to create alloys or protective coatings on steel. The environmental impacts of mining the raw materials are similar to those discussed above. Air emissions from the mining and manufacturing processes include particulates, dust, and combustion emissions from mining operations, coking of coal, iron furnace operation, and steel furnace operation. Water quality impacts include mine runoff and polluted wastewater generated during coking, steel making, and coating of steel products. Steel almost always includes some recycled scrap (at least 20 percent, and sometimes up to 95 percent recycled material). Using scrap reduces the impacts of mining and rening raw materials and saves about 60 percent of the energy (and associated emissions). Adhesives are used in some curtain-wall assemblies to bond stone panels to the supporting frame, to anchor mounting pins in the stone, or to join pieces of stone. Adhesives commonly used include epoxy, silicone, polyester, and acrylic. Epoxy is made from petroleum derivatives, chlorine, and sodium hydroxide (see gure 14). Among the intermediaries in the manufacturing process are several potentially toxic or hazardous materials. These include benzene, a human carcinogen; cumene, which causes eye and skin irritation; cumene hydroperoxide, which is corrosive to eyes, skin, and the respiratory tract and is an explosive; and epichlorohydrin, which also causes irritation and is a probable human carcinogen.
Figure 14: Materials Flow for Epoxy Resin
The adhesives and resins used in some curtain-wall assemblies have chemical precursors that pose health and environmental risks.
Crude oil
Hypochorous acid
Salt brine
Benzene
Olefins (propylene)
Chlorine
Sodium hydroxide
Cumene
Epichlorohydrin
Phenol
Acetone
Bisphenol A
Epoxy resin
Silicone is made from silicon and methyl chloride (see gure 15). Silicon, in turn, is made from quartzite and coke (rened coal) in a reduced atmosphere, releasing carbon monoxide (CO). Methyl chloride is produced either by the chlorination of methane or by the reaction of methanol and hydrogen chloride (HCl). Common silicone is biologically inert when fully cured, but some specialty products contain toxic additives. Intermediate by-products and emissions during the production process can also be toxic. Carbon monoxide affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Hydrogen chloride is highly corrosive and can cause respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation at low concentrations. It also contributes to acid precipitation, with its associated impacts.
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Figure 15: Materials Flow for Silicone Resin

Hydrochloric acid (a byproduct)
Quartzite
Coal
Natural gas
Salt brine
Water
Coke
Methanol
Methane
Chlorine
Silicon
Methyl chloride
Dimethyldichlorosilane
Silicone resin
Environmental impacts of the silicone manufacturing process result from mining quartzite and coal, rening coal into coke (which can release toxins to the air and water), and producing chlorine, a process that can release chlorine, sulfuric acid, and other toxins. Polyester resins are manufactured from chemical compounds that are derived from natural gas and crude oil (see gure 16). Typically, ethylene glycol and maleic anhydride join in a condensation reaction. Ethylene glycol is produced from ethylene, which in turn is produced from ethane, a petroleum and natural gas derivative. Maleic anhydride is produced by the oxidation of benzene over a catalyst. These processes release benzene, ethylene oxide, and other VOCs, some of which are considered highly toxic and/or probable carcinogens. Residual ester monomers are released. Water pollutants include chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals.
Figure 16: Materials Flow for Polyester Resin
Crude oil
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene glycol
Benzene
Maleic anhydride
Polyester resin
Acrylic resins (see gure 17) are produced from petroleum, which is rst cracked to make propylene. The propylene is catalytically oxidized to make acrolein, which is further oxidized into acrylic or methacrylic acid. Acrylic resins are formed from the polymerization of esters of these acids. The primary environmental impacts of concern result from the extraction, processing, and rening of petroleum. These include discharge of contaminated water and drilling sludges, which may contain many environmental and human toxins, wastewater and VOCs from the distillation process, and various toxins from the catalytic cracking processes.
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Ceramic Tile Exterior Cladding Life Cycle
Figure 17: Materials Flow for Acrylic Resin

Acrylic and methacrylic acid
Crude oil
Propylene
Acrolein
Acrylic resin
Manufacturing and Fabrication At a fabricating plant, stone slabs are cut to desired thickness. The resulting slabs are then trimmed in length and width, and the surfaces may be smoothed, honed, or polished. Finally the slabs are cut to nished dimensions and receive grooves or slots for attachment. They are then packaged in wooden crates for delivery to the job site or to a separate plant where prefabricated wall panels are assembled. In the cutting and finishing process, stone dust and abrasive particles are carried to a settling pond and have little likelihood of entering surface waters. Construction, Use, and Maintenance Many different methods are used to fasten stone veneers and curtain-wall systems. Materials used include stainless steel or aluminum support clips, anchor clips, stainless steel rods, expansion bolts, and other devices. Adhesives used to attach anchoring devices to the stone may emit VOCs and residual monomers. These releases are unlikely to continue long enough to affect the installation at the building.
Stone surfaces require little maintenance, and the proven durability of stone can be a signicant environmental asset. The durability of a veneer or curtain-wall system, however, is subject to the failure of any part of that system. Such systems must be designed and installed appropriately to take advantage of stones natural durability. Stone veneer surfaces can reduce energy use because of their massthe stone heats up slowly and releases heat gradually, creating a time lag in the movement of heat through the building envelope. (Ultra-thin panels on prefabricated frames will not perform this function.) Waste from the installation process consists primarily of packaging materials, including wooden crates and cardboard cushioning between the panels. Wooden crating material is commonly landlled, though it could be salvaged or recycled for many uses.
Stone veneer and curtain wall systems can be very energyintensive.
Reuse, Recycling, or Disposal Stone panels are typically broken into smaller pieces during demolition and disposed of in a landll. Although it would be possible to reuse stone panels in other projects, this is rarely done because of the cost of preparing them for such reuse. Aluminum and steel support frameworks can generally be recycled after demolition.

Types of ceramic tile commonly used for exterior cladding include structural tiles, paver tiles, glazed and unglazed mosaic tiles, quarry tiles, and other special purpose tiles. Most of these products are available both glazed and unglazed. They may be set in thin beds of dry-set mortar or latex-portland cement mortar. Organic adhesives sometimes used for interior tile application are not used on exterior facades.
Material Acquisition and Preparation The body of ceramic tiles is typically composed of three principal constituents: ball clays, llers, and a ux material (typically feldspar). Ball clays impart workability to the mixture because they are easily molded and have high bonding power. They are mined in Tennessee and, to a lesser extent, in four other states. Fillers, including int, silica, talc, or kaolin, add
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bulk to the tile body. Fluxes melt during ring and fuse the other ingredients into a solid mass. Porcelain consists of the same raw materials, processed to a smaller particle size. The smaller particle size makes porcelain products denser and more impervious than natural clay products. Different types of tile contain different ratios of these three constituents. Of the tiles used on exterior facades, quarry tiles contain the most pure clay and are usually made close to the clay pits. All the primary raw materials in tiles are extracted primarily from open-pit mines. Land disturbance and stormwater runoff impacts from such mines are described above. Feldspar ore is further processed in several stages, creating particulate matter, sulfonated oils, and other pollutants. Some tile manufacturers also incorporate significant quantities of industrial waste, including feldspar tailings, recycled glass, and ceramic scrap, in their products. Glazes are similar in composition to glass and are made from nely ground glass and from the raw materials used to make glass: silica, lime, and feldspar. Glaze on tiles for exterior use is typically 5 to 30 percent ground glass. In addition, various metallic oxides and pigments are used. Nearly all the primary materials in glazes are extracted in open-pit mines. Glass sand, the source of silica, is mined primarily in New Jersey, the Allegheny Mountains, and parts of the Mississippi Valley. Sources of limestone are more widespread. Lime is typically made by calcining limestone in a rotary kiln, a process that consumes signicant amounts of fossil fuel energy. Feldspar acquisition is described above. Colorants or pigments used in both tile bodies and glazes are typically crystalline materials mixed metal oxide inorganics formed by the calcining of oxides of metals such as cobalt, nickel, aluminum, chromium, and many others. Calcining of the minerals takes place at temperatures ranging from 930 to 2,550F (500 to 1,400C). During calcination, volatiles are driven off, any additional oxidation occurs, and the crystal structure of the pigment develops. Some materials also require washing. Open-pit mining of pigment minerals affects habitats, surface waters, and air quality in ways similar to those described above for other materials. Calcination requires signicant fossil
Figure 18: Materials Flow for Mortar
Sand, sandstone, quartzite
Limestone
Portland cement
Proprietary additives
Iron and manganese
Calcium hydroxide
Iron oxide and manganese dioxide (coloring agents) Portland cement and lime Masonry cement
or
Mortar
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fuel energy, and releases air pollutants from the fuel combustions and from volatiles driven off the mineral ores. Health hazards from metals and metal oxides used to prepare the pigments range from simple irritation to severe organ damage. Workers must be protected from inhalation or ingestion. Dry-set mortar contains portland cement and sand, along with a water-retentive additive (hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose) to slow curing time (see figure 18). Portland cement is made primarily from limestone (or other calcium-rich minerals) and a source of silica, such as clay or sand. Smaller amounts of iron and alumina are added in the form of other minerals or industrial waste products. All these materials are heated to temperatures approaching 3,000F (1,650C) in a rotary kiln, with fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, or even waste fuels, including tires and spent solvents. A small amount of gypsum is added to the finished cement. The ingredients of portland cement and sand are generally extracted from open-pit mines, as described above. The manufacture of portland cement produces large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), both from the fuel that is burned and from the calcining of limestone. Other air pollutants include emissions from the fossil fuels burned and fugitive dust from the kiln. Latexportland cement mortars contain either a latex liquid emulsion or a reemulsifiable powder in addition to the dry-set mortar ingredients (see gure 19). In liquid form the latex used is either styrene butadiene or acrylic resin. Styrene butadiene is formed by the polymeric emulsion of styrene with butadiene. Styrene is made from benzene, a petroleum derivative, and ethylene, a product of natural gas processing. Butadiene, like benzene, is produced by the cracking of petroleum. Benzene is considered a carcinogen; styrene has been listed as a possible carcinogen, though this categorization is being disputed.
Figure 19: Materials Flow for Latex-Cement Mortar/Grout
Portland cement mortar/grout
Production of portland cement is energy intensive and releases large quantities of CO2.
Crude oil
Natural gas
Acetic acid
Propylene
Butadiene
Benzene
Ethylene
Acrolein
Styrene
Vinyl acetate
Acrylic resin
or
Styrene butadiene latex
or
Polyvinyl acetate
or
Ethylene vinyl acetate
Latex-cement mortar/grout
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Acrylic resins are produced from petroleum, which is rst cracked to make propylene. The propylene is catalytically oxidized to make acrolein, which is further oxidized into acrylic or methacrylic acid. Acrylic resins are formed from the polymerization of esters of these acids. The powder resins are either polyvinyl acetate or (most commonly) ethylene vinyl acetate. Polyvinyl acetate is made by cooking a solution of vinyl acetate in benzene with catalysts that promote polymerization. Vinyl acetate is made by reacting ethylene, a derivative of natural gas, with acetic acid (vinegar). Ethylene vinyl acetate is a copolymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate, meaning that after the conversion from acetic acid is complete, more ethylene is combined with the vinyl acetate.
Extraction and processing of petroleum create toxic byproducts and pollution.
Petroleum extraction and processing produces many pollutants: the large diesel engines used for drilling emit various air pollutants; bottom sludge from the transportation of crude oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers, releasing oil and suspended solids, and increasing organic matter in the water; pollutants in the wastewater from the desalting process result in increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of surface waters, and possible shkill; wastewater from distillation and catalytic cracking includes suldes, ammonia, oil, chlorides, mercaptans, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia; many air pollutants are also released, even with stack controls, from the catalytic cracking process. Air pollutants released during natural gas processing include SOx, NOx, CO2, CO VOCs, particulates, ammonia, aldehydes, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, napthalene, toluene, and xylene. Wastewater from natural gas processing may contain oil, oil sludge, ammonia, phenols, suldes, and other pollutants. Grouts contain many of the same materials found in mortar: hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, latex, styrene butadiene, calcium carbonate, polyvinyl acetate, and/or ethylene vinyl acetate. Pigments such as titanium dioxide may also be added. Titanium dioxide is made from sands rich in the appropriate minerals. The sand is processed by either a sulfate or a chloride method to produce titanium dioxide. The sulfate method also produces ferrous sulfate, which is used to make iron oxide pigments. Both methods produce several waste products that are commonly disposed of in the ocean or by deep well injection, though recycling options are being explored. Titanium dioxide may cause lung brosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen, though it is not considered hazardous by EPA.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Tiles are formed by one of two processes, the plastic process and the dry process. In the plastic process, clay is mixed with enough water to render it workable, and tiles are then shaped either by hand or by extrusion from an auger machine. Colorants may be added before shaping or may be applied to the surface after formation. Quarry tiles and others that tend to be less uniform are made in this way. Dry-process tiles are stamped in steel dies by the application of heavy pressure to the damp ceramic mix.
Dust that can contribute to eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, and lung damage can be produced during drying, grinding, and storage of raw materials. New dust-control measures and facilities maintained under negative pressure help to control dust emissions. Little waste is generated, as all scraps created before the tile is red can usually be recycled into the forming stage. The exception is dry-pressed tiles with colorants incorporated throughout. These are difcult to recycle, and only about 60 percent of the manufacturers recycle this type of scrap. Glazes are applied to tile using various methods. Any waste glaze is generally recycled back into the process. Ceramic tile is red by moving through progressively hotter sections of a long kiln. The tile is either moved on a cart or rolled along rollers in the kiln. The cart method uses more energy because the cart, as well as the tiles, must be heated. Newer, low-mass carts are reducing this waste, however. Typical ring temperatures range from 2,000 to 2,200F (1,100 to 1,200C).
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Concrete Masonry Units Life Cycle
Typical ring times range from 9 to 18 hours. Some tiles are red twice so that emissions from the body of the tile during initial firing will not cause defects in the glaze, which is applied before the second ring. Total energy required for the manufacture of ceramic tile has been estimated at slightly over 8,000 Btus/lb (19.3 MJ/kg), or (assuming 3 lbs/ft2 of tile) 25,000 Btus/ft2 (283 MJ/m2). Actual energy use varies widely depending on the process used, however. In addition to using rollers rather than carts, energy use has been reduced by engineering less massive (but equally strong) tiles, using materials (such as glass) that fire at lower temperatures, and adopting high-efciency burners. Waste is further reduced by using waste heat to dry green tiles and/or heat the factory. Ninety-ve percent of the tile industry uses natural gas to re the kilns. The remainder uses oil or coal as fuel. In addition to combustion gases from the fuel, dust, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and hydrogen uoride (HF) may also be emitted from the body of the clay. Sulfur dioxide emissions depend on the quantity of sulfur in the raw materials that is not in sulfate form estimated to be about 10 percent by mass of the sulfur content. Concentrations of HF vary from 0 to 80 mg/m3. Above the threshold limit value (TLV) of 2.6 mg/m3 hydrogen uoride can cause irritation, laryngeal and bronchial spasms, pulmonary edema, and burns. Most manufacturers recycle any waste dust that is produced. Between 70 and 90 percent, including all quarry tile manufacturers, recycle red scrap as well. Those that recycle scrap recover 95 to 98 percent of the material and deposit the rest in landll. Scrap not recycled into tile may be used as roadbed material, used in the production of asphalt paving or cement, or made into decorative landscape stone.
Most tile manufacturers recycle waste dust.
Producing ceramic tiles is an energy intensive process.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Tiles on exterior walls may be set in thin beds of dry-set mortar or latex-portland cement mortar. Structural tiles are generally set in ordinary masonry mortar, which is inert and nontoxic. Latex-cement mortars and grouts release some VOCs during and shortly after installation, though in outdoor applications these should not be significant. Glazed tiles with a reective or high-gloss surface can help to reduce cooling loads by reecting solar radiation rather than absorbing it. Reuse, Recycling, or Disposal Using ceramic tile left over from one job is not recommended if tiles from another batch are included, because of the variation in shades between different batches of the same line. Some extra tile is usually stored in the building for future repairs or replacements. After demolition, wastes are generally disposed of in a landll.

Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are commonly used for both structural and veneer wall applications. Blocks manufactured for exterior veneer walls often have a split face or other texture as a nished wall surface. Also called concrete blocks or cement blocks, CMUs are reinforced with steel or ber rods and grout through their hollow cores.
Portland cement makes up roughly 10 percent of a concrete masonry unit.
Material Acquisition and Preparation CMUs are made from portland cement, water, sand, and a larger aggregate such as crushed stone (see gure 20). Various additives and pigments may be added, and special cements and aggregate may be chosen for aesthetic reasons. These materials are combined to create a stiff slurry and are poured into a mold in which the blocks are shaped.
Portland cement, composing about 10 percent of the mixture by volume, is the primary active ingredient. The cement reacts chemically with the water and bonds the aggregates
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Figure 20: Materials Flow for Concrete Masonry Units

Crushed stone (large aggregate)
Portland cement
Sand (small aggregate)
Water
Additives
Pigments
Concrete mix
Concrete masonry units
Fly ash may be substituted for up to 25 percent of the portland cement in CMUs.
together, creating a rocklike material. Cement is also the most energy-intensive major ingredient of concrete. It is made primarily from limestone (or other calcium-rich minerals) and a source of silica, such as clay or sand. Smaller amounts of iron and alumina are added in the form of mineral ores or industrial waste products, such as scrap iron, mill scale, and waste from iron and bauxite processing. Up to 25 percent of the cement may be replaced by y ash, a waste product of coal-burning power plants. Limestone, sand, gypsum, iron ore, coal, and many concrete aggregates are mined in open pits, causing land disturbance, habitat alteration, soil erosion, and water runoff. The runoff can cause deoxygenation of surface waters, leading to loss of faunal diversity and possible shkill. Bauxite mining affects tropical forests and, even after the land is reclaimed, results in loss of habitat. Air emissions from the mining and manufacturing processes include particulates, dust, and combustion emissions from mining operations. Energy use for extracting the materials is primary diesel fuel for heavy machinery used for extraction, initial processing, and transportation of the materials. To make portland cement, the limestone, sand, and other ingredients are finely ground, either as powder (the dry process) or in a slurry (wet process). The mixture is then fed into a rotary kiln along with a fuel such as coal, oil, natural gas, or even waste fuels, including tires and spent solvents. Temperatures in the kiln can reach 3,000F (1,650C). Emerging from the kiln are solid chunks of fused material, called clinker, and a ne powder of cement kiln dust. The clinker is then ground up and mixed with a small amount of gypsum to make cement.
While cement manufacture releases a large quantity of CO2 into the atmosphere, some CO2 may be slowly reabsorbed by the CMUs.
The manufacture of portland cement produces large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), both from the fuel that is burned and from the conversion of limestone to lime and to cement. Some of the CO2 released from the limestone may eventually be reabsorbed by the cured concrete, however, somewhat reducing the impact of the CO2 emissions. Other air pollutants include emissions from the fossil fuels burned and fugitive dust from the kiln. Cement kiln dust has historically been disposed of in uncontrolled deposits around the kilns. Concerns about possible environmental or health impacts of the highly alkaline material have led to calls for more careful controls to prevent it from entering the air or water. Some kiln dust is now recycled back into the kiln. The use of waste materials with high energy content, such as tires, is increasing as a way to reduce the requirement for fossil fuels while also solving a solid-waste problem. At some kilns spent solvents, used oils, and other hazardous wastes are also commonly consumed. According to the industry, the high temperatures and long residence times of the materials in
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the kiln are more than adequate to completely destroy any organic contaminants in the waste materials. Concerns have been raised, however, that the high prices kilns can demand for disposing of the problematic wastes may lead to abuses, such as including waste materials without sufcient fuel value to justify their use. Recent environmental regulations should prevent future serious abuses by cement kilns, and potential concerns about toxic residues in CMUs used on a buildings exterior should have no impact on indoor air quality. Various iron oxides act as the coloring agent in CMUs and in mortar used with them. Up to 3 percent by weight of the cement used to make CMUs may be composed of pigments. Both natural and synthetic iron oxides are used in construction materials. Natural pigments are processed from one of four types of iron ore: hematite, limonite, siderite, and magnetite. These ores are obtained by mining from soil deposits. They can be processed in a variety of ways, including washing and purifying in either wet or dry form, and calcination. Open-pit mining of pigment minerals affects habitats, surface waters, and air quality in ways similar to those described above for other materials. Calcination requires signicant fossil fuel energy, and releases air pollutants from the fuel combustions and from volatiles driven off the mineral ores. Synthetic pigments are generally made from by-products of other industries and are more extensively processed than natural pigments. One common method uses titanium dioxide, which is made from sands rich in the appropriate minerals. The sand is processed by either a sulfate or a chloride method to produce titanium dioxide. The sulfate method also produces ferrous sulfate, which is used to make iron oxide pigments. Both methods produce several waste products that are commonly disposed of in the ocean or by deep well injection, though recycling options are being explored. Embodied energy for pigment production is estimated at 15,000 Btus/lb (35 MJ/kg). Various additives are used in CMUs to modify specic properties of the blocks. CMUs used in exterior veneer walls may have additives designed to inhibit eforescence, densify the concrete, and repel water. Many additives are soap or soaplike compounds, often produced from waste products from timber production, paper pulping, and corn fermentation. Stearic acid is often produced from beef tallow, a by-product of beef production. Clean and potable water is required to manufacture concrete. Water content is slightly over one gallon (3.8 liters) per typical block. Mortar used to construct a wall of CMUs is made of portland cement, hydrated lime, and sand, along with pigments and other additives. Grout, used to fill the cores as needed for structural reinforcement, is similar to mortar with the addition of pea-gravel or another aggregate. Environmental impacts associated with the extraction and preparation of these materials are described above.
Some cement kilns burn used tires and hazardous waste as fuel.
Manufacturing and Fabrication The ingredients of concrete masonry units are delivered to a block plant, usually by truck. At the plant the materials are mixed and placed in unit molds. In the mold the mixture is vibrated and compressed. It is then removed from the mold and delivered to a kiln or curing chamber. Blocks are typically cured overnight in a light mist of 120F (67C) water. Other methods, including autoclave curing and curing in a high CO2 atmosphere, are used in some instances.
Energy is used in the block manufacturing process to transport the materials, combine and shape them mechanically, and heat them during curing.
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Architectural Precast Concrete Life Cycle
Mortar and grout are often mixed on site, though in some cases the dry materials arrive premixed. Particulate emissions from the mixing process can cause eye and skin irritation and lung damage.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance CMUs are installed by stacking with mortar joints. The wall may be reinforced by inserting a reinforcing rod and grout in the hollow cores at specied intervals. About 1.5 cubic feet of mortar is required per 100 sq ft of wall (4.5 l/sq m), using standard CMUs.
Walls built of CMUs can reduce energy use by storing heat.
Used in a veneer wall, CMUs can help conserve energy because of their thermal mass. The mass of the concrete heats up slowly and releases heat gradually, creating a time lag in the movement of heat through the building envelope. This time lag can reduce peak energy loads and may also reduce total energy use. Waste produced at the job site includes unused and excess mortar and broken or unacceptable CMUs. Some CMUs are shipped on pallets, which may be returned to the manufacturer for reuse if they are not damaged. Mortar and grout may be delivered in plastic-lined paper bags, which are disposed of in a landll. If a surface coating is applied, periodic resurfacing may be necessary. Mortar joints may need periodic repointing or repair.
Used CMUs can be crushed and used as backll.
Reuse, Recycling, or Disposal Upon demolition, CMUs should not be reused because the pores will have become sealed with mortar, preventing a strong bond from forming. Broken or crushed CMUs may be used as backll material, ll, roadbed aggregate, or aggregate for new CMUs. Waste concrete from demolition is the single largest category of construction/demolition waste.

Architectural precast concrete, as opposed to structural precast, is commonly used in exterior non-load-bearing wall cladding applications. Cladding categories include solid wall units, window wall units, spandrel units, and column and mullion cover units. These products are similar in composition to structural concrete components, but various additives and pigments may be added, and special cements and aggregate may be chosen for aesthetic reasons.
Material Acquisition and Preparation Concrete is made from portland cement, aggregates (including ne aggregates, such as sand, and coarse aggregates, such as crushed stone), and water (see gure 21). Any of a wide range of additives may be used to affect properties such as curing time, acceptable curing conditions, vapor permeability, and many others. These materials are combined to create a stiff slurry, which is poured into a form or mold that usually incorporates steel reinforcing.
Portland cement, composing about 10 percent of the mixture by volume, is the primary active ingredient. The cement reacts chemically with the water and bonds the aggregates together, creating a rocklike material. Cement is also the most energy-intensive major ingredient of concrete. The cement manufacturing process is described above in the section on concrete masonry units. Limestone, sand, gypsum, iron ore, coal, and many concrete aggregates are mined in open pits, causing land disturbance, habitat alteration, soil erosion, and water runoff. The runoff can cause deoxygenation of surface waters, leading to loss of faunal diversity and possible shkill. Bauxite mining affects tropical forests and, even after the land is reclaimed, results in loss of habitat. Air emissions from the mining and manufacturing processes include particulates, dust, and combustion emissions from mining operations. Energy use for extracting the
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Figure 21: Materials Flow for Precast Concrete
Portland cement
Sand (small aggregate)
Crushed stone (large aggregate)
Concrete mix
Water
Additives
Steel reinforcing
Precast concrete
materials is primary diesel fuel for heavy machinery used for extraction, initial processing, and transportation of the materials. Steel reinforcing used in precast panels includes wire mesh, rebar, and other products. These items may be made almost entirely from scrap steel in an electric arc furnace, or from a combination of iron and scrap steel (about 20 percent scrap) in a basic oxygen furnace. The primary components of iron are iron ore, limestone, and coke (refined coal). Using scrap reduces the impacts of mining and rening raw materials and saves about 60 percent of the energy (and associated emissions). Where scrap steel is the primary source for steel manufacture, the environmental impacts are limited to energy use for transportation and remanufacturing process. The remanufacturing fuel is primarily electricity, with environmental burdens that vary depending on the fuels used by power plants.
Manufacturing and Fabrication The manufacture of precast concrete panels involves mixing the ingredients, pouring them into a form containing appropriate reinforcing materials, and allowing the concrete to cure. Bolts and other hardware for fastening the panels are also cast into the concrete. Various surface textures can be created on the panels by lining the form with appropriate materials. Exposed aggregate nishes are obtained in a number of ways: a chemical that retards curing can coat the inside of the form, allowing the uncured cement to be washed away once the form is removed; the partially cured concrete may be blasted with abrasive particles; the surface may be etched with acid; tooled nishes may be applied with hand or power tools; or the surface may be honed or polished like stone.
Concrete panels can also be used as the substrate for any number of other nish materials, including stone veneers, brick, and metal. As the quantities of mix required can be calculated accurately in a manufacturing setting, little concrete is wasted in precast operations.
CLADDINGS
APP 3
25
Claddings
Construction, Use, and Maintenance On site, concrete panels are lifted into place with a crane or other device and afxed to the structural wall or frame. In a curtain-wall system, concrete panels may be able to help conserve energy because of their thermal mass. The mass of the concrete heats up slowly and releases heat gradually, creating a time lag in the movement of heat through the building envelope. This time lag can reduce peak energy loads and may also reduce total energy use. Reuse, Recycling, or Disposal After demolition, concrete panels are generally disposed of in a landll. Often the panels are crushed before disposal, and the steel reinforcing is magnetically removed for recycling. Waste concrete from demolition is the single largest category of construction/demolition waste. A small amount of the material is reused as aggregate or clean ll.
26
APP 3
CLADDINGS
Claddings
References and Organizations
References
American Institute of Architects (AIA). Brick and Mortar: technical report. 1994a. Environmental Resource Guide. American Institute of Architects, Washington, DC. . Ceramic Tile: technical report. 1994b. Environmental Resource Guide. American Institute of Architects, Washington, DC. . Concrete Masonry: technical report. 1994c. Environmental Resource Guide. American Institute of Architects, Washington, DC. . Concrete: technical report. Draft, 1995a. Environmental Resource Guide. American Institute of Architects, Washington, DC. . Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall Applications: technical report. Draft 1995b. Environmental Resource Guide. American Institute of Architects, Washington, DC. Drysdale, R. et al. 1994. Masonry Structures: Behavior and Design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Drysdale, R., and G. Suter. 1991. Exterior Wall Construction in High-Rise Buildings: Brick Veneer on Concrete Masonry or Steel Stud Wall Systems. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. 2d ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Masonry Institute of America. 1994. Masonry Veneer. 2d ed. Wang, Marcy Li, Isao Sakamoto, and Bruce L. Bassler. 1992. Cladding. McGraw-Hill.
Marble Institute of America, 33505 State Street, Farmington, MI 48335; 313/476-5558; 313/476-1630 (fax). National Concrete Masonry Association, 2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, VA 22071; 703/713-1900; 703/713-1910 (fax). Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60077; 708/966-6200; 708/966-8389 (fax). Tile Council of America, P.O. Box 1787, Clemson, SC 29633; 803/646-4021; 803/646-2821 (fax).
Organizations
Brick Institute of America, 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, VA 22091; 703/620-0010; 703/620-3928 (fax). Building Stone Institute, P.O. Box 507, Purdys, NY 10578; 914/232-5725; 914/232-5259 (fax). Ceramic Tile Institute of America, 12061 West Jefferson Boulevard, Culver City, CA 90230; 310/574-7800. Indiana Limestone Institute of America, Stone City Bank Building, Suite 400, Bedford, IN 47421; 812/275-4426. International Masonry Institute, 823 15th Street, N.W., Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20005; 202/3833903; 202/783-0433 (fax).
CLADDINGS
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27
Application Report
Wall Finishes: Drywall and Plaster

The vast majority of residential and commercial buildings are nished on interior walls and ceilings with gypsum drywall or plaster systems. Whereas plasterand-lath was once the most common nish system, drywall now has more than 75 percent of the market. Veneer plaster is a hybrid of sorts: drywall panels, with a skim coat of plaster over the entire surface. Environmental impacts resulting from these wall nishes are minimal. In fact, few (if any) of the major building components are as environmentally benign as these products.
Highlights
s
Gypsum, the primary constituent of both drywall and gypsum lath board, is a plentiful raw material, with no shortages foreseen. The primary impacts associated with gypsum extraction are fossil fuel combustion by excavation equipment and surface water siltation from mining runoff. Flue-gas or by-product gypsum (sometimes called recovered gypsum) is now being used in place of virgin gypsum in several drywall plants around the country. Flue-gas gypsum is a waste product from the stack scrubbers of coal-red power plants. The paper facings on most drywall are now 100 percent recycled paper. The paper is usually neither bleached nor deinked. There may be some VOC off-gassing from drywall, drywall joint compound, and plaster, but once these materials have been installed they are considered highly inert and extremely minor contributors to indoor air quality problems in buildings. However, there is some evidence that drywall can absorb VOCs from other sources in a building and release those indoor air contaminants over time. Both drywall and plaster-and-lath systems result in considerable solid waste. In new construction, approximately 10 percent of drywall becomes waste, and although technically that drywall scrap can be recycled, little is today. In renovation and demolition, large quantities of drywall and plaster waste are generated, none of which can be recycled.
s s
s s
Minimize waste by designing buildings on a standard two- or four-foot module and ordering optimally sized drywall panels. In commercial buildings where rearrangement of interior partitions is likely, consider a demountable drywall system so that drywall can be reused or taken down for salvage. Look for drywall with high recycled content: 100 percent recycled paper facings and use of ue-gas or industrial by-product gypsum. You may need to contact the manufacturer to nd out about recycled content. For chemically sensitive clients, avoid using drywall adhesive and specify low-VOC joint compound. Specify good ventilation during drywall installation so that VOCs from other sources will not be absorbed into drywall, and paint drywall soon after installation to reduce absorptivity. If possible, recycle drywall and gypsum lath scraps. Ground drywall is used in some areas as a soil amendment for agriculture or an additive in municipal composting operations. Minimize sanding of drywall joint compound, and use a vacuum collection system to keep dust down.
s s
WALL FINISHES
APP 4
Wall Finishes
Comparative Environmental Performance Finish Materials
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceFinish Materials*

Energy Impacts on operational energy use
Gypsum drywall system Plaster and lath system

1 1
4
Transportation
Notes
General Each cell in the above matrix is further explained in the Environmental Impacts gures in this report. Performance Range 1 This range reects the higher energy and greater emissions resulting from the use of steel lath rather than gypsum lath.
2
This range reects potential benets to the indoor environment from using low-VOC or zero-VOC joint compound and from preventing the drywall from absorbing VOCs during installation. This range reects the operating energy advantages possible with plaster if the designer takes advantage of the heat storage capabilities of plaster in buildings utilizing passive solar design. This range depends on whether or not the drywall scraps from installation are recycledeither returned to the manufacturer for recycling, or ground up for use as a soil amendment.
APP 4
WALL FINISHES
Wall Finishes
Environmental Impacts Gypsum Drywall
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsGypsum Drywall

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Minimal impact. Primarily pollution from diesel fuel combustion during mining operations and dust from gypsum mining and processing. High recycled-paper use limits air emissions attributable to paper manufacture. Synthetic components of joint compound may produce pollutants during manufacture. Minimal. Some surface water siltation may occur from runoff of water from mining operations. Some water pollution from paper manufacture, though facings are neither bleached nor deinked. Landll space problems due to volume of construction and demolition waste. Localized impacts in areas of gypsum mining. Abundant supplies of all materials. Minimal impact or concern. Primary concern is dust during sanding of joint compound. Some limited evidence of VOC off-gassing. Some people with severe chemical sensitivities may react to VOCs in joint compound. Drywall installation requires little labor (compared with plaster and lath), so benet to local economy is less. Fairly low embodied energy. Shipping energy fairly high due to weight of drywall, but plants are scattered widely throughout North America, so product is usually available from regional source. Because not all plants produce a full range of drywall products, shipping from a distance may be required even if there is a close plant. Little impact positive or negative, though drywall is less effective than plaster as a heat storage medium for passive solar heating. Good durability. Long life expectancy unless water damage occurs. Some concern from dimpling and joint cracks. Easy to repair. Can be repainted or resurfaced with wallpaper many times. If demountable drywall is installed (with clips rather than screws or nails), drywall can be salvaged with relatively little loss. Otherwise, damage during removal usually precludes reuse. Used drywall is not recyclable because of concern about contamination in older products.
Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health
Energy
Production/manufacturing Transportation
Building operation
WALL FINISHES
APP 4
Wall Finishes
Environmental Impacts Plaster and Lath
Figure 3: Environmental Impacts: Plaster and Lath

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Pollution from diesel fuel combustion during mining operations and dust from raw material processing. Air emissions, including signicant quantities of CO2, from cement kiln operation (for portland cement plasters). Various air emissions associated with metal lath production come from iron ore and coal mining, steel manufacture, and galvanizing. Surface water siltation may occur from runoff of water from mining operations. May be water pollution from steel production. Localized impacts in areas of gypsum, limestone, iron ore, and coal mining. Abundant supplies of all materials, though coal (for coke production) is a fossil fuel with nite supplies. Minimal impact or concern. Minimal (if any) impact. Some dust from mixing plaster.
Minimal concern. Some people with severe chemical sensitivities may react to surface treatments on gypsum lath, residual oils on metal lath, or components in plaster. Cured plaster is highly inert. As labor-intensive process, plastering is benecial to local communities, but skilled plasterers are not available in all areas. Fairly low embodied energy for gypsum lath board and plaster; higher embodied energy for steel lath. Lath (metal and gypsum) may be energy intensive to ship, depending on distance. Little impact positive or negative, though plaster is an effective heat storage medium for passive solar heating. Excellent durability. Long life expectancy. Easy to repair. Can be repainted or resurfaced with wallpaper many times. Neither reusable nor recyclable.
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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WALL FINISHES
Wall Finishes

These recommendations offer some guidelines for selecting and using finish materials to minimize the overall environmental impacts of a building.
Building Design Issues Plan building dimensions to optimize material use. Design buildings and rooms on 2-ft or 4-ft modules, and plan window and door locations so that full-length sheets of drywall can be used. Provide a panel layout plan to optimize material ordering. Check with the general contractor or drywall/plaster contractor to nd out the maximum length panels he or she can work with. Design buildings to take advantage of the heat-storing capacity of plaster to reduce heating and cooling energy use. Specifying Finish Materials In commercial buildings where interior wall layout may change, consider a demountable drywall system. Drywall panels clip in place on metal framing and can be reconfigured or salvaged fairly easily if building needs change. For re wall applications, specify a single layer of higher-rated drywall (e.g., 34 in. or 1 in.) rather than multiple thinner sheets. Specify recycled-content drywall or gypsum lath board if it is available locally. Ask sales representatives about the product sold in your area. Most drywall has 100 percent recycled paper facings. Some plants use recycled gypsum from new drywall scraps, ue-gas gypsum, or by-product gypsum in place of virgin gypsum. It may not be wise to specify a high-recycledcontent product if it has to be shipped from a much greater distance. Specify panels as long as possible (within the capabilities of the drywall/plaster contractor) to minimize joints. Install panels to minimize joint taping. By specifying the right length, panels can be installed vertically with minimal waste. With horizontal installation, two standard-width panels work well for 8-ft walls; for 9-ft walls, specify drywall 54 in. wide (available from some manufacturers) to minimize cut-off waste, save labor during installation, and reduce tape and joint compound use. Specify dry-mix joint compound instead of ready-mix products that are sold in plastic pails. Dry-mix products have fewer additives, result in less packaging waste, and require less energy for shipping. Specify low-VOC joint compound if dealing with chemically sensitive clients. Specify paper rather than berglass joint tape. If using steel lath in a plaster-and-lath system, specify steel lath with high recycled content. Specify mechanical fasteners (screws, nails) rather than adhesive for installing drywall and gypsum lath. Installation When remodeling a commercial space with demountable drywall, remove panels carefully for salvage. By placing an ad in the newspaper, the contractor may be able to have salvaged sheets hauled away at no costsaving a great deal of money on a large commercial job. Store drywall or gypsum lath carefully to minimize damage. Most manufacturers recommend storing panels flat (on blocking); panels can be stored vertically for a short period of time. Make sure panels are fully protected from rain.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 WALL FINISHES APP 4
metal lath
plaster
base
gypsum lath wood stud and bottom plate section through typical wall
wood stud metal lath and plaster
plan using metal lath
wood stud gypsum lath and plaster
plan-using gypsum lath
Figure 4: Wood Stud and Lath (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 462, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Wall Finishes
Store drywall and gypsum lath away from VOC sources. There is some evidence that VOCs may be absorbed into gypsum board, which could release them over time. Ventilate area during installation to remove VOCs. Some VOCs may be offgassed from gypsum board, joint compound, or plaster. VOCs from other sources could be absorbed into gypsum board if the area is not vented. Plan panel use carefully to minimize drywall cutoff waste. Save larger drywall or gypsum lath scraps carefully so that they can be used for small areas to be paneled. Attempt to recycle drywall or gypsum lath scraps generated on the job site. Find out if the drywall supplier will take back clean scraps for back-hauling to the manufacturer. If it is not possible to recycle gypsum scrap for use in manufacturing new products, contact a county agriculturalist or local solid-waste agency to nd out if there is a place where new drywall scrap can be taken for grinding, to be used as an agricultural soil amendment or in municipal composting operations. Larger drywall contracting businesses might want to invest in equipment to grind drywall cutoffs on site to sell or give away for agricultural or other uses. Minimize joint sanding during installation. Choose a skilled drywall contractor who will apply a minimum of excess compound. Suggest nishing joints with a sponge to reduce the need for sanding. When sanding joint compound, use a vacuum collection system to minimize dust. Prime drywall or plaster soon after installation to minimize VOC absorption (the signicance of this concern is not known). Standard latex primer may not be effective at blocking VOC absorption.
APP 4
WALL FINISHES
Wall Finishes
Life-Cycle Assessments of Finish Materials Gypsum Drywall
Life-Cycle Assessments of Finish Materials

Two basic nish systems are addressed here: drywall, including gypsum board, joint tape, and joint compound; and plaster and lath, including either metal or gypsum board substrate (lath) and plaster coatings. Blue board drywall with a thin veneer plaster or skim coat is a hybrid system. All these systems also include fasteners (usually screws or nails, but also adhesive in some cases). Life-cycle assessment (LCA) summaries of each of these systems are presented here.
Gypsum Drywall System

Description of Material
Gypsum board, or drywall, is the most widely used nish material in residential, commercial, and industrial construction, covering more than 75 percent of the interior surfaces of our buildings. This widespread use stems from drywalls ease of installation, re resistance, exibility in coatings and nish treatments on its monolithic surface, durability, ease of repair, and low cost. Drywall is a very signicant component of a typical residential building, yet it accounts for only about 3 percent of the building cost, including installation. Drywall consists of a core of gypsum surrounded by kraft paper facings. It is most commonly produced in panels 48 in. wide by 8 ft to 12 ft long and from 516 in. to 1 in. thick. Several different types of drywall are produced with modications to the gypsum core or facings. These include moisture-resistant drywall or green board, Type-X drywall with glass fibers and improved re resistance, and foil-backed drywall. Drywall is installed using joint tape and joint compound. The joint tape is usually paper, but berglass mesh tape is also used. The joint compound is either ready-mix or purchased dry and mixed on-site with water.
Gypsum, the primary raw material of drywall, is in plentiful supply.
Material Acquisition and Preparation Gypsum Drywall. There are two primary components of gypsum drywall: gypsum and kraft paper. Gypsum, a form of calcium sulfate, is a common mineral. The United States is the worlds largest producer, accounting for nearly 10 million tons in 1990. The states of Iowa, Oklahoma, Michigan, Texas, Nevada, California, and Indiana account for 75 percent of domestic production. Mexico and the Maritime Provinces of Canada are also large producers. Gypsum is considered a plentiful mineral with no supply constraints.
Figure 5: Material Flow for Gypsum Board
Additives: starch, glass fiber, perlite, vermiculite, accelerator
Gypsum
Wood
Waste paper
Bleaching chemicals
Kraft paper
Gypsum board
WALL FINISHES
APP 4
Wall Finishes
Synthetic gypsum from pollutioncontrol equipment on coal-red power plants can be used in drywall manufacture.
In addition to use of natural gypsum, in recent years there has been increasing use of synthetic, by-product, or recovered gypsum, which is produced as a by-product of another industrial process. Sources of synthetic gypsum include the processing of phosphate rock into phosphoric acid in fertilizer production, the manufacture of titanium dioxide, and pollution control equipment on coal-red power plants. The last source, often called ue-gas gypsum, is environmentally attractive because tremendous quantities are being produced by utility companies, presenting a signicant disposal problem. Scrubbers in power plant stacks use calcium carbonate to extract sulfur from ue-gas emissions. The sulfur dioxide (SO2) reacts with the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to produce gypsum (CaSO4). One drywall manufacturer has two plants using 100 percent flue-gas desulphurization gypsum, and other manufacturers are using lesser amounts. Increased use of ue-gas gypsum is expected in the future. Most natural gypsum (85 percent) is produced from open-pit mines, the rest from underground mining. Environmental impacts from gypsum mining include land disturbance, runoff from mining sites and tailings waste piles, and pollution from fuel combustion to operate mining and hauling equipment. Gypsum is considered nontoxic, and gypsum deposits are generally not associated with heavy metals or toxic minerals. However, increased turbidity and siltation in surface waters can cause deoxygenation and have signicant impact on wildlife. Active surface mining results in erosion on the order of 48,000 tons per square mile per yearabout the same level of runoff as from construction sites, or 2,000 times the runoff from forest land, 10 times the runoff from cropland, and 4 times the runoff from clear-cut forest. Emissions occur in processing gypsum. Dust is released in crushing, grinding, and grading gypsum. Air emissions result from drying and calcining operations, both of which require fossil fuels. Calcining gypsum converts the natural (dihydrate) form of calcium sulfate into a hemihydrate form commonly called stucco. Calciners are the largest point source of air pollution from gypsum plants; gypsum ore dryers are the second largest. The facings on drywall are made from paper, and papermaking results in signicant environmental damage, including air, water, and solid-waste impacts. The pulp and paper industry ranked fourth in the 1988 EPA Toxics Release Inventory, and the industry is the secondlargest consumer of chemicals. Among the emissions from paper mills are sulfur oxides, particulates, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, lead, methane, hydrogen sulde, sodium hydroxide, organic sulfur compounds, chlorine, chloroform, and dioxin. The environmental impacts associated with production of drywall facings are greatly reduced by the fact that most of the paper for facings is produced from recycled stock that is neither deinked nor bleached. According to the Gypsum Association, the gypsum industry has been the largest user of recycled paper since the 1950s. Several of the largest drywall manufacturers use 100 percent recycled paper in their facings, and one of the two largest manufacturers uses 100 percent postconsumer recycled paper. Making recycled paper requires 27 to 44 percent less energy than making virgin paper. There has been increasing market acceptance of drywall with a grayish tint and variability in color, obviating the need for deinking and bleaching. One of the largest manufacturers claims that its face paper is more colorful after Christmas because of the colorful ads in newspapers.
Joint Tape. Joint tape is produced from either paper or fiberglass. The paper products,
Pollution emissions from paper manufacture are signicant, but the kraft paper used on drywall is 100% recycled and neither de-inked nor bleached reducing the impacts considerably.
which constitute the bulk of the market, are not known to contain any recycled content. Environmental impacts associated with manufacturing joint tape include the impacts associated with paper bleaching and with fiberglass production. Chlorine emissionsincluding dioxinthat result from paper bleaching are among the most serious environmental impacts associated with papermaking. Because of the very small quantity of joint tape used in a
APP 4
WALL FINISHES
Wall Finishes
Figure 6: Material Flow for Joint Tape
Wood
Waste paper
Kraft paper
Joint tape (paper)
Bleaching chemicals
Glass sand
Limestone Glass fiber Borax Joint tape (glass fiber)
Binder and adhesives
typical building project (compared with use of other materials), these impacts are not covered in greater detail here.
Joint Compound. Joint compound varies from manufacturer to manufacturer but typi-
cally contains calcium carbonate (limestone) or gypsum to provide body; polyvinyl acetate or starch as a binder, mica, clay, talc, and/or perlite as a ller; ethylene glycol or another substance as an extender, and antibacterial and antifungal agents. The limestone, gypsum, mica, clay, talc, and perlite are all minedusually from open-pit mines. Impacts associated with mining these materials are relatively minor and similar to those of mining gypsum (see above). The polyvinyl acetate used as a binder in most joint compound is more of a concern environmentally. It is produced by mixing benzene with vinyl acetate, which itself is produced from acetic acid and ethylene (from natural gas). Benzene is a known carcinogen and is highly regulated. Vinyl acetate is a hazardous air pollutant. VOCs and pollutants from fossil fuel combustion are also released in polyvinyl acetate production and in the extraction of fossil fuel source chemicals. During ethylene production, numerous water pollutants may be released, including chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals such as zinc, cadmium, chromium, and copper. The starch used in some joint compound is generally produced from corn. Environmental impacts associated with starch include fertilizer and pesticide runoff from farmland and fossil fuel combustion emissions associated with operating farm equipment. There is very little waste or unusable by-product. Ethylene glycol in joint compound has been largely replaced by other, less harmful chemicals, but specics are not known because of the proprietary nature of joint compound formulations.
The polyvinyl acetate used in most joint compound is produced from environmentally hazardous components.
WALL FINISHES
APP 4
Wall Finishes
Figure 7: Material Flow for Joint Compound
Limestone
Mica, clay, talc, perlite Corn
Starch
or
Acetic acid
Vinyl acetate
Polyvinyl acetate
Joint compound
Natural gas
Ethylene
Oxygen silver oxide Antibacterial/antifungal agents
Ethylene glycol
Manufacture
During manufacture of drywall, the gypsum is mixed with various additivessuch as starch, glass ber, perlite, vermiculite, and accelerators (usually raw gypsum or potassium sulfate) and combined with water and soap foam to form a slurry. This slurry is spread between two moving sheets of paper and passed through shaping rollers. The kraft paper is physically bonded to the gypsum as the gypsum hardens; the only adhesive required is to seal the paper overlap at the edges. This continuous board is fed through a drying kiln, then cut to length. Primary emissions during drywall manufacturing include dust, most of which is collected in sophisticated bag houses and other particulate control systems. Most end cuts and damaged boards are cut into strips and used for risers between stacks of drywall to facilitate forklift handling. Little information is available on the manufacture of joint compound. The total estimated embodied energy in drywall is shown in the table below, broken down into components.
Figure 8: Embodied Energy of Drywall
Component Btus/lb of material Fraction of material in 1/2 drywall Total embodied energy per 4x8 sheet 12" drywall (Btus) 96,300 57,000 69,700 29,000 252,000
Calcined gypsum Recycled paper Manufacturing Transportation Total (weighted)
1,400 11,000 930 390 3,390
93% 7% 100% 100%
10
APP 4
WALL FINISHES
Wall Finishes
Installation, Use, and Maintenance
Drywall is attached to steel studs with screws and to wood studs with screws or nailswith or without adhesive. In commercial buildings, demountable drywall can be installed using special drywall clips. This permits easier removal in the future if the building design needs to be changed. Joint tape is embedded into joint compound, and one or two additional layers of joint compound are applied over the tape. A smooth nished surface is usually provided by light sanding. Drywall installation results in signicant quantities of waste, owing in part to the materials low cost. The gypsum industry estimates that up to 10 percent of the gypsum board shipped to construction sites ends up as waste. Drywall scraps may be recycled back into new drywall if there is a facility nearby that accepts scrap for recycling. (Currently, relatively few plants accept scrap for recycling.) In some areas, drywall scrap can be shredded and used as a soil amendment, as animal bedding, or as an additive in municipal composting operations. The most signicant health concern relating to drywall installation is dust inhalation from sanding drywall. Though gypsum dust is not considered toxic, it can cause respiratory problems. Although gypsum drywall is inert and extremely low in volatile emissions, there is some evidence of off-gassing from additives, such as those in moisture-resistant and Type-X drywall. In addition, the recycled paper facings may contain chemicals from previous uses of the paper (printing inks, etc.). And there is some evidence that joint compound may emit small amounts of formaldehyde, toluene, ethyl benzene, styrene, xylene, and other VOCs. Data on all of these emissions are inconsistent and inconclusive. There is at least one joint compound available that is marketed as being free of volatile chemicals and safe for people with chemical sensitivities. There is some evidence that drywall may act as a sink for VOCs from other sources. According to this theory, the drywall absorbs formaldehyde and other chemicals and can then reemit them over time. One study found evidence of this effect even after the drywall had been painted with latex paint. Further research will be required to determine if this sink effect indeed occurs and, if so, to what extent. At one time joint compound contained asbestos, which is a known carcinogen. Therefore, for drywall installed prior to 1977, care should be taken during maintenance or remodeling. Do not sand old joint compound, or if you do, take adequate precautions.
Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal
Signicant waste is generated during drywall installationup to 10% of the total drywall.
There is some (limited) evidence of VOC emissions from drywall and joint compound.
Properly installed and maintained and kept free from moisture, drywall should last indenitely. But remodeling or demolition typically generates drywall waste. There is currently no way to recycle used drywall because of the paint and other coverings and the risk that asbestos may be present. Those drywall plants that use recycled drywall will accept only new drywall scrap for recycling, and some will not accept even new drywall scrap from job sites; they only accept damaged material from building supply or distribution yards. Landlling drywall may result in release of dangerous gases under certain conditions. In the presence of water and under acidic, anaerobic conditions, gypsum may decompose into hydrogen sulde, a smelly and potentially toxic gas. For this reason, some landlls will not accept drywall waste. Hydrogen sulde emissions can be controlled in landlls by keeping moisture away or by adding lime at a rate of 3-5 lbs per ton of drywall to inhibit the growth of anaerobic bacteria that break down the gypsum.
Very little scrap drywall is currently recycled.
Landlling of drywall scraps can generate hydrogen sulde gas under some conditions.
WALL FINISHES
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11
Wall Finishes
Life-Cycle Assessments of Finish Materials Plaster and Lath
Plaster- and Lath-Finish System
Description of System. The plaster-and-lath nish system was once widely used in both
commercial and residential buildings, but with the advent of gypsum drywall, it lost popularity. With plaster and lath, a substrate or lath is secured to the wall framing, and plaster is applied over the lath. The lath may be a wire or expanded-metal mesh or gypsum plasterboard (or lath board), which is very similar in composition to drywall but has different surface properties for plaster adhesion. Blue board drywall is a sort of hybrid between drywall and plaster-lath systems. It is like drywall but has a special paper facing to which a skim-coat plaster bonds very well. Plaster is applied in paste form and cures to form a hard nish. Most plasters are categorized as either gypsum plaster or portland cement plaster, depending on the cementing agent used. Other constituents include lime, sand, hair, or fiber as reinforcing; water; and specialized materials as required to achieve desired properties. Plaster may be installed in one, two, or three coats. In three-coat systems, a scratch coat, brown coat, and nish coat are applied.
Material Acquisition and Preparation
The metal lath used in plaster-andlath nish systems has signicant environmental impacts.
Metal Lath. Metal lath for plaster and stucco is generally made from steel wire or sheet. The
raw materials required for steel production include iron ore, limestone, and coal. Impacts associated with obtaining these raw materials include land disturbance, runoff from mining sites and tailings piles, fossil fuel combustion emissions, dust generation, solid waste, and air pollution emissions. If the metal lath used is galvanized, there are environmental impacts associated with zinc mining and smelting. Overall environmental impacts are lessened by the fact that recycled steel scrap is often used in producing new steel. The recycled content for typical light-gauge steel is 15-20 percent, but from certain mills the recycled content can be as high as 95 percent. The life-cycle impacts are addressed in more detail in the ERG application report on light framing.
Figure 9: Material Flow for Metal Lath
Coal
Iron ore
Limestone
Steel scrap
Zinc
Coke
Steel
Metal lath
Gypsum Lath Board. Like drywall, gypsum lath board has a gypsum core and paper fac-
ings. Environmental impacts associated with gypsum lath board are essentially identical to those of drywall, described above.
12
APP 4
WALL FINISHES
Wall Finishes
Figure 10: Material Flow for Gypsum Lath Board

Additives Starch Glass fiber Perlite Vermiculite Accelerator
Gypsum
Wood
Waste paper
Bleaching chemicals
Kraft paper
Gypsum board lath
Plaster. Gypsum and cement plasters are produced from many of the same materials: lime-
stone, cement rock (a specialized type of limestone), gypsum, sand, clay, shale, perlite, hair, and fiber. The mineral components are all extracted from surface mines in a fairly lowimpact manner. Environmental concerns include land disturbance, runoff from mining sites and tailings piles, fossil fuel combustion emissions from mining and hauling equipment, and dust generation.
Figure 11: Material Flow for Plasters
Environmental concerns from plaster production are limited primarily to mining impacts.
Sand
Portland cement plasters
Limestone (including cement rock)
Gypsum
Cement
Silica
Clay
Perlite
Hair or natural fiber
Gypsum plasters
Primary processing of these materials may have more signicant impacts. A key step in gypsum, lime, and cement production is calcining, in which a chemical reaction to remove carbon dioxide occurs under high temperature in a kiln. Gypsum calcining is a fairly low-temperature process, but cement production requires very high-temperature calcining in a rotary kiln. This results in high embodied energy in portland cement: 6 to 8 million Btus/ton of cement.
WALL FINISHES
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13
Wall Finishes
Hair and other bers are no longer widely used in plaster, but they are still found in some products. Hair in plaster is obtained from tannery operations from either cattle or goat hides. Even though the hair can be considered a waste by-product from leather production, the environmental impacts associated with tanneries should be considered with plaster manufacture. Hides are often treated with insecticides, and hides are soaked in caustic solutions of sodium hydroxide and other chemicals. Although pollution controls are far better at tanneries that they were in the past, there may still be water pollution efuent from these facilities, including suspended solids, salts, sulphides, alkalinity, and nitrogen compounds. There may also be residual insecticides and other chemicals on hair. In addition to the materials mentioned above, plasters may contain epoxies and other synthetic resins. The most common types of epoxy are produced from phenol and acetone, which are fossil fuel derivatives that have various environmental impacts associated with their production.
Manufacture
Metal lath manufacturing from steel is fairly simple, requiring die cutting and expanding (in the case of expanded metal lath) or weaving (with wire lath). Depending on the product, the raw steel may be galvanized before lath production or after the wire or expanded metal lath has been produced. The total energy embodied in galvanized steel lath (including steel production) is approximately 33,000 Btus/pound. Gypsum lath board manufacture is similar to drywall manufacture, described above. Plaster manufacture involves little more than packaging the raw materialsmost are mixed on the job site. Some plaster materials are sold premixed like joint compound.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance
Installation of plaster lath may create significant solid waste, particularly if gypsum lath board is used. Waste may be less than with drywall because smaller sheets are typically installed, but that is not always the case. Plastering involves mixing plaster on the job site and applying it in layers. Environmental impacts associated with plastering are minimal. Because materials are mixed on site, usually little waste is produced. Clean-up of plastering tools and containers may result in some runoff of contaminated water or may introduce contaminated water to the wastewater treatment plant.
There is very little concern about indoor air quality problems from use of plaster and lath.
In terms of the indoor air quality impacts of plaster and lath, there is generally little concern. Chemically sensitive individuals may have reactions to surface treatments on gypsum lath, residual oils on metal lath, or components of the plaster. However, such indoor air quality effects are limited to the construction stage; once cured, plaster surfaces become hard, dense, and stable, thus preventing pollutants from escaping. Plaster is considered reasonably benign in terms of indoor air quality, and gypsum is inert and extremely low in emissions.
Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal
If properly installed and maintained, plaster and lath should be extremely durable and long lasting. During remodeling, however, considerable solid waste is generated. This waste cannot currently be recycled or reused. During remodeling, waste generation can often be reduced by leaving the old plaster in place and covering it with drywall. Under some conditions in landlls, gypsum lath board and gypsum plaster can result in production of hydrogen sulde gas (see discussion under drywall, above).
14
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WALL FINISHES
Wall Finishes
References
References
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1993. Plaster and Lath: technical report. In Environmental Resource Guide. Washington, DC. . 1994. Gypsum Board Systems: technical report. Environmental Resource Guide. Washington, DC. Gypsum Association. 1992. Treatment and Disposal of Gypsum Board Waste. Industry position paper. Washington, D.C. February. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. 2d ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Summer, M. E., W. P. Miller, D. E. Radcliff, and W. I. Segars. 1989. Principles of Gypsum Use as a Soil Amendment. MP-373. Agronomy Division, University of Georgia. October. United States Gypsum Company. 1992. Gypsum Construction Handbook. 90th anniversary edition.
WALL FINISHES
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15
Application Report
Resilient Flooring
Resilient ooring products are in widespread use in both commercial and residential buildings throughout North America. Although linoleum has been around since the 19th century, vinyl now accounts for the vast majority of installations. In the past few years, there has been a resurgence of interest in linoleum, fueled in part by environmental and health concerns about polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Highlights
s
Vinyl ooring is a synthetic product with PVC as the primary constituent. Signicant environmental impacts are associated with PVC manufacture and disposal. Plasticizers in vinyl ooring are signicant contributors to the overall environmental impacts. Historically, the most serious health problem associated with PVC manufacturing was a form of liver cancer caused by vinyl chloride exposure. Since discovering the problem 15 to 20 years ago, manufacturers have greatly reduced worker exposure to vinyl chloride. Durability of products varies greatly. Architects should choose a product with durability appropriate to the installation. Linoleum is a natural product produced from linseed oil, pine resin, cork dust or sawdust, inert llers, and pigments. Some off-gassing may occur as the linseed oil continues to oxidize after installation, but these emissions are not considered a health issue. Both vinyl and linoleum ooring are typically installed using adhesives. Offgassing from the adhesives may be more signicant than off-gassing from the actual ooring products. Neither vinyl nor linoleum ooring is currently recycled to any signicant level, but linoleum is biodegradable.
s s
s s
s
Make sure resilient ooring is the correct product for the application. Other types of ooring might be betterfor example, tile or stone if heat storage from passive solar heat is desirable. Provide construction detailing that will protect resilient ooring from moisture. Choose durable resilient ooring productsdurability varies considerably between different product types. In very high-wear areas, consider other types of ooring. Test chemically sensitive clients, as both vinyl and linoleum can off-gas and the compounds released differ signicantly. Optimize material use and minimize waste through careful ordering and installation. Specify zero-VOC or low-VOC adhesives for resilient ooring installation, but make sure the adhesives are compatible with the product to be installed. Consider alternative installation techniques to avoid use of adhesives. Ventilate the building directly to the outside during installation and for up to 72 hours afterward. Use care in removal of old vinyl ooring, as it may contain asbestos.
s s
s s s s s s
RESILIENT FLOORING
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Resilient Flooring
Comparative Environmental Performance Resilient Flooring
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceResilient Flooring*

Environment and Ecosystems Health and Welfare Building Operation
Air quality/atmospheric impactsa
2
Water quality/availabilitya
Vinyl ooring Linoleum
n/a n/a
Notes
a
Extent and impact of organochlorines released from PVC manufacture are highly controversial. b All linoleum is currently manufactured in Europe. Performance Range 1 Impacts on indoor air quality (IAQ) depend on product type (VCT is better than sheet vinyl) and VOC content of adhesives used. Total VOCs over time may be higher from linoleum, but only those from vinyl may be health hazards.
2
Durability depends on type of product specied.
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RESILIENT FLOORING
Transportationb
Resilient Flooring
Environmental Impacts Vinyl Flooring
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsVinyl Flooring

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from fossil fuel combustion, petroleum extraction and rening, mining dusts for llers, pigment ores. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines. Water pollution from drilling sludges from petroleum and natural gas extraction, by-products of petroleum rening, fugitive releases from PVC and plasticizer manufacturing. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines. Small degree of impacts from mining for llers, pigment ores. Some fossil fuel depletion. Most raw materials in good supply. Small degree of impacts from mining for llers, pigment ores. PVC and plasticizer manufacture requires many hazardous precursors, creates risk for workers if not handled properly. Some releases of VOCs and other (possibly toxic) chemicals, mostly during rst few days of installation. Plasticizers may offgas for a longer time. Adhesives may also contribute VOCs. Fugitive emissions from PVC manufacturing might affect surrounding areas. Relatively energy intensive to manufacture, including feedstock value of petrochemicals used. Both raw materials and nished products are transported great distances to and from highly centralized factories. No impact. Short, 8- to 15-year life span is typical. Some high-quality products can last up to 40 years. Waxing is commonly done, though not necessary. Not reusable after installation. Composite materialvery difcult to recycle.
Land and soil quality/availability Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health
Energy
Transportation
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Resilient Flooring
Environmental Impacts Linoleum
Figure 3: Environmental ImpactsLinoleum

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric Impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from fossil fuels burned to provide energy. Some VOCs from oxidation of linseed oil, and dust from wood/cork ours. Pesticide and fertilizer runoff from elds of ax, jute, pine tree plantations. Flax is not as fertilizer intensive as most crops, and the hulls are used as animal feed. Some build-up of pesticides, depletion of nutrients from ax crop. All raw materials appear to be in good supply. Use of waste wood and waste cork improves resource base. Agricultural lands are devoid of biodiversity. No signicant hazards. Some VOCs from ongoing oxidation of linseed oil may create unpleasant odor. VOCs from installation adhesives can be more problematic. No signicant impact. Reasonably energy intensive to produce. Both raw materials and nished products are transported great distances to and from factoriesat present made only in Europe. No impact. Good durability (up to 40 years); continues to toughen as linseed oil oxidizes. Minimal maintenance, especially for no-wax products. Not reusable after installation. Biodegradable under appropriate aerobic conditions.
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/Installer health Building occupant health( IAQ)
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RESILIENT FLOORING
Resilient Flooring

Building Design Issues Carefully match the ooring type to the space needs and building conguration. In certain situations, stone, tile, concrete, hardwood, or other ooring options may be preferable to resilient ooring. For example, in spaces with passive solar heating, choose a ooring type that will absorb and store heat. It is important to keep resilient ooring dry from below to prevent mold or mildew growth. Concrete slabs must be fully cured before installation of flooring. New low-VOC adhesives tend to be more sensitive to moisture than older formulations. Depending on the climate, type of building, oor location in the building, and location of insulation, it may be advisable to incorporate a vapor diffusion retarder detail beneath the ooring. From an indoor air quality standpoint, resilient ooring is generally (but not always) better than carpeting but worse than stone, tile, or hardwood ooring. Specifying Resilient Flooring Avoid resilient ooring in very high-wear areasor specify only the most durable grades of resilient ooring. Also consider other types of resilient ooring. If choosing vinyl ooring, specify a durable grade to ensure a long lifetime. Also consider other types of resilient ooring (to be addressed in future editions of the ERG), such as cork or recycled rubber ooring. Avoid trendy patterns or colors that may go out of style quickly and lead to premature replacement. Beware of using linoleum in rooms with photocopiers, because the chemicals can dissolve the linoleum. Specify sheet ooring in dimensions that will optimize material use. Avoid ordering large quantities for attic stock, which may never be needed. Test chemically sensitive clients before using any resilient ooring. Vinyl products are likely to emit more petrochemical-based volatile organic compounds (VOCs), but some people may be sensitive to VOCs from the linseed oil and pine resin in linoleum as well. Vinyl composition tile has less plasticizer than sheet vinyl and may therefore emit fewer VOCs. Specify zero-VOC or low-VOC adhesives and hot-melt seam glues for installation of resilient flooring materials. Note, however, that many generic ooring adhesives will not bond to linoleum because of its oil base. Thus, zero- or very-low-VOC adhesives available for vinyl ooring may not work with linoleum and are not endorsed by linoleum manufacturers. Installation Considerations Lay out ooring to optimize material use and minimize cutoff waste. Provide suitable underlayment for resilient flooring. Surfaces should be uniform, level, and free of holes or surface irregularities. With plywood suboors, it may be necessary to ll cracks and knots. Some resilient ooring can be stapled at the perimeter and glued only at the seams and portions of the perimeter, with baseboard trim helping to secure it in place. This will greatly reduce the amount of adhesive needed. If this method is used, care must be taken to prevent possible buckling of the ooringcheck with the ooring manufacturer about the suitability of this method of installation.
RESILIENT FLOORING
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Resilient Flooring
Installation Considerations
Use no more adhesive than absolutely necessary. Follow manufacturers recommendations carefully, and use only adhesive specically formulated for the product being installed. Many generic resilient ooring adhesives will not work with linoleum. Provide a high ventilation rate, with maximum outside air, during installation and for 48 to 72 hours after installation. If possible, ventilate directly to the outside. Do not let contaminated air recirculate through a district or whole-building air distribution system. Talk with manufacturers and nd out if they will accept cutoff waste from ooring jobs for recycling. Donate larger ooring remnants to local civic organizations rather than disposing of them in landlls or incinerators. Old vinyl ooring may contain asbestos and should be removed only by trained personnel. Residual adhesives from old ooring can bleed through to new ooring and/or interfere with the bonding of new adhesives. Remove or treat old adhesives to prevent such problems.
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RESILIENT FLOORING
Resilient Flooring
Vinyl Flooring Life Cycle

Vinyl flooring is in widespread use in both commercial and residential buildings, and it accounts for the vast majority of all resilient ooring installed. The popularity of vinyl ooring is a result of its low cost, ease of installation, and low maintenance. Vinyl ooring consists of polyvinyl chloride, PVC, as a binder, along with a range of additives: stabilizers (to increase resistance to deterioration) plasticizers (to increase exibility, resilience, and workability) llers (to increase dimensional stability, mass, and bulk) pigments (for opacity and color) Various other additives are used for ooring in specialized applications. Some vinyl ooring products incorporate a separate substrate and/or a layer of foamed PVC. Vinyl ooring is available in sheets and tiles. There are three basic types of sheet ooring: layered composite contains a foam layer and is most common in homes; inlaid sheet vinyl is more durable, consisting of a felt or vinyl backing layer under a vinyl wear layer; and homogeneous sheet vinyl, which is the most durable, used for high-performance applications. Vinyl tiles come in two basic types: vinyl composition tile, with a very high proportion of llers; and vinyl tile, which is more exible and durable. Vinyl composition tile is made with a vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymer, rather than with pure PVC.
Pollution emissions from PVC manufacture have been greatly reduced over the past several decades.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation PVC is made from salt (either rock salt or saltwater brine) and ethylene, derived from either natural gas or petroleum (see gure 4). Chlorine is extracted from the salt (sodium chloride) by electrolysis, leaving sodium hydroxide, which has many other industrial uses. The chlorine is reacted with ethylene to form dichloroethane (EDC). EDC then undergoes a cracking process, becoming vinyl chloride monomer and hydrochloric acid. There are several methods for polymerizing the vinyl chloride into polyvinyl chloride (PVC), depending on the desired qualities of the polymer.
Vinyl chloride monomer is a known human carcinogen and is strictly controlled. It is not known to be a serious environmental toxin, and its half-life in the atmosphere ranges from one day to a few hours. In spite of the controls, some fugitive emissions of vinyl chloride are inevitable. EDC, VOCs, and numerous other chemical by-products are emitted from the PVC manufacturing process. Some of these are organochlorines, which can disrupt human and animal endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems. The most notorious of these is a type of dioxin (TCDD), regarded as one of the most toxic synthetic chemicals ever studied. There is disagreement as to the amount of dioxin released from PVC manufacturePVC industry groups argue that the amount released is not signicant. The production of ethylene, either from natural gas or petroleum, is also a source of many potential environmental contaminants. The extraction of fossil fuels can discharge drilling muds and other wastes and can produce water containing various pollutants that increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, and benthic deposition and may harm waterways in other ways. Air emissions include combustion products from fuels used in the process. Processing of crude oil also releases various sludges, polluted wastewater, and air emissions, some of which, such as benzene, are highly toxic and/or carcinogenic. Wastes from chlorine production include air emissions of chlorine, brine mud consisting of precipitates such as magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate, and spent sulfuric acid.
Vinyl chloride monomer, a precursor of PVC, is a known human carcinogen.
Small amounts of dioxin may be released from PVC manufacture.
RESILIENT FLOORING
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Resilient Flooring
Figure 4: Materials Flow for Vinyl Flooring

Plasticizers (see flowchart) Brine or rock salt
Acetic acid
Crude oil
Natural gas
Lime, clay, or talc fillers Ethylene Pigments Ethylene dichloride Chlorine
Stabilizers and costabilizers (see flowchart) Substrate (for layered composite sheet vinyl see flowchart) PVC or acrylic inks (for some types only) Acrylic latex, melamine, or polyurethane coating (see flowchart)
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl ester (vinyl chloridevinyl acetate)
Polyvinyl chloride
Vinyl sheets
Vinyl flooring
Chlorine is toxic and can cause respiratory and eye irritation. Other wastes can contaminate water and may lead to shkill. Stabilizers used in vinyl ooring include organotin compounds; soaps of barium, calcium, and zinc; and older, more toxic formulations such as cadmium and lead soaps (see gure 5). Soybean oil, tallate esters, and other partially unsaturated oils are frequently used as costabilizers. Many of these stabilizers are made from agricultural products or by-products, the production of which can cause pesticide and fertilizer runoff, contaminating waterways. Many stabilizers are made from stearates, which, in turn, are made from tallow, a by-product of beef production. Solvents used to extract oils are generally recycled, but fugitive emissions of highly volatile chemicals, such as hexane, can cause various health problems. Various petrochemicals are used as plasticizers in vinyl ooring (see gure 6). The most common has been di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), though it may soon be phased out because of concerns about possible carcinogenicity and other health effects. Environmental impacts associated with the production of phthalates and other fossil-fuel-derived plasticizers include the impacts of natural gas and/or petroleum extraction and processing as described above. Limestone is the most common filler in vinyl products. Limestone is a common mineral throughout most of the United States. It is typically mined in open pits. Although runoff from limestone mining is not considered toxic, it can adversely affect both surface water and groundwater. Air pollutants from mining include dust and fossil fuel emissions from mining equipment. Most colored pigments are inorganic, though certain colors are available only as organic compounds. Heavy metals may be used in some colors. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the
Plasticizers used in some vinyl ooring may be carcinogenic.
APP 5
RESILIENT FLOORING
Resilient Flooring
Figure 5: Materials Flow for Stabilizers and Costabilizers

Mono- and diorganotin compounds Soybean and other oil crops
Cattle
Oils and fats
Hexane
Tallow
Soybean and other oils
recycling
Stearates
Partially unsaturated oils
Soaps
Stabilizers
Co-stabilizers
Figure 6: Materials Flow for Plasticizers
Crude oil
Xylene or naphthalene
Phthalic anhydride
Phthalates
Plasticizers
preferred white pigment. Titanium dioxide is produced from titanium-rich sands, which are obtained by dredging in waterways. The sand is processed and red at high temperatures to produce the pigment. Environmental impacts include siltation and disturbance of surface waters from dredging, release of toxic wastes into the ocean, disposal by deep well injection, and air emissions from the kilns. The substrate, or backing, used in layered composite ooring may be an organic felt made of cellulose bers, a mat of glass ber, or a polymeric backing of styrene butadiene (SB) latex or acrylic latex with inorganic llers (see gure 7). Inlaid sheet vinyl may have a felt backing of cellulose bers. Cellulose backing is made from waste wood or paper bers. The use of waste material may contribute to reducing stress on landlls. Some fossil fuel energy is used to dry the backing, which is formed from a slurry of bers and water. Glass for a berglass mat or scrim is produced from three primary raw materials: silica or glass sand, limestone, and soda ash. All three of these materials are mined, though soda ash can also be produced synthetically. Environmental impacts of mining limestone are discussed above, and the other materials have similar impacts. Environmental impacts resulting from
RESILIENT FLOORING
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Resilient Flooring
Linoleum Flooring Life Cycle
Figure 7: Materials Flow for Polymeric Substrates
Natural gas
Crude oil
Limestone/talc
Ethylene
Benzene
Propylene
Styrene
Butadiene
Phenol
Nonene
Acrolein
Ethylene oxide
Nonylphenol
Nonylphenol ethoxylate
Acrylic latex
Acrylic latex and limestone/talc
glass manufacture relate primarily to energy use. The melting furnace is responsible for 99 percent of the total emissions from a glass plant. Both SB latex and acrylic latex are primarily petroleum derived, with environmental impacts similar to those described above for petrochemicals. SB latex in particular is made from hazardous precursors, including benzene, a known carcinogen, and styrene.
Benzene, a human carcinogen, is a precursor of SB latex, used in the backing of some vinyl sheet ooring.
Vinyl tiles for residential use are commonly sold with a pre-applied, pressure-sensitive adhesive. Composition and environmental impacts of this and other adhesives used to install vinyl flooring are beyond the scope of this report. Some flooring products have factoryinstalled no-wax nishes. These may be melamine, water-based acrylic, or polyurethane coatings. All three are petrochemicals, with general impacts as described above.
Manufacturing and Fabrication The specic manufacturing processes for each type of vinyl ooring vary, as do the relative quantities of PVC and the different additives. Vinyl composition tile is often made from a copolymer consisting of vinyl chloride polymerized with 6 to 13 percent vinyl acetate by weight. Some PVC may also be added. Composition tile is also unique in that is typically consists of 80 percent llers and pigments, and only 13 percent vinyl resins.
Composition tile consists of 80 percent ller and pigment, only 13 percent vinyl resins.
Few data are available on environmental impacts and waste produced during product manufacture. At least one manufacturer reportedly recycles its manufacturing waste into other products. Available embodied energy data for vinyl flooring products are summarized in gure 8.
10
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RESILIENT FLOORING
Resilient Flooring
Figure 8: Embodied Energy of Vinyl Flooring (from Several Sources)

Source Franklin Associates 19911 Potting and Blok 1994
2
Btus/lb 34,000 27,000 22,561 5,906
MJ/kg 79 64 52 14
Btus/yd2 125,000 86,000 144,390 74,416
MJ/m2 158 108 182 94
Armstrong Industries 1995 homogeneous sheet vinyl3 Armstrong Industries 1995 vinyl composition tiles4 Notes
1
Some manufacturers recycle vinyl ooring scrap from their manufacturing process.
Report sponsored by the Society for the Plastics Industry; refers to vinyl ooring generically. Energy per unit area based on a product weight of 2 kg/m2. 2 Data are for layered composite vinyl weighing 1.7 kg/m2. 3 Data provided by the company for its homogeneous sheet ooring product weighing 6.8 lb/yd2 (3.7 kg/m2). 4 Data provided by the company for its vinyl composition tile weighing 12.6 lb/yd2 (6.8 kg/m2).
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Vinyl ooring is usually installed with an adhesive, though on some tile products the adhesive is pre-applied. No-wax ooring, coated with a protective nish, has the advantage of easy maintenance and may reduce the need for strippers and waxes that emit chemicals. Maintenance on oors that do require waxing can be an ongoing source of VOCs throughout the products useful life, unless low-emitting products are specically used. Vinyl composition tiles are slightly porous and require a oor nish after installation. Trim scraps from installation are landlled or incinerated.
Various indoor contaminants have been detected in air samples from vinyl ooring. These are predominantly aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, and halogenated hydrocarbons from PVC resins, plasticizers, solvents, and contaminants or impurities in the ooring. Adhesives used to install vinyl flooring have been found to release more indoor air contaminants than the actual flooring materials, and the concentration of emissions decreases substantially within 24 hours of installation. European studies have correlated health complaints in buildings with emissions of a plasticizer trade-named TXIB from vinyl ooring. Limited emissions of VOCs from plasticizers often tend to continue long after most other VOCs are emitted at negligible levels. There is some concern that PVC building materials may add to the danger of res in buildings by releasing hydrogen chloride gas and other toxins, even before reaching the point of combustion.
Waxing of oors can be an ongoing source of VOCs.
The adhesives used to install vinyl ooring may release more indoor air contaminants than the ooring itself.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Recycling of postconsumer scrap and used vinyl flooring in the United States is minimal. One manufacturer accepts used material and recycles it into other products, but most recycling is hampered by the composite nature of the ooring productsit is difcult to separate the constituent materials. Some European products are manufactured differently and can be more effectively recycled.
Old vinyl ooring may contain asbestos and should be removed only by trained personnel. In a landll, PVC ooring is likely to become gradually more rigid as plasticizers migrate out of the material. Other components are inert and not likely to leach out. Combustion products from incineration of PVC-containing materials include carbon dioxide, water, and hydrogen chloride (HCl). Metal soap stabilizers may react with the HCl to
Old vinyl ooring may contain asbestos.
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11
Resilient Flooring
form metallic chlorides, which are relatively difcult to remove from ue gases. HCl is highly corrosive and tends to increase the operating costs of incinerators. A small amount of highly toxic dioxins and furans may also be produced, though evidence that PVC contributes to their formation in incinerators is inconclusive.

Linoleum is made primarily from natural, rather than synthetic, ingredients.
Linoleum was invented in England in 1860, and the rst manufacturing plant in the United States was built in 1872 on Staten Island. This was the rst type of resilient ooring developed, and it established resilient ooring as a product type. Linoleum was widely used until the mid-20th century, when vinyl ooring began taking over the market. The last domestic linoleum plant closed in the 1970s. In recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in linoleum, largely as a result of environmental and health concerns over the PVC used in vinyl ooring. Signicant quantities of linoleum are imported today from Europe. Linoleum is made from linseed oil, rosin binders, wood or cork flour, and fillers (see gure 9). These materials form a cement that is applied to a jute fabric (for sheet linoleum) or a glass and polyester fabric (for linoleum tiles). In addition to these major components, linoleum contains pigments that constitute roughly 5 percent of the linoleum. The standard white pigment used is titanium dioxide. Lithopone, a precipitate from the reaction of barium sulde and zinc sulde, is also used. Other colors are produced from synthetic iron oxides. Lead and cadmium pigments are no longer used. Very small quantities of zinc or manganese-based drying agents are also used to accelerate drying. The finished linoleum receives a water-based acrylic polymer coating. The product is installed by adhering it to a smooth suboor, most often with a styrene butadiene (SB) latex (also known as SB rubber) adhesive.
Figure 9: Materials Flow for Linoleum Flooring
Flax plant
Linseed oil
Sawdust/cork scraps
Wood/cork flour
Linoleum cement
Pine trees
Pine rosin
Limestone
Whiting
Calendered linoleum
Pigments (see flowchart)
Jute plant
Burlap
or
Linoleum sheets
Polyglass (see flowchart) Acrylic resin coating (see flowchart)
Polyglass mat
Linoleum flooring
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Resilient Flooring
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Linseed oil is extracted from ax, an agricultural crop grown primarily in Canada, the United States, and Argentina. Runoff of pesticides from flax farming can cause aquatic toxicity. Fertilizer runoff can cause excessive loading of nutrients in aquatic systems, leading to deoxygenation, algal blooms, habitat alteration, and possible shkill. Fossil fuels are used to make both pesticides and fertilizers, and to operate farm equipment. Fossil fuel combustion releases a variety of air pollutants, with their associated environmental impacts.
Pine rosin for linoleum manufacture currently comes from Portugal. It is harvested from living trees by scoring the bark and collecting the sap that oozes out. No additional information is available on the environmental impacts of this practice. The wood and cork our are made by grinding waste materialssawdust or cork waste from bottle stopper production. Wood our is used to make light-colored linoleum, because the cork our is much darker. Both of these are essentially waste materials, so the only environmental impacts associated with their use in linoleum is the dust generated during processing. Various minerals can be used as llers. The most common is limestone ground to a ne powder (whiting). Limestone is mined in open pits. Wastes from the mining of limestone include both the material removed to expose the limestone and the dust from cleaning and processing materials. Environmental impacts include those associated with fuel combustion to operate mining equipment, runoff into streams and groundwater, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Runoff from limestone mining is considered nontoxic, but it can nevertheless cause significant environmental impact. Land reclamation after mining can restore some habitat, though mined lands can never be returned to their original state. Although they account for only 5 percent of the materials used to make linoleum, pigments represent a much larger share of the overall environmental impacts associated with its manufacture (see gure 10). Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is produced from titanium-rich sands, which
Pesticide and fertilizer runoff from ax production may pollute surface waters.
The pigments in linoleum account for a disproportionate share of total environmental impact.
Figure 10: Materials Flow for Pigments
Barite ore
Zinc sulfide
Coal
Sand
Brine
Scrap iron
Titanium dioxide
Ferrous sulfate
Sodium hydroxide
Lithopone
Coke
Iron oxide
White pigment
Copperas red oxide
Black iron oxide
Orange iron oxide
Yellow iron oxide
Pigments
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Resilient Flooring
are obtained by dredging in waterways. The sands are mechanically concentrated and then the titanium-containing minerals are processed by a sulfate or a chloride method to produce TiO2. A by-product of this procedure is ferrous sulfate, which is used to make colored pigments. The sulfate method requires that the minerals be calcined in a rotary kiln for 7 to 20 hours at temperatures of 1,470 to 2,000F (800 to 1,100C). The chloride method involves processing the minerals with chlorine and then combusting the resulting compound with petroleum coke at 1,650 to 2,550F (900 to 1,400C). Sulfuric acid and metal sulfates remaining from the sulfate process have traditionally been discarded into the ocean, though this practice is reportedly being phased out. The major waste products from the chloride process, iron chlorides, are disposed of as aqueous solutions, sometimes by deep well injection. Recycling options for both of these waste material categories are being pursued. According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), titanium dioxide may cause lung brosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen. Other government agencies, however, do not concur in this judgment, so titanium dioxide is not generally classied as a carcinogen. Like the ferrous sulfate mentioned above, sources of iron compounds for many synthetic pigments are by-products from other industries, including steel scrap and steel pickling wastes. According to industry reports, the production of iron oxide pigments consumes about 15,000 Btus/lb (35 MJ/kg). The burlap backing for sheet linoleum products is made from jute, which is grown and processed primarily in India and Bangladesh. Polyglass backing for tiles is a combination of fiberglass and polyester fibers (see figure 11). Glass is produced from three primary raw materials: silica or glass sand, limestone, and soda ash. All three of these materials are mined, though soda ash can also be produced synthetically. Environmental impacts of mining are discussed above. Environmental impacts resulting from glass manufacture relate primarily to energy use. The melting furnace is responsible for 99 percent of the total emissions from a glass plant. Polyester is manufactured from chemical compounds that are derived from natural gas and crude oil. Various highly toxic intermediaries are produced (and, to
Figure 11: Materials Flow for Polyglass Backing
The backing on linoleum is made from jute, berglass, or polyester bers.
Glass sand
Limestone
Borax
Crude oil
Natural gas
Ethylene
p-Xylene
Methanol
Ethylene glycol
Dimethyl terephtalate
Glass fiber
Polyester
Polyglass backing
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Resilient Flooring
some extent, released) in the processing of petrochemicals. These include discharge of contaminated water and drilling sludges, which may contain many environmental and human toxins, wastewater and VOCs from the distillation process, and various toxins from the catalytic cracking processes. Various air emissions, including VOCs and particulates, are released during polyester ber manufacture. The acrylic polymer nish coat applied to the surface of linoleum ooring is also produced from petroleum, which is rst cracked to make propylene (see gure 12). The propylene is catalytically oxidized to make acrolein, which is further oxidized into acrylic or methacrylic acid. Acrylic resins are formed from the polymerization of esters of these acids. The primary environmental impacts of concern result from the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum. Some of the intermediaries are moderately toxic to humans and have been found to be carcinogenic in laboratory animals.
The acrylic coating on linoleum is made from petroleum.
Crude oil
Propylene
Acrolein
Acrylic resin
SB latex adhesive is produced by the polymeric emulsion of styrene with butadiene. Both these compounds are products of petroleum processing, with impacts as described above. Exposure to butadiene can cause irritation, headaches, dizziness, and vomiting.
Manufacturing and Fabrication To make linoleum, linseed oil, drying agents, and pine rosin are combined in a large tank. Oxygen is forced through this mixture for approximately 24 hours, turning it into a sticky, jelly-like material called cement. The cement is cut into smaller chunks, dusted with wood our, and left to cure for approximately 10 days. It is then mixed with pigments, cork and/or wood our, and mineral llers. Scrap linoleum may also be added. This mixture is calendered into sheets and applied to the backing fabric, using pressure and heat. Colored patterns are formed by adding pigments just before the material is formed into sheets. The sheets are then hung to cure for one to four weeks in large rooms heated to between 300 to 356F (150 and 180C). Ongoing oxidation of the linoleum generates sufcient heat to maintain this high temperature, once it has been initially established.
VOCs are released during heating and oxidation of the linseed oil mixture. Those emitted during heating can include solvents such as toluene, butanol, and ethyl acetate. Industry reports that VOCs generated during initial curing of the cement are trapped and destroyed. VOCs from drying chambers may be emitted, however. According to one study, approximately 4.6 grams VOCs are released for each square meter of material. VOCs can contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone or smog, which can cause respiratory tract problems, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. Virtually all manufacturing waste is reportedly ground and recycled back into the product. Wastewater is handled in a closed loop and does not leave the plant. Much of the dust is collected and reused in the process, as well. The embodied energy data for linoleum is shown in gure13.
Linoleum manufacture results in moderate VOC emissions.
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Figure 13: Embodied Energy of Linoleum (from Several Sources)

Source Franklin Associates 19911 Potting and Blok 19942 Btus/lb 50,000 7,500 11,000 MJ/kg 116 17 25 Btus/yd2 306,000 46,000 67,320 MJ/m2 386 57 84
Waste from the linoleum manufacturing process is recycled.
Jnsson 19953 Notes

1
Report sponsored by the Society for the Plastics Industry. These numbers may originate in U.S. manufacturing data from the 1960s, which explain why they are signicantly higher than the others. 2 Data adjusted to account for a material weight of 3.3 kg/m2 instead of 2.3 kg/m2. Energy to ship product from Europe would add 3 percent to 8 percent to the total embodied energy. 3 Also includes caloric value of raw materials (45.2 MJ/m2) and credit for incineration (-28.8 MJ/m2), for a net increase of 16.4 MJ/m2 over the energy included in the other two studies. Data adjusted to material weight of 3.3 kg/m2 instead of 2.3 kg/m2. Energy to ship product from Europe would add 3 percent to 8 percent to the total embodied energy.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Linoleum is installed with an adhesive, usually a water-based SB latex. If heat-welded seams are employed to create a watertight oor surface, hot-melt glue is also used. The substrate must be dry and protected from future moisture penetration from below. Cleaning can be done either wet, with neutral soaps and water, or dry, by vacuuming and bufng. Linoleum is very durable and reportedly gets tougher over time, as the linseed oil continues to oxidize. Installation waste is generally landlled or incinerated. It is naturally biodegradable.
Linoleum is naturally antibacterial because of the continuous oxidation of the linseed oil. Some VOCsgenerally fatty acids from the linseed oilare emitted from the material. Occasionally these can create unpleasant smells. Small amounts of other chemicals have also been detected coming from linoleum samples, most likely originating from solvent-based coatings, which are no longer in use. Adhesives used to install the ooring and hot-melt glues can also be a source of indoor contaminants. Adhesives specially formulated for linoleum must be used, as others may not bond well because of the linseed-oil base of the product.
The adhesives used to install linoleum may cause indoor air quality problems.
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal No material recovery of linoleum after use occurs at the present time. Linoleum loses its softness after the linseed oil has been oxidized, and it is not known whether this change in the properties of linoleum would have an effect on its suitability for recovery. Disposed of in a landll, linoleum is biodegradable (given adequately aerobic conditions).
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References
References
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1994. Vinyl: technical report. Environmental Resource Guide. Washington, DC: AIA. . 1994. Linoleum: technical report. Environmental Resource Guide Washington, DC: AIA. Armstrong World Industries. 1995. Vinyl or Linoleum: Helpful Information To Guide the Selection Process. Franklin Associates, Ltd. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, Final report. Washington, DC: Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., 1991. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. 2d ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Jnsson, sa. 1995. Life Cycle Assessment of Flooring Materials: A Case Study and Methodological Considerations. Technical Environmental Planning Report 1995:3. Licentiate Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg, Sweden. Malin, Nadav, and Alex Wilson. 1994. Should We Phase Out PVC? Environmental Building News 3(1). Potting, Jos and Kornelis Blok. 1994. Life-Cycle Assessment of Four Types of Floor Covering. Department of Science, Technology and Society, Utrecht University, Padualaan 14, NL-3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands. Telephone: +31-30-537600; Fax: +31-30-537601.
Organizations
Resilient Floor Covering Institute, 966 Hungerford Drive, Suite 12-B, Rockville, MD 20850; 301/3408580; 301/340-7283 (fax).
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Application Report
Architectural Coatings
Architectural coatings are used to protect building surfaces or to change the appearance or surface qualities of those surfaces. The ability to protect surfaces and improve the durability of building elements gives architectural coatings an important environmental role. This report addresses eld-applied paints, stains, varnishes, and other clear nishes in both oil- (solvent-) based and waterborne formulations. To provide useful information in a reasonable amount of space, the dozens of different product types are grouped under several headings. The distinction between oilbased and waterborne paints, stains, and clear finishes is fairly standard. The nonconventional coating categories refer to the broad range of alternative products that, as a rule, use minimally processed plant- or mineral-derived ingredients in place of the more common synthetic chemicals. A distinction is also made between traditional oil-based stains, which are generally absorbed into a material, and modern stains, which can be semitransparent or opaque due to the surface lm they deposit. Similarly, traditional varnish refers to a specic type of product that has largely been replaced in recent years by petrochemical-based clear nishes. Many coatings do not t neatly into one of these categories, and other specialized coatings may not be addressed here at all. However, comparing the ingredients of such products with those of the product categories included will yield some useful information about environmental impacts.
Highlights
s s
Their effect on indoor air quality is often the single most important consideration for architectural coating products used on building interiors. Waterborne formulations generally result in lower pollution emissions during production and lower volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions during application and curing than oil-based formulations. Waterborne formulations generally include preservatives not found in their oilbased counterparts. Nonconventional products using citrus terpenes instead of petrochemical solvents may emit signicant quantities of VOCs, but these are generally short-lived and less toxic. Nonetheless, they may react with other air pollutants to generate smog. Recycled paints, which have much lower life-cycle impacts than new paints, may be appropriate for applications in which a very low VOC level and a wide choice of colors are not essential.
s s
s s
If performance wont be compromised, waterborne formulations should be specied rather than oil-based formulations. When repainting surfaces in functioning buildings, use of zero-VOC paint may make it possible to paint without inconveniencing occupants of adjacent building spaces. However, because performance of some such products may not match that of conventional paints, they should be specied with care. Always ventilate spaces being painted or coated directly to the outdoors; never allow the contaminated air to circulate through a buildings HVAC system. Handle excess oil-based coatings and cleanup solvents as hazardous waste.
s s
ARCHITECTURAL COATINGS
APP 6
Comparative Environmental Performance Architectural Coatings
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceArchitectural Coatings*

Land and soil quality/availability a
Air quality/atmospheric impacts a
Building occupant health IAQ b
Maintenance requirements c
Life expectancy/durability c
Virgin resource depletion a
Water quality/availability a
Biodiversity/habitat loss a
Worker/installer health b
Oil-based paint Waterborne paint Alternative paint Traditional oil-based stain Modern oil-based stain
3 3
1,2
1,2
1,2
Waterborne stain Traditional varnish Oil-based clear nishes Waterborne clear nishes
4 4 5
Alternative clear nishes
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Transportation
Comparative Environmental Performance Architectural Coatings
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceArchitectural Coatings (continued)
Notes
a
Use of recycled paint greatly reduces all impacts on ecosystems and the environment.
Health impact on workers and building occupants may be the most significant consideration with coatings. c Performance of all products depends largely on how they are used and the conditions to which they are subjected. Performance Range 1 Use of light-colored exterior coatings can reduce solar gain and resultant cooling loads.
2 3 4 5
Use of light-colored interior surfaces can reduce lighting loads. Waterborne paints with very low VOC emissions are available. Quantity and nature of VOCs from alternative products vary greatly by product. Many alternative paints and nishes are currently imported from Europe.
APP 6
Environmental Impacts Conventional Oil-based Paint
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsConventional Oil-based Paint

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing, fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity, possible ocean dumping of titanium dioxide processing wastes Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; possible deepwell injection of titanium dioxide processing wastes Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels; various minerals (none in very short supply) Habitat loss from mining for pigments and pigment additives VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare
VOCs from application and cleanup solvents can contribute to localized smog Moderate to high production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported large distances Light-colored exterior coatings can reduce cooling loads; light interior coatings can help reduce lighting loads Good resistance to fungi; may lose color and gloss due to prolonged UV exposure; longevity varies by product and application Periodic cleaning Excess paint can be collected and reprocessed into new paint
Energy
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Conventional Waterborne Paint
F i g u r e 3 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s C o n v e n t i o n a l Wa t e r b o r n e P a i n t
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; possible ocean dumping of titanium dioxide processing wastes Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; possible deepwell injection of titanium dioxide processing wastes Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels; various minerals (none in very short supply) Habitat loss from mining for pigments and pigment additives VOCs (some toxic) from application VOCs (some toxic) from application
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air health) Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing Transportation
Minimal impact Moderate production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported large distances Light-colored exterior coatings can reduce cooling loads; light interior coatings can help reduce lighting loads More susceptible to fungal growth than oil-based paint but less subject to UV degradation; longevity varies by product and application Periodic cleaning Excess paint can be collected and reprocessed into new paint
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Alternative Paint
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsAlter native Paint

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; petroleum processing emissions if petrochemicals are used; natural VOCs may still contribute to smog Possible emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; possible ocean dumping if TiO2 is used Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; possible deepwell injection of TiO2 processing wastes Depends on raw materials used Habitat loss from mining for llers Minimal impact Minimal impact
Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing Transportation
Minimal impact Varies greatly by product Raw materials may come from long distances, many products imported from Europe Light-colored exterior coatings can reduce cooling loads; light interior coatings can help reduce lighting loads Often not as good as conventional products, varies greatly by product and application Vary by product and application Generally not recyclable
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Traditional Oil-based Stain
F i g u r e 5 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s Tr a d i t i o n a l O i l - b a s e d S t a i n
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity Fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds; toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels Some impacts of agricultural production VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents
Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare
VOCs from application and cleanup solvents can contribute to localized smog Moderate production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported large distances Light-colored interior coatings can help reduce lighting loads Good; varies by specic application and conditions Additional coating often needed to protect wood Not generally recycled
Energy
Impact on operating energy use Building operation Life expectancy/durability Maintenance requirements Reusability/recyclability
APP 6
Environmental Impacts Modern Oil-based Stain
Figure 6: Environmental ImpactsModer n Oil-based Stain

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels Some impacts of agricultural production; habitat loss from mining for pigments and pigment additives VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents Rarely used indoors; VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents may get into building VOCs from application and cleanup solvents can contribute to localized smog Moderate production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported large distances Light-colored exterior coatings can reduce cooling loads Generally good; longevity varies by product and application Eventual recoating Not generally recycled
Health and welfare
Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare
Energy
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Environmental Impacts Waterborne Stain
F i g u r e 7 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s Wa t e r b o r n e S t a i n
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels Some impacts of agricultural production; habitat loss from mining for pigments and pigment additives Small amounts of VOCs (some toxic) from application Rarely used indoors
Health and welfare
VOCs from application can contribute to localized smog Moderate production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported long distances Light-colored exterior coatings can reduce cooling loads Longevity varies by product and application Eventual recoating Not generally recycled
Energy
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Environmental Impacts Traditional Varnish
F i g u r e 8 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s Tr a d i t i o n a l Va r n i s h
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels Some impacts of agricultural production VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents; possible exposure to crystalline silica VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents
Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare
VOCs from application and cleanup solvents can contribute to localized smog Moderate production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported large distances None Generally poor UV resistance; longevity varies by product and application Eventual recoating Not generally recycled
Energy
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Environmental Impacts Oil-based Clear Finishes
Figure 9: Environmental ImpactsOil-based Clear Finishes

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels Some impacts of agricultural production VOCs (some toxic) from application, cleanup solvents VOCs (some toxic) from application and solvents used for cleanup
Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare
VOCs from application and cleanup solvents can contribute to localized smog Moderate production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported long distances None Generally poor UV resistance; longevity varies by product and application Eventual recoating Not generally recycled
Energy
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Environmental Impacts Waterborne Clear Finishes
F i g u r e 1 0 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s Wa t e r b o r n e C l e a r F i n i s h e s
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; fugitive emissions of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity; VOCs from production, application, and disposal contribute to smog Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; fugitive releases of intermediaries and by-products of varying toxicity Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels Some impacts of agricultural production VOCs (some toxic) from application VOCs (some toxic) from application
Minimal impact Moderate production energy Many raw materials and intermediate products transported large distances None Generally poor UV resistance; longevity varies by product and application Eventual recoating Not generally recycled
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Environmental Impacts Noncoventional Clear Finishes
Figure 11: Environmental ImpactsNonconventional Clear Finishes

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fuel combustion for process energy; petroleum processing emissions if petrochemicals are used; natural VOCs may still contribute to smog Possible emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds Varies by product Some impacts of agricultural production Minimal negative impact from most products Minimal negative impact from most products
Water quality/availability Land and soil quality/availability
Minimal impact Varies greatly by product Many raw materials and intermediate products transported large distances None Generally poor UV resistance; longevity varies greatly by product Eventual recoating Not generally recycled
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13

These recommendations address the selection, application, and disposal of the coating types addressed in this report, with the goal of minimizing adverse effects on workers, building occupants, and the environment at large.
Specifying Architectural Coatings When specifying architectural coatings, making the durability of a coating a primary concern will reduce life-cycle environmental impacts (and lifecycle costs). This is especially true if the coating is intended to help protect a coated surface from deterioration. Even if recoating is likely before the initial coating fails, the rst coating should be designed to adhere well and support additional layers, avoiding the cost and pollution associated with stripping a surface before recoating. Light-colored exterior surfaces can reduce solar gain through the building envelope, leading to savings in peak cooling loads and overall energy use for cooling. The extent of savings from such measures depends on the exposure of the surface to direct sunlight and the amount of thermal insulation between the exterior surface and the building interior. Light-colored interior surfaces contribute to light distribution in a building, reducing the number and strength of light sources needed to provide sufcient illumination. Reductions in articial lighting will save electricity directly and can indirectly reduce cooling loads. Specify waterborne rather than oil-based coatings whenever possible without undue sacrifice in performance. Waterborne formulations are constantly improving, but in some product lines they require different application conditions. Some of these differences, such as a shorter drying time for waterborne products, are helpful to installers. Low VOC-emitting coatings contribute less to the contamination of indoor air and hence to indoor air quality (IAQ) problems during and after application. Outdoors, VOCs react with other air pollutants to generate smog, so use of low-VOC coatings is beneficial there as well. Although quality and application restrictions have improved since low-VOC formulations were first introduced, workers should be aware that differences between these and conventional coatings still exist. Zero-VOC coatings may make it possible to recoat surfaces without inconveniencing occupants of adjacent spaces, although the claim of zero VOC alone does not guarantee that a product will elicit no unpleasant reaction. When working with chemically sensitive individuals, it is always best to test specific products first. Also, some zero-VOC products with little track record in the eld may not perform as well as their conventional counterparts. Nonconventional coatings may or may not be low in VOCs, but the VOCs they release are generally less toxic and irritating than those from conventional products. To be safe, always test specic products before exposing potentially sensitive individuals to a large-scale application. To reduce raw material demand, embodied energy, and disposal problems, consider using recycled paint. Depending on the source, color selections in recycled paint may be limited, but at least for primer coats that may not be an obstacle. Very low-VOC formulations are not currently available in recycled products. If possible, choose a paint (or other coating) that is readily collected, preferably by the manufacturer, for recycling. Carefully estimate quantities needed to reduce the need for disposal of excess product.
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Applying Architectural Coatings Proper preparation of the surface to be coated is critical to the durability and effectiveness of coatings. Follow manufacturers instructions carefully. When oil-based paint is applied inside a building, it is very important to ventilate the affected area directly to the outside as effectively as possible. Under no circumstances should air from the affected area be allowed to recirculate through the buildings central ventilation system during the curing period. For exterior paint jobs, measures should be taken to reduce the likelihood of paint fumes being drawn into the building through windows or airintake vents. In addition, soil and plants should be protected from contamination, especially from older coatings that may have to be removed prior to recoating. Overexposure to solvents should be avoided through appropriate ventilation and, if necessary, use of respirators with organic charcoal lters. In most cases brushing or rolling on coatings wastes less of the coating and masking materials than spraying. Beware of lead paint on previously painted surfaces. Inexpensive kits are available to test for lead on surfaces. If lead is found, lead abatement should be handled by properly trained contractors. Avoid sanding or scraping lead paint, as the particles created can be easily ingested, possibly causing brain damage. Dealing with Excess Materials Try to use up all coating materials rather than disposing of them. Coatings that cannot be used can often be donated to community groups or other nonprot organizations. If excess coating products cant be used directly, look into recycling options that may be available through the manufacturer or local waste management authorities. If disposal of any oil- or solvent-based coatings is necessary, ensure that they are handled appropriately. Such materials should generally be handled and destroyed as hazardous waste, regardless of whether they have been legally designated as hazardous in a particular jurisdiction. Most communities have special arrangements available (often only at specified times) for the collection of hazardous wastes. Recycle any empty steel and plastic containers.
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15
Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Oil-based Paint
Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings

Life-cycle summaries for the following product categories are included in this report. Because many of the components used in these different product types are the same, later summaries refer back to earlier ones for discussion of specic environmental impacts. Oil-based paint Waterborne paint Alternative or nonconventional paint Traditional oil-based stain Modern oil-based stain Waterborne stain Traditional varnish Oil-based clear nish Waterborne clear nish Alternative or nonconventional clear nish
Solvents used in oil-based paints are volatile organic compounds that can adversely affect air quality as they evaporate.
Life Cycle of Oil-based Paint Paints essentially consist of a resin or binder, pigments, and a carrier in which these are dissolved or suspended. Once the paint is applied to a surface, the carrier evaporates, leaving behind a solid coating. In oil-based paints the carrier is a solvent consisting of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can adversely affect both indoor air quality and the environment at large. As a result, both federal and state regulations and consumer demand have spurred ongoing changes in paint formulations. These changes have led to formulations containing more paint solids and less solvent, as well as a shift away from oil-based paints entirely, to waterborne or latex paints (see below).
Materials Acquisition and Preparation
Oil-based paints consist of four generic constituents: solvents acting as the carrier, binders, pigments (and pigment extenders), and various additives. The solvents are commonly mineral spirits or other petroleum-derivatives. Binders may be either synthetic resins or oils derived from plant material. Petroleum-derived synthetic resins include alkyds, polyurethanes, and silicones. Plant-based oils include linseed, soybean, safower, tung, and cottonseed oils. The primary pigment used in light-colored paints is titanium dioxide, which provides whiteness and general hiding properties. Various mineral and synthetic compounds are used to create additional colors. Pigment extenders include talc, silica, mica, clay, and calcium carbonate. Commonly used additives in oil-based paints include styrene and vinyl toluene for hardness and toughness; acrylic monomers for gloss, adhesion, and durability; methyl ethyl ketoxime as an antiskinning agent; and various formaldehyde compounds for hardness, gloss, and chemical resistance. The mineral spirits commonly used as a solvent comprise a mix of chemicals including aliphatic hydrocarbons and the more toxic aromatic hydrocarbons, such as xylene, xylol, and toluene. Other solvents used include glycols and glycol ethers, ketones, esters, and acetates. Four of the solvents usedmethyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, toluene, and xylenesfall into a group of high-priority toxic chemicals the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identied for replacement with safer alternatives. All the solvents mentioned above are derived from petroleum and/or natural gas. Extraction of these fossil fuels results in signicant environmental impacts, including release of wastewater containing grease, oil, oxygen-depleting organics, toxic organics, and other pollutants.
Most solvents used in conventional paints are derived from petroleum or natural gas.
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Other forms of pollution from the process include drilling mud, cuttings from drill bits, and air pollutants from the large diesel engines that power the drills. Wastewater containing a range of pollutants is generated in the petroleum desalting process and during catalytic cracking of petroleum. Catalytic cracking is also a major source of air pollution from oil reneries. Another signicant source is fugitive emissions of intermediaries and end products. Processing of natural gas produces wastewater containing toxic organics, suspended and dissolved solids, chlorides, and cyanides. Fuel combustion to create the heat that drives much of the processing also releases a range of air pollutants including VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO2, and CO. Downstream impacts of these air pollutants include localized smog and adverse health effects, acid precipitation, and, for CO2, contribution to global warming. Alkyd resins are made from a combination of petrochemicals and natural vegetable oils. They are the reaction product of a polyhydric alcohol such as glycerol or ethylene glycol and a polybasic acid or anhydride, which are modied with a fatty acid or oil, usually from plant material (see gure 12). Atmospheric VOC emissions and other air pollutants are released during manufacturing processes. Combustion of fuels used to drive these processes also causes emissions.
Figure 12: Materials Flow for Plant-based Oils
Hexane (or other solvent)
Catalytic cracking of petroleum is a source of air and water pollution from oil reneries.
Solvent extracted and reused
Plant source (flax, soybean, pine, lemon, caston safflower, cottonseed, or tung)
Cooked and processed meal
Solvent bearing oil
Oil for binder
Polyurethanes are manufactured by modifying an oil or an alkyd resin with polyisocyanates or toluene diisocyante (TDI) to provide quick-drying capabilities and hardness. Produced by the reaction of phosgene with amines, isocyanates are toxic substances that must be handled with care. In the case of TDI, the amine is produced from toluene. Excess phosgene, which is also toxic, is reused in the process. The production of isocyanates releases hydrochloric acid, which may be utilized or destroyed. Hydrochloric acid is highly corrosive and can cause respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation at low concentrations. It also contributes to acid precipitation, with its associated effects on the environment. Once converted to urethane, isocyanates and phosgene can be handled safely, but incompletely reacted urethane may constitute a disposal problem. Silicone is made from silicon and methyl chloride (see gure 13). In turn, silicon is made from quartzite and coke (rened coal)both obtained by miningwhich are converted to silicon in a reducing atmosphere that releases carbon monoxide (CO) in process. Methyl chloride is produced either by the chlorination of methane or the reaction of methanol and hydrochloric acid. Common silicone is biologically inert when fully cured, but some specialty products contain toxic additives. Intermediate by-products and emissions during the production process can also be toxic. Carbon monoxide affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Impacts of hydrochloric acid are discussed above. Oils derived from plants such as ax, soybeans, safowers, and cotton are also used as binders in oil-based paint. Various environmental impacts associated with most agricultural crops, such as soil erosion, fuel combustion emissions from machinery, fertilizer loading, and
Binders in oil-based paint are frequently made from plantderived oils.
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Figure 13: Materials Flow for Silicone

Quartzite Coal Hydrochloric acid (a byproduct) Natural gas Salt brine Water
Coke
Methanol
Methane
Chlorine
Silicon
Methyl chloride
Silicone resin
pesticide residues, can result from the production of these crops. The seeds of these plants are processed, cooked, and pressed to extract the oils. Solvents, primarily hexane, are also used. The hexane is sprayed onto the seed material, where it dissolves the oil. The hexane is then driven off in evaporators, from which it is reclaimed and reused. Some hexane and other VOCs are released into the atmosphere, along with emissions from fuel combustion used to generate heat at various stages in the process. The raw materials for titanium dioxide, iron oxides, and pigment extenders are mined from the earth. Among the environmental impacts of mining operations is runoff from tailings waste, which leads to increased turbidity of surface waters, deoxygenation, and possible shkill. Other impacts include land disturbance and habitat alteration. The combustion of fuel to power mining equipment results in air emissions. Crushing, screening, and processing of the minerals may cause particulate emissions. Titanium dioxide is made from sands rich in the appropriate minerals. The sand is processed by either a sulfate or a chloride method to produce titanium dioxide. The sulfate method also produces ferrous sulfate, which is used to make iron oxide pigments. Both methods produce several waste products that have generally been disposed of in the ocean or by deep well injection, though recycling options are increasingly preferred. Titanium dioxide may cause lung brosis and was identied as a potential occupational carcinogen by one government agency but not by two others. Iron oxide for pigments (see gure 14) is processed from one of four types of iron ore hematite, limonite, siderite, and magnetiteall of which are mined from open pits. The ore can be processed in a variety of ways, including washing and purication in either wet or dry form and calcination. Prolonged inhalation of iron oxide dust can cause a lung disorder called siderosis, as well as skin and eye irritation. Open-pit mining of pigment minerals affects habitats, surface waters, and air quality in ways similar to those described above for other materials. Calcination requires signicant fossil fuel energy and releases air pollutants from the fuel combustions and from volatiles driven off the mineral ores. Acrylic resins (see gure 15) are produced from propylene, which is catalytically oxidized to make acrolein. Acrolein is further oxidized into acrylic or methacrylic acid, which are used to form acrylic resins. Styrene is produced from ethylene (usually produced from natural gas) and benzene (a petroleum product). Vinyl toluene and methyl ethyl ketoxime are both
Titanium dioxide, the most common white pigment, is made from specic types of sand.
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APP 6
Figure 14: Materials Flow for Pigments

Iron ore Sand Brine Scrap iron
Titanium dioxide
Ferrous sulfate
Sodium hydroxide
Iron oxide
Natural iron oxide pigments
Copperas red oxide
Black iron oxide
Orange iron oxide
Yellow iron oxide
Pigments
Figure 15: Materials Flow for Acrylic Resins

Crude oil Propylene Acrolein Acrylic and methacrylic acid Acrylic resin
derived from petrochemicals. Formaldehyde is produced from methanol, which is derived from natural gas. Many of these materials are hazardous or potentially toxic, and all are derived from fossil fuels. The environmental effects of fossil fuel extraction and processing are described above.
Manufacture
Paint manufacture essentially consists of combining the ingredients, less some of the solvent, in a steel mixing vessel. In some cases the mixing is followed by a grinding operation to break up the dry ingredients, which tend to clump during mixing. Finally, additional solvents or other liquids are added to achieve nal viscosity and supplemental tinting is added. The paint is then strained, put into cans, and packaged for shipping. Cans may be reopened for custom tinting at retail locations. Emissions from the paint manufacturing process include fuel combustion emissions from the engines that power the machinery, fugitive VOC emissions, and wastewater emissions from equipment cleaning that may contain a host of pollutants. Other wastes from the process include empty bags and other raw material packaging, obsolete stock, off-specication products, and lter bags. As solid and hazardous waste disposal becomes increasingly expensive, manufacturers are implementing strategies to reduce their waste. These strategies include reworking off-spec material into marketable products, a shift to reusable lters, and recycling of packaging materials.
Paint manufacture consists of mixing the materials thoroughly and packaging the paint.
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Figure 16: Embodied Energy in Paint

Btu/lb (MJ/kg) 1990 data
1
Btu/gal (MJ/liter)
Waterborne Oil-based
33,000 42,000
(77) (97)
330,000 420,000
(92) (116)
1976 data 2 Waterborne exterior Waterborne interior Oil-based exterior Oil-based interior Notes
1
49,000 44,000 49,000 51,000
(117) (100) (117) (117)
490,000 440,000 490,000 510,000
(140) (120) (140) (140)
Data reported in units of energy per unit weight, converted to liquid measure using average value of 10 lbs/gal for paint (1.2 kg/l) (Salokangas 1990). Data reported in units of energy per unit liquid measure, converted to weight as above (Hannon et al. 1976).
Construction, Use, and Maintenance
Oil-based paints are being reformulated to reduce their contribution to ground-level ozone (smog).
Oil-based paints are applied to the interior or exterior of buildings by spraying, rolling, or brushing. The solvents in these paints are primarily VOCs that evaporate and react with other hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight to form ground-level ozone (smog). The EPA refers to VOCs as criteria pollutants because attainment criteria have been established for them under the 1970 Clean Air Act and subsequent amendments. Total anthropogenic production of nonmethane VOCs in 1990 was 19.13 million metric tonnes. Of that, surface coatings contributed 2.38 million metric tonnes. Such emissions are becoming more strictly regulated, especially in federally designated nonattainment areas, leading to the reformulation of oil-based paints to reduce their VOC content. While VOCs other than methane are not in themselves greenhouse gases, the ozone they become is such a gas. Also, some VOCs react with the hydroxyl radical (OH) to form carbon dioxide. The hydroxyl radical is responsible for the removal of much methane from the atmosphere, so by removing this radical the VOCs increase methane levels and the related global warming. Compared with greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion methane and halocarbons (CFCs, HCFCs)the role of VOCs is very minor. VOCs can seriously affect air quality (IAQ) inside buildings. Without proper ventilation, indoor air can become contaminated enough to be a serious health threat. Even with ventilation, unpleasant odors can cause discomfort and symptoms of illness in sensitive individuals. A 1992 EPA study of emissions from oil-based paints identied the following hazardous pollutants: 2-butanone, acetaldehyde, benzene, methanol, and xylene. To reduce VOC emissions, some manufacturers are increasing the proportion of solids in their oil-based paints, while reducing the amount of solvents. These high-solids formulations require longer drying times and may not cure as hard as the older paints, but they tend to be more exible once cured, lessening cracking.
There is some evidence that painters exhibit an increased cancer risk.
VOC emissions are typically quite high during initial curing of the paint but drop off rapidly afterwards. Nevertheless, emissions generated by alkyd-based paints may still be irritating to some individuals after two to three months. There is some evidence that painters, who are continuously exposed to the highest levels of VOC emissions, demonstrate an increased risk of cancer.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Waterborne Paint
VOCs that have been released into a building may temporarily become attached to other surfaces (particularly carpets and other textiles) and later be released gradually into the space. This effect makes it especially critical to maximize ventilation during and immediately after paint application to minimize VOC levels in the building, even if it is unoccupied. Oil-based paints require the use of solvents such as mineral spirits for cleaning brushes and equipment after painting. These solvents also release VOCs, so maximum ventilation is a requirement for all such cleanup activities.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal
VOCs released in a building may attach themselves to other surfacesonly to be released again later on.
Oil-based paints and contaminated cleaning solvents are considered hazardous waste in some jurisdictions, and must never be poured into sewers or septic systems. If possible, excess paint should be donated to someone who can use it or returned to the manufacturer for recycling into new paint. Some municipalities and counties have programs for collecting used paint and processing it into usable primer. If these options are unavailable, leftover paints and certainly contaminated solvents should be disposed of properly at a hazardous waste or other appropriate facility. Paints and solvents allowed to evaporate into the air will contribute to localized smog, and they are highly toxic to most organisms in water and soil. There are also potential health hazards in the preparation for recoating of older painted surfaces. Until the mid-20th century lead was commonly used in paint, and its use was not banned until 1978. Exposure to dust containing lead from these painted surfaces or ingestion of paint chips can cause lead poisoning. Both acute lead poisoning and chronic exposure to low levels of lead can cause brain damage. At especially high risk are children and fetuses. Proper lead abatement is critical to ensure no residues from lead-painted surfaces remain in a building. Although few pigments used in paints today contain toxic compounds, previously painted surfaces can contain heavy metal pigments. These compounds may be of concern when burning demolition waste or when sanding painted surfaces. Such activities should only be done with proper precautions and protection.
Dust from older, lead-based paint is a common cause of brain damage in children.
Life Cycle of Waterborne Paint Because they dont use volatile solvents as the primary carrier, waterborne paints emit many fewer VOCs upon application. They also do not require solvents for cleaning of tools and equipment. They do, however, require additional additives, including preservatives and fungicides, which are usually somewhat toxic.
In waterborne or latex paints, water with a coalescing agent is the carrier. The coalescing agent is typically a glycol or glycol ether. The binder is a synthetic latex made from polyvinyl acetate and/or acrylic polymers and copolymers. (Styrene butadiene was once commonly used but has been largely discontinued.) As in oil-based paint, titanium dioxide is the primary pigment used to impart hiding properties in white or light-colored paints. A range of pigment extenders may be added. Other additives include surfactants, defoamers, preservatives, and fungicides. The coalescing agent is usually ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, or propylene glycol ether. Ethylene is usually made by thermal cracking of ethane, a natural gas derivative, but it can also be made from petroleum. Ethylene is then directly oxidized to make ethylene oxide, which is combined with water and heated to 200C to make ethylene glycol. The principal air pollutants from ethylene production are benzene and VOCs. Benzene is highly toxic when ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. Numerous water pollutants, including chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals (zinc, cadmium, chromium, and copper), are also
In latex paints, water with a coalescing agent is the carrier.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Waterborne Paint
released. Additional VOCs, as well as fuel combustion emissions (discussed above, under oilbased paints), are released in the conversion to ethylene glycol.
Wastewater containing organic chemicals is released when propylene glycol is made from propylene oxide.
Propylene is produced by cracking hydrocarbons from either petroleum or natural gas. Propylene oxide requires reaction of the propylene with an aqueous chlorine solution or catalytic reaction with a derivative of isobutane. A great deal of excess water is required for catalyzed hydration of propylene oxide into propylene glycol, and wastewater containing organics is released during the process. VOC emissions and fuel combustion emissions are also generated. Propylene glycol ether is produced by reaction of propylene oxide with a chemical such as methanol. The synthetic latex binders (see gure 17) are all made from petrochemicals. Acrylic resins (see gure 15) are produced from propylene, which is catalytically oxidized to make acrolein. Acrolein is further oxidized into acrylic or methacrylic acid, from which acrylic resins are formed. Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is also produced from the reaction of ethylene with acetic acid and the subsequent catalytic polymerization with benzene. Small amounts of benzene and VOCs can be released in the process. Both vinyl acetate and benzene are toxic, and their release can cause adverse human health and environmental effects.
Figure 17: Materials Flow for Latex Binders
Crude oil Propylene Acrolein Acrylic and methacrylic acid Acrylic resin
Acetic acid
Benzene
or Natural gas Ethylene Vinyl acetate Polyvinyl acetate Latex binders
Titanium dioxide is produced from mineral sand. Iron oxide colorants and pigment extenders, including calcium carbonate, dolomite, talc, clay, quartz, mica, barite, and gypsum, are all mined from the earth. Environmental impacts from these processes are described above under oil-based paints. Surfactants and defoamers used include aryl alkyl sulfonates, sulfoxuccinic acid esters, amines, sulfonated oils, alcohols, and sodium ammonium polyacrylate. Among the preservatives and fungicides used are arsenic disulde, phenol, copper, formaldehyde, and quartenary ammonium compounds. Use of mercury as a fungicide in paint was banned in the United States beginning in October 1991. All these additives are used in relatively small quantities and are not discussed further in this report.
Manufacture
Additives used in paint include surfactants, defoamers, fungicides, and preservatives.
Paint manufacture essentially consists of combining the necessary ingredients and packaging the nished product. This process is described in more detail above, under oil-based paints.
Waterborne paints are applied by spraying, rolling, or brushing them onto a surface. Careful preparation of the surface to be covered will enhance the quality and durability of the nish.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Alternative Paint
Although water is the primary carrier, signicant quantities of VOCs can still be released as the paint cures (although much less than from oil-based paints). These VOCs can create disagreeable odors and other health symptoms, especially among sensitive individuals. Among the pollutants detected from waterborne paints in several studies are acetaldehyde, methanol, benzene, tetracholorethylene, xylenes, toluenes, acrylonitrile, ethylene glycol, and formaldehyde. Many of these substances can have various health effects. Emissions of most VOCs decline dramatically within several hours of application. In response to increasingly strict regulations and consumer demand, manufacturers of waterborne paints have been reducing the amount of VOCs emitted upon application. Most manufacturers now offer low-VOC formulations, either exclusively or as an option. A few even have products that, according to accepted calculation methods, will emit no VOCs, although in practice even these products generally do emit minute quantities. Water used to clean tools and equipment contains residues of the paint constituents listed above under material acquisition and preparation and should not be released directly into the environment.
A few water-based paints that emit almost no VOCs are now available.
Although excess waterborne paint can generally be disposed of in containers as solid waste, it is preferable to donate such paint to someone who can use it or return it to the manufacturer for recycling into new paint. Some municipalities and counties have programs for collecting used paint and processing it into usable primer. There are also potential health hazards in the disposal or preparation for recoating of older painted surfaces. Most signicant among these is lead poisoning, which is discussed above under oil-based paints. Some pigments used in paints today still contain toxic compounds, though their use is declining. These compounds may be of concern when burning demolition waste or when sanding painted surfaces. Such activities should only be done with proper precautions and protection.
Life Cycle of Alternative Paint Alternative or nonconventional paints are primarily derived from plant or mineral sources, avoiding or minimizing the use of petrochemicals. These products are formulated to result in reduced VOC emissions or emissions of lesser toxicity during use. A broad range of such products is available, with signicant variation in terms of strengths and weaknesses.
The carriers for alternative paints include isoaliphatic hydrocarbons, citrus terpenes (orange peel oil), or ethyl alcohol. Binders include various plant-derived oils and saponied beeswax. Minerals such as mica, chalk, talc, and silica, used in conventional paints as pigment extenders, are used in many alternative products as llers. Driers, comprising one to two percent of the paints by weight, may be calcium octoate, zirconium octoate, or cobalt octoate. As with conventional paints, titanium dioxide is the primary pigment. Iron oxide and other mineralderived pigments provide color. Resins used include dammar resin and gum rosin, both from trees; methyl cellulose; shellac; or soya lecithin. Borate-based chemicals are used in small quantities as preservatives. Carriers for alternative paints are typically either petrochemical derivatives, such as isoaliphatic hydrocarbons or ethyl alcohol, or d-limonene, a terpene extracted from citrus peels. Isoaliphatic hydrocarbons are petroleum derivatives that have been rened to remove the more toxic aromatic components, leaving a product that is safer for the end user than conventional solvents but no less polluting in its production. Ethyl alcohol is produced by the
Citrus terpenes are used as the carrier in some alternative paints.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Alternative Paint
hydration of ethylene; production of ethylene is described above under waterborne paint. The environmental impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing are discussed above, under oil-based paints. Citrus terpenes are produced by pressing citrus peels to extract the oils, which are then distilled. This process requires energy, typically generated by the combustion of fossil fuels, the environmental impacts of which are discussed above. The distillation of citrus oil can release VOCs into the atmosphere. Currently, most citrus-based paints are imported from Europe, which adds to the embodied energy of these products. The environmental impacts of natural oil production from oil seeds are discussed above under oil-based paints; the impacts of mining and processing of llers, titanium dioxide pigments, and iron oxide pigments are discussed under pigments for oil-based paints. Materials used as driers and borate-based preservatives occur only in small quantities and are not further discussed in this report. Dammar resin and gum rosin, two common resins in alternative paints, are exuded from living trees. No additional details on the environmental impacts of this process are available. Another resin, methyl cellulose, is made by treating wood pulp with a sodium hydroxide solution and reacting the resulting cellulose with methyl chloride or methyl sulfate. Shellac is obtained from a resinous material secreted by an insect native to India. Soya lecithin is a product of soybeans.
Milk-based paints require a protective coating in most situations.
Milk-based paint consists primarily of milk or casein (a milk solid), lime, clay, and mineral pigments, with a mildewcide but no hydrocarbons or other solvents. Milk paints readily absorb dirt and oils, so they require a clear protective coating in most situations.
Manufacture
Alternative paints are manufactured much like conventional paints, as described above under oil-based paints.
Alternative paints are applied like conventional paints, although some products may require more coats to obtain equivalent hiding capacity. They may also require special handling during application and longer drying times. Depending on the product, they generally emit little or none of the toxic VOCs emitted by conventional paints, making it possible to paint surfaces adjacent to building occupants with minimal effect on indoor air quality. Such VOCs do still contribute somewhat to ground-level ozone (smog) and thus have a potentially negative impact on the global climate (see oil-based paints, above). Especially sensitive individuals may react to the VOCs from d-limonene or from the petroleum-based solvents. Although VOCs from d-limonene are nontoxic and short-lived, they are emitted in quantities higher than those allowed by some clean air regulations, so citrus-based paints may require special exemptions to remain legal in some jurisdictions.
Many alternative paints release relatively high levels of VOCs, but these are generally less toxic than those released by conventional paints.
Due to their relatively small market share, there are no widespread efforts to collect and recycle excess nonconventional paints. Proper disposal of most such products with other liquid wastes or in a landll (per local regulations) should not pose an environmental or health hazard, with the possible exception of some heavy metal pigments. Concern about the health threat posed by existing lead paint on previously painted surfaces is discussed above, under oil-based paints.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Traditional Oil-based Stain/Modern Oil-based Stain
Life Cycle of Traditional Oil-based Stain Most interior oil-based stain is a traditional wood stain, consisting of an oil carrying a colorant (pigment) that penetrates the porous wood surface and seals it against water.
Traditional stain penetrates into porous surfaces, rather than leaving a protective lm.
Traditional wood stains consist of linseed oil with gilsonite (a form of asphalt) as the black colorant in a mineral spirit solvent. The extraction of linseed oil from axseed is described above under oil-based paints. Linseed oil used in stains is usually converted into a chemically more reactive form through heat treatment with catalysts. Asphalt is the nonvolatile residual material, or heavy bottom, of crude oil refining. Gilsonite is a form of asphalt that lacks the more toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in other asphalt. The environmental impacts of petroleum extraction and processing are discussed above under oil-based paints. Additional pollution and waste products from the asphalt itself include VOC and particulate emissions. Mineral spirits are a complex mix of hydrocarbons, which can be hazardous to human health and the environment. They are discussed in more detail above under oil-based paints.
Manufacture
The manufacture of stains consists primarily of homogeneous, irreversible mixing of the liquid components. The exact process depends on the size and nature of the operation and on how the raw materials are supplied to the plant. Wastes generated include air emissions from the materials themselves and from fuel combustion to power the manufacturing process, wastewater from equipment cleaning, empty bags and packaging, off-specication product, and obsolete stock.
Oil-based stains can be wiped on and off with a rag. They require solvents to clean up application implements and spills. Rags soaked with oil-based stains can spontaneously combust if left exposed to oxygen so must be stored in a re-safe container after each use. Solvents are emitted during drying. In addition, sanding of surfaces before application of additional coats may release particulates. Slow-drying oils in stains may have negative health effects if inhaled.
Traditional oil-based stains emit VOCs from solvents as they dry.
Oil-based stains are considered hazardous waste in some jurisdictions and must never be poured into sewers or septic systems. If possible, excess stain should be donated to someone who can use it or returned to the manufacturer for recycling into new product. Excess oilbased stains can generally be stored in sealed containers for extended periods without deterioration. If none of these options are available, leftover stain should be disposed of properly at a hazardous waste facility. Stains allowed to evaporate into the air will contribute to localized smog, and they are highly toxic to most organisms in water and soil. Stained wood can be recycled with uncoated wood for some applications but not for others; guidelines should be procured from the recycling facility.
Life Cycle of Modern Oil-based Stain Modern oil-based stains use iron oxide as a primary colorant and alkyd resin in place of much of the linseed oil found in traditional stains. These stains are available in semitransparent and opaque formulations. Unlike traditional stains, oil-based stains for exterior use may build up a signicant surface coating of resin and pigment to protect the wood surface.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Modern Oil-based Stain
One component of alkyd resin can be made from tall oil, a byproduct of kraft paper production.
Alkyd resins are made from a combination of petrochemicals and natural oils from sources such as soybeans. They are the reaction product of a polyhydric alcohol such as glycerol or ethylene glycol and a polybasic acid or anhydride, which are modied with a fatty acid or oil, usually from plant material. Common sources include soybeans and tall oil, which is made from the black liquor waste from kraft paper processing. Using tall oil reduces the waste and potential stream pollution from kraft paper production. Most common of the polybasic acids and anhydrides used is phthalic anhydride, which is produced by the controlled oxidation of either o-xylene or naphthalene. Atmospheric VOC emissions and other air pollutants are released during manufacturing processes. Combustion of fuels used to drive these processes also causes emissions. The extraction of linseed oil from axseed is described above under oil-based paints, as are the production of iron oxide pigments and mineral spirits.
Manufacture
Modern oil-based stains are manufactured in a manner similar to that of traditional oilbased stains, described above.
Modern oil-based stains are often applied to exterior wood surfaces by brushing or spraying, like paint. They require solvents, such as mineral spirits, to clean up application implements and spills. Because they are used primarily on exterior surfaces, VOCs emitted are of concern primarily due to their potential contribution to localized smog. Fumes entering the building through intake vents or open windows may affect indoor air quality as well.
Recycling and disposal of modern oil-based stain is similar to that of traditional oil-based stain, discussed above.
Life Cycle of Waterborne Stain Waterborne or latex stains are similar in composition to the waterborne paints described above, except that they leave a thin lm of resin and pigment on the wood surface, rather than a cured coating. Thus, they differ from paint primarily in the types and quantities of resins used as a base for the coating.
The primary difference between waterborne stain and waterborne paint is the nature of the coating formed by each.
The most common base for waterborne stains is acrylic resin, although vinyl (PVC) and polyurethane are also used. Iron oxides are typical colorants. Solvents, such as propylene glycol or propylene-based glycol ether, are used in small quantities. Silica may be included to provide a low-gloss nish, and emulsifying chemicals help keep the resin dispersed and suspended in the water carrier. Acrylic resin (see gure 15) and polyurethane are discussed above under oil-based paints. Vinyl is made from ethylene (production discussed above under waterborne paint) and chlorine, which is made from salt (see gure 18). As with other petrochemicals, many precursors and intermediaries in the production of vinyl are toxic and/or hazardous. These include ethylene dichloride and vinyl chloride. There is also concern about the release of highly toxic organochlorines, such as dioxin, from vinyl manufacture and incineration. Propylene glycol and related solvents are discussed under waterborne paints. Iron oxide pigments are discussed above under oil-based paints. A small amount of the silica used may
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APP 6
Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Traditional Varnish
Figure 18: Materials Flow for Vinyl

Brine or rock salt Chlorine
Natural gas
Crude oil
Ethylene
Ethylene dichloride
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
come from quartz in its unfused crystalline form, which is a possible carcinogen. Most silica used in stains, however, is amorphous, which is not carcinogenic.
Manufacture
Waterborne stains are manufactured in a manner similar to that of traditional oil-based stains, described above.
Modern waterborne stains are often applied to exterior wood surfaces by brushing or spraying, like paint. They require only soap and water, rather than solvents, for cleanup. Fewer VOCs are emitted from waterborne stains than from their oil-based counterparts, but the issues relating to the VOCs are the same.
Although excess waterborne stain can generally be disposed of in containers as solid waste, it is preferable to donate it to someone who can use it or to return it to the manufacturer for reprocessing into new product.
Life Cycle of Traditional Varnish Varnishes produce a protective coating that forms through the chemical reaction (or drying) of various unsaturated oils, as with oil-based paint.
Traditional varnishes are made from drying oils, chemical oxidizers, resins, mineral spirit solvents, and quartz silica. Drying oils are usually linseed oil, tung oil, or soybean oil, and they usually contain chemical drying agents to speed curing (see below). The production of linseed oil (from axseed) and soybean oil are discussed above under oil-based paints. Tung oil is produced through a similar process from the seeds of the tung tree, which is grown primarily in Argentina, Paraguay, and China. Tung trees were grown in the southern United States until the early 1970s, but a combination of freeze and hurricane damage, along with reduced demand, has resulted in an end to U.S. cultivation. Chemical drying agents are predominantly heavy metal soaps that are usually soluble in oil. They represent about 1 to 2 percent by weight of the varnish and are not discussed in more detail here. A few of the traditional varnish products on the market do not contain heavymetal drying agents.
Tung oil is produced from trees that grow primarily in South America and China.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings
Natural resins have been replaced by synthetic resins in varnish manufacture.
Originally, natural fossil resins, including bato, congo, and singapore, were mined and used for varnish manufacture. Gum rosin, from living pine trees, was also used. These natural resins have been replaced almost entirely by synthetic resins, predominantly phenolics. Phenolic resin, or phenol formaldehyde (see gure 19), is made from two toxic petrochemicals: phenol and formaldehyde. The cured resin, however, is not considered toxic. Phenol is made from benzene, a petroleum derivative, and propylene, which can come from either petroleum or natural gas. Formaldehyde is made from methanol, which comes from natural gas. There are many different environmental impacts from extracting and processing fossil fuels. These are discussed above under oil-based paints.
Figure 19: Materials Flow for Phenolic Resin
Petroleum Naphtha Benzene Cumene (isopropyl benzene) Phenol
Propylene
Natural gas
Methanol
Formaldehyde
Phenol formaldehyde
Mineral spirits are also discussed above under oil-based paints, and quartz silica is discussed under waterborne stains.
Manufacture
The manufacture of traditional varnish requires heating oil and resin together in a kettle at 400F to 600F (200C to 315C) for 1 to 6 hours to thicken the liquid. The resulting material would become solid at room temperature, so a thinner (usually mineral spirits) is added. Signicant amounts of VOCs are emitted during this cooking procedure, although the quantity released to the atmosphere depends on the pollution controls in place and other factors. Other wastes include emissions from fuel combustion to power the manufacturing process, wastewater from equipment cleaning, empty bags and packaging, off-specication product, and obsolete stock.
Particulates generated during the sanding of varnish are not considered a signicant health threat.
Varnishes can be applied with a brush, pad, or fabric-covered squeegee. Two or more coats are commonly applied, with a light sanding between them. Sanding of varnish may release particulates into the atmosphere. High molecular-weight polymeric resins are likely to have little or no health effects other than physical irritation. Slow drying oils may affect human health, depending on the specic material. Crystalline silica, a possible carcinogen, may also be released from some products during sanding. Emissions of VOCs are typically quite high during initial curing of the varnish, but they drop off rapidly afterwards. VOCs that have been released into a building may become attached temporarily to other surfaces, particularly carpets and other textiles, and released into the space over time. This effect makes it critical to maximize ventilation during and immediately after application to minimize VOC levels in the building, even if it is unoccupied.
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Oil-based Clear Finish
Traditional varnishes require the use of solvents such as mineral spirits for cleaning brushes and equipment. These solvents also release VOCs, requiring maximum ventilation for all cleaning activities.
Like oil-based paints and stains, traditional varnish will release VOCs and contaminate any water and soils it contacts if it is discarded into the environment. In some jurisdictions these materials are considered hazardous waste and must be handled as such. In place of disposal, it is generally preferable to store the material carefully and use it up or donate it to someone who can. Contaminated cleaning solvents are also considered hazardous waste in some jurisdictions and must never be poured into sewers or septic systems but disposed of properly at a hazardous waste facility. Solvents allowed to evaporate into the air will contribute to localized smog, and they are highly toxic to most organisms in water and soil.
Cleaning solvents used with varnish are highly toxic and will contribute to smog if allowed to evaporate.
Life Cycle of Oil-based Clear Finish Synthetic clear nishes derived primarily from petrochemicals have largely replaced true varnish as a clear wood nish. Most such products use polyurethane, an oil-modied urethane that replaces the drying oils, chemical drying agents, and resins of traditional varnish.
Polyurethanes are manufactured by modifying an oil or an alkyd resin with polyisocyanates or toluene diisocyante (TDI) to provide quick-drying capabilities and hardness (see gure 20). Isocyanates are toxic substances that must be handled with care. They are produced by the reaction of phosgene with amines; in the case of TDI the amine is produced from toluene. Excess phosgene, which is also toxic, is reused in the process. The production of isocyanates releases hydrochloric acid, which may be utilized or destroyed. Hydrochloric acid is highly corrosive and can cause respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation at low concentrations. It also contributes to acid precipitation, with its associated impacts. Once converted to urethane, isocyanates and phosgene can be handled safely, but incompletely reacted urethane should not be released and may constitute a disposal problem. Polyurethanes cure by different methods, depending on the formulation used. Some cure by atmospheric oxidation, some react with moisture in the air, and some require an accelerator or catalyst. Accelerators may be tertiary amines or metal-containing compounds. As in traditional varnishes, the carrier is often mineral spirits, which are discussed above under oil-based paints. Quartz silica, used to control the glossiness of the nish, is discussed above under traditional varnishes.
Figure 20: Materials Flow for Polyurethane
Dinitrotoluene Toluenediamine
Polyurethane is the most common clear nish used in place of traditional varnish.
Petroleum
Toluene
Phosgene
Toluene diisocyanate
Flax, soybean, or tung cultivation
Oil extracted from seeds
Drying oil
Polyurethane
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Waterborne Clear Finish
If a clear nish is intended for exterior use, additional components, such as tung oil and phenolic resin, are added to provide resistance to ultraviolet light. An alkyd resin compounded with a high proportion of oil may also be added to increase the exibility of the nish.
Manufacture
In the manufacture of clear nishes, the liquid raw materials are mixed in a specic sequence in slow- to high-speed stirrers to make a homogeneous mixture. After the mixing, chemical reactions are initiated by heating. The mix is cooked in either open or enclosed gas-red kettles for 4 to 16 hours at 200 to 650F (90 to 340C). The product is then tested and adjusted for viscosity and other properties, after which it is ltered and packaged for shipment.
The quantity of VOCs released during the cooking of polyurethane nishes depends primarily on the pollution controls in place.
Signicant amounts of VOCs are emitted during the cooking procedure, although the quantity released into the atmosphere depends on the pollution controls in place and other factors. Other wastes include emissions from fuel combustion to power the manufacturing process; wastewater from equipment cleaning; empty bags and packaging; off-specication product; and obsolete stock.
Clear nishes can be applied with a brush, sprayer, pad, or fabric-covered squeegee. Two or more coats are commonly applied, with a light sanding between them. Sanding of the coating may release particulates into the atmosphere. Polymeric resins with a high molecular weight are likely to have little or no effects on health other than physical irritation. Slow-drying oils or unreacted monomers may affect health, depending on the specic material. Crystalline silica, a possible carcinogen, may also be released from some products during sanding. Emissions of VOCs are typically quite high during initial curing of the coating, but they drop off rapidly afterwards. Hazardous pollutants associated with polyurethane coatings are methyl ethyl ketone, acetaldehyde, cyclohexanone, methylbenzene, and xylene. VOCs that have been released into a building may become attached temporarily to other surfaces, particularly carpets and other textiles; over time, these VOCs are released into the space. This delayed release makes it especially important to maximize ventilation during and immediately after application, even if the building is unoccupied. Issues relating to cleanup with solvents are discussed above, under traditional varnishes.
VOC emissions are high during initial curing of polyurethane, but they drop off rapidly afterward.
Like oil-based paints and stains, clear nishes discarded into the environment will release VOCs and contaminate any water and soils they contact. In some jurisdictions these materials are considered hazardous waste and must be handled as such. In place of disposal, it is generally preferable to store these materials carefully and use them up or to donate them to someone who can.
Life Cycle of Waterborne Clear Finish While oil-based nishes are true solutionsthe resins are dissolved in the solventwaterborne finishes are emulsions, which means the resins and small quantities of solvent are suspended in the water.
The resin used in waterborne clear nishes may be polyurethane, acrylic emulsion, or a combination of the two. A solvent, such as a propylene glycol-based ether, is required for lm formation. Modication with a wax improves the mar resistance of the product. The production and environmental impacts of acrylic resins and polyurethane are discussed above under oil-based clear finishes. Propylene glycol solvents are discussed under waterborne paints. Quartz silica, used to control the glossiness of the nish, is discussed above
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Life Cycles of Architectural Coatings Alternative Clear Finish
under traditional varnishes. Waxes may be produced by animals and plants, such as beeswax or carnauba wax, or they may be synthetic waxes made from petroleum or coal. Their production is not further discussed in this report.
Manufacture
The manufacture of waterborne clear nishes is similar to the manufacture of oil-based clear nishes, described above.
Waterborne clear nishes are applied like their oil-based counterparts, although they require slightly different handling. The waterborne finishes tend to dry more quickly and require only soap and water for cleanup rather than solvents. Although they release significantly fewer VOCs than oil-based nishes, adequate ventilation is still important. Concerns about particulates from sanding, discussed above under oil-based clear nishes, also apply to waterborne coatings.
Waterborne clear nishes dry more quickly than their oil-borne counterparts.
Excess waterborne coatings can generally be disposed of in containers as solid waste, but it is preferable to donate these materials to someone who can use them. Coated wood can be recycled with uncoated wood for some applications but not for others; guidelines should be procured from the recycling facility.
Life Cycle of Alternative Clear Finish Alternative or nonconventional clear nishes are similar to traditional varnishes, but they have a solvent that is less noxious and they avoid synthetic resins.
The solvent in nonconventional clear finishes is usually either distilled citrus oil (dlimonene) or solvent made from petroleum distillates with the toxic aromatic hydrocarbon removed. Both these solvents are discussed above under nonconventional paints. Linseed oil and tung oil are commonly used as drying oils (discussed above under traditional varnishes and under oil-based paints). Gum rosinexuded from living pine treesis a typical natural resin.
Manufacture
The manufacture of nonconventional clear nishes is similar to the manufacture of oil-based clear nishes, described above.
Although special handling may be necessary for some products, alternative clear nishes are generally applied like conventional coatings. Depending on the product, they generally emit little or none of the toxic VOCs emitted by conventional coatings, making it possible to coat surfaces near building occupants without affecting air quality. However, particularly sensitive individuals may still react to the VOCs from d-limonene or from the petroleum-based solvents. Cleanup requirements vary by product. For those requiring solvents, low-toxicity solvents similar to those used in the product are generally available.
Sensitive individuals may react to VOCs from citrus-based solvents in alternative clear nishes.
Although leftover nonconventional coatings can generally be disposed of in containers as solid waste, it is preferable to donate these materials to someone who can use them. Coated wood can be recycled with uncoated wood for some applications but not for others; guidelines should be procured from the recycling facility.
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References
References
American Institute of Architects. 1996. Stains and Varnishes: Material Report in Environmental Resource Guide. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. American Institute of Architects. 1996. Paint Material Report in Environmental Resource Guide. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Used for Building Construction. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration. Salokangas, Raimo, et al. 1990. Energi-Innehallet i Husbyggande (translated from Swedish: Energy Contents in Building Sector). Nordisk Konference om Bygningers Totalenergiforbrug og Energirelaterede Miljobelastning, Kobenhavn 1990 (translated from Danish: Nordic Conference on the Total Energy Use of Buildings and Energy Related Costs to the Environment, Copenhagen 1990).
Organizations
Architectural Spray Coaters Association, 230 West Welles, Suite 311, Milwaukee, WI 53203, 414/2733430; 414/273-0090 fax National Paint and Coatings Association, 1500 Rhode Island Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 200055597202/462-6272; 202/462-8549 fax
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Application Report
Glazing
The role of glazing materials in buildings is extremely important on many different levelsfrom architectural design and aesthetics to building energy consumption and comfort. From an environmental standpoint, the primary issue is the effect the glazing has on building energy use. Depending on building design, fenestration placement, shading, and specic glazing properties, glazing products can range from signicantly increasing energy consumption in buildings to signicantly reducing it. This effect on energy may vary considerably in different seasons and at different times during the day. Compared to the potential impact the use of glazing products has on building energy use, environmental impacts from glazing manufacture are minor.
Highlights
s s
The vast majority of all glazing material produced and used in the United States is glass, an inert and relatively benign material environmentally. The primary raw materials used in making glasssilica sand, limestone, and soda ashare plentiful, and most can be extracted with minimal environmental impact. While considerable energy goes into glass production, on a per-square-foot basis glass has considerably lower embodied energy than other glazing materials. Acrylic and polycarbonate glazing materials are more resistant to breakage than glass, making them more durable and safer in certain applications. Acrylic glazing is produced exclusively from petroleum in a multistage process that may introduce pollutants into the environment. Polycarbonate glazing is produced from petroleum, natural gas, and brine (a source of chlorine) through a more complex process than is required for acrylic manufacture. The energy intensity and potential for pollutant emissions are greater in manufacturing polycarbonate than in manufacturing acrylic. Laminated glass has a thin layer of petrochemical-based polyvinyl butyral sandwiched between two layers of glass. Environmental impacts from producing laminated glass are greater than those from producing standard glass because the process requires additional glass, a petrochemical-based plastic, and additional processing energy.
s s s s
s s
Design buildings to make use of daylight and passive solar heating when appropriate. Specify high-performance glazing (spectrally selective in commercial buildings, low-e in residential buildings) in almost all geographic regions and building applications. Specify a low-e coating that is appropriate for the climatesome types reduce solar heat gain more than others. Optimize glazing selection for the climate, building design, and location in the building. In general, specify frame systems for glazing that are made of low-conductivity material. If high-conductivity material such as aluminum must be used, incorporate thermal breaks. During remodeling, old glass can sometimes be salvaged and reused. Avoid reusing this glass in the exterior envelopes of buildings because of poor energy performance. Rather, reuse old glass in interior applications.
s s s
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Glazing
Comparative Environmental Performance Glazing
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceGlazing*

Energy Impacts on operational energy use b
Building occupant health IAQ a
3 3
Worker/installer healtha
Glass Acrylic glazing Polycarbonate glazing Laminated glass
5 5
Transportation
Notes
a
b
Health impacts for all glazing materials may result from sealants used. Operational Energy use far outweighs other factors in most cases.
Performance Range 1 Better environmental controls in newer plants.

2 3
Performance depends on orientation, glazing conguration, and fenestration design.
Durability of glazing systems often depends more on other components of the system than on the glazing. Better performance if recycled acrylic/polycarbonate resin used. Materials are recyclable, but are rarely recycled.
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Glazing
Environmental Impacts Glass
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsGlass

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Fuel combustion emissions from energy use during mining and manufacturing, some particulate emissions from dust Runoff from mining operations and tailings piles (alkaline runoff from soda ash mining is greatest concern); efuents from older glass plants may have high suspended solids, BOD, oil contamination Tailings piles generally of low impact if suitably graded and replanted to prevent erosion Most raw materials, including metals used in coatings, are in plentiful supply; fossil fuels used for manufacturing are limited resources Mining can result in severe habitat disruption on a very localized basis Eye and throat irritation from particulate emissions during materials processing and mixing of raw materials during manufacture; health risk from heat exposure during manufacture Glass is inert but potential offgassing from sealants used in glazing system and from nishes and window frame components By virtue of the economies of scale in glass manufacture, potential for localized employment very limited; automation is reducing work force in glass industry Glass is fairly energy intensive to manufacture owing to the high temperatures required for melting; however, on a persquare-foot basis, it is only a quarter as energy intensive as polycarbonate for a given thickness; heat treatment of glass for strengthening increases energy use Signicant transportation energy use because of centralized manufacturing and shipping, primarily by truck Most important environmental consideration; depending on fenestration design and product selection, can contribute either positively or negatively to building energy use; use of low-e coatings generally improves energy performance considerably
Water quality/ availability
Health and welfare
Building occupant health (indoor air quality)
Energy
Transportation
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Glazing
Environmental Impacts Glass
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsGlass (continued)

Impact Group Building operation Impact Category Life expectancy/durability Environmental Impacts Excellent durability except when impact damage a risk; very long expected lifetime; long-term durability of some coatings and suspended plastic lms unknown; glazing seals, frames, and sealants usually the weak link Frequent low-impact cleaning required; glazing (sealant) may need repair or replacement very occasionally Waste cullet within a oat glass manufacturing plant typically recycled back into the melt, but postconsumer recycling is currently not done; potential of recycling glass after coating unknown; at glass cannot be recycled with bottle glass but it can be downcycled as an additive to asphalt or concrete or used as a clean ll material
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Glazing
Environmental Impacts Acrylic Glazing
Figure 3: Environmental ImpactsAcrylic Glazing

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from petroleum extraction and use and from various stages of manufactureparticularly from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum derivatives and acrylic monomer emissions; also various pollutants from protective kraft paper and polyethylene manufacture Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing; potential for spills during offshore drilling and transport of crude oil; wastewater emissions from manufacture of protective kraft paper and polyethylene Localized impacts from crude oil extraction: drilling muds, sludge, etc. Petroleum is a limited resource Crude oil extraction can have a signicant localized impact on ecosystems; spills, from offshore drilling or accidents, can have widespread coastal impacts Various chemicals involved in or created through acrylic production stages are harmful, including benzene, ammonia, and aldehydes Acrylic glazing is stable and considered inert; sealants used during installation may release VOCs during curing Automation is reducing workforce in the petrochemical and plastics industries; little potential for decentralized employment Embodied energy of acrylic glazing is unknown Transportation energy moderate Very high energy-performance congurations of acrylic glazing are generally not available, as they are with glass; acrylic glazing can be used in passive solar and daylighting applications Good durability, but not as good as glass; some degradation from UV exposure will occur over time If properly installed, maintenance should be minimal; high expansion coefcient of acrylic may cause problems with weatherstripping seal and glazing system if not properly engineered; problems will be greatest in areas with high solar gain Acrylic may be recycled, although it usually has to be chemically reconstituted
Health and welfare
Energy
Production/manufacturing Transportation Impact on operating energy use
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Polycarbonate Glazing
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsPolycarbonate Glazing

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from petroleum and natural gas extraction, processing, and use; potential emissions of bisphenol A, cumene, benzene, phosgene, and chlorine; various pollutants from protective kraft paper and polyethylene manufacture Discharge of wastewater from crude oil and natural gas extraction and processing; potential for spills during offshore drilling and transport of crude oil; wastewater emissions from brine processing and from protective kraft paper and polyethylene manufacture Localized impacts from crude oil, natural gas, and brine extraction: drilling muds, sludge, etc. Petroleum and natural gas are limited resources Crude oil, natural gas, and brine extraction can have a signicant localized impact on ecosystems; spills, from offshore drilling or accidents, can have widespread coastal impacts Various chemicals involved in or created through polycarbonate production are harmful to humans, including bisphenol A, cumene, benzene, phosgene, and chlorine Polycarbonate glazing is stable and considered inert; sealants used during installation may release VOCs during curing Automation reducing workforce in the petrochemical and plastics industries, little potential for decentralized employment Embodied energy of polycarbonate glazing is very high: on a per-pound basis, it is the most energy-intensive plastic, on a per-square-foot basis, it is more than four times as energyintensive as glass for a given thickness, even though the polycarbonate is much lighter Transportation energy moderate Very high energy-performance congurations of polycarbonate glazing are generally not available, as they are with glass; polycarbonate glazings can be used in passive solar and daylighting applications
Health and welfare
Energy
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Glazing
Environmental Impacts Polycarbonate Glazing
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsPolycarbonate Glazing (continued)

Impact Group Building operation Impact Category Life expectancy/durability Environmental Impacts Good durability (in applications prone to vandalism and other impacts, durability considerably better than that of glass); some degradation and yellowing from UV exposure will occur over time If properly installed, maintenance should be minimal; high expansion coefcient of polycarbonate may cause problems with weatherstripping seal, air leakage, and glazing system if not properly engineered; problems will be greatest in areas with high solar gain Polycarbonate may be recycled very easily by grinding and remelting, with minimal reprocessing
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Environmental Impacts Laminated Glass
Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsLaminated Glass

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Impacts similar to those of glass, plus air emissions from PVB manufacture: SOx, NOx, VOCs, particulates, benzene, and alcohols See glass; most manufacturers of PVB are diligent in controlling efuent See glass All raw materials except petrochemical feedstocks for PVB are in plentiful supply See glass; additional impacts associated with petroleum and natural gas extraction See glass; potential for some additional impacts associated with PVB production Laminated glass is inert, since the PVB is sealed within the layers of glass; potential offgassing from sealants used in glazing system and from nishes and window frame components Potential for localized employment limited; automation is reducing work force in glass industry Laminated glass is more energy-intensive than standard glass, owing to the PVB lm addition (specic embodied energy data not available); on a per-square-foot basis, laminated glass is still probably less energy-intensive than polycarbonate Signicant transportation energy use because of centralized manufacturing and shipping primarily by truck Most important environmental consideration; depending on fenestration design and product selection, can contribute either positively or negatively to building energy use Good durability, but not as good as glass or tempered glass; possible degradation of plastic inner layer over time Frequent low-impact cleaning required glazing (sealant) may need repair or replacement very occasionally PVB scrap can be recycled; waste from laminated glass production can be recycled if PVB is separated from the glass; post-use laminated glass is more difcult to recycle than conventional glass because it cannot be ground into aggregate as easily
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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Glazing

Changing how architects specify glazing and fenestration systems can reduce the overall environmental impact of buildings. A number of important recommendations for change are provided here. Because saving energy is the most important environmental consideration related to glazing, it is the focus of most of the recommendations.
Strategies to Maximize Energy Performance These strategies are discussed in three categories: general recommendations followed by specific recommendations for residential and nonresidential applications.
General
Specify insulated glass (two layers of glass with air space) and low-e coatings. In virtually all climates in the United States, insulated glass and low-e coatings are recommended as a bare minimum for reducing energy use. Low-e coatings are especially useful in controlling heat gain through windows in southern climates. Specify windows with National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) ratings. The energy performance of NFRC-rated windows has been calculated for standard sizes, and sample windows have been tested to ensure the accuracy of the modeling. Rated windows are listed in the NFRC Certied Products Directory, and they carry NFRC labels. For windows not rated by NFRC, refer to the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (1993 or 1997 editions) for performance information, although it may be difcult to be sure you are comparing apples to apples. Use computer modeling to optimize glazing selection. Windows play an extremely important role in energy flow into and out of buildings. Optimizing cooling load avoidance, daylighting, and passive solar heat gain requires sophisticated computer modeling. The impact of windows should be considered in both HVAC and electrical lighting design. Optimal glazing strategies will depend on climate, building configuration, building occupancy, and available glazing products. RESFEN 2.4 and PowerDOE are two programs that can perform this type of analysis. Both are available from the Windows and Daylighting Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Specify windows with large unbroken glazing areas. High-performance glazing usually insulates better than the sash and frames, so a large window with an unbroken glazing area will have a higher overall R-value (lower Ufactor) than a true divided-light window. In addition, windows with large unbroken glazing areas typically have lower air leakage rates. Applied grilles to simulate divided-light windows do not reduce insulating values. With metal-frame windows, specify only products with thermal breaks between the interior and exterior surfaces to avoid thermal bridging (see gure 6).
Nonresidential Applications
Figure 6: In windows with metal frames, a nonmetallic thermal break is essential to reduce heat transfer through the frame. (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 425, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Specify U-factor, solar heat gain coefcient, and visible light transmittance independently for each fenestration application in a building. It may make sense to specify different performance properties for different facades and different types of fenestration (windows, skylights, atria, etc.). Optimize glazing design for daylighting, view, and visual comfort (which affects worker productivity) as well as overall energy performance. Lighting design and lighting controls in the building should be integrated with overall design and specically with fenestration design. Specify spectrally selective glazing. This glazing type has additional tints or
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coatings that block out more solar heat gain than standard low-e glazing yet provides higher visible light transmittance than standard tinted glass, which makes it work reasonably well for daylighting. Install operable windows where feasible. Although operable windows complicate HVAC design and operation, they can improve comfort, air quality, and a sense of well-being among workers. To optimize performance with operable windows, HVAC design and fenestration design should be integrated throughout the design process. For optimal energy performance of commercial buildings, dont rely on glazing as the sole barrier or control plane between indoor and outdoor environments. Exterior shading systems can provide superior sun control, interior blinds can provide greater control of glare, and rainscreen detailing can reduce reliance on sealants for bulk moisture control.
Residential Applications
Figure 7: Understanding the movement of the sun throughout the day and in different seasons is critical to proper fenestration design. (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 709, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Specify high-performance windows. In most parts of the United States, high-performance glazing with a low-emissivity coating and low-conductivity gas fill and glazing spacers are economically justified and strongly recommended for energy, environmental, and comfort reasons. Specify high solar-heat-gain glazing on south facades in buildings that incorporate passive solar techniques. For passive solar heating, specify lowe glazing with a high solar-heat-gain coefficient (>.60) for the south facade. During the summer months, the south sun is high in the sky (see gure 7), so appropriately sized overhangs can protect against overheating. Examples of this type of glazing include LOF Energy Advantage, PPGs Sungate 500, and AFG Comfort II. With Heat Mirror glazing, choose a high number (Heat Mirror-88, for example). NFRC window labels now include the solar-heat-gain coefcient (SHGC) to make this selection easier. Specify glazing with low solar-heat-gain coefcients (<.5) in locations that contribute signicantly to cooling loads and overheating. The highest performance glazingthat with at least triple glazing, multiple low-e coatings or specialized solar-control low-e coatings, and low-conductivity gas ll have quite low solar heat gain coefcients and are most appropriate on east and west facades and on skylights where solar heat gain adds the most to cooling loads. It may make sense to specify a different glazing for windows facing south where solar heat gain can be benecial. Avoid sliding windows with high air leakage rates. When design permits, specify casement and awning windows that close against compression-type gaskets rather than sliding windows (including double-hung models) as the latter rarely seal as tightly. If sliding windows are necessary, specify those that have good air tightness. Specify windows with low-conductivity frames. If metal frames are used, make sure they have thermal breaks. Specify low air leakage rates. For all window types (casement, awning, double-hung, etc.), specify air leakage rates of .1 cfm/ft or lower. Air tightness can vary widely among different product lines and among different product sizes within a given line.
Durability Considerations For sealed insulated glass, specify units with both primary and secondary seals. Specify windows with long warranties against seal failure. Loss of the seal can result in fogging and loss of any low-conductivity gas ll. Look for window products that meet industry standards for air inltration, water penetration, and structural performance. Two organizations with
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Glazing
such standards are the American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA) and the National Wood Window and Door Association (NWWDA). Use contractors skilled in installing windows and glazed curtain wall systems to make sure these are installed properly. Windows should be sealed to the rough openings with a low-expanding foam sealant to ensure maximum air tightness but prevent swelling of the frame. In cold climates, specify low-conductivity edge spacers for insulated glass units and low-conductivity frames to minimize the risk of condensation, which can degrade frame and sash components. For cleaning plastic glazing (acrylic and polycarbonate), follow manufacturers recommendations very carefully. Using improper cleansers, solvents, or cleaning implements can damage the surface and degrade the optical properties of the glazing.
Disposal Considerations Avoid the use of salvaged windows for exterior envelope applications. Despite the resource savings, substantial energy penalties result from reuse. New, state-of-the-art, high-performance windows are recommended rather than older, salvaged windows. Consider salvaged windows for interior glazing applications. When energy performance is not a consideration, salvaged windows or glazing panels are recommended because of the resource savings they represent. Recycle glass from older buildings. During remodeling or demolition, look for markets for recycled glass cullet so that glazing materials are not simply landlled. If laminated glass is being recycled, the PVB plastic inner layer may need to be removed first. Both acrylic and polycarbonate glazing is recyclable. Currently, no glass manufacturers accept post-use recycled glass, but it can be ground and incorporated into certain asphalt and concrete mixes or used as clean ll. Specify building materials made from recycled glass cullet. Products on the market with recycled at glass content include certain brands of ceramic tile, glascrete, and glasphalt. Glazing Properties, Fenestration Design, and Energy Use From an environmental standpoint, the most important consideration when selecting glazing materials is the impact they will have on building energy use. In most cases, the potential for expending (or saving) energy through heating and cooling requirements over even a few years greatly outweighs other environmental impacts, such as the embodied energy of the glazing material.
While beyond the scope of this report, the significance of careful fenestration design cannot be overemphasized. Various aspects of fenestration design, including glazing selection, are reviewed briey below. The references at the end of the report provide specics on fenestration design.
Glazing Properties
No building element has changed as rapidly as glazing over the past two decades. The dramatic increase in the glazing area in buildings that began in the 1960s particularly in commercial structuresspawned equally dramatic improvements in energy performance. These advances have made it possible to provide large glazed areas in buildings with much smaller effects on heating and cooling energy loads than in the past. In fact, it is possible today to achieve net energy benefit to buildings through careful glazing selection and fenestration design. The most important energy features in glazing in the summarized in gure 8.
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Glazing
Figure 8: Advances in Glazing Energy Performance

Energy Feature Multiple glazing layers History of Feature First strategy used to improve energy performance of windows in the late 1930s Strategy first used in late 1970s to marginally improve energy performance of insulated glass units Energy Benet Multiple layers of glazing trap pockets of dead air, boosting R-value. Going from one layer of glass to two with a 1/4air space boosts the center-of-glass R-value from R-0.9 to R-1.75. Thicker air space reduces gas-phase conductivity from one layer of glass to another. Increasing the air space in an IG unit from 1/4 to 1/2 boosts the center-of-glass R-value from R-1.75 to R-2.04. Air space must be kept less than about 1 thick, however, to prevent convection loops from forming. Reduced sunlight transmission through glass cuts down on heat gain. See below for information on spectrally selective glazing. Reective metal coatings on the surface of the glass reect light, thus reducing solar gain. Also reduces visibility through glass. Thin metal coating on glass surface or suspended plastic lm lets short-wavelength sunlight pass through, but effectively reects longer-wavelength heat radiation (gure 10). Standard soft-coat low-e increases center-of-glass R-value of IG unit with 1/2 air space from R-2.04 to R-3.23. Specialized metal coatings or tints in glass function like low-e coatings but selectively block out short as well as long infrared radiation, thus further reducing solar heat gain. They generally retain fairly high visible light transmittance. Improved R-value through use of gas with lower gas-phase conductivity than that of air. Argon is most widely used today; krypton used in super-high-performance windows. Adding argon to IG unit with soft-coat low-e increases center-of-glass R-value from R-3.23 to R-4.0. Depending on the viscosity of the gas,thinner layer may be optimal (especially with krypton). Low-conductivity gas lls are most effective when used with low-e glazing. Aluminum is highly conductive to heat. Modest energy savings and resistance to condensation can be achieved through use of thinner stainless steel C-section spacers as well as spacers made out of butyl rubber and silicone foam.
Increased thickness of air space
Tinted glass
Widely used in commercial buildings to reduce heat gain beginning in the 1960s Widely used in commercial buildings to reduce heat gain starting in the 1960s Introduced in the early 1980s to reduce heat loss, rst on suspended plastic lm, then directly on the glass
Reective coatings
Low-e coatings
Spectrally selective glazing
Special coatings or tints introduced in the late 1980s in commercial glazing to reduce heat gain beyond that obtained with low-e glazing First used with welded-glass-edge windows in early 1970s; CO2 was used rst, then CFC, then argon; argon was widely adopted in the 1980s, krypton and sulfur hexauoride can also be used
Low-conductivity gas ll
Improved glazing spacers
Beginning in the late 1980s alternatives to the standard tubular aluminum glazing spacer in insulated glass units became available
Figure 9: Fenestration Design and Energy Performance

Energy Feature Lower conductivity sash and frame materials History of Feature Because of poor energy performance, aluminum and steel windows (without thermal breaks) have been losing popularity. Wood has always performed well Energy Benet The best frame and sash materials from an energy standpoint are vinyl extrusions or berglass with injected foam insulation. Standard wood performs fairly well. Metal frames are the worstwith metal frames, thermal break is a must. As long as unbroken aluminum or steel is avoided, tightness is usually more important than the material. In general, casement and awning windows are much tighter than sliding windows (double-hung, single-hung, or sliders) because compression-gasket weatherstripping can be used. However, air tightness can vary signicantly among manufacturers. With high-performance windows, the glazing is generally much more energy efcient than the sash and frame, so reducing edge area will improve overall energy performance.
Operable window design and air tightness
Signicant improvement in air tightness as weatherstripping materials improved in the 1970s
Larger window dimensions to minimize edge losses
Large-light windows with applied grilles began replacing true divided lights in the 1960s
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Glazing
Fenestration Design
Along with improvements in glazing properties have been valuable improvements in window energy design. While generally not as significant as the advances made in glazing, changes in frame construction, weatherstripping systems for operable windows, and window dimensions can significantly affect energy consumption. For a summary of these features, refer to gure 9.
Daylighting
Through careful building design and fenestration placement, it is possible to reduce the lighting load (and consequently the cooling loads) by incorporating natural daylighting in commercial buildings (gure 11). Specialized glazing that transmits visible light but blocks both long- and short-wavelength infrared light is ideally suited for daylighting. New reective louvers, light wells, light shelves, and other design features help architects bring more daylight into buildings without signicantly increasing cooling loads or producing uncomfortable glare. Even more signicant from an economic standpoint is the potential for increased worker productivity and enhanced job satisfaction in naturally lit spaces. A number of recent studies have shown increases in productivity of up to 15 percent from natural lighting and other features that improve employee comfort (Romm 1994). A two percent increase in worker productivity will generally save a company more money than their total annual energy expenditures.
Passive Solar Design
Figure 10: Low-e coatings on glass surfaces allow most light waves to pass through the glazing but prevent transmission of much of the longerwavelength heat radiation. (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 444, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Sophisticated new computer design programs are improving passive solar design by more accurately simulating performance. These advances make it possible for architects who have not had experience with passive solar design to incorporate such features into buildings with a far higher level of condence than was possible before. There are various levels of passive solar design. Sun-tempered designs simply involve changing the orientation of a building or repositioning windows on the various elevations. More involved passive solar designs have larger south-facing glazing areas and entail the addition of thermal mass. New glazing materials make it easier than ever to incorporate passive solar features into buildings. Passive solar heating is possible, for example, even when aesthetics or desirable views dictate fenestration areas as large on the east, west, or north as is needed on the southby using low solar-heat-gain glazing on east and west orientations (where overheating is a concern) and high solar-heat-gain glazing on the south (where you want to maximize solar gain). In the past, using different glazing materials on different orientations was rarely acceptable because the glazing looked differenthigher solar-heat-gain low-e coatings often had a bluish tintbut the high and low solar-heat-gain glazing materials available today appear virtually identical. Because the best glazing materials are so much more energy-efcient (lower U-factors) than in the past, you can now get away with larger fenestration areas on orientations other those facing south.
Figure 11: Daylighting can make building interiors more appealing and save on energy costs, but it must be carefully integrated into the overall building design to avoid problems with glare and overheating. (Reprinted by permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, page 720, 9th ed. Copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
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Life Cycle of Glass
Life Cycle of Glass

Glass is by far the most common glazing material in use today. A rigid, supercooled, liquid ceramic material, it is characterized by transparency, brittleness, hardness, and chemical inertness. First used in windows by the Romans some 2,000 years ago, glass was not widely used until about 1,000 years later, when it was blown into glass cylinders, cut open, and attened. Production of plate glassin which molten glass was rolled out, allowed to cool slowly, then polishedgreatly sped up glass production beginning in the late 17th century. Various advances improved this process, but it was not until 1959 that the next leap occurred in glass manufacture. At that time, the Pilkington brothers in England developed the oat glass process. In this, molten glass ows out of the furnace into a molten tin bath, resulting in a smooth, highly polished surface that needs no further treatment. Float glass accounts for approximately 98 percent of the flat glass produced today. Seven companies in the United States produced 4.3 billion square feet (400 million square meters) of flat glass in 1991, 54 percent of which was produced for the building industry. The American Architectural Manufacturers Association estimates that 311 million square feet of glass glazing was installed in nonresidential buildings in 199542 percent in new construction and 58 percent in remodeling and as replacement glass. In residential buildings, 44.5 million prime windows were installed in 1995, 48 percent in new construction and 52 percent in remodeling projects.
Nearly all at glass today is produced by the oat glass process.
Raw materials for at glass are all mined.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Glass is produced from three primary raw materials: silica or glass sand, limestone, and soda ash (see gure 13). All these materials are mined, although soda ash can also be produced synthetically. Glass sand, which must be high-purity quartz, is in plentiful supply nationally, although most used for glazing production comes from New Jersey, the Allegheny Mountains, and a portion of the Mississippi Valley. High-quality sources of limestone are widely spread throughout 20 states, led by Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio. Most soda ash used in glass manufacture is mined as the mineral trona in the Green River basin of Wyoming and Searles Lake in California. The other primary ingredient of glass is cullet, recycled from within the glass manufacturing plant. Small quantities of charcoal, colorants, and other materials are also added.
Environmental impacts from mining include habitat destruction from open-pit extraction, overburden and tailings waste, air emissions from dust and fossil fuel combustion, erosion,
Figure 12: Materials Flow for Float Glass
Glass sand
Limestone
Glass-making furnace
Soda ash
Metals and other coating elements
Float glass
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Life Cycle of Glass
and suspended solids runoff in streams. Tailings from sand and limestone mining are less hazardous than tailings from many other types of mining (metals, uranium, coal). Wastewater from soda ash mining is highly alkaline; when treated in evaporation ponds, it can be a danger to migrating waterfowl. Mining impacts of the metals used in glass coatings and tintsincluding silver, iron, copper, gold, and tinmay be higher on a per-pound basis, but minute quantities are used in the nished product, so overall impacts are probably quite small. The primary raw materials used in glass production undergo relatively minor processing. During screening and processing of sand and limestone and crushing of limestone, solid wastes are discharged and signicant amounts of dust may be released. Dust emissions from sand processing have been reduced by 70 to 95 percent by enclosing processing operations and keeping materials moist. Large quantities of water are used and the wastewater typically contains clay particles and other materials in suspension. The wastewater from soda ash processing can be used by power plants for ue-gas desulfurization because of the high sodium carbonate content. Fuel use for processing equipment contributes to air pollution and greenhouse gas (CO2) emissions. The energy required for mining and initial processing of sand, limestone, and soda ash is shown in gure 13.
Figure 13: Energy for Raw Material AcquisitionGlass
Material Btu/ton of raw material 430,000 164,000 8,590,000 GJ/tonne of raw material 500 191 9,990 lbs material/ ton of glass 1,180 363 394 kg material/ tonne glass 592 182 197 Btu/ton of glass 255,000 29,800 1,690,000 GJ/tonne of glass 296 35 1,970
Mining impacts from raw materials for glass are relatively small.
Glass sand Limestone Soda ash
Manufacture The manufacture of oat glass generally comprises four stages: melting, forming, annealing, and nishing. Raw materials are carefully weighed and mixed then dumped into the glass tank furnace. The furnace is made out of high-temperature silicon refractory bricks and holds about 500 tons of molten glass. A glass furnace is operated continuously, at a temperature of about 2,900F (1,600C) from the time it is first turned on until it is disassembledtypically after about 10 years. Natural gas is the usual fuel for glass furnaces.
At one end of the 150-foot (45-meter) furnace, molten glass ows through an opening onto the bath of molten tin. This glass, with a consistency of taffy, is pulled and stretched to precisely regulate its thickness. As the glass is pulled across the tin, it gradually cools from 1,900F (1,000C) to about 1,150F (600C), at which temperature it is rigid enough to leave the tin and be carried along on closely spaced rollers. As the 12-foot-wide ribbon of glass continues down the long chamber or lehr, which is typically about a quarter-mile in length, it continues cooling or annealing. Depending on the type of glass being produced, surface coatings may be applied in the lehr or in the annealing chamber. Pyrolytic or hard-coat low-emissivity (low-e) coatings are added during the annealing process, while the glass is still quite plastic. Through this process, the tin oxide low-e coating is formed into the glass, rather than simply deposited on the surface. As a result, this type of coating is durable and can be exposed to weather.
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Life Cycle of Glass
Most other coatings added to architectural glass are applied after the glass is fully cooled. Soft-coat low-e and most reective coatings are added through a vacuum-deposition process. Under very carefully controlled conditions in a vacuum chamber, the glass surface is exposed to a metal gas so that a thin layer of metalsuch as the silver oxide used in transparent low-e coatingsis deposited on the glass. Various antireflective coatings are added in the same manner to improve performance. In some low-e glazing, multiple metal coatings are added, sandwiched between antireective layers. At the far end of the lehr, the glass is optically scanned, graded, cut to size, and packaged for shipping. The most signicant environmental impact resulting from glass manufacture is the energy use in operating the melting furnace. Natural gas is the primary fuel used in the production of glass, so sulfur emissions are relatively low (see gure 2). The melting furnace is responsible for 99 percent of the total emissions from a glass plant. Some pollutants also result from volatilization of materials in the melt. Air emissions are controlled with baghouses, filter vents, and exhaust systems. The total energy input for glass manufacturing, including mining and processing of raw materials, is shown in gure 14.
Figure 14: Energy Consumption in Float Glass Manufacture
Manufacturing process Mining and raw material processing Melting Forming, annealing, and nishing Total Million Btu/ ton of glass 2.73.0 6.88.0 4.0 13.515.0 GJ/tonne of glass 3.13.5 7.99.3 4.7 15.717.5 Btu/ft2 of 1/4 glass 4,3204,800 10,90012,800 6,400 21,60024,000 MJ/m2 of 12 mm glass 4855 106125 62 211234
Energy use is the largest environmental impact from glass production.
The production of oat glass generates various air pollution emissions. Most are from natural gas combustion, but some occur from the vaporization of raw materials. Electricity is typically used to boost temperature along the lehr to prevent uneven cooling. Data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on these air pollution emissions are shown in gure 15. Improvements in efciency have been made in glass manufacturing through recovery of waste heat from the combustion gases. The primary waste product from glass manufacturingculletis generated in large quantities. Because the float glass production line cannot be turned on and off, substantial quantities of cullet are produced whenever a transition is made from one type of glass to anotherfor example, shifting from 3/16-in. to 1/4-in. glass or from clear to tinted. During this time, the off-spec glass coming off the end of the lehr is fed into a shoot that crushes it into cullet. Waste also results when the properties of the glass manufactured do not meet the companys specications, as determined through ongoing testing. Most glass manufacturers recycle nearly all of the large quantities of cullet produced during oat glass manufacture back into the process, so the net impact is minimal. Typically, cullet of different colors is stored in separate bins. Gray tinted glass cullet is added back into the melt when tinted glass is next produced. Cullet can also be used in berglass insulation manufacture and as an aggregate in road construction.
Glass manufacturers recycle most of their waste glass.
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Figure 15: Air Pollution from Glass Manufacture

NOx Pounds/ton of glass Kg/tonne of glass 8.0 4.0 SOx 3.0 1.5 Particulates 2.0 1.0 VOCs < 0.1 < 0.1 CO < 0.1 < 0.1
Construction, Use, and Maintenance The effect glazing has on energy use varies dramatically according to how the glazing is configured and used in a building. Glazing can have a beneficial environmental impact by reducing building energy useby providing passive solar heat and natural daylight, for example. Glazing can also increase energy use by allowing unwanted heat to enter or permitting heat to escape during the cold months. Even if glazing very effectively reduces energy loads in one building (by reducing solar heat gain in a large commercial ofce building, for example), it might increase cooling loads in neighboring buildings by reecting solar energy onto them.
Thus, the energy impacts of glazing design are extremely important and should be given highest priority. For a discussion of the impact of glazing on energy, refer to the section on glazing properties, fenestration design, and energy use earlier in this report. Glass is inert and has virtually no adverse effect on indoor air quality. However, sealants used in manufacturing windows or installing xed glazing can offgas volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Some sealants have a greater impact on indoor air quality than others, but most used in windowsbecause they must be designed to withstand high temperaturesare quite stable and result in relatively little offgassing after curing. Gases such as argon or krypton are sometimes used between layers of glass to improve thermal performance. While these gases sometimes leak out of sealed insulated glass units, they are inert and pose no health threat. Glass is very durable and requires little maintenance. Glazing systems, however, such as glazed curtain walls and windows, do require maintenance, and this will affect the overall environmental performance of the system. For example, painting frames and replacing sealant on glazing systems can introduce VOCs both into the atmosphere and into the indoor air. Improper or failed weatherstripping can result in moisture damage to the glazing system and other building elements. The projected useful lifetime of glazing systems is also very important from an environmental standpoint. If the low-conductivity gas fill leaks out of a sealed insulated glazing unit (IGU), the energy performance will drop and the window may fog. Replacing glazing or window assemblies results in both demolition waste and the impacts of manufacturing the replacement product. Some types of glazing seals, glazing support systems, and windows are more durable and require less maintenance than others, but such considerations are beyond the scope of this report.
The effect of glazing on building energy use is more signicant than the manufacturing energy use.
Glass has little if any impact on indoor air quality.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Currently very little at glass from windows is recycled in any manner, and none is reported to be recycled into at glass manufacturing after use in buildings. Most glass from building remodeling or demolition ends up in construction and demolition waste landlls or municipal landfills. Because these materials are inert, they pose little environmental risk, but as more landlls ll up or are closed for environmental reasons, the availability of landll space is expected to drop.
Windows can be salvaged from buildings that are being remodeled or are slated for demolition. Companies specializing in architectural salvage are scattered around the country,
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Life Cycle of Acrylic
although their number is believed to have dropped. While salvage and reuse of windows makes sense from a resource standpoint, there are two signicant concerns with the process: the risk of lead paint contamination from older millwork, and the likelihood that older windows are not as energy efcient as new ones. See the recommendations for architects at the beginning of this report. Certain types of glass can be recycled into glasphalt (an asphalt substitute), glascrete (a concrete substitute), glass ller for street curbs, ceramic oor tiles, clean ll under pavement and around buildings, various non-building uses such as glass aquarium gravel, and as inert soil ll in landlls. Several major berglass insulation manufacturers are using large quantities of at glass cullet in their manufacturing process, but none are known to use postconsumer at glass cullet. Processes that use recycled glass beverage containers generally cannot use recycled at glass because of differences in composition and melting properties. In fact, at glass from windows can contaminate beverage glass and make the latter less marketable. While beverage container glass recycling has increased dramatically in recent years, almost no postconsumer at glass is currently recycled.
Flat glass cannot be recycled into new glass after use in buildings.

Acrylic glazing, either in a monolithic sheet form or an extruded, double-wall conguration, is popular in applications such as greenhouses, atria, and solar spaces where light weight, impact resistance, and good optical properties are required. There are three or four major manufacturers of acrylic resin in the United States, led by Rohm & Haas (Plexiglass) and ICI (Lucite).
Acrylic glazings are derived from petroleum.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, which is derived from petroleum (see gure 16). Although supplies are satisfactory for the short term, petroleum is a limited resource that is becoming more scarce. Crude oil production and petroleum processing involve many environmental impacts, including atmospheric emissions from diesel drilling equipment, runoff of drilling mud and sludge, and water pollution from wastewater contaminated with oil, grease, toxic organics, ammonia, and oxygen-depleting organics.
Production of propylene and other chemical products from petroleum is accomplished through distillation and cracking. Distillation separates petroleum into the different constituent chemicals; thermal cracking breaks larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones. Both air and water pollutants result from the thermal cracking required to produce propylene. For
Figure 16: Materials Flow for Acrylic Sheet

Acrylic and methacrylic acid Acrylate monomers Acrylic polymer
Crude oil
Propylene
Acrolein
Plastic film or masking paper
Monomerpolymer syrup
Coating materials
Acrylic sheet
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every ton of propylene produced, one pound of VOCs is emitted, according to studies by the Tellus Institute. Water pollutants generated include organics, oil and grease, suspended solids, benzene, naphthalene, and toluene. The latter three pollutants are found (in very small levels) even in treated wastewater. The production of acrylic resin (polymerized methyl methacrylate is the most common acrylic resin used in glazing) from propylene is a multistep process beginning with the oxidation of propylene vapor into acrolein, which is then oxidized into acrylic acid. The acrylic acid is esterified to produce acrylate monomers, which are polymerized into polymethyl methacrylate. The acrylic acid precursor may pose an occupational hazard. It is a strong irritant to the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. As a waste material, acrylic acid must be managed as a hazardous waste. Technology exists to break down acrylic acid by aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation; however, it is unknown how widely these practices are used. During the polymerization step and during casting or molding of acrylic sheet, methyl methacrylate monomer may be released where it can pose an occupational and environmental hazard. It is a moderate irritant and sensitizer, and occupational asthma has been associated with it. Human exposure to methyl methacrylate monomer is primarily through skin contact and inhalation. If released into the atmosphere, the monomer will eventually photodegrade. In water, it will dissipate through volatilization. If spilled on land, it will volatilize and leach into the groundwater, where its fate is unknown. Like acrylic acid, methyl methacrylate is considered a hazardous substance and is strictly controlled. The polymerization process releases a large amount of heat, and considerable care must be exercised to prevent explosions. Once polymerized, acrylic resin (polymethyl methacrylate) is inert and nontoxic, although it does burn. In producing specic acrylic resins, polymerized methyl methacrylate is often mixed with the nonpolymerized monomer to produce glazing with specic hardness and exibility properties.
Methyl methacrylate emissions from acrylic manufacture can be hazardous.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Acrylic resin is made into acrylic sheet through both casting and extrusion processes. Batch casting results in the highest surface quality acrylic glazing, with maximum light transmission or transparency. A mold with highly polished glass faces is lled with the monomer or monomer-polymer syrup and heated to cure the acrylic glazing. In the more economical continuous casting process, the monomer-polymer syrup is introduced between two parallel stainless steel belts and then carried through the curing and annealing zones on a production line. In the extrusion process, the resin pellets are fed into a hopper, melted, and extruded through the die, which establishes the extrusion prole.
Data was not available on the embodied energy of acrylic glazing production. Because acrylic glazing is fairly soft, it must be protected from abrasion during shipping and installation. It is typically wrapped in either a kraft paper or polyethylene film. Environmental impacts associated with production of these materials must also be considered in determining the life-cycle impacts of acrylic glazing. Kraft paper today is typically produced largely from recycled paper and not bleached. If this is the case, the environmental impacts associated with its production are signicantly less than if virgin materials are used. Virgin paper making is a signicant source of industrial air, water, and land pollutants. These impacts are discussed elsewhere in the Environmental Resource Guide.
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Life Cycle of Polycarbonate
Polyethylene is produced from either natural gas or crude oil through the intermediary ethylene. Among plastics, polyethylene is one of the least energy-intensive to produce, and it can readily be recycled.
Acrylic glazing frames must allow for high thermal expansion.
Construction, Use, Maintenance, and Disposal To be used as glazing, acrylic sheet must be mounted in window sash or other glazing frames. Because of the very high coefcient of thermal expansion (three times that of aluminum and eight times that of glass), the frames for acrylic sheet must be designed for considerable movement. Weatherstripping is generally provided with gasketing material that permits this level of movement, rather than sealants. If a sealant is used, it must generally be a highexpansion sealant such as silicone. Without proper detailing to permit movement, acrylic glazing systems will fail prematurely and/or result in considerable air leakage.
Owing to its combustibility, acrylic glazing must be protected from re. As well, because it is fairly soft, acrylic must be protected from abrasion and not used in locations where abrasion will degrade its appearance. Special additives are often mixed with acrylic to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light or to protect the acrylic from degradation due to UV exposure. Properly designed and positioned, acrylic fenestration systems can contribute passive solar heating and daylighting to buildings (see the section on fenestration design later in this report). Congurations of acrylic glazing are available with fairly good energy performance, although none approach the energy performance of high-performance insulated glass glazing. In a single layer, acrylic outperforms glass, because its thermal conductivity is lower, but this has little relevance to the overall energy performance of glazing systems. Indoor air quality is of limited concern with acrylic glazing. The primary indoor air quality issue with acrylic is the release of VOCs from sealants used while installing the glazing. Adequate ventilation and impervious gloves are recommended for installers. Poor detailing of acrylic glazing support systems may lead to premature failure. Exposure to the ultraviolet energy in sunlight will degrade acrylic over time, although Type UVA acrylic glazing has UV absorbers to reduce this degradation. Great care must be used in cleaning acrylic glazing, as some cleansers will abrade the surface, and some solvents, including alcohol, acetone, and chlorinated solvents, may soften the surface or cause crazing. Acrylic glazing can be recycled. Because of impurities in cast acrylic glazing, however, recycling generally requires that the material be chemically reprocessed to generate new resin.

Polycarbonate is used in either monolithic sheet form or in a double-wall conguration as glazing. Given its tremendous strength and resistance to breakage, it is attractive for use as security glazing. Polycarbonate is two to three times as impact resistant as acrylic and four to six times as impact resistant as tempered glass. Like acrylic, it is considerably lighter than glass. By laminating several layers of polycarbonate glazing together, tremendous strength can be achievedas required in bank teller windows, for example. There are three primary manufacturers of polycarbonate glazing in the United States: General Electric, Bayer, and Dow Chemical. Together, these companies produce roughly 1.02 billion pounds of polycarbonate per year, and GEs Lexan accounts for about 70 percent of all polycarbonate produced, according to the Society of the Plastics Industry.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Polycarbonate is derived from three raw materials: crude oil, natural gas, and brine, a source of chlorine (gure 17). Impacts of crude oil production are addressed above, under acrylic.
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Figure 17: Materials Flow for Polycarbonate Sheet

Plastic film or masking paper Coating materials
Crude oil
Brine
Natural gas
Benzene
Propylene
Chlorine
Synthesis gas
Cumene
Carbon monoxide
Cumene hydroperoxide
Phosgene
Phenol
Acetone
Bisphenol A
Polycarbonate resin
Polycarbonate sheet
Natural gas production, while generally less damaging to the environment than crude oil production, nevertheless results in a number of signicant impacts. The fuel use to operate diesel drilling equipment generates pollutants. Gases found in association with natural gas, such as hydrogen sulde, can be released into the atmosphere. Contaminated water pumped out of the ground during the drilling process, as well as drilling mud and sludge, can contaminate surface waters. During processing of natural gas, various air pollutants can be released into the atmosphere, including SOx, NOx, CO, VOCs, particulates, methane, ammonia, aldehydes, benzene, toluene, xylene, and carbon dioxide. Brine extraction can contaminate surface waters with dissolved minerals and brine sludge. Processing through electrolysis can release chlorine into the atmosphere as well as various water pollutants. During the complex, multistep reactions required to produce polycarbonate resin, chlorine (from brine) reacts with carbon monoxide (from natural gas) to produce phosgene gas. The phosgene gas reacts with bisphenol A (derived from petroleum) to synthesize polycarbonate. Bisphenol A is generally produced in the following manner: Petroleum is distilled, catalytically reformed, and thermally cracked to produce benzene and propylene (along with many other chemicals used by industry). The benzene and propylene are synthesized at high temperature in the presence of a catalyst to produce cumene. Cumene is converted into cumene hydroperoxide (a dangerously explosive compound), which is then decomposed into acetone and phenol in the presence of sulfuric acid, a step that can release VOCs and well as various wastewater pollutants. The acetone and phenol are combined to form Bisphenol A. Among the chemical intermediates of polycarbonate production with potentially harmful health or environmental impacts are bisphenol A, cumene, benzene, propylene, phosgene,
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Polycarbonate is derived from crude oil, natural gas, and brine.
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and chlorine. Bisphenol production in 1987 totaled 880 million pounds (400 million kg), 50 percent of which was used in polycarbonate production. More than 2 billion pounds (900 million kg) of phosgene were produced in 1987, 10 percent of which was used in polycarbonate production. Wastes from each ton of chlorine produced include up to 60 pounds of brine mud (25 kg/tonne), 24 pounds of spent sulfuric acid (9.9 kg/tonne), 2 pounds of scrubbing waste gasses (.82 kg/tonne), and 1.7 pounds of asbestos (.7 kg/tonne).
A number of chemical intermediaries from polycarbonate manufacture have signicant health or environmental impacts.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Polycarbonate glazing is manufactured from polycarbonate resin either by extrusion or, more commonly, by injection molding. Pelletized resin is melted in a cylinder and forced into the molds or extruded in a continuous process. In both processes, air emissions (SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, VOCs, and particulates) can be released.
As with acrylic sheet, after curing and trimming, polycarbonate sheet is covered with a layer of either kraft paper or polyethylene to protect against abrasion during shipping and installation into glazing units.
Polycarbonate is one of the most energy-intensive plastics.
Production of polycarbonate, including resin manufacture, is very energy intensive, totaling 68,200 Btu/pound or 99,600 Btu/square foot of 1/4-in. glazing, as shown in gure 18.
Figure 18: Embodied Energy of Polycarbonate
Energy requirement Energy embodied in raw material Natural gas Petroleum Manufacturing process energy Distillate oil Residual oil Gasoline Natural gas Electricity Coal Transportation Total Source: Franklin Associates/Society of the Plastics Industry 0.11 6.5 0.03 gal gal gal 17.0 1,130 4.0 25,200 15,200 722 2,060 68,200 99,600 358 777 lb lb 8,340 15,600 Energy use Btu/lb resin Btu/ft2 glazing (1/4)
22,600 cu ft 1,410 kWh 61.6 lb
Among plastics, polycarbonate is the most energy-intensive resin for which data is available, as shown in gure 19. Note that while polycarbonate is far more energy intensive on a perpound basis than glass, its lighter weight reduces this difference to some extent when the materials are compared on a per-square-foot basis.
Construction, Use, Maintenance, and Disposal To be used as glazing, polycarbonate sheet must be mounted in glazing frames or window sash. As with acrylic glazing, the high coefficient of thermal expansion in polycarbonate requires special provisions in the frame design and weatherstripping to allow for expansion and contraction.
Because polycarbonate is fairly soft, it must be protected from abrasion and not used in locations where abrasion will degrade its appearance. Surface treatments intended to reduce abrasion and UV degradation are usually added.
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Properly designed and positioned, polycarbonate fenestration systems can contribute passive solar heating and daylighting to buildings (see section on fenestration design later in this report). Congurations of polycarbonate glazing are available with fairly good energy performance, although none can approach that of high-performance insulated glass glazing. In a single layer, polycarbonate outperforms glass because its thermal conductivity is lower, but this fact does not really affect the overall energy performance of a glazing system. In normal conditions, polycarbonate glazing has little effect on indoor air quality. The primary indoor air quality issue with polycarbonate is the release of VOCs from sealants used to install the glazing. Adequate ventilation and impervious gloves are recommended for installers. In the event of a re or excessive heat, polycarbonate will burn, giving off toxic gases. Even without burning, at elevated temperatures vapors or gases may be released. Poor detailing of polycarbonate glazing support systems may lead to premature failure. Provision must be made for the considerable expansion and contraction of this plastic. Exposure to the ultraviolet energy in sunlight degrades polycarbonate and causes yellowing over time, particularly if the surface coating that absorbs ultraviolet rays is damaged. Care must be used in cleaning polycarbonate glazing, as some cleansers or cleaning implements can abrade or damage the protective surface coating and some solvents, including acetone and chlorinated solvents, may damage the glazing.
Figure 19: Comparative Embodied Energy of Various Plastic Resins and Glass
Type of plastic resin ABS (acrylic-butadiene styrene) HDPE (high-density polyethylene) Melamine Nylon Phenolic Polycarbonate Polypropylene Polystyrene Polyurethane PVC (polyvinyl chloride) Fiberglass (unsaturated polyester with 25% glass ber) Urea Glass Btu/lb 47,700 42,200 48,500 63,500 38,400 68,200 41,000 50,400 31,000 34,000 37,200 33,600 7,400 MJ/kg 111 98 113 148 89 159 95 117 72 79 87 78 17 23,000 99,600 Btu/ft2 1/4 glazing
Polycarbonate glazing systems must provide for the high rate of thermal expansion.
Source: Franklin Associates/Society of the Plastics Industry
Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic and can easily be recycled. The polycarbonate is ground up and remelted with minimal additional processing.

Approximately 17 million square feet (1.6 million m2) of laminated glass is sold annually in the United States, according to the American Architectural Manufacturers Association. This gure is 7.5 percent of all nonresidential glass sold. Laminated glass is specied where highimpact strength or protection against shards of falling glass is required, including sloped glazing, overhead glazing, storefronts, and certain curtainwall systems. Owing to its excellent sound-blocking properties, laminated glass is also specied for high-noise areas such as airports and along busy streets.
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Laminated glass is made by gluing pieces of glass together with polyvinyl butyral (PVB) lm.
Nearly all laminated glass is produced by bonding polyvinyl butyral (PVB) lm between two layers of flat glass. The two primary manufacturers of PVB film in the United States are Monsanto and DuPont; they are joined by several smaller producers. The Monsanto product is called Saex and the DuPont product Butacite. Many glazing manufacturers purchase the lm and produce the laminated product. Manufacturers produce laminated glass with various thicknesses of film and glass as well as multiple layers of both to accommodate a wide range of sound control, thermal control, safety, and aesthetic needs.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation The at glass used in laminated glass products is identical to that used in conventional glass glazing products, including the availability of sun-control tints and films. Environmental issues relating to glass production are addressed earlier in this report in the section on the life cycle of glass.
Polyvinyl butyral (PVB) is a petrochemical-based plastic resin that is synthesized from ethylene, which can be produced either from natural gas (via ethane) or from petroleum, the latter through a more complicated process of fractional distillation and cracking. The environmental impacts of natural gas and petroleum production are addressed elsewhere in this report. PVB is produced from ethylene in a four-step process (gure 20). First, the ethylene is catalytically combined with acetic acid to produce vinyl acetate in a reaction that releases heat (which is recovered) and CO2. Second, the vinyl acetate monomer reacts with benzene to produce polyvinyl acetate in a reaction that has the potential to release various air emissions, including SOx, NOx, VOCs, particulates, and CO2. Third, the liquid polyvinyl acetate is converted into the solid polyvinyl alcohol polymer through a process called suponication. And fourth, the polyvinyl alcohol is converted through a process of acetylization to produce polyvinyl butyral resin. Information on pollution emissions from the last two steps of this process was not available. To produce the PVB plastic lm, the PVB resin is mixed with a proprietary plasticizer (the major manufacturers use different ones), heated, and extruded through dies to produce the plastic PVB lm. Information on the environmental impacts from the plasticizers was not available, nor was the energy intensity of PVB lm production. As part of Monsantos pledge several years ago to reduce plant emissions by 90 percent, the company has added a bioltraFigure 20: Materials Flow for Laminated Glass
Crude oil or Natural gas Acetic acid Plasticizer Glass Coating materials
Benzene
Ethylene
Vinyl Acetate
Polyvinyl acetate
Polyvinyl alcohol
Polyvinyl butyral (PVB)
Polyvinyl butyral film
Laminated glass
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Glazing
tion process as a nal treatment for plant emissions that have gone through chemical scrubbers. This bioltration system is described by the company as a large, carefully controlled wood-chip compost pile, through which the scrubbed gases are ltered. Bacteria decompose any alcohols and other organics that remain in the waste gases. PVB lm is produced in several different standard thicknesses, typically .015, .030, and .060 inches (.38, .76, and 1.5 mm), and sold to the laminated glass producers.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Laminated glass producers purchase PVB lm in large rolls. To laminate the glass, the lm is laid down between two sheets of clean glass and rolled to remove any air pockets The excess lm is trimmed, and the glass is autoclaved (heated under high pressure) for 15 to 30 minutes to bond the lm to the glass.
Depending on the glazing product being produced, different thickness PVB films may be used, multiple alternating layers of PVB lm and glass may be laminated, and various types of glass may be used, including tinted glass and glass with low-e or reflective coatings. Laminated glass may also be fabricated into sealed, insulated-glass units by using the laminated glass as one layer in the IGU (usually the outer layer, where greater strength is typically required). The embodied energy values of laminated glass are not known, but because an additional layer of glass is required along with the PVB lm, the total embodied energy is signicantly higher than that of at glass.
One PVB manufacturer uses a bioltration system to cut emissions.
Construction, Use, Maintenance, and Disposal Installation of laminated glass is identical to that of standard glass, except that the glazing units are thicker and heavier. Durability appears to be excellent with modern laminated glass. Even in automobiles, which are generally more hostile environments than buildings in terms of temperature cycling and temperature extremes, the laminated glass usually lasts the full life of the vehicle.
Indoor air quality characteristics of PVB plastic and laminated glass during manufacture are not known. Once laminated between two layers of glass, however, offgassing of VOCs should be virtually eliminated. The primary manufacturers of PVB lm, Monsanto and DuPont, handle waste PVB from laminated glass manufacturers very responsibly. DuPont offers to take back Butacite scrap, typically burning it under high temperature and using heat recovery for industrial processes. Monsanto customers are encouraged either to return Saex scrap to Monsanto for recycling or to sell the scrap for other applicationswhere higher prices can be obtained. This very tough polymer is used as a ooring component and as an additive in various consumer products, such as shoes. Laminated glass from demolition waste can be recycled. The glass needs to be crushed and removed from the lm so the PVB can be recycled. The crushed glass can be used as clean ll or added to asphalt or concrete. Post-use recycled glass is not currently used in the manufacture of new glass.
Waste PVB from glass laminators can readily be recycled.
GLAZING
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25
Glazing
References
References
Ander, Gregg. Daylighting: Performance and Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995. American Institute of Architects. Environmental Resource Guide. Material reports on glass and on nonglass glazing. NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1996, 1997. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1993, 1997. Hastings, S. R., ed. Passive Solar Commercial and Institutional Buildings: A Sourcebook of Examples and Design Insights. NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1994. Johnson, Timothy E. Low-E Glazing Design Guide. Boston: Butterworth Architecture, 1991. Moore, Fuller. Concepts and Practice of Architectural Daylighting,. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991. NFRC Certied Products Directory. Silver Spring, MD: National Fenestration Rating Council. Passive Solar Design Strategies. Washington, DC: Passive Solar Industries Council. Personal communication with Monsanto and DuPont corporations. Romm, Joseph J. Lean and Clean Management: How to Boost Prots and Productivity by Reducing Pollution. NY: Kodansha International, 1994. Simmons, H. Leslie, rev. ed. Construction Principles, Materials, and Methods, 6th ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995. Watson, Donald, and Kenneth Labs. Climatic Design.. NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992.
Passive Solar Industries Council, 1511 K Street, N.W., Suite 600, Washington, DC 20005; 202/628-7400. Sealed Insulating Glass Manufacturers Association, 401 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611; 312/6446610; 312/527-6640 (fax).
Organizations
American Architectural Manufacturers Association, 1540 E. Dundee Road, Suite 310, Palatine, IL 60067; 708/202-1350; 708/202-1480 (fax). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Windows and Daylighting Group, Building 90, Room 3111, Berkeley, CA 94720; 510/486-6845; 510/486-4089 (fax). National Fenestration Rating Council, Inc., 1300 Spring St., Suite 120, Silver Spring, MD 20910; 301/589-NFRC; 301/588-0854 (fax). Directory available for $15 postpaid. National Wood Window and Door Association, 1400 East Touhy Ave., Des Plaines, IL 60018; 708/299-5200; 708/299-1286 (fax).
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Application Report
Carpeting
Highlights
Carpeting is the most popular floor covering in North American offices and homes. It offers many signicant benets, including softness underfoot, sound absorbance, attractive design options, and slip resistance. Carpeting is also the least expensive ooring option for many applications because of the emergence of low-cost synthetic carpet materials. In addition to the carpet itself, a complete carpeting system typically consists of a carpet cushion or pad and an adhesive or other fastening system. Carpeting tends to be replaced more frequently than other oor covering materials, resulting in relatively high life-cycle impacts when these are assessed over a period of fteen years or longer. In addition, some carpets and carpet adhesives have been suspected of contributing to indoor air quality problems in buildings. Since these concerns rst gained widespread attention in the late 1980s, the carpet industry has taken steps to significantly reduce the emission of indoor pollutants from its products.
s s s s s s s
Specify carpets with attention to possible effects on indoor air quality. Be sure to consider all the components when evaluating emissions from a carpet system. Keep carpet away from entrances, where toxins tracked in from outside can collect, and away from moisture sources. Take steps to minimize volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from carpeting; ventilate the space during and shortly after installation of new carpet. Ensure proper maintenance of carpets. When possible, specify carpets and cushions made from recycled materials. Consider future recyclability when specifying carpet, and seek to recycle installation scraps and any older carpet being removed. To minimize water pollution impacts from dyeing operations, specify solutiondyed nylon carpet or undyed wool carpet.
CARPETING
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Carpeting
Comparative Environmental Performance Carpet Face Fibers
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceCarpet Face Fibers*

Building occupant health IAQ b
Nylon Wool Polyesterc Polypropylene
Notes
a
Water emissions depend largely on the dyeing processes and fabric treatments, and, for wool, on mothproofing. b All carpeting traps pollutants and can provide an environment for microorganisms under moist conditions. c Use of recycled PET product reduces all impacts on the environment and ecosystems.
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CARPETING
Transportation
Carpeting
Comparative Environmental Performance Carpet Backing Materials
Figure 2: Comparative Environmental PerformanceCarpet Backing Materials*

Building occupant health IAQ
Polypropylene Jute PVC SB Latex
Notes
CARPETING
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Transportation
Carpeting
Comparative Environmental Performance Carpet Cushions
Figure 3: Comparative Environmental PerformanceCarpet Cushions*

Prime urethane Bonded urethane Synthetic ber

1 1 1 1 1 2 2
Sponge rubber Rubberized jute
Notes
General Each cell in the above matrix is further explained in the Environmental Impacts gures in this report. Performance ranges 1Natural rubber product has lower impacts.
2Cleanliness
of recycled urethane used in product can affect indoor air emissions.
APP 8
CARPETING
Transportation
Carpeting
Comparative Environmental Performance Carpet Adhesives
Figure 4: Comparative Environmental PerformanceCarpet Adhesives*

Multipurpose adhesive Pressure-sensitive adhesivea Peel-and-stick adhesiveb
Notes
a
Health effects may be lower because pressure-sensitive adhesives require less material for an application. b Health effects may be less because peel-and-stick adhesives require less material for an application. Performance Ranges from low-VOC adhesives are lower than those from standard adhesives.
1 Emissions
CARPETING
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Transportation
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Nylon Fiber
Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsNylon Fiber

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing, and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Likely release of some dyes and dyeing agents, as well as chemicals used for stain resistance and soil release, all of which can be toxic. Localized impacts from crude oil extraction: drilling muds, etc. Signicant amounts of off-spec and scrap ber and carpet stock consume landll space. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. Some toxic intermediaries can affect workers in manufacturing. Adsorption and release of VOCs and toxins such as pesticides and possibly of microbials can be an ongoing problem. Highly centralized production of ber and carpets does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Nylon is one of the more energy-intensive polymers to produce; entire carpet is fossil-fuel based. Signicant transportation impacts because of centralized production of carpet and components. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems and greater occupant comfort at lower ambient temperatures. Nylon is one of the more durable carpet bers, but overall, carpets are replaced more frequently than other ooring materials. Frequent cleaning is essential to avoid IAQ problems. Cleaning itself can cause problems if not done properly and with safe cleaning agents. Signicant efforts to reclaim used carpets are just getting underway. Use of multiple polymers in each carpet complicates the task.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
Reusability/ recyclability
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Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Wool Fiber
Figure 6: Environmental ImpactsWool Fiber

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Methane from sheep contributes to global warming. Emissions from energy use at various stages. Runoff from crops used to feed sheep and erosion from grazing land. Some toxic runoff of sheep dip. Signicant water contamination possible from mothproong agents, dyes. Possible signicant denudication of grazing land. Wool is renewable. Signicant loss of wildlife habitat and biodiversity to grazing land. Possible, unknown effects of exposure to mothproong agents, some of which are potential carcinogens. Possible, unknown effects of exposure to mothproong agents, some of which are potential carcinogens. Adsorption and release of VOCs, toxins such as pesticides, and possibly of microbials can be an ongoing problem. Sheep farming and wool processing can be carried out in small-scale operations, supporting local economies. Signicantly less energy than synthetic fabrics. Signicant transportation inputs since most wool is imported from New Zealand. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems and greater occupant comfort at lower ambient temperatures. Longest life among carpets, although carpeting in general tends to be replaced more often than many other materials. Frequent cleaning is essential to avoid IAQ problems. Cleaning itself can cause problems if not done properly and with safe cleaning agents. High-quality woven wool can be cleaned and reused. Material is biodegradable. Not recyclable.
Land and soil quality/availability Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss
Health and welfare
Energy
Building operation
CARPETING
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Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Polyester Fiber
Figure 7: Environmental ImpactsPolyester Fiber

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing, and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Likely release of some dyes and dyeing agents, as well as chemicals used for stain resistance and soil release, all of which can be toxic. Signicant amounts of off-spec and scrap ber and carpet stock consume landll space. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. Some toxic intermediaries can affect workers in manufacturing. Adsorption and release of VOCs, of toxins such as pesticides, and possibly of microbials can be an ongoing problem. Highly centralized production of ber and carpets does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuels are used for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of carpets and component parts. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems and greater occupant comfort at lower ambient temperatures. Polyester is less durable that some other carpet bers, and, overall, carpets are replaced more frequently than other ooring materials. Frequent cleaning is essential to avoid IAQ problems. Cleaning itself can cause problems if not done properly and with safe cleaning agents. Little, if any, recycling of polyester carpets is currently undertaken.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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CARPETING
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Polypropylene Fiber and Sheet
Figure 8: Environmental ImpactsPolypropylene Fiber and Sheet

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Likely release of some dyes and dyeing agents, as well as chemicals used for stain resistance and soil release, all of which can be toxic. Signicant amounts of off-spec and scrap ber and carpet stock consume landll space. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. Some toxic intermediaries can affect workers in manufacturing. Adsorption and release of VOCs, of toxins such as pesticides, and possibly of microbials can be an ongoing problem. Highly centralized production of ber and carpets does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuels are used for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of carpets and components. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems and greater occupant comfort at lower ambient temperatures. Polypropylene is less durable than some other carpet bers, and, overall, carpets are replaced more frequently than other ooring materials. Frequent cleaning is essential to avoid IAQ problems. Cleaning itself can cause problems if not done properly and with safe cleaning agents. Little, if any, recycling of polypropylene carpets is currently undertaken.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
CARPETING
APP 8
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Jute Fiber and Mat
Figure 9: Environmental ImpactsJute Fiber and Mat

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Minimal known impacts.
Some impacts from growing and harvesting jute are likely, specics are unknown. Jute growing likely takes up signicant land resources. Jute is a renewable resource. Some habitat and biodiversity has likely been lost in the past to jute growing. Present expansion is not known. In some forms jute may be a source of formaldehyde. In some forms jute may be a source of formaldehyde.
Health and welfare
Raising and processing jute can be undertaken in small-scale operations, supporting local economies. Minimal energy requirement. Signicant transportation from the Far East. Minimal. Relatively good. Periodic cleaning. Not generally reusable or recyclable, but it is biodegradable.
Energy
Production/manufacturing Transportation Impact on operating energy use
Building operation
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Carpeting
Environmental Impacts PVC Backing
Figure 10: Environmental ImpactsPVC Backing

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from fossil fuel combustion, petroleum extraction and rening, mining dusts for llers, and pigment ores. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines. Pollution from drilling sludges from fossil fuel extraction, byproducts of petroleum rening, and fugitive releases from PVC manufacturing. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines. Some impacts from mining for llers. Some fossil fuel depletion. Most raw materials in good supply. Minimal impacts. PVC manufacture involves many hazardous intermediaries and creates risks for workers if not handled properly. Some release of VOCs, especially from plasticizers used in PVC. Some release of VOCs, especially from plasticizers used in PVC. Fugitive emissions from PVC manufacturing might affect surrounding areas. Large, centralized manufacturing does not support small-scale, local economies. Relatively energy-intensive to manufacture, although feedstock value of petrochemicals is less than for other polymers. Both raw materials and nished products are transported large distances to and from highly centralized factories. No impact. Good durability as backing, although carpets tend to be replaced more often than many other materials. Minimal. Not reusable and difcult to recycle.
Land and soil quality/availability Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health
Energy
Transportation
CARPETING
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11
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Prime Urethane Cushion
Figure 11: Environmental ImpactsPrime Urethane Cushion

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing and from fuel combustion for process energy. Some fugitive emissions or intermediaries and by-products may have signicant ecological impacts. Emissions from fossil fuel extraction and processing; some fugitive emissions or intermediaries and by-products may have signicant ecological impacts. Toxic mud and sludges from fossil fuel extraction; fertilizer and pesticide loading from agriculture for oil seeds. Petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks and fuels. Some impacts from agricultural production. Some intermediaries quite hazardous to workers if not handled properly. Some VOCs that can affect installer health, amounts not well quantied. Some VOCs that can affect occupant health, amounts not well quantied. Highly centralized production of resins and foam does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Quite energy-intensive to produce, including both feedstock and process energy inputs. Signicant transportation requirements from centralized locations. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems. Relatively durable under appropriate conditions. Minimal. Can be processed into bonded urethane cushion or other uses of nonexposed padding.
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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CARPETING
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Bonded Urethane Cushion
Figure 12: Environmental ImpactsBonded Urethane Cushion

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions similar to prime urethane but much less in scale.
Water quality/availability Land and soil quality/availability Virgin resource depletion Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health
Emissions similar to prime urethane but much less in scale. Emissions similar to prime urethane but much less in scale. Minimal. Minimal. Some intermediaries quite hazardous to workers if not handled properly. Some VOCs that can affect installer health. Potential health hazard may depend in part on the cleanliness of the recycled cushion used in the product. Some VOCs that can affect occupant health. Potential health hazard may depend in part on the cleanliness of the recycled cushion used in the product. Reclaiming materials and less centralized remanufacturing can support community-scale industry. Relatively little. Some impacts from collection of material to be reused and from distribution of new product. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems. Adequate for the typical life of carpet. Minimal. Might be possible to reprocess into new bonded urethane cushion, other hidden padding uses.
Energy
Building operation
CARPETING
APP 8
13
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Synthetic Fiber Cushion
Figure 13: Environmental ImpactsSynthetic Fiber Cushion

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Impacts as for acrylic (described under pressure-sensitive adhesive) and polypropylene, but much less in scope. Impacts as for acrylic and polypropylene, but much less in scope. Impacts as for acrylic and polypropylene, but much less in scope. Impacts as for acrylic and polypropylene, but much less in scope. Impacts as for acrylic and polypropylene, but much less in scope. Some chemical offgassing likely during installation. Possible offgassing of VOCs that can affect occupant health. Reclaiming materials and less centralized remanufacturing can support community-scale industry. Relatively little. Some impacts from collection of material to be reused and from distribution of new product. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems. Moderate. Minimal. Unknown.
Health and welfare
Energy
Building operation
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Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Sponge Rubber Cushion
Figure 14: Environmental ImpactsSponge Rubber Cushion

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts If synthetic rubber is used, impacts as for SB latex. If natural rubber, slight impacts from processing. Possible additional impacts from additives. If synthetic rubber is used, impacts as for SB latex. If natural, minimal impact. Possible additional impacts from additives. If synthetic rubber is used, impacts as for SB latex. If natural, some land consumed by plantations. If synthetic rubber is used, impacts as for SB latex. Natural rubber is renewable. If synthetic rubber is used, impacts as for SB latex. If natural, some land consumed by plantations. If synthetic rubber is used, impacts as for SB latex. Data on emissions from natural rubber not available for this report. If synthetic rubber is used, impacts as for SB latex. Data on emissions from natural rubber not available for this report. Natural rubber extraction and processing is an important economic support for indigenous peoples in the rainforest. Moderate energy use for processing. Signicant transportation impacts for both synthetic and natural rubber. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems. Moderate. Minimal. Unknown.
Health and welfare
Energy
Building operation
CARPETING
APP 8
15
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Rubberized Jute Cushions
Figure 15: Environmental ImpactsRubberized Jute Cushion

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Impacts as for polypropylene, but much less in scope.
Impacts as for polypropylene, but much less in scope. Impacts as for polypropylene, but much less in scope. Impacts as for polypropylene, but much less in scope. Impacts as for polypropylene, but much less in scope. Some chemical offgassing likely during installation. In some forms jute may be a source of formaldehyde. In some forms jute may be a source of formaldehyde.
Reclaiming materials and less centralized remanufacturing can support community-scale industry. Relatively little. Some impacts from collection of material to be reused and from distribution of new product. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to oor systems. Moderate. Minimal. Unknown.
Energy
Building operation
16
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Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Multipurpose Carpet Adhesive (SB Latex)
Figure 16: Environmental ImpactsMultipurpose Carpet Adhesive (SB Latex)

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing, and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Some solid waste generated in manufacturing process. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. Some toxic intermediaries can affect workers in manufacturing. Some reports of impacts on health of carpet installers. Measured releases of styrene, formaldehyde and other VOCs not considered great enough to cause serious symptoms. Low-VOC formulations should be better. Some reports of impacts on occupant health. Measured releases of styrene, formaldehyde, and other VOCs not considered enough to cause serious symptoms. Low-VOC formulations should be better. Highly centralized production of resins and adhesives does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuels are used for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of resins. None. Adequate to the life of most carpeting. Minimal. None.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
CARPETING
APP 8
17
Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Pressure-sensitive Adhesive
Figure 17: Environmental ImpactsPressure-sensitive Adhesive

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric Impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing, and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Localized impacts from crude oil extraction: drilling muds, etc. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. Some toxic intermediaries can affect workers in manufacturing. Some emissions likely during installation, although data on VOC levels were not available for this report. Some emissions likely after installation, although data on VOC levels were not available for this report. Highly centralized production of resins and adhesives does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuels are used for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of resins. None. Adequate to life of carpet. None. None.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
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Carpeting
Environmental Impacts Peel-and-stick Adhesive
Figure 18: Environmental ImpactsPeel-and-stick Adhesive

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing, and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Localized impacts from crude oil extraction: drilling muds, etc. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. Some toxic intermediaries can affect workers in manufacturing. Some emissions likely during installation, although data on VOC levels were not available for this report. Some emissions likely after installation, although data on VOC levels were not available for this report. Highly centralized production of resins and adhesives does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuels are used for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of resins. None. Adequate to life of carpet. None. None.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
CARPETING
APP 8
19
Carpeting

Specifying Carpet Consider the Carpet and Rug Institute IAQ (indoor air quality) label on carpets, adhesives, and cushions as minimum standard but not as a guarantee of safety. When evaluating emissions from a carpet system, take into account emissions from all the components. Keep carpet away from entrances where toxins tracked in from the outside can collect and away from moisture sources that could wet carpeting. Use walk-off mats to protect carpet near entrances. Only use carpet if proper maintenance can be assured. Minimize the use of adhesives. In homes and small commercial buildings, specify only tackless strips at room perimeters. In commercial applications where heavy use or large spaces make perimeter connection insufcient, consider fastening systems such as hook-and-loop fastening tape or adhesives that require less material to achieve adequate adhesion (e.g., pressure-sensitive or peel-and-stick carpet tiles. If multipurpose adhesive is used, specify low-VOC adhesive and seam sealant (emission level below 10 milligrams per square meter per hour after 24 hours). To minimize water pollution impacts from dyeing operations, specify solution-dyed nylon carpet or undyed wool carpet. Specify carpets and carpet cushions made from recycled materials because the life-cycle impacts are signicantly lower than for products made from virgin materials. Certain polyester (PET) carpets, as well as cushions made from bonded urethane, synthetic bers, and rubberized jute, t this criterion. Consider the future recyclability of the product specified. Most carpets installed today are difcult to recycle due to the combinations of polymers they contain. A few single-polymer carpets are becoming available for some applications as manufacturers plan for recycling. Evaluate whether alternatives to carpeting should be specied. Hardwood ooring, tile, slate, natural linoleum, and natural cork are often specied by architects cognizant of environmental and health concerns. During Installation Clean old carpet before removal, preferably with a high-efciency particulate air (HEPA) filtration vacuum cleaner. Carpet that has been filtering and collecting dust and dirt of all types will likely release much of that material back into the space when it is pulled up. Those particles circulating in the air and HVAC system can themselves cause IAQ problems. Once the old carpet has been removed, clean the entire space as thoroughly as possible to remove dirt and contaminants that may have been trapped under the carpet or newly released into the air from it. Removal of the old carpet provides an important opportunity to get rid of pollutants and toxins trapped in and under it; take advantage of it before installing new carpet. Open up and ventilate carpet before installation if possible, although not in a space where it might adsorb contaminants from the air. The chemicals known to offgas from new carpet drop off signicantly after several hours to several days. Unrolling and airing out new carpet for several hours or days in an unoccupied, well-ventilated space avoids most chemical emissions from the carpet itself. Although perhaps not feasible for most installations, this practice should be carried out whenever possible. Avoid using conventional adhesives. If adhesive is needed, use only solventfree, low-VOC products. These products can be more sensitive than
20
APP 8
CARPETING
Carpeting
conventional adhesives to ambient conditions such as temperature and humidity, so follow manufacturers application directions carefully. Maximize ventilation during installation. Pass as much fresh air as possible through the space during installation and for several days or weeks afterwards. Ventilate the area directly to the outside, bypassing any ductwork where VOCs could accumulate. Some consultants have suggested that heating the space with a new carpet to above-normal temperatures in combination with increased ventilation might drive more chemicals from the carpet, but so far there is little evidence that this method is more effective at reducing ambient pollutant levels than simple ventilation. Isolate the area being ventilated from the rest of the building, especially if a portion of the building remains occupied during the work. Denitely avoid circulating air from the newly carpeted area into other parts of the building. Clean the new carpet. Have the installer thoroughly vacuum new carpeting with a HEPA-ltration vacuum cleaner to remove any loose bers or particles left from the installation process. Vacate the space for as long as possible. Schedule carpet installation to allow as much time as possible before the space is occupied. In offices, installations at the beginning of long weekends are best if workers cannot be temporarily displaced on workdays. In homes, residents should plan to be away for several days if possible after the installation; they should also keep bathroom or other exhaust ventilation fans running. Try to keep any carpet being removed out of the landll. If it is in good condition and hasnt been subjected to excessive contamination, consider donating it to a facility that can use it. Otherwise, contact the manufacturer about recycling options or seek out an installer affiliated with a carpet recycling program.
General Maintenance Clean often and thoroughly. Regular vacuuming is critical to controlling contaminant levels in carpets, but typical paper vacuum bags often recirculate more dust than they hold. HEPA-style filters are recommended for trapping particles as small as 0.3 microns. In homes, central vacuum systems that exhaust to the outdoors are best. For periodic deep cleaning, water extraction may be most effective, but it must be performed by trained technicians to avoid over-wetting or problematic shampoo deposits. Specify nontoxic cleaning agents. Dont allow carpets to remain wet for an extended period. Carpets that have been wet for more than a day are likely to have mold and mildew contamination, which will be very difcult to control. Ensure adequate, continuous ventilation of carpeted areas. Minimum ventilation levels should be maintained to prevent any buildup of toxic emissions. To be effective, ventilation must be well distributed throughout the space.
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Life-Cycle Summaries of Carpet
Life-Cycle Summaries of Carpeting

Included below are life-cycle summaries for the basic components of a carpet installation: carpet, carpet cushion, and adhesive. Because quite a few different materials are used in the different components of carpeting, and because these are used in different combinations, life-cycle information on carpeting is complicated. The rst two life-cycle stages, materials acquisition and manufacture, are described for each of the materials commonly used in carpetingincluding carpet, carpet cushion, and adhesive. The nal two lifecycle stagesuse, and reuse or disposalare described for the carpet assemblies as a whole. The materials covered in this report are outlined here: Materials used to make carpet: Nylon ber Wool ber Polyester ber Polypropylene ber and backing material Dyestuffs SB latex PVC backing Jute backing Materials used to make carpet cushion: Prime urethane Bonded urethane Synthetic ber Sponge rubber Rubberized jute Carpet adhesives: Multipurpose (regular and low-VOC) adhesive Pressure-sensitive adhesive Peel-and-stick adhesive
Most carpets manufactured today are tufted rather than woven.
Carpets The vast majority of North American carpets are tufted, meaning that short loops of face fiber are stitched into a primary backing fabric. The underside of this primary backing is coated with an adhesive to lock the fibers into place, and a secondary backing is usually attached to increase the carpets dimensional stability.
Most of the materials below, and the vast majority of the total volume of material used in carpets, are derived from petrochemicals. Over the past thirty years these materials have almost entirely replaced natural bers such as wool and jute, and natural cushion materials, such as jute and rubber.
Nylon ber. The vast majority of carpet made and sold in the United States is made of nylon
ber. Two types of nylon are commonly used in carpets: nylon 6, made from the monomer caprolactam, and nylon 6,6, made from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine. All three of these precursors to nylon are derived from cyclohexane, which in turn is made from benzene (see gure 19). Benzene is a product of the cracking of petroleum. 22
APP 8 CARPETING ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Carpeting
Figure 19: Materials Flow for Nylon
Environmental impacts associated with the extraction and processing of petroleum include the release of wastewater containing grease, oil, oxygen-depleting organics, toxic organics, and other pollutants. Other forms of pollution from the process include drilling mud, cuttings from drill bits, and air pollutants from the large diesel engines that power the drills. Wastewater containing a range of pollutants is generated in the petroleum desalting process and during catalytic cracking of petroleum. Catalytic cracking is also a major source of air pollution from oil reneries. Another signicant source is fugitive emissions of intermediaries and end products. Fuel combustion to create the heat that drives much of the processing releases a range of air pollutants, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO2, and CO. Downstream impacts of these air pollutants include localized smog and adverse health effects, acid precipitation, and, for CO2, global climate change. Additional fossil fuel is burned to generate energy for the production of nylon, with environmental effects as above. The nylon precursors caprolactam and hexamethylene diamine cause irritation and discomfort upon exposure and may have detrimental ecological effects. However, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has recently deleted caprolactam from the list of hazardous air pollutants.
Wool ber. Wool, the traditional carpet ber prior to the introduction of less expensive synCaprolactam, a precursor to nylon 6, was recently deleted from the EPAs list of hazardous air pollutants.
thetics, is still in many ways the most desirable. Wool production is not without environmental impacts, however. Raising sheep for their wool can cause devegetation and erosion of forage land and nutrient runoff, contributing to eutrophication. Cultivation of feed crops for sheep may also contribute to erosion and cause air emissions from the burning of fuel. Sheep dips, used to control eas and other parasites, may contain organophosphates, which can affect the health of sheep farmers and contaminate water systems. Such toxins may also be released with washwater from the cleaning of eece after shearing. Sheep also release methane, at a rate of about 19 pounds (8.8 kg) per year, or 2.4 pounds per pound of wool (2.4 kg per kg). This is equivalent in terms of global impact to the release of 53 pounds of CO2 per pound of wool (53 kg per kg).
Polyester ber. The performance of polyester is considered comparable to nylon in most
Organophosphates from sheep dips can contaminate water systems.
respects, except for durability under heavy wear. For this reason, it is used primarily in residential carpets.
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Polyester is made from dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol, both petrochemical derivatives (see gure 20). Air emissions from processing these materials include VOCs, CO, NOx, and p-xylene. Wastewater includes organics and suspended and dissolved solids. Air emissions from the fiber extrusion and spinning process include polymer dust, residual monomer, ber lubricants, and burned polymer and combustion products from cleaning the equipment. The EPA estimates that 0.6 pounds of VOCs and 252 pounds of particulates are emitted per 1,000 pounds of polyester ber. Additional impacts associated with the extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas are described above.
At least one manufacturer uses recycled polyester (polyethylene terephthalate or PET), mostly from beverage containers, to make carpet bers.
Polypropylene ber and backing material. Polypropylene is used as a face ber for about a
Carpets made with face bers of recycled polyester are available.
quarter of the carpet manufactured in North America, primarily in the low-cost commodity grades. It is used, in either woven or unwoven form, as the primary backing fabric for as much as 95 percent of North American carpet. Polypropylene (also known as olen) is made by combining propane with ethylene (see gure 21). Propane is a gas by-product of oil rening. Ethylene is derived from either petroleum or natural gas. Extraction and rening of petroleum, as well as impacts associated with natural gas extraction and processing are discussed above, under nylon.
Figure 21: Materials Flow for Polypropylene
Dyestuffs. The raw materials for the production of dyes are derived largely from petroleum
and natural gas. Additional raw materials used to make some dyes include sulfur, which is extracted from porous, soil-bearing limestone or is a by-product of fossil fuel processing, and soda ash from mining trona. Fossil fuels are also burned to generate energy for the production process. Environmental releases from these processes are described above. The production of some dyes results in the release of wastewater with unspecied contaminants. Various chemicals are used to facilitate the application of dye to the bers. In the case of synthetic fibers these are primarily dispersing agents. Details on the impacts associated with these materials are not available.
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Carpeting
SB latex. Styrene butadiene (SB) latex is commonly used to coat the underside of the primary backing, locking the face bers in place. Styrene (also named ethylbenzene) is produced from ethylene and benzene, which are derived from natural gas and petroleum, respectively. Butadiene is usually produced by the cracking of petroleum. SB resin is a polymeric emulsion of styrene with butadiene, which is combined with additives and llers to create versions of SB latex or SB rubber with slightly different properties (see gure 22). Figure 22: Materials Flow for Styrene Butadiene Latex
Crude oil Benzene Styrene
SB latex is the most common adhesive used to bond tufts of ber to the primary backing.
Butadiene
To drive the polymerization process, excess quantities of the styrene and butadiene monomers are added, and a certain amount of unreacted monomer may be released afterwards. This excess monomer is mostly removed via steam stripping. Both styrene and butadiene are considered highly toxic, with various human and ecological effects. The process also generates solid and liquid wastes that can be problematic to dispose of. These and other toxic air pollutants have been identied from nine SB latex manufacturing sites, posing a public health threat to surrounding communities. Ethylene production also emits toxins, primarily benzene and VOCs, along with wastewater that is toxic to sh and other aquatic organisms.
PVC backing. PVC, or vinyl, is commonly used as a backing for modular carpet tiles. PVC is made from ethylene (production discussed above under polypropylene) and chlorine, which is made from salt (see gure 23). As with other petrochemicals, many precursors and intermediaries in the production of PVC are toxic and/or hazardous. These include ethylene dichloride and vinyl chloride, which is a known carcinogen. There is also concern about the release of highly toxic organochlorines, such as dioxin, from PVC manufacture and incineration. Figure 23: Materials Flow for PVC
Brine or rock salt
Intermediaries in PVC manufacture include ethylene dichloride and vinyl chloride, a known carcinogen.
Chlorine
Natural gas
Crude oil
Ethylene
Ethylene dichloride
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
Jute backing. Jute is sometimes used for the primary backing fabric, into which yarn tufts
are inserted. The brous jute plant, which is also used to make burlap, grows primarily in Bangladesh and Thailand. It is believed to be fast-growing with few signicant environmental disadvantages, although little information on cultivation is available. In the past, jute was also
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used to make carpet cushions, and recycled jute bers are used today to make rubberized jute carpet cushions (see below, under carpet cushions).
Manufacture
The synthetic bers described above are all thermoplastics, which are melted, extruded into thin strands, and then spun into yarns. They may also go through additional processes such as crimping, texturizing, or treatment with steam to increase temperature stability. Depending on the carpet manufacturing method, the yarn is either chopped into staple ber or wound into bulked continuous lament yarn. In the case of tufted broadloom, which accounts for 95 percent of the U.S. market, these yarns are stitched into a primary backing fabric, usually a woven or unwoven polypropylene. A latex adhesive (usually SB latex) is applied to the underside of the backing, locking the yarns in place. A secondary backing is usually applied to increase the stability of the carpet. Many wool carpets are still woven, using different loom types depending on the patterning and weave desired. Backing fabrics and adhesives are not needed with woven carpet. Many carpet tiles are made by the fusion bonding of yarn to a backing, in which the yarn is sandwiched between layers of substrate and adhesive. Heat is used to bond the fibers to the adhesive, after which the sandwich is cut open to create two sections of cut-pile carpet tile.
Solution-dyeing of nylon bers avoids the problems associated with disposal of water from dye baths.
Carpets can be dyed at different stages in the process. Piece dyeing involves coloration of the completed carpet in a dye bath. There are also various methods for dyeing the manufactured yarn. Finally, solution dyeing of nylon bers, in which the pigment is mixed with the nylon polymer as it is extruded into bers, is increasingly common. This method avoids the problems associated with disposal of used dye baths. The release of water from dye baths is a signicant risk to water quality. The dyes themselves can increase biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), leading to death of aquatic life. At least one group of dyesazo dyesbreaks down and produces toxic aromatic amines under sediment conditions of streams and rivers. Mordants, which are substances that enhance pigment binding, are often heavy metals or other toxic materials. Bleaching and washing solutions can also introduce poisonous chemicals to waterways. Releases from dye baths are being reduced through more efcient dyeing processes that use less water and through better treatment of the water that is released. Other chemical treatments applied to carpets, such as stain-resist agents, soil release treatments, or, in the case of wool, mothproofing agents, can also be significant water quality hazards.
Figure 24: Embodied Energy in Carpets

Btu/yd2 Nylon carpet Wool carpet Note: Related embodied energy data suggest that polypropylene and polyester carpets have about 30 percent lower embodied energy than nylon, or roughly 100,000 Btu/square yard (120 MJ/m2). Source: Potting and Blok, Netherlands 140,000 66,000 MJ/m2 176 84
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Carpeting
Carpet Cushions Carpet cushions, or carpet pads, are frequently used to make the floor-covering assembly softer and to reduce carpet wear. They may be laid separately beneath the carpet or attached to it, sometimes replacing the secondary backing. Carpet cushions are most commonly used in residential and hospitality installations and less commonly in ofce environments where a harder surface is desirable. A total of 708 million square yards of separate carpet cushion was produced in the United States in 1994, divided among ve types as follows:
Prime urethane Bonded urethane Synthetic ber Sponge rubber Rubberized jute 17 percent 73 percent 5 percent 4 percent 1 percent
Carpet cushions are used where a softer surface is desired.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation/Manufacture
Prime urethane cushions. Prime urethane carpet cushions are made of polyurethane foam
with a thin polyethylene lm laminated to them to reduce friction from contact with the carpet. Polyurethane foam is made from the reaction of a drying oil, produced from plant oils by isomerization, with water and toluene diisocyante (TDI) or methylene diisocyanate (MDI) (see gure 25). CO2 produced by the reaction acts as a blowing agent. CFC blowing agents were once used as well, but that practice was discontinued in 1992 in response to international agreements protecting the ozone layer.
Figure 25: Materials Flow for Polyurethane Cushion
Petroleum Toluene Dinitrotoluene Toluenediamine Toluene diisocyanate Prime polyurethane cushion
Phosgene Solvent extracted and reused Oil extracted from seeds
Flax, soybean, or tung cultivation
Hexane (or other solvent)
Drying oil
Ethylene
Polyethylene film
Scrap polyurethane foam
Bonded polyurethane cushion
Isocyanates, produced by the reaction of phosgene with amines, are toxic substances that must be handled with care. In the case of TDI, the amine is produced from toluene. Excess phosgene, which is also toxic, is reused in the process. The production of isocyanates releases hydrochloric acid, which may be utilized or destroyed. Hydrochloric acid is highly corrosive and can cause respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation at low concentrations. It
Many toxic intermediary products are created in the manufacture of polyurethane foam.
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also contributes to acid precipitation with its associated impacts. Once converted to urethane, isocyanates and phosgene can be handled safely, but incompletely reacted urethane should not be released and may constitute a disposal problem. Drying oils, or polyols, are extracted from axseed or linseed, soybeans, castor beans, or cottonseed using a hexane solvent, which is reclaimed and reused in the process. Growing these crops requires pesticides and fertilizers, which cause various forms of pollution in their manufacture and use. Soil erosion and runoff of chemicals can contaminate waterways and lead to shkill.
The majority of carpet cushion is made from scrap urethane foam together with some virgin material.
Bonded urethane cushions. Bonded urethane carpet cushions are made from scraps of excess, off-spec, or used polyurethane foam from various industries, which are bonded with additional isocyanate and polyol binder (see figure 25). The product is about 90 percent scrap material, so the associated environmental impacts are much lower. Like prime urethane cushion, bonded urethane cushion has a polyethylene lm laminated to it. Synthetic ber cushions. Synthetic ber carpet cushions are made almost entirely from off-
spec or other waste bers from carpet production. Sometimes a woven polypropylene fabric is used to hold the waste bers together. The product contains more than 90 percent scrap material, so it has relatively little upstream environmental impact. Production of polypropylene is described above.
Sponge rubber cushions. Either natural rubber or synthetic styrene butadiene latex is used
to make sponge rubber cushions. Additional fillers, plasticizers, and other chemicals are added, and if frothing cannot be achieved by mechanical action some blowing agents are used as well. A thin lm of spun-bonded nylon or polyester is applied to the surface. The environmental impacts of SB latex manufacture are described above. Natural rubber is tapped from trees either in natural forests or on plantations. In forests, ongoing, low impact extraction of the rubber resource can be an important incentive for protection of the forest ecosystem. There are some pollution impacts associated with the transportation of rubber to North America.
Rubberized jute cushions. Rubberized jute consists of about 85 percent recycled jute bers
from used burlap bags. An additional 10 percent is carpet scraps. These recycled components are attached to a polypropylene carrier mesh and sprayed on both sides with an acrylic coating. As with the bonded-urethane cushions described above, the environmental impacts associated with recycled materials are relatively minor. Acrylic resin is made from propylene (see gure 26), the impacts of which are described above.
Figure 26: Materials Flow for Acrylic Resins
Crude oil
Propylene
Acrolein
Acrylic resin
SB latex is the binder found in most multipurpose carpet adhesives.
Carpet Adhesives Adhesives are commonly used to install carpets in large open spaces where perimeter attachment alone will not sufce. Carpet adhesives generally consist of a vehicle or carrier, which may be water and/or mineral spirits or naptha; a binder, which is most often SB latex but can also be a latex emulsion or ethylene/vinyl acetate; various hydrocarbon-based additives to impart specic properties; additional polymer additives; biocidal preservatives; and llers or extenders, such as limestone, gypsum, silica, and clay.
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The highly toxic ingredient in older seam sealants1,1,1-trichloroethanebecame unavailable for legal purchase as of January 1, 1996, so it will not be discussed here.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation/Manufacture
Multipurpose adhesive. Styrene butadiene latex is the predominant resin in multipurpose adhesives, which are used to glue carpets or carpet cushions rmly to the oor. The manufacture and impacts associated with SB latex are described above, under carpet backing materials. Multipurpose adhesives also use llers and extenders, as described above, which are mined from the earth. The impacts of these operations include habitat disruption; runoff from tailings waste, which can affect surface waters; and release of particulates from processing the minerals. Differences in the raw materials and manufacturing processes between standard and low-VOC multipurpose adhesives were not available for this report. Pressure-sensitive adhesives. This type of adhesive keeps carpet products from slipping out of place but does not offer much resistance to their removal. It is commonly used with modular carpet tiles and is not necessarily applied over the entire surface. For many installations, applying the adhesive around the perimeter and in a grid across the eld is sufcient. Latex emulsion adhesives are the most common type of pressure-sensitive adhesive, and the most common latex emulsion used is latex acrylic in water. Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, as described above. Peel-and stick adhesive. Ethylene/vinyl acetate is commonly known as hot-melt glue, and it is usually factory-applied to carpet tiles or narrow broadloom products and protected by a lm for peel-and-stick application. This binder is a copolymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate (see gure 27). Ethylene is made from either natural gas or petroleum. Vinyl acetate is made from ethylene and acetic acid, which is made from ammonia, which in turn comes from natural gas. The environmental impacts of extracting and processing petroleum and natural gas are described above, under nylon ber. Vinyl acetate is regulated by the EPA as a hazardous air pollutant and a hazardous substance. Accidental spills or releases can adversely affect human health and the environment.
Figure 27: Materials Flow for PVC
Crude oil or Ethylene
Natural gas
Ammonia
Acetic acid
Vinyl acetate
Ethylene/vinyl acetate
Carpets are commonly used in buildings because of their soft, comfortable surface, which is easy on the feet. They can also add color and pattern, offer warmth and sound absorbency, and increase slip resistance. If a oor system is subject to outdoor temperatures and is poorly insulated, a layer of carpet and cushion can add signicantly to the insulation level of the entire ooring assembly. In addition, it is possible that by increasing the sensation of warmth in a room, carpeting can make people feel comfortable at lower ambient temperatures, resulting in energy savings for a heating system throughout the life cycle of the carpet. Carpets can be attached directly to a slab or suboor with a multipurpose adhesive or on top of a cushion, which is itself glued down (referred to as a double-stick application). In most residential installations carpets are stretched over a cushion with a perimeter attachment
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using tackless strips. Carpet tiles are frequently laid using a pressure-sensitive adhesive, which may not even contact all the tiles. Such tiles can easily be removed and replaced. A relatively new hook-and-loop fabric system is available to replace adhesive in many applications. This system uses a tape with multiple hooks (Velcro) adhered to the suboor at the perimeter, seams, and additional locations as needed for reinforcement. The entire carpet backing consists of a matching loop fabric that attaches to the hooks on the tape. A signicant advantage of this system is that carpet can easily be removed for temporary maintenance, or for replacement, and then reattached without additional adhesive. Environmental impacts of carpet installation include scraps left from the carpet and cushion installation and wrapping materials. These waste materials may be recycled in some situations but are more commonly placed in landlls. Most carpets, carpet cushions, and carpet adhesives release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during and after installation. These can signicantly affect indoor air quality if measures are not taken to minimize and exhaust the contaminants. Low-VOC adhesives have signicantly lower emissions than conventional adhesives and are largely replacing the latter on the market. Emissions from the most common carpet cushionbonded urethanemay depend on the cleanliness of the recycled urethane foam from which the cushion is made. During use, carpets may adsorb VOCs from the air, then reemit them, contributing to later indoor air quality (IAQ) problems. Pesticides and other toxins from outdoors are often tracked onto carpets, where they can be hard to extract and where they will not be broken down by ultraviolet light as they would outdoors. Excess shampoo left in carpets due to improper maintenance practices can also cause health problems. If carpet assemblies get wet and are not thoroughly dried immediately, mold and mildew growth is likely, possibly leading to unpleasant odors and allergic reactions from building occupants. A timeframe of 24 hours is often quoted as the threshold beyond which microbial growth can be expected, but the actual allowable time is highly variable. In some cases, air quality problems from carpet installations have been suspected of contributing to occupant discomfort and illness. Measurement of VOCs offgassing from carpets and carpet systems has not generally shown the carpet to be the problem. Nonetheless, public concern has driven the industry to reduce offgassing levels signicantly in the past several years. The odor characteristic of new carpet installations is generally caused by offgassing from 4-phenylcyclohexene (4-PC), which causes a noticeable odor even at very low concentrations. This chemical has not been proven toxic or irritating to humans, however. The carpet industry has a voluntary IAQ testing program in which about 75 percent of carpet manufacturers participate. The program requires that each product be tested four times a year to ensure that VOC emissions are below a specied threshold. A parallel program for carpet adhesives was introduced in 1996. Testing of VOCs from adhesives has shown that, for several weeks following an installation, the offgassing from some conventional adhesives may exceed acceptable levels. New, lowVOC adhesives are becoming standard in response to such concerns. Seam sealants have also been signicant contributors to VOC emissions from carpet installations, but, like adhesives, they are rapidly being reformulated to reduce emissions. The most toxic seam sealant1,1,1trichloroethaneis no longer legal in the United States. Little is known about offgassing from carpet cushions, but they may also contribute somewhat to the VOC levels in problem installations.
Signicant solid waste in the form of carpet scraps and wrapping materials is generated during a carpet installation.
Offgassing of chemicals from most carpets has signicantly declined in recent years.
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Carpeting
Carpets are typically replaced every eight to twelve years, so a tremendous quantity of used carpet is removed every year. This waste material has become a serious burden on landlls, so a number of manufacturers have initiated programs to collect and recycle it. Unfortunately, separating the different polymers used for face bers, primary backing materials, and secondary backing materials is difcult. To date, only the more valuable nylon bers are being actively recycled, and even these programs are not yet cost-effective. Nylon recycling efforts are complicated by the mix of nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 on the market, as these two polymers cannot be reprocessed together. Signicant amounts of carpet have been collected through recycling programs, but much of this material has been incinerated (with energy recovery) because of the lack of reprocessing capability. The options for carpet recycling continue to improve, however, so at least nylon carpet should no longer have to be landlled. As well, polyurethane carpet cushion can be recycled into new cushion.
Many initiatives are underway to recover and recycle materials from used carpets.
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References
References
American Institute of Architects. 1997. Carpets, Carpet Cushions, and Adhesives: Material Report in Environmental Resource Guide. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Maryland Department of Education. Carpet and Indoor Air Quality in Schools. Baltimore: Division of Business Services, School Facilities Branch. Green Building Digest. 1996. Carpets and Floorcoverings (No. 9). Liverpool, England: ACTAC. March. Herlihy, Janet. 1995.1995 Annual Fiber Report. Ramsey, NJ: Carpet and Rug Industry. August. Malin, Nadav. 1994.Carpeting, Indoor Air Quality, and the Environment in Environmental Building News, November/December. Potting, J., and K. Blok. 1994. Life-cycle assessment of four types of oor coverings. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Department of Science, Technology and Society, Utrecht University.
Organizations
ACTACThe Technical Aid Network, 64 Mount Pleasant, Liverpool L3 5SD, U.K.; 151-708-7607; 151708-7606 (fax). Carpet and Rug Institute, 310 Holiday Ave., Dalton, GA 30720; 706/278-3176; 706/278-8835 (fax). [ck phone number, area code was wrong] Carpet Cushion Council, P.O. Box 546, Riverside, CT 06878; 203/637-1312; 203/698-1022 (fax). Healthy House Institute, 430 N. Sewell Rd., Bloomington, IN 47408; 812/332-5073. National Center for Environmental Health Strategies, 1100 Rural Avenue, Voorhees, NJ 08043; 609/4295358.
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Application Report
Structural Framing
This report compares materials commonly used for structural framing in large structures, such as commercial, industrial, and institutional buildings. These materials include steel, concrete (precast and site-cast), and wood timbers (sawn and glued-laminated). Not included in this report are alternative structural systems, such as masonry or concrete panel systems. Materials used to frame smaller structures are covered in the application report 01 on light framing. The materials covered here can be combined in structural systems. For example, concrete construction includes steel reinforcing, and traditional mill buildings use both heavy timbers and masonry walls. This report only addresses frame materials, but information on masonry can be found in application report 03 on exterior claddings. When considering what structural system to use, architects must evaluate many factors in the context of their performance in a total system. This report focuses on the environmental performance of the materials when they are used for columns and beams in structural framing systems. The actual amount of material used for oor and roof decks is often larger than that used for columns and beams, so any decisions about structural systems should consider the implications of using materials in terms of decking materials as well.
Highlights
s s
The durability of a structural system should be a primary consideration, as the structure is difcult to repair or replace without replacing the entire building. Cement manufacture is quite energy-intensive, but concrete is a moderately energy-intensive material, as it is largely made of aggregates. The embodied energy of concrete can be reduced by replacing some cement with y ash. There is a substantial difference in the embodied energy and pollution impacts of steel manufactured in integrated mills, which use virgin raw materials, and steel from electric-arc furnaces, which rely primarily on scrap. In the United States, most heavy structural steel is manufactured in electric-arc furnaces. Wood processing is less energy-intensive and polluting than manufacturing other structural framing materials, but impacts on forest resources are a significant concern and not easily compared to the environmental impacts from mining. For large wood structures, use of glulams can spare the old-growth trees that would otherwise be needed to provide large-dimension timbers.
s
Specify standard sizes of steel members from mini-mills, which use scrap iron and steel as their primary raw material. Beams fabricated from steel plate are less likely to come from mini-mills than standard roll-formed shapes. When specifying heavy timbers, seek out wood from forestry operations that have been certied to standards of the Forest Stewardship Council or timbers salvaged from old buildings. When conditions would require preservative treatment of glulams or solid timbers, consider using other structural systems. When designing a steel or cast-in-place concrete structure, integrate the slabs into the structure to take advantage of structural continuity and reduce the size and material use of the beams. Use of y ash in place of cement can reduce the embodied energy of concrete. Check with engineers about the use of y ash to replace up to 25 percent of the cement in structural concrete.
s s
STRUCTURAL FRAMING
APP 9
Structural Framing
Comparative Environmental Performance Structural Framing
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceStructural Framing*

Maintenance requirementsb
Life expectancy/durabilitya
Concrete Steel Heavy Timber Glulam
Notes
a
Due to the difficulty of replacing or repairing the structure in most buildings, durability is of paramount importance. b Maintenance requirements become significant for all materials when they are exposed to weather, though specific needs depend on climate, exposure, and other factors. Performance Range
1 2 3 4 5 6
Use of y ash saves energy and CO2 release associated with cement manufacture. Use of y ash conserves landll space. Burning hazardous waste with improper controls may increase emissions. Thermal mass may be utilized to improve energy performance. Recycled steel has lower impacts than virgin steel.
Timbers salvaged from old buildings or certified to be from well-managed, forests have much lower impacts than wood from old-growth or poorly managed forests. Transportation impacts depend on proximity to a source of timbers.
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Transportation
Structural Framing
Environmental Impacts Concrete
Figure 2: Environmental ImpactsConcrete

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Dust from cement kilns and concrete batch plants, CO from cal cining of limestone. Fuel combustion emissions; possible release of toxins if waste fuels are burned in cement kilns without proper controls. Some runoff from mining for raw materials. Cement kiln dust and cement dust from batch plants can raise pH of surface water. Soil erosion and topography alteration of mining sites. Unless reused in some form, used concrete takes up landll space. Most materials used in concrete are plentiful. Steel rebar is mostly recycled. Wood formwork is usually extensive and much is discarded. Some habitat lost to mining of raw materials, but not extensive. Cement kiln dust can be hazardous to workers. Volatilization of release agents used on concrete forms may release VOCs. Slight effect from adsorption and rerelease of VOCs possible when concrete surfaces are exposed to the building interior. Localized health concerns possible if toxic wastes are burned in cement kilns. Cement and some admixtures are very energy-intensive to produce, but concrete, overall, is not. Raw materials available in most regions of the United States, so transportation over long distances is usually unnecessary. May be benecial if building is designed to take advantage of the thermal mass of the structure. On exterior walls, concrete can be an undesirable thermal bridge. Good if properly designed. Little or no maintenance required. Steel reinforcing may be extracted and recycled. Concrete may be crushed for use as clean ll (not true recycling, but saves on disposal).
Biodiversity/habitat loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air quality)
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Steel
Figure 3: Environmental ImpactsSteel

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Fuel combustion emissions from energy use at all stages. Toxic emissions from coking ovens include ammonia and dust. Contaminated runoff from mine tailings delivers toxins to lakes and rivers. Signicant water use to quench coal after coking. Severe erosion at some mining sites for iron ore, limestone, and coal. Most raw materials are plentiful. Steel recycled from old steel uses very little virgin material. Habitat disruption from mining is severe, but limited in range. Welding can generate some hazardous fumes. Negligible impact. Possible VOC offgassing from corrosion inhibitors (oil coatings) on steel. Some concern about magnetic elds created by electric current ow in a steel frame. Large concentration of capital and energy resources required for steelmaking are not conducive to retaining capital in local communities. Steel is quite energy-intensive to produce; recycled steel is less so. Distance can be signicant, depending on distance of construction from steel mill and sources of raw materials. Steel frames, if not properly insulated, can create signicant thermal bridging across the building envelope, increasing energy use to condition the space. Quite durable if properly designed, installed, and protected from moisture leakage and condensation. If properly protected, little maintenance required. Periodic inspection of exposed members for corrosion and metal fatigue. Easily recycled.
Energy
Transportation
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Environmental Impacts Heavy Timber
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsHeavy Timber

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Damage to established forests can compromise the ability of the forests to store carbon and remove air pollutants. Inappropriate logging practices can cause siltation of streams, affecting aquatic life and downstream water quality. Logging on steep slopes can cause severe erosion. Plantation forestry can deplete soils and require fertilizing. Large trees needed for heavy timbers are a limited resource that cannot be replenished in a few decades. Cutting of large-dimension trees for heavy timbers can adversely affect old-growth forests. Sawdust can be irritating. Contact with preservative treated timbers and sawdust can be hazardous. Little, if any, effect. Some concern about treated wood. Natural VOCs from some wood species may affect chemically sensitive individuals. Well-managed forests can support local forest-based industry indenitely. Otherwise, depletion of the resource can have severe local and regional economic impacts. Kiln-drying of timbers is somewhat energy-intensive. Air-dried or salvaged timbers require very little energy for processing. Usually signicant, but highly variable depending on distance from source. Minimal. Wood insulates better than most other structural materials. Very good if protected from moisture and wood-boring insects. Untreated wood timbers must be kept dry and protected from harmful insects. Whole timbers, if undamaged, are reusable as timbers or for milling into other wood products. Wood scrap at the job site may be reused or recycled.
Biodiversity/habitat Loss
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
Life expectancy/ durability Maintenance requirements
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Environmental Impacts Glue Laminated Timber
Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsGlued Laminated Timber (Glulam)

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric Impacts Environmental Impacts Damage to established forests can compromise their functions of carbon storage and air pollutant removal. Some hazardous emissions from the manufacture of adhesives. Inappropriate logging practices can cause siltation of streams, affecting aquatic life and downstream water quality. Some hazardous emissions from the manufacture and application of adhesives. Logging on steep slopes can cause severe erosion. Plantation forestry can deplete soils and require fertilizing. Discarded preservative-treated timbers may consume landll space. Smaller trees are than for heavy timbers. Adhesives are derived from petrochemical feedstocks. Inappropriate logging can destroy forest habitats. Plantation forestry has low biodiversity. Working in sawmills, applying toxic adhesives, and erecting heavy frames can be hazardous. Little effect. Some offgassing from formaldehyde-based adhesives. Some concern about preservative-treated wood. Manufacturing of glulams adds signicant economic value to forest resources. Kiln-drying of timbers is somewhat energy-intensive. Manufacture of adhesives is quite energy-intensive and uses petrochemical feedstocks. Can be signicant, depending on the distance from the lumber source and laminating facility. Minimal. Wood insulates better than most other structural materials. Very good if protected from moisture, high temperatures, and wood-boring insects. Glulams must be protected from moisture, prolonged exposure to high temperatures, and harmful insects. Occasionally reused in less demanding structural applications.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
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Choosing Materials Structural materials are heavy and require a lot of transportation energy. Specify materials from the nearest available source. Design structures to minimize the amount of structural material required (lightest weight per lineal foot) within the constraints of vertical clearance. With steel, however, heavy beams from rolled shapes may be preferable to lightweight truss systems. This is because the heavy beams are more likely to contain primarily recycled steel, while the lightweight trusses usually contain more virgin ore. If a precast concrete manufacturing facility exists near the construction site, consider using precast rather than cast-in-place members to reduce material use and waste from excess concrete slurry delivered to the site. For steel, specify standard rolled shape members from mini-mills, which use scrap iron and steel as their primary raw material. Beams built up from steel plate (also called plate girders) are less likely to come from mini-mills than roll-formed shapes. If reproong will be required on a steel frame, consider the options and environmental impacts of the fireproofing when comparing steel to another structural system that does not require reproong. When specifying heavy timbers, seek out wood from forestry operations that have been certied to standards of the Forest Stewardship Council (see references) or timbers salvaged from old buildings. If possible, specify timbers from local or regional sources. For wood structures, investigate the availability of non-threatened, regional rot-resistant tree species when durability is a concern. When conditions would require preservative treatment of glulams or solid timbers, consider other structural systems before deciding to use such treatments. When preservative-treated wood is necessary, seek out the least toxic treatment options available. For example, for applications where insects are a threat but the timbers will not be exposed to the weather, consider borate treatments. For longer spans, specify glulams rather than solid timbers. Smaller diameter trees can be used for glulams, and greater spans can generally be achieved with the same wood usage (particularly with curved glulams). Timbers in excess of 24 feet are very likely to come from old-growth trees, unless they are reclaimed. Using Materials Wisely Design the building to take advantage of the thermal mass of the structural frame to reduce peak space conditioning loads. It may also be possible to reduce overall space conditioning energy use by taking advantage of swings in outside temperatures and internal loads. Design frame structures to simplify disassembly and salvage at the end of the buildings useful life or reconguration of the building to other uses. When designing steel or cast-in-place concrete structures, integrate the slabs into the structure to take advantage of the structural continuity between the beams and the slab, thereby reducing the amount of material used. Examples include one-way and two-way (wafe-section) joist-andoor systems (see gures 6 and 7). Make the arrangement of cast-in-place framing repetitive in order to maximize the reuse of formwork. For cast-in-place concrete, specify reusable form materials and materials with surfaces that do not require the use of release agents. If release agents are needed, specify those made without petroleum solvents.
Figure 6: One-way concrete joists with beams. (Reprinted with permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, 9th ed., page 163. Copyright 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Figure 7: Two-way concrete joists without beam. (Reprinted with permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, 9th ed., page 163. Copyright 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
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laminated beam girder lag screws wood column metal cap with brackets
Figure 8: For timber framing, use of metal connectors rather than traditional wood joinery can make it easier to reuse timbers. (Reprinted with permission from Architectural Graphic Standards, 9th ed., page 308. Copyright 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Old concrete can be crushed and used as clean ll or as a base for roadbed construction. Using crushed concrete as aggregate in new concrete is not recommended because the irregularly shaped particles require additional cement for optimum bonding. Reuse dimension lumber from formwork on site when possible; otherwise, salvage for reuse in other projects. Before wet-mix concrete is placed, designate uses for excess concrete. Designate an area for cleaning out of transit-mix trucks (if it needs to be done on site) where environmental impact will be minimali.e., where runoff into surface waters and damage to topsoil will not occur. When considering use of high-strength concrete to reduce material requirements for a concrete structure, remember that most of the environmental impacts of concrete are associated with the cement, so increasing the proportion of cement to reduce the amount of concrete may not be advantageous from an environmental lifecycle perspective. Check with concrete suppliers and your structural engineers about the use of y ash to replace up to 25 percent of the cement in structural concrete. In addition to reducing environmental burdens, y ash can eliminate the need for some admixtures, improve the flow, and reduce the cost of the mix. Design buildings so that steel members at the perimeter will not compromise the buildings thermal integrity. Where feasible, bolt connections between steel frame members to allow for easier disassembly and reuse. For wood and steel components, collect offcuts and scrap and store in designated areas for recycling. If aesthetics allow it, consider the use of metal connectors in a timberframe building rather than traditional wood joinery to increase the utility of the timbers at the end of the buildings useful life (see gure 8). Use low-VOC nishes on wood timbers and glulams. With salvaged timbers, test for toxins (e.g., lead paint and chlordane pesticide treatment). Either remove toxin or avoid use of tainted wood.
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Life Cycle of Structural Concrete

A concrete framework can be cast in place (site-cast), precast or some combination of both. Signicant quantities of reinforcing steel are used for either method, as concrete alone is very weak in tension. Concrete oor and roof slabs are not discussed in this report, but it should be noted that some designs integrate these slabs into the structure, allowing for some reduction in the size and reinforcing of the beams.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Concrete is made from portland cement, water, sand, and a larger aggregate such as crushed stone (see gure 9). Various additives are used to alter specic properties of the concrete, including curing time, weather resistance, and workability. Large amount of steel are used in concrete structures for reinforcing and connecting individual members. Most reinforcing steel is made entirely from scrap, while plates and high-strength bolts used to assemble precast members are made both from scrap and from virgin materials. These processes are described later in this report under the life-cycle summary of structural steel.
Figure 9: Materials Flow for Concrete
Portland cement Sand (small aggregate) Crushed stone (large aggregate) Steel reinforcing
Water
Additives
Concrete mix
Cast concrete
Portland cement, about 10 percent of the mixture by volume, is the primary active ingredient in concrete. The cement reacts chemically with the water and bonds the aggregates together, creating a rock-like material. Cement is also the most energy-intensive major ingredient of concrete. It is made primarily from limestone (or other calcium-rich minerals) and a source of silica such as clay or sand (see gure 10). Smaller amounts of iron and alumina are added in the form of mineral ores or industrial waste products, such as scrap iron, mill scale, and waste from iron and bauxite processing.
Figure 10: Materials Flow for Cement
Limestone Sand, sandstone, quartzite Clay Sources of iron* Sources of alumina** Gypsum
Lime
Processes in box take place inside rotary kiln
Clinker
* iron ore, scrap metal, coal fly ash, shale **bauxite processing waste, iron smelting waste, shale, mud, clay, coal fly ash
grinding
Portland cement
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For some applications, up to 25 percent of the cement in a concrete mixture may be replaced with y ash, a waste product of coal-burning power plants. Fly ash can improve the ow and reduce the cost of the mix, while eliminating the need for some admixtures. Limestone, sand, gypsum, iron ore, coal, and many concrete aggregates are mined in open pits, causing land disturbance, habitat alteration, soil erosion, and water runoff. The runoff can cause deoxygenation of surface waters, leading to loss of faunal diversity and possible shkill. Bauxite mining affects tropical forests and, even after the land is reclaimed, results in loss of habitat. Air emissions from the mining and manufacturing processes include particulates, dust, and combustion emissions from mining operations. The primary energy source for extracting the raw materials is diesel fuel, which is used to run the heavy machinery used for extraction, initial processing, and transportation of the materials. To make portland cement, the limestone, sand, and other ingredients are finely ground, either as powder (the dry process) or in a slurry (wet process). This mixture is then fed into a rotary kiln along with a fuel. The fuel may be coal, oil, natural gas, or a waste fuel such as tires and spent solvents. Temperatures in the kiln can reach 3000F (1650C). Emerging from the kiln are solid chunks of fused material, called clinker, and a ne powdercement kiln dust. The clinker is then ground up and mixed with a small amount of gypsum to make cement. The manufacture of portland cement produces large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), both from the fuel that is burned, and from the chemical conversion of limestone to lime and then to cement. Some of the CO2 released from the limestone may eventually be reabsorbed by the cured concrete, however, reducing the CO2 emissions to some extent. Other air pollutants include emissions from the fossil fuels burned and fugitive dust from the kiln. Cement kiln dust has historically been disposed of in uncontrolled deposits around the kilns. Concerns about environmental and health impacts of this highly alkaline material have led to pressure for more careful controls to prevent it from entering the air or water. Some kiln dust is now recycled back into the kilns. The use of waste materials with high energy content, such as tires, as an energy source is increasing as a way to reduce the need for fossil fuels while solving a solid waste problem. At some kilns, spent solvents, used oils, and other hazardous wastes are also commonly consumed. According to the industry, the high temperatures and long residence times of the materials in the kiln are more than adequate to completely destroy any organic contaminants in the waste materials. Concerns have been raised, however, that the high prices kilns can demand for disposing of the problematic wastes may lead to abuses, such as inadequate monitoring or including waste materials without sufficient fuel value to justify their use. Recent environmental regulations should prevent future serious abuses at cement kilns. Various additives are used in concrete to modify specic properties of the material. Many additives are soap or soap-like compounds, often produced from waste products from timber production, paper pulping, and corn fermentation. Stearic acid is often produced from beef tallow, a co-product of beef production.
Manufacture The ingredients described above are measured and mixed into a uniform slurry. The mixing often occurs on a concrete transit-mix truck, which mixes the batch while driving to the construction site. The strength of the concrete can be increased at higher financial and environmental cost by using more cement. Reducing the amount of water in the mix also increases strength, although this is only possible within the constraints of workability. Other additives may be added to speed or retard curing, increase the temperature range at which curing can occur, or change other properties.
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Structural Framing
If precast concrete components are specied, the concrete will be mixed at a precasting facility and poured into molds or forms with appropriate reinforcing steel in place. High-strength concrete is often used because workability is less of a constraint at these specialized facilities. Steam may be used to hasten the curing of the poured concrete. After sufcient curing time, the precast elements are removed from the molds and stored for delivery to construction sites. The molds are typically reused many times. The energy required to process raw materials and combine them for ready-mix and precast concrete has been estimated for the Canadian industry. Cement manufacture accounts for the lions share of the total embodied energy of concrete (about 70 to 80 percent), so highstrength concrete, which uses more cement, has a higher embodied energy (see gure 11). Precast concrete typically contains more cement than ready-mixed concrete, so it has higher embodied energy on a per-pound basis. Concrete that is made with signicant amounts of y ash or blast-furnace slag as a replacement for some of the cement would be substantially lower in embodied energy.
Figure 11: Embodied Energy for Concrete Manufacture
MMBtu/yd3 15 MPa (2,200 psi) concrete 20 MPa (2,900 psi) concrete 30 MPa (4,400 psi) concrete 0.9 1.1 1.4 GJ/m3 1.3 1.5 2.0
Source: Forintek Canada Corporation (1993). Assumes 9% replacement of cement with y ash; specialty admixtures used in concrete are not included in these estimates.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Concrete for poured-in-place or site-cast applications arrives at the construction site in a transit-mix truck. The wet mix is transferred from the truck into prepared forms, either on a chute-and-conveyor-belt system or pumped through a large hose. The forms are usually made of plywood and framing lumber, although fiberglass or steel may be used for very repetitive installations. The forms are usually coated with releasing agents to prevent bonding of the concrete to the form material. Wooden forms may be reused several times or discarded after a single use. In either case, large quantities of framing lumber and plywood are consumed. Steel reinforcing bars are placed inside the forms before the concrete is poured.
Cast-in-place concrete can be used to create large monolithic building elements, often combining systems of beams and oor slabs in one unit. Because the oor slab is an integral part of the structure, the beams may require less material than they would if cast separately. With cast-in-place concrete, there is some indoor air quality concern about the form-release agents. The Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation identies concrete form-release oils as products that should be avoided. New vegetable oil-based release agents are much better for air quality, although somewhat more expensive. Precast concrete components arrive at the site on trucks and are lifted into place with a crane. Steel fasteners are used to connect the components, which have steel connectors that have been cast into the concrete members. Each column and beam is placed individually and connected to the rest of the structure.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Concrete removed from demolished buildings is not readily recyclable, although it may be crushed and used as clean ll or aggregate to avoid the cost of landlling. Steel reinforcing is commonly magnetically removed from the crushed concrete and recycled.
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Life Cycle of Structural Steel

Steel has signicant environmental impacts through the rst two lifecycle stages: material acquisition/preparation and manufacture. The high recyclability of steel makes it most benign at the end of a components useful life, and the use of recycled steel can greatly reduce the environmental effects of resource extraction and manufacturing. Most structural steel is carbon steel, meaning that no specic additional metals are used as alloys; however for certain applications, low-alloy steels may be specied.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation The primary virgin material used to make steel is pig iron, which in turn is made from iron ore, limestone, and coal. Each of these raw materials requires some degree of processing before they can be combined in a blast furnace to make raw iron. Other materials used in steel manufacture include oxygen, various metals, lubricating oils, cleaning solvents, acids, and alkalines. Many of the structural steel members used to create a steel frame in the United States are made almost entirely from scrap iron and steel, and nearly all steel is made with at least 20 percent scrap.
All the major raw materials used to make steeliron ore, limestone, and coalare mined from the earth (see figure 12). The environmental impacts associated with this mining include mineral resource depletion, land and habitat loss from strip and pit mining, air emissions from mining operations, combustion of fuel to power mining equipment and transport mined materials, and pollutant runoff and erosion from mining sites and tailings piles. Erosion from surface mining is estimated at 48,000 tons per square mile per year (17,000 tonnes per square kilometer), or 2,000 times the runoff from stable forest land.
Figure 12: Materials Flow for Steel
Iron ore
Limestone
Coke
Steel scrap
Oxygen
Pig iron
Steel
Domestic iron ore is mined primarily in the Mesabi Range area around Lake Superior. In 1991 61.2 million tons (55.5 million tonnes) of iron ore were extracted in the United States, 99 percent from the Mesabi Range. Over 90 percent of iron ore is extracted from open-pit mines, with deep, vertical shaft mines accounting for the remainder. Ammonium nitrate is commonly used for blasting in the mines. The quality of ore deposits has declined dramatically over the past century, so almost all iron ore mined today is beneficiated to increase its iron content. In beneficiation, the ore is ground, screened, and converted into pellets or sinter. Pellets are usually made by mixing a small quantity of binder (usually bentonite, sometimes hydrated lime) with nely ground concentrated ore. The mixture is red in gas- or oil-red furnaces or kilns at about 2400F (1300C). Sinter is made by heating the ore particles on a grate with coal dust, fusing them together. Coke used to make iron is produced from bituminous coal, which is primarily mined underground. Stabilizing coal mine spoils with vegetation can be difcult because these soil wastes are usually acidic and laden with concentrations of coal that are toxic to many plants.
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Drainage through mines or through spoils deposited on the surface may pick up high concentrations of sulfur, which in turn reacts with the water to form sulfuric acid. This acidic runoff can make surface waters toxic to aquatic life. While it can be neutralized with special treatment facilities, acidic mine drainage remains a persistent problem. To make coke, the coal is pulverized and screened. It is then loaded into coking ovens, where it is heated to more than 2,000F (1,100C) in the absence of oxygen. This process drives off all volatile matter, leaving nearly pure hydrocarbon. The volatile gases are collected from the ovens and burned to provide the needed heat. After being removed from the oven, the hot coke is immediately quenched with water. Coke oven emissions are complex mixtures of coal and coke particles, vapors, gases, and tars. The emissions include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, -naphthylamine, cadmium, arsenic, beryllium, and chromium. There is sufficient evidence that coke oven emissions are carcinogenic to both animals and humans. EPA data indicate more than 30 coke operations in the United States may pose cancer risks to the surrounding population of well above the accepted maximum allowable risk standard of one in one million. Many technologies developed to control these emissions are coming into use in North America, greatly reducing these impacts. Material handling, which includes unloading, storing, grinding, and sizing coal and coke, is an open source of fugitive dust. The quench tower requires thousands of gallons of water to cool the coke mass. This wastewater contains dissolved solids and other organics. Sludge from coking operations is designated a potential carcinogen and is considered a hazardous waste. Limestone is mined in twenty United States, led by Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio. Because it is expensive to transport, limestone is usually mined near its market. Most limestone is quarried from dolomite deposits, in open pits. Suspended solids from limestone mine runoff can affect surface waters, but the runoff is not considered toxic. Limestone is converted to lime through high heat in a kiln that converts the mineral calcite (CaCO3) into lime (CaO) by driving off carbon dioxide (CO2). While notable amounts of CO2 are released into the atmosphere in this process, the amount is negligible compared with the CO2 and other pollutants released by the combustion of fuelscoal, oil, or natural gas used to re the kiln. In addition to byproducts of combustion, particulates from the mineral itself can be a serious pollution problem and must be contained. Oxygen for steelmaking is extracted from air using high pressure and supercooling. Since liquid oxygen evaporates at -300F (-184C), most oxygen plants are located at the steel mills to reduce waste and energy expenditure losses in the process. No information on waste produced or energy requirements for oxygen separation is available. Scrap iron and steel used to make new steel is a combination of post-consumer and preconsumer waste steel. In North America this scrap is collected primarily through a network of scrap metal dealers, usually within 100 to 200 miles of the steel manufacturing plant. Preparation of thick, heavy steel scrap entails cutting it to manageable size with oxygen burners. Other steel scrap, such as that from automobiles and appliances, is shredded and compacted for delivery to the steel mill. Preconsumer scrap requires similar preparation.
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Manufacture Steel is made in one of three types of furnaces: the basic oxygen furnace, the electric arc furnace, or the older open-hearth furnace. Electricarc furnaces (EAF) are common in smaller steelmaking operations because they can operate entirely from scrap, omitting the iron-making and coking stages. Structural steel that is roll-formed directly into I-beam or other proles is made largely in EAF. The plates for structural members that are fabricated from at material are made in both EAFs and basic oxygen furnaces.
Pig iron is produced in blast furnaces from iron ore, lime, and coke. The large, refractorylined furnace is loaded through its top with processed iron ore in the form of pellets and/or sinter, with limestone or another material as ux, and with coke for fuel. Iron oxides, coke, and uxes react with the blast furnace air to form molten reduced iron, CO, and slag. The molten iron collects at the bottom of the furnace, while the slag oats to the top, and the gas is collected off the furnace top for use as fuel. In the basic oxygen furnace molten iron is combined with scrap iron or steel and injected with oxygen, which reacts with carbon and other impurities to remove them from the metal. The reactions are exothermic; no external heat source is necessary to melt the scrap and to raise the temperature of the metal. Impurities that have separated out are removed as steel slag (which is different from blast furnace slag). Gases can be burned off or trapped and puried for use in the plant. In an electric-arc furnace, the structures roof opens and scrap steel is fed directly into the furnace. A very powerful electric current, sometimes combined with natural gas or oxygen, is used to melt the scrap in the furnace. Contaminants on the scrap contribute to a wide range of air emissions from This type of furnace. These contaminants include paints and other coatings, oils, grease, and other metals. Most, but not all, of these are captured through various emission control measures. Molten steel removed from the furnace can be cast into ingots, which are later heated and formed into slabs and other shapes. In some operations the steel is cast directly into long slabs. Structural steel I-beams, H-beams, at plates, and other proles are often shaped from the long slabs while the steel is still hot from the furnace. Steel plates may be cold-rolled to increase their strength, and shaped into round or square structural tubing. The energy used to process and transport raw materials and manufacture steel (the embodied energy) has been estimated by Forintek Canada Corporation (1994) for both EAF and basic oxygen furnace steel. According to their data, collected from the Canadian steel industry, 11 MMBtu/ton (13 gigajoule/tonne) of energy is required to make steel in an EAF, compared with 25 MMBtu/ton (29 gigajoule/tonne) in a basic oxygen furnace. If, however, one assumes that the preconsumer scrap used in steel production has its own embodied energy that must be factored in, the embodied energy of EAF steel becomes 21 MMBtu/ton (24 gigajoule/tonne) and of basic oxygen furnace steel, 26 MMBtu/ton (30 gigajoule/tonne).
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Steel members are assembled by welding and/or bolting them together to create a structural frame. Bolted connections usually require additional plates to span the junction and attach steel members on different planes.
An environmental concern with the use of structural steel is the thermal performance of the building envelope. Steel itself is more than 400 times more conductive of heat than wood. This high conductivity causes severe thermal bridging wherever steel spans from the inside to the outside of the building envelope. If appropriate measures are not taken to control this thermal bridging, it can cause a number of problems, including excessive energy use for heat-
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Life Cycle of Heavy Timber
ing and cooling and condensation of moisture on the warm side of a wall, which can lead to corrosion, mold growth, or staining. From an indoor air quality perspective, steel is quite inert and should have little impact on occupant health as long as the structure is properly detailed to prevent mold growth. Steel loses its strength quickly at high temperatures, and codes require that in large buildings it be protected from heat to increase occupant safety in case of re. Various reproong strategies are used on steel frames, some of which can release particles and negatively affect indoor air quality under some conditions. Fireproong materials are not addressed in this report (see the ERG material report on reproong).
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Magnetic separation makes steel one of the easiest and most economical materials to remove from the solid waste stream. In addition, the steel manufacturing process readily accommodates large quantities of recycled steel with no loss of quality. There are no limitations on the reuse of steel in new products. However, coatings and other foreign materials on steel may add minor contaminants to the production process. For every pound (0.45 kilogram) of steel that is recycled, 5,450 Btus (5.7 megajoules) of energy are conserved.
Scrap steel is generally trucked to the disposal site or recycling center, and the energy for truck fuel and vehicular air emissions are the major environmental concerns associated with recycling. Some pollution results from the remanufacture of steel products from scrap steel; however, this pollution is considerably less than that from production of the same product from raw materials. Disposal of steel in landlls poses no particular hazard to the environment except that it takes up valuable space.

The most signicant environmental concerns that relate to the production and use of heavy timber relate to forestry. The timber resource base can have a positive environmental impact if the forest is carefully managed for multiple ecological goals. Or, it can have a destructive impact, as when old-growth forests are cleared without concern for wildlife habitat, soil erosion, or forest regeneration. Heavy timbers can also be salvaged from older buildings that are being demolished. Use of such timbers has no negative impact on the forest resource. Heavy timbers for exposed or moisture-prone applications may be treated with preservatives. Such treatments are described in this report in the lifecycle summary of glue laminated timbers.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Douglas r from the Pacic Northwest is the most common wood species used for heavy timber framing, although many other species are used on a regional basis. In the southeastern United States southern yellow pine is popular. Timbers available for reuse from old buildings depend on the species used at the time of construction. Some wood species, such as long-leaf yellow pine, may be available in timber form only from salvaged sources, because large trees of these species are no longer commercially available. With other species, such as redwood and cypress, quality may be better from salvaged sources because these timbers came from rst-growth trees.
Trees are harvested either with chain saws or with a large shear on a specialized tractor called a feller-buncher. Felled trees can be dragged or carried to collection sites using skidders or, in rough terrain, transported by overhead cable to haul roads cut into the forest. The environmental effects of timber harvesting for lumber production include habitat alteration and destruction; soil erosion and runoff; air pollution from combustion of fuel needed to power logging machinery and to haul logs to the mill; solid waste in the form of limbs, tops, broken logs, and stumps; and depletion of old-growth forest.
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Forests play an important role in climate regulation by storing carbon through photosynthesis (serving as a carbon dioxide sink) and by mediating water movement from soil to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. Depletion of forests as a result of converting forest lands to other uses and overharvesting could, therefore, result in a net increase in atmospheric CO2 and a decrease in atmospheric moisture, which may contribute to global climate change. On the other hand, there is some evidence that young forests sequester more carbon than mature forests because of their more vigorous growth rates. Forests stabilize the soil by controlling water runoff, especially on hillsides, and clearcutting can result in substantial erosion and runoff. Logging-related runoff can result in increased turbidity in surface waters, which can harm aquatic life and cause shkill. The EPA has estimated that this erosion can typically be as much as 12,000 tons per square mile (4,200 tonnes per square kilometer) per year or approximately 500 times the erosion from undisturbed forests. Logging operations can also harm a forest by compacting the soil, which can damage roots and weaken trees. Timber harvesting generates some solid waste, including tree limbs, treetops, broken and inferior logs, and stumps, which are often left in the forest. This waste is generally considered a good forestry practice, since nutrients and humic materials from these wastes are added by decay to the forest soil. Depending on proximity to other wood processing facilities, some of the waste has traditionally been used for pulp or chips or sold for rewood. There has been an increasing economic incentive to use this waste, which is leaving less residue in the forests to biodegrade into soil. Forests account for a signicant source of biological diversity, both from the trees themselves and from the large diversity of ecosystems created in the forests. Logging operations and logging roads can disturb and even destroy these ecosystems, and forests that have been clear-cut may never regain the diversity of species found in the original forests. Heavy timbers are sawn from relatively mature trees, which are more likely to be found in ecologically valuable, diverse forest ecosystems. Forest management practices throughout the North American timber industry are increasingly designed to prevent unnecessary adverse ecological impacts from harvesting. Clearcutting is less common than it was in the 1980s and before, and the average size of clearcuts is dropping. However, in many areas forest ecosystems continue to be replaced by single-species, monoculture plantation forests. Some forest operations explicitly value the biological diversity of the forest ecosystem instead of valuing only the lumber resource. Many of these are certied according to the standards of the international Forest Stewardship Council. The term sustainable forestry has been used to describe such systems, although many environmentalists prefer the phrase well-managed forests, arguing that there are too many unknown variables to dene any practice as ultimately sustainable. Many timbers used today for heavy framing are salvaged from old buildings. These are popular because of concerns about the impact of using new timbers on the health of the forest resource and because the quality of some old timbers cannot be matched by wood from trees available today. Used timbers also have the advantage of having completely dried, so further shrinkage due to drying of the wood is not a problem. The species of wood available from older buildings largely parallels the woods being harvested today, although, as previously described, some salvaged wood species are not commercially available from forests today. In the western United States, Douglas r was the wood of choice. In the East, local species were used initially. After railroads were built on the
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Eastern seaboard, southern yellow pine was used as far as northern New England. Douglas r became popular in the East once the transcontinental railroads made it available. Old buildings slated for removal are carefully deconstructed by salvage specialists, who stockpile the timbers and any other materials of value. The timbers are then cleaned of metal fasteners and other contaminants and resurfaced or resawn to the desired dimensions. Resurfaced salvaged timbers are generally priced higher than new timbers, although this is not always the case.
Manufacture Harvested logs are sawn to specied dimensions in a sawmill. Depending on how they will be used, heavy timbers may be planed or left rough-sawn. They may also be kiln-dried, allowed to partially airdry (full air drying can take several years for a large timber), or used green.
Logs are stripped of their bark in a debarking machine before entering the sawmill. During sawing, a steady stream of water cools the blade. The heat of friction vaporizes the water. Kilns are often heated with hog fuel, that is, wood waste including bark, sawdust, and trimmings. In some operations hog fuel is also burned to generate electricity for sawmill operations. Petroleum and natural gas are also used to re kilns. Wood ash from the hog fuel boilers is either disposed of in a landll, used to make adhesives, or sold for other purposes. Combustion gases from burning the hog fuel include various air pollutants, especially particulates.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Timbers are typically transported by rail or truck to suppliers or directly to the workshop where they are prepared for assembly. If traditional joinery is to be used, posts and beams are carefully shaped with mortises and tenons and drilled for pegs. Each timber is labeled according to its specic location in the frame. If metal fasteners are to be used, less preparation of the timbers is required. They are cut to length and predrilled for the appropriate connectors. Mortise and tenon joints may dictate the use of larger members to offset the wood cut away to make the joint. Timbers that are to remain exposed to the interior or exterior of a building might also receive one or more coats of protective nish at the shop.
On the construction site, sections of the timber frame, called bents, are usually assembled at on the oor and then raised into place with a crane. Large connecting timbers, such as ridge beams, summer beams, or purlins, might also be lifted into place with the crane and fastened by workers climbing on the wood frame. Wood dust can be a problem for workers during construction, since long-term exposure to any kind of irritating dust can be harmful. Solid waste is generated during installation in the form of wood scraps, bent nails and fasteners, and sawdust. Clean wood waste may be burned or sent to a landll, or composting operation. Wood timbers release a wide variety of organic compounds that most people nd acceptable, although they can adversely affect individuals with extreme chemical sensitivities. If such concerns are raised, timbers can be sealed with a low-toxicity coating. Properly protected from the elements and insects, a timber frame should require no maintenance and should serve for several hundred years. Heavy timbers are slow to burn, and timber frames are considered relatively safe in res. Even timbers that have been charred by ames can usually be cleaned and left in place.
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Structural Framing
Life Cycle of Glued Laminated Timber
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal As described above, heavy timbers from older commercial buildings are often recycled into new timber frames or remilled into ooring or decorative woodwork. Timbers that have been mortised and tenoned for traditional joinery are harder to reuse than timbers that have been bolted together with metal fasteners because the cuts made for wood-to-wood connections are larger than the holes drilled for bolts.
If not salvaged, wood waste from building demolition may be chipped and screened for use as mulch or for fuel. More commonly, however, wood waste is disposed in a landfill with other construction and demolition waste, where it will biodegrade naturally if exposed to oxygen.
Life Cycle of Glued Laminated Timbers

Glued laminated timbers (glulams) are large structural elements made from much smaller dimensioned lumber. The smaller lumber is layered to increase thickness and may be endjoined and edge-joined for increased length and width, respectively. Primary adhesives used to manufacture glulams are resorcinol-formaldehyde, phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde, and urea-formaldehyde (see gure 13). For exposed or moisture-prone applications, glulams are treated with preservatives such as pentachlorophenol and chromated-copper arsenate (CCA),
Figure 13: Materials Flow for Glulam Adhesives

Fillers and expanders
Petroleum
Natural gas
Naptha
Benzene
Propylene
Methanol
Cumene (isopropyl benzene)
Phenol
Formaldehyde
Resorcinol
Uncured RF resin
Paraformaldehyde
Phenol-resorcinol formaldehyde adhesive
Resorcinol formaldehyde adhesive
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which extend the useful life of the material but also add significantly to the products lifecycle burdens due to toxicity (see gures 14 and 15).
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Woods used to make glulams include western species such as Douglas r, western larch, and western hemlock and various pine species from the southeastern United States. Other woods, including hardwoods, redwood, cedar, and some Canadian softwoods, are used less frequently. Environmental impacts from harvesting and milling lumber are described above in
Figure 14: Materials Flow for Pentachlorophenol Preservatives
Petroleum
Natural gas
Naptha
Propylene
Benzene
Cumene (isopropyl benzene)
Phenol
Brine
Chlorine
Pentachlorophenol
Figure 15: Materials Flow for CCA Preservative

Chromiumcontaining ores Arseniccontaining ores Copper waste Ammonium carbonate or cupric ammonium chloride
Chromite
Arsenic
Copper oxide
Chromic acid
Arsenic pentoxide
Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
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Structural Framing
the lifecycle summary of heavy timber. Because glulams are made from lumber with smaller dimensions than heavy timber, there is less dependence on large, old-growth trees. Also, the lumber for glulams can be milled and selected to avoid defects, so higher grades are more easily obtained. Resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) and phenol-resorcinol formaldehyde (PRF) resins are the primary binders used to laminate the wood strips to produce glulams. Both are closely related, as resorcinol is produced from phenol by hydroxylation. Because RF resin is expensive, phenol is sometimes used in place of some of the resorcinol. The resulting PRF adhesive takes longer and may require higher temperatures to cure. RF is made by the condensation reaction of resorcinol with formaldehyde. Although both these components, and the phenol from which resorcinol is made, are quite toxic, the cured resin is not considered toxic. Phenol is made from benzene, a petroleum derivative, and propylene, which can come from either petroleum or natural gas. Formaldehyde is made from methanol, which comes from natural gas. Urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin is used to a lesser extent, primarily for end-jointing the laminations. Urea is obtained from petroleum feedstocks through the reaction of carbon dioxide with ammonia under high pressure. The extraction of fossil fuels can discharge drilling muds, deck and sanitary wastes, and produce water containing a number of pollutants that increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, benthic deposition, and other harm to waterways. Air emissions include combustion products from fuels used to generate the energy for extraction and processing. Processing of crude oil also releases various sludges, polluted wastewater, and air emissions, some of which (e.g., benzene) are highly toxic and/or carcinogenic. Glulams intended for use in exposed or moist conditions are treated with preservatives to protect them against insect attack or fungal or bacterial decay. The most common treatment chemicals are pentachlorophenol and arsenical salts, primarily CCA. CCA is made from chromic acid derived from chromite ore; arsenic pentoxide, which is extracted as a contaminant from a variety of ores; and copper oxide produced from waste industrial copper. Although most preservative treatment plants recycle all of their process water, accidental spills can contaminate local groundwater and frequently accumulate in the soil at these facilities. The treatment chemicals are prepared and transported in a highly concentrated state, so even minor spills can be very hazardous. The solventborne preservative pentachlorophenol is used to treat glulams that are less amenable to water-based treatment, such as those made from Douglas r and other western species. Pentachlorophenol is produced by the direct chlorination of phenol or partially chlorinated phenols, with anhydrous aluminum chloride as a catalyst. Chlorine is extracted from salt (sodium chloride) in the form of brine by electrolysis. Chlorine may be emitted from the electrolytic cell and from the loading of tank cars. Other wastes include brine mud and sulfuric acid. The production of phenol is discussed above. Fuels are used to heat the reactor vessels, resulting in air emissions. The reaction occurs in a tightly contained system, but fugitive releases of hydrochloric acid, other constituents, and by-products are possible.
Manufacture Milling and kiln-drying of lumber is described above in the lifecycle summary of heavy timber. The lumber is first end-jointed, usually with finger joints, creating long strips for lamination. These end joints may be cured in a radio-frequency tunnel, in which case the lumber must be dried to a 10 percent moisture content rst, requiring additional energy.
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Once the long strips are cured, adhesive is applied to the face of the laminations, either in continuous beads or by roller over the entire face. The individual laminations are positioned on forms as required to create the straight, curved, or cambered shapes specied. Several glulams are laid up together, with waxed paper between them to prevent bonding. The beams are cured under pressure at room temperature or slightly higher for about eight hours. The heat for curing is usually provided by propane heaters, although wood waste is sometimes used. After curing, the beams are planed and/or sanded to precisely specied dimensions. Those intended for architectural or premium appearance grades are further sanded, and knotholes are filled. The timbers are often treated with a surface sealer that is sprayed or rolled on. Sealers are not discussed in this report, but many of the products used are addressed in the ERG application report on architectural coatings. With preservative-treated glulams, the order of manufacture and the chemical used depend on the wood species. With southern pine, pressure treatment with waterborne CCA occurs before fabrication. Western species are usually treated with solventborne pentachlorophenol after fabrication. The latter method reduces the amount of treated scrap that must be disposed of in hazardous waste landlls. For shipping, bundles of beams are wrapped in dampproof cellulose paper to prevent moisture absorption or discoloration from sunlight. They are shipped by flatbed truck or rail from regional plants, which are usually located near the supply of lumber.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Because glulams are usually prefabricated or purchased for a specic application, there is little on-site modification; they are simply assembled to create the frame. Some energy is required to hoist and fasten the large members, resulting in air emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Wood dust can affect workers during construction, and if the glulams have been treated with preservatives the dust is hazardous. Very small quantities of formaldehyde and other chemicals may be emitted from the adhesives and sealers used, and the wood itself may emit naturally occurring volatile organic compounds. None of these emissions is generally considered a threat to building occupants.
When properly protected from weather and elevated temperatures, glulams are quite durable. Like heavy timbers, they are relatively safe in res because their large size takes a long time to burn to the point of failure.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal There is minimal reuse or recycling of glulams, in part because it is difculty to determine the strength of old timbers. Moisture and prolonged exposure to temperatures higher than 150F can degrade the strength of the adhesive bond. Glulams are usually placed in a landll, where they will gradually biodegrade if they were not treated with preservatives. Treated wood will take up landll space for many years. It should not be burned, except under controlled conditions in incinerators, because of the toxic emissions from the preservatives. Even when burned in incinerators under carefully controlled conditions, the resultant ash is highly leachable and toxic.
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Structural Framing
References
References
Allen, Edward, and Joseph Iano. 1990.Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods . 2nd ed., NY: John Wiley & Sons. American Institute of Architects. 1996, 1997. Environmental Resource Guide. Material reports on steel framing, wood framing, glued laminated timbers, and concrete. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Forintek Canada Corp. Reports on building materials in the context of sustainable development: Building Assemblies: Construction Energy and Emissions. August 1993. Raw Material Balances, Energy Proles and Environmental Unit Factor Estimates for Structural Wood Products. March 1993. Raw Material Balances, Energy Proles and Environmental Unit Factor Estimates for Structural Steel Products. August 1993. Raw Material Balances, Energy Proles and Environmental Unit Factor Estimates for Cement and Structural Concrete Products. October 1993. Raw Material Balances, Energy Proles and Environmental Unit Factor Estimates for Mini-Mill Steel Materials. August 1994 Simmons, H. Leslie, et al. 1995. Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods, 6th ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons. Siegel & Strain Architects. Green Spec: Guideline Specications for Environmentally Considered Building Materials & Methods. San Leandro, CA.: Alameda County Recycling Board. [Rory Bakke, Alameda County Waste Management Authority, 777 Davis Street, Suite 200, San Leandro, CA 94577, 510/6141699, 510/614-1698 (fax).] Wilson, Alex, and Nadav Malin. 1993. PressureTreated Wood: How Bad is It and What are the Alternatives?Environmental Building News . Vol. 2, no. 1. Wilson, Alex. 1993. Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations Environmental Building News .Vol. 2, no. 2.
Organizations
American Coal Ash Association, 2760 Eisenhower Ave, Suite 304, Alexandria, VA 22314-4553; 703/317-2400 American Concrete Institute, 22400 W. Seven Mile Road, Detroit, MI 48219; 313/532-2600; 313/538-0655 (fax). American Institute of Steel Construction, One E. Wacker Drive, Suite 3100, Chicago, IL 60601; 312/6702400; 312/670-5403 (fax). American Institute of Timber Construction, 7012 S. Revere Parkway, Suite 140, Englewood, CO 80112; 303/792-9559; 303/792-0669 (fax). American Iron and Steel Institute, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20036; 202/452-7100; 202/4636573 (fax). Forest Stewardship Council, RR 1, Box 188, Richmond, VT 05477; 802/244-6257; 802/244-6258 (fax). Accredited organizations include: Scientic Certication Systems, Inc. 1939 Harrison Street, Suite 400, Oakland, CA 94612-3532, 510/832-1415, 510/832-0359 (fax); Rainforest Alliance Smart Wood Program, 65 Bleecker St, New York, NY 10012-2420, 212/677-1900, 212/677-2187 (fax). Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60077; 708/966-6200; 708/966-8389 (fax). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 175 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, IL 60604; 312/786-0300; 312/786-0353 (fax). Steel Recycling Institute, Foster Plaza 10, 680 Andersen Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15220; 412/922-2772; 412/922-3213 (fax). Western Wood Products Association, 522 SW Fifth Ave., Portland, OR 97204; 503/224-3930; 503/2243934 (fax).
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Application Report
Metal and Plastic Plumbing Pipe

This report compares materials commonly used for distribution and waste plumbing systems in buildings. On the distribution side, materials addressed are copper, galvanized steel, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), and polyethylene. Materials commonly used for drain, waste, and plumbing vent piping are cast iron, ductile iron, galvanized steel, PVC, and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). Fittings and connectors are not specifically covered here, although these are generally made of the same materials as the pipes themselves, so life-cycle impacts are similar. Solvents and cements used to connect joints are addressed only in terms of how they affect installation, not in their complete life-cycle impacts.
Highlights
s s
Plastic pipes are generally more corrosion-resistant than comparable metal pipes and may be preferable where exposure to corrosive elements is unavoidable. Plastic supply pipes offer less resistance to water ow than comparable metal pipes, which can lead to reduced pumping costs and increased supply pressure at xtures. Polybutylene piping, which for a time, was widely used for residential plumbing and hydronic radiant oor applications, experienced widespread failures (most the fault of the acetyl connectors, rather than the pipe itself) and is no longer manufactured in the United States. It has been replaced by cross-linked polyethylene piping for radiant oor applications and applications that require exible plumbing supply lines, and by rigid distribution piping, such as copper and CPVC pipe, elsewhere. Cast iron is made entirely from scrap iron and steel. The amount of recycled metal in copper pipe varies with market conditions. In 1996, copper was made from about 20 percent postconsumer recycled copper, and 30 percent preconsumer copper.
s s
Embodied Energy per Unit Length of 2-inch Pipe

Btu/ft ABS (Schedule 40) solid ABS (Schedule 40) foam core PVC (Schedule 40) CPVC (Schedule 40, IPS) Copper (Type L) Copper (Type M) Cast iron* 23,000 18,000 23,000 19,000 38,000 32,000 86,000 MJ/m 81 61 80 66 133 111 299
* Assumes 70 percent virgin iron. Actual value for cast-iron pipe, which is 100 percent recycled, would be much lower
s s s
Join plastic pipes with solvent cement only in conditions with good ventilation to avoid possible health problems. Specify lead-free solder for waste piping systemseven though it is only required for distribution systemsto avoid possible misuse. When possible, use cast-iron pipe, which is made entirely from scrap, and thus low environmental impact, for plumbing waste systems.
PLUMBING PIPE
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Comparative Environmental Performance Distribution Piping
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceDistribution Piping*

Copper Galvanized steel PVC CPVC Polyethylene

1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3
Transportation
Notes
General Each cell in the above matrix is further explained in the Environmental Impacts gures in this report. Performance Range
1
Impacts are lower for pipe made from electric-arc furnace steel with high recycled content. Health threat to plumbers is lower for installations with threaded fittings than for those using welded pipe. Recyclability depends on local availability of recycling infrastructure for this material. Cross-linked polyethylene is more durable.
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PLUMBING PIPE

Comparative Environmental Performance Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping
Figure 2: Comparative Environmental PerformanceDrain, Waste, and Vent Piping*

Cast iron Galvanized steel PVC ABS

2 2 2 2 2
3 3
Transportation
Notes
General Each cell in the above matrix is further explained in the Environmental Impacts gures in this report. Performance Range
1
Health threat to plumbers is lower for installations with threaded or clamped ttings than for those with leaded joints. Impacts are lower for pipe made from electric-arc furnace steel with high recycled content. Recyclability depends on local availability of recycling infrastructure for this material.
3 4
ABS pipe can fail prematurely if manufacturers try to cut corners in order to compete with the cheaper PVC resin.
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Environmental Impacts Copper Pipe
Figure 3: Environmental ImpactsCopper Pipe

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Fuel combustion emissions from energy use at all stages. Dust from mining operations. Runoff from tailing piles, heap leaching, and in-place leaching can carry toxic heavy metals to surface and groundwaters. Large open-pit mines signicantly alter the landscape and leave behind huge amounts of unusable overburden and processed ore. Use of recycled copper reduces this burden. Copper is not in short supply, although its extraction requires the disruption of larger and larger areas. Mines cause total habitat disruption in localized areas. Metal fume fever can affect plumbers working with copper. Lead from older tin-lead solder can contribute to chronic lead exposure. New solders are considered safe. Copper pipe is produced at large, centralized plants. Installing copper plumbing systems is more labor intensive than most alternatives, providing jobs in every community. Copper is relatively energy-intensive to produce. Copper is mined at select locations and transported large distances to most end uses. Copper pipe offers no insulation value and causes some resistance to water ow, especially if corrosion and scaling accumulate over time. Good, if protected from galvanic reaction by avoiding contact with incompatible metals. Minimal. Highly recyclable.
Biodiversity/habitat Loss Health and welfare Worker/installer health Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare
Energy
Building operation
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PLUMBING PIPE

Environmental Impacts Galvanized Steel Pipe
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsGalvanized Steel Pipe

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Fuel combustion emissions from energy use at all stages. Toxic emissions from coking ovens include ammonia and dust. Contaminated runoff from mine tailings delivers toxins to lakes and rivers. Signicant water use to quench coal after coking and to rinse steel during galvanizing and nishing. Severe erosion at some mining sites for iron ore, limestone, and coal. Most raw materials are plentiful. Steel recycled from old steel uses very little virgin material. Habitat disruption from mining for raw materials is severe but limited in range. No threat from threaded connections. Possibility of reaction to metal fumes from welding. Slight possibility of contamination from corrosion in pipes. Large concentration of capital and energy resources required for steelmaking is not conducive to retaining capital in local communities. Steel is quite energy-intensive to produce. Recycled steel is less so, but pipe typically contains relatively little recycled steel. Can be signicant, depending on distance of construction from steel mill and sources of raw materials. Steel pipe offers no insulation value and causes some resistance to water ow, especially if corrosion and scaling accumulate over time. Good. Minimal. Easily recycled. Zinc coating may also be reclaimed at some recycling facilities.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts PVC Pipe
Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsPVC Pipe

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from fossil fuel combustion, petroleum extraction and rening and dusts from mining for llers and pigment ores. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines. Water pollution from drilling sludges from petroleum and natural gas extraction, by-products of petroleum rening, fugitive releases from PVC manufacturing. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines. Small degree of impact from mining for llers and pigment ores. Some fossil fuel depletion. Most raw materials in good supply. Small degree of impacts from mining for llers, pigment ores. Organochlorines may disrupt endocrine systems, affecting many species. PVC manufacture requires many hazardous precursors, may create risk for workers if not handled properly. Solvent cements used to join PVC pipe on site release toxic VOCs that can affect plumbers. Possible concerns about leaching of chemicals into water and potential hazards during a re. Fugitive emissions from PVC manufacturing might affect surrounding areas. Relatively energy-intensive to manufacture, including feedstock value of petrochemicals used. Both raw materials and nished products are transported large distances to and from highly centralized factories. No impact. Good, if not subject to unusual stresses. Minimal. PVC pipe is recyclable, although the infrastructure to collect and recycle it does not exist in most localities, so it is unlikely to be recycled at present.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
Impact on operating energy use Building operation Life expectancy/ durability Maintenance requirements Reusability/ recyclability
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PLUMBING PIPE

Environmental Impacts Chlorinated PVC Pipe
Figure 6: Environmental ImpactsChlorinated PVC Pipe

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from fossil fuel combustion, petroleum extraction and rening, mining dusts for llers and pigment ores. Risk of release of chlorine and hazardous organochlorines is greater than for PVC. Water pollution from drilling sludges from petroleum and natural gas extraction, by-products of petroleum rening, fugitive releases from PVC manufacturing. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines are greater concerns with CPVC than with PVC. Small degree of impact from mining for llers, and pigment ores. Some fossil fuel depletion. Most raw materials in good supply. Small degree of impact from mining for llers and pigment ores and from fossil fuel extraction. CPVC manufacture requires many hazardous precursors, may create risk for workers if not handled properly. Solvent cements used to join CPVC pipe on site release toxic VOCs that can affect plumbers. Possible concerns about leaching of chemicals into water and potential hazards during a re. Fugitive emissions from CPVC manufacturing might affect surrounding areas. Relatively energy-intensive to manufacture, including feedstock value of petrochemicals used. Both raw materials and nished products are transported large distances to and from highly centralized factories. No impact. Good. Minimal. Recyclable, but local facilities for collection and recycling may not be available. May be less recyclable than PVC.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
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Environmental Impacts Polyethylene Pipe
Figure 7: Environmental ImpactsPolyethylene Pipe

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Processing is more limited than for many other resins. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Prior to cross-linking, waste can be recycled within the process. Waste PEX tubing is not recyclable. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, drilling sludge contamination. Minimal concerns. Minimal concerns.
Health and welfare
Highly centralized production of resin and tubing does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuel use for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of pipe. Plastic pipe offers little resistance to water ow, reducing pumping energy requirements. Inherent insulation helps prevent heat loss from water in piping. Good for high-quality products. Manufacturing must be carefully controlled to obtain reliable cross-linking. Minimal. HDPE is readily recycled, but XLPE is not recyclable.
Energy
Building operation
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PLUMBING PIPE

Environmental Impacts Cast-iron Pipe
Figure 8: Environmental ImpactsCast-iron Pipe

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Small amounts of combustion emissions from fossil fuels used to remelt scrap iron and steel. Possible release of volatilized organic contaminants on scrap. Minimal impact. Minimal impact. All excess or scrap material is recycled. Negligible amounts of virgin resources used. Minimal impact. Installation with leaded joints may be hazardous, other connections are not. Minimal impact.
Building occupant health (indoor air quality) Community health and welfare Energy Production/manufacturing
Minimal impact. Virgin cast iron is quite energy-intensive, but making cast-iron pipe from scrap uses only a fraction as much energy. Cast-iron components are heavy, but they are manufactured in many areas so distances are not great. Gravity ow wastewater systems use no operating energy. Possible slight heat loss from metal penetration of building envelope. Good. Minimal. Highly recyclable.
Transportation
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts ABS Pipe
Figure 9: Environmental ImpactsABS Pipe

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Manufacturing waste can be recycled within the process. Installation scraps too small to use elsewhere are generally sent to landlls due to lack of infrastructure for recycling. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. ABS manufacture requires many hazardous precursors, may create risk for workers if not handled properly. Solvent cements used to join ABS pipe on site release toxic VOCs that can affect plumbers. Minimal impact.
Health and welfare
Highly centralized production of resin and pipe does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuel use for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of pipe. Minimal impact. Good. Minimal. ABS is recyclable, but in practice it is not readily recycled due to lack of infrastructure.
Energy
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PLUMBING PIPE


plumbing vent 1-0 minimum
Selecting a Material Specify lead-free solder for waste piping systemseven though it is only required for distribution systemsto avoid possible misuse of lead. Cast-iron pipe, which is made entirely from scrap metal, is a low-impact choice for plumbing waste systems. Plastic pipe resists scaling and thus offers less resistance to water ow over the long term. Therefore, consider plastic pipe for long plumbing runs in distribution systems to reduce pumping energy use. Consider plastic piping for drain and waste systems to ensure good ow when the pitch is marginal, as cast-iron pipe has a rougher interior surface that further deteriorates over time. When using PVC pipe, seek out products with recycled content but ensure it meets all applicable codes and standards. With ABS pipe, make sure products have been tested and meet all applicable codes and standards. Because of cost-cutting pressures, some manufacturers have substituted noncompatible scrap plastics in the ABS mix, resulting in performance problems and pipe failures. For copper distribution lines, avoid thin-walled type-M tubing for pressurized applications, as it can fail prematurely. Type-L tubing uses only about 20 percent more material but is much more durable. Installing the Piping Use adequate ventilation when soldering pipe to reduce exposure to metal fumes. Make sure ventilation is good when joining plastics pipes with solvent cement to avoid possible health problems. Keep plumbing lines accessible in case repairs or modications are needed. Insulate hot water supply lines to reduce heat loss. In humid areas, insulate cold water supply lines to prevent condensation and associated moisture problems. Carefully seal vent and waste pipe penetrations through the conditioned building envelope to prevent unwanted air movement. Install any plastic vent pipe with expansion sleeves so the air seal is not compromised by thermal expansion and contraction (see gure 10).
board
lap sealant s.s. clamp neoprene boot membrane insulation
Figure 10: Expansion sleeves maintain air seal of plastic vent pipe during thermal expansion and contraction (courtesy BSW).
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Life Cycle of Copper Pipe
Life Cycle of Copper Pipe

Copper is the rst metal known to have been used by humans, and copper piping has been the standard for plumbing supply lines for several decades, although in recent years it has been losing its market share to plastics.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Copper sulde ores are mined primarily in open pits, though some are also extracted underground. Most of the copper produced in the United States comes from Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, followed by Michigan and Montana. In open-pit mining, all the earth and rock above the ore (overburden) is removed, exposing the ore, which is then extracted by drilling and blasting. Approximately two tons of overburden must be removed along with each ton of copper ore, although the ratio of overburden to ore can be as high as 5 to 1. The ore itself averages less than 0.7 percent copper in U.S. mines. Thus, more than 400 tons of waste and by-products are mined for each ton of copper produced. As the quality of ores has declined, increasingly larger mines and larger equipment have been required to extract enough ore to provide sufcient quantities of the metal.
The concentration of copper in the ore is increased through the process of froth otation. The copper ore is crushed and milled and then mixed with water and surfactants, which cause the minerals to oat to the surface in a froth. The copper is then separated from iron, sulfur, and other minerals in a smelter. Traditionally the smelting was done in a reverberatory furnace, in which heat is reected downwards to melt the ore. This technology is being widely replaced by oxygen/ash smelting. The smelter output is further rened by re rening or electrolytic rening, which yields copper with a nal purity of 99.95 percent. Copper may also be obtained directly at the mine by leaching the metal with a weak acid that is percolated through overburden material (dump or head leaching) or through ores still in the ground (in-place leaching). Quantities of recycled copper used to make new products vary greatly with market dynamics. At present, about half the copper used in the United States is recycled from scrap, about 60 percent of which is preconsumer and the rest postconsumer material. It is not known if this same ratio of recycled to virgin material applies to pipe manufacture. Copper mines cause waste in the form of large amounts of overburden, waste rock, tailings from the concentration process, and slag or dust piles from smelters. Water runoff from these wastes, and from the operations themselves, may carry signicant quantities of heavy metals, which can contaminate groundwater and surface waters. To prevent such contamination, the runoff is impounded and treated before release and process water is recycled within the operation. The oxidation of copper and iron sulfide minerals in the smelter produces sulfur dioxide (SO2). New oxygen/ash smelting technology greatly reduces the SO2 emissions. In addition, sulfuric acid is manufactured from the sulfur dioxide contained in these off-gases, reducing air pollution by 95 percent or more and providing a salable coproduct of copper smelting. Fumes from heated metallic copper in smelters can cause irritation of the upper respiratory tract, eyes, nose, and throat; nausea; gastric pain; and diarrhea. Flue dust from copper reneries can be trapped with various pollution-control technologies and recycled. Metals in this dust can be recycled, although unwanted contaminants such as arsenic can complicate the process.
Manufacture Copper tubing, which is used as plumbing pipe in buildings, is made at plants traditionally called brass mills, although many of them no longer manufacture brass products (brass is an
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PLUMBING PIPE

Life Cycle of Galvanized Steel Pipe
alloy consisting primarily of copper and zinc), specializing instead in copper tubing. These products are made by extruding heated metal through a die with a plug that creates the hollow center. Minimal processing beyond the extrusion and packaging stages is required to manufacture copper tubing and pipe.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Copper pipes are generally joined by brazing or soldering. In both these techniques, a metal with a lower melting point than copper is melted and drawn into the overlapping pipe joint by capillary action. Soldering is most commonly used for copper water distribution systems. Traditionally a tin-lead mixture was used for soldering, but solder containing lead is no longer allowed in potable water distribution systems. Tin-lead solder is still used for some waste systems, although this practice is avoided by some due to the risk of accidentally using the solder on a potable water system. Tin-antimony and tin-silver are generally used today in place of tin-lead solder. Brazing, which takes place at a higher temperature than soldering, is often done with silver, copper-phosphorus, or copper-zinc solder.
Oxidation of the metals as they are joined can prevent the formation of a good bond. Prior to soldering or brazing, the joint is coated with a ux, which evaporates when heated, releasing a gas that displaces any oxygen in the joint, preventing oxidation. Fluxes used for soldering include zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. Heating the metals used to join copper piping can release metal oxides into the air. Inhaling these freshly produced metal oxides can cause an illness called metal fume fever, with symptoms including a sweet or metallic taste, blurred vision, stiff neck, shortness of breath, headache, and gastrointestinal effects. Zinc and copper are the most common causes of metal fume fever, but antimony, tin, lead, silver, and iron can also contribute to the illness. In areas where drinking water is soft or acidic, lead from tin-lead solder in old joints can dissolve in the tap water, exposing users to long-term chronic lead ingestion. At high exposure levels, lead poisoning can cause coma, convulsions, and death. At low levels, the neurotoxic effects of lead affect childrens developing brains and nervous systems, causing reductions in IQ and attention span, reading and learning disabilities, hyperactivity, and behavioral problems. Lead concentrations increase in water that remains in the pipes overnight.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Scrap copper, both from new installations and that removed after years of service, has high value and is readily recycled.

Galvanized steel pipe is used extensively for plumbing distribution systems in buildings, although like copper, its market share is eroding. Steel pipe may be made from either basic oxygen furnace steel, which is about 22 percent recycled, or from electric arc furnace steel, which is made almost entirely from scrap material.
Material Acquisition and Preparation Steel is made from pig iron, which in turn is made from iron ore, limestone, and coal (see gure 11). Each of these raw materials requires some degree of processing before it is combined in a blast furnace to make raw iron. Other materials used in steel manufacturing include oxygen, nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc, as well as various lubricating oils, cleaning solvents, acids, and alkalines. Of these additional materials, the zinc used to galvanize steel pipe is the most signicant. Preconsumer and postconsumer scrap steel represents about 22 percent of the raw material for a typical integrated steel mill operation.
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Figure 11: Materials Flow for Steel Pipe
Iron ore
Limestone
Coke
Steel scrap
Oxygen
Zinc
Pig iron
Steel
Galvanized steel pipe
All the major raw materials used to make steel pipeiron ore, limestone, coal, and zincare mined from the earth. The environmental impacts associated with this mining include mineral resource depletion, land and habitat loss from strip and pit mining, air emissions from mining operations, the combustion of fuel to power mining equipment and transport mined materials, and pollutant runoff and erosion from mining sites and tailings piles. Erosion from surface mining is estimated at 48,000 tons per square mile per year (17,000 tonnes per square kilometer), or 2,000 times the runoff from stable forest land. Domestic iron ore is mined primarily in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota and Michigan, around Lake Superior. In 1991, 63 million tons (57 million tonnes) of iron ore were extracted in the United States, 99 percent of which came from the Mesabi Range. More than 90 percent of iron ore is extracted from open-pit mines; deep, vertical shaft mines supply the remainder. Ammonium nitrate is commonly used for blasting in the mines. Almost all iron ore mined today is beneciated to increase its iron content and make it easier to transport. In beneciation, the ore is ground, screened, and converted into pellets or sinter. Pellets are usually made by mixing a small quantity of binder (usually bentonite, sometimes hydrated lime) with nely ground concentrated ore. The mixture is red in gasor oil-red furnaces or kilns at about 2400F (1300C). Sinter is made by heating the ore particles together on a grate with coal dust, fusing them together. Coke used to make iron is made from bituminous coal, which is primarily mined underground. Stabilizing coal mine spoils with vegetation can be difcult because these soil wastes are usually acidic and laden with concentrations of coal that are toxic to many plants. Drainage though mines or through spoils deposited on the surface may pick up high concentrations of sulfur, which in turn reacts with the water to form sulfuric acid. This acidic runoff can make surface waters toxic to aquatic life. Although it can be neutralized with special treatment facilities, acidic mine drainage remains a persistent problem. To make coke, the coal is pulverized and screened. It is then loaded into coking ovens, where it is heated to more than 2,000F (1,100C) in the absence of oxygen. This process drives off all volatile matter, leaving nearly pure hydrocarbon. The volatile gases are collected from the ovens and burned to provide the needed heat. After removal from the oven, the hot coke is immediately quenched with water. Coke is made in coking ovens, which emit complex mixtures of coal and coke particles, gases, and tars. The emissions include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, -naphthylamine, cadmium, arsenic, beryllium, and chromium. There is sufcient evidence that coke oven emissions are carcinogenic to both animals and humans. EPA data indicate that until recently there were more than 30 coke operations in the United States that posed cancer risks well above the accepted maximum allowable risk standard of one in one million to the surrounding population. Despite the statistics, many technologies to control these emissions are in use in North America.
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PLUMBING PIPE

Material handling, which includes the unloading, storing, grinding, and sizing of coal and coke, is an open source of fugitive dust. The quench tower requires thousands of gallons of water to cool the coke mass. The resultant wastewater contains dissolved solids and other organics. Sludge from coking operations are designated a potential carcinogen and are considered a hazardous waste. Limestone is mined in twenty U.S. states, led by Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio. Because it is expensive to transport, limestone is usually mined near its market. Most limestone is quarried from dolomite deposits, in open pits. Suspended solids from limestone mine runoff can affect surface waters, but the runoff is not considered toxic. Limestone is converted to lime through high heat in a kiln that converts the mineral calcite (CaCO3) into lime (CaO) by driving off the carbonate as carbon dioxide (CO2). This adds to the CO2 released into the atmosphere from the combustion of fuelscoal, oil, or natural gasused to re the kiln. In addition to the by-products of combustion, particulates from the mineral itself can be a serious pollution problem and must be contained. Oxygen for steelmaking is extracted from air using high pressure and super-cooling. Since liquid oxygen evaporates at -300F (-184C), most oxygen plants are located at the steel mills to reduce waste and energy expenditure losses in the process. No information on waste produced or energy requirements for oxygen separation is available. Zinc, used for galvanizing steel pipe, is an abundant metal in the earths crust. Zinc ores, usually mined in open pits, contain from 3 to 11 percent zinc. To further concentrate the zinc, the ores are crushed and processed by otation. They are then converted into metallic slab either by electrolytic or pyrometallurgical smelting. Many heavy-metal contaminants from zinc ores can be released during the smelting process, including lead, cadmium, chromium, copper, silver, and selenium. In addition, chlorinated compounds may form during smelting from reactions with the chlorine present in the water supply. As a result, a number of zinc smelter facilities have been listed as Superfund sites, and there is no longer sufficient smelter capacity in the United States to process the zinc ore mined or the metallic zinc used. Scrap steel is generally collected and sorted at recycling centers and scrap metal dealers. Therefore, the energy for truck fuel and vehicular air emissions are the major environmental concerns associated with recycling. Some pollution results from the remanufacture of steel products from scrap steel; however, this is considerably less than the pollution resulting from production of the same product from raw materials.
Manufacture Pig iron is produced in blast furnaces from iron ore, lime, and coke. The large, refractorylined furnace is charged through the top with processed iron ore in the form of pellets and/or sinter, with limestone or another material as ux, and with coke for fuel. Iron oxides, coke, and uxes react with the blast furnace air to form molten reduced iron, CO, and slag. The molten iron collects at the bottom of the furnace, while the slag oats to the top, and the gas is collected off the furnace top for use as fuel.
Steel is made in one of three types of furnaces: the basic oxygen furnace, the electric arc furnace, or the older open hearth furnace. Electric arc furnaces are common in smaller steelmaking operations because they can operate entirely with scrap, omitting the blast furnace and coking stages. The vast majority of sheet steel used to make galvanized steel pipe is made at large integrated mills with capital-intensive steel-rolling machinery. These integrated mills generally use basic oxygen furnaces.
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Figure 12: Energy Used to Make Steel Pipe

Pig iron from iron ore Total energy/ton Total energy/tonne Proportion of feedstock Prorated energy/ton Prorated energy/tonne 13.9 (16.2) 75% 10.4 (12.1) Collecting and processing steel scrap 0.6 (0.7) 25% 0.2 (0.2) 15.9 (18.5) 1.6 (1.9) 4.6 (5.3) 32.7 (38.0) Steel from iron and scrap Casting steel Forming, nishing & annealing Total
Figures in million Btus per ton (gigajoules per tonne)
In the basic oxygen furnace, molten iron is combined with scrap iron or steel and injected with oxygen, which reacts with carbon and other impurities to remove them from the metal. The reactions are exothermic; no external heat source is necessary to melt the scrap and to raise the temperature of the metal. Impurities that have separated are removed as steel slag (which is different from blast furnace slag). Gases can be burned off or trapped and puried for use in the plant. Steel pipes are made in a number of different ways, including casting, hot extrusion, and continuous welding. Cast steel pipes are produced by static or centrifugal casting processes. Extruded pipes are made by drawing the hot steel through a die. Welded steel pipe is made from cold-rolled sheet steel that is welded into a tubular shape. Welding technologies include continuous, or furnace butt welding, in which the attened steel is shaped and welded into a tube before it has cooled, and electric resistance welding, in which cold, hard steel is shaped into a tube and welded electrically. Hot-rolled steel is normally cleaned in a bath of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid to remove the surface oxide scale formed during the hot-rolling process. This cleaning occurs in an apparatus called a pickler, and the acid bath is termed pickle liquor. Sheets are frequently cold-rolled after pickling to increase their strength. Before forming, the sheet must be softened in an annealing furnace to render it more formable. Sheet steel for pipe is generally galvanized by dipping it in a hot zinc bath. Should any part of the steel become exposed under the zinc coating, galvanic reaction between the zinc and steel causes the zinc to corrode and form compounds that cover and continue to protect the steel as long as any zinc remains.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Steel pipe is generally joined on site by screwing together threaded pipe ends and connectors. Fittings may be made of steel, cast iron, or brass. Larger steel pipe may be welded on site, requiring the use of a separate ller metal in some cases and a ux to prevent oxidation of the metal in the joint. Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Magnetic separation makes steel one of the easiest and most economical materials to remove from the solid waste stream. As well, the steel manufacturing process readily accommodates large quantities of recycled steel with no loss of quality. As a result, the overall recycling rate of steel products in the United States is about 66 percent, the highest rate of any recycled material.
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Life Cycle of PVC Pipe
There are no limitations on the reuse of steel in new products. However, the coatings and other foreign materials on the original may add minor contaminants to the new production process. Such contaminants are a minor consideration in view of the positive energy and resource savings involved in recycling. For every pound (0.45 kilogram) of steel that is recycled, 5,450 Btus (5.7 megajoules) of energy are conserved. Zinc can be recovered from both new and old galvanized steel scrap, and recovery has risen dramatically over the past several years.

Pipe is by far the largest end use for PVC resin, although only a small fraction of that pipe is used in buildings. While PVC loses strength too quickly at elevated temperatures to distribute hot water, it is used extensively for drain, waste, and vent applications.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation PVC pipe consists of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and some additives: stabilizersto increase resistance to deterioration; llersto increase dimensional stability, mass, and bulk; and pigments, for opacity and color (see gure 13).
Figure 13: Materials Flow for PVC and CPVC Pipe
Brine or rock salt
Blowing agent
Crude oil
Natural gas
Ethylene
Chlorine
Ethylene dichloride
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
Foam-core PVC pipe
Solid PVC pipe
CPVC pipe
PVC is made from salteither rock salt or saltwater brineand ethylene, derived from either natural gas or petroleum. (Manufacture of ethylene is described below, under polyethylene pipe.) Chlorine is extracted from the salt (sodium chloride) by electrolysis, leaving sodium hydroxide, which has many other industrial uses. The chlorine is reacted with ethylene to form dichloroethane (EDC). EDC then undergoes a cracking process, becoming vinyl chloride monomer and hydrochloric acid. Vinyl chloride is usually polymerized into
PLUMBING PIPE
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polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in a water suspension with small amounts of methyl cellulose and organic peroxides as catalysts. During the polymerization the suspension is stirred vigorously and cooled to prevent explosion, as the process is highly exothermic. Vinyl chloride monomer is a known human carcinogen and is strictly controlled. It is not known to be a serious environmental toxin, and its half-life in the atmosphere ranges from a few hours to one day. In spite of the controls, some fugitive emissions of vinyl chloride are inevitable. EDC, VOCs, and numerous other chemical by-products are emitted from the PVC manufacturing process. Some of these are organochlorines that can disrupt human and animal endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems. The most notorious of these is a type of dioxin (TCDD) that is regarded as one of the most toxic man-made chemicals ever studied. There is disagreement as to the amount of dioxin released from PVC manufactureindustry groups argue it is not signicant. The production of ethylene is described below, under polyethylene. Wastes from chlorine production include air emissions of chlorine from the electrolytic process and from transfer of the gas, brine mud containing magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate, and spent sulfuric acid. Stabilizers used in vinyl ooring include soaps of barium, calcium, and zinc and organotin compounds that have been developed to replace more toxic cadmium and lead soaps. Limestone is the most common filler in vinyl products. Limestone is a common mineral throughout most of the United States. It is typically mined in open pits. Although runoff from limestone mining is not considered toxic, it can adversely affect surface and ground waters. Air pollutants from mining include dust and fossil fuel emissions from mining equipment. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the preferred white pigment. Most colored pigments are inorganic, although certain colors are only available as organic compounds. Heavy metals may be used in some colors. TiO2 is produced from titanium-rich sands, which are obtained by dredging in waterways. The sand is processed and red at high temperatures to produce the pigment. Environmental stressors include siltation and disturbance of surface waters from dredging, release of toxic wastes into the ocean and by deep well injection, and air emissions from the kilns.
Manufacture PVC pipe is manufactured by extruding molten PVC through a die. The hole in the pipe is shaped by an internal mandrel, which is supported by thin connectors. The resin flows around these connectors and rejoins, forming a seamless tube. PVC pipe may be either solid core or foam core (also called cellular core). To make foam core pipe, a dry blowing agent is added at the extruder. This agent reacts to release a gas that forms a foam with the liqueed polymer. The newly extruded pipe enters a sizing unit, usually a vacuum trough, in which the pipe is pressed against the walls of the unit by air pressure. It is then cooled with water, cut to length, and stacked for shipment. Installation, Use, and Maintenance PVC pipe, like other thermoplastics, is joined with solvent cements or by heat fusion. Solvent welding, the more common technique, involves partially dissolving the overlapping surfaces of the two pipes (or a pipe and a tting) and allowing them to fuse together. The solvent cement is a mixture of solvents and the plastic resin. Tetrahydrofuran is often the main solvent, acetone is a secondary solvent, and methyl ethyl ketone and cyclohexanone are often used to modify the cement. In some cases the surfaces to be joined are rst cleaned with solvents, including methyl ethyl ketone and acetone, to remove any grease or dirt that might interfere with the bond.
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APP 10 PLUMBING PIPE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998

Life Cycle of CPVC Pipe
Solvents used to fuse PVC pipe and to clean the surfaces release VOCs, although newer formulations that do not release VOCs are being developed. Exposure to all the solvents mentioned above can have negative effects on human health, including irritation of mucous membranes, dermatitis, headaches, and dizziness. Concerns have been raised that PVC building materials may pose a hazard during building res due to the potential for release of some gases, such as hydrochloric acid, even before the material ignites. There is also evidence that highly toxic organochlorines are released when PVC is burned under less-than-ideal incineration conditions. Industry representatives dispute these claims, however, arguing that combustion gases from PVC are similar to those of wood and other common building materials.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Combustion products from incineration of materials containing PVC include carbon dioxide, water, and hydrogen chloride (HCl). Metal soap stabilizers may react with the HCl to form metallic chlorides, which are relatively difcult to remove from ue gases. HCl is highly corrosive and tends to increase the operating costs of incinerators. A small amount of highly toxic dioxins and furans may also be produced, although evidence that PVC contributes to their formation in incinerators is inconclusive.
Life Cycle of CPVC Pipe

Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) is commonly used for hot and cold water distribution systems in houses and other small buildings. The additional chlorine keeps the resin rigid at higher temperatures than normal PVC, allowing CPVC to carry hot water.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation CPVC is made from PVC resin, the manufacture of which is described above under PVC pipe. Grains of PVC resin are dispersed in a water slurry. Oxygen is removed from the reactor, and the mixture is heated slightly. Chlorine is then added continuously, as the system is irradiated with UV light, producing chlorine radicals. These radicals bond with the PVC molecules, creating chlorinated PVC. The resulting product is washed with an inorganic base to remove the hydrogen chloride and dried.
Environmental impacts from the CPVC manufacturing process are the same as for PVC (described above), with added risks from the manufacture of additional chlorine and manipulation of organochlorine compounds and hydrochloric acid.
Manufacture CPVC pipe is manufactured in the same way as PVC pipe, described above. Installation, Use, and Maintenance CPVC pipe is cut to length and joined, either to another length of pipe or to a CPVC tting, using solvent cements as described above for PVC pipe. Cement intended for CPVC pipe can be used on PVC or ABS pipe, but the reverse does not apply. Emissions and hazards to installers are described above, under PVC pipe. Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Although CPVC can be recycled, there is little infrastructure in place to return excess or used material to manufacturers, so little, if any, of the material that has reached distributors is recycled.
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Life Cycle of Polyethylene Pipe
Life Cycle of Polyethylene Pipe

Polyethylene is used extensively for piping, although standard, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) is used primarily underground and sees only very limited use in buildings. Crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) is increasingly being used for hot and cold water distribution systems and for hydronic heating applications. XLPE has replaced polybutylene in these applications since the manufacture of polybutylene was discontinued in the United States in 1996. XLPE is more expensive than HDPE, but it is stiffer, more chemically resistant, and has better impact resistance at low temperatures.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Polyethylene is a polymer of ethylene, which is made by cracking hydrocarbon molecules derived from natural gas or from petroleum products such as naphtha and gas oil (see gure 14). The cracking takes place in a pyrolysis furnace at temperatures of 700F to 900F (370C to 480C). Ethylene and other light hydrocarbons are created, and the gases are cooled quickly to stop the cracking process. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is produced by the polymerization of ethylene, which takes place under low pressure in the presence of a catalyst.
Figure 14: Materials Flow for Polyethylene Pipe
Cross-linking agent Cross-linked polyethylene pipe
Natural gas
Crude oil
Ethylene
Polyethylene
High-density polyethylene pipe
The production of ethylene, either from natural gas or petroleum, is a source of many potential environmental contaminants. The extraction of fossil fuels can discharge drilling muds, deck and sanitary wastes, and produce wastewater containing a number of pollutants that increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, benthic deposition, and other harm to waterways. Air emissions include combustion products from fuels used in the process. Processing of crude oil also releases various sludges, polluted wastewater, and air emissions, some of which, such as benzene, are highly toxic and/or carcinogenic. Energy required to manufacture HDPE is estimated at between 35 Btus/lb and 42 Btus/lb (80100 MJ/kg), including the fuel value of the feedstock.
Manufacture HDPE resin for pipe is often modied with antioxidants to assist in processing and pigmentation (usually carbon black) to prevent deterioration from exposure to UV light. XLPE is made by modifying the resin just after extrusion with one of several methods for cross-linking. One technique incorporates dicumyl peroxide into the polymer and activates it by heating under pressure. To this end, the pipe is passed through an electrically heated tube filled with an inert nitrogen atmosphere and connected to the exit side of the extruders crosshead.
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Life Cycle of Cast-iron Pipe
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Standard HDPE pipe is used for small underground lines, such as water service lines to a residence. It is typically joined using a tting with a compression insert or O-ring. Cross-linked polyethylene, used for hot and cold water distribution systems and for hydronic radiant oor heating systems, is joined with various types of metal ttings. Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal While standard polyethylene is recyclable, cross-linked polyethylene is not.
Life Cycle of Cast-iron Pipe

Until recently, cast-iron pipe was the standard for many plumbing waste applications. It has now largely been replaced by less expensive, easier to install plastics, including PVC and ABS. Cast iron is still required by code in a few jurisdictions, however, and is preferred when noise from running wastewater is undesirable. The main difference between iron and steel is the higher carbon content of iron, which makes it easier to cast but weaker in many respects. Iron is also less costly than steel, as additional processing is required to reduce the carbon content of iron to make steel. Cast iron used for soil pipe is gray cast iron, which contains carbon in the form of graphite akes. These make the iron relatively soft and tough, so it is easily melted and machined.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation The raw materials acquisition and manufacturing processes for virgin iron are described above, under the life cycle for galvanized steel pipe, but all cast iron produced in the United States is made from scrap iron and steel. These materials, procured from scrap dealers and from the scrap iron and steel market, are sorted by type near the foundry furnace. Manufacture Iron and steel scrap is fed into a furnace, with varying types used in specic quantities as needed to attain the proper metallurgy. The furnaces are usually natural-gas red, but other fuels are also used. Cast-iron pipes are produced in two ways: centrifugal sand mold casting and centrifugal metal mold casting. Both types of castings are formed by pouring molten metal into a rotating mold, which continues rotating until the metal has cooled and solidied.
Pollutants from the manufacturing process include combustion gas emissions from the fossil fuels burned to melt the scrap metal and fumes from the metals themselves. Various organic contaminants, such as coatings on the scrap materials, may also be volatilized during the melting process. While historically most fumes were uncontrolled, in the last twenty years federal laws have resulted in the installation of pollution-control technologies that trap most pollutants.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Cast-iron soil pipe was traditionally joined with oakum and molten lead filling the space between a pipe end and a connection hub. More recently, hubless pipes are joined by butting two ends together and sealing the joint with a neoprene sleeve and stainless steel clamp. Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Scrap iron is easily recycled and has relatively high scrap value. It can be separated from waste streams magnetically, making it easy to separate for recycling at various stages in the waste management process. It can be used almost indenitely to make new cast-iron products.
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Life Cycle of ABS Pipe

ABS is a copolymer of acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene, which exhibits high rigidity, resistance to chemicals and solvents, and impact resistance. (See Figure 15.) Varying the proportion of the three components can adjust these and other properties in the ABS resin.
Figure 15: Materials Flow for ABS Pipe
Crude oil
Natural gas
Oxygen
Blowing agent
Butadiene
Benzene
Ethylene
Propylene
Ammonia
Styrene
Acrylonitrile
Styreneacrylonitrile copolymer
Styrene-acrylonitrilebutadiene copolymer
Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene resin
Solid ABS pipe
Foam-core ABS pipe
Materials Acquisition and Preparation All three components of ABS are petrochemicals derived from natural gas and/or petroleum. Acrylonitrile is produced from ammonia, oxygen, and propylene in the presence of a catalyst and heat. Ammonia is produced from natural gas, while propylene is produced by cracking either natural gas or petroleum. Butadiene is produced from petroleum. Styrene is made from benzene and ethylene, both of which are products of petroleum cracking. (Ethylene is also made from natural gas, as described above under the polyethylene pipe life cycle.)
All three of the components of ABS are potentially harmful to humans. Acrylonitrile can cause asphyxia, irritation, and central nervous system effects and has caused carcinogenesis in animals. Styrene and butadiene cause irritation of the eyes and nose and can negatively affect the central nervous system. Many other health and environmental hazards are generated during manufacture of these components. Crude oil extraction and processing can release many contaminants, including heavy metals, toxic organics, dissolved solids, and oxygen-depleting organics. Catalytic cracking of petroleum can release wastewater containing phenol, a known human carcinogen, as well as oil, suldes, cyanides, and ammonia. It can also create air emissions, including VOCs, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, ammonia, aldehydes, toluene, xylene, benzene, and other chemicals. Benzene can cause carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, and irritation. 22
APP 10 PLUMBING PIPE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998

Manufacture To manufacture ABS, styrene and acrylonitrile are combined, after which the resulting copolymer is reacted with butadiene. The initial reaction of styrene and butadiene may take place in their pure form (in a continuous bulk process) or with the monomer suspended in water. ABS pipe is actually made from a blend of the copolymer styrene-acrylonitrile with the copolymer consisting of all three monomers. Unreacted monomers still present after the reaction are collected and reused in the polymerization process. Any fugitive emissions of these monomers may cause health problems, as described above.
ABS pipe is manufactured by extruding molten ABS through a die. The hole in the pipe is shaped by an internal mandrel, which is supported by thin connectors. The resin flows around these connectors and rejoins, forming a seamless tube. The extruder is vented to allow gases to escape, which improves the surface of the plastic. ABS pipe may be either solid core or foam core. To make foam core pipe, a dry blowing agent is added at the extruder. This agent reacts to release a gas that forms a foam with the liqueed polymer. It is then cooled with water, cut to length, and stacked for shipment.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance ABS pipe is cut to length and joined using ABS ttings, which are fused to the pipe using solvent cements as described above for PVC pipe. Cement intended for PVC pipe can be used on ABS pipe, but the reverse does not apply. Emissions and hazards to installers are described above, under PVC pipe. Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Although ABS can be recycled, there is little infrastructure in place to return excess or used material to manufacturers; thus little, if any, of the material that has reached distributors is recycled. Recycled-content ABS pipe is not likely to win public trust anytime soon, due to widespread failures of ABS pipe to which manufacturers had added scrap plastics as ller in an effort to compete with lower-priced PVC resin.
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References
References
American Institute of Architects. 1996, 1997. Material Reports on Pipe, Steel Framing, and Terrazzo in Environmental Resource Guide, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Chasis, David A. 1988. Plastic Piping Systems, 2nd ed. NY: Industrial Press Inc. Copper Development Association. 1996. Copper in the USA: Bright FutureGlorious Past, as posted on December 7. http://www.copper.org/cdc/cdc.htm. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications, 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Simmons, H. Leslie, et al. 1995. Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods, 6th ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Wilson, Alex, and Nadav Malin. 1994. Should We Phase Out PVC? Environmental Building News . Vol. 3, No. 1.
Organizations
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute, 5959 Shallowford Road, Suite 419, Chattanooga, TN 37421; 423/892-0137, 423/892-0817 (fax). Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association, 245 Riverchase Parkway East, Suite 0, Birmingham, AL 35244; 205/988-9870, 205/988-9822 (fax). National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, 180 South Washington Street, Falls Church, VA 22046-1148; 703/237-8100, 703/237-7442. Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association, Building C, Suite 20, 800 Roosevelt Road, Glen Ellyn, IL 60137; 708/858-6540, 708/790-3095 (fax). Plastic Pipe Institute, 1275 K Street NW, Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005; 202/371-5358, 202/371-1022 (fax). Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Association, 2655 Villa Creek Drive, Suite 155, Dallas, TX 75234; 214/243-3902, 214/243-3907 (fax).
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PLUMBING PIPE
Application Report
Fabric and Paper Wall Coverings

This report compares two types of fabric wall coverings, polyester and wool, along with wallpaper and vinyl-covered wall coverings. While these four types comprise a large percentage of the total fabric and paper wall covering market, dozens of other products are available from specialty producers, a few of which are described in a section on alternative wall coverings. All the wall coverings described here are capable of hiding damaged wall surfaces, thereby extending the useful life of older buildings and interiors.
Highlights
s s s
Traditional wallpaper has all but disappeared from the market, due to the much better durability of vinyl-coated and vinyl-laminated wall coverings. Signicant water emissions are associated with the manufacturing processes of all the conventional wall coverings . Fabric wall coverings might harbor dirt and contaminants, and they are hard to clean effectively.
s
Using undyed wool greatly reduces wastewater impacts from the wool dyeing process. Undyed wool offers various earth tones by taking advantage of the natural coloration differences among sheep. Polyester fabric that has been pigmented during the fiber extrusion process avoids the environmental impacts associated with dyeing the bers. Select random-match patterns or small, horizontal patterns to minimize waste during installation of patterned wall coverings. As all materials result in some environmental impacts, limit the use of wall coverings to surfaces that will clearly benet from such use.
s s s
FABRIC AND PAPER WALL COVERINGS
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Comparative Environmental Performance Wall Coverings
Figure 1: Comparative Environmental PerformanceWall Coverings*

Environment and ecosystems Health and welfare Building operation Impacts on operational energy use
Energy
Wallpaper Vinyl wall covering Polyester fabric Wool fabric

1 1,2 1 1 1
Notes
Performance good varies from good to reasonably good reasonably good
a
Because of the significant water emissions from papermaking and from fabric processing and dyeing, reducing these pollutants should be a top priority.
Performance Range
varies from reasonably good to poor varies from good to poor poor
1
Use of polyester fabric made from recycled bers greatly reduces some manufacturing impacts. Water pollution can be reduced by avoiding the dyeing process. Polyester bers can be pigmented during manufacture. Undyed, natural colored wool fabrics are available. Transportation requirements vary depending on the source of the wool.
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Transportation

Environmental Impacts Wallpaper
F i g u r e 2 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s Wa l l p a p e r
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Emissions from fossil fuel combustion to power the manufacturing processes and from bark and wood waste combustion at paper mills. Some petrochemical emissions from manufacture of dyes. Efuent from paper mills often contaminates surfaces waters, in some cases with persistent organochlorines. Trees cut for paper are often clear-cut, denuding hillsides and potentially causing erosion. Trees cut for pulp are, in some cases, from virgin forests. Clearcut forests reduce biodiversity and wildlife habitat. Spraying young growth with herbicides further reduces that biodiversity. Starch-based wallpaper glues are relatively benign in terms of air quality impacts during installation. Starch-based wallpaper glues are relatively benign in terms of air quality impacts after installation. VOC emissions from pigments and coatings may affect sensitive individuals. Cutting forests for pulpwood does not support small-scale, local economies. Papermaking is relatively energy intensive. Signicant transportation requirements from paper mills to wallpaper plants and from plants to most end users. Negligible impact. Not very durable if subject to abrasion, washing, or handling. Light wiping. Not reusable, nor readily recycled.
Health and welfare
Energy
Impact on operating energy use Building operation Life expectancy/durability Maintenance requirements Reusability/ recyclability
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Environmental Impacts Vinyl Wall Covering
F i g u r e 3 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s V i n y l Wa l l C o v e r i n g
Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Air emissions from fossil fuel combustion, petroleum extraction and rening, mining dusts for llers, pigment ores. Possible pro duction and release of hazardous organochlorines. Water pollution from drilling sludges from fossil fuel extraction, by-products of petroleum rening, fugitive releases from PVC manufacturing. Possible production and release of hazardous organochlorines from manufacture of PVC and paper backing. In some circumstances, cutting trees for pulp contributes to soil erosion. Cotton agriculture for backing depletes soils. Most raw materials in good supply. Some fossil fuel depletion. Trees cut for pulp are, in some cases, from virgin forests. Clearcut forests reduce biodiversity and wildlife habitat. Spraying young growth with herbicides further reduces that biodiversity. PVC manufacture requires many hazardous precursors, may create risk for workers if not handled properly. Adhesives used for vinyl-on-vinyl installations release more VOCs than starch-based adhesives. Possible concerns about offgassing of VOCs from dyes, coatings, plasticizers, and cleaning agents, and potential hazards during a re. Fugitive emissions from PVC manufacturing might affect surrounding areas. Cutting forests for pulpwood does not support small-scale, local economies. Relatively energy intensive to manufacture, including feedstock value of petrochemicals used. Both raw materials and nished products are transported large distances to and from highly centralized factories. Negligible impact. Quite durable and washable. More likely to be replaced prematurely for aesthetic reasons. May trap moisture, promoting mold growth. Occasional washing. As composites of different materials, vinyl wall coverings are particularly difcult to recycle.
Health and welfare
Energy
Transportation
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Environmental Impacts Polyester Fabric
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsPolyester Fabric

Impact Group Environment and Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Various impacts of petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, including possible release of toxic by-products, especially from distillation and catalytic cracking of petroleum. Discharge of wastewater from crude oil extraction and processing and potential for spills during drilling and transport. Likely release of some dyes and dyeing agents, as well as chemicals used for stain resistance and soil-release, all of which can be toxic. Off-spec and scrap ber that is not utilized elsewhere may consume landll space. Petroleum is a limited resource. Some loss from fossil fuel extraction in sensitive areas, oil spills, and drilling sludge contamination. Emissions from some fabric treatments may affect manufacturing workers and installers. Possible VOC emissions from treatments, nishes, and cleaning agents. Adsorption and release of VOCs and contaminants can be an ongoing problem. Highly centralized production of ber and fabrics does not support small-scale, local economic initiatives. Signicant fossil fuels are use for feedstock and process energy. Signicant transportation impacts due to centralized production of polyester bers and fabrics. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to walls and greater occupant comfort at lower ambient temperatures. Quite durable. Most likely to be replaced for aesthetic reasons. Effective cleaning to eliminate trapped contaminants is difcult. Regular vacuuming is typical. Potentially recyclable, but not currently recycled.
ecosystems
Health and welfare
Energy
Building operation
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Environmental Impacts Wool Fabric
Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsWool Fabric

Impact Group Environment and ecosystems Impact Category Air quality/atmospheric impacts Environmental Impacts Methane from sheep contributes to global warming. Emissions from energy use at various stages. Runoff from crops used to feed sheep and erosion from grazing land. Some toxic runoff of sheep dip. Signicant water contamination possible from mothproong agents, dyes. Potential denudication of grazing land, depletion of soils from growing feed crops for sheep and starch crops for fabric sizing. Wool is renewable. Some fossil fuel depletion for manufacture of dyes. Loss of wildlife habitat and biodiversity to grazing land. Possible unknown effects of exposure to mothproong agents. Possible unknown effects of exposure to mothproong agents. Potential for adsorption and release of VOCs. Possible offgassing from cleaning agents. Sheep farming and wool processing can be performed in smallscale operations, supporting local economies. Signicantly less energy than synthetic fabrics. Signicant transportation inputs for wool imported from New Zealand. May have small benet in cold climates in the form of added insulation to walls and greater occupant comfort at lower ambient temperatures. Quite durable. Most likely to be replaced for aesthetic reasons. Effective cleaning to eliminate trapped contaminants is difcult. Regular vacuuming is typical. Not readily recycled.
Energy
Building operation
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Selecting a Material Vinyl wall coverings are a barrier to vapor migration and should not be used where moisture might become trapped behind them, leading to water damage and/or mold growth. This type of problem occurs most frequently in hot, humid climates, where warm, humid outside air can leak into walls and condense on the back of colder wall surfaces due to air conditioning. Seek out alternative products that may t your needs without some of the adverse environmental impacts of the mainstream products in these categories. Examples of such products are listed in the next section. Using undyed wool greatly reduces the wastewater impacts of the wool dyeing process. Various earthtones in undyed wool are made available by the natural coloration differences among sheep. Use of polyester fabric that has been pigmented during the ber extrusion process avoids the environmental impacts associated with dyeing the bers. Use of polyester fabric from recycled PET avoids the environmental impacts from the extraction and processing of fossil fuels for feedstock. Select random-match patterns or small, horizontal patterns to minimize waste during installation of patterned wall coverings. Use light-colored fabrics to reduce lighting energy use. These fabrics require fewer heavy-metal or petrochemical-based dyes during manufacture. As all materials result in some environmental impacts, limit the use of wall coverings to surfaces that will clearly benet from such use. Avoid the use of wall coverings, especially less durable ones, in buildings with high impact uses such as schools or in high trafc areas.
Maintenance
Use nontoxic cleaning agents on all wall coverings. Vacuum fabrics with a HEPA vacuum to remove dust and other irritants and to reduce accumulation of contaminants on the wall covering.
Choosing Alternative Wall Coverings In addition to the four major categories of wall coverings discussed in this report, dozens, if not hundreds, of alternative products are available. Some, such as a new fabric made of vinyl-coated polyester bers, may not be preferable environmentally. However, many others are likely to be more benign than the conventional choices. A few such products are described in general terms below.
While standard wallpaper is made almost entirely from virgin paper, at least one product is made almost entirely from recycled paper. This wallpaper, manufactured in Germany, consists of wood chips from waste wood encased in a matrix of recycled paper. The product is made in a range of styles, using wood chips of different sizes to create different textures. It is installed just like conventional wallpaper. Small studios are hand-printing wallpaper. Some such studios make a point of using less toxic inks and recycled paper backings. A sisal ber wall-covering fabric is available in a range of colors. At least one product is treated with relatively benign borates as a ame retardant. Many fabric wall coverings use natural, low impact bers, such as organically grown cotton and linen or scrap cotton from other industries (postindustrial recycled materials). Such fabrics must meet applicable re codes. A line of upholstery fabric has been developed from a wool-ramie blend that avoids toxic treatments throughout the manufacturing process. This fabric line could be expanded to include wall coverings if the issue of reproong is adequately addressed.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998 FABRIC AND PAPER WALL COVERINGS APP 11

Life Cycle of Wallpaper
L i f e C y c l e o f Wa l l p a p e r
Over the past twenty years regular (nonvinyl) wallpaper has been replaced almost entirely by the more washable and durable vinyl-coated and vinyl-laminated products. To the extent that regular wallpaper is used at all, it is used almost exclusively in residences. Wallpaper typically consists of a paper backing coated with a color layer on which a decorative design is printed. Adhesives used to hang wallpaper are typically starch-based. Other ingredients include dextrin and small amounts of sodium nitrate, propylene glycol, clay, and other minor additives.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation The two primary types of paper used in wallpaper are mechanical pulp paper and kraft paper. A third type, alpha-cellulose or sulte paper, is used for particularly ne coated wallpapers. Little recycled paper is used to make most wallpapers, so for all three types trees are harvested and transported to pulping mills, usually near the forest.
Environmental impacts of forest use and timber harvesting for papermaking include habitat alteration and destruction. Forests are believed to play an important role in global atmospheric patterns, so widespread forest destruction may affect the global climate. Forests also stabilize soils, especially on hillsides, helping to prevent siltation of streams and mudslides. Mature forests are a signicant source of biological diversity, both from the trees themselves and from the other components of the forest ecosystem. Most wood used in papermaking comes from softwoods. Because log quality is not important for pulp mills, there is little incentive to practice selective harvesting or to promote mature, healthy, and diverse forests when managing them solely for papermaking. Paper production can offer an important use for less valuable trees that are thinned from forests managed for higher-grade wood, however. Areas that have been clear-cut are often sprayed with herbicides to retard the growth of hardwood species and promote regeneration of more protable softwoods. Diesel fuel is used to operate logging equipment and to transport the logs, resulting in air pollutants including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. In the mechanical pulping process, softwood logs are debarked and then held against a rotating stone that tears the wood bers apart. A constant ow of water carries the loose bers away and removes excess heat. The wood bers are screened for size and concentrated into ground-wood pulp. The pulp is then bleached, usually using chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and chlorine dioxide to break up the remaining lignin into smaller, dissolvable structures. Oxidizing agents, such as hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and oxygen, are also used in the bleaching process. To make kraft paper, the debarked logs are chipped and then chemically pulped, using sodium hydroxide and sodium sulde to separate the bers and remove lignin from the pulp. The resulting brown pulp is ltered and washed with water, leaving cleaner pulp and a solution of organic matter and chemicals. This black liquor is concentrated, burned, and processed to recycle the chemicals. The pulp is bleached, with the same techniques used for mechanically ground pulp. Alpha-cellulose paper is processed like kraft paper, except that bers are pulped by sulte extraction of the lignin. Bleaching is accomplished with chlorine dioxide and milk of lime. The pulp is further puried with sodium hydroxide The waste liquor from these processes is not recyclable like the black liquor from the kraft process, and its disposal is a major problem.
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Papermaking in general is a major source of pollutants discharged to land, air, and water and consumes large amounts of water and chemicals. Bark and other wood waste generated at paper mills is typically burned to fuel the process, resulting in air emissions and wood ash that must be disposed of as solid waste. Water efuent from paper mills contains solids and organic pollutants that adversely affect water quality downstream. Toxic chemicals used at various stages in the process may be found in the efuent. Untreated efuent typically contains 15 to 20 pounds of chlorinated organic contaminants per ton of bleached pulp produced. Various wastewater treatment techniques are helping to reduce the amount of pollutants released. Acrylic resin (see gure 6) is produced from propylene, which is derived from petroleum. Although supplies are satisfactory for the short term, petroleum is a limited resource that is becoming more scarce. Crude oil production and petroleum processing involve many environmental impacts, including atmospheric emissions from diesel drilling equipment, runoff of drilling mud and sludge, and water pollution from wastewater contaminated with oil, grease, toxic organics, ammonia, and oxygen-depleting organics.
Crude oil
Propylene
Acrolein
Acrylic resin
Propylene is produced from petroleum through distillation and cracking. Distillation separates petroleum into the different constituent chemicals, while cracking thermally breaks larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones. Both air and water pollutants result from the thermal cracking required to produce propylene. For every ton of propylene produced, one pound of VOCs are emitted, according to studies by the Tellus Institute. Water pollutants generated include organics, oil and grease, suspended solids, benzene, naphthalene, and toluene; the latter three pollutants are found (in very small levels) even in treated wastewater. The production of acrylic resin (polymerized methyl methacrylate) from propylene is a multistep process in which propylene vapor is rst oxidized into acrolein, which is then oxidized into acrylic acid. The acrylic acid is esteried to produce acrylate monomers, which are polymerized into polymethyl methacrylate (the most common acrylic resin used in glazing products). The acrylic acid precursor may pose an occupational hazard. It is a strong irritant to the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. As a waste material, acrylic acid must be managed as a hazardous waste, although it can be processed using aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation. Most inks used to print wallpaper are water-based, although some solvent-based inks are still used. Solvent-based inks, containing alcohols or organic solvents as the primary carrier, are highly regulated. Pigments used to color the coating layer and for making printing inks include titanium dioxide, carbon black, and various other organic and inorganic chemicals. Carbon black is typically produced from highly aromatic oil, a residue of petroleum cracking. This oil is partially combusted and then quenched with water. Titanium dioxide is made from sands rich in the appropriate minerals, which are often dredged from river bottoms, increasing water turbidity and adversely affecting aquatic ecosystems. The sand is processed by either a sulfate or a chloride method to produce titanium dioxide. The sulfate method also produces ferrous sulfate, which is used to make iron oxide pigments. Both methods produce several waste products that have generally been disposed of in the ocean or by deep well injection, although recycling options are increasingly preferred. Titanium dioxide may cause lung
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brosis and was identied as a potential occupational carcinogen by one government agency but not by two others. Mildewcides may be either organic compounds, such acrylonitrile, chlorinated phenols, copper ammonium uoride, or inorganic materials, including arsenic, copper, or mercury. These compounds are typically quite toxic, but their formulation is considered proprietary and little information is available. Their use is highly regulated, so the primary environmental concern is accidental releases during storage or shipping. Starch is the main ingredient in most wallpaper adhesives (see gure 7). Most of the starch used is made from corn, but some potato or wheat starch may be used. A kernel of corn contains about 60 percent starch, which is extracted by cleaning, soaking, and then mashing the kernels between steel plates. A series of centrifuges separate the starch from the other substances, which include corn gluten, corn meal, and corn oil. Environmental impacts of starch production include fertilizer and pesticide runoff from farmland and fossil fuel combustion emissions associated with operating farm equipment.
Figure 7: Materials Flow for Starch-based Adhesives
Seed corn (potatoes, wheat) Sodium nitrate Clay, other minor additives
Fertilizers
Pesticides
Propylene
Dextrin
Corn (potatoes, wheat)
Starch
Starch-based additive
Another ingredient of adhesives, dextrin, is made by further processing starch with heat and a dilute acid, causing partial hydration. The energy used in this process adds slightly to the environmental burdens of producing the starch itself. While sodium nitrate is found in natural deposits, most is produced from reactions between salt or soda ash and nitric acid. The nitric acid is produced, in turn, from ammonia, which is made from natural gas. Propylene glycol is made from propylene, which is described above. Clay is usually mined using surfacemining techniques, in which the topsoil is removed and the clay extracted with mechanized digging equipment.
Manufacture During manufacture, the paper backing of the wallpaper is coated with a polymer resin, usually acrylic, for durability. The resin may also contain colorants and chemicals for mildew and re resistance. The sheet is then printed with a pattern, using one of several common techniques, including surface printing, flexographic printing, screen printing, and gravure printing. The wallpaper may then be treated with a stain-resistant laminate (polyvinyl uoride) or coating (acrylic or other polymer resin). Finally, the wallpaper may have adhesive preapplied to the backing. The adhesive is applied as a liquid, then dried before the paper is rolled and packaged.
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Life Cycle of Vinyl-covered Wall Covering
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Prior to installation of wallpaper, wall surfaces must be smooth and clean. If the wall surface is porous, it should be primed with an acrylic or oil-based sealer so the adhesive doesnt dry out before it can bond. Prepasted wallpaper is submerged in water to wet the adhesive. Otherwise, adhesive powder is blended in water to the right consistency and applied to the wall or to the wallpaper.
The amount of waste generated when hanging wallpaper depends in large part on the pattern. Patterns that do not require matching (random-match patterns) generate the least waste, while those with tall or diagonal patterns are likely to have the most. Excess adhesive mixed for the application poses little problem if it is the starch-based, water-soluble type. Air quality emissions measured from wallpaper have varied considerably. Notable factors appear to be whether the inks are water or solvent based and what type of adhesive is used. Measured emissions of hazardous compounds, when found, drop off to undetectable levels after several days or weeks. These VOCs may adsorb onto other surfaces in the room, however, to be re-released more gradually over time.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal When a new decor is desired, a new wallpaper may be applied over an older wallpaper if the latter is sound and well adhered to the wall. If the old paper is strippable, however, it is usually removed before the new is installed. Peelable wallpaper can have its decorative layer removed, leaving the substrate, which can then either be papered over or stripped using scrapers, steamers, or stripping chemicals. Application of a primer/sealer may be necessary prior to repapering.
Wastewater containing dissolved adhesive and paper scrapings is normally disposed of through the sewer system. Such materials add organic loading to the wastewater system. Old wallpaper removed from a wall is disposed of as solid waste. Recycling used wallpaper is not economically feasible at this time.
L i f e C y c l e o f V i n y l - c o v e r e d Wa l l C o v e r i n g
Vinyl is a common term for PVC resin with various additives. In the case of wall coverings, the primary additives are plasticizers, which make the resin exible and workable at room temperatures. Vinyl-coated paper has replaced regular wallpaper for standard residential applications. For more demanding applications, sheets of vinyl are laminated to a paper or fabric backing. The resulting product is durable and easy to clean. It is relatively impermeable to moisture, which can be an advantage in some situations, but care must be taken to avoid trapping moisture behind the wall covering.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation PVC resin is made exible by the addition of plasticizers. Other additives serve as ame retardants, colorants, llers, and mildew inhibitors. The backing material is usually a kraft paper made from ground wood. Other backings used are standard paper, fabric woven from polyester and cotton, and nonwoven fabric consisting of polyester, cellulose, and resin. Most adhesives used for vinyl wallpapers are starch-based, unless the vinyl is being installed over another vinyl material, in which case polyvinyl acetate is commonly used.
PVC is made from salteither rock salt or saltwater brineand ethylene, derived from either natural gas or petroleum (see gure 8). Chlorine is extracted from the salt (sodium chloride) by electrolysis, leaving sodium hydroxide, which has many other industrial uses. The chlorine is reacted with ethylene to form dichloroethane (EDC). EDC then undergoes a cracking process, becoming vinyl chloride monomer and hydrochloric acid. Vinyl chloride is
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11

Figure 8: Materials Flow for Vinyl Coating and Laminate

Other additives (mildewcide, stabilizer)
Crude oil
Natural gas
Brine or rock salt
Mineral fillers
Antimony
Ethylene
Chlorine
Ethylene dichloride
Vinyl chloride
Phthalic anhydride
Polyvinyl chloride
Phthalate plasticizers
Vinyl coating or laminate
usually polymerized into polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in a water suspension with small amounts of methyl cellulose and organic peroxides as catalysts. During the polymerization the suspension is stirred vigorously and cooled to prevent explosion, as the process is highly exothermic. Vinyl chloride monomer is a known human carcinogen and is strictly controlled. It is not known to be a serious environmental toxin, and its half-life in the atmosphere ranges from a few hours to a day. In spite of the controls, some fugitive emissions of vinyl chloride are inevitable. EDC, VOCs, and numerous other chemical by-products are emitted from the PVC manufacturing process. Some of these are organochlorines that can disrupt human and animal endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems. The most notorious of these is a type of dioxin (TCDD), regarded as one of the most toxic man-made chemicals ever studied. There is disagreement as to the amount of dioxin released from PVC manufacture; industry groups argue that it is not signicant. The production of ethylene, either from natural gas or petroleum, is a source of many potential environmental contaminants. The extraction of oil and natural gas can discharge drilling muds, sanitary and process wastes from offshore drilling platforms, and wastewater containing a number of pollutants that increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, benthic deposition, and other harm to waterways. Air emissions include combustion products from fuels used in the process. Processing of crude oil also releases various sludges, polluted wastewater, and air emissions, some of which (including benzene), are highly toxic and/or carcinogenic.
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Wastes from chlorine production include air emissions of chlorine from the electrolytic process and from transfer of the gas, brine mud containing magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate, and spent sulfuric acid. The plasticizers most often used in vinyl are from a group of chemicals called phthalates. For thin lms dioctyl phthalate is a typical choice. Phthalates are made from phthalic anhydride, which is produced by the controlled oxidation of o-xylene or naphthalene, with a vanadium catalyst. Both o-xylene and naphthalene are derived from crude oil, as part of the cracking and rening process. In addition to the pollutants associated with all crude oil processing, the production of phthalic anhydride results in release of carbon monoxide, VOCs, and other pollutants. Antimony trioxide is the most common re retardant used. In the United States, antimony trioxide comes largely from the recycling of lead-antimony batteries, and from abroad, where it is mined as stibnite ore. Various technologies are used to rene the ores. Antimony compounds are irritants that can cause central nervous system, digestive system, and cardiac effects after inhalation or contact. Emissions and efuents are reportedly controlled at processing sites. Colorants, including titanium dioxide, carbon black, and others, provide color and opacity to the vinyl. These and other materials also serve as pigments in the inks used to print patterns on the wall covering, as described above, under wallpaper. Fillers, usually clay or calcium carbonate, are added to vinylcovered wall coverings to reduce costs and improve opacity. Clay is usually mined with surface-mining techniques, in which the topsoil is removed and the clay extracted with mechanized digging equipment. Calcium carbonate is mined as limestone, using either quarrying or open-pit methods. The environmental impacts of mining these minerals include air emissions from fuel used to power equipment and vehicles, airborne particulates, and disruption of local ecosystems. Mildewcides are described above, under the wallpaper life cycle. A kraft paper made from ground wood is the most common backing material for vinyl wall coverings. To make this paper, trees are harvested and transported to pulping mills, usually near the forest. At the mill, they are debarked and held against a rotating stone that tears the wood bers apart. A constant ow of water carries the loose bers away and removes excess heat. The wood bers are screened for size and concentrated into ground-wood pulp. The ground-wood pulp may be further digested by the kraft process, which uses sodium hydroxide and sodium sulde. While paper is typically made either with a mechanical grinding process or by the kraft process, in this case the two are combined. The pulp is further processed into paper as described above, under wallpaper. Some vinyl wall coverings use either woven or nonwoven fabrics as the backing. Woven fabrics are usually made of polyester, often with some cotton ber. Nonwoven fabrics are also typically made of polyester, together with cellulose and an acrylic resin binder. Manufacture of polyester and the associated environmental impacts are discussed in more detail below, under polyester fabric wall covering, and illustrated in gure 9. Cotton is grown in many parts of the world. In the United States, cotton farmers use more insecticides per acre than growers of any other large-scale crop. Large quantities of fertilizer are also used, and defoliants may be used to eliminate leaves from the plant and facilitate mechanized harvesting. These chemicals all have adverse environmental impacts when dispersed on agricultural elds. Cotton farming also requires a lot of water and depletes the soil.
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Ethylene oxide Ethylene glycol
Crude oil
Ethylene
Benzene
Maleic anhydride
Polyester resin
After the cotton is processed and spun into yarns, a protective coating, called sizing, is applied to improve handling. The sizing is removed after the fabric is woven. Adhesives used for most vinyl wall coverings are similar to those used for paper, described above. The primary exception is for a vinyl covering being installed over another vinyl wallcovering, in which case an adhesive based on polyvinyl acetate (PVA) might be used. PVA is produced from the reaction of ethylene with acetic acid and the subsequent catalytic polymerization with benzene. Small amounts of benzene and VOCs can be released in the process. Both vinyl acetate and benzene are toxic, and their release can have adverse effects on human health and the environment.
Manufacture The PVC may be applied to the backing as a liquid coating or laminated to it as a preformed sheet. The PVC sheet is made by calendering, or passing a mixture of PVC resin and the various additives between heated rollers. An adhesive is used to laminate the sheet to the backing. A raised pattern may be applied by embossing the sheet under heat and pressure. The sheet is then printed with a pattern, using one of several common techniques, including surface printing, exographic printing, screen printing, and gravure printing. The wall covering may then be treated with a stain-resistant laminate such as polyvinyl fluoride. Finally, the wall covering may have adhesive preapplied to its backing. The adhesive is applied as a liquid and then dried before the paper is rolled and packaged.
Cutoffs and other scraps are typically placed in landlls, although new processes allow the vinyl to be separated from the backing materials and recycled into less demanding products. Contaminated resin, used lubricating oils, and cleaning solvents must usually be treated as hazardous waste. In some cases, these wastes are sold to fuel blenders who process and sell them as fuel to cement kilns.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Installation of wall coverings, and the waste generated, are described above, under wallpaper. Heavier weight wall coverings can tolerate more unevenness in the wall surface than thinner coverings.
Air quality emissions that have been measured from vinyl wall coverings vary considerably. Notable factors appear to be whether the inks are water or solvent based and what type of adhesive is used. Measured emissions of hazardous compounds, when found, drop off to undetectable levels after several days or weeks. These VOCs may adsorb onto other surfaces in the room, however, to be re-released more gradually over time.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Industry sources suggest that vinyl wall coverings in residences are typically replaced or recovered after seven to ten years. In commercial settings, including hotel rooms and public
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Life Cycle of Polyester Fabric
spaces, a much shorter period of four to seven years is typical. When a new decor is desired, an older wall covering may be covered with a new one if it is sound and well adhered to the wall. If it is strippable, however, it is usually removed prior to installing a new wallcovering. A primer/sealer may need to be applied before the new wall covering is installed. Old wall covering removed from a wall is disposed of as solid waste. Incineration of PVC can release hydrogen chloride and various other products of incomplete combustion. Recycling of used vinyl wall covering is not economically feasible at this time.

Polyester is the primary synthetic fabric used for wall coverings and ofce dividers. Polyester fabrics consist of the fibers themselves, dyes and colorants, sizing, flame retardants, and mildewcides.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Polyester is made from dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol, both petrochemical derivatives (see gure 9). Air emissions from processing these materials include VOCs, CO, NO, p-xylene. Wastewater includes organics, and suspended and dissolved solids. Air emissions from the ber extrusion and spinning processes include polymer dust, residual monomer, fiber lubricants, and burned polymer and combustion products from cleaning the equipment. The United States EPA estimates that 0.6 pounds of VOCs and 252 pounds of particulates are emitted per 1,000 pounds of polyester ber. Additional impacts associated with the extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas are described above, under acrylic coatings for wallpaper.
One manufacturer is now making a polyester fabric for interiors entirely from recycled ber. Such a product avoids many of the environmental impacts associated with the manufacture of polyester resin. The raw materials for the production of dyes are derived largely from petroleum and natural gas. Dyes applied after the fabric is manufactured include azo dyes and anthraquinone dyes. Chrome blue black u is one common azo dye, made from the petroleum derivative naphthalene and sulfuric acid, among other chemical ingredients. Other dyes, or colorants, may be mixed into the polymer as it is manufactured. Titanium dioxide is used to dull the translucent white bers, and carbon black produces black bers. Both are discussed above, under inks for printing wallpaper. Some dyes are also made from sulfur, which is a by-product of natural gas extraction. Sulphur is also extracted from porous, soil-bearing limestone. Soda ash, derived from mining trona, may also be used. Fossil fuels are also burned to generate energy for the production process. Environmental releases from these processes are described above. The production of some dyes also results in the release of wastewater with unspecied contaminants. Various chemicals, primarily dispersing agents, are used to facilitate the application of the dye to the polyester bers. One such agent is ligninsulfonate, which is a waste product from the sulte pulping of wood bers to make alpha-cellulose paper. Others include naphthalene and sulfuric acid, mentioned above. When dyeing polyester-wool blends, high temperatures cannot be used, so special carriers must be added to swell the polyester bers and increase the absorbance of dye. These carriers can cause problems with wastewater cleanup. Unspecified synthetic polymers are used as sizing for polyester, to improve handling and reduce friction during weaving. A range of bromine-containing compounds are combined with antimony oxide (discussed above, under vinyl wall covering) to make ame retardants for polyester fabric. Copper and chromium compounds may be used to inhibit mildew and
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mold. Other such agents include chlorinated phenols and metallic soaps. Polyvinyl acetate and polymerized urea-formaldehyde resins may be used to increase stiffness, and various uorocarbons may be applied to increase stain resistance.
Manufacture The polyester ber is melted and extruded in thin strands, or laments, from a spinneret. The lament is then stretched to several times its original length on heated rolls, increasing its strength, tenacity, and resilience. The continuous lament may also be crimped to provide more bulk and texture. Multilament yarns are produced by twisting several continuous laments together. Some fabrics are made from polyester staple, which is made of short lengths of crimped lament. These short lengths are spun together and woven into fabric, much like natural bers.
Environmental impacts of the extrusion process are primarily associated with the energy used to provide heat, in the form of air emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Polyester fabric can be dyed at various stages in its production. The most environmentally benign method is to mix a colorant with the polymer before it is extruded into laments. This method produces no wastewater from dyebaths and does not require additional heat. It can result in large quantities of off-spec ber, however, if the process is not perfectly controlled for uniform coloration. Polyester can also be dyed at the lament stage, as a yarn, and as a woven fabric, with the last being the most common option. Pure polyester fabrics are dyed in a water-based dyebath, at temperatures of 260280F (125 to 140C). Fabric blends containing wool must be dyed at lower temperatures, which may require the use of additional chemicals to help bond the dye to the bers. Dyeing and afterwashing require a great deal of water, which can cause pollution of surface waters. Toxic chemicals in the runoff water can cause increased biological oxygen demand (BOD) and environmental poisoning, which can adversely affect aquatic life. The chemicals used for low-temperature dyeing are especially problematic in wastewater. Polyester bers are generally treated with a polymer sizing that is very toxic, although details of this are unavailable. For wall covering applications, polyester usually must be treated with a flame retardant. For this treatment, phosphorous compounds may be mixed with the molten polymer before extrusion or applied after the fabric is woven. Other nishes applied to the fabric might include treatments to resist soiling, stains, and water. Potential contamination of waterways is a concern with wastewater efuent from many of these processes.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Polyester wall coverings are typically stretched over panels or frames and mechanically fastened at the edges or backs of the panels. Scraps of fabric remaining on site after an installation are usually disposed of as solid waste. If the fabric is applied to panels in a factory, as in the manufacture of office dividers and workstations, fabric scraps are often collected and reused. One common use for these scraps is for sound-deadening in appliances and automobile doors.
Adhesives are not used for this type of installation, but some degree of toxic and/or irritating emissions are possible from the chemical treatments applied to the fabrics during manufacture, but little specic information is available on these emissions. During use, fabrics can adsorb VOCs from the air, possibly reemitting them and contributing to later indoor air quality problems.
16
APP 11

Life Cycle of Wool Fabric
Maintenance of fabric wall coverings consists of occasional vacuuming and spot removal of stains.
Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal While in theory 100 percent polyester fabric can be recycled after use, in practice this is not currently feasible. There are too many blends and possible contaminants mixed into fabrics that have been installed in buildings to efciently isolate the polyester bers for recycling, and there is no infrastructure in place to collect the used fabric. As a result, such fabric is usually disposed of with solid waste. Fabric that is returned to manufacturers after use may be shredded and used as insulation and carpeting in automobiles.

In spite of several decades of research and development of synthetic bers, wool has qualities of resilience, insulation, and ability to take dye that synthetics are hard-pressed to match. In wall coverings, wool may be used on its own or in combination with other bers, especially polyester.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Sheep are bred on all continents and in many different climates, providing meat as well as wool. Leading sheep-raising states in the United States include Texas, California, Wyoming, and Colorado. Much wool for fabrics is also imported, primarily from New Zealand, Ireland, and Scotland. Sheep are effective foragers, but they can easily overgraze an area if conned too long. Their diet is often supplemented with harvested hay or other roughage, and lactating ewes are fed corn for energy. Sheepshearing typically occurs once a year in the spring, except in warmer climates where it is done twice a year.
Raising sheep for their wool can cause devegetation and erosion of forage land and runoff of nutrients, contributing to eutrophication. Growing feed crops for sheep may also contribute to erosion and cause air emissions from the burning of fuel. Sheep dips, used to control eas and other parasites, may contain organophosphates, which can affect the health of sheep farmers and contaminate water systems. Such toxins may also be released with washwater from cleaning eece after shearing. Sheep also release methane, at a rate of about 19.4 pounds (8.8 kg) per year, or 2.4 pounds per pound of wool (2.4 kg per kg). This is equivalent in terms of global impact to the release of 53 pounds of CO2 per pound of wool (53 kg per kg). Sizing used to make wool bers easier to handle is made of cornstarch and tapioca. Many of the same dyes are used on wool as on polyester, discussed above. Most are primarily petrochemicals, with the associated environmental impacts. Research conducted during development of dyes for a more benign fabric identied only sixteen chemicals, out of the thousands available from leading manufacturers, that do not have unacceptable environmental impacts. These sixteen chemicals can be used to create all colors except black. Many other nishes are similar or identical to those used on polyester. These include treatments used to inhibit mold, mildew, and rot; bromine-based flame retardants; polyvinyl acetate and polymerized urea-formaldehyde resins that add stiffness; and various uorocarbons for stain resistance. Mothproofing agents include silico-fluorides, chromium fluorides, camphor, permethrin, naphthalene, and paradichlorobenzene, among others. All these agents are toxic or hazardous to humans and/or the natural environment.
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Manufacture From eece to fabric, wool undergoes many different types of processing, including scouring, spinning, sizing, weaving, washing, and pressing. Dyeing may occur at various stages in the process. Dyeing wool at the fabric stage is called piece dyeing, yarn dyeing occurs before it is woven, and stock dyeing takes place before it is spun. Mothproong agents are usually added during dyeing. Most other treatments take place after the fabric is woven.
Large amounts of water are used at various stages in the process, including initial cleaning of the wool, washing after the dyebaths, and application of other nishes. This wastewater may contain unreacted petrochemicals, acid, alkali, or sodium nitrite. Fossil fuels are burned to provide steam for heating and heat for pressing and dyeing. Emissions from fuel combustion are discussed above.
Installation, Use, and Maintenance Wool fabrics are generally installed and used like the polyester fabrics discussed above. As with other fabrics, VOCs can be adsorbed onto wool. Some in the wool industry suggest that, once adsorbed, chemicals are less likely to be re-released from wool, but no evidence is available to substantiate such claims. Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal Used wool fabrics are not commonly reused or recycled.
References
American Institute of Architects. 1996, 1997. Material reports on Wall Coverings and Fabric for Workstations in Environmental Resource Guide. NY: John Wiley & Sons. LeClair, Kim, and David Rousseau. 1992. Environmental by Design. Vol. 1, Interiors. Point Roberts, Wash.: Hartley & Marks, Inc.
Organizations
Wallcoverings Association, 410 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611-4267; (312) 644-6610, (312) 6448934 (fax).
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APP 11
Cover Sheet
Material Reports
The reports in this section contain environmental life-cycle assessments for building construction materials. Each report addresses materials on a generic basis (e.g., concrete, brick, glass, plastic laminates, wall coverings, etc.). For a discussion of how the material reports are developed and a complete description of their contents, please refer to Parts 1 and 2 of the ERG Environmental Life-Cycle Methodology located in Appendix A. The five-digit number assigned to each report is based on the CSI MasterFormat classification system. Some reports profile several materials when these materials are commonly used together (e.g., brick and mortar; plaster and lath). In these instances, the CSI number for the primary material is used, which in the above examples would be the CSI numbers for brick and plaster. The table below shows the 27 material reports included in the ERG through the 1998 supplement. Note that although reference is made to them, some older reports from the 1994 ERG do not appear in the current ERG. These reports include aluminum (05010), steel (05011), tropical woods (06005), particleboard (06124), and sealants (07920). Material reports in the 1996, 1997, and 1998 ERG supplements that supersede reports in the 1994 edition are indicated by an asterisk (*) in the notes column.
CSI No. 03100 04210 04220 04450 05410 06110 06118 06180 06240 07200 07310 07400 08810 08840 09200 09250 09300 09400 09510 09651 09652 09680 09900 09930 09950 12610 15410
Report Title Concrete Brick and Mortar Concrete Masonry Stone Veneer Steel Framing Wood Framing Plywood Glued-Laminated Timbers Plastic Laminates Thermal Insulation Asphalt Shingles Fireproofing Glass Non-glass Glazing Plaster and Lath Gypsum Board Systems Ceramic Tile Terrazzo Acoustical Ceiling Systems Linoleum Vinyl Flooring Carpets, Cushions, and Adhesives Paint Stains and Varnishes Wall Coverings Fabrics for Workstations Pipe
1996 q q q q q
1997 q
1998
Notes *
q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q
* * * * *
* These reports supersede previous reports in 1994 edition of the ERG.
COVER SHEET
MAT
Material Report
Concrete
Highlights
Wa s t e G e n e r a t i o n
Mining raw materials for concrete manufacture produces wastes in the form of overburden and tailings. Energy use and fuel combustion during mining operations result in atmospheric emissions. Water pollutants from mine runoff can cause reduced aquatic productivity and deoxygenation. Crushing, screening, and processing mineral components may produce particulate emissions. Portland cement manufacture is a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions. Some cement plants generate large quantities of cement kiln dust (CKD) containing potentially hazardous constituents that may contaminate groundwater, surface water, and air. Concrete waste from demolition is a significant part of the waste stream in the United States.
Natural Resource Depletion
Impacts from mining can be significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction and soil erosion. The major components of portland cement and the aggregates used with it are in adequate supply.
Energy Consumption
Cement manufacture is the most energy-intensive process in the production of concrete. Ready-mix concrete has an embodied energy ranging from 1,137,713 to 2,594,338 Btu/cu yd (1,570 to 3,580 MJ/cu m).
Indoor Air Quality
Concrete may act as a sink and as a source for volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Incompletely cured concrete may react with certain chemicals in carpet, releasing emissions that may contribute to indoor air quality problems.
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Concrete
Background
Background
Concrete has been used as an architectural material for almost 2,000 years. The earliest evidence of its use is found in ruins of Roman constructions from the first and second centuries A.D. These early sites show the remarkable durability and strength of concrete materials. The ruins of Emperor Hadrians villa near Rome reveal the use of unreinforced concrete in the construction of domes and walls. In some instances, walls made of stone or brick were filled with concrete made of hydraulic lime and volcanic ash to mortar the stone more effectively. In many instances, the concrete filling has survived long after the stone or brick has disappeared; an examination of these surviving materials reveals their similarity to modern concrete. Following the fall of Rome, knowledge of concrete construction was lost until the latter half of the 18th century (Allen 1990). In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, an English bricklayer, patented a cement or artificial stone that he named portland cement. This binding agent is the major component of modern structural concrete. The development of reinforced concrete in the second half of the 19th century and of precast and prestressed concretes early in the 20th century made possible many of the applications of concrete used in modern construction (Allen 1990). Concrete has three major components: aggregates, water, and portland cement. The aggregates (about 70 percent of the concrete mix) are usually a combination of coarse and fine materials such as gravel, crushed stone, and sand. Portland cement (about 10 percent of the mix) is the binding agent, which combines chemically with water (about 15 percent of the mix) during the curing process to bind the materials together. About 5 percent of the concrete mix is air. The finished concrete is a synthetic conglomerate with remarkable strength and durability. Modifying agents, or admixtures, are mixed with concrete to improve curing, offer resistance to freeze-thaw damage, control setting, provide better placement and mixing characteristics, and to add color. Two characteristics of concrete account for its wide use as an architectural material: its remarkable compressive strength and its ability to be shaped to suit a wide variety of applications. Concrete used in construction typically has a compressive strength of between 2,000 and 6,000 psi (Allen 1990), although newer formulations may provide compressive strengths up to 20,000 psi (Wilde 1990). This strength means that concrete can be used to support tremendous weights in tall or massive structures. It can also be formed into structural shapes that accommodate both strength and aesthetic value with great economy. It can be cast off site and delivered to the construction site as precast slabs, beams, columns, walls, or other components, or it can be cast on site (cast in place). Major changes in the way concrete could be used structurally occurred late in the 19th century, when it was discovered that concrete could be used in combination with reinforcing steel. The result was a material with both remarkable compressive and tensile strength. Concrete is used almost solely as a construction material, although some innovative new applications have been used with success in furniture, countertop material, and bath fixtures (Hughes 1994). Concrete has also become popular as a decorative medium. These applications are, however, outside the scope of this report. In the United States in 1994, approximately 350 million cubic yards (268 million m3) of concrete were used in construction (Lemay 1995). During that time more than 90 million tons (82 million metric tons) of portland cement were shipped from points of manufacture or import (Department of the Interior 1995). The vast majority of this tonnage was from domestic production. California, Texas, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Missouri are the largest producers of portland cement, while California, Texas, Florida, Illinois, and Ohio account for nearly 35 percent of total U.S. consumption of portland cement (Department of the Interior 1995).
MAT 03100
CONCRETE
Concrete
Environmental Considerations
Five major types of portland cement are specified in ASTM C150, Standard Specification for Portland Cement: Type I, for use in general concrete construction. Type II, for use in construction where moderate sulfate attack may occur. Type III, for use when rapid strength development of the concrete is needed. Type IV, rarely produced today. This type generates less heat and was developed to reduce the cracking in mass concrete resulting from elevated temperatures caused by hydration. The same effect can be achieved by adding reactive siliceous materials or pozzolans such as fly ash or granulated blast furnace slag to Type II cement. Type V, for use where high sulfate resistance is needed. ASTM also designates three cements, Type IA, Type IIA, and Type IIIA, as air-entrained portland cements. These have the same general specification requirements as Types I, II, and III, respectively, except that elevated air content limits are also specified. During the grinding of the cement, an air-entraining admixture is introduced. Concrete made from such cement contains micro bubbles of air that protect it from freeze-thaw deterioration. This feature is particularly useful in horizontal applications such as paving, bridges, and decks that are exposed to the weather in cold climates.
Life-cycle summaries of concrete, portland cement, and pigments are provided in figures 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The environmental reviews contained in the ERG material reports are compilations of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts occurring during the life cycle of a material. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign values to them. The following paragraphs contain a summary of these stressors and impacts, which are discussed in greater depth for each stage of the life cycle in subsequent sections. Essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. The mining of aggregates and the raw material components of portland cement produces runoff and alters habitats. Operating mining equipment and transporting materials from their sources to the manufacturer, from one processing site to another, and from the manufacturer to the customer require the expenditure of energy and the release of emissions from internal combustion engines. These emissions can produce or contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular problems in humans and environmental problems, including smog, global warming, and acid precipitation. The processing of aggregate and portland cement components can also release various particulates into the air that may cause eye and respiratory tract irritation. Finding uses for waste products such as slag, crushed concrete, and fly ash makes materials productive that would otherwise have to be disposed of in landfills. Acquisition and processing of the raw materials for the production of pigments and admixtures also have environmental effects. The impacts associated with mining minerals for pigments are similar to those described above for aggregates and raw materials used in portland cement. Pigment manufacture also produces wastewater. Stearic acid (an admixture and airentraining agent) is produced from tallow, a coproduct of beef cattle production. Cattle production may pollute surface and groundwater via feedlot runoff and the erosion and runoff associated with growing feed crops. (continued on page 7)
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MAT 03100 CONCRETE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Concrete
Concrete
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Air emissions (particulates)
Water
KEY
Process flow Transport
Life-Cycle Summary Concrete
Sand and gravel mining Digging Loading Screening Washing
Sand and gravel processing Crushing Screening Grinding
Sand
Boundary Output
Habitat Tailings Runoff change waste, (soil overburden erosion, TSS)
Gravel
Recycling
Portland cement
(see figure 2)
Casting
Curing
Stacking of precast concrete
Additives Mixing Iron oxide pigments (optional)

(see figure 3)
Finishing (optional) Splitting Blasting Grinding Polish Storage
Waste concrete procurement
Crushed concrete
Air emissions (SO2, NOX, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Construction
Corn production Planting Cultivating Fertilizing

Pesticide and fertilizer runoff Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Placing
Curing
Construction
Wastewater
Spraying Harvesting
Maintenance/repair
Soil erosion Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Demolition Stearates (optional)
Cattle raising
Slaughtering
Tallow
ZnO
Hydrolysis
Distillation
Organic wastes
Soil runoff
Water
Glycerin
Landfill debris
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Portland Cement

Sand/sandstone/quartzite mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Washing/loading Digging
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (CO, CO2, NOX, SO2, dioxin)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997 CONCRETE MAT 03100
Waste fuel
Dust
Disposal
Water runoff (arsenic, chromium, lead)
Runoff (soil erosion, TSS)
Habitat change
Tailings waste, overburden Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Processes take place inside rotary kiln. Oyster, clam, and other seashells Limestone Calcination
Air emissions (H2O, CO2)
Limestone and gypsum mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Wastewater from equipment washing (particulates, alkalinity)
Habitat change
Waste lime
Lime
Clay, shale, mud mining Loading Digging
Dicalcium and tricalcium silicates Dust
Habitat change
Iron ore mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Clinker Iron ore
Grinding mill
Habitat change or
Tailings waste, overburden
Portland cement Ironcontaining material Tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite

(see figure 1)
Scrap procurement Coal-fired power plant waste

Waste iron
or
Fly Ash Co-product Alumina Bauxite processing Waste Aluminacontaining material
or
Bauxite mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Life-Cycle Summary Portland Cement
Habitat change or
KEY
Bauxite
Concrete
Iron smelting waste
Slag Miscellaneous wastes

Boundary Output Recycling
Gypsum
6
MAT 03100 CONCRETE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Pigments
Concrete
Iron ore mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating
Calcining Processing
Air emissions (CO2, SOX)
KEY
Process flow
Life-Cycle Summary Pigments
Transport Boundary Output Recycling
Habitat change
Air emissions (SO2, SO3, CO2) Air emissions (H2O, O2, SOX)
Sand mining Digging Loading Screening Washing
Ferrous sulfate
Drying and calcining

Wastewater (Na2SO4)
Processing
Copperas red oxide
Mineral separation
TiO2 processing Co-product Titanium dioxide

H2SO4 Metal sulfates, metal chlorides
Pigments
(see figure 1)
Habitat change
Sodium hydroxide
Iron oxide formation
basic pH
Black iron oxide
neutral pH
Scrap iron
acidic pH
Orange iron oxide
Steam Co-products Hydrogen Chlorine
Yellow iron oxide
Brine
Electrolysis
Air
Yellow iron oxide
Concrete
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage
Production of portland cement produces large volumes of CO2, a gas associated with global warming. The CO2 is generated by the combustion of fuels used to operate rotary kilns and by the thermal decomposition of limestone into lime. The use of kilns with improved energy efficiency has reduced CO2 emissions in recent decades. Increased use of waste lime from other industries could also reduce these emissions. Some cement plants generate large quantities of cement kiln dust (CKD). Recent evidence has shown that potential hazardous constituents may migrate from uncontrolled CKD landfills or waste piles, contaminating groundwater, surface water, and air. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has determined that additional control of CKD is warranted. Recent data also suggest that cement kilns are significant contributors to total U.S. dioxin emissions, although these results are being questioned. Waste (such as old tires) is burned as a fuel in many cement kilns. This is another productive use of a material that would otherwise be disposed of in landfills. Using waste as a fuel reduces the need for mining of new fuels as well as the accompanying pollution and depletion of resources. Because the toxic organic materials are destroyed in combustion, kilns have been promoted as a way to dispose of hazardous organic wastes. The complete safety of this practice is currently being investigated. Cement manufacturing is the most energy-intensive process in the production of concrete. Energy is consumed during mining, crushing, hauling, beneficiation, and processing of the raw materials, but the greatest amount of energy is consumed as fuel in operating the cement kilns. Newer types of kilns are more energy efficient. During construction, various wastes are produced in the form of air emissions, wastewater, and solid waste (leftover concrete and concrete forms material). Waste concrete from demolition is a significant part of the waste stream in the United States. To lessen this waste, concrete can be reprocessed and recycled. Crushed and screened concrete has many applications, the most popular of which are roadbed fill and aggregate for new concrete.

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for the production of concrete is presented in figure 4.
Portland Cement Portland cement makes up about 10 percent of the volume in a concrete mix. The major components of portland cement are acquired through mining. Limestone comprises perhaps 75 percent of the raw mix. The quality of limestone varies widely from relatively impure cement rock to high-grade deposits of calcite. Seashell material may also contribute lime to cement manufacture. In all cases, the main constituent is calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which may be present in several mineralogical forms. Common limestone rock is generally calcite with clay, shale, and sand impurities (Klemm 1995).
The remainder of the raw mix consists of sources of alumina, silica, and iron, which are found in clay, shale, soil, and mud. If additional silica is required, sand, sandstone, or quartzite may be added. Iron is also obtained from iron ore, fly ash, scrap iron, mill scale, or blast furnace flue dust. Additional alumina can be obtained from bauxite or mill fines or waste from bauxite processing. Alumina can also be obtained from slag or fly ash. Other waste or by-product materials can be used, including pyrite cinders, ore washings, spent catalyst fines, copper slag, bottom ash, used foundry sand, and lime sludge from sugar or acetylene production. A small amount of gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) is ground with the clinker that results after the materials are heated in the kiln to produce the finished portland cement product (Klemm 1995).
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Concrete
Figure 4: ConcreteMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Mining of limestone, silica, iron ore, gypsum, mud, clay, sand, sandstone, quartzite, and bauxite (for portland cement) Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Impaired ability of the blood to carry oxygen Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Mining of sand and gravel (for concrete aggregate) Crushing, screening, grinding, Particulate emissions and processing of minerals (for portland cement manufacture and concrete aggregate) Stearate production (for use in admixtures) Fuel combustion (see impacts above) Tallow production Beef cattle farming Drainage of material from feedlots Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision (see mining impacts above) Global warming Stressor Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
MAT 03100
CONCRETE
Concrete
Figure 4: ConcreteMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Stearate production (for use in admixtures) (continued) Fertilizer runoff Increased loading of nitrogen and phosphorus Increased BOD Soil erosion and depletion Stressor Tallow production (continued) Impact/Stressor Corn and grain cultivation and harvesting Impact/Stressor Pesticide runoff Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Deoxygenation Habitat alteration Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation (see impacts above) Fuel combustion Iron oxide pigment production Mining of minerals Fuel combustion emissions (see mining impacts above) VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Calcining and other processes Air emissions Sulfur oxides Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation (see impacts above) Carbon dioxide Wastewater Precipitation processes Iron oxide dust Wastewater containing sodium sulfate Prolonged inhalation can produce siderosis, a benign pneumoconiosis Dissolved sulfur oxides (see impacts above) Surface water acidification (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
The raw material components of portland cement are obtained largely through open-pit mining. In the quarry, limestone is generally obtained by blasting with explosives; the broken rock is hauled away in large dump trucks. Other raw materials, such as clay or shale and sandstone, and overburden soil may be removed with various types of equipment depending on the nature of the deposit (Klemm 1995). Bauxite is mined, using open-pit methods, in tropical and subtropical regions. Surface mining of limestone, gypsum, sand, and silica (quartzite) is discussed in more detail in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). The acquisition of clay and shale is described in the ERG report on gypsum board (09250). Bauxite mining is described in the ERG report on aluminum (05010 in ERG 1994 ed.). After quarrying, materials such as limestone are generally brought to a primary crusher for size reduction, followed by secondary crushing in equipment such as a hammer mill. The
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MAT 03100
Concrete
pulverized rock may be homogenized with stacker-reclaimer equipment that lays down the various batches of rock, layer by layer, in a long horizontal pile. The rock is reclaimed, as needed, by removing vertical sections from the end of the pile. A weigh feeder on a moving conveyer belt combines the limestone in correct proportion with the other raw materials. A ball mill or a vertical roller mill grinds the material until more than 80 percent of it passes through a 200-mesh sieve. If grinding is done with a ball mill, the materials may either be ground in the dry state or as a water slurry (dry process and wet process). Vertical roller mills are always used with the dry process (Klemm 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Raw Materials for Portland Cement
Acquisition of the raw materials for portland cement production can create several different types of environmental problems. The environmental effects of surface mining limestone, gypsum, and silica are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Environmental effects from the acquisition of clay and shale are described in the ERG report on gypsum board (09250). The environmental effects of iron mining are discussed in more detail in the ERG report on steel framing (05410). Environmental effects of bauxite mining are described in the ERG report on aluminum (05010 in ERG 1994 ed.). In general, the environmental effects of the above activities may include runoff from tailings waste, which may lead to increased turbidity of surface waters, increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of aquatic habitats, and possible fishkill. Other environmental impacts from mining include land disturbance and alteration of wildlife habitat. Bauxite mining affects tropical forests and, even after the land is reclaimed, results in loss of habitat. One step that can be taken to mitigate the loss of land area is to quarry deeper rather than to excavate a larger surface area. The combustion of fuels for the production of energy during mining and crushing operations and transport of raw materials to the manufacturing facility can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx (sulfur oxides) to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. NOx also contribute to environmental problems including acid precipitation and smog. In addition to these emissions from fuel combustion, particulates (dust) may be generated from the minerals themselves during crushing, screening, and processing operations. Materials for concrete manufacturing are found in virtually every state in the United States. Localized depletion of some of these resources may occur, although as with other raw materials, depletion is more usually defined by the quality of remaining resources (low grade ores or poor quality stone) rather than by absolute depletion. Lower grade materials generally cost more to process and often require the additional step of beneficiation (treatment to concentrate the desired commodity or make it easier to extract), which can be costly.
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Limestone is usually quarried from limestone-bearing rock, which occurs almost everywhere that was covered by oceans in prehistoric times. Limestone is abundant in many states, particularly in the Midwest and West. The only water in the raw material preparation process is used in the wet process for slurry preparation. Approximately 25 percent of U.S. cement production uses the wet process. Water usage for raw slurry preparation is about 0.8 ton of water per ton of clinker production. This water is not discharged but is vaporized during the burning process in the kilns (Klemm 1995).
Energy Consumed
Energy used in the acquisition and preparation of raw materials for portland cement is mainly in the form of the electricity that provides power to the raw mill, primary and secondary crushing equipment, and various motors associated with blending, conveyor belts, and dust collection. Approximately 25 percent of the total energy used in a cement plant is for grinding raw materials; another approximately 2 percent is consumed by quarrying, hauling, crushing, and conveying limestone and other raw materials (Klemm 1995). The energy consumed in mining limestone, dredging and mining sand and gravel, and mining gypsum is discussed in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). In most cases the cement plant is adjacent to the quarry. Raw materials are trucked to the crushing equipment and carried by conveyer belt to the raw mill. In some instances, the quarry operation may be located some distance from the cement plant, requiring trucks to transport the crushed rock. This distance rarely exceeds 10 to 15 miles (16 to 24 km), however. When greater distances are involved, the rock is carried by barge on inland waterways (Klemm 1995).
Aggregate Sand and gravel (or crushed stone) are the two major components of the aggregate materials used in making concrete. Substitutes for sand and gravel include by-products of the manufacture of other materials. These include crushed recycled concrete, blast furnace slag, fly ash from industrial furnace operations and electric power plants, and waste fines from mining operations (Siltig 1975). Some slags and fly ash, as well as volcanic ash, react with free lime when added to a concrete mixture, producing a concrete that is more resistant to sulfate attack. These additives are known as pozzolans (Hornbostel 1991).
Sand and gravel acquisition are discussed in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Slag is the blast furnace waste material generated from the production of iron. Blast furnace slag is processed in various ways to produce different types of aggregate, most of which are used in construction. Air-cooled blast furnace slag is used most extensively in concrete. The production of slag for use as construction aggregate is discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220). Fly ash is a waste product from the burning of coal in power plants and is collected from baghouses on smokestacks.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Aggregate
Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are usually mined from surface deposits. The mining of stone and the dredging and mining of sand and gravel can result in a number of environmental effects; these are summarized above and discussed more fully in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). These materials require washing, crushing, and size separation to be useful in making concrete. Such operations can create dust emissions
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and discharge of particulates to surface waters that may degrade water quality. Dust emissions from gravel and sand mining and stone crushing are estimated to be about 0.1 lb/ton (0.05 kg/ton) of aggregate. Settling (retention) ponds are often used to separate suspended solid materials from effluent process water. This step allows discharge of clarified water that has reduced particulates and biological oxygen demand (BOD)a vital step in preserving water quality in downstream areas. A major concern to the industry is the availability of land for development of settling ponds and subsequent disposal of deposited solids. These materials may be reusable as clean fill or, with supplementation, as topsoil replacement. Since slag is a by-product of steel production, the pollutants resulting from the manufacture of steel are not attributed to the life cycle of concrete. In fact, the use of slag in concrete eliminates the need to dispose of it as a waste product. The use of crushed concrete, fly ash, flue dust, and waste fines from mining operations in concrete also helps eliminate the need to dispose of these materials as waste products. Any pollutants that result from the production of these materials are not attributed to the life cycle of concrete. There is an abundant supply of aggregate in the United States.
Energy Consumed
The energy consumed in the dredging and mining of sand and gravel are discussed in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200).
Admixtures Admixtures, when mixed with concrete, modify its characteristics to produce specific results. Concrete admixtures include accelerators, retarders, water reducers, air-entraining agents, waterproofing compounds, and color pigments. A number of concrete admixtures are proprietary formulations and cannot be discussed in this report.
Various forms of stearic acid are important as waterproofing admixtures and as air-entraining agents. Stearic acid is produced from naturally occurring fats, especially beef tallow. Stearic acid production is discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220). Various iron oxides act as coloring agents in concrete. Iron oxide pigments are discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Admixtures
Tallow, which is used to produce stearic acid, is a coproduct of beef cattle production. Environmental concerns associated with cattle production include fertilizer runoff and soil erosion from growing grain crops for feed. Drainage of materials from cattle feedlots is a potential source of both surface and groundwater pollution. Combustion of fuels during cattle transport and during stearate manufacture contributes to air emissions. These environmental effects of stearic acid production are discussed more fully in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220). The environmental concerns associated with pigment production include the effects of and wastes from mineral mining operations, discussed in general in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Both natural and synthetic iron oxide pigments may be produced by calcination, a process that releases sulfur oxides and carbon dioxide as air emissions and as dissolved impurities in wastewater. Several by-products from other industries are used as the iron source in the production of synthetic iron oxide pigments; these include ferrous sulfate from either titanium dioxide production or from steel pickling, as well as from steel scrap. Wastewater is produced during these processes. The envi-
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Manufacturing and Fabrication Stage
ronmental impacts of pigment production are discussed more fully in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220).
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce iron oxide pigment is discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220).

A summary of the environmental stressors and effects associated with the manufacture of portland cement for concrete is presented in figure 5.
Portland Cement Portland cement consists mainly of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate, produced as a result of a series of chemical reactions. For this chemical reaction to occur, two types of raw materials are required: one rich in calcium, such as limestone; the other rich in silica, such as sand or clay.
Figure 5: ConcreteManufacturing and Fabrication Stage
Activity Portland cement production Stressor Dust Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Impaired vision Cement kiln dust Air emissions from uncontrolled waste piles Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Impaired vision Possible food chain contamination Runoff water (containing arsenic, chromium, and lead) from waste piles Contamination of groundwater Air emissions Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Carbon dioxide Dioxins Greenhouse effect Acutely toxic to many species Various health effects, including cancer; birth defects; effects on the skin, immune system, liver, kidneys, and thyroid Wastewater Particulates Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids Increased alkalinity (see impacts above) Global warming Contamination of surface waters Consumption of toxics by fish Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Other constituents of portland cement are alumina, iron, and calcium sulfate. Alumina is supplied from soil, mud, clay, or shale or from such waste products as slag, fly ash, or mill fines or waste from bauxite processing. Iron is supplied from shale, fly ash, or other wastes or from ores. A small amount of calcium sulfate in the form of gypsum is added during final grinding to control the setting time and enhance strength development (Lefond 1975 and Kirk-Othmer 1982). Although natural gypsum is generally used, by-product materials such as flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum from coal-fired electric power plants are finding increasing use. The raw materials are first ground in a ball mill or a vertical roller mill, as described in the previous section on materials acquisition and preparation. The mixture is then heated in a rotary kiln to temperatures of 2,550 to 2,730F (1,400 to 1,500C) until it partially fuses. During heating, the clay, silica, and limestone combine to make new minerals or compounds in the form of nodules, which are called clinker. This clinker is interground with approximately 5 percent gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) to produce the final product, portland cement (Klemm 1995). In modern dry-process kilns, a preheater uses heat from rotary kiln combustion gases to heat the raw ingredients to the temperature of limestone decomposition in less than one minute. Certain other dry-process preheater kilns have a separate combustion vessel, the precalciner, to provide additional heat to the ingredients before they move into the rotary kiln. The calcining process (conversion of calcium carbonate into free lime, or calcium oxide) is completed in the preheater tower rather than in the rotary kiln. Powdered coal, coke, oil, or gas provide the fuel for these processes (Lefond 1975 and Kirk-Othmer 1982). Approximately 94 percent of portland cement production is shipped from the plant in bulk by truck, rail car, or barge to distribution terminals or directly to the end user. The remaining 6 percent is distributed in 94-lb (42-kg) sacks. The cement market is regional in nature; it has been estimated that 60 percent of a cement plants production is shipped to destinations within 100 miles (160 km). Rarely are shipments made to destinations greater than 150 to 200 miles (240 to 320 km) from the plant (Klemm 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Portland Cement
Carbon dioxide emissions. The manufacture of portland cement is a major source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Two different processes emit the gas: CO2 is produced from the combustion of fuels used to operate the rotary kiln; this fuel combustion produces approximately 1/2 to 3/4 ton (1,000 to 1,410 lbs or 450 to 640 kg) of CO2 per ton of cement. CO2 is also a product of the chemical process of calcining limestone into lime. This process, CaCO3 > CaO + CO2 (limestone > lime + carbon dioxide) yields roughly a half ton (997 lbs or 452 kg) of CO2 per ton of cement, according to researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Wilson 1993a). For every ton (907 kg) of cement produced, these two sources, taken together, release 1 to 1.25 tons (907 to 1130 kg) of CO2 into the atmosphere. In the United States, cement production accounts for 80 to 100 million tons (72.6 to 90.7 million metric tons) of CO2 emissions, or just under 2 percent of the total human-generated CO2 in the United States (Wilson 1993a; Melander 1994). Improving the energy efficiency of cement kiln operation is the most effective way to reduce CO2 emissions in cement production, and improved efficiency has been realized in recent decades. Switching to lower-CO2 fuels, such as natural gas and agricultural
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waste (peanut hulls, for example), can also reduce emissions. To reduce the CO2 emissions from calcining limestone, waste lime from other industries can be used in the kiln (Wilson 1993a). A major reduction in CO2 emissions can be accomplished by the use of blended cements, which are combinations of portland cement, fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag, or other pozzolans. Limestone addition accomplishes the same effect (Melander 1994). Recent research shows that cured concrete reabsorbs CO2 from the atmosphere. Over several years, 100 pounds of portland cement (as a component of concrete) may absorb as much as 20 pounds (9 kg) of CO2, depending on such factors as porosity of the concrete and whether or not it is painted or sealed (Szoke 1994). Particulates. Dust is another major pollutant that results from cement and concrete production. Dust may be released both during the grinding of clinker into cement and during operation of the kiln itself (see cement kiln dust, below). Portland cement is a very fine powder that is easily suspended in the air when disturbed. Because of its fineness, it may become widely distributed if released to the air as dust. Even though this dust may be quite alkaline, direct human health effects are virtually unknown outside of a few occupational incidents. In the United States, dust emissions are controlled under EPA and state regulations, and control devices such as multicyclones (air vortexes that collect particles in the center), electrostatic precipitators, baghouse filters, and closed-seal transfer devices are required to adequately reduce dust dispersion. Dust recovered from clinker grinding processes is added back to the grinding process and recovered for packaging. Cement kiln dust (CKD). Some cement plants generate large quantities of cement kiln dust (CKD). The EPA has estimated that, in 1990, the generation of gross CKD (i.e., CKD collected by air pollution control devices) was 12.7 million metric tons (EPA 1995). Most of this CKD (64 percent) is recycled back into the cement kiln. For the CKD not recycled in this way, standard industry practice is to place it in piles, quarries, or landfills, most of which are unlined and uncovered. A small amount of the total CKD generated (approximately 7 percent or 897,000 metric tons) is sold for off-site use as a waste stabilizer, fertilizer, liming agent, or materials additive (EPA 1995). Recent evidence has shown that potentially hazardous constituents may migrate from CKD waste sites, contaminating groundwater, surface water, and air (EPA 1995). Among the constituents of concern that have been released to ground and surface waters are arsenic, chromium, and lead. Modeling studies show that windblown dust from uncontrolled CKD waste piles could pose a risk to human health due to the fine particulate nature of this inhaled dust. Preliminary modeling results also show possible health risks from ingestion of contaminants through the food chain. The EPA has determined that additional control of CKD is warranted to protect ground and surface waters and air quality. The EPA also will evaluate the need for additional controls when CKD is used for other purposes, such as liming agricultural fields. For most off-site uses, such as waste stabilization or construction, the EPA concludes there are no significant risks (EPA 1995; The Hazardous Waste Consultant 1995a). Nonparticulate emissions. Nonparticulate (gaseous) emissions from kilns may contain water, CO2, CO, NOx, and SO2. An average kiln produces about 40 tons (36 metric tons) of cement clinker per hour along with about 120 tons (109 metric tons) of exit gases, including water (Siltig 1975). Emission of these gases is regulated under federal and state law and requires recovery by adsorbents or wet scrubbers. State-of-the-art technology allows for effective recovery and controlled disposal or recycling of most of the waste gases and particulates. The industry in the United States has reduced these wastes by
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more than 90 percent in the last 20 years as a result of improved technology and management practices (Lemay 1995; Siltig 1975). Dioxins. In 1991 the Environmental Protection Agency began a reassessment of dioxin, its effects on health, routes of exposure, and potential modes of release into the environment (The Hazardous Waste Consultant 1995b). Preliminary data suggest that cement kilns are significant contributors to total U.S. dioxin air emissions, accounting for as much as 4 percent of the total. The industry is contesting these results as unrepresentative of normal operations. The limited data available to the EPA also indicate that dioxin levels in cement kiln dust and stack emissions may be significantly higher in kilns that burn hazardous waste compared with those that do not (these results are also being contested by industry). Wastewater. Wastewater from cement production comes primarily from washing equipment, including cleaning of transportation equipment and pollution control devices. The primary pollutants are particulates that cause an elevated level of dissolved solids and turbidity. Elevated alkalinity and pH may also occur in cement-processing wastewater. These conditions are largely treated by the use of settling ponds to separate solids from the water before discharge. Waste fuels and toxic emissions and residues. About half the kilns in North America burn various wastes, both hazardous and nonhazardous, as a portion of their fuel (Wilson 1993b). Scrap tires are the primary waste fuel. Tires have a higher Btu content than mined fuels, and the iron in the steel belting aids the process (Szoke 1994). Waste fuels also can include used motor oil, spent solvents, printing inks, paint residues, and cleaning fluids. However, the potential for toxic emissions (including dioxin) from kiln stacks, toxic residues in cement dust, and even toxicity in the cement itself is a concern (Wilson 1993b; The Hazardous Waste Consultant 1995b). According to industry, the destruction of organic components in the waste approaches 100 percent, but trace amounts of metals, such as lead or chromium, may remain in the cement and cement kiln dust (Portland Cement Association, no date). Analysis has shown that levels of lead, cadmium, and chromium are in fact higher in cement kiln dust generated by kilns that burn hazardous waste than in dust generated by kilns that do not burn hazardous waste (EPA 1995). Cement kiln dust is disposed of in unregulated landfills (although this practice is diminishing); it is also spread on acidic soils. In response to concerns about these practices, new EPA regulations require frequent testing of hazardous wastes intended for use in cement kilns to ensure the wastes do not exceed established levels for various metals and other contaminants (Szoke 1994; Environmental Building News 1993 and 1994). Although more testing is needed to ensure the safety of concrete end products, the burning of hazardous wastes in cement kilns may be an environmentally reasonable option for wastes with high energy content that are relatively clean. While spent solvents and used oils are best recycled into new solvents and oils when possible, recycling is not economically feasible in some cases. The high temperatures in cement kilns should, in theory, destroy organic wastes at least as well as commercial incinerators; also the energy contained in these wastes is being used to make a marketable product (Environmental Building News 1994).
Energy Consumed
A major environmental concern related to portland cement production is the consumption of energy. Cement production is a very energy-intensive industrial process. Energy is consumed in the form of fuels to power the equipment used for mining, crushing, hauling, beneficiation, and processing of raw materials, but most of the energy is consumed in operating the cement kilns. Recent data from industry indicates that cement production requires 2,401 Btus per lb or 4,802,000 Btus per ton (5.585 MJ/kg) of cement
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Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
(Melander 1994). This indicates that current embodied energy values are lower than earlier estimates, as cited in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). These earlier values are 4,060 Btus per lb (8,120,000 Btus/ton, or 9.444 MJ/kg) for manufacture of portland cement and 148 Btus per lb (296,000 Btus/ton, or 0.344 MJ/kg) for hauling the cement to the job site (Hannon et al. 1976). Cement production is still primarily fueled (69.5 percent) by a combination of coal and coke, although their use has slowly declined in recent years as the use of natural gas and waste fuel has risen (Portland Cement Association 1993). Newer preheater/precalciner dry-process cement kilns are more energy efficient (using up to 50 percent less energy) than older wet-process kilns because energy is not required to drive off slurry moisture. In some dry-process kilns, a preheater, using heat from the exhaust gases of the kiln, heats the ingredients before they enter the kiln itself. In another type of dry-process kiln, a separate combustion vessel accelerates the calcining process before the ingredients move into the rotary kiln (Wilson 1993a).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of concrete is presented in figure 6. Concrete is produced as a plastic material that can be molded into a variety of forms then solidified to become a strong and durable material. It is dimensionally stable (although it does expand and contract with changes in temperature). It resists chemical or environmental attack and does not contribute to fire. Concrete construction has the benefit of thermal massit stores heat and releases it very slowly, thus contributing to energy efficiency (Klemm 1995). Concrete is used in the construction industry in a variety of forms. When it is poured in place at the site, it is usually delivered from a vendor as ready-mix concrete, which contains about 10 percent (by weight) cement, 30 percent sand, 40 percent gravel, 15 percent water, and 5 percent air. These ratios change depending on the desired strength and workability of the concrete, and even these can be changed with admixtures. Some of the most important functions of admixtures are to reduce the water required for flowability, to improve air entrainment for resistance to freeze-thaw damage, and to improve workability to facilitate rapid placement of concrete. Admixtures are also used to improve curing characteristics and thus improve strength and adjust curing time. Timing of transportation and placement is critical to satisfactory results when using concrete, as is maintaining adequate curing conditions. Since concrete hardens and gains strength through the chemical process of hydration, it is important to keep the newly formed concrete moist until it cures to the point of attaining most of its compressive strength, usually by the seventh day (Kosmatka and Panarese 1988). Some new concrete materials rely on the use of by-products from other industrial processes. For example, one method of producing autoclaved cellular concrete (ACC) uses fly ash as a replacement for sand. As a construction material, ACC is comparable in strength and significantly lighter than conventional concrete mixtures. Although it has been used in Europe for more than 35 years, it has not been used extensively in the United States. A prototype manufacturing plant being built at a coal generating station in Somerset, Massachusetts, will be moved to other utilities around the nation to demonstrate how ACC is made (Environmental Building News 1992). At least one other manufacturer is working to apply European ACC technology in the United States (Sauber 1995). ACC is a precast material that has much higher insulation value and tool workability than conventional concrete. It can be cut, routed, and shaped with carpentry tools, and nails can be driven into it. It is considered cost
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Figure 6: ConcreteConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Construction Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Impaired ability of the blood to carry oxygen Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Washing of mixers, forms, and tools Runoff from concrete wetting Leftover concrete Leftover concrete forms material Poured concrete May act as a sink for certain organic solvents and adhesives VOC emissions Odors Solid waste Decreased landfill capacity Wastewater containing particulates Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids Increased alkalinity Global warming
competitive with the conventional material and requires no coatings, although it accepts paints and other coatings well (Bierman-Lytle 1991).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Concrete
Various wastes, in the form of air emissions, wastewater, and solid waste, are produced at the job site during construction. Diesel engines that power the trucks and other heavy equipment used for hauling concrete are sources of air emissions, including CO2, SO2, NOx, volatile organic compounds, and particulates (Klemm 1995).
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Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Wastewater may result from all steps of concrete construction work, including washing of mixers, forms, and tools, as well as runoff from wetting for concrete curing. Used motor oil, often employed in the past as a lubricating material for concrete forms, is being replaced with waxes or synthetic nonstick treatments that are more permanent and will not become part of the waste stream. Solid waste in the form of leftover concrete and concrete forms material is generated at the construction site. Most builders order at least as much concrete from batch vendors as they think they need to ensure uninterrupted completion of daily placement activities. Returning excess material to the vendor for remixing with batches from later in the day (with the addition of set-retarding chemicals) can reduce the amount of solid waste from construction. Waste can also be reduced from other concrete construction-related materials: Stay-in-place forms made of polystyrene that act both as formwork during construction and as insulation for the finished building are gaining popularity. Formwork for both site-cast and precast products can be recycled, a significant potential savings in waste as the American Plywood Association reports that construction of concrete forms is the third greatest use of plywood (American Plywood Association 1991). Concrete products precast to standard shapes and test strengths have proven useful in speeding construction since they eliminate the need for waiting on site for lower layers of concrete to cure before placing upper level concrete. There also may be an environmental benefit to the use of precast concrete materials, which are manufactured off site, since all handling of dry materials, water, cement, and their effluents is concentrated at one facility. Hollow-core planks, beams, columns, and wall panels are examples of precast concrete products. Concrete masonry units, which are also manufactured off site, are discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220). Concrete products that use fly ash as a replacement for sand or cement may help reduce the overall waste stream by exploiting materials that previously have been handled as waste.
Indoor Air Quality
There have been reports that concrete can act as a sink and a source for emissions of some organic compounds. Some plasticizers in vinyl-backed carpet appear to react with concrete alkalinity, releasing alcohols that can contribute to indoor air quality problems and perhaps even to sick building syndrome (McLaughlin and Aigner 1990). Concrete surface coatings (top coatings) with high porosities may particularly cause this reaction (Gustafsson 1990). Allowing for more complete curing of concrete flooring or reducing the moisture content of concrete in prefabricated construction may help alleviate this effect (Gustafsson 1990; Liden and Stridh 1990).
Energy Consumed
Ready-mix concrete has an embodied energy (including transportation) of 1,137,713 Btu/cu yd (1570 MJ/cu m), according to a Canadian study (Forintek 1993). An earlier study gives an embodied energy value of 2,594,338 Btu/cu yd (3580 MJ/cu m) (Hannon et al. 1976). Another study calculates embodied energy on a weight basis; for ready-mix concrete the value is 0.54 MJ/kg (233 Btu/lb) (Friedman and Cammalleri 1995). The embodied energy of concrete masonry (including transportation) calculated on a per-pound basis was quoted in the ERG report on concrete masonry as ranging from 731 to 964 Btu per lb (1.70 to 2.24 MJ/kg) (McHenry 1985; Hannon et al. 1976). The more recent Canadian study gives an embodied energy for concrete masonry units of 603 Btu per lb (1.40 MJ/kg) (Forintek 1993).
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A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of concrete is presented in figure 7.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal of Concrete
Waste concrete from demolition is the single largest category of construction/demolition waste and a significant part of the waste stream in the United States. Recent North American estimates show that concrete accounts for 67 percent of the weight (53 percent of the volume) of solid waste from construction demolition (Science Council of British Columbia 1991). Although construction wastes are not well characterized as part of the municipal solid waste stream, disposal in municipal and private landfills is probably under 18 million tons (16 million metric tons) annually in the United States (EPA 1990). Disposal costs for this material may be as high as $60 per ton in some areas (Dobbs and Talarico 1991). About 10 percent of construction/demolition waste in European countries is recycled. In Denmark, where about 93 percent of demolition waste is concrete or masonry, construction/demolition wastes may be greater than all other municipal solid wastes by a factor of 1.5 (Jakobsen 1991). In the United States the overall amount of recycled concrete is quite small, probably less than 5 percent of annual disposal (Dobbs and Talarico 1991). Experimental programs in other countries have provided for 100 percent recycling of concrete, at least over limited ranges of time (Science Council of British Columbia 1991). The principal barriers to more extensive reuse/recycling of concrete appear to be both institutional and technological. Technologically, separation of demolition materials to allow cost-effective recycling is a significant barrier. In general it is more cost-effective to separate as much material as possible before demolition rather to separate materials from rubble (van Eck 1991). The cost of using reprocessed concrete as aggregate is important in capturing market space for these materials. Factoring the cost of disposing of old materials in landfills into total site preparation costs might offer additional financial incentives for recycling old concrete debris at a site into reusable aggregate or fill (van Eck 1991). Some of the institutional difficulties that impede greater reuse of concrete debris include lack of knowledge about availability, applications, and cost for reused materials along with an apparent reluctance by local authorities to change building codes to allow recycled materials whenever their suitability can be demonstrated (Lauritzen 1991). Nevertheless, several countries, such as Holland and Japan, have encouraged increased use of recycled concrete by cosponsoring reprocessing plants or creating steep charges for disposal of concrete waste in municipal landfills (Lauritzen 1991).
Figure 7: ConcreteRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Demolition Stressor Solid waste Reprocessing/recycling of waste concrete Crushing to produce recycled aggregate Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Transporting Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Fuel combustion emissions (see figure 6 for impacts) Fuel combustion emissions (see figure 6 for impacts) Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Impact/Stressor
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Concrete
Organization Perspective
Reprocessed concrete has many applications, depending upon its size and texture. The most popular use is for roadbed fill (about 70 to 80 percent), but it also makes acceptable aggregate for new concrete manufacture of preformed materials such as pipe and slabs, cast-in-place walls and floors, and clean fill for new construction (Noyes Data Corporation 1979). Old concrete is crushed, and a vibrating screen removes the fines. All material larger than 3/8 inch is fed to a secondary crusher to produce coarse aggregate in the desired size. Recycled concrete pavement yields 45 to 80 percent usable coarse aggregate. A new concrete mix can contain 100 percent recycled coarse aggregate, and recycled fines can replace 10 to 15 percent of virgin sand (Klemm 1995). Overall, the quality of concrete materials made with aggregate from recycled concrete is equal to concrete with virgin aggregate materials (Lauritzen 1991). Cost varies greatly, however, depending on the costs of demolition, transportation, and grinding costs as compared to those of mining and processing new materials. In many instances, when transportation costs are low and the material is used for bed material for roads or foundations, the costs of using recycled aggregate can be lower than those of using new material. A Danish study reported a cost savings of $15/ton ($13.6/metric ton) in reusing reprocessed concrete rather than new aggregate in construction (Lauritzen 1991). The same report describes a cost savings of up to $161,000 per km ($100,000 per mile) for a highway construction in Wyoming from using recycled concrete as roadbed material rather than crushed rock. The strongest incentives for reuse, according to the report, were increased landfill tipping charges and fines for illegal disposal of construction debris. Direct reuse of precast concrete materials for new construction appears to have little application because current technology does not support intact removal of old precast materials, nor does it appear to be cost-efficient. Some considerable effort is made to separate steel from concrete refuse whenever possible. This is easy technologically because steel reinforcing materials can be separated from concrete rubble magnetically. Reinforced and prestressed concrete components are crushed to recover the steel embedded in these materials.
Energy Consumed
Currently, there is no information on the amount of energy consumed in the reuse, recycling, and disposal of concrete.
Industry Perspective: Portland Cement Association In the context of sustainable development and environmental impact, concreteand its key ingredient portland cementoffers many inherent benefits in production processes, construction, and performance of the completed structure.
First and foremost, concrete is produced from some of the worlds most abundant resources, and it is produced without toxic by-products or environmentally compromising processes. Raw materials (limestone for cement and aggregate for concrete) are extracted from local quarries. While quarries have an undeniable environmental impact, they nevertheless offer considerable advantages over logging to produce timber and mining to produce steel and other building materials. A recent study of the ecological effects of resource extraction (Forintek 1993) compared the impact of quarries with that of logging and mining. The study rated quarries favorably because they consume smaller quantities of land, can be located nearly anywhere, and are easily and quickly reclaimed.
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Concrete
Regulatory Status
Moreover, the increasing use of recycled materials in cement and concrete is reducing the industrys need for quarried material. Cement manufacturers now supplement virgin raw materials with an array of nonhazardous industrial by-products that contain the needed minerals. For example, lime from water treatment plants provides silica and iron, and ash from coal-fired electric power plants is a source of silica and alumina. Some industry analysts predict that by the year 2000, 40 percent of the raw materials used for manufacturing cement will come from nonhazardous industrial by-products rather than from quarried virgin products. The use of recycled materials extends to concrete production as well. Fly ash and blast furnace slag are commonly used in concrete. Because it is virtually inert, concrete can recycle a variety of wastes and by-products, such as polystyrene, as aggregate. Concrete itself can be crushed and reused as aggregate for new concrete or as a base. This practice has become standard in highway reconstruction. Concrete from building and other structures is increasingly being recycled rather than placed in landfills. Concrete production also requires less energy than that of many other building materials. While cement production is energy-intensive, it accounts for only 10 to 15 percent of concrete (by weight). Manufacturers have reduced fossil fuel use by nearly 30 percent in the last 25 years and have taken the lead in resource recovery by supplementing coal and natural gas with high-energy wastes such as scrap tires and spent solvents. The other ingredients of concretesand, gravel, and waterare produced locally and require little energy for either processing or transportation. At the construction site, use of concrete minimizes construction waste. Unlike sheet goods or dimensional lumber, concrete is used on an as-needed basis so that little product is wasted. Concrete left in the truck is usually recycled at the ready-mix plant, where wash water, sand, and gravel are reclaimed and reused. The practice of dumping excess concrete at the construction site is rapidly disappearing. While the industry has made great strides in reducing the environmental impact of concrete production processes, many of the prime environmental benefits of using concrete lie in the performance of the finished structure or building. Here, concretes traditional virtues of durability, low maintenance, and energy savings factor into its environmental story: The durability of concrete gives it significant advantages in terms of resource and energy conservation. Longer service lifethrough superior fire and wind resistance, for examplemeans that fewer resources are squandered in demolition and rebuilding. Although concrete can be painted or clad with another material, it can achieve many finishes, textures, and colors on its own. When structural elements also serve as the architectural finish, buildings increase in efficiency of resources, construction, and maintenance. In terms of cost and service, the low maintenance of concrete reduces waste, energy, and resource requirements. For example, there is usually no need for periodic coatings or chemical treatments. The thermal mass of concrete saves energy over the lifetime of a building. Not only is concrete the material of choice for passive solar designs, but its inherent thermal mass moderates temperature swings, reducing the energy load. Recent innovations make concrete much easier to insulate. When used with insulating systems, concrete walls can easily reach R-40 and higher while still delivering the benefits of thermal mass.
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Concrete
Regulatory Status
Strides in production efficiency, recycling, and designcoupled with the traditional benefits of strength, longevity, and thermal massmake concrete a front-runner among environmentally friendly building materials.
Regulatory Status
Gas and dust emissions from concrete manufacturing and use are controlled under state regulations and the Federal Clean Air Act and Amendments of 1990. Effluents released into the water are controlled under state regulations and the Federal Clean Water Act, including the permitting and monitoring processes of the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Environmental and safety regulations pertaining to concrete plants are administered by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The cement plant itself is regulated by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Burning of hazardous wastes in cement kilns is regulated under the EPA Boiler and Industrial Furnace (BIF) Final Rule under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The cement industry submitted an enforceable agreement for CKD management to the EPA in the spring of 1995. This agreement tailors CKD management standards to the risk CKD presents to human health and the environment. It also ensures that all CKD will be put to beneficial use or be disposed of in specially designed monofills.
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References
REFERENCES
Allen, E. 1990. Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods. NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. American Plywood Association. 1991. Response to AIA Materials Data Sheet Questionnaire. Barney, G. B. 1995. Information for the ERG report on concrete from the vice president for market development of the Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. Bierman-Lytle, P. 1991. Autoclaved Cellular Concrete in Surface-Coating-Free Materials for the Reduction of VOC Emissions. [U.S.] Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 1995. Mineral Industry Surveys: Cement. Washington, D.C. Dobbs, D., and W. Talarico. 1991. Turning trash into cash. Construction Waste (New England ed.) 3:32-35. Environmental Building News. 1992. Plans Moving Ahead for Autoclaved Cellular Concrete Vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 4-5. September/October. . 1993. News Briefs. Vol. 2, no. 4, p. 6. July/August. . 1994. On Burning Hazardous Waste in Cement Kilns. Vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 6-7. May/June. [U.S.] Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. The Solid Waste Dilemma: Solutions for the 90s. Preliminary draft for focus group comment. Washington, DC: Office of Solid Waste. Municipal Solid Waste Program. 56 pp. . 1995. Regulatory Determination on Cement Kiln Dust. 40 CFR Part 261. February 7. Forintek Canada Corporation. 1993. Raw Material Balances, Energy Profiles and Environmental Unit Factor Estimates for Cement and Structural Concrete Products. Natural Resources Canada. Friedman, Avi, and Vince Cammalleri. 1995. The Environmental Impact of Building Materials in the North American Building Industry. Building Research and Information. Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 162-66. Gustafsson, H. 1990. Kemisk emission fran byggnadsmaterial (chemical emissions from building materials). Swedish National Testing and Research Inst. SP Report No. 1990:25. 65pp. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois.
The Hazardous Waste Consultant. 1995a. EPA Plans to Develop Tailored RCRA Subtitle C Regulations for Cement Kiln Dust. Elsevier Science Inc. May/June. pp. 2.10-2.14. . 1995b. Results of EPAs Reassessment of Dioxins Published. Elsevier Science Inc. May/June. pp. 2.17-2.22. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hughes, Thomas. 1994. Making Concrete Countertops. Fine Homebuilding. September. Jakobsen, J. B. 1991. Amounts, composition, and recycling in a European perspective in Proceedings From Recycling of Construction and Demolition Wastes. September 1991. Essen, Germany. 11pp. Kirk-Othmer. 1982. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Klemm, W. A. 1995. Overview of the Cement Manufacturing Process: Production, Use, Energy, and Environmental Considerations. Construction Technology Laboratories. Information provided by Lionel Lemay of the Portland Cement Association. Kosmatka, Steven H., and William C. Panarese. 1988. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Portland Cement Association. Lauritzen, E. K. 1991. Construction and demolition waste as potential resource in Proceedings From Recycling of Construction and Demolition Wastes. September, 1991. Essen, Germany. 11pp. Lefond, Stanley J., editor-in-chief. 1975. Construction Materials: AggregatesSlag and Construction Materials: Cement and Cement Raw Materials in Industrial Minerals and Rocks: Nonmetallics other than Fuels. NY: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. Lemay, Lionel A. 1995. Comments on the draft of ERG report on concrete. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. Liden, E., and G. Stridh. 1990. Reducing the moisture content in a concrete prefab construction helps to improve reported sensory-irritation symptoms. International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. 3: 683-687. Melander, John. 1994. Comments on the draft of ERG report on concrete from a masonry specialist at the Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. McHenry, Paul G., Jr. 1985. A Preliminary Report of Investigations on the Uses of Geothermal Energy for
Production and Processing of Building Materials in Guatemala. For the Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM. McLaughlin, P., and R. Aigner. 1990. Higher alcohols as indoor air pollutants: source, cause, mitigation. International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. 3:587-91. Noyes Data Corporation. 1979. Building Materials from Solid Wastes. Park Ridge, NJ. Portland Cement Association. [No date.] Managing Waste: The Cement Kiln Alternative. . 1993. U.S. and Canadian 1992 Labor-Energy Input Survey. Economic Research Department, Portland Cement Association. November. Sauber, Robert. 1995. Information provided for the ERG concrete report by the managing director of North American Cellular Concrete, Providence, RI. Science Council of British Columbia. 1991. Construction Waste Management Report. Burnaby, British Columbia. 53 pp. Siltig, M. 1975. Pollution Control in the Asbestos, Cement, Glass, and Allied Mineral Industries. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp. Szoke, Steve. 1994. Comments on draft ERG report on concrete from the director of national accounts at the National Concrete Masonry Association, Herndon, VA. van Eck, H. 1991. Recycling of construction and demolition waste from a demolition point of view in Proceedings, Recycling of Construction and Demolition Wastes. September. Essen, Germany. Wilde, R. 1990. Concrete comments. Concrete International (7):28. Wilson, Alex. 1993a. Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations. Environmental Building News. Vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 1, 7-12. March/April. . 1993b. Editors Response, Letters. Environmental Building News. Vol. 2, no. 3, p. 2. May/June.
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Material Report
Brick and Mortar*

Highlights
Environmental concerns regarding raw materials for brick and mortar include energy and resource use; soil erosion, pollutant runoff, and habitat loss; and air and water quality. Combustion emissions, dust, and particulates from brick firing, mineral processing, and limestone calcining affect air quality. Brick firing releases fluorine and chlorine emissions, and carbon dioxide and dust are released during production of portland cement. Runoff and polluted wastewater from mineral mining and processing affect water quality. Manufacturing waste is frequently recycled in new brick. Unused brick can be resold; damaged bricks are buried on site or in landfills. After demolition, cleaned bricks can be reused but are usually discarded. Excess mortar is usually buried at construction sites or disposed of in landfills. Excess and waste adobe mud and brick are recycled to produce new adobe brick. Demolished adobe is allowed to reincorporate into the soil. Certain nonhazardous wastes can be safely encapsulated in fired brick.
The durability of structures constructed of brick and mortar averts the need for producing replacement materials, avoiding the accompanying depletion of resources. Clay and soil, primary components of fired clay and adobe brick, are abundant.
Energy Consumption
The embodied energy for fired clay brick is about 14,000 Btus (14.8 MJ) per brick or 4,000 Btus per lb (9.3 MJ/kg) of brick. While no embodied energy estimate is available for the mortar used with fired clay brick, a major component of this mortar is portland cement, which has an embodied energy of 2,401 to 4,060 Btus per lb (5.6 to 9.4 MJ/kg). The embodied energy for semistabilized adobe brick is about 3,700 Btus (3.9 MJ) per brick or 123 Btus per lb (0.29 MJ/kg) of brick. Adobe mortar is composed of the same material as adobe brick and has an embodied energy of 123 Btus per lb (0.29 MJ/kg). No embodied energy estimate is available for compressed earth block, but it may contain up to 10 percent portland cement, which has an embodied energy of 2,401 to 4,060 Btus per lb (5.6 to 9.4 MJ/kg).
Indoor Air Quality
No studies have indicated that brick and mortar construction is a source of indoor air pollution, including radon gas.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1994. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 BRICK AND MORTAR MAT 04210
Brick and Mortar

Background
Background
Brick is defined as a small building unit that may be either solid or hollow. It is commonly a rectangular block composed of inorganic, nonmetallic substances of mineral origin that are hardened by heat, as is the case with fired clay brick, or by chemical action, as in sand lime brick and cement brick (Hornbostel 1991). This report covers clay masonry units included under Masterspec No. 04200 (Unit Masonry). Brick hardened by chemical action is not considered in this report. Fired clay products for construction purposes constitute a major branch of the ceramics industry. Fired clay brick products covered in this report are building (common) brick, facing brick, and hollow brick. Building brick is not specifically intended to be exposed to the weather, while facing brick is intended for this purpose. Glazed facing brick accounts for only 0.5 percent of the brick shipped in 1992 (Brick Institute of America 1993) and is not included in this report. Also not included are such products as paving brick, fire brick, and sewer brick. Adobe brick, the simple forerunner of fired clay brick, is also covered in this report. Adobe brick is not fired but is dried and hardened in the sun (Hornbostel 1991).
Fired Clay Brick The origins of brick date from before biblical times. Fired brick was first used around 2500 to 2000 B.C. in the Indus Valley and in Mesopotamia around 2300 B.C. Many of the early, prominent structures built in the United States were made of brick.
In addition to its endurance, brick has other positive features. It has high compressive strength, which ranges from 3,000 to more than 20,000 lbs per square inch (psi) (20.7 to over 137.9 Mpa). The compressive strength of wall assemblies made from brick can range from 2,000 to 6,000 psi (13.8 to 41.4 MPa). The massiveness of brick inhibits the transmission of sound. It is a noncombustible material and prevents the spread of fire. Brick can store heat and transmit it back several hours later (Trimble 1993). In addition, it can be adapted to a wide variety of architectural styles. At present there are 120 brick manufacturers in the United States with 235 plants. In 1993 more than 6.8 billion bricks were made and shipped in the United States. Of the units shipped, 93.4 percent were facing brick, 3.6 percent were building brick, and 3 percent were paving brick. The industry has the capacity to produce more than 10 billion units annually (Brick Institute of America 1993). Fired clay brick is considered solid if it contains 0 to 25 percent void area; hollow bricks contain between 25 and 60 percent void area. Brick is divided into three grades (Masterspec 1990; Hornbostel 1991; Trimble 1994): Grade SW is specified for rigorous exposures with heavy rainfall and freezing conditions. Grade MW is for exposures with average moisture and minor freezing conditions. Grade NW is for exposures with minimum moisture and freezing conditions. Facing brick as specified by ASTM C 216 is divided into two grades (SW and MW). Building brick as specified by ASTM C 62 includes all three grades. Most bricks produced today are manufactured to meet Grade SW. Three additional types (FBX, FBS, and FBA) of brick are based on factors affecting the appearance of the finished wall (such as degree of uniformity of size, chippage, and warpage).
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BRICK AND MORTAR
Brick and Mortar

Background
Hollow brick specified by ASTM C 652 is also divided into two grades (SW and MW), which are similar to the same two grades of building brick. Hollow brick is further divided into four additional types (HBS, HBX, HBA, and HBB), which are based on factors affecting the appearance of the finished wall (such as degree of uniformity of size, chippage, and warpage). Hollow bricks are also classified according to void area. Class H40V includes brick cored from 25 to 40 percent. Class H60V includes brick cored from 40 to 60 percent.
Mortar Mortar is the bonding agent that integrates a brick into a masonry wall, binding the masonry units into a single element. Mortar must be strong, durable, and capable of keeping the wall intact. It also must help to create a water-resistant barrier. The composition of mortar and the proportions of its ingredients influence its properties.
Historically, mortars have been made from a variety of materials. In ancient Egypt, mortar was made of burned gypsum and sand; in the United States before 1900 the ingredients were lime and sand. Currently, basic mortar ingredients include portland cement, hydrated lime, and sand. Proprietary mortar mixes (masonry cement) may replace one or more of these ingredients. Each of these materials makes a contribution to mortar performance (Brick Institute of America 1989). The general types of mortar according to ASTM C 270 are as follows: Types M and S: These are high-strength mortars suitable for general use and recommended specifically for reinforced brick masonry and plain masonry below grade. Type N: This is a medium-strength mortar suitable for general use in exposed masonry above grade. Type O: This is low-strength mortar suitable for nonload-bearing walls of solid masonry units, partitions, and load-bearing walls not subject to excessive compressive stresses and where exposures are not severe. Mortars have two distinct, important sets of propertiesthose in the plastic state and those in the hardened state. The plastic properties help to determine the mortars compatibility with brick and its suitability for construction. These properties include workability, water retentivity, initial flow, and flow after suction; most are related to water content. Properties of hardened mortars help determine the performance of the finished masonry. Hardened properties include bond strength, durability, extensibility, and compressive strength (Brick Institute of America 1989).
Adobe Brick Adobe, or sundried mud brick, has a long history of widespread use by Native Americans, Spanish-Americans, and Anglo-Americans in the southwestern United States, where the annual precipitation is low and adobe soil is readily available. The introduction of wooden forms by the Spanish colonists in the late 1600s permitted the brick maker to control the size and weight of the bricks, which allowed for greater construction flexibility (Smith and Austin 1989).
The use of adobe need not be restricted to arid and semiarid climates if buildings are properly protected or certain soil stabilizers are used (Smith and Austin 1989). Examples of earthwall construction can be found from New England to South Carolina, as well as in all the southwestern states (Smith and Austin 1989). The current centers of commercial adobe production are in the states of New Mexico, Arizona, California, Colorado and Texas. The typical adobe bricks produced today in New Mexico vary from the small mosque-type Egyptian brick of 3 x 5 x 10-inch (7.6 x 12.7 x 25.4-cm) size, which weighs 8 lbs (3.6 kg) and
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Brick and Mortar

Background
is used in the construction of domes and arches, to the New Mexico standard adobe brick (10 x 4 x 14 in., 25.4 x 10.2 x 35.6 cm), which weighs 30 to 35 lbs (13.6 to 15.9 kg). Ninetyseven percent of the adobe bricks manufactured by adobe producers in New Mexico are of this latter type. Compressive strengths of typical adobe bricks have been found to vary from 430 to 580 psi (3.0 to 4.0 MPa) (Smith and Austin 1989; Twining Laboratories 1992; Moquin 1994). Traditional adobe brick is made of adobe soil and water; straw is sometimes added to the mix to prevent the brick from cracking during the curing process. Moisture entering the adobe brick will cause it to disintegrate; therefore, the traditional (or unstabilized) adobe brick must be protected from water penetration. To accomplish this, the structure may be plastered with a simple adobe mud mixture or a wire mesh and cement stucco may be applied. The adobe mud covering, however, requires periodic reapplication. Traditional adobe structures may be further protected from excessive erosion by the use of a roof with a wide overhang (Smith and Austin 1989). To produce a more durable adobe brick, a stabilizer may be added. A semistabilized adobe brick contains a small amount (about 3 percent by weight) of asphalt emulsion, the purpose of which is to protect the brick from possible damage by an intense rain while it is drying or during wall construction. A waterproof (or fully stabilized) adobe brick may be made, in instances where even greater durability after construction is desired, by adding a greater proportion of asphalt emulsion (about 5 percent by weight) to the soil. Too much asphalt emulsion weakens the adobe block and can cause a condition known as lubricated soil. The fully stabilized adobe brick will not absorb moisture from contact with soil. The New Mexico Building Code requires fully stabilized adobe to absorb no more than 4 percent moisture by weight when placed in contact with water for 7 days. Such moisture can cause deterioration of unstabilized or semistabilized adobe brick even if it is protected by a roof from precipitation. An unstabilized adobe wall without the protection of a roof typically erodes at the rate of about one inch (2.54 cm) per 20 years in the desert Southwest (Smith and Austin 1989; Moquin 1994). The compressed earth block is a type of adobe brick in which the soil is pressed into a steel mold using a high pressure hand-operated or hydraulic press. Compressed earth block may be the traditional (or untreated) type or may be stabilized by the addition of 5 to 10 percent by weight portland cement or semistabilized by the addition of 2 to 5 percent by weight portland cement. One sampling series of compressed earth blocks has shown a range of compressive strengths from 512 to 3,702 psi (3.5 to 25.5 MPa). Unstabilized compressed earth block has an average compression strength of 1,100 psi (7.6 MPa). Compressed earth block stabilized with portland cement has a compressive strength of 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa). Most compressed earth blocks are 10 x 4 x 14 in (25.4 x 10.2 x 35.6 cm) and weigh about 38 to 40 lbs (17.2 to 18.1 kg) (Smith and Austin 1989; Moquin 1994). In 1987, 29 producers in New Mexico made more than 3 million adobe bricks, and 16 compressed earth block producers made 642,000 compressed earth blocks. Of the adobe bricks, 27 percent were unstabilized (traditional), 68 percent were semistabilized, and 5 percent were fully stabilized (Smith and Austin 1989).
Adobe Mortar Mortar for adobe bricks and compressed earth blocks is a simple mixture of water and adobe soil. This soil mixture becomes firm upon drying.
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BRICK AND MORTAR
Brick and Mortar

Life-cycle summaries of fired clay brick, mortar, portland cement, and adobe brick and mortar are provided in figures 1 through 4, respectively. The mining of clay, soil, sand, limestone, and metal ores produces runoff and alters habitats. Operating mining equipment and transporting materials from their source to the manufacturer, from one processing site to another, and from the manufacturer to the customer requires the expenditure of energy and the release of emissions from internal combustion engines. These emissions can produce or contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular problems in humans, as well as such environmental problems as smog, global warming, and acid precipitation. Fuel combustion emissions also result from the production of brick. However, the increased use of natural gas to fire brick has reduced emissions, especially when compared with the emissions produced when coal and oil were used as the major fuels. In addition to fuel combustion emissions, brick firing also releases fluorine and chlorine; while these gases are corrosive and toxic, it is difficult to assess their impact on human health and the environment, given the lack of data from brick manufacturing plants. Both fired brick and adobe brick are produced from soil that is readily available and in virtually unlimited supply. The availability of this raw material allows manufacturing plants to be located close to its source, thus decreasing the amount of energy required to transport the raw material to the plant. Likewise, plants can be located close to their customers, which minimizes the energy required in that transportation. Adobe bricks can actually be made at the job site. Waste from the manufacture of both fired brick and adobe brick can be recycled to produce new bricks. When a building made of fired brick is eventually demolished, the brick in that building can be recycled to a new building by removing the old mortar, a process performed by hand. Several municipal recycling centers provide this service. However, in most instances, demolished brick is disposed of in landfills, depleting their capacity. Although adobe brick is quite durable as long as it is protected from rain and soil moisture, it will break down into its soil components when exposed to the elements. Thus, when an adobe building is demolished, the structure can return to the soil. The only residue is the rather inert remains of the emulsified asphalt. A variety of waste products can be disposed of safely by incorporating them into fired clay bricks, including sewage sludge, nonhazardous wastes, incinerator ash, and soil contaminated with unused oil. The high temperature of the firing burns out or encapsulates these wastes and prevents them from escaping from the bricks. The use of wastes in brick manufacturing eliminates these materials from the waste stream and averts the use of other resources for their disposal. The association of soils with the emanation of radon gas has raised the question of whether bricks are a source of indoor air radon pollution. Except in rare situations, bricks would not produce abnormal exposure to radon gas. Brick and mortar construction using fired brick or adobe brick produces a durable structure that requires minimal maintenance and does not have to be replaced with great frequency. Both fired brick and adobe brick structures are in existence today that were constructed hundreds of years ago. Fired clay bricks have been used all around the United States, but adobe bricks have traditionally been used in the dry, southwestern climates. Adobe bricks can be made appropriate for wet climates by the addition of stabilizers. This durability conserves building materials and reduces associated environmental effects and energy use. Bricks also save energy by imparting thermal mass to a structure. Thermal mass moderates a buildings changes in external temperature. This is effected by shifting the peaks associated with heating
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MAT 04210 BRICK AND MORTAR ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Fired Clay Brick
Brick and Mortar
Air emissions (dust particulates)
Life Cycle Fired Clay Brick
Clay and shale mining Digging Logging
Storage Blending
Preparation Crushing Grinding Screening
Tempering Addition of water Mixing
Dry-press process
Drying
or
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, CHX, fluorine, chlorine)
KEY
Soft-mud process
Firing
or
Still-mud process
Cutting
Drawing Unloading Sorting Grading Packaging Storing
Iron and manganese ore mining Washing Drilling Drying Blasting Grinding Loading Screening Crushing
Coloring agents (iron oxide and manganese dioxide)
Engobes (slurries)
Construction
(see figure 1)
Runoff Habitat (soil change erosion, TSS)
reuse
Demolition
Sand processing Crushing Screening Grinding Sand coatings
Landfill debris
Figure 2: Life Cycle of Mortar

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 BRICK AND MORTAR MAT 04210
Limestone mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Limestone calcining/hydrating Heating Cooling Hydrating
Calcium hydroxide
Mortar production (mixing)
Packaging
Storage/sales
Sand processing Crushing Screening Grinding Mixing
Habitat Runoff Tailings change (soil waste, erosion, TSS) overburden
Landfill waste
Construction
Proprietary additives
Masonry cement
Maintenance/repair Portland cement

(see figure 3)
Brick and Mortar
Iron and manganese ore mining Washing Drilling Drying Blasting Grinding Loading Screening Crushing
Demolition
KEY
Coloring agents (iron oxide and manganese dioxide)
Process flow
Life Cycle Mortar
Transport Boundary
Habitat Runoff change (soil erosion, TSS)
Output
Landfill debris
Recycling
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MAT 04210 BRICK AND MORTAR ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 3: Life Cycle of Portland Cement
Brick and Mortar
Processes take place inside rotary kiln

Air emissions (HO2 , CO2 )
Life Cycle Portland Cement
Limestone and gypsum mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Limestone
Calcination
Habitat change
Lime
Clay, shale, mud mining Digging Loading Clay
Silica-containing material
Dicalcium and tricalcium silicates
Habitat change
Shale
Iron ore mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Iron ore
Iron-containing material
Clinker
Grinding mill
Portland cement
(see figures 1 and 5)
Habitat change
Tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite Waste iron
Scrap procurement or Coal-fired power plant waste or Shale, mud, clay or Waste from bauxite processing and mill finds or Iron smelting waste
Fly ash
Alumina-containing material
KEY
Process flow
Slag
Transport Boundary Output
Gypsum
Recycling
Figure 4: Life Cycle of Adobe Brick

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (dust particulates)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 BRICK AND MORTAR MAT 04210
Adobe soil collection Digging Loading
Adobe brick production (traditional method) Mixing (by hand) Shoveling Forming/molding Tamping
Water
Habitat change
Wheat/rye production Planting Fertilizing Spraying Harvesting Straw
Adobe brick production (semimechanical method) Mixing (mechanical) Transporting Forming/molding Sun drying
Sales
Construction
Habitat change
Semistabilized/stabilized Adobe brick production (semimechanical method) Mixing (by hand) Transporting Forming/molding
Waste (on-site fill)
Maintenance
Demolition
Landfill debris
Crude oil production Exploration Extraction
Ashphalt emulsion production
Semistabilized/stabilized Adobe brick production (mechanized method) Mixing (Mechanical) Layering (mechanical)
Wastewater (produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, organics)
Drilling muds and cuttings
Drainage wastes
Traditional compressed earth block production Filling mold Pressing (hand operated) Curing/drying
Brick and Mortar
KEY
Life Cycle Adobe Brick
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Recycling
or Portland cement
(see figure 3)
Semistabilized/stabilized compressed Adobe brick production (mechanized method) Filling Pressing (hydraulically operated) Curing/drying
Brick and Mortar

and cooling the building. Brick is also used in passive solar construction to absorb thermal energy from the sun during the day and release it later when ambient temperatures are cooler. Such use reduces the consumption of fossil fuels.

The materials discussed in this report are fired clay brick, mortar, and adobe brick. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of brick and mortar is presented in figure 5; those for adobe brick are presented in figure 6.
Fired Clay Brick Fired clay brick is made of clay and shale that is fired at a sufficiently high temperature to achieve the desired vitrification and durability. Variations in clay and shale content together with variations in the firing process produce a variety of colorations in the brick. Coloring agents may also be added to the clay. In addition, different sands may be applied to the brick surface to provide a further range of colors and patterns. About 40 percent of bricks are treated this way. The brick surface can also be treated with engobe (or slurry), a clay slip that hardens and adheres to the surface of the brick. About 20 percent of bricks are treated with engobe. Coloring agents may be added to engobes or to the brick clay itself to modify the color of the bricks. Engobes normally allow the brick to breathe and are not impervious to moisture (Brick Institute of America 1986; Trimble 1993).
Clay and Shale
Clay is a natural earthy, fine-grained material composed largely of a group of crystalline minerals known as clay minerals. These minerals are hydrous aluminum silicates consisting of silica, alumina, and water. The clay minerals contain mainly mixtures of kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite. Accompanying these minerals are varying amounts of feldspar, quartz, and other impurities, such as oxides of iron. Clay used for brick is categorized as common clay and shale by the Bureau of Mines (Virta 1993). Common clay is defined as a clay or claylike material that is plastic enough to mold easily; it is differentiated from other categories of clay such as kaolin and ball clay. Shale, a laminated sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay, mud, or silt, is included in this category. There is no formal classification of common clays and shales, although a clay may sometimes be named according to its use (i.e., brick, sewer pipe, or tile clay). Common clays and shales are composed mainly of illite (variable amounts of K2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, and H2O) or chlorite (a silicate of aluminum, ferrous iron, and magnesium). They also may contain kaolin (Al2O3 6SiO2 2H2O) and montmorillonite [(Mg, Ca)O Al2O3 5SiO2 nH2O] and usually contain more alkali, alkaline earth, and ferruginous minerals and less aluminum than high-quality kaolins, fire clays, and ball clays. The presence of iron usually imparts a reddish color to the clay after firing (Virta 1993). Deposits of common clays and shales are found throughout the United States. In 1991 clays and shales were mined commercially in 43 states and Puerto Rico. Not all deposits, however, are near potential markets, and most deposits are not suitable for all applications (Virta 1993). Most clays and shales are mined from open pits using modern surface mining equipment such as power shovels, front-end loaders, backhoes, and scraper-loaders. Clays and shales are usually transported by truck from the pit or blending area to the processing plants. In most open pit operations, nearly all of the clay and shale present is recovered from minable beds. In 1991, 11.765 million metric tons (25,937 million lbs) of common clay and shale, along
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Figure 5: Fired Clay Brick and MortarMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage
Activity Limestone, gypsum, clay, shale, sand, manganese ore, and iron ore mining Stressor Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Land disturbance Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Soil erosion Habitat alteration
Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Runoff Fuel combustion
(See impacts above) VOCs
Ground-level ozone (smog)
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation
Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Impairs ability of the blood to carry oxygen Ground-level ozone (smog)
Surface wate acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
Reduced reproduction Fishkill
Acid precipitation
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Reduced fish reproduction Fishkill
Particulates
Gypsum processing and Calcining
Particulates emissions
Portland cement production
Fuel combustion Dust
Air emissions
Calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhudrous calcium sulfate, and gangue (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Siderosis Eye and throat irritation Cronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
Carbon dioxide
Greenhouse effect
continued
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Figure 5: Fired Clay Brick and MortarMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Portland cement production (continued) Sand Processing Limestone calcining/calcium oxide production Stressor Wastewater Impact/Stressor Particulates Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Increased alkalinity Impact/Stressor
Dust Air emissions
Silicosis Carbon dioxide
Figure 6: Adobe BrickMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Adobe soil mining Stressor Disturbance of landforms (dry stream beds, terrace deposits, and aluvial fans) Impact/Stressor Soil erosion Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Habitat alteration Fuel combustion VOCs
Loss of biodiversity Species extinction Ground-level ozone (smog)
Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Sulfur dioxide
Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation
Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Particulates
Crude oil extraction
Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics
Increased BOD
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction
Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
continued
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Figure 6: Adobe Brick and MortarMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Crude oil extraction (continued) Stressor Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Desalting process Impact/Stressor Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Water pollution Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Eutrophication Water-borne disease Impact/Stressor (See impacts above) Impact/Stressor
Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude-oil processing
Increased BOD Increased sewage loading
Release of oil and suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions
Increased BOD
Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction
Increased BOD (See impacts above)
Distillation process
Noxious odors VOCs
Ground-level ozone or smog
Limestone, gypsum, clay, and sand mining
Tailings waste
Runoff
Land disturbance
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (See impacts above) Loss of habitat
Deoxygenation
Respiratory tract problems Eye irritation Decreased visibility Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Runoff Fuel combustion
(See impacts above) VOCs
Sulfur dioxide
Fuel combustion
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Ground-level ozone (smog)
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation continued
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Figure 6: Adobe Brick and MortarMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Limestone, gypsum, clay, and sand mining (continued) Stressor Fuel combustion (continued) Impact/Stressor Nitrogen oxides (continued) Nitrogen oxides Particulates Impact/Stressor Acid precipitation Impact/Stressor Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Impact/Stressor Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill
Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility
Gypsum processing and calcining
Particulate emissions
Fuel combustion Emissions Dust
Calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrous calcium sulfate, and gangue (See impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Impaired visibility Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
Air emissions
Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming (see impacts above) Increased alkalinity
Limestone calcining Wastewater
Carbon dioxide Air emissions Particulates
Straw production
Wheat and rye growing and harvesting
Pesticides runoff
Fertilizer runoff
Soil erosion Fuel combustion
Greenhouse effect Carbon dioxide Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD (See impacts above) (See impacts above)
Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction
with 257,000 metric tons (566 million lbs) of kaolin, were used in the manufacture of building brick (Virta 1993; Trimble 1994). Before clay and shale can be manufactured into brick, they must be processed into a form that can be handled by the production equipment. Extracted clay and shale are first crushed to produce material of a manageable size. The material is then stored and blended for the mixing stage (Trimble 1994).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Clay and Shale
Clay and shale mining affects the environment because of the land disturbance associated with open-pit mining. Removed overburden and unused material mined with the clay and shale are wastes generated during mining. While some estimates for clay mining indicate that for every metric ton (2205 lbs) of clay mined, 0.25 metric ton (551 lbs) of waste is generated, the industry believes that much less waste is generated in its operations. In addition, the industry also states that overburden is stockpiled for later reuse in
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mine reclamation. Reclamation of clay pits is a common occurrence. Previously mined areas have been converted into lakes, landfills, nature preserves, and other natural areas. Another environmental concern is the impact of stormwater runoff from clay and shale processing and storage. The brick industry has currently filed a group permit to conform to the Clean Water Act (CWA) requirements. By following these rules, pollution and soil erosion will be minimized (Trimble 1994). The environmental impacts of open-pit mining are discussed under gypsum in the material report on plaster and lath (09200), and will not be repeated here. Some clay processing operations generate solid waste. Domestic resources of clay are almost unlimited.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in clay mining and processing is largely in the form of fuels consumed to power the equipment used for mining, crushing, and hauling. In 1991 most manufacturers of structural clay products mined the clay for their own use. Because clay is heavy and expensive to transport, the fabricating plant is usually less than 2 miles (3.2 km) from the source (Trimble 1993). The high cost of transport promotes the development of local ownership companies or, in the case of a large firm, the ownership and operation of several strategically located pits and associated fabricating plants.
Sand
Sand is applied to brick to provide color and texture. The mining and processing of sand are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Dredging and mining of sand can result in a variety of stressors on the environment. These environmental impacts, along with information on the energy required for mining and processing sand, are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Engobes
Engobes are composed of finely ground clay and water. Coloring agents can be added to the engobes, or they may include only the color of the ground clay. The major coloring agents used in engobes and brick are discussed below.
Coloring Agents
Iron oxide and manganese dioxide are the major coloring agents used in the manufacture of fired clay brick, in addition to the minerals that naturally occur in clay and shale (Trimble 1994). These coloring agents may be added to the brick clay itself, or they may be added to engobes. Other less commonly used colorants (not discussed here) include titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, calcium oxide, and alumina-bearing compounds (Burton 1993). The acquisition of clay is described above. Iron oxide found in iron ore is the principal colorant used with fired clay brick and mortar. All natural iron oxide pigments are processed today from one of four types of iron ore: hematite, limonite, siderite, and magnetite. While some synthetic pigments are also used, they represent smaller proportions compared with the natural pigments. Hematite, essentially ferric oxide (Fe2O3), is occasionally referred to as red hematite, fossil ore, specular iron ore, and micaceous iron ore. Hematite is typically red or sometimes grayish. Limonites are hydrated forms of ferric oxide ranging in composition from 2Fe2O3 H2O (turgite) to Fe2O3 4H2O (esmeraldite). They are sometimes referred to as brown hematite, ocher, bog ore, and brown ore. Limonites range in color from light yellow to brownish black.
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Siderites are essentially ferrous carbonate (FeCO3) and range in color from light to dark brown. The mineral siderite is not used directly as a pigment but is calcined to form a ferric oxide for pigment use. Magnetite (lodestone) is a black magnetic ferrosic oxide (Fe3O4 or FeO Fe2O3). Compared to synthetic black iron oxide, the natural black iron oxide pigment is a grayer black and its tinting strength is weaker. The synthetic variant is normally preferred and used for pigmentation purposes. These natural pigments are obtained by mining of iron ore from soil deposits. This process is discussed under gypsum in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The ore is processed in a variety of ways, depending on the original composition and the final product desired. It may be dried immediately and then ground in any of several types of mills. It may be washed to remove impurities and handled in a slurry or in a dried form which is then ground. Some natural pigments may be further treated by calcination to change the natural coloration. For instance, the pigments called Siennas are deep brown to yellow-brown in the natural state and become red-brown during calcination, which produces the pigment burnt sienna.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Production of Iron Oxide Pigments
Prolonged inhalation of iron oxide dust can produce siderosis, a benign pneumoconiosis. The American Council of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit value (TLV) is 5 mg/m3 time-weighted average (TWA) for exposure to iron oxide fume as Fe. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has established a short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 10 ppm iron oxide fume as Fe. Exposure to iron oxide dust may also cause mechanical skin and eye irritation (Harcros Pigments 1993).
Energy Consumed
About 15,000 Btus are consumed in the production of one pound of iron oxide pigment (35 MJ/kg), mainly for gas and electricity. Raw materials required for pigment production are acquired locally and transported by truck (NCMA 1994). Manganese dioxide is contained in manganese ore, essentially all of which is imported into the United States. The ore is obtained by open pit mining. It is then crushed and sized. Appropriately sized ore powder is applied to the brick. A small amount of domestic manganese ore is found in surface clay deposits in the Carolinas. This material can be extracted by bulldozers and is added directly to the clay mixture used in making fired clay bricks; however, it is a small-scale activity (Jones 1994).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Manganese Ore
Manganese ore mining impacts the environment because of the land disturbance associated with open-pit mining. The environmental impacts of open-pit mining are described under gypsum in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). In excessive amounts, manganese can be toxic, affecting the central nervous system and respiratory tract. Such hazardous concentrations would only be expected in certain industrial situations and even there they are generally not encountered (Jones 1994). One of the major uses of manganese is to color brick. There is virtually no manganese ore present in this country.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in manganese ore mining and processing is largely in the form of fuels consumed to power the equipment used for mining, crushing, and hauling.
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Mortar Mortar is the bonding agent that integrates a masonry wall. It constitutes up to 20 percent of the area of a wall. The basic ingredients of mortar are portland cement, hydrated lime, and sand. Masonry cement is sometimes used to replace portland cement and hydrated lime or it is combined with portland cement to make mortar (Brick Institute of America 1989). Coloring agents (see above) may also be added to mortar.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is the principal cementitious or binding ingredient for mortars. It is a hydraulic cement; that is, it sets, hardens, and does not disintegrate in water. Portland cement consists mainly of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate. Two types of raw materials are required: one rich in calcium, such as limestone; the other rich in silica, such as clay. Alumina is supplied from mud or clay, or from such waste products as slag, fly ash, or mill fines or waste from bauxite processing. Iron is supplied from ores or from fly ash or other wastes. A small amount of calcium sulfate in the form of gypsum or anhydrite is also added during grinding to control the setting time and enhance strength development. These raw materials are heated in a rotary kiln at temperatures of 2600 to 3000F (1427 to 1649C) to produce clinker, which is ground into cement. Powdered coal, oil, or gas provide the fuel (Lefond 1975; Wilson 1993; Kirk-Othmer 1982). Most of the environmental effects associated with the mining of the raw material used in the manufacture of portland cement result from open-pit operations. The environmental impacts of open-pit mining and information on the consumption of energy have been discussed in the portland cement, limestone, and gypsum sections of the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The environmental impacts associated with the mining of iron ore are described in the material report on steel (05011). The manufacture of portland cement is a major source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and produces dust, which must be controlled. Further discussion of potential environmental impacts related to the manufacture of portland cement is presented in the material reports on concrete masonry (04220) and plaster and lath (09200).
Energy Consumed
Recent industry information indicates average energy consumption was 2,401 Btus per lb (5.6 MJ/kg) in 1992 (Melander 1994). An earlier estimate was 4,060 Btus per lb (9.4 MJ/kg) (Hannon 1976). The energy required for the production of portland cement also is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Hydrated lime
Hydrated lime is a derivative of limestone that has been through two chemical reactions to produce calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2. This process is discussed in the material report of plaster and lath (09200). In mortar, hydrated lime contributes to bond, workability, water retentivity, and elasticity (Brick Institute of America 1989). The environmental impacts associated with the mining of limestone are limited almost exclusively to open-pit operations. These impacts, along with information on the consumption of energy, are discussed under limestone in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Sand
Sand acts as a filler in mortar, providing for an economical mix and controlling shrinkage. Either natural sand or manufactured sand may be used. Information on the geology of sand and a description of sand mining are included in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
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Dredging and mining of sand can result in a variety of stressors on the environment. These stressors, along with information on the consumption of energy, are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Masonry Cement
Masonry cements are widely used because of their convenience and good workability. Although their exact formulations are usually proprietary, masonry cements usually contain portland cement, ground limestone as a filler, and additives which provide workability, water retentivity, and air entrainment. The standard governing masonry cements (ASTM C 91 Standard Specification for Masonry Cements) provides no limitations on the additives (as does the ASTM specification for portland cement). The constituents of masonry cements can therefore vary widely among brands. The major ingredients for masonry cement (portland cement and limestone), the environmental impacts associated with mining and processing of these materials, along with the energy consumption associated with these processes are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Adobe Brick Traditional (untreated) adobe brick is made of adobe soil and water. Stabilized and semistabilized adobe bricks contain an additional ingredient, either asphalt emulsion or portland cement. Some adobe brick includes straw to hold the brick together during curing.
Adobe Soils
Adobe soils in New Mexico are acquired principally from stream (alluvial) deposits, particularly Holocene (Recent) terrace deposits and older, loosely compacted geologic formations, such as the Santa Fe Group (Tertiary), located throughout the Rio Grande Valley. A majority of the adobe producers in New Mexico use a sandy loam (50 percent clay and silt) associated with or derived from the Santa Fe Group (Smith and Austin 1989). Clay comprises 10 to 20 percent of this soil (Moquin 1994). Channel deposits are found in streambeds along present stream courses and consist of intermixed sand, silt, clay, and gravel. These deposits, a major source of adobe soils, are accessible during the dry season and can easily be removed by front-end loaders. Terrace deposits are alluvial deposits located above the level of the present floodplains. These are also excellent sources of adobe soils, as well as sand and gravel. An additional source is alluvial fan and piedmont plain soil formations; these are found at the mouths of canyons where mountain streams enter valleys or plains. Additionally, many older geologic formations (early, middle, and late Tertiary) throughout New Mexico also yield adobe soils (Smith and Austin, 1989). (These soils are typical of adobe soils used throughout the southwest; however, the manufacture of adobe brick throughout the rest of the United States and the world is not restricted to these specific soil formations.) In many areas, adobe material is most readily obtained from local sand and gravel operations. The large-scale adobe producers purchase the overlying soil from these operations, which mainly occur on state, federal, and Native American lands. Most small-scale adobe producers, however, haul their adobe soil from nearby land-leveling operations and from sites on private land. Adobe soils are also obtained as by-products of excavation and maintenance of irrigation ditches. These fine soils, usually high in clay and silt, can be mixed with other materials to make an adobe soil (Smith and Austin 1989). The traditional understanding of the mechanics of adobe brick is that clay forms a cohesive matrix around sand and gravel. The sand and gravel provide compressive strength. Too much
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clay (more than 30 percent) or silt degrades the compressive strength. The useable range of clay is commonly considered to be 7 to 30 percent (Moquin 1994). Recent analytical studies have indicated that calcite (CaCO3), also called caliche, may be involved in forming the matrix in some adobe soils (Smith and Austin 1989).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion from the Acquisition of Adobe Soils
Adobe soils are acquired largely as a by-product of existing sand and gravel quarrying and earth-moving operations. These activities in themselves have environmental impacts (see the discussion on open-pit mining in the material report on acoustical ceiling tiles and panels [09510]). Among the environmental impacts of quarrying and open-pit mining is the solid waste that results from the removal of overburden. Adobe brick manufacturers, however, have found that the soils that overlie sand and gravel deposits are often of a type suitable for making adobe bricks. Thus, the removal and use of adobe soils from quarrying operations help mitigate waste disposal problems resulting from these activities. Although much of the environmental impact from adobe soil acquisition is associated with preexisting sand and gravel operations, additional impact comes from the digging, removal, and transport of the adobe soil itself. These environmental impacts consist of energy use and air emissions from fuel combustion, smoke and dust, noise, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Runoff into streams is a special concern when adobe soils are mined from channel deposits, terrace deposits, and alluvial fans. Although the soil runoff from these adobe mining areas is nontoxic, this runoff can result in increased turbidity of the stream water from suspended solids, leading to reduced light penetration, increased benthic deposition, increased BOD, deoxygenation, and ultimately to loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill (van der Leeden 1990). Usable adobe soils are found in the majority of the Southwests basins and constitute a nearly inexhaustible supply and reserve (Smith and Austin 1989). Soils with a wide variety of composition, including mostly sand with some gravel and silt and 7 to 30 percent clay, can be used in adobe construction. These are found almost everywhere throughout the United States and the world (Moquin 1994).
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in the acquisition of adobe soils is in the form of fuels consumed to power the equipment (e.g., front-end loaders) used in digging the soil. Transportation to the adobe brick manufacturer consumes additional energy; however, this is usually minimal since manufacturers normally are located close to their soil sources. Only if they need to augment a particular soil component will significant transportation energy be expended. For instance, if a local soil were high in clay, additional sand would need to be trucked to the manufacturing site.
Adobe Stabilizers
Adobe brick is often stabilized with asphalt emulsion. Asphalt emulsion is a type of liquefied asphalt derived from asphalt, the residue of crude oil distillation (Austin 1984; EPA 1993). This residue occurs because its constituents are not volatile enough to be distilled, even in vacuum conditions. The extraction of crude oil from the earth and its processing is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Asphalt emulsion is made by combining asphalt with water and proprietary surfactants. This mixture is processed in a colloidal mill to produce emulsified asphalt (Kohler 1994).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion from the Acquisition and Preparation of Asphalt Emulsion
Few if any VOC emissions arise from emulsified asphalt itself (EPA 1993). The environmental impacts of the extraction and processing of crude oil are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
The energy consumed in the extraction and processing of crude oil is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Portland cement is often added as a stabilizer to compressed earth brick. The acquisition and preparation of raw materials for producing portland cement are described above. Most of the environmental effects associated with the mining of the raw materials used in the manufacture of portland cement result from open-pit operations. Additional environmental impacts result from the consumption of energy, largely in the form of fuels consumed in mining, hauling, and processing these raw materials. These environmental effects are discussed under limestone, gypsum, and portland cement in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Straw
Straw is added to traditional adobe brick as a stabilizer. It functions to hold the raw adobe together, to prevent excessive cracking, and to assist the drying of the block while curing. While large manufacturers formulate their adobe mixtures with soil components that hold together during this stage, individuals who make adobe brick usually include straw from wheat, grasses, or whatever vegetation is readily available.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion from the Acquisition and Preparation of Straw
Straw is an agricultural by-product. Among the environmental concerns associated with agricultural production are soil erosion and pesticide and fertilizer runoff. These concerns associated with corn production, along with information on energy consumption, are summarized in the material report on acoustical ceiling tiles and panels (09510). The environmental impacts associated with runoff in wheat fields (more typical of straw sources), however, are not as pronounced as those associated with the growing of corn. More potential for runoff exists in corn fields than in wheat because of the large amount of exposed soil between the rows in corn fields. This use of straw with adobe is limited to individual backyard adobe brick makers; large, commercial manufacturers of adobe brick do not use straw. Thus, the impact related to straw should not be extensive.
Adobe Mortar Adobe mortar is a mixture of adobe soil and water. For a given construction project, adobe soil for mortar is acquired from the same site as the adobe brick soil.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacture and fabrication of materials for the manufacture of brick and mortar is presented in figure 7. The stressors and impacts associated with production of adobe brick are summarized in figure 8.
Fired Clay Brick Fired clay brick is made of clay and shale and is fired at a sufficiently high temperature to achieve the desired vitrification and durability. In fired clay brick, the temperature is sufficient to result in near-vitrification; that is, particles of the clay and shale are almost fused to the point of closing the pores and making the mass impervious.
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Figure 7: Fired Clay Brick and MortarManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Preparing, forming drying, and grinding the clay and shale Stressor Particulate emissions Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation, Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility (See impacts above) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Curing and firing
Particulate emissions Sulfur oxides
Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Impairs ability of the blood to carry oxygen Ground-level ozone (smog)
Acid precipitation
Hydrogen fluoride
Acid precipitation
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification
Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill
Chlorine
Acid precipitation
Methane, nonmethane VOCs
Human health effects Odors Greenhouse effect Global warming
For this discussion of brick manufacture, the term clay will be understood to include both clay and shale. The manufacturing of brick consists of five basic steps: preparation of the clay, forming, drying, firing, and drawing (consisting of sorting, grading, and packaging) (Brick Institute of America 1986). First, the clay is crushed to break up large chunks and remove stones. It is then ground with large grinding wheels, which revolve in a circular pan. The manufacturing plant then screens the clay, passing it through inclined vibrating screens to control particle sizes. Tempering produces a homogeneous, plastic mass that is ready for forming or molding. Tempering is achieved by adding water to the clay in a pug mill, a mixing chamber containing one or more revolving shafts with blades. After pugging, the clay mass is ready for forming. There are three principal processes for forming brick: stiff-mud, soft-mud, and dry-press processes.
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Figure 8: Adobe BrickManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Mechanized and semimechanized method of adobebrick production Stressor Fuel combustion Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Impact/Stressor
Sulfur dioxide problems and lung damage
Respiratory tract
Acid precipitation
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Impair ability of the blood to carry oxygen Ground-level ozone (smog)
Acid precipitation
Particulates
Eye throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
In the stiff-mud (or extrusion) process, the tempered clay goes through a de-airing chamber in which a vacuum of 15 to 29 in. (375 to 725 mm) of mercury is maintained. De-airing removes air pockets, increasing plasticity and resulting in greater strength. Next, the clay is extruded through a die to produce a column of clay, which then passes through an automatic cutter to produce the final dimension of the brick unit. As the clay column leaves the die, textures or surface coating (such as engobes) may be applied. About 94 percent of fired clay brick is produced by this process. The soft-mud process is appropriate for clays that contain too much natural water to be extruded by the stiff-mud process. Clays are mixed so that they contain 20 to 30 percent water, and the units are then formed in molds. Brick may be produced in this manner using a machine or by hand. About 6 percent of fired clay brick is produced by this process. The dry-press process is particularly adaptable for clays of very low plasticity. Clay is mixed with a minimum of water (up to 10 percent), then formed in steel molds using hydraulic or compressed air rams. Less than 1 percent of brick is produced by this process. Before the firing process begins, most of the moisture contained in the wet clay units is evaporated in dryer chambers at temperatures ranging from about 100F to 400F (38C to 204C). The source of the heat supplied to the drying chambers is commonly exhaust heat from the firing kilns.
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Firing requires from 15 to 50 hours, depending on the kiln type and other variables. Fuel may be natural gas, propane, oil, sawdust, coal, or combinations of these fuels. Firing may be divided into six general stages: (1) water-smoking (evaporating free water), (2) dehydration, (3) oxidation, (4) vitrification, (5) flashing, and (6) cooling. All stages except flashing and cooling are associated with rising temperatures in the kiln. Water-smoking takes place at temperatures up to about 400F (204C), dehydration from about 300F to 1800F (149C to 982C), oxidation from 1000F to 1800F (538C to 982C), and vitrification from 1600F to 2400F (871C to 1316C). Clays soften slowly and melt or fuse gradually when subjected to rising temperatures. Fusing takes place in three stages: (1) incipient fusion, the point when clay particles become sufficiently soft that the mass sticks together; (2) vitrification, when there is extensive fluxing and the mass becomes tight, solid, and nonabsorbent; and (3) viscous fusion, the point at which the clay mass breaks down and becomes molten. The key to the firing process is to control the temperature in the kiln so that incipient fusion and partial vitrification are achieved but viscous fusion is avoided. After the temperature has reached the maximum and is maintained for a prescribed time, the cooling process begins. Because the rate of cooling has a direct effect on color and because excessively rapid cooling will cause cracking and checking of the ware, cooling is an important stage in the firing process. Drawing is the process of unloading a kiln after cooling. At this stage, units are sorted, graded, packaged, and taken to a storage yard or loaded onto rail cars or trucks for delivery. The majority of bricks are packaged in self-contained, steel-strapped cubes. The color of fired clay depends primarily upon its mineral composition. The color of brick can be modified by variations in firing temperatures and the method of firing control. Of all the oxides found naturally in clay, the presence of iron oxide probably has the greatest effect on color after firing. When exposed to an oxidizing fire, clay containing iron in any form will burn red, due to the formation of ferrous oxide. When fired in a reducing atmosphere, the same clay will take on a black or purple cast. Creating a reducing atmosphere in a kiln is known as flashing, which is an optional process. The color of the fired brick also can be modified by the addition of coloring agents. The major colorants used with fired clay brick are iron oxide and manganese dioxide (Trimble 1994). Other less commonly used colorants (not discussed here) include titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide,and alumina-bearing compounds (Burton 1993). Textures may be applied to the unit as the clay passes through the die. In the stiff-mud process, textures may be applied by attachments which cut, scratch, roll, brush, or otherwise roughen the surface. A smooth texture, called a die skin, may be created by the pressure exerted by the steel die. About 40 percent of bricks are finished with a sand coating. This will affect both color and texture. The sand is sprinkled on a soft clay column using a vibrating feeder. It may be brushed or rolled-in on textured surfaces leaving accumulations of sand in the indentations while leaving the original clay surface on the high areas. For medium-hard clay, the sand is forced into the surface of the column by compressed air or a pressure roller. In some cases, the clay may need to be softened with water or steam. Different sands will produce different colors. White burning sands produce light colors and red burning sands produce darker colors (Burton 1993). Many brick manufacturers apply engobes (slurries) of finely ground clay, coloring agents, and water to the extruded clay column. About 20 percent of bricks are treated this way. Engobes are defined as clay slips that harden and fuse to the brick. Engobes allow the brick to breathe and are not impervious to moisture. The application of dry coatings is sometimes combined with engobing to achieve unusual color effects.
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Both compressive strength and absorption are affected by the properties of the clay, the method of manufacture, and the degree of firing. Although such qualities can be controlled to some extent by manufacturing and firing methods, these qualities depend largely upon the properties of the raw materials and vary widely among different products. A few generalities can be made, however. The stiff-mud process generally produces units having higher compressive strengths and lower absorptions than units produced by the soft-mud or dry-press process. Additionally, higher compressive strengths and lower absorptions are associated with higher firing temperatures (for a given clay and method of manufacture) (Brick Institute of America 1986). There are a number of instances in which materials that would otherwise be considered waste products are included as a raw material in the brick manufacturing process (Trimble 1993). Materials that have been used in combination with clay include: sewage sludge, incinerator ash, fly ash, waste glass, papermaking sludge, metallurgical wastes, and rice husk and slag. Experiments have been carried out on the use of asbestos in brick manufacture. The hazardous asbestos was converted by firing temperatures of 900C to 1000C (1652F to 1832F) to nonhazardous forsterite (Tamas 1990). Asbestos is not used in current brick production. Other materials added to brick as a burn-off fuel include coal and sawdust. Because of the high firing temperatures associated with brick manufacturing, any of these waste materials remaining after firing are usually encapsulated with no leaching of the additive. According to industry, these wastes are disposed of in a nonhazardous manner by encapsulation (Brick Institute of America 1992a).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Brick Manufacture
Particulate matter is the primary emission in the manufacture of bricks. Dust is generated during the materials handling procedure, which includes drying, grinding, screening, and storing the raw material. Most manufacturers use dust collectors in the plant to reduce dust. Combustion products are emitted from the fuel consumed in the dryer and kiln. These include VOCs, SOx, CO2, CO, NOx, methane, and particulates (EPA 1993). For an account of the environmental effects of these pollutants, see the material report on acoustical ceiling tiles (09510). Because most brick manufacturers use natural gas as a kiln fuel, emissions have been reduced, especially in comparison to the past when coal and oil were the predominant fuels. Certain additional pollutants, originating from the raw materials themselves, may be emitted from the brick kiln. These include fluorine (40 to 205 ppm in stack gasses), present as hydrogen fluoride (Trimble 1994) and small amounts of chlorine (0.7 to 4 ppm in stack gases), as well as SOx and CO2 (Wilson and Johnson 1975). The ambient environmental concentrations of fluorine and chlorine around brick plants have not been reported. The threshold limit value (TLV) for hydrogen fluoride is 3 ppm (2.6 mg/m3, as fluorine) (Hazardous Substances Data Bank 1994). Health effects include irritation of the eyes, nose, and respiratory systems; laryngeal and bronchial spasms; pulmonary edema; and eye and skin burns (NIOSH 1978). The permissible exposure limit for chlorine is 1 ppm, which is a ceiling (29 CFR 1910.1000). NIOSH has recommended a 0.5 ppm/15 minute ceiling for chlorine. Health effects include burning of the eyes and nose, choking, nausea, chest pain, headache, pulmonary edema, and other symptoms (NIOSH 1978). The environmental effects of fluorine (hydrogen fluoride) and chlorine (hydrogen chloride) include acid precipitation. Acid precipitation results in possible tree and crop damage, materials corrosion, and surface water acidification leading to reduced fish reproduction and possible fishkill. The brick industry is currently involved in monitoring fluorine emissions and developing ways to eliminate them (Brosnan 1992; Brick Institute of America 1992b).
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The clay from which brick is made contains crystalline silica. There is sufficient evidence to consider crystalline silica an animal carcinogen and limited evidence to consider it a human carcinogen (International Agency for Research on Cancer 1987). A recent court ruling, however, found that the potential for adverse health effects due to occupational exposure to silica during brick manufacture is negligible (OSHRC Docket No. 90-3312). Very little solid waste results from the manufacture of brick. The percentage of brick that can be used or sold after firing is close to 100 percent. Any brick not meeting the quality standard can be crushed and reused in the manufacturing process, or the material can be crushed and used as landscape chips. The use of waste materials to produce brick removes them from the waste stream. The landfill or treatment facilities that would normally be required to dispose of that waste are not depleted or used. Instead, the waste materials are recycled into a new material.
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce brick varies depending on the raw materials, fuel for firing, the type of unit produced, and the efficiency of the plant. Figure 9 provides an estimate, based on a number of sources, of the amount of energy it takes to manufacture a brick unit. Approximately 300 to 1,700 Btus/lb (0.7 to 4.0 MJ/kg) are required to manufacture brick. When the energy costs for materials acquisition and transportation of the material to the job site are included, the total embodied energy is about 14,000 Btus/brick unit (14.8 MJ) (approximately 758 x 214 x 358 in. or 19.4 x 5.7 x 8.6 cm) or 4,000 Btus/lb (9.3 MJ/kg) of brick. The energy used in the firing of brick is obtained through the burning of natural gas, coal, or wood (sawdust). Of these, natural gas accounts for 77 percent of the fuels used; coal, 10 percent; and wood or sawdust, 10 percent (Brick Institute of America 1990).
Mortar The basic ingredients of mortar include portland cement, hydrated lime, and sand. Portland cement and lime may sometimes be replaced by masonry cement, or portland cement may be combined with masonry cement. Colorants may be added. The basic ingredients for mortar were described in detail above.
The manufacture of mortar involves mixing the ingredients and, if necessary, packaging. The ingredients may be mixed at the plant to the required job specifications and transported to the site. In prepackaged mortar, the mixture of dry ingredients is shipped in bags. Readymixed mortar is transported to the site in a wet state in bulk. In job-mixed mortar, the dry ingredients are delivered to the job site in bulk, where they are mixed by hand or with a mechanical mixer according to the job specifications (Hornbostel 1991; Trimble 1994).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mortar Manufacture
The mixing of dry ingredients may generate particulate emissions. If motorized mixers are used, fuel combustion may generate SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, VOCs, and particulates.
Energy Consumed
No information on energy consumption is available.
Adobe Brick Adobe brick production ranges from a labor-intensive, traditional hoe-shovel-and-wheelbarrow technique to a mechanized, large-scale operation capable of producing 5,000 to 20,000 bricks per day. The production of adobe bricks is usually limited by the number of frost-free
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days for a particular adobe yard; in general, the production season lasts from five to nine months. Small-scale adobe brick producers that use the handcrafted (traditional) method of production generally employ two to three brick makers. The adobe soil and water is placed into a mudpit and mixed by hoe and shovel until the proper adobe-mud mixture has formed. Depending upon the type of soil used, straw is usually added to prevent the adobe bricks from cracking excessively. The prepared mud is shoveled into a wheelbarrow and is delivered to several four-mold wooden forms that have been laid out on the leveled ground of the adobe yard. The mud is then dumped into the forms and tamped into the corners by hand. The molding forms are removed by hand, and after two or three days of drying, the bricks are turned on edge, trimmed of excess material and any rough edges, and allowed to sun cure for three to four weeks. The bricks are then stacked for delivery (Smith and Austin 1989). The semimechanized method of adobe-brick production is similar to the handcrafted method except that front-end loaders and mixing equipmentpugmills, plaster mixers, and cement mixersare usually used. The soil mixture, water, and asphalt emulsion are mixed simultaneously in a pugmill or a mudpit. A front-end loader carries the soil to the adobe yard and dumps it into the forms. As with the traditional method of brick production, the molding forms are removed by hand, and after two or three days of drying, the bricks are turned on edge and trimmed of excess material and any rough edges. They are allowed to cure for one to three weeks. The majority of the bricks produced by the semimechanized method are the semistabilized type. Stabilized bricks, as well as traditional untreated bricks, are also produced by this method (Smith and Austin 1989; Moquin 1989). The mechanized technique of adobe-brick production is usually associated with large-scale manufacturing of adobe brick and maximum use of mechanical equipment, including machine-powered mechanical adobe layers. The Hans Sumpf-type adobe layer machine is operated by one person who maneuvers it across the level adobe yard. The machine deposits 25 standard 10 x 4 x 14-in. (25.4 x 10.2 x 35.6 cm) adobe bricks at a time. Another type of adobe layer produces 42 bricks at a time. These bricks are allowed to dry for two or three days, are turned on edge and trimmed of any excess material, and then are dried for a minimum of three weeks (Smith and Austin 1989).
Figure 9: Energy Required to Manufacture a Unit of Brick
Energy use (as cited)
13,600 Btus/brick unit 14,300 Btus/brick unit 7831,002 Btus/lb 6 35 Therms/ton 27.94 Therms/ton
1/ lb 12
Energy use (converted)

3,886 Btus/lb 4,085 Btus/lb 7831,002 Btus/lb 3001,750 1.397 Btus/lb 961 Btus/lb
Phases included
Material acquisition, manufacture Materials acquisition, manufacture, transportation Manufacture Not stated Manufacture Not stated
Reference
Stein 1981, Hannon 1976
Robinson 1991 Brick Development Association 1974 West 1975 Brick Institute of America 1975 Franklin Associates 1991
of coal/lb
Semistabilized bricks and fully stabilized bricks are produced by the mechanized method of adobe production. Compressed earth blocks are produced by placing the adobe soil into a steel mold and pressing the soil into a dense block. A hand-operated press, referred to as a CINVA-Ram, or a
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gasoline- or diesel-powered hydraulically operated machine may be employed in this process. Compressed earth blocks can be either unstabilized, semistabilized (with 2 to 5 percent portland cement), or stabilized (with 5 to 10 percent portland cement).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Adobe Brick Manufacture
The mechanized and semimechanized methods employ gasoline- and/or diesel-powered equipment and produce some combustion emissions. The types of emissions from the combustion of fuel products and the resulting environmental impacts were covered in the material report on acoustical ceiling tiles and panels (09510) and will not be covered here. The traditional method of adobe production (except for the transport of the adobe soil to the adobe yard or to the building site) employs no mechanical equipment; very few emissions from fuel combustion are therefore produced in traditional adobe production. The asphalt emulsion produces few if any VOC emissions. Stabilized adobe mud is reused to make more adobe. Any broken bricks, wastage, or bricks ruined by rain are returned to the mudpit. Any solidified adobe is first put into a concrete-lined soaking pit. Semistabilized adobe will disintegrate into mud within one week. Fully stabilized adobe must first be crushed (e.g., by driving a vehicle over the bricks) before being placed into the soaking pit.
Energy Consumed
The manufacture of adobe is energy-efficient because adobe brick is sundried, rather than fired. Adobe is also energy-efficient because in many cases the soil can be mined at the building site, further eliminating transportation costs. In a study of building material production in Guatemala, 10 x 4 x 14-in. (25.4 x 10.2 x 35.6 cm) adobe bricks were determined to have embodied energies of 3,734 Btus (3.9 MJ) per semistabilized brick and 4,183 Btus (4.4 MJ) per fully stabilized brick (McHenry 1985).
Adobe Mortar Mortar for adobe bricks is a simple mixture of adobe soil and water. The soil is screened to remove rocks, cobbles, or foreign material.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with brick and mortar construction is presented in figure 10.
Figure 10: Brick and MortarConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity Construction Stressor Scrap Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Fired Clay Brick and Mortar Installation of brick follows the same basic procedures used for centuries. Human labor is used to lay each brick into an assembly. The brick is usually laid in mortar to create a wall. The method of placing bricks so that the entire wall becomes one solid mass throughout its length and breadth is called bonding. Mortar joints should be watertight and should allow water to drain off. Joints that do not shed water should be used only where watertightness is not a problem (for example, for interiors or in dry climates) (Hornbostel 1991).
Selection of a particular mortar type is usually a function of the needs of the finished structural element. Where high winds are expected, the structure must have high lateral strength; in those cases, mortar with high flexural bond strength is needed. Load-bearing walls require mortar with high compressive strength (Brick Institute of America 1989).
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Bricks are often used as a finishing material and are backed by other materials, such as concrete masonry, or by wood or steel studs that serve as structural elements.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance
Waste is produced at the job site during construction, but this waste can be minimized. Most of the bricks that are shipped are used in the construction project, and those that are not used can often be sent back to the manufacturer for recycling. Bricks have very little packaging; they are either bound by steel straps, usually four, or strapped and set on wood pallets. The pallets are usually sent back to the manufacturer for reuse. Often, however, excess or broken bricks are used as fill on site or transported to a landfill. Excess mortar from construction is either buried on site or disposed of in landfills. Bricks do not pose a health threat during use. An EPA study of the emissions of various building materials found that no volatile organic compounds or other toxic organic compounds are released from brick structural units (Sheldon 1988). It is highly unlikely that clay fired brick will contribute to radon levels in brick buildings. For a small proportion of buildings in the United States with indoor air concentrations exceeding EPAs established action level of 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m3), the source of this problem is building materials. Most of these instances have arisen from the use of known radium- or uranium-rich wastes as aggregate in concrete block or as backfill around houses. While this is a potential problem, unless building materials have been identified as radium- or uranium-rich, the chance of obtaining radon from building materials is very slim (Bayham 1994; EPA 1988; EPA 1991). In a German study of radon levels in rooms built of clay brick, 95 percent of the rooms had radon concentrations less than 3.0 pCi/L (111 Bq/m3) (Gbel 1990). Gbel also notes that the World Health Organization makes recommendations of 0 pCi/L (0 Bq/m3) as an atmospheric concentration without risk and 1.89 pCi/L (69.93 Bq/m3) as a concentration with risk. In most instances, the source of radon entering a house is the soil beneath and around the house. Radon from the soil enters the living space through cracks in basements or slabs, drains, and other openings. Remedial actions, however, can be taken when necessary to prevent the accumulation of radon in a house. These measures include keeping a house well ventilated and filling cracks and openings in basement walls and concrete slabs that would allow radon to enter from the surrounding soil. Clay, and the brick made from it, contains crystalline silica. There is sufficient evidence to consider crystalline silica an animal carcinogen and limited evidence to consider it a human carcinogen (International Agency for Research on Cancer 1987). Mineral products containing 0.1 percent or more crystalline silica must be labeled in accordance with the Occupational Safety and Health Administrations Hazard Communication Standard (HCS), and employers must comply with the terms of HCS with regard to worker training (Virta 1993). A recent court ruling, however, found that current procedures in use by bricklayers at construction sites do not release, or otherwise expose employees to, a hazardous chemical. Brick is therefore exempt from the terms of the HCS (OSHRC Docket No. 91-229).
Energy Consumed
Transporting bricks to the construction site requires energy, mainly in the form of gasoline or diesel fuel. In actual use, brick construction can help to conserve energy. Not only does brick have some insulating value, it also provides the benefit of thermal mass. Because brick is a massive material, brick masonry stores heat and releases it very slowly. This thermal lag
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shifts the peaks associated with heating and cooling a building, thereby reducing the peak energy load. Peak load shifting, an important strategy in energy conservation, can be achieved through the proper use of brick masonry. In addition, brick is used in passive solar construction. Passive solar construction uses the suns natural radiation to heat and light buildings.
Adobe Brick and Adobe Mortar During construction with adobe bricks or compressed earth blocks, the elements are joined together with a water-adobe soil mixture that hardens and becomes firm upon drying. The New Mexico Building Code allows the use of earth mortar if it is composed of the same material as the bricks. The majority of adobe producers can furnish screened adobe soil that is appropriate for use as mortar (Smith and Austin 1989). The soil is mixed with water to form a mortar and applied to the wall before setting adobe bricks in place. The bricks are laid in staggered courses similar to fired clay bricks.
Moisture reentering an unstabilized or a semistabilized brick during the drying process or after it has dried causes the clays to swell and release their bonds so that the entire mass disintegrates. For this reason, all but the fully stabilized brick must be protected from exposure to water. The traditional or untreated adobe brick must be protected by an adobe-mud mixture that is plastered onto the walls or by applying a longer lasting cement stucco. Adobemud plaster typically must be reapplied every one to three years to maintain its integrity. A roof with an overhang further protects the adobe from excessive erosion. The fully stabilized adobe brick, on the other hand, is a waterproof building material that resists water penetration without a protective coating. Semistabilized adobe bricks are manufactured because they are somewhat resistant to the damage caused by rain before they are incorporated into the final structure. Compressed earth blocks are manufactured either as unstabilized, semistabilized, or fully stabilized. The compressed earth blocks are frequently made by machines that are portable and can produce blocks using the local soils at the construction site. Unstabilized compressed earth blocks do not require drying but can be conveyed directly from the machine to the wall. Compressed earth block that is stabilized with portland cement is covered with plastic sheeting for one day after forming. It is sprayed with water for the first three days and is then air cured for three to seven days. A thin mud slurry or the lightly wet block surfaces bind the blocks together, and the blocks are laid in staggered courses like adobe bricks. In seismically active areas, adobe structures are sometimes hazardous because of the lowstrength materials used. However, adobe structures can be strengthened with inexpensive methods to a point where adobe structures are no more hazardous in earthquakes than structures constructed with other commonly used building materials (Smith and Austin 1989).
The identification of radon gas as a potential health hazard in homes has raised the question whether people living in adobe homes are exposed to greater danger from radon than people living in other types of structures. The discussion above for radon in relation to clay brick construction also applies to adobe, except that no radon concentrations have been specifically determined for adobe construction. Most radon enters homes from soils through cracks in basements or slabs, drains, and other openings. Few adobe homes have basements where radon can constantly move into a house, but cracks in slabs and other openings may provide a source of entry for radon. Remedial actions, however, can be taken to prevent the accumulation of radon in a home. These measures are relatively inexpensive and include keeping a house well ventilated, filling cracks and openings in concrete slabs, repairing cracks in walls, and sealing adobe walls with plaster and paint, especially inside the house (Smith and Austin 1989).
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Recycle, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Broken adobe bricks and other adobe waste are typically disposed of on site as fill that breaks down to soil and inert asphalt.
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy for a 100-square-foot section of wall built from unstabilized 10 x 4 x 14-in. (25.4 x 10.2 x 35.6 cm) adobe brick is calculated to be 139,737 Btus (147 MJ) (McHenry 1985). The use of adobe brick is advantageous from an energy standpoint because the brick is dried by the sun, is made in the general locality of the construction site, and does not have to be transported great distances. One major producer of adobe brick (with annual production of 700,000 bricks per year) reports that 95 percent of its bricks are delivered within a 15 to 20 mile (24.1 to 32.2 km) radius from the plant (Levine 1994). Using compressed earth blocks for construction is especially advantageous in that the energy cost of transporting bricks to the construction site is eliminated. The compressed earth block machines are portable, and they can produce blocks using local soils at the construction site. Furthermore, the finished blocks can be conveyed directly from the machine to a wall, or they can be stockpiled for later use. In use, adobe buildings retain heat well in winter, as long as the adobe walls remain dry. In summer, buildings remain comfortably cool because the inside daytime temperature is usually lower than the outside temperature (Smith and Austin 1989).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of brick and mortar is presented in figure 11.
Figure 11: Brick and MortarRecycle, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Demolition/disposal Stressor Landfill and on-site disposal Re-use of bricks Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Landfill capacity saved for other disposal Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Fired Clay Brick Brick construction has a long life span. A brick buildings minimum life expectancy is 100 years or more (Brick Institute of America 1986). Brick construction can result in less waste because of less frequent demolition of older buildings.
The life span of a brick structure can be more than 1,000 years if designed and constructed properly. The ziggurat at Ur, which is made of fired clay brick, has been standing since 2300 B.C. (Plumridge 1993). Many town halls, churches, and residences built of brick in the colonial period of the United States are still standing, including a residence built in 1636 in Virginia. Fired clay brick can be reused and recycled. The exact extent of brick reuse or recycling is unknown; however, it is probably very small for the whole country. Brick has occasionally been salvaged from building demolitions or street removals to be cleaned and resold. It may also be crushed and used as roadway subbase material. There are no technical difficulties in salvaging brick; however, the cost of reclaiming brick as compared with manufacturing new brick can make the use of salvaged brick uneconomical. In Portland, Oregon, 45 recycling sites collect a variety of construction and demolition waste, including red clay brick. While normal construction debris costs $75 per ton to discard in a landfill, the cost of recycling separated waste (e.g., rubble including brick) is only $10 per ton. This rubble is crushed to 34 inch (1.8 cm) pieces and used as fill or concrete aggregate. Recycling sites will pay for clean
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Organization Perspectives
brick separated from the mortar before recycling. This can be reused in brick construction and has a relatively high market value. Without this economic incentive, the recycling of construction and demolition wastes in this area would probably not be as successful as it is (Palermini 1994). Similar recycling services are provided in Los Angeles and a few other localities. If brick is not recycled, it is usually taken to a landfill. Since brick is inert, it requires no special treatment for long-term disposal.
Adobe Brick Adobe construction is naturally durable and resistant to erosion as long as it is well maintained, as demonstrated by numerous Native American Pueblos located throughout New Mexico. In particular, the five-storied Taos Pueblo has been occupied and in continuous use for more than 900 years (Smith and Austin 1989). Construction that is durable means less waste because of less frequent demolition of older buildings. Adobe walls are unaffected by dry rot, termites, and other destructive insects. Adobe itself is not susceptible to fire and structures can be made fireproof.
As long as adobe construction is maintained and protected from moisture, it is quite durable. When this protection is allowed to deteriorate, the adobe absorbs moisture, swells, and disintegrates to its soil components. This reincorporates with the soil at the building site, leaving only the inert residue of the emulsified asphalt.
Industry Perspective: Adobe Brick and Compressed Earth Block Though misunderstood and underutilized in the United States, earthen construction materials provide shelter to 40 percent of the worlds population. Earthen walls can be constructed in all types of climatesfrom Tibet (extreme cold), where rammed earth and sun-dried adobe brick is used, to wet tropical climates such as Costa Rica (rainfall averaging 100 inches, or 254 cm, annually), where adobe brick and wattle-and-daub predominate. Many two-story adobe homes, dating from the mid-19th century, are concentrated in Geneva, New York, an area of high rainfall and snow.
Adobe, rammed earth, and compressed earth block construction are slowly being discovered to be the most environmentally sound and sustainable way to build. Local materials are used, and minimal processing and transport are required. Earthen construction has virtually no environmental impact, especially when no stabilizers are added to the soils. Earthen walls require only one-fifth the amount of wood used in framed houses. Adobe or compressed earth block can also be used in vault and dome roof construction, an ancient, proven technique, which further reduces wood usage. Earthen walls provide the best properties of mass, thermal heat storage, and very slow heat transfer. Used in conjunction with passive solar heating and cooling, fuel consumption and pollution can be dramatically reduced. Other outstanding properties of adobe walls and their kin include: the most outstanding form of sound deadening wall construction (ideal for apartment and motel construction); the ultimate in fireproof wall and roof construction (which includes arched adobe or compressed earth block lintels); outstanding strength and stability (numerous five-story-plus structures of rammed earth exist in various countries of the world); and a nonpolluting, nonallergenic, chemical-free living environment (most often rammed earth) for individuals highly sensitive to toxic fumes, molds, outgases of chemical finishes, and glues.
Industry Perspective: Brick and Mortar For thousands of years, clay brick has been recognized as a sturdy, attractive, natural building material that provides shelter from the elements. In this age of environmental awareness, brick is also being recognized as a building material that is environmentally friendly throughout its life. Clay and shale, the raw materials in brick, are abundant and efficiently extracted
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and used. Brick contributes to strength, durability, and energy efficiency of the buildings in which it is used. The longevity of brick masonry structures is legend. The environmental challenges to the brick industrydamage to land and habitats due to mining, the energy used and the emissions produced during manufacturing, and the disposal of construction wasteare small and are being addressed. An environmental comparison of brick to other building materials favors brick due to its low embodied energy. Brick is a nontoxic, inert material that is relatively harmless to the environment from its origins as a raw material to the disposal or reuse of the product. Brick structures often stand for more than a century, and brick can be recycled from existing structures that are demolished. In many areas, used bricks are prized for their unique character and are sold at higher prices than new bricks. Used bricks are often crushed and used as landscape chips. Bricks that are not reused are sent to the landfill and do not pose any longterm environmental threat since they are nontoxic. Brick also leads the way in eliminating other industries wastes. Wood in the form of sawdust is currently used in the manufacturing and firing of brick. Other wastes, such as sewage sludge and incinerator ash, can be added to raw materials to make bricks. The waste materials are either fired out at high temperatures or encapsulated in the unit. New technology now being considered may allow heavy metals or other hazardous waste to be incorporated into brick without any harmful ramifications. Brick provides a multifunctional purpose in homes and buildings. Brick walls not only serve as aesthetically pleasing enclosures, but also act structurally, increasing the efficiency of the material. In some applications, brick walls and floors are important parts of passive solar structures. Bricks thermal capacity stores solar heat gain and moderates indoor temperature swings. Brick masonry walls also serve as barriers to fire, sound, and vandalism. Clay brick offers designers endless design possibilities with myriad colors, textures, patterns, and shapes. The use of these in varying combinations leads to truly dramatic architecture. No other building material offers all of these capabilities in one building product.
Regulatory Status
Brick plant emissions are regulated by the Clean Air Act (CAA). The brick industry is actively monitoring fluorine emissions and developing ways to eliminate them in response to CAA requirements. In response to stormwater runoff provisions of the CWA, the brick industry has currently filed a group permit to conform to those requirements. By following these rules, pollution and soil erosion will be minimized.
32
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Brick and Mortar

References
References
Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bayham, Chris. 1994. Radon specialist, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Personal communication. Brick Development Association. 1974. Brick: A Low Energy Material. The Brick Bulletin, March:2. Brick Institute of America (BIA). 1975. Walls to Save Energy. Reston, VA. . 1986. Manufacturing, Classification and Selection of Brick: ManufacturingPart I. Technical Notes on Brick Construction, 9, rev. Reston, VA. . 1989. Mortars for Brick Masonry. Technical Notes on Brick Construction, 8, rev. II. Reston, VA. . 1992a. Oxidized Sewage Sludge as a Source of Income, Materials. BIA News, June:8. . 1992b. Task Force Created to Deal with Fluorine Emissions. BIA News 5, 10:1. . 1993. 1992 Brick Sales and Marketing Report. Reston, Va, June 1993. Brosnan, D. 1992. The Brick Industrys Aggressive Program on Fluorine. Clemson, SC: The Ceramic Center. July 16. Burton, Michael. 1993. A Guide To Brick Coatings. American Ceramic Society Bulletin. 72(3): 8992. Buxbaum, Gunter. 1993. Industrial Inorganic Pigments. NY: VCH Publishers. Franklin Associates. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: Society of the Plastics Industry. Gbel, Klaus. 1990. The Radioactivity of Building MaterialsAmount, Types and Effects. ZI (4): 237240. Hannon, B.M., R.G. Stein, B.Z. Segal, D. Serber, C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois. Hazardous Substances Data Bank. 1994. Bethesda, MD: Toxicology Data Network, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Hubbell, E. 1943. Earth Brick Construction. Washington, DC: Education Division, U.S. Office of Indian Affairs. International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1987. Iarc Monograph on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. 42: 39. Jones, Tom. 1994. Manganese specialist, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Branch of Metals, Washington, DC. Personal communication. Kirk-Othmer. 1982. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3d ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Kohler, Ron. 1994. Technical manager, Koch Materials, York, PA. Personal communication. Lefond, Stanley J., ed. 1975. Industrial Minerals and Rocks: Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels. NY: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Levine, Richard. 1994. Owner, New Mexico Earth, Albuquerque, NM. Personal communication. Long, J.D., and L.W. Neubauer. 1946. Adobe Construction. Bulletin 472, University of California (Berkeley), College of Agriculture, California Agricultural Experiment Station. Melander, John. 1994. Masonry specialist, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. Personal communication. McHenry, Paul G., Jr. 1985. A Preliminary Report of Investigations on the Uses of Geothermal Energy for Production and Processing of Building Materials in Guatemala. Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory. Moquin, Michael. 1994. Editor, The Adobe Journal, Albuquerque, NM. Personal communication. . 1994. Editor, The Adobe Journal, Albuquerque, N.M. Industry perspective for earthen construction materials for this report. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1978. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 78-210. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. . 1990. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. June. OSHRC Docket No.: 90-3312. Secretary of Labor v. Holly Springs Brick & Tile Co. Atlanta: Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission.
OSHRC Docket No.: 91-229. Secretary of Labor v. Bickerstaff Clay Products Co. Atlanta: Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission. Palermini, Debbi. 1994. Director, The Sustainable Building Collaborative, Portland, OR. Personal communication. Patton, Temple. 1973. Pigment Handbook. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Plumridge, A,. and W. Meulenkamp. 1993. Brickwork. NY: Harry Abrams, Inc. Robinson, G. C. 1991. Heat Required to Fire Brick. Clemson, SC: Center for Engineering Ceramic Manufacturing. Sheldon, L., et al. 1988. Indoor Air Quality in Public Buildings. Vol. 2. Document Number EPA/600/688/009B. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August. Smith, E. W. and G. S. Austin. 1989. Adobe, Pressed Earth, and Rammed-Earth Industries in New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources, Bulletin 127. Socorro, NM. Stein, R. G., et al. 1981. Handbook of Energy Use for Building Construction. DOE/CE/20220-1. U.S. Department of Energy. March. Tamas, F., and L. Amrich. 1990. Disposal of Asbestos Waste in the Heavy Clay Industries. Tile and Brick International 6, no. 4: 51-53. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter Its Mix. May. Trimble, Brian. 1993. Senior engineer, Brick Institute of America, Reston, VA. Personal communication. . 1994. Senior engineer, Brick Institute of America, Reston, VA. Personal communication. Twining Laboratories, Inc. 1992. Qualitative Testing of 16" x 7" x 4" Adobe Brick Per Uniform Building Code Standard No. 24-14 [For Hans Sumpf Company]. . 1988. Application of Radon Reduction Methods. Office of Research and Development, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory. August. . 1991. Radon-Resistant Construction Techniques for New Residential Construction Technical Guidance. Office of Research and Development, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory. February.
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Brick and Mortar

References
. 1993. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42) Database. Van der Leeden, Frits, et al. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Lewis Publishers. Virta, Robert L. 1993. Clays. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. West, H. 1975. Energy Savings in the British Brick Industry. Journal of the British Ceramic Society. Wilson, Alex. 1993. Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations. Environmental Building News 2(2):1, 7-12. Wilson, H. and L. Johnson. 1975. Characterization of Air Pollutants Emitted from Brick Plant Kilns. Ceramic Bulletin 54, No. 11: 990-94.
34
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Material Report
Concrete Masonry*
Highlights
Concerns associated with mining raw materials include energy and resource use; soil erosion, pollutant runoff, and land and habitat loss; and air and water quality degradation. Combustion emissions, dust, CO2, and particulates from mineral processing, limestone calcining, cement kiln operation, and portland cement production affect air quality. Polluted wastewater from mineral processing affects water quality. Concrete masonry waste from manufacturing is recycled in new concrete masonry units. Units not used at one construction site are usually used at another. Damaged units are crushed for pavement material or aggregate for new concrete masonry units, buried on site, or disposed of in landfills. Rubble from concrete demolition can be crushed and used as aggregate for new concrete masonry. Excess mortar is usually buried on site or disposed of in landfills. Clean, high-Btu-content wastes, usually tires, are used in some cement kilns. These may be hazardous or nonhazardous, and EPA-approved methods are followed.
The durability of structures constructed with concrete masonry minimizes the need to produce replacement materials and therefore to deplete additional resources. Aggregates, limestone, clay, and calcium sulfate, the major components, are abundant. By-products of other industries are often used as cementitious materials and as aggregate in concrete masonry units.
Energy Consumption
The embodied-energy for concrete masonry is estimated to range from 24,126 to 31,821 Btus (25.453 to 33.571 MJ) per unit or 731 to 964 Btus per lb (1.700 to 2.240 MJ per kg). No embodied energy estimate is available for the mortar used with concrete masonry, but a major component of this mortar is portland cement, which has an embodied energy of 2,401 to 4,060 Btus per lb (5.585 to 9.444 MJ per kg).
Indoor Air Quality
A study by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported various aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbon emissions from concrete masonry units that ranged from 0.06 to 0.39 g/m2 per hour. Polystyrene foam was also tested and found to have various emissions, including total aromatic hydrocarbon emissions of 20 g/m2 per hour.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1994. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 CONCRETE MASONRY MAT 04220
Concrete Masonry
Background
Background
Concrete masonry units (sometimes referred to as concrete block) are usually produced with single or multiple hollows but are also available as solid units. The ingredients of concrete block include water, a cementitious material, and various types of aggregate. Concrete masonry units were originally made with aggregates such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Today, concrete masonry units are made with a variety of aggregate materials and can be manufactured with a wide variety of surface textures. A concrete masonry unit is commonly 8 x 8 x 16 in. (194 x 194 x 397 mm) and must meet specified requirements covering size, type, weight, moisture content, compressive strength, and other characteristics (Hornbostel 1991). This report covers concrete masonry units that are included under Masterspec number 04220 (Concrete Masonry). There are two types of concrete masonry units: load-bearing and nonload-bearing. The load-bearing types are available in two grades: grade N, for general exterior and interior use, and grade S, which is intended for use in walls not exposed to the weather or in exterior walls with weather-protective coatings. Grade S is uncommon (Szoke 1994a) and is generally not specified by architects (AIA 1990). Concrete masonry units are also characterized according to the amount of shrinkage expected: Type I, moisture controlled, and Type II, nonmoisture controlled. Type I units conform to specific maximum moisture-content requirements when they are shipped and are thus expected to undergo a specific amount of shrinkage between the time the units are installed and the time moisture equilibrium with the environment is achieved. Type II units do not comply with specific moisture requirements and thus may undergo a less predictable amount of shrinkage than Type I (AIA 1990). Concrete masonry units are generally available in three weight classifications: lightweight units made of material having a density of less than 105 lbs per cubic foot (1,682 kg/m3); medium weight, from 105 to 125 pcf (1,682 to 2,002 kg/m3); and normal weight, more than 125 pcf (2,002 kg/m3). Although concrete masonry units are classified in this way to set limits on water absorption, there is a fundamental relationship between unit weight and such physical properties as thermal resistance, heat storage capacity, fire resistance, compressive strength, and acoustical properties (AIA 1990). Unit weight also has an impact on ease of shipping and on the productivity of masons during the construction process (Szoke 1994a). The weight of a unit is determined by the type or types of aggregate used in its manufacture. Sand and gravel produces the heaviest unit, weighing from 135 to 150 pcf (2,162 to 2,403 kg/m3). Expanded slag and expanded shale, clay, or slate produced by sintering produce a somewhat lighter unit, from 90 to 120 pcf (1,442 to 1,922 kg/m3). An even lighter unit, ranging from 75 to 120 pcf (1,200 to 1,922 kg/m3), can be produced using coal cinders. Expanded shale, clay, and slate aggregates produced by the rotary kiln method will produce a lightweight unit that is in a similar weight range, 75 to 95 pcf (1,200 to 1,520 kg/m3). Pumice and scoria are still lighter in weight and may also be added to the aggregate mix for concrete masonry units (Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Institute 1971; Martin 1994). This report also covers preinsulated concrete masonry units (which have had insulation inserted at the concrete masonry unit manufacturing plant), mortar, and grout.
MATERIAL REPORT 04220
Concrete Masonry
Life-cycle summaries of concrete masonry units, expanded polystyrene, portland cement, iron oxide pigments, and mortar are provided in figures 15, respectively. The mining of aggregate and of the components of portland cement produces runoff and alters habitats. Operating mining equipment and transporting materials from their source to the manufacturer, from one processing site to another, and from the manufacturer to the customer require the expenditure of energy and the release of emissions from internal combustion engines. These emissions can produce or contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular problems, as well as environmental problems, including smog, global warming, and acid precipitation. The processing of aggregate and portland cement components can also release various particulates into the air that may cause eye and respiratory tract irritation. The use of waste products such as slag, crushed concrete, ground glass, fly ash, and cinder or bottom ash makes productive use of material that would otherwise have to be disposed of in landfills. Production of portland cement produces large volumes of CO2, a gas associated with global warming. The CO2 is generated by the combustion of fuels used to operate rotary kilns and by the conversion of limestone into lime. The use of kilns with improved energy efficiency has reduced CO2 emissions in recent decades. Increased use of waste lime from other industries could also reduce these emissions. Waste (such as old tires) is burned as a fuel in many cement kilns. This is another productive use of a material that would otherwise have to be disposed of in landfills. Furthermore, the use of waste as a fuel reduces the amount of mining for new fuels, along with the accompanying pollution and depletion of resources. Kilns have been promoted as a safe way to use hazardous organic wastes: The toxic organic materials are destroyed in combustion. The complete safety of this practice has been questioned recently, however, and the EPA and the Cement Kiln Recycling Coalition are reviewing this use of wastes. Some concrete masonry units include expanded polystyrene insulation inserts. This material is produced from natural gas and petroleum derivatives, whose acquisition and processing release a variety of air emissions and wastewater contaminants. These pollutants cause a range of environmental and health effects that are mentioned above. Unlike some foam insulations, expanded polystyrene does not use chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs), which damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere. Instead, pentane is typically used. Pentane may contribute to ground-level smog, however. The manufacture of concrete masonry units requires the combustion of fuel for transportation and for heating the units during curing. These processes also release emissions, which are discussed above. Manufacturing waste is recycled into the block production process. Sometimes manufacturers will crush concrete masonry construction or demolition waste and recycle it as aggregate. Concrete masonry construction produces waste as a result of excess mortar and leftover and broken concrete masonry units that cannot be returned to the supplier. This material is disposed of on site or in a landfill. When a concrete masonry structure is demolished, the waste is normally disposed of in a landfill. Some localities have arranged recycling services to promote the crushing and reuse of the concrete rubble as aggregate for concrete manufacturing or surface pavement. Reuse of entire concrete masonry units is not recommended because of the decreased porosity of the surface of used units. Energy is used throughout the acquisition, processing, manufacture, and construction process. Activities requiring energy include the mining and transportation of materials, the calcining of cement and limestone, and the curing of concrete masonry units. The produc-
CONCRETE MASONRY
MAT 04220
4
MAT 04220 CONCRETE MASONRY ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Concrete Masonry Units
Concrete Masonry
Life Cycle Concrete Masonry Units
Limestone, pumice, and scoria mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
to Aggregates (see figure 1b)
KEY
Process flow
Habitat change
Tailings waste, overburden Air emissions (particulates)
Transport Boundary
Output Recycling
Sand and gravel mining Digging Loading Screening Washing
Sand and gravel processing Crushing Screening Grinding
Habitat change
Tailings waste, overburden Air emissions (particulates)
Rotary kiln process
Clay, slate and shale mining Digging Loading
Storage Screening
Preparation Crushing Screening Grinding
Sintering process
Expanded "shale"
Habitat change
Air cooling
Air-cooled slag
Rapid chilling
Granulated slag
Iron smelting waste
Controlled processing with Water or Water and steam or Water and compressed air or Water, steam and compressed air
Expanded slag
Coal-fired power plant waste
Cinders or bottom ash
Waste glass procurement
Ground glass Crushed concrete
Demolition
Waste concrete procurement
from Demolition (see figure 1b)
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Concrete Masonry Units (continued)

Aggregates Limestone Pumice Scoria Siliceous gravel Calcareous gravel Expanded "shale" Air-cooled slag Granulated slag Expanded slag Cinders or bottom ash Ground glass Crushed concrete
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 CONCRETE MASONRY MAT 04220
from Limestone, pumice, and scoria mining (see figure 1a) from Sand and gravel processing (see figure 1a) from Shale, slag, and concrete (see figure 1a)
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Recycling Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Mixing
Portland cement
(see figure 3)
Molding
Fly ash Curing
Corn production Planting Cultivating Fertilizing Spraying Harvesting Water
Pesticide and fertilizer runoff
Soil erosion
Expanded polystyrene (optional)

(see figure 2)
Finishing (optional) Splitting Blasting Grinding Polish
Stacking
Storage
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Cattle raising
Slaughtering
Tallow
ZnO
Hydrolysis
Distillation
Stearates (optional) Construction
Organic wastes
Soil runoff
Water
Glycerin
Iron oxide pigments (optional)

(see figure 4)
Life Cycle Concrete Masonry Units
Concrete Masonry
Additives Maintenance/repair
Landfill debris
to Waste concrete procurement (see figure 1a)
Demolition
6
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Expanded Polystyrene
Concrete Masonry
Life-Cycle Summary Expanded Polystyrene
Oil processing Desalting Distillation Catalytic cracking
Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzol(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
KEY
Benzene
Boundary Output
Produced water, oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, TDS, organics)
Drainage wastes
Solids, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans
Cyanides
Sludge
Recycling
Natural gas production Exploration Extraction
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, Natural gas VOCs, particulates) processing
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) catalyst
Separation Liquefication Distillation
Ethylene
Styrene
Styrene monomer
Wastewater, oil, grease
Heavy metals
Drilling muds and cuttings, heavy metals
Pentane
(see figure 1)
Figure 3: Life Cycle of Portland Cement


Limestone
Calcination
Habitat change
Lime
Silica-containing material
Dicalcium and tricalcium silicates
Habitat change
Shale
Iron ore
Clinker
Grinding mill
Portland cement
Habitat change
Scrap procurement or Coal-fired power plant waste or Shale, mud, clay or
Fly ash
Concrete Masonry
Life Cycle Portland Cement
Waste from bauxite processing and mill finds or Iron smelting waste Slag
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output
Gypsum
Recycling
8
Figure 4: Life Cycle of Iron Oxide Pigments
Concrete Masonry
Iron ore mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separation
KEY
Process flow
Life Cycle Iron Oxide Pigments
Processing
Habitat change
Ferrous sulfate

Wastewater (Na2, SO4)
Processing
Copperas red oxide
Mineral separation
TiO2 processing Titanium dioxide Co-product

Pigments
Habitat change
Sodium Hydroxide
basic pH
Black iron oxide
neutral pH
Scrap iron
acidic pH
Orange iron oxide
Brine
Electrolysis
Co-products Hydrogen Chlorine
Steam
Yellow iron oxide
Air
Yellow iron oxide
Figure 5: Life Cycle of Mortar

KEY
Limestone calcining/hydratio Heating Cooling Hydrating
Calcium hydroxide
Runoff Habitat Tailings (soil change waste, erosion, TSS) overburden Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Packaging
Sand processing Crushing Screening Grinding Storage/sales
Mixing Proprietary additives Masonry cement
Portland cement
(see figure 3) waste Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Construction Iron oxide pigments (optional)

(see figure 4)
Corn production Planting Cultivating Fertilizing

Pesticide and fertilizer runoff Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Spraying Harvesting
Maintenance/repair
Concrete Masonry
Soil erosion Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Demolition
Life Cycle Mortar
Cattle raising
Slaughtering
Tallow
ZnO
Hydrolysis
Distillation
Stearates (optional)
debris
Organic wastes
Soil runoff
Water
Glycerin
Landfill
Concrete Masonry
tion of portland cement is energy intensive, but cement constitutes only 8 to 18 (usually less than 12) percent by weight of concrete masonry units. Concern about exposure to radon has raised the question of whether concrete masonry is a source of indoor air radon pollution. Except in rare situations, it is unlikely that concrete masonry would produce abnormal exposure to radon gas. Concrete masonry construction produces a durable structure that does not have to be replaced with great frequency. Life expectancy for this type of construction may exceed 100 years. This durability results in a conservation of building materials together with a reduction of associated environmental effects and energy use. Concrete masonry units have some thermal insulation value, especially when lightweight aggregate and polystyrene inserts are used. Concrete masonry construction also saves energy by imparting thermal mass to a structureboth conventional structures and passive solar applications. By absorbing heat and releasing it slowly, concrete shifts the peaks associated with heating and cooling a building. Shifting energy use to off-peak hours may result in the use of energy that is more efficiently generated and more economical. Use of concrete masonry in passive solar construction allows heat entering a building through windows to be collected for later release.

The materials discussed in this report are concrete masonry units, expanded polystyrene foam insulation inserts for preinsulated concrete masonry units, mortar, and grout. Mortar is discussed only briefly because additional details are provided in the material report on brick and mortar (04210). Although several types of insulation strategies are found in concrete masonry construction, this report discusses only the expanded polystyrene foam inserts that are placed into the concrete masonry unit by the manufacturer. The preinsulated concrete masonry unit together with its insulation forms a single building component, and it is this product that is transported to the construction site. Other insulation strategies involve use of insulation as a separate material that is installed at the construction site. For the purposes of this report, the preinsulated concrete masonry unit is regarded as a single product, and all components, including insulation, that make up this product are discussed. A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of concrete masonry units and their polystyrene foam inserts is presented in figure 6.
Concrete Masonry Units A concrete masonry unit is made of the following ingredients: various types of aggregate, a cementitious material, and water. Some units also contain pigments and additives.
Aggregates
Depending on the type of aggregate, it is possible to design concrete masonry units that cover a wide range of weights along with different degrees of durability, strength, heat and sound insulation, and watertightness. Aggregates are usually a mixture of coarse and fine materials and may include limestone, siliceous gravel (coarse sand), calcareous gravel, pumice, scoria, expanded shale (clay, slate, or shale), air-cooled slag, granulated slag, expanded slag, cinders or bottom ash, crushed concrete, or even ground glass. Limestone, sand, and gravel acquisition are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
10
MAT 04220
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Concrete Masonry
Figure 6: Concrete MasonryMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Aggregate: open-pit mining of limestone, sand, gravel, pumice, scoria, clay, slate, and shale Stressor Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Land disturbance
Fuel combustion
VOCs
Series extinction Loss of biodiversity Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation
Particulates
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility
Crushing, screening grinding, and processing of limestone, sand gravel, pumice scoria, clay, slate, and shale Production of of expanded shale Production of expanded slag Portland cement: open-pit mining of limestone, gypsum, clay, mud, and iron ore
Rotary kiln and sintering process Steam and compressed air production (see impacts above)
Fuel combustion emissions Fuel combustion emissions
(see impacts above) (see impacts above)
continued
CONCRETE MASONRY
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11
Concrete Masonry
Figure 6: Concrete MasonryMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Portland cement: gypsum processing and calcinating Stressor Particulate emissions of calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrus calcium sulfate, and gangue Fuel combustion Dust Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Impaired visibility Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Air emissions
Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming Increased alkalinity
Wastewater
Carbon dioxide Particulates
Greenhouse effect Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids Sulfur oxides
Pigment production
Mining of minerals Calcining and other process
(see impacts above) Air emissions
Carbon dioxide Titanium dioxide Potential for human occupational health effects
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Stearate production
Fuel combustion (see impacts above) Tallow production
Beef cattle production
Drainage of material from feed-lots
Corn and grain growing and harvesting
Fuel combustion Pesticides runoff
Fertilizer runoff
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD (see impacts above) Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD
Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Polystyrene production
Natural gas production
Wastewater
Fuel combustion emissions
Soil erosion Fuel combustion May contain oil, grease, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen-depleting organics (see impacts above)
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish
Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
12
MAT 04220
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Concrete Masonry
Figure 6: Concrete MasonryMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Polystyrene production (continued) Stressor Crude oil extraction Impact/Stressor Wastewater Impact/Stressor May contain oil, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen-depleting organics Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Eutrophication Waterborne disease Emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Sulfides, ammonia, oil, and chlorides Phenol Mercaptans VOCs Oil, sulfides, cyanides, and ammonia Impact/Stressor (See impacts above) Impact/Stressor
Drilling muds, drill cuttings, produced sands Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Deck drainage, and sanitary and domestic wastes Desalting process wastewater
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition
(See impacts above)
Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish
(see impacts above)
Distillation process wastewater
Distillation process air emissions Catalytic cracking wastewater
Consumption of toxics by fish Known human carcinogen Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH
(See impacts above)
Phenol Catalytic cracking air emissions Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, and ammonia Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene Benzene and VOCs Contains chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation
Increased BOD Known human carcinogen (see impacts above)
Surface water acidification (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Some possible human carcinogens Respiratory irritation
Ethylene production
Air emissions Wastewater
(see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish
(see impacts above)
Benzene production
Release of benzene
Mortar and grout production
Portland cement production (see impacts above) Limestone calcining/hydrated lime production Sand processing Pigment production Stearate production Pea gravel mining
Air emissions
Carbon dioxide
(see impacts above)
Dust (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above for open-pit mining)
Silicosis
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Pumice and scoria are natural minerals of volcanic origin; they are filled with cavities and are very light in weight. These materials are acquired through open-pit mining. The process of open-pit mining and the processing of stone are discussed under limestone in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Expanded clay, slate, and shale aggregates (expanded shale) are produced from highly siliceous clays or shales that exhibit a bloating characteristic when heat is applied. The bloating is caused by gas-forming minerals that liberate gases at the temperature of incipient fusionthat is, the temperature at which the material becomes soft and pliable, but not to the point of completely melting (Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Institute 1971). Clay, slate, and shale are acquired by means of open-pit mining; this process is discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). The expanded shale aggregate particle is a hard, high-cellular product of uniformly great structural strength, each cell completely surrounded by a hard, vitreous, waterproof membrane. Expanded shale aggregates produced from clay, from slate, or from shale all exhibit the same physical and chemical properties. Therefore, the generic term expanded shale is frequently used, regardless of the raw material (Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Institute 1971). Expanded clay, slate, and shale are produced by the rotary kiln method. Shale is crushed and introduced at the upper end of a kiln similar to the type of kiln used in the portland cement industry. In passing through the kiln, the material reaches a temperature of 1,800 to 2,200F (1,000 to 1,200C) and begins to become plastic. When the liberated gases cause the material to expand, small, unconnected air cells are formed, which are retained after the material cools and solidifies. After leaving the kiln, the material is cooled and then crushed and graded (Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Institute 1971; Martin 1994). Slag is the blast furnace waste material generated from the production of iron. Iron and steel making are discussed in detail in the material report on steel framing (05401). The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Designation C125 recognizes blast furnace slag as the nonmetallic product consisting essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of lime, and other bases, which is developed simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace. To many in the construction trade, slag is thought of as the all purpose construction aggregate (Lefond 1975). Three processes are used to produce construction aggregate from blast furnace slag. These processes result in three forms of slagair-cooled, granulated, and expandedwhich are described as follows (Lefond 1975):
Air-cooled blast furnace slag. This type is defined in ASTM C125 as the material resulting
from solidification of molten blast furnace slag under atmospheric conditions. Subsequent cooling may be accelerated by application of water to the solidified surface. This type of slag has a rough vesicular surface and tends to break into cubical pieces when crushed. It exhibits excellent bonding characteristics and is very hard (near 7 on Mohs scale). Air-cooled blast furnace slag is the most common type.
Granulated slag. This type is defined in ASTM C125 as the glassy granular material formed
when molten blast furnace slag is rapidly chilled, as by immersion in water. This type of slag, composed of amorphous glassy particles, resembles natural sand. It has natural cementitious properties and is useful as a fine aggregate in concrete masonry units.
Expanded slag. This type is defined by ASTM C125 as the lightweight cellular material
obtained by controlled processing of molten blast furnace slag with water, or with water and other agents such as steam or compressed air or both. Crushed expanded slag is angular and roughly cubical in shape with a minimum of flat or elongated pieces. Eighty-five percent of
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expanded slag (1,351 thousand short tons, or 1,225 million kg) is used as a lightweight aggregate in concrete block. Expanded slag concrete masonry units are lightweight, are highly fire resistant, and shrink very little during curing. Cinder or bottom ash is the residue that remains after coal combustion. It is obtained from power plants. Waste glass and waste concrete may be ground or crushed and used as an aggregate.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Aggregates
The mining of limestone and the dredging and mining of sand and gravel can result in a number of stressors on the environment. These impacts, along with information on the consumption of energy, are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Environmental impacts from the acquisition of clay, slate, shale, and stone by means of open-pit mining are discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Since slag is a by-product of steel production, the pollutants resulting from the manufacture of steel are not attributed to the life cycle of concrete masonry units. In fact, the use of slag in the production of concrete masonry units eliminates the need to dispose of it as a waste product. However, there is some environmental impact from the processing of slag to produce expanded slag. In expanded slag operations, emissions can result from the combustion of fuels to produce steam and to power the engines that produce compressed air. The use of crushed concrete, ground glass, and cinder or bottom ash in concrete masonry units also helps eliminate the need to dispose of these materials as waste products. Any pollutants that result from the production of these materials are not attributed to the life cycle of concrete masonry units. There is an abundant supply of aggregates in the United States.
Energy Consumed
The energy consumed in the mining of limestone and the dredging and mining of sand and gravel are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The energy consumed in clay, pumice, and scoria production is largely in the form of fuels consumed to power the equipment used for mining, crushing, and hauling. The production of expanded shales consumes energy to operate the rotary kiln. Processing a typical cubic yard of expanded shale consumes 1,713,000 Btus (2.364 MJ/m3) (Martin 1994). Substantial energy is consumed in the manufacture of steel; however, since slag is a waste product from the production of steel, this energy is not attributed to the life cycle of concrete masonry units.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is the principal cementitious material in concrete masonry units. It is a hydraulic cementthat is, once it sets and hardens, it does not disintegrate in water. Portland cement consists mainly of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate, produced as a result of a series of chemical reactions. For these chemical reactions to occur, two types of raw materials are required: one rich in calcium, such as limestone, the other rich in silica, such as clay. As noted under aggregates, the acquisition of limestone is described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200) and the acquisition of clay and shale is described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Other constituents of portland cement are alumina, iron, and calcium sulfate. Alumina is supplied from mud, clay, or shale or from such waste products as slag, fly ash, mill fines, or
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waste from bauxite processing. Iron is supplied from shale, fly ash, or other wastes, or from ores. The mining of iron ore is described in the material report on steel (05011 in ERG 1994 ed.). A small amount of calcium sulfate in the form of gypsum or anhydrite is added during grinding to control the setting time and to enhance strength development. These raw materials are first ground in a ball mill or a vertical roller mill and are then heated in a rotary kiln at temperatures of 2,600 to 3,000F (1,440 to 1,670C) to produce clinker, which is ground into cement. In modern dry-process kilns, a preheater uses waste heat from the exhaust gases to heat the ingredients so that energy is not required for driving off moisture. Certain other dry-process kilns have a separate combustion vessel, the precalciner, to handle the ingredients before they move into the rotary kiln. The calcining process (conversion of calcium carbonate into lime, or calcium oxide) begins in this separate vessel rather than in the rotary kiln. Powdered coal, oil, or gas provides the fuel for these processes (Lefond 1975; Kirk-Othmer 1982).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining, Processing, and Preparation of Raw Materials for Portland Cement
Many of the environmental effects associated with the mining of the raw material used in the manufacture of portland cement result from open-pit operations. The environmental impacts of open-pit mining are discussed in the portland cement, limestone, and gypsum sections of the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The environmental impacts associated with the mining of iron ore are described in the material report on steel (05011 in ERG 1994 ed.). The manufacture of portland cement is a major source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Two different sources for CO2 emission exist in the process of cement production. CO2 is produced from the combustion of fuels to operate the rotary kiln; this fuel combustion produces approximately 1,000 to 1,410 lbs (450 to 640 kg) of CO2 per ton of cement. Additionally, CO2 is a product of the chemical process of calcining limestone into lime. This process, CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 (limestone = lime + carbon dioxide) is responsible for roughly 997 lbs (452 kg) of CO2 per ton of cement, according to researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Wilson 1993a; Portland Cement Association 1994). For every 2,000 lbs (907 kg) of cement produced, these two sources taken together release about 2,000 to 2,410 lbs (907 to 1,093 kg) of CO2 into the atmosphere. In the United States, cement production accounts for 80 to 100 million tons (72.6 to 90.7 million metric tons) of CO2 emissions, or just under 2 percent of the total human-generated CO2 in the United States (Wilson 1993a; Portland Cement Association 1994). Improving the energy efficiency of cement kiln operation is the most effective way to reduce CO2 emissions in cement production, and improved efficiency has been realized in recent decades. Switching to lower CO2 fuels, such as natural gas and agricultural waste (for example, peanut hulls), can also reduce emissions. The CO2 emissions from calcining limestone will be reduced if waste lime from other industries can be used in the kiln (Wilson 1993a). A major reduction in CO2 emissions can be accomplished by the use of blended cements, which replace clinkers with fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag, or other pozzolans. Limestone addition achieves the same effect (Portland Cement Association 1994).
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Recent research shows that cured concrete reabsorbs CO2 from the atmosphere. Over several years, 100 lbs of portland cement will absorb 20 lbs (9 kg) of CO2, or 0.6 lbs (0.27 kg) of CO2 per concrete masonry unit (which contains 3 lbs, or 1.4 kg, of cement). If the concrete masonry units are painted or sealed, the absorption will be reduced. Absorption is higher for concrete masonry than for poured or wet cured concrete products because of concrete masonrys greater porosity (Szoke 1994a). About half the kilns in North America burn hazardous waste as a portion of their fuel (Wilson 1993b). Scrap tires are the primary waste fuel. Tires have a higher Btu content than mined fuels; furthermore, the iron in the steel belting aids the process (Szoke 1994a). Waste fuels can also include used motor oil, spent solvents, printing inks, paint residues, and cleaning fluids. There is concern, however, about the potential for toxic emissions from kiln stacks, toxic residues in cement dust, and even toxicity in the cement itself. Cement kiln dust is often disposed of in unregulated landfills or is spread on acidic soils (Wilson 1993b). According to the Portland Cement Association, the destruction of organic components in the waste approaches 100 percent, but trace amounts of metals, such as lead or chromium, may remain in the cement and cement kiln dust (Portland Cement Association, no date). In response to these concerns, the cement industry (through the Cement Kiln Recycling Coalition) is complying with a new program (announced by EPA on May 18, 1993) to control hazardous waste combustion in cement kilns (Szoke 1994a; Environmental Building News 1993b). The manufacture of portland cement also produces dust, which must be controlled. Further discussion of potential environmental impacts related to the manufacture of portland cement is presented in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). There is an abundant supply of limestone, clay, and calcium sulfate in the United States.
Energy Consumed
A major environmental concern related to portland cement production is the consumption of energy. Cement production is a very energy-intensive industrial process. Recent data from the Portland Cement Association indicate that cement production requires 2,401 Btus per lb (5.585 MJ/kg) of cement (Portland Cement Association 1994). Earlier estimates, as cited in the material report on plaster and lath (09200), were 4,060 Btus per lb (9.444 MJ/kg) for manufacture of portland cement and 148 Btus per lb (0.344 MJ/kg) for hauling the cement to the job site (Hannon et al. 1976). Most of the energy consumed in cement production is used for operating the rotarycement kilns. Newer preheater/precalciner dry-process kilns are more energy-efficient (using up to 50 percent less energy) than older long-dry and wet-process kilns, because energy is not required to drive off moisture. In some dry-process kilns, a preheater, using waste heat from the exhaust gases of the kiln, heats the ingredients before they enter the kiln itself. In another type of dry-process kiln, a separate combustion vessel starts the calcining process before the ingredients move into the rotary kiln (Wilson 1993a).
Fly Ash
Fly ash (collected from baghouses on smokestacks) may be used to replace a portion of the portland cement (up to 25 percent by weight) (Szoke 1994). Fly ash is a waste product from the burning of coal. Since fly ash is a waste product, the life cycle of coal is not included in this report.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Coal Mining and Combustion
Since fly ash is a waste product of coal combustion, the pollutants resulting from coal mining operations and coal combustion are not attributed to the life cycle of concrete
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masonry. In fact, the use of fly ash in the manufacture of concrete masonry units eliminates the need to dispose of fly ash as a waste product.
Energy Consumed
Since fly ash is a waste product from the combustion of coal, this energy is not attributed to the life cycle of concrete masonry.
Pigments
Various iron oxides act as the coloring agent in concrete masonry units and in mortar used with concrete masonry units. Pigments may compose from 2.5 to 3 percent of the cement (0.2 to 0.54 percent of the concrete) by weight (Szoke 1994). According to the Bureau of Mines, the manufacture of construction materials (cement, mortar, preformed concrete, and roofing granules) consumes more than one-third (35 percent) of the iron oxide pigments domestically produced and shipped in 1989 (Mickelsen 1990). Both natural and synthetic iron oxides are used in construction materials; natural and synthetic iron oxides used in construction constituted 23 percent and 42 percent, respectively, of reported iron oxide shipments in 1989.
Natural pigments. All natural iron oxide pigments are processed today from one of four
types of iron ore: hematite, limonite, siderite, and magnetite. Hematite, essentially ferric oxide (Fe2O3), is occasionally referred to as red hematite, fossil ore, specular iron ore, and micaceous iron ore. Hematite is typically red or sometimes grayish. Limonites are hydrated forms of ferric oxide ranging in composition from 2Fe2O3 H2O (turgite) to Fe2O3 4H2O (esmeraldite). They are sometimes referred to as brown hematite, ocher, bog ore, and brown ore. Limonites range in color from light yellow to brownish black. Siderites are essentially ferrous carbonate (FeCO3) and range in color from light to dark brown. The mineral siderite is not used directly as a pigment but is calcined to form a ferric oxide for pigment use. Magnetite (lodestone) is a black magnetic ferrosic oxide (Fe3O4 or FeO Fe2O3). Compared to synthetic black iron oxide, the natural black iron oxide pigment is a grayer black and its tinting strength is weaker. The synthetic variant is normally preferred and used for pigmentation purposes. These natural pigments are obtained by the mining of iron ore from soil deposits. This process is discussed under gypsum in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The ore is processed in a variety of ways, depending upon the original composition and the final product desired. It may be dried immediately and then ground in any of several types of mills. It may be washed to remove impurities and handled in a slurry or in a dried form, which is then ground. Some natural pigments may be further treated by calcination to change the natural coloration. For instance, the pigments called siennas are deep brown to yellow-brown in the natural state and become red-brown during calcination, which produces the pigment burnt sienna.
Synthetic pigments. Synthetic iron oxide pigments have become increasingly important in
recent years. Single-component pigments can be produced in red, yellow, orange, and black. Brown pigments usually consist of mixtures of red and/or yellow and/or black. A variety of processes can be used to produce these pigments. Two commonly used large-scale procedures are presented here (Patton 1973; Buxbaum 1993).
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Decomposition procedure. In one procedure, multistage thermal decomposition of ferrous sulfate (FeSO4 7H2O) produces copperas red oxide (Fe2O3). The FeSO4 7H2O is produced in the manufacture of the pigment titanium dioxide (TiO2). The FeSO4 7H2O is first dried, then calcined to produce FeSO4 H2O, which in turn is calcined to produce Fe2O3. This sintered product is then ground, carefully washed, and classified to produce a pigment of high quality and uniformity. TiO2 is produced from mineral sands containing such titanium-containing minerals as ilmenite and rutile. The mineral sands are obtained by wet dredging and are concentrated by cones or spirals to produce a product with up to 98 percent heavy minerals. These titaniumcontaining minerals are separated and then processed by a sulfate or a chloride method to produce TiO2. The material is then separated magnetically, electrostatically, and hydromechanically to produce the individual titanium-bearing minerals (Buxbaum 1993; Patton 1973). The sulfate method uses the mineral ilmenite or the titanium slag remaining after ilmenite has been smelted to produce iron. The ilmenite or slag is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) together with steam. The reaction is exothermic and the temperature can rise to 220C. Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4 7H2O) is crystallized out, leaving an enriched solution of titanium oxide hydrate. This is precipitated by hydrolysis at about 100C. After filtration, the titanium oxide hydrate is washed with water or dilute acid and bleached with dilute acid and aluminum or zinc to remove impurities. The hydrate is filtered and washed to produce a solid to which is adsorbed a small amount of H2SO4. The titanium oxide hydrate is calcined in a rotary kiln for 7 to 20 hours at temperatures up to 800 to 1,100C to produce TiO2 (Buxbaum 1993; Patton 1973). In the chloride method, titanium in the processed ore together with chlorine is converted in a fluidized-bed reactor to titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4). Petroleum coke is the reducing agent in this exothermic reaction. Along with TiCl4, various other chlorides are produced, especially iron(II) and iron(III) chlorides. Most of the other chlorides are separated by condensation or sublimation. The resulting TiCl4 is then condensed at 0C. Waste gases released at this stage include carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen, and nitrogen. Impurities are then removed in several ways. TiCl 4 is evaporated off from chlorides that at room temperature are solids and from entrained dust. Dissolved chlorine is removed by heating or reduction with metal powders. Contaminant vanadium compounds that are still present are reduced to solid, low-value vanadium chlorides that are separated from the process stream. In the next step of the chloride method, the TiCl4 is then combusted at 900 to 1,400C to form TiO2 and chlorine. TiCl4 is vaporized and then heated to about 500 to 1,000C in a weak exothermic reaction. The oxygen in this reaction must also be heated to over 1,000C. The solid TiO2 is separated from the chlorine-rich gas that is then recycled to the combustion chamber and is to be used in the initial chlorination of the titanium ore (Buxbaum 1993).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Titanium Dioxide
TiO2 is produced from sand. Information on the geology of sand and a description of sand mining are included in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The dredging and mining of sand can result in a variety of stressors on the environment. These stressors are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). In the sulfate method, ferrous sulfate is produced that can be utilized for water purification and as a raw material for iron oxide pigment manufacture. It can also be dehydrated and thermally decomposed to produce iron oxide and sulfur dioxide (SO2). The H2SO4 in the process stream and the remaining metal sulfates have traditionally been discarded
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into the ocean. This practice is declining and is expected to stop eventually. One alternative includes the precipitation of the H2SO4 as gypsum (which would probably be disposed of as a solid waste because of insufficient demand for its recycling). Another alternative (which has been demonstrated) is the concentration of the waste process liquid to produce a H2SO4 solution and metal sulfates. The H2SO4 solution can be reused, and the metal sulfates become disposable after reaction with calcium compounds. Alternatively, and with less environmental impact, the metal sulfates can be thermally decomposed in a coal-fired fluidized-bed furnace to form metal oxides, SO2, water, and oxygen. The SO2 can be converted to H2SO4 and reused. The metal oxides have the same components as the ore from which the titanium was extracted and can be used in cement production. The water and oxygen can be released into the environment. Calcination of titanium oxide hydrate produces sulfur trioxide and SO2 in the exhaust gas. They are scrubbed from the gas to form dilute H2SO4 that is recycled (Buxbaum 1993). In the chloride method, the iron chlorides are the major waste product. These and other metal chlorides are disposed of as aqueous solutions. They are sometimes disposed of by deep well injection into geological strata. Efforts are being made to recycle iron chloride for water treatment and as a flocculation agent (Buxbaum 1993). According to NIOSH, titanium dioxide may cause lung fibrosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen (NIOSH 1990). NIOSH recommended that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) label titanium dioxide a potential human carcinogen. However, OSHA chose not to act on this recommendation. Titanium dioxide is not considered hazardous by EPA, and NCI reported that it is not carcinogenic to rats or mice (EPA 1975; National Cancer Institute 1979). Titanium dioxide is of little health or environmental concern unless the brick is pulverized or abraded in such a way that the titanium dioxide colorant is released as unbound particles.
Energy Consumed During Mining and Processing of Titanium Dioxide
The energy consumption associated with the mining of and processing of sand is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Gas or oil heats the rotary kiln used for calcination in the sulfate method during production of TiO2. Exhaust-gas heat can be recirculated to the kiln or elsewhere in the process. In the chloride method, energy is provided by coke during chlorination of the ore. Other phases use indirect heating and electrical heating. The exact amounts of energy used are not reported. Precipitation procedure. In another procedure used to produce synthetic iron oxide pigments, precipitation is used to generate several iron oxide pigments. Yellow iron oxide (a-Fe2O3 H2O) is prepared by the Penniman-Zoph precipitation process. In the first step, a solution of FeSO4 7H2O is mixed with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to produce a-Fe2O3 H2O nuclei and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). Scrap iron is put into a chamber with a suspension of a-Fe2O3 H2O nuclei, residual FeSO4 H2O solution, compressed air, and steam. The FeSO4 7H2O is oxidized by the compressed air and hydrolyses to form a-Fe2O3 H2O (that deposits on the nuclei) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The H2SO4 reacts with the scrap metal to form FeSO4 7H2O, which oxidizes and then hydrolyzes, continuing the reaction process. The a-Fe2O3 H2O pigment is dried and ground. Sodium hydroxide is produced by the electrolysis of an aqueous sodium chloride solution. This procedure produces chlorine gas at the anode and hydrogen gas plus NaOH at the cathode. The chlorine and hydrogen are used for other industrial processes, and the NaOH is transported to the plant where iron oxide pigment is produced.
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In a precipitation process similar to the Penniman-Zoph process, black iron oxide (Fe3O4) and orange iron oxide (a-Fe2O3 H2O) are produced. An aqueous solution of FeSO4 7H2O is mixed with NaOH and oxidized with air. At a basic pH with aeration at 90C (194F), black Fe3O4 is produced. At a neutral pH, orange a-Fe2O3 H2O is produced. If the pH remains acidic and the solution is aerated at 10 to 90C (50 to 194F), yellow a-Fe2O3 H2O results. With other adjustments, red iron oxide (Fe2O3) can also be produced.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Production of Iron Oxide Pigments
The source iron compounds for synthetic pigment production are mainly by-products from other industries: steel scrap and FeSO4 7H2O from titanium dioxide production or from steel pickling. Calcination producing copperas red oxide releases SO2, SO3, and CO2 as air emissions and dissolved impurities in the wastewater. The SO2 may be oxidized with air to produce H2SO4 for use in other chemical processes. The Na2SO4 produced in the precipitation process is disposed of with the wastewater (NCMA 1994). Other compounds produced in this process are either recycled within the precipitation process or are innocuous. Wastewater is also produced by other precipitation processes. Prolonged inhalation of iron oxide dust can produce siderosis, a benign pneumoconiosis. The American Council of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit value (TLV) is 5 mg/m3 time-weighted average (TWA) for exposure to iron oxide fume as Fe. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has established a short-term exposure limit (STEL) of 10 ppm iron oxide fume as Fe. Exposure to iron oxide dust may also cause mechanical skin and eye irritation (Harcros Pigments 1993).
Energy Consumed
About 15,000 Btus are consumed in the production of one pound of iron oxide pigment (35 MJ/kg), mainly for gas and electricity. Raw materials required for pigment production are acquired locally and transported by truck (NCMA 1994).
Additives
Additives can be included with the mixture used to form concrete masonry units. These additives modify properties of the mixture and function primarily as efflorescence inhibitors, densifiers, and water repellents. To some extent, varying the components of the mixture can modify these properties, but in instances when the mixture cannot be varied, additives can be used to achieve the desired effect. Many additives are soaps or soap-like compounds, including such compounds as dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid; lignosulfonic acid and sodium, calcium, and other salts of lignosulfonic acid; naphthalene sulfonic condensate; melamine sulfonic condensate; carboxylic acid salts; vinsol resins; soaps of fatty acids from vegetable sources (tall oils); and anionic and nonionic surfactants. These are provided in varying combinations and are often proprietary formulations. These soaps and soap-like compounds are frequently produced as waste products from timber production, paper pulping, and corn fermentation and are not discussed further in this report. Another additive, calcium chloride, which has been used in the past as an accelerator and a densifier, is no longer recommended because of the detrimental effect it can have on metals and some wall finishes. Calcium nitrate and calcium nitrite are also used for these purposes, but they are used in very small quantities and are not discussed here. A number of proprietary additives are also available. Forms of stearic acid are important additives. Stearic acid is produced from naturally occurring fats, especially beef tallow. The tallow is melted, mixed with a zinc oxide catalyst, and
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heated with steam. The mixture is then placed in a hydrolyzer at 250C (482F) and 4.1 MPa (595 psi). Fat (composed of stearic and various other fatty-acid glycerides) is hydrolyzed into the different fatty acids and glycerin. The acids are either turned into soap by reaction with sodium hydroxide or are collected and distilled to produce the separate acids, including stearic acid (Austin 1984). Tallow is a by-product of the production of meat from cattle. Beef cattle are raised to be ready for slaughter by twenty-four months of age. During the first half-year, calves are nursed. Little feed is required beyond that available from pasture or rangeland. For the next six to twelve months, the calf is fed in pasture or with a diet of roughage. Finally, the yearling calf is fattened for market in a feedlot with a high-grain diet. It is then transported to a slaughterhouse. After the butchering, meat and the various other parts of the animal are separated, and little goes to waste. Nonmeat by-products including tallow are of significant value to the meat packer.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Production of Stearates
Glycerin is produced as a by-product of stearate production and is a valuable end product. Combustion gases including VOCs, SO2, CO2, CO, NOx, and particulates are generated during heating of the reactants and during transportation. Among the environmental concerns associated with the growing of grain crops for cattle feed are pesticide and fertilizer runoff and soil erosion. These concerns associated with corn production, along with information on energy consumption, are summarized in the material report on acoustical ceiling tiles and panels (09510). There is some concern that the large concentrations of livestock and the drainage of materials from feedlots are a source of pollution for surface and ground water. This pollution probably includes various organic wastes and soil runoff. Combustion gases including VOCs, SO2, CO2, CO, and NOx are generated during transportation of the livestock and of the tallow.
Energy Consumed
No information on energy consumption during stearate production was found, but the heating of reactants and the transportation of stearates consume fuel. Nor was information found on energy consumption in the production of tallow, but the transport of cattle to the slaughterhouse and tallow to the manufacturing plant consumes fuel.
Water
Clean and potable water (5 to 15 percent added by weight) is required for the manufacture of concrete masonry. Typically, total water content is 25 to 30 lbs (3.0 to 3.6 gal) of water per cubic foot (400 to 480 g/l) of concrete (a cubic foot of concrete produces approximately three 8 x 8 x 16-inch units [0.20 x 0.20 x .41 m]). This value includes the water already existing in the aggregate along with the water that is added (15 to 25 lbs, or 1.8 to 3.0 gal) (240 to 400 g/l) during the manufacturing process (Szoke 1994).
Polystyrene Foam Insulation Inserts The only insulation material discussed in this report is the expanded polystyrene foam from which foam insulation inserts are made. Other insulation strategies that are employed in concrete masonry construction use fibrous batt, fibrous board, extruded polystyrene board, polyurethane board, granular fills (vermiculite and perlite), and foamed-in-place (urea-formaldehyde and phenolic) insulation. These materials, however, are not discussed in this report.
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The insulation inserts for concrete masonry units are produced from expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam. Approximately 50 grams (0.1 lb) of foam are required to produce the inserts for one standard concrete masonry unit (NCMA 1994). The materials from which EPS foams are derived are discussed in the material report on thermal insulation (07200). Ozone-depleting CFCs are not used in the manufacture of expanded polystyrene foam. Steam, compressed air, CO2, or pentane is used as the blowing or expansion agent.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Raw Materials Acquisition
Petroleum and natural gas are required for the manufacture of EPS foam. The environmental impacts of the extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
An estimate of the embodied energy for 1 lb (0.45 kg) of polystyrene foam is presented under the Manufacturing and Fabrication heading in this report.
Mortar Mortar is the bonding agent that integrates a masonry wall. The basic ingredients of mortar include portland cement, hydrated lime, and sand. The raw materials for mortar are discussed in the material report on brick and mortar (04210).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Raw Materials for Mortar
Most of the environmental effects associated with the mining of the raw materials used in the manufacture of mortar result from open-pit operations. The environmental impacts of open-pit mining and information on the consumption of energy are discussed in the portland cement, limestone, gypsum, and sand sections of the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy of portland cement (constituting about 12 percent by weight of mortar) is estimated to be 2,401 to 4,060 Btus per lb (5.585 to 9.444 MJ/kg) (Portland Cement Association 1994; Hannon et al. 1976).
Pigments
Occasionally, coloring agents (iron oxides) may be added to the mortar (see discussion of pigments above). The production process, environmental effects, and energy consumed are the same as for the pigments used in concrete masonry units.
Additives
The additives used with mortar are similar to those used in the production of concrete masonry units. These additives modify normal properties of the mixture and function primarily as accelerators (to increase the speed with which the concrete sets up), retarders (to decrease the speed with which the concrete sets up), and water repellents. To some extent, varying the components of the mixture can modify these properties. In instances when the mixture cannot be varied, additives can be used to achieve the desired effect. Most additives are forms of stearic acid. A number of proprietary additives are also available. The production process, environmental effects, and energy consumed are the same as for additives used in concrete masonry units.
Grout Grout, which has a higher water content than mortar, is poured into the cavities of the concrete masonry units to provide additional strength or to support steel reinforcing. Grout for
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concrete masonry is made of portland cement and sand; pea gravel (similar to sand and gravel) may be added as a filler. Water content is 0.5 gallons per cubic foot (66 g/l). The acquisition and impacts of these materials as well as the associated wastes, resource depletion, and energy consumption were discussed in earlier sections of this report.
Additives
The additives used with grout are similar to those used in the production of concrete masonry units. These additives modify normal properties of the mixture and function primarily as accelerators and retarders. To some extent, varying the components of the mixture can modify these properties. In those instances when the mixture cannot be varied, additives can be used to achieve the desired effect. A number of proprietary additives are also available. The current major nonproprietary additives are stearic acid salts. The production process, environmental effects, and energy consumed are the same as for additives used in concrete masonry units.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacture and fabrication of concrete masonry units and their polystyrene inserts is presented in figure 7.
Concrete Masonry Units Cement and aggregate arrive at the concrete masonry unit manufacturing plant by truck. The cement is pumped from ground level up into silos. Aggregates (about 77 percent by weight) are fed by a conveyor belt to bins in the plant, where they are proportionally combined and mixed with water (5 to 15 percent by weight) and cement; the cement (8 to 18 percent by weight) is delivered to the mixers by gravity feed. As much as 25 percent of the cement may be replaced by fly ash (Szoke 1994).
The mix is then placed in the unit mold, vibrated to settle and fill the mold, compressed in the mold, removed from the mold onto steel pallets, and placed on racks. The racks hold several layers of concrete masonry units on pallets. Each rack is automatically conveyed into a kiln, where it and several other racks are cured. In a typical plant, units are cured in a very light mist of water at a temperature of 120F (67C). Other facilities may cure units with high-temperature steam. After curing overnight, the pallets are automatically moved out of the kiln and are then automatically unloaded onto a roller track that moves the cured units to the stacking machine, which forms cubes of concrete masonry units. The cubes are carried by forklift outside the plant to be stacked on the ground. A cured block ready for use weighs 31 to 35 lbs (14.1 to 15.9 kg) (Maier 1994). Rarely, concrete masonry units are cured by carbonation; this process involves drying in a CO2 atmosphere at temperatures between 150 and 212F (83 and 118C) (Toennies and Shideler 1963). An autoclave process (Grant 1959) is also rarely used because of high equipment costs (Szoke 1993). The process involves curing with steam at high pressure and high temperature (120 to 150 psi and 350 to 365F, or 2,136 to 2,670 kg/m and 194 to 203C). This method cures the units quickly (generally they can be used at the end of 24 hours), but the units produced are substantially drier than those produced by moist curing methods.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Concrete Masonry Units
The combustion of fuels is a source of waste. Fuel is consumed in transport; cement and aggregate are transported by truck to the plant, and forklifts move the block pallets to the
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Figure 7: Concrete Masonry UnitsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Manufacture of concrete masonry units Stressor Fuel combustion Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems, lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Impact/Stressor
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation
Particulates
Eye and throat irritations Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility
Dust
Manufacture of EPS foam insulation inserts
Air emissions, pentane
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Ground-level smog
Decreased visibility
storage yard. Either natural gas or No. 2 fuel oil powers the cement kiln. The use of natural gas would result in fewer emissions than the use of fuel oil. Emissions from the combustion of natural gas or fuel oil and diesel fuel may include VOCs, SOx, CO2, CO, NOx, and particulates. For an account of the environmental effects of these combustion emissions, see the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Concrete masonry units are usually 40 to 60 percent hollow, resulting in an efficient use of materials.
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce one typical concrete masonry unit (8 x 8 x 16 inches, or 0.20 x 0.20 x 0.41 m) is estimated to be from 21,323 to 29,018 Btus (22.5 to 30.6 MJ) (McHenry 1985; Hannon et al. 1976). In recent years, however, many manufacturers
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have converted to kilns and processes that are more energy-efficient. Many manufacturers are now using low-temperature mist curing. Also, additives can lower curing temperature requirements or shorten curing times (Szoke 1994a). An environmental audit was made of typical warehouses constructed of several component systems, one of which was concrete masonry unit construction (Cole et al. 1992). Energy requirements for each architectural component of the finished structure were determined. The energy figures included all materials and processes involved in the creation of a particular building component; they were calculated on the basis of square feet (or square meters) of floor area. For the concrete masonry and mortar component, the total energy requirement was 16.38 thousand Btus/ft2 (185.9 MJ/m2), of which 2.08 thousand Btus/ft2 (23.6 MJ/m2) were attributed to electricity. The author concluded that, in terms of total energy, it was the horizontal structural elements (joists, roof deck, roofing, and roof insulation), rather than the vertical, that accounted for the greatest proportion of the buildings total energy requirements. The horizontal elements accounted for 78 percent of the total energy requirement for the concrete masonry structure. Of the remaining 22 percent, 15.9 percent was accounted for by the masonry units, mortar, and grout.
Polystyrene Foam Insulation Inserts To produce the insulation inserts for preinsulated concrete masonry units, polystyrene foam is shaped in a molding press (NCMA 1994). Steam, compressed air, CO2, or pentane is used as the blowing or expansion agent to produce expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam. Ozonedepleting CFCs are not used in the manufacture of EPS.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacturing of Insulation Inserts for Concrete Masonry Units
Pentane, an expansion agent in EPS foam, contributes to ground-level smog (see the material report on thermal insulation, 07200). Several manufacturers of EPS foam insulation have employed strategies to reduce pentane emissions from the manufacturing process. First, the use of a low-pentane EPS, containing 3.5 percent pentane instead of the 6 or 7 percent found in other EPS, helps reduce emissions. Additionally, one plant has installed a pentane recovery system that captures pentane at a number of locations within the plant and channels it to the central burners that produce the process steam. Unfortunately, because the collection system drives extra air into the burners, the use of this system actually increased the consumption of natural gas in the plant (Environmental Building News 1993a). Manufacturers of EPS foam compact foam wastes into high-density bricks before the material is sent to a landfill (see the material report on thermal insulation, 07200). Water is used to cool the molds. Approximately 1.0 gallon (0.0037 m3) of water is required to produce the polystyrene foam to insulate 20 masonry units (NCMA 1994).
Energy Consumed
The total embodied energy of polystyrene is 50,400 Btus/lb (117 MJ/kg) of polystyrene (Franklin Associates 1991). This includes the energy contained in the material resources, 25,793 Btus (59.995 MJ/kg); process energy, 22,317 Btus (51.909 MJ/kg); and energy required for transportation of the materials, 2,254 Btus (5.243 MJ/kg). Approximately 0.078 lb (35 to 36 g) polystyrene is required to insulate one concrete masonry unit; embodied energy, therefore, for insulation in one concrete masonry unit is approximately 3,930 Btus (4.150 MJ). EPS foam is a lightweight insulation material that is very efficiently used. One manufacturer reports that truckload lots carrying 3,000 lbs (1,400 kg) of EPS foam are delivered
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over a distance of 255 miles (410 km). This amount of material can produce insulation inserts for more than 38,000 concrete masonry units (NCMA 1994).
Mortar The manufacture of mortar, together with the associated waste produced and energy consumed, is discussed in the material report on brick and mortar (04210). Various formulations of mortar can be used, all of which include portland cement as a major component along with other materials, some of which may be proprietary. Grout Manufacturing grout involves mixing the ingredients according to job specifications. The ingredients for grout may be centrally mixed at a location remote from the construction site, or the grout may be mixed on site.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Mortar
No data are available on waste produced during grout manufacture and/or packaging.
Energy Consumed
No data are available on energy consumed during grout manufacture and/or packaging.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with concrete masonry construction is presented in figure 8.
Figure 8: Concrete Masonry UnitsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity Construction Stressor Scrap Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Installation of concrete masonry units follows the same basic procedures as installation of brick. These are described in the material report on brick and mortar (04210). Concrete masonry is a versatile building material that easily accommodates most building design requirements. Concrete masonry units are available in a variety of shapes and sizes designed for a variety of applications. Concrete masonry construction can be adapted to the needs of a specific building project by varying the wall type: from single wythe (a continuous section one unit in thickness) to masonry veneers to cavity walls. Walls may be load-bearing or nonload-bearing. With appropriate reinforcement, concrete masonry construction can be designed to optimize wind-load resistance, flood resistance, and seismic resistance. Resistance to water penetration can be provided by using flashing and weep holes, by using barriers such as coatings, or by building with units containing integral water repellents or units with greater density. Concrete masonry is noncombustible and does not add fuel to a fire. It does not produce smoke or toxins when fires occur, and thereby reduces pollution caused by fires. In the event of fire, it provides compartmentation (fire containment) and resistance to flame spread without additional treatment. Concrete masonry is one of the most effective materials for controlling sound. It provides excellent sound insulation. Its ability to absorb sound helps reduce noise in an indoor environment. The use of units with rough textures or ribbed and fluted surfaces helps reduce noise by dispersing sound waves.
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Concrete Masonry
Waste is produced at the job site during construction. Unused and excess mortar and broken or unacceptable concrete masonry units are generally disposed of on site or in a landfill. Concrete masonry units require little packaging; wastes from packaging are not significant. Concrete masonry units are usually stacked in cubes in such a manner that wooden pallets are not required. Some architectural or special configuration units, however, may require wooden pallets. When units are shipped on pallets, after construction the pallets are usually returned to the manufacturer for reuse. When mortar and grout are shipped to the site in paper bags, this packaging is disposed of in landfills. On a volume basis, a relatively small amount of mortar is required for concrete masonry construction. Allowing for 15 percent waste, less than 1.5 cubic feet (0.042 m3) of mortar is required per 100 square feet (9.3 m3) of concrete masonry wall, using 8 x 8 x 16-inch (194 x 194 x 397 mm) units. The amount required per unit, allowing for no wastage, is 20 cubic inches (Szoke 1994a). The use of preinsulated concrete masonry units results in no additional waste from insulation materials at the construction site. Excess masonry units are disposed of in landfills. In the previously mentioned environmental audit of warehouses constructed of several different component systems (Cole et al. 1992), the energy and air pollution emissions for each building component were established for a typical warehouse constructed of concrete masonry units. The audit included those emissions that result from the extraction, beneficiation, and transportation of raw materials; those that result from the primary processing (such as milling, calcining, drying, machining, and chemical synthesis); and those that result from the secondary fabrication of the building components. The audit did not include transportation to the building site or pollution resulting from construction. Hydrocarbon and CO2 emissions were determined for concrete masonry units and mortar, and for the grout fill. CO2 emissions for concrete masonry units and mortar, calculated on the basis of square meters of floor area, were 21,537 g/m2 (2001.6 g/ft2). Hydrocarbon emissions were 105.2 g/m2 (9.777 g/ft2). For the grout fill, CO2 emissions were 7,774 g/m2 (722.5 g/ft2); hydrocarbon emissions were 41.6 g/m2 (3.87 g/ft2).
Indoor Air Quality
An EPA study (Sheldon et al. 1988) measured the emissions of various building materials. The study reported that various aromatic hydrocarbon and halogenated hydrocarbon emissions ranged from 0.06 to 0.39 /m2 (0.006 to 0.036 /ft2) hour from concrete masonry units (standard cement building block for interior walls). In the same study, the following emissions were reported from polystyrene foam insulation (rates are given as /m2/hour): ethyl benzene, 10 g/m2/hr (0.93 g/ft2/ hr); styrene, 4.9 g/m 2 hr (0.46 g/ft 2 /hr); and various aliphatic, aromatic, and halogenated hydrocarbons, 0.10 to 1.5 g/m2/hr (0.009 to 0.14 g/ft2/hr). Total aromatic hydrocarbons were reported at 20 g/m2/hr (1.8 g/ft2/hr). It is highly unlikely that concrete masonry units will contribute to radon levels in concrete masonry buildings. For a small proportion of buildings in the United States with indoor air concentrations exceeding EPAs established action level of 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m3), the source of this problem is building materials. Most of these instances have arisen from the use of known radium- or uranium-rich wastes as aggregate in concrete masonry units or as backfill around houses. While this is a potential problem, the chance of obtaining radon from building materials is very slim unless building materials have
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been identified as radium- or uranium-rich (Bayham 1994; EPA 1988; EPA 1991). In a German study of radon levels in rooms built of pumice blocks, 95 percent of the rooms had radon concentrations less than 3.3 pCi/L (122 Bq/m3) (Gbel 1990). Gbel also notes that the World Health Organization recommends 0 pCi/L (0 Bq/m3) as an atmospheric concentration without risk, and 1.89 pCi/L (69.93 Bq/m3) as a concentration with risk. In most instances, the source of radon entering a house is the soil beneath and around the house. Radon from the soil enters the living space through cracks in basements or slabs, through drains, and through other openings. Remedial actions, however, can be taken when necessary to prevent the accumulation of radon in a house. These actions include keeping a house well ventilated and filling cracks and openings in basement walls and concrete slabs that would allow radon to enter from the surrounding soil.
Energy Consumed
Transporting concrete masonry units to the construction site uses energy. If masonry units are manufactured with expanded shale, clay, or slate, their reduced weight allows 33 percent more concrete masonry units to be carried in a truckload (Martin 1994). One study puts the total embodied energy of a typical unit (8 x 8 x 16 inches, or 0.20 x 0.20 x 0.41 m) at 31,821 Btus (33.5 MJ); the portion of this amount attributable to transportation to the job site is 2,803 Btus (Hannon et al. 1976). Another study presents embodied energy without transportation (McHenry 1985). If the transportation energy given above is added to the amount without transportation, the comparable embodied energy for the typical unit is 24,126 Btus (25.4 MJ). Calculated on a per-pound basis, these embodied energies equal 964 and 731 Btus per lb (2.24 and 1.70 MJ/kg), respectively. The embodied energy (without transportation) for a 100 square foot section of concrete masonry wall is calculated to be 1,897,747 Btus (2,000 MJ) (McHenry 1985). In recent years many manufacturers have converted to more energy-efficient kilns and processes. Concrete masonry construction conserves energy. Concrete masonry itself has some insulating value, especially when lightweight aggregate is used. The insulating performance of individual units can be improved with the addition of molded polystyrene inserts. Concrete masonry has the additional benefit of thermal mass; it stores heat and releases it very slowly. This thermal lag can be effectively used to shift peak energy loads to offpeak hours, thus reducing energy demand for both heating and cooling a building. In Phoenix, Arizona, experimental concrete masonry homes were built to maximize thermal mass. From 91 to 100 percent of the heating and cooling load of these homes was shifted to off-peak periods (Thieken 1992). Shifting loads results in the use of more efficiently generated electric power (peaking power is often generated with jet engine turbines). Thermal mass construction also has relevance for passive solar construction; in this type of construction, concrete masonry is an ideal storage medium for solar heat that is collected through windows.
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A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of concrete masonry units is presented in figure 9.
Figure 9: Concrete MasonryRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Demolition disposal Stressor Landfill and on site disposal Crush and recycle as aggregate or fill Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Landfill capacity saved for other disposal Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Concrete masonry is a durable construction material. Its life expectancy may exceed 100 years, although the mortar may require repair after 35 to 50 years (Szoke 1994). Polystyrene foam, which is inserted into preinsulated concrete masonry units, is said to have a life span equivalent to that of the concrete masonry unit (NCMA 1994). When they have outlived their original function, buildings made of durable materials such as concrete masonry can be renovated rather than demolished and thus generate less waste than buildings constructed of less durable materials. All manufacturing plants recycle waste material (broken masonry units, floor sweepings, and so forth) within their own facility. Some plants (about 10 percent) will use any unreinforced masonry as a replacement for about 20 percent of the aggregate in the mix (unless a specific performance standardfor example, bearing value or fire resistancemust be met) (Szoke 1993). Polystyrene is a thermoplastic; it can be heated and remolded into a new product (OTA 1989). Some suppliers are working to make recycled polystyrene foam available to the manufacturers of insulation inserts for preinsulated concrete masonry units (NCMA 1994). Reuse of concrete masonry units is not recommended. Because the mortar seals the pores in the unit, the surface is not open to form a strong bond with the next mortar (Szoke 1993). Following renovation or demolition, however, broken or crushed concrete masonry units may be used as backfill material, fill, roadbed aggregate, or aggregate for concrete masonry units. If the material cannot be used as fill or recycled conveniently, it is taken to a landfill for longterm disposal (NCMA 1994). In some states, most construction waste goes into specialized C&D (construction and demolition) landfills. However, because many of the construction materials that end up in these landfills are significant sources of pollution (such as paints and solvents), this option is becoming less acceptable. In the future, C&D landfills may be required to have more stringent environmental safeguards, such as liners and leachate collection systems (Wilson 1992). Many states have adopted innovative solutions to the problem of C&D waste. An increasing number of builders separate wastes on site, and various municipalities have compiled directories and other guides listing the various recycling sites in the area. Contractors are given alternatives to landfill disposal and benefit from significant savings over landfill costs (Wilson 1992). Portland, Oregon, and the City of Los Angeles are examples of municipalities that have compiled such guides and have active recycling programs in place. In any location, however, the municipal solid-waste office will assist in identifying disposal options.
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Organization Perspectives and Regulatory Status
Industry Perspective Concrete masonry is a noncombustible, durable, weather-resistant, structurally adaptable system. It accommodates a variety of insulation strategies and provides thermal mass for improved thermal performance. Concrete masonry partitions and walls resist sound penetration and absorb acoustical energy for noise control. The variety of unit configurations, sizes, and textures provides unique flexibility to satisfy design requirements economically for buildings.
Concrete masonry products are generally manufactured using local, abundantly available aggregates. Compared to other concrete building systems, concrete masonry is one of the most, if not the most, efficient users of cement. Other industry by-products (including but not limited to fly ash, cinder or bottom ash, slag, and concrete from the demolition of structures) are frequently used in concrete masonry products, reducing waste disposal. The industry continues to develop methods to reduce energy demand for manufacturing concrete masonry units. This is primarily through the use of more efficient curing processes and the use of additives to accelerate curing times and reduce curing temperatures. The units are manufactured by vibrating a zero slump concrete, a process that minimizes water consumption and cure times. There is minimal waste at manufacturing facilities; damaged units are recycled. The durability of concrete masonry systems reduces the need for replacing structures and reusing or recycling materials. However, when the useful life of concrete masonry systems is over, the units may be crushed and used as aggregate for new concrete masonry units. In addition to general durability and long life, superior performance in disastershurricanes, floods, earthquakes, and fireshas recently been demonstrated by reinforced concrete masonry systems. This ability to withstand the forces of nature further reduces wastes and negative environmental impacts. The concrete masonry industry considers concrete masonry to be the most energy-efficient and environmentally friendly building system available. Coupling concrete masonry with wholebuilding performance and life-cycle analysis facilitates the design of quality structures. Thus, the industry continues to encourage designs employing concrete masonrys versatility to satisfy multiple design requirements for sustainable buildings (Szoke 1994b).
Regulatory Status
The major regulatory concern felt by concrete masonry unit manufacturers involves stormwater runoff. Large piles of aggregate are normally stored outdoors at manufacturing facilities. Currently the National Concrete Masonry Association member producers are working with EPA to establish the significance of stormwater runoff at these facilities. There is concern that the particulates that might be contained in the runoff from these piles could potentially be carried into local surface water. Natural particulate levels are being determined to establish the baselines that should not be exceeded at manufacturing sites.
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References
REFERENCES
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1990. Concrete Unit Masonry. Masterspec. Section 04200. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bayham, Chris. 1994. Environmental Protection Specialist, Radon Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Personal communicationinformation for the Concrete Masonry report. Buxbaum, Gunter, ed. 1993. Industrial Inorganic Pigments. NY: VCH Publishers. pp. 85-93. Cole, Raymond J., David Rousseau, and Stephen Taylor. 1992. Environmental Audits of Alternate Structural Systems for Warehouse Buildings. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 19:886-95. Environmental Building News. 1993a.Reduced Pentane Emissions from EPS Production. Vol. 2, no. 1:4. January/February. . 1993b. News Briefs. Vol. 2, no. 4:6. July/August. Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Institute. 1971. Lightweight Concrete. Franklin Associates. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, Final Report. The Society of the Plastics Industry. Gbel, Klaus. 1990. The Radioactivity of Building MaterialsAmount, Types and Effects. ZI 4:237-40. Grant, William. 1959. Manufacture of Concrete Masonry Units 2d ed. Chicago: Concrete Publishing Corporation. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois. Harcros Pigments, Inc. 1993. Material Safety Data SheetYellow Iron Oxide, Copperas Red Iron Oxide, Kroma Red Iron Oxide, Black Iron Oxide. Harcros Pigments, Inc. Fairview Heights, IL. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Kirk-Othmer. 1982. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Lefond, Stanley J., editor-in-chief. 1975. Construction Materials: AggregatesSlag; and, Construction Materials: Cement and Cement Raw Materials. Industrial Minerals and Rocks: Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels. NY: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. Maier, Fred. 1994. Personal communication from the president of Fred Maier Block for the Concrete Masonry report. Martin, Bill. 1994. Engineer, Chandler Materials Company, Tulsa, OK. Information for the Concrete Masonry report. McHenry, Paul G., Jr. 1985. A Preliminary Report of Investigations on the Uses of Geothermal Energy for Production and Processing of Building Materials in Guatemala. For Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM. Mickelsen, Donald P. 1990. Iron Oxide Pigments Minerals Yearbook, 1989. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. September. National Cancer Institute. 1979. Bioassay of Titanium Dioxide for Possible Carcinogenicity. National Cancer Institute Technical Report Series No. 97. National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1990. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, June. NCMA (National Concrete Masonry Association). 1994. Survey for the AIA Environmental Resource Guide. OTA (Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress). 1989. Facing Americas Trash: What Next for Municipal Solid Waste. OTA-0-424. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Patton, Temple C. 1973. Pigment Handbook: Vol. I, Properties and Economics. NY: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 323-43, 757-58. Portland Cement Association. No date. Managing Waste: The Cement Kiln Alternative. (pamphlet). P. 6. . 1994. Comments on Concrete Masonry draft report. Sheldon, L. et al. 1988. Indoor Air Quality in Public Buildings. Vol. 2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Document number EPA/600/6-88/009b. August.
Szoke, Steve. 1993 and 1994. Director of National Accounts, National Concrete Masonry Association, Herndon, Va. Personal communicationinformation for the Concrete Masonry report. . 1994a. Comments on draft report, Concrete Masonry report. . 1994b. Director of National Accounts, National Concrete Masonry Association, Herndon, VA. Industry perspective for the Concrete Masonry report. Thieken, Jerry. 1992. Residential Thermal Mass Program (Salt River Project). A presentation at the 48th Annual National Association of Home Builders Convention and Exposition, January 25 Toennies, H. T., and J. J. Shideler. 1963. Plant Drying and Carbonation of Concrete Block: NCMA-PCA Cooperative Program. Bulletin D 64. Skokie, IL.: Portland Cement Association, Research and Development Laboratories. Reprinted from Journal of the American Concrete Institute, May 1963, Proceedings, 60:617. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1975. Literature Study of the Toxic Effects of Titanium Dioxide. Office of Toxic Substances. Washington, DC. January 15. . 1988. Application of Radon Reduction Methods. Office of Research and Development, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory. August. . 1991. Radon-resistant Construction Techniques for New Residential Construction: Technical Guidance. Office of Research and Development, Air and Energy Research Laboratory. February. Wilson, Alex. 1992. Dealing with Construction Waste: Innovative Solutions for a Tough Problem. Environmental Building News. Vol. 1, no. 3:1 and 7-8. November/December. . 1993a. Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations. Environmental Building News. Vol. 2, no. 2:1 and 7-12. March/April. . 1993b. Editors Response, Letters. Environmental Building News. Vol. 2, no. 3:2. May/June.
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Material Report
Stone Veneer
Highlights
Major potential environmental stressors associated with quarrying stone are the removal of overburden soil and subsequent restoration of quarry sites and the disposal of waste stone generated by quarrying activities. These stressors result in habitat alteration, soil erosion and runoff, and loss of biodiversity. Some habitat is created, however, resulting in some increase in biodiversity. Mining of materials to produce aluminum and steel framework causes pollutant runoff, land and habitat loss, and degradation of air and water quality . Production of petroleum and natural gas for the manufacture of adhesives releases a variety of emissions that have environmental and health effects. Combustion of fuel to power equipment and vehicles in all phases of stone veneer processing, both to produce power directly and to generate electricity, produces a variety of emissions that have environmental and health effects.
Stone is readily available in large amounts in this country and abroad. Mineral ores, petroleum, and natural gas are available domestically in finite amounts. Some subsidiary materials, such as nickel, chromium, and manganese, are available in limited amounts in the United States. Bauxite, the source for aluminum, is available in adequate, though finite, supply outside the United States.
Energy Consumption Indoor Air Quality
Energy consumption figures for the acquisition and processing of stone are not available. Indoor exposure to stone curtain walls is minimal because most curtain walls are hung on the outsides of buildings. Although adhesive resins could be a source of emissions, most volatile organic compounds are released before installation.
STONE VENEER
MAT 04450
Stone Veneer
Background
Background
Stone used for veneer is a type of dimension stone, that is, a natural stone that has been selected, trimmed, or cut to specified or indicated shapes or sizes, with or without one or more mechanically dressed surfaces (ASTM C 119-93d). The most prominent qualities of dimension stone include strength, color, toughness, hardness, and resistance to environmental damage. The major types of dimension stone used in construction are granite, marble, limestone, slate, and sandstone. Dimension stone as a finishing material for curtain walls is the subject of this report. The concept behind curtain-wall construction is based on the way loads are transferred. In curtain-wall construction, the exterior building skin (the stone veneer) hangs on the superstructure like a drapery and does not bear the weight of the building itself (Nicastro 1989). ASTM Standard C 1242, Guide for Design, Selection, and Installation of Exterior Dimension Stone Anchors and Anchoring Systems, discusses the materials and design principles to be considered in attaching stone veneer to the superstructure. In the dimension stone industry, the terms used in classifying stone do not always correspond with those used in petrographic rock descriptions. Likewise, classifications used by petrographers may have little value to architects and others whose primary interest is in accurately specifying dimension stone with the desired qualities. Granite dimension stones are commercially defined in ASTM C 119-93d as visibly granular, igneous rock generally ranging in color from pink to light or dark gray and consisting mostly of quartz and feldspars, accompanied by one or more dark minerals. Granites are hard, strong, durable, and relatively impervious to moisture. For exterior walls, they require little or no maintenance. Because granites are some of the most difficult stones to cut and finish, they are usually not found with elaborately textured, molded, or carved surfaces. Marbles as a group are defined in ASTM C 119-93d as a variety of compositional and textural types ranging from pure carbonate to rocks containing very little carbonate that are classed commercially as marble (for example, serpentine marble) and must be capable of taking a polish. Marble itself is defined in the same standard as carbonate rock that has acquired a distinctive crystalline texture by recrystallization, most commonly by heat and pressure during metamorphism, and is composed principally of the carbonate minerals calcite and dolomite singly or in combination. Recrystallized limestone, microcrystalline limestone, and travertine that are both compact and dense and capable of taking a polish can be marketed as either limestone or marble. Other marbles include onyx and serpentine. Marble dimension stone is further classified in ASTM C 503-88 as I Calcite, II Dolomite, III Serpentine, and IV Travertine. The Marble Institute of America (MIA), which was originally founded to represent the American marble industry, has expanded its representation to include the dimension stone industry as a whole. MIA classifies marbles and other stones for soundness based on fabrication characteristics as follows (MIA 1985): Group A: Sound marbles and stones, with uniform and favorable working qualities. Group B: Marbles and stones similar in character to the preceding group, but working qualities somewhat less favorable; may have natural faults; a limited amount of waxing and sticking necessary. Group C: Marbles and stones with some variations in working qualities; geological flaws, voids, veins, and lines of separation are common; it is standard practice to repair these variations by sticking, waxing, and filling; liners and other forms of reinforcement employed when necessary.
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Stone Veneer
Background
Group D: Marbles and stones similar to the preceding group, but containing a larger proportion of natural faults and a maximum variation in working qualities, requiring more of the same methods of finishing. This group comprises many of the highly colored marbles prized for their decorative qualities. Typical finishes for exterior marble are honed, sandblasted, abrasive, and rougher finishes such as rock-faced, rough sawn, or tooled. The smoother finishes bring out color and veining; rougher finishes have the opposite effect. Limestones as a group are defined in ASTM C 119-93d as rock of sedimentary origin composed principally of calcium carbonate (the mineral calcite), or the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium (the mineral dolomite), or some combination of these two minerals. Over half of the dimension limestone produced in the United States comes from the Indiana limestone formation located in three counties in Indiana. Indiana limestone is a calcitecemented calcareous stone formed of shells and shell fragments. It is practically noncrystalline in character and is highly uniform in composition, texture, and structure. Indiana limestone is classified by the Indiana Limestone Institute (1992) according to the following grades and colors: Select, Buff or Select, Gray is a fine- to average-grained stone that contains a minimum of distinguishable natural characteristics, including calcite streaks or spots, fossils or shell formations, pit holes, grain formation changes, and so forth. Standard, Buff or Standard, Gray is the same as Select with respect to colors but is fineto large-grained, permitting an average amount of the distinguishable natural characteristics listed above. Rustic, Buff or Rustic, Gray is the same as the preceding grades with respect to colors but is fine to very coarse-grained, permitting an above-average amount of the distinguishable natural characteristics listed above. Variegated is an unselected mixture of the preceding three grades, permitting both the buff and gray colors. A number of smooth, textured, and coarse finishes are available for Indiana limestone, including machine tooled, chat sawed, shot sawed, split face, and rock face. Dolomitic limestone contains 35 to 46 percent magnesium carbonate and may be somewhat crystalline in nature. Dolomites that will take a polish are also marketed commercially as marbles. Available finishes for dolomite are honed, sandblasted, and carborundum machined. Slate is defined in ASTM C 119-93d as microcrystalline metamorphic rock most commonly derived from shale and composed mostly of micas, chlorite, and quartz. The micaceous minerals have a subparallel orientation and thus impart strong cleavage to the rock, which allows the latter to be split into thin, tough sheets. Slate can be black, blue, green, gray, purple, or red, depending on the presence of various chemical compounds in the stone. Finishes available for slate include natural cleft finish, which is the natural split or cleaved face; sand rubbed, in which any evidence of natural cleft texture is removed; and honed. Edge shaping to produce grooves or slots to receive anchors is not possible with slate because of its internal structure of cleavage planes. Minimum joint widths of 0.375 to 0.5 inch (0.95 cm to 1.27 cm), depending on face sizes, are recommended for slate panels with a natural cleft finish to minimize irregularities at the joints resulting from natural variations in edge thickness. Sandstone, another type of dimension stone, is also included in this report. It is covered by ASTM C 616. Commercial sandstone is defined in ASTM C 119-93d as a sedimentary rock
STONE VENEER
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composed mostly of mineral and rock fragments within the sand size rangefrom 2 to 0.06 mm (0.07874 to 0.00236 in.)and having a minimum of 60 percent free silica, cemented or bonded to a greater or lesser degree by various materials including silica, iron oxides, carbonates, or clay, and which fractures around (not through) the constituent grains. Bluestone is a dense, hard, fine-grained, commonly feldspathic sandstone that may split readily along original bedding planes into thin slabs (flagstone). It is commonly medium to dark greenish-gray or bluish-gray in color. Brownstone is dense, medium-grained sandstone of brown reddishbrown color because of iron oxide. Flagstone may be either a sandstone or a slate that splits into large, thin slabs (Taylor 1993). Each of the ASTM standards for the various types of stone includes minimum requirements for the physical properties of each stone type and variety. Properties measured by referenced ASTM test methods include absorption, density, compressive strength, modulus of rupture, abrasion resistance, and sometimes flexural strength.
The life cycle of dimension stone is provided in figure 1. Life-cycle summaries of aluminum and steel are provided in figures 2 and 3, respectively. Life cycles of polyester, acrylic, silicone, and epoxy (used in adhesives) are provided in figure 4. The mining of dimension stone produces runoff and alters habitat, creating some new habitat in the process. Similar environmental effects result from the mining of bauxite, iron ore, zinc ore, and limestone to produce aluminum and steel frameworks for prefabricated stone panels. In addition, bauxite is mined in sensitive tropical and subtropical forest regions, causing some loss of tropical forests. Operating mining equipment and transporting stone from the source to the fabrication plant and from the plant to the customer require the expenditure of energy and the release of emissions from internal combustion engines. These emissions can produce or contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular problems, as well as environmental problems, including smog, global warming, and acid precipitation. The manufacture of aluminum and the fabrication of aluminum frameworks for prefabricated panels produce solid wastes, air emissions, and wastewater. The solid-waste stream includes various dusts, pot sludges, skims, dross, and metals precipitated from wastewater, which have to be disposed of in landfills. The manufacture of steel, including coke production, and the fabrication of steel frameworks result in a variety of pollutants. Adhesives are used in adhering stone panels to the supportive frame or backing in the assembly of some types of prefabricated wall panels. The four principal adhesives are epoxy, silicone, polyester, and acrylic resins. Accidental releases of certain chemicals used in the production of epoxy resin could result in adverse effects to human health and the environment. One of these chemicals, epichlorohydrin, is a probable human carcinogen (Hazardous Substances Data Bank 1994). The production of silicone resin releases hydrogen chloride into the air, contributing to acid precipitation. One of the chemical compounds from which polyester is made is ethylene glycol, and an intermediate in the production of ethylene glycol is ethylene oxide, considered to be a probable human carcinogen (Hazardous Substances Data Bank 1994). The major pollutant released during manufacture of polyester resin is unreacted benzene, along with other volatile organic compounds. However, with emission controls these compounds can be removed at a 99.5 percent efficiency. The primary environmental effects associated with the production of acrylic resins result from the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum. In the manufacture and finishing of dimension stone, the stone dust, abrasive particles, and carrier fragments are carried away by water to a settling pond, where there is little likelihood (continued on page 9)
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Figure 1: Life Cycle of Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall Applications

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 STONE VENEER MAT 04450
Granite, marble, limestone, slate, and sandstone quarrying Flame drilling or Blasting or Sawing with chain saws, belt saws, radial diamond saws, diamond wire saws or channeling machines
Cutting to size for shipment to the fabricating plant Sawing with diamond wire saws or radial diamond saws or Drilling and wedging or Blasting
Storage Fabrication Subdividing by gang saw Cutting with circular saw for odd sizes Cutting with wire saw for special shapes
Flame finishing (granite only)
Rough-finish granite
Finishing Grinding with blocks and granular abrasives

Stone dust, abrasive particles, and carrier fragments
Stone with finished surface Limestone dimension stone with finished surface
Wall panel fabrication Cutting using computercontrolled radial arm saw

Stone dust and abrasive particles
Stone waste
Runoff Habitat Tailings waste (soil erosion, change overburden, stone waste TSS)
Wall panel fabrication Limestone is cut to final wall panel dimensions

Honing Grinding with blocks and finer abrasives

Matte-finish stone
Limestone dimension stone with matte surface
KEY
Polishing (granite and marble) Grinding with blocks and still finer abrasives
Polished stone
Life Cycle Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall Applications
Steel framework
(see figure 3)
Aluminum framework
(see figure 2)
Adhesives Preparing panel for attachment Cutting grooves or slots into the edges Drilling holes into back of panel
(see figure 4)
Finished dimension stone
Packing In open crates or On palletts made of lumber
Fabrication plant Subframe assemblies containing several stone panels or Prefabricated aluminum-framed panels or Individual stone panels mounted on honeycombed aluminum
Construction site
Stone Veneer
Adhesives
(see figure 4)
Maintenance/repair
Demolition
Landfill waste
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MAT 04450 STONE VENEER ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 2: Life Cycle of Aluminum Frameworks
Stone Veneer
Life Cycle Aluminum Frameworks
Bauxite ore mining Striping Loading Grinding
Air emissions (VOCs, fluoride gases, PAHs)
Alumina production Mixing Heating
Habitat change
Mud containing trace heavy metals and organics
Aluminum production Dissolving in bath Reducing alumina to aluminum Siphoning
Aluminum framework fabrication Rolling Casting Extruding Finishing Forging
Wastewater recycled (metals), sludges landfilled
Spent potliner (fluoride, cyanide)
Solid waste (dust, pot sludges, skims, dross)
Wastewater (acids, lead, chromium, cyanide)
Sludges (acids, lead, chromium, cyanide)
Cryolite
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary
Caustic soda
Water
Output Recycling
Figure 3: Life Cycle Summary of Steel Frameworks

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 STONE VENEER MAT 04450
Limestone mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Steel making Blast furnace BOF furnace Electric furnace Open hearth furnace
Steel framework manufacture Forming Cutting

(see figure 1)
Habitat change
Solid waste (slag)
Wastewater
Scrap (recycled)
Ingot casting
Coal mining Drilling Blasting
Loading Cleaning
Coke making Distillation
Habitat change
Wastewater (organics, dissolved solids)
Slabbing
Scrap procurement
Life-Cycle Summary Steel Frameworks
KEY
Rolling Hot rolling Annealing Galvanizing Pickling Cold rolling Painting Tempering
Stone Veneer
Iron ore mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Grinding Loading
Zinc smelting
Habitat change
Solid waste (metals)
Wastewater (zinc bath)
Sludge
Recycling
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MAT 04450 STONE VENEER ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 4: Life Cycle of Adhesives
Stone Veneer
Oil processing Exploration Distillation Catalytic cracking
Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzol(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
Olefins (propylene) manufacture
Cumene
Phenol
Wastewater (oil, grease, suspended solids, organics)
Air emissions (VOCs)
Life Cycle Adhesives
H2SO4 Air emissions (VOCs)
Benzene manufacture
Acetone
Bisphenol A
Wastewater Sludge (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptane, cyanides)
Brine
Electrolysis
Brine sludge (magnesium hydroxide, CaCO3), spent sulfuric acid, scrubbing wastes, asbestos Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Propylene
Chlorine Epichlorohydrin NaOH Hypochorous acid Byproduct generation Epoxy resin
H Cl
Wastewater (oil, grease, dissolved solids, organics) Wastewater (produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, organics) Drilling muds and cuttings Drainage wastes
Drilling mud and cuttings, heavy metals
Wastewater (oil, grease, dissolved solids, organics)
Methanol manufacture Chlorine Methane Methyl chloride
Quartzite mining Drilling Loading Blasting Crushing

Grinding Separating
Habitat change
Water
Air emissions (CO2 ) Catalyst Air emission (H Cl)
Quartzite mining Drilling Loading Blasting Crushing


Tailings waste, overburden Catalyst Air emissions (Benzene, VOCs)
Reduction furnace
Silicon
Catalyst
Silicone resin
Water
Air emissions (CO2 )
Habitat change
Maleic anhydride
Xylene Catalyst
Benzene
Polyester resin
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Recycling Chlorinated organics
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene glycol
Hydrocarbons, zinc, cadmium
Chromium, copper
Acrylic resin
Stone Veneer
of these wastes entering surface water. Minimal airborne dust is generated during cutting and finishing because the stone is continuously flushed with water. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may be released from adhesive resins during and after the curing phase. Most VOCs are generally released during a conditioning period before installation. A minimal amount of waste, mainly consisting of packaging materials, is generated during construction. At demolition, stone panels are normally disposed of in a landfill because it is impractical to prepare them for reuse.

The central raw material discussed in this report is the dimension stone itself. Also covered are truss-supported stone panels or large subframe assemblies that are fabricated at a separate plant before transport to the construction site. These prefabricated stone panels (also known as preassemblies) consist of one or more stone panels mounted onto an aluminum or steel frame or backing. The stone is attached to the aluminum or steel framework with various types of anchors that are used in combination with adhesives. This report includes a discussion of the major types of adhesives, including epoxy, silicone, polyester, and acrylic. Another type of prefabricated stone panel consists of stone veneer that is attached to a precast concrete panel. Because of the complexity of concrete manufacture, this type of prefabricated stone panel is not discussed here. The reader is referred to the material report on concrete (03010) and the material report on concrete masonry (04220). Similarly, sealants used at joints between stone panels are not discussed here (see the material report on sealants, 07920 in ERG 1994 ed.). A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of material for the manufacture of dimension stone and prefabricated truss-supported stone panels is presented in figure 5. This stage in the life cycle includes the acquisition and preparation of raw materials (including dimension stone and ores for the production of aluminum and steel), the production of aluminum and steel, and the fabrication of aluminum and steel frameworks for the building of prefabricated stone panel systems.
Dimension Stone Stone (granite, marble, limestone, slate, and sandstone) is acquired by open-pit or underground quarrying. The open-pit method is predominant (perhaps greater than 90 percent). In the quarrying process, the overburden soil and unusable rock are removed as waste that may be used for other purposes. Not only must the quarry be excavated, but roadways must be constructed.
Quarrying methods include use of various combinations of chain saws, belt saws, radial diamond saws, wire saws, diamond wire saws, waterjets, stone drills, flame drills, and jet burners. In addition, granite and marble can be obtained by drilling and wedging; granite is also obtained by blasting. The choice of equipment depends on the type of dimension stone, size and shape of deposit, production capacity of the quarry, labor costs, and other economic factors. In granite quarrying, a wall 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 m) tall is opened by cutting channels perpendicularly into the wall by flame drilling. This produces channels about 3 inches (7.6 cm) wide that are 50 to 100 feet (15.25 to 30.5 m) from each other. The channels are cut about 10 to 20 feet (3 to 6 m) into the rock. Parallel with the face of the wall and typically 8 to 20 feet (2.4 to 6.1 m) back from the front edge, vertical holes 3 to 10 inches (7.6 to 25.4 cm) apart are drilled as deep as the wall is tall. At the bottom of the wall, holes are drilled horizontally, (continued on page 16)
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Figure 5: Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall ApplicationsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage
Activity
Mining of dimension stone
Stressor
Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Land disturbance
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD
Impact/Stressor
Deoxygenation
Impact/Stressor
Runoff Loss of habitat Deoxygenation
(see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Runoff
Fuel combustion
VOCs
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Impairs ability of the blood to carry oxygen
Global warming
Nitrogen oxides
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Acid precipitation
Particulates
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
Bauxite ore mining Bauxite refining
(see mining impacts above) Wastewater and mud contaminated with heavy metals and organics Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals
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Figure 5: Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall ApplicationsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (cont.)
Activity
Alumina production Aluminum production
Stressor
Air emissions Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
Particulates VOCs
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above) Ground-level ozone (smog)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Fluoride gases (95% recovered) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (95% destroyed through incineration)
Materials corrosion Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Possible human carcinogens
Wastewater
Wastewater containing metals is treated and recycled; sludge is landfill
Decreased landfill capacity
Spent potliner
Fluoride Cyanide
Controlled disposal required Toxic to fish and mammals Controlled disposal required Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Particulates
Solid waste
Dusts
Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility
Pot sludges, skims dross Aluminum framework fabrication Fluoride Nickel Processing wastewater Aluminum
Disposal required Precipitated from wastewater and recycled into process Controlled landfill disposal required Precipitated from wastewater and recycled Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges continued Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges
Cyanide
Precipitated from wastewater
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Stone Veneer
Activity
Aluminum framework fabrication (continued)
Stressor
Processing wastewater (continued) Rinsing wastewater
Impact/Stressor
Antimony
Impact/Stressor
Precipitated from wastewater
Impact/Stressor
Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Hazardous waste disposal required
Impact/Stressor
Acids Lead
Surface water acidification Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms
Chromium
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms
Cyanide
Iron ore, limestone, and zinc mining Coal mining
(see mining impacts above) Tailings waste/mine spoils (sulfur) Contamination of groundwater Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (dust particulates) Wastewater Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Acid drainage Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill
Cokemaking
Air emissions
VOCs Particulates Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Dust
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility
Wastewater
Dissolved solids and organics
Deoxygenation
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Activity
Cokemaking (continued) Steel manufacture Solid waste (slag) Liquid wastes Recycled or used in other products Pickling solutions Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Spent wash water Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Oils and lubricants Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Sludge Zinc Smelting Solid waste (metal) Landfill disposal Recycle Decreased landfill capacity Fuel combustion emissions from recycling Wastewater Spent bath solutions Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Spent cleaning solutions Rinse water Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Sludge Metals and organics filtered from bath solutions Manufacture of epoxy resins Crude oil extraction Wastewater containing oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, oxygendepleting organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, produced sands Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Deck drainage, and sanitary and domestic wastes Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Eutrophication Waterborne disease Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition (see impacts above) Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Fuel combustion
Stressor
Sludge
Impact/Stressor
Possible human carcinogens (see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
continued
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Stone Veneer
Activity
Manufacture of epoxy resins (continued)
Stressor
Crude oil processing
Impact/Stressor
Desalting process wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended and dissolved solids Distillation process wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, and phenols Catalytic cracking wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia
Impact/Stressor
Increased BOD
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
High pH
Increased alkalinity
Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Catalytic cracking air emissions Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, and ammonia Aldehydes benzo(a) pyrene, benzene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, xylene Air emissions Cumene Eye and skin irritation Dizziness, drowsiness, uncoordination, unconsciousness Cumene hydroperoxide Danger of explosion Corrosive to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract Epichlorohydrin Irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin Liver, lung, and kidney injury Probable human carcinogen
(see impacts above) Possible fishkill (see impacts above)
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Activity
Manufacture of silicone and silicone resins
Stressor
Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
Hydrogen chloride
Impact/Stressor
Acid precipitation
Impact/Stressor
Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification
Impact/Stressor
Mining of quartzite Coal mining Coke production Silicon production Chlorine production
(see mining impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Carbon monoxide emissions Air emissions Chlorine Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans Brine mud Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate Wastewater Chlorine and sulfuric acid May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen depleting organics Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Possible fishkill Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Wastewater
Manufacture of polyester resin
Air emissions Crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Ethylene production
Volatilized polyester monomers (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions Wastewater Benzene and VOCs Contains chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals (see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above)
Ethylene glycol production
Fugitive emissions
Ethylene oxide is considered to be a probable human carcinogen
Maleic anahydride production
Air emissions
Benzene
Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation
Maleic anhydride
Irritation of the eyes, nose, throat and skin
Xylene
Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat continued
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Stone Veneer
Activity
Manufacture of polyester resins (continued)
Stressor
Maleic anhydride production (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Air emissions (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Xylene (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Breathing difficulties, dizziness, drowsiness, and unconsciousness Reversible kidney and liver damage
Impact/Stressor
Wastewater
Xylene
Acrylic resin production
Wastewater containing oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, oxygendepleting organics Fuel combustion
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Crude oil extraction Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
unless natural bedding in the rock provides a separation. An explosivenormally diluted black powder explosiveis inserted into the holes drilled into the rock. When the powder is exploded, the block of stone is lifted out from the rock wall and is laid onto a pile of rubble to cushion its fall onto the quarry floor. The block produced in this way is typically 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9 m) by 8 to 20 feet (2.4 to 6.1 m) by 100 feet (30.5 m) long. The block is then cut according to the requirements of the customer into smaller blocks, perhaps 5 x 8 x 10 feet (1.5 x 2.4 x 3 m) in size, by use of a saw, by drilling and wedging, or by blasting. Alternatively, the blocks may be cut to an optimum size in anticipation of unspecified future orders. For granite, a wire saw in which diamond chips are embedded is used. As the saw abrades the stone, stone particles are carried away by water pumped up from pools in the bottom of the quarry. The particles settle out in the pools. The blocks are carefully trimmed to the specified dimensions to minimize transportation costs. For limestone, marble, and other dimension stone, the methods of quarrying are similar to those described above. These stones, however, are not separated by blasting. Although wire saws and radial diamond saws may sometimes be used, chain saws are the prevalent tool used for cutting rock. The blades of chain saws are 10 feet long or more (3 m or more) and use diamond chips to cut the stone. A belt saw may also be used. It has a belt coated with a matrix in which abrasive is embedded, which wears away the stone. As described above for granite, the block is then cut into smaller blocks according to customer requirements or in anticipation of future orders. The stone blocks are then loaded onto trucks by cranes or front-end loaders for transport to the fabricating plant. If the fabricating plant is located near the quarry, delivery may be made by the front-end loader. The blocks may also be transported by truck to a railroad or shipyard for shipment to a more distant fabricating plant. This last sequence of transportation may be the most common method.
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Stone
The environmental impacts generally associated with open-pit mining are discussed under limestone in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The major potential environmental stresses related to stone quarrying, as with all open-pit mining operations, are (1) the removal of overburden and subsequent restoration of the quarry site and (2) disposal of stone waste (Gulyas 1994). The effects of land disturbance from mining activities can often be mitigated to a great extent by careful restoration management. Abandoned waste piles and unreclaimed stone quarries are a problem in some communities, however, as waste piles are often abandoned by companies that go out of business (Gulyas 1994). From 45 to 80 percent of granite becomes waste during quarrying and processing (Gulyas 1994). For limestone, 15 to 20 percent of the stone becomes waste (Owens 1994). Quarrying produces a lot of waste in the form of inferior materials encountered during quarrying and material trimmed from the blocks in order to produce the desired dimensions. From 15 to 90 percent of the rock can be waste. As equipment and methods improve, this proportion of waste is expected to decrease (Owens 1994).) Quarrying firms often use this waste to fill existing quarries or to fill surface depressions, producing a level surface to conduct operations on or to use as a storage yard. The waste also can be crushed into stone chips for use as roadbed aggregate. It also may be crushed for use as an aggregate in the manufacture of concrete; however, a lot of soil is often contained in this waste, and it must be washed out before the aggregate can be used in concrete. Producing chips and aggregate this way is not as cost effective as obtaining such material from a crushed-stone plant; therefore, most waste is disposed of as fill or is used for local road construction. Industry indicates that stone waste can create a protective habitat for small animals and a new growth area for plants, increasing biodiversity (Owens 1994). Quarrying releases some, but not a lot of stone dust. The noise produced in quarries is no greater than that produced at other construction sites.
Energy Consumed
Some of the equipment used in quarrying is powered by diesel or gasoline engines; however, most is electrically powered (Gulyas 1994). It has been estimated that approximately 552 Btus (0.55 MJ), in the form of fuels to power the heavy equipment, are required for mining one pound of limestone (as quoted in the material report on plaster and lath, 09200, from Hannon et al. 1976 and Brown et al. 1985). A broad rule of thumb is that approximately 25 percent of the cost of stone to the fabricating plant10 percent for limestone (Owens 1994)is for energy. The price of stone ranges from $6 to $90 per ft3 ($247 to $3,178 per m3) and averages around $12 per ft3 ($424 per m3) (Gulyas 1994). Stone must be transported from the quarry to the fabricating plant. Fabricating plants are often located close to quarries, so transportation is minimized. Production by quarries of stone in slab form eliminates the need to transport stone that will later be trimmed off as waste. The cost of transportation of a truckload of stone from a quarry to a fabricating plant is about $1.25 per ft3 ($44.14 per m3) for a trip of about 100 miles (161 km). The cost for limestone is estimated to be from $0.85 to $1.00 per ft3 ($30.00 to $35.31 per m3) (Owens 1994). Thus, transportation accounts for about 10 percent of the cost to the fabricating plant, assuming an average cost of $12 ft3 ($424 per m3) (Gulyas 1994).
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Aluminum and Steel Frameworks for Prefabricated Stone Panel Systems Aluminum mining and production are discussed in the material report on aluminum (05010 in ERG 1994 ed.).
The mining of iron ore and zinc, the manufacture of steel, and the fabrication of steel products are discussed in the material report on steel framing (05401).
Adhesives Adhesives are used in adhering stone panels to the supportive frame or backing in the assembly of some types of prefabricated wall panels. Adhesives may also be used to embed the mounting pins and anchors into specially designed holes or slots in the back of the stone panel. These anchors are then attached to the buildings structural frame. Adhesives may also be used to fabricate stone panels with special shapes. (As this is a specialty product, it is not discussed in this report.) The four principal adhesives used in stone panels and curtain-wall construction are epoxy, silicone, polyester, and acrylic resins.
Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Waste Generated and Natural Resource Depletion
The environmental effects associated with the production of epoxy resins are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Cumene, cumene hydroperoxide, and epichlorohydrin are used in the production of epoxy resin. Cumene causes eye and skin irritation; cumene hydroperoxide is corrosive to eyes, skin, and the respiratory tract and is an explosive; epichlorohydrin causes irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin, and is a probable human carcinogen (Hazardous Substances Data Bank 1994; NIOSH/OSHA 1981). Accidental releases of these chemicals during the manufacture of epoxy resin could result in adverse effects to human health and the environment.
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce epoxy resin is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Silicone Resins
Silicone resins are produced from various silanes, with dimethyldichlorosilane ((CH3)2SiCl2) (DMDS) being most common. DMDS reacts with water and then hydrolyzes in the presence of a catalyst to produce the polymer resin (HO(Si(CH3)2O)nH). Full curing of the resin is produced by the use of a catalytic initiator, often a peroxide. DMDS is produced by passing methyl chloride (CH3Cl) over powdered silicon in the presence of a copper catalyst at 275 to 375C (527 to 707F) (Kirk-Othmer 1969; Kent 1983). Silicon is produced by the reaction of quartzite ore with coke in a reduction furnace. In this process, quartzite and coke are heated together in an electric furnace to produce silicon and carbon monoxide (CO). Quartzite is obtained by mining. Mining operations and the production of coke are described in the material report on steel framing (05401). Methyl chloride (CH3Cl) is produced by the chlorination of methane or the reaction of methanol and hydrogen chloride. In the first process, methane (as present in natural gas) is mixed with chlorine. The production of chlorine is described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). The mixture is heated to about 400C (752F), forming several commercial products, including CH3Cl, methylene chloride, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and hydrochloric acid (HCl). In the second process used to produce CH3Cl, vaporized methanol and HCl are mixed together, heated to about 350C (662F), and passed over a catalyst. CH3Cl gas is produced, cooled, and liquefied. Methanol production is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Almost all HCl is
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produced as a by-product of other chemical syntheses, such as the first process used to produce CH3Cl.
Waste Generated and Natural Resource Depletion.
Most common silicones are biologically inert when fully cured; however, a variety of components, some of which are toxic, can be incorporated into specialty silicones. Also, intermediate by-products and emissions during the production process can be toxic. The production of silicone resin releases HCl during the polymerization process. The environmental and health effects of HCl are discussed in the material report on brick and mortar (04210). The mining of quartzite is responsible for a variety of environmental effects. The environmental effects of mining operations and of coke production are described in the material report on steel framing (05401). CO is released in the production of silicon from quartzite. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. The environmental effects associated with the production of chlorine are described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). The environmental effects associated with the production and processing of natural gas are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed.
There is no information available on the energy consumed in silicone resin manufacture.

Polyester Resins
Polyester resins are manufactured from chemical compounds derived from natural gas and crude oil. Production of 1.0 lb (0.45 kg) of polyester requires 0.402 lb (0.18 kg) of crude oil (Franklin Associates 1991). Polyester resins are polymers of the complex esters formed when a difunctional alcohol is reacted with a dibasic acid or anhydride. In a typical reaction, ethylene glycol and maleic anhydride join in a condensation reaction to form an unsaturated resin. Addition of a cross-linking agent completes the reaction to produce the thermosetting resin. The condensation reaction occurs in an insulated stainless steel or glass-lined kettle. An inert gas such as nitrogen is bubbled up through the mixture of reactants to keep oxygen (which can cause discoloration and gelation) out of the vessel. The mixture is heated to 200C (392F) for 4 to 20 hours with continual mixing. Curing occurs after addition of an unspecified cross-linking agent (Austin 1984). Ethylene glycol is produced from ethylene. The production of ethylene is discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Ethylene is oxidized in the presence of a catalyst to produce ethylene oxide, which is hydrated to form ethylene glycol (Austin 1984). Maleic anhydride is produced by the oxidation of benzene over a vanadium pentoxide/molybdenum trioxide catalyst in the presence of air. The reaction produces maleic anhydride gas, water, and carbon dioxide (CO2). The maleic anhydride gas is cooled and partially condenses so that it is present in a liquid and a gas form. The liquid is separated, and the gas is passed through an absorber where it is brought into contact with water. The maleic anhydride is then separated from the water by azeotropic distillation with xylene, after which the xylene is extracted for reuse. The production of benzene is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240) (Austin 1984).
Pollutant emissions from polyester fiber production are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Most emissions from that process result from activities involving the fiber form of the final material. In the production of polyester resin, fibers
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are not produced; as a result, those sources of pollutant emission would not be relevant. The remaining pollutant emission is volatilized residual monomer (EPA 1993). The environmental effects of ethylene production are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Ethylene oxide, an intermediate in ethylene glycol production, is considered to be a probable human carcinogen (Hazardous Substances Data Bank 1994). The major air pollutant released during the manufacture of maleic anhydride is unreacted benzene, amounting to 3 to 10 percent of total benzene used. Some maleic anhydride and xylene (an ancillary process chemical) also is emitted, about 0.28 kg (0.62 lb) per hour. Some xylene may be released in wastewater as a secondary pollutant. Benzene emissions can be directed through carbon adsorption, thermal incineration, or catalytic incineration control equipment, as can the maleic anhydride and xylene. A 99.5 percent removal efficiency for benzene and volatile organic compounds can be achieved (EPA 1993). The environmental effects of the benzene production are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce polyester fibers (similar in composition to the polyester resin described in this report) is discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Acrylic Resins
Acrylic resins are described in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
The environmental effects associated with the production of acrylic resins are described in the material report on wall coverings (see MAT.09950T).
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce acrylic resin is discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture and fabrication of dimension stone is presented in figure 6. The fabrication of prefabricated stone veneer panels involves attaching the precut stone panels to the aluminum or steel framework with mechanical anchors and/or adhesives.
Dimension Stone After arriving at the fabricating plant, the blocks are stored in large outdoor storage areas. They are moved by cranes and front-end loaders. First, the blocks are cut into slabs having approximately the same thickness as the stone panel that will be mounted on the building. Most cutting is done by gang saws (which are being replaced by block saws in limestone fabricating plants). A circular saw, however, is used for odd sizes, and wire saws are used for special shapes such as circles or columns.
Gang saws are composed of several (as many as ten) parallel steel blades that simultaneously cut the block into thinner slabs. The steel blades have no teeth per se but carry an abrasive slurry of steel pellets. The cut is washed continuously with water to remove the stone cuttings and to cool the saw. The gang saw cuts through the stone block at the rate of approximately 1 inch (2.54 cm) per hour (depending upon the type and hardness of the stone) and may take several days to complete the cut.
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Manufacturing and Fabrications Stage
Figure 6: Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall ApplicationsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Cutting of stone Finishing, honing and polishing of stone
Stressor
Runoff of stone dust and abrasive particles Runoff of stone dust, abrasive particles, and carrier fragments
Impact/Stressor
(see figure 5 for impacts of runoff) (see figure 5 for impacts of runoff)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
After the slab is cut to the appropriate thickness, it may also be trimmed to the length and width required to produce the final panel or panels. Limestone (but not other types of dimension stone) is usually cut to final panel dimensions before being finished. If the slabs are not trimmed to final size at this stage, the slabs that are delivered from the quarry for finishing are of such a size that the final stone panels can be produced with minimum waste. Any cuts that have to be made to reduce the size of these blocks will produce slabs sized precisely, which require little if any additional trimming. Depending on the type of stone and the size of the panel, the thickness for exterior panels can range from 1.25 to 3 inches (3.2 to 7.6 cm) or more in thickness. The panel surface is finished primarily by the use of grinding blocks that abrade the stone surface. These brick-sized blocks have granular abrasives (possibly industrial diamond dust or carborundum) held in a matrix carrier. An intermediate finishing with finer abrasives that produces a matte finish is called honing. Using still finer abrasives, a polished finish can be achieved. Only granite and marble can receive a polished finish. Another type of granite finish is a flame finish. To achieve this, an unfinished slab is wetted and passed under a gas burner, causing the quartz to expand and pop, thus producing a rough finish. Stone-erection shop drawings are prepared with the curtain-wall panels located on the building and individually numbered. Stone fabrication diagrams (shop drawings) are prepared showing the anchors, anchor sizes, and anchor holes for each stone. All drawings and diagrams are based on the requirements of the stone cladding design prepared by a cladding design architect or engineer. After finishing, the slabs are then handled on a rollered table that allows the slabs to be moved under a computer-controlled radial arm saw. This saw cuts the slab into stone panels with specified lengths and widths. Bevel cuts and even cuts for thickness can be made during this process. Because the blocks delivered from the quarry were dimensioned to allow for the ultimate sizes of the stone panels, there is minimal waste in this process. The saw blades have industrial diamond chips embedded at their cutting points. The chips are affixed either directly to a matrix on the blade or on a separate head mounted on the blade. As the matrix containing the diamond chips wears down, either the entire blade or the worn diamond head is replaced. The panel is then prepared for attachment, either by cutting grooves or slots into the edges or by drilling into the back of the panel. Computer-controlled drills and saws are used in this process. After the stone panels are crated, a forklift loads the crates onto trucks for delivery to the construction site or to a separate fabrication plant if prefabricated wall panels are to be assembled.
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Prefabricated Wall Panels Prefabricated panels can be assembled at a separate plant before transport to the construction site. In this type of construction, the stone panels are first mounted onto a steel or aluminum frame rather than being attached directly to the structure of a building. Prefabricated wall panels can be of varying sizes25 x 6 feet (7.6 x 1.8 m) is a typical sizeand contain several stone panels. One type of prefabricated wall panel consists of individual stone panels mounted onto a honeycombed aluminum panel; because of the strength and rigidity of the honeycombed aluminum, stone panels as thin as 316 inch (0.47 cm), depending upon the type of stone, can be used. Various devices are used to attach the stone to the aluminum or steel, such as clips, anchor bolts, dowel pins, and high-strength adhesives, including epoxy, silicone, polyester, or acrylic resin.
Prefabricated wall panels reduce installation time because the leveling, plumbing, and aligning of individual pieces are eliminated (ILIA 1992).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture and Fabrication of Dimension Stone and Prefabricated Stone Panels
Minimal airborne dust is generated during the operation of the saws because the cut is flushed continuously with water. The stone dust and abrasive particles carried away by the water have the potential to run off into surface waters (see material report on plaster and lath, limestone section, 09200, for environmental impacts of runoff). However, in the manufacture of dimension stone, the stone dust and abrasive particles are carried away to a settling pond and are not very likely to enter surface waters. In the finishing process, stone dust, abrasive particles, and carrier fragments are also carried away by water to a settling pond (Gulyas 1994). At every stage in the fabrication of dimension stone, an effort is made to reduce stone waste during cutting to final size. Waste stone material, like that generated during the quarrying process, is not a significant problem at the fabrication stage. As equipment and methods improve, such waste continues to be minimized.
Energy Consumed
Almost all equipment operated at the fabricating plant is electrically powered. The energy cost at the fabricating plant is about $0.25 to $0.40 per ft2 ($2.69 to $4.30 per m2) (Owens 1994; Gulyas 1994).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of stone curtain walls is presented in figure 7. In the cladding process, individual stone panels are hand-set onto backup masonry or backup framing made of steel or aluminum. The stone panels are fastened to the backup by stainless steel or aluminum support clips, anchor clips, stainless steel rods, or other anchoring devices. The clips engage the edge of the stone panel and are bolted or otherwise attached to the backup.
Figure 7: Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall ApplicationsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity
Installation of stone veneer curtain walls
Stressor
Waste packing material
Impact/Stressor
Landfill disposal Recycle/reuse of wooden pallets
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
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Prefabricated stone panels are attached to the steel building frame by welding or the use of bolts. Attachment to masonry building walls is by expansion bolts or other devices. Water that may pass behind the panels is controlled by flashing that may take the form of either sheets behind the panels that drain water outside the wall or a gutter system that collects the water and drains it through weep holes in the external wall. Flashing is not an integral part of the stone panels but is incorporated along with them as part of the overall construction of the building exterior (Gulyas 1994). Natural stone in curtain-wall construction is increasing in popularity and is replacing the minimal glass curtain-wall construction that was popular during the 1950s and 1960s. This renewed interest in natural stone has led to numerous innovations in methods for attaching stone to the exterior of buildings. The application of modern technologies to an age-old material such as stone raises new questions concerning quality, durability, and maintenance. Because developments have occurred at such a rapid pace, the need for close scrutiny and control throughout every step of the building process has been emphasized (ASTM 1988). Close cooperation between the owner, the building design team, and the contractor is essential if the project is to fulfill specified requirements (Gulyas 1988). In curtain-wall construction, all the components of a single system are designed to go together in a pre-engineered system, and specified components must not be replaced by other components that are not part of the design. In addition, the interaction of the different systems with one another should be considered, and connections between the different systems (windows, stone panels, framework) must be part of the design (Nicastro 1989). As a cladding material in curtain walls, stone provides many positive features. Stone curtainwall construction requires little maintenance, provides significant sound reduction because of the mass of the material, is noncombustible, and possesses superb aesthetic qualities (Grassi 1992). Designs involving prefabricated stone-faced wall panels provide several benefits. Prefabricated panels provide for faster enclosure of a building, allowing for faster progress in the interior work; assembly-line production of prefabricated panels ensures greater productivity and reduces interruptions due to bad weather; and controlled working conditions in the shop usually result in better quality and more efficient quality control than if the same work is performed on-site (Gulyas 1988).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Stone Curtain Walls.
The use of adhesives includes a curing phase during which cross-linking of the monomers and release of the by-products occurs. It would be expected that most volatile organics will be released during a conditioning period before installation (Tucker 1988). A small amount of waste is generated during construction, consisting mainly of materials used in packaging the dimension stone. The finished stone is packed in custom-made open crates or on pallets made from lumber. Closed wooden crates may sometimes be used. Cardboard may be used as a spacer between panels. The wooden crating material usually becomes part of the construction waste and is sent to a landfill, although the wooden pallets may be returned to the fabricating plant for reuse. The world supply of dimension stone is considered to be adequate to U.S. demand and is likely to shift in favor of domestic producers (Taylor 1993). The supply of Indiana limestone is virtually unlimited; on the basis of present extraction methods, geologists estimate that the product will be available for several hundred years (ILIA 1992).
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Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage and Organization Perspectives
Energy Consumed
No information exists on the energy consumed in the construction of stone veneer curtain walls. Stone does have the capacity to act as a heat sink that absorbs and then slowly transmits heat. This moderates heat flows through building walls, evening out the peaks and valleys of heating and air-conditioning requirements. The greater the mass of the stone panels, the greater the reduction in heat flow rates. Ultra-thin stone panels will have little heat damping effect.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of stone veneer for curtain walls is presented in figure 8.
Figure 8: Stone Veneer for Curtain-Wall ApplicationsRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity
Building remodeling/ demolition Recycle
Stressor
Solid waste
Impact/Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Decreased landfill capacity Wastes and emissions from recycling
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Stone panels normally are broken into smaller pieces at demolition and disposed of in a landfill. Although it would be possible to reuse stone panels in other construction, it is more costly to prepare them for such reuse than to acquire new stone panels. The many stone buildings that have been in place in the United States for over 100 years and in other parts of the world for several centuries are indicative of the durability of this construction material. Replacement of such buildings because the building material wears out would not be expected to occur with great frequency. Consequently, there is a conservation of building material.
Industry Perspective: Indiana Limestone Institute of America Indiana limestone is a totally inert, durable, noncombustible, weather-resistant system. Its pleasing neutral range of color, varying from what is essentially a warm white to a cool white, has been serving the needs of American architects and building owners since the first quarry opened in Stinesville (Monroe County), Indiana, in 1827. With the advent of the railroads in the mid-1850s, solid, dependable Indiana limestone became a national treasure and was used extensively in the building of many state and federal buildings, as the country expanded from east to west. A visit to Washington, D.C., in particular, and to most of the major cities east of the Mississippi River, in general, will show great amounts of this stone from Indiana still serving the country today, as it remains one of a handful of products continually available for over 160 years.
Indiana limestone is found in a three-county area in south-central Indiana. Most, if not all, of the active quarries have been owned by the same companies or families for many years and are located in predominantly rural areas of two countiesLawrence and Monroe. The third county containing Indiana limestoneOwencurrently has no operating quarries. The rate of land use is relatively low; and even given the relatively narrow deposit, at current usage rates there exists a 400- to 500-year supply. New methods of quarrying and fabricating, centering for the most part on new equipment (use of belt saws in the quarry, block saws in the mill, and so forth), have increased efficiency
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Regulatory Status
and decreased waste in the past several years. The electric-powered quarry saw has replaced the old steam-powered channeling machines and wire saws of yesteryear, thus decreasing pollution and improving productivity. The durability of Indiana limestone (projected to be 500 years) practically eliminates the need for replacing structures. In addition, the homogeneity and availability of the Indiana limestone deposit allow additions to be made to existing buildings without concern for drastic difference in color or quality. This results in an obvious energy savings, as old buildings do not have to be torn down and discarded, and new buildings do not have to be built. Furthermore, the stone is virtually maintenance free, and damaged individual stones typically are easily repaired through various patching methods. In those rare instances when repair is either impossible or impractical, replacement stones are readily available, restoring the building to its original state and, again, eliminating the need for rebuilding. In closing, ILIA believes that Indiana limestone is a totally inert, ecologically friendly, natural material. Its excellent physical properties have combined with its remarkable degree of machinability to make it a product of choice for architects and building owners for more than 160 years.
Regulatory Status
The current major regulatory concern among Indiana limestone producers is related to water quality, whether storm-water runoff or water used in plants.
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References
REFERENCES
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1989. Dimension Stone. Masterspec, Section 04405. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). 1988. Overview. In New Stone Technology, Design, and Construction for Exterior Wall Systems, edited by Barry Donaldson. Special Technical Publication 996. Philadelphia: ASTM. . Standard C 119-93d. Definitions of Terms Relating to Natural Building Stones. . Standard C 503-88. Specification for Marble Building Stone (Exterior). . Standard C 568-79. Specification for Limestone Building Stone. . Standard C 616. Specification for Sandstone Building Stone. . Standard C 1242. Guide for Design, Selection, and Installation of Exterior Dimension Stone Anchors and Anchoring Systems. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Brown, Harry L., Bernard B. Hamel, Bruce A. Hedman, Michael Koluch, Birar C. Gajanana, and Philip Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. U.S. Department of Energy, Contract Number E(11-1)2862, Fairmont Press Edition. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: Society of the Plastics Industry. Grassi, Ennio. 1992. Stone Materials in Curtain Walls: Design Criteria, Technical Performance, Use of Stone in Prefabricated Systems. Internazionale Marmi e Macchine Carrara S.P.A., Ente Minerario Sardo. For: Italian Marble Council. Gulyas, Stephen. 1988. Truss-Supported Stone Panel Systems. In New Stone Technology, Design, and Construction for Exterior Wall Systems, edited by Barry Donaldson. Special Technical Publication 996. Philadelphia: ASTM. . 1994. Partner of Stonetech (engineering firm). Personal communication. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois.
Hazardous Substances Data Bank. 1994. Bethesda, MD: Toxicology Data Network, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Indiana Limestone Institute of America (ILIA). 1992. Indiana Limestone Handbook. 19th ed. Bedford, IN. Kent, James A., ed. 1983. Riegels Handbook of Industrial Chemistry. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1969. Vol 18. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Marble Institute of America (MIA). 1985. Dimensional StoneDesign Manual III. Nicastro, David H. 1989. Defining Curtain Wall. Glass Magazine. February, 47-51. Reprinted with permission from Exteriors, Summer 1988. Owens, Jim. 1994. Executive director, Indiana Limestone Institute of America, Inc. Review comments on draft of this report. Taylor, Harold A., Jr. 1993. Dimension Stone, 1991 Annual Report. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Tucker, W. Gene. 1988. Emissions of Air Pollutants from Indoor Materials: An Emerging Design Consideration. Fifth Canadian Building and Construction Congress, Montreal, Canada, November 27-29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1993. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emissions Factors. (AP42) Database.
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Material Report
Steel Framing*
Highlights
Construction materials represent the single largest use of steel, accounting for more than 11 million of the 84 million tons of steel products shipped in the United States in 1989. The major environmental concerns associated with mining the raw materials include energy and resource use; soil erosion; pollutant runoff; land and habitat loss; and air and water quality degradation. Steel manufacturing activities also result in air and water quality degradation. Air-quality risks include particulates, dust, and combustion emissions from ore refinement and furnace combustion emissions during coke, raw iron, and steel production. The major risks to water quality result from mine runoff and polluted wastewater generated during coking, steel making, and galvanizing. Some solid waste is generated during product fabrication, but this waste can be recycled easily. Steel is considered to be the most recyclable building material since it is easily separated magnetically from the waste stream and reprocessed into high-quality products.
Significant amounts of water are consumed in the manufacture of steel. Several raw materials used in the manufacture of steelnickel, chromium, and manganeseare in very limited supply in the United States. Other necessary raw materialsiron ore, limestone, coal, and zincare finite resources, but domestic supplies are adequate to meet demand. The recycling of scrap steel into steel production over the past ten years has resulted in the reuse here and abroad of 1.2 trillion lbs of steel.
Energy Consumption
The total embodied energy of steel framing is estimated at 19,200 Btus per pound of product. Production of steel from scrap requires approximately 39 percent of the energy required for production of steel from raw materials by use of the basic oxygen furnace process. Increased use of the direct steel-making process could substantially reduce the energy required for production of steel framing.
Indoor Air Quality
Steel framing does not outgas, so its impact on indoor air quality is negligible. A light coating of oil on some steel framing may be irritating to some extremely sensitive individuals, but it can be easily removed if the framing is cleaned before installation and enclosure.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1993. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 STEEL FRAMING MAT 05410
Steel Framing
Background and Environmental Considerations
Background
Steel is a strong, durable, and workable material that plays an important role in construction. It is made from iron, which in turn is made from iron ore, coal, and limestone, in the presence of oxygen. In the traditional steel-making process, iron ore, coal, and limestone all require some degree of processing before they are combined in a blast furnace to make raw iron. Other materials used in the various steel manufacturing processes include nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc as well as various lubricating oils, cleaning solvents, acids, and alkalines. The steel manufacturing and fabrication industries are among the largest and most important consumers of energy and raw materials in the United States. According to the American Iron and Steel Institute, steel manufacturers shipped 84 million tons of steel products in 1989. Of that total, some 13 percentor about 11 million tonswas designated for construction, the largest individual-use category (American Iron and Steel Institute 1991). Cold-formed steel framing is manufactured by press-braking blanks sheared from sheets that are cut from coils or plates or by roll-forming cold or hot rolled coils or sheets. Both of these forming operations are performed at ambient temperatures (American Iron and Steel Institute 1986). Light-gauge steel shapes are formed from flat-rolled 12- to 20-gauge carbon steel as either single bent shapes or bent shapes welded together. Two basic types of steel framing, nailable and nonnailable, are available in both punched and solid forms. Zinc chromate primer, galvanized, and painted finishes are available. Studs and joists are manufactured in standard sizes for construction (Hornbostel 1991). All shapes are available in lengths ranging from a minimum of 6 feet to a maximum of 40 feet. Studs are manufactured in thicknesses ranging from 212 to 6 inches, and joists in depths of 4 to 12 inches. Steel stud and joist systems have been adapted for replacement of wood and masonry in most types of construction. Steel framing is also used extensively for interior partitions because it is fire resistant and easy to erect and makes installation of utilities more convenient. Steel framing is easier to move and reassemble than wood framing. Light-gauge steel framing can be installed directly at the construction site or it can be prefabricated off- or onsite. The assembly process relies on a number of accessories usually made of steel, such as bridging, bolts, nuts, screws, and anchors, as well as devices for fastening units together, such as clips and nails (Hornbostel 1991). A general introduction to steel is presented in a material report on steel (05011 in ERG 1994 ed.).
The principal environmental concerns associated with steel framing stem from the acquisition and preparation of raw materials used for steel making and from the actual manufacture of steel framing. The environmental impacts associated with materials acquisition and preparation include mineral resource depletion; land and habitat loss from strip and pit mining for iron ore, coal, limestone, and other minerals used for various alloy and finishing processes; air emissions from mining operations, the combustion of fuel to power mining equipment and transport mined materials, and coke making; mine tailings; and pollutant runoff, which ultimately could lead to loss of faunal diversity and fishkill. Steel manufacturing is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to water, air, and land. The environmental impacts include air emissions from furnace operations; polluted wastewater and baths; contaminated sludges; and solid waste from cutting, drilling, and grinding operations. Mining impacts are significant. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has estimated that active surface mining results in erosion on the order of 48,000 tons per square mile per year (about the equivalent of erosion from construction sites), which is about 2,000 times the runoff from stable forest land. For additional comparison, this figure is 10 times the amount of erosion for representative cropland and four times the amount of representa-
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tive cutover forest land. Mine runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids, which can reduce light penetration of water, lower aquatic productivity, increase biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and increase benthic deposition and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Preparation of coke for production of steel results in the release of air pollutants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulates, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and ammonia (NH3). These emissions contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, fishkill, smog, decreased visibility, tree/crop damage, corrosion of materials, eye irritation, and lung damage. VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone, or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficulty breathing, reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. NOx and CO are criteria air pollutants that threaten human health and welfare. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. NOx also contribute to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. In addition, thousands of gallons of water are used in the coking process to cool the coke mass. This wastewater contains dissolved solids and other organics, and the sludge from coking operations has been designated a potential carcinogen. The manufacture of steel framing results in a variety of air pollutants, including particulates, SO2, NOx, CO, carbon dioxide (CO2), and VOCs. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. The effects of the other pollutants are described above. Emissions and effluents can, in most cases, be controlled by pollution control devices. Nevertheless, the sheer volume of steel production makes these emissions a problem. Liquid wastes from steel production may include oils and lubricants used in pressing, drawing, and machining steel; galvanizing wastes; pickling solutions; paints; and water used to wash or cool the product during fabrication. Many of these wastes are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms when discharged into receiving streams. Historically, enormous quantities of water have been used and discharged as a result of steel manufacturing (Van Nostrand Scientific Encyclopedia 1988). Manufacture of steel framing also generates waste from cutting, drilling, and grinding operations that can be recycled by being added to the scrap feed for the furnace. In spite of recycling efforts, the various steelmaking processes result in the generation of solid and hazardous waste. Historically, land application has been used to dispose of the various sludges from the manufacturing process that are not easily recycled. In addition, the galvanizing process generates wastes that are toxic to some aquatic organisms. Pound for pound, steel is one of the most energy-intensive materials. Some 22 million Btus (22,725 MJ) are expended for each ton of finished steel produced. A new process known as direct steel making combines major advances in efficiency that should result in a 37 to 43 percent reduction in the energy expenditure for steel making by the year 2010 (Newman 1992). This method replaces the iron ore agglomeration, coke making, iron making, basic oxygen furnace, and open-hearth furnace. However, direct steel making is not presently in appreciable use in the United States (Tills 1993). Steel is one of the most readily recycled materials, and the amount of recycling has increased dramatically over the past several decades. In the past decade alone, 1.2 trillion lbs of steel have been reused here and abroad (American Iron and Steel Institute 1992b). The overall recycling rate for steel is 66 percent. Basic oxygen furnaces use 20 to 30 percent scrap. Oxygen furnaces function optimally at about 29 percent scrap content, but the usual percentage available is about 25 percent (Tills 1993). Electric ore furnaces use nearly 100 per-
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cent scrap. By using either process, steel framing can be manufactured from a mixture of scrap and virgin steel (Tills 1993). Figure 1 depicts a summary of the life cycle of steel framing and steel fastenings from materials acquisition through final recycling, reuse, or disposal.

The major constituents for steel production are iron ore or scrap steel, coal, and limestone. Various other materials, including oxygen, nickel, manganese, chromium, zinc, lubricating oils, cleaning solvents, acids, and alkalines, are also used in various steel manufacturing processes. The acquisition and preparation of these materials are described below. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with acquisition and preparation of raw materials for steel framing and steel fastenings is presented in figure 2.
Iron Ore and Scrap Steel The basic raw material for steel is iron ore. Iron is the second most abundant metal, constituting about 5 percent of the earths crust. The majority of the domestic iron ore used in U.S. steel manufacture comes from the Mesabi Range area around Lake Superior, where mining dates back to the 1890s. The quality of ore from these taconite mines has declined significantly over time. (Taconite is the siliceous iron formation from which high-grade ores of the Lake Superior district have been derived. It consists chiefly of fine-grained silica mixed with magnetite and hematite.) The rising importance of recycled scrap steel and the availability of relatively inexpensive iron ore from overseas have contributed to a decline in domestic iron ore production. In 1991, 55,516,000 metric tons of iron ore (99 percent of which came from the Mesabi Range) were produced in the United States (Bureau of Mines 1992a).
Iron ore is generally found in flatlying or gently sloping beds, usually 20 feet or less in thickness. Open-pit mining is the dominant method for iron ore mining, accounting for over 90 percent of present extraction. The remainder is extracted from deep, vertical shaft mines (Franklin Associates 1991). Most open-pit mining is done with large power shovels and trucks. Rotary drills with 12- to 15-inch bits are used for blasthole drilling. Down-the-hole percussion drills with 612-inch bits are used in some underground mines. A few jet piercing machines, which bore a 9-inch hole by a continuous process of heating and spalling, may still be used in Minnesota and Michigan. Ammonium nitrate, in prilled form or slurried with fuel oil, is the most widely used blasting agent. Most power shovels at taconite mines have dipper capacities of 9 to 16 cubic yards. The shovels are employed to dig ore and waste rock, as well as surface overburden. Front-end loaders often replace shovels in secondary oreloading and stockpile operations because the loaders have greater mobility and have bucket capacities of up to 13 cubic yards. Most trucks used in open-pit mining have haulage capacities of 85 to 150 tons (McKetta and Cunningham 1988). Depending on its subsequent use, crude iron ore is beneficiated to increase its iron content, reduce the content of impurities, or improve its physical structure. Beneficiation processes, which include simple crushing, screening, drying, and washing, separate the ore minerals from gangue by differences in physical or chemical properties. Almost all iron ore mined today is beneficiated before shipment. Fine grinding is necessary to produce acceptable concentrates from crude taconite ores, to prepare ore for flotation, and to prepare concentrates for pelletizing. For most ores mined in Minnesota and Michigan, mineral particles are so small that adequate separations cannot be made unless most of the ore is ground to about minus 325-mesh. Most of the taconite concentrators employ steel rods or balls for grinding. Low-grade magnetite ores, such as those in the Lake Superior district, are concentrated (after grinding) by low-intensity magnetic sepa-
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Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Steel Framing and Fastenings

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, dust)
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Limestone mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating
Steel making Blast furnace Basic oxygen furnace Electric furnace Open hearth furnace
Steel framing manufacture Forming Cutting
Banding, packaging, storage
Sales
Habitat change
Solid waste (slag)
Wastewater
Scrap (recycled)
Steel fastener manufacture Forming Cutting
Steel frame prefabrication
Wastewater
Scrap (recycled)
Ingot casting
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SO2, NOX, NH3, VOCs, particulates)
Construction (on-site assembly and installation)
Coal mining Drilling Blasting Loading Cleaning Coke making Distillation

Wastewater (organics, dissolved solids) Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat Tailings waste, change (dust, acid drainage
Recycling
Demolition
Slabbing
Scrap procurement
Disposal (landfilled)
Life-Cycle Summary Steel Framing and Fastenings
Steel Framing
KEY
Iron ore and zinc mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Grinding Loading
Zinc smelting
Habitat change
Sludge
Recycling
Steel Framing
Figure 2: Steel Framing and FastenersMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Iron ore, limestone, nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc mining Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Coal mining Tailings waste/mine spoils (sulfur) Acid drainage Surface water acidification Contamination of groundwater Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (dust, particulates) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Stressor Tailings waste Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff Loss of habitat (see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
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Figure 2: Steel Framing and FastenersMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Coal mining (continued) Stressor Wastewater Impact/Stressor Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification Coke making Air emissions VOCs Particulates Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Dust (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Wastewater Dissolved solids and organics Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Sludge Potential human carcinogen Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
rators. The concentrates may be beneficiated further by ultrafine (minus 150-mesh/0.004 in) screening, as in most Minnesota plants, or by flotation. Soft hematite ores of the Mesabi Range are beneficiated by gravity methods, using screw-type or spiral classifiers and heavy-medium separators. The hematite concentrates contain 52 to 57 percent iron, but the fines fraction must be agglomerated by sintering before being charged to blast furnaces. (Iron ores consisting of particles of less than 14 inch in size are usually agglomerated by sintering or pelletizing before being charged to the blast furnace.) This is done primarily to improve the permeability of the furnace burden and to prevent loss of fines up the stack. Ore particles ranging in size between 14 inch and minus 100-mesh are usually sintered at the blast furnace site. Finer material, such as taconite concentrates, is pelletized at or near the mine site (McKetta and Cunningham 1988). Sinter is made by spreading a mixture of ore fines and coke breeze on a moving horizontal grate, igniting the surface of the bed by a gas or oil burner, and drawing combustion downward by suction (coke breeze is undersized coke screenings passing through a screen opening of approximately 58 inch). The heat of combustion, which ranges from about 2,200 to 2,600F (1,200 to 1,400C), causes ore particles to fuse together. Iron-bearing materials such as flue dust, mill scale, and steel-furnace slag recovered from metallurgical plants are commonly recirculated to the blast furnace through sintering plants (McKetta and Cunningham 1988). The usual way of making pellets is to mix a small quantity of binder (usually bentonite, sometimes hydrated lime) with finely ground concentrate and ball the mixture in rotating drums or saucerlike disks. The moisture content of the mix must be closely controlled and is usually between 9 and 10 percent. The green pellets, usually with a diameter of 38- to 58inch, are then hardened in gas- or oil-fired furnaces or kilns at about 2,400F. Finished pellets usually contain 63 to 66 percent iron, have relatively high compressive strength (400 lbs or
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more), and withstand the abrasion of handling and transport better than sinter. Pellets account for most of the iron ore consumed in the United States (McKetta and Cunningham 1988). Steel is one of the most readily recycled materials, and the use of scrap steel in producing new steel products has increased dramatically over the past several decades. In the past decade alone, the recycling of scrap steel into steel production has resulted in the reuse here and abroad of 1.2 trillion lbs of steel (American Iron and Steel Institute 1992b). The overall recycling rate for steel is 66 percent. Basic oxygen furnaces use 20 to 30 percent scrap, while electric ore furnaces use nearly 100 percent scrap. In addition, major advances in efficiency now available or anticipated indicate that energy expenditure in steel making can be reduced 37 to 43 percent by the year 2010. These advances involve replacing the iron ore agglomeration, coke-making, iron-making, basic oxygen furnace, and open-hearth furnace processes with direct steel-making measures.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion
Both surface mining and pit mining for iron ore generate a large amount of overburden and unused rock and soil. At most U.S. taconite mines, 5 to 6 tons of material must be mined for each ton of usable product. This is due to the relatively low grade of crude ore, 3 tons of which must be processed for each ton of pellets produced. These mine spoils are usually deposited on nearby ground, creating mounds that may disrupt local habitats. In addition to solid waste, environmental effects include atmospheric emissions from expended energy, runoff into streams and groundwater, dust from material handling and hauling, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration, habitat destruction, and erosion. Habitat alteration or destruction could lead to loss of biodiversity, which might never be regained even if disrupted areas were replanted. EPA has estimated that active surface mining results in erosion on the order of 48,000 tons per square mile per year (about the same magnitude as erosion from construction sites), which is about 2,000 times the runoff from forest land. Erosion due to mining is 10 times the amount of erosion for representative cropland and 4 times the amount of representative cutover forest land (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Mine runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids. This in turn can lead to reduced light penetration of water, increased turbidity, increased benthic deposition, increased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation, and ultimately loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Runoff from mining can contain minerals and metals that are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Some iron ore deposits may also contain minerals that may pose risks to human health. An example is the relatively high concentration of asbestos-like minerals that often can be found in taconite deposits. Asbestos has been linked to human risk for some types of cancer. Problems may arise when dust from mining is not well controlled or when mine spoils are discarded in water near drinking-water supply intakes. Other environmental impacts that result from mining operations include resource depletion, soil compaction, and land destabilization. Mining impacts can be reduced by the establishment of undisturbed vegetated buffer zones around mining operations and by comprehensive soil erosion and sediment control plans, including nonpoint source control measures such as sediment traps and ponds, mine dewatering processes, process wastewater treatment, and comprehensive surface water and groundwater monitoring programs during and after mining operations (Honachefsky 1991). Mined land reclamation and restoration during and after mining can mitigate habitat loss and water quality impacts, although attempting to recreate preexisting conditions is prohibitively expensive and ultimately impossible.
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Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stages
The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining operations, beneficiation, agglomeration, and the transport of sinter or pellets to the blast furnace result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone, or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficulty breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage. It also contributes to acid precipitation, surface water acidification, tree/crop damage, materials corrosion, and possible fishkill. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. NO2 has been linked to respiratory illness, lung damage, and eye irritation. NOx also contribute to environmental problems, including smog, decreased visibility, acid precipitation, surface water acidification, and possible fishkill. Iron is one of the most abundant elements in the earths crust, but the quality of U.S. deposits is declining. This decrease in quality, coupled with an increase in the availability of relatively inexpensive ores from other countries, has resulted in a substantial reduction of iron mining in the Mesabi Range.
Energy Consumed
The energy required for drilling, blasting, loading, and transporting iron ore is estimated to range from 49,000 to 104,000 Btus (52 to 110 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). The energy required for beneficiation is estimated to be between 218,000 and 664,000 Btus (from 230 to 700 MJ) per ton of ore. Pelletizing requires an additional 400,000 Btus (422 MJ) per ton of iron pellets, and sintering an additional 1.5 million Btus (1,582 MJ) per ton of sinter (Chapman 1983). The use of scrap metal may save significant energy in the acquisition stage. The energy use for recovery and transport of equivalent scrap metal is about one-third that for the use of raw metals, or about 600,000 Btus (633 MJ) per ton of steel produced.
Coal and Coke The steel industry is the nations largest consumer of coal, using about 42 percent of all coal shipped from mines (American Iron and Steel Institute 1992a). Coke for the manufacture of pig iron from iron ore is produced from bituminous coal, which is primarily mined underground, although a small amount is extracted by strip mining. Significant technological innovations in recent years have greatly increased productivity in underground mining. Among these improvements are widespread mechanization, increased use of highly efficient long-wall machinery, and computerization of operations. In general, most underground coal is mined by the room-and-pillar method, involving the excavation of a series of rooms into the coal-bed, and leaving pillars, or columns, of coal to help support the mine roof. More than half of the coal taken from underground mines is produced by continuous mining, which uses a specialized cutting machine that mechanizes the entire extraction process. This piece of equipment, the continuous miner, tears the coal from a seam and automatically removes it from the area by conveyor (National Coal Association 1992).
Coal is also taken from underground through conventional mining. This process, which accounts for about 11 percent of deep-mined coal, consists of a series of operations that involve cutting the coal-bed so it breaks easily when blasted with explosives, then removing the broken coal from the mine. Where the geology is favorable, this technique is the most practical and economical method of removing coal (National Coal Association 1992). Once the coal has been mined, it is transported to coking facilities by railroad, barge, or truck. About 60 percent of U.S. coal is transported by railroad. Transportation of a ton of
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coal delivered to market can account for as much as 35 to 50 percent of the total final cost (National Coal Association 1992). The coal must be prepared before it can be converted to coke. First the coal is pulverized and screened. Then it is blended with several other types of coal, and water or oil is added to control bulk density. At a few U.S. plants the coal is then heated to about 500F (160C) by use of a flash dry column before it is charged into the ovens. The column is heated by combustion of coke oven gas or by natural gas. Virtually all metallurgical coke is produced from coal by destructive distillation in a by-product coke oven battery (Franklin Associates 1991). The distillation, termed coking, is accomplished in a series of ovens in the absence of oxygen. A coke oven battery consists of a series of 10 to 100 individual ovens with a heating flue between each oven pair. The narrow slottype ovens are constructed of silica brick. Ovens are charged with pulverized coal, through ports in the oven top, by a car traveling on tracks along the top of each battery. After charging, the ports are sealed and the coking process begins. Combustion of gases in burners in the flues between the ovens provides heat for the process. Coke oven gas from the by-product recovery plant is the common fuel for underfiring the ovens at most plants, but blast furnace gas and, infrequently, natural gas may also be used. After a coking time typically between 12 and 20 hours, almost all volatile matter is driven from the coal mass, and the coke is formed. Maximum temperature at the center of the coke mass is usually 2,000 to 2,100F (1,100 to 1,150C). During coking, volatile matter driven from the coal mass is collected by offtakes located at one or both ends of the oven. A common collector main transports the gases from each oven to the by-product recovery plant. Here, coke oven gas is separated, cleaned, and returned to heat the ovens. Only 40 percent of recovered coke oven gas is required for underfiring, and the remainder is used throughout the steel plant. Using the coke oven gas to fire the ovens helps conserve energy and reduce air emissions. Other coal by-products are also recovered in the by-product plant for reuse, sale, or disposal. After coking, machinery located on tracks on each side of the battery removes the vertical door on each end of an oven, and a long ram pushes the coke from the oven into a rail quench car. From there it goes to a quench tower, where several thousand gallons of water are sprayed onto the coke mass to cool it. The car then discharges the coke onto a wharf along the battery for further cooling and drainage of water. From here, coke is screened and sent to the blast furnace or to storage in outdoor piles. After the coke is pushed from an oven, the doors are cleaned and repositioned, and the oven is then ready to receive another charge of coal.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Coal Mining
Both underground and strip mining for coal generate substantial amounts of mine spoils. In underground mining these spoils are generally left in the mines. In surface and open-pit mining the spoils are usually deposited nearby, creating mounds that often alter and disrupt local habitats. The volume of mine spoils may be very large, particularly in strip mining, where a large amount of noncoal-bearing overburden rock is moved to get to coal seams. This disturbed overburden may be deposited in mounds or used to refill an open pit once it has been mined out. Stabilization of coal mine spoils can be very difficult because these rock and soil wastes are usually acidic and laden with concentrations of coal that are toxic to many plants. Siltation from these mine spoils is common. Coal wastes can be stabilized with vegetation. Some coal deposits contain minerals that pose risks to environmental and human health. Examples of such minerals are high concentrations of acid-forming materials, particularly sulfur. Mine spoils from coal mining may acidify soils, groundwater, and surface
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water. Drainage through mines or through spoils brought to the surface may pick up high concentrations of sulfur, which in turn reacts with the water to form sulfuric acid (Olem 1991). Sometimes the concentrations of these acids may be quite strong and may lower the pH of surface waters to a point that is toxic to aquatic life. Acid coal-mine drainage can be neutralized with special treatment facilities, as can water from coal cleaning (American Iron and Steel Institute, no date). Sound management practices are needed to contain and neutralize acidified water, but acidic mine drainage remains a persistent problem in coal mining, particularly in eastern coal fields. As noted under iron ore mining, mine runoff can dramatically alter or destroy habitats in mined areas. The runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids. This can lead to reduced light penetration of water, increased turbidity, increased benthic deposition, increased BOD, deoxygenation, and ultimately loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Water used in processing coal for washing and suspension separation of rock and coal can contaminate surface water and groundwater if proper control technologies are not used. Process water used for washing and suspension separation may be treated and reused within the operation to minimize waste and prevent pollution. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining operations and during the transport of coal to the coking plant result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. The environmental and health effects associated with these air pollutants are described above under iron ore. Inadequate dust control can cause other problems, but it is more often an occupational threat to miners than a large-scale environmental risk.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Coking Operation
Coke ovens are significant sources of air pollution and may emit organic pollutants, water vapor, CO, excess heat, and particulate emissions, some of which are toxic. Coke ovens are the subject of recent EPA regulatory developments designed to reduce these emissions through additional control technology. A number of air pollutants result from coking operations, including VOCs (4.2 lbs/ton uncontrolled emissions), particulates (12.8 lbs/ton uncontrolled emissions), SO2 (4.02 lbs/ton uncontrolled emissions), NOx (0.04 lb/ton uncontrolled emissions), CO (1.27 lbs/ton uncontrolled emissions), and ammonia (0.18 lb/ton uncontrolled emissions). Coke oven emissions are complex mixtures of coal and coke particles, vapors, gases, and tars. The emissions include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, b-naphthylamine, cadmium, arsenic, beryllium, and chromium. There is sufficient evidence that coke oven emissions are carcinogenic to both animals and humans (NIEHS 1989). Toxic gas emissions from coke plants may pose very significant risks to people who work in them or live nearby. EPA data indicate that there may be over 30 coke operations in the United States that pose cancer risks well above the accepted maximum allowable risk standard of one in one million (U.S. Congress 1990). Particulates, VOCs, CO, and other emissions originate from several stages in the preparation of coke: preparing coal, preheating coal (if used), charging coal into ovens incandescent with heat, oven leakage during the coking period, pushing the coke out of the ovens, quenching the hot coke, and underfire combustion stacks. In the by-product plant, gaseous emissions collected from coke ovens are subjected to various operations for separating ammonia, coke oven gas, tar, phenol, light oil (benzene, toluene, and xylene), and pyridine.
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Technologies to control particulate emissions are used widely in North American steel manufacturing and have greatly reduced emissions since the early years of steel production. Usually they involve containment structures and filtered enclosures to cover cokeloading operations. Particulate emissions during coal preparation are sometimes controlled by evacuated or unevacuated enclosures. For plants that heat the coal before charging, the airstream that conveys the coal through the drying column is usually passed through conventional wet scrubbers for particulate removal before discharge to the atmosphere. Oven charging can produce emissions of particulate matter and VOCs from coal decomposition. The stage, or sequential, charging techniques used on virtually all batteries draw most charging emissions into the battery collector main. These emissions are then sent to the by-product plant. During the coking cycle, VOCs from the thermal distillation process occasionally leak to the atmosphere through poorly sealed doors, charge lids, and offtake caps and through cracks that may develop in oven brickwork, the offtakes, and collector mains. Door leaks are controlled by cleaning and maintaining doors diligently, rebuilding doors, and, in some plants, manually applying of lute (seal) material. Charge-lid and offtake leaks are controlled by an effective patching and luting program. Coke pushed into the quench car is another major source of particulate emissions. If the coke mass is not fully coked, it also can be a source of VOCs and combustion products. Most batteries use pushing emission controls such as hooded, mobile scrubber cars; shed enclosures evacuated to a gas cleaning device; or traveling hoods with a fixed duct leading to a stationary gas cleaner. The quench tower activity emits particulates from the coke mass, and dissolved solids from the quench tower may become entrained in the steam plume rising from the tower. Trace organic compounds may also be present. The gas combustion in the battery flues produces emissions through the underfire or combustion stack. If coke oven gas is not desulfurized, SOx emissions accompany the particulate and combustion emissions. If oven wall brickwork is damaged, coal fines and coking by-products from a recently charged oven may leak into the waste combustion gases. Material handling that includes the unloading, storing, grinding, and sizing of coal and the screening, crushing, storing, and loading of coke is an open source of fugitive dust. The quench tower requires thousands of gallons of water to cool the coke mass. This wastewater contains dissolved solids and other organics. The Carcinogen Assessment Group at EPA has designated sludge from coking operations as a potential carcinogen, and these sludges are considered a hazardous waste. Coke ovens and the pollution resulting from the coking process are eliminated in the direct steel-making process, which uses coal directly (Davis 1990).
Energy Consumed During Coal Mining
Energy requirements for underground mining are estimated at from 175,000 to 683,000 Btus (185 to 720 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). This includes the energy needed for drilling, blasting, loading, and transporting the coal as well as the energy required for ventilating, heating, and removing of water from the mine. The energy requirements for strip mining are estimated to fall between 49,000 and 104,000 Btus (52 and 110 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983).
Energy Consumed During Coking Operations
The energy required for coke making is reported to be 6 million Btus (6,329 MJ) per ton of coke produced (OTA 1988; Newman 1992). Experts predict a 50 percent reduction in
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the energy required for coke making by the year 2010 as a result of technological advances and increases in efficiency (OTA 1988). Coke making is one of the most energy-intensive steps in the steel-making process. However, use of the direct steelmaking process can eliminate the energy required for coke making.
Limestone Most limestone used in steel making is processed into lime. Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mostly of the mineral calcite (CaCO3). Minor amounts of other carbonate mineralsnotably siderite, ankerite, and magnesiteare commonly found associated with limestone. Lime is produced by calcining, or heating the limestone in kilns to a high temperature to drive off any water present and release the carbonate as CO2. The remaining product is lime, or calcium oxide (CaO).
Twenty states, led by Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio, produce approximately 90 percent of domestic limestone. Most limestone is quarried from open pits, often from deposits of the mineral dolomite. This mining process involves blasting and removing the rock for mechanical crushing and screening. Overburden is removed by the use of bulldozers, draglines, or hydraulic shovels. The rock is drilled and blasted. The broken stone is loaded into dump trucks and hauled to the primary crusher or it is loaded onto a conveyor and carried directly to a portable or permanent crusher. For most uses of limestone, it must travel through a secondary crusher and be sized. For some uses, limestone is ground or heated (Carr and Rooney 1975). About 5 percent of limestone produced in the United States comes from underground mining. Most underground limestone mines consist of horizontal drifts into the sides of hills or into the walls of open-pit mines, but some consist of vertical or inclined shafts. Limestone mines are seldom more than 1,000 feet deep, and most are only a few hundred feet deep. Most underground limestone mines are the room-and-pillar type and, like salt mines, are characterized by cathedral-like dimensions. Underground mining of limestone is generally more expensive than open-pit mining or quarrying. Limestone mines generally are located near their markets. The cost of transporting the limestone makes long-distance hauling economically unfeasible. About 75 percent of the limestone used in the United States is transported by truck, typically for distances of less than 50 miles. About 11 percent is shipped by rail and the remainder by waterway and other means (Carr and Rooney 1975). In the production of lime, the limestone is prepared for the kiln by crushing and sizing. Rotary kilns are used in the production of about 90 percent of all lime produced in the United States (EPA 1993). A rotary kiln is a long, cylindrical, slightly inclined, refractorylined furnace through which the limestone and hot combustion gases pass countercurrently. Rotary kilns may be fired by coal, oil, or natural gas. Product coolers and kiln feed preheaters of various types are commonly used to recover heat from, respectively, the hot lime product and the hot exhaust gases. The second most common kiln in the United States is the vertical or shaft kiln. This kiln can be described as an upright heavy steel cylinder lined with refractory material. The limestone is charged at the top and calcined as it descends slowly to discharge at the bottom of the kiln. A primary advantage of vertical over rotary kilns is higher average fuel efficiency. Disadvantages of vertical include their relatively low production rates and the fact that coal cannot be used without degrading the quality of the lime produced. There have been few recent vertical-kiln installations because of high product-quality requirements.
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining of Limestone
Environmental concerns in the mining of limestone are limited almost exclusively to open-pit and quarrying operations. Solid waste produced during limestone mining includes the overburden removed for open-pit mining and the tailings waste. In limestone mining, generally only the crude ore is hauled from the mine, and thus all tailings waste is left at the mine site (Davis 1990). In addition to the solid waste generated, there are other pollutants from limestone mining that adversely affect the environment, including atmospheric emissions from energy use and fuel combustion, runoff into streams and groundwater, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Air emissions resulting from mining operations include particulate limestone and dust as well as atmospheric emissions from fuel combustion. The combustion of fuel products and the production of electricity result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. The environmental and health problems associated with these pollutants are described above under iron ore. Suspended solids from mine runoff can increase turbidity of streams. Although runoff from limestone mining is considered nontoxic, its impact on the environment can be significant. These effects are described above for iron ore. Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration, habitat destruction, and erosion. For example, erosion due to mining is 10 times the amount of erosion for representative cropland and 4 times the amount of representative cutover forest land (van der Leeden et al. 1990). In most cases, land reclamation from limestone quarrying can be achieved. The effects of land disturbance from mining activities can often be mitigated by careful restoration management, although strip-mined lands can never be returned to their original state (Olem 1991; Ivahnenko et al. 1988). Restored lands from mining almost always have different vegetation patterns as a result of changes in topsoil porosity and chemistry. Other environmental impacts that result from mining operations include soil compaction, land destabilization, and resource depletion. However, there is no foreseeable shortage of limestone in the United States.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Limestone Processing and Lime Production
Air emissions are the major environmental concern associated with the processing of limestone and the production of lime. The combustion of fuel and the consumption of energy during the crushing, screening, and transporting of limestone to the lime manufacturing facility result in a variety of air emissions, including particulates, SOx, NOx, VOCs, CO, lead, and methane. The health and environmental problems associated with these pollutants are described above under iron ore. Particulates and SO2 are the major air pollutants resulting from the calcining process. The largest ducted source of particulate is the rotary kiln, with uncontrolled particulate emissions of 350 lbs per ton of lime produced (EPA 1993). Particulate control is generally applied to most kilns. Rudimentary fallout chambers and cyclone separators are commonly used for control of the larger particles. Fabric and gravel bed filters, wet (commonly venturi) scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators are used for secondary control. When scrubbers are used, less than 5 percent of the fuel sulfur will be emitted as SO2, even with high-sulfur coal. When other secondary collection devices are used, about 20 percent of the fuel sulfur will be emitted as SO2 with high-sulfur fuels, and less than 10 percent with low-sulfur fuels. NOx and CO are also produced in kilns but are not
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released in significant quantities: emissions of 2.8 and 2 lbs per ton of lime produced, respectively.
Energy Consumed
Fuels are consumed to power the heavy equipment used in the limestone mining and crushing processes. Estimates of energy use for material acquisition steps, such as mining and crushing, vary with the processes that are used. The energy required for limestone mining and processing is estimated at 0.164 million Btus (173 MJ) per ton (Tellus Institute 1992). Transportation to steel plants requires approximately 305 to 3050 Btus (0.32 to 3.2 MJ) per ton for each mile the load is hauled (Chapman 1983).
Oxygen The iron and steel industry consumes more oxygen than all other industries combined. Oxygen has a variety of applications in steel making, but its most important use is in the basic oxygen furnace. In 1988, operation of basic oxygen furnaces consumed 26.7 billion cubic feet of oxygen, accounting for 83 percent of the steel industrys oxygen consumption.
Oxygen is manufactured by cryogenic separation, or liquefaction and rectification of air. Filtered air is compressed to approximately 520 kPa in a centrifugal compressor. After liquid water is removed, the remaining air enters the reverse heat exchanger and is cooled to near its dew point in countercurrent heat exchange with the outgoing gaseous products. As the air cools, moisture is first condensed and frozen on the walls of the heat exchanger passage walls. The air emerging from the reversing heat exchanger is completely dry and has had over 99 percent of the CO2 removed. Gas-phase, fixed-bed adsorption is used to remove the remaining CO2 and, more importantly, any hydrocarbons entering with the air, which would be hazardous in the presence of liquid oxygen. The cleaned air is then fed to the bottom tray of the lower column of the double-column rectifier. The oxygen product is removed as saturated vapor from the main condenser (Austin 1984). Since liquid oxygen evaporates at -300F (-184C), most oxygen plants are located at the steel mills to reduce waste and energy expenditure in the process (Franklin Associates 1991).
No information is available on the waste produced from the manufacture of liquid oxygen.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required for operating the centrifugal compressor and reverse heat exchanger used in the manufacture of liquid oxygen. However, no quantitative data are available concerning these energy requirements.
Nickel, Manganese, and Chromium Several elements may be added to molten steel to remove oxygen (deoxidation), control embrittling effects of sulfur, or change the properties of the finished steel. Nickel is often added to improve the hardenability, low-temperature toughness, and corrosion resistance of the steel. Manganese is added for deoxidation, the control of sulfur effects, and hardenability. Chromium is added to steel to improve hardenability, high-temperature strength, and corrosion resistance. Hardenability, a measure of the depth of hardening of a steel, is useful in steels that are to be heat treated.
Nickel
In 1990 an estimated 83,251 short tons of nickel were used for steel making (Bureau of Mines 1991b). Nickel is the earths fifth most abundant element, but it occurs in the earths crust only in the range of 0.008 percent to 0.02 percent by weight. Nickel deposits generally originate from ultramafic rocks. The nickel content of ultramafic rocks, although relatively high compared with that of other rocks, seldom exceeds 0.3 percent by weight. For the nickel to be
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rich enough to mine, some natural process must have concentrated it. These processes result in two very different types of nickel ore. The first type of deposit, nickel laterites, is formed by the weathering of ultramafic rocks. As the rocks weather, nickel is taken into solution by groundwater and redeposited at greater depth, producing a zone of enrichment. At the base of the weathered rock, zones of enrichment that contain between 0.8 and 4 percent nickel may form, although the typical content is closer to 1 percent. The second type of deposit, nickel sulfides, is formed by the intrusion of molten ultramafic rocks or by replacement of the host rock by hydrothermal solutions. After the emplacement of a magmatic sulfide, the rock cools, and nickel and other metals combine with sulfur to form dense immiscible droplets that settle to the bottom of the magma chamber. Essentially all nickel laterite ores are mined by surface methods; sulfide deposits are generally mined by more costly underground mining methods.
The environmental impacts associated with nickel mining are similar to those associated with other types of surface and underground mining. They include solid waste from the removal of overburden and tailings waste; pollutant runoff; habitat alteration and destruction; and air emissions from the combustion of fuel and the production of energy to power mining, processing, and transportation equipment. The environmental and health problems associated with these wastes are described above for iron ore. The primary environmental problem associated with nickel production is the emission of SO2 during the processing of sulfide-containing ore (Bureau of Mines 1991b). In nickel smelting, 8 tons of sulfur are produced for each ton of nickel produced (Bureau of Mines 1991b). The SO2 emitted from smelter smokestacks combines with atmospheric water to form sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain. In November 1990 the U.S. Congress amended the Clean Air Act to require that nickel compounds be regulated as hazardous air pollutants. Most of the nickel used in the United States is imported (Bureau of Mines 1991b), and domestic reserves of nickel are low. There is only one domestic nickel producer, which began its mining operations in November 1990. During 1990 this producer reported mining 364 short tons of nickel (Bureau of Mines 1991b).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for the surface mining of nickel is estimated to range from 49,000 to 104,000 Btus (52 to 110 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). The estimated energy requirements for underground mining range from 175,000 to 683,000 Btus (185 to 720 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). This includes the energy needed for drilling, blasting, loading, and transporting the ore as well as the energy required for water removal, ventilation, and heating. Energy used in the processing of laterite ores represents the most significant cost of recovering nickel from this type of deposit. This is particularly true for those operations that are dependent on petroleum products for drying and smelting the ore to ferronickel or matte (Bureau of Mines 1991b). Sulfide ores, in contrast, do not have to be dried and, unlike laterite ores, are readily amenable to concentration by established mineral dressing methods. No quantitative data are available on the specific amount of energy required for processing laterite ores.
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Manganese
Iron making and steel making accounted for about 90 percent of domestic manganese demand in 1991. There are two major land-based economic resources of manganese: chemical sediments and secondary enrichment deposits (Bureau of Mines 1992b). Most manganese ore is mined by mechanized operations. Standard earth-moving equipment is used in surface mining. Underground mining generally is by room-and-pillar techniques. Most, if not all, of the manganese used in steel making is imported (Bureau of Mines 1992b). Crushing, screening, washing, jigging, tabling, flotation, and heavy-medium and high-intensity magnetic separation are or have been used to upgrade raw manganese ore into usable concentrates. Carbonate ore may be calcined. Ore fines are sintered into bulkier shapes at some ferroalloy plants, a practice being adopted increasingly by ore producers as well (Bureau of Mines 1992b). Electrothermy, the predominant method of manufacturing manganese ferroalloys, employs a submerged-arc furnace process. Manganese metal is commonly produced by electrolyzing a solution of manganese sulfate prepared from ore that has been reduction roasted (Bureau of Mines 1992b). Scrap recovery for manganese is insignificant. Considerable manganese reenters processing as a minor component of steel scrap, steel slag, and nonferrous scrap. Such recycling of manganese does not tend to lead to a progressive buildup in steel making (Bureau of Mines 1992b).
The environmental impacts associated with manganese mining are similar to those associated with other types of surface and underground mining. They include solid waste from the removal of overburden and tailings waste, pollutant runoff, habitat alteration and destruction, and air emissions from the combustion of fuel and the production of energy used to power mining, processing, and transportation equipment. The environmental and health problems associated with these wastes are described above for iron ore. Particulate emissions of manganese from crushing operations could pose some risk to health. Manganese is an essential element for people, animals, and plants, but in excess amounts it can be harmful to the respiratory and nervous systems (EPA 1984). The United States has been lacking in reserves and significant production of manganese almost since the start of domestic steel production (Bureau of Mines 1991b).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for the surface mining of manganese is estimated to range from 49,000 to 104,000 Btus (52 to 110 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). The estimated energy requirements for underground mining range from 175,000 to 683,000 Btus (185 to 720 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). This includes the energy needed for drilling, blasting, loading, and transporting the ore, as well as the energy required for water removal, ventilation, and heating. There are no data on the amount of energy required for the beneficiation of manganese.
Chromium
Chromium is the sixth most common element in the earths crust. The chromium used in the metallurgical industry is derived from the mineral chromite. Chromite is not mined domestically.
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The United States is dependent on imports and recycling to meet domestic chromite demand. In 1990, domestic consumption of chromite ore and concentrate was 402,290 tons. Of the total chromite consumed, the chemical and metallurgical industry used 358,620 tons. The acquisition and preparation of chromium begins with the mining of chromite ore. A wide variety of mining technology is applied to the surface and subsurface mining of chromite ore. Most ore comes from large mechanized mines. However, small labor-intensive mining operations contribute to world supply. Once mined, the ore is beneficiated. The amount of beneficiation required and the techniques used depend on the ore source and end-use requirements. When the chromite is clean, only hand sorting of coarse material and gravity separation of fine material may be required. When the ore is lumpy and mixed with host rock, heavy-media separation may be used. When the chromite mineral occurs in fine grains intermixed with host rock, crushing may be used in conjunction with gravity separation and magnetic separation (Bureau of Mines 1991c). For use in the metallurgical industry, the chromium must be extracted from the chromite mineral. This is accomplished by smelting chromite ore to produce ferrochromium. In effect, the oxygen is removed from the iron-chromium-oxygen mineral, leaving an iron-chromium alloy, ferrochromium, which is produced to meet a variety of chemical and physical specifications. Several variations of the ferrochromium production process are practiced, but the submerged-arc furnace is central to each process. Modern furnaces have power ratings of about 50 megavolt-amperes. Closed and partially closed electric-arc furnaces replaced open furnaces in the 1970s to improve pollution control, efficiency of furnace operation, and safety. Industry is developing new production technologies using high-temperature plasmas or alternatives to electrical power supply. The new production technologies are expected to be more cost competitive than traditional production methods. Recycling is the only domestic supply source of chromium. Stainless steel and superalloys are recycled, primarily for their nickel and chromium contents. As much as 50 percent of electric-furnace stainless steel production can result from recycled stainless steel scrap. The United States recycled about 561,000 tons of stainless steel scrap and imported about 742,000 tons of chromite ore, ferroalloys, chemicals, and pigments in 1990 (Bureau of Mines 1991c).
The environmental impacts associated with chromium mining are similar to those associated with other types of surface and underground mining. They include solid waste from the removal of overburden and tailings waste; pollutant runoff; habitat alteration and destruction; and air emissions from the combustion of fuel and the production of energy used to power mining, processing and transportation equipment. The environmental and health problems associated with these wastes are described above for iron ore. Considerable electricity is required for smelting chromite ore; the cost of electrical energy cost accounts for up to 55 percent of the smelting cost. The air emissions resulting from generation of the electricity include VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. In addition, EPA requires that chromium-containing residues from the roasting and/or leaching of chrome ores be treated; EPA found that these treated residues pose no significant danger to human health or the environment. Untreated chromium wastes, however, are toxic. Hexavalent chromium compounds are generally recognized as toxic, and occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium has been associated with an
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increased incidence of bronchial cancer (NIEHS 1989). Chromium compounds are also regulated by EPA as hazardous air pollutants. Virtually no chromite ore is mined in the United States, and domestic reserves are minimal (Bureau of Mines 1991c).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for the surface mining of chromium is estimated to range from 49,000 to 104,000 Btus (52 to 110 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). The estimated energy requirements for underground mining range from 175,000 to 683,000 Btus (185 to 720 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). This includes the energy needed for drilling, blasting, loading, and transporting the ore as well as the energy required for water removal, ventilation, and heating. Ferrochromium production is an energy-intensive process, requiring about 3,800 kilowatt-hours per metric ton of product or approximately 40.5 million Btus (42,722 MJ) per metric ton of product. Currently available technology can reduce the electrical energy requirement to about 2,000 kilowatt-hours (21.3 million Btus) per ton by thermal energy recovery and recycling. Advanced production technology permits liquid or gas fuel to be substituted for part of the energy required. Alternative production technology is being developed that would permit nonelectrical energy sources to supply a significant fraction of the energy required to smelt chromite ore.
Zinc Zinc, required for galvanizing steel, is a medium-hard, bluish-white metal that is characterized by brittleness and low strength. The United States is the worlds largest producer and consumer of zinc. In 1990 approximately 85 percent of zinc produced in the United States came from Alaska, Missouri, New York, and Tennessee; and approximately 52 percent of total slab zinc was used for galvanizing. The United States also imports zinc metal because of lack of smelter capacity (Bureau of Mines 1992c).
Zinc is abundant in the earths crust and is a trace constituent in the oceans and atmosphere. It is found primarily as the sulfide ore sphalerite (ZnS). The metal impurities commonly associated with ZnS are cadmium (up to 2 percent) and minor quantities of germanium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Most zinc is produced from surface mines and is mined by open-pit methods. Overburden is removed by the use of bulldozers, draglines, or hydraulic shovels. The rock is drilled and blasted. Zinc ores typically contain from 3 to 11 percent zinc. The ores must be concentrated before recovery of the metal. To accomplish this, the ore is first crushed and ground to separate ore from waste rock physically. It is then processed by flotation to separate the zinc mineral sphalerite from lead, copper, and iron sulfides. The lead and copper sulfides are floated free of the ore pulp with pine oil, cresylic acid, and phosphorus pentasulfide as reagents, while the sphalerite and pyrite (FeS2) are depressed with sodium cyanide and lime. After removal of the lead and copper, a reagent such as copper sulfate is added to reactivate the sphalerite, and new increments of pine oil and other reagents are added to promote frothing and flotation of the zinc sulfide. The zinc concentrates are then thickened, filtered, and dried before being processed them into metal. Concentration generally brings the ore to 49 to 54 percent zinc. Zinc ores are processed into metallic slab zinc by two basic processes. Four of the five U.S. zinc smelting facilities use the electrolytic process, and one plant uses a pyrometallurgical smelting process. Electrolytic processing involves four major steps: roasting, leaching, purification, and electrolysis. Pyrometallurgical smelting, which is typical of the primary nonferrous smelting industry, involves three major steps: roasting, sintering, and retorting.
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Roasting is a process common to both electrolytic and pyrometallurgical processing. Calcine is produced by the roasting reactions in any one of three different types of roasters: multiple hearth, suspension, or fluidized bed. Multiple-hearth roasters are the oldest type used in the United States, while fluidized-bed roasters are the most modern. The primary zinc roasting reaction occurs between 1,300 and 1,800F (640 to 1,000C), depending on the type of roaster used. In this reaction, ZnS is converted to zinc oxide (ZnO) and SO2. In a multiple-hearth roaster, the concentrate is blown through a series of nine or more hearths stacked inside a brick-lined cylindrical column. As the feed concentrate drops through the furnace, it is first dried by the hot gases passing through the hearths and then oxidized to produce calcine. The reactions are slow and can be sustained only by the addition of fuel. In a suspension roaster, the feed is blown into a combustion chamber very similar to that of a pulverized coal furnace. Additional grinding, beyond that required for a multiple-hearth furnace, is normally required to ensure that heat is transferred to the material quickly enough for the desulfurization and oxidation reactions to occur in the furnace chamber. Hearths at the bottom of the roaster capture the larger particles, which require additional time within the furnace to complete the desulfurization reaction. In a fluidized-bed roaster, finely ground sulfide concentrates are suspended and oxidized within a pneumatically supported feedstock bed. Of the three roaster designs, this produces a calcine with the lowest sulfur content. In the electrolytic process, roasted zinc concentrate is leached with a weak solution of sulfuric acid. In addition to zinc, the leached solution contains copper, cadmium, antimony, manganese, and other impurities, which are precipitated and filtered from the solutions. Purification processes vary from smelter to smelter, and the details are proprietary and often patented. The purified zinc solution is pumped to electrolytic cells in which the cathodes are pure aluminum and the anodes are chemical lead or a lead-silver alloy. Oxygen is released at the anode, and pure metallic zinc is deposited at the cathode, from which it is stripped, melted, skimmed, and cast into slabs. In the pyrometallurgical reduction of ZnO to slab zinc, the roasted zinc concentrate is mixed with coking coal, briquetted, dried, and then coked at temperatures ranging from 1,650 to 2,600F (900 to 1,499C). Under these conditions, the ZnO is simultaneously reduced and volatilized to gaseous zinc. Metallic zinc vapor and carbon monoxide (regenerated from CO2 released during the reaction) rise to the top of the reduction furnace. They pass from the main furnace to a condenser for zinc recovery by bubbling through a molten zinc bath. The zinc vapor is condensed and cast into slab zinc. The carbon monoxide is reused for the reduction reaction.
The principal environmental concerns associated with the materials acquisition and production of zinc include habitat loss and alteration from strip and pit mining, air emissions, mine runoff and soil erosion, solid waste generation, and mineral resource depletion. Environmental impacts include air emissions from mining operations and from fuel combustion for mining, processing, and transporting the ore; particulates, smoke, and dust from mining and processing operations; point and/or nonpoint source runoff into streams and groundwater from haul roads and mine tailings; habitat change and/or loss in the mined areas; and solid waste in the form of overburden, waste rock, and tailings. Mining can result in significant erosion and runoff, and zinc is known to be toxic to some plant and animal species, particularly those found in aquatic systems. However, zinc minerals tend to be leached slowly from waste rock and tailings, so con-
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centrations tend to be low. Once solubilized, zinc tends to become fixed in soil and clay minerals or to react with carbonate or silica minerals to form stable compounds, or is diluted in water systems to permissible levels (Bureau of Mines 1992c). Surface and pit mining for zinc ore generates a large amount of unused rock and soil. These mine spoils are usually deposited on nearby ground, creating mounds that may disrupt local habitat. Habitat disruption can be minimized through land reclamation methods such as reforestation to restore mines and quarries to a near-natural state (American Iron and Steel Institute, no date). In the United States there are regulatory incentives to replant disrupted areas. In other countries, however, land disturbed by mining may not be restored or stabilized, and permanent loss of habitat can result from erosion or contamination of surface waters with dissolved minerals. Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction, as well as erosion. These effects are described in detail above under iron ore mining. Contamination of water supplies can occur when mine spoils are discarded in water, particularly near drinking-water supply intakes. Contaminants are also released in the water used in processing ores, primarily in washing operations. Settling ponds are used to allow the sedimentation of suspended solids in process rinse water (American Iron and Steel Institute 1989). Generally mining wastes in the United States come under close regulatory scrutiny. On-site concentration of zinc ores may also create problems with dust and combustion emissions. These emissions can be controlled with appropriate technology. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining and crushing operations and the transport of the ore to the steel mill result in a variety of air emissions, including CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, particulates, and VOCs. The health and environmental problems associated with these pollutants are described above under iron ore. The wastewater from zinc production facilities can contain various metals and organics, such as lead, cadmium, chromium, zinc, copper, silver, selenium, methylene chloride, toluene, trichloroethylene, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, and trichlorofluoro-methane (EPA 1979). These pollutants are present in gas-scrubber wastewater, holding-lagoon wastewater, sanitary discharge, and plant effluent. A number of the chlorinated compounds may form during roasting and scrubbing operations from reactions with the chlorine present in the water supply. A number of zinc smelter facilities have been listed as Superfund sites. There is an abundant supply of zinc ore in the United States; however, deficient domestic smelter capacity has resulted in the export of zinc concentrates and the import of zinc products.
Energy Consumed
Estimates of energy use for materials acquisition, including mining, crushing, and transporting, vary with the processes used. The energy requirements for strip mining are estimated to fall between 49,000 and 104,000 Btus (52 to 110 MJ) per ton of rock mined (Chapman 1983). The energy required for concentration is estimated at 1.7 million Btus (1,793 MJ) per ton of enriched ore. The cost of ore transportation is a function of distance and may vary considerably, but a widely accepted estimate is 0.5 million Btus (527 MJ) per ton delivered to the steel mill.
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Presented here is a general discussion of the steel manufacturing process, since this subject was discussed at length in an earlier material report on steel (05011 in ERG 1994 ed.).
Steel Manufacturing In conventional steel making, iron is produced in blast furnaces by the reduction of iron ore with a hot gas. The large refractory-lined furnace is charged through its top with iron ore, pellets, and/or sinter; limestone, dolomite, and sinter as flux; and coke for fuel. Iron oxides, coke, and fluxes react with the blast furnace air to form molten reduced iron, CO, and slag. The molten iron and slag collect in the hearth at the base of the furnace. The by-product gas is collected through the offtakes located at the top of the furnace and is recovered for use as fuel.
The molten iron and slag are removed or cast from the furnace periodically. The casting process begins with the drilling of a hole, called the taphole, into the clay-filled iron notch at the base of the hearth. During casting, molten iron flows into runners that lead to transport ladles. Slag also flows from the furnace and is directed through separate runners either to a slag pit adjacent to the casthouse or into slag pots for transport to a remote slag pit. At the conclusion of the cast, the taphole is replugged with clay. The area around the base of the furnace, including all iron and slag runners, is enclosed by a casthouse. The blast furnace byproduct gas, which is collected from the furnace top, contains CO and particulate. Because of its high CO content, this blast furnace gas has a low heating value, about 75 to 90 Btus/ft3 (2,790 to 3,350 J/liter) and is used as a fuel within the steel plant. Before it can be efficiently oxidized, however, the gas must be cleaned of particulate. Initially, the gases pass through a settling chamber or dry cyclone to remove about 60 percent of the particulate. Next, the gases undergo a one- or two-stage cleaning operation. The primary cleaner is normally a wet scrubber, which removes about 90 percent of the remaining particulate. The secondary cleaner is a high-energy wet scrubber (usually a venturi) or an electrostatic precipitator, either of which can remove up to 90 percent of the particulate that eludes the primary cleaner. Together, these control devices provide a clean fuel of less than 0.02 grams/ft3 (0.05 grams/m3). A portion of this gas is fired in the blast furnace stoves to preheat the blast air, and the rest is used in other plant operations (EPA 1993). Sulfur in the molten iron is sometimes reduced by the addition of reagents before it is charged into the steel-making furnace. The reaction forms a floating slag, which can be skimmed off. Desulfurization may be performed in the hot metal transfer, or torpedo car, at a location between the blast furnace and basic oxygen furnace (BOF), or it may be done in the torpedo ladle at a station inside the BOF shop. The most common reagents are powdered calcium carbide (CaC2) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or salt coated with magnesium granules. Powdered reagents are injected into the metal through a lance with high-pressure nitrogen. The process duration, in the range of 5 to 30 minutes, varies with the injection rate, hot metal chemistry, and desired sulfur content. The molten iron is then transferred to an electric-arc furnace, open-hearth furnace, or basic oxygen furnace, where it is mixed with lime, flux, oxygen, and sometimes scrap steel (American Iron and Steel Institute 1989). In the basic oxygen process (BOP), molten iron from a blast furnace and iron scrap are refined in a furnace by the lancing, or injecting, of high-purity oxygen. The input material is typically 70 percent molten metal and 30 percent scrap metal. The oxygen reacts with carbon and other impurities to remove them from the metal. The reactions are exothermic; no external heat source is necessary to melt the scrap and to raise the temperature of the metal to the desired range for tapping. The large quantities of CO produced by the reactions in the BOF can be controlled by combustion at the mouth of the furnace and then vented to gas cleaning
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devices, as with open hoods, or combustion can be suppressed at the furnace mouth, as with closed hoods. BOP steel making is conducted in large (up to 400-ton capacity) refractorylined pear-shaped furnaces. There are two major variations in the process. Conventional BOFs have oxygen blown into the top of the furnace through a water-cooled lance. In the newer Quelle Basic Oxygen process (Q-BOP), oxygen is injected through tuyeres located in the bottom of the furnace. A typical BOF cycle consists of the scrap charge, oxygen blow (refining) period, testing for temperature and chemical composition of the steel, alloy additions and reblows (if necessary), tapping, and slagging. The full furnace cycle typically ranges from 25 to 45 minutes. Electric-arc furnaces (EAFs) are used to produce carbon and alloy steels. The input material to an EAF is typically 100 percent scrap. Cylindrical refractory-lined EAFs are equipped with carbon electrodes to be raised or lowered through the furnace roof. With electrodes retracted, the furnace roof can be rotated aside to permit the charge of scrap steel by overhead crane. Alloying agents and fluxing materials usually are added through doors on the side of the furnace. Electric current generates heat between the electrodes and through the scrap. After melting and refining periods, the slag and steel are poured from the furnace by tilting. The production of steel in an EAF is a batch process. Cycles, or heats, range from about 112 to 5 hours to produce carbon steel and from 5 to 10 hours or more to produce alloy steel. Scrap is charged to begin a cycle, and alloying agents and slag materials are added for refining. The typical stages of each blow cycle are charging and melting operations, refining (which usually includes oxygen blowing), and tapping. The open-hearth furnace is a shallow refractory-lined basin in which scrap and molten iron are melted and refined into steel. Scrap is charged to the furnace through doors in the furnace front. Hot metal from the blast furnace is poured in from a ladle through a trough positioned in the door. The mixture of scrap and hot metal can vary from all scrap to all hot metal, but a half-and-half mixture is most common. Gas burners above and at the side of the furnace provide heat to melt the mixture. Refining is accomplished by the oxidation of carbon in the metal and the formation of a limestone slag to remove impurities. Most furnaces are equipped with oxygen lances to speed up melting and refining. The steel product is tapped by the opening of a hole in the base of the furnace with an explosive charge. With oxygen lancing, the open-hearth steel-making process normally requires 4 to 10 hours for each heat. After the steel has been tapped, the molten metal is teemed, or poured, into ingots, which are later heated and formed into other shapes, such as blooms, billets, or slabs. The molten steel may bypass this entire process and go directly to a continuous casting operation. Whatever the production technique, the blooms, billets, or slabs undergo a surface preparation step, known as scarfing, which removes surface defects before shaping or rolling. Scarfing can be performed by a machine applying jets of oxygen to the surface of hot, semifinished steel, or by torching on cold or slightly heated semifinished steel by hand. The milling process for steel products relies on rolling and cutting operations to form finished products. Steel may be rolled hot or cold, depending on the requirements of the finished product. Rolling not only gives steel form but also adds to its density and strength. Steel can be reheated and tempered further to give it additional strength. Various coatings can also be applied to steel in subsequent processing steps. Direct steel making refers to a process in which the iron ore agglomeration and the cokemaking, iron-making, and BOF or open-hearth furnace processes are eliminated. Coal (rather than coke), iron ore, and lime flux are fed directly into an autogenous reactor to pro-
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duce iron that contains approximately 2 percent carbon (Davis 1990). Direct steel making is not being used to any appreciable extent in the United States at present (Tills 1993). Steel made traditionally or through the direct process must then go through several additional fabrication stages to produce steel framing.
Steel Frame Fabrication

Hot and Cold Rolling
Hot rolling takes place at temperature ranges of 1,470 to 2,150F (800 to 1,200C), where steel is plastic and particularly malleable and therefore its thickness can be greatly reduced with relatively small force. In early integrated steel mills, hot rolling began with the breakdown of cast ingots into rectangular slabs or square billets about 8 inches (200 mm) in thickness or cross section, respectively. There are two stages in the modern process: roughing and finishing. In roughing, which occurs at the high end of the temperature range, thicknesses of 10 inches (250 mm) are reduced to 1.2 to 2 inches (30 to 50 mm). Finishing then occurs at the lower end of the temperature range, reducing the thickness to 0.08 to 0.12 inches (2 to 3 mm). The results are coils up to 2,000 feet (600 m) long or components of greater thickness or irregular cross section (e.g., angle and channel shapes) and varying length (Davis 1990). Hot rolled steel is normally cleaned in a bath of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid to remove the surface oxide scale formed during the hot rolling process. This cleaning occurs in an apparatus called a pickler, and the acid bath is termed pickle liquor. The process is often continuous, with each coil of sheet steel being welded to the preceding coil as the process progresses. At the end of the process, the coils are sheared and rerolled, resulting in coils of pickled, hot rolled sheets being delivered to the cold rolling process (American Iron and Steel Institute no date). In cold rolling, the hot rolled coils are rolled again to make them thinner and smoother. This process gives steel a higher strength-to-weight ratio than hot rolling. A cold rolling mill can reduce a 0.10-inch (2.5-mm) thick coil that is 34 mile (1,200 m) long to a 0.03-inch (0.75mm) thick coil more than 2 miles (3200 m) long in 2 minutes (American Iron and Steel Institute no date). Cold rolling increases the hardness and yield strength, reduces the ductility and formability, and also introduces the specific texture of components associated with thickness reduction at a constant width (known as plane-strain deformation) that can be later enhanced by annealing.
Annealing
The cold rolling process hardens sheet steel so that it usually must be heated in an annealing furnace to be rendered more formable. In the annealing furnace, coils of cold rolled product are usually stacked on a base. Covers are placed over the stacks to control the annealing atmosphere, and then the furnace is lowered over the covered stacks. For batch annealing, the heating and recooling of the sheet product may take 5 or 6 days (American Iron and Steel Institute no date). Continuous annealing takes only 2 minutes but requires much higher heating and cooling rates.
Tempering
After the steel has been softened in the annealing process, a temper mill can give the steel the desired flatness, metallurgical properties, and surface finish. The product may then be recoiled and shipped or further side-trimmed or sheared into other desired shapes and lengths (American Iron and Steel Institute no date).
Galvanizing and Painting
Fabricated steel systems may be painted or galvanized. Painting is performed in a continuous process involving cleaning and pretreatment, priming, baking, finish coating, baking, and
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curing (American Iron and Steel Institute, no date). Paint is discussed in the material report on paint (09900 in ERG 1994 ed.). Galvanizing is the process by which a thin protective coat of zinc is applied to steel to protect it from corrosion. Should any part of the steel become exposed, galvanic reaction between the zinc and steel or iron causes the zinc to corrode and form compounds that cover and continue to protect the steel as long as zinc remains. Zinc coatings are applied by several methods: hot dipping, electrogalvanizing, spraying, and sherardizing. Continuous hot-dip galvanizing is the current industry standard. Most hot-dipped, galvanized zinc coatings freeze into a crystalline surface pattern known as spangles. In the continuing hot-dip galvanizing process, sheet steel is coated with a versatile zinc coat that not only is highly corrosion resistant but also acts as an excellent surface to accept paint. Steel surfaces are cleaned, generally by electrolytic action and mechanical scrubbing, to improve adhesion of the zinc to the surface. After the steel strip is radiant heated in a continuous annealing furnace, it enters a molten zinc coating bath, which is contained in a steel or refractory-lined pot to maintain an even temperature and conserve energy. The thickness of the zinc coating is controlled by an air or steam wipe. The coated steel strip then enters a cooling tower where the zinc coating solidifies, after which a chemical treatment can be applied to minimize surface staining from outside exposure. At the end of the process the galvanized steel strip is recoiled for shipping. In the electrolytic process, the steel is cleaned and then immersed in an electrolyte solution of zinc sulfate or cyanide. (Although cyanide was used for this purpose in the past, other materials have been substituted in recent years because of the toxicity of cyanide.) By electrolytic action, a coat of pure zinc is deposited on the steel. This process allows for complete control of the thickness of the coat, but it does not usually provide the thick coatings that give maximum protection. Electrolytic galvanizing can produce thinner coatings and better surface finishes and can coat types of steel that would be harmed by the heat of hot-dip galvanizing. Metallic spraying consists of applying a fine spray of molten zinc to the thoroughly cleaned steel. A combination process exists in which the coating is heated and fused with the steel, with which it forms an alloy. This produces a less brittle zinc coating that will not peel or flake when bent. The sherardizing process consists of placing thoroughly cleaned steel to be coated into an enclosure filled with metallic zinc dust and then applying heat. A thin zinc-alloy coating that molds itself to any surface design is obtained. This process is limited to objects of relatively small size or items that can be coiled.
Forming, Cutting, and Machining
Forming involves cutting, bending, welding, machining, and various other processes to manufacture the desired shape and configuration of the structural steel framing. Like other steelmaking processes, these are almost totally mechanized and highly automated.
Environmental Effects of Steel Manufacturing and Fabrication

Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Steel Manufacturing and Fabrication
On average, for conventional steel making, a ton of steel requires approximately 2.5 tons of materials. For example, blast furnace production requires 3,170 lbs of iron ore, 300 lbs of limestone, 900 lbs of coke, 2,575 lbs of air, 80 lbs of oxygen, and 100 lbs of hydrocarbon fuel to fire the furnace for every ton of raw iron that is produced. The process also releases 4,550 lbs of gaseous emissions and up to 50 lbs of dust and results in about 600 pounds of slag (St. Pierre 1987; American Iron and Steel Institute 1991). The steel industry is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to water, air, and land. The
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considerable wastes the industry generates take the form of solid and liquid by-products of processing as well as air emissions and wastewater discharges. Liquid wastes may include oils and lubricants used in pressing, drawing, and machining steel; galvanizing wastes; pickling solutions; paints; and water used to wash or cool the product during the steel-making and various fabrication processes. Many of these wastes are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms when discharged into receiving streams. Historically, enormous quantities of water have been used and discharged as a result of steel manufacturing (Van Nostrand Scientific Encyclopedia 1988). In the United States, Canada, Japan, and to some extent the former Soviet Union, there have been many efforts to reduce waste and prevent pollution by treating and recycling water. Innovative design techniques, such as using cascade rinsing rather than only static tanks, have helped to minimize water use. Cascade rinses are continuous processes in which the water is reused from stage to stage so that the cleanest water rinses the cleanest part of the product. The result is that both the amount of water and the amount of effluent to be treated are minimized. In the United States, some plants have reduced water use by as much as 90 percent in the past two decades. The volume of effluents, therefore, has also been reduced. Technologies such as oil skimmers, settling tanks, chemical clarifiers and neutralizers, and even biological treatment can also be used to reduce water use and wastewater discharge. Oil skimmers recover oils that float on the surface of wastewater streams, eliminating the need for more complicated treatment later in the process. Scale pits are settling basins which remove mill scalethe iron oxide that forms on steel when it is heatedand the oil from water used in the rolling mills. The scale can then be recycled back into the steel-making process. Settling tanks allow suspended solids to settle out of suspension so they can be removed mechanically when the tanks are emptied. Deep bed filters remove particulate material and oil from water by passing it through a bed of sand or other fine-grained material. Chemical clarifiers are round basin devices that employ a two-step cleaning process. In the first stage, chemicals are added to cause suspended particulate matter to concentrate, or flocculate, into heavier particles; in the second stage, these heavier particles settle to the bottom and are eventually removed. Clear water flows over the top of the basin, often after having been skimmed for oil removal. Neutralizers are added to the chemical treatment process to eliminate acidity and remove dissolved iron compounds from solution (American Iron and Steel Institute, no date). Biological treatment employs microscopic organisms to remove oxygen-demanding materials and sometimes nutrients. The process usually involves both anaerobic and aerobic digestion in two or more treatment lagoons. Every steel plant operation requires energy in the form of heat or electricity. Combustion sources that produce emissions at plants include blast furnace stoves, boilers, soaking pits, and reheat furnaces. These facilities burn combinations of coal, fuel oil, natural gas, coke oven gas, and blast furnace gas. The types and amounts of air pollutants emitted depend on the fuels burned at the facilities and may include particulates, CO, SO2, NOx, CO2, and VOCs. Particulate emissions and emission gases from furnaces can be reduced with combinations of cooling towers, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and baghouse filters (American Iron Steel Institute 1989). Cooling towers are large heat-exchange structures that reduce the temperature of water before reuse or discharge by bringing it in contact with ambient temperature air. Electrostatic precipitators are air-cleaning devices in which dust-laden exhaust gas is passed through chambers equipped with high-voltage wires strung equidistant between parallel charged electrical plates. The electrical discharge from the wires causes the dust particles to become electrically charged and attracted to the grounded plates to which they adhere. The plates are struck with rappers,
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and the dust falls into bins for disposal. Baghouse filters are devices that function on the same principle as a vacuum cleaner. Exhaust gas is pulled through large fiberglass or cloth bags that are emptied for disposal when filled (American Iron and Steel Institute, no date). Scrubbers are energy-intensive devices used when particles are too small to be filtered effectively by baghouse filters. Water is pumped through a venturi device concurrently with particle-laden gases. A high degree of mixing ensues, and the water droplets remove the particles from the gas stream (McKetta 1992). Scrap waste from cutting, drilling, and grinding operations is recyclable. It is usually recycled through collection and addition to the scrap feed for the furnace. Steel is one of the most readily recycled materials, and the amount of recycling has increased dramatically over the past several decades. In the past decade alone, 1.2 trillion lbs of steel were reused here and abroad (American Iron and Steel Institute 1992b). The overall recycling rate for steel is 66 percent. BOFs use 20 to 30 percent scrap, while electric ore furnaces use nearly 100 percent scrap. In spite of recycling efforts, the various steel-making processes generate solid and hazardous waste. Land application historically has been used to dispose of the various sludges from the manufacturing process that are not easily recycled. However, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) land ban will probably restrict this practice in the future, resulting in more recycling of these wastes or more-expensive treatment measures. The galvanizing process also creates waste. The metal finishing industry has been the subject of study in recent years to identify ways to reduce the waste generated during electroplating and other finishing processes. The major concern regarding galvanizing is the presence of metals and toxic chemicals in the wastewaters that are produced in rinsing the drag-out from a fabricated item. (Drag-out is the residual solution that adheres to the item when it is removed from the bath.) Other wastes include sludges produced from the continuous filtering of bath solutions, spent cleaning solutions (abrasives, solvents, and acid and alkaline solutions), and spent bath solutions (New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, no date). Figure 3 presents a summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the fabrication of steel framing and steel fastenings.
Energy Consumed
The manufacture of steel requires substantial amounts of energy. Pound for pound, it is one of the most energy-intensive materials. On average, an estimated 22 million Btus (22,725 MJ) are expended for each ton of finished steel produced (Newman 1992). This varies with the processes that are used, and a great deal of savings in raw materials and energy are achieved by recycling steel products. The largest single energy expenditure in steel making is for the manufacture of pig iron from iron ore. This process requires approximately 13.9 million Btus (14,662 MJ) per ton of iron (Newman 1992). Raw steel production requires approximately 15.9 million Btus (16,772 MJ) per ton of steel when a basic oxygen furnace is used, 15.2 million Btus (16,034 MJ) per ton of steel when an open-hearth furnace is used, and 6.2 million Btus (6,540 MJ) per ton of steel when the electric furnace is used (Newman 1992). Casting requires an additional 1.6 million Btus (1,688 MJ) per ton of cast steel, and forming, finishing, treating, and annealing add an average of 4.6 million Btus (4,852 MJ) per ton of finished steel to the energy requirements (Newman 1992). To the extent that recycled scrap can be substituted for pig iron in steel making, energy can be saved in blast furnace processing. Electric furnace production of steel from scrap requires approximately 6.3 million Btus (6,645 MJ) per ton of steel, just 39 percent of the
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Manufacture and Fabrication Stage
Figure 3: Steel FramingManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Steel manufacturing Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Solid waste (slag) Liquid wastes Recycle as scrap feed Pickling solutions Spent wash water Oils and lubricants Sludge Landfill disposal Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Decreased landfill capacity Zinc smelting Solid waste (metal) Recycle Fuel combustion emissions from recycling Wastewater Spent bath solutions Spent cleaning solutions Rinse water Sludge Metals and organics filtered from bath solutions Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Leaching of toxics to groundwater (see impacts above) Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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energy required for the BOF process, since it uses scrap for source materials and requires no energy for iron making. Major advances in efficiency that are now available or are expected to be developed involve replacing the iron ore agglomeration, coke-making, iron-making, BOF, and open-hearth furnace processes with direct steel-making measures. This indicates that energy expenditure in steel making can be reduced 37 to 43 percent by the year 2010. Direct steel making, although not used to any appreciable extent in the United States, requires only 9.9 million Btus (10,443 MJ) per ton of steel, considerably less than conventional production methods. Data are not available on energy required for the galvanizing process. Steel systems typically are transported in bulk by rail or truck. Energy is used in the form of fuel for transport. No data are available on the amount of energy required for transporting steel framing.

Lightweight, cold-formed, steel-framed systems are assembled in various combinations to provide efficient, versatile, structurally sound frames for load-bearing walls, curtain walls, partitions, floors, and roofs. Steel studs, runners, and joists have a high strength-to-weight ratio and are compatible with other conventional building materials. These steel-framed systems are quickly and easily erected and afford flexibility of construction either on or off the job site. The connections are made with self-tapping screws or by welding. Light-gauge metal studs generally are limited to 18 gauge and heavier, although 20-gauge studs occasionally are used as bracing components within light-gauge metal stud systems. Runner tracks, sized to match studs, are installed at the base and top of the wall. The runners should be fastened no more than every 24 inches on center when nail or power-driven fasteners are used, and no more than every 16 inches when other types of attachment are used. The steel studs are secured to the top and bottom runner tracks by welding or with screw fastenings at both inside and outside flanges. Where stud walls abut structural columns or walls, the ends are anchored to the supporting structure. Three studs are typically located at the corners of stud walls to provide surfaces for attachment of all interior and exterior facings. In general, steel studs can be spaced 24 inches on center, while 2 x 4 wood studs should be spaced 16 inches on center. For additional support, supplementary framing, blocking, and bracing are installed at points along a wall or partition where fixtures or equipment are to be attached. Wall openings larger than 2 ft x 2 ft are framed with two studs at each jamb. Runner tracks and jack studs are installed above and below wall openings. The tracks are anchored to the jamb studs with stud shoes or by welding, and the jack studs are spaced the same as fullheight wall studs. Both sides of expansion and control joints are framed with separate studs. Stiffeners, oriented horizontally and welded at each intersection, are installed no more than 54 inches on center in the vertical direction. Wall panels are bolted or welded at horizontal and vertical junctures to produce flush, even joints. Steel joists should be installed level, straight, and plumb, complete with bracing and reinforcing. Joist ends should be reinforced with clips, steel hangers, steel angle clips, or steel stud sections. Joists are reinforced, where required, with a single length of joist section located directly over the interior support, with a snap-on shoe, or by another method. Joists are secured to interior support systems to prevent lateral movement of the bottom flange.
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All components of a lightweight steel-framed assemblyincluding studs, runners, and joistscan be, and frequently are, easily assembled into prefabricated panels. Assembling panels in advance greatly reduces installation time for wall, floor, and roof framing. In a single installation, lightweight steel framing provides both the structural frame and support for finishes. Lightweight steel framing is sent to the job site with factory-punched holes in the webs of the studs and joists. Spaced at regular intervals, the holes serve as a raceway for electrical and plumbing lines. Completed panels can be erected in below-freezing temperatures. This permits year-round construction in all areas of the country. Advance fabrication can be accomplished in a temporary shelter at the site or in the contractors shop ahead of the construction schedule, then stockpiled and hauled by trucks to the job site. There are no shrinkage, warping, or swelling problems with prefabricated steel framing as there are with wood that has been exposed to the elements at the job site. As a result, material damage due to weather conditions is negligible. In addition, steel framing is not affected by vermin.
Figure 4: Steel FramingConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Steel frame construction Landfill disposal Stressor Solid waste Impact/Stressor Recycle as scrap Impact/Stressor Air emissions from recycling operations Decreased landfill capacity Leaching of toxics from coatings Air emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Contamination of soil and groundwater Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Global warming Toxic to plants and organisms Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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For prefabricated steel-framed panels, very little waste is generated at the job site during installation. (The solid waste resulting from fabricating the panels to the required specifications remains at the fabrication site.) The preassembled panels should meet exact specifications for the particular job and, unless there is an error in fabrication, the panel should be installed quickly and easily. For jobs requiring on-site assembly, some solid waste is generated as a result of cutting the steel framing members, particularly runner tracks and jack studs, to accommodate building design. There may be some solid waste from damaged framing that cannot be used or from modifications, if any, that are required after fabrication. Although some of this waste may be landfilled, the scraps, waste, and damaged framing could be recycled easily. There is virtually no waste resulting from installation of electrical and plumbing lines, since the webs of the steel studs contain holes that serve as a raceway for these lines. In addition to solid waste, a small amount of air emissions results from the electricity or other energy used to power equipment for welding or other fastening systems. Transportation of the steel framing to the job site also results in the release of air pollutants, including VOCs, CO, CO2, SO2, and NOx. These pollutants contribute to a variety of environmental problems that are described above under iron ore. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction and use of steel framing and steel fastenings is presented in figure 4.
Indoor Air Quality Effects
Steel framing offers an advantage over alternative framing systems in that it does not outgas. This is particularly important for individuals with severe sensitivities. However, steel framing can have a light coat of petroleum-based oil on its surface, which could cause some irritation to individuals extremely sensitive to petroleum products. This coating of oil can be easily removed from the steel framing before installation and enclosure to ensure that even sensitive individuals will experience no adverse effects from the framing (Bower 1991).
Energy Consumed
There are no data on the amount of energy required to deliver and install steel framing. However, there is no indication that excessive amounts of energy are required.

Magnetic separation makes steel the easiest and most economical material to remove from the solid-waste stream and recycle. The overall recycling rate of steel products in the United States is 66 percent, the highest rate of any material. During the past decade, more than 1 trillion lbs of steel scrap have been recycled, extending the life of the nations landfills by more than three years. There are no limitations on the reuse of steel in new products. However, the coatings and other foreign materials on the original may add minor contaminants to the new production process. Such contaminants are minor considerations in view of the positive energy and resource savings involved in recycling. For every pound of steel that is recycled, 5,450 Btus (5.7 MJ) of energy are conserved. Zinc can be recovered from both new and old galvanized steel scrap, and recovery has risen dramatically over the past several years. Scrap steel is generally trucked to the disposal site or recycling center. Therefore, the energy for truck fuel and the vehicular air emissions are the major environmental concerns associated with recycling. Some pollution results from the remanufacture of steel products from scrap steel; however, this pollution is considerably less than the pollution resulting from production of the same product from raw materials.
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Regulatory Status
The United States steel industry relies heavily on recycled steel, and the reuse of scrap steel has some very positive environmental effects, including a 47 percent reduction in oil use, an 86 percent reduction in air emissions, a 76 percent reduction in water contaminants, a 40 percent reduction in water use, and a 97 percent reduction in mine wastes (Cousteau Almanac 1980). Disposal of unrecycled steel products poses no particular hazard to the environment except that they take up valuable space in landfills, where capacity is rapidly being depleted. Steel framing coated with paint or other coatings could pose a threat to soil and groundwater if it contained toxic metals or pigments. As previously mentioned, zinc can be recovered from galvanized steel, and paints are oxidized if steel is recycled by furnace remanufacturing.
Regulatory Status
Materials in the structural-steel shapes- and-systems life cycle become at least partially regulated in practically all stages. All point source wastewater discharges to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) are subject to general pretreatment regulations for existing and new sources under 40 CFR Part 403. These regulations are designed to prevent discharges from upsetting treatment at the POTW and to prevent the flow of toxic pollutants into receiving waters. In the mining stage, any point source water discharge of process-generated wastewater is subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act (CWA). In the manufacturing stage, boilers and furnaces may be subject to emission standards under the Clean Air Act (CAA). As in the mining stage, any point source water discharge of process-generated wastewater in the manufacturing stage is subject to regulation under the CWA. Storage, treatment, and disposal of any solid or hazardous wastes not recycled in the manufacturing process may be subject to regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and state solid-waste laws. Typically, construction and demolition wastes are subject to state and local solid-waste laws and ordinances. Some mining and manufacturing facilities have become subject to Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) liability and cleanup requirements because of the release of hazardous substances. Although regulation coverage in the steel-making industry is among the best developed and most pervasive, significant gaps still exist, particularly in the areas of toxic and hazardous process constituents.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Water pollution. Iron ore mining is subject to effluent guidelines for ore mining point sources under 40 CFR Part 440, Iron Ore Subcategory, Subpart A, which sets permit limits for total suspended solids (TSS), dissolved iron, and pH. Coal mining point sources are subject to effluent guidelines on total iron, total manganese, TSS, and pH for coal preparation plants under 40 CFR Part 434. Nickel ore mining is subject to effluent guidelines for ore mining point sources under 40 CFR Part 440, Nickel Ore Subcategory, Subpart G, which sets permit limits for TSS, cadmium, copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, and pH. Zinc ore mining is subject to effluent guidelines for ore mining point sources under 40 CFR Part 440, Zinc et al., Ore Subcategory, Subpart J, which sets permit limits for TSS, cadmium, copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, and pH. Coal mining point sources are subject to effluent guidelines on total iron, total manganese, TSS, and pH for coal preparation plants under 40 CFR Part 434. Limestone mining itself is largely unregulated under the CWA at present, but calcium carbonate production is regulated under inorganic chemicals manufacturing point sources in 40 CFR Part 415, Calcium Carbonate Production Subcategory, Subpart AD, which places effluent guidelines on TSS and pH.
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Regulatory Status
Air emissions. Nonmetallic-mineral processing plants are subject to CAA new source perfor-
mance standards (NSPS) under 40 CFR Part 60, Subpart OOO, for construction or major modification of crushers, grinding mills, screening operations, bucket elevators, belt conveyors, bagging operations, storage bins, and enclosed truck or railcar loading stations. The standards place particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities. Limestone calciners also have recently been made subject to NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60 for construction or major modification, which places particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities (57 Federal Register 44503-04, September 28, 1992). Limestone calciners can be subject to stationary source requirements for National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) pollutants under 40 CFR Part 151 if they employ fossil fuel boilers of more than 250 million Btus per hour capacity.
Manufacture and Fabrication Stage Water pollution. The steel manufacturing and production processes are subject to considerable CWA regulation. Iron and steel manufacturing point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 420, which places effluent guidelines on coke making, sintering, iron making, steel making, vacuum degassing, casting, forming, descaling, pickling, cleaning, and coating for TSS, oil and grease, ammonia n, cyanide, phenols, pH, benzene, naphthalene, benzo(a)pyrene, total residual chlorine, lead, zinc, chromium, and nickel. Metal molding and casting point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 464, Subpart C, Ferrous Casting Subcategory, which places effluent guidelines on copper, lead, zinc, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Coil-coating point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 465, Subpart A, Steel Basis Material Subcategory, and Subpart B, Galvanized Basis Material Subcategory, which place effluent guidelines on chromium, copper, cyanide, zinc, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Electroplating point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 413, which places effluent guidelines on cyanide, titanium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc, and total metals. Ferroalloy manufacturing point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 424, which places effluent guidelines on TSS, total chromium, chromium VI, total manganese, total cyanide, total phenols, ammonia n, and pH in the various manufacturing processes. Metal finishing (including electroplating) point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 433, which places effluent guidelines on cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, silver, zinc, cyanide, oil and grease, TSS, and pH.
Lime plants are regulated under the CWA by 40 CFR Part 415, Subpart AD, which prescribes effluent guidelines for TSS and pH. Other steel manufacturing operations that are not subject to specific effluent guidelines can have their point source discharges subject to generic National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit requirements for at least the five conventional pollutants of BOD5, TSS, pH, fecal coliform, and oil and grease. These pollutants must be treated using best conventional pollution control technology. EPA has also developed a list of 126 toxic pollutants from 65 classes of chemical compounds that may be required to be monitored and treated with best available technology economically achievable (BAT). All other pollutants are designated nonconventional and may require treatment under BAT.
Air emissions. Stationary heat sources at steel manufacturing operations may be subject to
CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100 tons/year threshold for any CAA pollutant. Stationary heat sources at new steel manufacturing operations, or substantial modification of such existing heat sources, may be subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, Subpart OOO, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. They may be subject to prevention of significant deterioration standards under 40 CFR Part 51. They may also require monitoring of, and have to apply, control technology for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead, plus the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i). Where applicable, additional pollutantsasbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor
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Steel Framing
Regulatory Status
organics, and municipal waste combustor metalsare to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i).
Solid waste. Solid and hazardous waste generated in steel manufacturing operations are reg-
ulated under state and local regulations and to a lesser extent the RCRA. This is particularly true of the processes using lubricant, solvent, abrasive, acid, and alkaline materials. Most of the steel waste is recycled back into the process.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid-waste requirements and varies widely. However, steel is one of the most easily and therefore widely recycled materials. Materials that are not recycled are subject to rigorous RCRA regulation regarding treatment, storage, and disposal facilities. Regulatory Statutes and References
s s s s s s s
Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 U.S 7401 et seq. (i.e., Title 42 of the U.S. Code, starting with Section 7401). Clean Water Act (CWA), 33 U.S 1251 et seq. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (CERCLA/SARA), 42 U.S 9601 et seq. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 7 U.S 136. Hoffman, Stephen, and Van Houseman. 1990. Update on Regulation for Mine Waste Management Under RCRA, Mining Engineering. November. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 42 U.S 4321 et seq. Office of the Federal Register. National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Code of Federal Regulations. July 1. (The code is divided into titles and parts and is cited in this text as ___ CFR Part ___; the parts are further subdivided, with decimal, letter, and number notations, into sections and subsections.) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (RCRA), 42 U.S 6901 et seq. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 42 U.S 300f et seq. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), 30 U.S 1201 et seq. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 15 U.S 2601 et seq. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Air and Radiation. 1992. National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 1991. October.
s s s s s
34
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References
REFERENCES
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1989. ColdFormed Metal Framing. Masterspec. Section 05400. . 1992. Steel, Energy Fact Sheet. June. . 1992. Steel, Building a History of Recycling Leadership. Fact sheet. June. . 1991. AIA Material Data Sheet. Unpublished communication to AIA. . 1986. Specification for the Design of ColdFormed Steel Structural Members. August 19. . No date. Steelmaking Flowlines and Steel Processing Flowlines. Illustrated booklets. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bower, John. 1991. The Healthy House: How to Buy One, How to Build One, How to Cure a Sick One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. Brown, Harry L., Bernard B. Hamel, Bruce A. Hedman, Michael Koluch, Birar C. Gajanana, and Philip Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. U.S. Department of Energy, Contract Number E(11-1)2862, Fairmont Press Edition. Bureau of Mines. 1992a. Mineral Industry Surveys. U.S. Department of the Interior. . 1992b. Manganese: 1991 Annual Report. U.S. Department of the Interior. . 1992c. Materials Flow of Zinc in the United States 1850-1990. U.S. Department of the Interior. . 1991a. Mineral Commodity Summaries 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior. . 1991b. Nickel: 1990 Annual Report. U.S. Department of the Interior. . 1991c. Chromium: 1990 Annual Report. U.S. Department of the Interior. Carr, Donald D., and Lawrence F. Rooney. 1975. Limestone and Dolomite. Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics other than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Chapman, P. F., and F. Roberts. 1983. Metal Resources and Energy. London: Butterworths. Cousteau Almanac. 1980. NY: Doubleday/Dolphin Press.
Davis, Joseph R. 1990. Metals Handbook. 10th ed. ASM International. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Society of Plastics Industry. Honachefsky, William B. 1991. Land Planners Environmental Handbook. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Ivahnenko, T. I. et al. 1988. Liming Effects on the Water Quality in Two West Virginia Streams. In Restoration of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems, edited by R.W. Brockson and J. Wisniewski. NY: Klewer Academic Publishers. McKetta, John J, executive ed. 1988. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol 27. NY: Marcel Dekker. McKetta, John J., and William A. Cunningham. 1988. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 25. NY: Marcel Dekker. National Coal Association. 1992. Facts About Coal. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. No date. Fabricated Metal Manufacturing and Metal Finishing. Technical Information Publication. Newman, John. 1992. Energy specialist, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress. Personal communication. October 5. Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). 1988. Energy Efficiency in the U.S. Industrial Sector. U.S. Congress. Olem, H. 1991. Liming Acidic Surface Waters. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Pubishers. St. Pierre, G. R. 1987. Iron Metallurgy. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 6th ed. Vol. 9, 406-409. NY: McGraw-Hill. Steiner, B. A. 1976. Air Pollution Control in the Iron and Steel Industry. International Metals Review 209:171-92. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter its Mix. May.
Tills, Dean. 1993. Senior engineer, American Iron and Steel Institute. Personal communication. February 9. U.S. Congress. 1990. Statement of the Honorable Henry A. Waxman, Chairman of the House Subcommittee on Health and the Environment. 101st Congress. Congressional Record. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1993. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP42) Database. . 1984. Health Assessment Document for Manganese. EPA/600/8-83-013F. August. . 1979. Analysis of Priority Pollutants at a Primary Zinc Production Facility. EPA/600/2-79/093. van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David Keith Todd. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Chelsea, MI.: Lewis Publishers. Van Nostrand Scientific Encyclopedia. 1988. s.v. Iron Metals, Alloys and Steels., Van Nostrand Publishers.
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Material Report
Wood Framing*
Highlights
The environmental concerns in producing and using wood framing include soil erosion, pollutant runoff, and habitat loss from logging operations, as well as air and water pollution due to lumber production. The principal risks to air quality include combustion emissions from logging operations and log transport, sawmill operations, and lumber transport. Additional air emissions result from the mining and furnace operation for production of steel fastenings. The major risks to water quality result from runoff from haul roads and logging sites and the wastewater from wood-treating facilities. Additional wastewater is generated during coking, steel making, and galvanizing for the production of fasteners. Some solid waste is generated during construction, and it is usually landfilled or burned.
Wood is a renewable resource, but proper forest management and timber harvesting practices must be employed to ensure adequate supply for future demand. Some scientists believe that overharvesting contributes to increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide and global warming. Significant amounts of water are consumed during coking and in the manufacture of steel fasteners. Several of the raw materials used in the manufacture of steel fastenersnickel, chromium, and manganeseare in very limited supply in the United States.
Energy Consumption
The embodied energy of wood framing is reported to be 91,618 Btus/cubic foot or approximately 30,000 Btus for an average 8-foot-long 2 x 4. The embodied energy of wood is substantially less than the embodied energy of potential substitute building materials.
Indoor Air Quality
Wood framing enclosed in walls has little impact on indoor air quality unless it is very odorous. In this case, sensitive individuals may experience symptoms because of exposure to wood constituents. Minute traces of arsenic dust, well below the concentrations permitted in the workplace, have been detected in the air of rooms where pressure-treated framing has been used.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1993. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 WOOD FRAMING MAT 06110
Wood Framing
Background
Wood is the only major renewable resource suitable for structural purposes in architecture. Today, lumber accounts for about 50 percent of the worlds wood production. By 1986, the latest year for which statistics are readily available, U.S. consumption of timber products had increased to approximately 16 billion cubic feet, or 350 million tons (Bowyer 1991; Cliff 1973). Softwoods account for approximately 70 percent of this total (Forest Service 1976). About 25 percent of the total forest tonnage harvested reaches the market in the form of primary structural wood products (Forest Service 1974; Phelps and Hair 1974). Wood framing is the predominant method of building houses, condominiums, and apartment buildings in the United States, and it is increasingly being used in commercial and industrial buildings. For the purpose of this report, wood framing materials are considered to be those primary structural wood components that contribute to the form and structural integrity of buildings. This definition excludes plywood and particleboard, which are dealt with in existing Environmental Resource Guide (ERG) reports, and wood siding and other nonstructural wood materials, which are to be dealt with in future ERG reports. Wood framing includes lumber, constructed truss products, and specified applications of treated lumber. This report also covers the nails and metal framing anchors used to fasten wood framing. Floor framing consists of a system of sills, girders, joists or floor trusses, and subflooring that provides support for floor loads and walls. There are two types of interior partitions: bearing partitions, which support floors, ceilings, or roofs, and nonbearing partitions, which carry only their own weight. The sole plate and the top plate frame the wall structure of vertical studs, and sheathing or diagonal bracing ensures lateral stability (Allen 1992). In general, dimensions for framing lumber are given in nominal inches (i.e., 2 x 4, 2 x 6) for simplicity. Actual surface dimensions conform with those in Product Standard 20-70, published by the American Lumber Standards Committee. Framing lumber must be properly grade-marked to be acceptable under the major building codes. Such grade marks identify the grade, species or species group, seasoning condition at time of manufacture, producing mill, and the grading rules-writing agency.
There are a number of environmental considerations associated with the production of framing lumber, nails, and metal anchors. A life-cycle summary of wood framing is presented in figure 1, and a life-cycle summary of steel fasteners is presented in figure 2. During the material acquisition and preparation stage, the environment is affected by moderate air emissions and significant soil erosion and pollutant runoff from haul road and logging operations, by habitat alteration and destruction, and by air emissions resulting from the combustion of fuels for felling and transporting logs. Another environmental issue concerns the role that forests play in mitigating global climate change. Many scientists believe that forests help maintain climate by storing carbon through photosynthesis and by mediating water movement from soil to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. Depletion of forests as a result of overharvesting and converting forest lands to other uses is thought to result in a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a decrease in atmospheric moisturean increase and decrease that could contribute to global climate change. While the majority of carbon emissions5 billion tons per yearis estimated to come from burning fossil fuels, an additional estimated 2 billion tons per year result from deforestation (Buchanan 1991). The lumber industry, however, argues that conversion of old-growth stands to managed plantations could greatly reduce the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Schallau 1993). Much of the scrap wood generated in the manufacture of lumber used for wood framing is hogged, or ground into chips for burning to generate the heat required for kilns and driers.
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Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Wood Framing
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 WOOD FRAMING MAT 06110
Timber harvesting Felling Delimbing Cutting Hauling
Lumber production Debarking Sawing Trimming Sawing Banding/packaging Wood preserving Pressure treating Preservative impregnation Vacuum removal of excess preservative
Habitat change, solid waste (left to decay)
Old growth depletion, global warming
Wood waste (burned for fuel)
Wastewater
Soil contamination
Wastewater (arsenic)
Storage
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Arsenic, copper, and chromium mining Drilling Cutting Blasting Hauling Loading
Ammoniacal copper arsenate and chromated copper arsenate production
Sales
Habitat change
Indoor air emissions (wood components, arsenic dust)
Metal fasteners
Construction waste (landfilled or incinerated)
Frame construction
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Incineration
Ash (landfilled)
Demolition
Life-Cycle Summary Wood Framing
KEY
Wood Framing
Composting (wood chips)
Recycle (framing)
4
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Steel Fasteners
Wood Framing
Life-Cycle Summary Steel Fasteners
Air emissions (SO2, NOX, NH3, VOCs, particulates)
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, dust)
Loading Cleaning
Steel making Blast furnace BOF furnace Electric furnace Open hearth furnace
Metal fastener manufacture

Forming Cutting
Wastewater Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat Tailings waste (dust, acid drainage change Wastewater (organics, dissolved solids) Solid waste (slag)
Scrap (recycled)
Packaging
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Ingot casting
Storage
Sales
Iron ore and zinc mining Crushing Drilling Blasting Screening Loading
Lumber
Construction
Habitat change
Slabbing
Demolition
Scrap procurement Disposal (landfilled) Recycle steel waste
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Wastewater (zinc bath) Sludge Recycling
Limestone mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Zinc smelting
Habitat change
Wood Framing
The final waste product is ash, which is usually disposed of in a landfill. Combustion of the bark and wood waste results in air emissions, as does the combustion of the additional fuel used to operate boilers and driers and to move logs around the lumber mill. In addition, air pollutants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx), result from generation of the electricity needed to power saws, conveyor belts, and other motors at the mill. These emissions contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, fish kill, smog, decreased visibility, greenhouse effect, global warming, tree/crop damage, corrosion of materials, eye irritation, and lung damage. Production of treated lumber generates wastewater contaminated with water-soluble preservatives. The most commonly used preservatives contain small amounts of arsenic, which are toxic to fish and mammals when ingested. Contamination of surface and groundwater could lead to fish kill and contamination of local wells. In addition, air emissions of VOCs, CO2, CO, SO2, and NOx result from the combustion of fuel used to power the pressure-treating process. The materials acquisition and manufacture of steel fasteners (nails, screws, etc.) can result in resource depletion of iron ore, coal, limestone, and other minerals used for various coatings; land and habitat loss from strip and pit mining; air emissions from mining operations, combustion of fuel to power mining equipment and transport mined materials, and coke making; mine tailings; and pollutant runoff that ultimately could lead to loss of faunal diversity and fish kill. Steel manufacturing is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to water, air, and land. Environmental impacts from this process include air emissions from furnace operations; polluted wastewater and coating baths; contaminated sludges; and solid waste from cutting, drilling, and grinding operations. Since both wood and steel framing require steel fasteners for installation, the effects on the environment of producing the fasteners are not significant in a comparison of the environmental impacts of using wood versus steel framing. More information on the environmental impacts associated with the manufacture of steel is provided in the ERG reports on steel (05011 in ERG 1994 ed.) and steel framing (05401). Some solid waste is produced at the construction site during installation of wood framing. Wood scraps, sawdust, and bent nails and fasteners are generally disposed of in landfills. However, wood waste could be burned or composted, and steel fasteners could be recycled. A small amount of air emissions results from the combustion of fuel used to transport lumber to the job site and excess materials and waste from the job site. Traditionally, wood salvaged from demolished or remodeled buildings has been used for decorative purposes or for restoration of older residential and commercial buildings. Salvaged wood is becoming more abundant and is now more widely used. Lumber remanufactured from dismantled buildings is being used in construction of new buildings (Darrow 1993). According to forest industry experts, an important environmental consideration in using wood for building construction is that the embodied energy of wood is substantially less than that of potential substitute building materials (Bowyer 1990). In addition, present usage can in all likelihood be made more efficient. The construction industry is the largest timber user, and it is estimated that 10 percent of lumber could be saved in conventional U.S. construction through improvements in design efficiency. Construction waste can be reduced or recycled through methods already applied in some areas where landfill space is at a premium. The efficiency of different types of sawmills could be improved by using existing advanced technologies and machinery. The U.S. Forest Service estimates that by the year 2040 the amount of wood needed to produce a typical product will be reduced by one-third because of more efficient production methods and machinery (Postel and Ryan 1991). It is therefore
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argued that wood is an environmentally valuable building material that architects should use inventively while minimizing construction waste.

Logs The wood framing industry in the United States has historically relied on Pacific Coast Douglas fir as its mainstay. This was supplemented, beginning in the 1950s, with hemlock, western red cedar, spruce, western larch, and eastern white pine and, in the 1960s, with southern pine varieties. Southern pine forests are supplementing western forests and now account for 32 percent of lumber production. Forty-one percent of structural wood is still derived from western forests, and 27 percent comes from Canada (Darrow 1993).
There are two basic methods of tree harvesting, depending upon terrain. The first method involves felling trees with chain saws. The other method uses a feller-buncher, a tractor-based logging tool with an articulated arm. The arm has both a grapple, which resembles a huge pair of tongs, and a pair of hydraulic shears that can snip through a 22-inch-diameter tree. In mountainous and sloped areas, trees are felled with chain saws so that they land pointing downhill. The branches are trimmed, and the logs are sawed into appropriate lengths. Douglas fir, for example, is usually cut into 32.5-foot lengths, enough for 8-foot multiples of lumber plus the unavoidable crosscut waste. The logs are hauled uphill using a high lead tower, a tractor-mounted steel mast that often has a grapple at the end. Two cables run from the top of the tower to the downhill cutting area. The small-diameter top cable, or haulback, is affixed to the heavy cable, or mainline. The mainline carries chokers, which are attached to the butt end of the cut logs at the cutting area. The mainline lifts the logs above the slash and stumps and hauls them uphill to the base of the tower. The haulback pulls the mainline back to the cutting area, and the cycle begins again. The logs are stacked and loaded onto trucks and then hauled to a mill. Haul roads are usually cut into the forest to allow trucks access to the piled logs. Although a high lead tower is generally associated with clearcutting, this method does reduce the number of roads that have to be cut into hillsides to reach the trees. Feller-bunchers, used on gentle terrain, sheer a tree at ground level, lift it slightly, and then stack it in a pile. Feller-bunchers are commonly used where the terrain is fairly flat. Stroke delimbers are often used to remove limbs from trees mechanically. A felled tree is picked up by a grapple mounted on the end of the stroke delimber boom. The boom recedes, bringing the tree with it until the butt can be grabbed by a second grapple, located near the cab. The tree is held fast while the boom is again extended. The lead grapple rides lightly against the log, shearing off the limbs as the boom extends up to 54 feet. Once the limbs are removed, a circular saw in the boom head lops off the treetop. The logs are stacked and later loaded for transport to the mill. Several other logging processes are employed for timber harvesting, including tractor, skidder, and various forms of cable logging, and logging with helicopters or balloons (Darrow 1993).
The environmental effects of timber harvesting for lumber production include habitat alteration and destruction; soil erosion and runoff; air pollution from combustion of fuel to power logging machinery and to haul logs to the mill; solid waste in the form of limbs, tops, broken logs, and stumps; and depletion of old-growth forest. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the acquisition and preparation of wood used for the production of wood framing is presented in figure 3.
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Wood Framing
Figure 3: LumberMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Logging Stressor Timber harvesting Impact/Stressor Habitat alteration Soil erosion Impact/Stressor Loss of habitat Runoff Impact/Stressor Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Stumps, limbs, logs Possible depletion of forests Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area Fuel combustion emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Timber hauling Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Left at logging site to decay Greenhouse effect Increased nutrients Decreased soil erosion Global warming Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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Other environmental effects may be less obvious. As noted above, many scientists believe that forests play an important role in maintaining climate by storing carbon through photosynthesis and by mediating water movement from soil to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. Depletion of forests as a result of converting forest lands to other uses and overharvesting could, therefore, result in a net increase in atmospheric CO2 and a decrease in atmospheric moisture, which could contribute to global climate change (Postel and Ryan 1989; Hileman 1992; Rubin 1992). There is some evidence that allow young forests to sequester more carbon than mature forests (Schallau 1993). Forests account for a significant source of biological diversity, both from the trees themselves and from the large diversity of environments created within the forests. Logging operations and logging roads can disturb and even destroy these ecosystems, and there is some question as to whether a clearcut forest can naturally regain a species diversity comparable to that of the original forest (Dold 1992). Forests stabilize the soil by controlling water runoff, especially on hillsides, and clearcutting can result in substantial erosion and runoff. Logging runoff can result in increased turbidity in surface waters from suspended solids, which can result in reduced light penetration of the water, increased benthic deposition, increased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and deoxygenation. This could lead to loss of faunal diversity and possible fish kill. In general, the more the forest floor is disturbed and the less material is left to decay in the forest, the greater the soil erosion. EPA has estimated that this erosion can typically be as much as 12,000 tons per square mile per year, or approximately 500 times the 24 tons per square mile EPA has estimated for undisturbed forest, which is considered to be the least erodible of all landforms (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Runoff from logging is, for the most part, nontoxic (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Other environmental impacts resulting from logging operations include resource depletion, soil compaction, and land destabilization. The harvesting of wood generates some solid waste, including tree limbs, treetops, broken and inferior logs, and stumps, all of which are often left in the forest. This is generally considered a good sustainable forestry practice, since decay adds nutrients and humic materials from these wastes are added by decay to the forest soil. As the limbs, treetops, and stumps decay, they return nutrients to the soil. Roots from the remaining stumps help prevent erosion and runoff. Depending on proximity to other wood processing facilities, some of the waste has traditionally been used for pulping or chips. Sometimes the waste is sold for fuel or firewood. There has been an increasing economic incentive to use this waste. The combustion of the fuel used in the logging operation to fell trees, cut them into logs, transport the logs to the loading site, load the logs onto the trucks, and haul the logs to the mill results in a variety of air emissions. These emissions include VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone, or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficulty breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage. SO2 also contributes to acid precipitation, which can lead to surface water acidification and possible fish kill. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. NO2 has been linked to respiratory illness, lung damage, and eye irritation. NOx also contribute to environmental problems, including acid precipitation, surface water acidification, possible fish kill, tree/crop damage, materials corrosion, smog, and decreased visibility.
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Wood Framing
Another environmental concern is the depletion of old-growth forests and sustainable management of all forests. Forests originally covered about half of the land area in the United States. That percentage has been reduced because of several factors. Early settlers cleared the forest for farming and fuel. During the same period, wildfires raged unchecked, consuming as many as 40 to 50 million acres annually. Around the turn of the twentieth century, timber harvesting without any attempt to replant set records for cutting, ravaging the nations forests (MacCleery 1990). During the first decades of the twentieth century, efforts got under way to conserve and replant the depleted forest. The U.S. Forest Service was created to aid in the conservation of forests., and more efficient forestry practices were developed. As a result, U.S. forests have now been greatly replenished, despite the fact that today we have about the same area of farmland as in 1920. By 1986, tree growth nationwide exceeded timber harvest by 37 percent, and the volume of standing timber nationally was 24 percent greater than it had been in 1952. According to the Forest Service, although some wildlife species became extinct at the turn of the century, many species that were then threatened can now be found in abundance in new-growth forests (MacCleery 1990). Today, 32 percent of the total U.S. land area is covered by forest. Most of this is new growth as a result of replanting or natural reforestation following cutting (MacCleery 1990). If current trends continue, forests could again reach, or perhaps even exceed, their pre-European-settlement extent. By the estimates of some environmentalists, only about 15 percent of undisturbed old-growth forest remains, mostly located in Alaska. In the lower 48 states, where most of the harvesting takes place presently, estimates of remaining old-growth forest vary considerably. According to those same environmentalists, only 2 to 5 percent of the old-growth forests in Washington and Oregon remain. Forest industry sources counter that the correct figure is about 20 percent (Hatfield 1991). The estimate depends on the definition of old growth and on how dynamically the forest process is viewed. Most of the existing old-growth forest is made up of softwood trees (Postel and Ryan 1991). Today, the volume of wood in U.S. forest is 25 percent higher than it was in 1952, and wood has once again become an abundant resource in most parts of the country. Since 1952, however, the rate of timber harvesting has increased by nearly 40 percent. A considerable amount of softwood lumber is logged in the Pacific Northwest states. This is also where most of the remaining old-growth forest is located, along with substantial new-growth forest. Thus, whereas the forest industry is concerned with being able to meet projected demand through increased harvests, the conservation movement is concerned with preserving the remaining old-growth forest and its ecosystems as well as promoting what it terms sustainable forestry practices (see next paragraph) in those areas that continue to be cut. These potentially competing public needs frame the current debate over the future of forestry and conservation of forest areas in the United States. This debate has important implications for forests worldwide and consequently for the potential increase in rates and amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the resulting effect on global climate. Forest management practices are at the heart of the issue. Clearcutting areas and replanting them with a single species, which lowers costs and enhances quick yield, has become a routine forestry practice (although clearcutting is not the only harvesting technique used). However, some argue that these single-species, monoculture plantation forests are more susceptible to attack from insects and other pests than multispecies forests and thus require more extensive management. Clearcutting contrasts with sustainable forestrya term coined by some foresters to describe more natural management of diverse forestswhich attempts to maintain the biological diversity of the forest ecosystem with controlled harvesting techniques. Under a sustainable management system, all
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species found in the logging area are used, a similar diversity is replanted, and woody debris and dead trees are left to fertilize the soil and give cover to wildlife. The sharp contrast between these two methods results from both philosophical and technical disagreements. Middle-of-the-road forest management approaches that combine some features of each practice have also been proposed (Atkinson 1992).
Energy Consumed
Petroleum products such as gasoline and diesel fuel are used in logging operations to fell trees, cut them into logs, transport the logs to a loading site, load the logs onto trucks, and transport the logs to a lumber mill. The energy expended for felling, trimming, cutting, and transporting logs is estimated to be 962.8 million Btus (1.016 MJ) per ton of logs (Brown et al. 1985).
Fasteners Wood framing can be joined together with a wide variety of fasteners: nails, spikes, screws, bolts, lag screws, drift pins, staples, and various metal connectors. For utmost rigidity, strength, and service, each type of fastener requires joint designs adapted to the strength of wood along and across the grain and to dimensional changes that may occur with variations in moisture content. Most fasteners used to join wood framing are made of steel. For every ton of raw iron that is produced for the manufacture of steel, 3,170 lbs of iron ore materials are used as well as 300 lbs of limestone, 900 lbs of coke, 2,575 lbs of air, 80 lbs of oxygen, and 100 lbs of hydrocarbon fuel to fire the furnace (St. Pierre 1987). Materials acquisition and processing for the manufacture of steel are described in the material report on steel (05011 in ERG 1994 ed.).
The environmental and health concerns associated with materials acquisition and preparation for the manufacture of steel are described in detail in the material report on steel framing (05401). A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the materials acquisition and preparation of steel fasteners is presented in figure 4. There are abundant supplies of iron ore, coal, and limestone in the United States. Although finite deposits are being used, concern about depleting these resources in the distant future is limited.
Energy Consumed
The manufacture of steel requires substantial amounts of energy. Pound for pound steel is one of the most energy-intensive materials. On the average, an estimated 22 million Btus (22,725 MJ) are expended for each ton of finished steel produced (Newman 1992). This varies with the processes that are used, and a great deal of savings in raw materials and energy is achieved by recycling steel products. The largest single energy expenditure in steel making is for the manufacture of pig iron from iron ore. This process requires approximately 13.9 million Btus (14,662 MJ) per ton of iron (Newman 1992). Raw steel production requires approximately 15.9 million Btus (16,772 MJ) per ton of steel when a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is used and 15.2 million Btus (16,034 MJ) per ton of steel when an open-hearth furnace (OHF) is used. Casting requires an additional 1.6 million Btus (1,688 MJ) per ton of cast steel, and forming, finishing, treating, and annealing add an average of 4.6 million Btus (4,852 MJ) per ton of finished steel to the energy requirements (Newman 1992). To the extent that recycled scrap can be substituted for pig iron in making steel, energy can be saved in blast furnace processing. Electric furnace production of steel from scrap requires approximately 6.3 million Btus (6,645 MJ) per ton of steel, just 39 percent of the energy required for the BOF process, since it uses scrap for source materials and requires no energy for iron making (Newman 1992).
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Figure 4: Steel FastenersMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Steel manufacturing Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Solid waste/slag Liquid wastes Recycle as scrap feed Pickling solutions Spent wash water Oils and lubricants Sludge Landfill disposal Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Decreased landfill capacity Zinc smelting Solid waste (metal) Recycle Fuel combustion emissions from recycling Wastewater Spent bath solutions Spent cleaning solutions Rinse water Sludge Metals and organics filtered from bath solutions Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Leaching of toxics to groundwater (see impacts above) Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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Major advances in efficiency now available or anticipated, which involve replacing the iron ore agglomeration, coke-making, iron-making, BOF, and OHF processes with direct steel-making measures, indicate that energy expenditure in steel making can be reduced by 37 to 43 percent by the year 2010. Direct steel making, although not used to any appreciable extent in the United States, requires only 9.9 million Btus (10,443 MJ) per ton of steel, considerably less than the amount required by conventional production methods. Data are not available on energy required for the galvanizing process. Steel systems typically are transported in bulk by rail or truck. Energy is used in the form of fuel for transport. No data are available on the amount of energy required for transporting steel framing.

Lumber A log has to be stripped of its bark before it enters a mill. Typically, logs travel in a chute that leads to a debarking machine. A chain at the bottom of the chute pulls the logs toward an orifice created by a series of tapered rollers. The rollers move in and out to match the diameter of the log and grip it with ridges in the roller drum. The rollers feed the log through the debarker. A spinning fan of steel claws tightens its grip on the log, ripping the bark off, as a second set of rollers extracts the log from the machine. The bark falls onto a conveyor beneath the debarker and will eventually be used, along with sawdust, as fuel to generate electricity for the millworks or steam for the lumber-drying kilns.
If the logs are mature and of high quality, they will yield lumber that falls within all five of the basic grading categories: dimension lumber; boards or commons; beams, posts, and timbers; shop lumber; and select and finish lumber. Dimension lumber is used for manufacturing most wood framing. After debarking, the logs exit the conveyor, drop into the millpond, and are prodded toward a conveyor that lifts them into the mill. The logs are lined up to await their turn on the head rig, which is the principal saw in a mill. Head rig designs vary from mill to mill but always include a carriage upon which the log rides, a clamping device to secure the log, levers and dogs to flip the log over, and one or two bandsaw blades. Logs entering the head rig are pushed onto the carriage. The big logs, which weigh in at around 15,000 to 20,000 lbs, land heavily on the carriage and can be rotated before sawing if necessary to isolate the logs defects. Once placed properly, the log is secured to the carriage with steel dogs mounted atop the carriage knee braces. The carriage moves toward the bandsaw, pulling the log through the stellite-tipped blade. A steady stream of water cools the blade, and the heat of friction vaporizes the water while sawdust and steam billow out of the kerf. The log is cut on one side to desired depths and then flipped 90 or 180 for additional cutting. Downstream from the head rig, the cant moves toward the edger, a machine with multiple saws. Beams of laser light run down the cant, searching for the combination of cuts that will yield the maximum amount of usable lumber. The laser lines correspond to the standard cuts produced by the sawmill. Once the best cuts are selected, the timber is fed to the edger. The edger sawblades move back and forth in lockstep with the lasers. Rough-sawn boards, beams, or dimension lumber emerge on the other side. The sawn lumber rides a conveyor toward the trim table, where cutoff saws lop off the bad ends. Pieces that must be resawed into smaller dimensions or that need defects removed can be diverted from the conveyor. Once the lumber has passed through the appropriate saw, it reenters the conveyor and heads for the trim table. Lumber is then seasoned in temperatureand humidity-controlled dry kilns or stacked and air dried until the moisture content reaches the desired level of 12 to 19 percent. The lumber is then stacked according to
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dimension, length, and grade. The presence and size of defects in a piece of lumber determine its grade. Lumber typically is banded, packaged, and shipped in bulk by rail or truck to wholesale and retail establishments. It is stored, usually under cover and in some instances in heated buildings.
Waste generated in the sawmill, such as bark, sawdust, and trimmings, is often burned for fuel. This material is hogged, or ground into chips for burning to generate the heat required for kilns and driers. The final waste product, therefore, is wood ash, which may be disposed of in a landfill, used to make adhesives, or sold for various purposes. Combustion of the bark and wood waste results in air emissions, as does combustion of additional fuel used to operate boilers and driers and to move the logs and lumber around the mill. Generation of electricity to power the various saws, conveyor belts, and other motors also results in air emissions. These air pollutants include particulates, VOCs, CO2, CO, SO2, and NOx. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are described above under logging. Some contaminants may be present in the water released from millponds. Instead of burning all wood wastes, some sawmills separate the bark from wood chips so that the chips can be sold for use in the manufacture of paper. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture of lumber for wood framing is presented in figure 5.
Energy Consumed
A variety of energy sources are used to mill lumber, including wood wastes (hog fuel) and petroleum for boilers and driers; electricity to run a variety of motors; and gasoline, diesel fuel, and liquefied gas for rolling stock around the plant. Manufacturing energy consists of two parts: mechanical (electric) and process heat. The energy expended for milling is estimated to be 2,625 Btus (2.8 MJ) per pound of kiln-dried lumber (Brown et al. 1985). Use of wood residue from the process itself could reclaim an amount of energy equal to that expended in milling. Additional energy is required for transporting the lumber from the mills to warehouses and retail outlets. The embodied energy of wood framing is reported to be 91,618 Btus/ft3 or approximately 30,000 Btus (31.64 MJ) for an average 8-foot-long 2 x 4 (Marcea 1992).
Treated Lumber
A small amount of wood framing is treated to make it resistant to fungus growth and termite attack. Treated lumber is often installed as sole plates on concrete foundations and in other moisture-prone areas. The quality of treatment, measured in terms of preservative distribution and retention, varies widely with the permeabilities of different wood species. Variable pretreatment processing and treatment conditions can cause variation in treatment quality among lumber of the same species. Lumber should be seasoned properly. Whenever practicable, all machining and cutting should be completed prior to treatment. Relatively few wood species are sufficiently permeable for consistently uniform penetration and desired retention of preservatives. To expedite penetration and retention of preservative solution, wood surfaces that are difficult to permeate may be incised by roller-mounted knives. The variously patterned longitudinal cuts are usually less than 1 inch long and 1 inch deep. Wood may be preserved by either pressure or nonpressure processes. For most wood framing, preservatives are applied by a pressure process that forces the chemical into the pores of the wood. Pressure treatments account for more than 95 percent of the wood treated in the
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Figure 5: LumberManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Debarking Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Wood wastes Landfill disposal Incineration Waste oils Lumber sawing and trimming Wood wastes Landfill disposal Incineration Lumber drying and seasoning Dust Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Air emissions Venting of hot air Decreased landfill capacity Combustion air emissions (see impacts above) Particulates Toxic to aquatic and other organisms (see impacts above) Decreased landfill capacity Combustion air emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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United States. The remainder is treated by various nonpressure processes that include thermal, diffusion, cold soak, and vacuum methods (Koch 1985). Pressure processes vary by the amount of air pressure applied to the wood before it is impregnated with a preservative. Most wood framing is treated by the full-cell process, which employs an initial vacuum to obtain maximum retention of preservative. Pressure impregnations involve the application of 50 pounds per square inch (psi) pressure or more in large cylinders to force preservative liquid into the wood. The cylinder is filled with preservative, and the pressure is increased to 150 psi for approximately 6 hours. The pressure is then gradually returned to atmospheric level, and the excess preservative is removed and returned to storage. The treated wood may then be subjected to a vacuum or steaming and vacuum of short duration to remove surplus preservative from the wood surface. An alternative pressure process used for some wood framing is the modified empty-cell process, which employs either atmospheric pressure or higher air pressures of 15 to 75 psi. Hydrostatic or pneumatic pressures of 50 to 200 psi are imposed on the system and maintained until the desired gross injection of preservative has been achieved. The preservative is then removed from the retort while simultaneously pressure sufficient to prevent kickback of the preservative solution in the wood is maintained. Fixation of the preservative is accelerated in situ by admitting to the retort either water or steam and maintaining a temperature of about 220F for a period of 1 to 4 hours (Koch 1985). The results achieved in pressure treatments are functions of the pressure and temperature employed. Within limits, preservative retentions achieved by pressure treatments vary inversely with the moisture content of the wood and directly with temperature and pressure. Treatment duration is important in both pressure and nonpressure processes. The degree of protection depends on the type and strength of the chemical preservative, method of application, depth of penetration, preservative retention, proportion of heartwood to sapwood in the lumber, moisture content at the time of treatment, and receptiveness of the wood species. All pressure-treated lumber should conform to standards established by the American Wood Preservers Association. Chemical retention is stated in terms of the weight of the chemical retained per cubic foot (pcf) of wood. For framing lumber treated with chromated copper arsenate, for example, the required chemical retention is .25 pcf for above-grade, .40 pcf for ground-contact, and .60 pcf for below-grade foundations (Darrow 1993). Although there are dozens of different preservatives available, only three types are used commonly in the commercial pressure treatment of wood: oily preservatives, solvent-soluble organic chemicals, and water-soluble salts. Because of recent restrictions by EPA, most treated lumber destined for wood framing is salt treated (Bower 1991). Water-soluble preservatives are used for both interior and exterior applications, and they generally are applied by the full-cell process. The most commonly applied water-soluble preservatives are ammoniacal copper arsenate (ACA) and chromated copper arsenate (CCA). ACA is an ammoniacal solution of arsenic and copper that, upon evaporation of ammonia, forms an insoluble precipitate of copper arsenate in the wood. CCA is an acid solution of copper oxide, chromic acid, and arsenic acid, which react in situ to form a complex of relatively insoluble precipitates. Other water-soluble preservatives include acid copper chromate, chromated zinc chloride, and fluor-chrome-arsenate phenol. Wood treated with water-soluble salts containing copper has a greenish tint. Lumber should be redried after treatment to regain stability and a dry, paintable surface. Pressure-treated lumber is offered in the marketplace as wet or kiln dried after treatment. All treated lumber should be stored properly and not left to the elements.
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Wastewater from wood preserving facilities contains water-soluble preservatives. The most commonly used salts contain small amounts of arsenic that are toxic to fish and mammals when ingested. Waterborne arsenical lumber treatment plants, which account for virtually all of the treated wood used in residential and commercial construction, recycle all of their process water. Contamination of surface water and groundwater from accidental spills could lead to fish kill and contamination of local wells. Furthermore, these salts tend to accumulate in the soil at treatment facilities. The surface of treated wood often contains white arsenic powder that can cling to skin and clothing. People who handle treated wood should take proper precautions by washing exposed areas thoroughly before eating and by washing exposed clothing separately from other fabrics. Energy is required to power the pressure-treating process and to move lumber at the treatment facility. Combustion of required fuel and generation of necessary electricity results in air emissions, including VOCs, CO2, CO, SOx, and NOx. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are discussed above under logging. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the production of treated lumber is presented in figure 6.
Energy Consumed
There are no data available concerning the amount of energy required to pressure-treat lumber. The embodied energy of a pressure-treated 8-foot-long 2 x 4 would exceed the 30,000 Btus (31.6 MJ) estimated for an untreated 2 x 4 of the same length.
Fasteners Nails are the most common mechanical fasteners used in construction. There are many types, sizes, and forms of nails. Nails are usually made of steel, and their surface conditions are frequently modified during the manufacturing process to improve withdrawal resistance. Such modification is usually done by surface coating, surface roughening, or mechanical deformation of the shank. In the presence of moisture, metals used for nails may corrode when in contact with material treated with certain preservatives. Nails of copper, silicon bronze, and 304 and 316 stainless steel have performed well in wood treated with ACA and CCA. The materials acquisition and manufacturing of steel are described in detail in the ERG reports on steel (05011 in ERG 1994 ed.) and steel framing (05401).
Metal plate connectors, commonly called truss plates, have become a popular means of joining trussed rafters and joists. These connectors transmit loads by means of teeth, plugs, or nails, which vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. Plates are usually made of 20-gauge galvanized steel and have an area and shape necessary to transmit the forces on the joint. The manufacture and galvanizing of steel are described in the ERG report on steel framing (05401).
The steel industry is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to water, air, and land. The considerable wastes the industry generates take the form of solid and liquid by-products of processing as well as air emissions and wastewater discharges. The health and environmental problems associated with the manufacture of steel are described in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture of steel fasteners is presented in figure 7.
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Figure 6: Treated LumberManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Arsenic, copper, and chromium mining Acid drainage Stressor Tailings waste Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water and groundwater acidification Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Debarking Fuel combustion emissions Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates Wood wastes Landfill disposal Incineration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Decreased landfill capacity Air emissions from combustion continued (see impacts above) VOCs (see impacts above) Reduced reproduction Fishkill Surface water acidification Global warming Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Runoff Loss of habitat Loss of biodiversity Toxic to fish and other aquatic organism (see impacts above) Species extinction Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
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Figure 6: Treated LumberManufacturing and Fabrication Stage (continued)

Activity Debarking (continued) Wastewater Stressor Waste oils Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and other organisms Organics and suspended solids Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Lumber sawing and trimming Lumber drying and seasoning Wood wastes Air emissions Venting of hot air Dust Landfill disposal Incineration Wood preserving Contaminated wastewater Arsenic and other metals in groundwater and surface water Contaminated soil Preserving chemicals accumulate in soils, increasing concentration of arsenic and toxic metals Fuel combustion emissions Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates Air emissions Arsenic dust (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Trace amounts of arsenic emitted in indoor air Human health effects for sensitive individuals VOCs (see impacts above) Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Decreased landfill capacity Air emissions from combustion Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals (see impacts above) Particulates (see impacts above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Figure 7: Steel FastenersManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Steel fastenings manufacture Stressor Air emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Carbon monoxide Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Particulates Greenhouse effect Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Solid waste/slag Dust Recycle as feed/fuel for furnace Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Galvanizing Wastewater (metals) Sludges from bath solutions Spent cleaning solutions Spent plating solutions Metal cutting and forming Metal wastes Wastewater (metals) Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Leaching of toxics from coatings contaminates groundwater Recycle as scrap Air emissions from steel manufacture continued (see impacts above) Toxic to aquatic and other organisms Air emissions from combustion (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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Figure 7: Steel FastenersManufacturing and Fabrication Stage (continued)

Activity Metal cutting and forming (continued) Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Energy Consumed
There are no data available on the amount of energy required to manufacture steel fasteners. On average, an estimated 22 million Btus (22,725 MJ) are expended for each ton of finished steel produced (Newman 1992).

Materials are generally trucked to the building site for construction. A platform wood frame, the most commonly used type, is made of nominal 2-inch-thick members that are actually 112 inches thick. These members are ordered cut to the nearest 2-ft length and then measured and sawn to exact length onsite. Connections are made with nails, using either face nailing, end nailing, or toe nailing as required by the characteristics of each joint. Nails are driven by either hammer or pneumatic nailing machines. In either case, the connection is made quickly because the nails usually penetrate the wood without the builders having to drill holes or otherwise prepare the joint. Each plane of structure in a platform frame is made by aligning a number of pieces of framing lumber parallel to one another at specified intervals and then nailing these to crosspieces at either end to retain spacing and flatness. The plane of framing is then covered with sheathing of boards or panels that join and stabilize the components into a single structural unit, ready for the application of finish materials on one or both sides. In a floor structure, the parallel pieces are the floor joists, and the crosspieces at the ends of the joists are called headers, rim joists, or band joists. In a wall structure, the parallel pieces are studs, the crosspiece at the bottom of the wall is the sole plate, and the crosspiece at the top, which is doubled for strength if the wall bears a load from above, is called the top plate. In a sloping roof, the rafters are headed off by the top plates at the lower edge of the roof and by the ridge board at the peak. Openings are required in these planes of structure for windows, doors, stairs, etc. In each case these are made by heading off the opening. Openings in floors are framed with headers and trimmers, and openings in walls are framed with window or door headers and sills. Headers or trimmers must be doubled or otherwise strengthened to support the higher loads placed on them by the presence of the opening.
Waste Produced
Solid waste is generated during installation in the form of wood scraps, bent nails and fasteners, and sawdust. Wood waste may be burned, landfilled, or sent to a composting operation. Wood waste from treated lumber can be disposed of as conventional solid waste in landfills. Waste nails and other fasteners could be recycled, but most are disposed of as conventional solid waste in landfills. A small amount of air emissions results from the generation of electricity to power pneumatic nailing machines and saws and from combustion of fuel to transport lumber to the job site and waste from the job site. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction of wood framing is presented in figure 8.
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Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stages
Figure 8: Wood FramingConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Frame assembly Stressor Wood wastes Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Incineration Toxic air emissions from combustion Dust Eye and throat irritation Impaired visibility Metal wastes Air emissions Landfill disposal or recycle Volatile constituents of wood Eye and throat irritation Human health effects (toxicity and cardiovascular system effects) Aresnic dust Human health effects for sensitive individuals (toxicity and carcinogenicity) Various health and environmental impacts Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Indoor Air Quality
Wood framing materials generally have little impact on indoor air quality once construction is completed. Wood dust can be a problem for workers during construction, since long-term exposure to any kind of irritating dust can be harmful. A variety of wood constituents can affect human health: alkaloids, anthraquinones, benzoquinones, naphthoquinones, catechols, flavornoids, furocoumarins, glycosides, minerals, phenols, saponins, sesquiterpenes, lactones, stilbenes, and terpenes. Some are sensitizers and irritants, whereas others cause cardiac and toxic effects (Hausen 1981). Sensitive individuals may experience some symptoms because of exposure to certain woods. However, framing lumber enclosed in walls has little impact on indoor air quality unless it is very odorous. Softwoods, commonly used in framing, are generally more odorous than hardwoods. Traces of arsenic dust have been detected in basements where pressure-treated framing has been used (Bower 1991). Arsenic is a known human carcinogen and is toxic to humans and other animals (NIEHS 1989). However, epidemiological studies of wood treatment plant workers and carpenters show no increased risk of cancer as a result of exposure to the preservative-treated wood. Lumber properly treated with CCA in accordance with the standards of the American Wood Preservers Association and used within the guidelines of EPA poses no threat to human health (Darrow 1993). To minimize exposure to arsenic and other chemicals in the treated framing, pressure-treated framing should be enclosed in walls and not exposed to interior spaces. All sawdust and scrap waste from treated framing should be removed from the construction site.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required to build and install wood framing. Electricity is needed to power pneumatic nailing machines and power saws. Additional energy is used to transport lumber to the job site and solid waste from the job site. No quantitative data are available, however, on the amount of energy required for constructing wood framing.
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Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage and Organization Perspective

Most wood framing used in the construction of a building is meant to last through the life of the building. Some wood framing is now being recycled into other buildings, particularly from older commercial buildings such as warehouses. When these buildings are demolished, the framing is often salvaged and reused as decorative or structural materials in the restoration of older residential and commercial buildings. Most buildings, however, are demolished with power equipment and disposed of in landfills with minimal or no recycling. Data are not readily available on the amount of wood framing currently recycled. All wood products can be incinerated, and the resulting energy can be recaptured to produce electricity or steam. Data are not available on the quantities of wood waste that are recovered and used as fuel. Since wood wastes biodegrade, they can be ground up and used as compost, although very little waste wood is composted. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the disposal of wood framing and steel fasteners is presented in figure 9.
Figure 9: Wood FramingRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Disposal of demolition waste Incineration Air emissions from combustion Particulates and dust Solid waste Eye and throat irritation Recycle steel waste as scrap Landfill disposal Leaching of toxics from coatings Air emissions from recycling operations Decreased landfill capacity Contamination of soil and groundwater Toxic to plants and organisms Various environmental and human health effects Stressor Wood wastes Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal (large volume) Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Industry Perspective: American Forest & Paper Association Wood framing was introduced as a system of construction around 1830, at a time when sawmills had expanded their capacity to produce boards and planks in volume and when American manufacturers had developed methods to supply large quantities of nails. With lumber abundantly available and the skills to work with it constantly improving, wood frame construction has become an efficient and economical building system. Today, virtually all new homes and many nonresidential buildings are constructed with a structural wood frame.
The continued supply of wood is ensured by the renewability of trees and the development of advanced silvicultural practices to manage forests. Today, much more than lumber is produced from this important resource. Structural panels and various engineered wood products are created from composites of veneer, chips, and fiber. These products are used in combination with solid sawn lumber to constitute an integral wood frame.
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Regulatory Status
In addition to its economic benefits, wood framing offers important environmental advantages. Vigorous, growing forests absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release lifesustaining oxygen in their natural food-making process. Compared with alternative materials, wood requires considerably less energy for conversion into building products, thus reducing the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the air. As a natural insulator, wood adds to the energy performance of buildings. Finally, wood is reusable and completely biodegradable.
Regulatory Status
Overview Materials in wood framing systems are at least partially regulated in practically all life-cycle stages. Most of these regulations are under federal environmental statutes, often administered by the states with EPA oversight.
In the materials acquisition and preparation stage and the manufacturing and fabrication stage, any point source discharge is subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act (CWA). In a phased approach, the CWA initially imposes effluent limitations on discharges according to currently available best practicable technology (BPT). Later, the act applies more stringent best available technology (BAT) limits that focus on priority toxic pollutants. Stringent newsource performance standards (NSPS) apply to any new or substantially modified facilities. Discharges to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) are subject to pretreatment standards designed to protect POTWs and to prevent the pass-through of pollutants to receiving waters. The point source discharges of processing and manufacturing operations that are not subject to specific effluent guidelines can be subject to generic National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit requirements. Runoff from all industrial processes, including land clearing for any development, is subject to CWA stormwater permits now being implemented by EPA and states with EPA-delegated authority. Boilers, furnaces, and other air-pollutant emitters may be subject to emission standards under the Clean Air Act (CAA). Storage, treatment, and disposal of solid or hazardous wastes in any stage may be subject to regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and state solid-waste laws. Wood-preserving chemical manufacture and use are regulated under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Wood-preserving chemicals are also hazardous substances under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA).

Water Pollution
Logging operations on federal forest lands are subject to national forest management plans that increasingly require best management practices to reduce the adverse environmental effects of forestry. Often, state regulations also require these practices for state and some private forest lands. Barking, wet storage, and log-washing processes may be subject to CWA effluent guidelines under various subparts of 40 CFR Part 429. Part 429, Subpart A, prohibits the discharge of process wastewater to U.S. waters for mechanical barking operations and sets effluent guidelines for BOD5, total suspended solids, TSS, and pH for hydraulic barking operations. Subpart I sets a wet storage BPT limit for pH; sets BAT and NSPS limits that require the removal of debris from discharges; and requires that any discharges to POTWs meet pretreatment standards as set forth in 40 CFR Part 403. Subpart J sets log-washing BPT limits for TSS and pH; sets BAT and NSPS requirements of no discharge to U.S. waters; and requires that any discharges to POTWs meet pretreatment standards as set forth in 40 CFR Part 403.
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Regulatory Status
Air Pollution
Stationary heat sources at sawmills, such as boilers, may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100-tons-per-year threshold for any CAA pollutant. New stationary heat sources at lumber mills or substantial modification of existing stationary heat sources at lumber mills may be subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, Subpart OOO for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. They may also be subject to prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) standards under 40 CFR Part 51, which requires monitoring and, if applicable, applying control technology for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead, plus the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i). These additional pollutants are asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals. These pollutants are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i).

Water Pollution
Sawmill, planing mill, wood preserving, and finishing processes may be subject to CWA effluent guidelines under various subparts of 40 CFR Part 429. Part 429, Subpart K, sets BPT, BAT, and NSPS limits for sawmills and planing mills that prohibit discharges to U.S. waters. Subpart L sets the same BPT, BAT, and NSPS limits for finishing mills. Subparts F, G, and H set various BPT, BAT, and NSPS limits for wood preserving facilities. Most applicable to wood framing are the limits contained in Subpart H that feature no discharge requirements for BPT, BAT, and NSPS. Pretreatment standards for wood preserving facilities discharging into POTWs include effluent limitations for oil and grease, copper, chromium, and arsenic for existing sources and no discharge requirements for new sources. However, waterborne arsenical lumber treatment plants recycle all process water. Wood preserving is also subject to regulation under RCRA. Regulations recently codified in 40 CFR Parts 261, 264, 265, and 302 modify existing RCRA requirements to require contingency and cleanup plans for incidental storage-yard drippage; specify process drippage-containment systems that are impermeable, bermed, and sloped; and specify technical improvements to drip pads to reduce the likelihood of pollutant releases to surface water and groundwater.
Air Pollution
Stationary heat sources at sawmills, planing mills, wood preserving facilities, and finishing mills, such as boilers, ovens, and kilns, may be subject to CAA NSPS emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51, or possibly to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60 and to PSD standards under 40 CFR Part 51, similar to those described above.
Solid and Hazardous Wastes
Solid and hazardous wastes generated in lumber mills and manufacturing facilities are regulated under state and local regulations and, to a lesser extent, under RCRA. The one exception to this is chemicals from wood preserving operations, which are restricted-use pesticides regulated under FIFRA. When intended for disposal, the wastewater of wood preserving processes utilizing arsenicals, creosote, or pentachlorophenal are regulated under RCRA.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage Building codes place structural requirements on the construction of wood framing systems. Presently, no federal regulations deal specifically with indoor air pollution from wood preservative chemicals. Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid-waste
24
MAT 06110
WOOD FRAMING
Wood Framing
Regulatory Status
requirements and varies accordingly. Little hazardous waste is generated at this stage of the wood framing system life cycle; hence RCRA does not come into significant play at this stage.
Regulatory Statutes and References

s s s s s s s
Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq. (i.e., Title 42 of the U.S. Code, starting with Section 7401). Clean Water Act (CWA), 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (CERCLA/SARA), 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 7 U.S.C. 136. Hoffman, Stephen, and Van Houseman. 1990. Update on Regulation for Mine Waste Management Under RCRA. Mining Engineering. November. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq. Office of the Federal Register. National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Code of Federal Regulations. July 1, 1992. (The code is divided into titles and parts and cited in the text as ___ CFR Part ___. The parts are further subdivided with decimal, letter, and number notation into sections and subsections.) . National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Federal Register 57, no. 248 (Thursday, December 24). Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (RCRA), 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 42 U.S.C. 300f et seq. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), 30 U.S.C. 1201 et seq. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 15 U.S.C. 2601 et seq. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 1991. Office of Air and Radiation. October.
s s s s s s
WOOD FRAMING
MAT 06110
25
Wood Framing
References
References
Allen, E. 1992. Fundamentals of Building Construction Materials and Methods. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Atkinson, William A. 1992. Another View of New Forestry. Environmental Trade-Offs, Forest Resources. Technical Bulletin 92-14. American Forest Council. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bower, John. 1991. The Healthy House: How to Buy One, How to Build One, How to Cure a Sick One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. Bowyer, Jim L. 1990. Responsible Environmentalism The Ethical Dimensions of Forest Harvest and Wood Use. St. Paul: University of Minnesota. Brown, Harry L., Bernard B. Hamel, Bruce A. Hedman, Michael Koluch, Birar C. Gajanana, and Philip Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. U.S. Department of Energy, Contract Number E(11-1)2862, Fairmont Press edition. Buchanan, Andrew H. 1991. Building Materials and the Greenhouse Effect. Journal title unkown. February. Chapman, P. F., and F. Roberts. 1983. Metal Resources and Energy. Boston: Butterworths Monographs in Materials. Cliff, E. P. 1973. Timber: The Renewable Material. Report prepared for the National Commission on Materials Policy. U. S. Government Printing Office. Committee on Renewable Resources for Industrial Materials (CORRIM II), National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council. 1976. Wood for Structural and Architectural Purposes. Wood and Fiber. The Society of Wood Science and Technology. Darrow, C. 1993. American Forest and Paper Association, Washington, DC. Comments on draft of this report. Dold, Catherine. 1992. Study Casts Doubt on Belief in Self-Revival of Cleared Forests. NY Times. September 1. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1974. The Outlook for Timber in the United States. Forest Resource Report no. 20. . 1976. The Nations Renewable ResourcesAn Assessment, 1975. Hatfield, Mark. 1991. Old Growth and the Media, A Lawmakers Perspective. Evergreen. Special Issue. Island Press.
Hausen, Bjorn M. 1981. Woods Injurious to Human Health: A Manual. NY: Walter de Gruyter. Hileman, B. 1992. Industrial Ecology Route to Slow Global Change Proposed. Chemical and Engineering news. August 24. Honachefsky, William B. 1991. Land Planners Environmental Handbook. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. Jahn, E. C., and S. B. Preston. 1976. Timber: More Effective Utilization. Science 191:757-61. Koch, Peter. 1985. Utilization of Hardwoods Growing on Southern Pine Sites. Vol. 2, Processing. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. MacCleery, Douglas W. 1990. Brief Overview of the Condition and Trends of the U.S. Forests. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. March 15. Marcea, R. L., and K. K. Lau. 1992. Carbon Dioxide Implications of Building Materials. Journal of Forest Engineering. 3(2). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. No date. Fabricated Metal Manufacturing and Metal Finishing. Technical information publication. Newman, John. 1992. Energy specialist, Office of Technology Assessment. Personal communication. October 5. Phelps, R. B., and D. Hair. 1974. The Demand and Price Situation for Forest Products. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Miscellaneous Publication no. 1292. Postel, Sandra, and John C Ryan. 1991. Reforming Forestry. State of the World 1991. NY: Worldwatch Institute. Rubin, Edward S., et al. 1992. Realistic Mitigation Options for Global Warming. Science 257 (July 10). St. Pierre, G. R. 1987. Iron Metallurgy. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 6th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Schallau, C. 1993. American Forest and Paper Association, Washington, DC. Comments on draft of ERG wood framing report. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter its Mix. May.
University of Minnesota. 1990. News/information sheet. St. Paul, MN. July 26. van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David Keith Todd. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
26
MAT 06110
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Material Report
Plywood
Highlights
Waste from plywood manufacture can be recycled into chips for composite wood products, incinerated to generate energy, or ground up and used as compost, as it is biodegradable. Architects and builders should attempt to minimize or recycle wood waste from construction.
Wood is a renewable resource, but renewal depends on sound management practices. Temperate U.S. forests are being replanted faster than they are being harvested today, and growth exceeds reductions due to harvesting, insects, disease, and fire. Use of plywood produced from wood acquired through sustainable forestry is to be encouraged. The embodied energy of wood products is less than the embodied energy of any comparable building material. The actual purchased energy (not deriving from wood waste) may today be only about 25 percent of all energy consumed by these wood products. Softwood plywood, which uses phenol formaldehyde adhesives, does not significantly affect indoor air quality because of its extremely low formaldehyde emissions and because it is used primarily on the exterior shell of buildings. Formaldehyde emissions from hardwood plywood, which is bonded with ureaformaldehyde (UF), are far lower today than they were a decade ago. Decorative hardwood plywood panels and industrial hardwood plywood panels for interior applications use UF adhesive. Architects can help ensure that formaldehyde emissions from these sources are minimized and maintained within current recognized limits by specifying panels (or cartons of panels) that display marks indicating compliance with ANSI/HPVA HP-1, the American National Standard for Hardwood and Decorative Plywood. Also acceptable are panels stamped by third party certification agencies indicating compliance with the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) formaldehyde emission requirements for plywood used in manufactured housing. (HUD does not require stamps on softwood plywood.)
Energy Consumption
Indoor Air Quality
PLYWOOD
MAT 06118
Plywood
Background
Plywood is a wood product that consists of a number of layers of wood material bonded together by a resin adhesive. Usually the layers are thin veneers placed so the grain of each layer is at right angles to the grain of adjacent layers. This construction gives plywood great dimensional stability and uniform strength both across and along the grain of the face layer. The core of the plywood panel is most often veneer but may be another wood product, such as medium-density fiberboard, particleboard, oriented strand board, or lumber. Normally urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesives are used in hardwood plywood and phenol formaldehyde adhesives in softwood plywood. Rough carpentry aspects of plywood use are covered under Masterspec 06100. The two main types of plywood are hardwood and softwood. Although there is some overlap, hardwood plywoods are normally used for decorative purposes and interior applications, while softwood plywoods are used for structural applications. These wood uses may vary somewhat on a regional basis depending on availability of suitable tree species. For decorative uses, regional preferences and market trends may dictate the composition of products used. In 1988 U.S. consumption of hardwood plywood amounted to 78 million cubic feet (2.2 million cubic meters), of which 29 million cubic feet (821,00 cubic meters) was derived from indigenous North American trees. The same year, 706 million cubic feet (20 million cubic meters) of softwood plywood was produced, all deriving from indigenous North American trees (Emery 1992; National Particleboard Association 1989). In 1996, 663 million cubic feet (18.8 million cubic meters) of softwood plywood were produced (Adair, 1997). The most common use of hardwood plywood (40 percent) is for wall paneling; about 80 percent of structural softwood plywood is used for wall and roof sheathing, subflooring, siding, and concrete forms.
A life-cycle summary of plywood is provided in figures 1 through 3. The environmental reviews contained in these material reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that occur during the entire life cycle of a material. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to them. These stressors and impacts are summarized in the paragraphs immediately following and discussed in greater depth for each stage of the life cycle in the remainder of the report. It is noted that essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. Analysis of the environmental impacts of architectural materials and comparison of these impacts with those of alternative materials should take into account the entire life cycle of each material. Life-cycle analyses are meant to be thorough, quantitative assessments of all aspects of the life cycle. Because complete life-cycle data on plywood are not available, a truly quantitative analysis was not possible in this report. Plywood is a product typically composed of 96-98 percent wood and 2-4 percent adhesive. Wood products are the only major building materials to derive from a renewable raw resource that is abundant in the United States. (Some products can be produced from recycled materials and are, in that sense, renewable.) Petroleum and different minerals, from which many alternative materials are derived, are finite resources, sometimes fully or partially
MAT 06118
PLYWOOD
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Plywood

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998 PLYWOOD MAT 06118
KEY
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Process flow Transport Boundary Output
Log processing and block production Bucking Debarking Log steaming
Veneer slicing
Veneer drying
Global warming
Wood waste (burned for fuel) Ash (landfill)
Ash (sold for use in adhesives)
Recycling
Adhesives Phenol-formaldehyde (softwood) Urea-formaldehyde (hardwood)

(see figure 2)
Air emissions (VOCs, formaldehyde, HAPs)
Air emissions (VOCs, formaldehyde, HAPs)
Veneer gluing
Plywood pressing
Plywood Trimming
Patching Sanding
Wastewater Wood waste (landfill) Wood waste (burned for fuel)
(some hardwood) Finish or
Plywood finishing Applying finish or Applying paper or vinyl overlay
Packaging
Paper or vinyl overlay

Air emissions (arsenic dust)
Storage
(some softwood, rarely hardwood) Preservative: chromated copper arsenate (CCA) (see figure 3), ammonical copper quarternary compound (ACQ) or others
Wood preserving (water based) Pressure treating Preservative impregnation Vacuum removal of excess preservative
Sales
Indoor air emissions (wood components, arsenic dust) Air emissions (particulates) Construction waste (landfilled or incinerated)
Construction
Life-Cycle Summary Plywood
Soil contamination
Demolition
Plywood
(some softwood, rarely hardwood) Fire retardant: zinc chloride, ammonium sulfate, boric acid, or diammonium sulfate
Treatment with fire retardant Disposal (landfilled)
4
MAT 06118 PLYWOOD ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Adhesives
Plywood
Brine
Electrolysis
Coproducts Hydrogen Chlorine Sodium hydroxide
Fillers and extenders Ureaformaldehyde adhesive

(see figure 1) Wastewater (formaldehyde)
Life-Cycle Summary Adhesives
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, H2S, particulates) Ni catalyst
Natural gas processing Separation Liquefication Distillation
Ni catalyst
Ammonia manufacture Carbon dioxide manufacture Methanol manufacture
Urea manufacture
Cu catalyst
Ag or Fe molybdate catalyst
Formaldehyde manufacture
KEY
Wastewater, oil, grease, dissolved solids, organics)

Benzene manufacture
Phenol manufacture
Uncured phenolformaldehyde resin

Wastewater (formaldehyde, phenol)
Phenolformaldehyde adhesive
(see figure 1)
Drainage wastes
Cyanides
Sludge
Wastewater (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans)
Fillers and extenders
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Preservatives for Plywood
Arsenic and chromium mining Drilling Cutting Blasting Hauling Loading
Separation of arsenic from ores Volatilization Separation Aqueous extraction
Arsenic pentoxide production
Habitat change
KEY
Benefaction of chromite from ores Sorting Gravity separation or Crushing Gravity or magnetic separation
Chromic acid production
Chromated copper arsenate production

(see figure 1)
Copper (waste)
Ammonium carbonate or cupric ammonium chloride
Leach/boil
Copper oxide
Life-Cycle Summary Preservatives for Plywood
Plywood
Plywood
imported to satisfy U.S. consumer demand. To satisfy public demand for tropical wood veneer, more than half the hardwood plywood used in the United States is also imported. Considering the present growth-to-harvest ratio for hardwoods in the United States of 1.86:1 (Bowyer 1990), much of this demand for hardwood plywood could be satisfied by domestic species if consumers so desired. The embodied energy of wood used for building construction is substantially less than that of potential substitute building materials. For example, a study by the Committee on Renewable Resources for Industrial Materials (CORRIM) showed it takes six to eight times more energy to make a 100 square foot (9.3 square meter) wall of brick veneer over sheathing or of concrete blocks than it does to make an all wood wall (Society of Wood Science and Technology 1976). Wood is, therefore, an environmentally valuable building material that can be used creatively and, if planned carefully, should result in minimal construction waste. Although plywood has many environmental advantages as a building material, it still involves environmental concerns similar to those associated with other products. These focus on the complex issues of forest use and renewal, the ecological effects associated with forest use and timber harvest, soil conservation, and air quality. For example, many scientists believe that forests help maintain climactic conditions by storing carbon gained by photosynthesis and that they are major mediators, through evapotranspiration, of water movement from soil to the atmosphere. Depletion of forests as a result of overharvesting and conversion of forest lands to other uses could, therefore, result in a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and reduction in atmospheric moisture, contributing to global climate change (e.g., EPA 1992; Postel 1989; Hileman 1992; Rubin et al. 1992). Forests also stabilize the soil by controlling water runoff, especially on hillsides, and are an incredible source of biological diversity, both from the trees themselves and from the large diversity of environments within a forest. Logging operations and logging roads can disturb these ecosystems. Forests are also popular recreation and research areas. When trees are harvested, the effects on these and many other issues must be considered. The following questions seem of particular importance to the temperate forests of the United States: [Similar issues related to tropical forests were discussed in the earlier ERG material report on tropical woods (06005 in ERG 1992 ed.)] What is the state of U.S. forests today as compared with in the past? Does reforestation mean replacing the quantity (types and number of tree species) as well as quality of trees harvested? Does reforestation maintain the many ecosystems included in forests? Will the forests be able to supply us with raw materials in the future, considering the continually increasing population, which will probably mean increasing demand? Under what circumstances is wood a material that is environmentally preferable for use in construction when compared with other building materials, including metals, plastics, and concrete? What long-term environmental effects are associated with the conversion of timber, a potentially renewable resource, as compared with those associated with the extraction of minerals, which are finite resources, for the manufacture of alternative building materials? Forests originally covered about half the land area of the United States. Several factors have operated to reduce that percentage. The early settlers cleared the forest for farming and fuel. In the early 1900s wildfires raged unchecked and consumed up to 40 or 50 million acres (16 to 20 million hectares) annually. Timber harvesting, without any attempt to replant, set records around the turn of the 20th century (MacCleery 1990). During the first decades of this century efforts got underway to conserve and replant the depleted forest. The U.S. Forest Service was created to aid the conservation of forests. Due to these efforts, U.S. forests have now been replenished, despite the fact that the country has
MAT 06118
PLYWOOD
Plywood
about the same area of farmland today as in 1920. By 1992 tree growth nationwide exceeded timber harvest by 30 percent, and the volume of standing timber nationally was 27.5 percent greater than it had been in 1952 (Powell et al. 1994). Furthermore, while some wildlife species became extinct at the turn of the 20th century, many species threatened then can now be found in abundance in new growth forests (MacCleery 1990). Timber harvesting can open up forest understories to sunlight, creating new habitat, which in turn can promote biodiversity and species proliferation (Bigbee 1997). Today 737 million acres (298 million hectares), or 33 percent of the total U.S. land area, are covered by forest, most of which is new growth resulting from replanting or natural reforestation following cutting (Powell et al. 1994). In comparison with tropical forests, temperate forests generally contain richer soil and have hardwood species that are especially capable of self-replacement. Some softwood species do not self-seed easily and need to be replanted. About 15 percent of the old growth forest remains, located mostly in Alaska. In the lower 48 states, where most of the harvesting takes place presently, only two to five percent of the old growth forest remains today. Most of the existing old growth forest is made up of softwood trees (Postel and Ryan 1991). Wood has once again become an abundant resource in most parts of the country. However, the rate of timber harvesting has increased by nearly 40 percent since 1952, and todays conservation movement is concerned with preserving the remaining old growth forest and its ecosystems. A considerable amount of North American timber, used for softwood lumber and plywood, is logged in the Pacific states between the Pacific Ocean and the Cascade Mountains. This is also where most of the remaining old growth forest is located, along with substantial new growth forest. In the past, one practice in commercial forestry was to maximize wood yields by replanting clear-cut areas with single species to lower costs and enhance quick yield. However, these single species forests turned out to be very susceptible to attack from insects and other pests. Today, sustainable forestry is the term used to describe optimal management of a diverse forest. This involves a very controlled harvest that tries to maintain the biological diversity and ecosystem of the forest. Under a sustainable management system, all species found in the logging area are used, a similar diversity is replanted, and woody debris and dead trees are left to fertilize the soil and give cover to wildlife. A 1990 Forest Service assessment of the forest resource situation projected that the consumption of plywood and other structural panel products will have increased by 50 percent by the year 2040 (Schallau 1991). The way to ease the pressure on the forest in the future may be to use the wood harvested more effectively, reducing waste. The construction industry is the largest timber user, and it is estimated that 10 percent of lumber could be saved in conventional U.S. homes if construction practices were changed. For instance, could beams and studs be spaced further apart if glulam lumber were used? Construction waste could also be reduced or at least recycled. The efficiency of different types of mills could be improved by using existing advanced technologies and machinery. One source indicates that the amount of wood required to produce a panel of plywood is expected to decrease due to more efficient production methods and machinery (Postel and Ryan 1991). Wood scraps and waste are often burned as fuel for plywood manufacturing operations. This reclaims energy that would otherwise be lost and minimizes the impact of landfill disposal of that waste. However, such burning results in air emissions, as does the combustion of additional fuel needed to operate the plant equipment. These air emissions include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These pollutants can contribute to a number of problems, including smog, acid precipitation, materials corrosion, crop damage, and various human health effects including respiratory problems and eye and throat irritation.
PLYWOOD
MAT 06118
Plywood
Crude oil and natural gas provide the raw materials for manufacture of adhesives used in glued laminated timbers. The extraction and processing of oil and gas release wastes in the form of produced water, drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands. The major wastewater contaminants include oil, grease, oxygen-depleting parameters (BOD and COD), toxic organics, total dissolved solids, and heavy metals. Drilling produces drilling mud and drilling bit cuttings as waste. Drilling operations employ large diesel engines. Air pollutants emitted by such engines include NOx, sulfur oxides (SOx), CO, VOCs, and particulates. The manufacture of the adhesives used in plywoodurea-formaldehyde and phenolformaldehydeposes some potential environmental risk. Formaldehyde is produced within a closed system, greatly minimizing the potential for release of toxins. However, the toxicity of formaldehyde, which acts as an irritant and an allergen, is such that it must be considered a potential hazard. Formaldehyde is also a probable human carcinogen. Uncured phenolformaldehyde resins, as well as wastewater from the manufacturing process, could contain residual formaldehyde and phenol monomers. Phenol is caustic and can cause central nervous system toxicity and paralysis. After full curing, however, these resins are bound together by cross-linkings and are not toxic since they normally do not release the monomers. The formaldehyde in urea-formaldehyde adhesive, however, seems to be less tightly bound even after the material is cured. Formaldehyde is emitted by a number of building materials besides plywood, so the concentration of formaldehyde in building interiors depends on several factors, including the presence of formaldehyde in building materials and the emission rates from these. Some softwood plywood is treated with preservative, primarily chromated copper arsenate (CCA), although alternative copper-based preservatives may be used. The production of this type of plywood has some environmental impact. Mining of arsenic and chromium, used in the production of CCA, causes land disturbance and produces wastes in the form of tailings and runoff and from the combustion of fuels. Major spills or roadway accidents during transport of the highly concentrated raw materials for the manufacture of CCA have the potential to contaminate soil, groundwater, and surface water. In view of the toxicity of wood preservatives, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established precautions for the use of inorganic arsenicals (including CCA). When used in building interiors, the surfaces of wood treated with inorganic arsenicals must be cleaned of all residual preservative dust. Structures built with wood treated with inorganic arsenicals must not be used for storing food, nor should the wood come in contact with drinking water. The EPA has also issued precautions warning against burning treated wood in open fires or in stoves or fireplaces because of the toxic chemicals that may be released in smoke and ashes. Additional precautions warn against frequent or prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. Although treated lumber can leach a small amount of CCA, laboratory and field tests have shown that large-scale migration of CCA through soil to the water table is unlikely under most conditions (Wilson 1993). A concern has been raised about the continued use of CCAtreated wood because the only way to dispose of it adequately is in a landfill, and it is thought the volume of CCA-treated wood may significantly reduce landfill capacity. Major research efforts are aimed at developing technologies for reusing treated wood rather than discarding it.
MAT 06118
PLYWOOD
Plywood

A summary of the environmental impacts and stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials used to manufacture plywood is presented in figure 4.
Hardwood Plywood Hardwood plywood is made from high-quality face veneer obtained from any of the hardwoods mentioned below. The veneer is bonded to wood-based substrates, including veneer core (67 percent), particleboard core (15 percent), medium-density fiberboard core (13 percent), and other (5 percent), such as lumber core (1995 data) (Gramp 1997). This material report discusses veneer only. An ERG material report focused on particleboard (06124 in ERG 1992 ed.), while lumber is discussed in the material report on wood framing (06110). Medium-density fiberboard is not discussed in this report.
Hardwood plywood may be treated with a surface finish and may receive a paper or vinyl overlay for wall panel applications. These materials are discussed in this report, but the reader can find discussion on similar products in the ERG material reports on plastic laminates (06240) and wall coverings (09950).
Wood
Hardwoods are broad-leafed, usually deciduous trees, such as oak, walnut, birch, gum, cherry, maple, hickory, and poplar, among many others. They can be found in many parts of the United States but are currently most abundant in the eastern half of the country. They self-seed easily and generally are not replanted after harvesting. It takes hardwoods an average of 80 years to mature, and most existing hardwood forests in the United States are second-, third-, or fourth-cut. Logging operations, along with the wastes produced, the depletion of natural resources associated with these operations, and the energy consumed are described in the material report on wood framing (06110).
Waste Produced
Acquisition of timber using poor forest management and unsustainable logging techniques can cause massive soil erosion and biodiversity loss and harm the economic future of many communities, especially in the tropics. In order to promote sustainable forestry that does not have these negative impacts, the Rainforest Alliance initiated the SmartWood Program in 1989. The SmartWood Program provides certification for timber production and sales operations that meet strict environmental guidelines. The forestry practices must be well-managed and sustainable. Manufacture and sales activities must maintain a strict chain of custody of the wood that keeps it separate from other wood. The certification of these companies depends on an initial site visit and periodic audits. Operations by more than 30 forestry or manufacturing/sales companies involved in more than seven million acres of forest in Southeast Asia, Latin America, and the United States have been certified as sustainable under this program (SmartWood Program 1997). Wal-Mart used plywood that was certified to be sustainably harvested to build the roof of an environmental prototype store in Lawrence, Kansas. The logs used to make the plywood came from a location near Eugene, Oregon (Wilson 1992). Another organization that certifies forestry operations and chain-of-custody is Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) (Wilson 1996b,c). The American Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA) has implemented a sustainable forestry initiative that is a requirement of membership. AF&PA companies must adhere to five sustainable forestry principles and 12 specific guidelines and submit annual reports on their compliance with the program. While independent certification of forestry practices is not a part of this program, the requirements have caused 10 companies to resign voluntarily from AF&PA and 17 others to be suspended for lack of attainment. Other companies have joined the AF&PA at least in part because of the new
PLYWOOD
MAT 06118
Plywood
Environmental Impacts Plywood
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage for Plywood

Activity Logging Loss of biodiversity Soil erosion Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Stumps, limbs, logs Possible depletion of forests Fuel combustion emissions Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area VOCS Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Particulates Eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, lung damage Decreased visibility Timber hauling Habitat alteration Runoff Loss of habitat Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Fuel combustion emissions VOCS Ground-level ozone (smog) see impacts above Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Global warming Left at logging site to decay Greenhouse effect Increased nutrients Decreased soil erosion Global warming Stressor Timber harvesting Impact/Stressor Habitat alteration Impact/Stressor Loss of habitat Impact/Stressor Species extinction
10
MAT 06118
PLYWOOD
Plywood
Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage for Plywood (continued)
Activity Phenol-formaldehyde production Stressor Uncured resin and wastewater could contain residual formaldehyde Sodium hydroxide Phenol production Air emissions Caustic Increases alkalinity VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Benzene Known human carcinogen Human health effects include nausea and irritation Wastewater May contain oil, grease, suspended solids, and oxygen-depleting organics Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Crude oil extraction Discharge of produced water May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, and produced sands Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Deck drainage, sanitary, and domestic wastes Desalting process Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Eutrophication Water-borne disease Wastewater May contain emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Distillation process Wastewater May contain sulfides, ammonia oil, chlorides, mercaptans, and phenols Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Phenol is a known human carcinogen Air emissions Catalytic cracking Wastewater VOCs May contain oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia (see impacts above) Increased pH Increased BOD Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Loss of faunal diversity Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Formaldehyde Impact/Stressor Human health effects (irritant, allergen, and possible human carcinogen) Impact/Stressor
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Figure 4: Environmental ImpactsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage for Plywood (continued)
Activity Crude oil processing (continued) Stressor Catalytic cracking Impact/Stressor Air emissions from gas VOCs blowdown systems and fugitive emissions Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene Formaldehyde production: Natural gas extraction and processing Fuel (diesel) combustion air emissions Wastewater May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics VOCs Sulfur dioxide Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Particulates Removal of hydrogen sulfide from natural gas Hydrogen sulfide (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Low concentrations cause irritation of conjunctiva and mucous membranes, headache, dizziness, nausea, and lassitude Poisonous in high concentrations Incineration of hydrogen sulfide releases sulfur oxides into atmosphere Urea-formaldehyde production Resin and wastewater could contain residual formaldehyde Formaldehyde production Sodium hydroxide Arsenic and chromium mining Tailings waste Tailings waste (continued) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Runoff Acid drainage (see impacts above) Surface water and groundwater acidification Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) Sulfur oxides (see sulfur dioxide impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased pH (see impacts above) Some possible human carcinogens Respiratory irritation Impact/Stressor
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program. AF&PA members own about 90 percent of domestic industrial forestland (Wilson 1996a).
Adhesive
Essentially all hardwood plywood is intended for interior applications and is made with UF synthetic resin adhesives, comprising 2-3 percent of the dry weight of veneer core panels. This resin derives from urea and formaldehyde, which come mainly from natural gas. The manufacture of urea and formaldehyde is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The manufacture of the UF resin is described in the material report on particleboard (06124 in ERG 1994 ed.). Small quantities of commercial hardwood plywood have been made with polyvinyl acetate (PVA) and phenolic adhesives which contain little or no formaldehyde. (PVA will not be addressed in this report.)
Waste Produced
Formaldehyde use in the production process is normally closely controlled, but formaldehyde monomer may sometimes be released into wastewater, possibly resulting in ill health effects. Waste produced during adhesive production is discussed in the material report on glued laminated timbers (06180).
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy of UF resin at the point of use is 33,600 Btu/lb (78.15 MJ/kg) of product (Franklin Associates 1991).
Finishes
When finishes are applied to such products as wall panels and laminated hardwood flooring, they constitute less than half of 1 percent of the dry weight of the product. Today these finishes, components of which are derived from petroleum products, are mostly water-based and cured with heat or UV light. These materials will not be addressed in this report, but further information is available in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930). Plywood used for wall panels may have a liquid finish (for natural veneers) or a paper or vinyl overlay finish; these materials will not be discussed in this report. A discussion of paper overlays used in plastic laminate can be found in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). A discussion of printed vinyl sheet used in wall coverings is found in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Treatments
Very little chromated copper arsenate (CCA) preservative is applied to hardwood plywood manufactured for decorative purposes (Gramp 1997). The American Wood-Preservers Association Standard C-9 for preservative-treated plywood, applies to hardwood and softwood plywood. This standard specifies a variety of preservatives besides CCA (Moody 1997). Fire retardants are used with hardwood plywood (Moody 1997), although this may be an insignificant amount (Gramp 1997).
Softwood Plywood The manufacturing process for softwood plywood is similar to that used for hardwood plywood. A different adhesive is used and it may be treated with a preservative or fire retardant.
Wood
Most softwoods are evergreen, coniferous trees, and the early softwood plywood industry used mainly Pacific Coast Douglas fir. In the 1950s hemlock, western red cedar, spruce, western larch, and eastern white pine became common raw materials. In the 1960s southern pine
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was added. The new-growth forests of southern pine and other species in the southeastern United States are gradually replacing the Pacific fir forests as the major suppliers of softwood plywood. By 1980, 42 percent of structural plywood was derived from the Southeast (Sellers 1985). Some low-density hardwoods, such as sweet gum and yellow-poplar, are also used in structural plywood (softwood) products. Logging operations and the wastes they produce, natural resources they deplete, and energy they consume are described in the material report on wood framing (06110).
Waste Produced
Waste in the form of tree limbs, tops, broken logs, and stumps is often left in the forest, which is sometimes considered good sustainable forestry practice, since their decay can add nutrients and humic materials to the forest soil. Depending on proximity to other wood processing facilities, some of the waste has traditionally been used for pulping or chips. Sometimes the waste is sold for fuel or firewood. Historically, there has been an increasing economic incentive to make use of this waste. Sustainable forestry is presented above in the discussion of waste produced in the acquisition and preparation of materials for hardwood plywood.
Energy Consumed
Petroleum products such as gasoline or diesel fuel are used in logging operations to fell trees, cut them into logs, transport the logs to the loading site, load the logs onto trucks, and transport the logs to the manufacturing plant. According to a study (CORRIM 1976) of energy requirements for wood-based commodities, hardwood plywood uses 521 Btu/lb (1.21 MJ/kg) of product in the logging operation, and softwood sheathing plywood uses 374 Btu/lb (0.870 MJ/kg) of product (due to higher quality of softwood logs, more plywood is recovered per log).
Adhesive
Virtually all softwood plywood is manufactured with a phenolic adhesive, which consists of phenol formaldehyde (PF) resins. Since this resin is waterproof and extremely durable, it is suitable for outdoor or indoor use in construction. It derives from petroleum or coal tar. The manufacture of PF is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The adhesive constitutes between 2-4 percent of the dry weight of a softwood plywood panel. Soybean-based proteinaceous glue fortified with small amounts of phenolic adhesive is used in less than 1 percent of softwood. Contact cements and hot-melt adhesives are used to a lesser extent for edge gluing veneers. These adhesives will not be discussed in this report.
Although emissions from the production process are usually controlled, phenol and formaldehyde monomers may sometimes be released into wastewater, possibly having ill effects on human health.
Energy Consumed
The energy embodied at the point of use in PF resin is 38,400 Btu/lb (89.3 MJ/kg) of product (Franklin Associates 1991).
Treatments
Plywood may be treated with preservatives, including CCA, when it will be subject to fungal decay or termite attack. The manufacture of preservatives and related wastes is described in the material report on glued laminated timbers (06180). Concerns regarding preservatives include negative effects on human health and damage to the environment if the preservatives are spilled. While CCA is the predominant preservative used with softwood, others may also be used, including ammonial copper quarterenary compound (ACQ) (Bigbee 1997).
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Plywood may also be treated with fire retardants. Retardants may include zinc chloride, ammonium sulfate, boric acid, or diammonium sulfate (Bowyer 1997).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacture and fabrication of plywood is presented in figure 5. Plywood is manufactured from wood veneers that are joined to one another in layers with adhesive. The resulting panel is graded and may be sanded and patched. Some plywood is treated with preservative or fire retardant.
Plywood Manufacture Plywood manufacture consists of two stepsveneer preparation and plywood panel production.
Veneer Preparation
At the plywood plant, logs usually are debarked by a power-driven ring of scraper knives and cut into eight foot (2.4 m) blocks in a process known as bucking. The blocks are softened by steaming them or soaking them in hot water vats. The time and temperature vary with the wood species. The most common method of producing veneer is by rotary cutting, or slicing, on a veneer lathe. The blocks are held fast on each end in their geometric center by a chuck and rotated against a long knife. Relatively recent improvements in lathe design, incorporating retractable chucks and backup support rollers, have led to increased efficiency in cutting veneer. As the veneer is sliced off the block, the curved veneer (on the block) is laid out and flattened. This results in an expansion of the inner surface of the veneer and formation of small checks, called lathe checks, on the side of the veneer that faces the center of the tree. This inner side of the veneer is called the loose side, and the outer side (facing toward the bark) is the tight side. The tight side is always the outside of the face layers. The thickness of the veneer peel ranges from 1/32 to 5/16 inch (0.08 to 0.79 cm). Hardwood and decorative softwood face veneers are often manufactured by rotary cutting or by plain or quarter slicing through a flitch prepared from the log. This method is used to create cathedral, straight grain, and other grain figure patterns. Plain, quarter, and half-round slicing produce thicknesses that commonly range from 1/64 inch to 1/20 inch (0.04 to 0.13 cm), but sometimes as little as 1/100 inch (0.025 cm) (Gramp 1997, Bowyer 1997). The resulting veneer sheets are normally scanned electronically and may be trimmed by clippers that cut out defects and trim the veneer to partial or full-panel widths. Veneer blanks or strips are carried through a dryer by a series of rollers. Veneer thickness, whether it derives from heartwood (the inner core of a log) or sapwood (the outer layer of a log), and wood species determine the drying schedule. The veneer continues through a cooling chamber, and the moisture content is checked electronically. The dried veneer is stacked according to width and grade. Strips of veneer can be joined to form a wider piece by splicing with glue or with string. Veneer can be upgraded by cutting out knots and other defects, which are replaced with glued-in patches.
Plywood Panel Production
Plywood panels are produced by forming layers of veneer joined to one another with adhesive. The most common size is 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m), and the largest panels that are
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Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage of Plywood

Activity Block Production Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Impact/Stressor VOCS Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Wood wastes Waste oils Particulates Landfill disposal Incineration Toxic to aquatic and other organisms Eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, lung damage Decreased visibility Veneer production and plywood manufacture Air emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Particulates Eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, lung damage Decreased visibility Wood waste Waste cleanup water with excess adhesive Scraps from untreated wood Combustion emissions from burning scraps and fuel Landfill VOCS Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Decreased landfill capacity (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Incineration Waste ponds Ash Decreased landfill capacity Global warming Decreased landfill capacity Combustion air emissions (see impacts above)
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Figure 5: Environmental ImpactsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage of Plywood (continued)

Activity Wood preserving Stressor Contaminated wastewater Impact/Stressor Arsenic and other metals in groundwater and surface water Contaminated soil Preserving chemicals accumulate in soils, increasing concentration of arsenic and toxic metals Combustion emissions Air emissions (see impacts above) Arsenic dust Trace amounts of arsenic emitted in indoor air Human health effects for sensitive individuals Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Impact/Stressor Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Impact/Stressor
pressed directly are 5 by 12 feet (1.5 by 3.6 m) (Bowyer 1997, Gramp 1997). To create even larger sizes, panels with scarfed or finger-jointed edges are glued together. Adhesive is applied to veneer layers with a roller spreader, a curtain-coater, a spray applicator, or a foam glue extruder. Economical application of adhesive is important, as this can be a major cost item in the production of plywood. However, a good glue bond is essential to the product. For most plywood, each ply of veneer is oriented so the grain is 90o from the adjacent plies; as well, the plies are symmetrically arranged to prevent warping. This arrangement generally results in an odd number of plies, but, for one popular layup, the inner two plies of a four-ply arrangement have parallel grain orientation (Moody 1997). After application of the glue, the veneer is assembled into plywood panels, which are usually prepressed in a cold press for several minutes to let the veneer layers tack together. The panels are then moved to a hot press, where hydraulic rams push heated platens (ranging from 230 to 330 F, 110o to 166 C) against the surfaces of the panels. The heat, pressure, and time (usually two to seven minutes) allowed in this process depend on the type of adhesive to be cured, the thickness of the panels, and the number of panels being cured. After cooling, the panels are passed to skinner saws, which trim the edges to exact standard sizes, the most common of which is 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m). The panel finishing process consists of grading, possibly sanding one or both faces depending on grade, and possible panel patching. Patching may be done with wood patches or synthetic fillers such as wood putty for small voids or urethane or epoxy plastics for larger repairs. Because of the relatively small volume composed by these patching compounds, they will not be discussed in this report. A discussion of urethane plastics may be found in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930) and a discussion of epoxy plastics in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer (04450).
Waste Generated
Waste generated during manufacture in the plywood plant, such as bark, veneer pieces, sawdust, panel trimmings, etc. is burned for energy. The final waste product is, therefore, wood ash, which may be disposed of in a landfill, used for making adhesives, or sold for various purposes. Hardwood plywood manufacturers dispose of residue from wall paneling and flooring finishes by recycling it to the manufacturer of the finish, burning it, or solidifying it and disposing of it in solid waste dumps. (Data on the proportion of waste that enters each of these streams are unavailable.) Air pollutants generated during plywood manufacture include organic compounds (from the log steaming, veneer drying, veneer gluing, and plywood pressing), particulate emissions (from log debarking and bucking, veneer drying, and plywood trimming and
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sanding), and fuel combustion emissions including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxide (NOx) (from material drying operations) (EPA 1997). Organic compounds from the veneer dryer are the major emissions. They are classified as condensible organic compounds (including sesquiterpenes, resin acids, fatty acids, and alcohols) and VOCs (including terpenes and volatile combustion by-products). VOCs produced by veneer gluing and plywood pressing include formaldehyde and other hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Direct-fired veneer dryer exhaust can also contain HAPs such as aldehydes. Gluing and pressing operations release formaldehyde and other HAPs (EPA 1997). The condensible organic compounds emitted by veneer drying that are identified above are responsible for producing a blue haze that once enveloped the entire area around plywood plants (Malin 1992, EPA 1997). The lighter compounds are the same materials that are naturally released by forests and produce a haze. The heavier compounds, which are normally not released by living trees, can combine with NOx to form ozone. The plywood industry uses various technologies to control these and other pollutant atmospheric emissions (Malin 1992). Measurements of plywood manufacturing emissions have been made for an EPA study that is available in draft form (EPA 1997). Emission rates from veneer drying include these: CO (0.017 to 5.1 lb/MSF 3/8 or 0.009 to 2.6 kg/m3), SO2 (0.058 lb/MSF 3/8 or 0.029 kg/m3), NOx (0.012 to 0.24 lb/MSF 3/8 or 0.006 to 0.12 kg/m3), and VOCs (0.028 to 5.1 lb/MSF 3/8 or 0.014 to 2.6 kg/m3). Indirect heating of poplar in a veneer dryer emitted formaldehyde at a rate of 0.0023 lb/MSF 3/8 or 0.0012 kg/m3). During plywood pressing, formaldehyde was emitted at rates of 0.0078 to 0.010 lb/MSF 3/8 or 0.0039 to 0.005 kg/m3). Particulate emissions ranged from 0.0050 to 1.4 pounds per 1,000 square feet of 3/ -inch thick veneer (lb/MSF 3/ ) or 0.0025 to 0.7 kg/m3. Emissions were sometimes 8 8 observed to vary depending on wood species and the specific mechanics of the process. Wastewater from plywood manufacture was once a serious discharge problem; however, it is now recycled in all plants (Malin 1992). Glue wash water, for instance, is recycled back into the adhesive mix. Such operations are required to be zero discharge under the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System of the Clean Water Act, and they are not allowed to release process waste water to navigable waters.
Energy Consumed
A variety of energy sources are used to manufacture plywood, including wood wastes, natural gas, and petroleum for boilers, driers, and the hot press; electricity to run a variety of motors and electronic scanners; and gasoline, diesel fuel, and liquefied gas for rolling stock around. The largest amount of energy used in plywood production is consumed to produce heat for drying the veneer and pressing/curing the panels. Plywood plants can generate some of this heat by burning scraps and waste wood. Alternatively, some of this plywood production waste may be sold for use in particleboard, parallel strand lumber, pellets, or other materials. Whether the waste is used as fuel or sold, it can be credited against the embodied energy totals at this phase. One study indicates that the gross embodied energy at the manufacturing plant is about 3,600 Btu/square foot (40.9 MJ/square meter) of 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) plywood. When the recycled waste wood energy is credited against this, the net embodied energy is about 2,450 Btu/square foot (27.8 MJ/square meter) (Malin 1992). With a cubic foot of plywood weighing 22.5 to 49.9 lb/cu. ft (360 to 799 kg/sq m) (Gramp 1997), the gross embodied energy of plywood ranges from 1731 to 3840 Btu/lb (4.03 to 8.93 MJ/kg). The net embodied energy ranges from 1178 to 2613 Btu/lb(2.74 to 6.08 MJ/kg). 18
MAT 06118 PLYWOOD ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998
Plywood
Hardwood plywood consumes about 5,000 Btu/lb (11.6 MJ/kg) of product of heating fuel and about 123 Btu/lb (0.29 MJ/kg) of electricity in the manufacturing process, while softwood plywood consumes about 3,363 Btu/lb (7.8 MJ/kg) of product of heating fuel and about 73 Btu/lb (0.17 MJ/kg) of electricity (CORRIM 1976). Today most of the heating fuel is derived from wood waste. About 20 percent of the electricity used in, for example, Oregon mills is also generated from wood waste (Grist and Karmous 1988). A 1986 study by the National Forest Products Association estimated that 78 percent of the wood industrys total energy requirements was supplied by waste wood fuel (HPMA 1991).
Application of Finishes
Water-based finishing systems are applied to some hardwood wall paneling and flooring. Most organic solvent-based finishes have now been phased out and replaced by water-based finishes. Sometimes ultraviolet-cured, high-solid, polyurethane finishes are used. A discussion of various finishes is presented in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930). Prefinished wall panels may include paper or vinyl overlay finishes. A discussion of these finishes is not included in this report.
Plywood Treatment
After manufacture, some plywood is treated with either preservatives or proprietary fire retardants. The application of preservatives is discussed in the material report on wood framing (06110). A discussion of the waste produced related to the use of preservatives is presented in the material reports on glued laminated timbers (06180) and wood framing (06110). Toxic soil contamination and water pollution may result from the preservative treatment process. Arsenic dust may be released by plywood treated with such formulations. No information is available on the application of proprietary fire retardants, the waste that it produces, or related embodied energy.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of plywood is presented in figure 6.
Figure 6: Environmental ImpactsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage of Plywood

Activity Plywood construction Stressor Wood wastes Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Incineration (untreated plywood) Incineration (CCAtreated plywood) Dust Air emissions Eye and throat irritation Impaired visibility Volatile constituents of wood Eye and throat irritation Human health effects (toxicity and cardiovascular system effects) Arsenic dust (from plywood treated with arsenical preservatives) Human health effects for sensitive individuals (toxicity and carcinogenicity) Toxic air emissions from combustion Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Ash Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor
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Hardwood Plywood The primary hardwood plywood end-use categories made by the approximately 300 hardwood plywood and veneer manufacturers in the United States are shown in figure 7. Softwood Plywood Softwood plywood, oriented strand board, and a composite of softwood veneer and oriented strand board comprise a group of construction materials called structural panels. The major applications for structural panels are:
Wall, roof, and floor sheathing Siding (cladding) Concrete forms Underlayment for flooring materials Materials handling Transportation, furniture, and other industrial applications The first four items (sheathing, siding, concrete forms, and underlayment) account for 80 percent of softwood plywood production. Product standards and grading of both types of plywood are complex and well-explained in other reference literature (e.g., U.S. Product Standard PS 1-83 1990). All plywood should carry trademarks (included on back stamps) and edgemarks, which contain grading and descriptive information about the plywood. Gradings include the quality of the veneer (ranging from N, the best, to A, B, C, and D), panel type (the structural purpose for which it is intended), and the exposure durability classification (Interior, Exposure 1, Exposure 2, or Exterior) (American Plywood Association 1990). A back stamp on a hardwood plywood wall panel should contain the following statement: Formaldehyde emission 0.2 ppm conforms to HUD requirements. It may also refer to the ANSI/HPVA HP-1 hardwood plywood standard (Gramp 1997). Factory-finished hardwood plywood wall panels have finishes that should last the life of the panels. Prefinished flooring may need waxing. Few softwood plywood products are prefinished. In the case of siding, paint is usually applied at the construction site, and infrequent repainting will be needed.
Waste Generated
Solid waste in the form of scraps and sawdust is generated during installation of softwood plywood. Softwood plywood formwork can be reused several times and then recycled. This waste may be burned, sent to a landfill, or sent to a composting operation if available in the community.
Figure 7: Hardwood Plywood End Use Categories
Type 1. Prefinished (factory-finished) wall panels (includes paper or vinyl overlay finishes on 4 x 8 foot (1.2 x 2.4 m) panels of 1/ -inch (0.6 cm) thickness or less 4 2. Components for cabinets, furniture and fixturesunfinished industrial cut-to-size and stock 4 x 8 foot (1.2 x 2.4 m) panels 3. Architectural panels for walls, partitions, counter fronts, doors, and similar treatments in various sizes 4. Laminated hardwood flooringprefinished hardwood flooring for home and institutional settings in a variety of sizes and configurations 5. Specialty productsluggage stock, skateboards, musical instruments, etc. Percent of Total Production 40
40 05 05 10
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Indoor Air Quality
A major environmental concern about hardwood plywood made with UF resin adhesive is its effect on indoor air quality. UF resins emit formaldehyde for months or even years after manufacture of the product. PF resin adhesives, which are used in structural softwood plywood products, are more stable and emit such negligible amounts of formaldehyde that these products are not considered to have a significant impact on indoor air quality (Emery 1989). The difference in formaldehyde emissions between products made with UF resin and those made with PF resin is far less than it used to be (Wilson and Malin 1996). In considering the effects of hardwood plywood on indoor air quality, there are several key points to keep in mind: The Hardwood Plywood and Veneer Association estimates that formaldehyde emissions from hardwood plywood produced today are 70-95 percent lower than emissions from hardwood plywood produced even a decade ago. New resin formulations may emit even lower levels at competitive prices. Emission rates depend on numerous factors, discussed below, and decrease over time. Formaldehyde is emitted by many products other than plywood that are used in building interiors, and the total emissions from all of these sources should be considered. Short-term effects on indoor air quality may be attenuated by increased building ventilation during the early off-gassing period. Exposure to formaldehyde has been associated with a number of ill effects on human health. These include eye, nose, throat, and skin irritation; nausea; headaches; and allergic sensitization. The National Toxicology Program, in its Seventh Annual Report on Carcinogens, concludes that formaldehyde can be reasonably anticipated to be a carcinogen. This conclusion is largely based on the evaluation by researchers at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) that formaldehyde is probably carcinogenic to humans (National Toxicology Program 1997). As well, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists classifies formaldehyde as an A2-Suspected Human Carcinogen (Gramp 1997). The levels at which people begin to feel irritation from formaldehyde vary considerably. The range of exposure at which sensation of eye irritation has been cited as 0.05-0.5 ppm (National Research Council 1981). The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) standard for manufactured housing limits chamber test levels of formaldehyde to 0.2 ppm for hardwood plywood paneling and 0.3 ppm for industrial hardwood plywood under certain standard test conditions. ASHRAE has listed a range of formaldehyde levels varying from 0.1 ppm as a World Health Organization concentration of concern to 0.4 ppm as a maximum target ambient level for manufactured homes (ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, appendix C). Washington State has set emission criteria for building materials used in the construction of new state office buildings. The criteria for systems office furniture (workstations) are emission rates that will result in building air concentrations of formaldehyde of less than 0.05 ppm (0.060 mg/m3) (Tucker 1990). The emission characteristics of three-ply, veneer-core hardwood plywood wall panels, 1/4 inch or less thick, were compared with industrial hardwood plywood panels (used for furniture, cabinets, etc.) containing all types of cores (particleboard, medium-density fiberboard, veneer, etc.) in thicknesses ranging from 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) to 3/4 inch (1.9 cm) (HPMA 1989). The thick veneer panels were generally five-ply, seven-ply, or more. The composite core panels were three-ply or five-ply. The tests, which were carried out over a number of years ending in 1988, showed that emissions for both types of plywood for the last few years were in the 0.10-0.12 ppm rangewell below HUDs allowed limits. The loading rate for the wall panels was 0.29 ft2/ft3 (about 10 to 15 times more loading
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Figure 8: Indoor Formaldehyde Levels Estimated With Mathematical Exposure Model

Case 1 Initial concentration Days to 0.03 ppm background formaldehyde level Average 10-year incremental exposure above background 0.124 ppm 1481 days 0.011 ppm Case 2 0.039 ppm 139 days <0.001 ppm Case 3 0.128 ppm 1530 days 0.011 ppm
Case 1: Homes containing particleboard floor underlayment (0.084 ft2/ft3 loading) Case 2: Homes containing hardwood plywood wall paneling (0.020 ft2/ft3 loading) Case 3: Homes containing both paneling and underlayment at loading rates in cases 1 and 2
than in a conventional home; see below) and for the industrial panels 0.13 ft2/ft3 at 0.5 air changes/hour. Both loading rates are established by HUD for formaldehyde testing of these products. The concentration of formaldehyde resulting from hardwood plywood emissions depends on several factors: Formulation of the resin Age of the plywood product Finish of the wall panel Total amount of hardwood plywood in the space Size of the space Ventilation rate and outdoor air content Temperature Relative humidity in the space. More formaldehyde is emitted by newly manufactured products and as the temperature and/or humidity increases. For example, emission rates are estimated to double with an increase of 12 F (6.7 C). Tests have shown (Groah et al. 1984) that a two-mil (0.005 cm) decorative vinyl overlay finish on hardwood plywood wall panels reduces emissions through the coated surface by 90-95 percent. On the other hand, decorative grooves cut into wall panels can possibly increase emissions by 30-40 percent (Groah 1986). Formaldehyde may be an ingredient in the finish coat and can contribute additional formaldehyde to the air. Numerous studies of emissions from hardwood plywood containing UF adhesives have been conducted in laboratory test chambers under highly controlled conditions. But since not all tests are conducted under the same conditions, results are sometimes difficult to compare. A 1989 Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association study was based on 1983 loading data of new homes from a National Association of Home Builders survey (Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association 1989). It measured formaldehyde concentrations in test chambers loaded with various formaldehyde-emitting wood products. Using these and other inputs, indoor formaldehyde levels were estimated using a mathematical exposure model (figure 8). Formaldehyde is the simplest of aldehydes and is ubiquitous in the environment. Formaldehyde emissions in buildings come from many sources in addition to hardwood plywood; these sources include composite wood boards and furniture containing UF
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Plywood
Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal Stage
adhesives, durable press fabrics, coated paper products, some foam insulation, cosmetics, paints, other coatings, unvented kerosene heathers and gas stoves, combustion of fuels in fireplaces, and smoking materials such as cigarettes. As a result, the potential contributing effects of all formaldehyde sources must be considered when determining the levels in an interior space. Architects and builders can take steps to reduce formaldehyde concentrations in buildings: Consider specifying hardwood plywood paneling made with low formaldehyde-emitting adhesives and finishes that do not contain formaldehyde. Avoid unsealed openings in the face of the panel. While ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 specifies minimum ventilation rates (which are dependent on clean outdoor air and clean air ducts), architects should consider greater than minimum rates to ensure good indoor air quality. Consider emissions from the combined potential formaldehyde emission sources in a particular space, such as cabinetry and furniture that will be added.
Energy Consumed
The 1976 figures for total energy embodied in plywood at the point of use are 6,630 Btu/lb(15.4 MJ/kg) of product for hardwood plywood and 4,850 Btu/lb (11.3 MJ/kg) of product for softwood plywood. The transportation energy from mill to building site constitutes about 990 Btu/lb (2.3 MJ/kg) and 1,040 Btu/lb (2.3 MJ/kg), respectively (CORRIM 1976). A separate study indicates that the transportation energy required to move plywood 1,000 miles ( 1,609 km) [900 miles (1448 km) by train and 100 miles (161 km) by truck] is 250 Btu/square foot (2.8 MJ/square meter) of 1/2-inch (1.27 cm) plywood(Malin 1992). No data are available on the energy consumed in the installation and maintenance of plywood.

A summary of the environmental impacts and stressors associated with recycling, reusing, or disposing of plywood is presented in exhibit 9. Most plywood used in the construction of a building is meant to last through the life of the building. If the plywood has not deteriorated while in service, it should be considered for reuse rather than disposal (Moody 1997). All untreated plywood products can be incinerated and the resulting energy recaptured to produce electricity or steam. As wood wastes biodegrade they can be ground up and used as compost, although very little waste plywood appears to be composted. An alternative to disposal of preservative-treated plywood is recycling the material into other products. CCA-treated wood has been used to produce fiberboard and a wood-portland cement composite. However, there will likely not be significant commercial utilization of this approach for some time (Wilson 1997).
Figure 9: Environmental ImpactsRecycling, Reuse, and Disposal Stage of Plywood
Activity Disposal of demolition waste Stressor Wood wastes (large volume) Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Incineration (preservativetreated plywood) Particulates and dust Eye and throat irritation Impaired visibility Toxic air emissions from combustion Various health and environmental impacts Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
PLYWOOD
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23
Plywood
Waste Produced
Concern has recently developed about the disposal of CCA-treated wood products, including plywood. Incineration is not appropriate because the heavy metals in the CCA are not destroyed, and chromium and copper are retained in the ash. Unless adequate pollution control devices are used, arsenic can remain in the ash or escape into the air. Human and environmental toxicity can result from this route of exposure. The alternative method of disposal would be landfill. However, the volume of CCA-treated wood that will need to be disposed of in this way may rapidly deplete much of available landfill capacity. Decontamination techniques currently being investigated would remove CCA from treated wood and allow the wood to be disposed of or recycled; however, these techniques have not yet proved entirely successful. A transition to the use of other, safer preservatives (such as copper-based compounds) or the use of more-resistant construction material is suggested (Wilson 1997). Industry believes the concern about disposal of CCA-treated wood may be an overreaction because it amounts to less than 1 percent of the total volume of solid waste. Nonetheless, the long-term implications are recognized, and further approaches to recycling CCA-treated wood are being developed and it is expected that alternative preservatives and disposal techniques will be developed (Bartlow 1997). In addition, technologies are under development for reusing CCA-treated wood in structural and nonstructural composite products (Bowyer 1997). One manufacturer of an alternative copper-based preservative (ACQ Preserve) indicates it is already available and as effective as CCA (Bailey 1997).
Energy Consumed
Data are not available on quantities of plywood waste that are recovered and used as fuel.
Industry Perspective: APAThe Engineered Wood Association Considering the renewability of the resource, energy requirements, the minimal impact of disposal, industrial pollution, and other environmental impacts, softwood plywood must be considered one of the most environmentally acceptable building materials available. The forest products industry is continually involved in numerous programs designed to ensure the supply of timber in perpetuity and in harmony with environmental values. These efforts have been extremely successful, as indicated by growth rates that continue to exceed harvest rates.
The APA participated with the Hardwood Plywood and Veneer Association and the Department of Energy in developing a handbook designed to encourage veneer and plywood manufacturers to conserve energy. The APA also pioneered performance standards that permit more efficient use of raw materials, thereby extending the resource supply.
Industry Perspective: Hardwood Plywood and Veneer Association The HPVA encourages good forest management principles. Veneer thicknesses have been reduced in the last 10 years, which helps to conserve hardwood forests. The trend toward composite cores encourages the most efficient use of wood.
The HPVA published ANSI/HPVA HP-1-1994, the American National Standard for Hardwood and Decorative Plywood, in 1995. The standard expands hardwood plywood grades to six face grades. This measure encourages more efficient use of wood resources. The association has been active in developing test methods and ASTM standards as well as voluntary industry standards for formaldehyde emissions from wood panel products. As well, in the last 15 years the industry has reformulated panel finishing products from solventbased to water-based with accompanying reductions in VOC emissions.
24
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PLYWOOD
Plywood
Regulatory Status
Regulatory Status
As with essentially all industries, the plywood industry is regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Plywood plants are required to be zero discharge operations under the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System of the Clean Water Act and are not allowed to release any process wastewater to navigable waters. The wood industry is the only industry required to be zero discharge (Emery 1992). HUD regulates emissions from hardwood and decorative plywood and wood composition board paneling made with urea formaldehyde-based adhesives and/or surface-applied coatings and used in manufactured homes. In May 1992 OSHA published a final rule on occupational exposure to formaldehyde based on a negotiated settlement of major issues by certain labor unions and industry. One of the major elements of this May 1992 final rule was a reduction of the permissible exposure level (PEL) to 0.75 ppm for an eight-hour time-weighted average (TVA). The Clean Water Act regulates logging operations, requiring them to reduce sedimentary water runoff by use of soil conservation methods. In accordance with the Endangered Species Act, logging cannot take place in forests inhabited by certain endangered species. The plywood industry is now working on an EPA national emission standard for hazardous air pollutants, which must be developed by the year 2000.
PLYWOOD
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Plywood
References
References
Adair, Craig. 1997. APAThe Engineered Wood Association. Production data cited in Bigbee 1997. American Hardwood Export Council. Temperate Hardwoods of the USASpecifications. American Plywood Association. 1990. APA Design/Construction Guide Residential and Commercial. Tacoma: APA. ASHRAE Standard 62-1989. 1989. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers. Bailey, Thomas A. 1997. CSI Responds (letter to the editor). Environmental Building News 6(4), April. Bartlow, Gene S. 1997. More on Disposal of CCATreated Wood (letter to the editor). Environmental Building News 6(4), April. Bigbee, Kurt. 1997. Manager, environmental affairs, APAThe Engineered Wood Association. Review of draft material report on plywood, May 20. Bowyer, Jim L. 1990. Responsible EnvironmentalismThe Ethical Dimensions of Forest Harvest and Wood Use. St. Paul: University of Minnesota. . 1997. Professor, Forest Products Department, University of Minnesota. Review of draft material report. May 21. Buckley, Michael. 1990. American HardwoodThe Sustainable Facts. American Hardwood Export Council. March. CORRIM (Committee on Renewable Resources for Industrial Materials, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council). 1976. Wood for Structural and Architectural Purposes. Wood and Fiber. The Society of Wood Science and Technology. Demas, Ted. Undated. Basic Plywood Processing. Tacoma: American Plywood Association. Emery, John A. 1989. Formaldehyde Release from APA-Trademarked Structural Panels. Tacoma: American Plywood Association. May. . 1992. Review of draft material report. July 9. [U.S.] Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1992. Pollution Prevention Research Strategy. August. . 1997. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors AP-42: Plywood Manufacturing (draft). EPA/CHIEF Web site.
Gramp, Gary D. 1997. Technical director, Hardwood Plywood and Veneer Association. Review of draft material report. May 22. Grist, Charles, and Moustafa Karmous. 1988. Energy Use and Conservation in Oregons Lumber and Wood Products Industry. Oregon Department of Energy. March. Groah, William J. 1986. Formaldehyde Emissions: Hardwood Plywood and Certain Wood-Based Panel Products. American Chemical Society. . 1992. Technical director, Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association. Review of draft material report. July 6. , and Gary D. Gramp. 1990. A Perspective on Home Occupant Exposures to Formaldehyde Gas from UF-Bonded Hardwood Plywood and Particleboard Building Products. Proceedings of the 24th International Particleboard/Composite Materials Symposium, April 3-5, 1990, at Washington State University in Pullman, Washington. , Gary D. Gramp, and Michael Trant. 1984. Effect of a Decorative Vinyl Overlay on Formaldehyde Emissions. Forest Products Journal. Vol. 34, No. 4. Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association. 1991. Material data sheet. . 1989. Formaldehyde Emission Characteristics of Hardwood Plywood June 1984December 1989. . 1985. Voluntary StandardHPMA FE-86, Voluntary Standard for Formaldehyde Emission from Hardwood Plywood Wall Paneling, Wood Composition Board Wall Paneling, and Industrial Panels Having Face Veneers. February 19. Hileman, Bette. 1992.Industrial Ecology Route to Slow Global Change Proposed. Chemical and Engineering News. August 24. MacCleery, Douglas W. 1990. Brief Overview of the Condition and Trends of the U.S. Forests. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. March 15. Malin, Nadav. 1992. Assessing Sheathing Options. Environmental Building News 1(2). September/ October. Masterspec. 1995. Section 06100, Rough Carpentry. Washington, D.C: The American Institute of Architects.
Moody, Russell C. 1997. Project leader, engineered wood products and structures, U.S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin. Review of draft material report. June 6. National Particleboard Association Information Sheet. 1989. June. National Research Council, Committee on Aldehydes, Board on Toxicology and Environmental Health Hazards, Assembly of Life Sciences. 1981. Formaldehyde and Other Aldehydes. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. National Toxicology Program. 1997. 1994 7th Annual Report on Carcinogens. NTP Internet Web site. Postel, Sandra. 1989. Part of the Problem and Part of the Answer. EPA Journal, Vol. 15, No.1. , and John C. Ryan. 1991. Reforming Forestry. State of the World 1991. NY: Worldwatch Institute. Powell, D. S., J. L. Faulkner, D. R. Darr, Z. Zhu, and D. W. MacCleery. 1994. Forest Resources of the United States, 1992. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report RM-234. Rubin, Edward S., et al. 1992. Realistic Mitigation Options for Global Warming. Science, Vol. 257. 10 July. Schallau, Con H. 1991. Where Are We in the Carbon Cycle? and Related Questions. Presented at the TAPPI 1991 Environmental Conference, Session 11, Spotted Owl: Bellweather or Climax to the Endangered Species Debate. San Antonio, TX. April. Sellers, Terry. 1985. Plywood and Adhesive Technology. NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc. SmartWood Program. 1997. Program description. Rainforest Alliance web site <http://www.rainforestalliance.org/swm.html/> Tucker, W. Gene. 1990. Building with Low-Emitting Materials and Products: Where Do We Stand? Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto. Updegraff, Ivor H. 1990. Amino Resin Adhesives in Handbook of Adhesives, 3rd ed. Irving Skeist, ed. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. U.S. HardwoodToday, Tomorrow, Forever. Undated. American Hardwood Export Council.
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Plywood
References
U.S. Product Standard PS 1-83 for Construction and Industrial Plywood with Typical APA Trademarks. 1990. Reproduced from copy furnished by the Office of Product Standards Policy, National Bureau of Standards, with additional information. Tacoma: American Plywood Association. Wilson, Alex (ed.). 1992. First Certified Sustainably Harvested Plywood. Environmental Building News 1(3). November/December. . 1993. Pressure-Treated Wood. Environmental Building News 2(1). January/February. (ed.). 1996a. AF&PA Loses Members Over Sustainable Forestry. Environmental Building News 5(6). November/December. (ed.). 1996b. Certified Redwood from Big Creek. Environmental Building News 5(6). November/December. , and Nadav Malin. 1996. The IAQ Challenge: Protecting the Indoor Environment. Environmental Building News 5(3). May/June. . (ed.). 1996c. Newsbriefs. Environmental Building News 5(4). July/August. . 1997. Disposal: The Achilles Heel of CCATreated Wood. Environmental Building News 6(3). March. World Resources Institute. 1990. World Resources 1990-91: A report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme. NY: Oxford University Press.
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Material Report
Glued Laminated Timbers

Highlights
Habitat alteration and destruction, soil erosion and pollutant runoff, and loss of productivity and diversity in streams can result from timber harvesting. Significant air and water pollutants result from the extraction and processing of oil and natural gas needed to produce the adhesives and a preservative used in glued laminated timbers. Environmental impacts result from the mining of minerals used in the manufacture of wood preservatives. Waste wood is disposed of by being burned as fuel, by incineration, or by standard or (for preservative-treated wood) hazardous waste landfill. Preservative-treated wood wastes should be disposed of in accordance with EPA precautions.
Wood is a renewable resource that can be regrown after harvesting. Because glued laminated timbers are built up from smaller pieces of lumber, large, old-growth trees are not required. Large timbers can be produced from relatively young, second-growth trees. Petroleum and natural gas stocks used to produce adhesives are finite resources but are currently in adequate supply for this use. Minerals used to produce preservatives are abundant; however, some of them need to be imported into the United States.
Energy Consumption
The embodied energy for glued laminated timbers is about 5,718 Btus/lb (13.3 MJ/kg) or 160,800 Btus/ft3 (6,000 MJ/m3) or 13,400 Btus (14.2 MJ) per board foot. Fully cured resorcinol-formaldehyde and phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde adhesives release few emissions. Urea-formaldehyde adhesive, however, can still release formaldehyde after curing. Preservative-treated timbers must be installed according to precautions presented in EPAs Consumer Information Sheet for the particular preservative.
Indoor Air Quality
GLUED LAMINATED TIMBERS
MAT 06180

Background
Background
Glued laminated timbers are manufactured from individual layers (laminations) of lumber that are joined by adhesive. The laminations may be composed of pieces end-joined to form any length, pieces placed or glued edge to edge to make wider ones, or pieces bent to a curved form during gluing. The grains of all laminations are approximately parallel, and the thickness of the individual laminations is at most 2 in. (5.08 cm), with sharply curved timbers being composed of laminations 12 inch (1.27 cm) thick or less (Pooley 1994). This report covers structural glued laminated timber that is included under Masterspec 06180. The first use of glued laminated timber was in Switzerland, where, as early as 1893, an auditorium was constructed from laminated arches (probably glued with casein glue). Improvements in casein glue during World War I led to further developments in glued laminated structural members. By the mid-1930s, such structures were being built in the United States; these included gymnasiums, churches, factories, hangars, and barns. After the development of durable synthetic-resin adhesives during World War II, the use of glued laminated timbers in construction increased steadily and is now an important segment of the construction industry. Glued laminated timbers are used chiefly in commercial and institutional construction; however, because of the increased popularity of homes with open floor plans and exposed beams, an increasing number of residential builders use glued laminated timbers and other engineered-wood products (Smulski 1992; USDA Forest Products Laboratory 1987b). One source indicates that approximately 50 percent of all glued laminated timber being manufactured in the United States is stick beam timber, and the large majority of this type of timber is used in residential construction (Williamson 1995). Glued laminated timbers are manufactured under carefully controlled processes to the specific sizes, strengths, and shapes needed to meet design requirements and service conditions. Structural arches, trusses, girders, beams, and purlins are all produced in this manner. Glued laminated timbers sized for various spans and loadings are available as stock items. Structural laminated timbers meet rigid quality control and inspection standards. Glued laminated timber standards are promulgated by the American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC). Grading rules for laminating stock are made by the AITC. The Western Wood Products Association, the West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau, and the Southern Pine Inspection Bureau have included these requirements in their grading rules. The grading rules made by the AITC and the two western wood organizations are more restrictive than the grading rules for normal No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades of lumber. Of special concern are moisture content, lumber thickness, knot size, joint spacing, profile, and other natural characteristics that affect the manufacture of glued laminated timbers (Pooley 1994; Fisette 1995). To prevent the decay of wood in wet service conditions, pressure preservative treatment or the use of naturally durable wood species is recommended. Preservative-treated glued laminated timbers are available and should be used for most exterior applications and for interiors with consistently high relative humidities, such as swimming pool enclosures. Glued laminated timbers are produced in three appearance grades: Industrial, Architectural, and Premium. These grades apply to the surfaces of glued laminated timbers and cover such items as growth characteristics, void filling, and surface characteristics such as knots, splits, planer skips, and saw marks. Appearance grades do not modify the design stresses, fabrication controls, grades of lumber, or other provisions of the standards for structural glued laminated timber.
MAT 06180

The major wood groups from which most glued laminated timbers are manufactured are Douglas Fir-Larch (comprising Douglas fir and Western larch), Hem Fir (Western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, noble fir, grand fir, California red fir, and white fir), and Southern Pine (long leaf, shortleaf, loblolly, and slash pine). The first two groups are woods of the Northwest; the third group is composed of woods of the Southeast. Other wood groups that are sometimes used in the manufacture of glued laminated timber include Alaska Cedar, Spruce-Pine-Fir (comprising several Canadian species), California Redwood-Western Red Cedar, and White Oak and various other hardwood species. Glued laminated timber is available nationwide and is exported to foreign countries. Installation of glued laminated timbers uses standard fastener technology: bolts, lag screws, nails, shear plates, joist hangers, and steel side-plate connections. Connections hardware may be galvanized as required by service conditions. Little if any flashing is used, since most glued laminated timbers are installed under roofing. Steel fasteners are discussed in the material report on wood framing (06110).
A life-cycle summary of glued laminated timber is provided in figure 1. Life-cycle summaries of wood preservatives and adhesives are provided in figures 2 and 3, respectively. A number of environmental considerations are associated with the production of lumber from which glued laminated timber is made. One concern regarding the general lumber industry is that old-growth trees are harvested preferentially. Since glued laminated timbers are made from smaller pieces of wood, it is not necessary to cut down the larger, old-growth trees. This is an advantage of using glued laminated timbers. During the materials acquisition and preparation stage, the environment is affected by moderate air emissions and significant soil erosion and pollutant runoff from haul road and logging operations; by habitat alteration and destruction; and by air emissions resulting from the combustion of fuels for felling and transporting logs. Another environmental issue concerns the role that forests play in mitigating global climate change. Depletion of forests from of overharvesting and converting forest lands to other uses is thought to result in a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a decrease in atmospheric moisture, both of which could contribute to global climate change. The lumber industry, however, believes that conversion of old-growth stands to managed plantations greatly reduces the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Schallau 1993; Williamson 1995). This occurs because younger trees remove CO2 more vigorously than oldgrowth trees. Once a tree photosynthesizes CO2 into cellulose (wood), the CO2 is not directly available to the atmosphere without first being oxidized by combustion or biological degradation (Fisette 1995). The burning of scrap and wood waste generated during the manufacture of lumber results in air emissions, as does the combustion of additional fuel needed to operate the mill equipment. These air emissions include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These pollutants can contribute to a number of problems, including smog, acid precipitation, materials corrosion, crop damage, and various human health effects, including respiratory problems and eye and throat irritation. Crude oil and natural gas provide the raw materials for manufacture of adhesives used in glued laminated timbers. The extraction and processing of oil and gas release wastes in the form of produced water, drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands. The major wastewater contaminants include oil, grease, oxygen-depleting parameters (BOD and COD), toxic organics, total dissolved solids, and heavy metals. Drilling produces drilling mud and drilling bit cuttings as waste. Drilling operations employ large diesel engines. Air
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4
MAT 06180 GLUED LAMINATED TIMBERS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Glued Laminated Timbers
Life Cycle Glued Laminated Timbers
Lumber production Debarking Sawing Trimming Sawing Planing
Runoff (soil Global erosion, TSS) warming
Wastewater
Production of joined laminate stock (ribbon) End trimming Cutting end joints Applying adhesive to end joints Radio Frequency (RF) curing Cutting ribbon into stock or custom lengths
Face-bonding Applying adhesive Forming Stacking Applying pressure Curing

Wastewater
Chromated copper arsenate

(see figure 2)
Wastewater Waste pond
Waste pond
Adhesives
(see figure 3)
Soil contamination
Pentachlorophenol
(see figure 2)
Glulam finishing Planing or sanding Cutting to final length Filling knotholes and voids Drilling holes Final shaping Applying surface sealer (optional) Staining (optional)
Packaging
Storage
Soil contamination
Treated (pentachlorophenol) wood waste (hazardous waste landfill)
Wood waste (burned for fuel) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Sales
Indoor air emissions (wood components, arsenic dust)
Construction
KEY
Process flow
Demolition
Figure 2: Life Cycle of Preservatives for Glued Laminated Timbers
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 GLUED LAMINATED TIMBERS MAT 06180
Brine
Electrolysis
Co-products Hydrogen Sodium hydroxide Chlorine Chlorine gas
Primary reactor
Pentachlorophenol
(see figure 1)

H Cl and excess Cl2
(C6H5-X ClX OH) Partially chlorinated phenols

KEY
Benzene manufacture
Phenol
Chlorine scrubber
Drainage wastes
Cyanides
Sludge
Beneficiation of chromite from ores Sorting Gravity separation or Crushing Gravity or magnetic separation
Chromic acid production
Life Cycle Preservatives for Glued Laminated Timbers
Arsenic and chromium mining Drilling Cutting Blasting Hauling Loading
Separation of arsenic from ores Volatilization Separation Aqueous Extraction
Arsenic pentoxide production
Chromated copper arsenate production

(see figure 1)
Habitat change
Copper (waste)
Ammonium carbonate or cupric ammonium chloride
Leach/boil
Copper oxide
6
Brine Electrolysis Coproducts Hydrogen Chlorine Sodium hydroxide Fillers and extenders Ureaformaldehyde adhesive
(see figure 1)
Life Cycle Adhesives
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, H2S, particulates) Ni catalyst
Ni catalyst
Urea manufacture Uncured resorcinolformaldehyde resin

Wastewater (formaldehyde)
Paraformaldehyde Resorcinolformaldehyde adhesive

(see figure 1)
MAT 06180 GLUED LAMINATED TIMBERS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 (REV 1998)
Cu catalyst
Ag or Fe Molybdate catalyst
KEY
Output Recycling

Air emissions (VOCs) Air emissions (VOCs)
Benzene manufacture
Phenol manufacture
Resorcinol
Phenolresorcinolformaldehyde adhesive
(see figure 1)
Drainage wastes
Cyanides
Sludge
Uncured phenolformaldehyde resin


pollutants emitted by such engines include NOx, sulfur oxides (SOx), CO, VOCs, and particulates. The manufacture of the adhesives used in glued laminated timbersresorcinol-formaldehyde, phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde, and urea-formaldehydeposes some potential environmental risk. Formaldehyde is produced within a closed system, greatly minimizing the potential for release. However, the toxicity of formaldehyde is such that it must be considered a potential hazard. Toxicity includes irritation and allergenicity. It is also a probable human carcinogen. Uncured resorcinol-formaldehyde and phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde resins, as well as wastewater from the manufacturing process, could contain residual formaldehyde and phenol monomers. Phenol is caustic and can cause central nervous system toxicity and paralysis. After full curing, however, these resins are bound together by cross-linkings and are not toxic, since they normally do not release the monomers. The formaldehyde in urea-formaldehyde adhesive, however, seems to be less tightly bound, even after curing of the material. Formaldehyde is emitted by a number of building materials besides glued laminated timbers. The concentration of formaldehyde in building interiors depends on several factors, including the presence of formaldehyde in other materials in the building and the emission rates from these materials. The manufacture of glued laminated timbers treated with wood preservatives results in some environmental impact. The major wood preservatives used in glued laminated timbers are chromated copper arsenate (CCA) and pentachlorophenol. A variety of other preservatives, including waterborne salts and creosote, may be used but are not discussed in this report. Mining of arsenic and chromium, used in the production of CCA, causes land disturbance and produces wastes in the form of tailings and runoff as well as wastes from the combustion of fuels. Major spills or roadway accidents during transport of the highly concentrated raw materials for the manufacture of CCA have the potential to contaminate soil, groundwater, and surface water. The combustion of fuels may result in air emissions during the manufacture of pentachlorophenol. The most significant waste problem resulting from the manufacturing of glued laminated timbers is waste wood material. These wastes (that is, from untreated wood) are occasionally burned at the manufacturing plant to produce heat for the curing process; however, the cost of incinerators and of the necessary pollution control equipment discourages greater use of wood waste in this manner. If waste wood is not used as an energy source, it is either landfilled, burned in commercial incinerators, or possibly recycled (Fisette 1995). In the western states, stricter environmental laws require manufacturers to dispose of pentachlorophenoltreated wood waste in approved hazardous waste landfills. Because of this, treating the wood after it is laminated is the normal procedure followed in the West. Southern Pine treated wood waste is disposed of in standard landfills. Glued laminated timber manufactured from this wood is usually treated with water-borne preservatives, although some pentachlorophenol and other preservatives may also be used (Pooley 1994). In view of the toxicity of wood preservatives, EPA has established precautions for the use of pentachlorophenol and inorganic arsenicals (including CCA). When used in building interiors, the surfaces of wood treated with inorganic arsenicals must be cleaned of all residual preservative dust. Structures built with wood treated with pentachlorophenol and inorganic arsenicals must not be used for storing food, nor should the wood come in contact with drinking water. For pentachlorophenol, uses are further restricted to building components that are in ground contact and subject to decay or insect attack only. Where used, pentachlorophenol-treated wood must be covered with two coats of an appropriate sealer. EPA has also issued precautions warning against the burning of treated wood in open fires or in stoves or fireplaces because of the toxic chemicals that may be produced as part of the smoke and ashes. Additional precautions warn against frequent or prolonged inhalation of
MAT 06180

sawdust of treated wood and frequent and prolonged skin contact with pentachlorophenoltreated wood. Although a small amount of leaching of CCA from treated lumber can occur, laboratory and field tests have shown that large-scale migration of CCA through the soil down to the water table is unlikely under most conditions (Wilson 1993).

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of glued laminated timbers is presented in figure 4.
Logs and Lumber Logging and milling operations, along with the wastes produced, the depletion of natural resources associated with these operations, and the energy consumed are described in the material report on wood framing (06110). Adhesives A variety of adhesives may be used in the manufacture of glued laminated timbers. The major adhesives are resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) and phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde (PRF). These are used for face bonding and a small amount of end-joint bonding. Ureaformaldehyde (UF) adhesive is used for end jointing. Melamine-urea may be used for end jointing, but it is used infrequently and is not included in this report. Two recently developed adhesives are methylene diphenylisocyanate (MDI) and polymeric MDI. The extent of use for these last two is unknown, and they are not discussed in this report.
Resorcinol-Formaldehyde (RF)
RF resins are produced by the condensation reaction of resorcinol with formaldehyde (U.S. Department of Energy 1986). The initial reaction is carried out with insufficient formaldehyde to achieve complete reaction of the resorcinol. Methanol may also be added to slow the reaction. The liquid resin, a water solution or dispersion, is delivered to the location of final use, where additional formaldehyde (often in the form of paraformaldehyde) is added to complete the curing of the resin to a solid. An alkaline pH is maintained by the addition of sodium hydroxide. Fillers and extenders are added to control flow and penetration properties and to lower cost. They come from waste products, including walnut-shell flour and wood flour. When used as fillers, these materials are added in a quantity equal to 10 to 15 percent of the weight of the resin. Beyond this amount, the materials function as extenders to lower the cost of the resin. RF resins achieve a durable, waterproof bond with curing at room temperature70F (21C) minimumin a relatively short time (Marra 1992). Resorcinol is produced by the hydroxylation of phenol. The production of phenol, formaldehyde, and methanol is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The production of sodium hydroxide is described in the material report on concrete masonry (04220).
When fully cured, RF resin is quite stable and not considered toxic. If it is not completely cured, however, remnants of its components are still reactive and could cause toxic effects. Phenol and formaldehyde are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Sodium hydroxide is caustic and increases alkalinity.
Energy Consumed
There are no data available on the amount of energy required to manufacture resorcinolformaldehyde.
MAT 06180

Figure 4: Glued Laminated TimberMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Logging Stressor Timber harvesting Impact/Stressor Habitat alteration Soil erosion Impact/Stressor Loss of habitat Runoff Impact/Stressor Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Stumps, limbs, logs Possible depletion of forests Fuel combustion emissions Increased carbon monoxide Loss of recreation area VOCS Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide (see impacts above) Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Particulates Eye and throat irritation bronchitis, lung damage Decreased visibility Timber harvesting Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Debarking Fuel combustion emissions Wood wastes Waste oils Lumber sawing and trimming End joining Surfacing continued Particulates Wood wastes (see impacts above) Landfill disposal Incineration toxic to aquatic and other organisms (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Decreased landfill capacity Combustion air emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Left at logging site to decay Greenhouse effect Increased nutrients Decreased soil erosion Global warming
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Figure 4: Glued Laminated TimberMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Lumber drying and seasoning Dust Resorcinolformaldehyde production Uncured resin and wastewater could contain residual formaldehyde Sodium hydroxide Resorcinol production: Phenol production Benzene Known human carcinogen Human health effects include nausea and irritation Wastewater May contain oil, grease, suspended solids, and oxygen-depleting organics Crude oil extraction Discharge of produced water May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, and produced sands Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Desalting process Wastewater May contain emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Distillation process Wastewater May contain sulfides, ammonia oil, chlorides, mercaptans, and phenols Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Phenol is a known human carcinogen Air emissions VOCs (see impacts above) Deck drainage, sanitary, and domestic wastes Eutrophication Water-borne disease Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Loss of faunal diversity Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Air emissions Caustic Increases alkalinity VOCs (see impacts above) Formaldehyde Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Human health effects (irritant, allergen, and possible human carcinogen) Stressor Air emissions Impact/Stressor Venting of hot air Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Activity Crude oil processing (continued) Stressor Catalytic cracking Impact/Stressor Wastewater Impact/Stressor May contain oil, sulfides phenols, cyanide, and ammonia Impact/Stressor Increased pH Increased BOD Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Air emissions from gas blowdown systems and fugitive emissions Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene Formaldehyde production: Natural gas extraction and processing Fuel (diesel) combustion air emissions Sulfur dioxide Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Particulates Removal of hydrogen sulfide from natural gas Hydrogen sulfide (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Low concentrations cause irritation of conjunctiva and mucous membranes, headache, dizziness, nausea, and lassitude Poisonous in high concentrations Incineration of hydrogen sulfide releases sulfur oxides into atmosphere Phenol-resorcinolformaldehyde resin production Uncured resin and wastewater could contain residual formaldehyde and phenol Phenol Phenol production (see impacts above) continued Poisonous, caustic, skin blistering, CNS, paralysis Formaldehyde (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Wastewater May contain oil, grease heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen-depleting organics VOCs (see impacts above Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see sulfur dioxide impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased pH (see impacts above) Some possible human carcinogens Respiratory irritation VOCs (see impacts above)
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Activity Phenol-resorcinolformaldehyde resin production (continued) Stressor Crude oil extraction and processing Resorcinol production Formaldehyde production Natural gas extraction and processing Urea-formaldehyde production Resin and wastewater could contain residual formaldehyde Formaldehyde production Sodium hydroxide Pentachlorophenol production Brine mud Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate Chlorine production (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions Chlorine Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Wastewater Phenol production Crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Pentachlorophenol manufacture Arsenic and chromium mining Acid drainage Surface water and groundwater acidification Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Tailings waste Runoff (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions (see impacts above) Chlorine and sulfuric acid Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Phenol-Resorcinol-Formaldehyde (PRF)
Because RF resin is expensive, phenol is sometimes used to achieve an adhesive (PRF) that costs less. In this case, curing takes a longer period of time. The initial resin mixture contains phenol and formaldehyde, which partially react. Resorcinol is added at a later stage, when complete curing is initiated. Otherwise, processing is similar to that for RF resin, described above. Environmental effects are also as described above.
Urea-Formaldehyde (UF)
UF adhesive is described in the material report on particleboard (06124 in ERG 1994 ed.).
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Wood Preservatives Glued laminated timbers can be treated with preservatives. Oil-borne preservatives are used to treat the wood after lamination. Water-borne preservatives are suitable for use in treating before gluing. The most common oil-borne preservative is pentachlorophenol. Creosote is another oil-borne preservative, used particularly for bridge members, but is not considered in this report (Williamson 1995). The predominant water-borne preservative is chromated copper arsenate (CCA). Other water-borne preservatives, which are not discussed in this report, include ammoniacal copper arsenate (ACA), acid copper chromate (ACC), and ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate (ACZA).
Pentachlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol (C6Cl5OH) is produced commercially by the direct chlorination of phenol or partially chlorinated phenols; anhydrous aluminum chloride is employed as a catalyst. The chlorinations are performed in glass-lined reactors. Chlorine gas is metered into the primary reactor, which initially contains phenol and partially chlorinated phenols. At the start of chlorination, the temperature of the reaction mass is in the range of 65 to 130C (149 to 266F). The reaction is maintained in this temperature range until the melting point of the reaction mass is about 95C (203F), which corresponds to an average level of chlorination of 3 to 4 atoms of chlorine per phenol. After this, the operational temperature is progressively increased in such a manner as to maintain a 10C (50F) differential with the melting point of the reaction mass. During the chlorination, the offgas from the primary reactor, which contains mostly hydrogen chloride and lesser amounts of unreacted chlorine, is sent to a secondary reactor (scrubber) containing molten phenol. The scrubber is operated at a sufficiently high temperature to ensure that substantially all the chlorine is consumed, thus producing an anhydrous hydrogen chloride stream suitable for use in other applications (McKetta and Cunningham 1990).
References to the environmental impacts resulting from the production of phenol are found in the discussion above of phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde. In the production of pentachlorophenol, the combustion of fuels to heat the reactors results in air emissions. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are discussed in the material report on wood framing (06110).
Energy Consumed
There are no data available on the amount of energy required to manufacture pentachlorophenol.
Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA)
Three types of CCA are recognized by the American Wood Preservers Association: Types A, B, and C. Type C resists leaching most effectively and has become the standard within the industry. Type C is an acid solution composed of chromic acid (CrO3), copper oxide (CuO), and arsenic pentoxide (As2O5) in the following proportions: 47.5 percent, 18.5 percent, and 34.0 percent, respectively. The chromium that is used in the chemical industry and for the manufacture of wood preservatives is derived from chromite (FeCr2O4), which is mined as an ore (Papp 1991). Arsenic is recovered by volatilization from a variety of ores, in which it is often regarded as a contaminant (McKetta 1977). Copper oxide is produced from waste copper through either of two processes: an ammonium carbonate leach of scrap metallic copper (such as used circuit boards) or a caustic boiling of spent etchant with cupric ammonium chloride (Edelstein 1994).
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Chromic acid, copper oxide, and arsenic pentoxide react in situ to form a complex of relatively insoluble precipitates. Type C is supplied to the treating plant as a 50 percent solution concentrate, for dilution by the plant (USDA 1980).
Mining of the raw materials (arsenic and chromium) for the manufacture of CCA has effects on the environment. Chromium is not mined domestically. The environmental impacts of open-pit mining are described under gypsum in the material report on plaster and lath (09200) and are not repeated here. The most significant environmental risks from the use of CCA originate in the early stages of the manufacturing process, when the constituent chemicals are handled and transported in their most concentrated form. The pure chemical components of CCA are transported by truck to blending plants, where they are mixed and moderately diluted. Finally, the CCA is transferred to the treating plants, where it is further diluted with water to a concentration of about 1 percent (Wilson 1993). Major spills or roadway accidents during transport of these chemicals have the potential to contaminate soil, groundwater, and surface water. The components of CCA are toxic in varying degrees to animals and aquatic organisms. Exposure to these chemicals can result in mortality and/or decreased reproduction (Weis et al. 1991; Cox 1991).
Energy Consumed
There are no data available on the amount of energy required to manufacture CCA.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the fabrication of glued laminated timbers is presented in figure 5.
Glued Laminated Timbers Virtually all glued laminated timber manufactured for use in the United States is produced in accordance with ANSI Standard A190.1-92 (Williamson 1995). Lumber of the specified grade(s) is acquired and stored in sheds, out of the weather, to reduce moisture absorption and buildup of surface oil and dirt that would impede laminating. The lumber is handled by forklifts (mostly diesel, some hand-powered). In a prefabrication area, moisture content is checked by hand-held or continuous moisture measurement devices. For the laminating process, a maximum of 16 percent moisture is allowed. All lumber grades are checked and graded for appropriate glued laminated timber use. Southern Pine lumber is planed prior to gluing (typically within 8 to 24 hours) to remove pine tar and other extractives that come to the surface of the wood during storage. This provides a clean, smooth surface for the bonding process.
In the plant, most equipment is electrically powered. Roller belts and rollcases move the laminate materials through most phases of the entire process. Most rollers in these mechanisms are free-turning; occasional powered rollers maintain momentum as necessary. The lumber is end trimmed, and the end joints (either finger joints or scarf joints) are cut with specialized cutting machines. Finger joints consist of multiple fingers, about 1116 inches (2.70 cm) in length, that are cut either vertically through the wide face of the board or horizontally through the narrow face of the board. A sloped scarf joint consists of beveled ends with about 15 in. (38.1 cm) overlapping between pieces of lumber. Of the different types of end joints, the finger joint predominates, and there is minimal use of the sloped scarf joint. After the end joint is cut, adhesive is applied into the joint. The joints are aligned and mated. The joined laminate stock then often moves to the radio frequency (RF) curing unit. This microwave-type unit is a tunnel typically 18 feet (5.5 m) long. The jointed stock is moved through the RF tunnel, and the adhesive temperature rises to 200 to 215 F (93 to 102C) in
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Figure 5: Glued Laminated TimberManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Glued laminated timber manufacturing Stressor Waste cleanup water with excess adhesive Scraps from preservativetreated wood (pentachlorophenol) Incineration Scraps from untreated wood Combustion emissions from burning untreated scraps and fuel Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide (see impacts above) Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Particulates Eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, lung damage Decreased visibility Incineration of untreated wood scraps Scraps from wood treated with water-based preservatives (CCA) Incineration Wood preserving Contaminated wastewater Arsenic and other metals in groundwater and surface water Contaminated soil Preserving chemicals accumulate in soils, increasing concentration of arsenic and toxic metals Combustion emissions Air emissions (see impacts above) Arsenic dust Trace amounts of arsenic emitted in indoor air Human health effects for sensitive individuals Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals (see impacts above) Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Landfill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Landfill VOCS Air emissions from combustion Decreased landfill capacity Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Hazardous waste landfill Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor Waste ponds Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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two to three seconds. This temperature is maintained for approximately 10 seconds to cure the adhesive. This process can be either continuous or intermittent (Williamson 1995). The lamination (or ribbon) then exits from the RF tunnel. Cutoff saws cut the ribbon into either 60-foot (18.3-meter) stock lengths or custom lengths. Each lamination is then stacked in the position that it will take in the final timber. Wood that is joined using RF curing units must be dried to a 10 percent moisture content and thus has an increased embodied energy (Fisette 1995). The laminations are then moved together by rollcase or by electric dolly to the face-bonding unit, where an adhesive is applied. The adhesives are formulated in a water solution of slurry from resin (which is stored in bulk tanks) and catalyst (which is stored in bags in a storage area). These are mixed on demand before application. The adhesive is pumped from a hopper to a position above the laminate and is extruded through a perforated pipe down onto the surface of the laminate. As each lamination is passed under the adhesive applicator, beads of adhesive 12 inch (1.25 cm) apart are applied along the entire length of the top face of the laminate. Adhesive is applied at a rate of 50 to 80 pounds per 1,000 square feet (244 to 391 kg per 1,000 m2) of laminate surface. (When the laminates are mated in the next step, they are placed top face to bottom face with sufficient pressure to spread the adhesive across the entire face of each laminate.) Another typical process uses rollers to apply the adhesive uniformly across both faces of adjacent laminate pieces. The pieces must then be mated quickly, since the thin layer of adhesive used in this method may dry faster. Any of the adhesives can be used in either method. After the adhesive is applied, the individual laminations are positioned on forms to maintain straight, curved, or cambered shapes as specified for the individual timber. The members are placed on their edge against the form, and the next laminate member is mated against the first one. Several timbers are assembled against one another into a package; wax paper or nonglued faces allow later separation of the individual timbers. Screw rods or bolts are then inserted between layers of beams and used with end plates and nuts or jacks to apply pressure to the entire assembly. Initially, the nuts or jacks are tightened to a pressure of approximately 150 pounds per square inch (1.034 MPa). As the lumber and adhesive adjust to the pressure, the tension decreases to about 100 pounds per square inch (0.689 MPa). At this point, the assemblies are again tightened to the original pressure. Sometimes curing is performed at a room temperature of 70F (21C). At other times, the temperature of the curing area is increased to about 100 to 150F (38 to 66C) to facilitate curing, especially if the laminate members are cold and need to be warmed before curing. This heat is usually provided by propane heaters; occasionally it is produced by the burning of waste sawdust and wood chips. Some manufacturers use RF presses to cure the glued laminated timber. The packages may be covered with canvas tarpaulins and allowed to cure overnight or for 8 hours (Pooley 1994; Williamson 1995). After curing, the tarpaulins and hardware are removed. Forklifts or overhead cranes move the glued laminated timbers to a finishing area, where they are placed on a rollcase and planed or sanded to proper width. They are then moved to an open area and placed on sawhorses or benches. Workers check for length, width, and depth, and the timbers are then cut to the required length. Timber for industrial applications often will require no finishing beyond planing of the sides. If the bottom of the glued laminated timber will be a visible soffit in the final building construction, it is planed or sanded to remove excess glue and provide a pleasing appearance. Knotholes and voids are filled, usually with a two-part epoxy. For custom timbers, holes are drilled for fastening connectors; further shaping, such as the tapering of ends, may also occur. Normally, stock members do not have holes drilled, nor do they undergo additional shaping. Timbers are inspected for conformance to specifications by the certified quality-control inspector.
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Flame retardants are not typically applied to structural glued laminated timbers. Their use is permitted but not recommended. Because the strength of the timbers may be reduced as a result of such treatment, their strength must be established by test. The extra cost involved in such testing makes this financially prohibitive, and, as a result, few if any manufacturers apply flame retardants. In addition, such treatment can affect dimensional stability and appearance. Glued laminated timbers are often treated with a surface sealer application, usually an oilbased solvent carrying a sealer resin. The sealer is applied with a sprayer or is hand-applied by roller. A heavier sealer is usually applied to the end of the timber where end grain is exposed. The sealer prevents moisture pickup during storage and transport to the construction site. Sealers are not discussed in this report. Plants specializing in custom glued laminated timbers might also apply stain (see the material report on stains and varnishes, 09930). Varnish finishes are seldom used. Bundles of stock beams or individual custom units may be wrapped in a damp-proof cellulose wrapping paper. This prevents absorption of moisture, pickup of dirt, and color change caused by sunlight. The beams are usually shipped by flatbed truck or rail from regionally located plants, which are usually located close to their supply of lumber. Shipping of laminated timbers is typically within a 1,000-mile (1,609 km) radius, although some shipments can be transcontinental or international.
Preservative-Treated Glued Laminated Timbers
When glued laminated timber needs to be treated with a wood preservative, the preservative is normally applied by pressure treatment. Most preservative-treated Southern Pine is treated before lamination by water-based preservatives. The predominant treatment is chromated copper arsenate (CCA). The western species are treated after laminating with pentachlorophenol (Types A, C, and D) because their grain structure inhibits absorption of the other preservatives. The side grain of western wood may need to be incised (punctured) during the treatment process to increase penetration of the preservative. Southern Pine may also be treated with pentachlorophenol. The process of treating wood with preservatives is described in the material report on wood framing (06110).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Glued Laminated Timbers
Wastewater, possibly containing excess adhesive, is either recycled or disposed of in a waste pond. If recycled, the water is processed for reuse as makeup water in the initial preparation of the adhesive mixture that will be applied to the wood. Although heat for the glued laminated timber curing process is usually provided by propane heaters, occasionally it is produced by the burning of wood waste. The cost of the incinerators and of the pollution control equipment, however, prevents greater use of such waste in this manner (Pooley 1994). By using end joints to join shorter pieces of lumber (rather than using individual pieces of very long lumber), less waste is produced (Fisette 1995). The waste production and natural resource depletion resulting from the treatment of wood with preservatives are described in the material report on wood framing (06110). In the western states, scraps from preservative-treated wood (pentachlorophenol) must be disposed of in approved hazardous waste landfills. The western wood laminators usually treat their wood after it is laminated so that the amount of preservative-containing waste at their facility is minimized. In the Southeast, wood is usually treated with water-
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borne preservatives, although some pentachlorophenol may be used. These wastes are disposed of in standard landfills (Pooley 1994).
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy for one board foot of glued laminated timber is 14,673 Btus (15.5 MJ). This is equivalent to 176,076 Btus/ft3 (6560 MJ/m3). Additional energy is required for transporting the glued laminated timber from the manufacturing plant to retail outlets and the job site, which brings the total embodied energy of one board foot of glued laminated timber to 16,733 Btus (17.7 MJ). This is equivalent to 200,796 Btus/ft3 (7,481 MJ/m3) (Hannon et al. 1976). A more recent study indicates that embodied energy of glued laminated timbers amounts to 6,000 MJ/m3 (160,800 Btus/ft3) or 13.3 MJ/kg (5,718 Btus/lb) (Richter 1993). There are no data available on the amount of energy required to pressure treat lumber.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of glued laminated timbers is presented in figure 6.
Since all the hand-finishing and detailing of glued laminated timber is completed at the laminating plant, there is little on-site fabrication. Material waste from the glued laminated timbers is therefore minimized. A small amount of air emissions results from the generation of electricity to power pneumatic nailing machines and saws and from the combustion of fuel to transport lumber to the job site and waste from the job site. Pentachlorophenol has been shown to have teratogenic/fetotoxic effects. In view of these potential hazards, the EPA has established precautions on the uses of pentachlorophenol (EPA 1984) that are presented in the Consumer Information Sheet for wood treated with that material. The following is an extract from that report:
Wood treated with pentachlorophenol should be used only where such protection is important. Pentachlorophenol-treated wood should not be used in residential, industrial, or commercial interiors except for laminated beams or other building components that are in ground contact and are subject to decay or insect infestation and where two coats of an appropriate sealer are applied (urethane, shellac, latex epoxy enamel, or varnish). Pentachlorophenol should not be used in the interiors of farm buildings where there may be direct contact with domestic animals; where direct contact is unlikely, pentachlorophenol may be used only on components in ground contact and subject to decay or insect infestation and where two coats of an appropriate sealer are applied. Do not use pentachlorophenol-treated wood under circumstances where the preservative may become a component of food or animal feed or where it may come in contact with public drinking water or drinking water for domestic animals. Use only treated wood that is visibly clean and free of surface residue for patios, decks, and walkways.
Inorganic arsenicals, such as CCA, have been shown to have oncogenic, mutagenic, and reproductive or fetotoxic effects. In view of these potential hazards, the EPA has established precautions on the uses of inorganic arsenicals (EPA 1984). The Consumer Information Sheet for inorganic arsenicals (EPA 1984) includes the following:
Wood treated with waterborne arsenical preservatives should be used only where such protection is important. Exposed wood pressure-treated with waterborne arsenical preservatives may be used inside residences as long as all dust is vacuumed from the wood surface. Arsenical-treated wood should not be used under circumstances where the preservative may become a component of food or animal feed or where it may come in contact with public drinking water. Only treated wood that is visibly clean and free of surface residue should be used for patios, decks, and walkways.
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Figure 6: Glued Laminated TimberConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Glued laminated timber construction Dust Air emissions Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Volatile constituents of wood Eye and throat irritation Human health effects (toxicity and cardiovascular system effects) Pentachlorophenol Human health effects for Fetoxicity Teratogenicity Arsenic dust Human health effects for sensitive individuals (toxicity and carcinogenicity) Stressor Wood wastes Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Incineration Toxic air emissions from combustion Impact/Stressor
EPA has issued the following precautions for handling wood treated with pentachlorophenol or inorganic arsenicals (including CCA) (EPA 1984) as presented in the Consumer Information Sheets for wood treated with those materials: Dispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. Treated wood should not be burned in open fires or in stoves or fireplaces because toxic chemicals may be produced as part of the smoke and ashes. Large quantities of treated wood from commercial or industrial use (e.g., construction sites) may be burned in commercial or industrial incinerators in accordance with state and federal regulations. Avoid frequent or prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. When sawing and machining treated wood, wear a dust mask. Whenever possible, these operations should be performed outdoors to avoid indoor accumulations of airborne sawdust from treated wood. When power-sawing and machining, wear goggles to protect eyes from flying particles. Wash exposed areas thoroughly after skin contact, and before eating, drinking, or use of tobacco products. If preservatives or sawdust accumulate on clothes, launder before reuse. Wash work clothes separately from other household clothing The following precaution applies only to the handling of pentachlorophenol-treated wood: Avoid frequent or prolonged skin contact with pentachlorophenol-treated wood; when handling the treated wood, wear tightly woven coveralls and use gloves impervious to the chemicals (for example, gloves that are vinyl-coated). The issue has been raised concerning the potential for CCA-treated wood to leach CCA into the ground or groundwater. Laboratory and field tests have shown that a small amount of leaching can occur, but not in quantities that can have an impact on the serviceability of the wood. Furthermore, migration of CCA through the soil down to the water table is unlikely because the components that leach are rapidly adsorbed by soil particles. The amount of leaching, when it does occur, depends on a number of factors:
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Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal
the formulation of the preservative (Type C has better fixation than Type A), the type of wood, whether there is any finish on the treated wood, how the treatment was performed, how the wood was handled after treatment (whether it was properly conditioned), the type of exposure, and the configuration or geometry of the wood (Wilson 1993). Some alternative wood preservatives are available but are not currently used in high volumes. Wood that is not likely to get wet can be treated with borate, which is not as toxic to humans as the more common preservatives. Borates will wash out of wood when it is wet. ACQ-treated wood is not available everywhere, but it is less hazardous than CCA (Wilson 1993).
Indoor Air Quality
A discussion of the impact of wood construction (including preservative-treated wood) on air quality is contained in the material report on wood framing (06110).
Energy Consumed
A qualitative discussion of energy consumption during wood frame construction is contained in the material report on wood framing (06110). No quantitative data are available.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of glued laminated timbers is presented in figure 7.
Figure 7: Glued Laminated TimberRecycle, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Disposal of demolition waste Stressor Wood wastes Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal (large volume) Incineration Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Particulates and dust Eye and throat irritation Toxic air emissions from combustion Various health and environmental impacts Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor
There is minimal reuse or recycling of glued laminated timber, as this is not currently cost effective. Determining the strength of old timbers is a problem. Although properly protected beams do not deteriorate (this stability has been observed in beams up to 100 years old), moisture and decay as well as high temperaturesover 150F (66C) for a period of time can degrade the strength of glued laminated timber. Reusing such timber without knowing it was weakened could pose a problem if it were overloaded in the new structure. In addition, because building codes are subject to change, these timbers may require different loading factors upon reuse than they did when originally installed.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During the Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
After demolition of older wood structures, glued laminated timbers are normally disposed of in landfills. A discussion of wood framing disposal is contained in the material report on wood framing (06110). EPA has issued the following precaution for disposal of wood treated with pentachlorophenol or inorganic arsenicals:
Dispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. Treated wood should not be burned in open fires or in stoves or fireplaces because toxic chemicals may be produced as part of
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Regulatory Status
the smoke and ashes. Large quantities of treated wood from commercial or industrial use (e.g., construction sites) may be burned in commercial or industrial incinerators in accordance with state and Federal regulations.
Regulatory Status
Manufacturers of glued laminated timbers are affected by several laws and regulations, including those that restrict the amount of timber available for harvesting from national forests. This has forced manufacturers to look overseas for wood, has increased prices of raw materials, and has opened the market to competition from steel building components. The Clean Water Act (CWA) and Clean Air Act require the purchase of additional, expensive environmental control equipment in some cases. Various regulations, including the Toxic Chemicals Release Inventory, require that time and effort be spent doing paperwork. The CWA specifies periodic stormwater testing along with submission of permit applications. Manufacturers must conform to various specifications and standards, such as those produced by the American Institute for Timber Construction and the American Society for Testing and Materials. They must also adhere to building codes, which vary from state to state (Graham 1994; Rhude 1994; Walsh 1994).
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References
References
American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC). 1990. Standard for Preservative Treatment of Structural Glued Laminated Timber. AITC 109-90. Vancouver, WA. Cox, Caroline. 1991. Chromated Copper Arsenate. Journal of Pesticide Reform. 11(1):19-23. Edelstein, Dan. 1994. Commodity specialist. Personal communication. Fisette, Paul R. 1995. Director, Building Materials Technology and Management, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Review comments for Glued Laminated Timbers report. Graham, Gary. 1994. Production manager, Structural Wood Systems, Greenville, AL. Personal communication. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration Contract no. EY-76-S-02-2791. Marra, Alan A. 1992. Technology of Wood Bonding Principles in Practice. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. McKetta, John J., and William A. Cunningham. 1977. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 3. NY: Marcel Dekker. . 1990. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 34. NY: Marcel Dekker. Papp, John F. 1991. Chromium. Annual Report, Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Pooley, Bruce. 1994. Director of technical services, American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC), Englewood, CO. Personal communication. Rhude, Maurice. 1994. Manager, Sentinel Structures, Peshtigo, WI. Personal communication. Richter, Klaus. 1993. Life Cycle Analysis of Wood Products with Special Emphasis on Composite Products. Abstract, in Proceedings of 27th Particleboard and Composite Symposium, Pullman, WA. 30.3. - 1.4.1993. Schallau, C. 1993. American Forest and Paper Association, Washington, DC. Comments on draft of ERG wood framing report. Smulski, Stephen. 1992. Glue Laminated Timbers. Reprint from Fine Homebuilding. December 1991/January 1992.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1980. The Biologic and Economic Assessment of Pentachlorophenol, Inorganic Arsenicals, Creosote. Vol I: Wood Preservatives. Technical Bulletin no. 1658-I. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory. 1987a. Bonding Wood and Wood Products. Chap. 9 in Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material. Agricultural Handbook 72. Revised. . 1987b. Glued Structural Members. Chap. 10 in Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material. Agricultural Handbook 72. Revised. . 1987c. Wood Preservation. Chap. 18 in Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material. Agricultural Handbook 72. Revised. U.S. Department of Energy. 1986. Adhesives for the Composite Wood Panel Industry. Technical Information Center, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, U.S. Department of Energy. DOE/CE/40646-T5, Washington DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984. Wood Preservative Pesticides: Creosote, Pentachlorophenol, Inorganic Arsenicals. Position Document 4. Washington, DC: Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. July. Walsh, Jim. 1994. Marketing director, Willamette Industries, Saginaw, OR. Personal communication. Weis, P., J. S. Weis, and L. M. Coohill. 1991. Toxicity to Estuarine Organisms of Leachates from Chromated Copper Arsenate Treated Wood. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 20:11824. Williamson, Thomas G. 1995. Executive vice president, APA American Wood Systems. Comments on draft of Glued Laminated Timbers report. Wilson, Alex. 1993. Pressure-Treated Wood. Environmental Building News 2(1):1 and 8-13.
22
MAT 06180
Material Report
Plastic Laminates*
Highlights
Production of melamine and phenolic resins for manufacture of plastic laminates generates air emissions and wastewater that can adversely affect human health and the environment. Significant air and water pollutants also result from the extraction and processing of oil and natural gas needed in the production of the resins used in plastic laminates. Manufacture of paper for plastic laminates results in air emissions and substantial water effluent discharges that contain oxygen-depleting organics and toxic chlorinated compounds such as dioxins. Timber harvesting can cause habitat alteration and destruction, soil erosion and pollutant runoff, and loss of productivity and diversity in streams. Manufacture of pigments and inks used in plastic laminates results in air emissions and generation of sludges that may contain toxins.
Significant amounts of water are consumed in the manufacture of paper. Oil and natural gas, used to produce the resins required for the manufacture of plastic laminates, are finite resources. Production of melamine resin requires a substantial amount of energy, about 48,500 Btus/lb. Manufacture of phenolic resin also requires a large amount of energy, about 38,400 Btus/lb. Papermaking is energy intensive, requiring approximately 15,650 Btus/lb.
Energy Consumption
Indoor Air Quality
As a result of the relatively inert nature of the resins used in manufacturing plastic laminates, no indoor air emissions are attributed to plastic laminates. Plastic laminates can reduce the emission of formaldehyde vapor from particleboard when the laminate is applied on all surfaces of the particleboard. In the event of a building fire, the smoke produced from burning plastic laminates has a toxicity similar to that of burning wood.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1994. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 PLASTIC LAMINATES MAT 06240
Plastic Laminates
Background
Plastic laminates, or high-pressure decorative laminates, are composed of layers of paper and thermosetting resins. They are commonly applied to surfaces of countertops, cabinets, and furniture made from particleboard or plywood. They may also be applied to the inside or back of surfaces to provide a more finished appearance and to seal in the particleboard or plywood to reduce formaldehyde emissions. This report covers plastic laminates that are included under Masterspec 6240 and addresses the high-pressure decorative laminate itself, not the surfaces to which it is bonded or the adhesive that affixes it to these surfaces. (for information on particleboard, see 06124 in ERG 1994 ed.; for information on plywood, see 06118 in ERG 1994 ed.). Other low-pressure and contact laminates are not considered here. Decorative laminates come in various grades, including the following: General-purpose grade, 0.020-0.050 in. (0.508-1.270 mm) thick, for most applications. Cabinet-liner grade, 0.020 in. (0.508 mm) thick, for interior of cabinets and other millwork. Postforming grade, 0.030-0.042 in. (0.762-1.067 mm) thick, on surfaces where small radii are required. Backer grade, 0.020-0.050 in. (0.508-1.270 mm) thick, to seal the core of the countertop, cabinet, or other item and provide structural balance and integrity. High-wear grade, 0.062-0.120 in. (1.575-3.048 mm) thick, to provide extra durability in high-wear applications where required. Plastic laminate is a durable surface; building occupants tend to redecorate by choice before the laminate wears out. Plastic laminated surfaces require little maintenance and are easy to clean and disinfect. Plastic laminates come in a variety of colors and textures. The appearance of wood can be imparted by photographic processes; textures can be embossed to imitate leather, slate, and fabric; or surfaces can be smooth with a gloss, semigloss, or matte finish.
The two primary components of plastic laminates are resins and paper. The life-cycle summary of plastic laminates is provided in figure 1. The environmental considerations associated with each stage of this life cycle are summarized below.
Resins The two types of resins used in plastic laminates are melamine and phenol. Melamine resin contains melamine and formaldehyde; phenolic resin contains phenol and formaldehyde.
Melamine is produced from urea, which is generated by the reaction of CO2 and ammonia, both of which are derived from natural gas. The first step in processing natural gas is to remove nonhydrocarbon gases, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Low concentrations of H2S can produce irritation of conjunctiva and mucous membranes, headache, dizziness, nausea, and lassitude; H2S is poisonous in high concentrations. Incineration of the H2S removed from natural gas generates air emissions of sulfur oxides (SOx). The extraction and processing of natural gas results in a variety of air pollutants, including SOx, nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulates. The environmental impacts associated with these pollutants are described below for resin manufacture. Wastewater discharged during natural gas extraction may contain drilling muds, drill cuttings, and produced sands. The major wastewater contaminants include oil, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, toxic organics, dissolved solids, and heavy metals.
MAT 06240
PLASTIC LAMINATES
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 PLASTIC LAMINATES MAT 06240
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Plastic Laminates

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Ni catalyst
Ammonia manufacture
Al catalyst

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
Ni catalyst
Carbon dioxide manufacture

Urea manufacture
Melamine manufacture
Melamine resin production

Wastewater (formaldehyde, melamine)
Wastewater, oil, grease, dissolved solids, organics) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Cu catalyst
Methanol manufacture
Phenol manufacture
Phenolic resin production

catalyst
Wastewater (produced Drilling water, oil, grease, muds and heavy metals, dissolved cuttings solids, organics)
Drainage wastes
Sludge Wastewater (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides)
Benzene manufacture
NaOH, Na2SO4 Cl, ClO2
Wood Logging Transport Debarking Chipping

Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat change
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Effluent (suspended solids, organics, toxics)
Kraft paper Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendering Finishing

Sludge, wood chips
High pressure lamination

Sendings and edge trim burned as fuel or landfilled
Construction
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, chloroform) Waste landfilled or incinerated
SO2, [Mg(HSO3)2 or Ca(HSO3)2], NaOH, ClO2, milk of lime

Air emissions (carbon disulfide, carbonyl disulfide, methane, VOCs, CO, SOX, NOX, particulates hydrogen sulfide)
Colorant Additives Glycol ether Glycerol Modified resin Starch

Effluent (TSS, organics, toxics, dioxins)
Sulfite paper (alpha-cellulose) Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendering Finishing

Sludge, wood chips Pigments
Printing
Plastic Laminates
Life-Cycle Summary Plastic Laminates
Sludge (pigments, ink)
Demolition
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Titanium dioxide, carbon black, diazo yellow, phthalocyanine, quinacridone
Vehicle (water)
Water-based ink
Wastewater (pigments, ink)
Landfilled
Incinerated
Recycling
Plastic Laminates
Phenol is produced from benzene and propylene. Benzene comes from refined crude oil, and propylene is produced from either refined crude oil or natural gas. Manufacture of phenol results in air emissions of VOCs, as does the manufacture of benzene and propylene. Water pollutants resulting from the production of phenol, benzene, and propylene include suspended solids and a variety of organics that can lead to increased turbidity, increased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of surface waters, and possible fishkill. The extraction, processing, and refining of crude oil generates air emissions, including SOx, NOx, CO2, CO, particulates, ammonia, aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, benzene, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, and xylene. Wastes produced during oil extraction and processing include wastewater, drilling mud, deck drainage, oil, oil sludge, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, heavy metals, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, dissolved solids, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides, oxygen-depleting organics, and toxic organics. Formaldehyde is produced from methanol, which is derived from natural gas. Formaldehyde is manufactured in a closed system, greatly minimizing the potential for release. Formaldehyde is an irritant, an allergen, and a probable human carcinogen. In studies of production plant workers, however, no increased risk of cancer was detected (EPA/CPSC 1988; NIEHS 1989). The manufacture of melamine and phenolic resins results in air emissions from fuel combustion and the production of energy, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, and particulates. These air emissions contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, fishkill, smog, decreased visibility, greenhouse effect, global warming, tree and/or crop damage, corrosion of materials, eye irritation, and lung damage. Wastewater from melamine resin production can contain residual formaldehyde and melamine that would be released into the environment. Similarly, wastewater from phenolic resin production can contain residual formaldehyde and phenol. Phenol that is not incorporated into the resin is removed from wastewater by an activated carbon absorption or exchange process before activated sludge treatment. Phenol is poisonous and caustic. Once cured in the final product, however, these resins are essentially inert and do not release formaldehyde, phenol, or melamine.
Paper Two types of paper are used in plastic laminates: kraft paper for the filler layer and alphacellulose for the decorative layer. The manufacture of paper requires significant energy and water. The paper industry is a major source of air and water pollution.
Production of kraft paper results in air emissions of VOCs, SOx, NOx, CO2, CO, particulates, and chloroform. Chloroform may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen (NIEHS 1989). Water pollutants generated by kraft paper mills can increase turbidity of water, which in turn can reduce the penetration of light into water; decrease aquatic productivity; and increase alkalinity, BOD, and benthic deposition and deoxygenation. Wastewater treatment is largely effective in treating these pollutants. Dioxins have also been detected downstream from paper mills. The production of alpha-cellulose paper has health and environmental impacts similar to those associated with kraft paper. Coloring the alpha-cellulose paper involves using pigments that may contain toxic materials. Likewise, the inks used for printing patterns on the paper may contain similar toxics. Although the printing inks are recycled, cleanup water from the cylindrical plates can contain toxic ink pigments that can be released in wastewater. Titanium dioxide, a commonly used pigment, can cause slight lung fibrosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen, according to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (NIOSH 1990). Another pigment, phthalocyanine blue, is also considered hazardous (EPA 1976).
MAT 06240
PLASTIC LAMINATES
Plastic Laminates
Plastic Laminate During manufacture of laminate, solid waste is produced when the back of the finished laminate is sanded and when the edges are trimmed. Since the cured laminate is thermoset and very unreactive, the sandings and edge trimmings are difficult to recycle. They can be burned for fuel in boilers or disposed of in landfills. Decorative melamine-impregnated paper scraps can be used in melamine dinnerware. Fumes from the process can be recovered and burned as fuel. Scrap kraft paper can be recycled.
Plastic laminates have a minimal impact on indoor air quality. Studies indicate that there are no emissions of formaldehyde or other toxics once curing of the resins is complete. Plastic laminate has been found to minimize emissions released by particleboard when the particleboard is totally encapsulated in plastic laminate. Because of the inert nature of the fully cured thermosetting resins that compose the finished plastic laminate, the material is almost unrecyclable. Discarded plastic laminate is generally disposed of in landfills or burned in an incinerator. However, it should be noted that some attempts are being made to recycle scrap as in the filler layer.

Plastic laminates have two primary components: resins and paper. Most laminates are approximately 30 to 35 percent by weight resin and 65 to 70 percent by weight paper (Keeling 1992). The resins are melamine (melamine-formaldehyde) resin and phenolic (phenolformaldehyde) resin. The laminates consist of two layers: kraft paper impregnated with phenolic resin constitutes the backup or filler layer, and decorative alpha-cellulose (sulfite) paper impregnated with melamine resin constitutes the surface layer. Pigments and inks give color and pattern to the decorative paper, which constitutes 14 to 25 percent of the total paper. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of plastic laminates is presented in figure 2.
Resins
Melamine Resin
Melamine resin, or melamine-formaldehyde, impregnates the alpha-cellulose topsheet and provides a hard, transparent, stain-resistant surface for the finished laminate (Kirk-Othmer 1978). The resin, an inert polymer once it is fully cured, is produced by a catalytic condensation reaction of melamine with formaldehyde. The polymerization proceeds in two stages, with the first stage producing a low-molecular-weight fusible polymer. The second stage is terminated by neutralizing the catalyst, usually with lime. The resulting semireacted resin is then ready to be applied to the alpha-cellulose paper before lamination. Melamine is produced from urea, which is generated by the reaction of carbon dioxide and ammonia, both of which are produced from natural gas. Formaldehyde is produced from methanol, which is derived from natural gas.
Resin manufacture results in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and particulates. VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficulty breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. NOx also contribute to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry
PLASTIC LAMINATES
MAT 06240
Plastic Laminates
Figure 2: Plastic LaminatesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Melamine resin production
Stressor
Fuel combustion air emissions
Impact/Stressor
VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory tract problems, reduced lung function, asthma, nasal congestation Eye irritation Decreased visibility
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Nitrogen oxides
Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation
Carbon monoxide
Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen
Carbon dioxide Wastewater may contain residual monomers of formaldehyde and melamine Melamine may be carried off in the condensate Melamine production VOCs Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Particulates (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Formaldehyde may be carried off in the condensate
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (irritant, allergen, and possible human carcinogen)
Global warming
MAT 06240
PLASTIC LAMINATES
Plastic Laminates
Figure 2: Plastic LaminatesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Natural gas extraction and processing
Stressor
Wastewater
Impact/Stressor
May contail oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen-depleting organics
Impact/Stressor
Increased BOD Consumption of toxins by fish
Impact/Stressor
Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Fuel (diesel) combustion air emissions
VOCs Sulfur dioxide Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Particulates
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Low concentrations cause irritation of conjunctiva and mucous membranes, headache, dizziness, nausea and lassitude Poisonous in high concentrations Incineration of hydrogen sulfide releases sulfur oxides into atmosphere (see impacts above)
Removal of hydrogen sulfide from natural gas
Hydrogen sulfide
Phenolic resin production
Wastewater could contain residual monomers including formaldehyde and phenol
Formaldehyde Phenol
(see impacts above) Poisonous, caustic, skin blistering, central nervous system paralysis
Phenol production
Air emissions
VOCs Benzene
(see impacts above) Known human carcinogen Human health effects include nausea and irritation
Wastewater
May contain oil, grease, suspended solids, and oxygendepleting organics
Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation
Loss of faunal diversity Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill (see impacts above)
Discharge of produced water
May contain oil, grease, heavy metals dissolved solids, and toxic organics
continued
PLASTIC LAMINATES
MAT 06240
Plastic Laminates
Figure 2: Plastic LaminatesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Crude oil extraction (continued)
Stressor
Drilling muds, drill cuttings, and produced sands
Impact/Stressor
Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing
Deck drainage, sanitary, and domestic wastes Desalting process
Eutrophication Waterborne disease Wastewater May contain emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Phenol is a known human carcinogen Air emissions VOCs May contain oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia (see impacts above) Increased pH Increased BOD Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Air emissions from gas blowdown systems and fugitive emissions VOCs Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalanes, toluene, and xylene (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased pH (see impacts above) Some possible human carcinogens Respiratory irritation
Wastewater
May contain sulfides, ammonia oil, chlorides, mercaptans, and phenols
Catalytic cracking
Wastewater
Logging
Timber harvesting
Habitat alteration
Loss of habitat
Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
MAT 06240
PLASTIC LAMINATES
Plastic Laminates
Figure 2: Plastic LaminatesMaterials Acquisistion and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Logging (continued)
Stressor
Timber harvesting (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Soil erosion and/or runoff
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Stumps, limbs, logs
Decay of wood debris left in forest, adds nutrients and humic materials to soil
Depletion of forests
Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area
Greenhouse effect
Global warming
Fuel combustion air emissions Pulping Effluent
(see impacts above) Contains suspended solids and oxygendepleting organics Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Air emissions Paper manufacturing Air emissions
Organic sulfur compounds Fuel combustion air emissions Chloroform Lead
Odors (see impacts above) Suspected human carcinogen Retardation and brain damage Bioconcentration of dioxin and consumption of toxics by fish Fishkill
Effluent
Dioxins and toxics
Suspended solids and oxygen-depleting organics Sludge Ink manufacturing Pigments Landfill disposal Air emissions
Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Decreased landfill capacity Carbon disulfide, carbonyl disulfide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide
Respiratory irritation Headaches Dizziness Nausea and/or vomiting Odors Ground-level ozone or smog (see impacts above)
VOCs, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulates Wastewater Colorants Increased BOD
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
PLASTIC LAMINATES
MAT 06240
Plastic Laminates
oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Particulates can cause a variety of health effects, including eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, and lung damage, as well as the environmental impact of impaired visibility. The production of melamine resin may produce wastewater that contains residual monomers of formaldehyde and melamine. Although no information was found on this aspect of melamine resin production, there is a potential for unreacted melamine and formaldehyde to be carried off in the condensate from the polymerization reaction. Formaldehyde is a pungent gas and a hazardous substance. It is an irritant and an allergen and has been classified as a probable human carcinogen (EPA/CPSC 1988; NIEHS 1989). In studies of production plant workers, however, no increased risk of cancer was detected (EPA/CPSC 1988; NIEHS 1989). The fully cured resin is very stable, and no formaldehyde is normally released.
Energy Consumed
Production of 1 lb of melamine resin requires 0.790 lb of natural gas and a total of 48,500 Btus (51.2 MJ), including inherent energy of the material resource, process energy, and transportation (Franklin Associates 1991).
Melamine. Melamine is produced from urea in the presence of an aluminum catalyst. In the
process, urea gas reacts to form melamine, ammonia, and CO2. The produced gases are cooled, and the condensed melamine is recovered as finely divided crystals. The offgas is used to preheat the urea feedstock and then cool the hot reaction gases. Some of the by-product ammonia and CO2 are recycled as feedstock to produce more urea. Urea is formed from ammonia and CO2. The ammonia and CO2 are reacted at high temperature and pressure to form ammonium carbamate as an intermediate. The product is dehydrated to form urea and water. The effluent gas is stripped with CO2, and the unconverted ammonium carbamate is decomposed into ammonia and CO2 for recycling back into the reactor. Ammonia manufacture occurs primarily through the steam reforming of natural gas. In this process, steam and natural gas (or other light hydrocarbons) are fed into a primary reformer over a nickel catalyst. Most of the hydrocarbons are converted to synthesis gas (hydrogen and carbon oxides) in this primary reformer, and the remainder are converted in a secondary reformer. In the secondary reformer, air is also introduced as a source of nitrogen for the ammonia. The products of the reformers are fed into a shift converter where CO is added to react with water, producing hydrogen and CO2. Water is separated from the products of the shift converter. CO2 is removed as a coproduct of the synthesis gas. Any remaining traces of CO and CO2 are converted into methane, which does not impede further reaction as do the carbon oxides. The purified and dried reactants are then passed into an ammonia converter where the hydrogen and nitrogen unite to form ammonia (Franklin Associates 1991). CO2 is found in nature and can be produced synthetically through the combustion of carbonaceous fuels. It is often recovered from industrial and natural gases through the potassium carbonate and ethanolamine processes. CO2 is typically produced by steam reforming of natural gas and is a by-product of ammonia manufacture, which is described above. Natural gas, used in the production of ammonia and CO2, is processed in three major steps: separation of nonhydrocarbon gases, liquification, and distillation. After transport to the processing facility, nonhydrocarbon gasessuch as H2S, nitrogen, oxygen, and heliumare removed. H2S at a concentration higher than 0.25 grains per 100 standard cubic feet is removed from the gas by an amine solution. Various components are extracted from the natural gas by compression, refrigeration, and oil adsorption.
10
MAT 06240
PLASTIC LAMINATES
Plastic Laminates
Liquification and distillation involve the separation of hydrocarbons into compounds with similar boiling points. In the first stage of separation, methanethe primary constituent of natural gasis removed and the other gases are liquified and compressed. In the second stage, the heavier hydrocarbonssuch as ethaneare separated by distillation. In this process, the other hydrocarbon components are separated by evaporating and condensing the remainder of the natural gas. Other components derived from natural gas include ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10). Natural gas occurs as accumulations in porous, underground reservoirs with or without accompanying crude oil. Natural gas extraction begins with locating viable deposits of natural gas and drilling a series of development wells. Numerous wells may be drilled before a commercially viable deposit is located. At the drill site, rotary drills dig into the rock. Water with additives is pumped into the well to act as a lubricant and to remove cuttings. Additives stabilize the bore hole, prevent cave-ins, lubricate the drill bit, and counterbalance any underground pressure zones. Cuttings and mud are withdrawn from the hole and placed into a reserve pit near the drilling rig. Following the discovery of gas reserves, the well hole is cemented in place or lined with steel casings. Water is removed from the natural gas after extraction. The natural gas is transported to a gas processing facility.
Air emissions resulting from the manufacture of melamine include VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, and particulates. The health and environmental effects associated with these pollutants are discussed above under melamine resin. An additional air pollutant associated with production of ammonia and CO2, the precursors of urea, is H2S. Low concentrations of H 2 S can produce irritation of conjunctiva and mucous membranes, headache, dizziness, nausea, and lassitude; H2S is poisonous in high concentrations. Incineration of the H2S removed from natural gas generates air emissions of SOx. The SOx emissions can be eliminated by recovering the H2S for the production of sulfur and sulfuric acid (Tellus Institute 1992). The extraction and processing of natural gas for the production of ammonia and CO2 generates a variety of air and water pollutants. The primary source of air pollution during drilling operations is large diesel engines that power the drill. These air pollutants include N0x (0.169 lb/MBtu), SOx (2.85 lbs/MBtu), CO (0.0038 lb/MBtu), VOCs (0.0012 lb/MBtu), and particulates (0.0038 lb/MBtu) (Tellus Institute 1992). The environmental and health effects of these pollutants are described above under melamine resin. Air pollutants released during natural gas processing include SOx, NOx, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, ammonia, aldehydes, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, and xylene. Water pollution from natural gas extraction results from the discharge of produced water, drilling muds, drill cuttings, and produced sands. The wastewater from natural gas extraction may contain oil, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, heavy metals, dissolved solids, and toxic organics (Alexander and Greber 1991; Tellus Institute 1992). Major sources of pollution during extraction are the drilling mud and the cuttings from the bit. Drilling wastes can be disposed of on-site or off-site. The most common on-site disposal methods include evaporation and percolation, pit backfilling, landspreading, on-site treatment and discharge, subsurface injection, and discharge to surface waters. Off-site disposal options include centralized pits and treatment facilities. The majority of wastes are disposed of on-site, typically through surface discharge and subsurface injection (Tellus Institute 1992).
PLASTIC LAMINATES
MAT 06240
11
Plastic Laminates
Wastewater from natural gas processing may contain oil, oil sludge, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, dissolved solids, oxygen-depleting organics, chlorides, mercaptans, and cyanides. Natural gas is a finite resource, and production of ammonia and CO2 from natural gas depletes reserves.
Energy Consumed
To process 1 MBtu (1,055 MJ) of natural gas (including removal of water and hydrocarbon condensate, removal of nonhydrocarbon gases, liquification, and distillation), 0.793 MBtu (837 MJ) of energy is required (Tellus Institute 1992). About 0.072 MBtu (76 MJ) of diesel fuel is used to extract 1 MBtu (1,055 MJ) of gas. There are no data available on the amount of energy required to produce melamine, ammonia, or CO2 (Tellus Institute 1992).
Formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is produced most often by the exothermic oxidation and the
endothermic dehydrogenation of methanol in the presence of a silver or ferric molybdate catalyst. The two reactions are simultaneous, and the heat produced by oxidation is used for the dehydrogenation reaction. Excess heat is recovered for preheating feed stock or generating steam. The exothermic oxidation produces 50 to 60 percent of the formaldehyde in this process. Air is preheated to 54C and combines with a stream of recycled and fresh methanol. The mixture then enters the chamber containing the silver catalyst and leaves at 620C under pressure, with about 65 percent of the methanol having been converted into formaldehyde. In the methanol column, recycle methanol is separated from formaldehyde. The total formaldehyde yield is 85 to 90 percent. When ferric molybdate is used as the catalyst, the temperature is lower and the amount of air is increased (Austin 1984; Franklin Associates 1991). Methanol is manufactured from methane-rich natural gas. Whereas early manufacturing made greater use of a high-pressure process, more recent approaches rely on a low- or medium-pressure process. The most common low- or medium-pressure manufacturing operations occur through steam, combined, or multistage reforming operations. Natural gas must be desulfurized to avoid the production of by-products. The natural gas is then formed into synthesis gas (see the discussion above under melamine). From the reformer, the synthesis gas mixture is compressed and cooled, then fed to the converter. The converter contains an active copper catalyst that can convert as much as 25 percent per pass. High- and lowboiling impurities are removed, and the unreacted gas is recycled into the feedstock stream. The methanol is then purified in a distillation unit (Austin 1984; Franklin Associates 1991).
Formaldehyde is produced in an essentially closed system, so no release occurs. Formaldehyde is a pungent gas and a hazardous substance. It is an irritant and an allergen and has been classified as a probable human carcinogen; however, workers at production plants have not been found to be at any increased risk of developing cancer (EPA/CPSC 1988; NIEHS 1989).
Energy Consumed
Formaldehyde and methanol reactions are exothermic and thus do not require a net input of heat. However, the transport of the product stream and the use of compressors require an unquantified amount of energy. Production of 1 lb of formaldehyde from methanol requires 3,920 Btus (4.14 MJ) of process energy (Brown et al. 1985).
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Plastic Laminates
Phenolic Resin
Phenolic resin, or phenol-formaldehyde, bonds layers of kraft paper together to form the backup layer of the laminate. This layer includes most of the paper (75 to 86 percent of the total) in the laminate. Phenolic resins tend to be brown, however, and usually cannot be used in the finish layer. Phenolic resins, developed between 1905 and 1910, were the first completely synthetic resins. They are produced by the condensation of phenol and an aldehyde, usually formaldehyde. The production of formaldehyde is described above under melamine resin. Phenol is produced from benzene and propylene. Benzene comes from refined crude oil, and propylene is produced from either refined crude oil or natural gas. Phenolic resin can be derived from two intermediates. One type of intermediate is produced when the phenol-formaldehyde mixture reacts in an alkaline solution, resulting in a soluble, meltable substance. This substance undergoes cross-linking and hardening (polymerization) through heat treatment. Another intermediate is produced with an acid solution. This second intermediate is polymerized by the addition of an aldehyde (McGraw-Hill 1987). Whereas phenol and formaldehyde are both toxic, phenolic resin is an inert polymer. The resins are generally produced in kettle reactors with water as a diluent. Water is eventually removed from the resin by vacuum distillation.
Wastewater from phenolic resin production can contain residual monomers of formaldehyde and phenol. Phenol that is not incorporated into the resin is removed from wastewater by an activated carbon absorption or exchange process prior to activated sludge treatment. Phenol is poisonous and caustic. Ingestion of even small amounts and skin contact can cause skin blistering, central nervous system paralysis, and death. After the resin is fully cured, however, there are no known detrimental toxicological effects from the phenol. Formaldehyde, which is also toxic, is not normally released from the fully cured resin.
Energy Consumed
Production of phenol-formaldehyde requires 0.400 lb of natural gas and 0.675 lb of petroleum per pound of product. The process requires 38,400 Btus (40.5 MJ) per pound of product, including 22,835 Btus (24.1 MJ) as energy of the material resource, 14,424 Btus (15.2 MJ) of process energy, and 1,099 Btus (1.2 MJ) of transportation energy (Franklin Associates 1991).
Phenol. Phenol is produced mainly as a by-product of the oxidation and cleavage of cumene,
which is formed by the catalytic reaction and distillation of benzene and propylene. Propylene and benzene vapor are fed into a reactor in the presence of a variety of catalysts at 250C (482F) and 700 kPa (102 psi). The effluents are sent to a distillation column, where the cumene is separated. Unreacted benzene is recycled back into the reaction. The reaction of propylene and benzene is exothermic, and recovered heat vaporizes the benzene feedstock. For phenol formation, the cumene (isopropyl benzene) is oxidized at 130C (266F) in the presence of a catalyst to form cumene hydroperoxide. This is then cleaved into phenol and acetone in the presence of sulfuric acid at 60C (140F). The phenol, along with other byproducts, is neutralized with an alkali and distilled (Franklin Associates 1991; Austin 1984). Benzene may be produced in several ways. A relatively small amount is produced from crude oil by distillation in the refinery process. Most benzene is produced by catalytic reforming of light petroleum distillate (naphtha). During reforming, naphtha is treated with hydrogen and heated to remove contaminants such as sulfur and nitrogen compounds in the presence of a catalyst. Then the naphtha is fed through a catalyst bed (most often platinum) at high temperatures and pressures. Besides producing benzene, this process also produces other aromatics (toluene and xylene), hydrogen, light gas, and liquified petroleum gas. The products of
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reforming undergo solvent extraction and fractional distillation to produce pure benzene, toluene, and other by-products. The toluene can be dealkylated to produce additional benzene by thermal or catalytic cracking. In thermal cracking, toluene is heated in the presence of hydrogen, forming benzene and methane. Another possible source for benzene is pyrolysis gasoline, a by-product of propylene manufacture (described below). Pyrolysis gasoline is treated with hydrogen as naphtha is, but is not passed through a catalyst bed. The material then undergoes solvent extraction, and the aromatics are separated by distillation, producing benzene (Franklin Associates 1991; Tellus Institute 1992). Propylene is produced by thermal cracking of large hydrocarbon compounds found in natural gas or petroleum. The feedstock is heated to 700 to 900C (1,292 to 1,652F). Residence time is less than 1 second, at which point steam is introduced to prevent the production of coke. The hot gas is cooled quickly in a quench tower to stop the cracking process and prevent degradation of produced olefins, such as propylene. The gas mixture is compressed to 3,447 kPa (500 psi), passed through fractional distillation, and cooled to -160 C (-256F) to recover the propylene, pyrolysis gasoline, and other useful by-products. Crude oil, used in the production of benzene and propylene, occurs as accumulations in porous, underground reservoirs. Oil extraction begins with locating viable deposits of oil and drilling a series of development wells. Numerous wells may be drilled before a commercially viable deposit is located. At the drill site, rotary drills are used to dig into the rock. Water is pumped into the well to act as a lubricant and to remove cuttings. Additives stabilize the bore hole, prevent cave-ins, lubricate the drill bit, and counterbalance any underground pressure zones. Cuttings and mud are withdrawn from the hole and placed into a reserve pit near the drilling rig. Following the discovery of oil reserves, the well hole is cemented in place or lined with steel casings. Additives such as sand corrosion inhibitors, surfactants, and friction reducers are added to the well to stimulate the flow of oil. The oil is physically extracted by natural pressure or mechanical pumps. In some cases gases or liquids are injected into the well to force crude oil to the surface. Water is removed from the crude oil after extraction. The oil is then transported to a refinery by tankers, barges, rail tank cars, tank trucks, and pipelines. Refining of crude oil involves three processes: desalting, distillation, and catalytic cracking. In the first step, salts, sediments, and water are removed in a desalter. Dissolved salts must be removed to prevent the corrosion and poisoning of the catalysts used in the catalytic cracking and reforming processes. Distillation occurs in a multistage process that may include prefractionation, atmospheric distillation, and vacuum distillation. The result is a separation of the wide mixture of components into groups of hydrocarbons with similar boiling points. Propane, naphtha (lighter hydrocarbon compounds with lower boiling points), and gas oil (heavier hydrocarbon compounds with higher boiling points) are produced from atmospheric distillation. The heavier hydrocarbons proceed to the bottom of the atmospheric distillation unit and are called atmospheric bottoms. The bottoms are passed through a vacuum distillation process and then cracked to produce lighter hydrocarbons. The gas oil from the atmospheric distillation and vacuum distillation processes provide the feedstock for catalytic cracking. In this process, the gas oil is exposed to a catalyst and heated to 840 to 950F (450 to 510C), which forces the hydrocarbons to break into two-carbon and lighter gases, naphtha, gasoline, and light and heavy gas oil (Tellus Institute 1992; Franklin Associates 1991).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Phenol
Manufacture of phenol results in air emissions of VOCs. The environmental impacts associated with VOCs are described above under melamine resin. In the production of benzene, 1.1 lbs of VOCs are released into the air for every ton of benzene produced, and
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Plastic Laminates
0.00015 lb of toluene is released for every pound of toluene used. Water pollutants found in the largest quantity in raw wastewater resulting from the production of 1 ton of benzene by the catalytic reforming process and the toluene dealkylation process include organics (total organic carbon, 0.750 lb), oil and grease (0.0000613 lb), suspended solids (total suspended solids, 1.86 lbs), and benzene (0.0248 lb). Of these pollutants, only benzene (0.00440 lb per ton of benzene produced) was detectable. The manufacture of 1 lb of benzene (combining all processes with available information) requires 1.96 lbs of naphtha and 0.41 lb of toluene but produces the same amount of toluene (0.41 lb) and 0.93 lb of raffinate (Tellus Institute 1992). Benzene is a known human carcinogen and has been found to cause leukemia (NIEHS 1989). It is also an irritant and can cause nausea and abdominal pain (NIOSH 1990). To produce 1 ton of propylene, 1 lb of VOCs is released into the air. Sources of wastewater from thermal cracking include furnace effluent from the reactor, quench tower, acid gas scrubber, and compressors. Water pollutants found in the largest quantities in raw wastewater resulting from the production of 1 ton of propylene from gas and naphtha/gas oil feeds include organics (total organic carbon, 0.591 lb), oil and grease (0.147 lb), suspended solids (total suspended solids, 0.0712 lb), benzene (0.0634 lb), naphthalene (0.0186 lb), and toluene (0.0402 lb). Of these pollutants, only benzene (0.00000516 lb), naphthalene (0.00000337 lb), and toluene (0.00000210 lb) were detectable in treated wastewater. The manufacture of 1 lb of propylene (combining all processes with available information) requires 0.81 lb of ethane, 1.54 lbs of propane, 2.08 lbs of naphtha, and 2.64 lbs of heavy gas oil, but it produces 2.56 lbs of ethylene, 0.54 lb of four-carbon compounds, 1.13 lbs of pyrolysis gasoline, 0.66 lb of fuel oil, and 1.17 lbs of offgas (Tellus Institute 1992). Production of benzene and propylene, the precursors of phenol, depletes reserves of crude oil.
Energy Consumed During Manufacture of Phenol
No data are available on the amount of energy required to produce phenol from benzene and propylene. The manufacture of 1 lb of benzene (combining all processes with available information) requires 29,076 Btus (30.7 MJ) of energy. The manufacture of 1 lb of propylene requires 27,526 Btus (29.0 MJ) of energy (Tellus Institute 1992).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Extraction and Processing of Crude Oil
During oil extraction, the water pollution that is generated results from discharge of produced water (generated during extraction), drilling muds, drill cuttings, and produced sands. For offshore and coastal extraction, there are also deck drainage and sanitary and domestic wastes. The wastewater may contain oil, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, heavy metals, dissolved solids, and toxic organics (Alexander and Greber 1991; Tellus Institute 1992). Major sources of pollution in the drilling system are the drilling mud and the cuttings from the bit. Basic mud components include bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda (Alexander and Greber 1991). Drilling wastes can be disposed of on-site or off-site. The most common on-site disposal methods include evaporation and percolation, pit backfilling, landspreading, on-site treatment and discharge, subsurface injection, and discharge to surface waters. Off-site disposal options include centralized pits and treatment facilities (Tellus Institute 1992). The primary source of air pollution during drilling operations is large diesel engines that power the drill. Air pollutants emitted during drilling operations include NOx (0.0372 lb/MBtu), SOx (0.0272 lbs/MBtu), CO (0.001 lb/MBtu), VOCs (0.0212 lb/MBtu), and particulates (0.0070 lb/MBtu). The environmental and health effects of these pollutants are described above under melamine resin.
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In the transportation and storage of oil before refining, the sediment and water in the oil can separate, forming a bottom layer beneath the oil. This layer, called bottom sludge, includes emulsified oil. When the sludge is drawn off, it can contaminate groundwater or sewers. Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can increase the organic matter in water as measured by BOD. The cleaning of tankers and storage tanks releases oil and suspendedsolid water pollutants with the wastewater. During processing of the oil, wastewater from the desalting process contains emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids. These pollutants result in increased BOD, deoxygenation of surface waters, and possible fishkill. Wastewater from the distillation process includes sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, mercaptans, and phenols. Catalytic cracking units produce wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia. These pollutants increase the pH level as well as BOD. Desalting also causes thermal pollution because the wastewater is often over 200F (95C). Air emissions from desalting are negligible. The only notable air pollutant from distillation is the VOCs produced during vacuum distillation. Catalytic cracking is a major source of air pollution from oil refineries. Other major sources include gas blowdown systems used to dispose of waste or excess gas and fugitive emissions. Fugitive emissions result from faulty equipment, accidents, inadequate maintenance, and poor planning. Pollutants released by these major sources in the absence of pollution control include VOCs, SO x , NO x , CO, particulates, ammonia, aldehydes, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, and xylene. CO, ammonia, and aldehydes can be controlled to negligible levels, whereas the other pollutants are still detectable even with active pollution controls. Observed levels of the pollutants from the major sources range from 6,850 lbs of CO (uncontrolled) per 1,000 barrels of crude oil processed to 0.0000155 lb of benzo(a)pyrene (controlled) per 1,000 barrels of crude oil processed. Average refinery capacity reported is 64,000 barrels per day (Tellus Institute 1992).
Energy Consumed During Extraction and Processing of Crude Oil
About 0.072 MBtu (76 MJ) of diesel fuel is used to extract 1 MBtu (1,055 MJ) of oil. In addition, electric pumps and heater treater separators use 0.015 MBtu (15.8 MJ) per MBtu (1,055 MJ) of crude oil energy (Tellus Institute 1992). The desalting of 1 lb (7.3 gallons) of crude oil requires 3.34 Btus (3,524 J), including 0.08 Btu (84.4 J) of process fuel and 3.26 Btus (3,439 J) of electricity. The atmospheric distillation of crude oil requires 378 Btus (0.399 MJ) per pound of oil. Production of 1 lb of naphtha by distillation from crude oil requires 19,521 Btus (20.3 MJ), of which 378 Btus (0.399 MJ) are used in process energy. Although 4.62 lbs of crude oil are needed to manufacture each pound of naphtha, the process energy is thought to amount to only 378 Btus (0.399 MJ)the energy for 1 pound of oil. The other 3.62 lbs of oil produce useful by-products to which the additional process energy is apportioned. It is assumed that heavy gas oil has the same energy and material requirements as naphtha. Crude oil processing, including desalting, atmospheric distillation, vacuum distillation, catalytic cracking, hydrotreating, and catalytic reforming, requires 2,766.55 Btus (2.9 MJ) per pound of crude oil refined (Tellus Institute 1992).
Formaldehyde. The production of formaldehyde, the other component of phenolic resin, is
discussed above under melamine resin.
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Plastic Laminates
Papers Two types of paper are required for the production of plastic laminates. The bottom layer or filler is brown kraft paper, similar to the paper found in grocery bags. The top layer is very refined alpha-cellulose on which the color or pattern is produced with pigment or ink.
Kraft Paper
The production of kraft paper, including the waste produced, natural resources depleted, and energy consumed during manufacture, is described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). The kraft paper used as plastic laminate substrate, unlike that used in gypsum board, is produced from virgin materials.
Alpha-Cellulose (Sulfite) Paper
The top layer of paper is composed of alpha-cellulose and is approximately 14 to 25 percent of the total paper component. Alpha-cellulose used in plastic laminate manufacture is produced from virgin material; however, manufacturers are currently conducting research to adapt their processes to use recycled paper. Except for the pulping and bleaching processes, alpha-cellulose paper is produced with the same techniques as kraft paper. The alpha-cellulose fibers are produced from wood by the sulfite extraction of lignin. Although alpha-cellulose can also be obtained from cotton clippings or linters remaining on cotton seeds, fibers from these alternative sources are bulky and more difficult to use than alpha-cellulose obtained from wood (McKetta 1977). In the sulfite pulping process, wood chips are digested in an aqueous calcium or magnesium bisulfite [(Ca(HSO3)2 or Mg(HSO3)2)] and an excess of SO2. In this digestion process, two reactions occur: sulfonation and solubilizing of lignin and hydrolytic splitting of the cellulose-lignin complex. Sulfur is oxidized in a rotary burner to SO2, which is then cooled quickly. The gas is then absorbed in water containing calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, or magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2). The digesting liquor is a solution of Ca(HSO3)2, Mg(HSO3)2, or ammonium bisulfite with about 4.5 percent total SO2 and about 3.5 percent free SO2. The digester is a steel cylinder (with an acid-resistant liner) that can be filled with 1 to 20 tons of wood chips and 10,000 to 200,000 liters of steam-heated acidic digesting liquor. The digestion process occurs at a temperature of 170 to 176C (338 to 348F) and a pressure of 480 to 1,100 kPa (70 to 160 psi) for 6 to 12 hours. The products of the digester are then blown into a tank where the pulp can be washed with fresh water. The digesting liquor (weak red liquor) is evaporated and burnt in a boiler to generate steam. Assuming that Mg(HSO3)2 has been used, magnesium oxide (MgO) and SO2 are produced. The MgO is then slaked to Mg(OH)2 and recycled along with the SO2 to make new bisulfite liquor. The pulp is screened and centrifuged to remove lumps and foreign material. The pulp is then concentrated on thickening screens that allow water to pass through but retain the pulp. The pulp then goes to the bleacher where chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is added. After the chlorine is exhausted, the pulp is neutralized with milk of lime. The pulp is then washed, thickened, and passed to the machine stock chest. Low-molecularweight cellulose, pentosans, and polyuronic acids are then removed from the nonligneous wood fraction by washing the extracted material with 17.5 percent sodium hydroxide (Austin 1984; McKetta 1977; Kirk-Othmer 1982). The paper is colored while in the pulp stage during stock preparation by the addition of various pigments. The pigments must be selected depending upon expected use. Consideration must be given to such factors as resistance to sunlight, acid, alkali, bleach, and solvents to allow for different production processes and paper uses. This will minimize fading and bleeding. Titanium dioxide both improves opacity of the paper and provides a white color. Other major pigments include iron oxide (brown), yellow oxide (yellow), red oxide (red), and black
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iron oxide (black). These all produce somewhat dull colors. If bright, intense colors are required, the following pigments could be used: phthalocyanine blue for various red, green, and yellow shades; phthalo blue and phthalo yellow for bright, clear green shades; and quinacridone for a candy-apple red shade (Fugate 1993). During the paper preparation phase, melamine resin may be added to some alpha-cellulose paper to give the paper wet strength.
Pigments and Inks. The color patterns seen on the surface of high-pressure decorative lami-
nates are produced by printing on the raw alpha-cellulose paper before it is impregnated and laminated. The pigments and inks used in the production of plastic laminates are generally water based and rarely contain heavy metals. The primary supplier of printed paper for a major plastic laminator uses 100 percent waterbased inks, which contain no lead or heavy metals. The components of the ink include water (the vehicle), glycol ether (a wetting agent), glycerol (a wetting agent), modified resin (to hold pigments in suspension while the ink is liquid), and starch (to bind the pigment to the paper). Major pigments include titanium dioxide (white, very common), carbon black (black, very common), diazo yellow (yellow), phthalocyanine (blue), and quinacridone (red). The patterns on decor sheets are printed by the rotogravure process. In rotogravure, cylindrical plates are etched mechanically or chemically with the image to be printed. In the mechanical process, a stylus (helioklischograph) digs out cells in the plate with a resolution of up to 200 lines per inch. In the chemical process, the plate is etched by acid to produce the desired pattern. The cylinders are removable from the rotogravure press and are of different sizes so that different print lengths can be achieved from job to job. The press consists of a printing cylinder, an impression cylinder, and an inking system. Ink is applied to the printing cylinder by a roller or spray. Excess is removed by a blade and returned to the ink supply. This leaves ink only in the etched cells of the cylindrical plate. The impression cylinder, formed from a resilient rubber, presses the paper into contact with the ink in the cells of the printing cylinder, and an image is formed on the paper (Marra 1993; Kirk-Othmer 1982). The image to be printed on the paper is coordinated with the color of the background. For instance, a wood-grain pattern would be achieved by printing a black grain pattern over a brown background.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Alpha-Cellulose Paper
The environmental impacts associated with timber harvesting, logging, chipping, and debarking are described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). The environmental impacts unique to the production of alpha-cellulose (sulfite) paper are described below. Disposal of the waste digesting liquor is a major problem since more than half of the raw material entering the process exists in that liquid as dissolved organic solids. Waste liquor from Ca(HSO3)2 digestion cannot be recycled because the Ca(HSO3)2 does not decompose to release SO2. Instead, calcium sulfate (CaSO4) is formed. One method of eliminating this problem is to replace the traditional calcium carbonate with Mg(OH)2 in the liquor generation reaction. The resulting liquor can be burned to retrieve heat for the process along with reactant chemicalsMg(OH)2 and SO2. As a result, the Mg(HSO3)2 process is preferred. It also produces quicker digestion. The waste liquor from the Mg(HSO3)2 process can also be used for recovering lignin, making vanillin from the lignin, and making tanning materials, road binders, portland cement accelerators, core binders, and food yeast (Austin 1984; Kirk-Othmer 1982). One major plastic laminate manufacturer reports that no lead or heavy metals are present in the pigments or papers that it incorporates into plastic laminates (Keeling 1992).
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Plastic Laminates
The pigments used in production of plastic laminates may contain toxic compounds. According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, titanium dioxide can cause slight lung fibrosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen (NIOSH 1990); according to EPA, phthalocyanine blue is hazardous (EPA 1976). These substances are of concern when demolition waste is burned. Excess ink on the cylinder is removed and recycled. However, wastewater from cleaning the cylindrical plate could contain small amounts of the toxic pigments and other components of the ink.
Energy Consumed During Manufacture of Alpha-Cellulose Paper
The energy required for timber harvesting and hauling is provided in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Sulfite pulping requires 2,625 Btus per pound of airdried pulp. An additional 4,140 Btus are required for papermaking and 2,030 Btus per pound of finished product for chemical recovery (American Gas Association 1988). Energy is also required to formulate pigments and inks, to run motors for the rotogravure press, to dry paper during printing runs, and for paper handling and transport. There are no data available on the amount of energy required for printing.

In the manufacture of plastic laminate, kraft paper sheets are impregnated with phenolic resin, and the decorative pattern and overlay sheets are impregnated with melamine resin. The decorative pattern and coloration are printed or applied to the raw alpha-cellulose paper before impregnation with melamine resin. One manufacturer estimates that 95 percent of the resins are now water based, and the percentage continues to grow (Keeling 1992). The papers are impregnated by immersion in a resin bath. The saturated sheets are partially cured in a heated drying oven to set the resins and allow the paper to be handled; however, complete crossbonding is not achieved. These sheets are placed in a hydraulic press between polished steel plates. Several alternating layers of resin paper and polished steel plate are placed in the press at a time. In a typical operation, a press with 22 openings is loaded with laminate packs. Each opening will have one pack inserted. A pack is formed on top of an iron plate about 0.25 in. thick and as large as the sheets of paper to be pressed. On top of the iron plate is placed a cushion of several sheets of raw kraft paper. Several layers of laminates, typically 16, are placed over the cushion. Each laminate layer is a sandwich of materials. The first layer of the sandwich is the polished steel plate. On top is placed an overlay of plain alpha-cellulose (sometimes with a tan color to give depth to wood-grain printing) impregnated with melamine resin. This overlay will form the very top layer in the final product. On top of this is placed the decor sheet, which is printed alpha-cellulose (for wood-grain or pattern designs) or colored-stock alpha-cellulose that has been impregnated with melamine resin. Following this is the filler or backup layer, composed of kraft paper sheets impregnated with phenolic resin. A wax separator sheet is then placed between this first laminate sandwich and the one immediately following. The next sandwich is built up the same way as the first sandwich, but in reverse order: a kraft and phenolic layer, the next decorative melamine layer, the overlay, and another polished steel plate. The overlay layer of the following sandwich is placed on the other side of this steel plate, and the remaining sandwiches in the pack are stacked in succession. After the laminate layers are pressed and heated, two sheets of plastic laminate are produced when the laminate sandwiches are separated at the wax separator sheet. The overlay paper is initially opaque white or translucent white (unless it has been colored tan) but turns transparent during final lamination. The refractive index of the cured melamine resin is almost the same as that of cellulose. The texture of the overlay sheet is formed by the stainless steel caul plates or by a pattern sheet. The steel plate is polished for a
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glossy texture or etched for a matte texture. A texture with more relief can be provided by means of a pattern sheet. The pattern sheet is coated with a patterned, highly reactive melamine resin. It can produce a coarser texture like slate, for instance. If used, it is placed between the caul plate and the surface of the overlay. The packs are subjected to heat of over 265F (128C) and pressure of 800 to 1,400 lbs/ft2 for 50 to 90 minutes. This thermosetting process produces cross-links between the polymer molecules and forms a permanent bond among the materials. Finally, the back is sanded or scarified to improve adhesion, and the sheet is trimmed to size. Following lamination, the sheets are inspected for defects. Defective sheets can be used as backing-grade laminate in areas that are hidden from view. If the defect has to be removed, it may be sanded out. Alternatively, a large sheet can be cut down to a smaller size, and the defective piece will be disposed of. At least 90 to 95 percent of high-pressure decorative laminates are produced from the components described above. Some specialty products may also be produced. Such laminates may be formed from polyester or epoxy resins for specific applications, such as laboratory bench tops. Metal foil may be applied as the decorative layer with a coat of polyurethane. Phenol-formaldehyde resin may form the top layer where certain chemical resistance is required. Alternatively, laminates produced in the normal manner may be topcoated with such materials as polyurethane or polyester. Where extra flame resistance is required, the resin or paper in the filler layers can be treated with flame-retardant salts, such as dibasic ammonium phosphate. This report does not address these specialty laminates. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacturing and fabrication of plastic laminates is presented in figure 3.
During the manufacturing process, solid waste is produced from sanding the back of the finished laminate and from edge trim. The fully cured laminate is thermoset and unreactive. As a result, it is difficult to recycle, but some attempts are being made to recycle scrap in the filler layer. Manufacturers are able to recover and reuse or recycle some of the waste: sanding dust and trimmings can be burned for fuel in boilers, decorative paper scraps can be used in melamine dinnerware, phenolic treater fumes can be recovered and burned for fuel, and scrap kraft paper can be recycled.
Energy Consumed
No data are available on the amount of energy required for the manufacture of plastic laminate.
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Plastic Laminates
Figure 3: Plastic LaminatesManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Plastic laminate manufacture
Stressor
Solid waste from sanding the back of the laminate and edge trimmings
Impact/Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Incineration (combustion emissions)
Sulfur oxides
Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree and/or crop damage Materials corrosion
Nitrogen oxides
Ground-level ozone or smog Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Decreased visibility
Greenhouse effect Global warming Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen
VOCs
Ground-level ozone or smog Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Decreased visibility
Particulates
Printing
Wastewater from cleaning plates
Pigments and waste ink
Some pigments are toxic Consumption of toxics by fish
Possible fishkill
Excess ink
Recycled
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Plastic Laminates
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Plastic laminates are usually bonded to a surface, such as plywood or particleboard, before or during installation. Adhesives are used to bond the plastic laminate to the surface. The various surfaces and adhesives used in the installation of plastic laminates are beyond the scope of this report. Plastic laminates require no special care or maintenance. Laminated products can be cleaned with a mild liquid detergent or household cleaner. Most laminates, depending on the thickness of the top coating and finish, are scratch and impact resistant. Care should be taken to avoid cutting or pounding the laminated surface to prevent damage. Light scrubbing may be needed to clean highly textured surfaces. Many surface stains can be removed or reduced by the use of bleach or a solvent, such as denatured alcohols (Formica Corporation 1988). Although an uncommon occurrence, laminates may crock or bleed when initially washed. This occurs when an organic dye, applied to the decorative paper before resin impregnation, washes out of the paper while in the impregnation bath. As a result, some dye is found in the resin layer over the paper. Normally, the dye will adhere to the paper and not migrate into the resin. When a laminate with organic dye in the resin is washed, a trace of the dye may bleed into the washwater. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with construction, use, and maintenance of plastic laminates is presented in figure 4.
Waste generated during construction or fabrication includes trim scrap and waste adhesive. These wastes are usually disposed of in landfills.
Because of the stability of the resins that compose plastic laminates, no studies have detected emissions of formaldehyde from these laminates. A study by the National Particleboard Association investigated for the presence of formaldehyde emissions and found none (Keeling 1992). A study by the EPA did not detect any emissions of aliphatic and oxygenated aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or halogenated hydrocarbons from plastic laminate (EPA 1988a). Plastic laminates can have the benefit of minimizing emissions from particleboard. A study by the American Furniture Manufacturers Association found that formaldehyde emissions from particleboard were reduced by 90 percent when particleboard was completely encapsulated by plastic laminates (Keeling 1992). In regard to flammability, plastic laminates are hard to ignite. Standard plastic laminates have a class 2 or B flame-spread rating, and fire-resistant plastic laminates are available with a class 1 or A flame-spread rating. As a result, plastic laminates will not cause problems in the early stages of a building fire. In New York State toxicity tests, plastic laminate showed a smoke toxicity similar to that of wood.
Energy Consumed
No data are available on the energy consumed during the construction, use, and maintenance of plastic laminates.

After manufacture, plastic laminates are almost unrecyclable because they are a composite material with thermosetting resins. Therefore, plastic laminates and, generally, the surface to which they are adhered are disposed of in a landfill or burned in an incinerator. A summary
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Figure 4: Plastic LaminatesContruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity
Construction and/or fabrication
Stressor
Solid waste from trim scrap and waste adhesive
Impact/Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Sulfur oxides
Nitrogen oxides
VOCs
Particulates
PLASTIC LAMINATES
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23
Plastic Laminates
Figure 5: Plastic LaminatesRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity
Disposal
Stressor
Refuse laminate usually attached to particleboard or plywood
Impact/Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Sulfur oxides
Nitrogen oxides
VOCs
Particulates
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Plastic Laminates
of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycle, reuse, or disposal of plastic laminates is presented in figure 5.
Industry Perspective: Formica Corporation When the subject is the environmental impact of specifying high-pressure decorative laminates, it is important to keep a sense of context against an established frame of reference. Without context, the Btus consumed in making a pound of melamine or phenolic, the atmospheric pollution caused by paper making, the increase of the greenhouse effect, or lost habitat for various species all sound fairly grim.
Compare high-pressure decorative laminates with other commodities high in consumer demand. How much paper does the decorative laminate industry use compared with daily newspaper publication, for instance, or the use of toilet tissue? What percentage of the total U.S. chemical production is for melamine and phenolic resin that is used in decorative laminates? Also consider the alternatives to high-pressure decorative laminates, for a kitchen countertop, for example, or a restaurant table, bank counter, or hospital workstation. Some alternative materials might be hardwood veneer with a polyurethane finish, sheets of stainless steel, ceramic tile, artificial marble (a combination of polyester or acrylic resin and mineral fillers), paint, vinyl sheeting, or an epoxy coating. Ask what the environmental impacts are of each of these materials. They may be greater or less than the impacts of decorative laminate, but none of them is without impact. A high-pressure decorative laminate is 65 to 70 percent paper, and wood is a renewable natural resource. With the forest cover increasing in the U.S., as reported in the Environmental Resource Guide, decorative laminate is a fairly environmentally friendly material. We all must, of course, continue to find ways to reduce environmental impact. Laminates have become thinner over the years and use less total material while technology has maintained their excellent performance. All heavy metal pigments have been eliminated within the last few years, and some attempts are being made to recycle ground-up scrap as a filler (U.S. Patent 5,215,695). The Formica Corporation hopes that readers of the Environmental Resource Guide will put high-pressure decorative laminates in context with alternative surfacing materials and overall use of chemicals and woods. Within that context, decorative laminates prove to be acceptable and very desirable materials.
Regulatory Status
Materials in the life cycle of plastic laminates become at least partially regulated in practically all stages. In the materials preparation stage, any point source water discharge of processgenerated wastewater may be subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act (CWA). Agriculture and forestry are increasingly subject to regulation for chemical use, runoff, and soil erosion under both federal and state law. Chemical use is regulated under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and in some instances under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). TSCA also regulates certain aspects of radon and asbestos remediation. In the manufacturing stage, heat sources and manufacturing processes may be subject to emission standards under the Clean Air Act (CAA). As in the materials preparation stage, in the manufacturing stage any point source water discharge of process-generated wastewater may be subject to regulation under the CWA.
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Plastic Laminates
Regulatory Status
Storage, treatment, and disposal of any solid or hazardous wastes in the manufacturing process may be subject to regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and under state solid-waste laws. Improper release of hazardous substances on any industrial, commercial, or residential site can result in cleanup requirements and substantial liability for damages under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). Some very large construction projects may have requirements under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) if there is sufficient federal involvement. Local governments increasingly place significant environmental requirements on construction through their planning and zoning authority. Impacts to drinking-water sources can result in requirements under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Typically, construction and demolition wastes are subject to state and local solid-waste laws and ordinances. Although this regulatory coverage is significant and pervasive, gaps still exist, particularly in the areas of toxic and hazardous process constituents. Principal regulatory requirements of each stage of the plastic laminate life cycle are identified and described briefly below.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Logging operations on national forest lands are subject to national forest management plans that are increasingly requiring best management practices to reduce the adverse environmental effects of forestry. These requirements are also increasingly being applied through state regulation and in some cases and for long-term economic reasons alone, on private forest lands. In pulping operations, barking processes may be subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 429, subpart A, which forbids the discharge of process wastewater to waters of the U.S. for mechanical barking operations and sets effluent guidelines for BOD5, total suspended solids (TSS), and pH for hydraulic barking operations. Manufacturing and Fabrication Stage Most manufacturing operations are not subject to specific effluent guidelines. Hence, their discharges must be monitored under generic National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit requirements for at least the five conventional pollutants of BOD5, TSS, pH, fecal coliform, and oil and grease, which must be treated using best conventional pollution control technology (BCT). EPA has also developed a list of 126 toxic pollutants from 65 classes of chemical compounds that may be required to be monitored and treated with best available technology economically achievable (BAT). All other pollutants are designated nonconventional and may also require treatment under BAT.
Stationary heat sources at large manufacturing operations may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100 tons/year threshold for any CAA pollutant. New stationary heat sources at such facilities, or substantial modification of existing stationary heat sources, may be subject to CAA new source performance standards (NSPS) under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. They may also be subject to prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) standards under 40 CFR Part 51, which requires monitoring, and potentially applying control technology, for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead, plus the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals (where applicable), which are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i). Bleached-kraft-paper mills and sulfite paper mills are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 430, subparts H, I, J, and K, which place limits on BOD5, TSS, pH, pentachlorophenol, and trichlorophenol. Increasingly, attention is being given to priority toxic
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Regulatory Status
pollutants and nonconventional pollutants, such as dioxin, in new plant treatment systems as well as in upgrades of existing treatment systems. Bleached-kraft-paper mills may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. New bleached-kraft-paper mills (including associated lime kilns), or substantial modification of existing bleached-kraftpaper mills, are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart BB, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. They are also subject to PSD standards under 40 CFR Part 51, which requires monitoring, and potentially applying control technology, for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead, plus the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals (where applicable), which are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i). Solid and hazardous waste generated in the materials acquisition and processing stages are regulated under state and local regulations and to a lesser extent by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Sludges from the recycled papermaking process may have significant RCRA treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) facility compliance requirements, particularly in larger mills, where sludge volumes are most likely to be most significant.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance and Recycling, Reuse , or Disposal Stages Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid waste requirements, which vary widely from state to state.
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Plastic Laminates
References
References
Alexander, Susan and Brian Greber. 1991. Environmental Ramifications of Various Building Materials Used in Construction and Manufacture in the United States. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. October. American Gas Association. 1988. Industrial Sector Energy Analysis: The Paper Industry. Arlington, VA. February. American Paper Institute. 1986. U.S. Pulp and Paperboard Industry Energy Use Survey, 1975-1986. Energy and Materials Department. Austin, George. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill . Brown, Harry L., Bernard B. Hamel, Bruce A. Hedman, Michael Koluch, Birar C. Gajanana, and Philip Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. U.S. Department of Energy, Contract Number E(11-1)2862, Fairmont Press Edition. Forbes, David R. 1992. Mills Preparing for Next Century with New Pulping, Bleaching Technologies. Pulp and Paper. September. Formica Corporation. 1988. Caring for FORMICA Brand Laminate and ColorCore Brand Surfacing Material. Cincinnati: Formica Corporation. Franklin Associates. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries., Washington, DC: The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. Fugate, Leonard. 1993. Sorg Paper Company., Telephone interview. September 23. Heimberger, Stanley A., D. Blevins, J. Bostwick, and G. Donnini. 1988. Kraft Mill Bleach Plant Effluents: Recent Developments Aimed at Decreasing Their Environmental Impact, Part 1. Tappi Journal. October. Hileman, B. 1992. Industrial Ecology Route to Slow Global Change Proposed. Chemical and Engineering News. August 24. Keeling, Ronald. 1992. Manager, Research and Testing. Formica Corporation, Cincinnati, Ohio. Telephone interview. September 9. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1978. Vol. 2. NY: John Wiley & Sons. ______. 1982. Vol. 19. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
MacCleery, Douglas W. 1990. Brief Overview of the Condition and Trends of the U.S. Forests. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. March 15. Marra, Diana. 1993. Process Engineer. Formica Corporation, Cincinnati, OH. Telephone interview. September 22. McGraw-Hill. 1987. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. 6th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. McKetta, John J., executive ed. 1977. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 2, Additives to Alpha. NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1990. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Rubin, Edward S. et al. 1992. Realistic Mitigation Options for Global Warming. Science 257 (July 10). Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter Its Mix. May. ______. 1991. The Tellus Institute Packaging Study Project Summary. November. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1992. National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 1991. Office of Air and Radiation. October. ______. 1988a. Indoor Air Quality in Public Buildings. Vol. 2. U.S. EPA/Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, contract no. 68-02-4068, EPA/600/688/009b. ______. 1988b. Toxics Release Inventory. Office of Toxic Substances. ______. 1976. Assessment of Industrial Hazardous Waste Practices: Paint and Allied Products Industry Contract Solvent Reclaiming Operations, and Factory Applications of Coatings. Report No. SW-119c under contract no. 68-01-2656. EPA/CPSC. 1988. The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality. EPA/400/1-88/004.
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Material Report
Thermal Insulation*
Highlights
The fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as blowing or expansion agents in polymeric plastic foam insulation materials have been found to damage stratospheric ozone, which has been linked to increased incidence of cataracts, skin cancer, and depression of the human immune system. The energy-conserving properties of thermal insulation offer significant environmental benefits. Energy required to produce insulation varies depending on the product used, and data are not yet available in a form appropriate for comparisons.
Energy Consumption
Indoor Air Quality
Concerns associated with insulation include release of fibers and/or volatile organic compounds during installation or use. Environmental concerns related to asbestos insulation may arise during renovations and demolitions. Consult EPAs National Emissions Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP).
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1993. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 THERMAL INSULATION MAT 07200
Thermal Insulation
Background
Background
There are many different types of insulation, including acoustical insulation, fireproofing, and thermal insulation. This report covers only thermal insulationspecifically, the most common thermal insulation materials: fiberglass, mineral wool, foam, and cellulose. These various materials have different characteristics and performance qualities, but this report addresses only the environmental aspects of using them for insulation. A summary of the types of materials, the forms in which they are available, their typical applications, and the salient environmental concerns associated with them is given in figure 1. Urea formaldehyde (UF) foam insulation is not included because it is no longer used; asbestos, which was widely used in the past, is discussed only as a concern during renovation or demolition under regulatory status. It is no longer used for thermal insulation in new construction in the United States.
Figure 1: Common Thermal Insulation Materialsa

Material typeb Fiberglass/ Mineral wool Polyurethane foam Polyisocyanurate foam Extruded polystyrene Expanded polystyrene (EPS) Phenolic Formb Batts, board, blankets, loose fill Board, foamed in place Board, foamed in place Board Applicationsb Ceilings, walls, floors, roofs Ceilings, walls, roof Ceilings, walls, roofs Foundations, ceilings, walls, roofs Roofs, walls, ceilings Roofs Environmental considerationsc Fibers possibly carcinogenic; resins in board forms may emit very small amounts of VOC Traditionally expanded with CFC-11; now use non-CFC alternatives such as HCFC-141b Expanded with CFC-11; non-CFC alternatives not yet commercially available; VOCs emmisions possible Traditionally expanded with CFC-12; DOW and Amoco have switched to HCFC-142b; VOCs emissions possible Expanded with pentane gas; not ozone depleting, but contributes to ground level smog; VOC emissions possible Traditionally expanded with CFC-11; alternatives not yet commercially available; VOC emissions possible Inorganic; no VOCs; expanded with CO2; no CFCs Made of recycled paper and cardboard; VOC emissions possible from some fire retardants
Board
Board
Mg silicate (Air Krete) Cellulose
foamed in place loose fill, wet spray fiber base
walls ceilings, walls, roofs
Notes
a These b List
materials fall within the Construction Specification Institutes Masterformat section numbers 07210-07220. of materials types, forms, applications from Wilkes, Joseph, ed. 1989. Encyclopedia of Architecture, Design, Engineering, and Construction. Vol. 3. NY: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 44-45; and LaCrosse, Robert A. 1990. Performed Board Insulations used in Low-Sloped Roofing Systems. International Journal of Roofing Technology. pp. 61-64. c List of environmental considerations from Wilson, Alex. February 1991. Insulation Update. Architecture. p. 96.
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Thermal Insulation
Analysis of the environmental impacts of insulation materials and comparison of alternative materials should take into account the entire life cycle of each material, from cradle to grave. Life-cycle analyses are intended to be thorough, quantitative assessments of all aspects of the life cycle. Complete life-cycle data on most thermal insulation materials are not available. Information for this report was gathered from published reports, several manufacturers of insulation products, and industry associations, including the Thermal Insulation Manufacturers Association (TIMA), which has disbanded; the Mineral Insulation Manufacturers Association (MIMA), which has become the North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA); the Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association (PIMA); and the Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association (CIMA). A full list of sources is included under the heading References. Although this report is not able to present a complete life-cycle analysis of thermal insulation materials, it does provide a descriptive analysis of the major known environmental considerations associated with these materials at every stage in their life cycles, including depletion of natural resources, generation of hazardous and nonhazardous wastes, energy consumption, and effects on human health. The energy-conserving properties of thermal insulation offer significant environmental benefits. Today it is estimated that residential housing with current insulation consumes 10.7 quads of energy per year and commercial buildings with current insulation consume 6.8 quads per year (Brown 1991). The total of 17.5 quads per year equals nearly 3 billion barrels of oil per year. (One quad equals 1,015 Btus/yr.) Most forms of energy production cause pollution. This pollution includes air emissions from fossil fuel electric power plants. These emissions are linked to global warming and acid deposition, damage to natural resources caused by coal mining and drilling for oil, potential damage to the environment from oil spills, and potential accidents involved in the operation of nuclear power plants and disposal of their waste. Use of thermal insulation helps reduce energy demand, which in turn helps reduce these environmental risks. Different environmental considerations are associated with each type of insulation. These include stratospheric ozone depletion resulting from the use of CFCs to produce some types of insulation, release of fibers and/or volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during installation or use of some types of insulation, and the volume of solid waste that results from disposal of the product after use. In addition, there are environmental concerns related to asbestos insulation that may arise during renovation or demolition and indoor air quality concerns related to in-place UF foam insulation. Several new insulation products have been developed or are being developed to respond to one or more of these environmental concerns. One new product is a cementitious, magnesium silicate-based, foamed-in-place product called Air Krete. It is expanded with compressed air and contains no CFCs. As it is entirely inorganic, it does not emit VOCs and is fireproof. However, it is friable and relatively expensive (Wilson 1991; Bierman-Lytle, 1991). Other insulation products on the horizon include bricks filled with silica powder, multilayered foil material that encloses inert gases, and evacuated panels. These materials have very high R-values but are still in the development stages. Research on these emerging technologies and materials is being conducted at the Solar Energy Research Institute in Golden, Colorado; Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee; and Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in California, among other places (Wilson 1991; Gager 1990).
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Fiberglass Insulation Constituents Sand, dolomitic limestone, and borax are used in the manufacture of fiberglass. The sand used in glass manufacture has a high silica content and contains less than 1 percent iron oxides, chromium compounds, and oxides of alumina, calcium, and magnesium. Most of the sand used in the United States is produced from sandbanks in New Jersey, sandstone in the Alleghenies and the Mississippi Valley, and the states from Pennsylvania to Illinois. Sand is mined by open-pit excavation and dredging, depending upon the type of deposit.
Limestone, generally quarried from open pits, is the source of calcium or magnesium for glass. Widely available in the United States and throughout the world, it is usually quarried from limestone-bearing rock, which is found almost everywhere that oceans occurred prehistorically. Limestone from the mineral dolomite is abundant in the Midwest and the Ohio Valley as well as in the West. Commercially useful deposits may be depleted on a local level, but because of limestones abundance and widespread distribution, widespread depletion is unlikely. The most commonly used method for recovering the stone is blasting. The stone is then crushed and separated by screening. Borax is used as a source of boron in the manufacture of glass. Added in the molten stage, boron improves both the optical and thermal insulation properties of the glass. Usually mined by surface mining (quarrying), it is an abundant material in the western United States, including Nevada, Utah, and California. Borax is mined by blasting and stone crushing. Some fiberglass manufacturers use waste glass from bottle and plate glass manufacturers as a portion of the furnace in-feed material.
Mineral Wool Insulation Constituents Mineral wool is of two types: rock wool and slag wool. Diabase rock and basalt rock are used in the manufacture of rock wool; slag wool is made primarily from iron-ore blast-furnace slag. Foam Insulation Constituents Foam insulation consists of rigid boards and blown foam. Rigid board are made of polyisocyanurate foam, polystyrene extruded foam and polystyrene expanded foam, and phenolic foam. Blown foam insulation is made of polyurethane foam, open-cell isocyanurate, and magnesium silicate.
Polyurethane, polyisocyanurate, and phenolic foam boards have been produced using ozonedepleting CFCs as the expansion agent. Candidate substitutes for CFCs in these products are hydroflourocarbons (HCFCs). PIMA anticipates that HCFC-141b will be approved as part of the Significant New Alternative Program. Polyisocyanurate foam contains polymeric methylene diisocyanate or PMDI (the largest component by weight), a polyol that reacts with the PMDI, and a blowing agent. CFCs traditionally have been used as blowing agents, but manufacturers are changing to HCFCs and other gases in response to EPA regulations. Manufacturers committed themselves to eliminating use of CFC blowing agents by the end of 1993 (PIMA 1992). Minor ingredients, such as catalysts and surfactants, are used also. PMDI, which constitutes 50 percent or more of stock ingredients for polyisocyanurate foam, is made from pure petrochemical feedstock. Polyols are manufactured from petrochemicals, by-product petrochemicals, or waste stream petrochemicals. Recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is used in one polyol. Polyols also are made from by-product glycol from the
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Thermal Insulation
chemical stream of the antifreeze industry and by-products from the production of dimethyl-terephthalate. The polyisocyanurate industry recycles more than 30 million pounds of plastic waste annually and is the largest single user of colored plastic bottle scrap, a difficult material to recycle (PIMA 1992). Polystyrene foams contain polystyrene, a styrene plastic polymer, and a blowing or foaming agent. Styrene is a petrochemical derivative. Ethylene, produced from natural gas, and the petrochemical benzene are combined to form ethylbenzene or styrene. Extruded polystyrene has traditionally been made with CFC-12 as the blowing or expansion agent. Most major manufacturers have now substituted the much less ozone-depleting expansion agent HCFC142b for CFC-12 (Wilson 1991; Dow Chemical Company 1990). Dow uses HCFC-142b and ethyl chloride as blowing agents for its Styrofoam insulation. A fire-retardant additive, hexabromocyclododecane, is also used. Amoco Foam Products uses HCFC-142b and includes a minimum of 50 percent recycled polystyrene in one of its products. A second type of polystyrene foam, expanded polystyrene, is made with pentane as the expansion agent. Pentane does not destroy ozone in the stratosphere, but it does contribute to ground-level smog (Wilson 1991). Phenolic foam is produced from phenol-formaldehyde (PF) and foaming agents. Phenol is produced from benzene, which is derived from crude oil, and olefins, which are derived from natural gas. Formaldehyde is produced from methanol, which is also derived from natural gas. Phenolic foam insulation is no longer produced in the United States, but it has a sizable share of the rigid-board market in Canada, where two companies manufacture phenolic foam products (Environmental Building News 1992). Polyurethane foam, another petrochemical derivative, is similar to polyisocyanurate insulation material. It contains isocyanurates and polyols plus additives and catalysts. Approximately 62 percent of the polyurethane used in the building and construction industry is in insulation (Franklin Associates 1991). Magnesium silicate foam (Air Krete) is a formulation of two proprietary components plus water, calcium chloride, and magnesite. This insulation material does not use CFCs as blowing agents.
Cellulose Insulation Constituents Cellulose insulation is recycled wood-based cellulosic fiber made from selected paper, paperboard stock, or ground wood stock. Suitable chemicals are introduced to provide properties such as flame resistance and certain processing and handling characteristics (ASTM). Ammonium sulfate is the most commonly used fire retardant; borates are used for this purpose but are being phased out because of cost and other factors (CIMA 1992).
Waste Produced During Processing of Fiberglass Insulation, Mineral Wool Insulation, Foam Insulation, and Cellulose Insulation
The chlorine-containing fully halogenated CFCs that have been used as blowing or expansion agents in polymeric plastic foam insulation materials have been found to damage stratospheric ozone. CFCs are highly stable chlorine-containing compounds that do not generally break down until they reach the stratosphere, where they release chorine atoms. The chlorine atoms react with and break down ozone molecules; a single chlorine atom can destroy as many as 100,000 ozone molecules (Environmental Building News 1992). Scientists have identified numerous ill effects that are due to a thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer. Human health effects caused by increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation include cataracts, skin cancer, and, recent studies suggest, depression of the human immune system. (It is not yet known whether the immunosuppressive effects of
THERMAL INSULATION
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ultraviolet radiation increase the rate or severity of infectious diseases.) Ecological effects include, among others, a decline in the growth of phytoplankton in the worlds oceans, which could have cascading negative effects throughout the food chain. In 1987 twenty-four countries (including the United States) and the European Community signed the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The protocol called for a phased reduction of CFCs in insulation materials to 50 percent of the 1986 level, to be achieved by 1998. Further research indicated that more drastic reductions would be needed, prompting a 1990 meeting of the protocol signatories in London. At this meeting, the protocol was amended to call for the elimination of relevant CFCs by the year 2000. The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments establish a strict phase-out schedule for CFCs in the United States. CFCs have also been identified as greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Pound for pound, CFCs are far greater contributors to global warming than carbon dioxide, although carbon dioxide is a greater contributor overall because of the enormous amounts generated (Environmental Building News 1992). However, this is a very complex issue and scientists do not agree on the actual effects of CFCs on global warming. Approximately 30 percent of total CFC use in the United States was for foam insulation before replacement blowing agents were developed (Aminson 1991). HCFCs are being adopted by manufacturers of polyisocyanurate foam and polystyrene foam insulation products as near-term substitutes for CFCs. Because HCFCs are less stable than CFCs and more likely to break down in the lower atmosphere, their ozone-depleting potential is far less than that of CFCs. Their contribution to global warming is also less than that of CFCs. HCFCs are only a temporary solution, however, because the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments prohibit production of HCFCs after 2015, except to service existing equipment, and impose a total ban effective in 2030. Figure 2 summarizes environmental considerations related to CFCs and HCFCs.
Energy Consumed During Processing of Fiberglass Insulation, Mineral Wool Insulation, Foam Insulation, and Cellulose Insulation
Total embodied energy data at the point of use for fiberglass insulation, polyurethane foam, polystyrene foam, and cellulose are presented in the section on construction, use, and maintenance. Data on energy required to produce other types of insulation are not available.
The principal environmental concerns surrounding mining operations are the effects of dust on air quality near the mine, disturbance of the ecology and habitat of the area, and the potential for polluting surface water. Effluent water from equipment washing can be treated by using settling ponds to remove suspended solids.

Fiberglass Insulation Manufacture Fiberglass insulation is produced primarily through a rotary process similar to that used in making cotton candy. Molten glass is poured into a rapidly spinning disc that has thousands of fine holes in its rim. Centrifugal force extrudes the molten glass through these holes, creating glass fibers. The fibers are made thinner by jets of air or steam (or occasionally flame). They are then coated immediately with a binder and/or de-dusting agent, collected, cured in ovens, and formed into boards, batts, or blankets or chopped into loose-fill insulation. Kraft paper or an aluminum foil vapor barrier is usually attached on one side of the batts.
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Figure 2: Environmental Characteristics of CFCs and HCFCa

Common name CFC-11 Formula CCI3F Useb Polyurethane, polyisocyanurate, phenolic foams Extruded polystyrene board Replaces CFC-11; not yet commercially available Replaces CFC-11; not yet commercially available Replaces CFC-12 Replaces CFC-12 in extruded polystyrene board Atmospheric Lifetime (years) 60 ODPc 1.0 GWPc 1.0
CFC-12 HCFC-123
CCI2F2 CCI2HCF3
120 1.6
0.9-1.0 0.013-0.022
2.8-3.0 0.017-0.020
HCFC-141b
CCI2FCH3
6.6
0.016-0.024
0.092-0.010
HCFC-124 HCFC-142b
CHCIFCF3 CCIF2CH3
7.8 19.1
0.07-0.11 0.05-0.06
0.084-0.087 0.34-0.39
Notes
a Table
adapted from Shankland, Ian R. 1990. CFC alternatives for thermal insulation foams Rev. Int. Froid. Vol. 13. (March). pp. 113-121. Data from Scientific Assessment of Stratospheric Ozone: 1989. Chemical Manufacturers Association Report (July 14, 1989), as cited in Shankland. b List of environmental considerations from Wilson, Alex. February 1991. Insulation Update. Architecture. p. 95. c Ozone depletion potentials (ODPs) and global warming potentials (GWPs) are relative to CFC-11.
Mineral Wool Insulation Manufacture Rock wool and slag wool are manufactured using several processes, some of which are similar to the rotary process. As the material fiberizes, the surface of the fibers is usually coated immediately with a binder and/or de-dusting agent. The fiber is then collected, cured in ovens, and formed into boards, batts, blankets, or loose wool (loose fill). An aluminum foil vapor barrier is usually attached on one side of the batts. Foam Insulation Manufacture Extruded polystyrene board is formed by combining a solution of blowing agent in molten polystyrene in an extruder under pressure. This produces a continuous flow of material that contains interconnecting closed cells. The mixture is then forced through an opening into ambient temperature and pressure, whereupon the blowing agent vaporizes. This causes the material to expand to about 30 times its original size. The continuous board is trimmed to a specific width and cut to length. A polyethylene film facing may be laminated to the board. The final product is produced with 0 to 40 percent in-plant recovered material (Dow USA 1991).
Expanded polystyrene board is produced by impregnating polystyrene with a foaming agent. When exposed to heat, this mixture develops a uniform, closed-cell structure. The cells are then filled with air. A solution of blowing agent is added to molten polystyrene and forms beads. Steam is used to expand the beads to 40 times their original size. This material is then stabilized in curing bins and cut into boards of various thicknesses. Although polyurethane foam board is similar to polyisocyanurate insulation, there are slight differences. Polyurethane board is produced by the reaction of two chemical liquids, aided by
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several additives and catalysts. The mixture foams instantly and expands rapidly to 30 times its original volume. This foam then hardens and becomes tack-free almost immediately. Polyisocyanurate boards have covering face sheets on both sides of the board. Common facers include glass fiber-reinforced cellulosic felt, mostly glass fibers with resin binders, reinforced aluminum foil, plain or painted aluminum foil, and various rigid boards such as perlite and wood fiber boards. Phenolic foam board is produced by the foaming of PF. A heat process cures the material. This produces a rigid board.
Cellulose Insulation Manufacture Cellulose insulation is produced from recycled newsprint that is reduced to fiber form in mechanical mills. It is always treated with fire retardants. The average chemical content of cellulose insulation is 19 to 20 percent (Blasius 1991).
Waste Produced During Fiberglass, Mineral Wool, Foam, and Cellulose Insulation Manufacturing
With regard to air emissions, small amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide; a variety of particulates; and volatile organic compounds are emitted during the production of fiberglass and mineral wool insulation. These emissions are treated as needed prior to release. Fiber emissions are minimal. The actual amount of waste generated is not available, but an informal survey of manufacturers indicated that it is less than 1 percent of all material produced for end-use application (MIMA and TIMA 1991). The effects of CFCs released during the life cycle of foam insulation are described above. Most rigid foam insulation materials (boards) are being reformulated to avoid the use of CFCs. Dow has eliminated CFCs from all Pelaspan plastic loose-fill and Ethafoam polyethylene foam products and from approximately 75 percent of all Styrofoam brand insulation. The remaining 25 percent were to be eliminated by 1993. Dow has switched to an HCFC-142b blowing agent. CFC-free polyurethane and polyisocyanurate boards were expected to become available over the next few years. For example, PIMA aimed to eliminate the use of CFC in polyisocyanurate products by 1993 (PIMA 1992). A technology that uses synthetic polymer membranes to remove organic contaminants from gaseous waste streams has been developed and successfully field-demonstrated under the Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation program for recovery of CFCs from process vents. Such membrane systems are suitable for most airstreams containing halogenated and nonhalogenated contaminants. Data on solid waste generated during the manufacturing process were not provided for fiberglass or mineral wool insulation by the associations responding to the ERG information request. The associations did indicate that most of the waste is recycled back into the process, thus minimizing the solid-waste stream. Manufacturers of foam insulation materials compact remaining wastes into high-density bricks before the material is sent to a landfill. CIMA reports that the manufacturing process for cellulose insulation does not produce a significant amount of solid waste (CIMA 1992).
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As noted in table 1, thermal insulation materials are used and installed as follows: fiberglass batts and rolls are used in wall, floor, and ceiling cavities. The batts or rolls are placed between studs, joists, and rafters. Rock wool batts and rolls are also placed between the studs, joists, and rafters to insulate walls, floors, and ceilings. Rigid-board foam insulation is generally installed in walls, ceilings, and roofs with glue or nails. Extruded polystyrene boards are also used to insulate foundations and sub-slab surfaces. Loose, poured, or blown insulation is foamed, poured, or blown into cavities in ceilings and walls. This type of insulation is used extensively in retrofits since it is suitable for pneumatic installation in existing walls. Polyurethane is also used for roofs. Certain loose fills, whether in ceilings or in walls, tend to settle, causing loss of insulation value. Cellulose insulation producers have acknowledged this and have provided for it in coverage charts. ASTM Committee C-16 is currently studying installed thickness test methods for all loose-fill insulation. The Insulation Contractors Association of America recommends an installed density of 1.5 times nominal settled density for dry application of cellulose in walls (Technical Bulletin no. 23). Many installation contractors now use infrared scanners to check their work in existing walls, particularly after the insulation has had time to stabilize (approximately three months). One manufacturer indicates that its foam board has a life span in excess of fifty years and that no maintenance is required (Dow Chemical Company 1991). TIMA and MIMA indicate that fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool last the life of the building and that, when they are buried in a wall or ceiling, no specific maintenance is required.
Waste Produced
One insulation contractor stated that there was virtually no waste produced during installation of cellulose insulation and approximately 5 percent waste produced from trimming batts of fiberglass or mineral wool during installation (Thomas 1992).
Energy Consumed
Available data on embodied energy of some types of insulation at the point of use are as follows (Franklin Associates 1991): fiberglass insulation13,004 Btus/lb of product; polystyrene products50,400 Btus/lb of product; polyurethane products31,040 Btus/lb of product. Of the polystyrene products included in this calculation, 82 percent are thermal insulation. Of the polyurethane products included, approximately 62 percent are rigid foam insulation. CIMA reports an embodied energy of 150 Btus/lb for cellulose insulation. (Because of different methods used in the studies that produced this figure and those above, they are not comparable.)
Fibrous particulate matter: Numerous studies have examined the levels of exposure and potential health effects of fiberglass and mineral wool insulation materials. For these man-made vitreous fiber materials (also known as man-made mineral fiber materials), most of the studies have been directed at occupational exposure during manufacturing and installation, where the highest levels of exposure are observed. In June 1987, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) designated fiberglass wool and mineral wool (rock and slag wool) as possibly carcinogenic to humans. The designation is one among five IARC designations: carcinogenic, probably carcinogenic, possibly carcinogenic, not classifiable, and not carcinogenic (Insulation: An Update 1987). Currently, more than 150 substances are classified as possibly carcinogenic. This classification was based primarily on studies in which tumors were provoked in animals by implantation of glass fibers into the abdominal and thoracic cavities rather than by
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inhalation. The Thermal Insulation Manufacturers Association (TIMA) urged caution in the interpretation of those studies because the route of exposure is so unusual and because the results do not agree with those of many other studies that examined inhalation exposure and found little ill effect (TIMA 1990; Insulation: An Update 1987). Some researchers believe that implantation studies give false positive results. Other researchers believe that inhalation studies have substantial limitations, including the fact that humans can inhale fibers up to 3.5 microns in diameter into the deepest lung regions, whereas rats are limited to fibers 1 micron in diameter (Zipser 1992). The thicker fibers are more durable than the more damaging thinner fibers and are less likely to be removed by the bodys natural defense mechanisms. An epidemiological study, conducted over an eighteen year period by the University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, has recently discovered a small but statistically significant excess of lung disease in fiberglass factory workers (Zipser 1992). It is important to note, however, that some of the factories from which the subjects of this study were drawn had been contaminated by asbestos. In a series of reports, TIMA presented a summary of studies conducted on the health effects of exposure to fiberglass (TIMA 1991a, 1991b). The association summarized the consensus of those studies and cited a 1988 EPA report that stated, The causal relationship between fibrous glass exposure and the development of respiratory cancer is not considered credible at this time. In 1991 the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) announced its intent to regulate a large number of construction materials, including fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool. OSHA, supported by both TIMA and the AFL/CIO, has proposed a standard of 1 fiber per cc (1 f/cc) as an occupational standard for fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool (TIMA 1991; Dourrachad 1991). In a study conducted in England, an air-quality survey showed that levels of fibers in homes were usually well below the limit of 1 f/cc and were quite frequently undetectable. Fiber levels approached or exceeded the proposed limit only during some operations in the installation of insulation materials such as blowing wool. Levels usually dropped below the 1 f/cc level within a day after installation was completed (Jaffrey et al. 1990). Dr. Michael J. Hodgson, former chairman of ASHRAEs Environmental Health Committee, agrees that the evidence is still inconclusive but does not appear to indicate a significant cancer threat for the types of fibers used in most building thermal and acoustical insulation products. Dr. Hodgson also believes that it is unclear whether current building-related applications of ultrafine fiberglass and rock wool and mineral wool result in indoor concentrations of fibers that may pose risks to human health (Levin 1991). Most researchers agree that more research is needed to determine the actual human health risks, if any, associated with inhalation of man-made mineral fibers. Cellulose Particulates and Fibers: Most researchers agree that airborne cellulose is nontoxic. However, one study, conducted by Donald Milton of the Harvard School of Public Health, found physiologic, histologic, and morphometric evidence of pulmonary fibrosis after repeated intratracheal instillations in hamsters. Milton concludes that in most environments, inhaled cellulose particle size may be too large for a significant parenchymal dose to accumulate (Milton et al. 1990). According to Milton, the toxicity evidenced in this study may be due to overload of the lungs capacity to remove insoluble foreign material as much as to any intrinsic toxicity of cellulose (Milton et al. 1990). Emissions of VOCs and other chemical substance: Many material reports in this ERG present information on the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from building products. Some insulation materials can emit VOCs that are known irritants, such as
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formaldehyde, xylene, toluene, and others. The synthetic insulation materials that require polymerization or foaming and expansion are most apt to emit VOCs (including CFCs), but even mineral wool insulation materials can emit VOCs, although generally in very small amounts. Fiberglass and mineral wool products can contain coloring agents and thermosetting resins (binders) that may also emit VOCs (Wilson 1991; Miller 1989). Fiberglass insulation has been observed to have a formaldehyde emission rate of about 0.09 mg/m2/day (Ota and Mulberg 1990). The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), after studying emissions of formaldehyde from ceiling tiles and fiberglass insulation, concluded that these products will have little impact on in-home levels of formaldehyde (Consumer Product Safety Commission [no date]; Matthews and Westley 1983). Formaldehyde emissions from UF foam insulation materials were a major concern several years ago and the subject of numerous research studies. Formaldehyde is a suspected human carcinogen (Annual Reports on Carcinogens 1989; IARC 1982a, 1982b; ACGIH, 1990-91). Since UF foam insulation is rarely used now in new construction, this is of less concern to architects. A discussion of health effects of formaldehyde can be found in the material reports on particleboard (06124 in ERG 1994 ed.) and plywood (06118 in ERG 1994 ed.). Cellulose insulation contains chemical additives to meet the level of fire retardancy required by the CPSC. In most cases, cellulose insulation manufacturers develop a formula that contains two to five or more chemicals. The chemical that is most commonly used as a fire retardant in cellulose insulation is ammonium sulfate; however, it generally is just one of the chemicals included in the manufacturers formula. Decomposition of ammonium sulfate results in the release of ammonia. However, studies indicate that at typical attic temperatures, there is little decomposition of ammonium sulfate over time (Yarbrough 1991). Boric acid and sodium borate are also used as fire retardants by some cellulose insulation manufacturers. Transfer of borates from cellulose insulation could increase concentrations in ambient air as well as reduce the fire retardancy of the insulation. Boric acid and sodium borate are stable inorganic chemicals that generally do not decompose at the temperature levels normally encountered in attic spaces. A study conducted at the Tennessee Technological University indicates that the loss of boric acid from cellulose insulation is insignificant at 70 C and relative humidity near 100 percent (Chiou and Yarbrough 1990). Borates exhibit low acute toxicity in mammals and are not absorbed through intact skin but are absorbed through abraded, denuded, or burned skin (Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Sodium Borate and Boric Acid 1983). A two-year bioassay conducted by the National Toxicology Program resulted in no evidence of carcinogenicity in mice fed doses of 2,500 and 5,000 ppm boric acid in the diet (Fuller 1987).

Polystyrene is a thermoplastic; it can be heated and remolded into a new product (OTA 1989). Recycling plants for polystyrene are currently operating in Michigan, Indiana, and Massachusetts (Amand 1991). Polyurethane and phenol products are called thermosets; they cannot be remolded, but they can be recycled as filler (OTA 1989). Because of contaminants in postconsumer plastic waste and the natural degradation of the material, recycled plastics are not of the same quality as virgin materials (OTA 1989). Barriers to recycling these materials include the lack of infrastructure for collection of waste and the effort involved in separating the recyclable plastic from other waste.
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Industry Perspective
Fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool can be reused or recycled, but very little of that occurs now. The barriers to recycling these insulation materials are similar to those cited above, including lack of infrastructure for collection and the effort involved in separating the material. As a result, most of these materials are disposed of in landfills.
Industry Perspectives
Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacture Association The most important feature of polyisocyanurate foam insulation is that it is one of the most efficient and practical insulations that can be specified and used in building construction. The most pressing issues of the foreseeable future are global warming and energy efficiency/conservation and insulation is one of the best answers to both of these issues. Improved insulation in most types of buildings will reduce this type of use of nonrenewable oil and gas products, which in turn reduces the production of carbon dioxide and other global warming gases.
PIMA has supported the Montreal Protocol and the EPA in the efforts to phase out CFCs throughout the program. The cooperation between the U.S. government (EPA, the Department of Energy, and the Department of Justice ) and PIMA allowed members of PIMA to participate in studies that will determine the safety and effectiveness of the newly proposed alternative HCFC blowing agents. PIMA and its members are fully committed to the complete elimination of CFCs before elimination is mandated, most likely by 1994.
Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association By any objective standard, specifiers must regard cellulose insulation as the premier building thermal/acoustical insulation from an environmental perspective. Not only is cellulose an inherently recycled product made from one of the most ubiquitous components of the waste stream, but the material is also demonstrably more effective in terms of performance.
Cellulose insulation contains 75 to 85 percent recovered material, most of which is postconsumer material, although many leading newspapers, including the Washington Post and the Wall Street Journal, send printing plant waste to cellulose producers. The embodied energy of cellulose insulation is as low as 150 Btus/lb, by far the lowest of any insulation material. This, coupled with the findings of the University of Colorado that cellulose insulation is 26 to 38 percent more effective than other fiber insulation in terms of installed performance (Boonyartikarn and Spiezle 1990), makes cellulose clearly the most energy-efficient insulation available.
North American Insulation Manufacturers Association Fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool insulation products provide excellent thermal and acoustical insulation and, by conserving enormous amounts of energy each year, eliminate hundreds of thousands of tons of air pollutant emissions.
In the residential sector alone, fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool insulation save a great portion of the estimated 12 quads of energy conserved nationwide each year by building insulation. The fiberglass batts and blowing wool that were produced in one representative year1990will alone save 183.6 trillion Btus annually. In addition, a recent study by the Alliance to Save Energy estimated that merely upgrading residential energy and insulation codes to the level of the 1989 Model Energy code would save an additional 7,240 billion Btus of energy each year, thereby avoiding the emission of over 564,000 tons of air pollutants. The production of these insulations is energy efficient and environmentally sound. It has
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Regulatory Status
been estimated, for example, that for every Btu required to produce a pound of fiberglass insulation, the equivalent of 20 Btus per year of energy is saved. The manufacturing processes for fiberglass, rock, and slag wool insulation protect the environment: manufacturers recycle manufacturing waste back into the primary production process; make other products directly from this waste; and seek to maximize the use of recycled materials reclaimed from the consumer waste stream. Fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool are among the most thoroughly tested of all building material products. Numerous studies have looked at the health of insulation workers, including both morbidity studies (evaluating the health of current workers) and mortality studies (looking at the causes of death among past workers). The health aspects of fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool have also been evaluated by exposing laboratory animals to very high levels of these fibers in inhalation studies. None of the many studies to date has found a cause-and-effect relationship between exposure to fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool fibers and cancer or lung disease in humans. These studies bring scientific evidence to bear to illustrate that these insulation products are safe to manufacture, install, and use when recommended work practices are followed. The major national and international health and environmental organizations have reviewed and evaluated the health aspects of fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool on a continuing basis. These research reviews confirm that there is no cause-and-effect relationship between exposure to these fibers and malignant or nonmalignant respiratory disease. In fact, regarding risk to the public, a report of the UNs International Programme on Chemical Safety concluded: Thus, the overall picture indicates that the possible risk for the general population is very low, if there is any at all, and should not be a cause for concern if current low exposures continue. For more information about fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool insulation products, contact the North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA). NAIMAs role is to promote energy efficiency and environmental preservation through the use of fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool insulation products and to encourage safe production and use of these insulation products.
Regulatory Status
OSHA requires warning labels and material safety data sheets (MSDSs) on fiberglass material to contain information suggesting its possible carcinogenicity. However, the agency currently regulates fiberglass as an airborne particulate not otherwise regulated, not as a carcinogen. OSHA is working on establishing distinct permissible exposure limits (PELs) for glass fiber and mineral wool as well as for other construction materials. TIMA and the AFL-CIO are recommending a PEL of 1 fiber per cubic centimeter of air for fiberglass and mineral wool (Dourrachad 1991). OSHA classifies cellulose dust as a nuisance dust and has established a PEL for cellulose of 15 mg/m3 total dust and 5 mg/m3 respirable dust. The 1990 Clean Air Act (CAA) Amendments regulate both CFCs and HCFCs, the foaming and expansion agents for many building insulation materials. Under the CAA, the United States will ban the import or new manufacture of CFCs by the year 2002. EPA will have the authority to ban certain products containing CFCs based upon the availability and safety of substitutes by November 1992. (PIMA believes EPA will not include polyisocyanurate insulation in this ban, because of its energy-saving role.) Until the disappearance of CFCs from the United States, EPA will also mandate recapture and recycling and will prohibit uncontrolled venting of these substances after July 1992. Under the act, class II substances, HCFCs, will be
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banned by the year 2020, since they also pose risk to the stratospheric ozone layer. EPA will have the authority to promulgate rules that prohibit substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs that have an adverse effect on human health or the environment. In the rule-making process, EPA will prepare a list of unacceptable substitutes and acceptable alternatives for use by industry. One requirement that will be helpful to architects is a regulation requiring labeling by May 1993 of products that contain ozone-depleting chemicals. Products will not require labeling if no suitable substitutes for CFCs or HCFCs in their manufacturing processes can be identified. EPAs Guideline for Procurement of Building Insulation Products Containing Recovered Materials (40 CFR 248) requires that any procuring agency using federal funds to procure an item must revise its specifications and procure the item(s) containing the highest percentage of recovered materials practicable.
UF. UF foam insulation was banned by the CPSC in 1982 because of its threat to public
health. The ban was overturned by a federal court following a suit brought brought by industry, but few use it now. Such insulation has been banned in at least one state.
Asbestos. Once used extensively in thermal insulation materials, asbestos is among the most
thoroughly studied of human carcinogens. Its use in thermal insulation products has been voluntarily discontinued and banned in the United States. (In the fall of 1991 this ban was overturned; further legal action is likely.) Its remaining uses (e.g., in brake linings) are being phased out according to the schedule set forth in EPAs 1989 Asbestos Ban and Phaseout Rule (40 CFR 763 Subpart I) under authority of section VI of the Toxic Substances Control Act. Although it is not present in new thermal insulation materials, it still must be reckoned with in the case of renovation or demolition of existing buildings where it is present. Where existing asbestos-containing building material is in good physical condition and therefore not likely to release fibers, EPA recommends management in place rather than removal. In fact, the Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (AHERA) regulations (see below) treat inplace insulation materials in good condition as nonfriable (Franz 1991). Two kinds of regulations apply to asbestos: those relating to worker protection and those concerned more generally with public health protection. The principal worker protection rules relevant to architects are the OSHA Construction Industry Standard for Asbestos (29 CFR 1926.58), the OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.134), and the EPA Worker Protection Rule (40 CFR 763 subpart G) for public sector workers not covered by OSHA. The public health protection rules are the EPA National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) for asbestos (40 CFR 763 Subpart M), promulgated under authority of the Clean Air Act; the EPA AHERA Regulations (40 CFR 763 subpart E); and the EPA Asbestos Ban and Phaseout Rule (40 CFR 763 subpart I), which was overturned in the fall of 1991. The worker protection regulations apply to demolition and asbestos removal or encapsulation projects and to repair, maintenance, alteration, renovation, and spills or emergency cleanup actions where material containing asbestos is present. The worker protection regulations are triggered when workers may be exposed above the OSHA PEL for asbestos of 0.2 fiber per cubic centimeter (f/cc) of air based on an 8-hour time weighted average (TWA) sampling period. Certain provisions of these regulations are triggered by an action level of
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0.1 f/cc as an 8-hour TWA. The mandatory requirements include the use of respirators and protective clothing, the establishment of regulated areas, the use of engineering controls and specific work practices, and worker training. AHERA applies to primary and secondary school buildings only. Requirements include inspection, development of an asbestos management plan, operations and maintenance procedures, air clearance standards for removal actions, and worker training. The regulation most relevant to the architect designing a renovation or demolition project is the EPA asbestos NESHAP. It applies to all demolition and renovation work involving asbestos, including work at schools. It requires that all friable asbestos-containing material be removed before a building is demolished and may require its removal before a renovation. Its specific requirements include work practices for control of visible asbestos fiber emissions into the outside air, notification requirements to EPA or a state authority prior to start of work (based on the size of the job), and waste disposal requirements. In addition to the EPA asbestos NESHAP, some states classify asbestos as a hazardous waste under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which triggers stringent handling, manifesting, and disposal procedures. Asbestos is classified as a hazardous waste under EPAs Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, or Superfund), which triggers reporting requirements. States and localities may have additional regulations regarding asbestos. Several key EPA and other guidance documents regarding asbestos are U.S. EPA, Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-containing Materials in Buildings, OPTS EPA/560/5-85-024, June 1985 (often called the purple book); U.S. EPA, Managing Asbestos in Place: A Building Owners Guide to Operations and Maintenance Programs for Asbestos-containing Materials, OPTS 2OT-2003, July 1990 (often called the green book); U.S. EPA, Asbestos Waste Management Guidelines: Generation, Transport, and Disposal, OSW EPA/530-SW-85-007, May 1985; and HEI-AR, Asbestos in Public and Commercial Buildings: A Literature Review and Synthesis of Current Knowledge, prepared pursuant to a congressional mandate, September 1991.
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References
References
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenists. 1990. Threshold Limit Values. Cincinnati, OH. Amand, Judith. 1991. Disposable Food Service Items. Pennsylvania Resources Council. Aminson, Ole. 1991. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Personal communication, telephone conversation in November. Amoco Foam Products Co. Material Data Sheet. May 26, 1992. ASTM. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol 4.06, Designation: C-739, Standard Specification for Cellulose Fiber (Wood Base) Loose-Fill Thermal Insulation. Bierman-Lytle, Paul. 1991. Air Krete Insulation. Presentation to a workshop on the use of surfacecoating free materials for the reduction of VOC emissions from surface-coating operations. San Diego, CA. July. Blasius, James R. 1991. Results of the 1990 Cellulose Industry Market Survey. In-Cide Technologies, Inc. February. Booyartikarn, Soontorn, and Scott R. Spiezle. 1990. Fiberglass vs. Cellulose Installed Performance. University of Colorado School of Architecture and Planning. Bordenaro, Michael. 1990. Insulation Industry Makes Subtle Shifts. Building Design and Construction. October. Brown, Harry L. 1991. National Industrial Insulation Survey and Analysis of Energy, Environmental and Economic Impacts. Prepared for Thermal Insulation Manufacturers Association (TIMA). Philadelphia. Chiou, N. and D. W. Yarbrough. 1990. Permanency of Boric Acid Used as a Fire Retardant in Cellulosic Insulation. Energy and Buildings 14: 351-61. CIMA (Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association). 1992. Review and comments on draft report, November. Consumer Product Safety Commission. No date. Memorandum to the Commission from Sandra Eberle regarding Completion of Surveillance Testing of Consumer Products for Formaldehyde Emissions. Dourrachad, C. 1991. OSHA Prepares to Regulate Synthetic Fibers: Labor Groups Recommend Exposure Levels. Indoor Air Review. Rockville, MD. September.
Dow Chemical Company. 1990. DOW Completely Eliminates Use of CFCs in Styrofoam Brand Insulation in US and Canada. Midland, MI: press release. June 25. Dow USA. 1991. Material data sheet questionnaire completed on Styrofoam Brand Insulation Products. With back-up documentation. November 27. Engstrom, K. 1990. Building MaterialsA Source of Indoor Air Pollution. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto. Environmental Building News. 1992. Rigid Foam Insulation and the Environment, Vol. 1, No. 1. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. 1989. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Sodium Borate and Boric Acid. 1983. Journal of the American College of Toxicology. Vol. 2, No. 7. Fischer, S. J., R. L. Hillier, and O. H. Damant. 1991. Long-Term Aging Studies on Loose-Fill Cellulose Insulation: Part IV. California Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Prepared for the Society of the Plastics Industry. Franz, Jerry (of Porter/Novelli). 1991. Personal communication (letter) with review comments from TIMA and MIMA. December 23. Fuller, G. 1987. The Toxicology of Borax and Boric AcidAn Industrial Perspective. Ceramic Industries Journal. Gager, Russ. 1990. Replacing HCFCs in the 21st Century. Contractors Guide. February. Grigg, P. F., R. W. John, and D. J. G. Butler. 1990. Towards Greener Buildings. Building Research Establishment. Accepted for publication in the Building Services Journal. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials Types, Uses and Applications, 2d edition. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Insulation: An Update. 1987. Custom Builder, no. 10. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1982a. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans. Some Industrial Chemicals and Dyestuffs. Vol. 29.
___. 1982b. Chemicals, Industrial Processes and Industries Associated with Cancer in Humans. Supplement 4. Jaffrey, Taqi S. A. M. 1990. Levels of Airborne ManMade Mineral Fibers in U.K. Dwellings. IFiber Levels During and After Installation of Insulation. Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 24A, no. 1. Jaffrey, Taqi S. A. M. et al. 1990. Levels of Airborne Man-Made Mineral Fibers in U.K. Dwellings. II Fiber Levels During and After Some Disturbance of Loft Insulation. Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 24A, no. 1. LaCosse, Robert. 1991. Preformed Board Insulations Used in Low-Sloped Roofing Systems. International Journal of Roofing Technology. Levin, Hal, ed. 1991. Indoor Air Bulletin, Vol. 1, no. 5. (Hal Levin, publisher.) September/October. Matthews, T. G. and R. R. Westley. 1983. Determination of Formaldehyde Emission Levels from Ceiling Tiles and Fibrous Insulation Products. Project Report No. CPSC-IAG-82-1181, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Miller, Charles. 1989. Thermal Insulation. Fine Homebuilding. October/November. Milton, Donald K., et. al. 1990. Toxicity of Intratracheally Instilled Cotton Dust, Cellulose, and Endotoxin. American Review of Respiratory Disease. 142: 184-92. Mineral Insulation Manufacturers Association and Thermal Insulation Manufacturers Association (MIMA and TIMA). 1991. Material data sheet questionnaire completed on fiberglass, rock wool, and slag wool, with backup documentation. November 20. Monson, David. 1991. Studying the Effects of Fiberglass Insulation. ECON. August. OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). 1991. Saving Stratospheric Ozone: The Montreal Protocol. The State of the Environment. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. OTA (U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment). 1989. Facing Americas Trash: What Next for Municipal Solid Waste. OTA-0-424. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Ota, E., and E. Mulberg. 1990. Exposure to Formaldehyde from Indoor Air. Sacramento, CA: California Air Resources Board. PIMA (Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers
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Thermal Insulation
References
Association). 1991. Material data sheet questionnaire completed on polyisocyanurate foam insulation, with backup information. . 1992. Review and comment on draft report. November 10. Shankland, Ian R. 1990. CFC Alternatives for Thermal Insulation Foams. International Institute of Refrigeration. Vol. 13, no. 2. March. Thermal Insulation Manufacturers Association (TIMA). 1990. Health and Safety Aspects of Mineral Wool Fiber. Stamford, CT. . 1991a. Health and Safety Research on Fiberglass. Stamford, CT. . 1991b. Multidose Animal Inhalation Study of Glass Wool. Stamford, CT. Thomas, Bruce. 1992. Personal communication. October 1. Tucker, W. G. 1986. Research Overview: Sources of Indoor Air Pollutant. Proceedings of ASHRAE Conference on Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta. . 1990. Building with Low-Emitting Materials and Products: Where Do We Stand? Proceedings, 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, vol. 3. Toronto. van der Waal, J. F., R. Steenlage, and A. W. Hoogeveen. 1990. Measurement of Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer Products in a Walk-In Test Chamber. Proceedings, 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, vol. 3. Toronto. Wilson, Alex. 1991. Insulation Update. Architecture. February. Yarbrough, David W. 1991. The Thermal Decomposition of Ammonium Sulfate at Low Temperatures. Sponsored by the Cellulose Marketing Council. Zipser, Andy. 1992. Material QuestionIs Fiberglass a Serious Health Hazard? Barrons, September 7.
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17
Material Report
Asphalt Shingles
Highlights
Environmental impacts result from the mostly open-pit mining of the raw materials necessary for the manufacture of fiberglass mat, stabilizers, surfacing granules, and parting agents. These impacts are potentially significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction as well as in terms of erosion. Wastes produced by open-pit mining include tailing waste and overburden that is removed during excavation. Energy use and fuel combustion during mining operations result in atmospheric emissions. Water pollutants from mine runoff can result in lower aquatic productivity and deoxygenation of streams and surface waters. Asphalt, modifiers, and the fiberglass mat binder used in manufacturing asphalt shingles are derived from petrochemicals. Petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing can cause water pollution. Emissions during the manufacture of these materials can have various human health effects. The processing and handling of the various minerals can release particulates, and air emissions can result from the combustion of fuels to produce energy. Asphalt shingle manufacturing waste and used asphalt shingles are disposed of in landfill. The potential for recycling asphalt shingle waste has been demonstrated, but recycling is not widely done.
Petroleum and natural gas stocks used to produce asphalt and other components are finite resources but are currently in adequate supply for this use. Minerals used to produce the glass mat, stabilizers, and other components are in abundant supply.
The estimated embodied energy of self-sealing asphalt shingles is 29,728 Btus/ft2 (337.6 MJ/m2). Asphalt shingle roofs, especially those that are new and in a sunny, warm environment, may emit some volatile organic chemicals. The location of the roof on the outside of a building normally averts noxious exposure. However, some situations may expose people to these emissions, and in sensitive individuals health effects may result.
ASPHALT SHINGLES
MAT 07310
Asphalt Shingles
Background
Asphalt roofing shingles are composed of an asphalt-saturated organic felt or an asphaltcoated fiberglass mat covered with a layer of mineral granules. The most popular type of asphalt shingle is a three-tab, self-sealing strip shingle. Other asphalt roofing products, which are not discussed in this report, include roll roofing and built-up roofing. This report covers asphalt shingles included under Masterspec 07310. Also covered in this report are saturated felts used as an underlayment for asphalt shingles. These felts are impregnated with an asphalt saturant. Although a naturally occurring material, asphalt shingle roofing today is primarily found in residential construction. Within the residential market, asphalt shingles constitute about 65 percent of all types of roofing on a dollar basis and well over 65 percent on an area basis (Kirk-Othmer 1992). Asphalt is produced from the residues left over from petroleum refining. Asphalt possesses several physical and chemical characteristics that make it highly suitable as a component in roofing products. It is highly waterproof, readily adhesive, accommodating to differential movement, and durable. Naturally occurring asphalt was used as a waterproofing material as early as 3200 B.C. in the Near East. With the drilling of the first oil wells around 1865 and the discovery that certain crude oils yield a material resembling naturally occurring asphalt, an almost unlimited supply became available. In 1892 an American chemist named William Griscom developed a single-ply ready-to-lay asphalt roofing, thus beginning the manufacture of asphalt roofing in the United States (Hornbostel 1991).
Life-cycle summaries of asphalt shingles, of modifiers (for asphalt), and of pigment and glaze (for granules) are presented in figures 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The acquisition of raw materials for asphalt shingles results in some impact on the environment. Many of the raw materials are mined using the open-pit method. These include ingredients for the manufacture of glass felts (glass sands, limestone, and borax), along with various minerals that are added to asphalt as stabilizers, are used as surface coatings for asphalt shingles, or form an important ingredient in the production of colored mineral granules. The principal environmental concerns connected with open-pit mining operations are (1) the potential effects of dust on air quality near the mine, (2) disturbance of the ecology and floral and faunal habitat of the area, and (3) the potential for polluting surface water. Effluent water from equipment washing may contain suspended solids. Air emissions from the combustion of fuel during mining operations also contribute to environmental impact. These emissions include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and particulates. Crude oil extraction and processing to produce asphalt also may result in environmental impact. Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands may pollute surface waters. Wastewater from these processes may include oil, grease, heavy metals, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and dissolved and suspended solids. Petroleum distillation may release VOCs, mercaptans, and wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia oil, and organics. The manufacture of glass fiber to produce glass felt may result in small amounts of air emissions, including hydrogen sulfide. Urea-formaldehyde, which acts as a binder in the manufacture of fiberglass felts, is derived from petroleum and natural gas. Fugitive emissions during manufacture can result in eye, nose, and skin irritation; asthma; nausea; and headaches. Formaldehyde has been classified as a probable human carcinogen.
MAT 07310
ASPHALT SHINGLES
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Asphalt Shingles

Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 ASPHALT SHINGLES MAT 07310
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Delivery/ transfer
Air blowing Preheating Air injection
Delivery/ transfer
Laminate asphalt Coating asphalt Saturant asphalt Modifiers
KEY
Process flow Transport (see figure 3) Boundary
Iron smelting waste
Slag Drying,heating
Silica, marble, sandstone, slate dust, talc, dolomite, micaceous materials, trap rock, limestone Waste paper Organic felt
Stabilized coating asphalt
Output Recycling
Saturator
Saturated felt
Coating
Surfaced product
Drainage wastes
Cyanides
Sludge
Wood waste
Solids, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, organics
Mining of stone and various minerals Drilling Crushing Blasting Grinding Loading Screening
Glass sand, limestone, and borax mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Glass fiber manufacture Glass melting/refining Marble forming/remelt Drying/curing Cutting/fabricating
Surfaced product Glass felt Saturated and coated glass felt Finished products Asphalt shingles Laminated shingles Underlayment for shingles (saturated felt) Packaging
Habitat change
Habitat Tailings waste, change overburden
Effluent (phenols, DS, SS, oil and grease, ammonia)
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, H2S, particulates)
Air emissions (H2 S, SOX)
Urea manufacture Formaldehyde manufacture
Storage Ureaformaldehyde resin Ureaformaldehyde binder
Display/sales
Air emissions (dust)
Construction
Slate, marble, granite and other stone Iron smelting waste Mica, micaceous material, talc Sand prosessing Crushing Screening Grinding
or
Asphalt Shingles
Unloading Slag Pigments and glaze

(see figure 3) Air emissions (dust)
Maintenance/ repair Demolition Firing Colored granules Mineral surfacing Landfill debris
Life Cycle Asphalt Shingles
Sand mining Digging Loading
Screening Washing
Habitat change
Unloading
Parting agent
4
MAT 07310 ASPHALT SHINGLES ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 2: Life Cycle of Modifiers
Asphalt Shingles
Life Cycle Modifiers
catalyst Air emissions (VOCs)
Polypropylene
KEY
Propylene manufacture Trimerization
Benzene manufacture
Wastewater (produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, organics) Drilling muds and cuttings Drainage wastes Wastewater (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides) Sludge
Phenol
Nonene
Nonylphenol
catalyst catalyst
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Styrene
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, H2S, particulates)
Styrene monomer
Butadiene
Emulsification
Styrene Butadiene
Figure 3: Life Cycle of Pigment and Glaze

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 ASPHALT SHINGLES MAT 07310
Particulates
KEY
Feldspar mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Feldspar ore processing Desliming Conditioning Flotation

Sulfonated oils Mineral residues (reused)
Flotation feldspar processing Dewatering Drying Grinding
Habitat change
Glass and sand mining Crushing Drilling Separating Blasting Screening Loading
Habitat change
Mineral processing
Mineral oxides
Pigment
Glazing Limestone processing
Application of pigment and glaze to raw granules
Asphalt Shingles
Life Cycle Pigment and Glaze
Waste glazing materials
Limestone and mineral mining Grinding Drilling Separating Blasting Screening Loading Crushing
Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden
Waste solids (recycled)
Clean water
Asphalt Shingles
The asphalt used in asphalt shingle manufacture is prepared by blowing air through the asphalt at elevated temperatures. Air emissions from the blowing still consist of VOCs, asphalt fumes, and particulate organic matter. Delivery and transfer of asphalt can also result in emissions. Asphalt fumes have been tested for potential carcinogenicity in a number of studies; however, there is inadequate evidence that asphalt is carcinogenic in humans. Asphalt fumes are moderately irritating. The handling and unloading of minerals may be a source of particulate emissions. These emissions are captured by control devices, including hoods, baghouses, wet scrubbers, and cyclones. Fugitive emissions may occur at unloading points, however, depending on the equipment used and the type of material. Asphalt may be modified by the addition of styrene butadiene. Fugitive emissions of butadiene during styrene butadiene manufacture can result in certain health effects, such as eye and nose irritation, headaches, and dizziness. The manufacture of asphalt shingles can result in various emissions, including VOCs, particulates, asphalt fume, and organic particulates. These emissions can be controlled by electrostatic precipitators, high-energy air filters, coalescing filters, afterburners, baghouses, and wet scrubbers.

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of raw materials for the manufacture of asphalt shingles is presented in figure 4. Asphalt shingles consist of a felt web (either organic or of fibrous glass) that is impregnated, then coated, with asphalt. Finally, mineral granules are pressed into the coating. Saturated felts, used as an underlayment for shingles, consist of felt impregnated with asphalt.
Felts Roofing felts consist of organic or glass fibers that are interlocked by pressure. Although organic felts were once the major substrate for asphalt shingles, now over 90 percent of asphalt shingles are made with glass felt.
Organic felts are formed from a water slurry of pulp. Waste wood (sawdust) or paper fibers are picked up on a rotating screened drum or by a traveling screen. The sheet is dried by vacuum suction and steam-heated drums and then calendered and wound into large rolls (KirkOthmer 1982). Glass felts are composed of glass fibers deposited in a nonwoven pattern that may be reinforced with glass yarns. Fibrous glass is prepared from a molten mixture of sand and other ingredients. These are drawn or blown into filaments, which may be deposited either dry or from a dilute water slurry onto a screen conveyor. In either process, a binder (a thermosetting resin) is applied. The binder is usually a urea-formaldehyde resin (Snyder 1994). Heat is applied to dry the mat and set the binder (Kirk-Othmer 1982). The acquisition of raw materials to produce fiberglass, the manufacture of fiberglass, and the wastes generated during these processes are discussed in the material report on thermal insulation (07200). The raw materials to produce urea-formaldehyde, the manufacture of urea-formaldehyde resin, and the wastes generated are discussed in the material report on particleboard (06124 in ERG 1994 ed.).
MAT 07310
ASPHALT SHINGLES
Asphalt Shingles
Figure 4: Asphalt ShinglesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Mining of glass sands, limestone and borax (glass felts) Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Glass fiber manufacture (glass mat) Fuel combustion emissions and flourides Effluent Phenols and ammonia Dissolved and suspended solids and oil and grease (see impacts above) Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD continued Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Fishkill Air emissions H2S Odors Global warming
Stressor
Tailings waste
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat
Impact/Stressor
Species extinction Loss of boidiversity
ASPHALT SHINGLES
MAT 07310
Asphalt Shingles
Figure 4: Asphalt ShinglesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Natural gas production (urea formaldehyde and styrene butadiene manufacture) Fuel combustion emissions Urea formaldehyde manufacture Formaldehyde emissions
Stressor
Wastewater
Impact/Stressor
May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen-depleting organics (see impacts above) Eye, nose, and skin irritation Bronchial asthma Nausea Headaches Probable human carcinogen
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Crude oil extraction (asphalt, propylene, and styrene, butadiene manufacture)
Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands
(see impacts above)
Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Water pollution
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Eutrophication Water-borne disease
(see impacts above)
Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (asphalt, propylene, and styrene butadiene manufacture) Crude oil processing (asphalt, propylene, and styrene butadiene manufacture)
Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes
Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Desalting process
Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading
Release of oil and suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids
(see impacts above) Increased BOD (see impacts above)
Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs Noxious odors (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Air-blown asphalt production and handling
Air emissions
VOCs
Asphalt fume and particulate organic matter
Respiratory tract irritation
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ASPHALT SHINGLES
Asphalt Shingles
Figure 4: Asphalt ShinglesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Styrene production
Stressor
Benzene production
Impact/Stressor
Release of benzene
Impact/Stressor
Carcinogenisis, nausea, (styrene butadiene manufacture)
Impact/Stressor
Abdominal pain, irritation (see impacts above)
Ethylene production Release of styrene
Air emissions Eye and nose irritation, drowsiness, weakness, narcosis, and dermatitis
Benzene and VOCs
Phenol production (styrene butadiene manufacture)
Air emissions
VOCs
(see impacts above)
Wastewater containing BOD, COD Release of benzene Wastewater containing total organic carbon, oil and grease, total suspended solids, and other organics Nonylphenol ethoxylate (NE) production (styrene butadiene manufacture Styrene butadiene manufacture Asphalt production and handling Air emissions Release of butadiene Release of NE
Deoxygenation (see impacts above) Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Severe skin and eye irritant
Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Eye and nose irritation, headaches, dizziness, and vomiting VOCs, particulates Asphalt fume, particulate organic matter (see impacts above) respiratory tract irritant
Mining of mineral products (for use as stabilizers, granules, glaze for granules, and parting agents) Handling and storage of mineral products Feldspar ore processing (glaze for granules)
(see mining impacts above)
Air emissions Particulate emissions
Particulates Eye and throat irritation Impaired visibility
(see impacts above)
Wastewater containing sulfonated oils and mineral residues Calcining/processing of minerals and metal oxides (glaze for granules) Fuel combustion emissions Particulate emissions
Increased dissolved solids Increased turbidity Increased BOD (see impacts above)
Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation
(see impacts above)
ASPHALT SHINGLES
MAT 07310
Asphalt Shingles
Asphalt Asphalt or flux is the nonvolatile residual fraction, or heavy bottom, of crude oil refining specifically, crude oil distillation. As such, it is composed of various mostly large petrochemical molecules. Asphalt can consist of the residua from a single crude or from a blend of many crudes. Crude oil extraction and refining are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
The asphalt used for the saturant and coating in asphalt shingle manufacture is prepared by blowing air through asphalt at elevated temperatures. Air blowing raises the temperature at which the asphalt will soften, thus resulting in a product that is more resistant to weather and to changes in temperature. Air blowing is an exothermic process involving dehydrogenation and polymerization. Oxygen is not retained in the asphalt product except in a very minor amount. Different airblown asphalts can have diverse viscosities and flow properties, and various fillers, polymers, and solvents can be added. A special type of air-blown asphalt, catalytic asphalt, employs various mineral salts (such as ferric chloride and zinc chloride) to reduce blowing time and to adjust the temperature susceptibility of an asphalt. (The process is not truly a catalytic process, because the agents used are consumed in the reaction.) These agents, which may constitute from 0.1 to 3 percent of the asphalt mix, are not discussed in this report because of the minor quantities used. Air-blown asphalt is produced by either batch or continuous methods. In the batch process, the feedstock is preheated to 200230C in a tube furnace or heater before being placed in the blowing vessel. In the continuous process, the oxidizers are usually operated at a constant temperature (260C, or 500F) and a constant liquid level. The production rate and product characteristics are controlled by the air rate and the charging rate (Kirk-Othmer 1992). An asphalt blowing still is a tank fitted near its base with a sparger, an assembly of air lines in a spider arrangement. The purpose of the sparger is to increase contact between the air and the asphalt. Air is forced through holes in the sparger into the hot asphalt flux. The air rises through the asphalt, participating in an exothermic oxidation reaction. The asphalt temperature rises as the reaction proceeds; this in turn further increases the reaction rate. Asphalt temperature is kept constant (260C, or 500F) during blowing by internal or external cooling (EPA 1980). The time required for airblowing asphalt depends on a number of factors, including the characteristics of the asphalt flux, the desired characteristics of the finished product, the reaction temperature, the type of still used, the air injection rate, and the efficiency with which the air entering the still is dispersed throughout the asphalt. Blowing times may vary from 30 minutes to 12 hours (EPA 1980). The design and location of the sparger in the still governs how much of the asphalt surface area is physically contacted by the injected air, and the vertical height of the still determines the time span of this contact. Vertical stills require less air flow than do horizontal stills for the same amount of asphalt-air contact. Vertical stills are preferred by the industry because they reduce blowing time (EPA 1980). Two major types of asphalt are used in asphalt shingle manufacture: saturant asphalt and coating asphalt. These two asphalts differ in their softening point; saturant asphalts soften at between 50 and 60C (122 and 140F), and coating asphalts soften at between 100 and 115C (212 and 239F) (Kirk-Othmer 1992). In addition, flexibility at lower temperatures and degree of penetration into the felt web are important parameters. The coating asphalt contains a mineral stabilizer. These minerals are discussed below.
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MAT 07310
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Asphalt Shingles
To produce shingle laminating asphalt or self-sealing asphalt, asphalt may be modified by the addition of styrene butadiene polymer or polypropylene to improve the adhesive characteristics of the asphalt (Snyder 1994). The production and environmental aspects of styrene butadiene are discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). Polypropylene is produced by the catalytic polymerization of propylene (Austin 1984). The production and environmental aspects of propylene are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Asphalt may also be modified for use in sealing down shingles. For this purpose, styrene butadiene polymer is added to the asphalt for improved adhesion. The use of styrene butadiene varies by region, depending upon the amount of additional adhesion require. (Regions of the country with colder temperatures need more adhesion to hold the shingles together.) (Snyder 1994).
Asphalt Delivery, Transfer, and Storage
Asphalt is sometimes blown by the oil refiner or asphalt processor to meet the specifications of the roofing manufacturer. Alternatively, many manufacturers purchase the asphalt flux and carry out their own blowing. Asphalt is normally delivered to the asphalt roofing plant by pipeline, tanker truck, or rail car. Bulk asphalts are delivered in liquid form; coating asphalts, however, can be delivered in solid form (EPA 1980). Several tanker unloading techniques are used. The most common method is to couple a flexible pipe to the tanker and pump the asphalt directly into the appropriate storage tanks. Another procedure is to pump the hot asphalt into a large funnel connected to a surge tank. From there, asphalt is pumped into storage tanks. Coating asphalt delivered in solid form is stored in open-ended cardboard tubes or metal cans until needed. Prior to transfer within the plant, coating asphalt must be melted and heated to operating temperature.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Crude Oil Extraction and Processing and Asphalt Production and Handling.
The environmental impacts of crude oil extraction and processing are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240) Asphalt fumes have been tested for potential carcinogenicity in a number of studies. The International Agency for Research on Cancer reviewed the studies and determined that although there is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of extracts of steam- and airrefined asphalts, there is inadequate evidence that asphalt alone is carcinogenic in humans (OSHA 1992). Asphalt fumes are moderately irritating (Lewis 1992). The American Congress of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is a time-weighted average (TWA) of 5 mg/m3. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has recommended a ceiling exposure limit of 5 mg/m3/15 minutes. Emissions from asphalt storage tanks and blowing stills consist primarily of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates primarily in the form of recondensed asphalt fume (EPA 1994). Coating asphalt stored in solid form may outgas, the quantity depending on ambient temperature and the characteristics of the asphalt (EPA 1980). In addition, small amounts of particulate polycyclic organic matter (PPOM) are emitted from blowing stills. Emissions from blowing stills may be controlled by thermal oxidation (afterburners) (EPA 1994). Delivery and transfer of asphalt can result in emissions consisting of organic particulates. Tanker unloading operations can result in emissions, specifically from the tanker itself,
ASPHALT SHINGLES
MAT 07310
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Asphalt Shingles
the interface between tanker and surge tank, the surge tank, and the storage tanks (EPA 1980).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for crude oil extraction and processing is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Minerals Mineral products used in asphalt shingle manufacture include the following:
A stabilizer (silica, marble, sandstone, slate dust, talc, micaceous materials, dolomite, trap rock, limestone, boiler slag, or a mixture of these materials), which is added to the coating asphalt. Stabilizers function as extenders. They also create a harder coating and provide protection from ultraviolet light. A parting agent (talc, sand, mica, or micaceous material), which is applied to the underside of the coated mat to prevent sheets of asphalt from sticking together. Sand may be a sharp silica or similar fine material. Talc can be micaceous or foliated. Colored mineral granules, which are applied to the top surface of the coated mat. In general, a dark granite mineral serves as the base for these granules, although slate, marble, slag, and other stones may be used as well. These granules are colored by a ceramic process in which a glaze coating that carries metal oxide pigments is fired on. As a result, each granule is encapsulated in a ceramic coating, which provides a durable color for decorative purposes as well as protecting the shingle from weathering and from ultraviolet light degradation. In some instances, the granules may have a light oil coating to reduce moisture and dusting (Fleming 1994, 1995). This application is not covered in this report. These minerals are acquired through open-pit mining. The mining and processing of limestone, silica, shale, and sand is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Traprock is discussed in the material report on acoustical ceiling systems (09510). Marble, sandstone, slate, granite, and dolomite (dolomitic limestone) are discussed in the material report on stone veneer (04400). Talc is discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). Mica is discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Handling, Unloading, and Storage
Rock granules and sand are normally shipped in bulk by hopper rail car or truck and dumped onto an underground belt conveyor. The materials are conveyed to a silo or storage bin by conveyor or bucket elevator. At some plants, granules are unloaded pneumatically (EPA 1980). Talc and mineral stabilizer are normally delivered in bulk, although talc may also be delivered in bags. The materials may be transferred pneumatically from the hopper cars or trucks to the storage silos. Alternatively, a screw conveyor may be used to transfer the materials from the trucks to storage. Another common approach is to dump the material from the vehicle hopper onto an underground conveyor through a sleeve connecting the vehicle to the conveyor hopper. Bagged talc is delivered on pallets, usually by boxcar. The loaded pallets are transferred by forklift to storage areas (EPA 1980).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Handling of Minerals
The environmental impacts generally associated with open-pit mining are discussed under limestone in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Handling of raw materials is a source of particulate emissions. Particulates associated with mineral handling and storage operations are captured by enclosures, hoods, or pickup pipes and controlled by fabric filtration (baghouses) with removal efficiencies of approximately 95 to 99 percent. Other control devices may be wet scrubbers and cyclone
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MAT 07310
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Asphalt Shingles
collection. Mineral storage is in closed silos and bins; consequently, potential environmental impacts from open storage piles are not a problem. Fugitive mineral emissions may occur at unloading points, however, depending on the type of equipment used and the mineral handled (EPA 1994). The colored granules, though, are essentially dust-free because of the ceramic coating that encapsulates them.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption associated with mining and handling of materials for asphalt shingle manufacture.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacturing and fabrication of asphalt shingles is presented in figure 5. Asphalt shingles may be prepared by adding a coating of stabilized asphalt to a felt web that has first been impregnated with a saturant asphalt. More frequently, a fiberglass mat web may
Figure 5: Asphalt ShinglesManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Asphalt shingle manufacture Sulfur dioxide
Stressor
Fuel combustion
Impact/Stressor
VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage
Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction, fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Impaired ability of the blood to carry oxygen
Global warming
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Saturators, coater mixers, coaters, and sealant strip and laminate applicators Particulates Asphalt fume and organic particulates (see impacts above) Irritation of respiratory system VOCs (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
ASPHALT SHINGLES
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Asphalt Shingles
be used, in which case the stabilized coating is used to coat the web. To make shingles, mineral granules are added, a strip of sealer asphalt may be applied, and the web is cut into shingles. Saturated felts, used as underlayment for shingles, consist of a felt impregnated with an asphalt saturant (EPA 1980).
Saturating
Organic felt is unwound from the unwind stand onto the dry looper, which maintains a constant tension on the material. The felt then enters the saturator. There, the felt may pass into the spray section (not used in all plants), where asphalt at 205 to 250C (400 to 480F) is sprayed onto one side of the felt. In the saturator dip section, the felt passes over a looper arrangement of rollers, which is almost totally submerged in hot asphalt maintained at 205 to 250C (400 to 480F). The saturated felt then passes through the drying-in drums and onto the wet looper. The drying-in drums press surface saturant into the felt. The wet looper increases absorption by providing time for the saturant to penetrate the felt. If saturated felt is being produced, the sheet bypasses the next two steps (coating and surfacing) and passes directly to the cool-down section. For surfaced roofing products, the saturated felt is carried to the next step.
Coating
Coating asphalt is a harder, more viscous asphalt with a higher softening point than saturant asphalt. It is produced or delivered to the plant and must be stored at elevated temperatures. A mineral stabilizer consisting of silica, marble, sandstone, slate dust, talc, micaceous materials, dolomite, trap rock, limestone, or boiler slag is added to the coating asphalt. If the coating asphalt arrives at the plant with stabilizers already added, it is piped directly to the coater. Unstabilized coating asphalt is piped to the coater-mixer. The coater-mixer combines coating asphalt and the mineral stabilizer in approximately equal proportions. Typically, the filler is dried and preheated at about 120C (250F) in a heater before being mixed with the coating asphalt, which is heated to approximately 250C (480F). In the coating step, a stabilized asphalt coating is applied to both the top and bottom surfaces simultaneously. The clearance between the coating rolls regulates the amount of asphalt applied. Automatic scales keep the product within weight specifications. If a fiberglass mat is being run, the coating asphalt both coats the fibers and fills the voids between them. Fiberglass mats thus do not have to pass through the saturator or wet looper.
Mineral Surfacing
After leaving the coater, the coater mat passes through the granule applicator, where granules are fed onto the hot, coated surface. These granules are pressed into the coating as it passes around a press roll. Parting agents such as talc, sand, mica, or micaceous material (or some combination thereof) are applied to the bottom surface of the coated sheet.
Cooling and Drying
The mat is cooled rapidly with water-cooled rolls and/or water sprays. It then passes through a drying section where it is air dried. After drying, a strip of self-sealing adhesive made from modified asphalt is applied to the appropriate surface of the mat. The purpose of this strip is to seal the loose edge of the shingle after application on a roof. After application, when the shingles are heated by the sun, the asphalt becomes soft and adheres to the shingles underneath. The mat then moves on to the finish or cooling looper, which allows the product to cool and dry off gradually.
14
MAT 07310
ASPHALT SHINGLES
Asphalt Shingles
Cutting and Packaging
The material from the finish looper is fed into the shingle cutting machine. After the shingles have been cut, they are moved by roller conveyor to automatic packaging equipment. Some shingles are formed into laminated products by layering the shingle pieces and binding them together with a special laminating asphalt (modified asphalt). This produces a shingle of greater thickness where an appearance similar to slate roofing or wooden shingles is desired (Snyder 1994).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture and Fabrication of Asphalt Shingles
Emissions consist primarily of VOCs and particulates primarily in the form of recondensed asphalt fume (EPA 1994). VOCs are emitted when coating asphalt in solid form is melted and heated to operating temperature (EPA 1980). Both VOCs and particulates are emitted from saturators, coater-mixer tanks, and coaters. Sealant strip and laminant applicators are also minor emitters of VOCs and particulates. Saturators emit small amounts of particulate polycyclic organic matter (PPOM). Combustion of fuel required for the asphalt and filler heaters results in air emissions, including VOCs, CO2, CO, SOx, and NOx (EPA 1994). These pollutants can contribute to a number of problems, including smog, acid precipitation, materials corrosion, crop damage, and various human health effects, including respiratory problems and eye and throat irritation. Emissions from the saturator, wet looper, and coater may be controlled by electrostatic precipitators, high-energy air filters (HEAF), coalescing filters (mist eliminators), thermal oxidation (afterburners), baghouses, and wet scrubbers (EPA 1994). Asphalt roofing waste can be burned in solid-hearth incinerators, so that factory and field asphalt-roofing waste is recovered as steam. The volume and weight of material that would be placed in landfills can thus be significantly reduced. Total asphalt-roofingproduct waste amounts to about 7.3 x 1013 Btus/yr (7.7 x 1016 J/yr) contained in over 9 million tons (9.9 million metric tons) of waste (Zolnick et al. 1986). About 95 percent of all roofing waste is deposited in landfills, with roofing waste accounting for about 11.5 million cubic yards (8.79 million cubic meters) of landfill use per year. Landfill requirements for the 9 million tons of waste per year can be reduced by about 57 percent if this energy recovery approach is used. Underutilized existing municipal incinerators can also benefit from adding roofing waste to their waste input. Some incinerators do not require any preprocessing of the roofing waste. Other resources besides energy might be recovered from the incinerator ash, including granules for reuse in roofing manufacture or aggregate for use in asphalt paving (Zolnick et al. 1986). Factory shingle waste can be processed and recycled into asphalt used to make new shingles. Recycling factory waste can reduce the amount of material disposed of by landfilling by about 400,000 tons (440,000 metric tons) or 500 thousand cubic yards (382,000 cubic meters). Factory fiberglass shingle waste has been pulverized and mixed at rates of up to 20 percent into the asphalt used to make new shingles. The estimated payback period for implementing this recycling process is 1.9 to 7.4 years. About 3.3 x 1012 Btus/yr (3.48 x 1015 J) of virgin material would be replaced if this recycling were fully implemented. About 95 percent of the total asphalt-roofing-product waste hauled to landfills is generated by worn-out roofing. The possibility of recycling worn-out roofing should be examined. Problems to be addressed in this regard would include removing nails from waste, breaking down paper fibers found in the old roofing, and developing proper formulations for coating asphalt that contains this recycled roofing material (Shepherd et al. 1989).
ASPHALT SHINGLES
MAT 07310
15
Asphalt Shingles
Energy Consumed
Oil or natural gas is used as an energy source. Electric preheaters may also be used (Snyder 1994).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance stage of asphalt shingle roofing is presented in figure 6. Underlayment is fastened to roofs with metal nails or staples, and asphalt shingles are attached over the underlayment with nails. The manufacture of metal fastenings such as nails and staples is described in the material report on wood framing (06110) and is not discussed here.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Asphalt Shingle Roofing
Shingle and underlayment scraps produced at the construction site are disposed of in landfills. Unused shingles and underlayment can be saved for later construction.
Indoor Air Quality
Although asphalt is the result of petroleum processing that distills off VOCs, some VOC residue may remain. In addition, modifiers such as styrene butadiene and the binder urea-formaldehyde are present in asphalt shingles. Asphalt shingles are installed on the outside surface of buildings and thus are largely isolated from the interior space. Exposure to most fumes generated by an asphalt shingle roof is thus averted. Sensitive people may react to asphalt roofing when the roofing is warm, such as on a hot, sunny day. Exposure may be through a window in a roof or by a breeze blowing vapors down off a roof. As roofs age, such emissions decrease, but the fumes may still be troublesome to sensitive people. Asphalt shingles made with a fiberglass mat may cause less of a problem than shingles made with an organic felt (Bower 1989).
Energy Consumed
An important feature of the asphalt shingle market is its local nature. It is estimated that virtually all of the sales of asphalt roofing products occur within 300 miles (483 km) of the production facility (EPA 1980). The embodied energy of self-sealing strip shingles, including transportation, is 29,728 Btus/ft2 (337.6 MJ/m2). The embodied energy of regular strip shingles is 25,334 Btus/ft2 (287.7 MJ/m2). The embodied energy of saturated felt (underlayment) is 13,630 Btus/lb (31.7 MJ/kg) (Hannon 1976). Based on the most common weights of organic saturated felt, the embodied energy for underlayment is 1840 Btus/ft2 (20.9 MJ/m2) for 15 lb (6.8 kg) saturated felt and 3,680 Btus/ft2 (41.8 MJ/m2) for 30 lb (13.6 kg) saturated felt.
Figure 6: Asphalt ShinglesConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity
Construction VOC emissions
Stressor
Scrap Indoor air pollution
Impact/Stressor
Landfill disposal Possible health effects for sensitive individuals
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
16
MAT 07310
ASPHALT SHINGLES
Asphalt Shingles
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage and Regulatory Status

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of asphalt shingles is presented in figure 7. Asphalt shingle roofs have a useful life of 20 to 40 years (Steiner 1995; Wilson 1992), after which they need to be replaced. Old roofing material is usually disposed of in landfills. In some localities, however, asphalt shingle debris is reprocessed into usable products. After nails are ground and removed, roofing debris can be made into new paving products, such as pavement patching materials and a material that serves as an alternative to gravel for industrial yards (Wilson 1992). Department of Energy studies have also shown the practicability of recycling roofing waste into paving as an alternative to disposal (Paulsen et al. 1986). As discussed above in the section on manufacturing and fabrication, used roofing can be incinerated to generate steam, thereby reclaiming energy and possibly recovering granules for new shingles or aggregate for asphalt paving (Zolnick et al. 1986). The possibility of recycling used roofing into new shingles has also been explored by the Department of Energy, as is also mentioned above (Shepherd et al. 1989). Asphalt shingles are durable and economical over their long life (EPA 1980).
Figure 7: Asphalt ShinglesRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity
Demolition/disposal
Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Regulatory Status
Major regulatory impacts on the asphalt shingle industry result from the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act as a result of restrictions on solid-waste disposal. The Clean Air Act also has an impact as a result of the limitations imposed on pollutant emissions. The Clean Water Act does not currently pose a major concern but may do so in the future, depending upon the amendments enacted (Snyder 1994).
ASPHALT SHINGLES
MAT 07310
17
Asphalt Shingles
References
References
Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries, 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bower, John. 1989. The Healthy HouseHow to Buy One, How to Build One, How to Cure a Sick One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. Fleming, Peter. 1994. Technical director, Industrial Minerals, 3M Corporation. Personal communication. . 1995. Technical Director, Industrial Minerals, 3M Corporation. Comments on draft of this report. Hannon, B.M., R.G. Stein, B.Z. Segal, D. Serber, C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1982. 3rd ed. Vol. 20. NY: John Wiley & Sons. . 1992. 4th ed. Vols. 3 and 4. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Lewis, Richard J. 1992. Saxs Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 8th ed. Vol 2. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Paulsen, Greg, Mary Stroup-Gardiner, and Jon A. Epps. 1986. Recovery and Reuse of Asphalt Roofing WasteIncorporation of Roofing Waste in Asphalt Paving. Vol. 2, Laboratory Investigations. DOI/ID/12560-2 (vol. 2), Manville Sales Corporation, Denver, CO, and University of Nevada, Reno, NV, for Office of Industrial Programs, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Shepherd, Phillip B. et al. 1989. Energy Conservation Through Recycling of Factory Asphalt Roofing Waste. DOE/ID/12795, Manville Sales Corporation, Denver, CO, and Bird Roofing, for Idaho Operations Office, U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho Falls, ID. Snyder, Russell K. 1994. General manager, Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association, Rockville, MD. Personal communication. Steiner, E. C. 1995. Product manager, The Celotex Corporation, Tampa, FL. Comments on draft of this report. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 1992. Air Contaminants; Proposed Rule. Federal Register 57(114):26179-90.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980. Asphalt Roofing Manufacturing IndustryBackground Information for Proposed Standards. Emission Standards and Engineering Division, Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation and Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Research Triangle Park, NC. . 1994. Update to Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors Database (AP-42), submitted by Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association. April 27, 1994. Wilson, Alex. 1992. Dealing with Construction Waste: Innovative Solutions for a Tough Problem. Environmental Building News 1(3):1, 7-9. Zolnick, E. L. et al. 1986. Recovery and Reuse of Asphalt Roofing WasteBurning of Asphalt Roofing Waste. DOE/ID/12560-3, Manville Sales Corporation, Denver, CO, for Office of Industrial Programs, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
18
MAT 07310
ASPHALT SHINGLES
Material Report
Fireproofing
Highlights
Many of the raw materials used to make sprayed-on fireproofing are acquired by mining, generally the open-pit method. Wastes produced by mining include excavation overburden and tailing waste. Energy use and fuel combustion during mining operations result in atmospheric emissions. Water pollutants from mine runoff can cause reduced aquatic productivity and deoxygenation. Crushing, screening, and processing of mineral components may produce particulate emissions. The manufacture of portland cement, a component of cementitious fireproofing, is a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions. Some components of fireproofing, such as solvents, are derived from petrochemicals. Oil and natural gas extraction and processing and petrochemical manufacturing are responsible for a variety of environmental pollutants, including air emissions and discharge of toxic wastes.
Impacts from mining can be significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction and erosion. Gypsum, limestone, clay, perlite, and mica are finite resources, but they are in plentiful supply. Petroleum and natural gas stocks are finite resources that are in adequate supply at present.
No quantitative information is available on energy consumption during the manufacture and application of sprayed-on fireproofing. Glass fiber or mineral wool, components of certain types of fireproofing, can be released into the air as a result of mechanical damage to the fireproofing or deterioration of the binder. Inhalation of and dermal exposure to glass fibers or mineral wool particles can affect human health in various ways. Fireproofing, because it has a large surface area, can serve as a sink for absorption of VOCs released from other sources.
FIREPROOFING
MAT 07400
Fireproofing
Background
Background
Fire protection of all buildings is a critical life safety requirement. Fire protection, as commonly understood, refers to several methods that accomplish the following (Hornbostel 1991): Retarding the spread of fire (fire control) Reducing the flammability of materials (flameproofing) Lengthening the time a material can withstand high temperatures (fire resistance) The latter option, fire resistance, is the subject of this report. Structural members, such as steel beams, can be covered with another material to protect them from high temperatures in case of fire. One option in this example is to encase the beams in concrete. Another option, the subject of this report, is to protect the surface of the structural members with a spray-on coating. These coverings serve to increase the time before the members collapse from the heat of a fire, providing a margin of safety in which occupants can evacuate a building before it becomes unstable. This report covers fireproofing that is categorized under Masterspec Section 07251C, Sprayed-on Fireproofing. Encasement of structural members is not treated in this report. Protecting steel structural framing prevents thermal expansion and softening of the steel during a fire. The critical temperature for structural steel is normally considered to be 1,000F (538C). At that temperature, structural steel loses significant strength, leading to building failure (Brannigan 1992). Sprayed-on fireproofing includes materials applied either to surfaces that will be exposed to view when construction is complete or surfaces that will be concealed from view behind other construction. The major volume of sprayed-on fireproofing installed inside buildings consists of concealed applications. Products for exposed applications, while suitable for architectural uses, find a much larger market in industrial projects. Both types of fireproofing provide a blanket of protection for the steel members to which they are applied (Masterspec 1992). Sprayed-on fireproofing materials are classified into three product categories (Masterspec 1992; UL 1995): Cementitious fireproofing. This type of fireproofing is a dry formulation of gypsum or portland cement or other inorganic binders and various lightweight aggregates that is mixed with water at the project site to form a slurry or mortar. This slurry is applied directly to the substrate from a nozzle. Cementitious fireproofing can be used in concealed or exposed applications. Exposed applications require materials with higher density and greater compressive strength, bond strength, and hardness than those used for concealed applications. Foamed magnesium oxychloride fireproofing is a special type of cementitious fireproofing that is stronger and less affected by moisture. Sprayed-fiber fireproofing. This type of fireproofing consists of a dry formulation of inorganic binders, mineral fibers, and fillers that is conveyed by pneumatic equipment to a spray nozzle, where it is mixed with atomized water to form a damp, as-applied product. Intumescent mastic fireproofing. Intumescent mastics are an altogether different form of fireproofing from the two just described. These mastics foam or expand under intense heat, forming a thick, inert insulator on substrates. Intumescent mastics are the most expensive type of spray-on fireproofing; they are lightweight, durable, and resistant to moisture and weather. They bond strongly to substrates but require primers.
MAT 07400
FIREPROOFING
Fireproofing
Also discussed in this report are the various auxiliary fireproofing materials described here: Substrate primers. Various primer coats are available for use on different substrates and with each different sprayed-on fireproofing product. Adhesive for bonding fireproofing. These products are approved by individual manufacturers of sprayed-on fireproofing. Some formulations applied to metal decking may require adhesives. Metal lath. This expanded metal lath is used for exposed applications that require reinforcing. (Included are clips, lathing accessories, corner beads, and other anchorage devices required to attach lath to substrate and to receive the fireproofing.) Reinforcing fabric. This glass-fiber fabric may be required for certain applications of intumescent mastic fireproofing. Veneer plaster topcoat. This is a proprietary product intended for use only with the manufacturers fireproofing products. It is a factory-mixed formulation of latex-modified, inorganic, veneer plaster recommended for spray application over concealed cementitious and exposed cement-aggregate formulations. Topcoats. Topcoats are used as recommended by the manufacturer of each fireproofing material. Sealer for mineral fiber fireproofing. This is a clear-drying protective coating recommended by a manufacturer of sprayed-fiber fireproofing. Decorative paints or coatings. These are applied over exposed sprayed-on fireproofing, and their compatibility with underlying fireproofing materials must be verified with the manufacturer. Existing buildings may contain fireproofing materials composed of asbestos. Asbestos must be either removed (by specially trained technicians) or encapsulated with a specialized product that seals off the fibers from the surrounding environment. These encapsulating materials are not treated in this report.
Life-cycle summary flow charts of fireproofing materials are provided in figures 1 through 11. The environmental reviews contained in the ERG material reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that occur during the entire life cycle of a material. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to them. These stressors and impacts are summarized in the following paragraphs and discussed in greater depth in subsequent sections by life cycle stage. Essentially, all industries are regulated regarding air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. The various formulations of sprayed-on fireproofing contain a number of mineral components. The acquisition of these minerals is similar in that they are all mined, usually by openpit methods. Mining can result in a number of environmental impacts, including land disturbance and habitat alteration. Runoff from tailings waste can pollute surface waters. Crushing, screening, and processing of the minerals may yield particulate emissions, although these can be controlled with filtration devices and wet spray systems. Fuel combustion to produce energy for these operations can cause a variety of air emissions that contribute to environmental problems such as formation of ozone or smog, acid precipitation, and the greenhouse effect. These air emissions can also negatively affect human health, contributing to respiratory illness and lung damage. Portland cement (a component of several (continued on page 18)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998 FIREPROOFING MAT 07400
4
MAT 07400 FIREPROOFING ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Concealed Cementious Fireproofing
Fireproofing
Life-Cycle Summary Concealed Cementious Fireproofing
Cellulose
(see figure 8)
Epoxy
(see figure 6)
Paint
(see ERG report on paint) or
Pigments Iron oxides Titanium dioxide Carbon black

(see figure 11)
Primer Bonding agent Acrylic resin Polyvinyl acetate (if used)

(see figure 8) (see figure 6)
Synthetic aggregate Expanded polystyrene

(see figure 8) and/or
Reinforcing fabric
(see figure 8)
Cementitious fireproofing
Metal lath
(see ERG report on plaster and lath)
or
Surface preparation (as required)
Mineral aggregate Quartz Limestone Vermiculite Perlite

(see figure 9)
Mineral fiber cementitious fireproofing
Packaging
Storage
Spray application
Portland cement
(see figure 10) or
Water (if not pre-diluted)
Sealer Acrylic resin Polyvinyl acetate (if used)

(see figure 8)
or
Installed fireproofing
Gypsum
(see figure 9)
Top coat (as required)

(see figure 8)
Maintenance
Mineral wool
(see figure 8)
KEY
Paint (as required)

(see ERG report on paint)
Renovation/ demolition
Fillers
Output Recycling
Disposal
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Exposed Cementious Fireproofing

Mineral (inorganic) aggregates Mica Limestone Vermiculite
(see figure 9)
Epoxy
(see figure 6)
Paint
Silica acid
(see figure 8)

Mineral wool
(see figure 8)
Reinforcing fabric Glass fiber/filament

Exposed cementitious fireproofing
Metal lath
or
Portland cement
(see figure 10)
Cellulose
(see figure 8)
Exposed cementitious fireproofing, vinyl aceate polymer type
or
Packaging
Storage
Spray application
Polyvinyl acetate
(see figure 8)

(see figure 8)
or
Life-Cycle Summary Exposed Cementious Fireproofing
(see figure 8)

(see figure 8)
Maintenance
Aluminum ore
(see figure 8)
KEY
Paint (as required)

Fireproofing
Calcium formate
(see figure 8)
Output Recycling
Disposal
6
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Foamed Magnesium Oxychloride Fireproofing
Fireproofing
Life-Cycle Summary Foamed Magnesium Oxychloride Fireproofing
Epoxy
(see figure 6)
Paint

Magnesium oxide Reinforcing fabric

Magnesium chloride
(see figure 8)
Metal lath
or
Foaming agent
Packaging
Storage
Spray application

(see figure 8)
or

(see figure 8)
Maintenance
KEY
Paint (as required)

Disposal
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Sprayed-Fiber Fireproofing
Epoxy
(see figure 6)
Paint
Primer Portland cement

(see figure 10)
Bonding agent Acrylic resin Polyvinyl acetate (if used)

(see figure 8)
(see figure 6)
Mineral wool Reinforcing fabric

Gypsum
(see figure 9)
Metal lath
or
Starch
(see figure 7)
Fillers
Sprayed-fiber fireproofing
Packaging
Storage
Spray application
CaCO3
(see figure 9)

(see figure 8)
or
Additives Petroleum process oil

(see figure 8)

(see figure 8)
Maintenance
Life-Cycle Summary Sprayed-Fiber Fireproofing
KEY
Paint (as required)

Fireproofing
Disposal
8
Figure 5: Life-Cycle Summary of Intumescent Mastic Fireproofing
Fireproofing
Life-Cycle Summary Intumescent Mastic Fireproofing
Epoxy
(see figure 6)
Paint
Primer Resin
(see figure 6)
Bonding agent Acrylic resin Polyvinyl acetate (if used)

(see figure 8)
(see figure 6)
Catalyst Reinforcing fabric

Blowing agent
(see figure 7)
Metal lath
or
Carbonizing agent
(see figure 7)
Intumescent mastic fireproofing
Packaging
Storage
Spray application
Solvents Butyl alcohol Butyl acetate Ethylene glycol mono butyl ester Isopropanol Aromatic hydrocarbon blend Xylene Toluene Petroleum solvent
(see figure 8)

(see figure 8)
or

(see figure 8)
Maintenance
KEY
Paint (as required)

Disposal
Figure 6: Life-Cycle Summary of Some Fireproofing Resins

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Cu catalyst
Ammonia
Natural gas processing Separation Liquefaction Distillation
Al catalyst Ni catalyst
Carbon dioxide
Urea
Melamine
Melamine resin
Resins
(see figure 5)
Wastewater (oil, grease, BOD,COD)
Cu catalyst
Methanol
Formaldehyde
Vinyl copolymer emulsion resin Solvents Isopropanol Butyl alcohol Toluene Xylene Methyl isobutyl ketone
(see figure 5)
KEY
Hypochlorous acid
Polyaminoamide resin
Chlorine Brine Electrolysis NaOH

Epichlorohydrin
or
Epoxy resin
(see figures 1-5)
Substrate primer
(see figures 1-5)
Propylene
Life-Cycle Summary Some Fireproofing Resins
Fireproofing
Phenol
Wastewater (oil, grease, suspended solids, organics) H2SO4
Wastewater Drilling muds (produced water, and cuttings oil, grease, heavy Drainage metals, dissolved wastes solids, organics)
Sludge Solids, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptane, cyanides)
Benzene manufacture
Cumene
Acetone
Bisphenol A
10
Figure 7: Life-Cycle Summary of Some Intumescent Components
Fireproofing
Phosphoric acid
Centrifuging Drying
Monoammonium phosphate
Life-Cycle Summary Some Intumescent Components
or
Catalyst
(see figure 5)
Cu catalyst
Ammonia
Al catalyst Wastewater (oil, grease, BOD,COD) Drilling mud and cuttings, heavy metals Ni catalyst
Carbon dioxide
Urea
Melamine
Melamine phosphate
Oxychlorination
Chlorinated paraffins
or or or
(see figure 5)
Blowing agent
Oxygen
Dicyandiamide
KEY
Hydrochloric acid
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Recycling
Corn production Planting Spraying Cultivating Harvesting Fertilizing
Starch manufacturing Cleaning Separating Soaking Washing Screening Drying Degerminating
Starch
(see figure 4)
Habitat change
Tailings waste overburden
Pentaerythritols
or
Carbonizing agent
(see figure 5)
Figure 8a: Life-Cycle Summary of Miscellaneous Fireproofing Components

Aromatic hydrocarbon blend (solvent)

(see figure 5)
Acetic acid
palladium
Vinyl acetate
catalyst, benzene solvent
Polyvinyl acetate
(see figures 1-5)
Wastewater (oil, grease, BOD,COD)
Drilling mud and cuttings, heavy metals Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzol(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
Air emissions (benzene, VOCs)
Ethylene
Solvents Butyl alcohol Butyl acetate Ethylene glycol mono butyl ester
(see figure 5)
Chlorinated Chromium, organics copper Hydrocarbons, zinc, cadmium
Styrene monomer Benzene
catalyst
(see figures 1,2, and 8)
Petroleum process (white mineral) oil

(see figure 4)
Refining Solvents Xylene Toluene Petroleum solvent

(see figure 5) Air emissions (VOCs) catalyst catalyst polymerization
KEY
Life-Cycle Summary Miscellaneous Fireproofing Components
Propylene
Acrolein
Acrylic acid
Esterification
Acrylic monomers
Acrylic resin
(see figures 1-5)
Sand Mining Digging Loading Screening Washing
Isopropanol (solvent)
Air emissions (dust particulates) (see figure 5)
Fireproofing
Habitat change
Sand processing Crushing Screening Grinding
Esterification
Silicic acid
(see figure 2)
11
12
Figure 8b: Life-Cycle Summary of Miscellaneous Fireproofing Components
Fireproofing
Limestone mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Limestone calcining Heating Cooling
Calcium oxide (lime)
Hydration
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium formate
(see figure 2)
Habitat change
Carbon monoxide
Seawater
Precipitation
Magnesium hydroxide
Evaporation
KEY
Hydrochloric acid (by-product)
Salt water (Great Salt Lake)
Solar evaporation
Vacuum evaporation and precipitation
Magnesium chloride (hexahydrate)

(see figure 3)
Co-products Various salts
Magnesite mining Digging Screening Loading
Magnesite processing Crushing Desliming Washing Separating
Calcining/ Sintering
Magnesium oxide
(see figure 3)
Habitat change
Recycled newsprint
Cellulose
Bauxite mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Grinding Loading
Bauxite (aluminum ore)

(see figure 2)
Habitat change
Figure 8c: Life-Cycle Summary of Miscellaneous Fireproofing Components

Glass sand, limestone and borax mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Glass fiber manufacture Glass melting/refining Cutting/ Marble forming/remelt fabricating Drying/Curing
Effluent (phenols, DS, SS, oil and grease, ammonia)
Glass fiber/ filament

(see figure 2)
Reinforcing fabric
(see figures 1-5)
Habitat change
Glass sand
Quartz
KEY
Co-product Silica sand
Portland cement
(see figure 10)
Topcoats
(see figure 3)
Basalt and diabase rocks mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading Separating
Cellulose
(see figure 8)
Habitat change
(see figure 8)
Coal mining Drilling Loading Blasting Cleaning
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, VOCs, NH3, particulates)
Air emissions (SOX, fluorides, mineral wool fibers, particulates)
Fireproofing

Mineral wool manufacture Heating Curing Atomizing Cooling Farming Slag (waste from steel production
Solid waste
Mineral wool
(see figures 1,2,4)
Runoff (soil erosion, TSS, acid drainage)
Habitat change
13
14
Figure 9a: Life-Cycle Summary of Mineral Aggregates
Fireproofing
Vermiculite mining Digging Grading to Loading size Processing
Exfoliating Calcining (expansion) Grinding Screening Vermiculite

Life-Cycle Summary Mineral Aggregates
Habitat change
Mica mining Drilling Loading Crushing Screening Flotation
Mica
(see figure 2)
Habitat change
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Recycling Water vapor
Perlite mining Digging Blasting Loading Crushing Screening Grinding
Expanding Drying Grinding Heating Classifying Perlite

(see figure 1)
Habitat change
Figure 9b: Life-Cycle Summary of Mineral Aggregates

Glass sand mining Drilling Blasting Crushing Screening Loading
Glass sand
Quartz
(see figure 1)
Coproduct Silica sand

KEY
Limestone and gypsum mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating Screening
Limestone (CaCO3)
Habitat change
Gypsum
Life-Cycle Summary Mineral Aggregates
Fireproofing
15
16
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Waste fuel
Air emissions (CO, CO2, NOX, SO2, dioxin)
Dust
Disposal
Habitat change
Wastewater (particulates, alkalinity)
Habitat change
Waste lime
Lime
Habitat change
Clinker Iron ore
Grinding mill
Habitat change or

(see figures 1,2,4, and 8)
Scrap procurement
or
Waste iron

or
Habitat change or
KEY
Bauxite
Iron smelting waste

Gypsum

KEY
Process flow
Processing
Habitat change
Air emissions (H2O, O2, SOx)
Titanium dioxide
Air emissions (SO2, SO3, CO2)
Mineral separation
TiO2 processing Ferrous sulfate

H2SO4 Metal sulfates metal chlorides

Processing
Copperas red oxide
Habitat change
Pigments
(see figure 1)
Brine
Electrolysis
Sodium Hydroxide Coproducts Hydrogen Chlorine
basic pH
Black iron oxide
Scrap iron
neutral pH
Orange iron oxide Yellow iron oxide Yellow iron oxide
Steam
acidic pH
Air
Fireproofing
Refining residue
Wastewater Drilling (produced muds water, oil, and grease, heavy cuttings metals, dissolved solids, organics) Drainage wastes Wastewater Sludge (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptane, cyanides)
Partial combustion
Carbon black
17
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fireproofing formulations) manufacturing also requires various raw materials acquired through mining, and the manufacturing process is a source of carbon dioxide emissions. The processing of trap rock, from which mineral wool is made, results in particulate emissions, and glass fiber production produces air emissions that include hydrogen sulfide. Sprayed-on fireproofing contains a number of components that are derived from petroleum and/or natural gas. Oil and natural gas extraction and processing can generate a variety of air and water pollutants. The operation of heavy equipment can release fuel combustion emissions, and discharge of various wastewaters into streams and lakes can adversely affect fish and other aquatic life. Benzene is required in the manufacture of styrene (a component of cementitious fireproofing) and vinyl acetate (a component of cement-aggregate cementitious fireproofing). The manufacture of these materials may release small amounts of benzene. The use and release of benzene, a known human carcinogen, is highly regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other agencies. The manufacture of components for intumescent mastic fireproofing may result in various air emissions and wastewaters. Melamine and urea manufacture produce air emissions that include hydrogen sulfide. Melamine resin production may release residual monomers of formaldehyde and melamine. Epoxy resin production may involve the accidental release of certain chemicals that can pose health and safety hazards. A number of solvents (including butyl acetate, butyl alcohol, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether, xylenes, and toluene) that are components of intumescent mastic fireproofing can negatively affect human health in various ways. Human exposure can occur under occupational situations or during use of products containing these solvents. Many of these materials, as manufacturing wastes or off-specification products, are managed as hazardous wastes. Some types of fireproofing contain glass fiber or mineral wool. The presence of glass fiber or mineral wool particles in indoor air has a potential for ill health effects. (Note that glass filaments found in some fireproofing materials do not have such a potential [Ramsey 1995].) Indoor air quality problems can occur when such fibers are released as a result of mechanical damage to the fireproofing material, air erosion, or deterioration of the fireproofing binder. In addition, fireproofing, because it has a large surface area, can serve as a sink for absorption of VOCs (volatile organic compounds) from other sources. For example, indoor air pollutants can be absorbed into the fireproofing material during application of finishes with high VOC content. These VOCs can then be released back into the occupied space over time.

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for manufacturing fireproofing is presented in figure 12. Discussed here are cementitious, foamed magnesium oxychloride, sprayed-fiber, and intumescent mastic fireproofing and other materials used with the installation and finishing of fireproofing.
Cementitious Fireproofing There are two types of cementitious fireproofing, one for use in concealed applications and one for use when the fireproofing will be exposed.
Concealed Cementitious Fireproofing
Cementitious fireproofing for concealed applications consists of gypsum or portland cement and a lightweight mineral or synthetic aggregate (Masterspec 1992). Typical formulations may contain (in addition to gypsum or portland cement) these mineral components: perlite, vermiculite, limestone, and quartz. Non-mineral components may include cellulose and (continued on page 25) 18
Fireproofing
Environmental Impacts Fireproofing
Figure 12: Environmental ImpactsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage for Fireproofing
Activity Mining of gypsum, quartz, limestone, vermiculite, perlite, mica Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone or smog Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Decreased visibility Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Global warming Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems; impaired ability of the blood to carry oxygen) Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Nitrogen oxides Exfoliation (expansion) of vermiculite Pigment production Fuel combustion emissions Mining of mineral sands and iron ore Calcining and other processes Air emissions Sulfur oxides Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation (see impacts above) Carbon dioxide Titanium dioxide Mining of limestone, gypsum, clay, mud, and iron ore (for portland cement production) Gypsum processing and calcining (for portland cement production) Particulate emissions of calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrous calcium sulfate, and gangue Fuel combustion (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility (see mining impacts above) Potential for human occupational health effects (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see mining impacts above) Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation (see impact above) (see impacts above) Stressor Tailings waste Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Particulates
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Figure 12: Environmental ImpactsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage for Fireproofing (continued)
Activity Portland cement production Stressor Dust Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Impaired visibility Air emissions Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide Carbon dioxide Wastewater Natural gas production (raw materials for polystyrene, polyvinyl acetate, melamine, butyl acetate and various other solvents, and acrylic Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygen depleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Fuel combustion emissions (Air emissions from diesel powered drills) VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates Nitrogen oxides Crude oil extraction carbon black, petroleum process oil (mineral oil), epoxy resin, butyl acetate and various other solvents, and acrylic Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (raw materials for polystyrene, carbon black, petroleum process oil [mineral oil], epoxy resin, butyl acetate and various other solvents, and acrylic Crude oil processing carbon black, petroleum process oil (mineral oil), epoxy resin, butyl acetate and various other solvent, and acrylic Bottom sludge and emulsified groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage Release of oil and tanks Desalting process suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, and suspended and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Habitat disruption Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading (raw materials for polystyrene, oil can contaminate Discharge of produced water heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen depleting organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Water pollution Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Eutrophication Water-borne disease (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (raw materials for polystyrene, that may contain oil, grease, (see impacts above) Particulates Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Greenhouse effect Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Global warming Increased alkalinity Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Activity Crude oil processing (continued), Stressor Distillation process Impact/Stressor Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, and chlorides Wastewater containing phenol Distillation process, s air emissions Catalytic cracking Mercaptans VOCs Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, cyanides, and ammonia Wastewater containing phenol Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides VOCs Carbon monoxide Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, Polystyrene production Ethylene production Air emissions Wastewater (see health effects above) Various human health effects Some possible human carcinogens Benzene and VOCs Chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals (see impacts above) Increased BOD (see impacts above) Consumption of toxics by fish Possible fishkill Benzene production Crude oil extraction and processing Natural gas production Carbon black production Mining of traprock (for mineral wool production) Washing and cleaning crushed traprock Coal mining (to produce coke for mineral wool manufacture) Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion Air emissions (dust, particulates) Wastewater Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Clay suspended in wash water Tailings waste and mine spoils (sulfur) Contamination of groundwater (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Acid drainage Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals (see impacts above) Crude oil extraction and processing Fuel combustion emissions (see mining impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Release of benzene (see impacts above) Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Increased BOD Known human carcinogen (see impacts above) Known human carcinogen Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Consumption of toxics by fish Impact/Stressor (see impacts above)
naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene
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Activity Cokemaking (for mineral wool manufacture) Stressor Air emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Particulates Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen dioxide Carbon monoxide Ammonia Dust Wastewater Dissolved solids and organics Sludge Mineral wool manufacture Air emissions Potential human carcinogens Sulfur oxides Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Fluorides Mineral wool fibers and particulates Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Mining of sand, dolomitic limestone, and borax (for glass fiber/filament manufacture) Glass fiber/filament production Air emissions Hydrogen sulfide Fuel combustion emissions Fluorides Odors (see impacts above) Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Effluent Phenols Ammonia Dissolved and suspended solids and oil and grease Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Fishkill Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Polyvinyl acetate manufacture Natural gas extraction Air emissions (see impacts above) Benzene VOCs Fuel combustion emissions Mining of aluminum ore (see mining impacts above) Habitat disturbance in tropical and semitropical regions (see above for human health effects) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see mining impacts above) (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor
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Activity Mining of sand (for silicic acid manufacture) Sand processing (for silicic acid manufacture) Calcium formate manufacture Magnesium oxychloride production Discharge of magnesium chloride into rivers or lakes Hydrochloric acid production Magnesium oxide production Lime production Mining of magnesite Calcining of magnesite Limestone mining Limestone calcining Petroleum process oil production Starch production Melamine resin production Crude oil extraction and processing Petroleum refining Corn growing Fuel combustion emissions Possible production of wastewater containing residual monomers Melamine may be carried off in the condensate Melamine production Production of waste hydrogen sulfide Natural gas production Chlorinated paraffins production Epoxy resin production Cumene hydroperoxide Air emissions Cumene Eye and skin irritation Dizziness, drowsiness, incoordination, unconsciousness Danger of explosion Corrosive to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract Epichlorohydrin Irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin Liver, lung, and kidney injury Probable human carcinogen Oil extraction and processing Butyl acetate production Butyl acetate (fugitive emissions) Wastewater containing butyl acetate Oil extraction and processing Natural gas production (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Human health effects, including eye and respiratory irritation Air emissions Incineration of hydrogen sulfide releases sulfur oxides into the atmosphere (see impacts above) Carbon dioxide (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions Pesticides runoff (see impacts above) Formaldehyde may be carried off in the condensate Human health effects (irritant, allergen, and possible human carcinogen) (see impacts above) Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms (see mining impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions Carbon dioxide emissions (see mining impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions Carbon dioxide emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Accidental emissions Acid precipitation Human health effects (see impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Dust Silicosis Stressor (see mining impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Activity Butyl alcohol production Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Butyl alcohol (fugitive emissions) Various human health effects, including respiratory irritation, contact dermatitis, headache, and dizziness Oil extraction and processing Natural gas production (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Isopropyl alcohol production
Isopropyl alcohol (fugitive emissions) Oil extraction and processing Natural gas production (see impacts above) Various human health effects from skin exposure, including central nervous system depression, nausea, headache, acute kidney failure Oil extraction and processing Natural gas production (see impacts above) Various human health effects including central nervous system depression, upper airway irritation; prolonged exposure may cause a dermatitis Leaching into groundwater Oil extraction and processing Possible human health effects from contaminated drinking water (see impacts above) Various human health effects including respiratory tract irritation, tremors, followed by central nervous system depression; contact may irritate or burn skin and eyes Wastewater containing toluene Leaching into groundwater Possible human health effects from contaminated drinking water (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether production
Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether (fugitive emissions)
Xylene production
Xylene (fugitive emissions)
Toluene production
Toluene (fugitive emissions)
Manufacture of primers
Epoxy resin production Production of isopropyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, toluene, and xylene Methyl isobutyl ketone production
Oil extraction and processing Natural gas production Irritation of respiratory tract, skin, eyes, gastric system
Aluminum sulfate (gypsum accelerator)
Health effects
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Activity Manufacture of bonding agents Stressor Polyvinyl acetate production Acrylic production Propylene production VOC emissions Wastewater containing BOD, COD Wastewater containing organic carbon, oil and grease, total suspended solids, and organic solvents Oil extraction and processing Natural gas production Manufacture of reinforcing fabric Manufacture of topcoats Quartz mining, portland cement (see impacts above) production, cellulose production, styrene production, glass fiber production Manufacture of sealers Polyvinyl acetate production, acrylic resin production (see impacts above) Glass fiber production (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Deoxygenation (see impacts above) Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
expanded polystyrene. Some formulations of cementitious fireproofing may contain the following materials as colorants: iron oxide pigments, titanium dioxide, and carbon black (Product information 1995b, 1995c, 1995d, 1995e). Mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. Gypsum (CaSO4 2H20) is a common mineral, the dihydrate form of calcium sulfate. Most gypsum is acquired through openpit mining. This process is described in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). Quartz may be recovered as a by-product or co-product from the mining of silica sand (Bolen 1991). The mining and processing of glass sand (silica) are described in the ERG report on glass (08810). Limestone is sedimentary rock composed of the mineral calcite, or calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Most limestone is taken from surface mines with open-pit methods. About 5 percent of the limestone produced in the United States comes from underground mining. Limestone mining is described in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral (hydrated magnesium aluminum iron silicate) that occurs naturally in crystalline plates. It is expanded by high temperatures to yield a lightweight, highly water-absorbent material. Upon calcination at 1750F (954.44C), it expands in one direction, at right angles to the plane of cleavage. Its volume increases as much as 16 times, creating a product with low density, low thermal conductivity, resistance to high temperatures, and chemical inertness. It is mined with power shovels and concentrated, processed, and graded to size. At the exfoliating plant, it is expanded, ground into pellet form, and screened to proper size (Hornbostel 1991). Perlite is a type of volcanic glass that has been expanded by heat to form a lightweight aggregate. Domestic perlite is mined with open-pit methods. Properly sized perlite is heated in a
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furnace to between 1,400 and 1,800F, at which temperature the water in the mineral is released as steam, expanding the perlite into a frothy material. The mining and processing of perlite is described in greater detail in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). Pigments such as iron oxides and titanium dioxide may be added to cementitious fireproofing. Natural iron oxide pigments are processed from iron ore, but iron oxide pigments can also be produced synthetically. Titanium dioxide is produced from titanium-containing mineral sands from several different production processes. The acquisition and preparation of raw materials in the form of minerals and the production of iron oxide and titanium dioxide pigments are described in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04200). Portland cement is produced as a result of a series of chemical reactions. Two types of raw materials are required: one rich in calcium, such as limestone, and the other rich in silica, such as clay. The manufacture of portland cement is described in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04200). The acquisition of limestone is referenced above; that of clay and shale is described in the ERG report on gypsum board (09250).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Mineral Components of Concealed Cementitious Fireproofing
Gypsum, quartz, limestone, vermiculite, perlite, and other minerals are acquired through mining, both through open-pit and underground operations. In general, the environmental impacts of mining operations include increased turbidity of surface waters caused by runoff from tailings waste, increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of aquatic habitats, and possible fishkill. Other negative effects on wildlife communities include land disturbance and habitat alteration. Crushing, screening, and processing of the minerals may result in particulates emissions. From the standpoint of human health, inhalation of particulates can cause eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, and lung damage. Release of particulates in high concentrations can lead to decreased visibility. The environmental impacts of limestone mining and mining operations in general are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). The environmental impacts of the mining and processing of gypsum and perlite are discussed in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). The environmental impacts of quartz mining and processing are similar to those associated with the mining of glass sand (or silica), which are discussed in the ERG report on glass (08810). Fuel combustion needed to produce energy during mining and crushing operations and transportation of raw materials to the manufacturing facility can result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs are contributors to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx (sulfur oxides) to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage and contributes to acid precipitation. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects human cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage, and NOx contributes to environmental problems such as acid precipitation and smog. Exfoliation (expansion) of vermiculite requires the burning of fuels to produce energy in the form of heat. Fuel combustion produces emissions that negatively affect the environment, as discussed above.
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Environmental impacts associated with the acquisition and processing of minerals needed to produce pigments and with the production of synthetic iron oxide and titanium dioxide pigments are described in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04200). These impacts include those from mining, described above, and the release of iron oxide dust, which can cause siderosis. Mineral processing and calcining release various particulates that irritate the eyes and throat as well as other emissions, including carbon dioxide. Titanium dioxide manufacture produces various wastewaters, and fuel combustion during these operations can contribute to the air emissions described above. Mining of raw materials used in the manufacture of portland cement employs open-pit methods that have negative environmental impacts, which are summarized above. The manufacture of portland cement is a major source of carbon dioxide emissions; these emissions and other environmental impacts from portland cement manufacture are discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry units (04200).
Energy Consumed
Energy consumption during mining operations is discussed in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Energy consumption during the production of iron oxide pigment and the manufacture of portland cement is discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04200).
Non-Mineral Components of Concealed Cementitious Fireproofing
Cellulose is obtained, typically, from ground recycled newsprint (Ramsey 1995). Polystyrene is produced from styrene, which is produced from petroleum and natural gas. Specifically, ethylene (produced from natural gas) and the petrochemical benzene are combined to form ethylbenzene or styrene. Expanded polystyrene is produced by impregnating polystyrene with a blowing agent. The manufacture of polystyrene is described in the ERG report on thermal insulation (07200). Ethylene production is described in the ERG report on wallcoverings, under PVC resin (09950). Most benzene is produced from light petroleum distillate (naphtha). The extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol and melamine, respectively (06240). Carbon black is produced by the combustion of a highly aromatic oil, often a residue of refinery catalytic cracking. The production of carbon black is described in the ERG report on fabrics for workstations (12610).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of NonMineral Components of Concealed Cementitious Fireproofing
Styrene is produced from ethylene (derived from natural gas) and benzene (derived from petroleum). Exposure to styrene can result in eye and nose irritation, drowsiness, weakness, narcosis, and dermatitis (NIOSH 1990). The principal air pollutants from ethylene production are benzene and VOCs, while wastewater from the process contains chemicals that are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. The environmental impacts that result from ethylene production are discussed in more detail in the ERG report on wallcoverings, under PVC resin (09950). Benzene production may release VOCs into the air. Benzene is a known human carcinogen (NIEHS 1989) and an irritant that can cause nausea and abdominal pain in humans (NIOSH 1990). Further discussion of the environmental impacts resulting from benzene production can be found in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Oil extraction and processing have significant impacts on the environment. Wastes produced from extraction and processing include wastewater that contains oil, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, toxic organics, and ammonia, among other pollutants. Major sources of pollution from the drilling system come from drilling mud and cuttings from
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the bit. Large diesel engines that power the drill emit air pollutants. These environmental impacts of oil extraction and production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Natural gas extraction generates a variety of air and water pollutants, including air emissions from the diesel-powered drill; discharge of produced water, drilling muds, and drill cuttings; and wastewater containing oil, grease, toxic organics, and other pollutants. Natural gas processing produces wastewater containing toxic organics, suspended and dissolved solids, chlorides, and cyanides. The environmental impacts of natural gas extraction and processing are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine (06240). The production of carbon black involves the acquisition and processing of petroleum (summarized above under mineral components of cementitious fireproofing) and the release of emissions resulting from fuel combustion (also summarized above).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during production of polystyrene or carbon black.

Exposed Cementitious Fireproofing
Cementitious fireproofing for exposed applications contains inorganic binders, inorganic aggregates, and additives. In addition to portland cement, typical formulations may contain the following components, which have mineral origins: vermiculite, limestone, mica, mineral wool, glass fiber or glass filament, and aluminum ore (Product information 1995b, 1995c, 1995d, 1995e; Ramsey 1995; Masterspec 1992). Non-mineral components may include cellulose, polystyrene, and vinyl acetate polymer (Product information 1995c). Other components may include silicic acid and calcium formate. Some formulations may contain the following materials as colorants: iron oxide pigments, titanium dioxide, and carbon black (Product information 1995b, 1995c, 1995e). Portland cement, limestone (calcium carbonate), vermiculite, and styrene polymer are discussed above, under concealed cementitious fireproofing. Mineral wool is made up of fine, vitreous fibers. This fibrous material forms when air or steam is blown through a molten mixture of basalt and diabase rock (also known as traprock) and blast furnace slag. Blast furnace slag is a by-product of steel production. The mining of traprock and the production of slag are described in the ERG report on acoustical ceiling panels (09510). Mica is the name given to a group of complex hydrous potassium silicate minerals with differing chemical compositions and physical properties. The mica is ground before it is used in cementitious fireproofing. The acquisition and processing of mica are described in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). Glass fiber is manufactured from sand, dolomitic limestone, and borax. Glass fiber production is discussed in the ERG report on thermal insulation (07200). Glass filament is composed of material similar to that used for glass fiber but is produced in a form that does not have the negative effects on health that glass fiber does (Ramsey 1995). Cellulose is obtained from ground recycled newsprint (Ramsey 1995). Vinyl acetate is manufactured from ethylene, which is derived from natural gas. The manufacture of vinyl acetate and its polymerization into polyvinyl acetate is described in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). 28
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Aluminum ore is removed from the ground using strip mining methods. Most aluminum ore deposits lie in tropical and subtropical regions of the world; about 30 percent of the aluminum ore used in the United States is imported from Jamaica. Silicic acid is produced from silica sand. Dredging and mining of sand is described in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Calcium formate is produced from calcium hydroxide and carbon monoxide under high temperature and pressure (Hazardous Substances Database 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Materials for Exposed Cementitious Fireproofing
Most traprock (for mineral wool production) is mined in quarries by open-pit methods. In general, the environmental impacts associated with mining traprock are similar to the mining impacts summarized above under mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. Air pollution, in the form of particulate emissions, is a major problem in processing plants, especially in the drying and processing stages. These particulates can be controlled through the use of filtration devices and wet spray systems. Wastes produced and the environmental impacts of traprock production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on acoustical ceiling tiles (09510). Since slag, a component of mineral wool, is a waste product of the steel industry, the pollutants resulting from the manufacture of steel should not be attributed to the life cycle of fireproofing. Coke, used for fuel in the manufacture of mineral wool, is produced from bituminous coal. The environmental impacts of coal mining and coke-making and the waste produced during these processes are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). The environmental impacts from the mining and preparation of mica are similar to those summarized above under mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. The raw materials for glass fiber manufacture are obtained by mining. The environmental impacts associated with these mining operations are similar to those summarized above under mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. During the production of glass fiber, small amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, particulates, and VOCs are emitted. Waste generation during glass fiber production is discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on thermal insulation (07200). Vinyl acetate is regulated as a hazardous air pollutant and hazardous substance. Benzene, the preferred solvent used in polyvinyl acetate production, is a known human carcinogen. Its use and release are highly regulated by the EPA and other agencies. These pollutants are released in small amounts, within regulated limits, during the manufacture of polyvinyl acetate. The potential impacts on human health and the environment of polyvinyl acetate production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). Strip mining of aluminum ore disturbs large tracts of land in tropical and subtropical regions. General impacts from mining operations are discussed above, under mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. Although strong reclamation laws are enforced with respect to aluminum ore mining, land that is reclaimed is put to agricultural use, often replacing the tropical rainforest that existed before the land was mined.
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Dredging and mining of sand for the production of silicic acid can result in a variety of environmental impacts, including those from mining summarized above under mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. Silica dust is a major concern in sand processing facilities, and, because of its link to silicosis (a respiratory disease), control of the dust is tightly regulated. The environmental impacts of silica mining are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). The production of calcium formate consumes fuels to produce heat and elevated pressure. This fuel combustion can result in a number of air emissions, which are summarized above under mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during acquisition and preparation of the materials needed to manufacture cement-aggregate cementitious fireproofing.
Foamed Magnesium Oxychloride Fireproofing
This type of fireproofing is a three-part catalyzed magnesium oxychloride formulation that consists of a cementitious component, a catalyst, and a foaming agent combined with water at the project site to form an aerated mixture suitable for conveyance and application (Masterspec 1992). The principal components of magnesium oxychloride are magnesium chloride (in the hexahydrate form, MgCl26H2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO) (Ullmann 1990, Rossiter 1986, Ramachandran 1969). Magnesium chloride, which serves as the catalyst, can be produced by several processes, including precipitation/conversion from seawater, processing of spent liquor from the potash industry, and recovery from brine and bodies of concentrated salt water. One process used in the United States is the recovery of magnesium chloride from the Great Salt Lake. In this process, solar evaporation is used to produce a 35 percent solution of magnesium chloride and other salts from which a mixture of magnesium chloride and magnesium sulfate hydrates is precipitated by vacuum evaporation. The precipitate mixture is then heated in water to 120-150C (248-302F) to redissolve the hydrated magnesium chloride. After the sulfate is removed, the magnesium chloride hexahydrate is crystallized out (Ullmann 1990). When prepared from seawater, magnesium hydroxide (MgOH2) is precipitated by the addition of lime and converted to magnesium chloride by treatment with hydrochloric acid. Magnesium chloride hexahydrate is produced by evaporation (KirkOthmer 1995). Nearly 90 percent of hydrochloric acid is produced as a by-product of chlorination of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons. The production of lime is discussed in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Magnesium oxide, the cementitious component of this form of fireproofing, is produced by several processes, including calcination of magnesite (MgCO3) (Ramachandran 1969, KirkOthmer 1995). Magnesite is mined, crushed, washed, deslimed, and either gravity-separated or separated by flotation. Beneficiation procedures are used throughout these processes. The magnesite is then calcined in shaft, rotary, or multiple-hearth kilns to produce magnesium oxide (MgO), which is formed into briquets and sintered in shaft or rotary kilns (KirkOthmer 1995). The foaming agent is a proprietary material and is not identified.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition of Materials for Magnesium Oxychloride
Magnesium chloride is a constituent of seawater (17 percent of sea salt is magnesium chloride), many salt lakes, and brines, therefore its return to such bodies of water would
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not be expected to pose a problem. However, the discharge of large quantities into fresh water rivers or lakes could injure aquatic organisms (Kirk-Othmer 1995). The health and environmental effects of hydrogen chloride have been discussed in the ERG report on brick and mortar (04200). These effects include respiratory tract irritation in humans, adverse effects on fish, and acid precipitation damage to plants and materials. Calcining of limestone to produce lime releases fuel combustion emissions and additional CO2 generated by decomposition of the limestone (into lime and CO2). CO2 is one of the gases that causes global warming. The impacts associated with the acquisition of limestone are described above. Calcining of magnesite, as with limestone, releases fuel combustion emissions and CO2.
Sprayed-Fiber Fireproofing
Sprayed-fiber fireproofing comprises inorganic binders, mineral fibers, fillers, and additives (Masterspec 1992). A typical formulation may contain portland cement, mineral wool, and petroleum process oil (white mineral oil). Other fillers include gypsum, starch, and calcium carbonate (Product information 1995d; Ramsey 1995). Portland cement, gypsum, and calcium carbonate (limestone) are discussed above, under mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. Mineral wool is discussed above, under exposed cementitious fireproofing. Petroleum process oil is manufactured by refining crude lubricating oils to remove the unsaturated or volatile compounds, resins, and compounds of nitrogen and sulfur (HSDB 1995). Most starch used in the United States is produced from corn through a process called corn wet refining, in which the kernels are soaked, de-germed, wet ground, sieved, separated from the gluten, and purified. Starch production is described in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Raw Materials for Sprayed-Fiber Fireproofing
Petroleum process oil is a product of petroleum refining, a process that results in the release of air emissions. Additional wastes from the extraction and processing of petroleum are summarized above under non-mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. Starch production generates very little waste because many co-products are produced at different stages in the process. Soil erosion and runoff containing pesticides and fertilizers are the major environmental impacts associated with growing corn for starch production. Another concern is emissions from the fuel combustion used in planting, cultivating, fertilizing, irrigating, spraying, harvesting, and transporting the corn. The environmental impacts of fuel combustion emissions are discussed above. The environmental impacts of starch production and agriculture are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Energy Consumed
In mineral wool manufacture, energy is required to fuel the furnace and curing oven and to power other equipment. No quantitative data are available on the amount of energy required for mineral wool manufacture.
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Intumescent Mastic Fireproofing
These are factory-mixed formulations consisting of a modified vinyl-rich heavy-bodied mastic with a solvent based and inorganic reinforcing fibers for spray application (Masterspec 1992). Intumescent fireproofing agents require three components: a carbonizing agent (such as starch), a catalyst (various ammonium compounds), and a blowing agent (such as chlorinated paraffins or various nitrogenous compounds). A resin binder holds these components together. Different formulations contain a variety of solvents, an example of which is butyl acetate (Lieff 1983, Brook 1985, Product information 1995a and 1995e). Starch or a pentaerythritol can serve as carbonizing agents for intumescent mastic fireproofing (Lieff 1983, Brook 1985). The production of starch is summarized above, under sprayedfiber fireproofing, and is described in greater detail in the ERG report on wallcoverings (09950). Production information for pentaerythritol is not available. Catalysts may be monoammonium phosphate, melamine phosphate, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, or water insoluble ammonium polyphosphate (Lieff 1983, Brook 1985). Monoammonium phosphate is made readily by reacting ammonia with phosphoric acid, centrifuging the result, and drying it in a rotary dryer (Austin 1984). The production of melamine, a component of melamine phosphate, is described in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Other ammonia-phosphate compounds that may be used as catalysts are ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and water insoluble ammonium polyphosphate. Production information for these two compounds is not available. Melamine, urea, chlorinated paraffins, or dicyandiamide may be used as blowing agents (Lieff 1983, Brook 1985). Melamine and urea production are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates. Chlorinated paraffins are produced by a process known as oxychlorination. Oxygen and hydrochloric acid (HCl) are reacted with hydrocarbons (in this instance, paraffins) to produce chlorinated hydrocarbons, along with water. Dicyandiamide is produced by the polymerization of cyanamide with ammonia. Resins may consist of a vinyl copolymer emulsion, a melamine-formaldehyde resin, or an epoxy resin (Lieff 1983, Brook 1985). Information on the type of vinyl copolymer used to produce the resin is unavailable. Melamine-formaldehyde resin production is described in the ERG report on plastic laminates. The most common types of epoxy resin are formed by the reaction of bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin. The processing of materials for epoxy resin preparation is described in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Another type of epoxy preparation is formed by the reaction of bisphenol A and polyaminoamide resin (Product information 1995e). Production information for polyaminoamide resin is unavailable. Solvents used in various formulations include butyl acetate, butyl alcohol, PM acetate, and isopropyl alcohol. Solvents present in smaller quantities (approximately 5 percent or less of a formulation) include ethylene glycol monobutyl ether, xylene, and toluene. Other solvents include various blended hydrocarbons and mixed petroleum products (Product information 1995a, 1995e). Butyl acetate, butyl alcohol, and ethylene glycol monobutyl ether all are made from ethylene, which is derived either from natural gas or petroleum. Butyl acetate is produced by the esterification of butyl alcohol with acetic acid or acetic anhydride (HSDB 1995). Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether is made by the reaction of ethylene oxide with butyl alcohol. Isopropanol is made from reacting sulfuric acid with propylene, which is derived either from natural gas or petroleum. Xylene and toluene are derived from petroleum (Austin 1984).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Materials for Solvent-Based Intumescent Mastic Fireproofing
Catalysts. No information is available on the wastes produced during production of monoammonium phosphate. 32
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Melamine and urea manufacture produce a variety of air emissions. Melamine is produced from urea. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an air pollutant involved in production of the precursors of urea, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. H2S can have a variety of negative effects on health. The environmental impacts and potential ill effects on human health of the wastes produced from melamine production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Blowing agents . Melamine and urea are discussed in the preceding paragraph. Chlorinated paraffins are produced by the oxychlorination process. Carbon dioxide, water, and gaseous nitrogen are produced as effluents. The only one of these three considered to be a pollutant is carbon dioxide because its increasing concentration in the atmosphere may contribute to global warming. All waste chloro compounds that are produced during oxychlorination are recirculated and consumed in the process (Austin 1984). No information is available on the wastes produced during dicyandiamide production. Resin binders. Melamine resin production results in a variety of air emissions and may produce wastewater that contains residual monomers of formaldehyde and melamine. The environmental impacts of melamine resin production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine resin and formaldehyde (06240). Epoxy resin production may involve the accidental release of chemicals such as cumene, cumene hydroperoxide, and epichlorohydrin, which can irritate the eye and skin and may pose other health and safety hazards. The environmental impacts of epoxy resin production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer for curtainwall applications (04450). Other environmental impacts associated with epoxy resin preparation include toxic emissions and effluents from oil extraction and processing, which are summarized above under non-mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Solvents. Butyl acetate occurs naturally in foods such as apples and other fruits as a flavor and fragrance component. Occupational or prolonged exposure to emissions of butyl acetate can cause eye irritation and drying of the skin; inhalation can cause irritation of the respiratory passages. Butyl acetate is a volatile solvent with a high production volume. During manufacture, fugitive emissions may be released into the atmosphere. Butyl acetate may also be released in wastewater. It is regulated as a hazardous substance under the Clean Water Act (HSDB 1995). Butyl alcohol may be released into the environment as a result of its use as a solvent. Release to soil results in volatilization and significant biodegradation. Release to water results in biodegradation and volatilization. Butyl alcohol as a manufacturing waste or an off-specification product is managed according to hazardous waste regulations. Human exposure is expected to result primarily from contact with products containing the compound. Vapors of butyl alcohol can cause irritation and cough. The compound may also cause contact dermatitis, headache, dizziness, and drowsiness (HSDB 1995). Isopropyl alcohol naturally occurs as a plant volatile and is released during microbial degradation of animal wastes. It enters the environment as emissions from manufacture and use as a solvent. When released onto land or into water it volatilizes and degrades; existing data suggest it does not last very in the environment. Human exposure is from occupational atmospheres and from use of products containing isopropyl alcohol as a volatile solvent (HSDB 1995).
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Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether may be released to the environment via effluents at sites where it is produced or used as a solvent. Solvent-based building materials may release this compound to the air as they dry, and it may be released into groundwater from municipal landfills and hazardous waste sites. Human exposure may occur through dermal contact or inhalation and most commonly results from occupational situations in which it is produced or used. Exposure may also occur at construction sites and areas that have undergone remodeling. Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether penetrates the skin readily, and toxicity from excessive skin exposure may be more likely than from vapor inhalation. Symptoms include central nervous system depression, nausea, headache, and lumbar pain, leading to acute kidney failure (HSDB 1995). Xylenes may enter the atmosphere as emissions from petroleum refining and from the use of xylene in solvents. When released into the atmosphere they may photochemically degrade, but when released to water xylenes will volatilize. Because they are moderately mobile in soil, xylenes may leach into groundwater, where they are known to persist for several years. Xylenes as manufacturing wastes or off-specification products are managed according to hazardous waste regulations. The primary source of human exposure is from air, especially in occupational situations. Xylenes are central nervous system depressants and can cause a number of toxic effects. Acute exposure may cause fatigue, dizziness, upper airway irritation, and reversible renal dysfunction. Chronic exposure may result in general weakness, excessive fatigue, dizziness, headache, sleeplessness, and memory loss. Prolonged dermal exposure may produce a dermatitis (HSDB 1995). Toluene may be released into the atmosphere from the volatilization of toluene-based solvents and into wastewater during production. If toluene is released to the soil, it will be lost by evaporation and by leaching into groundwater. Biodegradation occurs both in soil and in groundwater but is apt to be slow, especially at high concentrations, which may be toxic to microorganisms. If toluene is released into water, its concentration will decrease due to evaporation and biodegradation. If toluene is released to the atmosphere, it will degrade rapidly or be washed out in rain. Inhalation of toluene can cause upper respiratory tract irritation, nervousness, and tremors, followed by central nervous system depression, which results in headache, dizziness, fatigue, and confusion. Contact may irritate or burn skin and eyes. Toluene as a manufacturing waste or an off-specification product is managed according to hazardous waste regulations (HSDB 1995). Xylene and toluene are included in a group of 17 high-priority toxic chemicals the EPA has identified for replacement with safer alternatives (The Hazardous Waste Consultant 1995). Environmental impacts associated with the manufacture of solvents, including butyl acetate, include toxic emissions and effluents from oil and natural gas extraction and processing. These are summarized above under non-mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
Energy consumption during melamine resin and formaldehyde production is discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Information on energy consumption during resin production is not available.
Auxiliary Fireproofing Materials
Included in this report are these auxiliary fireproofing materials: substrate primers, accelerators, bonding agents, metal lath, reinforcing fabric, topcoats, sealer for sprayed-fiber fireproofing, and decorative paints and coatings.
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Substrate primers. Various primer coats are available for use on each different substrate and with each different sprayed-on fireproofing product (Masterspec 1992). A typical primer is a two-part epoxy-polyamide type (Product information 1995b). No information is available concerning the type of epoxy resin contained in this primer, nor is the structure of the polyamide known. The acquisition and preparation of materials for the most common type of epoxy resin are summarized above under intumescent mastic fireproofing and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer for curtainwall applications (04450). Other environmental impacts associated with epoxy resin preparation include the toxic emissions and effluents from oil extraction and processing; these are summarized above under non-mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing. Solvents used in a typical substrate primer include isopropyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, toluene, xylene, and methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK). MIBK is derived from natural gas and petroleum. The other solvents mentioned are discussed above under intumescent mastic fireproofing.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Materials for Primers
Environmental impacts associated with the manufacture of the solvent methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) include the toxic emissions and effluents from oil and natural gas extraction and processing. These are summarized above under non-mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing and discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). MIBK is included in a group of 17 high-priority toxic chemicals the EPA has identified for replacement with safer alternatives (The Hazardous Waste Consultant 1995).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during acquisition and preparation of materials for manufacture of primers. Accelerators. A component that may be present in some gypsum-based fireproofing is aluminum sulfate. This material is used in small quantities (of an aqueous solution) as an accelerator to make the fireproofing set up quickly. In some applications, exposure to aluminum sulfate may cause irritation of the respiratory tract, skin, eyes and gastric system may occur (MSDS 1991). Because this material is used in small amounts, it will not be discussed here further. Adhesive for bonding fireproofing (bonding agent). Products used as bonding agents are approved individually by each manufacturer of sprayed-on fireproofing (Masterspec 1992). Bonding agents may be required to apply certain formulations to metal decking. A typical adhesive for bonding fireproofing contains polyvinyl acetate emulsion (Product information 1995d). Vinyl acetate is discussed above under exposed cementitious fireproofing. Another product designed for use as either a bonding agent or a surface sealer is acrylic based (Product information 1995f). Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, a petrochemical. The manufacture of acrylic resin and acrylic acid is discussed in the ERG report on ceramic tile, under adhesives (09300).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Materials for Bonding Adhesive
Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, which is produced by thermal cracking of natural gas or petroleum. The process releases significant amounts of VOC emissions and
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wastewater. The environmental impacts of propylene production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). The environmental impacts of oil and natural gas extraction and processing are summarized above (under non-mineral components of concealed cementitious fireproofing) and discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during acrylic production. Metal lath. This is an expanded metal lath for exposed applications requiring reinforcing. Clips, lathing accessories, corner beads, and other anchorage devices are required to attach lath to the substrate and to receive the fireproofing (Masterspec 1992). This lath may be made from either galvanized or ungalvanized steel. For exterior use, galvanized or painted steel is recommended (Ramsey 1995). The manufacture of steel and steel lath is outside the scope of this report, but these processes, along with their environmental impacts, are described in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). Reinforcing fabric. Glass-fiber fabric may be required for certain applications of intumescent mastic fireproofing. Glass fiber production is summarized above under exposed cementitious fireproofing. Topcoats. Topcoats may be applied as recommended by the manufacturer of each fireproofing material (Masterspec 1992). The veneer plaster topcoat is a proprietary product intended only for use with that manufacturers fireproofing products. This is a factory-mixed formulation of a latex-modified, inorganic, veneer plaster recommended for spray application over concealed cementitious and exposed cement-aggregate formulations. A typical veneer plaster topcoat contains quartz (55 percent maximum), portland cement (43 percent maximum), cellulose filler, styrene polymer, and chopped continuous glass filament (Product information 1995c). Quartz, portland cement, cellulose, and styrene polymer are discussed above under concealed cementitious fireproofing. Continuous glass filaments are discussed above under exposed cementitious fireproofing. Sealer for sprayed-fiber fireproofing. This is water-dispersible protective coating dries clear and is recommended by the sprayed-fiber fireproofing manufacturer (Masterspec 1992). A typical formulation contains a polyvinyl acetate emulsion base (Product information 1995d); another formulation is acrylic-based (Product information 1995f). Polyvinyl acetate is discussed above, under exposed cementitious fireproofing. Acrylic resin production is summarized above under adhesive for bonding fireproofing. Decorative paints or coatings. Decorative paints or coatings applied over exposed sprayedon fireproofing must be verified for compatibility with underlying fireproofing materials. For general information on paints, including raw materials, manufacture, application, use, recycling, and disposal, see the ERG report on paint (09900).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with fireproofing manufacture is presented in figure 13. Manufacturing sprayed-on fireproofing products generally entails a dry blending of the various constituents. The mixed product is then packaged, generally in bags. Manufacture of sprayed-on fireproofing products is generally less energy intensive than the production of the raw materials (Ramsey 1995). 36
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Figure 13: Environmental ImpactsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage for Fireproofing

Activity Dry blending of constituents Stressor Particulate emissions Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Manufacture of Fireproofing
Blending of fireproofing components may result in emissions of dust and particulates. Inhalation of particulates can cause eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, and lung damage.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of fireproofing is presented in figure 14.
Construction Sprayed-on fireproofing materials provide a blanket of protection for the structural members to which they are applied. Fireproofing materials must be applied at uniform density and thickness. The appropriate density and thickness are determined by fire testing conducted in accordance with industry-accepted test procedures (Ramsey 1995).
Most types of fireproofing are supplied in a dry form and mixed with water on site: Cementitious fireproofing consists of a dry formulation of gypsum or portland cement and various lightweight aggregates that are mixed with water at the project site to form a slurry or mortar, which is conveyed to a nozzle from which it is applied directly to the substrate. Foamed magnesium oxychloride fireproofing is a factory-packaged formulation consisting of a cementitious component, a catalyst, and a foaming agent that are combined with water at the project site. Sprayed-fiber fireproofing consists of a dry formulation of inorganic binders, mineral fibers, and fillers, which is conveyed in a dry state by pneumatic equipment to a spray nozzle, where it is mixed with water to form a damp, as-applied product. Strong adhesion of the fireproofing to the protected substrate is important. Steel surfaces should be free of dirt, oil, and loose scale before application. A protective primer or a bonding agent may be required in some circumstances. Some formulations, particularly the intumescent types, are used in conjunction with metal lath. When installing or using any type of fireproofing formulation, the manufacturers product information must be followed. In a construction project, sprayed-on fireproofing is usually applied before the ductwork, piping, and similar equipment are installed. This arrangement, however, can lead to removal
Figure 14: Environmental ImpactsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage for Fireproofing
Activity Installation of sprayed-on fireproofing Use Mechanical damage, air erosion, or deterioration Mineral wool fibers Absorption of VOCs onto fireproofing surface Slow release of VOCs into indoor air Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Indoor air emissions Glass fibers Skin, eye, and upper respiratory tract irritation Various health effects Stressor Excess fireproofing material Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Figure 15: Weight of Fireproofing Types

Type of fireproofing Sprayed mineral fiber Cementitious with vermiculite, gypsum, or clay, and foaming agent Intumescent 1/8 to 1/4 (3 to 6) 50 (800) 0.094 to 0.19 (0.003 to 0.006) 4.69 to 9.37 (2.4 to 4.8) Thickness in inches (mm) 3/8 to 4 (9.5 to 100) 3/8 to 4 (9.5 to 100) Density, dry lb/ft3 (kg/m3) 12 to 15 (190 to 240) 15 to 50 (240 to 805) ft3/yd2 (m3/m2) 0.28 to 3.0 (0.0095 to 0.10) 0.28 to 3.0 (0.0095 to 0.10) lb/yd2 (kg/m2) 3.38 to 45 (1.81 to 24.0) 4.2 to 150 (2.28 to 80.5)
or damage of the fireproofing by other trades, impairing the fire resistance of the assembly. Any damaged fireproofing must be repaired before final approval is issued for the building (ICBO 1991). The table in figure 15 indicates the weight of each type of fireproofing after application to an appropriate surface. These data are calculated from the range of application thicknesses and the densities provided in Lieff (1983) and by the industry (Ramsey 1995).
Use Sprayed-on fireproofing protects the structural frame of a building, preventing building failure due to heat-induced sagging of the steel. The structural members are encased in a material that is sufficiently inert to prevent excessive thermal penetration (ICBO 1991).
Sprayed-on cementitious mixtures or sprayed-fiber fireproofing mixed with inorganic binders provide a thermal barrier to heat from fire. When exposed to fire, mineral fiber (made from molten rock or slag) retards heat flow to steel because of its low thermal conductivity. Mineral fiber can withstand temperatures above 2,000 F without melting (AIA 1988). The fire-resistant qualities of cementitious materials (e.g., gypsum or portland cement) are due in part to the fact that they contain chemically combined water molecules. Gypsum contains approximately 20 percent water by weight. When fireproofing containing gypsum is exposed to fire, the water is slowly driven off in the form of steam, retarding the transfer of heat through the gypsum until all the molecular water has been driven off. The temperatures on the unexposed surface of the protected material do not greatly exceed 212 F (100 C) while water is present in the fireproofing. A similar, but lesser, reaction occurs when cement is exposed to fire (ICBO 1991). Magnesium oxychloride cement protects the substrate by releasing the water from hydration when exposed to temperatures above 570 F (AIA 1988). When heated above approximately 300 F, an intumescent mastic coating absorbs heat by expanding into a thick, lightweight thermal barrier that can reach more than 150 times its initial thickness. This foam layer protects the substrate by releasing cooling gases and blocking off the oxygen supply (AIA 1988). When the mastic combusts, it leaves behind a fluffy, charred covering that insulates the substrate from surrounding heat.
Maintenance Special maintenance of fireproofing is generally not required.

Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Fireproofing
Excess fireproofing material that falls to the floor during spraying is swept up and disposed of in landfills along with other construction debris.
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Energy Consumed
No information is available on the embodied energy of fireproofing.

Indoor Air Quality
Certain types of fireproofing, including sprayed-fiber fireproofing and some types of cementitious fireproofing, contain glass fiber or mineral wool. [Note that the glass filament used in some fireproofing is a different material and is not associated with the health effects described here (Ramsey 1995).] The presence of glass fibers or mineral wool particles in indoor air has the potential for ill health effects. The ERG reports on thermal insulation (07200) and acoustical ceiling panels and tiles and suspension systems (09510) discuss the indoor air quality impacts of these materials. Inhalation of and dermal exposure to glass fiber and mineral wool can irritate the skin, eyes, and upper respiratory tract. Glass fibers and mineral wool with particularly small fibers can penetrate the alveoli in the lungs. An International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) working group determined that the evidence of carcinogenicity of mineral wool and glasswool (glass fiber) is adequate for experimental animals but inadequate for humans. The debate in the scientific community about the implantation methods used in these animal studies (as opposed to the inhalation treatments, which did not show carcinogenicity) was recognized by the IARC working group, but the validity of the studies was maintained (NTP 1994). The ERG report on thermal insulation also included research summaries and opinions that disagreed with a carcinogenic threat from these fibers to humans. In one documented case, inorganic mineral fibers and cementitious binders were introduced into the plenum of an office building when sprayed-on fireproofing eroded inplace. These air pollutants entered the air-handling and occupied spaces of the building and produced ill health effects among the office workers, including skin irritation, rashes, respiratory tract irritation, and possibly asthma. The report stated that most of the fireproofing had not been encapsulated with a sealer and that this omission was probably responsible for the problems the workers experienced (Lstiburek 1995). A study by Cornell University [discussed in the ERG report on acoustical ceiling panels and tiles and suspension systems (09510)] has examined a relationship between sick building syndrome complaints from occupants and fibers in the airborne and settled dust at nine buildings. Measurements were made of man-made mineral fibers (glass fiber and slag wool, a type of mineral wool) in the dust. The density of total man-made mineral fibers (MMMF) was correlated to a variety of sick building syndrome symptoms. The study examined other indoor air quality parameters and did not find a correlation with any of them. The authors assumed that the MMMF particulates came from fiberglass air duct insulation and from slag wool used in ceiling tiles (Hedge 1993). The authors did not indicate whether sprayed-on fireproofing was considered a potential source for the MMMF found in their samples. Since the types of fireproofing identified above do contain glass or mineral wool fibers, they could be a potential source for indoor air exposure of these fibers. Indoor air quality problems can occur when fibers or other components are released as a result of mechanical damage, air erosion, or deterioration of the binder. In addition, sprayed-on fireproofing often has a large surface area that can serve as a sink for VOC absorption (for instance, during the application of finishes and other wet materials with high VOC emissions or when new furnishings are installed). VOCS absorbed in this manner would be released over a period of time, serving as a source of indoor air pollution. Rough-surfaced sprayed-fiber fireproofing that has been coated with a sealer would absorb fewer VOCs and release fewer fibers into the indoor air (EPA 1991).
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Figure 16: FireproofingRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity Building remodeling Building demolition Stressor Solid waste Solid waste Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of fireproofing is presented in figure 16. When fireproofing becomes unsound it should be replaced. No mechanism exists for reusing or recycling fireproofing materials.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal of Fireproofing
Waste fireproofing material is disposed of in landfills.

Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption at this stage in the life cycle of fireproofing.
Industry Perspective: Association of Wall and Ceiling Industries Light in weight and easily applied during the building construction process, the myriad of field applied sprayed fireproofing materials available in todays market afford tremendous flexibility to the design and architecture professional while simultaneously affording a cost effective method of achieving a required fire rating and, in many instances, a desirable finished appearance. Products are equally applicable for use in both new and retrofit construction.
Spray applied fireproofing has gained a wide acceptance for use domestically and internationally. Spray applied fireproofing materials can be fully field and lab tested for application and performance analysis using recognized third party testing criteria. Spray applied fireproofing is accepted for use by all three regional model [building] code agencies.
Industry Perspective: W. R. Grace & Company Society recognizes the importance of life safety in the event of fire. Through model building codes, fire protection requirements are developed and presented to assure life-safety. One very important element of fire protection is to provide fire resistance to the building structure. Sprayed-on fireproofing is one of the most common methods to provide fire resistance.
Steel structures offer the design professional much flexibility in designing and constructing various building types. Further, steel affords faster construction times and is a very cost effective building material. As with some concrete structures, steel structures are not inherently fire resistive. Steel will lose strength at elevated temperatures as experienced in a fire environment. Sprayed-on fireproofing allows the design professional to utilize the significant benefits of steel in construction and still deliver a fire resistive structure to the occupants. Fireproofing has been around since the early 1900s. Sprayed-on fireproofing has been protecting steel and concrete structures since the 1960s. Over the years, fireproofing has evolved to better meet the needs of life-safety professionals, design professionals and, ultimately, society. Today, sprayed-on fireproofing is evaluated extensively by independent testing and regulatory organizations and is applied to exacting standards.
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Fireproofing
Since fireproofing products are proprietary and generally differ in composition, broad discussions of various components is difficult. Key ingredients in many fireproofing products are gypsum and portland cement. These two ingredients are among the most commonly used of all building materials. They have been in use for centuries and are generally considered safe when used correctly. Both have been the subject of much study and have been discussed extensively in prior ERG reports. It is important to consult with individual spray-on fireproofing manufacturers regarding the composition of their products. Material Safety Data Sheets should be reviewed for completeness and ingredient information. Manufacturing of spray-on fireproofing products generally entail a dry blending of the various ingredients. The mixed product is then packaged, generally bagged. The manufacturing of spray-on fireproofing products is generally less energy intensive than the production of the raw materials. Job-site wastes are not considered hazardous and techniques to recycle the waste are being considered. Spray-on fireproofing products are designed to serve their function for the design life of the structure. Manufacturers are continually developing new products to enhance life-safety and provide additional value added benefits to the design professional. Some value-added features that can be offered are: acoustical management, thermal insulation, various colors, exterior duty and enhanced physical properties. Further, some products may afford the design professional the flexibility to expose the steel structure. These value-added properties provide the design professional with the option to reduce the use of other materials. Fireproofing is an integral part of fire protection. Fireproofing affords life-safety by providing fire resistance to a building structure. Ultimately, spray-on fireproofing provides peace of mind.
Regulatory Status As is true of most industries, the fireproofing manufacturing industry is regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. The regulations that have the greatest impact on the industry are probably those related to occupational safety and health.
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Fireproofing
References
References
American Institute of Architects. 1988. Architectural Graphic Standards, 8th ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. p. 58. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries, 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bolen, Wallace P. 1991. Industrial Sand Gravel Annual Report: 1991. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. Brannigan, Francis L. 1992. Building Construction for the Fire Service, 3rd ed. Chapter 7, Steel Construction. Quincy, Mass.: National Fire Protection Association. Brook, Martin. 1985. How Intumescent Coatings Work. Fire Prevention. No. 184, pp. 36-37. November. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1991. Designing for Good Indoor Air Quality: An Introduction for Design Professionals (draft). Washington, D.C.: EPA. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois. The Hazardous Waste Consultant. 1995. Environmentally Friendly Replacements for Toxic Products and Processes. Elsevier Science Inc. March/April. HSDB (Hazardous Substances Database). 1995. National Library of Medicine/TOXNET. August. Hedge, Alan, W. A. Erickson, and G. Rubin. 1993. Effects of Man-made Mineral Fibers in Settled Dust on Sick Building Syndrome in Air-conditioned Offices. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Helsinki, Finland, July 1993. Vol. 1, Indoor Air 93:Health Effects. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications, 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. ICBO (International Conference of Building Officials). 1991. Illustrative Reference Manual: Fire Resistive Protection of Structural Members. Video training program. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1995. 4th ed. Vol. 15. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Lieff, Morris, and F. M. Stumpf, eds. 1983. Fire Resistant Coverings in Fire Resistive Coatings: The Need for Standards, a symposium sponsored by ASTM Committee E-6 on Performance of Building Constructions, Philadelphia, Penn., 18 Oct. 1982. ASTM Publication Code Number 04-826000-31. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials. Lstiburek, Joseph William. 1995. Building Science Investigation: Indoor Environment Assessment, Registry of Motor Vehicles Building, Ruggles Center, Boston, Mass. Prepared for Bureau of Environmental Health Assessment, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Dept. of Public Health. May 8. Masterspec. 1992. Section 07251C, Sprayed-on Fireproofing. Washington, D.C.: The American Institute of Architects. MSDS. 1991. Material Safety Data Sheet No. Z-01309, Aluminum sulfate hydrate accelerator. November 11. NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences). 1990. Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens. Vols. 1 and 2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 1990. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1994. Seventh Annual Report on Carcinogens. NTP Home Page, World Wide Web. Product information. 1995a. Albi Manufacturing. East Berlin, Conn. . 1995b. Carboline Company, Fireproofing Products Division. St. Louis, Mo. . 1995c. W. R. Grace & Co., Construction Products Division. Cambridge, Mass. . 1995d. Isolatek International. Stanhope, N.J. . 1995e. Mandoval Vermiculite Products. Houston, Texas. . 1995f. Fiberlock Technologies. Cambridge, Mass. Ramachandran, V. S. 1969. Applications of Differential Thermal Analysis in Cement Chemistry. NY: Chemical Publishing Company. Ramsey, James M. 1995. Comments on draft fireproofing report from the director of marketing for fire protection products, W. R. Grace & Co., Cambridge, Mass. Oct. 11.
Rossiter, Walter J., Jr., and Robert G. Mathey. 1986. Magnesium Oxychloride Cement-Based Foam Insulation: A Review of Available Information and Identification of Research Needs. NBSIR 86-3326. Gaithersburg, Md: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. UL (Underwriters Laboratory). 1995. Fire Resistance Directory. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1990. 5th ed. Vol. A15. Weinheim, Germany: VCH.
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Material Report
Glass*
Highlights
Mining of glass sand, limestone, and soda ash results in particulate emissions, soil erosion, habitat alteration, pollutant runoff, and air pollution associated with energy consumption for mining, processing, and transporting materials. Glass manufacturing can release air pollutants and water pollutants that contribute to numerous environmental problems. Scrap glass, or cullet, is generally recycled back into the glass-making process. Glass building products removed during remodeling or demolition are usually disposed of in landfills.
Natural Resource Depletion Energy Consumption
Glass sand, limestone, and soda ash are finite resources, but supplies are adequate to meet future demands. The energy currently embodied in flat glass has been estimated to be 13.5 to 15 million Btus (15,825 MJ) per ton. However, improvements in energy efficiency in glass-making indicate that energy savings of approximately 30 percent are possible through currently available technology. Advanced technologies now under development could result in energy savings of up to 65 percent.
Indoor Air Quality
Glass is inert and has virtually no impact on indoor air quality.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1993. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 GLASS MAT 08810
Glass
Background
Background
Glass is a solid, supercooled, liquid ceramic material. It is characterized by transparency, brittleness, hardness, and chemical inertness. Long prized for its ability to keep weather out of interior spaces while allowing light to enter, glass has a variety of architectural applications. The principal raw materials for glass manufacture are glass sand, limestone, soda ash, and cullet. Cullet is broken and crushed glass from imperfect articles, trim, and other waste glass. A wide variety of additional materials serve as reactants and catalysts in the production of glass or give the glass specific qualities and characteristics (Tellus Institute 1992; Hornbostel 1991). Many types of glassincluding flat glass, pressed and blown glass, fiberglass, art glass, and specialty glasses such as optical glass and industrial glassare manufactured for a variety of uses. However, flat glass, which is widely used in construction, is the focus of this report. There are seven major manufacturers of flat glass in North Americasix manufacture float glass and one manufactures sheet glass. Total production of flat glass in the United States in 1991 was 3,648,386 short tons, or 4.3 billion square feet (Williams 1992). Of this flat glass, approximately 54 percent was used in the construction industry. In 1990, despite a downturn in both the U.S. construction and the U.S. automobile industries, which are the major markets for domestic glass, 4,080,840 short tons, or 4.74 billion square feet, of flat glass were produced (Williams 1992). This near-record production was triggered by an increase in exports.
Manufacturing History As early as 6000 or 5000 b.c., the Egyptians were making glass jewelry of fine workmanship and beauty (Austin 1984). Decorative glass rods from Babylon and glass beads from Egypt are among the oldest existing glass artifacts, dating from around 2600 to 2500 b.c. Sometime between 323 and 30 b.c., the technique of blowing glass was discovered in Egypt or Syria. The Roman Empire, more than any other civilization until the twentieth century, made extensive use of glass (Hornbostel 1991). Notably, the Romans were the first to use glass for windows, probably in Pompeii before the birth of Christ (Williams 1990).
The glass industry was revived in Venice in about 1000 a.d., and from there the manufacture of glass spread throughout Europe. Modern sheet-glass manufacture began when the cutting and flattening of blown cylindrical shapes were mechanized. The cast-and-rolled-plate-glass process was developed in France in the late 17th century. In this method, the raw materials were shoveled into clay pots, heated in furnaces, and ladled into a box mounted on a fourwheeled platform. The platform was rolled across a casting table, and the molten glass flowed through a hole in the bottom of the box. The glass was flattened by a large metal roller into a plate, which was then moved into an oven, where the temperature was decreased slowly, allowing the glass to harden as it cooled. The plate was then ground with a mixture of fine sand and water and polished with a solution of tipoli stone and emery (Williams 1990). This method was improved in 1914 with the development of the Foucault process. According to this new technique, a small boat with a slot in the middle was inserted into a heated pool of glass. The boat was cooled with water. Glass from the molten batch was extruded through the slot. Semicooled, the extruded glass hardened enough to be pulled up vertically. The resulting sheet was then cut off when cooled sufficiently. This technique produced the first large, continuous sheets of glass, limited in size only by the width of the slot and the height that the sheet could be drawn. The introduction of electric and steam power, larger equipment, and the lehr oven in the early 20th century helped mechanize flat glass production. The continuous furnace, which sped up production and lowered costs, replaced pot casting in the 1930s. Various improvements in the Foucault process continued until the Pilkington brothers in England designed a new float-glass manufacturing process in 1959. In the float glass process, molten glass is placed on a tin bath. Lighter than the tin, the glass floats, mak-
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Glass
Background
ing a smooth, even surface. The glass hardens as it cools. It is then placed in a lehr, where it is further cooled and hardened into its final state. This process makes it possible to manufacture glass that is perfectly flat with parallel surfaces; there is no need to grind or polish the finished product. In 1963 float glass was introduced into the construction field, where it continues to be the industry standard today (Hornbostel 1991). Float glass represents 98 percent of the flat glass currently manufactured in the United States (AIA 1991). Improvements on the standard float-glass process continue. One U.S. company has a direct delivery float system in which a wide stream of glass is directed onto the bath of tin. This reduces the size of the tin bath. Another U.S. firm has developed a mini-float process that produces flat glass on a small scale: 100 tons per day rather than the 500 to 600 tons per day typical for large-scale production (Williams 1990).
Standard Types of Window Glazing Single, double, triple, and superinsulating glazing techniques have been developed. Single glazing, a single sheet of window glass, is now considered inadequate as a buffer against heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer. The R-value, which measures resistance to heat flow, for one sheet of glass falls between 0.8 and 1.0. For comparison, the R-value of an insulated outside wall ranges between 13 and 19. The R-value of a double-glazed unit, which consists of two panes of glass separated by an airspace and sealed around the edges, is between 1.5 and 1.8, or nearly double that of single glazing. A double-glazed unit also helps prevent condensation on the inside glass surface when outside temperatures drop below freezing. In a triple-glazed unit, the protection of three sheets of glass, each separated by airspace from another, raises the R-value to a range of 1.8 to 2.8. This additional increment of insulation makes sense in areas of the country where winters are bitterly cold (Homeowners Guide to Glass, n.d.). Recent Technical Advances in Glazing Systems Of interest to architects are some recent technological developments concerning glass and its applications. These include low-emissivity (low-E) glass, switchable glass, aerogel glass, radiation-shielding glass, and plasma glass. The characteristics of these glasses are described below. Materials acquisition and product fabrication for these special glasses can vary from that of flat glass. However, complete life-cycle analyses of these products are beyond the scope of this report.
Low-E Glass
Low-emissivity or low-E glasscharacterized by a thin metallic coating that reflects radiant heat back to its sourceis probably the most revolutionary of flat glass developments in the last two decades. In cold weather the glass reflects internally generated heat back into the structure, helping to keep it warm. During warm weather, exterior radiant heat is reflected away from the building, helping to keep it cool. It is estimated that low-E glass is 72 percent more effective than ordinary double glazing and 14 percent more effective than ordinary triple glazing. This glass is most commonly produced by applying a thin metallic coating to the glass surface. In an alternative method of making low-E glass, a polyester film is suspended between two sheets of glass and is heat shrunk into place. A metallic coating is applied to the polyester film by a method of vacuum deposition (Williams 1990). Low-E glass offers several other advantages. A building occupant will be more comfortable near the window in cold weather because the inside pane will be warmer than a regular window. The occupant will also appreciate greater ease of operation, since low-E window units weigh less than triple-glazed units with comparable performance, and will notice less condensation and less fading of fabrics from sunlight (Williams 1990). To improve the R-value
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of low-E glass windows, the space between the glass can be filled with a gas that has a higher R-value than air, such as argon.
Switchable Glass
Several varieties of switchable glass systems are available. One type has a liquid crystal-coated film sandwiched between two heat-strengthened lights. The liquid crystals make the glass cloudy, letting in light but obstructing visibility. An electric current applied to the film aligns the liquid crystals, and the glass changes from opaque to clear. This type of switchable glass is currently used in interior applications. Another switchable glass product, known as electrochromic glass, has thin metallic coatings of nickel or tungsten oxide and a metallic edge strip. A low electric current applied to the strip polarizes the molecules in the coating, and the glass darkens. Ideally, the glass could be controlled by a dimmer switch that darkens the glass at varying degrees, or the glass could be wired to the buildings heating and cooling system and react automatically to changing light conditions (Kosko 1988). Electrochromic glass could be employed to control the flow of sunlight into the building. When opaque, it would serve as a barrier to heat from the sun, reducing the energy required to cool the building (Williams 1990).
Aerogel Glass Units
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory is researching several ways to make windows with R-values of 10. One promising window material is aerogel. Though still at the research stage, aerogel, which is 95 percent air and 5 percent silica, has excellent light-transmitting and insulating qualities. When aerogel is sandwiched between two lights of an insulating unit, it produces a thermal value 4 times greater than low-E, gas-filled units (Kosko 1988; Homeowners Guide to Glass, n.d.). A vacuum in the units airspace, along with aerogel, gives a window an R-value of 10. The aerogel keeps the window from collapsing from the vacuums pressure. Although windows can achieve an R-value of 10 with a vacuum only, an aerogel-filled window has the advantage of requiring a less complete vacuum. Where a complete vacuum-filled insulated glass unit must have its glass edges laser-sealed, an aerogel window needs only a durable sealant for fabrication. Once the aerogel window is fabricated, it can be handled like any other insulating unit (Kosko 1988; Homeowners Guide to Glass, n.d.).
Radiation-Shielding Glass
Radiation-shielding glass prevents electromagnetic radiation generated by exterior surveillance equipment from penetrating a building through its windows. It consists of a double-insulating glass unit incorporating two 18-inch layers of polyester separated by air spaces. These polyester layers are covered by a thin, transparent, metallic, electrically conductive coating. Another type of glass to prevent electronic surveillance of buildings is glass coated with very thin layers of metal, such as titanium, silver, and stainless steel. These coatings reflect and absorb electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from both inside and outside the building (Williams 1990).
Plasma Glass
Plasma glass, which is still under development, consists of an insulating glass unit with a 116inch airspace and welded glass edges. Within the sealed glass unit is a highly excitable gas. When charged with electricity, the gas becomes a plasma capable of emitting incandescent light and about 500 watts of heatwhich is usually sufficient to warm an average room. The gas is charged by two conductive metal bars that run along opposite edges inside the unit. The type of gas used in the unit determines its color. For instance, argon gas produces a yellowish light, while neon gas emits red light (Williams 1990; Kosko 1988).
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Glass
Environmental Considerations and Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage
The life-cycle summary of glass is presented in figure 1. During the materials acquisition and preparation stage, environmental effects include soil erosion and pollutant runoff from mining the raw materials; habitat change; and air emissions resulting from energy used to mine, process, and transport raw materials and final product. Water effluents and solid waste also result from the manufacture of glass. Glass is inert and has virtually no impact on indoor air quality. Glass requires little maintenance except cleaning. A variety of glass cleaning products are available. The manufacture of glass requires substantial energy resulting in air emissions. The embodied energy in flat glass is currently about 15 million Btus (15,825 MJ) per ton. By better incorporating currently available technology, such as increased computer control and various modifications to equipment and processes, glass manufacturers could realize an energy savings of approximately 30 percent. Advanced technologies now under development could yield an energy savings of up to 65 percent (Newman 1992). Glass, able to transmit natural light into buildings, is a unique building material. Architects must therefore balance the benefits provided by glass, such as natural lighting and energy savings from reduced artificial lighting, against the amount of embodied energy in the product and the energy loss resulting from its relatively low R-value.

glass-making formulae are proprietary. This report, therefore, contains information on the basic materials used in the production of soda-lime glass, which accounts for 77 percent of total glass production (Egan 1992). The principal raw materials for manufacture of sodalime glass include glass sand, limestone, soda ash, and cullet. Minor ingredients used in clear float glass include salt cake, carbon, and iron oxide. Other minor ingredients that may be consumed in the manufacture of various types of glass include feldspar, rouge, charcoal, ammonia, lead oxide, pearl ash, fluorspar, borax, boric acid, and saltpeter. A variety of metallic oxides, carbonates, and other metallic salts may be required for colored glass. In finishing operations, abrasives and hydrofluoric acid are sometimes consumed (Tellus Institute 1992; Hornbostel 1991; Austin 1984). In special glasses, other ingredients may be added to or substituted for one of the basic components. For example, sodium, potassium, and lithium are mutually interchangeable. Similarly, aluminum, magnesium, barium, boron, and lead may be substituted for calcium. In some cases aluminum, boron, or titanium may be used instead of silicon, and phosphorus may replace silicon entirely (National Glass Association 1992; Hornbostel 1991; Austin 1984). These ingredients are not addressed in this report because they are added in small amounts relative to the major constituents and because the proprietary formulae are unavailable. The most important ingredients in glass-making are the oxides of silicon, sodium, and calcium. Virtually all glass formula variations are derived from them. Silicon dioxide is provided by glass sand, which is almost pure quartz or silicon dioxide. Sodium oxide is furnished by soda ash, or sodium carbonate, through a chemical reaction that occurs during the glassmaking process. Calcium oxides are provided primarily by lime, or calcium oxide, which comes from limestone, or calcium carbonate, and occasionally by burnt lime from dolomite (Austin 1984). The environmental stressors and impacts associated with this stage of the life cycle are summarized in figure 2.
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MAT 08810 GLASS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Glass
Glass
Life-Cycle Summary Glass
Glass sand mining Crushing Drilling Separating Blasting Screening Loading
Glassmaking Mixing Weighing Feed into furnace Heating or melting Lehring or annealing
Glass preparation Finishing Cutting Coating or sealing
Habitat change
Wastewater (sulfides, oil, TSS)
Dust
Wastewater (oil, TSS)
Scrap (reused as cullet)
Packaging
Storage
Limestone mining Grinding Drilling Separating Blasting Screening Loading Crushing

Sales
Construction
Soda ash and limestone processing Calcining Heating Cooling Maintenance and use
Dust
KEY
Demolition
Soda ash mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Habitat change
Recycling
Recycle (various products)
Disposal (landfill)
Glass
Figure 2: GlassMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Mining of glass sand, limestone, and soda ash Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Limestone processing and calcining Particulate emissions Fuel combustion emissions Soda ash processing and calcining Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Particulate emissions VOCs (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions Carbon dioxide Greenhouse effect Global warming Reduced reproduction Fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Fishkill Stressor Tailings waste Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
continued
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Figure 2: GlassMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Soda ash processing and calcining (continued) Stressor Effluents Impact/Stressor Clay Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Reduced light penetration of water Furnace cooling water Solid waste Sand processing Dust Decreased landfill capacity Silicosis Impact/Stressor Fishkill Impact/Stressor
Glass Sand Glass sand is the predominant raw material for glass. It is the major source of silicon dioxide, which accounts for approximately 70 percent of the weight of finished glass. Glass sand is almost pure quartz, typically contaminated with less than 1 percent iron oxide, chromium compounds, and alumina, calcium, or magnesium oxides. U.S. consumption is met largely by domestic glass sand deposits in New Jersey, the Allegheny Mountains, and a portion of the Mississippi Valley (Hornbostel 1991). The location of glass plants is often determined by the location of glass sand deposits (Austin 1984).
Chemical purity, silica content, and grain size are important prerequisites for quality glass. Glass sand must be almost pure quartz for glassmaking, and only small amounts of iron oxide and chromium can be tolerated (Austin 1984). In addition, fine-grain sand is preferable, because processing of smaller particles requires lower temperatures and, therefore, less energy (Bolen 1991). In the past 10 years, glass manufacturers have specified finer grain sands. Most glass sand is mined from quarries by open-pit excavation. Surface mining methods and equipment vary with the type of geologic formation, size and configuration of the deposit, estimated life of the operation, and location with respect to urban centers. Most open-pit mining operations include site clearing and overburden removal; mining of silica rock or sand; material processing such as crushing, screening, and classification; and reclamation of the extraction area (Bolen 1991). Unconsolidated sands below groundwater level are dredged. Sandstone deposits are sometimes loosened by light blasting and then washed down by hydraulic jets into sumps, from which the sand is pumped to the processing plants. Harder rock usually requires blasting and primary and secondary crushing before it can be processed. Depending on the type and location of the deposit, the sand is excavated with power shovels, dragline cranes, front-end loaders, suction dredge pumps, or other apparatus. The sand is transported to the processing plant by suction pump, earth mover, barge, truck, or other means. The processing of sand for a specific market involves the use of different combinations of crushers to reduce oversize material; washers, screens, and classifiers to segregate particle sizes; and storage and loading facilities. Gyratory crushers, jaw crushers, impact mills, or roll crushers act as primary or secondary crushers, and smooth rolls, media mills, autogenous mills, high-speed hammer mills, or fluid energy jet mills grind the product down to 50 microns and finer (Bolen 1991). Crushing operations, when employed, are designed to reduce production of fines, which often must be removed by washing. The sand is screened and classified depending on the end-product requirements, such as grain size. Dry or wet
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screening separates particles of sizes down to about 150 microns, and wet or air classifiers process particles from 250 microns into the submicron range (EPA 1992). Transportation costs are significant in the production of glass sand. According to the Bureau of Mines, transportation cost can equal or exceed the cost of processing glass sand (Bolen 1991).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Glass Sand Mining
The environmental impacts for glass sand mining are similar to those of other open-pit mining operations. Solid waste produced during the mining or excavation of sand includes overburden and tailings waste. These wastes are generally left at the mining or excavation site. In addition to solid waste, other pollutants from sand mining adversely impact the environment. These include atmospheric emissions, runoff into streams and groundwater, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Air emissions resulting from mining operations include particulate sand as well as pollutants from fuel combustion. The combustion of fuel products results in a variety of air emissions, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulates, carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). Both VOCs and NOx contribute to the formation of ozone, or smog. Ozone has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficulty breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. Ozone can also decrease visibility. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage. Both SO2 and NOx contribute to acid precipitation, tree and crop damage, corrosion of materials, and surface water acidification, which can lead to reduced fish reproduction and possible fishkill. Increases in CO2 levels in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen, thereby adversely affecting the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Suspended solids from mine runoff can increase turbidity of streams. This, in turn, reduces light penetration of the water, lowers aquatic productivity, increases alkalinity, increases biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and increases benthic deposition and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). This ultimately could lead to loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill. Runoff from glass sand mining is not considered toxic. Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration, habitat destruction, and erosion. For example, mining generates 10 times the amount of erosion that representative cropland does and 4 times the amount that representative cutover forest land does (van der Leeden et al. 1990). In general the effects of land disturbance from mining activities can often be mitigated to a great extent by careful restoration management, although strip-mined lands can never be returned to their original state (Olem 1991; Ivahnenko et al. 1988). Restored lands from mining almost always have different vegetation patterns as a result of changes in topsoil porosity and chemistry. An abundant supply of sand is available in the United States.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Glass Sand Processing
Wastes generated during processing of glass sand include solid waste, water effluent, and air emissions. Solid wastes of clay and sand particles are discharged from screens during screening and classifying operations. Large quantities of water are needed to process glass sand. The wastewater from washing and screening the sand contains clay in suspension. Although clay is not toxic, these sus-
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pended solids can increase turbidity of streams. The subsequent environmental impacts of increased turbidity are described above for glass sand mining. Considerable emissions of dust and particulates are released during the crushing and grinding of fine-grain sands. Dust emissions can occur during conveying, screening, crushing, and storing operations. Since sand is generally wet or moist when handled, processing emissions are often negligible. Enclosing processing operations and increasing reliance on wet and dry dust-control methods have reduced particulate emissions by 70 to 95 percent. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during sand processing and transporting result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and particulates. The environmental and health problems associated with these emissions are described above in the section on glass sand mining.
Energy Consumed During Glass Sand Mining and Processing
Energy consumed in glass sand mining is largely in the form of fuels used to power heavy equipment in the mining process. Estimates of energy use for mining, crushing, screening, and classifying vary with the processes used. Approximately 430,000 Btus (454 MJ) are expended for mining and processing 1 ton of sand (Tellus Institute 1992). An estimated 270,000 Btus (285 MJ) are required to mine and process the 1,184 lbs of sand required to produce 1 ton of glass (Tellus Institute 1992). Additional energy is required for transporting glass sand to glass-making plants.
Limestone Limestone is the major source of lime for glassmaking. Limestone is quarried primarily from open pits, often from deposits of the mineral dolomite. Twenty states, led by Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio, account for approximately 90 percent of domestic limestone production.
Limestone is sedimentary rock composed mostly of the mineral calcite, or calcium carbonate. Minor amounts of some other carbonate mineralsnotably siderite, ankerite, and magnesiteare commonly found with limestone. Limestone mining requires no special equipment. Overburden is removed using bulldozers, draglines, or hydraulic shovels. The rock is drilled and blasted. The broken stone is loaded into dump trucks and hauled to the primary crusher, or it is loaded onto a conveyor and carried directly to a portable or permanent crusher. For most applications, limestone must travel through a secondary crusher and be sized. For some uses, limestone is ground or heated (Carr and Rooney 1975). About 5 percent of limestone produced in the United States comes from underground mining. Most underground limestone mines consist of horizontal drifts into the sides of hills or into the walls of open-pit mines, but some consist of vertical or inclined shafts. Limestone mines are seldom more than 1,000 feet deep, and most are only a few hundred feet deep. Most underground mines are the room-and-pillar type and, like salt mines, are characterized by cathedral-like dimensions. Underground mining of limestone is generally more expensive than quarrying. Limestone mines are generally located near their markets. The cost of transporting limestone makes long-distance hauling economically unfeasible. About 75 percent of the limestone used in the United States is transported by trucktypically at distances of less than 50 miles. About 11 percent is shipped by rail and the remainder by waterway and other means (Carr and Rooney 1975).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Limestone Mining
The environmental impacts associated with the mining of limestone are limited almost exclusively to open-pit operations. Generally, only the crude ore is hauled from the mine (Davis 1992). Solid waste produced during limestone mining includes overburden and tailings waste. Overburden is generally disposed of in local landfills, and tailings waste is usually left at the mine. In addition to solid waste, other pollutants from limestone mining affect the environment adversely. These include atmospheric emissions, runoff into streams and groundwater, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Air emissions resulting from mining operations include particulate limestone and dust as well as atmospheric emissions from fuel combustion. The combustion of fuel results in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and particulates. The environmental and health problems associated with these pollutants are described above under glass sand mining. Although runoff from limestone mining is considered nontoxic, suspended solids from mine runoff can increase turbidity of streams. The environmental effects of increased turbidity are described above under glass sand mining. Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration, habitat destruction, and erosion. These impacts are described above under glass sand mining. An abundant supply of limestone is available in the United States Although finite deposits are being used, there is limited concern about depleting these resources in the distant future.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Limestone Processing
Considerable emissions of dust and particulates are released during the cleaning, crushing, and grinding of limestone. Satisfactory dust control is usually achieved by enclosing stone crushing operations under a filtered environment. Air emissions result from combustion of fuel used for processing and transporting the limestone. These emissions include VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and particulates. The environmental and health problems associated with these pollutants are described above under glass sand mining.
Energy Consumed During Limestone Mining and Processing
Fuels are consumed to power heavy equipment in the mining and crushing of limestone. Estimates of energy use for materials acquisition steps, such as mining and crushing, vary with the processes used. The energy required for limestone mining and processing is estimated at 164,000 Btus (173 MJ) per ton (Tellus Institute 1992). Approximately 30,000 Btus (31.6 MJ) are required to mine and process the 363 lbs of limestone needed to produce 1 ton of glass (Tellus Institute 1992). Additional energy is required for transporting the limestone from the mine to glass-making plants.
Soda Ash Soda ash is sodium carbonate in a powdery white form. It is either mined from natural sources or derived synthetically by the Solvay process (Tellus Institute 1992). Today, trona mining is the predominant source of soda ash. About 1.8 tons of trona are required to produce 1 ton of soda ash. The Solvay process was the predominant source of soda ash until the mid-1960s (Tellus Institute 1992).
Trona is a natural vitreous gray or white mineral (Na2CO3 NaHCO3 2H2O) used as a source of sodium compounds. Almost all domestic soda ash is mined from the Green River basin in Wyoming and Searles Lake in California. Underground trona mining is similar to
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underground coal mining; the room-and-pillar, long-wall, and short-wall methods are the most common techniques used. In these processes, the material is undercut, drilled, blasted, crushed, and then transported to the surface. Prilled ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) is typically used for blasting. Continuous mining operations have begun to replace ore-carrying shuttle cars. These operations employ a continuous belt and mobile trace conveyor system to transport ore to the surface (Kostick 1992). After being crushed and screened, the trona is calcined into crude sodium carbonate through the monohydration process (Tellus Institute 1992). In this process, the trona is calcined in a rotary kiln at 325 to 400F (163 to 204C). Most soda ash calciners are gas fired, but newer facilities burn coal. The crude sodium carbonate is then purified, crystallized, and dried to remove water (Tellus Institute 1992). Waste materialsprimarily water, carbon dioxide, and insoluble mineralsare piped in a slurry to a containment basin, also known as a tailing pond. An alternative method of extracting trona, called solution mining, may be more efficient than traditional mining (Franklin Associates 1991). In solution mining, a brine is prepared by pumping a dilute aqueous liquor into salt deposits. The salts are dissolved into the liquor and then pumped out of the mine. The brine from solution mining is converted to sodium carbonate by the direct carbonation process. In this method, brine is treated with CO2 in carbonation towers to convert the sodium carbonate into sodium bicarbonate. The sodium bicarbonate is crystallized, filtered, dried, and then calcined with lime to form impure sodium carbonate. This impure sodium carbonate is then further purified with sodium nitrate, bleached, dissolved, and recrystallized to produce commercial-grade sodium carbonate (Tellus Institute 1992). Solar concentration ponds aerate and concentrate the brine to facilitate processing (Kostick 1992). CO2 for commercial production can be recovered by a number of methods from four principal sources: synthesis gas in ammonia production, by-product in production of substitute natural gas, production of ethanol by fermentation, and natural wells. The most common methods are the potassium carbonate and ethanolamine processes. The flue gases bearing CO2 are passed countercurrently to a solution that removes the CO2 by absorption. The aqueous solution containing CO2 is pumped to a steam-heated reactivator. CO2 and steam leave the top of the reactivator, passing through a CO2 cooler to condense the steam, which returns to the tower as reflux (Austin 1984). The Solvay process uses salt, coke, and limestone, with ammonia as a catalyst. All synthetic soda ash is manufactured in New York State. Synthetic soda ash is more expensive to produce than natural soda ash and results in high concentrations of calcium chloride and sodium chloride in the process effluent (Franklin Associates 1991). Approximately 90 percent of soda ash used in the United States today is obtained from underground mining of trona and alkaline brines (Franklin Associates 1991). Sources differ as to whether any Solvay process soda ash is presently used in the glass industry. According to one source, all soda ash used in the glass industry today comes from natural mined sources (Tellus Institute 1992). According to another source, approximately 10 percent of soda ash used in glass-making comes from the Solvay process (Franklin Associates 1991).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Trona Mining and Soda Ash Production
The environmental impacts for trona mining are similar to those for other underground mining operations. They include tailings waste, mine runoff, air emissions, habitat alteration, and habitat destruction. In underground mining, tailings waste is generally left in the mine. Suspended solids from mine runoff can increase turbidity of streams. The potential environmental impacts resulting from increased turbidity are presented above
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under glass sand mining. Mine runoff can dramatically alter or destroy habitats in mined areas. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining operations and the transport of soda ash to glass-making plants result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and particulates. The environmental and health effects associated with these air pollutants are described above under glass sand mining. Wastewater generated in the production of natural soda ash contains impurities from the trona ore, unrecovered sodium carbonate, carbon, filter aids, and treatment chemicals (Tellus Institute 1992). Wastewater is typically treated in evaporation ponds. However, the evaporation ponds can be harmful to migratory water fowl: The alkaline solutions present in the ponds strip the insulative natural oils from the feathers, making the birds vulnerable to hypothermia. Several trona mines have begun to discharge wastewater into abandoned underground mines, reducing the use of evaporation ponds. In addition, portions of effluent discharge can be reused as drilling and cutting coolant (Kostick 1992). Recently, soda-ash-bearing purge liquors and wastes have been sold to power plants for flue-gas desulfurization because of their sodium carbonate content (Kostick 1992). Particulate matter is the only significant air pollutant emission from natural soda ash production. Small quantities of VOCs are also emitted from the calcining operation. Particulate emissions from the calciner and bleacher are usually controlled by cyclones together with electrostatic precipitators. Venturi scrubbers are also used to control particulate emissions. SO2 is emitted from coal-fired calciners, but its reaction with sodium carbonate from the calcining process keeps SO2 emissions relatively low (Tellus Institute 1992).
Energy Consumed During Trona Mining and Soda Ash Production
Fuels are consumed to power heavy equipment in the underground mining of trona. In addition, soda ash production is energy intensive. Since 1973, energy requirements for soda ash production have been reduced by replacing gas-fired dryers with steam-tube units and installing mechanical vapor recompression units to replace triple-effect evaporators (Kostick 1992). An estimated 8.59 million Btus (9,071 MJ) are required to produce 1 ton of natural soda ash (Tellus Institute 1992). An estimated 1.62 million Btus (1,711 MJ) are consumed in mining and processing the 394 lbs of natural soda ash required to produce 1 ton of glass (Tellus Institute 1992).

The manufacturing process generally consists of four stages: melting, forming, annealing, and finishing. The environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture of glass are presented in figure 3.
Glass Production Process As the sand, limestone, and soda ash are received at the glass plant, they are dumped into a hopper and fed by conveyor belt into elevated storage bins. These materials are then transferred through a gravity feed system to a weigher. Each material is precisely weighed and then fed into a mixer. Carefully measured amounts of glass sand, limestone, and soda ash are thoroughly mixed, after which a wetting agent is added to the batch materials (National Glass Association 1992). Soda ash, limestone, and salt cake are used to flux the silica in the glass sand. Charcoal and cullet are also added to the furnace. Cullet is added to improve melting characteristics and decrease the energy required for melting. It also is used as a raw material to increase production yields and to reduce air emissions (Egan 1993). Additional ingredients
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Figure 3: GlassManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Glass manufacture Stressor Mixing of raw materials Impact/Stressor Particulate emissions Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Fuel combustion emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Fuel combustion emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Air emissions Lead Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Water vapor Fishkill Reduced reproduction Fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Fishkill Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Figure 3: GlassManufacturing and Fabrication Stage (continued)

Activity Glass manufacture (continued) Stressor Effluents Impact/Stressor Increased BOD Oil Total suspended solids (TSS) Chemical oxygen demand Solid waste Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
may also be added to serve as reactants and catalysts or to give the glass specific qualities and characteristics. Salt cake removes scum from the glass tank furnaces (Franklin Associates 1991; Hornbostel 1991; Austin 1984). According to one study, production of a ton of glass requires approximately 1,184 lbs of glass sand, 363 lbs of lime, 168 lbs of feldspar, 394 lbs of soda ash, 200 lbs of cullet, and 27.6 lbs of other ingredients (Tellus Institute 1992). The National Glass Association, however, notes that feldspar is not commonly used for production of flat glass (Egan 1993). The mixture is conveyed to a batch storage bin, where it is held until dropped into the feeder. Batch materials are then fed mechanically into the glass tank furnace. The screw feeder and the reciprocating pusher are the two common feeding designs used today (Kirk-Othmer 1990).
Melting and Forming The formation of float glass, which is the predominant type of glass used in the construction industry, is accomplished according to variations in the float glass process originally developed by the Pilkington brothers. A tank furnace, or continuous regenerative furnace, is used for melting glass. The tank furnace is at least 150 ft (45 m) long and 33 ft (10 m) wide, and it will typically produce at least 500 tons of glass per day (Edge 1992). In the melting stage, the mixture is heated to at least 2,900F in the furnace. Natural gas is the typical fuel for melting the glass mix, with electricity increasingly used to boost the temperature (Tellus Institute 1992).
Raw materials are fed into a large tank built of refractory blocks at one end of the furnace. The molten glass passes through the refining zone into a narrow canal that connects the furnace with the float bath. Rate of flow is precisely controlled by automatically raising or lowering a gate that spans the canal. The molten glass passes between refractory pieces, usually called restrictors. Once in the float bath, the molten glass flows across the surface of molten tin at approximately 1,900F. The temperature of the tin bath is closely controlled, and the chamber is sealed and maintained under positive pressure by an inert, nonoxidizing nitrogen atmosphere made slightly reducing by the addition of small amounts of hydrogen. This is necessary to maintain a clean, pristine surface on the tin, which would oxidize rapidly in the presence of air. Glass thickness is selected by adjusting the side barriers of the bath. Thus, the float bath is a complex, multifunction unit that acts as a chemical reactor, a heat exchanger, a ribbon-forming machine, and a mechanical conveyor (Edge 1992). At approximately 1,150F, on exiting the bath, the glass is still a plastic material but solid enough to be removed from the tin with mechanical rollers without marking the glass surface. The controlled heating melts out all irregularities, producing a glass with flat and parallel surfaces that require no grinding or polishing (Austin 1984; National Glass Association 1992).
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Annealing Annealing involves two operations: The first holds the glass above a certain critical temperature long enough to reduce internal strain by plastic flow to less than a predetermined maximum amount, and the second cools the mass to room temperature slowly enough to hold the strain below this maximum. This generally is accomplished with continuousannealing equipment, automatic temperature regulation, and controlled heat circulation in a device called a lehr. The glass is cooled down while still on the molten tin until the surfaces are hard enough to enter the lehr without the lehr rollers spoiling the bottom surface. The annealing lehr cools the glass ribbon from 1,100F to approximately 200F in a precise, uniform manner to prevent residual stresses. Small amounts of electric heat keep the edges of the glass sheet from cooling faster than the center.
The glass emerges from the lehr as a continuous ribbon. It then passes through an inspection process where unsatisfactory products are identified, removed, crushed, and returned to the process as cullet. After traveling a long distance from its molten stage, sometimes up to 13 mile, the glass has cooled enough to be cut, packed, and shipped. The inspected ribbon of glass is cut by computer-controlled cutters to the exact dimensions desired. Scrap is again crushed and returned to the process as cullet. Excess cullet is typically stored outside in uncovered piles for later use (National Glass Association 1992).
Finishing Most types of annealed glass must undergo some type of finishing operation. For flat glass, finishing includes various combinations of cleaning, cutting, enameling, grading, and gauging, often depending on end use. Hydrofluoric acid and abrasives are sometimes used in finishing operations (Austin 1984).
Once the glass has been cut and finished, it is typically packed in boxes, called stoces, for warehousing or shipping to facilities for manufacture of various construction materials. Glass is usually transported to fabricators by rail or truck (National Glass Association 1990, 1992). Glass is a raw material used to fabricate a variety of building materials, such as windows, doors, and skylights. The discussion of the manufacturing process of various glass products is beyond the scope of this report.
Environmental Effects of Glass Production

Waste Produced
Air pollutants are generated during the melting of glass from the combustion of fuel and from the vaporization of raw materials. The major air pollutants generated are NOx, SOx, and particulates (including particulate matter containing sodium sulfate). For each ton of glass, uncontrolled emissions of air pollutants are 8.0 lbs of NOx, 3.0 lbs of SOx, 2.0 lbs of particulates, less than 0.1 lb of VOCs, and less than 0.1 lb of CO (EPA 1992). The National Glass Association reports emissions of less than 1 lb of particulates and 1.5 lbs of SOx per ton of glass (Egan 1993). The melting furnace contributes 99 percent of the total emissions from a glass plant, both particulates and gaseous pollutants. Particulates result from volatilization of materials in the melt that combine with gases and form condensates. These are either collected in the gas passages or emitted to the atmosphere. NOx form when nitrogen from the air and fuel reacts with oxygen in the high temperatures of the furnace. SOx result from the decomposition of the sulfates in the batch and sulfur in the fuel. Natural gas, the typical fuel for glassmaking, has a low sulfur content, thus reducing SOx formation. Other pollutants are formed by vaporization of the glass melt. Air emissions also result from combustion products of fuel used for the packaging and transport of the products.
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Proper maintenance and firing of the furnace can control most of these emissions, increase furnace efficiency, and reduce operating costs. Fugitive particulate emissions can be controlled with 99 percent efficiency by enclosing equipment and installing baghouses, filter vents, and exhaust systems. Low-pressure wet centrifugal scrubbers have been used to control particulate and SOx, but their efficiency of about 50 percent indicates their inability to collect particulates of submicron size. Baghouses, with 90 to 99 percent particulate collection efficiency, have been used on small regenerative furnaces, but fabric corrosion requires careful temperature control. Electrostatic precipitators have an efficiency of 80 to 90 percent in the collection of particulates. The only contributor to air pollutant emissions during the forming and finishing of flat glass is gas combustion in the annealing lehr, which is totally enclosed except for product entry and exit openings. Since emissions are small and operational procedures are efficient, no controls are used on lehr emissions. Sulfide contamination from the float bath and furnace cooling water and waste from various finishing operations can require effluent treatment. The main constituents of the wastewater are oil and total suspended solids (Tellus Institute 1992). There are no known toxic materials in the wastewater (Tellus Institute 1992). Some solid waste is generated from the scrap trimmed to produce the sized product. However, the majority of waste glass, or cullet, is reused in the glass-making process. Cullet is also used as a replacement material for sand and rocks in road construction and beach erosion control programs. It can also replace soil as fill material in landfills. Solid waste from finishing processes can also result in solid and hazardous waste.
Energy Consumed
Significant energy is consumed in the glass-making process, although estimates of the amount vary. The embodied energy of glass is approximately 13.5 to 15 million Btus (14,200 to 15,825 MJ) per ton (Tellus Institute 1992; Newman 1992). Approximately 6.8 to 8 million Btus (7,174 to 8,440 MJ) per ton of glass produced are expended in the melting process. Another 4 million Btus (4,220 MJ) per ton of glass are expended in the forming, annealing, and finishing processes (Tellus Institute 1992). The remaining 2.7 to 3 million Btus (2,848 to 3,165 MJ) are expended during mining and processing of the raw materials and for batch handling and cullet crushing (Tellus Institute 1992). Additional energy is required for packaging and transporting glass. The National Glass Association reports that approximately 8.2 million Btus (8,651 MJ) are required to manufacture 1 ton of packed annealed glass (Egan 1993). The energy required to melt glass can be derived from fossil fuels, including natural gas and oil, or from electricity. Natural gas is the main energy source for melting glass, while electricity is often used for temperature boosting. Boosting decreases the fuel consumption rate by lowering the required furnace temperature. Another energy-saving feature employed in glass-making is the recovery of waste heat from combustion gases. It is in the melting stage of glass manufacture that the greatest improvements in energy efficiency remain to be achieved (Newman 1992).

When properly specified and installed, glass is highly energy efficient. Fenestration allows for less usage of artificial lighting and concomitant energy savings. The Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) headquarters in Snowmass, Colorado, built as a demonstration project in 1984, is estimated to achieve much of its thermal performance from its advanced, gas-filled, low-E-coated windows. These windows admit three-quarters of the visible light and one-half of total solar energy while losing less than one-fifth as much heat as single-pane glazing (Browning 1992). Considerably more efficient glazing techniques have been developed since
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Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stages and Organization Perspectives
1984 and continue to be developed. Windows that open can also reduce energy used for airconditioning and help relieve indoor air-pollutant concentrations through ventilation.
Indoor Air Quality
Glass is inert and has virtually no adverse impact on indoor air quality. In laboratory test chambers, there was no evidence of VOCs adsorption into glass. However, coatings and materials, such as sealants that are used with glass, can result in some emission of VOCs during product fabrication. Fenestration, the principal use of glass, can significantly reduce the trapping of such pollutants when windows are designed to open and provide ventilation.

A small amount of flat glass from remodeled and demolished buildings is recycled at present. A considerable amount of flat glass used in construction is disposed of in demolition landfills. However, certain types of flat glass can be recycled into glasphalt, an asphalt substitute; glascrete, a concrete substitute; glass aquarium stones; glass beads; and glass filler for street curbs and ceramic floor tiles. Glass cullet is beginning to be used as a replacement material for sand and rocks in road construction and beach erosion control programs, and for soil as a fill material in landfills. In addition, major fiberglass manufacturers are actively investigating the use of flat glass cullet in their manufacturing process (Egan 1993). According to EPA, the amount of glass recovered from recycling increased 50 percent between 1985 and 1988. The environmental stressors and impacts associated with the disposal of glass waste are summarized in figure 4.
Figure 4: GlassRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Disposal of glass waste Recycling glass waste Emissions from recycling operations Stressor Glass waste Impact/Stressor Large volume in landfills Reduces amount of solid waste disposal in landfills Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Industry Perspective: National Glass Association and Primary Glass Manufacturers Council Glass is an ideal building material as it provides satisfaction and comfort to many. To a building occupant, glass offers views of the outside from the comfort of the inside. With coatings to increase its energy efficiency, glass keeps heat out during the summer and in during the winter. Studies have shown that comfort and productivity increase when indoor space is opened to the outside through the use of glass.
To an architect, glass provides endless design possibilities. It comes in a variety of colors and is not limited to standard sizes. It can be cut or bent to almost any configuration. It can be strong enough to resist the force of a hurricane without giving the appearance of a fortress. To the environmentalist, glass provides a building material that is friendly to the earth during its entire life. The four main components of flat glass are sand (silicon dioxide), soda (sodium oxide from soda ash), lime (calcium oxide from limestone), and cullet (glass rejected from the production line because of visual or dimensional defects). These are all available in large quantity.
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Regulatory Status
The flat glass industry in the United States has taken an active role in minimizing particulate emissions during the manufacturing process. Melting in the glass furnace produces approximately 98 percent of the total particulate emissions. Each manufacturing plant in the country has initiated emission controls by taking one or more of the following steps: altering batch formulae, including increasing the amount of glass cullet used and reducing or eliminating volatile components, such as arsenic modifying furnace equipment, including revising burner design and firing patterns and installing sensors and controls for the furnace installing fabric filters, scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators to control furnace exhaust The recyclability of glass is evident throughout its life. Flat glass manufacturers generate 50,000 to 100,000 tons of glass cullet each year for each manufacturing line and recycle 90 to 98 percent back to the furnace. Flat glass fabrication facilitiesplants that produce tempered glass, laminated glass, windows, or doorsgenerate 15,000 to 40,000 tons of glass cullet. Seventy to 100 percent of this material is sold to glass recycling facilities. These facilities are finding many applications for scrap glass: mixed with asphalt to produce glasphalt, an asphalt substitute mixed with cement to produce glascrete, a concrete substitute used in beach erosion control, soil stabilization, and road fill added to clay soils to improve drainage capability added to paint to make a reflective coating used to sandblast buildings and foundry castings used as a bed for pools and under liners in landfills used as a filter material in water treatment plants and in on-site sewage disposal systems added to ceramic tile to increase its skid-resistance and waterproofing properties used in golf-course sand traps. Glass can save energy. Its ability to transmit light into homes and offices greatly reduces the need for artificial lighting and the associated electrical energy production from fossil-fuelfired utilities. With spectrally selective coated glass, architects and builders can provide appropriate lighting without the impact of solar heat gain. In fact, studies have shown that high-performance fenestration systems can outperform opaque wall systems in terms of energy use. Driven by both environmental and economic considerations, the flat glass industry continues its search to reduce energy consumption by its members and by building owners, to decrease emissions and increase efficiency during the manufacturing process, to improve quality control, and to find more markets for recycled glass. Benefits from this research will be enjoyed by all.
Regulatory Status
Materials in the glass life cycle become at least partially regulated in practically all stages. Many operations in the glass-making life cycle are subject to specific wastewater treatment requirements under the Clean Water Act (CWA), as discussed below; operations that are not subject to specific effluent guidelines may be subject to generic National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit requirements for at least the five conventional pollutants of BOD, TSS, pH, fecal coliform, and oil and grease. The five pollutants must be
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Regulatory Status
treated using best conventional pollution control technology (BCT). EPA also has developed a list of 126 toxic pollutants from 65 classes of chemical compounds that may require monitoring and treatment with best available technology economically achievable (BAT). All other pollutants are designated nonconventional and may also require treatment under BAT. Because of the variety of chemicals used in the glass manufacturing process, increased monitoring and treatment requirements for toxic and nonconventional pollutants are likely. Stationary heat sources in the glass-making life cycle may be subject to the Clean Air Act (CAA) emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100 tons per year (tpy) threshold for any CAA pollutant. Storage, treatment, and disposal of any solid or hazardous wastes in the manufacturing process may be subject to regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and state solid-waste laws. Typically, construction and demolition wastes are subject to state and local solid-waste laws and ordinances. Although regulatory coverage is significant and pervasive, gaps still exist, particularly in the areas of toxic and hazardous process constituents.
Materials Acquisition and Processing Stage Glass sand mining is subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 436, subpart E, which sets effluent limitations for the total suspended solids (TSS) and pH. In addition, facilities employing hydrofluoric acid flotation must comply with limitations for total fluorine. Salines from brine lakes are not subject to discharge requirements under 40 CFR Part 436, subpart L. Limestone, feldspar, and trona mining may eventually be subject to similar CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 436 when appropriate guidelines are developed.
Nonmetallic-mineral processing plants are subject to CAA New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, which places particulate matter and opacity limits on construction or major modification of crushers, grinding mills, screening operations, bucket elevators, belt conveyors, bagging operations, storage bins, and enclosed truck or railcar loading stations. Limestone, glass sand, sodium compounds, and feldspar are covered by these requirements. Limestone calciners are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart HH, for new facility construction or major modification to existing facilities, and can be subject to stationary source requirements for National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) pollutants under 40 CFR Part 151 if they employ fossil fuel boilers of more than 250 million Btus per hour capacity.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Stage Glass manufacturing facilities are subject to effluent limitations under 40 CFR Part 426 for sheet, rolled, and float glass subcategories. These guidelines establish effluent limitations for TSS, oil and grease, and phosphorus and oil. Glass manufacturing plants are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart CC, for new facility construction or major modification to existing facilities, and can be subject to stationary source requirements for NAAQS pollutants under 40 CFR Part 151 if they employ fossil fuel boilers of more than 250 million Btus per hour capacity. Glass manufacturers recycle almost all broken or unusable glass generated from glassmaking. However, both the manufacturing and the finishing processes can generate solid waste and some hazardous waste. Thus, RCRA and state solid-waste regulations can be important at this stage. Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage Building codes and other restrictions may place structural, energy efficiency, ventilation, life safety, or even aesthetic requirements on the use of glass in construction. No federal regulations or guidelines relating to emissions of VOCs have been established at this time. VOCs from sealants used in glass components in construction may be affected by future indoor air
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Regulatory Status
pollution requirements, but as mentioned earlier, fenestration may have an important role in dissipation of VOCs in architectural settings. Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid-waste requirements and varies widely from state to state. Glass is very recyclable, as existing glass-container recycling programs attest, but glass from building demolition is more difficult to remove from the waste stream, and therefore little construction glass is recycled at present. However, window and door units are frequently salvaged from demolition projects and reused.
Regulatory Statutes and References s Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 U.S 7401 et seq. (i.e., Title 42 of the U.S. Code, starting with Section 7401). s Clean Water Act (CWA), 33 U.S 1251 et seq. s Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (CERCLA/SARA), 42 U.S 9601 et seq. s Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Code of Federal Regulations. July 1. (The code is divided into titles and parts and cited in the text as ___ CFR Part ___; the parts are further subdivided with decimal, letter, and number notation into sections and subsections.) s Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Federal Register 57, no. 188 (September 28). s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (RCRA), 42 U.S 6901 et seq.
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References
REFERENCES
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1991. Glazing. Masterspec, Section 08800. Austin, George, T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bolen, Wallace P. 1991. Industrial Sand Gravel Annual Report1991. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Brown, Harry L., Bernard B. Hamel, Bruce A. Hedman, Michael Koluch, Birar C. Gajanana, and Philip Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. U.S. Department of Energy, Contract Number E(11-1)2862, Fairmont Press Edition. Browning, William. 1992. Rocky Mountain Institute: Innovative Technology at Work. AIA Environmental Resource Guide. American Institute of Architects. Subscription service. July. Carr, Donald D. and Lawrence F. Rooney. 1975. Limestone and Dolomite. Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics other than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Davis, Lawrence L. 1992. Gypsum Annual Report 1990. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. April. Edge, Charles K. 1992. Float-Glass Forming: Production Consideration. Ceramic Bulletin 71: 6. Egan, Edward M. 1993. Technical engineer, National Glass Association, McLean, VA. Comments on AIA Environmental Resource Guide draft report on glass. July 13 and 19. ______. 1992. Personal communication. October. Franklin Associates. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, Final Report. The Society of the Plastics Industry. The Homeowners Guide to Glass. No date. Windows. Honachefsky, William B. 1991. Land Planners Environmental Handbook. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Ivahnenko, T. I., et al. 1988. Liming Effects on the Water Quality in Two West Virginia Streams. Restoration of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems.; edited by R. W. Brockson and J. Wisiniewski. NY: Klewer Academic Publishers. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1992. NY: Wiley Publishers. Kosko, Jill. 1988. Future Stock: 8 New Glass Products Youll be Selling in the Future. Glass Magazine. December. Kostick, Dennis S. 1992. Soda Ash Annual Report 1991. Bureau of Mines, U. S. Department of the Interior. National Glass Association. 1990. The Basics: Types of Glass. A Glass Primer. Glass Magazine. April. ______. 1992. Flat Glass Manufacturing Process. Fact sheet. October. Newman, John E. 1992. Analyst, Energy and Materials Program, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Washington, DC. Personal communication. October 16. Olem, H. 1991. Liming Acidic Surface Waters. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. Potter, Michael J. 1990. Feldspar, Nepheline, Syenite, and Aplite Minerals Yearbook1989. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study. Vol. 2. May. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1992. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42). Clearinghouse for Inventories and Emission Factors Electronic Bulletin Board. ______. 1976. Development Document for Interim Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for Mineral Mining and Processing Industry. EPA 440/1-76/059a. van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David Keith Todd. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. Williams, Franklin E. 1992. Flat Glass Industry Overview. Glass Magazine. September. ______. 1990. Flat Glass Technology. Construction Review. March-April.
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Material Report
Non-Glass Glazing
Highlights
The raw materials used in the manufacture of acrylic and polycarbonate (materials commonly used to produce non-glass glazing) are derived from petroleum and natural gas. Extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas can produce a number of wastes, including drilling muds, drill cuttings, and wastewater containing various pollutants. Fuel combustion during extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas can result in a number of air emissions. During the manufacture of acrylic resin, the methyl methacrylate monomer may be released, possibly posing an occupational hazard. Several of the materials used to manufacture polycarbonate resin are highly toxic. The handling of these chemicals is strictly regulated, although accidental releases during the manufacturing process can still occur. Sealants are used in the installation of non-glass glazing. The manufacture of these sealants (oil-based caulk, silicones, and acrylics) may result in toxic emissions.
Petroleum and natural gas are finite resources that are in adequate supply at present. The energy required to fabricate one lb of polycarbonate product is 68,200 Btu (or 158.63 MJ per kg of product). Data on energy consumption during manufacture of acrylic products are unavailable. Curing times for the various types of sealants used in the fabrication of non-glass glazing units vary. If the sealant is not fully cured at the time of installation, VOCs may be emitted into the indoor air.
Indoor Air Quality
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Non-Glass Glazing
Background
Background
Glazing is defined as glass or other transparent material used for windows (Webster 1988). Non-glass materials commonly used for glazing include acrylic and polycarbonate. Sheets made of either of these plastics may be used singly or in double-glazed window systems. Certain types of polycarbonate glazing are manufactured from two or more sheets that have been laminated together. Laminated polycarbonate glazing is especially resistant to breakage. Another type of non-glass glazing, made of either acrylic or polycarbonate, has doublewalled construction. Double-walled sheets contain internal vertical ribs that are formed as the sheet is extruded. These ribs form hollow channels that produce a dead air space, providing thermal insulation properties. Double-walled sheets are appropriate for both sloped and vertical glazing; they are used extensively in greenhouses and solar-energy greenhouse spaces. Non-glass glazing products outside the scope of this report include the following: glazing systems that filter out UV radiation (these contain an inner layer made from polyvinyl butyral or other plastic laminated between sheets of glass); safety glazing (a plastic inner layer bonded between two or more panes of glass); low-E glass (a polyester film suspended between two glass sheets; and reflective glass (a coating applied directly to the glass or onto a plastic film). Plastic sheets used in prefabricated skylights, shower and bathtub enclosures, and interior partitions are also outside the scope of this report. Non-glass (i.e., plastic) glazing has qualities that may make it preferable to glass for certain applications. In comparison to the strongest glass, plastic glazing is highly resistant to impact. Acrylic is approximately twice as resistant to impact as tempered glass, and polycarbonate is 2 to 3 times as resistant as acrylic. Plastic glazing is 50 to 60 percent as heavy as glass, which may be an important consideration for security applications, especially in doors and operable windows. Lamination of plastic sheets can increase both breakage resistance and bullet resistance. Several sheets laminated together to a given thickness offer more impact resistance than a single sheet of the same thickness. Laminated plastic sheets also provide improved resistance to sound transmission (AIA 1990). Plastic glazing has some characteristics that may rule out its use for certain applications. In particular, plastic glazing is susceptible to scratches and abrasion, and even the most scratchresistant sheets require protection from abuse, including use of abrasive cleaners. Applied coatings are available to improve both scratch and weathering resistance. Plastics are less rigid than glass, which may make the use of thin sheets impractical for certain applications (AIA 1990). Another consideration in the use of plastic glazing is its tendency to expand and contract with changes in temperature. Design and installation of plastic glazing systems must allow for these fluctuations. If no allowances are made, air infiltration may result. Plastic glazing, like all plastic materials, is combustible and will burn when exposed to flame. Hazards can be kept at an acceptable level by complying with building codes and observing fire safety principles. This report covers plastic glazing included in Masterspec Section 08840Plastic Glazing (AIA 1990), as follows: Monolithic acrylic glazing is specified by reference to ASTM D 4802 and according to categories that relate to the method of manufacture, type of finish, and type of material (whether or not the glazing contains UV absorbers). These specifications are summarized in figure 1.
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Figure 1: Specifications for Monolithic Acrylic Glazing*

Method of Manufacture Category Cast Category C-1 Method/Type Cell-casting Characteristics Best optical qualities, highest molecular weight polymer (realizing the highest long-term stress), highest chemical resistance Same physical, chemical, and thermal properties as C-1 but lower optical quality and better control over variations in thickness Equal or exceed optical and thickness tolerance qualities of C-2 but uses a lower molecular weight polymer, giving it lower resistance to heat, chemical, and stress crazing Not included in Masterspec Section 08840Plastic Glazing, thus outside scope of this report Smooth or polished surfaces Patterned surfaces, including textures and frosting Abrasion-resistant coating Ultraviolet (UV) absorber for reducing UV transmission or for protecting the polymer from degradation due to direct sunlight or UV radiation, special formulations for added protectionall products in Masterspec 08840 fall into this type No UV absorber
Cast Category C-2
Continuous casting
Melt Process Category M-1
Several processes that typically produce a continuously manufactured sheet Standard extrusion Acrylic products Acrylic products Acrylic products Acrylic material
Melt Process Category M-2 Type of finish Finish 1 Finish 2 Finish 3 Type of Material Type UVA
Type UVT
*Based on categories defined by ASTM D 4802
Acrylic material
No standard specification currently exists for double-wall structured acrylic sheets, although they are included in the scope of this report. In addition to acrylic sheets, monolithic polycarbonate sheets, double-wall structured polycarbonate sheets, and laminated polycarbonate sheets are also included in the scope of this report, although no standard specifications currently exist for these materials.
Life-cycle summaries of acrylic sheet, polycarbonate sheet, solvent cements, and adhesives are provided in figures 2 through 5, respectively. The environmental reviews contained in the ERG material reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that occur during the entire life cycle of a material. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to them. The following paragraphs summarize the stressors and impacts that are discussed in greater depth in subsequent sections. It should be noted that essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. The acquisition and preparation of raw materials for the manufacture of non-glass glazing are associated with a number of potential environmental and health effects. Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, which is derived from petroleum. Polycarbonate resin is produced from raw materials derived from petroleum and natural gas. The extraction of natural gas and petroleum can discharge drilling muds, deck and sanitary wastes, and produced water containing a number of pollutants that increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, (continued on page 8)
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MAT 08840 NON-GLASS GLAZING ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Acrylic Sheet
Non-Glass Glazing
Propylene manufacture
Acrolein
catalyst catalyst
Acrylic acid
Esterification
Acrylate monomers
(see figure 4) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, monomers)
Life-Cycle Summary Acrylic Sheet
Polymerization
Wastewater Sludge (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Monomerpolymer syrup
Extrusion Fluidizing Homogenizing Extruding Chilling
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, residual monomers)
Continuous casting Introducing monomer/ polymer syrup Heating/curing Annealing
Masking paper
Wastewater (produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, organics) Drilling muds and cuttings Drainage wastes Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, residual monomers) (optional) (see figure 3)
Application of protective masking paper
Batch cell casting Filling the mold Heating/ curing
Plastic film
(optional) (see figure 3)
or
Annealing
Annealing
or
Application of protective covering Coating materials
Finished acrylic sheet
Sash
Fabrication of window units
KEY
Sealant
(see figure 4) Landfill waste
Construction site
Maintenance/ repair
Landfill waste
Demolition
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Polycarbonate Sheet

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997 NON-GLASS GLAZING MAT 08840
Cumene
Phenol
Benzene manufacture
Acetone
Bisphenol A
Polycarbonate resin
Wastewater Sludge (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides)
Air emissions (chlorine)
Fugitive emissions
Brine
Electrolysis
Brine sludge (magnesium hydroxide, CaCO3), spent sulfuric acid, scrubbing wastes, asbestos
Chlorine Co-product NaOH
Phosgene
(see figure 4)
Extrusion Fluidizing Homogenizing Extruding Chilling
Injection molding Heating Homogenizing Pressure injection
Drainage wastes
Steam reformation
Synthesis gas
Carbon monoxide production Scrubbing Condensing Fractitional distillation
Coating materials
(optional)
Plastic film
(see figure 3)
or (optional)
Polycarbonate sheet
Masking paper
(see figure 3)
Sash
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, H2S, particulates)
Fabrication of window units
Non-Glass Glazing
Life-Cycle Summary Polycarbonate Sheet
Natural gas processsing Separation Liquefaction Distillation
KEY
Sealant
(see figure 4) Landfill waste
Construction site
Maintenance/ repair
Output Recycling Landfill waste
Demolition
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MAT 08840 NON-GLASS GLAZING ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Protective Film and Paper
Non-Glass Glazing
Life-Cycle Summary Protective Film and Paper
Ethylene
catalyst
Polyethylene
Drainage wastes
Wastewater (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptane, cyanides)
Sludge, solids
Chlorinated Chromium, organics copper Zinc, hydrocarbons, cadmium
KEY
Process flow
Wastewater (oil, grease, BOD, COD)
Heavy metals
NaOH, Na2SO4, Cl2, ClO2
Waste paper Collection Sorting Transport De-inking

Habitat change Effluent Wastewater (TSS, organics, toxics, dioxins)

(see figures 1 and 2) Sludge, wood chips
Figure 5: Life-Cycle Summary of Sealants
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997 NON-GLASS GLAZING MAT 08840
KEY
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, monomers)
Acrylic monomers
(see figure 1)
Polymerization
Acrylic resin
(optional)
Pesticides and fertilizers
Flax, soybean, and tung growing
Linseed, soybean, and tung oil preparation
Isomerization
Drying oil
Caulk
Linseed oil
Pesticide and fertilizer runoff Soil erosion
Hexane Pigment (extender)
Air emissions (chlorine)
Brine
Electrolysis
Chlorine
Co-product NaOH
Methyl chloride Methane
Wastewater (oil, Drilling mud grease, dissolved and cuttings, solids, organics) heavy metals
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, lead)
Cu catalyst
Quartzite mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating
By-product generation
HCl
Methyl chloride
Non-Glass Glazing
Life-Cycle Summary Sealants
Air emissions (CO)
Air emissions (HCl)
Reduction furnace
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SO2, NOX, NH3,VOCs, particulates)
Silicon
catalyst
Silicone resin
catalyst (see figures 1 and 2) Water
Habitat change

(see quartzite mining)

Water
Non-Glass Glazing
and benthic deposition and otherwise affect the environment. Ultimate effects include eutrophication, loss of faunal diversity, and possible fishkill. Air emissions include VOCs (volatile organic compounds), sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulates, and nitrogen oxides. These materials are produced by fuel combustion and can cause or contribute to smog, acid precipitation, the greenhouse effect, and various health effects. Processing crude oil can release a variety of sludges that can contaminate groundwater and sewers, causing increased BOD and increased sewerage loading. The processing of crude oil can also release polluted wastewater and air emissions. These stressors can result in possible fishkill and decreased faunal diversity, habitat disruption, and release of materials that are noxious or toxic to humans. In the manufacture of acrylic resin, the methyl methacrylate monomer is polymerized to form the resin. During polymerization or during casting or molding of acrylic sheets, the methyl methacrylate monomer may be released, potentially posing an occupational hazard. The monomer is an irritant and a sensitizer. Once polymerized, however, methyl methacrylate is inert and nontoxic. Acrylic acid, a precursor to methyl methacrylate, may also pose an occupational hazard. Both are handled as hazardous wastes. During the manufacture of acrylic products, the polymethyl methacrylate material is treated as flammable, and considerable care is exercised to prevent explosions. In addition, methyl methacrylate polymerizations are accompanied by a large amount of heat, which must be dissipated to avoid uncontrolled reactions. The manufacture of polycarbonate resin is a more complicated process and involves production of several intermediate materials. Several of these are highly toxic and pose hazards to the environment and to occupational health. These include cumene hydroperoxide, a corrosive material and a dangerous explosive; phosgene, a highly toxic compound; and chlorine gas, also highly toxic. All these materials are strictly regulated. Because of its high toxicity, most phosgene is produced and consumed at the plant site, assuring that any emissions will be localized. The manufacture of acrylic and polycarbonate resins and their precursor chemicals involves the combustion of fuels, which produces various air emissions. These emissions are summarized above. Various sealants, such as silicones and acrylics, are used to set the glazing into the window unit. The manufacture of these materials involves certain chemicals that may have toxic effects and may pose some environmental hazard. Kraft paper or olefin (polyethylene) film are used to protect the plastic sheeting from damage. The production of kraft paper is a significant source of industrial pollution. Much kraft paper, however, is produced from recycled paper; paper manufacture using recycled material generally requires fewer chemicals that can contribute to pollution. During the manufacture of polyethylene, a variety of air and water emissions may be produced. In use, plastic glazing is energy efficient and has low thermal conductivity.
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A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for non-glass (plastic) glazing, solvent cements, and adhesives is presented in figure 6.
Acrylic Resin Acrylic resin, formed by the polymerization of acrylic acid, is produced from propylene vapor that is oxidized catalytically to produce acrolein. Acrolein is then catalytically oxidized to produce acrylic acid. The acrylic acid is esterified to produce methyl, ethyl, butyl, or larger acrylate monomers. The production of propylene and its petroleum precursors is described in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240).
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is the acrylic resin most used in building products, frequently as a copolymer with other materials. The methacrylic monomer is often copolymerized with acrylic monomer to improve the properties of the plastic. For example, the all-acrylic polymer tends to be soft and tacky; the all-methacrylic polymer, hard and brittle. By adjusting the proportions of each type of monomer, polymers can be made with any desired hardness or flexibility. In addition, small amounts of specialized monomers may be copolymerized with the methacrylic monomers to further modify or improve the product. (These monomers, for example, may contain amino or hydroxyl functional groups (KirkOthmer 1995).)
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Acrylic Resin
Acrylic acid. Acrylic acid is a strong irritant to the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Human exposure to acrylic acid will be primarily occupational via inhalation and dermal contact (HSDB 1995). Acrylic acid may be released into wastewater during its production and use in the manufacture of acrylic esters. If released on land, it would leach into the ground, where it is amenable to aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation. No rate data for soil systems are available, however. If released into water acrylic acid will biodegrade, but the rate of biodegradation is unknown. Bioconcentration in aquatic organisms should not be significant; however, it is highly toxic to algae and somewhat toxic to certain species of fish. Acrylic acid, as a waste, must be managed according to federal and/or state hazardous waste regulations. Acrylic acid is produced in large quantities (1220 million lbs, or 553 million kg, in 1991) (HSDB 1995). Methyl methacrylate. Human exposure to methyl methacrylate monomer is primarily occupational by dermal and inhalation routes. It is a moderate irritant and sensitizer; occupational asthma has been associated with methyl methacrylate, and allergic contact dermatitis has been reported. It is less toxic than acrylates with lower molecular weight (HSDB 1995). Methyl methacrylate may enter the atmosphere or be released into wastewater or on land during its production, transport, or storage. If released into water it will principally be lost by volatilization. If spilled on land, it will volatilize and leach into the groundwater, where its fate is unknown. If emitted into the atmosphere, it will photodegrade. It is not expected to bioconcentrate in fish; however, it is toxic to some aquatic organisms. Methyl methacrylate is designated as a hazardous substance and is regulated by the Clean Water Act Amendments of 1977 and 1978. Methyl methacrylate as a waste is managed according to federal and state hazardous waste regulations. In 1988 the demand for methyl (continued on page 14)
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Figure 6: Non-Glass GlazingMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Acrylic resin production Stressor Esterization/polymerization stage Impact/Stressor Fugitive emissions of acrylic monomer Impact/Stressor Eye irritation, respiratory irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects Crude oil extraction (raw materials for acrylic resin manufacture) Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Fuel combustion emissions Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda VOCs Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Ground-level ozone (smog) Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health hazards (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems; also impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (raw materials for acrylic resin manufacture) Crude oil processing (raw materials for acrylic resin manufacture) Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Release of oil and suspended solids Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes Water pollution Water-borne disease Eutrophication Global warming Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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Figure 6: Non-Glass GlazingMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Crude oil processing (raw materials for acrylic resin manufacture) Stressor Desalting process Impact/Stressor Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Distillation process Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs Noxious odors Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Catalytic cracking Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia Environmental poisoning Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill High pH Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions VOCs Sulfur oxides Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, xylene, and mineral spirits Polycarbonate manufacture Fuel combustion emissions Bisphenol A production (see impacts above) Skin and eye irritation Irritation to upper respiratory system when dust is inhaled Cumene production Fuel combustion emissions Fugitive emissions of cumene (see impacts above) Skin and eye irritation Dizziness, drowsiness, incoordination, unconsciousness Fugitive emissions of cumene hydroperoxide Benzene and propylene production Crude oil extraction and processing Fugitive emissions of benzene Phosgene production Fugitive emissions of phosgene Various human health effects Known human carcinogen Toxic by all routes of exposure inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption Persistent in the atmosphere Corrosive to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract Danger of explosion (see impacts above) (see impacts above) High pH Materials corrosion Various human health hazards Known human carcinogen Various human health effects Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Increased BOD Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
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Non-Glass Glazing

Activity Polycarbonate manufacture (continued) Brine mud containing magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate Wastewater containing chlorine and sulfuric acid Natural gas production (raw materials for polycarbonate manufacture) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and dissolved solids; also may contain oxygen depleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Air emissions from diesel powered drills VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Growing of crops for oilseed production Runoff of fertilizers Runoff of pesticides Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased loading of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD Soil erosion and depletion Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Preparation of oil from oilseed Solvent extraction Pressing and extraction Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD (see impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions VOC emissions Fugitive hexane emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Human health effects including nausea, headaches, numbness, muscular weakness, eye and nose irritation, dermatitis, chemical pneumonia, and giddiness Drying oil processing Quartzite (silica) mining (raw ) material for silicone resin sealants Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Direct runoff Fuel combustion emissions Manufacture of silicon resin (for manufacture of sealants) Coal mining (see runoff impacts above) (see impacts above) Acid drainage from tailings waste/mine spoils (sulfur) Contamination of groundwater Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Isomerization VOC emissions Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff Loss of habitat Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity (see impacts above) Deoxygenation/algal bloom Habitat alteration Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Possible fishkill Stressor Chlorine production Impact/Stressor Chlorine emissions Impact/Stressor Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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Activity Manufacture of silicon resin (for manufacture of sealants) (continued) Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Emissions of dust and particulates Wastewater containing dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Stressor Coal mining (continued) Impact/Stressor Land disturbance Impact/Stressor Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Coke making (raw material for silicone production) Air emissions VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Dust Ammonia Wastewater containing dissolved solids and organics Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Sludge Silicone production Carbon monoxide emissions Potential human carcinogens Human health hazards (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems; also impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen) Chlorine production Natural gas production Manufacture of acrylic resin (for manufacture of sealants) Logging Timber harvesting Habitat alteration Soil erosion Stumps, limbs, logs Depletion of forests Fuel combustion emissions Pulping Effluent (TSS, organics) Air emissions Kraft paper manufacturing Air emissions Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area (see impacts above) Increased BOD Organic sulfur compounds Fuel combustion emissions (particulates, SOx, NOx, VOCs, CO, CO2) Chloroform Lead Suspected human carcinogen Retardation and brain damage, especially in children Deoxygenation Odors (see impacts above) Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Greenhouse effect Global warming Loss of habitat Runoff (see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity (see impact above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Materials corrosion Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
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Activity Kraft paper manufacturing (continued) TSS and organics Stressor Effluent Impact/Stressor Dioxins and toxics Impact/Stressor Bioconcentration of dioxin and consumption of toxics Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Sludge Polyethylene manufacture Air emissions Landfill disposal Dust (particulates) Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrocarbons Effluent COD and BOD Total suspended solids Acidity Nitrates Surface water acidification Eutrophication Decreased landfill capacity (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts for hydrogen chloride above) (see impacts for VOCs above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Increased algal growth Increased BOD (see impacts above) Phosphates Solid wastes Landfill disposal Hazardous waste landfill disposal Eutrophication Decreased landfill capacity Decreased hazardous waste landfill capacity (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Fishkill
methacrylate was 1,055 million lbs (478.5 million kg), of which about 30 percent was used in making cast and extruded acrylic sheets (HSDB 1995). Propylene. The extraction and processing of petroleum to produce propylene result in significant impacts to the environment. To summarize, wastes produced from extraction and processing include wastewater that contains oil, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, toxic organics, and ammonia, among other pollutants. Major sources of pollution from the drilling system are drilling mud and cuttings from the bit. Large diesel engines that power the drill emit air pollutants. The combustion of fuels during these operations can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx (sulfur oxides) to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and
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lung damage. NOx also contributes to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. The environmental impacts of petroleum extraction and processing along with those from the production of propylene are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during manufacture of acrylic monomer.
Polycarbonate Resin Polycarbonate is a synthetic thermoplastic resin derived from bisphenol A and phosgene, a linear polyester of carbonic acid. Polycarbonate can be formed from any dihydroxy compound and any carbonate diester by ester interchange (Hornbostel 1991). The polymer is recovered from the reactor vessel by extrusion as strand or sheet, which may be chopped or diced to yield pellets for molding or further compounding (Kirk-Othmer 1982).
Bisphenol A is made from phenol and acetone. In the United States the principal process used to make phenol and acetone is the peroxidation of cumene (isopropyl benzene). Cumene hydroperoxide, which has the dangerous explosive properties of other hydroperoxides, decomposes into acetone and phenol in the presence of sulfuric acid (Austin 1984). Cumene is made by reacting benzene with propylene over a catalyst (such as a phosphoric acid derivative) at 250C (480F) and 700 kPa (101.5 psi). Mixed propylene-propane is frequently used instead of the more expensive pure propylene (Austin 1984). Benzene and propylene are derived from crude oil. The extraction and refining of crude oil and the production of benzene and propylene are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Phosgene is produced by the reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine in the presence of an activated charcoal catalyst. The product gas is condensed and the remaining phosgene removed in an absorption column (Franklin Associates 1991). Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the chief constituents of synthesis gas, a product of steam reformation of natural gas. Synthesis gas is composed of hydrogen and carbon oxides. It must be stripped of CO2 by scrubbing with ethanolamine solution followed by passage through a molecular sieve, which removes traces of CO2 and water. CO and unconverted methane are condensed from the gas mixture and separated by cryogenic fractional distillation. CO may also be produced by partial combustion of hydrocarbons (Franklin Associates 1991). Chlorine is manufactured by the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride. Salt is mined in underground deposits by pumping water into the deposit and forcing brine to the surface. The brine is extracted, heated, and treated with soda ash and caustic soda to remove impurities. The brine then enters an electrolytic cell where a direct current decomposes the salt to chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen. The chlorine is collected, cooled, dried, and purified, after which it is compressed and liquefied (Tellus Institute 1992). Natural gas extraction and processing are discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine (06240).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Polycarbonate Resin
Bisphenol A. Bisphenol A is irritating to the skin and eyes, and its dust irritates the upper respiratory passages. Workers involved in the manufacture, use, transport, or packaging of bisphenol A may be exposed to this compound through inhalation and dermal contact (HSDB 1995).
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Bisphenol A may be released from facilities that manufacture bisphenol A and polycarbonate. If released to soil, bisphenol A is expected to have moderate to low mobility. In water, bisphenol A may biodegrade under aerobic conditions; it is not expected to bioaccumulate significantly in aquatic organisms. If released to the atmosphere, bisphenol A is expected to exist almost entirely in the particulate phase. The demand for bisphenol A in 1987 was 880 million lbs (399 million kg); approximately 50 percent was used in polycarbonate production (HSDB 1995). Cumene. Cumene manufacture is accomplished at high temperature and pressure. The burning of fuel to produce energy for this process contributes to various air emissions. Fuel combustion emissions along with their environmental effects are discussed above. Cumene, one of the chemicals used in the production of phenol, is regulated by the EPA as a hazardous air pollutant. Cumene causes eye and skin irritation; cumene hydroperoxide is corrosive to eyes, skin, and the respiratory tract. Cumene hydroperoxide, which decomposes to phenol and acetone, is dangerously explosive. Accidental release of these chemicals during the manufacture of epoxy resin could adversely affect human health and the environment. Benzene and propylene. The environmental impacts of petroleum extraction and processing are summarized above and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). The production of benzene and propylene releases VOCs into the air and produces such potential water pollutants as BOD, COD, organics, oil and grease, suspended solids, and benzene. The environmental impacts from benzene and propylene production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates. Benzene is a known human carcinogen and has been found to cause leukemia (NIEHS 1990). It is also an irritant and can cause nausea and abdominal pain (NIOSH 1980). Phosgene. Exposure to phosgene may occur from its use in the manufacture of polycarbonate. It is toxic in all routes of exposure, including inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Effects from exposure may include contact burns to the skin and eyes, shortness of breath, chest pain, severe pulmonary edema (sometimes delayed up to 24 hours), and death. Medical problems have also been associated with long-term exposure. In installations where phosgene is employed, concentrations in the air must be maintained below 0.1 ppm (HSDB 1995). All phosgene containers require the class A, poison-gas label. Phosgene is transported in steel cylinders that conform to rigid safety design specifications (Kirk-Othmer 1982). Phosgene may be released to the environment during production and during its use in the manufacture of polycarbonates. Because it is hazardous, most (more than 99 percent) phosgene is captively consumed, with production units integrated into derivative plants. This means that any industrial emissions will be localized. The fate of phosgene released on land is unknown. While it adsorbs strongly to relatively dry soil, it is likely to volatilize and hydrolyze when released on soils with a high moisture content. If released in water, phosgene would be rapidly lost by volatilization and would slowly hydrolyze. It is very persistent in the atmosphere and would be transported long distances, eventually diffusing to the stratosphere, where it would be lost by photolysis. Phosgene is designated as a hazardous substance and regulated under the Clean Water Act Amendments of 1977 and 1978. Phosgene, as a chemical waste, is managed according to federal and/or state hazardous waste regulations. Phosgene is produced in large quantities (more than 2,000 million lbs, or 907 million kg, in 1987). Ten percent of the phosgene produced goes into the production of polycarbonate resins (HSDB 1995).
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Chlorine. Chlorine is produced in large amounts by eighteen U.S. companies; in 1992, 23 billion pounds (10,430,000 metric tons) were produced (EPA 1994). Waste from chlorine production includes air emissions of chlorine from the electrolytic cell and from loading tank cars (Tellus Institute 1992). The effects of chlorine on human health and the environment depend on how much chlorine is present and the length and frequency of exposure. Effects also depend on the health of the person exposed and environmental conditions (EPA 1994). Chlorine can affect the body if it is inhaled or if it comes in contact with the eyes or skin. Chlorine gas is a severe irritant of the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. Liquid chlorine may cause eye and skin burns on contact (NIOSH/OSHA 1981). Most direct releases of chlorine to the environment are to air or surface water. Once in water, chlorine combines with inorganic material to form chloride salts and with organic material to form chlorinated organic chemicals. Chlorine causes environmental harm at low levels and is especially harmful to organisms living in water and in soil (EPA 1994). During chlorine production, up to 60 lbs (24.7 kg/metric ton) of brine mud are produced per ton of chlorine. This brine consists of precipitates such as magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate. Spent sulfuric acid is produced at a rate of 24 lbs per ton (9.87 kg/metric ton) of chlorine. This waste is generated from the drying of chlorine. Scrubbing wastes produced from wet scrubbing of chlorine tailing gases amount to 2 lbs per ton (0.82 kg/metric ton) of chlorine. Up to 1.7 lbs (0.699 kg/metric ton) of asbestos is disposed of per ton of chlorine (Tellus Institute 1992). Synthesis gas. The extraction of natural gas (from which synthesis gas is made) generates a variety of air and water pollutants, including air emissions from the diesel-powered drill; discharge of produced water, drilling muds, and drill cuttings; and wastewater containing oil, grease, toxic organics, and other pollutants. The processing of natural gas produces wastewater containing toxic organics, suspended and dissolved solids, chlorides, and cyanides. The environmental impacts of natural gas extraction and processing are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine (06240).
Energy Consumed
The energy required to manufacture and fabricate polycarbonate products is discussed in the following section on the manufacturing and fabrication stage.
Coatings Coatings are often used on acrylic and polycarbonate glazing to improve abrasion resistance. Coatings may include unspecified fluoropolymers and cross-linked polysilicates. One manufacturer indicates that a proprietary polysiloxane is used (Casmirri 1995). Sealants Sealants are used to attach the glazing to the structure (sometimes in conjunction with physical means such as glazing points) and to seal against the external environment. Sealants used with acrylic sheet include such materials as oil-based caulk, acrylic latex caulk, silicone elastomer, and polysulfide elastomer. Butyl tape, filler tape (made from polyethylene and polyurethane), and various gasket materials may also be used with these sealants. The primary glazing sealants used for acrylic sheet are oil-based caulk, acrylic latex caulk, and silicone elastomer (AtoHaas 1994).
Sealants used with polycarbonate sheet include such materials as acrylic latex caulks, silicone elastomers, and butyl tapes. Neoprene, silicone, and ethylene-propylene terpolymer (EPDM) gaskets may also be used (GE Plastics 1994). The major sealant materials used with acrylic
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and polycarbonate sheets are discussed below. A general discussion of sealants is provided in the ERG report on sealants (07920 in ERG 1994 ed.).
Oil-based Caulk
Caulking may consist of various combinations of specially treated oils, resins, synthetic rubbers, plastics, inert pigments, volatile solvents, and other proprietary ingredients. In its simplest form, traditional oil-based caulk consists of a pigment and linseed oil, with or without drying oils. These materials are described in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Oil-based Caulk
The preparation of linseed oil, a component of oil-based caulk, can produce air emissions from the combustion of fuels; these emissions are discussed above under propylene. VOCs and hexane may also be released into the atmosphere during linseed oil processing and the production of drying oils from raw linseed oil. The environmental impacts of linseed oil production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930). The raw materials used in the production of pigments are mined from the earth. The environmental impacts of mining operations are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). In the production of pigments (as an example, the commonly used titanium dioxide), various waste materials are produced in the form of aqueous solutions. These wastes present a disposal problem. The environmental and health effects associated with pigment production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220).
Acrylic Latex Chalk
Acrylic resin, which is used in the production of latex caulk, is discussed beginning on page 9.
Silicone Elastomer
Silicone resins are produced from various silica compounds, which hydrolyze to form a polymer. The silica comes from quartzite, which is obtained by mining. The manufacture of silicone resins is described in the ERG report on stone veneer (04450).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Silicones
Most silicones are biologically inert when fully cured; however, a variety of components, some of which are toxic, can be incorporated into specialty silicones. Also, intermediate by-products and emissions during the production process can be toxic. The environmental impacts of silicone manufacture are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stone veneer (04450).
Masking Materials Finished plastic sheeting is protected from marring by covering the faces of the sheet with kraft paper or polyethylene (olefin) film (Casmirri 1995). The production of kraft paper is described in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Kraft Paper
Kraft paper may be produced either from recycled wastepaper or from virgin materials. Papermaking is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to land, air, and water. The water effluent from paper mills contains solids and organic pollutants. Papermaking produces sulfur emissions in the form of sulfur oxides as well as other air emissions, including particulates, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, lead, methane, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, and others. Use of recycled paper in papermaking generally requires fewer chemicals and less bleaching than production of paper from virgin materials. The process, however, produces solid waste in the form of sludge from the de-inking process and wastewater containing paper fibers. The environmental impacts of
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kraft paper production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Polyethylene (Olefin)
The production of polyethylene is described in the ERG reports on wall coverings (09950) and terrazzo (09400).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Polyethylene
A variety of air and water emissions and solid waste are produced during polyethylene production, traced back to the extraction of raw materials from the earth. The environmental impacts of polyethylene production along with quantitative data on emissions produced are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on terrazzo (09400).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture of plastic sheeting and the fabrication of non-glass glazing is presented in figure 7. Both acrylic and polycarbonate plastics belong to the class of plastic materials known as thermoplastic resins (i.e., they can be softened by heat and will regain their original properties upon cooling, after which they can be melted again). Thermoplastic resins consist of molecules that are essentially linear or threadlike in form, unlike thermosetting plastics, which cure when heated and have molecules that are linked in a network arrangement (Hornbostel 1991).
Manufacture of Acrylic Sheeting For glazing material, the monomer is polymerized by the bulk process. Peroxide or azo initiators are used for the polymerization (Kirk-Othmer 1982). Masterspec Section 08840Plastic Glazing (AIA 1990) categorizes acrylic sheets according to the method used to form the sheet, as follows:
Cast Category C-1: Acrylic sheeting in this category is manufactured by the cell-casting process. Cast Category C-2: Acrylic sheets in this category are manufactured by the continuous casting method. Melt Process Category M-1: Acrylic sheeting in this category is manufactured by several processes that are typically characterized as producing a continuously manufactured sheet. Casting is a low-pressure process by which liquid monomer is poured into a mold and, with heat, allowed to polymerize into a solid mass (McGraw-Hill 1992). Acrylic (i.e., polymethyl methacrylate, or PMMA) sheets used as glazing are produced either by the batch cell casting method or by the continuous casting method (AIA 1990; Kirk-Othmer 1995). Batch cell casting is used when the highest surface quality, maximum light transmission, or maximum transparency is required. Each sheet is cast in a mold assembled from two sheets of highly polished plate glass separated by a flexible spacer. The mold is filled with monomer or a monomer-polymer syrup, then heated to effect cure. High-velocity air ovens or water baths are used to dissipate the heat of polymerization. Curing times range from 10 to 12 hours for thin-gauge sheets to several days for thicker sheets. The plastic sheet may be used as is or annealed by heating to 140 to 150C (284 to 302F) for several hours. To protect the finished sheet, a masking paper (kraft paper) or a plastic film (polyethylene) is often applied to its surface.
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Figure 7: Non-Glass GlazingManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Manufacture of acrylic sheet Stressor Release of residual monomers Impact/Stressor Human health effects, including eye irritation, respiratory irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and others Release of flammable solvents Release of flammable dust Fuel combustion emissions Possible explosions Possible explosions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health hazards, including effects to the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems; also impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Fabrication of acrylic window units Manufacture of polycarbonate sheet Fabrication of polycarbonate window units Waste protective covering (kraft paper and polyethylene film) Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Waste protective covering (kraft paper and polyethylene film) Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Global warming Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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The casting syrup typically contains about 20 percent polymer. It is prepared either by partially polymerizing monomer in a reactor under controlled conditions or by dissolving polymethyl methacrylate powder in the monomer (Kirk-Othmer 1995). Continuous casting is more economical than the batch cell method and is used to produce relatively thin sheets. In this process, a monomer-polymer syrup is introduced between two parallel stainless steel belts. The edges between the belts are sealed by a flexible gasket that travels at the same speed as the belts. The monomer-polymer syrup is passed through a curing and then an annealing zone. In the curing zone the materials are heated by a hot water spray; in the annealing zone, by electrical heaters or hot air. The finished sheet is covered with a masking paper and cut into the desired lengths (Kirk-Othmer 1995). In the melt process, or extrusion, the product is continuously formed. Plastic pellets or granules are fluidized, homogenized, and shaped in one operation. An extruder consists of a feed hopper, which receives the plastic pellets; the barrel, which contains the screw and has heating and cooling units on the exterior face; the screw, which plasticates, heats, fluidizes, homogenizes, and transports the plastic to the die; and the die, which establishes the extrusion profile. Plastic sheets are produced by extrusion through an elongated die over chilled rolls (McGraw-Hill 1992). The extrusion process uses a polymer with a higher molecular weight than that used in injection molding. Operating temperatures vary between 285 and 315C (545 to 599F) (Kirk-Othmer 1982).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Acrylic Sheet
During manufacture, it is possible for residual monomers (which may be toxic) and flammable solvents to be released. Methyl methacrylate monomer may be released during casting or molding of acrylic sheets and during polymerization to produce molding and extruding powders. Releases of methyl methacrylate may take the form of atmospheric emissions, wastewater, or releases to land. The behavior of methyl methacrylate in the environment is discussed above, in the section on materials acquisition and preparation. Once polymerized, methyl methacrylate is inert and nontoxic (HSDB 1995). Environmental legislation governing air quality has resulted in completely closed kettle processes for most polymerizations. Methacrylate polymerizations are accompanied by the liberation of a large amount of heat, which must be dissipated to avoid uncontrolled exothermic polymerizations. During manufacture of acrylic products, considerable care is exercised to reduce the potential for these violent reactions (Kirk-Othmer 1995). During the fabrication of polymethyl methacrylate plastic sheet, or the handling of PMMA powders, dust explosions ignited by static discharges are a recognized hazard. PMMA powders and plastic sheet are therefore treated as flammable materials (KirkOthmer 1995). The combustion of fuels during the casting of acrylic sheeting produces various air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). The environmental and health effects of these pollutants are summarized above under acrylic resin.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the energy consumed in manufacturing acrylic sheet.
Fabrication of Acrylic Window Units Acrylic sheets are set into wood or metal sash units and held in place with sealant and physical devices such as glazing points, channels, and beads. The installation systems used vary
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with the type and size of glazing. Of special concern is the expansion and contraction of plastic glazing with changes in temperature. Acrylic, as an example, has a coefficient of expansion more than 8 times that of glass and more than 3 times that of aluminum. This difference is allowed for by the sealant, and in large glazing situations requires the use of specific sealants (such as high-performance silicone elastomer). Glazing channels must be deep enough to accommodate plastic at the highest likely temperature and to hold it securely at the lowest likely temperature (AIA 1990). This report will not discuss other aspects of fabrication.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Fabrication of Acrylic Window Units
The kraft paper or polyethylene film applied to the plastic sheet after manufacture is removed at this stage. Kraft paper is discarded, but polyethylene may be recycled. Precautions may be needed to minimize the exposure to volatile emissions of people applying sealants or working in the fabrication area. Protective measures may include supplying sufficient ventilation or air movement to prevent vapor buildup and using chemical-resistant gloves to guard against skin irritation or other side effects. These issues are discussed in more detail in the ERG report on sealants (07920 in ERG 1994 ed.).
Manufacture of Polycarbonate Sheet Polycarbonate sheets are manufactured by injection molding and by extrusion. Injection molding is the most common (Kirk-Othmer 1982).
Injection molding consists of heating and homogenizing plastic granules in a cylinder until the mixture becomes fluid enough to allow for pressure injection into a relatively cold mold, where the plastic solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity. The reciprocating screw injection machine, in which the screw acts as a material plasticizer as well as an injection ram, is usually employed in this type of molding. As the screw rotates, it is forced backward by the buildup of viscous plastic at the nozzle end of the cylinder. When sufficient material has accumulated, the screw moves forward, forcing the mixture into the mold (McGraw-Hill 1992). Recommended operating conditions for polycarbonate fabrication are stock temperatures of 275 to 325C (527 to 617F) and molding pressures of 69 to 138 MPa (10,000 to 20,000 psi) (Kirk-Othmer 1982). The extrusion manufacturing process is described above, under manufacture of acrylic sheet. As with acrylic sheet, polycarbonate sheet is covered after manufacture with a protective layer of kraft paper or polyethylene film.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Polycarbonate Sheet
The combustion of fuels during the casting of polycarbonate sheet produces various air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). The environmental and health effects of these pollutants are summarized above under acrylic resin.
Energy Consumed
The energy required to manufacture and fabricate one lb of polycarbonate product is 68,200 Btu (or 158.63 MJ per kg of product). Of this total, 23,901 Btu (55.594 MJ/kg) is attributed to the energy of the material resources (natural gas and petroleum), 42,231 Btu (98.229 MJ/kg) is process energy, and 2,060 Btu (4.7916 MJ/kg) is for transportation (Franklin Associates 1991).
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Fabrication of Polycarbonate Window Units Polycarbonate glazing is fabricated into window units with a method similar to that described for polycarbonate sheets.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of non-glass glazing is presented in figure 8.
Figure 8: Non-Glass GlazingConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity Construction Stressor Waste packing material and wrappings Machining of plastic sheet Polymer dust Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor
Plastic glazing has low thermal conductivity. Figure 9 shows the increasing thermal efficiency of polycarbonate glazing in relation to the increasing thickness of the product. (These data were taken from company product information.) Winter heat loss or summer heat gain is expressed in terms of the U factor, or Btu per hour per square foot per degree of temperature difference (Barker 1995).
Figure 9: Thermal Efficiency of Polycarbonate Glazing
Window Glazing Type Polycarbonate, monolithic Polycarbonate, monolithic Polycarbonate, monolithic Polycarbonate, monolithic Polycarbonate, monolithic Polycarbonate, monolithic Polycarbonate, monolithic Polycarbonate, duel glazed Thickness (in.) .080 .093 .118 .177 .236 .375 .500 Two .25 in. lights with .5 in. air space Thickness (in.) .265 .390 .530 .775 1.050 1.330 U Factor Btu/hr/ft2/F Winter Heat Loss Summer Heat Gain 1.10 1.08 1.05 1.01 .96 .88 .82 .43 1.00 (177 J/hr/m2/C) 1.00 .97 .93 .90 .83 .77 .45
Window Glazing Type Polycarbonate, laminated, 2-ply. Polycarbonate, laminated, 2-ply Polycarbonate, laminated, 3-ply Polycarbonate, laminated, 3-ply Polycarbonate, laminated, 4-ply Polycarbonate, laminated, 4-ply
U Factor Btu/hr/ft2/F Loss or Gain Not Specified .96 .86 .82 .68 .60 .54
Double-walled acrylic and polycarbonate sheets, which have a high insulation value, are used extensively in greenhouses and solar-energy greenhouse spaces. Figure 10 shows the U factors for double-walled sheets of varying thicknesses (data from company product information) (Barker 1995).
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Figure 10: U Factors for Double-walled Polycarbonate Sheets

Window Glazing Type Double-walled polycarbonate with internal ribbing Double-walled polycarbonate with internal ribbing Double-walled polycarbonate with internal ribbing Double-walled polycarbonate with internal ribbing Thickness (in.) .236 .315 .395 .629 U Factor Btu/hr/ft2/F Winter Heat Loss Summer Heat Gain .65 .62 .60 .55 .62 .59 .57 .52
Polycarbonate and laminated polycarbonate sheets have very high impact strength. They are used in public buildings such as schools and hospitals where safety is a consideration, in instances where high security is required, and in areas that are subject to vandalism. Polycarbonate glazing is a combustible material and will burn when exposed to flame. The flame/fire precautions observed in handling and using any combustible material should be observed when handling or using polycarbonate sheet. Any hazard can be kept at an acceptable level by complying with building codes and applicable standards and by observing established principles of fire safety. Following are industry recommendations for design, engineering, and fire protection of polycarbonate installations (Peacock 1991): Install polycarbonate sheets away from sources of intense heat or flame. Enclose edges of components made with this material. Do not use a greater quantity of sheeting than is necessary to perform the functions required of it. Employ fire protection systems (sprinklers, fire detectors, and automatic vents) as fire hazard analysis indicates. Do not use polycarbonate sheets as supporting elements or in any location where resistance to fire penetration is required, as they soften when heated above 275F (135C). Do not install polycarbonate sheets as an applied wall or ceiling finish or as a substrate surfacing material for large interior surface areas. The polycarbonate sheets allow the flame to spread and release heat and gases, contributing to flashover. Protection with an automatic sprinkler system may make it acceptable to use polycarbonate sheets in such applications. Large-area installations of polycarbonate sheet (such as transparent enclosures) require special permits based on an analysis of all relevant fire-safety considerations. Relevant considerations are the use of the structure, location, height and area, nature of interior finishes and furnishings, availability of fire exits, and need for special fire protection systems such as sprinklers. Burning polycarbonate sheet produces smoke. The concentration of carbon monoxide and/or carbon dioxide released is a factor of the quantity of polycarbonate sheet involved and the conditions of burning. Therefore, use of polycarbonate sheet may be restricted or prohibited in some locations because of high smoke generation. The impact resistance of polycarbonate sheets may create entry and venting problems for firemen. When possible, install polycarbonate sheets in operable windows. Fire departments and building occupants should be informed of the location of fixed glazing so they can provide for alternative evacuation and venting facilities. Proper maintenance procedures are essential to preserve the appearance of plastic glazing. Plastic glazing should be cleaned with a mild detergent and lukewarm water using a soft cloth or clean sponge; it should be dried thoroughly with a chamois or moist sponge to prevent water spots. No abrasive cleaners or brushes should be used on these products, including those with a mar-resistant coating. Care should be taken during maintenance not to scratch or gouge this protective coating. Hairline scratches and minor abrasions may be minimized by using a mild automobile polish (Barker 1995).
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Non-Glass Glazing
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Plastic Glazing
During the construction phase, installation of plastic window units produces solid waste in the form of packing materials and wrappings. Heating acrylic or polycarbonate glazing, as with any thermoplastic, may result in the release of vapors or gases. Machining plastic sheets will cause localized heat and may generate some polymer dust. Processing plastic sheets in areas with adequate ventilation should not result in harmful concentrations of gases or vapors (Peacock 1991). In a study of the products resulting from combustion of construction materials, no unusually toxic by-products were detected from the combustion of polycarbonate. The worst combustion component was carbon monoxide (Kirk-Othmer 1982).
Indoor Air Quality
The amount of VOC emissions from sealants used in plastic glazing depends on the volatility of the ingredients, the quantity of sealant used, and the curing time of the sealant. During the curing period, the volatile components may evaporate and affect indoor air quality. The complete curing times of various sealants vary; for example, about 1,052 hours are required for acrylic solvent-based sealants and about 487 hours for silicone sealants. Indoor air quality issues relating to sealants are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on sealants (07920 in ERG 1994 ed.).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of non-glass glazing is presented in figure 11.
Figure 11: Non-Glass GlazingRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Building remodeling/ demolition Stressor Solid waste Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor
Polycarbonate glazing can be recycled by grinding it up and then reusing it in polycarbonate sheet production. Extruded acrylic glazing can be recycled in a similar manner. The possible inclusion of impurities in cast acrylic glazing, however, requires that this form of glazing be reprocessed chemically to generate new resin before reuse.
Regulatory Status
As essentially all industries, the plastic glazing industry is regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. The regulations that affect the industry the most are probably those affecting occupational safety and health.
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References
References
AIA (American Institute of Architects). 1990. MasterspecEvaluations, Section 08840Plastic Glazing. AtoHaas North America Inc. 1994. Plexiglas Acrylic Sheet in Architecture. Philadelphia: AtoHaas North America. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 1993. Methylene Chloride. On-line database ToxFAQs. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries, 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Barker, Lillian M. 1995. LEXAN Sheet for Architectural Applications, product information from the technical sales specialist, Plastics Group, General Electric Company, Pittsfield, MA. Casmirri, Vincent J. 1995. Comments on the draft non-glass glazing material report from the AtoHaas North America Plastic Technology Center. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1994. Chemicals in the Environment: Chlorine. OPPT Chemicals Fact Sheet. Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. EPA 749-F-94-010. Franklin Associates. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Final report. The Society of the Plastics Industry. GE Plastics. 1994. LEXAN Sheet For Architectural Applications. Pittsfield, MA: General Electric Company. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications, 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. HSDB (Hazardous Substances Databank). 1995. National Library of Medicine/TOXNET. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed. 1991. J. I. Kroshwitz, executive editor. Vol. 1, Acrylic Acid and Derivatives. NY: John Wiley & Sons. . 4th ed. 1995. J. I. Kroshwitz, executive editor. Vol. 16, Methacrylic Polymers. NY: John Wiley & Sons. . 3rd ed. 1982. Vol. 17, Phosgene, and Vol. 18, Plastic Building Products and Polycarbonates. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 7th ed. 1992. Vol. 14. NY: McGraw-Hill. NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. . 1990. Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 1980. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. NIOSH/OSHA (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health/Occupational Safety and Health Administration). 1981. Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. F. W. Mackison, R. S. Stricof, and L. J. Partridge, eds. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 81-123. Peacock, Leroy. 1991. Tuffak A Polycarbonate Sheet: Physical Properties, product information from the marketing manager of the Rohm and Haas Company, Sheet Products, Philadelphia. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter Its Mix. May. Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. 1988. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
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Material Report
Plaster and Lath*

Highlights
Mining of gypsum, limestone, clay, silica, sand, and cement rock for plaster and mining of coal, iron ore, and zinc for steel lath result in particulate emissions, soil erosion, habitat alteration, tailings waste, and pollutant runoff. Combustion of fuel used for the mining, processing, and transportation of materials results in air emissions. Hair-save tannery operations result in the release of air and water pollutants, as well as solid waste. Cement production generates dust, sulfur oxides, and other air pollutants and releases particulates into wastewater. Production of steel lath results in air emissions from the combustion of fuel used to power the furnace and in solid waste (slag). Zinc smelting for galvanizing also generates toxic metals waste. Logging for paper production for lathing board can result in soil erosion, pollutant runoff, and habitat alteration. The combustion of fuel used to fell, trim, and transport logs results in the release of pollutants. Manufacture of paper used in lathing board requires substantial amounts of water and results in the release of effluent that may include toxic metals from the ink on recycled paper, as well as dioxins and other toxic chlorinated compounds formed during the bleaching process.
Significant amounts of water are consumed in the manufacture of paper for lathing board and in the production of steel lath. Most steel lath is made from recycled stock. The embodied energy of lath board is approximately 2,600 Btus per square foot. Substantial amounts of energy are consumed in calcining gypsum and drying gypsum board. Paper manufacturing is energy intensive, requiring about 15,650 Btus per pound of paper produced. Producing lathing board paper from recycled stock requires approximately 30 percent less energy than manufacturing it from virgin wood. Total embodied energy of steel is estimated at 12,000 Btus per pound of steel lath. Producing lath with recycled steel provides substantial savings in energy and raw materials.
Indoor Air Quality
Plaster surfaces are hard and stable when cured, and emissions are limited to materials that may be added to affect drying, finish, or other surface characteristics.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1993. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 PLASTER AND LATH MAT 09200
Plaster and Lath

Background
Plaster as a construction material is composed of a cementusually lime and gypsum or portland cementwith hair or fiber for bonding, and sand and water as the matrix. (This report addresses interior uses of plaster only.) Other materials, such as epoxy resin, are often added to plaster to give it different characteristics. There are numerous types of plaster, most of which fall into two broad categories: gypsum plaster and portland cement plaster. Generally applied over wooden or metal lathing or masonry materials, plaster was traditionally the favored finishing material for interior wall construction. Since World War II, plaster has been largely replaced in that use by gypsum board, which is more easily and rapidly installed and therefore less costly. Of the gypsum used in board and plaster in 1984, board accounted for 98 percent and plaster for only 2 percent, or approximately 255,000 tons (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). However, plaster still plays a significant decorative role, particularly in prefabricated applications, and also retains some of its previous use in repair and in high-quality new construction. Plastering refers to the process of applying the plaster mixture in layers, or coats, to masonry surfaces, wire lath, wood lath, or various types of gypsum board to give a hard finish surface to walls and ceilings. This surface finish may be smooth or textured and usually serves as a base for paint, wallpaper, or other wall coverings. Plaster is quite adaptable. It is available in a variety of colors; it can be troweled onto a relatively smooth or an irregular surface; it can have hard, colored aggregates applied by hand to the surface in a process called seeding to produce an irregular, pebbled stone effect; and it can be applied as a smooth or textured finish. Sgraffito is a highly decorative type of plasterwork developed in Italy during the Renaissance. This technique consists of applying two to three thin coats of plaster of different colors and then cutting away certain areas of one or two of the coats to produce a three-dimensional colored design. Special thin plasters have been developed with new types of plaster lath, called blue face lath. A single coat of plaster or two very thin coats can be applied to this type of lath to achieve a very strong, rigid, and smooth plaster finish. These finishes can be treated with various textures, and the two-coat types can be applied over electrical radiant-heat wires or hot-water radiant copper tubing coils. The plaster finish may be installed at the job site or delivered to the site as part of a preassembled unit of plaster-coated wires or coils.
A number of environmental effects are associated with the life cycle of plaster and lath. Mining of raw materials for plaster and lath results in air emissions and soil erosion, pollutant runoff, and habitat change. Additional air emissions result from the energy used in mining and transporting the constituent materials to and from the production facilities. The manufacture of lath requires significant energy use, which results in air emissions that include VOCs (volatile organic compounds), sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. The manufacture of lath also produces solid waste and water effluent discharges. During the construction, use, and maintenance stage of a plastered wall, several of plasters components can cause problems for sensitive individuals. Some plasters contain materials that are added to affect drying, finish, or other characteristics of the final surface. According to the U.S. Gypsum Corporation, its products contain plaster of paris (or portland cement) and lime. If any filler is used, it is clearly stated on the label (Bower 1991). In addition, metal lath can have some residual oil from the manufacturing process. Indoor air emissions may result from these plaster additives and the metal lath during installation. However, the indoor
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air quality effects are limited to the construction stage: once cured, the plaster surfaces become hard, dense, and stable, thus preventing emissions from escaping. Therefore, plaster is reasonably benign in terms of indoor air quality, and gypsum is inert and extremely low in emissions. At the end of the life cycle, there is significant generation of solid waste as older buildings with plaster walls are remodeled or demolished. At present, there is relatively little reuse of plaster waste, and it generally ends up as solid waste in demolition landfills. Like other sulfate-containing minerals, the gypsum contained in some plasters may decompose into hydrogen sulfide gas in the presence of water and organic materials under acidic and anaerobic conditions. Separating gypsum plaster from organic waste materials at the landfill or adding lime to reduce acidity appears to eliminate or reduce this hydrogen sulfide gas generation (Gypsum Association 1992). Plaster generally is not recycled because of the problem of distinguishing gypsum plaster from lime plaster in the waste stream, the difficulty in separating plaster from lathing and stud material, and the lack of clearly identified products into which the waste can be recycled. Gypsum is a major component of plaster, and many of the environmental impacts from the mining and calcining of gypsum apply to plaster. These effects are presented in the material report on gypsum board (09250). Figure 1 depicts a summary of the life cycle of the most common types of plaster. Figure 2 depicts a summary of the life cycle of steel lath. (Plasterboard or lathing board is presented in the material report on gypsum board09250.)
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MAT 09200 PLASTER AND LATH ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Plaster
Plaster and Lath
Life-Cycle Summary Plaster
Screening Washing
Sand processing Crushing Grinding Screening
Portland cement plasters (lime) Portland cement Portland pozzolanic cement
or
Packaging
Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden Air emissions (dust, SOX, H2S, CO2)
Storage
Gypsum, limestone, clay, silica, perlite, and cement rock mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Cement production (gypsum)

Wastewater (particulates)
Gypsum and limestone
Gypsum plasters (gypsum and lime) Gypsum plaster Plaster of Paris Keene's cement Molding plaster
Display/sales
Habitat change
Limestone/gypsum calcining Heating Cooling
Mixing
Lath
Construction
Maintenance/ repair
Air emissions (H2S)
Hair save tannery operation Animal slaughter Hide removal/curing Hair removal
Air emissions (Particulate)
Hair production
KEY
Process flow or Transport Boundary
Demolition
Wastewater (DS, SS, Nitrogen, BOD, COD)
Pesticides and insecticides
Solid waste (green fleshings)
Hemp, wood, sissal, jute
Fiber
Output Recycling
Landfill debris
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Lath

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 PLASTER AND LATH MAT 09200
Metal lath manufacture

Expanded mesh sheet or
Loading Cleaning
Cokemaking Distillation
Steelmaking Blast furnace BOF furnace Electric furnace Open hearth furnace
Gypsum board lath Packaging
Habitat change
Solid waste (slag)
Storage
Ingot casting
Display/sales
Iron ore and zinc mining Crushing Drilling Grinding Blasting Separating Loading
Habitat change
Slabbing
Plaster
Construction
Scrap procurement Maintenance/ repair
Life-Cycle Summary Lath
Plaster and Lath
KEY
Demolition
Limestone mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading Zinc smelting

Solid waste (slag)
Habitat change
Landfill debris
Plaster and Lath


Plaster Gypsum plaster and portland cement plaster contain many of the same raw materials. The major raw materials used in plaster are limestone, gypsum, sand, perlite, hair, and fiber. Limestone is used in the form of slaked quicklime or hydrated lime to make lime putty. Gypsum is used in gypsum plaster and portland cement plaster. These mixtures may contain air-entraining agents to give them acoustical properties, perlite or vermiculite to make them more fire resistant, and mineral aggregates for other special properties. The basic raw materials are then mixed in various combinations with water to form the plaster mix used in plastering. Other materials used in specialty plasters include epoxy resin, other synthetic resins, and wood fiber.
A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the raw materials of plaster is presented in figure 3.
Limestone
Lime, one of the basic ingredients of many types of plaster, is produced by calcining limestone. Limestone is sedimentary rock composed mostly of the mineral calcite (CaCO3). Some other carbonate mineralsnotably siderite, ankerite, and magnesiteare commonly found associated with limestone, but generally in minor amounts. Twenty states produce approximately 90 percent of domestic limestone, with Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio the leading producers. Production of lime involves three main processes: stone preparation, calcination, and hydration. Most limestone is produced from surface mines and is mined by open-pit methods. This form of limestone mining requires no special equipment. Overburden is removed using bulldozers, draglines, or hydraulic shovels. The rock is drilled and blasted. The broken stone is loaded into dump trucks and hauled to the primary crusher, or is loaded onto a conveyor and carried directly to a portable or permanent crusher. For most uses of limestone, it must travel through a secondary crusher and be sized. For some uses, limestone is ground or heated (Carr and Rooney 1975). About 5 percent of limestone produced in the United States comes from underground mining. Most underground limestone mines consist of horizontal drifts into the sides of hills or into the walls of open-pit mines, but some consist of vertical or inclined shafts. Limestone mines are seldom more than 1,000 feet deep, and most are only a few hundred feet deep. Most underground limestone mines are the room-and-pillar type and, like salt mines, are characterized by cathedral-like dimensions. Underground mining of limestone is generally more expensive than open-pit mining. Limestone mines are generally located near their markets. The cost of transporting the limestone makes long-distance hauling economically unfeasible. About 75 percent of the limestone used in the United States is transported by truck, typically at distances of less than 50 miles. About 11 percent is shipped by rail, and the remainder by waterway and other means (Carr and Rooney 1975). Calcining of limestone to produce lime requires substantial amounts of energy. Various types of kilns are used for limestone calcining, including rotary and vertical kilns. Limestone, or calcium carbonate, is heated in the kiln to a high temperature so that any water present is driven off and the carbonate comes off as carbon dioxide. The weight loss during calcination of pure high-calcium limestone is 44 percent. After cooling, the quicklime (calcium oxide) from the kiln is screened, crushed, and pulverized. Quicklime is perishable and should be stored in dry, watertight areas. Quicklime must be slaked (mixed with water) and stored for as long as two weeks before it can be used in plaster. Hydrated lime (quicklime that has been
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Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Plaster
Figure 3: PlasterMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Mining of limestone, gypsum, clay, silica, cement rock, sand Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Gypsum processing and calcining Particulate emissions Calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrous calcium sulfate, gangue Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Reduced reproduction Fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Fishkill
Stressor
Tailings waste
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Deoxygenation
Impact/Stressor
continued
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Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Plaster
Figure 3: PlasterMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Cement production
Stressor
Dust
Impact/Stressor
Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Air emissions
Sulfur dioxide Hydrogen sulfide
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Reduced reproduction Fishkill
Carbon dioxide Wastewater Particulates
Greenhouse effect Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids
Global warming Increased alkalinity Increased pH
Sand processing Hair save tannery operation
Dust Wastewater
Silicosis COD, BOD Organic nitrogen Eutrophication of surface waters Nitrate contamination of groundwater Ammonia nitrogen Eutrophication of surface waters Nitrate contamination of groundwater Suspended solids, dissolved solids, sulphides Pesticides and insecticides Can be toxic to aquatic organisms (see impacts above) Odors Odors Fishkill
Air emissions Solid waste
Hydrogen sulfide Green fleshings
slaked before packaging) is obtained by adding water to quicklime, slaking it into a dry, fine, subsieve-size white powder (Boynton 1975). When mixed with water at the job site, hydrated lime is referred to as lime putty. It cannot be used as a plaster itself because it is subject to shrinkage when drying and lacks a hard finish. However, hydrated lime is added to gypsum plaster to control the set, plasticity, early hardness, and strength.
The environmental impacts associated with the mining of limestone are limited almost exclusively to open-pit operations, although in a few cases shallow mines (less than 100 feet deep) may have an occasional subsidence problem. In limestone mining, generally only the crude ore is hauled from the mine; thus all tailings waste is left at the mine site (Davis 1992). Wastes from the mining of limestone include both the solid spoils from removal of overburden and the dust from cleaning and processing materials into appropriate size. Satisfactory dust control is usually achieved by enclosing the stone-crushing
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part of the operation under a filtered environment. Environmental impacts from the mining of limestone result from energy use; air emissions from fuel combustion, smoke, and dust; noise; runoff into streams and groundwater; solid waste in the form of tailings; and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction, as well as erosion. EPA estimates that active surface mining results in erosion on the order of 48,000 tons per square mile per year, or about the same magnitude as erosion at construction sites (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Mine runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids, which can result in reduced light penetration of the water, lower aquatic productivity, increased alkalinity, increased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and increased benthic deposition and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Although runoff from limestone mining is considered nontoxic, its impact on the environment can be significant. In most cases, land reclamation from limestone quarrying can be achieved. The effects of land disturbance from mining activities can often be mitigated by careful restoration management, although strip-mined lands can never be returned to their original state (Olem 1991; Ivahnenko et al. 1988). Restored lands from mining almost always have different vegetation patterns as a result of changes in topsoil porosity and chemistry. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining and crushing operations and the transport of limestone to the manufacturing facility result in a variety of air emissions, including toxic air pollutants and criteria air pollutants regulated under the Clean Air Act. Emissions from fuel combustion and the production of energy contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, killing of fish, smog, decreased visibility, greenhouse effect, global warming, tree/crop damage, materials corrosion, eye irritation, and lung damage. Limestone is usually processed into lime for use in plaster by being heated in kilns to decompose the calcium carbonate limestone into calcium oxide or lime. The major waste product from this process is carbon dioxide. Although production of carbon dioxide by the manufacture of lime is very small relative to many other industrial processes, it should be noted that an overall increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide since the beginning of industrialization has been implicated as one cause of global warming, since it traps solar heat very effectively. There is an abundant supply of limestone in the United States. Although finite deposits are being used, there is limited concern about depleting these resources in the distant future.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in limestone mining and processing is in the form of fuels used to power the heavy equipment used in the mining and crushing processes. Approximately 552 Btus (0.55 MJ) are required for mining one pound of limestone (Hannon et al. 1976; Brown et al. 1985). An additional 2,645 Btus (2.79 MJ) are expended in crushing, screening, grinding, and calcining the limestone to produce quicklime. The total embodied energy for quicklime is estimated at 3,197 Btus/lb (3.37 MJ/lb) of quicklime. The manufacture of hydrated lime requires approximately 552 Btus/lb (0.55 MJ/lb) of limestone for mining and an additional 3,854 Btus/lb (4.07 MJ/lb) of hydrated lime for crushing, screening, grinding, calcining, and hydrating (Hannon et al. 1976; Brown et al. 1985). The total embodied energy for hydrated lime is approximately 4,406 Btus/lb (4.65 MJ/lb) of hydrated lime (Hannon et al. 1976).
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Gypsum
Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) is a common mineral. The dihydrate form of calcium sulfate, gypsum is usually found combined with iron and aluminum oxides, calcium and magnesium carbonates, and other minerals in evaporite deposits. It is a naturally occurring mineral deposited largely as a result of the evaporation of water from ancient inland seas. Like todays seas, these contained large amounts of dissolved gypsum. Pure gypsum is white in color, but more often impurities render it gray, red, or brown. It has a unique property: when heated (or calcined) from 163 to 171C (325 to 340F), it loses about 75 percent of its combined water to become the hemihydrate of calcium sulfate, which is commonly called stucco. When water is added, it returns to the dihydrate form, cementing together and resetting into its original rocklike form in any desired shape (Appleyard 1975). The processes used for mining and calcining gypsum are discussed extensively in the material report on gypsum board (09250).
Solid waste produced during the mining of gypsum includes the overburden removed for open-pit mining and the tailings waste. Excluding stripped overburden, solid wastes of clay, shale, limestone fragments, and low-grade gypsum are estimated to amount to 0.05 to 0.15 metric tons per metric ton of gypsum present in gypsum board (EPA 1977). This waste is generally disposed of in local landfills. Environmental concerns in the mining of gypsum are limited almost exclusively to open-pit operations. In these mining operations, up to approximately 2 metric tons of overburden (about 1 metric ton is usual) may be stripped per metric ton of gypsum present in gypsum board (EPA 1977). Disposal of these wastes is also by local landfill. There are probably some atmospheric emissions of particulate gypsum and clay as a result of mining operations. In addition to the solid waste generated, there are other pollutants from gypsum mining that affect the environment adversely, including atmospheric emissions from energy use and fuel combustion, runoff into streams and groundwater, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration/destruction and erosion. EPA has estimated that active surface mining results in erosion on the order of 48,000 tons per square mile per year, or about the same magnitude as erosion at construction sites, which is about 2,000 times the runoff from forest land. For additional comparison, mining erosion is 10 times the amount of erosion for representative cropland (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Mine runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids, which can result in reduced light penetration of the water, lower aquatic productivity, increased alkalinity, increased BOD, and increased benthic deposition and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Runoff from gypsum mining is considered nontoxic, and the water pumped from either open-pit or underground gypsum mines is of a quality not generally considered a pollutant (Wessel 1992; Davis 1992; Appleyard 1975). Other environmental impacts that result from mining operations include resource depletion, soil compaction, and land destabilization. Fugitive emissions of gypsum dust to the atmosphere result from all types of crushing and grinding equipment as well as from the rotary dryer. The total amount of particulates is estimated to be less than 5 kg of minus 100-mesh gypsum per metric ton of gypsum in board, with dust collection equipment operative. Solid wastes are discharged from grizzlies and vibrating screens. These wastes consist of clay, sand, limestone, and gypsum particles. Their total weight is estimated between 30 and 50 kg per metric ton of gypsum in board (EPA 1977). The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining operations, the calcining process, and the transport of gypsum to the gypsum-board mill
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result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. These emissions contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, killing of fish, smog, decreased visibility, greenhouse effect, global warming, tree/crop damage, materials corrosion, eye irritation, and lung damage. VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause eye irritation and such respiratory tract problems as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, and nasal congestion. Sulfur dioxide can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Increases in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are criteria air pollutants that threaten human health and welfare. Carbon monoxide impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. Calciners are the largest point source of air emissions in gypsum plants. Particulate emissions occur from agitation of solids and the subsequent entrainment of solids in the gas flow from the equipment during dehydration. Particulate matter from calciners consists of calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrous calcium sulfate, and gangue. The primary sources used to fuel the calcining process are natural gas and distillate oil, both of which have low sulfur content. Some plants, particularly those with flash calciners, use residual fuel oil, while others use coal-fired kettles. In general, residual fuel oil and coal contain high sulfur content, and their combustion results in sulfur dioxide emissions, which can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage as well as contribute to acid precipitation. Ore dryers are the second-largest point source of particulate emissions from gypsum plants. Particulate matter from dryers consists of calcium sulfate dihydrate and other solids present in the ore. Emissions are estimated at less than 3 kg per metric ton of gypsum with dust-control equipment and approximately 20 kg per metric ton of gypsum without dust-control equipment (EPA 1977). Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and hydrocarbons also can be produced by the combustion of dryer fuel, depending on the fuel burned and the combustion efficiency. Most plants use natural gas or distillate oil, which have low sulfur content, as the fuel source. A few plants burn residual fuel oil, which can have a high sulfur content, resulting in the release of sulfur dioxide. Fugitive air emissions of fine calcium sulfate dihydrate result from puffing at the filling valve of the bag during packaging. Atmospheric emissions from packaging are estimated to be less than 0.2 kg per metric ton of product (EPA 1977). There is no foreseeable shortage of gypsum in the United States. Because of its widespread occurrence and huge potential reserves and also because its uses are not basic to survival, gypsum is not considered a strategic mineral.
Energy Consumed
Energy is consumed in gypsum production as fuels powering the heavy equipment used in the mining process. Industry data indicate that approximately 700 to 1,000 Btus (0.74 to 1.055 MJ) are expended per pound of mined gypsum and another 700 Btus (0.74 MJ) are required for crushing, screening, grinding, and calcining to produce a pound of calcined gypsum (Brown et al. 1985). The embodied energy at this stage of materials preparation is approximately 1,400 Btus/lb (1.48 MJ/lb) of calcined gypsum. Packaging and transportation to the gypsum board manufacturing plant add an unquantified amount to the total energy consumed to prepare the gypsum used in plaster.
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Portland Cement and Portland Pozzolanic Cement
Portland cement may be combined with lime to be used as a plaster. It is generally used only where very high moisture conditions exist. The major components of portland cement are lime and the oxides of calcium silicon, aluminum, and iron. The main raw materials include cement rock, limestone, marl, clay, and/or shale. Cement rock is a natural limestone containing the ingredients for cement manufacture in approximately the required proportions. A significant quantity of this rock is mined and used for this purpose. The grinding and burning of these raw materials form cement clinker. Gypsum is usually added, in quantities up to 5 percent, in the final grinding process to regulate the setting time of the cement. Lime (CaO) and silica (SiO2) make up about 85 percent of the mass of portland cement (Hornbostel 1991). About 1.8 tons of raw materials are required to manufacture 1 ton of finished cement (Johnson 1985). The mining of limestone and the production of lime are discussed above under limestone. In mining silica (quartzite), the overburden is removed and the deposits are mined using dredging or hydraulic jetting in soft rock deposits; open cutting or underground mining is used for harder, more competent rock. The mined quartzite is transported, usually by trucks, to the crusher. The rock is subjected to coarse and fine crushing, often followed by tertiary grinding. Then the quartzite is washed and undergoes high-density attrition scrubbing to remove surficial impurities containing clay or iron. Beneficiation is followed by drying in steam-static rotary-kiln or fluidized-bed equipment. The dried and cooled material is then screened into the commercial sizes required, and the silica is transported to the cement manufacturing facility. Clay is a natural, earthy, fine-grained material composed largely of a group of crystalline minerals known as clay minerals. These minerals are hydrous silicates composed mainly of silica, alumina, and water. These hydrated aluminum silicates result from the weathering of igneous rocks that contain feldspar. The clay minerals contain mainly mixtures of kaolinite (Al2O3 6SiO2 2H2O), montmorillonite [(Mg, Ca)O Al2O3 5SiO2 nH2O], and illite (variable amounts of K2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, and H2O). Accompanying these minerals are varying amounts of feldspar, quartz, and other impurities such as oxides of iron. Most clays are plastic or workable when wet, and harden when heated or dried. The properties of clay, such as plasticity, vary greatly among different types of clays. Clays are chosen for the particular properties desired and frequently are blended to give the most favorable result (Austin 1984). In 1988 approximately 36,653 short tons of clay, primarily fullers earth and kaolin, were used in gypsum products (Ampian 1988). Clays were produced in forty-six states and Puerto Rico in 1989. The states leading in output of fullers earth and kaolin were Georgia, South Carolina, Florida, and Arkansas. In 1989 more than 42 million metric tons of clay were produced in the United States (Ampian and McGee 1990). The mining of clay is a highly sophisticated mechanized operation (Patterson and Murray 1975). Clays are mined using surface-mining techniques. Typically, the overburden is removed by either motorized scrapers or large draglines. After the kaolin is exposed and tested, it is mined by shovels, draglines, motorized scrapers, or front-end loaders. The kaolin is either loaded in trucks or dropped into a blunger, which disperses it in water with the aid of a dispersant chemical to form a clay-water slip or slurry. This slurry is pumped from the blunger to the degritting station, where, by the use of settling boxes, screens, and/or hydrocyclones, the coarse grit (material coarser than 44 micrometers) is removed. After degritting, the kaolin slurry is collected in large storage tanks and pumped through pipelines to the beneficiation plant (Patterson and Murray 1975).
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Two basically different processes are used to produce a marketable kaolin product: a dry process and a wet process. The dry process is simple and yields a lower-cost and lower-quality product than the wet process. In the dry process, the kaolin is crushed to approximately egg size, dried in rotary dryers, pulverized, and air floated. The air-floating process removes most of the grit. The wet process produces kaolin products of uniform and predetermined physical and chemical properties. Crude kaolin of variable quality can be wet processed to produce a uniform high-quality product. The kaolin slurry is pumped from the mines to the plant, where it is stored in large tanks. Kaolins of various qualities are blended at the mine tanks or in the terminal tanks at the plant. The first step in the wet process is to fractionate the kaolin slurry into fine fractions by using continuous centrifuges, hydrocyclones, or hydroseparators. After fractionation, the kaolin is leached to remove ferruginous coloring compounds. In this step the kaolin is acidified with sulfuric acid to a pH of about 3.0 to dissolve the iron. A strong reducing agent, such as hydrosulfite, is then added, and the iron reacts and forms soluble sulfate, which is removed during the dewatering step. Dewatering is accomplished by using high-speed centrifuges, rotary vacuum filters, or filter presses. After filtration, the kaolin filter cake can be extruded to noodle form and dried in apron dryers or rotary dryers, or it can be redispersed to the fluid state and spray dried, drum dried, or shipped in slurry form as 70 percent solids in tank cars. There are a number of different types of portland cement, such as portland pozzolanic cement, that are used in different applications. Portland pozzolanic cement is manufactured by intergrinding portland cement clinker with a pozzolan or by blending portland cement or portland blast-furnace slag cement with a pozzolan, which is a siliceous material that will react with lime in the presence of water. Natural pozzolans include diatomaceous earths, opaline cherts and shales, tuffs, volcanic ash, and pumicites. Fly ash is a pozzolan obtained from flue gases of coal combustion. In pozzolanic cement, the pozzolan is 15 to 40 percent of the total weight of the cement. There are four major steps in the manufacture of portland cement. First, the raw materials (cement rock, limestone, marl, clay, and shale) are each crushed in a primary crusher to a rock size of about 5 inches. The materials pass through the secondary crusher to yield 3/ -inch particles. In the next step, the raw materials are either ground to powder and blended 4 (dry process) or ground, mixed with water to form a slurry, and then blended (wet process). The mixed materials are then burned in a rotating kiln at approximately 2,700F to produce cement clinker. The oxides present in the raw materials combine during burning into four principal compoundsexpressed as complicated chemical formulae in the quaternary system (e.g., CaO Al2O3 SiO2 F2O3). These compounds are important to the cements speed of setting, heat during setting, and resistance to alkali waters and soils. Gypsum is then added to the clinker, which is ground into portland cement and then shipped.
Most of the environmental effects associated with the mining of the raw materials (limestone and silica) used in the manufacture of portland cement result from open-pit operations. The environmental effects of open-pit mining are discussed above under gypsum. One of the primary environmental concerns associated with the production of portland cement is the release of particulate matter, which must be controlled. In a cement plant, the initial materials are dust, and the end product is a fine dust. The greatest source of dust is the kiln. Within the plant most dust-generating points can be equipped with adequate dust collectors, but it is more difficult to remove particulate matter from gases exiting the kiln. The effects of cement dust on human health are not known, but the effects of inhalation of submicron particles is a subject of concern and study.
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Air emissions from cement plants may also contain acid gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, as well as carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse effect and global warming. There is also some concern over water and noise pollution resulting from cement manufacturing. Combustion of the fuel used to process and then transport the limestone, silica, and other materials to and from the cement manufacturing facility results in air emissions, including VOCs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. These pollutants contribute to a variety of environmental problems, which are listed above. Wastewater from cement production arises primarily from equipment washing, including cleaning of transportation equipment and pollution control devices. The primary pollutants are particulates that cause an elevated level of dissolved solids and turbidity. Elevations in alkalinity and pH may also occur in cement-processing wastewaters. These conditions are treated largely by the use of settling ponds to separate solids from the water prior to discharge. There is no foreseeable shortage of limestone or silica in the United States. Experts anticipate that the supply will be more than adequate to meet future demands.
Energy Consumed
Portland cement manufacture is one of the most energy intensive of all U.S. industries. Energy consumed in the production of portland cement is largely in the form of fuels consumed to power the equipment used for mining, crushing, hauling, beneficiation, and processing the raw materials. The amount of energy required to manufacture one pound of portland cement is estimated to be 4,060 Btus (4.28 MJ). An additional 148 Btus/lb (0.156 MJ/lb) of cement are required for hauling the cement to the job site (Hannon et al. 1976). Most portland cement is transported in bulk by railroad, truck, or barge. Pneumatic loading and unloading of the transporting vehicle is almost standard procedure for handling bulk cement. A small amount of portland cement is packaged in paper bags, each weighing 94 pounds.
Sand
Sand is a product of the natural or artificial disintegration of rocks and minerals. Sand is obtained from glacial, river, lake, marine, residual, and wind-blown deposits, primarily from formations east of the Mississippi River. The composition and uniformity of sand vary with the type of deposit. In some localities, feldspar, iron oxides, clay, and calcareous materials may be important constituents. Mica, garnet, and tourmaline are also usually present. Quartz or silica sands, consisting of over 98 percent silicon dioxide, are the most useful commercially, as well as the most abundant type. Silica sand is strong, hard, a poor conductor of electricity, and chemically inert. Sand is obtained by mining; the type of operation depends on the nature of the deposit at each location. Sand and gravel deposits are mined with power shovels, draglines, slackline cable draglines, bulldozers, or dredges. Some deposits require blasting. Open-pit excavation and dredging are the two basic mining methods; each requires a combination of crushing, screening, and grinding to produce the grade and size required. In general, the sand used in plaster is fine and either white or light gray. It is passed through a No. 4 (4.76 mm) sieve, washed, and cleaned, then packaged for transport.
Dredging and mining of sand can result in a variety of stressors on the environment, including habitat alteration, ecosystem damage, soil erosion, pollutant runoff, contamination of surface water (particularly in dredging operations), and air emissions from the
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combustion of fuel and production of energy used in mining and processing the sand. Dust emissions from sand and gravel mining are estimated to be about 0.1 lb/ton of aggregate. Additional air emissions result from the energy used in transporting the sand to and from the production facilities. Environmental effects of open-pit mining are discussed above under gypsum. Silica dust is a major concern in sand processing facilities. Because of its linkage to silicosis, a disease of the respiratory system, control of the dust is tightly regulated. The most important water pollutant from sand processing is clay in suspension as a result of washing and screening silica sand. Another concern is noise and vibration from blasting and from the movement of heavy trucks. Sand is in plentiful supply in the United States. Although finite deposits are being used, there is limited concern about depleting these resources in the distant future.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required for mining, crushing, screening, grinding, and washing the sand. Additional energy is needed for transporting the sand to and from processing facilities. Long-distance haulage is not uncommon, with a little over half shipped by truck and a little less than half shipped by rail (Bolen 1991). There are no quantitative data available on the amount of energy required to produce sand.
Perlite
Perlite is addressed in the material report on gypsum board (09250).

Hair and Fiber
In the past, hair and/or fibers were added to scratch coats of plaster to act as a binder in the formation of mechanical keys and to keep the plaster from breaking off the lath (especially metal lath) until the plaster had set (AIA 1989). Although improvements in plaster formulation have reduced this need, hair and fiber, including wood fiber, are still used for this purpose in some plasters. The hair must be free of dust, knots, and balls. Hair for use in plaster is either cattle or goat hair (Hornbostel 1991). Hair is produced as a co-product of tannery operations in the hair save process. Hair removal is one of the early steps in the processing of hides. In most countries, hides and skins are removed and lightly cured with salt at abattoirs or local hide collection centers, although preservation by chilling is becoming more common. The hides may also be treated with insecticides to discourage insect attack during storage and transport. These insecticides, including pyrethrum, permethrin, p-dichlorobenzene, sodium silico-fluoride, and borax, must later be washed from the skins. The hides and skins are then transported to tanneries, where they are soaked in a mixture of sodium hydroxide, sulfide, sodium hypochlorite and/or wetting agents, emulsifiers, surfactants, and enzyme preparations. Lime blended with sodium sulfide is traditionally used to loosen wool and hair. The duration of this process varies from 18 hours to 7 days. Hemp, sisal, and jute are used in plaster, and wood fiber is used in some applications. The fibers should be clean and long and should contain no tannic acid.
Tannery operations are highly regulated. The stages of the process that lead up to and include hair removal are responsible for most of the COD load from tannery operations as well as for a portion of the BOD. Water pollutants generated during these early stages of the tanning process include suspended solids, dissolved solids, salts, sulphides, alkalinity, organic nitrogen, and ammonia nitrogen. Excessive nitrogen causes eutrophication of surface waters and nitrate contamination of groundwaters. Ammonia nitrogen is toxic to fish. The washout of pesticides and insecticides can add to water pollution, particularly if
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the tannery operator is not informed of the specific chemicals used. (Handling of treated hides also presents a potential hazard to workers, which is outside the scope of this study.) The primary air pollutant is hydrogen sulfide, and the solid wastes are green fleshings (a combination of organic matter and fatty substances) and sludge that contains organic matter and lime. Improper storage and handling of the solid wastes, along with sulfide and ammonia emissions, result in odor problems sometimes associated with tannery operations. Many of the metal pollutants of concern in tannery operations, such as chromium, are used in later stages of the process and are not discussed in this study. There is very little information available on the harvesting and processing of fibers. Although most fibers are harvested manually, air emissions result from the equipment used to process the fibers. Information on the processing of wood fiber is presented below under the heading paper.
Energy Consumed
Information on energy consumed in the production of hair and fiber is not available.
Epoxy Resin and Other Synthetic Resins
The most common epoxy resins are formed by the reaction of bisphenol A with epichlorohydrin. Bisphenol A is made from phenol and acetone. The principal process in use in the United States for making phenol and acetone is the peroxidation of cumene (isopropyl benzene). The conversion of cumene to cumene hydroperoxide gives a 25 to 50 percent yield per pass. The cumene hydroperoxide, which has the dangerous explosive properties of other hydroperoxides, decomposes into acetone and phenol in the presence of sulfuric acid (Austin 1984). Epoxy resins are really intermediates and must be cured or cross-linked to yield a useful resin. Cross-linking occurs by the opening of the epoxide ring caused by addition of a curing agent containing active hydrogen atoms. Amines, acid anhydrides, and mercaptans are the compounds used most commonly as curing agents. Epoxy resins have excellent chemical resistance (particularly to alkalies), very low shrinkage on cure, excellent adhesion and electrical insulating properties, and the ability to cure over a wide range of temperatures.
Cumene, one of the chemicals used in the production of phenol, is regulated by EPA as a hazardous air pollutant. Cumene hydroperoxide, which decomposes to phenol and acetone, is dangerously explosive. Epichlorohydrin is also regulated by EPA as a hazardous air pollutant. Accidental releases of these chemicals during the manufacture of epoxy resin could result in adverse effects to human health and the environment.
Energy Consumed
Energy is consumed in the production, packaging, and shipping of epoxy resins, but quantitative data on the amount of energy used are not available. However, the total embodied energy of other resins ranges between 30,000 and 40,000 Btus/lb (31.6542.2 MJ/lb) of resin (Franklin 1991).
Keenes Cement
Keenes cement is made by heating gypsum to about 230F (110C) to make plaster of paris, which is then placed in a solution of alum, dried, reheated to 932F (500C), and ground to a powder. Keenes cement is denser than ordinary gypsum plasters and has greater moisture resistance and hardness. It can be used for surface coats, but is more difficult to work with than other plaster products.
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Production of Keenes cement generates substantial amounts of dust, which must be controlled. For many years dust collection has required elaborate and costly equipment. Within the plant, most dust-generating points can be equipped with adequate dust collectors; however, it is more difficult to clean the particulate matter from gases exiting the kiln. Carbon dioxide is typically released during the manufacture of cement. Increases in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. There is also some concern over water and noise pollution resulting from cement manufacturing. Combustion of the fuel used to power the kiln and to transport materials to and from the manufacturing facility results in air emissions, including VOCs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Emissions from fuel combustion and the production of energy are discussed above.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required in gypsum production for fuels consumed to power the heavy equipment used in the mining process. Industry data indicate that approximately 700 to 1,000 Btus (0.74 to 1.055 MJ) are expended per pound of mined gypsum. Additional energy is required for heating the gypsum, drying the gypsum-alum solution, reheating, and then grinding. No quantitative data are available on the amount of energy required to produce Keenes cement. However, the total emodied energy of mixed hydraulic and masonry cements is reported to be 5,468 Btus/lb (5.77 MJ/lb ) of cement (Hannon et al. 1976).
Plaster of Paris
Plaster of paris, which is the hemihydrate of calcium sulfate or calcined gypsum, is mixed with various synthetic resins and a catalyst to produce a high-strength casting plaster that also expands slightly and thus is used extensively in making plaster impressions from molds.
Information on waste produced during the manufacture of plaster of paris is not available.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required in gypsum production for fuels consumed to power the heavy equipment used in the mining process. Industry data indicate that approximately 700 to 1,000 Btus (0.74 to 1.055 MJ) are expended per pound of mined gypsum, and another 700 Btus (0.74 MJ) are required for crushing, screening, grinding, and calcining to produce a pound of calcined gypsum (Brown et al. 1985). The embodied energy at this stage of materials preparation is approximately 1,400 Btus/lb (1.48 MJ) of calcined gypsum. Additional energy is required to produce the synthetic resins and to mix the ingredients. No quantitative data are available on the amount of energy required to manufacture plaster of paris. Packaging and transportation to the job site add an unquantified amount to the total energy consumed to prepare the plaster of paris used in some plasters.
Lath Lath is the surface, other than masonry, to which plaster is applied. Various types of wire and expanded metal mesh, wood lath, lathing board, or other material that will supply sufficient keying or bonding for plaster can serve as lath. Metal lathing for plaster, stucco, and cement work is generally made of steel or noncorrosive steel alloy wire or sheet. Wood lathing for plaster, used extensively in the past, has been replaced almost entirely by metal lath.
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Subhead subhead 2
Plaster and Lath

A summary of environmental stressors and impacts associated with the acquisition of raw materials and the manufacture of steel is presented in figure 4. The environmental stressors and impacts associated with plasterboard are summarized in the material report on gypsum board (09250).
Steel
Three major raw materials are required for the manufacture of steel: iron ore, limestone, and coal. The processes involved in mining these materials and in manufacturing steel are described in detail in the material report on steel (09011 in ERG 1994 ed.). Lath may be painted or galvanized. Paint is discussed in a separate material report (09900 in ERG 1994 ed.). Zinc is required in lath manufacture for galvanizing the steel. Zinc is a medium-hard, bluishwhite metal that is characterized by brittleness and low strength. The United States is the worlds largest producer and consumer of zinc. In 1990 approximately 85 percent of the zinc produced in the United States came from Alaska, Missouri, New York, and Tennessee. Approximately 52 percent of total slab zinc was used for galvanizing in 1990. Because of lack of smelter capacity, the United States also imports zinc metal (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). In zinc smelting, the ores must be concentrated prior to recovery of the metal. The ore is crushed and ground to separate ore physically from waste rock. The ore is then processed by flotation to separate the zinc mineral sphalerite from lead, copper, and iron sulfides. The lead and copper sulfides are floated free of the ore pulp with pine oil, cresylic acid, and phosphous pentasulfide as reagents, while the sphalerite (ZnS) and pyrite (FeS2) are depressed with sodium cyanide and lime. After removal of the lead and copper, a reagent such as copper sulfate is added to reactivate the sphalerite, and new increments of pine oil and other reagents are added to promote frothing and flotation of the zinc sulfide. The zinc concentrates are then thickened, filtered, and dried prior to reduction to metal. In the vertical retort process, roasted concentrates are mixed with coking coal, briquetted, dried, and then coked. Metallic zinc vapor and carbon monoxide rise to the top of the reduction furnace, and the zinc vapor is condensed and cast into slab zinc. The carbon monoxide is reused for heating the reduction furnace. In the electrolytic process, roasted zinc concentrate is leached with a weak solution of sulfuric acid. The leached solution also contains copper, cadmium, antimony, manganese, and other impurities, which are precipitated and filtered from the solutions. The purified zinc solution is pumped to electrolytic cells in which the cathodes are pure aluminum and the anodes are chemical lead or a lead-silver alloy. Pure zinc is deposited on the cathodes, from which it is stripped, melted, skimmed, and cast into slabs.
The principal environmental concerns associated with the materials acquisition and manufacture of steel include land and habitat loss and alteration from strip and pit mining for iron ore, coal, limestone, and other minerals; air emissions; water effluent discharges; solid and hazardous waste generation; and mineral resource depletion. Surface and pit mining for iron generates a large amount of unused rock and soil. Usually these mine spoils are deposited on nearby ground, creating mounds that may disrupt local habitat. In the United States, there are regulatory incentives to replant disrupted areas. In other countries, however, land disturbed by mining may not be restored or stabilized, and permanent loss of habitat can result from erosion or contamination of surface waters with dissolved minerals. Some deposits may also contain minerals that pose risks to human health and the environment. An example of this is the relatively high concentration of asbestos-like minerals that can often be found in taconite deposits. Asbestos has been linked to human health risk for some types of cancer. Problems may arise when dust from mining is not well controlled.
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Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Metal Lath
Figure 4: Metal LathMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Mining of limestone and iron ore
Stressor
Tailings waste
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Deoxygenation
Impact/Stressor
Land disturbance
Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
Runoff Fuel combustion emissions
(see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Reduced reproduction Fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Fishkill
Coal mining
Tailings waste (sulfur)
Acid drainage
Decreased pH in surface waters Contamination of groundwater
Destruction of aquatic life
Tailings waste (asbestos-like minerals) Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions
Dust
May be carcinogenic
Soil erosion Habitat change or loss (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
continued
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Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Metal Lath
Figure 4: Metal LathMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Steel production
Stressor
Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
VOCs Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Carbon dioxide
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Solid waste/slag Dust Zinc smelting Solid waste (metals) Human health effects
Contamination of water supplies can occur when mine spoils are discarded in water, particularly near drinking-water supply intakes. Contaminants are released also in the water used in processing ores, primarily in washing operations. Settling ponds are used to allow the sedimentation of suspended solids in process rinse water (AISI 1989). Generally, mining wastes in the United States come under close regulatory scrutiny. Onsite processing of iron ores, in the sintering, magnetic concentration, and pelletizing process, may also create problems with dust and combustion emissions. These emissions can be controlled. The mining and processing of coal for use in the manufacture of iron and steel can generate a significant amount of wastes that pose a risk to the environment. Mine spoils from coal mining may acidify soils, groundwater, and surface water. Drainage through mines or through spoils brought to the surface may pick up high concentrations of sulfur, which in turn reacts with the water to form sulfuric acid (Olem 1991). Sometimes the concentrations of these acids may be quite strong and may lower the pH of surface waters to a point toxic to aquatic life. Sound management practices may contain and neutralize acidified water, but acidic mine drainage remains a persistent problem in coal mining, particularly in eastern coal fields. Mine runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids, which can result in reduced light penetration of the water, lower aquatic productivity, increased alkalinity, increased BOD, and increased benthic deposition and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Another environmental concern is the release of polluted water used in processing coal for washing and suspension separation of rock and coal. Process water may be treated and reused within the operation to minimize waste and prevent pollution. The volume of mine spoils may be very large, particularly in strip mining, where a large amount of non-coal-bearing overburden rock is moved to get to coal seams. This disturbed overburden may be deposited in mounds or used to refill an open pit once it has been mined out. Stabilization of coal-mine spoils can be very difficult, because these rock and soil wastes are usually acidic and laden with concentrations of coal that are toxic to many plants. Siltation from washout of these mine spoils is common. Dust from coal mining is more often an occupational threat to miners than a large-scale environmental risk. The production of steel results in the release of a variety of air pollutants, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, dust, and volatile organic solvents. Coke ovens may emit organic fumes, carbon monoxide, heat, and some particulate emissions as waste products. Toxic gas emissions from coke plants may pose very significant risks to people
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living nearby or to those exposed in the workplace. EPA data indicate that there may be over thirty coke operations in the United States that pose cancer risks well above the accepted maximum allowable risk standard of 1 in 1 million (U.S. Congress 1990). Technologies to control particulate emissions are used widely in North American steel manufacturing and have greatly reduced emissions over the years since the early years of steel production. They usually involve containment structures and filtered enclosures to cover coke-loading operations. Coke ovens are usually fired by gases recovered from the coke oven process. Other by-products from the coking ovens can be recycled into other uses as well. By-product manufacturing can produce a variety of organic and inorganic products, and these by-products help offset the cost of the operation as well as reduce the waste stream. Historically, the manufacturing process has used and discharged enormous quantities of water as a result of processing (Van Nostrand Scientific Encyclopedia 1988). In the United States and Canada as well as Japan and, to some extent, the former Soviet Union, there have been many efforts to reduce waste and prevent pollution by treating and recycling water. Innovative design techniques, such as using cascade rinsing rather than only static tanks, have helped to minimize water use. In cascade rinsing, clean water moves through sequential tanks to rinse a continuous strip of sheet metal. Water moves in one direction as the steel moves in the other direction, rinsing the cleanest steel with the cleanest water. In effect the same volume of water is used for multiple rinses. Technologies such as oil skimmers, settling tanks, chemical clarifiers and neutralizers, and even biological treatment are used to reduce waste. In the United States some plants have reduced water use by as much as 90 percent in the past two decades. An examination of blast furnace production reveals that for every ton (2,000 lbs) of raw iron that is produced, 3,170 lbs of iron ore materials are used, as well as 300 lbs of limestone, 900 lbs of coke, 2,575 lbs of air, 80 lbs of oxygen, and 100 lbs of hydrocarbon fuel to fire the furnace. The process also releases 4,550 lbs of gaseous emissions, up to 50 lbs of dust, and about 600 lbs of slag (St. Pierre 1987). The quantity of raw materials and, in turn, the quantity of raw iron needed in production of steel have been reduced drastically by the increased use of recycled steel. Steel is one of the most readily recycled materials, and the amount of recycling has increased dramatically over the past several decades. In the past ten years, the amount of steel production that has come from recycling has resulted in 1.2 trillion lbs of steel being reused in the United States and abroad (AISI 1992). The overall recycling rate for steel is 66 percent. Basic oxygen furnaces use 20 to 30 percent scrap, while electric ore furnaces use nearly 100 percent scrap. In addition, major advances in efficiency now available or anticipated, which involve replacing the iron ore agglomeration, coke-making, iron-making, basic oxygen furnace, and open-hearth furnace processes with direct steel-making measures, indicate that energy expenditure in steel making can be reduced by 37 to 43 percent by the year 2010. Environmental concerns related to zinc production include mining issues, which are discussed above, and wastes such as lead, cadmium, and sulfur that are produced during smelting. A number of zinc smelter sites have been listed as Superfund sites.
Energy Consumed
Estimates of energy use for steps in materials acquisition, such as mining, vary with the processes used. The energy consumption associated with mineral mining is difficult to estimate because it varies so greatly with process and location, although ore beneficiation (enrichment) is estimated at 1.75 million Btus (1,846 MJ) per ton of enriched ore. The cost of ore transportation is distance-related and may vary substantially, but a widely accepted estimate is about 500,000 Btus (527.5 MJ) per ton delivered to the steel mill. In
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contrast, the use of scrap metal may save significant energy just in the acquisition stage. The energy use for recovery and transport of equivalent scrap metal is about one-third of that for the use of raw metals, or about 0.6 million Btus (633 MJ) per ton of steel produced. The energy required for mining one pound of limestone is estimated at 552 Btus (0.58 MJ). The largest single energy expenditure for the materials used in the manufacturing of steel is for the coal used to produce coke for the manufacture of pig iron from iron ore. This process requires an estimated 7,300 Btus/lb (7.7 MJ/lb) of pig iron for blast furnace operation. In addition, transformation of iron into steel requires an additional 650 Btus/lb (0.686 MJ/lb) using the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) process, or 2,050 Btus/lb (2.16 MJ/lb) for transformation to steel by open-hearth furnace. To the extent that recycled scrap can be substituted for pig iron in making steel, energy can be saved in blast furnace processing. Electric furnace production of steel from scrap requires 2,650 Btus/lb (2.8 MJ/lb) of steel, and since it uses scrap for source materials, there is no energy expenditure for blast furnace production.
Lathing Board
Lathing board, commonly referred to as gypsum board or plasterboard, generally consists of a core of gypsum plaster with fibers or hair, reinforced with low-grade paper on both sides. There are four types of lathing board: solid with paper on both sides, solid with paper on one side and aluminum foil on the other side for thermal insulation, perforated with 34-inchdiameter holes about 4 inches apart in each direction, and solid with a superior controlledabsorption paper (tinted light blue) on the face side and strong liner paper on the reverse side. Lathing board is available in thicknesses of 38 inch, 12 inch, or 58 inch; widths of 16 inches, 2 feet, or 4 feet; and lengths of 8, 9, 10, 12, or 14 feet (Hornbostel 1991). A complete list of the constituents of this board and a description of its production process are included in the material report on gypsum board (09250).
The major materials used in the production of lathing board are gypsum, hair or fiber, and paper. The waste produced and environmental considerations for the mining and calcining of gypsum are described above under gypsum, and the waste produced in the production of hair and fibers is described above under hair and fiber. The waste produced and the environmental considerations associated with the production of paper are described below. The environmental effects of forest use and timber harvesting for use in paper include habitat alteration and destruction. Many scientists believe that forests play a part in maintaining climate by storing carbon gained by photosynthesis and that forests are major mediators of water movement from soil to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration. Depletion of forests as a result of converting forest lands to other uses and overharvesting could, therefore, result in a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a reduction in atmospheric moisture, an increase and reduction that could contribute to global climate change (EPA 1992; Postal 1989; Hileman 1992; Rubin et al. 1992). Forests also stabilize the soil by controlling water runoff, especially on hillsides, and are an incredible source of biological diversity, both from the trees themselves and from the large diversity of ecosystems within forests. Logging operations and logging roads can alter and even destroy these ecosystems. Forests are also popular recreation and research areas. Forests originally covered about half of the land area of the United States. Timber harvesting, without any attempt to replant, set records around the turn of the century, (MacCleery 1990). During the first decades of this century efforts got under way to
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conserve and replant the depleted forests. By 1986 tree growth nationwide exceeded timber harvest by 37 percent, and the volume of standing timber nationally was 24 percent greater than it had been in 1952 (MacCleery 1990). Today 32 percent of the total U.S. land area is covered by forest, most of which is new growth as a result of replanting or natural forestation following cutting (MacCleery 1990). In the lower forty-eight states, where most of the harvesting presently takes place, only 2 to 5 percent of the old-growth forest remains today. Most of the existing old-growth forest is made up of softwood trees (Postel and Ryan 1991). Wood has once again become an abundant resource in most parts of the country. Most of the wood used in papermaking comes from softwoods, such as evergreens and coniferous trees. The harvesting of wood for use in papermaking generates some solid waste, including tree limbs, treetops, broken logs, and stumps, which are often left in the forest. This is generally considered a good sustainable-forestry practice, since nutrients and humic materials from these wastes are added by decay to the forest soil. Depending on proximity to other wood processing facilities, some of the waste has traditionally been used for pulping or chips. Sometimes the waste is sold for fuel or firewood. The air pollution generated during harvesting includes emissions from fuel combustion used in the logging operation to fell trees, cut them into logs, transport the logs to the loading site, load the logs onto the trucks, and transport the logs to the pulp mill. Emissions from fuel combustion include VOCs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Effects of these emissions are described under waste produced during gypsum mining. Papermaking is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to land, air, and water. According to EPAs Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data for 1988, the pulp and paper industry ranked fourth among U.S. industries in total discharges of TRI pollutants to water, air, and land (EPA 1988). In addition, the paper industry is a major consumer of water and the second largest consumer of chemicals. At the pulp mill, chipping and debarking of the wood yield waste that is generally burned to fuel the papermaking process. The final waste product, therefore, is wood ash, which may be disposed of in a landfill or sold for various purposes. Air pollutants result from the wood burned to fuel the papermaking process. These pollutants include wood ash from boilers, and combustion gases (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen oxides). The health and environmental problems associated with these pollutants are mentioned above. The water effluent from paper mills generally contains solids as well as organic pollutants, which deplete the oxygen in the receiving stream. Such emissions can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids, which can reduce light penetration of water, lower aquatic productivity, and increase alkalinity, BOD, and benthic deposition and deoxygenation. End-of-pipe control technologies such as primary clarification and biological wastewater treatment have reduced release of these pollutants substantially. Fibrous material released from the paper mill to the treatment plant increases the BOD and total suspended solids (TSS) load of the effluent. Toxic chemicals such as trichlorophenol and pentachlorophenol, contained in some biocides and slimicides used in paper-machine white-water systems, may be found in effluent streams from mills that use these chemicals. Effluents can also contain chlorinated organics, such as dioxins, that result from the bleaching process. Conventional pulp bleaching, which includes chlorination, will typically produce 15 to 20 lbs of chlorinated organic materials per ton of bleached pulp prior to effluent treatment (Heimburger et al. 1988). Dioxin concentrations have been detected downstream from pulp-mill waste outfalls. However, the con-
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centrations of dioxins in the effluent are low, normally on the level of parts per quadrillion (ppq) or less (Forbes 1992). Dioxins are lipophilic, so they bioconcentrate in animals and humansespecially in fat. Some dioxins are toxic, particularly 2,3,7,8-tetra-chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), which is a suspected carcinogen (NIEHS 1989). Discovery of dioxin in mill waste streams has led to strong pressure on the industry to reduce emissions of dioxin. EPA has recommended a maximum limit of 0.013 ppq of dioxins for drinking water (Forbes 1992). There are also likely to be restrictions on the land application of sludge from chlorine or chlorine-derivative pulp bleaching. In addition, there is growing concern over color and foam emissions from paper mills. One major source of water pollution from mills using recycled paper is the inks and coatings found on wastepaper. Toxic metals such as cadmium, zinc, aluminum, lead, and chromium are used in some inks in trace amounts. These materials are liberated in the pulping process and either are incorporated into the final product or become part of the mills effluent stream. These metals are highly toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. When wastepaper is deinked, the ink residues end up in the leftover sludge. About onefifth of the wastepaper material is drawn off as sludge, which contains not only ink residues but also fillers, clay, fiber fragments, and other materials. Sludge that meets certain toxicity levels is buried in a controlled landfill specially designed for hazardous materials. Efforts are being made in the United States and elsewhere to promote the use of nontoxic inks to reduce the pollution resulting from the use of recycled paper. EPAs standards for air emissions and water effluents from ink manufacturing have been instrumental in reducing the use of these toxic metals. More recently, the sludge from many deinking mills has tested nontoxic and is being used by farmers as clay-heavy soil conditioner. The separation of fibers from wastewater and paperboards for reuse can generate large volumes of pollutants in the wastewater streams. When secondary fibers are reused, they become shorter and weaker. As a result, they are more difficult to retain in the process, so more fibers escape to the effluent stream. However, many mills have succeeded in reducing the volume and solids content of their discharges by recycling their water in a closed water circulation system (Tellus Institute 1991). Paper mills are a major producer of sulfur emissions, including sulfur oxides. Other air emissions resulting from paper production include particulates, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, lead, methane, hydrogen sulfide, sodium hydroxide, organic sulfur compounds, chlorine, and chloroform (Tellus Institute 1992). The pulp and paper industry ranked first in TRI emissions of chloroform with 70 percent of the total chloroform emissions reported (EPA 1988). There is sufficient evidence that chloroform is carcinogenic in experimental animals, and it is a suspected human carcinogen (NIEHS 1989). Many of these air emissions result from the combustion of fuel (oil, gas, coal, and wastes from pulping and wood processing) used to generate the large quantities of steam for pulping and drying paper and electricity for running pumps, refiners, and paper machines. These pollutants contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems as described above.
Energy Consumed
The energy consumed during the mining and calcining of gypsum is described above under gypsum. The energy consumed in the production of paper is described below. Logging operations require energy for felling, cutting/trimming, and transporting the logs. Industry data indicate that 962.8 million Btus (1.016 MJ) are required to cut, prepare, and haul one ton of logs (Brown 1985). The paper industry is also energy intensive,
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requiring large quantities of steam for pulping and for drying the paper and paperboard, as well as electricity for running pumps, refiners, and paper machines. Energy comes from a number of different sources, including oil, gas, and coal, as well as from self-generated and residue fuels, including hogged fuel, spent liquor, and the wastes from pulping and wood processing (Tellus Institute 1991; American Gas Association 1988). In 1986, to produce 72,662 million tons of paper and paperboard, the paper industry used a total of 2,273 trillion Btus (2.40 trillion MJ) of energy, of which 970 trillion Btus (10.2 billion MJ) were purchased and 1,303 trillion Btus (1.37 trillion MJ) were self-generated or fuel residues. The predominant fuel sources were coal, natural gas, and spent liquor (American Paper Institute 1986). Industry data indicate an average energy expenditure of 31.3 million Btus (33,020 MJ) per ton of paper produced (American Gas Association 1988). Depending on whether the paper is manufactured in an integrated mill (from wood to paper) or in a pulp mill followed by a paper finishing mill, the energy requirements are 24.3 million Btus/ton (25,600 MJ/ton) of paper or 33.6 million Btus/ton (35,440 MJ/ton) of paper (Brown et al. 1985). Paper products manufactured from recycled material require approximately 27 to 44 percent less energy than paper products manufactured from virgin wood, depending largely upon whether the paper is bleached or unbleached (Tellus Institute 1991). Thus, for the gypsum board industry, with its use of bleached paper, the energy savings are probably in the 30 percent range.

Plaster Cementitious materials for making plaster are manufactured to specifications controlled to meet various code, acoustical, fire-resistance, moisture-absorption, setting-time, strength, and other property requirements for their end use.
For some plasters, there is no manufacturing process; instead, the raw materials are packaged individually and then mixed at the job site. For other types of plaster, raw ingredients are mixed before packaging and require only the addition of water at the job site, whereas still others are premixed and ready to apply. Packaging usually involves bagging the individual raw materials in paper or plastic, although the materials are also available in bulk or barrels.
Lath
Steel Lath
Metal mesh lath may vary in type, in finish (plain, galvanized, or painted), in size, and in weight (e.g., expanded and ribbed mesh lath ranges in weight from 2.2 lbs/sq yd (or 1.192 kg/sq meter) to 4.0 lbs/sq yd (or 2.168 kg/sq meter). Metal lath types for plastering include expanded lath, ribbed lath made from copper alloy steel or galvanized steel sheet; wire lath woven into a mesh from cold-drawn wire made of welded and galvanized copper alloy steel; and paper-backed self-furring lath with a woven mesh, backed with an absorbent material. Chicken-wire fencing is also used as plaster lath. The milling process for steel products relies upon rolling and cutting operations to form finished products. Steel may be rolled hot or cold, depending upon the requirements of the finished product. Rolling not only gives steel form but also adds to its density and strength. Steel can be reheated and tempered further to give it additional strength. Various coatings also can be applied to steel in subsequent processing steps. Galvanizing is the process by which a thin protective coat of zinc is applied to steel to protect it from corrosion. Continuous hot-dip galvanizing is the current industry standard. Steel sur-
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faces are cleaned, generally by electrolytic action and mechanical scrubbing to improve adhesion of the zinc. Then the steel strip is radiant-heated in a continuous annealing furnace to develop the desired metallurgical properties, after which it enters a molten zinc coating bath. The bath is contained in steel or refractory-lined pots to maintain an even temperature and to conserve energy. The zinc coating thickness is controlled by an air or steam wipe. A cooling tower is used to let the zinc coating solidify, after which chemical treatment can be applied to minimize surface staining from outside exposure. In the electrolytic process, the steel is cleaned and then immersed in an electrolyte solution of zinc sulfate or cyanide. (Although cyanide was used for this purpose in the past, other materials have been substituted in recent years because of the toxicity of cyanide.) By electrolytic action, a coat of pure zinc is deposited on the steel. This process allows for complete control of the thickness of the coat, but it usually does not provide the thick coatings that give maximum protection.
Waste generated during the manufacture of steel is described above under the materials acquisition and processing stage. Scrap wastes during the fabrication of lathresulting from cutting, drilling, and grinding operationsare recyclable, and may be recycled by collection and addition to scrap feed for the furnace. The galvanizing process also creates waste. The metal-finishing industry has been the subject of study in recent years to identify ways to reduce the waste generated during electroplating and other finishing processes. The major concern regarding galvanizing is the presence of metals and toxic chemicals in the wastewaters produced in rinsing the dragout from a fabricated item. (Dragout is the residual solution that adheres to the item when it is removed from the bath.) Other wastes include sludges produced from the continuous filtering of bath solutions, spent cleaning solutions (abrasives, solvents, acid and alkaline solutions), and spent plating solutions (EPA 1990; New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, n.d.). Figure 5 presents a summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the fabrication of steel lath.
Energy Consumed
The manufacture of steel lath requires substantial amounts of energy. Steel is one of the most energy-intensive materials, pound for pound. The total embodied energy of galvanized steel mesh used for lath is approximately 33,000 Btus (34.8 MJ) per pound of mesh (Hannon et al. 1967).
Lathing Board
For information on the manufacturing process and environmental stressors and impacts for lathing board, see the material report on gypsum board (09250).
There are a number of pollutant emission sources during the board manufacturing process, including stucco conveying, stucco mixing, board drying, and board-end sawing. Conveying stucco from bins or bags to mixers results in particulate emissions of calcium sulfate hemihydrate. Stucco mixing results in particulate emissions from the feeding and blending of stucco and various additives. The particulate matter consists of calcium sulfate hemihydrate and additive dusts. Moisture and minute amounts of some of the materials used in the manufacturing process are released into the air as a result of the drying process. Air emissions are also produced from combustion materials for heat and manufacturing process energy. Water discharges do not result from this stage because of the hygroscopic nature of the gypsum; it absorbs water that is not cooked off into the air (Wessel 1992). Particulate emissions from board-end sawing include paper
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Figure 5: Metal LathManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Steel fabrication
Stressor
Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide
Human health effects Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Reduced reproduction Fishkill
Carbon dioxide Particulates
Greenhouse effect Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
Global warming
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation Carbon dioxide Solid waste/slag Dust Galvanizing Wastewaters (metals) Sludges from bath solutions Spent cleaning solutions Spent plating solutions Greenhouse effect
(see impacts above) Global warming
fiber and board dust; however, these emissions are captured to maintain required workroom dust levels. Particulate emissions from board plants are regulated by most states. Industry sources indicate that a very small but unquantified amount (i.e., probably 1 to 3 percent) of solid waste is generated from the scrap trimmed to produce the sized product (Gypsum Association 1992). Most of that waste is recycled back into the board manufacturing process (Wessel 1992). In addition, in the manufacturing process, some gypsum board that does not meet product standards is cut into pieces and used for risers between stacks of finished product to facilitate mechanical handling and warehousing of the board (Gypsum Association 1992). Very little solid waste is generated during the packaging and distribution stage because of the manner in which the board is packaged.
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Energy Consumed
Energy is consumed in manufacturing lathing board, particularly in the drying process, where natural gas is the fuel of choice (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). For economic reasons, to the maximum extent possible, heat is conserved and put back into the drying process (Wessel 1992). Industry data indicate that approximately 3,000 Btus (3.16 MJ) are expended per pound of lathing board produced. An estimated 223,040 Btus (235.3 MJ) are required to produce one 4 x 8 sheet of 12-inch gypsum board, or 6,970 Btus (7.35 MJ) per square foot, and 5,297 Btus (5.59 MJ) per square foot of 38-inch board (Hannon et al. 1976). An additional 390 Btus/lb (0.41 MJ/lb) of board are consumed in transporting the lathing board from the manufacturing plant to the job site (Hannon et al. 1976).

Plaster materials are usually mixed at the job site. After mixing, the plaster is applied in layers, or coats, to masonry surfaces, wire lath, wood lath, or various types of gypsum board to give a hard-finish surface to walls and ceilings. Plastering is usually done according to one of two basic methodsthree-coat and two-coat plasteringalthough a one-coat method is available also. In three-coat plastering, the first binding coat, called the scratch coat, is followed by a second strengthening coat, called the brown coat, which in turn is covered by a final coat, called the hard finish. In two-coat plastering, the scratch and brown coats are combined into one coat, and the second coat becomes the hard finish. In the one-coat method, a high-strength plaster scratch coat is followed immediately by doubling back with a highstrength finish plaster. Plaster generally is applied to either lath or masonry. Lath for plaster has to be level, plumb, and well secured to the backing material. Since the plaster finish must be perfectly flat and plumb and have the correct thickness, it is necessary to have what are called leveling elements installed. Leveling elements include grounds and screeds. The screed is run horizontally, leveled, and set to the exact thickness of the finished plaster. Usually it is covered by another finish material. Around all openings and at the intersection with the ceiling, grounds are installed. Grounds, like screeds, must be of the correct plaster thickness and installed level, straight, and plumb. Grounds may be installed permanently, either to be covered by another finish trim material or made of a special type of metal against which a finish material can be installed. Temporary grounds are employed also, to be removed after the brown coat is dry. The ceiling and wall intersection may also be made without any grounds, but it is difficult to avoid cracks and obtain a straight, true intersection by this method. With metal lath, three coats must be applied. Any of the three methods (one, two, or three coats) can be used over gypsum lath, brick, or masonry. If the plaster is finished with a steel trowel instead of painted or wallpapered, indoor air emissions can be reduced. Textured surfaces tend to be more absorbent and difficult to clean. For the hardest, densest surface, a finish coat made of gauging plaster and lime putty is recommended. A variety of accessories are made especially for plasterwork. These include nails, casings, window stools, bases, and picture molds. Maintenance of plaster includes periodically patching cracks and/or holes and repainting or replacing other wall coverings.
In general, relatively little waste is generated in plaster construction because the materials are mixed as needed at the job site. Experienced plasterers can estimate accurately the quantity of plaster needed so that there is little waste at the end of the day or at the completion of the job. Since most plasters are mixed at the job site, there is probably some
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runoff of water contaminated with plaster from the site as a result of cleaning tools and mixing troughs.
There are several components of plastered walls and ceilings that can cause problems for sensitive individuals. The face paper of gypsum lathing board is specially treated for a maximum bond with the plaster, and plasters often contain materials that are added to affect drying, the finish, or other characteristics of the final surface. According to U.S. Gypsum Corporation, its products contain plaster of paris (or portland cement) and lime. If any filler is used, it is clearly stated on the label (Bower 1991). In addition, metal lath is either painted or galvanized, and some residual oil from the manufacturing process may be present. Indoor air emissions may result from these plaster additives and from the metal lath during installation. However, the indoor air quality effects are limited to the construction stage: once cured, the plaster surfaces become hard, dense, and stable, thus preventing pollutants from escaping. Therefore, plaster is reasonably benign in terms of indoor air quality, and gypsum is inert and extremely low in emissions. The decorative treatment used on the plaster, such as paint or wall coverings, may also be a source of emissions.

Life expectancy of plaster varies greatly, depending upon the choice of finishes and the redecoration and renovation whims of the consumer. Considerable waste is likely to be generated during remodeling if plaster is removed and replaced with gypsum board. If the plaster is left in place and patched or if board is installed over the plaster, far less waste is produced. Disposal of plaster usually involves landfilling in a demolition landfill, either with or separated from stud wall and other materials. Hydrogen sulfide gas is released as the gypsum contained in the plaster decomposes in the landfill. This decomposition occurs only in the presence of water and under acidic and anaerobic conditions. As with gypsum board, if gypsum plaster waste is separated from organic waste materials or lime is added to raise the pH, hydrogen sulfide gas generation appears to be eliminated or reduced (Gypsum Association 1992). Plaster remodeling and demolition waste is difficult to recycle because of the difficulty of separating it from the lath and because of contaminants from other products, such as paint, wall coverings, and plaster additives. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the disposal of plaster and lath is presented in figure 6.
Figure 6: Plaster and Metal LathRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity
Disposal of demolition waste
Stressor
Waste plaster and lath
Impact/Stressor
Generation of hydrogen sulfide gas in landfills Large volume in landfills
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Regulatory Status
Materials in the plaster life cycle become at least partially regulated at practically all stages. In the mining stage, any point-source water discharge of process-generated wastewater is subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act (CWA). This is particularly the case with coal mining, which also is subject to significant mined-land reclamation, and with iron ore mining, both of which are more heavily regulated than most mining. In the manufacturing stage,
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Regulatory Status
boilers and furnaces may be subject to emission standards under the Clean Air Act (CAA). As in the mining stage, any point-source water discharge of process-generated wastewater in the manufacturing stage is subject to regulation under the CWA. Storage, treatment, and disposal of any solid or hazardous wastes in the manufacturing process may be subject to regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and state solid-waste laws. Typically, construction and demolition wastes are subject to state and local solid-waste laws and ordinances. Although regulatory coverage is pervasive, significant gaps still exist.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Gypsum mining is subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 436, subpart E, which prohibits operations not employing wet air-emission-control scrubbers from discharging process wastewaters into waters of the United States. Otherwise, only that volume of water resulting from precipitation that exceeds the maximum safe surge capacity of a process wastewater impoundment may be discharged from that impoundment. (The minimum capacity allowed is that of the 10-year, 24-hour rainfall.) Limestone mining itself is largely unregulated under the CWA at present, but calcium carbonate production is regulated under inorganic chemicals manufacturing point sources in 40 CFR Part 415, calcium carbonate production subcategory, subpart AD, which places effluent guidelines on TSS and pH.
Nonmetallic-mineral processing plants are subject to CAA new-source performance standards (NSPS) under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for construction or major modification of crushers, grinding mills, screening operations, bucket elevators, belt conveyors, bagging operations, storage bins, and enclosed truck or railcar loading stations, which place particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities. Gypsum and limestone are covered by these requirements. Gypsum calciners also have recently been made subject to NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60 for construction or major modification, which places particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities (57 Fed. Reg. 44503-04, September 28, 1992). Gypsum and limestone calciners can be subject to stationary-source requirements for National Association for Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) pollutants under 40 CFR Part 151 if they employ fossil-fuel boilers of more than 250 million Btus per hour capacity. Iron ore mining for lath production is subject to effluent guidelines for ore-mining point sources under 40 CFR Part 440, iron ore subcategory, subpart A, which sets permit limits for TSS, dissolved iron, and pH. Coal-mining point sources are subject to effluent guidelines on total iron, total manganese, TSS, and pH for coal preparation plants under 40 CFR Part 434.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Stage The steel manufacturing and lath production processes are subject to considerable CWA regulation.
Iron- and steel-manufacturing point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 420, which places effluent guidelines on coke making, sintering, iron making, steel making, vacuum degassing, casting, forming, descaling, pickling, cleaning, and coating for TSS, oil and grease, ammonia n, cyanide, phenols, pH, benzene, naphthalene, benzo(a)pyrene, total residual chlorine, lead, zinc, chromium, and nickel. Metal molding and casting point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 464, subpart C, Ferrous Casting Subcategory, which places effluent guidelines on copper, lead, zinc, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Coil coating point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 465, subpart A, Steel Basis Material Subcategory, and subpart B, Galvanized Basis Material Subcategory, which place effluent guidelines on chromium, copper, cyanide, zinc, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Electroplating point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 433, which places effluent guidelines on cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, silver, zinc, total toxic organics
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Regulatory Status
(TTO, an extensive laundry list of nearly 100 toxic organic chemicals listed in 40 CFR 433.11(e)), cyanide, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Ferroalloy manufacturing point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 424, which places effluent guidelines on TSS, total chromium, chromium VI, total manganese, total cyanide, total phenols, ammonia, and pH on the various manufacturing processes. Metal-finishing point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 433, which places effluent guidelines on cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, silver, zinc, TTO, cyanide, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Lime plants are regulated under the CWA in 40 CFR Part 415, subpart AD, which prescribes effluent guidelines for TSS and pH. Hair-save operations are subject to leather tanning and finishing effluent guidelines in 40 CFR Part 425, subparts B and C, which prescribe requirements for BOD5, TSS, total chromium, oil and grease, and pH. Other plaster component manufacturing operations that are not subject to specific effluent guidelines can have their point source discharges subject to generic NPDES permit requirements for at least the five conventional pollutants of BOD5, TSS, pH, fecal coliform, and oil and grease, which must be treated using the best conventional pollution control technology. EPA also has developed a list of 126 toxic pollutants from 65 classes of chemical compounds that may be required to be monitored and treated with the best available technology economically achievable. All other pollutants are designated nonconventional and may require treatment using the same technology. Because of the variety of chemicals used in the epoxy manufacturing process, monitoring and treatment requirements for toxic and nonconventional pollutants are most likely in this operation. Stationary heat sources at plaster component manufacturing operations may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100 TPY threshold for any CAA pollutant. New stationary heat sources at new plaster-component manufacturing operations, or substantial modification of such existing stationary heat sources, may be subject to CAA new-source performance standards under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. They may also be subject to prevention of significant deterioration standards under 40 CFR Part 51, which requires monitoring for, and potentially applying, control technology for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead, plus the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals (where applicable), which are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i). Solid and hazardous waste generated in plaster component manufacturing operations, particularly the epoxy-manufacturing process, are regulated under state and local regulations and, to a lesser extent, by the RCRA. The epoxy manufacturing process uses more hazardous constituents such as bisphenol A, epichlorohydrin, phenol, acetone, cumene, cumene hydroperoxide, and sulfuric acid, portions of which may end up as contamination in solidwaste streams.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage Building codes place structural requirements on the use of plaster and lath in construction. Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid-waste requirements, which vary widely. Little hazardous waste is generated at this stage of the plaster life cycle; hence the RCRA does not come into significant play at this stage.
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Regulatory Status
Notes on Statutes and References s Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq. (i.e., Title 42 of the U.S. Code, starting with Section 7401). s Clean Water Act (CWA), 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq. s Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (CERCLA/SARA), 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. s U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 1991. Office of Air and Radiation. October. s Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 7 U.S.C. 136. s Hoffman, Stephen, and Van Houseman. 1990. Update on Regulation for Mine Waste Management Under RCRA. Mining Engineering. November. s National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq. s Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Government Printing Office. July 1, 1992. (The code is divided into titles and parts and cited in the text as ___ CFR Part ___; the parts are further subdivided with decimal, letter, and number notations into sections and subsections.) s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (RCRA), 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq. s Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 42 U.S.C. 300f et seq. s Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), 30 U.S.C. 1201 et seq. s Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 15 U.S.C. 2601 et seq.
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References
References
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Davis, Lawrence L. 1992. Gypsum Annual Report 1990. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. April. Forbes, David R. 1992. Mills Preparing for Next Century with New Pulping, Bleaching Techniques, Pulp and Paper. September. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, Final Report. The Society of the Plastics Industry. Good, Clint, and Debra Lynn Dadd. 1988. Healthful Houses: How to Build and Design Your Own. Bethesda, MD: Guaranty Press. Gypsum Association. 1992. Treatment and Disposal of Gypsum Board Waste, Industry Position Paper. Construction Dimensions. February/March. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation. University of Illinois. Heimburger, Stanley, et al. 1988. Kraft Mill Bleach Plant Effluents: Recent Developments Aimed at Decreasing Their Environmental Impact, Part I. Tappi Journal. October. Hileman, B. 1992. Industrial Ecology Route to Slow Global Change Proposed. Chemical and Engineering News. August 24. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Houser, Karl D. 1992. Gypsum Association. Personal communication. August 8. Hunter, Linda Mason. 1989. The Healthy Home. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. Ivahnenko, T. I., et al. 1988. Liming Effects on the Water Quality in Two West Virginia Streams. In Restoration of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems, edited by R. W. Brockson and J. Wisniewski. Klewer Academic Publishers. Johnson, Wilton. 1985. Cement. In Mineral Facts and Problems, 1985 Edition. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. . 1989. Cement. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. MacCleery, Douglas W. 1990. Brief Overview of the Condition and Trends of the U.S. Forests. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. March 15.
Marcea, R. L., and K. K. Lau. 1992. Carbon Dioxide Implications of Building Materials. Journal of Forest Engineering 3(2). January. May, Alexander, and John W. Sweeney. 1984a. Assessment of Environmental Impacts Associated with pHosphogypsum in Florida. In The Chemistry and Technology of Gypsum, edited by R. A. Kuntze. ASTM 861, pp. 116-39, American Society of Testing and Materials. . 1984b. Evaluation of Radium and Toxic Element Leaching Characteristics of Florida pHosphogypsum. In The Chemistry and Technology of Gypsum, edited by R. A. Kuntze. ASTM 861, pp. 14059, American Society of Testing and Materials. McKetta, John J., and William A. Cunningham. 1987. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 25. Marcel Dekker. National Air Pollution Control Administration. 1970. Establishment of National Emissions Standards for Stationary Sources: Volume VI, Portland Cement Manufacturing Plants. Durham, NC. National Institute of Environmental Health Science (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Fabricated Metal Manufacturing and Metal Finishing. No date.Technical information publication. Olem, H. 1991. Liming Acidic Surface Waters. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Pubishers. Patterson, Sam H., and Haydn H. Murray. 1975. Clays. In Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics other than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Postel, Sandra, and John C. Ryan. 1991. Reforming Forestry. State of the World 1991. NY: Worldwatch Institute. Pressler, Jean W. 1984. Byproduct Gypsum. In The Chemistry and Technology of Gypsum, edited by R. A. Kuntze. ASTM 861, pp. 105-15. American Society of Testing and Materials. Rubin, Edward S., et al. 1992. Realistic Mitigation Options for Global Warming, Science 257. July 10. Sittig, Marshall. 1978. Electroplating and Related Metal Finishing: Pollutant and Toxic Materials Control. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation. . 1975. Pollution Control in the Asbestos, Cement, Glass, and Allied Mineral Industries. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation.
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Plaster and Lath

References
Steiner, B. A. 1976. Air Pollution Control in the Iron and Steel Industry. International Metals Review 209: 17192. St. Pierre, G. R. 1987. Iron Metallurgy. In McGrawHill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 6th ed. Vol. 9. NY: McGraw-Hill. Tellus Institute. 1991. The Tellus Institute Packaging Study Project Summary. November. . 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter Its Mix. May. Tichenor, Bruce A., et al. 1990. Evaluation of Indoor Air Pollutant Sinks for Vapor pHase Organic Compounds. Proceedings of the 5th International Indoor Air Conference. Toronto, Canada. Tucker, W. Gene. 1988. Emissions of Air Pollutants from Indoor Materials: An Emerging Design Consideration. 5th Canadian Building and Construction Conference. U.N. Environment Programme. No date. Tanneries and the Environment: A Technical Guide to Reducing the Environmental Impact of Tannery Operations. U.S. Congress. 1990. Statement of the Honorable Henry A. Waxman, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Health and the Environment on the EPA HighRisk Data. Congressional Record, 101st Congress. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 1991. Mineral Commodity Summaries 1991. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1977. Industrial Process Profiles for Environmental Use. Chapter 17, The Gypsum and Wallboard Industry. Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory. February. . 1979. Analysis of Priority Pollutants at a Primary Zinc Production Facility. EPA/68-03-2550; EPA/600/2-79/093. . 1988. Toxics Release Inventory. Office of Toxic Substances. . 1990a. Environmental Fact Sheet: Final Rule to Identify the Status of Twenty Mineral Processing Wastes Conditionally Retained within the Bevill Amendment. EPA/530-SW-90-013. . 1990b. Report to Congress on Special Wastes from Mineral Processing. EPA/530-SW-90-070B. . 1990c. Guides to Pollution Prevention: The Fabricated Metal Products Industry. EPA/625/7-90/006. July.
. 1991. Designing for Good Indoor Air Quality Draft. May 10. . 1992a. Pollution Prevention Options in Metal Fabricated Products Industries. EPA/560/8-92/001A. January. . 1992b. Pollution Prevention Research Strategy. Office of Research and Development. August. van der Leeden, Frits, et al. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Lewis Publishers. Van Nostrand Scientific Encyclopedia. 1988. Iron Metals, Alloys, and Steels. Van Nostrand Publishers. Wallace, Lance, et al. 1987. Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Building Materials and Consumer Products. Atmospheric Environment. 21(2). Wessel, Robert. 1992. Gypsum Association, Washington, DC. Personal communication. October 2 and 21.
34
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PLASTER AND LATH
Material Report
Gypsum Board Systems*

Highlights
Mining of gypsum, limestone, clay, talc, mica, and perlite results in particulate emissions, soil erosion, habitat alteration, pollutant runoff, and the pollution that results from energy use for the mining, processing, and transportation of materials. Logging can result in soil erosion, pollutant runoff, habitat alteration, and the release of pollutants from the combustion of fuel used to fell, trim, and transport logs. Manufacture of paper used in gypsum board and joint tape results in the release of effluent that may include dioxins and other toxic chlorinated compounds formed during the bleaching process.
Significant amounts of water are consumed in the manufacture of paper used in gypsum board and joint tape. Most of the paper used in manufacturing the board is made from recycled stock. Gypsum, limestone, clay, talc, mica, and perlite are finite resources, but they are in plentiful supply.
Energy Consumption
The embodied energy of gypsum board is approximately 2,600 Btus per square foot. Substantial amounts of energy are consumed in calcining gypsum and drying gypsum board. Paper manufacturing is energy intensive, requiring about 15,650 Btus per pound of paper produced. Producing gypsum board paper from recycled stock requires approximately 30 percent less energy than manufacturing it from virgin wood.
Indoor Air Quality
VOCs (volatile organic compounds) may be emitted from gypsum board or joint compound during the curing stage immediately after installation. Heat and ventilation accelerate the drying process and the removal of VOCs. These emissions can be reduced considerably by surface treatments such as painting. Gypsum molecules in the board may adsorb VOCs after the curing phase and act as a sink for VOCs from other sources.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1994. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 GYPSUM BOARD SYSTEMS MAT 09250
Gypsum Board Systems

Background
Gypsum board, ubiquitous in residential, commercial, and industrial construction, is essentially an environmentally benign product. Over the past quarter century its use has grown at the rate of about 3 percent per yeara rate faster than that of almost any other building material (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). Its principal constituent, gypsum, is a naturally occurring mineral deposited largely as a result of the evaporation of water from ancient inland seas, which contained large amounts of dissolved gypsum. The evaporation of a typical 20,000-gallon residential swimming pool filled with seawater will generate about 250 pounds of gypsum (Gypsum Association 1992). The most important property of gypsum as a building material is that it does not burn (Domtar Gypsum 1992). Moreover, gypsum board, with joints taped and compounded, is one of the only building material systems that qualifies for fire-rated construction in building codes (Thomas 1993). The United States consumes more than 25 percent of the worlds production of gypsum, most of which is used in gypsum board (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). In manufacturing the board, a gypsum slurry is sandwiched between covering materialsusually paper. There are several types of gypsum board products. The conventional type is faced with kraft paper. Type X gypsum board has a modified core designed to provide greater fire resistance in firerated partitions, ceilings, beams, girders, and columns. Water-resistant board, also known as green board, is designed for use as a substrate for tile and similar treatments in moist areas such as tub and shower enclosures. Foil-backed gypsum board is intended to provide a vapor barrier. A small amount of specialty gypsum board is manufactured specifically for the mobile home industry. In 1990 approximately 65 percent of the gypsum board manufactured was the conventional paper-faced variety, 29 percent was type X, 3 percent was water resistant, and 3 percent was 5/16-inch board for mobile homes (Davis 1992d). Gypsum board is typically applied to wood framing with nails, screws, or adhesives and to metal framing with screws. Joints between gypsum boards are covered with paper or glassfiber joint tape embedded in joint compound. Joint compound is usually a vinyl-based, ready-to-use product that contains limestone or gypsum to provide body; clay, mica, talc, or perlite as a filler; ethylene glycol as an extender; and antibacterial and antifungal agents (Thomas 1992; Wessel 1992; Redford 1991; McKetta and Cunningham 1989). Another type of joint compound which sets when mixed with a chemical hardener is used on a more limited basis. Thus, gypsum board construction constitutes a system composed primarily of framing members; gypsum board; nails or screws; joint tape; and joint compound. However, only the gypsum board, joint tape, and joint compound components are discussed here. Nails, screws, adhesives, and framing materials are covered in separate material reports.
Life-cycle summaries of gypsum board, joint tape, and joint compound are provided in figures 1 through 3. During the materials acquisition and preparation stage, potential environmental effects include relatively small amounts of air emissions and significant soil erosion; pollutant runoff from mining raw materials (gypsum, limestone, clay, talc, mica, and perlite); and habitat change. Pollution also results from energy expended in the mining, logging, transporting, and processing of raw materials. The manufacture of paper used in making gypsum board and joint tape requires significant energy and water. Papermaking results in relatively small amounts of air emissions and substantial discharges of water effluent. Air emissions also result from transporting the major component materials (i.e., the mined materials and paper) to manufacturing facilities. Additional energy use, air emissions, and water effluent discharges result from the manufacture, final product fabrication, and distribution stages of board, joint tape, and joint compound. Manufacturing waste, particularly gypsum board waste, is increasingly being recycled back into new gypsum board products to reduce waste (Gypsum Association 1992).
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GYPSUM BOARD SYSTEMS

During the construction, use, and maintenance stage of gypsum board systems, solid waste is produced from trimming gypsum board. Although conventional gypsum board does not contain VOCs when manufactured, a few investigators report desorption of small amounts of VOCs from board and joint compound when tested under controlled laboratory conditions (Tucker 1988; Wallace et al. 1987; EPA 1991). Some of these studies indicate that VOCs are adsorbed by gypsum board systems. At the end of the life cycle, when the gypsum board is removed, there is significant generation of solid waste. At present, relatively little reuse is made of most demolition waste, including gypsum board waste, and as a result it customarily ends up as solid waste in demolition landfills. Increasing efforts are being made to recycle gypsum board waste. As the capacity of existing landfill sites declines, many landfills no longer accept gypsum wastes, and other landfill sites are increasing the cost of landfilling such waste. As a result, reuse or recycling is becoming economically more feasible. Gypsum, like other sulfur-containing materials, may produce hydrogen sulfide gas in landfill sites in the presence of water and organic materials under acidic and anaerobic conditions. Control of gypsum board landfilling by separating gypsum board from organic waste materials, or by adding lime to reduce acidity, eliminates or reduces this hydrogen sulfide gas generation (Gypsum Association 1992).

The major raw materials used in the manufacture of gypsum board are gypsum and kraft paper. Paper is the major material used to manufacture joint tape, although a small amount of joint tape is made of glass fiber (Thomas 1992, 1993). Limestone or gypsum; mica, clay, talc, or perlite; and polyvinyl acetate are the major raw materials used in the manufacture of joint compound. The formulation of gypsum board is, for the most part, nonproprietary. Therefore, most of the materials used in the manufacture of gypsum board are well documented. However, the formulae of joint compounds are largely proprietary, and therefore, the identity and quantities of a number of their constituent materials are unavailable (Thomas 1992).
Gypsum Board As previously stated, the major components of gypsum board are gypsum and paper. The acquisition and preparation of these components, along with potential environmental effects and energy requirements associated with this stage of production, are discussed below. The environmental stressors and impacts associated with this stage of the life cycle are summarized in figure 4 (page 7).
Gypsum
Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) is a common mineral, the dihydrate form of calcium sulfate, usually found combined with oxides of iron and aluminum, calcium and magnesium carbonates, and other minerals in evaporite deposits. Pure gypsum is white in color, but more often impurities render it gray, red, or brown. It has a unique property: when heated, or calcined, to 325 to 340F (163 to 171C), it loses about 75 percent of its combined water to become the hemihydrate of calcium sulfate, which is commonly called stucco. When water is added it returns to the dihydrate form, cementing together and resetting into its original rocklike form in any desired shape (Appleyard 1975). Gypsum deposits may date from any geologic era, but Permian deposits are most common. Frequently, those deposits are found in association with the source rocks for petroleum. Most massive gypsum and anhydride deposits occur as large, lenticular, stratified bodies that were formed by evaporation of water in restricted basins of ancient seas. These basins may range in dimension from a few miles to many hundreds of miles. For example, in White Sands (continued on page 9)
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4
MAT 09250 GYPSUM BOARD SYSTEMS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Gypsum Board
Life-Cycle Summary Gypsum Board
Gypsum mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Gypsum calcining Heating Cooling
Gypsum board manufacture Mixing Slurrying Spreading Shaping Molding Sealing

Trim scraps (recycled or landfilled)
Habitat change
Additives Accelerator Starch (gypsum or Glass fiber potassium Perlite sulfate) Vermiculite
Packaging
Storage
Display/sales
Indoor air emissions (VOCs, dust)
Wood Logging Transport
Joint tape Debarking Chipping NaOH Na2SO4 Cl ClO2 Joint compound

Board waste (landfilled or recycled)
Construction
Maintenance/ repair
Habitat change
Demolition
Board waste (landfilled)
Reuse
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
KEY
Process flow
Waste paper Collection Sorting Transport Deinking
Kraft paper Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendaring Finishing
Processing
Waste
Effluent
Sludge, wood chips
Recycling
Recycling
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Joint Tape

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 GYPSUM BOARD SYSTEMS MAT 09250
NaOH Na2SO4 Cl ClO2
Joint tape manufacture (paper) Forming Cutting
Debarking Chipping
Habitat change
Sludge, wood chips
Joint tape manufacture (glass fiber) Forming Cutting Packaging
Storage
Waste paper Collection Sorting Transport Deinking Gypsum board

Effluent (see figure 1) Indoor air emissions (VOCs, dust)
Display/sales
Joint compound
(see figure 3)
Construction
Life-Cycle Summary Joint Tape
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, fluorides, particulates)
KEY
Glass sand, limestone, and borax mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Habitat change
Effluent (phenols, DS, SS, oil & grease, ammonia)
Recycling
6
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Joint Compound
KEY
Life-Cycle Summary Joint Compound
Habitat change
Recycling
Joint compound manufacture

Packaging
Mica, clay, talc, perlite mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading Storage
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Benzene
Vinyl acetate
Polyvinyl acetate
Gypsum board
(see figure 1) or
Display/sales
Acetic acid
Corn
Starch
Joint tape
(see figure 2)
Construction
Pesticide runoff Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (VOCs, benzene) Air emissions (CO2)
Natural gas
Ethylene
Ethylene glycol
Oxygen silver oxide
Anti-bacterial and anti-fungal agents

Figure 4: Gypsum BoardMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Gypsum mining
Stressor
Tailings waste
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Deoxygenation
Impact/Stressor
Land disturbance
Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Deoxygenation Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Runoff
Fuel combustion
VOCs
Sulfur dioxide
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems)
Global warming
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation
Particulates
Gypsum processing and calcining
Calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrous calcium sulfate, gangue
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Figure 4: Gypsum BoardMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Gypsum processing and calcining (continued) Logging Timber harvesting Habitat alteration Soil erosion Stumps, limbs, logs Depletion of forests Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area Fuel combustion emissions Pulping Effluent (TSS, organics) Air emissions Paper manufacturing Air emissions Organic sulfur compounds Fuel combustion emissions (particulates, SOx, NOx, VOCs, CO, CO2) Chloroform Lead Suspected human carcinogen Retardation and brain damage, especially in children Effluent Dioxins and toxics Bioconcentration of dioxin and consumption of toxics TSS and organics Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Sludge Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Fishkill (see impacts above) Odors Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Greenhouse effect Global warming Loss of habitat Runoff (see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
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National Park in New Mexico, the action of wind and other geologic processes over millions of years has converted gypsum rock into 270 square miles of drifting, blindingly white sand. Classic evaporite formation involves the deposition of anhydride, with later hydration to depths ranging from the surface to 1,000 feet. The depth of hydration is generally related to topography, structure, and climate, since these factors affect the depth of groundwater and surface water penetration (Davis 1992b). Most gypsum mined in the United States or imported to this country is used, in its calcined form, in construction. Gypsum is used in the manufacture of board as well as in making base-coat and finish-coat plaster, acoustical plaster, fire-resistant and other special plasters, plaster lathing, partition tile, roof tile, and reinforced plaster decking (Hornbostel 1991). Most calcined gypsum goes into prefabricated products; a small percentage is used in industrial and building plasters. Of the prefabricated products, over 90 percent is gypsum board of one type or another (Davis 1992d). The United States is the worlds leading producer of gypsum, accounting for nearly 10 million tons in 1990, or about 15 percent of the total world output (Davis 1992b, 1992d). Iowa, Oklahoma, Michigan, Texas, Nevada, California, and Indiana are the leading gypsum-producing states; together they account for 75 percent of total domestic production. The United States also imports and stockpiles gypsum. Total U.S. consumption of gypsum in 1990 was approximately 26 million tons (Davis 1992d). Of that, approximately 17.5 million tons were calcined gypsum, most of which went into gypsum board manufacture (Davis 1992d). Investigators indicate that gypsum is a plentiful mineral, and they expect no supply constraints on production (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). Gypsum is also produced in relatively large amounts as a by-product of other industrial processes. This gypsum is often referred to as synthetic, by-product, or manufactured gypsum. Principal sources are the processing of phosphate rock into phosphoric acid as the first step in inorganic fertilizer production, and the degassification of coal flue gases. Synthetic gypsum is generally considered a waste product, although it is sometimes used in the agricultural sector (Houser 1992; McKetta and Cunningham 1987; Pressler 1984). In 1981, some 630,000 metric tons of synthetic gypsum were used for agricultural purposes (Pressler 1984). The form and moisture content of synthetic gypsum are such that additional energy is required to convert it into a useful building material. Because of this and the fact that gypsum is relatively inexpensive and readily available, synthetic gypsum is rarely used in the construction industry (McKetta and Cunningham 1987; Pressler 1984). In addition, there have been some concerns about heavy-metal contamination and radon from synthetic gypsum (Wessel 1992). One manufacturer, however, has two plants that are using 100 percent synthetic gypsum from flue-gas desulfurization. Another manufacturer has a gypsum board plant that uses synthetic gypsum generated in the manufacture of titanium dioxide. This same manufacturer is exploring the use of synthetic gypsum produced from flue-gas desulfurization (Domtar Gypsum 1992). As stockpiles of synthetic gypsum increase (several investigators have estimated that 1 billion tons will accumulate by the year 2000 in Florida alone) and as disposal options for synthetic gypsum made from coal-flue degassification decrease, the dominant construction sector may expand its use of the synthetic material (May and Sweeney 1984a, 1984b; Houser 1992; Ayres 1989). The domestic gypsum industry is dominated by a few large, vertically integrated companies that mine and calcine gypsum and manufacture plaster and gypsum board products. The large gypsum board producers, through foreign subsidiaries, also produce most of the crude gypsum that is imported for domestic plants. Manufacturers on the East Coast import most
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gypsum from Canadas Maritime Provinces, while plants on the West Coast import most from Mexico (Davis 1992b). Gypsum deposits are explored geologically to determine the presence of minable resources. Physical and chemical properties, thickness, and ratio of gypsum to anhydride are assessed from samples taken from either outcrops or drill cores. The depth of hydration is important for minability because the presence of only a small percentage of anhydride is sufficient to render gypsum unusable for making gypsum board and plaster. Economically viable deposits of gypsum near the surface are developed as quarries or openpit mines. Approximately 85 percent of gypsum ore comes from quarries or open-pit mines (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). Quarrying or open-pit mining of gypsum employs conventional methods and equipment, such as draglines and scrapers to remove overburden and hydraulic shovels or front-end loaders to load rock. Typically, the gypsum is drilled and blasted using rotary and/or auger drilling because of the relative softness of the rock. Ammonium nitrate fuel oil explosive is used where water conditions permit; a ratio of three tons of rock broken per pound of explosive is about average. The gypsum ore is then loaded on trucks and hauled to the primary crusher (Appleyard 1975). There it is crushed, screened, and ground in preparation for calcining and manufacture into gypsum board or plaster (Brown et al. 1985). For underground gypsum deposits, vertical shafts and horizontal adits are employed to reach the ore. Mining production is accomplished by the room-and-pillar method. Auger drilling is standard practice, and loading is done with gathering-arm loaders, front-end loaders, or load-haul-dump units. Underground haulage may be by rail or by diesel-powered trucks. After extraction, gypsum ore is calcined prior to the manufacture of gypsum board. In this process, gypsum is placed in batch kettles or, less frequently, in rotary kilns and heated to 250F (121C) for about 2 hours. The temperature is then increased to 300 to 350F (149 to 177C). As a result, 75 percent of the water of crystallization is removed from the ore, thereby converting gypsum into calcium sulfate hemihydrate (Davis 1992b, 1992d).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining
Environmental concerns in the mining of gypsum are limited almost exclusively to open-pit operations. Solid waste produced during the mining of gypsum includes overburden and tailings waste. In these mining operations, up to approximately two metric tons of overburden (about one metric ton is usual) may be stripped per metric ton of gypsum present in gypsum board (EPA 1977b). Overburden is generally disposed of in local landfills. Excluding stripped overburden, solid wastes (clay, shale, limestone fragments, and low-grade gypsum) are estimated to be between 0.05 and 0.15 metric ton per metric ton of gypsum present in gypsum board (EPA 1977b). This waste is also disposed of in local landfills. In addition to the solid waste generated, other pollutants from gypsum mining adversely affect the environment, including atmospheric emissions, runoff into streams and groundwater, and habitat alteration in the mined areas. Air emissions resulting from mining operations include particulate gypsum and clay, as well as atmospheric emissions from fuel combustion. The combustion of fuel products and the production of electricity result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. These emissions contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems.
10
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VOCs contribute to the formation of ozone, or smog. Ozone has been found to cause eye irritation and such respiratory tract problems as difficulty breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, and nasal congestion. Sulfur dioxide can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation, surface water acidification, tree/crop damage, and material corrosion. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Increases in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are criteria air pollutants which threaten human health and welfare. Carbon monoxide impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide has been linked to respiratory illness, lung damage, and eye irritation. Suspended solids from mine runoff can increase turbidity of streams. This in turn reduces light penetration of the water, lowers aquatic productivity, increases alkalinity, increases biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and increases benthic deposition and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). This could ultimately lead to loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill. Runoff from gypsum mining is not considered toxic, nor is the water pumped from either open-pit or underground gypsum mines (Wessel 1992; Davis 1992b, 1992d; Appleyard 1975). Mining impacts are significant in terms of habitat alteration, habitat destruction, and erosion. For example, mining erosion is ten times the amount of erosion for representative cropland and four times the amount for representative cutover forest land (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Other environmental impacts that result from mining operations include soil compaction, land destabilization, and resource depletion. However, there is no foreseeable shortage of gypsum in the United States. Because of its widespread occurrence and huge potential reserves, and also because it is not basic to survival, gypsum is not considered a strategic mineral.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Processing
Wastes generated during processing of gypsum include solid waste and air emissions. Solid wastes are discharged from grizzlies and vibrating screens during crushing, screening, and grinding operations. These wastes consist of clay, sand, limestone, and gypsum particles. Their total weight is estimated between 30 and 50 kg per metric ton of gypsum in gypsum board (EPA 1977b). Fugitive emissions of gypsum dust to the atmosphere result from all types of crushing and grinding equipment, as well as from the rotary dryer. With dust collection equipment in operation, the total amount of particulates is estimated to be less than 5 kg of minus 100-mesh gypsum per metric ton of gypsum in gypsum board (EPA 1977b). The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during the calcining process and the transport of gypsum to the gypsum board mill result in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. The environmental and health problems associated with these emissions are mentioned above in the section on gypsum mining. Calciners are the largest point source of air emissions in gypsum plants. Particulate emissions, primarily gypsum dust particles, occur from agitation of solids and the subsequent entrainment of solids in the gas flow from the equipment during dehydration. Particulate matter from calciners consists primarily of gypsum dust (made up of calcium
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11

sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, and anhydrous calcium sulfate) and gangue. The primary fuel sources in the calcining process are natural gas and distillate oil, both of which have low sulfur content. A few plants, particularly those with flash calciners, use residual fuel oil, whereas others use coal-fired kettles. Residual fuel oil and coal generally contain high sulfur content, and their combustion results in sulfur dioxide emissions which can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, as well as contribute to acid precipitation. Ore dryers are the second-largest point source of particulate emissions from gypsum plants. Particulate matter from dryers consists of calcium sulfate dihydrate and other solids present in the ore. Emissions are estimated at less than 3 kg per metric ton of gypsum present in gypsum board when dust equipment is operating, and approximately 20 kg per metric ton of gypsum in gypsum board without dust control equipment (EPA 1977b). Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and hydrocarbons can also be produced by the combustion of dryer fuel, depending on the fuel burned and the combustion efficiency. Most plants use natural gas or distillate oil as the fuel source, both of which have low sulfur content. A few plants burn residual fuel oil, which can have a high sulfur content, resulting in the release of sulfur dioxide. Fugitive air emissions of fine calcium sulfate dihydrate result from puffing at the filling valve of the bag during packaging. Atmospheric emissions from packaging are estimated to be less than 0.2 kg per metric ton of product (EPA 1977b).
Energy Consumed
Fuels are consumed to power the heavy equipment in the mining of gypsum. Industry data indicate that approximately 700 to 1,000 Btus (0.74 to 1.055 MJ) are expended per pound of mined gypsum and another 700 Btus (0.74 MJ) are required for crushing, screening, grinding, and calcining to produce a pound of calcined gypsum (Brown et al. 1985). The embodied energy at this stage of materials preparation is approximately 1,400 Btus (1.48 MJ) per pound of calcined gypsum. Packaging and transportation to the gypsum board manufacturing plant add an unquantified amount to the total energy consumed in the preparation of gypsum for board production.
Paper
The relatively small amount of bleached kraft paper used in the manufacture of gypsum board is composed, to the extent available, of recycled wastepaper (Wessel 1992). There is no standard paper for the gypsum board industry; manufacturers simply purchase an appropriate grade of bleached kraft paper. Typically, the backing paper consists of a coarse grade, while the front face consists of a finer-grade kraft paper that is calendered to the extent necessary to accept paint or other finishes (Wessel 1992). Use of recycled paper in papermaking generally requires fewer chemicals and less bleaching than conventional practices of producing paper from virgin materials. In the manufacture of paper from recycled wastepaper, the first step is collection of the used paper, which is transported to a sorting center, generally by truck. There it is concentrated for shipment in bulk, usually by train or truck, to the paper mill. The production of paper from secondary materials requires deinking and repulping of the wastepaper, followed by a production process that is similar to that for paper produced from virgin materials (Tellus Institute 1991). For deinking, the wastepaper is dumped into a pulper full of water. A combination of hot water, centrifugal force, caustics, detergents, and fine screening and washing separates the ink, clay, and fillers from the paper. Recycling wastepaper does not require the heavy chemicals and chlorine used in the wood-pulping process,
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since a significant portion of the lignin (which causes paper to yellow and become brittle) was removed when the wood fibers were first made into paper (Thomas 1993). Following deinking, the wastepaper is bleached. The bleaching process generally employs chlorines to whiten the paper fibers. At least one mill in the United States expects to soon be producing absolutely chlorine-free pulp on a continuous basis. Because wastepaper fibers are already whitened, recycling mills use about 75 percent less bleach than nonrecycling mills. Once the recycled pulp has been bleached, screened, and washed, the fibers must be beaten, or rubbed together to varying degrees to increase their surface area. This phase of production is called stock preparation. The stock consists of a dilute water suspension of fibers of a specified low concentration or consistency. As more surface area is exposed, more hydroxyl groups in the carbohydrate molecules are available for hydrogen bonding between fibers as the paper dries. Therefore, the mechanical properties of the resulting paper are altered in various ways. As the surface area increases, the paper becomes denser, harder, stronger, and tougher, while simultaneously becoming less flexible, less absorptive, and less crushable (McGraw-Hill 1991). In the most common practice, this prepared stock is then extruded in a continuous stream through a long, narrow slot, or slice, and onto a moving belt of wire mesh screen. Most of the water drains rapidly through the screen as it moves over a series of table rolls and suction boxes. The table rolls support the traveling screen, and the suction boxes remove water from the wet sheet. On its way back up to the slice, the screen passes around a perforated roll that is under vacuum. There are several alternative methods of forming the wet sheet on a wire screen. One method uses a rotating cylinder partially submerged in a vat of low-consistency pulp. In others, a stream of pulp is injected between a pair of wire belts in a number of configurations, which permits higher-speed operation (McGraw-Hill 1991). The suction couch roll draws more water out of the wet sheet, increasing its consistency to about 20 percent and making it strong enough to be transferred onto an endless porous fabric blanket made of felt. Supported on this felt, which absorbs water, the wet paper sheet passes through a series of press rolls that squeeze as much water out of the sheet as possible by mechanical pressure. The stock normally enters the presser at 86 percent moisture and leaves at 60 to 65 percent moisture (McGraw-Hill 1991). The remaining water, more than half the dry weight of the sheet, is evaporated out of the paper either by pressing alternate sides of the continuous sheet against the surface of a large number of steam-heated rolls or by supporting the sheet on a series of jets of hot air as it passes through the dryer. The paper is usually dried in a closed system made up of numerous rotating heated drying cylinders. About 5 to 10 percent moisture is left in the paper to minimize the change in dimensions that occurs as the paper absorbs or evaporates water to establish equilibrium with the relative humidity of the air to which it is subsequently exposed (McGraw-Hill 1991; American Gas Association 1988). Usually the sheet leaving the dryer is passed through a calender stack before it is rolled and readied for shipment. This stack is a series of vertically mounted rolls that revolve at slightly different speeds, pressing and smoothing the sheet and polishing its surface. A small amount of paper used in gypsum board manufacture is produced from virgin materials. This process starts with the harvesting of trees, mostly softwoods. The logs are delivered to the pulp mill, where they are debarked and chipped in preparation for the pulping process. Logging operations are discussed in the material report on plywood (06118 in ERG 1994 ed.) and are not discussed here.
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At the mill, the wood is chemically pulped, or digested, by the kraft process, using sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide to separate the fibers and remove lignin from the pulp. The kraft pulping process is the most widely used chemical pulping process (McGraw-Hill 1991). During pulping, most of the lignin and some of the hemicellulose are dissolved, leaving the cellulose with the remaining lignin and hemicellulose in the separated fibers. The brown pulp is filtered and washed with water. The solution containing the dissolved organic matter and spent chemicals, or black liquor, is concentrated in multiple-effect evaporators and burned under reducing conditions in a power boiler. The remaining sodium carbonate and sodium sulfide, along with some incompletely reduced sodium sulfate, form a smelt on the bottom of the furnace. This is dissolved in water to form green liquor, which is filtered to remove the precipitated heavy-metal ions derived from wood. The solution is then treated with calcium carbonate or lime to convert the sodium carbonate into sodium hydroxide, producing white liquor, which contains the pulping chemicals. The calcium carbonate is then converted back to calcium oxide by burning with fuel in a lime kiln. This cyclical chemical recovery system is a vital part of the kraft process. The relatively small but inevitable loss of chemicals is made up by adding sodium sulfate (McGraw-Hill 1991). Following the pulping process, the pulp is bleached. For chemical pulps where the lignin content is relatively small, bleaching is accomplished by breaking up the remaining lignin into smaller structures that can be dissolved. Lignin is a very strong reducing agent. Therefore, it is removed from chemical pulps by alternative treatments with strong oxidizing agents and with hot alkali in a multistage process, always ending with an oxidizing treatment. Usually the pulp is washed after each stage to decrease the consumption of chemicals. Acid solutions of chlorine and chlorine dioxide and alkaline solutions of hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and oxygen are the main oxidizing agents used. Although the most common sequence is chlorine, sodium hydroxide, chlorine dioxide, sodium hydroxide, and chlorine dioxide (designated CEDED), there are many modifications to this basic process. The next steps in the papermaking processstock preparation, forming, pressing, calendering, and dryingare the same as those described above for the production of paper from wastepaper.
The environmental effects of forest use and timber harvesting for production of paper include habitat alteration and destruction. Many scientists believe that forests play a part in maintaining climate by storing carbon gained by photosynthesis and that forests are major mediators of water movement from soil to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration. Depletion of forests as a result of converting forest lands to other uses and overharvesting could, therefore, result in a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and reduction in atmospheric moisture. This, in turn, could contribute to global climate change (EPA 1992; Postal 1989; Hileman 1992; Rubin et al. 1992). Forests also stabilize the soil by controlling water runoff, especially on hillsides, and are a significant source of biological diversity, both from the trees themselves and from the large diversity of ecosystems within forests. Logging operations and logging roads can alter and even destroy these ecosystems. Forests are also popular recreation and research areas. Forests originally covered about half of the land area of the United States. Timber harvesting, without any attempt to replant, set records around the turn of the century (MacCleery 1990). During the first decades of this century, efforts got underway to conserve and replant the depleted forest. By 1986, tree growth nationwide exceeded timber harvest by 37 percent, and the volume of standing timber nationally was 24 percent greater than it had been in 1952 (MacCleery 1990). Today 32 percent of the total U.S. land area is covered by forest, most of which is new growth as a result of replanting or
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natural forestation following cutting (MacCleery 1990). In the lower forty-eight states, where most of the harvesting presently takes place, estimates of remaining old-growth forest vary considerably. According to some environmentalists, only 2 to 5 percent of the old-growth forests in Washington and Oregon remain. Forest industry sources counter that the correct figure is about 20 percent (Hatfield 1991). Most of the existing oldgrowth forest is made up of softwood trees (Postel and Ryan 1991). Wood has once again become an abundant resource in most parts of the country. Most of the wood used in papermaking comes from softwoodsevergreen and coniferous trees. The harvesting of wood for use in papermaking generates some solid waste, including tree limbs, treetops, broken logs, and stumps, which are often left in the forest. This is generally considered a good sustainable-forestry practice, since nutrients and humic materials from these wastes are added by decay to the forest soil. Depending on proximity to other wood processing facilities, some of the waste has traditionally been used for pulping or chips. Sometimes the waste is sold for fuel or firewood. Fuel is required during logging operations to fell trees, cut them into logs, transport logs to loading sites, load logs onto trucks, and transport logs to pulp mills. Air emissions from the combustion of this fuel include VOCs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Effects of these emissions are described under waste produced during gypsum mining. Papermaking is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to land, air, and water. According to EPAs 1988 Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) data, the pulp and paper industry ranked fourth among U.S. industries in total discharges of TRI pollutants to water, air, and land (EPA 1988). In addition, the paper industry is a major consumer of water and the second largest consumer of chemicals. At the pulp mill, chipping and debarking of wood yield waste that is generally burned to fuel the papermaking process. The final solid-waste product, therefore, is wood ash. This ash may be disposed of in a landfill or sold for various purposes. Air pollutants resulting from the burning of wood include combustion gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The health and environmental effects associated with these pollutants are mentioned above. The water effluent from paper mills generally contains solids and organic pollutants. Such emissions can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids, which can reduce light penetration of water, lower aquatic productivity, increase alkalinity, increase BOD, and increase benthic deposition and deoxygenation. End-of-pipe control technologies, such as primary clarification and biological wastewater treatment, have substantially reduced release of these pollutants. Fibrous material released from the paper mill to the treatment plant increases the BOD and total suspended solids (TSS) load of the effluent. Toxic chemicals such as trichlorophenol and pentachlorophenol, contained in some biocides and slimicides used in paper machine white-water systems, may be found in effluent streams from mills that use these chemicals. Effluents can also contain chlorinated organics, such as dioxins, that result from the bleaching process. Conventional pulp bleaching, which includes chlorination, will typically produce 15 to 20 pounds of chlorinated organic materials per ton of bleached pulp prior to effluent treatment (Heimburger et al. 1988). Dioxin concentrations have been detected downstream from pulp-mill waste outfalls. However, the concentrations of dioxins in the effluent are low, normally on the level of parts per quadrillion (ppq) or less (Forbes 1992).
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Dioxins are lipophilic, so they bioconcentrate in animals and humans, especially in fat. Some dioxins are toxic, particularly 2,3,7,8-tetra-chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), which is a suspected carcinogen (NIEHS 1989). Discovery of dioxin in mill waste streams has led to strong pressure on the industry to reduce emissions of dioxin. EPA has recommended a maximum limit of 0.013 ppq of dioxins for drinking water (Forbes 1992). There are also likely to be restrictions on the land application of sludge from chlorine or chlorine-derivative pulp bleaching. In addition, there is growing concern over color and foam emissions from paper mills. Most of the paper used in the production of gypsum board is postindustrial, not postconsumer, newsprint. When wastepaper is deinked, ink residues end up in leftover sludge. About one-fifth of the wastepaper material is drawn off as sludge, which contains not only ink residues but also fillers, clay, fiber fragments, and other materials. The inks on the newsprint, however, are typically nontoxic, and the sludge from many deinking mills is being used by farmers as clay-heavy soil conditioner. The separation of fibers from wastewater and paperboards for reuse can generate large volumes of pollutants in the wastewater streams. When secondary fibers are reused, they become shorter and weaker. As a result they are more difficult to retain in the process, so more fibers escape to the effluent stream. However, many mills have succeeded in reducing the volume and the solids content of their discharges by recycling their water in a closed water circulation system (Tellus Institute 1991). Paper mills are a major producer of sulfur emissions, including sulfur oxides. Other air emissions resulting from paper production include particulates, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, lead, methane, hydrogen sulfide, sodium hydroxide, organic sulfur compounds, chlorine, and chloroform (Tellus Institute 1992). Many of these air emissions result from the combustion of fuel such as oil, gas, coal, and wastes from pulping and wood processing. The energy released from this combustion generates large quantities of steam for pulping and drying paper and for electricity to power pumps, refiners, and paper machines. These pollutants contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, which are mentioned above. The pulp and paper industry ranked first in TRI emissions of chloroform, generating 70 percent of the total chloroform emissions reported (EPA 1988). There is sufficient evidence that chloroform is carcinogenic in lab animals, and it is a suspected human carcinogen (NIEHS 1989).
Energy Consumed
Industry data indicate that 962.8 million Btus (1.016 MJ) of energy are required by logging operations to cut, prepare, and haul one ton of logs (Brown et al. 1985). The paper industry is also energy intensive, requiring large quantities of steam for pulping and for drying the paper and paperboard, as well as electricity for running pumps, refiners, and paper machines. Energy comes from a number of different sources, including oil, gas, and coal as well as self-generated and residue fuels, including hogged fuel, spent liquor, and the wastes from pulping and wood processing (Tellus Institute 1991; American Gas Association 1988). In 1986, to produce 72,662 million tons of paper and paperboard, the paper industry used a total of 2,273 trillion Btus (2.40 trillion MJ) of energy, of which 970 trillion Btus (10.2 billion MJ) were purchased and 1,303 trillion Btus (1.37 trillion MJ) were self-generated or fuel residues. The predominant fuel sources were coal, natural gas, and spent liquor (American Paper Institute 1987). Industry data indicate an average energy expenditure of 31.3 million Btus (33,020 MJ) per ton of paper produced (American Gas Association 1988). If the paper is manufactured in an integrated mill (from wood to paper), 24.3 million Btus (25,600 MJ) of
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energy are required per ton of paper. If it is produced in a pulp mill followed by a paper finishing mill, 33.6 million Btus (35,440 MJ) are required per ton of paper (Brown et al. 1985). Paper products manufactured from recycled material require approximately 27 to 44 percent less energy than those manufactured from virgin wood, depending largely upon whether the paper is bleached or unbleached (Tellus Institute 1991). Thus, for the gypsum board industry, which uses bleached paper, the energy savings are probably in the 30 percent range.
Joint Tape Joint tape is typically made of paper, although a glass-fiber tape is also available. The paper used in joint tape is bleached and manufactured to meet American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) standards. Both perforated and nonperforated paper tapes are in use. Paper tape constitutes a majority of the joint tape marketed; the remainder of the joint tape used in the United States is glass-fiber mesh tape. Although glass-fiber tape is stronger in tensile strength than paper tape, there is evidence that it produces a weaker joint when conventional joint compounds are used (Thomas 1992, 1993). Several manufacturers recommend using a chemically hardened joint compound with glass-fiber tape. The environmental stressors and impacts associated with materials acquisition and preparation for joint tape are summarized in figure 5.
Waste considerations for joint-tape paper are similar to those described for paper in the section above on gypsum board. Waste considerations for production, use, and disposal of glass-fiber joint tape include the impacts associated with the mining of raw materials and the manufacture of glass fiber. These raw materials include glass sand, dolomitic limestone, and borax. Air emissions from glass-fiber production include small amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide, particulates, and VOCs. (Fiber emissions are considered minimal.) The actual amount of waste generated is not available, but an informal survey of manufacturers indicated that it is less than 1 percent of all material produced for end-use application. Glass fiber can be reused or recycled, but very little recycling currently takes place. As a result, most of the glass-fiber joint-tape waste is disposed of in landfills either as waste tape or attached to gypsum board that has been removed from a building. These impacts are discussed in more detail in the material report on thermal insulation (07200).
Energy Consumed
The energy requirements for production of paper for the manufacture of joint tape are described above under gypsum board.
Joint Compound Joint compound is usually sold in buckets as a ready-to-use product or in powder form to be mixed with water at the job site. Joint compound contains calcium carbonate (limestone) or, to a lesser extent, gypsumto provide body. In addition, it may contain polyvinyl acetate or organic materials (usually natural or synthetic starches) as binder; mica, clay, talc, and/or perlite as filler; ethylene glycol as an extender; and antibacterial and antifungal agents. Chemically hardened joint compounds make up less than 10 percent of the joint compound market and are used mostly in manufactured housing. Commercially available joint compounds are manufactured to ASTM standards, and the formulae are proprietary. The larger manufacturers, which are both gypsum board and joint compound manufacturers, generally purchase rather than mine the raw materials for their raw products and often manufacture under license for brand-name holders (Thomas 1992, 1993; Wessel 1992). The environmental stressors and impacts associated with the materials acquisition and preparation for joint compound are summarized in figure 6.
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Figure 5: Joint TapeMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Logging
Stressor
Timber harvesting
Impact/Stressor
Habitat alteration Soil erosion
Impact/Stressor
Loss of habitat Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD
Impact/Stressor
Stumps, limbs, logs Depletion of forests Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area Fuel combustion emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Pulping Effluent (TSS, organics) Air emissions Organic sulfur compounds Odors Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Reduced reproduction Fishkill Global warming Reduced reproduction Fishkill Greenhouse effect Global warming
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Figure 5: Joint TapeMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Paper manufacturing
Stressor
Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
Fuel combustion emissions (SOx, NOx, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Chloroform Lead
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Suspected human carcinogen Retardation and brain damage, especially in children
Effluent
Dioxins and toxics
Bioconcentration of dioxins and consumption of toxics
Fishkill
TSS and organics
Increased BOD
Deoxygenation
Sludge Glass sand, limestone, and borax mining Land disturbance Tailings waste
Landfill disposal Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Loss of habitat (see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (VOCs, SOx, NOx, CO CO2, particulates) Glass fiber manufacture Air emissions (fluorides and fuel combustion emissions) Effluent Air emissions (H2S)
Odors (see impacts above)
Phenols and ammonia Dissolved and suspended solids and oil and grease
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD
Fishkill Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
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Figure 6: Joint CompoundMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Limestone
Stressor
Tailings waste
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Deoxygenation
Impact/Stressor
Land disturbance
Runoff Loss of habitat
(see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
(see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greehouse effect Human health effects (cardiovasculer, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Global warming Reduced reproduction Fishkill
Mica, clay, talc, and perlite mining
Tailings waste Land disturbance
Runoff (see impacts above) Soil erosion Habitat alteration Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Polyvinyl acetate production Air emissions
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Benzene Human health effects (known human carcinogen) VOCs Fuel combustion emissions (SOx, NOx, CO2, VOCs, particulates) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
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Figure 6: Joint CompoundMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Starch production Ethylene glycol production VOCs Fuel combustion emissions (Sox, NOx, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Stressor
Corn growing Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
Pesticides runoff Benzene
Impact/Stressor
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Human health effects (known human carcinogen) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Calcium Carbonate or Gypsum
The source of calcium carbonate in joint compound is limestone, which is sedimentary rock composed mostly of the mineral calcite (CaCO3). Some other carbonate mineralsnotably siderite, anchorite, and magnetiteare commonly found associated with limestone, but generally in minor amounts. Twenty states account for approximately 90 percent of domestic limestone production, with Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, and Ohio the leading producers. In 1972 the United States production of limestone was estimated at 663,281,000 short tons (Carr and Rooney 1975). Most limestone is mined by open-pit or quarrying methods, and most limestone producers choose these methods even where underground mining might be equally or slightly more economical. Limestone mining requires no special equipment. Overburden is removed using bulldozers, draglines, or hydraulic shovels. The rock is drilled and blasted. The broken stone is loaded into dump trucks and hauled to the primary crusher, or it is loaded onto a conveyor and carried directly to a portable or permanent crusher. For most uses, limestone must travel through a secondary crusher and be sized. For some uses, limestone is ground or heated (Carr and Rooney 1975). About 5 percent of limestone produced in the United States comes from underground mining. Most underground limestone mines consist of horizontal drifts into the sides of hills or into the walls of open-pit mines, but some consist of vertical or inclined shafts. Limestone mines are seldom more than 1,000 feet deep, and most are only a few hundred feet deep. Most underground limestone mines are the room-and-pillar type and, like salt mines, are characterized by cathedral-like dimensions. Underground mining of limestone is generally more expensive than open-pit mining or quarrying. Limestone mines are generally located near their markets. The cost of transporting the limestone makes long-distance hauling economically unfeasible. About 75 percent of the limestone used in the United States is transported by truck, typically at distances of less than 50 miles. About 11 percent is shipped by rail, and the remainder by waterway and other means (Carr and Rooney 1975). The mining and production of gypsum are discussed above under gypsum board.
The environmental and health effects associated with gypsum mining and production are discussed above under gypsum board. The environmental and health effects associated with the mining and production of limestone are similar to those for gypsum.
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There is an abundant supply of both gypsum and limestone in the United States; the anticipated demand is not expected to deplete it.
Energy Consumed
Estimates of energy use for materials acquisition stepssuch as mining and crushing vary with the processes used. The energy required for limestone mining and processing is estimated at 0.164 million Btus/ton (Tellus Institute 1992). Transportation to manufacturing plants adds a small amount to the total energy consumed in preparing materials for joint compound. The cost of ore transportation is a function of distance and may vary greatly. A widely accepted estimate is 250 Btus/lb (0.5 million Btus/ton). The energy consumed in the production of gypsum is discussed above under gypsum board.
Polyvinyl Acetate and Starch
The binder used in joint compound usually consists of polyvinyl acetate or organic materials, such as natural or synthetic starches. Polyvinyl acetate is prepared by introducing a benzene solution of vinyl acetate containing the desired catalyst into a jacketed vessel. The mixture boils at a temperature of 72C, and the vapors are condensed and returned to the kettle. After about 5 hours at a gentle boil, the reaction mixture is run to a still, and the solvent and unchanged vinyl acetate are removed by steam distillation. The molten resin is run into drums, where it solidifies or is extruded into rods and sliced into flakes (Austin 1984). Vinyl acetate is manufactured by reacting ethylene with acetic acid in the vapor phase over a supported palladium catalyst. The reaction takes place in a fixed-bed tubular reactor and is highly exothermic. When the reaction is conducted under the proper conditions, the only significant by-product is carbon dioxide. Enough heat is recovered as steam to perform the recovery distillation. The reaction occurs at 175 to 200C under a pressure of 475 to 1,000 kPa (Austin 1984). Ethylene, the precursor of vinyl acetate, can be manufactured from distillates, natural gas, or gas liquids or from the cracking of ethane or propane (Austin 1984). Most ethylene is derived from natural gas. Starches are also used as binder in joint compound. Most starch used in the United States is produced from corn. Starch produced from white potatoes, wheat, rice, arrowroot, and cassava (tapioca) can be used in many of the same applications as cornstarch. Starch consists of a chain of D-glucopyranosyl units and has the general formula (C6H12O5)n with n = 250 to over 1,000. There are two major components of starch: a branched-chain form called amylopectin and a linear form called amylose. The average corn kernel contains approximately 61 percent starch. Cornstarch is produced through corn wet-refining. In this process, shelled corn is wet milled in a dilute sulfurous acid medium. The first operation consists of cleaning the corn by means of screens, compressed air, and electromagnets. The cleaned corn is soaked, or steeped, for 2 days in circulating warm water (46 to 52C) containing 0.10 to 0.30 percent sulfur dioxide to prevent fermentation during the soaking period. Soaking softens the gluten, loosens the hulls, and dissolves salts, soluble carbohydrates, and protein. The cleaned, softened kernels are degerminated between two studded steel platesone rotating and one stationarywhich tear the kernels apart and extricate the corn germs without crushing them. The corn germs are liquid-separated from the hulls in stationary cone-shaped hydroclones. The separation is accomplished using continuous gravity separation by the centrifugal action of a tangentially injected suspension of germ-fiber starch.
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The remainder of the corn kernel contains starch, gluten, and cellulosic fiber. It is wetground in impact fiber mills and passed through high-capacity stationary screens called sieve bends. In the sieve bends, the starch and gluten are washed countercurrently with process water to remove them from the fiber. The heavier starch is separated from the gluten using pressure-nozzle discharge centrifuges. The starch is purified by being pumped through starch-washing hydroclones. The starch is removed from suspension with a vacuum rotary string-discharge filter. The cake is broken and dried by flashing or in a continuous tunnel dryer traveling countercurrent to the air. The starch enters with a moisture content of 44 percent and exits at 10 to 14 percent (Austin 1984).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Production of Polyvinyl Acetate
Benzene, the preferred solvent used in the production of polyvinyl acetate, is a known human carcinogen. Its use and release are highly regulated by EPA and other agencies. Vinyl acetate is regulated by EPA as a hazardous air pollutant and hazardous substance. These pollutants are released in small amounts and within regulated limits during the manufacture of polyvinyl acetate. Accidental spills or releases could adversely affect human health and the environment. Vinyl acetate is toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Additional pollutants are released to the air from combustion of fuel used to heat the benzene solution of polyvinyl acetate. Emissions from fuel combustion and the production of energy, as well as the effects of associated pollutants, are described above under gypsum board. Ethylene, the precursor of vinyl acetate, is manufactured from ethane, which is derived from natural gas production. Air pollutants resulting from the drilling, extraction, and processing of natural gas include particulates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, and carbon dioxide (Tellus Institute 1992). The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are described above under gypsum board. Ethylene can also be manufactured from petroleum products, such as naphtha and gas oil, through a more complicated process. A variety of pollutants are released during the drilling, extraction, and cracking of petroleum. Wastes in oil and gas extraction result from the discharge of produced water (generated during extraction), drilling muds (bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda), drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands. In the case of offshore and coastal extraction, there are also deck drainage and sanitary and domestic wastes. The potentially significant wastewater constituents are oil, grease, oxygen-depleting parameters (BOD), heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics (Alexander and Greber 1991; Tellus Institute 1992). The effects of these pollutants are mentioned above under gypsum board. The primary source of air pollution during oil drilling operations is large diesel engines that power the drill. Air pollutants emitted during drilling include nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, VOCs, and particulates. Sulfur compounds in stack gases are released during the refining of petroleum products (Austin 1984). The environmental and health effects associated with these air emissions from both drilling and refining are mentioned above under gypsum board. The principal air pollutants from ethylene production are benzene and VOCs. The uncontrolled emission factor for VOCs is 16.7 lbs/ton of ethylene, and the uncontrolled emission factor for benzene is 2.22 lbs/ton of ethylene. (The controlled emission factor for benzene is 0.169 lb/ton of ethylene.) Benzene is highly toxic by ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption (Hawley 1971). Numerous water pollutants result from ethylene production, including chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and such metals as zinc, cadmium, chromium, and copper
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(Tellus Institute 1992). Many of these pollutants are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Natural gas and petroleum are two of the natural resources employed in the production of ethylene. U.S. reserves of these nonrenewable resources are limited.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Production of Starch
Very little waste is generated in the production of starch because many products are made at different stages in the process. Important co-products of the starch industry are corn gluten, feed and meal, corn-oil meal, and corn oil. Concentrated steep water is consumed in the growing of penicillin and streptomycin. Inositol, a sugar substance and a member of the vitamin B complex, is made from corn steep water. Runoff of pesticides and fertilizers and soil erosion are the major environmental concerns associated with growing corn. By their very nature, pesticides are toxic to some organisms and thus can cause significant adverse human health effects and/or ecological damage. Agriculture is responsible for 68 to 83 percent of the non-point-source loadings of sediment, nitrogen, phosphorus, and BOD. Minimizing the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides can help alleviate this problem. Soil erosion in cornfields can be reduced by the technique of sod planting. Another environmental concern is the emissions from combustion of the fuel used in planting, cultivating, fertilizing, irrigating, spraying, harvesting, and transporting the corn. Diesel and gasoline are probably the most common fuels used in the agricultural sector. Emissions from the combustion of these fuels contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, as discussed above. Corn is considered a renewable resource, and cornstarch is produced in abundant quantities in the United States.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required for heating the benzene solution of vinyl acetate in the manufacture of polyvinyl acetate. However, little energy is consumed in recovering the unreacted vinyl acetate, because the reaction is highly exothermic and enough heat is recovered as steam to perform the recovery distillation (Austin 1984). Additional energy is required for packaging and transporting the finished product. There are currently no data available on the amount of energy required to produce polyvinyl acetate. In the manufacture of starch, there are few or no chemical changes that require energy. Almost all the steps in the manufacturing sequence involve physical changes or unit operations. These consume energy in the form of power for cleaning, washing, separating, pumping, centrifugation, and filtration, as well as heat for soaking and drying. Planting, cultivating, and harvesting corn require substantial amounts of energy, particularly in the form of fuel to power equipment. Additional energy is needed to package and transport the corn to the cornstarch manufacturing facility. There currently are no specific figures available for the amount of energy required to produce starch.
Mica, Clay, Talc, and Perlite
Mica is the name given to a group of complex hydrous potassium silicate minerals with differing chemical compositions and physical properties. Mica crystallizes in block, or book, form. The crystals have excellent basal cleavage and can be split easily in one direction into tough, flexible sheets. Mica minerals vary in chemical composition and structure, having varying proportions of magnesium and potassium, usually some iron and fluorine, and sometimes sodium, lithium, chromium, titanium, barium, or manganese. The important mica minerals are muscovite and phlogopite. Muscovite is obtained from coarse-grained igneous rocks called pegmatites. Pegmatites also contain feldspar, quartz, and a variety of other minerals. Pegmatite dikes and veins range in length from 1 kilometer or more and in width from 100 meters to thin veins and veinlets of approximately 2 centimeters (Davis 1989,
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1992c). Micas are available in block and sheet form and as dry-ground and wet-ground flakes (Hornbostel 1991). Only ground mica is used in joint compound. In 1991, about 103,000 metric tons of scrap and flake mica were produced in the United States. The largest domestic use of ground mica is in gypsum board joint compound (McKetta and Cunningham 1989). The mica acts as a filler, provides a smooth consistency, improves the workability of the joint compound, and imparts resistance to cracking. The demand for ground mica as filler in joint compound tends to follow construction activity levels. About 39,000 metric tons of mica were used in the manufacture of joint compound in 1991 (Davis 1992c). Most mica comes from surface mining of mica schists and recovery as a co-product of feldspar, kaolin, and lithium beneficiation (Davis 1989, 1992c). Most domestic flake mica for grinding purposes is mined from weathered alaskite bodies and pegmatites in North Carolina, where the mica is recovered as a co-product of feldspar and kaolin beneficiation (Davis 1989, 1992c). Flake mica is also recovered from muscovite schists. These schist bodies range in size from 3 to more than 100 meters thick and several kilometers long. The mica content ranges up to 90 percent. The U.S. flake-mica industry ranks first in world production. The mining of flake mica is amenable to conventional mining and beneficiation techniques because of the regular distribution of the mica particles in the host rock. Most operations are open-pit mines or quarries using conventional equipment to remove any overburden above a working face. The exposed mica ore is mined by hydraulic methods, power-driven equipment, or a combination of the two methods. Some mica is mined in underground mines, using quarrying methods where possible and by shaft and drift methods only where necessary. Mica can be recovered from the mined ore by several methods. The simplest method separates the mica from its host rock by differential crushing and screening in washer plants. Another method uses screens, classifiers, and Humphreys spirals to concentrate differentially ground ore. The mica is also recovered by the use of screens, classifiers, and flotation techniques (Petkof 1975). Typically, grinding occurs at the mine or nearby off-site, using buhrmills, rod mills, high-speed hammer mills, or various types of attrition mills (McKetta 1989; Petkof 1975). Nearly all flake mica is ground to final specifications, depending on the use (Davis 1989, 1992c). High-speed hammer mills are widely used for dry grinding of mica. The hammer mill operates in a closed circuit with an air separator, which returns oversized material for additional grinding and discharges the fine material to a screening operation. Various-sized fractions are bagged for marketing. Wet-ground mica is processed in chasertype mills. The grinding surfaces are usually made of wood to preserve the luster of the finely ground mica. In wet processes, flake mica is fed to the chaser mill, where water is added slowly to form a thick paste. Twelve companies operate fifteen grinding plants in seven states to produce ground mica. Ten plants produce dry-ground and five produce wet-ground mica (Davis 1989, 1992c). Clay is a natural, earthy, fine-grained material composed largely of a group of crystalline minerals known as clay minerals. These minerals are hydrous aluminum silicates composed mainly of silica, alumina, and water. The clay minerals contain mainly mixtures of kaolinite (Al2O3 6SiO2 2H2O), montmorillonite [(Mg, Ca)O Al2O3 5SiO2 nH2O], and illite (variable amounts of K2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, and H2O). Accompanying these minerals are varying amounts of feldspar, quartz, and other impurities, such as oxides of iron. Most clays are plastic or workable when wet, and harden when heated or dried. These properties, however, vary greatly among different types of clays. Clays are chosen for the
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particular properties desired and are frequently blended to give the most favorable result (Austin 1984). In 1988 approximately 36,653 short tons of clay, primarily fullers earth and kaolin, were used in gypsum board and other gypsum products (Ampian 1988). In 1989 more than 42 million metric tons of clay were produced in the United States (Ampian and McGee 1990). During that year, clays were produced in 46 states and Puerto Rico, with Georgia, South Carolina, Florida, and Arkansas leading the output of fullers earth and kaolin. The mining of clay is a highly sophisticated mechanized operation (Patterson and Murray 1975). Clays are mined using surface-mining techniques. Typically, the overburden is removed by either motorized scrapers or large draglines. After the fullers earth or kaolin is exposed and tested, it is mined by shovels, drag-lines, motorized scrapers, or front-end loaders. The fullers earth or kaolin is either loaded in trucks or dropped into a blunger that disperses it in water with the aid of a dispersant chemical to form a clay-water slip, or slurry. This slurry is pumped from the blunger to the degritting station, where the coarse grit (material coarser than 44 micrometers) is removed with settling boxes, screens, and/or hydrocyclones. After degritting, the kaolin slurry is collected in large storage tanks and then pumped through pipelines to the beneficiation plant (Patterson and Murray 1975). Two basically different processes are used to produce a marketable kaolin product: a dry process and a wet process. The dry process is simple and yields a lower-cost and lower-quality product than the wet process. In the dry process, the kaolin is crushed to approximately egg size, dried in rotary dryers, pulverized, and air floated. The air-floating process removes most of the grit. The wet process produces kaolin products of uniform and predetermined physical and chemical properties. Crude kaolin of variable quality can be wet processed to produce a uniform high-quality product. The kaolin slurry is pumped from the mines to the plant, where it is stored in large tanks. Kaolins of various qualities are blended at the mine tanks or in the terminal tanks at the plant. The first step in the wet process is to separate the kaolin slurry into fine fractions by using continuous centrifuges, hydrocyclones, or hydroseparators. After fractionation, the kaolin is leached to remove ferruginous coloring compounds. In this step the kaolin is acidified with sulfuric acid to a pH of about 3.0 to dissolve the iron. A strong reducing agent, such as hydrosulfite, is then added, and the iron reacts and forms soluble sulfate, which is removed during the dewatering step. Dewatering is accomplished with highspeed centrifuges, rotary vacuum filters, or filter presses. After filtration, the kaolin filter cake can be extruded to noodle form and dried in apron dryers or rotary dryers, or it can be redispersed to the fluid state and spray dried, drum dried, or shipped in slurry form as 70 percent solids in tank cars. Talc is a fine-grained, hydrated magnesium silicate in the form 3MgO 4 SiO2 H2O. It is an extremely soft mineral and varies in color from white to greenish gray and various shades of green. It is found naturally in soapstone and has a soft, soapy feel. Commercial talc comes from deposits that were formed through hydrothermal alteration of ultrabasic rocks and lowgrade metamorphism of siliceous dolomites. They generally occur as lenses or pods in the rock. Magnetite, quartz, chlorite, serpentine, anthophyllite, tremolite, dolomite, and actinolite may be present as accessory minerals. Talc is used as a filler in a number of applications, including joint compound. Its mineral content is extremely important because it determines the end use of the material. The major consumer of talc is the construction industry, with applications in ceramic tiles, joint compound, paint, and roofing (Vitra 1992). Domestic production of talc decreased 12 percent from that of 1990 to 1,040,000 metric tons (Vitra 1992). Twelve companies operating
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nineteen mines in eight states produced talc and soapstone. These companies are generally structured to cover all aspects of talc production, from mining to processing. Only a few companies hire custom grinders to mill the ore. The major producing deposits of talc are in Montana, New York, Texas, and Vermont. Approximately 75 percent of the domestic talc production comes from open-pit mine and quarry operations (Roe 1975). Underground mining is used only when large ratios of waste rock to ore make open-pit mining and quarrying uneconomical. The equipment used in underground talc mining is unsophisticated and capable of producing only a few tons per hour (Roe 1975). Some underground operations have vertical shafts over 1,000 feet deep. Underground mining methods range from conventional shrinkage stopping operations to room-and-pillar methods. Open-pit mining and quarrying use conventional stripping, loading, and hauling equipment. Typically, overburden is removed and the ore is fractured by blasting. Selective mining and manual or automated sorting produce a high-grade feed for the mill. Since most of the talc market is supplied with a relatively impure product, beneficiation usually is not carried out (Roe 1975). Talc mills generally include complex froth flotation, sedimentation, hydrocycloning, dry and wet magnetic separation, centrifugal sizing, spray drying, and grinding techniques. Grinding is required to prepare the ore for processing as well as to finish off the final product, which must meet stringent particle-size standards (Roe 1975). Jaw crushers reduce the size of the mill feed, and ceramic grinding equipment is used to retain the white color of the talc. Fluid-energy mills or pulverizing mills are used for ultrafine grinding of the talc ore. In some instances, the ore is calcined prior to milling to increase its whiteness. When the desired purity is not obtained through conventional processing, the milled ore is chemically treated, passed through rougher and cleaner cells to separate the talc from the gangue material, dried in a flash dryer, and ground in a pulverizer (Vitra 1992). Perlite is a glassy volcanic rock similar to obsidian but having distinctive concentric cracks and a relatively high water content. Upon rapid controlled heating, perlite will expand or pop into a frothy material of low bulk density, which is used as a lightweight aggregate. The term perlite also applies to the expanded product. The chemical composition of perlite ranges from that of rhyolite to that of andesite, and the water content ranges from 2 to 5 percent. Most perlite is pale gray, but some is black, brown, or even green. Perlite often contains trace amounts of quartz, feldspar, biotite, hornblende, and miscellaneous rock fragments. Perlite exists as flows associated with thick accumulations of pyroclastic debris and other volcanic rocks. It is found in geological formations, such as dikes, sills, domes, and selvages. Individual flows of perlite range in thickness from a few feet to as much as 100 feet and commonly cover several square miles. In 1991, 839,000 short tons of perlite were mined in the United States. Perlite mined for processing came from nine companies with ten operations in six states. New Mexico operations accounted for a large majority of the total tonnage mined. The remaining tonnage came from Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, and Nevada (Bolen et al. 1992). Construction uses of expanded perlite accounted for 65 percent of total domestic sales in 1991 (Davis 1992b). The amount of perlite in construction-related uses declined slightly in 1991 to 329,100 tons; these uses include concrete aggregate, fillers in joint compound, filter aid, formed products (e.g., acoustical ceiling tiles, pipe insulation, and roof insulation board), plaster aggregate, and low-temperature insulation. Perlite is mined with conventional equipment. Most of the domestic perlite production is from open-pit mining and quarry operations. The pumiceous perlites generally can be mined by loosening the perlite with a ripper-equipped bulldozer. If the perlite is dense and
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only moderately fractured, it is fragmented by a blasting technique that does not overbreak the ore and produce an excess of fines (Chesterman 1975). The broken ore is loaded onto large trucks using a hydraulic shovel or front-end loader and is then hauled to the crusher. There it is crushed, screened, and ground in preparation for use in products or for sale. The mined rock is reduced in size by a jaw crusher. The crushed ore is dried, if necessary, in a rotary dryer to reduce the water content to less than 1 percent. The dried perlite is further crushed to produce furnace feed for specified products. Sized particles are conveyed to storage bins, from which they are withdrawn for blending and mixing. Air classification is used to remove the excessively fine fraction, which is detrimental to the final product. These fines constitute as much as 25 percent of the mill feed and are rejected as waste material (Chesterman 1975). Two basic types of furnace are used to process perlite: rotary horizontal and stationary vertical. Properly sized perlite is injected into a furnace heated to a temperature above 1,400F. Expansion occurs when the perlite has reached a temperature (usually between 1,400F and 1,800F) at which it begins to soften to a plastic state and allows the entrapped water to be released as steam. After perlite is preheated, it is fed directly into the expanding furnace. As the particles expand, they are withdrawn from the furnace by a suction fan and passed through a cyclone classifier system to remove excessive fines and collect the expanded perlite product. The relatively clean gasesprincipally water vaporare discharged into the atmosphere (Chesterman 1975). The expanded perlite is bagged and loaded into trucks or rail cars for transporting to joint-compound manufacturing facilities.
As with the mining of gypsum (described above under gypsum board), the mining of mica, clay, talc, and perlite results in air emissions of particulates, and the combustion of fuels used for operating mining equipment and dryers results in emissions of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and lead. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are mentioned above under gypsum board. Mining operations also result in solid waste from overburden removal and tailings, runoff pollution to streams, and habitat alteration in mined areas. Some processing operations required to prepare the minerals into marketable products result in the generation of solid waste. In the case of talc, approximately 25 percent of the mill feed is discarded as waste during the processing operations (Chesterman 1975). World reserves and resources of scrap and flake mica are not well known but are considered to be very large, and the domestic supply of flake mica is adequate (Davis 1989, 1992c). Clay is in abundant supply in the United States, and reserves should more than adequately meet future demands. Domestic reserves of talc are adequate to meet the foreseeable demand for this mineral. The bulk of the domestic reserves of perlite are in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. Perlite reserves are sufficient to supply the foreseeable needs of the United States.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in mica, clay, talc, and perlite production, like that in gypsum production, is largely in the form of fuels consumed to power equipment for mining, crushing, and hauling. Beneficiation and other processing operations add to the amount of energy required to produce these minerals. Transporting the minerals from the mines to the mills and from the mills to joint-compound manufacturing facilities requires additional fuel energy.
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Ethylene Glycol
Ethylene glycol was once widely used to regulate drying time in many joint compound formulations, but it has been largely replaced by less harmful chemicals in proprietary formulations (Thomas 1993). Ethylene glycol is made by reacting ethylene with oxygen or air in a tubular reactor over a silver oxide catalyst. Because the volatility of glycol is low, it is preferable to purify the ethylene oxide, then convert it to glycol by hydration. During the hydration, however, polyglycols are formed. Ethylene dichloride (under 1 ppm) is added to a mix of ethylene and air in the ratio of 1:10 to reduce oxidation to carbon dioxide, and the mixture is passed over a supported silver oxide catalyst at atmospheric pressure and 280C with a 1-second contact time. This results in a 60 to 70 percent conversion of the ethylene. Ethylene oxide is removed from the effluent by water scrubbing, and the unreacted constituents are recirculated (Austin 1984). Ethylene, the precursor of ethylene glycol, can be manufactured from distillates, natural gas, or gas liquids, or from the cracking of ethane or propane (Austin 1984). An estimated 2.05 billion kg of ethylene glycol were produced in the United States in 1981 (Austin 1984).
Ethylene, the precursor of ethylene glycol, is manufactured from ethane, which is a result of natural gas production. The pollutants resulting from production of ethylene are mentioned above under polyvinyl acetate. During the manufacture of ethylene glycol, most of the unreacted constituents (primarily ethylene and ethylene oxide) are recirculated, minimizing fugitive emissions. Ethylene oxide, generally produced and used captively to produce ethylene glycol, is a suspected human carcinogen that generally does not persist in the environment because it is highly reactive. In water, ethylene oxide reacts to form ethylene glycol. It also evaporates quickly and is hydrolyzed by water vapor and oxidized by hydroxyl free radicals (NIEHS 1989). Ethylene oxide can enter the environment as fugitive emissions during production or as vented gases. Most ethylene oxide/ethylene glycol producers treat water effluents at a biopond before discharging them from the plant (NIEHS 1989). The amounts of ethylene oxide detected in discharge waters from these plants has declined over the past several years. Another pollutant released during the manufacture of ethylene glycol is carbon dioxide. Increases in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Energy Consumed
The energy required to process 1 million Btus of natural gas is 0.793 million Btus, assuming that 50 percent of the gas is sour and 50 percent is sweet. The production of 1 lb of ethane requires 39,291 Btus21,914 Btus of raw material (natural gas) and 17,377 Btus for drilling, extraction, and processing (Tellus Institute 1992). The manufacture of ethylene from ethane requires 47,651 Btus/lb of ethylene produced (Tellus Institute 1992). Production of ethylene from naphtha requires 26,389 Btus/lb of ethylene, and manufacture of ethylene from heavy gas oil requires 25,595 Btus/lb of ethylene (Tellus Institute 1992). Production of ethylene from a mix of feeds (e.g., ethane, naphtha, propane, and gas oil) is estimated to require 32,553 Btus/lb of ethylene. Additional energy is required to produce ethylene oxide and then ethylene glycol from ethylene, but no quantitative data are available. Most of the energy used to drill and extract natural gas and oil is diesel fuel that powers the drilling equipment. On average, approximately 0.072 million Btus of diesel fuel are expended to extract 1 million Btus worth of gas or oil (Tellus Institute 1992).
Antibacterial and Antifungal Agents
Biocides and fungicides sometimes are added to joint compound to retard the growth of bacteria and fungi. The use of traditional biocides, such as mercurials, is restricted because of
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pollution concerns. Commonly used organic biocides include halogenated substances, phenolics, quaternary ammonium salts, organic sulfur compounds, organometallics (particularly organotin), and nitrogen-containing compounds. Organic fungicides, such as dithiocarbamates, chlorinated phenols, and carboximides, are also used. The use of inorganic fungicides is declining because of environmental concerns.
The manufacture of biocides and fungicides is highly regulated because of the toxicity of these agents; therefore, emissions should be minimized. Releases of biocides and fungicides could cause damage to ecosystems and could adversely affect human health. Accidental releases of these agents during storage or shipping are of primary concern relative to the manufacture of joint compound.
Energy Consumed
Energy is consumed in the manufacture of biocides and fungicides as well as in the transport of these agents to the joint-compound manufacturing facility.

Gypsum Board Gypsum board products are manufactured by continuous methods on automatic machines. The calcined gypsum is dumped into a hot pit and mixed with various additivessuch as starch, glass fiber, perlite, vermiculite, and accelerators (usually raw gypsum or potassium sulfate)in preparation for manufacture of gypsum board (Gypsum Association 1992). This mix is combined with water and soap foam (C-E Process Equipment 1976). To form gypsum board, approximately 1,000 to 1,200 lbs of water are added to 1,000 sq ft of board to fluidize the slurry (McKetta and Cunningham 1987).
The slurry of wet gypsum with additives is spread between two moving sheets of paper and passed through shaping rolls. The edges of the paper are scored and sometimes chamfered (beveled) to allow precise folding to form the edges, which are then molded and sealed. No glue is used in this process. The coarse kraft paper is physically bonded to the gypsum as the gypsum hardens when it becomes rehydrated (Wessel 1992). The wet board sandwich is run out on a traveling belt until the gypsum has set, then cut with a revolving knife into appropriate lengths, and slowly passed through a drying kiln (Gypsum Association 1992). In the kiln, the board is dried through direct contact with hot combustion gases. The dried board is conveyed to the board-end sawing area, where it is trimmed and packaged for shipment. Packaging typically involves booking and sealing the ends of two face-to-face sheets of gypsum board with paper tape. The sealed sheets are bundled and stacked automatically into palletized units and shipped in bulk by rail or truck (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). The environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture of gypsum board are summarized in figure 7.
Particulates consisting of calcium sulfate hemihydrate (stucco) and additive dusts are emitted during various stages in the gypsum board manufacturing process. The conveying of stucco from bins or bags to mixers releases dust. The feeding and blending of stucco and various additives also generate dust. During the board drying stage, water vapor and minute amounts of the constituents in the slurry are released into the air. Air emissions are also produced from energy consumption at this stage. Water discharges do not result from this stage because of the hygroscopic nature of gypsum; it absorbs water that is not cooked off into the air (Wessel 1992). During board-end sawing, emissions include paper fiber and gypsum board dust; however, these emissions are captured by elaborate dust collection systems to maintain required workroom dust levels. Particulate emissions from gypsum board plants are regulated by most states. Bag houses and other
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emission control devices minimize the health and environmental impacts of the particulate emissions. The environmental and health impacts of combustion emissions are addressed above under gypsum. Industry sources indicate that a very small but unquantified amount (typically 3 to 5 percent) of solid waste is generated from the scrap trimmed to produce the sized product (Gypsum Association 1992; Domtar Gypsum 1992). Most of that waste is recycled back into the gypsum board manufacturing process (Wessel 1992). The remainder of the gypsum board that does not meet product standards is cut into pieces and used for risers between stacks of finished product to facilitate the mechanical handling and warehousing of the board (Gypsum Association 1992). Very little solid waste is generated during the packaging and distribution stage.
Energy Consumed
Energy is consumed in manufacturing gypsum board, particularly for the drying process, where natural gas is the fuel of choice (McKetta and Cunningham 1987). To the maximum extent possible, heat is conserved and put back into the drying process for economic reasons (Wessel 1992). Industry data indicate that approximately 3,000 Btus (3.16 MJ) are expended per pound of gypsum board produced. An estimated 223,040 Btus (235.3 MJ) are required to produce one 4 x 8 sheet of 1/2-inch gypsum board, or
Figure 7: Gypsum BoardManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Gypsum board manufacture
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Sulfur dioxide
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary, systems)
Global warming
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation
Trim scraps
Recycled or landfill disposal
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6,970 Btus (7.35 MJ) per sq ft of 1/2-inch board and 5,297 Btus (5.59 MJ) per sq ft of 3/8-inch board (Hannon et al. 1976). An additional 390 Btus (0.411 MJ) per pound of board are consumed in transporting it from the manufacturing plant to the job site (Hannon et al. 1976).
Joint Tape Most joint tape is manufactured as a standard bleached paper product sold in rolls. The materials required for papermaking and the process for making the particular paper typically used in joint tape are mentioned above under gypsum board. As previously noted, glass-fiber joint tape constitutes only a small fraction of the total market. Glass fiber is described in the material report on thermal insulation (07200).
The paper or glass fiber is cut into widths suitable for covering gypsum board joints. The tape is available perforated or unperforated. All paper joint tape is creased in the center for taping inside corners. Joint tape is sold in rollseither boxed in bulk, unpackaged, or wrapped in plastic.
A number of environmental impacts are associated with the pulp and paper industry. The pollutants resulting from the production of paper and their impacts on health and the environment are mentioned above under gypsum board. The major air emissions from the glass-fiber manufacturing processes are particulates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and fluorides. These are generated primarily from the glass-melting furnace and curing oven. Pollutants released in waste streams from the manufacture of glass fiber include phenols, dissolved solids, suspended solids, oil, grease, and ammonia. These contaminants result in increased BOD and COD in the waste stream. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants and impacts are mentioned above under gypsum board. In addition to air and water pollutants, some solid waste is generated in the production of glass fiber. Sludges consist of cullet (e.g., pieces of discarded glass), glass fiber-resin masses, particulates removed from stack gases, and wasted product. These solids are generally hauled to a sanitary landfill for disposal. Some landfills prohibit the burial of phenolic wastes because of the possibility of groundwater contamination.
Energy Consumed
The energy required for the production of paper is mentioned above under gypsum board. In addition to the energy required for manufacturing paper, a small amount of energy is required for packaging joint tape and transporting the materials to and from the manufacturing plant. The energy requirements for the manufacture of glass-fiber joint tape probably fall in the range of 12,000 to 16,000 Btus (12.7 to 16.9 MJ) per 1,000 lbs of glass-fiber joint tape (Franklin Associates 1991). Relatively little energy is consumed in the packaging of joint tape. Another 1,100 to 1,200 Btus (1.16 to 1.27 MJ) are required for transporting the materials to and from the plant.
Joint Compound There is very little information available on the joint compound formulae since they are considered proprietary. Likewise, there is little published information on the manufacturing process. During the manufacturing process, trace amounts of various VOCs are added, primarily to condition the material.
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Waste Produced
Manufacture of joint compound results in the release of air pollutants from the combustion of fuel to power the process. Particulate emissions of gypsum, mica, talc, and perlite are generated from the mixing and blending operations. For the home owner, ready-touse joint compound is typically packaged in one-quart, one-gallon, and five-gallon plastic containers. For commercial applications, dry joint compound is packaged in fifty-pound containers made of paper. Relatively little waste is produced in the packaging and distribution stage.
Energy Consumed
Energy is consumed in the form of fuel used to power the manufacturing process; however, no quantitative data are available concerning the energy required to produce joint compound. Additional energy is needed for packaging the product and for transporting the materials to and products from the plant.

During the construction stage, gypsum board is typically attached to wood framing with nails and/or adhesives, or to metal framing with screws. Joints between gypsum boards are concealed with joint tape. The joint tape is usually embedded in joint compound, which is also used to cover the nails or screws attaching the gypsum board to the framing. Once the joint compound has been smoothed, paint, wallpaper, tile, or some other wall covering is generally applied. Maintenance of gypsum board generally involves using spackling compound or joint tape and compound to fill holes, nicks, and cracks. When necessary, gypsum board can be patched easily, using the same materials that were used in the initial installation. It can be repainted easily, and wall coverings can be removed and new ones attached without harming the gypsum board. The environmental stressors and impacts associated with the installation, use, and maintenance of gypsum board systems (e.g., board, tape, and compound) are summarized in figure 8.
Waste Produced
During construction, solid waste is generated from unused product as the board is cut to size and shape. The gypsum industry estimates that up to 10 percent of gypsum board shipped to construction sites ends up as waste from cutting holes for ducting, windows, and doors, and from cutting to length to fit wall and ceiling dimensions (Gypsum Association 1992). An additional concern is the particulate emissions and dust resulting from cutting gypsum board and sanding joint compound. However, smoothing the com-
Figure 8: Gypsum Board SystemsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity
Installation of gypsum board systems Dust Gypsum board waste Landfill disposal
Stressor
Indoor air emissions
Impact/Stressor
VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory tract problems Eye irritation Eye and throat irritation Generation of hydrogen sulfide gas Reduced landfill capacity
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Odors
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pound with a wet sponge instead of sanding generates considerably less dust. Waste of joint tape and joint compound during installation is minimal since these materials can easily be used at other job sites. Vehicular emissions result from hauling gypsum board, joint tape, and joint compound to job sites and from hauling the waste to a disposal site.
Indoor Air Emissions
Some investigators report emissions of VOCs immediately after the installation of a gypsum board system in the building, and sometimes thereafter (EPA 1991; Colombo et al. 1990; Tucker 1988; Wallace et al. 1987). Gypsum is inert and extremely low in emissions, but additives used to produce water-resistant board (green board) and fire-resistant Xtype board or to improve the workability of the slurry during manufacture may include VOCs that are found frequently in indoor air (EPA 1991). Emission measurements from conventional gypsum board have identified the presence of trace amounts of at least the following VOCs: formaldehyde, decane, n -hexane, 2-methylpentane, a-pinene, trichloroethane, undecane, and xylene (EPA 1991; Colombo et al. 1990; Tucker 1988; Matthews et al. 1987; Wallace et al. 1987). Formaldehyde is known to be a strong irritant and could have adverse health impacts. Other investigators report no significant VOC emissions from conventional gypsum board (Aston 1991; Sheldon et al. 1988). The paper facing each side of the gypsum board may contain chemicals from previous uses (in the case of recycled materials), additive chemicals used in the production of the paper itself, or specialty coatings (EPA 1991). Therefore, one EPA report concludes that gypsum board may have considerable emissions (EPA 1991). However, from that report it is unclear whether the board or the joint compound is the principal source of VOC emissions. According to one recent EPA study, emissions from gypsum board can be reduced considerably by surface treatments such as painting or laminating. The more impervious the coating or covering, the greater the reduction in emissions from the board. EPA indicates that the chemicals will be emitted at a slower rate than without the coatings, but cautions that the coatings themselves may emit chemicals. The interaction of indoor air pollutants with interior surfaces (i.e., sinks) is a wellknown but poorly understood phenomenon. At least two investigators report that after the initial curing phase the gypsum molecules have the ability to adsorb VOC molecules, and therefore gypsum board can act as a sink for VOCs from other sources (Tichenor et al. 1990; Matthews et al. 1987). One investigator found that the gypsum in the board acts as a sink for formaldehyde before gradually releasing it again over time. This was found to be the case even when the board was painted with latex paint (Matthews et al. 1987). Further study will be required to determine whether gypsum board adsorbs and reemits significant levels of VOCs. There is some evidence that joint compound may emit small amounts of formaldehyde, n-butanol, toluene, ethyl benzene, styrene, xylenes, nonane, decane, undecane, isopropylbenzene, and 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene (EPA 1991; Tucker 1988). However, at least one investigator has reported that VOCs in joint compound do not outgas after installation (Redford 1991). Joint compound also contains trace amounts of mica, talc, and perlite. It used to contain asbestos as well. Asbestos has been removed from all joint compounds on the market but may be a consideration in remodeling or demolition (Thomas 1992, 1993; Domtar Gypsum 1991). Any formaldehyde present in the joint compound can irritate the respiratory tracts of sensitive individuals if the materials become air-borne (Thomas 1992; Domtar Gypsum 1991; Hunter 1989).
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Outgassing of VOCs tends to decrease after the initial curing period. Heat and ventilation accelerate the drying process, but heating alone without ventilation may not be as effective in removing VOCs (EPA 1991). There is at least one joint compound available that is well tolerated by chemically sensitive people. It is available in powdered form to be mixed with water at the job site. This joint compound contains no antibacterial or antifungal agents, asbestos, ethylene glycol, formaldehyde, or hydrocarbon solvents (Bower 1991). Maintenance of gypsum board requires the periodic repainting or removal and reapplication of wall covering, as well as the patching of cracks, holes, etc. Care should be taken in maintaining gypsum board that was installed prior to 1977, when the Consumer Product Safety Commission banned asbestos in joint compound. The surface should be kept smooth and intact, and if the joint must be sanded or the gypsum board removed, appropriate precautions should be taken.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required in the form of fuel spent in hauling the gypsum board, joint compound, and joint tape to the job, as well as hauling from the job site waste for disposal and extra materials for later use. Little energy is used in hanging and finishing the gypsum board.

Life expectancy of gypsum board varies greatly, depending on the whims of the consumer. Disposal usually involves landfilling in a demolition landfill, either with or separated from stud wall and other materials. Gypsum waste is generated from new construction, remodeling, and demolition. In new construction, as noted earlier, it is estimated that up to 10 percent of all gypsum board ends up as waste (Gypsum Association 1992). This is because it is more cost-effective for the builder to cut out necessary openings in the board than it is to manufacture the board to premeasured sizes; thus, much of the material that is cut out for ducts, windows, electrical outlets, and other purposes becomes waste. During remodeling, even more gypsum waste is likely to be generated: up to 10 percent of new gypsum board is wasted for the same reasons as for new construction, and gypsum board is also removed for the renovation itself. Although no figures are readily available, this figure probably exceeds new-construction board waste by at least an order of magnitude. Much of the gypsum board waste from new construction, remodeling, and demolition is disposed of in landfills. However, at least one major gypsum board manufacturer recycles gypsum board waste from new construction sites into new board (Domtar Gypsum 1992). In production of new gypsum board, some plants use up to 100 percent recycled gypsum from manufacturing and construction waste, although most plants that recycle gypsum use only 5 to 20 percent recycled gypsum (Domtar Gypsum 1992). According to industry sources, gypsum waste generated from demolition and remodeling cannot be recycled into new board because contaminants from other products that cannot be separated may affect the gypsum board manufacturing process or subsequent board quality. Gypsum has been linked in the past to the generation of hydrogen sulfide gas in landfills. Gypsum and other sulfate materials may decompose to hydrogen sulfide gas in landfill sites, but only in the presence of water and under acidic and anaerobic conditions. Control of gypsum board landfilling so that it is separated from organic waste materials appears to eliminate or reduce hydrogen sulfide gas below the nuisance level. When wet landfill conditions occur, it is suggested that gypsum board waste be separated from other wastes and placed in a specific area of the landfill. At least one scientific study has shown that adding lime (calcium oxide) at a rate of 3 to 5 lbs per ton of gypsum will raise the pH of gypsum to a level that inhibits the growth of anaerobic bacteria (Gypsum Association 1992). However, the capacity
MAT 09250
35

of existing landfill sites is decreasing rapidly. In addition, because of public demands to increase the recycling of waste products and greater awareness of the potential environmental damage from poorly designed and poorly managed landfill sites, it is becoming much more difficult and costly to obtain approvals for the development of new landfill sites. Thus, some landfill operators and municipalities are no longer accepting gypsum wastes of any kind. Other landfill sites are increasing the cost of landfilling to the extent that alternative means of disposal, such as effective reuse or recycling, are becoming economically feasible (Gypsum Association 1992). The environmental stressors and impacts associated with the disposal of gypsum board systems are summarized in figure 9.
Figure 9: Gypsum Board SystemsRecycling, Resuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity
Disposal of gypsum board waste
Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Generation of hydrogen sulfide gas Reduced landfill capacity
Impact/Stressor
Odors
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Industry Perspective: Gypsum Association Gypsum products have made a positive contribution to society for at least 5,000 years. The oldest gypsum application yet discovered was on the interiors of the pyramid of Cheops, constructed around 3700 B.C. The wall surfaces of the pyramid were finished with sanded gypsum plaster applied to lath made of intertwined reeds. Murals painted on the walls at the time are still remarkably clear.
Known in the industry as the miracle mineral because of its wide range of unique characteristics, benign nature, and positive environmental qualities, gypsum is used widely today in health and beauty aids, medical products and procedures, works of art, foodstuffs, and a range of building products. Gypsum in various forms, such as plaster and, more recently, as gypsum board, has been used extensively as an inexpensive yet highly versatile, durable, and effective construction material. In the United States today, gypsum board covers some 80 percent of the interior surfaces of homes, offices, schools, churches, public buildings, libraries, hospitals, nursing homes, etc., yet makes up only about 3 percent of the cost of a building. It provides a monolithic surface that is easily and efficiently finished in a wide variety of methods. Gypsum products are also widely used for floor toppings (gypsum concrete), as exterior sheathing material, and as roof deck underlayments. As a building product, gypsum board is essentially benign. Studies outside the industry have shown that gypsum board in all its forms does not release significant quantities of VOCs. Studies have also shown that VOC and formaldehyde emissions are primarily the result of absorption of these substances from other materials in the surrounding area and later desorption from the board. Studies specifically have detected no formaldehyde emissions from gypsum board when the opportunity to absorb the substance from surrounding materials was denied. Under specific design conditions, gypsum board may act as an effective barrier to VOC infiltration from certain types of exterior wall and roof systems. When compared to VOC emission from other products found in homes and offices, gypsum boards contribution, if any, is insignificant.
36
MAT 09250

Regulatory Status
The gypsum industry has long been a leader in environmental responsibility. Since the 1950s, the gypsum industry has been the leading user of recycled paper products. Gypsum board manufacturers who produce their own paper continually seek state-of-the-art technology to decrease the need and frequency for discharging effluents into the environment. For example, technology is available that will allow paper plants to run as long as three to four weeks on a closed water-filtration system without discharging any waste materials. Many of the board plants that process raw gypsum employ the latest technology to use fuels efficiently, including heat recovery systems. Natural gas is the dominant fuel used in the industry and generally is recognized as the cleanest-burning fuel. Some equipment used in the underground gypsum mines is electrified; other equipment and machinery use diesel fuels. Gypsum board distribution requires no unusual use of fossil fuels that would distinguish it from other types of building materials. The gypsum industry takes a leading role in the safe and prudent use, reuse, and disposal of waste gypsum products. Most gypsum board manufacturing facilities recycle the waste generated in the manufacturing process. New methodologies to recycle or properly dispose of waste gypsum products in an environmentally safe manner are sought regularly. Gypsum board manufacturers are exploring ways to recycle new-construction gypsum board waste so that less will be landfilled. These alternatives include recycling waste gypsum into new gypsum products, agricultural applications, and animal bedding material, in addition to recycling the paper used in gypsum board. Gypsum products are used extensively to reduce sound pollution and to act as barriers to wind infiltration, wind-borne products, and thermal loss. Gypsum products also provide superior fire protection. Containing fire damage lessens air pollution caused by smoke, cuts the amount of debris generated by combustion, and reduces the need for replacement materials. Gypsum board fire-rated systems in commercial high-rise construction are the most economical and easily installed assemblies available today. With proper maintenance, correctly installed gypsum board systems can be expected to function as designed and to last the life of the building.
Regulatory Status
Overview Materials in the gypsum-board life cycle are at least partially regulated in practically all stages. In the mining stage any point-source water discharge of process-generated wastewater is subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act (CWA). In the manufacturing stage boilers and furnaces may be subject to emission standards under the Clean Air Act (CAA). As in the mining stage, any point-source water discharge of process-generated wastewater in the manufacturing stage is subject to regulation under the CWA. Storage, treatment, and disposal of any solid or hazardous wastes in the manufacturing process may be subject to regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and state solid-waste laws. Typically, construction and demolition wastes are subject to state and local solid-waste laws and ordinances. Although regulatory coverage is pervasive, significant gaps still exist, particularly in the areas of toxic and hazardous process constituents. Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Gypsum mining is subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 436, subpart E, which forbids operations that do not employ wet air-emission-control scrubbers from discharging process wastewaters into U.S. waters. Otherwise, only that volume of water resulting from precipitation that exceeds the maximum safe surge capacity of a process wastewater impoundment may be discharged from that impoundment (the minimum capacity allowed is that of the 10-year, 24-hour rainfall). Similar CWA effluent guidelines are now being developed for mica, clay, and talc mining.
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Regulatory Status
Nonmetallic-mineral processing plants are subject to CAA new-source performance standards (NSPS) under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for construction or major modification of crushers, grinding mills, screening operations, bucket elevators, belt conveyors, bagging operations, storage bins, and enclosed truck or railcar loading stations. NSPS place particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities. Gypsum, limestone, clay, talc, perlite, and mica are covered by these requirements. Gypsum calciners also have recently been made subject to NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60 for construction or major modification, which also places particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities. Gypsum calciners can be subject to stationary source requirements for National Ambient Air Quality Standards pollutants (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead) under 40 CFR Part 51 if they employ fossil fuel boilers of more than 250 million Btus/hr capacity. Logging operations on national forest lands are subject to national forest management plans that are increasingly requiring best management practices to reduce the adverse environmental effects of forestry. These requirements are also increasingly being applied through state regulation and even, in some cases solely for long-term economic reasons, on private forest lands. In pulping operations, barking processes may be subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 429, subpart A, which forbids the discharge of process wastewater to U. S. waters for mechanical barking operations and sets effluent guidelines for BOD5, TSS, and pH for hydraulic barking operations. Bleached kraft paper mills are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 430, subparts H and I, which place limits on BOD5, TSS, pH, pentachlorophenol, and trichlorophenol. Increasingly, attention is being given to priority toxic pollutants and nonconventional pollutants, such as dioxin, in new plant treatment systems, as well as in upgrades of existing treatment systems. Bleached kraft paper mills may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. New bleached kraft paper mills (including associated lime kilns), or substantial modification of existing bleached kraft paper mills, are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart BB, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. The mills are also subject to prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) standards under 40 CFR Part 51, which requires monitoring of, and potentially applying control technology to, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. PSD standards also require monitoring for the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals (where applicable). These pollutants are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i). Solid and hazardous wastes generated in the materials acquisition and processing stage, particularly in papermaking operations, are regulated under state and local regulations and, to a lesser extent, by the RCRA. Sludges from the recycled papermaking process may have significant RCRA treatment, storage, and disposal facility compliance requirements, particularly in larger mills, where sludge volumes are most likely to be significant.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Stage Gypsum board mills and joint tape and compound manufacturing operations are not subject to specific effluent guidelines. Hence, their discharges must be monitored under generic National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit requirements for at least the five conventional pollutants of BOD5, TSS, pH, fecal coliform, and oil and grease, which must be treated using the best conventional pollution control technology. EPA has also developed a list of 126 toxic pollutants from 65 classes of chemical compounds that may be required to be monitored and treated with best available technology economically achievable. All other pollutants are designated nonconventional and may also require such treatment. Because of the variety of chemicals used in the joint-compound manufacturing process,
38

Regulatory Status
monitoring and treatment requirements for toxic and nonconventional pollutants are most likely in this operation. Stationary heat sources at gypsum board mills and joint tape and compound manufacturing operations may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100 tons per year threshold for any CAA pollutant. New stationary heat sources at such facilities, or substantial modification of existing stationary heat sources, may be subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur, and possibly to PSD standards under 40 CFR Part 51. The PSD standards require monitoring of, and potentially applying control technology to, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. These standards also require monitoring for the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals (where applicable). These pollutants are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i). Solid and hazardous waste generated in gypsum board mills and joint tape and compound manufacturing operations are regulated under state and local regulations and, to a lesser extent, by the RCRA.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage Building codes place structural requirements on the use of gypsum board, joint tape, and joint compound in construction, but no federal regulations or even guidelines relating to emissions of VOCs have been established at this time. Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid-waste requirements and varies widely from state to state. Regulatory Statutes and References s Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq. (i.e., Title 42 of the U.S. Code, starting with Section 7401). s Clean Water Act (CWA), 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq. s Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (CERCLA/SARA), 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. s Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 7 U.S.C. 136. s Hoffman, Stephen, and Van Houseman. 1990. Update on Regulation for Mine Waste Management Under RCRA. Mining Engineering. November. s National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq. s Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Code of Federal Regulations. July 1, 1992. (The code is divided into titles and parts and cited in the text as ___ CFR Part ___; the parts are further subdivided with decimal, letter, and number notation into sections and subsections.) s Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Federal Register 57, no. 248 (Thursday, December 24). s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (RCRA), 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq. s Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 42 U.S.C. 300f et seq. s Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), 30 U.S.C. 1201 et seq. s Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 15 U.S.C. 2601 et seq. s U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 1991. Office of Air and Radiation. October.
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References
References
Alexander, Susan, and Brian Greber. 1991. Environmental Ramifications of Various Building Materials Used in Construction and Manufacture in the United States. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. October. American Gas Association. 1988. Industrial Sector Energy Analysis: The Paper Industry. February. American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1987. Gypsum Drywall. Masterspec, Section 09250. American Paper Institute. 1987. U.S. Pulp and Paperboard Industry Energy Use Survey, 1972, 19751986. Energy and Materials Department. Ampian, Sarkis G. 1988. Clays: 1988 Minerals Yearbook. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Ampian, Sarkis G., and Rosa L. McGee. 1990. Clays in 1989. Mineral Industry Surveys. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. December. Appleyard, Frank C. 1975. Gypsum and Anhydrite. In Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Aston, R. 1991. Forintek Canada Report on Chamber Formaldehyde Emission Analysis of Domtar Gyproc Samples. October 2. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. Ayres, Robert U. 1989. Industrial Metabolism. In Technology and Environment. Edited by Jesse H. Ausubel and Hedy E. Sladovich. Bolen, Wallace P., Robin L. Richardson, and Audrey Wilkes. 1992. Perlite 1991 Annual Report. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. June. Bower, John. 1991. The Healthy House: How to Buy One, How to Cure a Sick One, How to Build One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. Brown, Harry L., Bernard B. Hamel, Bruce A. Hedman, Michael Koluch, Birar C Gajanana, and Philip Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. U.S. Department of Energy, Contract Number E(11-1)2862, Fairmont Press Edition. Carr, Donald D., and Lawrence F. Rooney. 1975. Limestone and Dolomite. In Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers.
C-E Process Equipment. 1976. Wallboard Production: Plant Design, Operational Layout, Manufacturing. Bulletin no. 123. Chicago: Combustion Engineering. October. Chesterman, Charles W. 1975. Perlite. In Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Colombo, A., M. DeBortoli, E. Pecchio, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt, and H. Vissers. 1990. Chamber Testing of Organic Emission from Building and Furnishing Materials. The Science of the Total Environment 91:237-49. Davis, Lawrence L. 1989. Mica, Minerals Yearbook 1989. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. August. . 1992a. Gypsum, Annual Report 1990. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. April. . 1992b. Mineral Industry Surveys: Gypsum in August 1992. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. October. . 1992c. Gypsum, Annual Report 1991. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. November. . 1992d. Mica, Annual Report 1991. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. November. Domtar Gypsum. 1991. Gyproc Products and Systems 1992. Company brochure. Ann Arbor, MI. October. . 1992. An Environmentally Conscious Company. Company brochure. Ann Arbor, MI. Forbes, David R. 1992. Mills Preparing for Next Century with New Pulping, Bleaching Technologies. Pulp and Paper. September. Franklin Associates. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, Final Report. The Society of the Plastics Industry. Good, Clint and Debra Lynn Dadd. 1988. Healthful HousesHow to Build and Design Your Own. Bethesda, MD: Guaranty Press. Gypsum Association. 1992. Treatment and Disposal of Gypsum Board Waste, Industry Position Paper. Construction Dimensions. February and March. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois.
Hatfield, Mark. 1991. Old Growth and the Media: A Lawmakers Perspective. Evergreen. Special issue. Island Press. Hawley, Gessner G. 1971. Condensed Chemical Dictionary. 8th ed. Heimburger, Stanley A., D. Blevins, J. Bostwick, and G. Donnini. 1988. Kraft Mill Bleach Plant Effluents: Recent Developments Aimed at Decreasing Their Environmental Impact, Part I. Tappi Journal. October. Hileman, B. 1992. Industrial Ecology Route to Slow Global Change Proposed. Chemical and Engineering News. August 24. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications.. Houser, Karl D. 1992. Fire protection engineer and director of code and technical services, Gypsum Association, Washington, DC. Personal communication. August 6. Hunter, Linda Mason. 1989. The Healthy Home. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. MacCleery, Douglas W. 1990. Brief Overview of the Condition and Trends of the U.S. Forests. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. March 15. Marcea, R. L. and K. K. Lau. 1992. Carbon Dioxide Implications of Building Materials. Journal of Forest Engineering 3(2) January. Matthews, Thomas G., Alan R. Hawthorne, and Cyril V. Thompson. 1987. Formaldehyde Sorption and Desorption Characteristics of Gypsum Wallboard. Environmental Science & Technology 21(7). May, Alexander, and John W. Sweeney. 1984a. Assessment of Environmental Impacts Associated With Phosphogypsum in Florida. In The Chemistry and Technology of Gypsum, edited by R. A. Kuntze, 116-39. American Society of Testing and Materials. . 1984b. Evaluation of Radium and Toxic Element Leaching Characteristics of Florida Phosphogypsum. In The Chemistry and Technology of Gypsum, edited by R. A. Kuntze, 140-59. American Society of Testing and Materials. McGraw-Hill. 1991. McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science & Technology. McKetta, John J., and William A. Cunningham. 1987. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 25. NY: Marcel Dekker. . 1989. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 30. NY: Marcel Dekker.
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References
National Gypsum Company. 1992. Gold Bond Gypsum Wallboard Construction. Technical bulletin no. 9-2171. Charlotte, NC. January. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. Patterson, Sam H., and Haydn H. Murray. 1975. Clays. In Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Perlite Industry. 1980. Source Category Survey. May. Petkof, B. 1975. Mica. In Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Postal, S. 1989. Part of the Problem and Part of the Answer. EPA Journal 15(1). Postel, Sandra and John C. Ryan. 1991. Reforming Forestry. State of the World 1991. NY: Worldwatch Institute. Pressler, Jean W. 1984. Byproduct Gypsum. In The Chemistry and Technology of Gypsum, ed. R. A. Kuntze, 105-15. American Society of Testing and Materials. Redford, Craig. 1991. Report on BeadeX Drywall Compound. October 29. Roe, Lawrence A. 1975. Talc and Pyrophyllite. In Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. Rubin, Edward S. et al. 1992. Realistic Mitigation Options for Global Warming. Science 257 (July 10). Sheldon, L. et al. 1988. Air Quality in Public Buildings, Volume II. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Tellus Institute. 1991. The Tellus Institute Packaging Study Project Summary. November. . 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter Its Mix. May. Thomas, Charles L. 1993. President, Drywall Finishing Council. Personal communication. January 13. Thomas, Charles L. 1992. President, Drywall Finishing Council. Personal communication. October 5. Tichenor, Bruce A. et al. 1990. Evaluation of Indoor Air Pollutant Sinks for Vapor Phase Organic Compounds. Proceedings of the 5th International
Indoor Air Conference, Toronto, Canada. Tucker, W. Gene. 1988. Emissions of Air Pollutants from Indoor Materials: An Emerging Design Consideration. 5th Canadian Building and Construction Congress. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1977a. Industrial Process Profiles for Environmental Use: Chapter 6. The Industrial Organic Chemicals Industry. Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development. February. . 1977b. Industrial Process Profiles for Environmental Use: Chapter 17. The Gypsum and Wallboard Industry. Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory. February. . 1988. Toxics Release Inventory. Office of Toxic Substances. . 1991. Designing for Good Indoor Air Quality (Draft). Office of Atmospheric and Indoor Air Programs. May 10. . 1992. Pollution Prevention Research Strategy. Office of Research and Development. August. van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David Keith Todd. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers. Vitra, Robert L. 1992. Talc and Pyrophyllite, Annual Report 1991. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. October. Wallace, Lance A., Edo Pellizzari, Brian Lederer, Harvey Zelon, and Linda Sheldon. 1987. Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Building Materials and Consumer Products. Atmospheric Environment 21(2):385-93. Wessel, Robert. 1992. Gypsum Association, Washington, DC. Personal communication. October 2 and 21.
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41
Material Report
Ceramic Tile*
Highlights
The impacts from open-pit mining of raw materials are potentially significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction as well as erosion. Wastes produced by open-pit mining include excavation overburden and tailings waste. Energy use and fuel combustion during mining result in atmospheric emissions. Water pollutants from mine runoff can cause lower aquatic productivity and deoxygenation. Components of adhesives used in setting tile and latex mortar and grout are derived from petrochemicals, the extraction and processing of which can cause water pollution. Emissions during manufacture of adhesives and additives and use of solvents can cause various human health problems. The manufacture of portland cement releases particulates and carbon dioxide. During firing of ceramic tile, combustion by-products may be released.
From 70 to 90 percent of tile manufacturers recycle fired scrap, and most manufacturers reclaim any waste dust that is produced, thus deriving full benefit from raw materials. The durability of ceramic tile means replacement materials will not need to be produced, thus averting depletion. Clay and sand, the primary components of ceramic tile, are in abundant supply. Petroleum and natural gas stocks are finite resources in adequate supply now.
Energy Consumption
Energy requirements for firing ceramic tile have decreased in recent years because of improvements in materials and the firing process. Using materials with lower vitrification temperature, such as glass, reduces the energy requirement for firing ceramic tile. A recent estimate of the total embodied energy for ceramic tile is 25,161 Btus/per square foot. The energy required for firing tile is estimated by the ceramic tile industry to be 18,500 Btus per square foot.
Indoor Air Quality
Once ceramic tile is fired, the component materials become fixed within the vitreous matrix. The tile is inert and does not contribute to indoor air pollution. Adhesives and latex mortar and grout (but not cementaceous mortar and grout) can be sources of air emissions. Until adhesives are fully polymerized and solvents and other organic components have fully volatilized, health hazards can result, especially for sensitive individuals.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1994. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 CERAMIC TILE MAT 09300
Ceramic Tile
Background
Background
Tile is defined as a ceramic surfacing unit, usually relatively thin in relation to facial area; made from clay or a mixture of clay and other ceramic materials, called the body of the tile; having either a glazed or unglazed face and fired above red heat in the course of manufacture to a temperature sufficiently high to produce specific physical properties and characteristics (ANSI 1989). Floor and wall tiles made of fired clay are one of the oldest building materials. Clay tiles were an important material in Egyptian, Babylonian, Cretan, Greek, and Roman architecture and essentially are the same today as those discovered by archaeologists in the Nile Valley and the Tigris-Euphrates Basin. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Saracens continued development and use of clay tiles. By the 12th century, tile was being made in Italy, Germany, and Austria. By the 14th century the town of Faenza had become the center of Italian production and was known for its tile decorated with brightly colored, opaque glazes. In the 17th century, English tile producers continued to develop new manufacturing techniques. With the development of the dry or dust-press process, tiles could be mass-produced. By 1867, with the establishment of a plant in Pittsburgh, tile was being manufactured in the United States. Additional plants soon followed in Ohio, Indiana, and Massachusetts (Hornbostel 1991). This report covers ceramic tile that is contained under Masterspec 09300Tile. Masterspec defines the different types of ceramic tile as follows (AIA 1989): Glazed wall tiles are units with an impervious glazed finish usually fused to a nonvitreous body of soft whiteware bisque with average water absorption not exceeding 18 percent. This tile is not intended to withstand excessive impact or exposure to freezing and thawing. Because it has limited capability to endure abrasion and to resist food acids, it should be limited to applications over interior vertical and nontraffic horizontal surfaces such as countertops not subject to heavy-duty use.... Finishes available include high, matte, semimatte, and crystalline glazes... Unglazed ceramic mosaic tiles are small units with a facial area less than 6 square inches that are formed by either the dust-press or the plastic method. They may be of porcelain or natural clay composition, and they are available with abrasive content for slip resistance. Porcelain tiles are classified as impervious with water absorption of less than 0.5 percent. Natural clay tiles are classified as either impervious or vitreous with the water absorption of the latter not exceeding 3 percent. Porcelain units have a hardness rating of 100, and natural clay, 50. Because they are homogeneous in composition with colors diffused throughout the body of the tile, abrasion will not affect appearance as it would glazed products. Greater strength and lower water absorption make this a very durable tile that is intended for use on both exterior and interior horizontal and vertical surfaces including floors.... Glazed ceramic mosaic tiles are of the same composition as unglazed units except that a glazed finish is fused to the body of the tile, which, unlike unglazed units, is untinted. Glazed units tend to have lower values than unglazed units when tested for coefficients of friction and may not be suitable for horizontal traffic surfaces.... Quarry tiles are unglazed or glazed units with a facial area usually exceeding 6 square inches and a thickness of 12 or 34 inches. They are formed by the extrusion process from natural clay or shale. Their water absorption is 5 percent or less. Quarry tile is virtually unaffected by moisture, acids, oils, or chemicals and is intended for interior and exterior applications where tile with optimum performance characteristics is needed.... For additional slip resistance, unglazed units are available with an abrasive aggregate embedded in the surface.... Paver tiles are available both unglazed and glazed. They are manufactured in the same way and of similar materials as ceramic mosaic tiles but have a facial area greater than 6 square inches. Special-purpose tiles refer to products with one or more special characteristics including physical properties and appearance that place them outside the standard forms of tile described above....
MAT 09300
CERAMIC TILE
Ceramic Tile
The main coloration method used for ceramic tile decoration is the dispersal of ceramic pigments in a vitreous matrix (a glaze). Most of these pigments are crystalline complex metal oxides. The glaze is a glasslike material. Glaze types are defined in ASTM C 242 Standard Definition of Terms Relating to Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products. They include bright glazes, which have a high gloss and can be clear or colored; matte glazes with a low gloss; semimatte glazes; crystalline glazes, which contain macroscopic crystals; opaque glazes; speckled glazes; and fritted glazes. Tile-setting materials include adhesives, mortars, and grouts. Plastisol mesh is used to hold sheets of mosaic tile pieces together. Most ceramic tile is held in place by portland-cementbased mortar; a large amount of tile is attached by latex adhesive (or mastic); and a small amount of tile is installed with other specialty adhesives and mortars. Most mosaic tiles are attached to each other in sheets, usually backed by plastisol.
A life-cycle summary of ceramic tile is provided in figure 1. A life-cycle summary of colorants for ceramic tile is provided in figure 2; of abrasives (to provide slip resistance to the tile), in figure 3; and of mortar, adhesives, and grout, in figures 4a and 4b. The raw materials that make up ceramic tile come from the earth. Clay, silica, talc, feldspar, and limestone are mined from quarries by open-pit excavation. The potential environmental impacts of open-pit mining are significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction, as well as erosion. Solid waste produced during open-pit operations include the overburden that is removed during excavation, and tailings waste. Runoff into streams can lead to increased turbidity from suspended solids, which can result in reduced light penetration of the water, lower aquatic productivity, increased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and increased benthic deposition and deoxygenation. Other pollutants include atmospheric emissions from energy use and fuel combustion, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulates. The acquisition and processing of the raw materials and pigments used in ceramic tile glaze result in impacts similar to those described above for the raw materials that make up ceramic tile. These include soil erosion, habitat alteration and destruction, stream runoff and consequent effects, fuel combustion emissions, particulate emissions, and others. The metals and metal oxides that are used in glaze preparation have various health effects, depending upon the particular compound. Toxicity can range from simple irritation to severe organ damage. Manufacturers and types of tile vary greatly in the use of toxic materials. Some types of tile are free of toxic materials. The acquisition and processing of the raw materials used to produce abrasives have similar environmental effects similar to those mentioned above for raw material and pigment acquisition, except that severe metal toxicity would not be expected. Components of adhesives used in setting tile are derived from petrochemicals. The extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas cause increased BOD, increased turbidity, increased benthic deposition, and deoxygenation in water. Toxic materials are released, fish reproduction is decreased, and there is a loss of faunal diversity. Various emissions during the processing of chemical intermediates and the manufacture of the adhesive components can cause human health effects ranging from irritation to carcinogenesis, decreased visibility, and damage from acid precipitation. The acrylic, styrene, and butadiene monomers can cause a (continues on page 9)
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MAT 09300 CERAMIC TILE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Ceramic Tile
Ceramic Tile
Life Cycle Ceramic Tile
Dry process Abrasives (see figure 3) Waste scraps

(crushed and recycled)
Clay, kaolin, flint, silica, talc, prophyllite and feldspar mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading Separating
Feldspar ore processing Desliming Conditioning Flotation

Sulfonated oils Mineral residues (reused)
Flotation feldspar processing Dewatering Grinding Drying
Habitat change
Particulates
(landfill)
Mixing Feldspar tailings

Particulates
Waste glass
Drying, grinding and storage
Colorants (see figure 2)
Plastic process Extrusion or Hand-molding
Waste scraps
(crushed and recycled)
Ceramic scrap Drying

Packaging
Glass and sand mining Crushing Drilling Separating Blasting Screening Loading Mortar, adhesives, and grout (see figure 4)
Storage
Habitat change
Display/sales Mineral processing Mineral oxides

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, HE, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Construction
Glazing
Screen printing
Firing
Waste glazing materials
Maintenance and use
KEY
Limestone and mineral mining Grinding Drilling Separating Blasting Screening Loading Crushing
Waste solids
Fired scrap
Demolition
Clean water
Recycle
Recycling
Disposal (landfill)
Figure 2: Life Cycle of Colorants

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 CERAMIC TILE MAT 09300
Air emissions (H2O, O2, SOX)
Screening Washing
Mineral separation
TiO2 processing
Titanium dioxide
Grout pigment (see figure 4)
H2SO4 Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden
Metal sulfates metal chlorides
Zinc residues and scrap

Air emissions (CO2)
Zinc mining Drilling Blasting Loading
Crushing Screening
Zinc sintering
Indirect ZXO processing

Metals
Zinc oxide
Habitat change
Glaze pigments (see figure 1)

Chromium mining Drilling Cutting Blasting Hauling Loading
Beneficiation of chromite from ores Sorting Gravity separation or ... Crushing Gravity or magnetic separation
Chromite processing
Chromium oxide
Habitat change
Bauxite ore mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening Drying
KEY
Ceramic Tile
Process flow
Life Cycle Colorants
Alumina production
Mud containing trace heavy metals and organics
Alumina
Habitat change
Caustic soda
6
Figure 3: Life Cycle of Abrasives
Ceramic Tile
Unwanted source material Air emissions (H2O, O2, SOX)
Life Cycle Abrasives
Sand mining Digging Loading Screening Washing Mixing
Electrical furnace
Crushing and grinding
Washing
Wastewater
H2SO4 Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden
Metal sulfates metal chlorides
Sulfuric acid
Sodium hydroxide
Coal mining Digging Loading
Air emissions (Dust)
Screening Washing
Crushing and grinding
Habitat Tailings waste (dust, acid, drainage) change
Filtering
Drying
Silicon carbide
KEY
Abrasives (see figure 1)
Bauxite ore mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening Drying
Calcining
Electrical furnace
Iron, silica
Crushing
Washing
Wastewater
Fused aluminum oxide
Habitat change
Soil erosion
Scrap iron
Figure 4: Life Cycle of Adhesives, Mortar, and Grout

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethyl benzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 CERAMIC TILE MAT 09300
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Recycling catalyst
Acrolein
catalyst
Acrylic acid
Esterification

Wastewater (oil, Sludge ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides)
Acrylate monomer
Styrene monomer
Emulsification
Wastewater (produced Drilling Drainage water, oil, grease, muds wastes heavy metals, dissolved and solids, organics) cuttings
Styrene acrylic latex

catalyst
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
catalyst
Nonylphenol ethoxylate Nonylphenol
Natural gas production Separation Liquefication Distillation

Trimerization
Nonene
Wastewater, oil, grease, dissolved Drilling mud and solids, organics cuttings, heavy metals
Benzene manufacture
Phenol Emulsification
Ethylene
Styrene
Styrene monomer
Styrene butadiene latex Mineral spirits
Limestone and mineral mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating Drying, grinding and storage
Butadiene
Calcium carbonate
Habitat change
Kaolin clay
Air emissions (CO2 ) benzene solvent, catalyst
Acetic acid
Palladium
Vinyl acetate
Polyvinyl acetate
Kaolin clay mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening Ethylene Ethylene vinyl acetate Plasticizer
Air emissions (VC monomer, TSS, SOX, NOX, VOCs, CO, lead, methane, HCI, PVC, particulates)
Life Cycle Adhesives, Mortar, and Grout
Habitat change
Co-products Calcium chloride Salts Ethylene dichloride
Ceramic Tile
Air emissions (VC monomer)
Brine
Brine sludge (magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, spent sulfuric acid, scrubbing wastes, asbestos)
Precipitation
Chlorine
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
VC monomer, methylene chloride, 1,1,1trichloroethane, lead, zinc
Plastisol
Electrolysis
Co-products Hydrogen Sodium hydroxide
8
Figure 4: Life Cycle of Adhesives, Mortar, and Grout (continued)
Ceramic Tile
Life Cycle Adhesives, Mortar, and Grout

Sand
Limestone
Calcination
Habitat change
Lime Screening and washing Silica-containing material Dicalcium and tricalcium silicates
Lime
Habitat change
Shale
Iron ore
Clinker
Grinding mill
Portland cement
Habitat change
Scrap procurement or Coal-fired power plant waste or Shale, mud, clay or Waste from bauxite processing and mill finds or Iron smelting waste
Fly ash
KEY
Process flow
Slag
Gypsum
Recycling
Ceramic Tile
number of health effects, such as eye and nose irritation, headaches, and dizziness. Solvents used in adhesives can also have human health effects. The mineral components of mortar and grout are mined from the earth and have the same ecological impact already described for such activities. Processing involves fuel combustion emissions and the release of particulates into the air. The amount of fuel used and the potential for particulate release are notable for portland cement production. Production of the additives used in latex formulations (including styrene butadiene rubber, acrylic resin, polyvinyl acetate, and ethylene vinyl acetate) that may be used in some mortar and grout formulations derives from petrochemicals. All the environmental and health effects described above would also apply to these chemicals. Titanium dioxide, the major pigment used in grout, is not considered hazardous by EPA or carcinogenic by the National Cancer Institute; however, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has recommended that titanium dioxide be considered an occupational carcinogen. Titanium dioxide appears to be of little health or environmental concern unless the grout is abraded in such a way that the titanium dioxide colorant is released as unbound particles. During the firing of ceramic tile, combustion by-products may be released along with hydrogen fluoride (HF). HF is corrosive and toxic, but its impact on human health and on the environment is difficult to assess because of the lack of reported exposure data. In the manufacture of ceramic tile, the potential for particulate emissions (dust) is great. The industry as a whole, however, is working to minimize dust levels within the plants and to control dust emissions. Various methods are employed to control particulate emissions, with some manufacturers recycling back into the manufacturing process this material that might otherwise be lost . Likewise during the glazing process, excess glazing material (overspray) or the solid components of the glazing material are recycled. In addition, where technically feasible, tile manufacturers recycle tile scrap material, including greenware as well as fired scrap. There is a 95 to 98 percent recovery of scrap among those manufacturers that do recycle. Some tile manufacturers have taken advantage of industrial by-products and waste materials that would have otherwise been destined for a landfill. Feldspar tailings, waste glass, and roofing granule fines waste (a ceramic material) have been and are being used as a raw material in tile manufacture. Once fired, the component materials become fixed within the vitreous matrix, and the ceramic tile is essentially inert and does not contribute to indoor air pollution. According to the ceramic industry, Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) testing shows that no toxic materials leach out of ceramic tiles and that the analysis of toxic materials is far below established regulatory limits. If tile containing lead compounds in the glaze is used on countertops, however, there is some concern, that in certain instances lead may be transferred to food placed on the tile. Such exposure occurs mostly with imported tile. Adhesives and latex formulations of mortar and grout can be sources of air emissions when used to attach ceramic tile. Once fully polymerized and after solvents and other VOCs have fully volatilized, the adhesives and other organic components used with ceramic tile have little or no toxic effects. However, at the time of application and while VOCs continue to be emitted, health effects can result, especially for sensitive individuals or if materials are used improperly.
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A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of ceramic tile is presented in figure 5.
Ceramic Tile Ceramic tile is made from clay or a mixture of clay and other ceramic materials. Tiles that are made from a mixture of materials contain three principal constituents that serve different functions in the tile mix: the plastic (ball clays), the filler (various materials, including kaolin), and the flux (usually feldspar).
Some manufacturers produce ceramic tile that uses industrial by-products, such as feldspar tailings, recycled glass, or roofing granule waste. Many producers mix ceramic scrap materials with virgin raw material (Sailer 1993). Ceramic tiles may be glazed or unglazed. Unglazed tiles are composed of the same materials throughout and derive their texture and color from the materials of which the body is made. Glazed tiles have a vitreous (glassy) surface of ceramic material fused to the face of the tile.
Plastics (Ball Clays)
Ball clays are very finely grained and highly plastic; that is, they are easily molded and have high bonding power. Because of these characteristics, ball clays are universally used as a plastic in tile manufacture, composing 95 percent of all clay used in tile. Ball clays are of sedimentary origin and consist mainly of kaolinite, sericite mica, and organic matter. Ball clays are mined in five states: Tennessee, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Texas. The ball clay industry is relatively small; in 1991, 784 thousand metric tons of ball clay were sold or used in the United States. Tennessee accounted for 66 percent of this total (Virta 1993). Clays are mined using surface mining techniques. When tile manufacturing plants are built close to clay pits, the clay used in tile manufacture is processed on-site at the plant. Quarry tile contains a high proportion of clay (60 to 90 percent) in the body, and consequently quarry tile plants are usually built close to clay pits. Wall tile plants use from 30 to 60 percent clay, with the higher proportion of clay used if the plant is located near a source of clay. When tile plants acquire tile clay locally in this way, less energy is expended in transport of these raw materials to the manufacturing plant. Plants located far from a source of clay will vary the component mixture to produce a product with similar properties but without needing to transport as much clay. The acquisition and processing of clay along with the environmental impacts of surface or open-pit mining, are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Fillers
Fillers in the ceramic tile mix reduce shrinkage in drying and firing and provide rigidity. Flint or finely pulverized silica is the leading nonplastic filler in ceramic tile. The mining and processing of silica are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Dredging, mining, and processing of silica can result in a variety of stressors on the environment. These are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Talc and pyrophyllite have recently come into wide use as filler ingredients in wall tile. Talc is a hydrous magnesium silicate with a theoretical composition of Mg 3 SiO 10 (OH) 2 . Pyrophyllite [Al2SiO14(OH)2] is the aluminum analogue of talc and has many of its characteristics. The use of talc and pyrophyllite in tile imparts a lower firing temperature, less shrinkage, and low moisture expansion, which lessens the crazing or cracking of glazes. (continues on page 15)
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Figure 5: Ceramic TileMaterials Acquisistion and Preparation Stage

Activity
Mining of clay, silica, talc, kaolin, feldspar, glass sand, limestone, soda ash, gypsum, and iron ore, and various other minerals (for tile, glaze, colorants, abrasives, and mortar)
Stressor
Tailings waste
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Land disturbance
Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation
(see impacts above) VOCs
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems, and lung damage Acid precipitation
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect Human health hazards (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Ground-level ozone (smog)
Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
Acid precipitation
Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Particulates
Silica processing (tile and glaze) Feldspar processing (tile and glaze)
Dust Particulate emissions
Silicosis Eye and throat irritation Impaired visibility Increased dissolved solids Increased turbidity Increased BOD Carbon dioxide (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Silicosis (see impacts above) (see impacts above) continued
Wastewater containing sulfonated oils and mineral residues Limestone processing and calcining (glaze) Air emissions Particulate emissions Fuel combustion emissions Dust Particulate emissions Fuel combustion emissions
Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Greenhouse effect Global warming
Glass sand processing (glaze) Calcining/processing of minerals (glaze)
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Ceramic Tile
Figure 5: Ceramic TileMaterials Acquisistion and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Calcining/processing of metal oxides (colorants)
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Alumina production (colorants) Zinc smelting (colorants)
Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions Solid waste (metal)
(see impacts above) Particulates Recycle (see impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions from recycling Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Wastewater
Spent bath solutions Spent cleaning solutions Rinse water
Sludge
Zinc oxide manufacture (colorants) Bauxite calcining (abrasives)
Air emissions
Metals and organics filtered from bath solutions Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide (see impacts above) Iron silica slag Dust
Fuel combustion emissions Solid waste Sand crushing and grinding Heating of sand and coal Wastewater from washing of silicon carbide crystals
Silicon carbide production (abrasives)
Decreased landfill capacity Silicosis
Carbon monoxide Particulate emissions Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrous calcium sulfate, and gangue (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Deoxygenation
Gypsum processing and calcining (mortar)
Particulates emissions
Portland cement production (mortar)
Fuel combustion Dust
Air emissions
Carbon dioxide
Greenhouse effect
Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
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Activity
Portland cement production (mortar) (continued) Sand processing (mortar) Limestone calcining/calcium oxide production (mortar) Ethylene production (mortar)
Stressor
Wastewater
Impact/Stressor
Particulates
Impact/Stressor
Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids
Impact/Stressor
Dust Air emissions
Silicosis Carbon dioxide (see impacts above)
Benzene and VOCs Contains chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Benzene
(see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Human health hazards (known human carcinogens) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Vinyl acetate production (mortar)
Air emissions
Titanium dioxide production (grout)
Sulfuric acid Metal sulfates Iron chlorides Air emissions
VOCs Fuel combustion emissions (SOx, NOx, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Ocean dumping Landfill Deep-well injection Vinyl chloride
Ocean pollution Decreased landfill capacity Groundwater pollution Known human carcinogens Respiratory irritation Nervous system effects
Polyvinyl chloride manufacture (backing)
Wastewater
Crude oil extraction (precursors of acrylic resin, styrene, butadiene, phenol, propylene, and mineral spirits for manufacture of adhesives)
Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands
1,3-Butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride Methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, zinc Increased BOD Environmental poisoning
Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction
(see impacts above)
Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime and caustic soda Water pollution
Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (precursors of acrylic resin, styrene, butadiene, phenol, propylene, and mineral spirits for manufacture of adhesives)
(see impacts above)
continued
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Ceramic Tile

Activity
Crude oil processing (precursors of acrylic resin, styrene, butadiene, phenol, propylene, and mineral spirits for manufacture of adhesives)
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Increased BOD5 Increased sewerage loading
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Catalytic cracking
Release of oil and suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia
(see impacts above) Increased BOD
Habitat disruption
Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH, high BOD
Deoxygenation, reduced reproduction, loss of faunal diversity, possible fishkill
Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions
SOx, NOx, VOCs, CO, ammonia benzene
Environmental poisoning (see impacts above)
Acrylic resin production, esterization/ polymerization stage (adhesives)
Fugitive emissions of acrylic monomer
Styrene production (adhesives)
Benzene production
Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, bipheryl, ethylbenzene, naphthalanes, toluene, xylene, and mineral spirits Eye irritation, respiratory and eye irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects Release of benzene
Various human health effects
Ethylene production
Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Benzene and VOCs Contains chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals
(see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity
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Virtually all of the ceramic wall tile produced in the United States contains a large percentage (up to 65 percent) of talc or pyrophyllite (Kirk-Othmer 1982). The acquisition and processing of talc, along with the environmental impacts of talc mining, are discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Kaolin, or china clay, acts to some extent as a filler in ceramic tile. Kaolin is a white, claylike material composed mainly of kaolinite and other kaolin-group minerals, such as halloysite and dickite. The acquisition and processing of kaolin and clay are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Flux
The flux in ceramic tile melts during firing and fuses the more-heat-resistant ingredients into a solid mass. The flux most widely used in ceramic tile is the mineral feldspar. It composes up to 15 percent of the tile body and is a key material (from 30 to 60 percent) in the tile glaze. Feldspar is the general term for a group of closely related minerals consisting essentially of aluminum silicates in combination with varying proportions of potassium, sodium, and calcium. Included in this mineral group are wollastonite (CaSiO3) and nepheline syenite, which is a coarse crystalline rock consisting principally of sodium-potassium feldspar and nepheline. Total U.S. feldspar production in 1989 was 720,000 short tons (Potter 1990). Feldspar is quarried from open pits. It is removed by drilling, blasting, and drop-ball breaking at the quarry. The broken rock is sent to the primary crusher and then to a secondary crusher, followed by screening. Processing of the ore continues with acid-circuit flotation. This is completed in three stages, each of which is preceded by desliming and conditioning. In the first step, an amine collector floats off and removes mica. In the second step, sulfonated oils separate iron-bearing minerals, most notably garnet. In the third step, flotation with another amine collector removes most of the quartz, leaving flotation cake feldspar. This feldspar is dewatered in filters or drain bins, dried in rotary driers, and further ground in pebble mills (Potter 1990).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Feldspar
The impacts of open-pit mining are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The primary pollutant that is emitted from feldspar processing is particulate matter. It is emitted by several of the processing operations, including crushing, grinding, screening, drying, and materials handling and transfer operations. During the drying process, filterable particulate matter has been measured at 0.081 lbs/ton (0.041 kg/1,000 kg) dried feldspar. This particulate matter was collected from a dryer with a mechanical collector and scrubber. With a scrubber and de-mister, filterable particulate matter was 1.2 lbs/ton (0.60 kg/1,000 kg) (EPA 1993). Wastewater from processing feldspar contains sulfonated oils, mica, quartz, and other ore and mineral residues, many of which can be separated from the wastewater and reused. If discharged into surface water, wastewater containing such wastes can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids, which in turn results in reduced light penetration of surface water, lower aquatic productivity, increased BOD, and increased benthic deposition and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). As with other mineral materials obtained by mining and processing, however, feldspar mining and processing are regulated to prevent uncontrolled runoff and to allow only clarified water to be released from settling ponds (Stoffa 1994). An adequate supply of feldspar is available in the United States. There is limited concern about depleting these resources in the distant future.
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Ceramic Tile
Energy Consumed
Feldspar is mined in thirteen states, but three statesNorth Carolina, Georgia, and Connecticutproduce the largest part. Hence, energy consumed during transport of feldspar to the manufacturing plants may be significant (Franklin Associates 1991).
Salvaged and Recycled Materials
Some tile manufacturers have developed certain lines of tile to take advantage of industrial by-products and waste materials that would otherwise end up in landfills. Salvaged ceramic scrap from within the plant is also used as a material in ceramic tile.
Feldspar tailings. One tile manufacturer produces ceramic tile that is composed of more
than 65 percent feldspar tailings, a by-product of the feldspar refining process that normally is landfilled. Various other raw materials compose the remainder of the tile body, the percentage and formulation of which is a trade secret. This tile has high strength, low absorption, and a very smooth and durable glaze. Normally, emissions that off-gas during firing leave behind minute bubbles and pockmarks in the glaze surface that make the surface a little rougher and less durable. The feldspar tailings do not off-gas at this stage, however, leaving the glaze smooth and more durable (Johnson 1994; Sailer 1993).
Recycled glass. Waste glass in the form of recycled bottles, scrap windshield glass, waste from
light-bulb manufacture, and pure postindustrial glass have been used as ingredients in ceramic tile. One manufacturer produces tile that is more than 70 percent glass (pre- and post-consumer) and is developing another type of tile made with recycled glass and a high proportion of fly ash. This manufacturer has found that the use of scrap glass allows firing to occur at about 250F (121C) lower than required for traditional clay (Moore 1994; Sailer 1993). A ceramic tile composed mainly of waste glass generated from light bulb production used to be produced by a light bulb manufacturer (Sailer 1993).
Salvaged ceramic scrap. Many producers mix ceramic scrap materials with virgin raw material; both unfired greenware and fired scrap material can be used, depending on the production process (Sailer 1993; Shatten 1994; Johnson 1994; Tshudy et al. 1994). Waste fines from the production of roofing granules (a ceramic material) are also incorporated into tiles (Stoffa 1994).
Glazes Ceramic tiles are covered with a glaze that provides a shiny, smooth surface that seals the body of the tile. The surface produced by this treatment may be either glossy or matte in finish. Glaze is similar to glass in structure and texture but is more viscous in the molten state. The glaze mixture is applied before tile firing.
The raw materials for glaze are basically the same as for glass. Glaze can be either raw or fritted. Raw glaze consists of the components of glass, mainly silica (from glass sand, which is almost pure silicon dioxide), lime (calcium oxide, which comes from limestone), and feldspar (the major source of sodium). Fritted glaze is preprocessed ground glass. From 40 to 95 percent frit is used in fast-firing tiles; glaze for conventional tiles consists of 5 to 30 percent frit. The remainder of the glaze is composed of feldspar, along with silica and lime (Tshudy et al. 1994). The acquisition and preparation of feldspar are discussed above. Glass sand and limestone are discussed in the material report on glass (08810). In addition, a variety of other oxides can be used to achieve different design characteristics and to provide chemical compatibility with pigments. These include the oxides of boron, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, and zirconium, among others (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1986). Acquisition and processing of minerals containing these oxides often involves open-pit mining and some refining, such as calcining. Open-pit mining
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and calcination are discussed in the material report on glass (08810). Further extraction and purification may be necessary, depending on the glaze. Some glazes may use lead as a component. However legislation and long-term liability have made its use rare (Stoffa 1994). Lead is incorporated into glaze as lead bisilicate (PbO 2 SiO2), which is produced from lead oxide (PbO) and silica dioxide (SiO2). It is produced as a frit by itself or with other oxides to ensure that it is chemically bound before incorporation into the glaze.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Glaze Components
Although silica, lime, feldspar, and most other minerals are in adequate supply for the foreseeable future, some minerals may require importation from abroad. Waste produced and natural resource depletion associated with the acquisition of sand, limestone, and soda ash and with open-pit mining and calcining are discussed in the material report on glass (08810). Although most minerals are in adequate supply for the foreseeable future, some materials, such as chromite ore, are not produced domestically. The metals and metal oxides used to prepare ceramic tile pigments and as mineralizers or modifiers have a variety of health effects, depending upon the compound, the form of exposure, and the level of exposure. Effects can range from simple irritation to severe organ damage (NIOSH 1990). With proper handling, these pigments should not provide an unacceptable health problem, especially if measures are taken to prevent inhalation or ingestion (Kirk-Othmer 1993). Once the materials have been converted into the pigments and incorporated into the vitreous matrix of the ceramic tile, they become essentially fixed. According to the industry, TCLP testing has shown that no toxic materials leach out of ceramic tiles (Tshudy et al. 1994). One source does indicate that lead contained in ceramic glaze (as a pigment modifier or a glaze component) can be transferred to food placed on a ceramic tile countertop. However, imported tiles are a more likely source of such exposure than those produced domestically (Bower 1989). The amount of lead used in tiles has dramatically decreased in the United States. The lead used in domestic tile is present in a chemically bound form and therefore poses less of a risk than lead used in imported tiles (Stoffa 1994).
Colorants The colorants (or pigments) most often used for ceramic tile are composed of a variety of crystalline materials, including forms of corundum-hematite, olivine, rutile-cassiterite, and, especially, spinel. These crystalline materials, called mixed metal oxide inorganic colored pigments, are formed by the calcining of oxides of such metals as cobalt, nickel, aluminum, and chromium. Other metal oxides include zinc, iron, selenium, silicon, and manganese, among others (Dry Color Manufacturers Association 1982; Tshudy et al. 1994). The Dry Color Manufacturers Association lists thirty-three of these pigments that might be used for ceramic tile.
These pigments are prepared in similar ways. Almost all are oxides of metals that are obtained directly from the earth or are refined to some extent. Acquisition and processing methods that are used for many pigments include open-pit mining and calcination, which are discussed in the material report on glass (08810). Depending upon the individual pigment being produced, impure natural minerals may be acceptable, or industrially pure oxides may be required. Naturally occurring impurities may be beneficial to pigment formation. Indeed, in most pigment production, mineralizers or modifiers chiefly composed of various other metal oxides are added to increase the rate of reaction and to aid uniformity of the mixture. Specific quantities of minerals are blended and then calcined to form the pigment
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crystals. Crystal formation is a solid-state reaction that takes place at temperatures ranging from 500 to 1,400C (932 to 2,552F) in batch or continuous calciners. During calcination, volatiles are driven off, any additional oxidation occurs, and the crystal structure of the pigment develops. The calcined material is broken up by jaw or roll crushers and ground to the necessary particle size in wet or dry ball mills. Some pigments, particularly those containing vanadium oxide, require washing to remove soluble by-products. The material is filtered and dried (Kirk-Othmer 1993; Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1986).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Pigments
Waste produced and natural resource depletion associated with open-pit mining and calcining are discussed in the material report on glass (08810). Although most minerals are in adequate supply for the foreseeable future, some materials, such as chromate ore, are not produced domestically and must be imported. The metals and metal oxides used to prepare ceramic tile pigments and as mineralizers or modifiers have a variety of health effects depending upon the compound, the form of exposure, and the level of exposure. Effects can range from simple irritation to severe organ damage (NIOSH 1990). With proper handling, these pigments should not present an unacceptable health problem, especially if measures are taken to prevent inhalation or ingestion (Kirk-Othmer 1993).
Chrome Alumina Pink Spinel
Although not a predominant colorant, chrome alumina pink spinel is typical of mixed metal oxide inorganic pigments used for coloring ceramic tile glaze. This colorant is produced by the calcination of aluminum oxide, chromium oxide, and zinc oxide to form a crystalline spinel matrix by the process discussed above. The formula is Zn(Al,Cr)2O4.
Aluminum oxide. The production of aluminum oxide (alumina) is described in the material
report on aluminum (05010 in ERG 1994 ed.). The wastes produced and natural resource depletion associated with alumina are also described in that report.
Chromium oxide. Chromium oxide (Cr2O3) occurs as a major component of chromite ore.
The acquisition of chromite ore and its environmental impact are presented in the material report on glued laminated timbers (06180).
Zinc oxide. Zinc oxide (ZnO) is currently manufactured from zinc residues and secondary
zinc, including zinc concentrates, metallization residues, by-product zinc hydroxide, zinc dross from casting furnaces or galvanizing, and recycled automobile parts, as well as from primary zinc metal. ZnO is produced by the Indirect or French Process for use in ceramic tile. In the Indirect Method, metallic zinc or metal residues are heated in a retort by a burner. Metallic zinc is provided as a sinter produced by the roasting, purification, and processing of zinc ore (Patton 1973). The zinc boils and vaporizes, leaving nonvolatile residues, such as iron and lead. Other materials, such as cadmium, lead, iron, aluminum, and copper, are separated from the zinc by fractional distillation. The zinc vapor oxidizes and the ZnO is removed from the gas stream (Buxbaum 1993).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Zinc Oxide
Waste production and natural resource depletion related to the acquisition and preparation of zinc are discussed in the material report on acoustical ceiling systems (09510). CO2 and CO are released and various metals are produced as waste products during manufacture of ZnO. Zinc is not considered to be especially toxic or dangerous. The oral
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LD50 value for zinc dust in rats is 630 mg/kg, and the threshold limit value (TLV) is 10 mg/m3 (Buxbaum 1993).
Energy Consumed
Energy consumption related to the acquisition and preparation of zinc and coal are discussed in the material report on acoustical ceiling systems (09510).
Abrasives About 10 percent of floor tiles (less than 2 percent of all ceramic tiles) have an abrasive material applied to the surface or mixed throughout the body. This material provides slip resistance.
The abrasive material that produces slip resistance in ceramic tiles usually is fused aluminum oxide (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC). Fused Al2O3 is produced from bauxite, the acquisition of which is described in the material report on aluminum (05010 in ERG 1994 ed.). The bauxite is calcined and placed in a vertical arc-resistance furnace that is water cooled on the outside surface. Scrap iron is added to slag off silica impurities as an alloy that sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The furnace electrodes are progressively raised and kept in contact with the top of the molten mass as more raw material is added to the furnace. When the furnace is full, the current is shut off and the Al2O3 is cooled. Roll crushers break up the fused mass. The material is then washed and sieved to produce the final product (Austin 1984). SiC is produced from sand and coal, the acquisition of which is described in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and on steel framing (05401), respectively. After the coal is crushed and ground, it is mixed with the sand and placed into the trough-shaped furnace. The ends of the trough are the electrodes. During heating, the core of the furnace heats up to 2,040C (3,704F) initially, decreasing to 1,600C (2,912F). The outside edges of the furnace maintain a steady temperature of about 1,370C (2,498F). The reaction may take 36 hours of heating followed by several days of cooling. During the heating process, carbon monoxide (CO) is released. Raw materials that are not converted to SiC within the furnace are reused with additional sand and coal for subsequent production runs. The SiC crystals are washed with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide, filtered, and dried (Austin 1984).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Abrasives
During the preparation of fused Al2O3, the calcining of bauxite ore releases SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, VOCs, and particulates. The iron/silica slag produced during heating in the furnace is waste that must be discarded. Washing the Al2O3 may produce wastewater. Crushing and grinding of the sand before production of SiC may release dust. During the heating of the sand and coal, CO and particulates are produced, and the washing of SiC crystals may produce wastewater.
Tile-Setting Materials Various types of adhesives (or mastics), mortars, and grouts are used in ceramic tile installation. Each type of material for setting ceramic tile possesses specific qualities that make it suitable for installation over certain surfaces or under certain conditions. The various types of grout meet the requirements of the different types of tile and types of exposures.
Some types of tile are held together in sheets by a mesh backing formed from plastisol. Both tile and backing are mounted in place as a single assembly, the backing becoming an integral part of the tile installation. Certain specialty products that are used in special situations are not discussed in this report. These specialty products include epoxy mortars and grouts, which are used in food process-
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ing areas; solvent-based mastics or adhesives, which are required for certain specialty ceramic tile and in situations where some flexibility is required; and furan grout and mortar, which is used in industrial and commercial areas requiring chemical resistance. Another type of grout is made of silicone rubber and is intended for factory grouting of joints in pregrouted sheets of glazed wall tile. Together, these specialty products compose a small percentage of the market.
Adhesives
Adhesive can be used to install ceramic tile in many situations while saving time and simplifying the installation process compared to the use of mortar. Almost all adhesives are waterborne latex formulations, although some specialty solvent-borne adhesives are required for particular situations (and are not discussed here).
Acrylic adhesives. The major active component of ceramic tile adhesives is either an acrylic
resin or styrene-butadiene rubber, with acrylic adhesives becoming more prevalent. These adhesives may be modified with co-polymers, forming such compounds as styrene acrylic, for example. The formulations of adhesives are adjusted by their manufacturers for use in different situations and include several other components besides the adhesive agent. Other typical major ingredients of adhesives include calcium carbonate (CaCO3) used as a filler, proprietary hydrocarbon resins used as additional adhesive binders, kaolin clay used as a filler, and nonylphenol ethoxylate used as an emulsifier in the production of the latex formulation. Minor components (not discussed here) include potassium hydroxide (used as a base), polybutene (used as a plasticizer), urea (used to control the moisture content of the formulation), preservatives, and antifoam agents. Mineral spirits are used as a wetting agent for the adhesive binders (Grady and Tshudy 1994). Latex, waterborne adhesives are almost completely replacing solvent-based adhesives. Latex systems emulsify the water-insoluble (or poorly soluble) adhesive resin in water, held in micelles and droplets. Emulsification is produced by the use of an emulsifying chemical. The polymerization of the resin monomer is incomplete in the latex, but continues to completion upon the drying of the water. Acrylic resin, formed by the polymerization of acrylic acid, is produced from propylene vapor that is oxidized catalytically to produce acrolein. Acrolein is then catalytically oxidized to produce acrylic acid. The acrylic acid is esterified to produce methyl, ethyl, butyl, or larger acrylate monomers. The production of propylene and its petroleum precursors is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acrylic Acid Production
The environmental impacts related to the acquisition and production of propylene and its petroleum precursors are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The smaller acrylates (such as methyl acrylate and ethyl acrylate) have moderate toxicity when ingested, absorbed through the skin, or brought in contact with the eyes. Effects can include eye irritation, respiratory and eye irritation, headache, and skin eruptions. There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of ethyl acrylate in experimental animals, but the data are inadequate to evaluate its carcinogenicity in humans (NIEHS 1989). As a result, precautions must be taken to prevent adverse effects from emissions during the production and handling of acrylic monomer (Kirk-Othmer 1991).
Styrene. Styrene is a monomer combined with acrylic or butadiene in polymeric latex for-
mulations for ceramic tile adhesives. The production of styrene from petroleum and natural gas feedstocks is described in the material report on concrete masonry (04220).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Styrene Production
Environmental aspects of styrene production are described in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). Exposure to styrene can cause toxicity, including eye and nose irritation, drowsiness, weakness, narcosis, and dermatitis (NIOSH 1990).
Styrene acrylic latex. Styrene acrylic latex is formed by the polymeric emulsion of acrylic
monomer with styrene. Most acrylic polymerization occurs in a closed-kettle process to control air emissions (Kirk-Othmer 1991). A typical styrene acrylic latex is produced in a formulation having 53 percent resin (Grady and Tshudy 1994). Other components would include water, emulsifiers, and special additives.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Styrene Acrylic Polymer Production
Acrylic polymers are generally nontoxic; however, residual monomers and additives that may be present have caused mild skin or eye irritation (Kirk-Othmer 1991).
Styrene butadiene latex. Styrene butadiene latex is formed by the polymeric emulsion of
styrene with butadiene. The production of styrene is discussed above. Most butadiene is produced by the cracking of petroleum (Austin 1984). The acquisition, processing, and cracking of petroleum is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). A typical styrene butadiene latex is produced in a formulation having 50 percent resin (Grady and Tshudy 1994). Other components would include water, emulsifiers, and special additives.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Styrene Butadiene Polymer Production
Environmental and health hazards related to petroleum acquisition and processing are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Exposure to butadiene can cause toxicity, including eye and nose irritation, headaches, dizziness, and vomiting (NIOSH 1990).
Calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is used as a filler to adjust the consistency of the adhesive. Calcium carbonate is produced from limestone that is open-pit mined, crushed in cone- or jaw-type crushers, and ground in a roller or ball mill to the desired fineness (Grady and Tshudy 1994; Kirk-Othmer 1992). The acquisition and processing of limestone as well as its environmental effects, are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Hydrocarbon resins. Hydrocarbon resins that are proprietary in nature are used as additional adhesive binders. Because their identity is not disclosed by industry, a description of them cannot be included here. Kaolin clay. Kaolin clay is used as a filler much as calcium carbonate is; see above (Grady and
Tshudy 1994). The acquisition, processing, and environmental effects of kaolin clay are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Nonylphenol ethoxylate. Nonylphenol ethoxylate (NE) is a nonionic surfactant used as an
emulsifier in the production of the latex formulation (Grady and Tshudy 1994). This compound is responsible for emulsifying the insoluble or poorly soluble adhesive resins in a water suspension. NE is produced by the reaction of nonylphenol and ethylene oxide. Nonylphenol is produced by the catalytic alkylation of phenol with nonene. Phenol production is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Nonene is produced by the trimerization of propylene (Kirk-Othmer 1992). The production of propylene is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Nonylphenol Ethoxylate (NE) Production
There are some concerns about the aquatic toxicity and biodegradability of the class of compounds (alkylphenol-based ethoxylates) including NE, and an industry study has
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been initiated. Nonylphenol is a severe skin and eye irritant (Kirk-Othmer 1992). The environmental effects of the other precursors are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Mineral spirits. Mineral spirits are various types of solvents used as a wetting agent for the
adhesive binders (Grady and Tshudy 1994). This results in an improved contact between the adhesives and the emulsion that carries them. Mineral spirits are produced by distillation of petroleum (Budavari 1989). The acquisition, processing, and environmental effects of petroleum are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Mineral spirits and other solvents can be hazardous to human health. A discussion of the effects of mineral spirits and other solvents is presented in the material report on paint (09900 in ERG 1994 ed.).
Mortar
Conventional portland cement mortar is composed of portland cement, sand, and water. For use with floor tile, portland cement and sand are roughly in the proportions of 1:5; for wall tile, proportions of portland cement, sand, and lime are from 1:5:12 to 1:7:1. Dry-set mortar contains portland cement and sand, along with a water-retentive additive (hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose) to slow the curing time. Portland cement is discussed in the material report on brick and mortar (04210). Sand and lime are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200) (Tile Council of America 1994; Grady and Tshudy 1994). Latex-portland cement mortars are products in which a polymer in the form of either latex or reemulsifiable powder is added to a factory-blended formulation of either sand and portland cement or dry-set mortars. Two types of latex liquid emulsion are used: styrene butadiene and acrylic resin. The production and environmental effects of the latex emulsion are described above. In reemulsifiable powder form, the polymer is either polyvinyl acetate or (more commonly) ethylene vinyl acetate (Grady and Tshudy 1994). The production and environmental effects of polyvinyl acetate are discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Ethylene vinyl acetate is a co-polymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate. The production and environmental effects related to ethylene are described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). The production and environmental effects of vinyl acetate are discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Calcium chloride (CaCl2) speeds the setting of mortar without weakening the bonds. It is produced from underground brines. The brine consists of various salts in a water solution. The brine solution is allowed to evaporate, causing other salts to precipitate out. The remaining CaCl2 solution is used in that concentrated form or is further dried to a solid. Other salts precipitated out of solution are recovered for commercial use. Mortar may also include some of the same minor components as are found in adhesives. These include preservatives and antifoaming agents and are not discussed in this report (Grady and Tshudy 1994).
Grout
Grout is used to fill spaces between the tiles and contains portland cement, sand, and some of the same additives that are contained in mortar: hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, latex, styrene butadiene, calcium carbonate, polyvinyl acetate, and/or ethylene vinyl acetate (Grady and Tshudy 1994). See above for the acquisition, preparation, and environmental impacts of raw materials for these ingredients. Pigments (titanium dioxide) may also be added (Grady and Tshudy 1994). Titanium Dioxide. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is produced from mineral sands containing such titanium-bearing minerals as ilmenite and rutile. The mineral sands are obtained by wet dredging and are concentrated by cones or spirals to produce a product with up to 98 percent
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heavy minerals. These titanium-containing minerals are separated and then processed by a sulfate or a chloride method to produce TiO2. The material is then separated magnetically, electrostatically, and hydromechanically to produce the individual titanium-bearing minerals (Buxbaum 1993; Patton 1973). The sulfate process uses the mineral ilmenite or the titanium slag remaining after ilmenite has been smelted to produce iron. The ilmenite or slag is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) together with steam. The reaction is exothermic and the temperature can rise to 220C (428F). Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4 7H2O) is crystallized out, leaving an enriched solution of titanium oxide hydrate. This is precipitated by hydrolysis at about 100C (212F). After filtration, the titanium oxide hydrate is washed with water or dilute acid and bleached with dilute acid and aluminum or zinc to remove impurities. The hydrate is filtered and washed to produce a solid to which is adsorbed a small amount of H2SO4. The titanium oxide hydrate is calcined in a rotary kiln for 7 to 20 hours at temperatures up to 800 to 1,100C (1,472 to 2,012F) to produce TiO2 (Buxbaum 1993; Patton 1973). In the chloride process, titanium in the processed ore, together with chlorine, is converted in a fluidized-bed reactor to titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4). Petroleum coke is the reducing agent in this exothermic reaction. Along with TiCl4, various other chlorides are produced, especially iron(II) and iron(III) chlorides. Most of the other chlorides are separated by condensation or sublimation. The resulting TiCl4 is then condensed at 0C (32F). Waste gases released at this stage include carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen, and nitrogen. Impurities are then removed in several ways. TiCl4 is evaporated off from chlorides that are solids at room temperature and entrained dust. Dissolved chlorine is removed by heating or reduction with metal powders. Contaminant vanadium compounds that are still present are reduced to solid, low-value vanadium chlorides that are separated from the process stream. During this process, the TiCl4 is then combusted at 900 to 1,400C (1,652 to 2,552F) to form TiO2 and chlorine. TiCl4 is vaporized and then heated to about 500 to 1,000C (932 to 1,832F) in a weakly exothermic reaction. The oxygen in this reaction also must be heated to over 1,000C. (1,832F). The solid TiO2 is separated from the chlorine-rich gas, which is then recycled to the combustion chamber for use in the initial chlorination of the titanium ore (Buxbaum 1993).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Titanium Dioxide
TiO2 is produced from sand. Information on the geology of sand and a description of sand mining are included in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Dredging and mining of sand can result in a variety of stressors on the environment. These stressors are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). In the sulfate process, ferrous sulfate is produced that can be utilized for water purification and as a raw material for iron oxide pigment manufacture. It can also be dehydrated and thermally decomposed to produce iron oxide and SO2. The H2SO4 in the process stream and the remaining metal sulfates have traditionally been discarded into the ocean. This practice is declining and is expected to stop eventually. One alternative includes the precipitation of the H2SO4 as gypsum (which would probably be disposed of as a solid waste because demand for its recycling is insufficient). Another alternative that has been demonstrated is concentration of the waste process liquid, producing an H2SO4 solution and metal sulfates. The H2SO4 solution can be reused, and the metal sulfates become disposable after reaction with calcium compounds. Alternatively and with less environmental impact, the metal sulfates can be thermally decomposed in a coal-fired fluidized-bed furnace to form metal oxides, SO2, water, and oxygen. The SO2 can be converted to H2SO4 and reused. The metal oxides have the same components as the ore from which the titanium was extracted and can be used in cement production. The water and oxygen can be released into the environment. Calcination of titanium oxide hydrate produces
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sulfur trioxide and SO2 in the exhaust gas. They are scrubbed from the gas to form dilute H2SO4, which is recycled (Buxbaum 1993). In the chloride process, the iron chlorides are the major waste product. These and other metal chlorides are disposed of as aqueous solutions. They are sometimes disposed of by deep well injection into geological strata. Efforts are being made to recycle iron chloride for water treatment and as a flocculation agent (Buxbaum 1993). According to NIOSH, titanium dioxide may cause lung fibrosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen (NIOSH 1990). NIOSH recommended that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) label titanium dioxide a potential human carcinogen. However, OSHA chose not to act on this recommendation. Titanium dioxide is not considered hazardous by EPA, and the National Cancer Institute (NCI) reported that it is not carcinogenic to rats or mice (EPA 1975; National Cancer Institute 1979). Titanium dioxide is of little health or environmental concern unless the grout is abraded in such a way that the titanium dioxide colorant is released as unbound particles.
Energy Consumed
The energy consumption associated with the mining and processing of sand is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Gas or oil heats the rotary kiln used for calcination in the sulfate process during production of TiO2. Exhaust gas heat can be recirculated to the kiln or elsewhere in the process. In the chloride process, energy is provided by coke during chlorination of the ore. Other phases use indirect heating and electrical heating. The exact amounts of energy used are not reported.
Backing Most (95 percent) mosaic tile is held together in sheets, usually by a plastic mesh backing made from a proprietary plastic, generally a plastisol.
Polyvinyl chloride resins can be formulated with a plasticizer to produce a stable, pourable dispersion called a plastisol. On heating, the resins fuse to produce a well-plasticized material. The identity of the plasticizer is proprietary. The production and environmental effects of polyvinyl chloride are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacturing and fabrication of ceramic tile is presented in figure 6. Ceramic tiles are manufactured by either of two methods: the plastic process (including the extrusion process) and the dry (or dust-press) process.
Forming In the plastic process, clay is mixed with sufficient water to render it plastic, and the tiles are then shaped either by hand-molding or by extrusion from an auger machine. When shaped by machine, the extruded ribbon of clay is cut into the desired size as it emerges from the die. Colorants may be added to the clay material before shaping, or they may be applied to the surface after formation. Quarry tiles are made by the extrusion process. These and other tiles made by the plastic process tend to vary somewhat from true geometric forms.
In the dry process, tiles are shaped in steel dies by the application of heavy pressure to the damp ceramic mix. Colorants can be applied either before or after pressing. The finely pulverized mix contains only enough moisture to cause the particles to cohere under pressure.
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Figure 6: Ceramic TileManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Grinding and storage of raw materials
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Landfill disposal (that portion that cannot be recycled) Increased dissolved solids Increased turbidity Increased BOD BOCs
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Forming
Tile scrap
Decreased landfill capacity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Glazing
Wastewater containing solids (glaze and colorants) Fuel combustion and ceramic component emissions
Firing
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems) Ground-level ozone (smog)
Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
Acid precipitation
Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Particulates
Ceramic component emissions
Hydrogen fluoride
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification
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Tiles produced by this production method have a more regular appearance than do tiles produced by the plastic process. Wall, glazed floor, and mosaic tiles are formed by the dry process.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Forming of Ceramic Tile
Particulate emissions (dust) may be produced during drying, grinding, and storage of raw materials. Uncontrolled emissions for these three processes are 70 lbs/ton (35 kg/MT), 76 lbs/ton (38 kg/MT), and 34 lbs/ton (17 kg/MT), respectively. Cyclone controls decrease emissions considerably; emissions resulting from the above three processes with such controls in place are 18 lbs/ton (9 kg/MT), 19 lbs/ton (9.5 kg/MT), and 8 lbs/ton (4 kg/MT). More effective control is achieved by cyclones for the coarser material, followed by wet scrubbers or other controls for the finer dust (EPA 1993). Particulates can contribute to a variety of health problems, including eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, and lung damage, as well as to environmental problems, such as impaired visibility. The industry as a whole is working to minimize dust levels within ceramic tile plants and to control dust emissions. Ceramic tile plants operate under negative atmospheric pressure, with exhaust exiting through a baghouse to remove dust; when these control measures are in place, no fugitive dust emissions are released (Tshudy et al. 1994). One recently built tile-manufacturing plant employs a system of silos that contains the raw materials in a closed system, keeping the plant free of dust and protecting the materials from contamination. Each silo has a pneumatic system that transports the materials to the ball mills for grinding (Sailer 1993; Shatten 1994). It is to the benefit of the industry to achieve minimal dust levels within the plant because extraneous atmospheric dust can adhere to the tile surface before firing and degrade an otherwise smooth, glossy finish. Where technically feasible, tile manufacturers recycle tile scrap material. For tile produced by extrusion, all scraps generated up to the point of firing can be crushed and recycled into the body formulation, even those scraps with glazing. Scraps from tile produced by the dry process likewise can be easily recycled, but only if the tile is uncolored or if the colorants have been applied only to the top surface of the tile. If colorants are incorporated throughout the body of the tile produced by the dry process, recycling may be difficult. Whereas most manufacturers recycle extruded and surface-colored drypressed tile scraps, only about 60 percent of manufacturers producing dry-pressed tiles with incorporated colorants recycle their greenware scraps (Tshudy et al. 1994).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during the forming of ceramic tile.
Coloring The major means of coloring ceramic coatings is the dispersal of ceramic pigments (or colorants) in a vitreous matrix. Glaze pigments may be mixed with the glaze and applied during the glazing operation. They also may be mixed with the constituents of the tile body for incorporation throughout the tile.
To produce decorative or border tiles, the pigment may be applied by decalcomania or may be mixed with a methacrylate binder and applied by screening before firing (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1986). Designs may also be applied to tile by screen printing, using metal or nylon screens. About 40 to 65 percent of floor tiles and 5 to 20 percent of wall tiles are screen printed to produce a stone or marble appearance. An additional 5 percent or less is screen printed to produce designs for border tile (Tshudy et al. 1994). A ceramic colorant must have sufficient strength of pigmentation and stability. In regard to pigmentation, the tinting strength or intensity of color must be strong enough to produce
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the color desired in the finished tile. Likewise, a wide enough range of colors must be achievable when two or more pigments are being mixed together. In regard to stability, the pigment must be chemically stable under the high temperatures and corrosive environments encountered in the firing of glazes. In spite of the use of very small particle sizes, the pigment should have a very low solution rate in the molten glaze, and it should not produce gases when in contact with the molten glaze (Kirk-Othmer 1993; Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1986).
Addition/Application of Abrasives About 10 percent of floor tiles (less than 2 percent of all ceramic tiles) have an abrasive material applied to the surface or mixed throughout the body. This material provides slip resistance. Glazing Ceramic tile may be finished in several ways:
Air spray. A liquid glaze is atomized in a glaze booth and applied to the tile. A dust collection system operates in conjunction with the booth. Waterfall. Liquid glaze flows over a smooth metal surface, forming a liquid curtain through which tiles are passed. This produces a mirror-finish gloss. A system to recapture and recycle the glaze also operates here. Disco application. Liquid glaze is pumped through a feed tube through the central shaft of a rotating disk. The glaze flows onto the surface of the disk, from which droplets of the glaze are flung at the tile. This occurs in a booth. Dry glaze. Colorants in a fritted (ground-glass) form are applied to the surface of the tile and held in place by a light gum (carboxy methyl cellulose solution) or by a liquid glaze applied by air spray or disco application. The particles of colorant result in a granite-look finish.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Glazing of Ceramic Tile
During glazing, the overspray collected from the air spray and disco glaze booths is either recycled back into the glaze supply or separated into solid components and into clean water that can be used for washup. The solid components (containing glass) are recycled into the production of the tile bodies. For potential environmental hazards resulting from the disposal of wastewater containing solids, see the discussion above on the mining and processing of feldspar.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during glazing of ceramic tile.
Firing Ceramic tile is fired in a tunnel or roller-hearth kiln. In tunnel-kiln firing, greenware is moved progressively along the length of the kiln through zones of increasing temperature. The greenware is placed on refractory supports. These supports are placed on top of a tunnel car and rolled into the tunnel furnace for firing. Newer low-mass cars reduce energy consumption. The other approach is to use roller hearths, which transport the tile along on rollers without the use of refractory plates or cars. Some tilesfor example, trim and other special shapesare not often transported on rollers and must be carried through the furnace on cars.
Typical firing temperatures range from 2,000 to 2,200F (1,093 to 1,204C). Wall tile is fired for 9 to 10 hours in tunnel kilns, with roller-hearth firing as fast as 40 minutes. Mosaic tile is normally fired from 9 to 12 hours, with some firing as brief as 55 minutes. Quarry tile, which contains more naturally occurring organic matter, is usually fired for 12 to 18 hours.
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Ceramic tiles normally are fired once; however, in some situations tiles may be fired twice. During firing, water and combustion emissions from the body of the tile are released. During vitrification (when the glaze is in a liquid state), the release of emissions from the body of the tile can cause defects in the glaze. To avoid these defects, the tiles can be fired initially, allowed to outgas, and then be refired to form the final glazed surface.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Firing of Ceramic Tile
Ninety-five percent of the tile industry uses natural gas to fire the kilns. Some quarry tile is produced from oil-fired kilns and a few coal-fired kilns (Tshudy et al. 1994). Burning of oil, and to a lesser extent natural gas, may release combustion by-products, such as SO2, NOx, and VOCs. Dust may originate from unburnt combustion products, fuel ashes, and perhaps the fired products themselves (Bouscaren 1993). The environmental and health hazards of these combustion by-products are discussed in the material report on acoustical ceiling systems (09510). Fluorine in the gaseous form of hydrogen fluoride (HF) may also be emitted (Bouscaren 1993). The health and environmental effects of HF are discussed in the material report on brick and mortar (04210). SO2 emissions originate from the raw materials as they are fired, as well as from the fuels. The sulfur content of the raw materials varies considerably, however, and that portion of the sulfur that is in sulfate form is not transformed into SO2. It is estimated that about 10 masspercent of the sulfur content is transformed into SO2 (SO2 concentration of about 100 mg/m3, 6.2 x 10-6 pounds/ft3). It is likely that the shape of the material (area/volume ratio) influences SO2 emissions (Bouscaren 1993). Nitrogen oxide emissions are low because of the relatively low temperatures in kilns. Concentrations of 70 to 300 mg/m3 (4.4 x 10-6 to 19 x 10-6 pounds/ft3) have been measured (Bouscaren 1993). Hydrogen fluoride (HF) emissions depend mainly on the firing temperature and on the CaCO3 content of the clay. Concentrations vary from 0 to 80 mg/m3 (0 to 5.0 x 10-6 lbs/ft3). HF emissions generally increase with temperature, but above a certain temperature (around 950C [1,742F]) these emissions decrease. During firing, HF is partially neutralized by the CaCO3 contained in the clay (Bouscaren 1993). Most manufacturers reclaim any waste dust that is produced, deriving full benefit from raw materials and minimizing plant cleanup (Tshudy et al. 1994). From 70 to 90 percent of tile manufacturers, including all quarry tile manufacturers, recycle fired scrap. Having paid for this material, it is to the manufacturers benefit to use all of it for production. There is a 95 to 98 percent recovery of scrap among those manufacturers that do recycle, with the remaining inert scrap tile being landfilled (Tshudy et al. 1994). The tile industry has also worked to develop ways to use tile wastes that are not recycled back into the production of additional tiles. Tile scrap can be used as roadbed material and in the production of asphalt paving material. It can also be used as a high-silica-content feedstock for cement manufacture. If the coloration is homogeneous throughout the tile, scrap can be used to produce decorative landscape stone. Four or five of the larger ceramic tile manufacturers recycle their ceramic tile wastes in this manner (Tshudy et al. 1994).
Energy Consumed
The energy requirements for firing ceramic tile have decreased in recent years because of improvements in materials and in the firing process itself. Improved materials result in tiles that meet the required specifications with the use of less material, thus requiring less heat per tile. Using materials with lower vitrification temperature, such as glass, as a component of the tile further reduces the energy requirement. The use of recycled mate-
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rial, such as glass or tile manufacture washup waste, and the use of greenware waste from within the plant will accomplish this. Improvements in the firing process include the use of furnaces (roller hearths) that do not use cars or refractory plates but transport the tile through the furnace on rollers. Since only the tiles need to be heated, less fuel is used. Furthermore, in furnaces that still use cars, the use of low-mass cars helps reduce the energy requirements. Finally, additional energy savings result from the use of high-efficiency burners, and manufacturers practice energy conservation by utilizing waste heat from the furnace to dry greenware and, in some cases, to heat the factory (Tshudy et al. 1994). The Tile Council of America has determined the energy required to fire tile. From 1970 to 1985, energy consumption decreased, going from 28,000 Btus/ft2 (316 MJ/m2) in 1970 to 18,500 Btus/ft2 (200 MJ/m2) in 1985 (Kleinhans 1994). Depending on the process used, the energy required to fire tile varies widely, from 10,000 to 25,000 Btus/ft2 (114 to 284 MJ/m2) (Stoffa 1994). The total energy required for the manufacture of ceramic tile has been calculated as 8,293 Btus/lb (19.3 MJ/kg) of ceramic tile, or (assuming 3 lbs/ft2 of tile) 24,879 Btus/ft2 (283 MJ/m2). Energy required for transportation of materials and finished product accounts for an additional 94 Btus/lb (219kJ/kg) of tile, or 282 Btus/ft2 (3.20 MJ/m2). Total embodied energy including transportation amounts to 25,161 Btus/ft2 (286 MJ/m2) (Franklin Associates 1991). Older data on the total energy requirements for manufacture of ceramic tile were significantly higher: for quarry tile and promenade tile, the total embodied energy was 46,589 Btus/ft2 (529 MJ/m2); for glazed mosaic tile and accessories, 62,682 Btus/ft2 (712 MJ/m2); for unglazed mosaic tile and accessories, 58,081 Btus/ft2 (660 MJ/m2). Energy consumed in sales and delivery to the job site was as follows: for quarry tile and promenade tile, 4,442 Btus/ft2 (50 MJ/m2); for glazed mosaic tile and accessories, 5,977 Btus/ft2 (67.9 MJ/m2); for unglazed mosaic tile and accessories, 5,538 Btus/ft2 (62.9 MJ/m2) (Hannon et al. 1976).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of ceramic tile is presented in figure 7.
Figure 7: Ceramic TileConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity
Construction Use
Stressor
Scrap Monomers and additives in adhesives, mortars, grouts
Impact/Stressor
Landfill disposal Indoor air pollution
Impact/Stressor
Decreased landfill capacity Possible respiratory and other human health hazards
Impact/Stressor
Ceramic tile is suitable for use wherever a permanent, durable, waterproof, easily maintained, decorative, and colorful wall surface or floor is needed. A variety of mortars are available for setting ceramic tile, each possessing specific qualities that make that type suitable for installation over certain backings or under a given set of conditions. Portland cement mortar is suitable for most surfaces and ordinary types of installation. A mortar bed up to 2 inches thick facilitates accurate slopes or planes in the finished
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work (this method is known as the thick-bed method). Tile may be set directly on the mortar bed while it is still workable, or the tile may be set on a cured mortar bed using dry-set mortar or latexportland cement mortar. Absorptive ceramic tile that is to be installed with portland cement mortar alone must be soaked in water prior to installation. Methods that do not involve the setting of ceramic tile directly into a still-workable portland cement mortar bed are referred to as thin-set methods. Dry-set mortar and latex-portland cement mortar are suitable for thin-set installation. Both types have certain characteristics that make them appropriate for different conditions (TCA 1993): Dry-set mortar is used for conditions in which excellent water and impact resistance are important. This mortar is water cleanable, nonflammable, good for exterior work, and does not require soaking of tile. Latexportland cement mortar is designed to be used in situations similar to those of dry-set mortar. The latex additives are designed to improve adhesion, reduce water absorption, and provide greater bond strength and resistance to shock and impact. These additives allow some latitude in time, working conditions, and temperatures. Adhesives can be used to attach tiles to floors, walls, and counters. Adhesives can be used in interior applications including wet areas, but not in swimming pools or in exterior applications. Grouting materials for ceramic tile are available in many forms to meet the requirements of the different kinds of tile and types of exposures. Portland cement is the basis for most grouts and is modified to provide specific qualities, such as whiteness, mildew resistance, uniformity, hardness, flexibility, and water retentivity. Dry-set grout and latexportland cement grout have characteristics similar to dry-set and latexportland cement mortars, respectively.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Ceramic Tile
Some waste is produced at the job site during construction: broken and waste tile, leftover mortar and grout, and tile packaging, usually cardboard boxes. These are disposed of in landfills. Unused tile that is left over from a job can be retained by the building owner for future repairs. The metals and metal oxides used to prepare ceramic tile pigments have a variety of health effects depending on the compound, the form of exposure, and the level of exposure. Once the materials have been converted into the pigments and incorporated into the vitreous matrix of the ceramic tile, however, they become essentially fixed. According to the industry, TCLP testing demonstrates that no toxic materials leach out of ceramic tiles and the content of toxic materials is far below established regulatory limits (Tshudy et al. 1994, Stoffa 1994). One source does indicate that lead contained in ceramic glaze (as a pigment modifier or a glaze component) can be transferred to food placed on a ceramic tile countertop. However, imported tiles are a more likely source of such exposure than those produced domestically (Bower 1989). A study comparing life-cycle costs of various commonly used wall and floor finishes was conducted for the Tile Council of America, Inc. The study took into consideration the cost of material installed, together with the anticipated useful life of the material, its replacement cost, and its maintenance expense. Cost was considered over an average usable building life of 40 years. The study concluded that ceramic tile is the most economical of all permanent and long-use finishes for walls and floors. For glazed wall tile, the annual cost over a 40-year life cycle was $0.31 per square foot. For ceramic mosaic, quarry, and glazed floor tile as floor finishes, the annual cost ranged from $1.35 to $1.39 per square foot over a 40-year life cycle (Godfrey 1985).
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Indoor Air Quality
Ceramic tile is an inert building material that does not emit toxic chemicals in use (Sailer 1993). Portland-cement-based (cementaceous) mortar and grout have not been shown to produce any toxic emissions (Stoffa 1994). However, adhesives (mastics) and noncementaceous mortar and grout used to install the tile may be the source of emissions that can affect indoor air quality (Bower 1989). For individuals who are highly sensitive to chemical pollutants, the recommended method of attaching ceramic tile is the thick-bed method, which, as discussed above, consists only of relatively innocuous materialsportland cement, sand, and water (Bower 1989). However, this method has drawbacks in that it is more expensive than other methods and requires an experienced tile setter. An alternative method for attaching tile is to use either latex-portland cement mortar or a dry-set mortar. Mineral spirits and residual monomers contained in these products may be irritating to a sensitive person. However, once installation is complete, they should be fairly well tolerated since the mortar is sealed from the living space by the grout. For households with sensitive persons, the recommended grouting method is the traditional portland cement mixture with no chemical additives. As an alternative, the dry-set grouts and latex-portland cement grouts may be considered. Although bothersome to a sensitive person, these are more easily tolerated than certain other types of grouts, such as the epoxies, furans, and silicones (Bower 1989). These types are specialty products and are not discussed in this report because of their low frequency of use. Industry indicates that health effects are unlikely to occur if adhesives and other setting materials are used properly (Tshudy et al. 1994). As a result of requirements of the Clean Air Act, VOC emissions are being reduced in a variety of products, including adhesives. Manufacturers are changing organic solventbased products to water-based. They are also decreasing the amount of organic solvents that are used and are increasing the amount of solids, creating what is called a high solids formulation.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during construction, use, and maintenance of ceramic tile.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of ceramic tile is presented in figure 8.
Figure 8: Ceramic TileRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity
Demolition/disposal
Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Using ceramic tile left over from one job is not recommended if tiles from another batch are included, because of the variation in shades between different batches of the same line. After demolition, tile wastes are disposed of in a landfill.
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Organization Perspective and Regulatory Status
Industry Perspective: Tile Council of America, Inc. Since 5000 b.c., the basic ceramic tile manufacturing process has remained unchanged. However, advances in manufacturing technology and material refinement have enabled manufacturers to reduce energy and raw material consumption significantly while increasing product quality and further reducing the industry impact on the environment.
An Environmental Advisory Committee has been established by Tile Council of America to cooperate with state and national agencies to establish environmental testing and monitoring regulations that will enable tile manufacturers to comply realistically with clean air and water standards. Cooperative industry research, initiated by the committee, is ongoing to reduce emissions further, and waste-handling seminars are conducted regularly within the industry to reduce an already low waste stream. Ceramic tile can be used on walls and floors on building interiors and exteriors. Because of its durability, properly installed ceramic tile can be expected to last for the life of a building, eliminating the environmental impact of periodic replacement. There are no emissions from ceramic tile to affect indoor air quality; and in the event of a fire, ceramic tile will not burn or contribute to smoke generation. Because of its excellent heat-conducting properties, ceramic tile is an excellent surfacing material for radiant and solar heating applications. Its wear resistance, ease of maintenance, and sanitation make ceramic tile an ideal choice for hospitals, food processing plants, kitchens, restaurants, shopping malls, and public areas. As old as the pyramids it decorates and as modern as the space shuttles it protects from the intense heat of reentry, ceramic tile remains one of the most versatile of todays building products.
Regulatory Status
As with other manufacturing industries, ceramic tile manufacturers are affected by requirements of the Clean Air Act, the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit program, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and related legislation. However, no impact especially stringent for the ceramic tile industry is imposed by this legislation. Some plants are affected by landfill restrictions and restrictions on emissions from heavy metals when they are used. Airborne dust-sampling and noise-monitoring requirements imposed by OSHA should also be noted. As indicated above, the control and recycling of atmospheric dust, wastewater, and tile scraps is of economic benefit to tile producers over and above the benefits to the environment (Tshudy et al. 1994; Johnson 1994; Shatten 1994).
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References
References
American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1989. Masterspec-Evaluations. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 1989. American National Standard Specifications for Ceramic Tile: ANSI A137.1-1988. Princeton, NJ: Tile Council of America, Inc. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bouscaren, R. 1993. Atmospheric Pollution in Brick and Tile Production. Tile & Brick Intl. 9(6): 364-67. Bower, John. 1989. The Healthy House: How to Buy One, How to Build One, How to Cure a Sick One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. Budavari, Susan, ed. 1989. The Merck Index. Rahway, NJ: Merck & Co. Buxbaum, Gunter. 1993. Industrial Inorganic Pigments. NY: VCH Publishers. Dry Color Manufacturers Association. 1982. Classification and Chemical Description of the Mixed Metal Oxide Inorganic Colored Pigments. 2nd ed. Metal Oxides and Ceramic Colors Subcommittee, Dry Color Manufacturers Association, Arlington, VA. Franklin Associates. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Final Report. The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. Godfrey, Robin S. 1985. Ceramic Tile: Life Cycle Costs. Study performed by Scharf-Godfrey Inc., construction cost consultants for the Tile Council of America, Inc., Princeton, NJ. Grady, Joseph J., and Jim Tshudy. 1994. Joseph J. Grady, Jr.: National Market Development Manager, The W.W. Henry Company, Huntington Park, CA; Jim Tshudy: Manager, Product Environmental Performance/Environmental Affairs, Armstrong World Industries, Inc., Lancaster, PA. Personal communication. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. Final Report. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration Contract No. EY-76-S-02-2791. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications. 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Johnson, Pete. 1994. President, Summitville Tile, Summitville, Ohio. Personal communication.
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1982. 3rd ed. Vol. 22. NY: John Wiley & Sons. . 1991. J. I. Kroshwitz, executive editor, 4th ed. Vol. 1. NY: John Wiley & Sons. . 1992. J. I. Kroshwitz, executive editor, 4th ed. Vols. 2 and 4. NY: John Wiley & Sons . 1993. J. I. Kroshwitz, executive editor, 4th ed. Vol. 6. NY: John Wiley & Sons Kleinhans, R. 1994. Executive Director, Tile Council of America. Personal communication. Moore, Richard. 1994. Vice President, Stoneware Tile, Inc., Richmond, IN. Personal communication. National Cancer Institute. 1979. Bioassay of Titanium Dioxide for Possible Carcinogenicity. National Cancer Institute Technical Report Series No. 97. National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1990. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Patton, Temple C. 1973. Pigment Handbook. Vol. 1. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Potter, Michael J. 1990. Feldspar, Nepheline Syenite, and Aplite. Minerals Yearbook, 1989. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Sailer, John. 1993. EnvironmenTILEThe Greening of the Tile Industry. Tile World. 6(6):52-6. Nov./Dec. Shatten, Neil. 1994. Vice President, TileCera, Clarksville, TN. Personal communication. Stoffa, George. 1994. Manager of Product and Control Testing, American Olean Tile. Personal communication. Tile Council of America, Inc. (TCA). 1993. 1994 Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation. Princeton, NJ. Tshudy, Jim, R. Kleinhans, and G. Stoffa. 1994. J. Tshudy, manager, product environmental performance, Armstrong World Industries, Inc.; R. Kleinhans, executive director, Tile Council of America, and G. Stoffa: manager of product and control testing, American Olean Tile. Personal communication.
Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1986. W. Gerhartz, executive editor, 5th ed. Vols. A5 and A6. NY: VCH Publishers. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1975. Literature Study of the Toxic Effects of Titanium Dioxide. Office of Toxic Substances. January 15. . 1993. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42) Database. van der Leeden, Frits et al. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Lewis Publishers. Virta, Robert L. 1993. Clays. Annual Report, 1991. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior.
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Material Report
Terrazzo
Highlights
Wastes produced by open-pit mining of raw materials include excavation overburden and tailing waste. Energy use and fuel consumption during mining result in atmospheric emissions. Water pollutants from mine runoff can cause lower aquatic productivity and deoxygenation. Components of resins used in resinous terrazzo and primers and sealers used with cementitious terrazzo are derived from petrochemicals, the extraction and processing of which can cause water pollution. The production of metals and alloys for the manufacture of divider strips may release toxic metal-containing gases and particulates into the exhaust gas. The manufacture of portland cement releases particulates and carbon dioxide.
Effects on the environment from open-pit mining of crushed stone for terrazzo and raw materials to produce portland cement are significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction as well as erosion. Petroleum and natural gas are finite resources in adequate supply now.
No quantitative information is available on energy consumption during the manufacture and fabrication of terrazzo. After terrazzo has been poured and hardens (polymerizes), few if any materials remain that can volatilize into the indoor air environment. During use and maintenance, sealers used on terrazzo floors may release VOC.
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Background
Background
Terrazzo is a composite material made up of marble, quartz, granite, glass, or other suitable chips held within a binder or matrix that is either cementitious (portland cement) or chemical (synthetic resins), or a combination of both. Terrazzo may be poured in place or precast. Once it has cured, it is ground and polished to a smooth surface or otherwise finished to produce a uniformly textured surface (NTMA no date; NTMA 1990). Typically used for floors and bases, terrazzo can also be applied to walls, stair treads, and risers. Precast shapes, such as stair treads and risers, are available for special applications. Terrazzo is especially suitable in those instances that require durability, resistance to wear, and minimal maintenance (Hornbostel 1991). The ancient Greeks made a type of terrazzo floor using gypsum as the cementitious material. Pieces of marble, ceramics, and semiprecious stones were embedded in this matrix. The Romans, who developed a type of concrete made from lime and volcanic ash, used decorative mosaic-type floors in homes and public buildings and developed them into an important art form. Later, Venetian and Byzantine architecture raised mosaic work to a higher level of artistry. The Venetians invented terrazzo as we know it by utilizing pieces left over from the marble used for mosaics. They mixed these small, variously colored marble pieces with mortar and poured the mixture on a floor. Pumice stone was used to finish the surface and expose the pieces of marble to view (Hornbostel 1991; NTMA 1926). Terrazzo as it is made today was developed after the invention of portland cement in 1824 (Hornbostel 1991). Before the invention of the electric floor grinder in the late 1920s, terrazzo was ground by hand using a rubbing stone and sand as the grinding agent. The early electric floor grinders, which used carborundum abrasive blocks, could grind the rough terrazzo faster than by hand, and because of the increased production the terrazzo industry grew. After 1945, following new research and experimentation in plastics, terrazzo flooring made with synthetic resins was developed, although it did not replace the traditional cementitious terrazzo. Also developed at this time were higher-powered grinders, which could work up to 300 square feet per day (Rime 1995). By the 1960s and 1970s, terrazzo use had declined, in part because of the time-consuming and labor-intensive installation it required. More recently, the development and use of diamond abrasives in initial terrazzo grinding has increased production; a machine using diamond abrasives can work up to 2,000 square feet per day (Rime 1995; Hardy 1995). Also in recent years, synthetic-resin terrazzo has taken over an increasing share of the market due to its shorter, less labor-intensive installation cycle (Durig 1995; Morgan 1995). The 1980s and 1990s have seen a resurgence in the use of terrazzo that reflects the decreased costs of the material and an increased emphasis on its design flexibility (Morgan 1995). Described here are the generally accepted types of terrazzo (NTMA no date; NTMA 1990):
Standard terrazzo. This is the most common type, in which relatively small chip sizes are
used (sizes 1 and 2, i.e., 14 in. and 38 in. (6 and 10 mm), respectively).
Venetian terrazzo. This type of terrazzo uses a variety of chip sizes, including larger sizes (sizes 3 through 8, i.e., 12, 5 8, 34, 78, 1, and 118 in., or 1.3, 1.6, 1.9, 2.2, 2.5, and 2.9 cm). Palladiana. This type of terrazzo is composed of thin random fractured slabs of marble; sometimes terrazzo joints are placed between each slab. Rustic terrazzo. In this uniformly textured form of terrazzo the matrix is depressed to
expose the chips.
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Structural terrazzo. This structural system consists of a 4,000 psi structural concrete under-
bed with a cementitious terrazzo topping.

Resinous matrices. This type of system is usually applied in a thin cross-section (14 to 38 in.,
or 6 to 10 mm) using small chip sizes. The matrix is composed of resinous or chemical materials that are often highly resistant to acids, alkalis, and other substances.
Modified portland cement mortar. In this type of system, resinous additives are used with
portland cement. This mortar is occasionally used for thin-set applications where moisture transmission is likely because such conditions preclude the use of resinous matrices (Slack 1995). The stone chips used in terrazzo include various kinds of rocks that can be ground and take a good polish, such as marble and onyx. Glass may also be used, usually with an epoxy matrix. Glass and granite aggregates, when combined with a resinous matrix, are especially suitable in instances requiring chemical resistance (Slack 1995). Materials such as quartz, granite, quartzite, and silica pebbles are used for finishes that do not require polishing, such as rustic terrazzo. Chips are graded by number according to size following industry standards adopted by the marble producers (NTMA no date). The matrix is the ingredient in a terrazzo floor that acts as a binder to hold the chips in position. Three basic types of matrices are used in the installation of terrazzo-cementitious, resinous, and modified cementitious. The use of color pigments in the matrix makes special design effects possible. Both white and gray portland cement conforming to ASTM Specification C-150 Type-I portland cement are used as the cementitious matrix in terrazzo. Resinous matrices for terrazzo include epoxy resin and polyester resin. These materials are usually more resistant to harsh chemicals and are applied in a thinner cross-section than standard terrazzo. A modified cementitious matrix is composed of polyacrylate modified cement (a mixture of acrylic resin and portland cement). This composition is also applied as a thin-set terrazzo (NTMA no date). Divider strips made of a white alloy of zinc, brass, or plastic are used for functional and aesthetic purposes (NTMA no date; NTMA 1990). Divider strips control and localize shrinkage and flexure cracks and allow movement at expansion and construction joints. Divider strips permit the placement of different colors in adjoining panels, make possible the creation of precise and accurate patterns, and can enhance the overall design (Dezettel 1972).
Figures 1 through 8 provide a life-cycle summary of terrazzo flooring and its components. The environmental reviews contained in ERG material reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that could occur during the entire life cycle of a material, from cradle to grave. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to them. These stressors and impacts are outlined here and discussed in greater depth in subsequent sections, according to each stage of the life cycle. Essentially all industries are regulated with regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations.
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The mining and processing of crushed stone and other minerals results in particulate emissions, processing water discharge, and noise. The washing of crushed stone entails the use of large quantities of water, which becomes polluted with clay and can decrease stream quality. The acquisition of most raw materials involves fuel combustion and the production of energy. Air emissions from these processes contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, killing of fish, smog, decreased visibility, global warming, tree/crop damage, corrosion of materials, eye irritation, and lung damage. Careful restoration management can often mitigate the land disturbance, soil erosion, and habitat alterations caused by mining activities. The acquisition of raw materials and processing required to produce portland cement and mineral pigments involves environmental impacts similar to those just described. In addition, the production of portland cement consumes large amounts of energy, releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, and can emit large quantities of particulates. These actions result in depleted energy sources, global warming, and health and environmental impacts from particulates. The primers and sealers used with cementitious terrazzo include acrylic, epoxy, and polyurethane compounds produced from petrochemicals. The exploration, extraction, and processing of crude oil and natural gas can release a variety of materials into the environment unless extensive pollution control measures are employed. These materials include oil, grease, materials causing increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), materials causing increased chemical oxygen demand (COD), heavy metals, total dissolved solids, toxic organics, and drilling muds and associated materials in discharged water. Air emissions can include sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, mercaptans, aldehydes, and a variety of other organic gases. These materials can cause or contribute to a wide variety of environmental and health problems. Resin monomers often have special toxicities, but workers exposure to them at production facilities is limited by occupational standards. Divider strips made of zinc alloy, brass, zinc-coated steel, or aluminum require the mining of minerals, with environmental effects as discussed above. In addition, water pollutants can be leached from tailings and slag piles when it rains. Treatment and control of such runoff is required to prevent stream and groundwater pollution. Production of these metals and alloys may release toxic metal-containing gases and particulates into the exhaust gas. Filters and exhaust gas control devices are required to contain these materials, which would otherwise have negative health and environmental effects. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) divider strips are produced from petrochemicals with the effects described above. Several toxic chemicals, including vinyl chloride monomer, dioxin, and DEHP plasticizer, have been associated with PVC production. The effects of resins used in epoxy and polyacrylate terrazzo were discussed above. Polyester resin for resinous terrazzo is produced from petroleum with the associated impacts discussed above. Polyester production can also release a variety of air emissions with negative health effects. The effects of primers, sealers, and divider strips used for resinous terrazzo are the same as those described above for cementitious terrazzo. During installation, resins contained in some terrazzo may be a source of emissions, although formulations used now minimize such release. Significant exposure to resin monomer and other VOC emissions appears limited to the individual who mixes the resinous matrix before application of resinous terrazzo. After terrazzo has been poured and hardened (polymerized), few if any materials should remain that could volatilize into the indoor air environment. Grinding of terrazzo can produce significant amounts of particu(continued on page 13)
MAT 09400
TERRAZZO
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Terrazzo

Hydrochloric acid (by-product of other reactions)
or
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 TERRAZZO MAT 09400
Brass, zinc alloy, or PVC divider strips

Floor preparation
Air emissions (resinous VOCs, HCI)
Pigments
(see figure 4)
Polyacrylate or epoxy resin

(see figure 6)
Divider strip placement (except precast)

Air emissions (resinous VOCs)
Polyacrylate resin
optional (see figure 6)
Terrazzo topping
Terrazzo pouring
Portland cement
(see figure 5) or
Matrix
Grinding and polishing
Air emissions (dust)
Epoxy resin
(see figure 6) or Air emissions (VOCs)
Sealer Polyester resin

(see figure 6)
Sealing
Terrazzo Flooring
Granite chips
(see figure 7) or
Aggregate
Cleaners and polishers
Maintenance
Marble chips
Life-Cycle Summary Terrazzo
(see figure 7)
and/or
KEY
Glass chips
(see figure 8) or
Demolition
Terrazzo
Other mineral chips

(see figure 7)
Output Recycling
Disposal
6
MAT 09400 TERRAZZO ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Brass and Zinc Alloy Divider Strips
Terrazzo
Zinc mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Life-Cycle Summary Brass and Zinc Alloy Divider Strips
Zinc smelting
Zinc Alloy
Casting
Zinc divider strips

(see figure 1)
Habitat change
Copper mining Drilling Blasting Loading
Copper beneficiation Crushing Flotation Grinding
Water effluent Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
KEY
Habitat change
Copper smelting and refining

Water effluent
Copper
Output Recycling
Copper ore (in-ground)
Leaching
Water effluent
Lead mining Drilling Blasting Loading
Lead sintering, reduction, and refining
Air emissions (metal gasses and particulates)
Brass
Slag, dross
Casting and annealing
Brass divider strips

(see figure 1)
Habitat change
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Polyvinyl Chloride Divider Strips and Polyethylene Inserts
Polyethylene
Polyethylene divider strip inserts

(see figure 1)
Drainage wastes
Wastewater (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides)
Sludge, solids Air emissions (benzene, VOCs) catalyst
Ethylene
Chlorinated organics
Chromium, copper
KEY
Wastewater, oil, grease, BOD, COD
Heavy metals
Life-Cycle Summary Polyvinyl Chloride Divider Strips and Polyethylene Inserts
Precipitation
Co-products Calcium chloride Salts
Brine Co-products Hydrogen Sodium hydroxide

Terrazzo
Electrolysis
Ethylene dichloride
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
VC monomer, lead, zinc, methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane
PVC divider strips

(see figure 1)
Chlorine
8
Figure 4: Life-Cycle of Iron Oxide Pigments
Terrazzo
KEY
Process flow
Life Cycle Iron Oxide Pigments
Processing
Habitat change
Ferrous sulfate

Processing
Copperas red oxide
Mineral separation

Pigments
(see figure 1)
Habitat change
Sodium Hydroxide
basic pH
Black iron oxide
neutral pH
Scrap iron
acidic pH
Orange iron oxide
Brine
Electrolysis
Steam
Yellow iron oxide
Air
Yellow iron oxide

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (CO, CO2, NOX, SO2, dioxin)
Waste fuel
Dust
Disposal
Habitat change
Wastewater (particulates, alkalinity)
Habitat change
Waste lime
Lime
Habitat change
Clinker Iron ore
Grinding mill
Habitat change or

(see figure 1)
Scrap procurement
or
Waste iron

or
Habitat change or
KEY
Bauxite
Terrazzo
Iron smelting waste

Gypsum
10
Figure 6: Life-Cycle Summary of Resins
Terrazzo
Cumene
Phenol
Life-Cycle Summary Resins
Benzene manufacture
Acetone
Bisphenol A
Wastewater Sludge (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptane, cyanides)
Propylene
Chlorine Brine Electrolysis

Epichlorohydrin NaOH
Epoxy resin
(see figure 1)
Hypochorous acid
Drainage wastes
Benzene
Catalyst
Maleic anhydride
Xylene
Polyester resin
(see figure 1)
Air emissions (Benzene, VOCs)
Ethylene
Catalyst
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene glycol
KEY
Chromium, copper
Acrylic resin
(see figure 1)
Figure 7: Aggregate Production
Marble and granite mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Habitat change
Aggregate
(see figure 1)
KEY
Gravel mining Digging Washing Screening Loading
Gravel processing Crushing Grinding Screening
Habitat change
Recycling
Aggregate Production
Terrazzo
11
12
Figure 8: Life-Cycle Summary of Glass
Terrazzo
Life-Cycle Summary Glass
Glass sand mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Separating Screening
Colorants
Glassmaking Mixing Weighing Feed into furnace Heating or melting Lehring or annealing
Glass preparation Finishing Cutting Coating or sealing Sizing
Wastewater (sulfides, oil, TSS)
Dust
Wastewater (oil, TSS)
Scrap (reused as cullet)
Glass aggregate
(see figure 1)
Limestone mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating Screening
Waste glass
Sizing
Soda ash and limestone processing Calcining Heating Cooling

Dust Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Soda ash mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
KEY
Output Recycling
Terrazzo
lates, but no hazardous materials are contained in these. Most of the grinding dust is contained by the wet grinding conditions. After drying, such waste is disposed of in landfills. During use and maintenance, sealers used on terrazzo floors may release VOC emissions at low rates. After demolition of terrazzo floors, the debris is placed in a landfill.

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with acquiring and preparing materials for the fabrication of terrazzo is presented in figure 9.
Marble and Other Mineral Chips From a commercial standpoint (and also, in recent years, from a geological standpoint) marble has been defined to include all calcareous, serpentine, and other rocks capable of being ground and taking a good polish, such as marble and onyx (NTMA no date; Dezettel 1972). Glass, both new and recycled, may also be used in terrazzo, either together with marble chips or on its own (Flabiano 1995; Thornley 1995). Some other materials used in terrazzo, such as quartz, granite, quartzite, and silica pebbles, are suitable for those finishes that do not require polishing, such as rustic terrazzo (NTMA no date; Dezettel 1972).
Marble
Much of the marble from which marble chips are made is mined in northern Georgia, mostly through underground mining, although there is some open-pit quarrying. Other sources of terrazzo marble chips are in Alabama, Arizona, Wyoming, New York, Missouri, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, and North Carolina, where the marble is obtained through open-pit quarrying. All of these quarries yield crushed stone as the primary product (Hill 1995, Hardy 1995). During quarrying, the marble is carefully selected to ensure consistent color and to avoid contaminated material. In northern Georgia, underground mining of marble involves digging into the sides of mountains, freeing the marble from deposits by blasting, and removing the fragments. The fragments are crushed by a process that largely avoids producing flat chips or slivers. The chips are screened, then graded according to size. About 90 percent of the aggregate used in terrazzo jobs is composed of marble chips in sizes 1 and 2. The chips are bagged and sent to the distributors. Smaller particles (micron- and submicron-sized) that are produced during grinding and screening are used as fillers for paints, plastics, and other products (Hill 1995; Dezettel 1972).
Other Minerals
Granite, quartzite, quartz, and silica pebbles are also used in terrazzo. Granite and quartzite are mined and processed in much the same manner as marble. Both open-pit and underground methods are employed. Surface mining equipment varies with the kind of stone mined, the production capacity needed, the size and shape of the deposit, and the location of the deposit with respect to the market, as well as other factors. Ordinarily, drilling is done with tricone rotary drills, long-hole percussion drills, and churn drills. In smaller operations, blasting may be done with dynamite, but in most larger operations, ammonium nitratefuel oil mixtures are used. Underground mining of crushed stone such as granite and quartzite is becoming more common, as producers recognize the economic and environmental advantages of such operations. These underground room-and-pillar mines can be operated on a year-round basis and do not require extensive removal of overburden.
(continued on page 24)
TERRAZZO
MAT 09400
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Terrazzo
Figure 9: TerrazzoMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Mining of marble, granite, quartzite, quartz, and silica pebbles for use as mineral chips Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Blasting and heavy truck movement Fuel combustion emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Processing of crushed stone Particulate emissions Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Wastewater containing suspended clay Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Global warming (see impacts above) Noise and vibration Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
Stressor
Tailings waste
Impact/Stressor
Runoff
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
14
MAT 09400
TERRAZZO
Terrazzo
Figure 9: TerrazzoMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Mining of glass sand, limestone, and soda ash (glass manufacture) Limestone processing and calcining (glass manufacture) Particulate emissions Fuel combustion emissions Soda ash processing and calcining (glass manufacture) Fuel combustion emissions Effluents (see impacts above) Clay Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Reduced light penetration of water Solid waste Sand processing (glass manufacture) Glass manufacture Mixing of raw materials Particulate emissions Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (see impacts above) Lead Water vapor Effluents Oil Total suspended solids Chemical oxygen demand BOD Solid waste Mining of limestone, gypsum, clay, mud, and iron ore (portland cement production) Gypsum processing and calcining (portland cement production) Particulate emissions of calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, anhydrous calcium sulfate, and gangue Fuel combustion (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility (see mining impacts above) Decreased landfill capacity Deoxygenation Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Fishkill Dust Decreased landfill capacity Silicosis Fishkill Particulate emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions Carbon dioxide Greenhouse effect Global warming
Stressor
(see above for mining impacts)
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
continued
TERRAZZO
MAT 09400
15
Terrazzo

Activity
Portland cement production Air emissions
Stressor
Dust
Impact/Stressor
Eye and throat irritation Respiratory tract problems Impaired visibility Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Carbon dioxide Wastewater Sand mining and processing Mining of minerals for pigments Calcining and other processing during production of pigments Air emissions Sulfur oxides (see mining impacts above) (see impacts above) Particulates
Greenhouse effect Increased turbidity Increased dissolved solids
Global warming Increased alkalinity
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage
Acid precipitation Carbon dioxide Grinding of pigments Iron oxide dust Prolonged inhalation can produce siderosis (a benign pneumoconiosis) Acrylic resin production (acrylic bonding agents and sealers) Crude oil extraction Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands containing bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic waste Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Release of oil and suspended solids Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading Water pollution Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Increased BOD Deoxygenation Environmental poisoning (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Eutrophication Water-borne disease
(see impacts above)
16
MAT 09400
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Terrazzo

Activity
Acrylic resin production (acrylic bonding agents and sealers) (continued) Distillation process
Stressor
Crude oil extraction (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Desalting process
Impact/Stressor
Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Increased BOD (see impacts above)
Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH, high BOD Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Environmental poisoning
Catalytic cracking
Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia
Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, xylene, and mineral spirits
(see impacts above)
Esterization/polymerization stage
Lacrimation, respiratory and eye irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects
Polyurethane production (sealers)
Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygendepleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Air emissions from diesel powered drills
Increased BOD Environmental poisoning
(see impacts from fuel combustion above) Human health effects: potent irritant to the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes
Toluene diisocyanate production
Fugitive emissions
Fugitive emissions of phosgene
Human health effects: irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract, difficulty breathing, cyanosis, and vomiting
Fugitive emissions of hydrogen chloride
Acid precipitation
Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill continued
TERRAZZO
MAT 09400
17
Terrazzo

Activity
Polyurethane production (sealers) (continued)
Stressor
Toluene diisocyanate production (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Fugitive emissions of hydrogen chloride (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Human health effects include burning of the eyes and nose, choking, nausea, chest pain, headache, pulmonary edema, others
Impact/Stressor
VOC emissions Epoxy resin production (bonding agents and sealers) Air emissions Cumene Crude oil extraction and processing (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Eye and skin irritation Dizziness, drowsiness, incoordination, unconsciousness
Danger of explosion Corrosive to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract
Epichlorohydrin
Irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin Liver, lung, and kidney injury Probable human carcinogen
Zinc divider strip manufacture Zinc divider strip manufacture
Zinc mining Zinc smelting
(see mining impacts above) Solid waste Recycle Fuel combustion emissions from recycling (see impacts above) Wastewater Spent bath solutions Spent cleaning solutions Rinse water Sludge Metals and organics filtered from bath solutions Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms
Brass divider strip manufacture
Zinc mining and smelting Copper mining Copper ore processing (concentration) Copper smelting Brass alloy production
(see above for impacts) (see above for mining impacts) Tailings waste Heavy metals in tailings runoff Sulfur dioxide emissions Fuel combustion emissions Dust containing cadmium, antimony, arsenic, lead, selenium, manganese, tellurium, titanium, and zinc (see above for impacts) (see above for impacts) Environmental poisoning Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms
Manufacture of brass divider strips
(see above for impacts)
18
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Terrazzo

Activity
Steel divider strip manufacture
Stressor
Iron ore mining impacts Coal mining for steel manufacture
Impact/Stressor
(see above for mining Tailings waste/mine spoils containing sulfur
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Acid drainage
Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Contamination of groundwater Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals
Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (dust, particulates) Wastewater containing dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Cokemaking for steel manufacture Air emissions (VOCs, particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide) Air emissions, ammonia Dust Wastewater containing dissolved solids and organics Sludge Steel manufacturing Fuel combustion emissions Solid waste (slag) Liquid wastes
Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification (see impacts above)
Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Potential human carcinogen (see impacts above) Recycled as scrap feed Pickling solutions Spent wash water Oils and lubricants Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Leaching of toxics to groundwater Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Sludge
Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity
Manufacture of steel divider strips
Solid wastes
Recycle as scrap Landfill disposal
Air emissions from recycling operations Decreased landfill capacity
(see impacts above)
continued
TERRAZZO
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Terrazzo

Activity
By-product production of hydrochloric acid (hydrogen chloride) (for floor etching) Acid precipitation Tree/crop damage Surface water acidification Natural gas production (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride production) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygen depleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Air emissions from diesel powered drills VOCs Ground-level ozone or smog Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Decreased visibility Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems; impairs ability of the blood to carry oxygen) Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Nitrogen oxides Crude oil extraction (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride production) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen depleting organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Stressor
Hydrochloric acid emissions
Impact/Stressor
Human health effects
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation
Impact/Stressor
20
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Figure 9: TerrazzoMaterials Acquisistion and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride production) Crude oil processing (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride production) Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Desalting process Release of oil and suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Distillation process Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, and chlorides Wastewater containing phenol Distillation process, air emissions VOCs Catalytic cracking Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, cyanides, and ammonia Increased BOD Wastewater containing phenol Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides VOCs Carbon monoxide Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene Vinyl chloride manufacture Wastewater Chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Increased BOD (see impacts above) Consumption of toxics by fish Possible fishkill continued Ethylene production Air emissions Benzene and VOCs (see impacts above) Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Various human health effects Some possible human carcinogens (see impacts above) Known human carcinogen (see impacts above) High pH Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Mercaptans Noxious odors Known human carcinogen Habitat disruption Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Water pollution
Impact/Stressor
Eutrophication Water-borne disease
Impact/Stressor
TERRAZZO
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21
Terrazzo

Activity Stressor
Chlorine production
Impact/Stressor
Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
Chlorine
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans
Brine mud
Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition (see impacts above) Possible fishkill (see impacts above)
Wastewater Fuel combustion Air emissions
Chlorine and sulfuric acid VOCs Sulfur oxides Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates Nitrogen oxides
Polyvinyl chloride manufacture
Fugitive air emissions
Vinyl chloride monomer 1,3-Butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride
Known human carcinogen Respiratory irritation Nervous system effects
Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater
(see impacts above) Methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, zinc Dioxins Acutely toxic to many species Various health effects including cancer, birth defects, effects to the skin, immune system, liver, kidneys, and thyroid Sludge Landfill disposal Temporary loss of hair Blood chromosome aberrations Other health effects Decreased landfill capacity Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above)
Neoprene manufacture (divider strips)
Chloroprene
Health effects
High density polyethylene manufacture (divider strips)
Air emissions
Dust (particulates)
(see impacts above)
Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrocarbons
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts for hydrogen chloride above) (see impacts for VOCs above)
22
MAT 09400
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Activity
High density polyethylene manufacture (divider strips) (continued) Nitrates Eutrophication
Stressor
Effluent
Impact/Stressor
COD and BOD Total suspended solids Acidity
Impact/Stressor
Deoxygenation Surface water acidification
Impact/Stressor
Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Increased algal growth Increased BOD (see impacts above)
Phosphates Solid wastes Landfill disposal Hazardous waste landfill disposal Polyester resin production (resinous terrazzo) Natural gas extraction and processing Crude oil extraction and processing Air emissions VOCs and particulates (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Eutrophication Decreased landfill capacity Decreased hazardous waste landfill capacity
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
TERRAZZO
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Terrazzo
Increasingly, primary crushing is performed in the mine or pit using movable crushers. Improved technology has led to the increased use of these crushers, which increase efficiency because the stone does not have to be hauled to a peripheral site for crushing. Cone crushers and gyratory crushers are most commonly used for secondary crushing. Belt conveyors haul material within the quarry and are often associated with in-pit crushers. These conveyance systems consist of several portable units that connect the portable crusher with the stationary field conveyor. Extensive use of conveyors significantly reduces the use of haul trucks within the quarry. The stone is screened to the desired size using woven wire, welded wire cloth, rubber, or plastic screens. After screening, the crushed stone is usually stored in open piles (Tepordei 1992). Quartz and silica pebbles may be recovered as by-products or co-products from the mining of silica sand (Bolen 1991). The mining and processing of glass sand (silica) are described in the material report on glass in this volume (08810). Glass may serve the function of marble chips in terrazzo, but it is used much less frequently and usually with an epoxy matrix. The acquisition and preparation of materials for glassmaking and the manufacture of glass are described in the material report on glass (08810). The standards for sizing chips used for terrazzo are summarized in figure 10 (NTMA no date).
Figure 10: Standards for Sizing Chips
Size
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Passes Screen (inches)

18 14 38 12 58 34 78
Retained on Screen (inches)

116 18 14 38 12 58 34 78
1 1 18
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Marble and Other Mineral Chips for Terrazzo
Much of the environmental impact associated with the acquisition of marble, granite, and quartzite results from open-pit operations, although underground mining accounts for some also. Effects on the environment caused by mining and processing crushed stone include emissions of particulate material into the air, discharge of processing water, and noise. Crushing and screening operations produce dust and particulates, which can be controlled through the use of filtration devices and wet spray systems. Large quantities of water are used for washing the crushed stone; the most important water pollutant is clay in suspension. Noise and vibration are produced by blasting and the movement of heavy trucks (Tepordei 1992). Air emissions that result from fuel combustion and the production of energy contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, killing of fish, smog, decreased visibility, global warming, tree/crop damage, corrosion of materials, eye irritation, and lung damage.
24
MAT 09400
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Another effect of mining is land disturbances that cause soil erosion, runoff, and loss of faunal diversity as well as fishkill in deoxygenated bodies of water. Land disturbances can also destroy habitat, contributing to or causing species extinction and loss of biodiversity. These effects are included in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The effect of land disturbance from mining activities can be mitigated to a great extent by careful restoration management, although surface-mined lands can never be returned to their original state (Olem 1991; Ivahnenko et al. 1988). Land restored after mining almost always exhibits different vegetation patterns as a result of changes in topsoil porosity and chemistry. The environmental impacts associated with mining quartz and silica pebbles are similar to those associated with mining glass sand (or silica). The impacts associated with mining and processing glass sand include those described above for other mining operations. The environmental effects of mining and processing silica are described in particular in the material report on glass (08810). The environmental impacts associated with acquiring and preparing materials for glassmaking and the manufacture of glass include release of carbon dioxide from limestone calcining, which affects global warming; various particulate and fuel combustion emissions; increased suspended solids in water runoff; silica dust that can cause silicosis; and lead emissions that can be toxic to fish. These are described in the material report on glass (08810).
Energy Consumed
No information exists on the energy consumption associated with mining marble and granite. The energy consumed in mining and processing sand and manufacturing glass is discussed in the material report on glass (08810), which states that the embodied energy of glass is approximately 13.5 to 15 million Btus (14,200 to 15,825 MJ) per ton.
Materials for Cementitious Matrices

Cement
Both white and gray portland cement are used as cementitious matrices in terrazzo. Both types conform to ASTM Specification C-150 Type-I and are identical in structural properties (NTMA no date). White portland cement is produced from limestone with a low iron content; otherwise, it is the same as the gray variety (Moran 1995). White portland cement is widely used in terrazzo because its color can be precisely controlled and it combines readily with tinting pigments to provide a clear, uniform color. Gray portland cement is less likely to provide a uniform color and, although it can be tinted, does not provide the degree of clarity available from the white variety. Gray cement normally costs less than white cement (NTMA no date). The acquisition and preparation of raw materials for the production of portland cement are described or referenced in the material reports on concrete masonry (04220) and concrete (03010 in ERG 1994 ed.).
Sand
In preparing the material for the underbed layer, sand is mixed with the portland cement. The acquisition and preparation of sand are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Pigments
Natural or synthetic mineral oxides or other coloring materials manufactured for use in portland cement mixtures can provide color to the terrazzo cement matrix (Dezettel 1972). The acquisition and processing of minerals needed to produce natural iron oxides and the
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production of synthetic iron oxide pigments are described in the material report on concrete masonry (04220).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Material for Cementitious Matrices
The environmental waste produced and the natural resources depleted during the acquisition and preparation of materials for producing portland cement are described or referenced in the material reports on concrete masonry (04220) and concrete (03010 in ERG 1994 ed.). These impacts include the effects on the enviroment of mining (described above), of mineral processing and calcining, and of emission of carbon dioxide. Mineral processing and calcining release particulates that cause eye and throat irritation and gases that cause respiratory tract irritation and acid precipitation. The emission of carbon dioxide causes global warming. The environmental impacts associated with sand mining and processing are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The specific effects of dealing with glass sand are discussed above. The effects on the environment associated with acquiring and processing minerals to produce natural iron oxides and with producing synthetic iron oxide pigments are described in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). These can include the effects of mining (described above); the effects of calcining (described above); and the release of iron oxide dust, which can cause siderosis.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumption during portland cement production is discussed in the material reports on concrete masonry (04220) and concrete (03010 in ERG 1994 ed.). This amounts to an embodied energy of 2,401 to 4,060 Btus per lb (5.585 to 9.444 MJ/kg). Energy consumption during the mining and processing of sand is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). No embodied energy figures are available. Energy consumption during the production of iron oxide pigment (15,000 Btus per lb, or 35 MJ/kg) is discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). Transporting portland cement and aggregate to the terrazzo fabrication site requires energy in the form of fuel. No quantitative information for this exists.
Materials for Installation of Cementitious Terrazzo

Materials for Surface Preparation
Bonding agents such as acrylic or epoxy or acid etchants, usually muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), may be applied to the subfloor before the terrazzo is installed (Madden 1995; Hardy 1995). A thin layer of cement and water also may be used (NTMA 1990).
Sealers
A penetrating sealer is applied to the surface of the concrete terrazzo. For general purposes, a waterborne acrylic or acrylic-urethane sealer is used. If chemical resistance or stain resistance is required, an epoxy sealer may be used. Aggressive cleaning requirements may also dictate the use of epoxy. Solvent-borne polyurethane may be required if a high gloss is specified with a requirement for moderate chemical or stain resistance (Durig 1995; Hendley 1995). Processing materials for the manufacture of polyacrylate (acrylic resin) is described in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). Extracting, processing, and refining petroleum to produce raw materials for acrylic resin production are described in the material report on
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plastic laminates (06240). Hydrochloric acid is produced mainly as a by-product of other chemical reactions. The processing of materials for epoxy resin preparation is described in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer (04450). The processing of materials for the manufacture of polyurethane is described in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Production of Surface Preparation Materials and Sealers
The potential environmental impacts associated with epoxy resin preparation are described in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer (04450). Waste produced includes the toxic emissions and effluents from oil extraction and processing and the release of cumene and epichlorohydrin, which irritate the eyes and skin and otherwise affect human health. The potential environmental impacts associated with polyacrylate (acrylic resin) preparation are described in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). Additional effects on the environment associated with polyacrylate resin preparation result from extracting, processing, and refining petroleum. These potential impacts, described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240), include emissions and effluents from oil extraction and processing that pollute streams and the atmosphere. The environmental impacts associated with the production of polyurethane include air and water pollution that cause environmental degradation and affect human health. These potential effects on the environment are described in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930).
Divider Strips Divider strips for terrazzo are made of white alloy of zinc (alloy 190), brass (alloy 360), zinccoated steel, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic. (Aluminum strips can react with cement and are used only in rare applications that do not involve a cement matrix or subfloor (Hardy 1995).) In applications where severe temperature change or structural movement is expected, expansion strips containing an insert of neoprene or polyethylene are used. However, the National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association (NTMA) no longer recommends the use of neoprene (NTMA no date).
Zinc
A zinc alloy containing 0.7 to 0.9 percent copper is used to manufacture zinc divider strips. Copper increases tensile strength and hardness. Zinc divider strips are manufactured by casting. Most zinc die casting companies buy zinc in the form of ingots or slabs and produce the required alloy on site. Zinc ore mining, processing, and smelting are described in the material report on steel framing (05401).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Manufacture of Zinc Divider Strips
The environmental impacts associated with the mining, processing, and smelting of zinc include the effects of mining itself and of the production of smelting waste that is toxic to aquatic organisms. These potential effects are described in the material report on steel framing (05401).
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy used to die cast zinc products manufactured from a typical zinc alloy (containing 4 percent aluminum and 0.04 percent magnesium) is 22,813 Btus/lb (53.063 MJ/kg). Of this total, 20,118 Btus/lb (46.794 MJ/kg) is process energy,
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644 Btus/lb (1.50 MJ/kg) is attributable to transportation, and 2,051 (4.771 MJ/kg) is the material resource energy of the petroleum and coal used in production (Franklin Associates 1991). Energy consumption during zinc ore mining and processing is discussed in the material report on steel framing (05401).
Brass
Brass is a type of copper alloy containing zinc. Brass used to manufacture divider strips (UNS # C36000) is a wrought leaded alloy that contains 36 percent zinc, 3 percent lead, and 61 percent copper. Adding lead to the brass improves machinability. Because the lead is present as small inclusions, the machined strip breaks away freely, reducing friction against the cutting tool (Ullmanns). The manufacture of wrought brass products begins with a cast plate that is milled to remove defects and then cold rolled. After cold rolling, a softening heat treatment (annealing) is often needed. Continuous annealing uses a furnace sealed at both ends to contain a protective atmosphere while permitting passage of the strip. A neutral or reducing atmosphere (composed of nitrogen or nitrogen-hydrogen mixtures) protects the alloy during this stage. Products of combustion from natural gas may be used as well. Acid cleaning may follow annealing, then the strip may be passed through various sets of rollers to improve flatness or to remove unwanted curving or buckling (Kirk-Othmer).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Manufacture of Brass Divider Strips
Copper alloy production generates gaseous effluents and dust containing toxic elements such as cadmium, antimony, arsenic, lead, selenium, manganese, tellurium, titanium, and zinc. Exhaust systems are used during production and fabrication to remove the gases; precipitators and filters remove the solid particles (Ullmanns). The potential environmental impacts related to zinc are discussed above.
Energy Consumed
No information is available concerning the energy consumption of brass manufacture. Copper is mined in the form of sulfide ores, which may be obtained by open-pit or underground mining, although open-pit mining is the most common. Most of the copper produced in the United States comes from Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. In open-pit or surface mining, the entire overburden (waste above the ore) is removed to expose the ore. The ore is drilled and blasted, then transported to the beneficiation plant. The necessity of providing access for the equipment leads to the characteristic inverted cone shape, ringed with terraces or benches. Declining ore grades has led to increasingly large mines and the use of larger capacity equipment. Most copper mines in the southwestern United States yield from 30,000 to 250,000 metric tons of ore plus waste per day (Kirk-Othmer). Copper ore rarely contains a high enough concentration of copper to allow direct smelting. The ore must be concentrated by froth flotation. The ore is crushed and ground, then mixed with water. Surfactants are added to make the minerals rise to the surface, from which they are removed as a froth concentrate. Smelting separates the copper from the iron, sulfur, and other minerals. The copper is refined either by fire refining or electrolytic refining. In the latter, the molten copper blister from the smelter is further refined, then cast as anodes. The copper in the anode is electrolytically plated to pure copper cathodes. Copper can be recovered from aqueous solutions by chemical or electrolytic processes. An increasing proportion of U.S. copper production is obtained by dump leaching; that is, leaching the copper from waste rock and overburden at the site of an open-pit copper mine. Another means of recovering copper from aqueous solutions is in-place leaching. This involves extracting copper from ores that have not been removed from the ground. Solvent extraction in combination with electrowinning is the most common means of extracting copper from leach solutions (Kirk-Othmer).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Extraction and Processing of Copper
Sulfur dioxide is produced when copper and iron sulfide minerals are oxidized, an essential step in copper smelting. In recent years, the copper industry has achieved dramatic reductions in SO2 emissions. Consequently, U.S. copper smelters are now a minor source of SO2 emissions. Copper mining operations produce significant amounts of solid waste consisting of waste rock or overburden from open-pit mines, tailings from the concentration process, and slag or dust piles associated with smelters. Storage and disposal of these wastes must comply with the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act. Mining operations produce runoff, which must be impounded and treated before release into surface systems. Water effluents from smelters and from concentrator tailing ponds may carry significant levels of heavy metals. Solutions from leaching operations may enter groundwater. In the United States copper concentrators, smelters, and refineries practice maximum water recycling. Total recycling of water from dump-leaching operations is also common practice (Kirk-Othmer).
Energy Consumed
The total energy required to manufacture copper products is 43,982,000 Btu per ton (51,151 J/ton) (Franklin Associates 1991). In the production of copper, mining consumes about 20 percent of the total energy requirement; milling, around 40 percent; smelting, from 10 to 20 percent; and converting and refining, 20 to 30 percent. Pollution control accounts for a large percentage of the energy demand for smelting (Kirk-Othmer).
Zinc-Coated Steel
Iron ore mining and processing, steel smelting, coating steel with zinc, and the environmental effects of these processes are described in the material report on steel framing (05401). Potential environmental impacts include the effects of mining (described above), the effects associated with zinc processing (described above), acid drainage and runoff from coal mining, and toxic runoff and emissions from making steel.
Polyvinyl Chloride
Potential environmental effects of manufacturing polyvinyl chloride include release of effluents and emissions from oil and gas processing and of pollutants from manufacturing. These materials have a negative impact on a variety of aquatic animals and habitats, the atmosphere, and human health. Notable concerns relate to vinyl chloride monomer (a carcinogen) and dioxins that can cause several health problems. Polyvinyl chloride manufacture and environmental impacts are described in the material report on vinyl flooring (09652).
Neoprene
Neoprene (polychloroprene) is produced by the emulsion polymerization of chloroprene (2chloro-1,3-butadiene) in the presence of sulfur. Chloroprene is the chlorovinyl ester of hydrochloric acid and is produced by polymerizing acetylene to vinyl acetylene. The polymerization is catalyzed by a weak solution of NH4Cl, Cu2Cl2, and KCl. Water is condensed out of the off-gas product, which is then fractionated to produce vinyl acetylene. Aqueous hydrochloric acid reacts with the vinyl acetylene in the presence of Cu2Cl2 to produce chloroprene (Austin 1984). Acetylene is produced by the partial combustion of natural gas (methane). In the process, oxygen and natural gas react at a high temperature and the product is quickly quenched. By-products include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, higher acetylenes, and soot (Austin 1984). The extraction and processing of natural gas is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Manufacture of Neoprene
Notable human toxic reactions to neoprene, including temporary loss of hair and chromosomal aberrations in blood, seem to be associated with the chloroprene monomer. In addition, chloroprene causes irritation to the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory tract, as well as being toxic to humans in other ways. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has recommended that chloroprene be treated as a potential human carcinogen; however, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has found inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and in animals (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during production of chloroprene and neoprene.

Polyethylene
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is typically produced through the polymerization of ethylene. The manufacture of ethylene is described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). HDPE is produced in a low pressure process in the presence of a catalyst. Conversion of the ethylene to HDPE is virtually complete.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Manufacture of High-Density Polyethylene
A variety of air and water emissions and solid wastes are produced during the total cycle of HDPE production, beginning with the extraction of raw materials from the earth. Air emissions (in mg/kg HDPE) include dust, 2,000; carbon monoxide, 600; carbon dioxide, 940,000; sulfur oxides, 6,000; nitrogen oxides, 10,000; hydrogen chloride, 50; hydrogen fluoride, 1; hydrocarbons, 21,000 (Boustead 1993). Dust (particulates) can cause eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, lung damage, and impaired visibility. Carbon monoxide can cause cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary system effects. Carbon dioxide can contribute to the greenhouse effect causing global warming. Sulfur oxides can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage as well as acid precipitation that causes tree and crop damage, materials corrosion, surface water acidification, and damage to aquatic organisms. Nitrogen oxides can cause ground-level ozone (smog) that is responsible for respiratory tract problems, lung damage, decreased visibility, and eye irritation. It can also cause acid precipitation (described above). Hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride can cause respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation and can contribute to acid precipitation (see above). Water emissions include COD, 200; BOD, 100; acid as H+, 100; nitrates, 10; metals, 300; ammonium ions, 10; chloride ions, 800; dissolved organics, 20; suspended solids, 200; oil, 30; hydrocarbons, 150; dissolved solids, 500; phosphate, 1; other nitrogen, 5 (Boustead 1993). COD and BOD can result in aquatic deoxygenation causing fishkill and loss of faunal diversity. Increased water acidity can cause reduced reproduction and possible fishkill. Nitrates and phosphates can contribute to eutrophication, increased algal growth, and increased BOD (see above). Solid wastes include various industrial wastes, 3,000; mineral waste, 18,000; slags and ash, 5,000; toxic chemicals, 40; nontoxic chemicals, 6,000 (Boustead 1993). Disposal of solid wastes results in decreased regular and hazardous waste landfill capacity.
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy of products manufactured from HDPE includes 23,402 Btus/lb (54.43 MJ/kg) in the feedstock, 17,679 Btus/lb (41.12 MJ/kg) is fuel energy, 1,135 Btus/lb (2.64 MJ/kg) in transportation energy, totaling 42,216 Btus/lb (98.19 MJ/kg) (Franklin Associates 1991). A European estimate of the embodied energy of HDPE is 80.98 MJ/kg
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(34,810 Btus/lb), of which 64.04 MJ/kg (27,530 Btus/lb) is the energy contained in the feedstock and 16.94 MJ/kg (7,283 Btus/lb) is fuel (Boustead 1993).
Materials for Resinous Matrices Epoxy resin preparation is described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Polyester resin preparation is described in the material report on stone veneer (04450). Polyacrylate (acrylic resin) preparation is described in the material report on ceramic tile (09300).
Epoxy-based organic pigments are used to color the matrix in resinous terrazzo (Hendley 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Material for Resinous Matrices
The environmental impacts associated with epoxy resin preparation are described in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer (04450) and are summarized above in the discussion of primers. The effects on the environment from polyester resin preparation are covered in the report on stone veneer (04450); the impacts associated with polyester production are described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). The potential effects of polyester production are related to the extraction and processing of natural gas and crude oil and to the emission of VOCs and particulates during manufacture, which are described above. The environmental impacts associated with polyacrylate (acrylic resin) preparation are described in the material report on ceramic tile (09300) and above in the discussion of primers. Additional environmental impacts associated with polyacrylate resin preparation result from the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum. These impacts are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce resins is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The energy required to produce polyester fibers (similar in composition to polyester resin) is discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Materials for Installing Resinous Terrazzo

Surface Preparation Materials
Primers (bonding materials), as recommended by the supplier, may be applied to the subfloor before resinous terrazzo is installed. Acid etchants may also be employed (Madden 1995). One manufacturer sells an epoxy resin primer for use with an epoxy matrix (TEC Inc. 1993). The processing of materials for epoxy resin preparation is described in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer (04450). Acid etchants are discussed above for cementitious terrazzo.
Sealers
The various sealers available perform differently and offer a variety of degrees of gloss. They include an acrylic or acrylic-urethane sealer, a chemical-resistant epoxy sealer, and a polyurethane enamel. For general purposes, a waterborne acrylic or acrylic-urethane sealer is used. If chemical resistance or stain resistance is required, an epoxy sealer may be used. Aggressive cleaning requirements may also dictate the use of epoxy. Solvent-borne polyurethane may be required if a high gloss is specified in combination with moderate chemical or stain resistance (Durig 1995; Hendley 1995).
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The processing of materials for the manufacture of polyacrylate (acrylic resin) is described in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). The extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum to produce raw materials for acrylic resin production are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The processing of materials for the manufacture of polyurethane is described in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930). The processing of materials for epoxy resin preparation is described in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer (04450).
Divider Strips
Divider strips are composed of the same materials as those for cementitious terrazzo (see above).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Acquisition and Preparation of Materials for Installing Resinous Terrazzo
The environmental impacts associated with epoxy resin preparation are described in the material reports on plaster and lath (09200) and stone veneer (04450) and are summarized above in the discussion of primers. Polyurethane preparation can result in the same environmental impacts as those associated with production of natural gas and of toluene diisocyanate (TDI). Fugitive emissions of TDI affect human health in several ways, and the release of other manufacturing by-products can cause acid precipitation and smog, as well as negative effects on human health. These environmental effects are described in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930). The environmental impacts associated with polyacrylate (acrylic resin) preparation are described in the material report on ceramic tile (09300) and are summarized above in the discussion of primers. Other environmental impacts associated with this process result from the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum, described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The environmental impacts associated with the mining, processing, and smelting of zinc include habitat alteration, loss of biodiversity, effects on aquatic populations, and the release of fuel combustion emissions. These are described in the material report on steel framing (05401).
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce epoxy resin is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). No information is available on energy consumption during production of polyurethane or acrylic resin. Energy estimates pertaining to the manufacture of zinc divider strips are outlined above.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacture and fabrication of terrazzo is presented in figure 11. While most terrazzo is fabricated during the construction stage (i.e., it is mixed, poured, and installed on site), precast terrazzo is manufactured at a plant and transported to the job site for installation.
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Figure 11: TerrazzoManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Epoxy mixing
Stressor
VOC and monomer volatilization
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Health effects for mixing personnel Grinding and finishing Potential release of particulates Grindings waste Fabrication Floor preparation Excess prepared terrazzo material VOC emissions Hydrochloric acid emissions (see above) Human health effects Acid precipitation Respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation Tree/crop damage Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Landfill disposal Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Decreased landfill capacity Irritation effects
Terrazzo can be precast in special shapes, including stair treads and risers, straight bases, cove bases, and window sills. Stair treads may contain abrasive inserts. Precast terrazzo is used when it is impractical to pour the material in place. Precast terrazzo forms are manufactured by a compression and vibratory process in watertight molds. Marble aggregate is composed of size 1 and 2 chips mixed with portland cement in proportions of 212 parts chips to one part cement. Venetian precast terrazzo is made with larger aggregate chips and mixed with one part size 1 chips to four parts size 3 to size 7 chips. A backing may be used and is made of specially graded limestone, sand, and portland cement. The forms may include pigments for coloring the cement and steel rods for reinforcement. Stair treads may be fitted with nonslip, abrasive inserts composed of allundum oxide and epoxy (Clifton 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Manufacture and Fabrication of Precast Terrazzo
Grinding and finishing of terrazzo generates considerable waste. Terrazzo surfaces are kept wet during grinding, and the grinding waste is in the form of a slurry. Once the water has evaporated from this material, it may be landfilled. This waste material is nonhazardous, as shown by Extraction Procedure Toxicity (EPT) testing and TCLP testing, which are designed to evaluate the potential environmental impact of a waste by simulating the leaching of potentially hazardous substances from the waste in a landfill situation. Analysis of leachate from cement, epoxy, polyacrylate, and polyester grinding waste showed levels of metals and various toxic organic to be well below regulatory limits (Flabiano 1995).
Energy Consumed during Manufacture and Fabrication of Precast Terrazzo
Most of the terrazzo grinding and finishing equipment uses enrgy efficient electric motors (Flabiano 1995). No quantitative information is available, however, on energy consumption during the manufacture and fabrication of terrazzo.
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A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of terrazzo is presented in figure 12.
Figure 12: TerrazzoConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity
Terrazzo finishing
Stressor
Sealer application
Impact/Stressor
Low-concentration VOC emissions Acrylic resin
Impact/Stressor
Odors Potential human health effects including irritation
Impact/Stressor
Construction Most terrazzo flooring is fabricated in place at the job site, although precast terrazzo is produced at a separate plant. The different types of terrazzo systems are outlined below (NTMA 1990):
Sand cushion terrazzo. This type includes a 116-in. (2 mm) sand dusting over the concrete
substrate covered by an isolation membrane followed by a nominal underbed 212 inches thick. Terrazzo topping is 12 in. (1.3 cm) nominal. The recommended thickness for sand cushion terrazzo is 3 in. (7.6 cm), but the minimum thickness is 212 in. (6.3 cm) (Morgan 1995).
Bonded terrazzo. This consists of a bonding material (primer or cement paste) applied to
the underlying concrete, followed by a 112-in. (3.8 cm) underbed and a 12-in. (1.3 cm) terrazzo topping. The recommended thickness for bonded terrazzo is 2 in. (5.1 cm), but the minimum thickness is 134 in. (4.4 cm) (Morgan 1995).
Monolithic terrazzo. This consists of a cementitious 12-in. (1.3 cm) terrazzo topping applied
to a structural cement slab. A bonding agent may be used.

Rustic terrazzo. Most rustic terrazzo is installed on exterior, on-grade locations. Rustic terrazzo (structural system over granular fill). This type consists of a structural concrete underbed followed by the terrazzo topping. The minimum thickness of this combination should be 5 in. (12.7 cm). Rustic terrazzo (bonded system). This type consists of a setting bed over an existing con-
crete substrate slab. The minimum thickness of the bonded system should be 134 in. (4.4 cm).
Monolithic rustic terrazzo. For this type, a 12-in. (1.3 cm) terrazzo topping is applied to a
concrete substrate slab. A bonding agent may be used.

Unbonded rustic terrazzo. This consists of a setting bed over an existing concrete slab that
has been waterproofed. Minimum thickness of the terrazzo and the setting bed is 4 in. (10.2 cm).
Palladiana. This type of terrazzo can be installed as a monolithic, sand cushion, or bonded
system. Minimum thickness of topping is 12 in. (1.3 cm).
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Terrazzo over permanent metal forms. A terrazzo topping with underbed is applied over
wire mesh that has been welded to steel decking. Minimum thickness of the topping with underbed is 3 in. (7.6 cm).
Polyacrylate modified terrazzo. The nominal thickness of this type, which is installed over a concrete subfloor, is 14 or 38 in. (6 or 10 mm). Epoxy terrazzo. This type is installed over a concrete subfloor with a nominal thickness of 14
or 38 in. (6 or 10 mm). The recommended thickness over exterior grade plywood is 38 in. (10 mm) (Morgan 1995).
Polyester terrazzo. The nominal thickness of this type is 14 in. (6 mm). It is installed over a
concrete subfloor.
Trowel finish epoxy floors. This floor surfacing consists of an epoxy matrix material and an
aggregate; the surface is grouted and sealed with a binder to achieve a nonporous surface. Nominal thickness is 14 in. (6 mm). Trowel finish epoxy floors come in three types: Type 1: This contains graded ceramic or other coated aggregate and is grouted and sealed with a clear binder. Type 2: This grade contains graded marble or granite aggregate and is grouted and sealed with a clear binder. Type 3: This type contains graded silica, quartz, or other hard aggregate and uses colored epoxy matrix material, grouted and sealed with the same color binder.
Fine aggregate epoxy floors. Containing decorative, broadcast ceramic or otherwise coated
aggregate, this type has a nominal thickness of 18 in. (3 mm).

Vertical terrazzo. This type is normally 1 in. (2.5 cm) thick with a 38-in. (10 mm) terrazzo
topping.
Poured-in-place terrazzo. Stairs and bases may be poured in place. Bases may be installed against concrete block, cement board, exterior-grade plywood, or cement plaster backing. Stairs are installed over concrete or steel substrates.
Preparation of Cementitious Terrazzo Mixture
The base (or underbed) for cementitious terrazzo is mixed in the proportion of one part portland cement to four parts clean coarse sand. The terrazzo topping, or wearing surface, is in the proportions of 200 lb (90.7 kg) of aggregate to one sack of portland cement and contains no more than four gallons of water. The cement and the pigment are mixed dry to a uniform color before the other materials are added (Dezettel 1972).
Installation of Cementitious Terrazzo
Portland cement matrix terrazzo may be applied to concrete, steel decking, or wood. For application to concrete there are three methods: applying the terrazzo topping directly to the concrete (monolithic) using an epoxy or acrylic bonding agent, applying the terrazzo topping over an underbed that is bonded to the concrete (bonded) with a thin coating of cement and water, or applying the terrazzo topping over a reinforced underbed that is separated from the concrete by an isolation membrane and a dusting of sand. For application to wood or steel decking, wire mesh is welded or nailed to the substrate to provide mechanical bonding of the underbed (Morgan 1995). Divider strips are used in the installation of portland cement terrazzo to eliminate possible cracking and for decorative purposes. Divider strips are usually installed after the concrete fill
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underbed has been spread but before it has set. After the underbed has set, the terrazzo topping is placed in the areas between the divider strips, additional marble chips are sprinkled on the surface, and the terrazzo is compacted with heavy rollers to extract excess water. The surface is then troweled until the tops of the divider strips are visible. The terrazzo surface is kept moist for six days, after which it is machine-ground, using No. 24 and then No. 80 grit abrasive stones. The entire surface is given a thin coating of neat cement (containing portland cement, pigment, and water) to fill all voids. After 72 hours, the terrazzo is given its final finish (No. 80 grit abrasive stones) and thoroughly washed. A penetrating sealer is applied to protect the cement and marble portion of the surface (NTMA 1990).
Installation of Synthetic-Resin Matrix Terrazzo
Synthetic-resin matrix terrazzo (epoxy or polyester) can be installed directly on concrete fill, a concrete slab, metal, or wood without a setting bed (Hornbostel 1991). Metal or wood may require mechanical bonding depending on the material and the manufacturers recommendation. Installation of polyester terrazzo over a wood substrate is not recommended (Morgan 1995). Before epoxy or polyester terrazzo is installed, the substrate must be cleaned and prepared according to manufacturers instructions (acid etchants or shot blast may be used) (Slack 1995). Control strips are installed directly above the control joints in the subfloor; divider strips are installed according to the pattern drawing. A primer (bonding material) recommended by the supplier is then applied, followed by the terrazzo mixture, which is troweled to the top of the divider strips. The material is allowed to cure according to the manufacturers specifications, usually for one to four days (Morgan 1995). The terrazzo is ground with No. 24 or finer grit stone or with comparable diamond plates, followed by No. 80 or finer grit stone. Grout (the composition depending on the matrix) is applied to fill voids. After the grout has cured, the terrazzo is ground with a No. 80 or finer grit stone until all grout is removed from the surface. The surface is then washed and sealed in accordance with the manufacturers directions (NTMA 1990). A penetrating sealer is applied to protect marble aggregate (Slack 1995). Divider strips are not necessary in synthetic-resin terrazzo except in extremely large areas, 30 feet (9.144 m) or longer in length, and for decorative purposes. The strips are secured to the underbed with an adhesive that is compatible with the matrix of the topping (Hornbostel 1991).
Installation of Polyacrylate Modified Terrazzo
Installation of polyacrylate modified terrazzo is similar to that of epoxy and polyester terrazzo. The concrete subfloor is cleaned and prepared according to manufacturers instructions and dampened prior to application of the primer (NTMA 1990).
Installation of Trowel Finish Epoxy Floors
Installation of trowel finish epoxy floors is similar to that of epoxy terrazzo in that an aggregate is embedded in an epoxy matrix material. Unlike terrazzo, however, the epoxy floor surface is not ground; rather, a smooth surface is achieved by applying a fill layer of epoxy over the aggregate layer. In this process, the aggregate layer is first scraped with a trowel to remove projecting aggregate, then swept and vacuumed. After this the fill layer is applied, allowed to pool evenly on the surface, and then leveled with a paint roller. The fill is allowed to cure, after which a sealer is applied. The sealer or fill coats may include an aggregate to provide a nonslip texture to the finish (Morgan 1995). One manufacturer uses two coats of an aliphatic urethane sealer to provide optional UV protection and a matte finish (TEC Inc. 1993, Slack 1995).
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Terrazzo
Installation of Fine Aggregate Epoxy Floors
The installation of fine aggregate epoxy floors is similar to that of trowel finish epoxy floors in that the surface is not ground. In this type, however, the aggregate is not mixed into the resin matrix material but broadcast over the wet resin. After the resin has cured, the excess aggregate is swept and vacuumed (a second application of resin and aggregate may be required). After curing, the floor is scraped with a trowel to remove high aggregate, swept, and vacuumed. Finally, as in trowel finish epoxy floors, a fill layer of epoxy is applied over the aggregate to achieve a smooth surface. A sealer is applied to provide the final finish. The sealer or fill coats may include an aggregate to provide a nonslip texture to the finish (Morgan 1995). One manufacturer uses two coats of an aliphatic urethane sealer to provide optional UV protection and a matte finish (TEC Inc., Slack 1995).
Installation of Precast Forms
Precast terrazzo cove bases are set into place before the terrazzo floor is poured, and joints between the precast sections are filled with grout (same material as the matrix). Precast terrazzo straight base is usually top-set after the floor has been poured and finished (Morgan 1995). Precast stairs and other special items are installed using one of these setting methods: mud-set (a portland cement and sand mixture), thin-set, welding, or bolts. The thin-set application method uses various kinds of mastics similar to those used for ceramic tile. These adhesives are discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300) and are not discussed in this report. If the bond needs to be especially strong, epoxy adhesives are used. Joints between sections are filled with portland cement or caulking (NTMA 1990).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Installation of Terrazzo
The epoxy formulation is 100 percent solids; that is, almost all of the contents react to form the final solid flooring material. Only a very small portion, such as some nonreactive diluents that aid in working the material in place, is not combined into the final flooring. In addition, a small amount of the two-part epoxy resin may not polymerize and could volatilize. However, job-site analysis has shown that gaseous emissions are well within OSHA specification. The person mixing the epoxy is required to wear a respirator; during application, however, workers are not exposed to any fumes because by that stage the epoxy has polymerized. This fact allows other tradespeople to work alongside terrazzo applicators without any effect from the fumes (Hendley 1995). Grinding and finishing of terrazzo floors generates considerable waste. Terrazzo surfaces are kept wet during grinding, and the grinding waste is in the form of a slurry. Once the water has evaporated from this material, it may be landfilled. This waste material is nonhazardous, as shown by extraction procedure toxicity (EPT) testing and toxic characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) testing, which are designed to evaluate the potential environmental impact of a waste by simulating the leaching of potentially hazardous substances from the waste in a landfill situation. Analysis of the leachate from cement, epoxy, polyacrylate, and polyester grinding waste showed levels of metals and various toxic organics well below regulatory limits (Flabiano 1995). Any brass or zinc divider strips not used on a project are returned to inventory for use on other projects or are sent to the manufacturer for recycling (Flabiano 1995).
Energy Consumed
Most of the equipment used to grind and finish terrazzo uses energy-efficient electric motors (Flabiano 1995). No quantitative information is available, however, on energy consumption during the installation of terrazzo.
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Terrazzo
Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal
Use Terrazzo floors are very durable, require low maintenance, and will last the life of a building (Flabiano 1995). As a result, terrazzo has lower life-cycle costs than most other flooring materials (NTMA no date).
Terrazzo is used in new construction and in the renovation of older buildings. Conditions favorable for its use are summarized below (Hornbostel 1991): When a hard, durable, colored floor, stair, or wall finish that is easy to maintain is required. When an area will receive very heavy wear. When a floor material that permits flexibility in color, design, and pattern is desired. If the following situations are anticipated during use, conditions may be unfavorable for the use of terrazzo (Hornbostel 1991): Where alkalis or acids will come in contact with floors, stairs, or walls (unless a synthetic-resin terrazzo system resistant to alkali or acid is used). In areas on or below grade that have moisture vapor transmission problems, resin matrix terrazzo is not suitable (Slack 1995).
Maintenance When they are new, portland cement matrix terrazzo floors may have a mottled, blotchy appearance; this is a normal characteristic during the curing process. New cementitious terrazzo floors should be dustmopped daily and scrubbed two or three times a week with neutral soap. If a high sheen is desired, the owner should apply a waterbased acrylic sealer to the floor. This sealer must be periodically stripped, and the floor resealed. Alternatively, the floor may simply be cleaned with a neutral cleaner and water solution. After several such cleanings, the residue of cleaner remaining on the floor will become buffable, making it possible to achieve a sheen by buffing after each washing. After two months of this treatment, the floors acquire a patina and require less upkeep (NTMA no date; Hornbostel 1991).
When it is new, synthetic-resin terrazzo should be scrubbed twice weekly until the dust from construction is gone. After that, daily dustmopping and weekly wetmopping should be adequate. For a high sheen, a water-based acrylic sealer designed for terrazzo can be applied (NTMA no date).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Use and Maintenance of Terrazzo
Minimal waste is produced during normal use and routine care of terrazzo due to its durability and ease of maintenance. According to an industry source, the sealers now used for finishing terrazzo are nonhazardous and have very low emissions (Flabiano 1995).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during use and maintenance of terrazzo.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with recycling, reusing, or disposing of terrazzo is presented in figure 13.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion during Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal of Terrazzo
Terrazzo will generally last for the life of the building. After demolition, the material is placed in a landfill.
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Terrazzo
Organization Perspective and Regulatory Status
Figure 13: TerrazzoRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity
Demolition
Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during recycling, reuse, or disposal of terrazzo.
Industry Perspective: The National Terrazzo & Mosaic Association, Inc. Terrazzo flooring is perhaps one of the earliest examples of a recycled product. As the early Italian mosaic artisans chipped the marble tessera for their mosaics, the marble chippings that fell on the floor were swept out onto the terrace. On the terrace they were trampled into the surface, and as they combined with the lime mortar (also used in early mosaic work), they created a decorative floor. Further foot traffic along with the lava and pumice used for grinding resulted in an attractive finish. It is from this use of the product on terraces, terrazza in Italian, that the name terrazzo was derived. So terrazzo is in fact a by-product of the mosaic art-an early example of recycling!
Currently, marble (and other stone) chips are specifically crushed and some synthetic matrices especially formulated for use in terrazzo. Terrazzo has retained its popularity as an attractive, long lasting, easily maintained flooring product largely because of its versatility and limitless pattern and color range, which is attractive to designers. Although initial cost may be higher than some competitive flooring materials, when maintenance and replacement costs are considered, the life-cycle cost of terrazzo flooring is surprisingly low.
Regulatory Status
State and OSHA general safety regulations that apply to the construction industry also apply to terrazzo installers. Various EPA, OSHA, and federal standards cover the producers of the raw materials used in terrazzo (Hardy 1995).
TERRAZZO
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Terrazzo
References
References
Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bolen, Wallace P. 1991. Industrial Sand and Gravel, Annual Report, 1990. Washington, DC: Bureau of Mines, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Boustead, Ian. 1993. Eco-Profiles of the European Plastics Industry. Report 3: Polyethylene and Polypropylene. European Centre for Plastics in the Environment. Clifton, Tyrone. 1995. Personal communication of information for the terrazzo report from the president of the Precast and Building Supply Corporation, Indianapolis. Dezettel, Louis M. 1972. Masons and Builders Library. Vol. 1. Indianapolis: T. Audel. Durig, John. 1995. Personal communication and company literature with information for the terrazzo report from the president of the General Polymers Corporation, Cincinnati, OH. Flabiano, Brent. 1995. Personal communication of information for the terrazzo report from the vice president of the American Terrazzo Co., Garland, Tex. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Society of Plastics Industry. Hardy, Derek. 1995. Review comments on the ERG draft report on terrazzo from the executive director of the National Terrazzo & Mosaic Association, Inc. Hazardous Substances Databank. 1995. National Library of Medicine/TOXNET. April. Hendley, Jim. 1995. Personal communication of information for the terrazzo report from the General Polymers Corporation, Cincinnati, OH. Hill, Gene. 1995. Personal communication of information for the terrazzo report from the manager of consumer product sales of the Georgia Marble Company, Kennesaw, GA. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. 2d ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Ivahnenko, T. I., et al. 1988. Liming Effects on the Water Quality in Two West Virginia Streams in R. W. Brockson and J. Wisniewski, eds., Restoration of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems, Klewer Academic Publishers, Ltd.
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed. Vol. 7. Madden, Bill. 1995. Information from the resinous floor specialist, AIA/MasterSpec. Moran, Edward. 1995. Personal communication of information for the terrazzo report from the Lehigh Portland Cement Co., Allentown, PA. Morgan, Fred. 1995. Peer review comments from the DePaoli Mosaic Company, Boston, MA. NTMA (National Terrazzo & Mosaic Association, Inc.). No date. Various association publications, including the Terrazzo Design/Technical Data Book and The Care of Terrazzo. . 1990. Specifications. . 1926. Marble Mosaics, Terrazzo, Brass Strip Work-A Complete Exhibit of Samples of Marble Mosaic and Terrazzo Application of Brass Strips to Terrazzo Border Designs and Design Outlines. Olem, H. 1991. Liming Acidic Surface Waters. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. Rime, Paul. 1995. Personal communication and company literature with information for the terrazzo report from the sales manager of Langford Tool and Drill Co., Minneapolis, MN. Slack, Douglas. 1995. Peer review comments from TEC Inc., Palatine, IL. TEC Incorporated. 1993. Product data sheet and other company literature. Tepordei, Valentin V. 1992. Crushed Stone.Washington, DC: Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Thornley, Ken. 1995. Personal communication of information for the terrazzo report from Heritage Glass, Inc., Logan, UT. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1986. 5th ed. Vol A7.
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Material Report
Acoustical Ceiling Systems*

Highlights
The major environmental concerns associated with mining the raw materials include energy and resource use; soil erosion, pollutant runoff, and land and habitat loss; and air and water degradation. The principal risks to air quality include particulates, dust, and combustion emissions from mineral and ore refinement, in addition to combustion emissions from furnace operation for the production of coke, mineral wool, steel, and aluminum. The major risks to water quality result from mine runoff and polluted wastewater generated during coking, steel making, galvanizing, and aluminum production. Few wastes are generated during the manufacture of ceiling panels and tiles. The solid wastes that are generated during fabrication of panels, tiles, and suspension systems are recycled back into the processes. Manufacture of panels and tiles reduces wastes from other sources, specifically slag from steel production and recycled newsprint.
Coke, steel, and aluminum production consumes significant amounts of water. Several raw materials used in making steel for suspension systemsnickel, chromium, and manganeseare in very limited supply in the United States. However, over the past 10 years, recycling of scrap steel into steel production has resulted in the reuse here and abroad of 1.2 trillion pounds of steel. Bauxite strip mining causes some loss of tropical forest and habitat.
Energy Consumption
Use of recycled paper in production of ceiling panels and tiles requires approximately 27 to 44 percent less energy than use of virgin wood. The total embodied energy of steel suspension systems per pound of product is estimated at 19,200 Btus. Production of steel from scrap requires approximately 39 percent of the energy required for the production of steel from raw materials using the basic oxygen furnace process. The embodied energy for aluminum suspension systems is very high: 103,500 Btus per pound of product at the point of use.
Indoor Air Quality
Ceiling panels and tiles may act as sinks. Some studies indicate that ceiling panels and tiles absorb and desorb certain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at significantly higher rates than carpet and pillow; other studies report either no major emissions or emissions below allowable limits.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1994. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 ACOUSTICAL CEILING SYSTEMS MAT 09510
Acoustical Ceiling Systems

Background
Acoustical ceiling panels and tiles and their suspension systems are commonly used in commercial buildings. They are also used in residential basements and, less frequently, in other residential applications. This report covers mineral-fiber-based panels and tiles that are included under AIA Masterspec sections 09511 (panels) and 09512 (tiles). More specifically, this report covers two types of ceiling materials as classified by ASTM E 1264, Standard Classification for Acoustical Ceiling Products: Type III, which has a mineral base with painted finish Type IX, which has a mineral base with scrubbable pigmented or clear finish This report excludes the following ASTM-classified panel and tile types: Types I, II, and VIII, which have a cellulose composition Types IV and XI, which have a mineral base with membrane-faced overlay Types V, VI, and VII, which combine metal facings with mineral or glass-fiber backing Type X, which has a mineral base with plastic or aluminum membrane-faced overlay Type XII, which has a glass-fiber base with membrane-faced overlay This report also excludes snap-in metal pan units, which are included under AIA Masterspec section number 09513. In recent years, the proportion of acoustical ceilings specified as panels rather than tiles has increased. The most common sizes of acoustical ceiling panels are 2 x 2 feet and 2 x 4 feet. The sizes of tiles have changed over the years, from 20 x 20 inches to 12 x 12 inches and 12 x 24 inches. This report also addresses three types of suspension systemsdirect hung, indirect hung, and furring barwhich are covered in ASTM C 635, Metal Suspension Systems for Acoustical Tile and Lay-In Panel Ceilings. Suspension systems are typically made of galvanized or stainless steel. However, in areas requiring sanitary conditions that must withstand frequent washing, suspension systems made of aluminum are frequently used.
Life-cycle summaries of ceiling panels and tiles, steel suspension systems, and aluminum suspension systems are provided in figures 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

Ceiling Panels and Tiles
During the materials acquisition and preparation stage, the environmental impacts associated with mining traprock, coal, clay, and perlite include solid waste from the removal of overburden, unused rock, and tailings waste; pollutant runoff into streams and groundwater; habitat alteration and destruction; smoke and dust; and air emissions from the combustion of fuel and the production of energy to power mining and processing equipment as well as to transport materials from the mine for processing and delivery to manufacturing facilities. In surface and open-pit mining the spoils are usually deposited nearby, creating mounds that often alter and disrupt local habitats. The volume of mine spoils can be very large, particularly in strip mining, where a large amount of overburden and unused rock is moved to get to the mined material. This overburden may be deposited in mounds or used to refill an open pit once it has been mined out. Mine runoff can dramatically alter or destroy habitats in mined areas. The runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids. This can lead to reduced light penetration of water, increased benthic deposition, increased BOD, deoxygenation, and ultimately loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Coal mine spoils are particularly difficult to stabilize because of their acidity. Some (continues on page 6)
MAT 09510
ACOUSTICAL CEILING SYSTEMS
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Ceiling Tiles and Panels

Air emissions (VOCs, SOX, CO, CO2, NOX, particulates) Air emissions (SO2, NOX, VOCs, NH3) Air emissions (SOX, fluorides, mineral wood fibers, particulates)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 ACOUSTICAL CEILING SYSTEMS MAT 09510
Loading Cleaning
Mineral wool manufacture Heating Curing Atomizing Cooling Farming
Wastewater (organics, dissolved solids) Runoff (soil erosion, TSS, acid drainage) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden Solid waste
Air emissions (VOCs, SOX, CO, CO2, NOX, particulates)
Basalt and diabase rocks mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Separating Loading
Slag (waste from steel production)
Runoff Suspended (soil clay erosion, TSS)
Habitat change
Newsprint Collection Sorting
Ceiling tiles and panels manufacture Wet-felted process Mixing Vacuuming Drying and curing Punching and texturing Embossing Coating Cuting or ... Cast process Mixing Forming Texturing Planing Drying and curing or ... Nodulated process
Air emissions (steam)
Packaging
Storage
Transporting
Solid waste and water
Display/sales
Water Titanium dioxide Surfactants and defoamers Preservatives and fungicides

Air emissions (VOCs, SOX, CO, CO2, NOX, particulates) Equipment cleaning wastes Obsolete stock
Paint manufacture Grinding Dispersing Mixing Packaging Suspension system
Indoor air emissions (mineral fibers, VOCs*)
Construction
Panel and tile scrap (landfilled)
Corn production Spraying Planting Harvesting Cultivating Fertilizing

Pesticides and fertilizer runoff Soil erosion
Starch manufacture Separating Cleaning Washing Soaking Degerminating Drying Screening
* Some studies indicate that ceiling panels and tiles emit a variety of organic compounds, while other studies report that emissions are negligible.
Maintenance and use
Life-Cycle Summary Ceiling Tiles and Panels
Remodeling
Demolition
KEY
Perlite mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Grinding Loading
Clay mining (for fire-resistant panels and tiles only) Scraping Loading Washing Degritting
Habitat change
Habitat Overburden, change unused material
Reuse
Recycling
Disposal (landfill)
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MAT 09510 ACOUSTICAL CEILING SYSTEMS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Steel Suspension Systems
Air emissions (VOCs, SOX, CO, CO2, NOX, particulates, dust)
KEY
Life-Cycle Summary Steel Suspension Systems
Limestone mining Crushing Drilling Grinding Blasting Separating Loading
Steelmaking Blast furnace Basic oxygen furnace Electric furnace Open hearth furnace
Solid waste (slag)
Output Recycling
Habitat change
Scrap procurement
Ingot casting
Steel suspension system manufacture Forming Cutting
Packaging and storage
Air emissions (SO2, NOX, VOCs, NH3, particulates)
Equipment cleaning wastes
Obsolete stock
Loading Cleaning
Slabbing
Sales
Wastewater (organics, dissolved solids) Runoff (soil erosion, TSS, acid drainage) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden
Ceiling panels or tiles
Construction
Scrap (landfilled or recycled)
Zinc smelting
Rolling Hot rolling Pickling Cold rolling Tempering
Annealing Galvanizing Painting
Maintenance and use
Habitat change
Sludge
Remodeling
Demolition
Reuse
Disposal (landfill)
Recycle
Disposal (landfill)
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Aluminum Suspension Systems

Air emissions (VOCs, SOX, CO, CO2, NOX, particulates) Air emissions (particulates) Air emissions (VOCs, fluoride gases, PAHs)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 ACOUSTICAL CEILING SYSTEMS MAT 09510
Bauxite ore mining Stripping Loading Grinding
Alumina production Mixing Heating
Aluminum production Dissolving in bath Reducing alumina to aluminum Siphoning
Aluminum suspension system fabrication Rolling Casting Extruding Finishing Forging
Packaging
Habitat change
Mud (trace heavy metals and organics)
Wastewater (metals)
Sludges (landfilled)
Solid waste (dust, pot sludges, skims, dross, spent potlines)
Wastewater (acids, lead, chromium, cyanide)
Sludges (acids, lead, chromium, cyanide)
Storage
Sales Caustic soda Cryolite
Ceiling panels or tiles Water
Construction
Scrap (landfilled or recycled)
Maintenance and use
Life-Cycle Summary Aluminum Suspension Systems
Remodeling
Demolition
KEY
Reuse
Disposal (landfill)
Recycle
Disposal (landfill)

coal deposits contain high concentrations of sulfur, which reacts with water draining through the spoils to form sulfuric acid. The spoils may acidify soils, groundwater, and surface water and may lower the pH of surface waters to a point toxic to aquatic life. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining, crushing, processing, and transporting mined materials results in a variety of air emissions, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulates. VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone, or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficulty breathing, reduced lung function, asthma, and nasal congestion, in addition to eye irritation and decreased visibility. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and SOx contribute to acid precipitation, which can lead to surface water acidification, tree or crop damage, materials corrosion, reduced fish reproduction, and possible fishkill. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. CO2 contributes to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Like VOCs, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to the formation of smog. NOx also contribute to acid precipitation with the same impacts as those described above for SOx. Particulates can contribute to a variety of health problems, including eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, and lung damage, as well as to environmental problems, such as impaired visibility. The production of coke, used in the manufacture of mineral wool for ceiling panels and tiles, results in the release of VOCs, SO2, CO, NOx, particulates, and ammonia. There is sufficient evidence that coke oven emissions are carcinogenic to both animals and humans (NIEHS 1989). In the manufacture of mineral wool, most of the environmental impacts are due to air emissions from the furnace stack. These emissions consist of SOx, particulates, mineral wool fibers, and fluorides. Solid waste in the form of trim and shot is usually recycled back into the production process. The paper used in the production of ceiling panels and tiles is postindustrial, not postconsumer, newsprint. Deinking of the newsprint is not required, and the inks typically are nontoxic (Tshudy 1993; Einhaus 1993). The wastewater from the resuspended newsprint slurry is usually recycled in a closed system so that no pollutants are released to the environment from the wastestream (Tshudy 1993). Cornstarch is added as a binder in the production of panels and tiles. Runoff of pesticides and fertilizers, as well as soil erosion, is the major environmental problem associated with growing corn for this purpose. In addition, air emissions result from the combustion of fuel used for planting, cultivating, harvesting, and transporting the corn. Wastes from the manufacture of paint include equipment cleaning wastes, obsolete stock, off-specification products, spills, spent filter bags, and empty bags and packaging. Most of the paints used in the manufacture of ceiling panels and tiles contain limestone and other earth-based pigments. Some paints, however, contain titanium dioxide, which has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as a potential human carcinogen (NIOSH 1990). However, titanium dioxide is not considered hazardous by the Environmental Protection Agency, and the National Cancer Institute reported that it is not carcinogenic in animals (EPA 1975; NCI 1979). Paints used in ceiling panels and tiles, unlike those used in most other applications, contain virtually no VOCs.
MAT 09510

Steel Suspension Systems
During the materials acquisition and preparation stage of steel suspension systems, the environmental impacts associated with the mining of iron ore, limestone, nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc are similar to those described above for the mining of materials for production of ceiling panels and tiles. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during mining, crushing, processing, and transporting mined materials results in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SOx, CO, CO2, NOx, and particulates. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are summarized above under ceiling panels and tiles. The production of coke, used in the manufacture of steel for suspension systems, results in the release of VOCs, SO2, CO, NOx, particulates, and ammonia. The health and environmental effects of coke production are described above under ceiling panels and tiles.
Aluminum Suspension Systems
During the materials acquisition and preparation stage of aluminum suspension systems, the environmental impacts associated with the mining of bauxite are similar to those described above for the mining of materials for production of ceiling panels and tiles. However, bauxite is mined in sensitive tropical and subtropical forest regions, causing some loss of tropical forests. The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during the mining, crushing, processing, and transporting of bauxite results in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SOx, CO, CO2, NOx, and particulates. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are summarized above under ceiling panels and tiles.

Ceiling Panels and Tiles
Manufacturers report that all materials are recycled back into the production system (Mitchell 1992). Scrap produced during cutting is fed back into the mixture. Water used in the process is treated on-site and reused. The primary air emission is steam from drying the panels and tiles. Manufacturers of ceiling panels and tiles are proud of the recycled content of their products; several components, specifically slag and recycled newsprint, are wastes from other processes or products.
Steel Suspension Systems
The manufacturing of steel suspension systems results in a variety of air pollutants, including VOCs, SO2, CO, CO2, NOx, and particulates. Emissions and effluents can, in most cases, be controlled by pollution control devices. Nevertheless, the sheer volume of steel production makes these emissions a problem. Liquid wastes from steel production may include oils and lubricants, galvanizing wastes, pickling solutions, paints, and water used to wash and cool the product during fabrication. Many of these wastes are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms when discharged into receiving streams. Historically, enormous quantities of water have been used and discharged as a result of steel manufacturing. Manufacture of steel suspension systems also generates waste from cutting and grinding operations that can be recycled by adding it to the scrap feed for the furnace. In spite of recycling efforts, steel-making processes generate solid and hazardous wastes. The various sludges from steel making, which are not easily recycled, are typically disposed of in landfills. The galvanizing process also generates wastes that are toxic to some aquatic organisms. Steel is one of the most readily recycled materials, and the amount of recycling has increased dramatically over the past several decades. Most furnaces can accommodate approximately 25 percent scrap in the feed; electric ore furnaces can use nearly 100 percent scrap.
MAT 09510

Aluminum Suspension Systems
The manufacturing and fabrication of aluminum suspension systems produce solid wastes, air emissions, and wastewater. The solid-waste stream includes various dusts, pot sludges, plant trash, sweepings, skims, dross, air pollution filters, and anode preparation dusts. The airborne emissions include VOCs and fluoride gases, which are treated or destroyed by baghouses, wet scrubbing techniques, or incineration. During the metal-making process, various carcinogenic organic compounds known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are produced. More than 95 percent of these compounds are destroyed through incineration. Aluminum production requires a large quantity of water, much of which is treated and recycled. The wastewaters contain aluminum, fluoride, nickel, cyanide, and antimony.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage Indoor air quality is the only environmental consideration of concern during the construction, use, and maintenance stage. Some studies indicate that ceiling panels and tiles act as sinks, adsorbing chemicals from the air and reemitting them over time. Other studies report that the compounds emitted from ceiling tiles are below the required levels or below detection limits. Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage Solid waste is generated at the end of the life cycle when panels and tiles are removed. At present, they are not recycled and are rarely reused. Instead, this waste is usually landfilled. However, steel and aluminum suspension systems are reused during the refurbishment and remodeling of buildings.

Ceiling Panels and Tiles The major constituents of the basic panel and tile, exclusive of coating, are as follows:
Mineral wool, which constitutes 30 to 90 percent of ceiling panels and tiles, is a combination of rock wool, which is derived from diabase and basalt rocks, and slag wool, a by-product from iron-ore blast furnace operations. Cellulose, constituting 4 to 21 percent of panels and tiles, is derived from newsprint. Starch, which constitutes 7 to 10 percent of panels and tiles, is added as a binder. Clay is added to fire-rated products. Perlite is used in some formulations. Paints are added for color. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with acquisition and preparation of materials for manufacturing ceiling panels and tiles is presented in figure 4.
Mineral Wool
Mineral wool, the primary component of acoustical ceiling panels and tiles, is made up of fine, pliant, intertwined, vitreous fibers. This fibrous material forms when air or steam is blown through a molten mixture of basalt and diabase rock and slag, using coke for fuel. It is incombustible and will not absorb or maintain moisture, it is insect and vermin proof, it has thermal resistance and sound absorbing qualities, and it will not deteriorate or decompose. Mineral wool is made primarily in cupola furnaces. The raw materialscrushed and screened diabase and basalt rocks, blast furnace slag, and coke for fuelare heated to about 3,000F (1,650C). The molten material is poured into a device at the receiving end of a large
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Figure 4: Ceiling Panels and TilesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Basalt and diabase rocks mining Stressor Unused rock and overburden Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff Loss of habitat Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Land disturbance
Soil erosion Habitat alteration Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD VOCs
Runoff
(see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Fuel combustion
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Ground-level ozone (smog)
Surface water acidification Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
Acid precipitation
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Surface water acidification Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion
Particulates
Washing and cleaning crushed basalt and and diabase rocks Recycling of slag
Clay suspended in wash water
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Deoxygenation
Coal mining
Conserves resources by using waste from steel production Tailings waste and mine spoils (sulfur)
Acid drainage
Surface water acidification Contamination of groundwater (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals
Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion
Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
continued
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Figure 4: Ceiling Panels and TilesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Coal mining (continued) Stressor Air emissions (dust, particulates) Wastewater Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Cokemaking
Air emissions
Wastewater
Dissolved solids and organics
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD
Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction
Deoxygenation
Sludge Mineral wool manufacture Air emissions
Potential human carcinogens Sulfur oxides
Surface water Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion
Fluorides Mineral wool fibers and particulates
Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility
Preparation of cellulose Starch production
Solid waste Conserves resources by using recycled newsprint Corn growing and harvesting
Recycled into process
Pesticides runoff
Fertilizer runoff
Clay mining
Perlite mining
Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden
Soil erosion Fuel combustion (see impacts above)
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
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Figure 4: Ceiling Panels and TilesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Perlite mining (continued) Paint manufacture Stressor Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion Equipment cleaning waste Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Wastewater containing caustic cleaning solutions and toxic pigments Obsolete stock Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Paint contains binders, surfactants, preservatives, fungicides, and toxic pigments
Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Decreased landfill capacity
Landfill disposal
blow chamber. This device may be a troughlike arrangement with several drains or a cuplike receiver on the end of a revolving arm. The molten material is atomized by steam and blasted horizontally toward the other end of the blow chamber. When the cup or spinner device is used, the action of the steam is assisted by centrifugal force. The steam atomizes the molten material into small globules that develop and trail long, fibrous tails as they travel toward the other end of the blow chamber. The temperature in the blow chamber is maintained between 150 and 250F (66 to 121C). As fibers are formed, their surface is usually coated with a binder or de-dusting agent. Suction on the wire-mesh conveyor belt in the blow chamber causes the fibers to settle on the belt. The fibers are conveyed to an oven, where they are cured. The oven is normally gas fired, and a temperature of 300 to 500F (149 to 260C) is maintained (Sittig 1975; EPA 1993). The fibers are sent to a cooler and then used directly in the manufacture of panels and tiles on-site or baled for transport to a manufacturing facility. Several major manufacturers of ceiling panels and tiles produce mineral wool for their own use.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mineral Wool Production
During the production of mineral wool, air emissions result mainly from the furnace stack. These emissions consist primarily of condensed fumes that have volatilized from the molten charge and gases such as SOx and fluorides. Condensed fumes create a considerable amount of visible emissionsas much as 100 lbs per hourwhich can be a public nuisance (Sittig 1975; EPA 1993). The emission factorsthe expected emissions based on computer modelingfrom the furnace stack are 22 lbs of particulates per ton of material (11 kg/MT) and 0.02 lb of SOx per ton of material (0.01 kg/MT) charged to the cupola (Sittig 1975; EPA 1993). Another source of air pollution is the blow chamber. Its emissions consist of fumes, vapors, and mineral wool fibers. A blow chamber may emit as much as 100 lbs of particulate matter per hour at a production rate of two tons per hour if the blow chamber vent is uncontrolled. Approximately 90 percent of these emissions consist of mineral wool fibers (Sittig 1975). The emission factor for particulates from the blow chamber is 17 lbs of particulates per ton (8.5 kg/MT) of material (EPA 1993). Air pollutants emitted from the curing oven are composed chiefly of particulates. These emissions amount to approximately 8 lbs per hour at a production rate of 2 tons per hour. While considerably less in weight than those from the blow chamber, curing oven emissions may create opacities as high as 70 percent, reducing visibility (Sittig 1975). The emission factor for particulates from the curing oven is 4 lbs of particulates per ton (2 kg/MT) of mineral wool produced (EPA 1993).
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Emissions from the cooler are only 4 to 5 lbs per hour at a production rate of 2 tons per hour. The emission factor for particulates emitted from the cooler is 2 lbs of particulates per ton (1 kg/MT) of mineral wool (Sittig 1975; EPA 1993). Baghouses have proven to be an effective and reliable means of controlling the discharge from mineral wool cupolas. Centrifugal water scrubbers and direct-flame afterburners have been effective in reducing and controlling airborne emissions (Sittig 1975; EPA 1993). Production of mineral wool results in solid waste in the form of trim and shot (MIMA 1991). Manufacturers report that this solid waste is recycled back into the production process; thus, very little solid waste is landfilled. Adequate supplies of basalt and diabase rock, slag, and coke are available in the United States to meet the demand for mineral wool.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required to fuel the furnace and curing oven, as well as to power other equipment used to manufacture mineral wool. No quantitative data are available on the amount of energy required to manufacture mineral wool.
Basalt and diabase rock. Basalt and diabase rock, also known as traprock, are igneous rocks.
Approximately 99,161 short tons of traprock were produced in the United States in 1989 from 446 quarries. California, Oregon, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania were the leading producers. Most traprock is mined in quarries by open-pit methods. In many areas, however, underground mining is increasing. For open-pit mining, the overburden is removed using bulldozers, draglines, or hydraulic shovels. Traprock deposits are drilled and blasted for removal. Drilling is done with tricone rotary drills, percussion drills, and churn drills. Blasting is typically performed with an ammonium nitrate fuel mixture. The broken stone is loaded into dump trucks and hauled to the primary crusher or loaded onto a conveyor and carried directly to a portable or permanent crusher (Terpordei 1992). Crushing is often performed on-site at the quarry, thus reducing transportation costs. Underground traprock mines typically consist of horizontal drifts into the sides of hills or into the walls of open-pit mines, but some consist of vertical or inclined shafts. Most mines are the room-and-pillar type and, like salt mines, are characterized by cathedral-like dimensions. Primary crushing is often performed at or near the mine, typically using jaw or gyratory crushers. For secondary crushing, a variety of devicesincluding impact crushers, cone crushers, hammer mills, and roll crusherscan be used. Such devices are selected on the basis of the rock type and degree of crushing desired. Belt conveyors move materials between stages in the processingfrom the quarry, for example, to the processing plant. This reduces the use of haul trucks in quarries (Terpordei 1992). The crushed stone is screened to reduce the size of traprock particles further. Inclined vibratory screens are most commonly used in stationary installations, whereas horizontal screens are used in portable plants. Grizzly bars, rod decks, and heavy punched steel or plastic plates are used to screen large sizes of crushed stone; woven wire, welded wire cloth, rubber, or plastic screens are used for smaller sizes (Terpordei 1992). Washing may be used to clean the processed stone and to separate out any undesired component, such as clay.
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Processed crushed stone is typically stored in open piles. Most traprock is transported to markets by truck, although some is shipped by water or rail.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During the Mining of Basalt and Diabase Rock
Wastes from the mining of traprock include both the solid spoils from removal of overburden and dust from cleaning and processing the materials into the appropriate size. Satisfactory dust control is usually achieved by enclosing the stone-crushing part of the operation in a filtered environment. Environmental impacts from the mining of traprock result from energy use and air emissions from fuel combustion, smoke and dust, noise, runoff into streams and groundwater, habitat alteration in the mined areas, and solid waste in the form of tailings residue, unused rock, and overburden. The close proximity of traprock mining operations to populated areas presents a unique environmental problem. Air pollution constitutes a major problem in processing plants, especially in the drying and processing stages. Wet and dry dust-control methods must be used in these stages. Crushing and screening of stone is a major source of particulate emissions, which can be controlled through the use of filtration devices and wet spray systems. Rudimentary fallout chambers and cyclone separators are commonly used to control larger particles. Fabric and gravel bed filters, wet (commonly venturi) scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators are used for secondary control. Significant amounts of water are used to process and clean stone. The most important water pollutant is clay in suspension that results from washing and screening crushed stone (Terpordei 1992). In most cases, land reclamation from traprock quarrying can be achieved. The effects of land disturbance from mining activities can often be mitigated to a great extent by careful restoration managementalthough strip-mined lands can never be returned to their original state (Olem 1991; Ivahnenko et al. 1988). Restored lands from mining almost always have different vegetation patterns as a result of changes in topsoil porosity and chemistry. Although runoff from traprock mining is considered nontoxic, its impact on the environment can be significant. Mine runoff can dramatically alter or destroy habitats in mined areas. The runoff can result in increased turbidity from suspended solids. This can lead to reduced light penetration of water, increased benthic deposition, increased BOD, deoxygenation, and ultimately loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill (van der Leeden et al. 1990). The combustion of fuel products and the consumption of energy during the mining, crushing, and transporting of traprock to the processing facility results in a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SOx, CO, CO2, NOx, and particulates. The environmental and health effects of these emissions are described above in the section on environmental considerations. An abundant supply of traprock is available in the United States. Current supplies are more than adequate to meet the demand for the manufacture of mineral wool.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in traprock production is in the form of fuels consumed to power heavy equipment used in the mining and crushing processes. Estimates of energy use for materials acquisition stepssuch as mining and crushingvary with the processes that are used.
Slag. Blast furnace slag is a by-product of steel production. A detailed description of this
process is included in the material report on steel framing (05401).

Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Slag Production
On average, for conventional steel making, a ton of steel requires approximately 2.5 tons of materials. For example, blast furnace production requires 3,170 lbs of iron ore, 300 lbs
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of limestone, 900 lbs of coke, 2,575 lbs of air, 80 lbs of oxygen, and 100 lbs of hydrocarbon fuel to fire the furnace for every ton of raw iron that is produced. The process also releases 4,550 lbs of gaseous emissions and up to 50 lbs of dust and yields about 600 lbs of slag (St. Pierre 1987; American Iron and Steel Institute 1991). The steel industry is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to water, air, and land. (For information on these pollutants see the material reports on steel (05011 in the ERG 1994 ed.) and on steel framing (05401). However, since slag is a waste product of the steel industry, the pollutants resulting from the manufacture of steel should not be attributed to the life cycle of ceiling panels and tiles. In fact, the use of slag in the production of ceiling panels and tiles eliminates the need to dispose of it as a waste product. The availability of blast furnace slag is dependent on U.S. production of steel. Slag supplies have been adequate to meet demand.
Energy Consumed
Substantial energy is consumed in the manufacture of steel; however, since slag is a waste product from the production of steel, this energy is not attributed to the life cycle of ceiling panels and tiles.
Coke. Coke, used for fuel in the manufacture of mineral wool, is produced from bituminous
coal. A detailed description of coal mining and coke making and the waste produced, natural resources depleted, and energy consumed during these processes is provided in the material report on steel framing (05401).
Cellulose
Cellulose is the primary material in the fiber-cell wall of green plants. Cellulose does not exist in a pure form; it is usually embedded in lignocellulose. Lignins are highly cross-linked aromatic polymers. Removal of lignin from wood fibers is the basic process of the chemical pulping industry. Processed cellulose can take many different forms, depending on how it is prepared. Cellulose is added to ceiling panels and tiles as a filler or binding agent. The primary source of cellulose in this application is recycled newsprint. The newsprint is resuspended in a water bath. The mixture is circulated by motors until a proper slurry is achieved. Virtually all of the water used in this process is usually recycled in a closed system (Tshudy 1993). The paper manufacturing process and its environmental impacts are discussed in detail in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). The waste produced, natural resources depleted, and energy consumed during the recycling of paper are discussed below.
The inks typically used on newsprint are nontoxic, and the newsprint is not deinked in the manufacture of ceiling panels and tiles (Tshudy 1993; Einhaus 1993). Resuspension of newsprint fibers in water for reuse in ceiling panels and tiles can result in pollutants in the waste stream. Secondary fibers tend to be shorter and weaker, so more of them escape to the effluent stream. The volume and solids content of the waste stream can be reduced dramatically by recycling water in a closed circulation system (Tellus Institute 1992). At least one major manufacturer of ceiling panels and tiles recycles this wastewater in a closed system and reports the release of no pollutants via the wastewater (Tshudy 1993).
Energy Consumed
Some energy is expended in transporting newsprint to ceiling panel and tile plants. However, since newsprint is usually obtained locally, the energy required for transporta-
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tion is minimal. Additional energy is required to resuspend the cellulose of the recycled newsprint in a water slurry. Although no quantitative data on the amount of energy required in this process are available, energy is expended only to run the motors that circulate the suspension water. In general, manufacturing products from recycled material requires approximately 27 to 44 percent less energy than manufacturing them from virgin wood, depending largely upon whether the paper is bleached or unbleached (Tellus Institute 1992).
Starch
Starch is one of the most common substances that exists in nature. It can be obtained from corn, white potatoes, wheat, rice, arrowroot, and tapioca. Corn is the primary source of starch in the United States. One hundred pounds of refined corn yields an average of 51.3 lbs of starch, 2.8 lbs of corn oil, and 39.2 lbs of other products, such as gluten meal and corn bran. A detailed description of the processing of corn into starch and of the waste produced, natural resources depleted, and energy consumed during starch production is provided in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Clay
Clay is a natural, earthy, fine-grained material composed largely of a group of crystalline minerals known as clay minerals. A detailed description of this material and how it is mined is provided in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Most of the environmental effects associated with clay mining result from open-pit operations. The environmental effects of open-pit mining are discussed in the section on basalt and diabase rock. As with other open-pit mining operations, the mining of clay results in air emissions of particulates, as well as VOCs, SOx, CO, CO2, and NOx resulting from the combustion of fuels used for operating mining equipment and dryers. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are described above in the section on environmental considerations. Mining operations also result in solid waste due to overburden removal and tailings residue, runoff pollution into streams, and habitat alteration. Solid waste is also generated during some of the processing operations required to prepare clay into marketable products. Clay is in abundant supply in the United States, and reserves should more than adequately meet future demands.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in clay production is largely in the form of fuels consumed to power the equipment used for mining, crushing, and hauling. Beneficiation and other processing operations add to the amount of energy required to produce clay. Transporting the minerals from the mines to the mills and from the mills to manufacturing facilities requires additional energy in the form of fuel. However, according to one manufacturer, clays are obtained from local sources and are transported only short distances (Tshudy 1993).
Perlite
Perlite is a glassy volcanic rock similar to obsidian but having distinctive concentric cracks and a relatively high water content. A detailed description of this material and how it is mined and processed is provided in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
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The mining of perlite results in air emissions of particulates, as well as VOCs, SOx, CO, CO2, and NOx resulting from the combustion of fuels used for operating mining equipment and dryers. The environmental and health effects associated with these pollutants are described above in the section on environmental considerations. Mining operations also generate solid waste due to overburden removal and tailings residue and create runoff pollution into streams. Perlite mining disturbs habitats and ecosystems by the removal and disposal of overburden (Bolen et al. 1992a, 1992b). The bulk of the domestic reserves of perlite are in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. Perlite reserves are sufficient to supply the foreseeable needs of the United States
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in perlite production is largely in the form of fuels consumed to power the equipment used for mining, crushing, and hauling. Beneficiation and other processing operations add to the amount of energy required to produce these minerals. Transporting perlite from the mines to the mills and from the mills to ceiling panel and tile manufacturing facilities requires additional energy in the form of fuel.
Paint
Paint containing pigments is usually applied to the surfaces of ceiling panels and tiles after drying. For a small percentage of panels and tiles, pigments are added during the manufacturing process to impart color throughout the product. After these panels and tiles are formed and dried, additional paint of the same color can be applied to ensure a deeper color and to enable the panels and tiles to be repainted in the future as needed. The paints used in ceiling panels and tiles are water based but have a different composition from household latex paint. These paints have virtually no VOCs and contain a low level of binder. The pigment in these paints is usually limestone or some other earth-based pigment; however, some of the paints contain titanium dioxide. Paint is discussed extensively in the material report on paint (09900 in the ERG 1994 ed.), which includes information on the constituents of paint and associated environmental considerations.
Since these paints contain essentially no VOCs, emissions are typically less than those of conventional paints. Some of the paints contain titanium dioxide. According to NIOSH, titanium dioxide may cause lung fibrosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen (NIOSH 1990). NIOSH recommended that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) label titanium dioxide as a potential human carcinogen; however, OSHA chose not to act on this recommendation. Titanium dioxide is not considered hazardous by EPA, and NCI reported that it is not carcinogenic to rats or mice (EPA 1975; NCI 1979). Titanium dioxide is of little health or environmental concern unless the ceiling panels or tiles are burned. Waste generated during paint manufacture can include equipment cleaning wastes, obsolete stock, off-specification products, spills, spent filter bags, and empty bags and packaging.
Energy Consumed
Energy required during the raw materials acquisition and preparation stage is estimated at 10,000 Btus/lb (23,260 kJ/kg) for water-based paints. A Finnish study estimated the energy required for processing conventional paints at 22,800 Btus/lb (53,032 kJ/kg) for
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water-based paints (Salokangas et al. 1990). Transportation energy added 140 Btus/lb (325 kJ/kg) for each type of paint, according to this study. Total embodied energy at the point of use for conventional water-based paint is 33,034 Btus/lb (76,837 kJ/kg).
Steel Suspension Systems The major constituents for steel production are iron ore or scrap steel, coal, and limestone. Various other materialsincluding nickel, manganese, zinc, chromium, lubricating oils, cleaning solvents, acids, alkalines, and oxygenare also used in steel manufacturing processes. The acquisition and preparation of these materials are described in detail in the material report on steel framing (05401). A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of steel suspension systems is presented in figure 5. Aluminum Suspension Systems Suspension systems made of aluminum are frequently used in areas requiring sanitary conditions or subject to frequent washing, such as industrial clean rooms, hospitals, and food service areas.
Aluminum
Aluminum is derived from bauxite, a mineral mined primarily in tropical regions. The environmental effects of materials acquisition and preparation for production of aluminum are presented in the material report on aluminum (05010 in ERG 1994 ed.). A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of aluminum suspension systems is presented in figure 6.
Figure 5: Steel Suspension SystemsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Iron ore, limestone, nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc mining Stressor Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Land disturbance Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff Loss of habitat Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) VOCs
(see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Sulfur dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Greenhouse effect
continued
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Figure 5: Steel Suspension SystemsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Iron ore, limestone nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc mining (continued) Stressor Fuel combustion emissions (continued) Impact/Stressor Carbon monoxide Impact/Stressor Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation
Particulates
Coal mining
Tailings waste and mine spoils (sulfur)
Acid drainage
Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Surface water acidification Contamination of groundwater (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals
Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (dust, particulates) Wastewater
Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid
Cokemaking
Air emissions
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility
Wastewater Sludge
(see impacts above) Potential human carcinogens
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Figure 6: Aluminum Suspension SystemsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Bauxite ore mining Stressor Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Land disturbance Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff Loss of habitat Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) VOCs
(see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Particulates
Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation (see impacts above)
Bauxite refining
Alumina production Paint manufacture
Wastewater and mud contaminated with heavy metals and organics Air emissions Equipment cleaning waste
Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Particulates Wastewater containing caustic cleaning solutions and toxic pigments Paint contains binders, surfactants, preservatives, fungicides, and toxic pigments (see impacts above) Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Landfill disposal
Obsolete stock
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Acoustical Ceiling Panels and Tiles Ceiling panels and tiles are manufactured according to one of several major processes: wetfelted or continuous, cast, and nodulated. In the wet-felted process, the mineral wool, cellulose, binder, and other additives are put in large tanks for continuous mixing. This mixture, which also contains a large quantity of water, is fed onto 30- to 40-ft-wide screens, where the water is removed from the bottom by a vacuum. The large sheets are then placed into ovens to dry and cure. Once the sheets are dry, they are punched with holes, carved with fissures, or textured to add acoustical properties. Embossing is performed using large metal rollers on dried panels and tiles. Finally, they are coated with latex paint and cut to size.
The cast process is used to produce tiles up to 2 x 2 feet In the cast process, the mineral wool, cellulose, binder, pigments, and other additives are mixed together and poured into 2 x 2foot trays. Kraft paper may be placed on the tiles as they are formed to keep the mixture from dripping on the trays; however, this paper is typically planed off after drying. The texture is applied to the surface while the material is wet. The trays are then placed in ovens to cure. Finally, after the material is dried, it is cut to 12 x 12-inch or 24 x 24-inch tiles. Dried tiles can also be trimmed as needed to the desired size and thickness following curing. No coating step is required since the color is built in; however, paint of the same color can be applied to the surface if necessary. In the nodulated process, the mineral wool is rolled into nodules or small balls and then formed into panels or tiles. This process was not used by any of the major manufacturers that provided information for this report. The proportions of slag wool and rock wool used in the manufacture of ceiling panels and tiles vary by manufacturer. Some prefer to use one material or the other, but most manufacturers use a combination of the two. Ceiling panels and tiles must meet requirements concerning light reflectance, fire retardance, and sound attenuation. Standard light reflectance is 0.75 or greater. Panels and tiles can be rated as fire resistant or non-fire resistant, based on the presence of fire-retarding substances. Additional substrate layerssuch as foil, kraft paper, plastic, additional paint, or any combination of thesecan be added to ceiling panels and tiles. Aluminum foil, at a thickness of 0.00025 inch, may be combined with kraft paper as a backing to improve a panel or tiles acoustical properties. This backing is typically attached to panels or tiles with a standard white glue adhesive (polyvinyl acetate). Panels and tiles with such a backing are most commonly used in offices and other commercial settings that require acoustical isolation. Panels and tiles to be located in areas of high heat usually have a foil backing, whereas those manufactured for areas of high humidity typically have a foil or plastic backing to reduce moisture absorbency. Panels and tiles destined for clean rooms or other highly specialized environments often need to be scrubbable. This can be accomplished by coating the surface with a high-quality vinyl acrylic paint or by applying a substrate of sheet vinyl and foil. The lifecycle impacts associated with these substrate layers are not covered in this report. Different manufacturers produce unique patterns, fissures, embossing, and texturing, reflecting varied designer needs as well as installation requirements. Panels and tiles can be smooth, lightly or deeply textured, perforated, or randomly patterned. Dyes are added during the manufacturing process for color. The edges of ceiling panels and tiles are cut in a variety of stylesincluding sharp cut, eased edge, or beveleddepending on installation needs. Sharp edges serve to conceal joints but are unacceptable in some suspension systems. Eased-edge and bevel-cut panels and tiles are
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more durable to handle, but the joints are more visible. Typical joint styles include square kerfed and rabbeted (K&R), square tongue and groove, and beveled K&R. Once the panels or tiles are cut, they are packaged in brown kraft paper or corrugated boxes for transport. Large-quantity orders may be shrink-wrapped for transport. Some manufacturers perform most of the production processes on-site, including production of mineral wool, paint manufacture, and forming of the panels and tiles. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacture and fabrication of ceiling panels and tiles is presented in figure 7.
Figure 7: Ceiling Panels and TilesManufacturing and Fabrication Stage
Activity Ceiling panels and tiles manufacture Stressor Air emissions Solid waste and wastewater Impact/Stressor Steam Recycled into process Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Very little waste is generated during manufacture of ceiling panels and tiles. Manufacturers report that all materials are recycled back into the production system, thus reducing waste generated (Tshudy 1993; Mitchell 1992). The small amount of scrap that is produced during cutting is fed back into the mixture. Water used in the process is treated on-site and reused. The primary air emission is steam from the drying of the boards.
Energy Consumed
Most of the energy required for the manufacture of ceiling panels and tiles is consumed by the curing ovens. Natural gas is the preferred fuel for these ovens. No quantitative data are available concerning the amount of energy used to manufacture acoustical ceiling panels or tiles. At least one major manufacturer has calculated the embodied energy of a tile, but the data are considered proprietary.
Steel Suspension Systems Suspension systems are devices used to hold ceiling panels and tiles in place. Three general types of suspension systems are currently in use: direct hung, indirect hung, and furring bar. Direct hung systems suspend the main runners directly from the structure above. Indirect are those in which main runners are attached to carrying channels and the carrying channels are attached to the structure above. Furring bar systems are those in which the panel or tile is laminated to backing boards that are fastened by screws or nails to furring or nailing bars, which are clipped to carrying channels hung from the structure above (AIA 1989a, 1989b). Suspension systems are typically made of galvanized or stainless steel.
Suspension systems are available in three strength classifications: light, intermediate, and heavy duty. Light-duty systems can support only the panel or tile and are best suited to residential and light commercial uses. Medium-duty systems can support the panel or tile along with some equipment, such as light fixtures and ceiling diffusers. This makes medium-duty systems acceptable in commercial applications. Heavy-duty systems can support additional equipment and are typically used in commercial applications. Weights and thicknesses of metal suspension systems will vary in response to engineering requirements, such as the total load to be carried by the suspension system. Heavy-duty systems can be as thick as 1516 inch to support the frame and any additional equipment.
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Geographic areas that must adhere to more stringent seismic codes have additional strength requirements. Steel suspension systems can be made of hot-dipped galvanized steel, electrogalvanized steel, or stainless steel. One manufacturer incorporates a plastic (polyvinyl chloride) profile to the front of the suspension grid system, but only for decorative purposes. Hot-dipped galvanized steel is the most widely used metal. Steel parts are completely submerged in a zinc bath, making them especially resistant to rust and giving them a longer usable life. This makes the metal acceptable for use in high-humidity areas. Electrogalvanized steel is exposed to electronically charged molecules of zinc, which adhere to the surface of the metal, making it partially resistant to rust and corrosion. Exposed surfaces of hot-dipped galvanized and electrogalvanized steel are typically finished with a water-based latex paint, although some manufacturers use an organic solvent-based paint for certain applications. Anodized finishes also are commonly found. Stainless steel is the most resistant to rust and corrosion. The exposed surface is coated with an oil-based, baked-on enamel paint. A stainless steel system is appropriate for interior spaces that are subject to high moisture levels and corrosive vapors. Examples are food, drug, and chemical processors; laboratories; and marine environments. However, the cost of stainless steel is prohibitive for general use. Many suspension systems are self-contained; clips and other fasteners are built in and allow for easy, snap-together installation. However, when required, suspension system attachments are made of galvanized or painted steel to prevent corrosion and to match other parts of the system. Wire used for hangers and ties is coated with zinc and not less than 0.106 inch in diameter. As with other suspension parts, wire strength must be three times higher than design load requirements. Hanger rods, flat hangers, and angle hangers are made of steel and coated with zinc or rust-prohibiting paint. Anchors used with suspension systems may be cast in place, chemical, expansion, or undercut. Powder-actuated fasteners are used in concrete. A detailed discussion of steel manufacturing is provided in the material report on steel framing (05401). Sections of particular relevance to steel suspension systems include the discussions on steel making; galvanizing and painting; forming, cutting, and machining; and the waste produced, natural resources depleted, and energy consumed in the steel manufacturing and fabrication process. A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture and fabrication of steel suspension systems is presented in figure 8.
Aluminum Suspension Systems Aluminum suspension systems are very similar to steel suspension systems except that they consist of aluminum and can withstand frequent washing and high-moisture conditions. The primary method for producing aluminum from alumina is the Hall-Heroult electrolytic process. This process and the associated waste produced, natural resources depleted, and energy consumed are described in the material report on aluminum (05010 in ERG 1994 ed.). A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacture and fabrication of aluminum suspension systems is presented in figure 9.
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Figure 8: Steel Suspension SystemsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Steel manufacture Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Impact/Stressor
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Acid precipitation
Particulates
Solid waste (slag) Liquid wastes
Recycled or used in other products Pickling solutions
Spent wash water
Oils and lubricants
Sludge
Landfill disposal
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Decreased landfill capacity Fuel combustion emissions from recycling Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms
Leaching of toxics to groundwater (see impacts above)
Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals
Zinc smelting
Solid waste (metal)
Recycle
Wastewater
Spent bath solutions
Spent cleaning solutions Rinse water
Sludge
Metals and organics filtered from bath solutions
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Figure 9: Aluminum Suspension SystemsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity Aluminum production Stressor Air emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Impact/Stressor
Fluoride gases (95% recovered) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (95% destroyed through incineration)
Materials corrosion Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Wastewater
Solid waste
Wastewater containing metals is treated and recycled; sludge is landfilled Spent potliner
Probable human carcinogens Decreased landfill capacity
Fluoride Cyanide Particulates
Controlled landfill disposal required Controlled landfill disposal required Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion
Dusts
Aluminum suspension system fabrication
Processing wastewater
Pot sludges, skims, dross Aluminum
Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Disposal required Precipitated from wastewater and recycled into process Controlled landfill disposal required Precipitated from wastewater and recycled Precipitated from wastewater Precipitated from wastewater Surface water acidification Controlled landfill disposal required Controlled landfill disposal required Controlled landfill disposal required Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges Controlled landfill disposal required for resulting sludges Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms
Fluoride
Nickel
Cyanide
Antimony
Rinsing wastewater
Acids Lead
Chromium
Cyanide
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Acoustical panels, acoustical tiles, and disassembled suspension system components are delivered to the job site in the manufacturers original unopened packages. They are stored in a fully enclosed space where they can be protected against damage from moisture, direct sunlight, surface contamination, and other causes. Typically, the architect includes reflected ceiling plans in the contract documents. These plans show the locations of the various items penetrating the ceiling, such as walls, columns, partitions, light fixtures, sprinklers, air outlets and inlets, and exposed main and cross runners. Ceiling heights are also indicated in the contract documents and are set to allow light fixtures and suspension system components to clear structural members, ducts, piping, and wiring above the ceiling. Often the specifications will require the contractor to submit coordination drawings to verify that the acoustical ceilings can be installed in conformance with the contract documents at the ceiling heights indicated without producing conflicts. Ceiling installation begins only after other trades have completed the installation of their work above the ceiling. It is also critical that the building be fully enclosed and weatherproof. Humidity and temperatures within installation areas need to be at levels that will exist when the building is finished and occupied. Benchmarks are first established on perimeter wall surfaces at corners, either by use of a water level or, more commonly, by a laser. The benchmarks provide an accurate starting point for measuring up to the desired ceiling height. Chalk lines are drawn on the walls to mark the ceiling level based on measuring up from the benchmarks. Angle moldings are then attached to perimeter walls using appropriate fasteners. The next step is to square up the room so the acoustical ceiling units can be aligned properly. Often the ductwork and piping above the ceiling will prevent chalk lines from being snapped on the underside of the floor structure. In these instances the lines are marked on the floor. After the suspension member positions are set, the installation of hangers is begun. Hanger inserts are attached to reinforced concrete by powder-actuated fasteners or drilled fasteners, unless hangers or inserts are preset in concrete forms and cast in. For wood construction, eyescrews are used. Hangers are connected to inserts or to screw eyes by looping and wire tying. The same method is used to secure hanger wires to suspension-system main runners. For direct-hung systems, the wire is inserted in holes factory-punched into main runners. The first main runner is positioned directly on wall moldings on two facing walls and hung from the first row of hangers. After this runner is aligned and leveled, cross runners are installed between the first main runner and the wall molding adjacent to the main runner. The factory-finished end of the cross runner is designed and fabricated for insertion into the slots of main runners. Ends of cross runners have to be cut to length to fit with wall moldings. Following installation of the first runner, the remaining main runners and cross runners are installed in sequence. Acoustical panels and tiles are examined and laid out prior to installation to check for defects and align patterns. Panels and tiles with a directional pattern typically are installed so that the pattern is oriented in the same direction through the ceiling, but they also can be installed in a basket-weave pattern. Acoustical ceilings generally require little maintenance beyond basic care and dusting. Acoustical panels and tiles can be repainted or touched up when needed, but the paint used must be a formulation recommended by the manufacturer if the units noise reduction properties are not to be diminished. Suspended lay-in acoustical ceilings allow for easy access to services above the ceiling and easy replacement of damaged panels or tiles.
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To keep dust and other particulates out of highly specialized areas, such as clean rooms, joints between panels or tiles are filled with a sealant in combination with a gasket, and the panels or tiles are clipped down to the grid of the suspension system. Summaries of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the installation of ceiling panels and tiles, steel suspension systems, and aluminum suspension systems are presented in figures 10, 11, and 12, respectively.
Figure 10: Ceiling Panels and TilesConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity Ceiling panel and tile installation Stressor Solid waste Indoor air emissions Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal VOCs Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Mineral wool fibers
Figure 11: Steel Suspension SystemsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Steel suspension system installation Stressor Solid waste Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal or recycle Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Figure 12: Aluminum Suspension SystemsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Aluminum suspension system installation Stressor Solid waste Impact/Stressor Landfill disposal or recycle Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Waste Produced During Installation of Ceiling Panels and Tiles
During installation, a small amount of waste is generated from unused product when the panels or tiles are trimmed to size and shape. There also may be some solid waste from ceiling panels or tiles damaged in transport or handling. No data are available on the amount of waste generated from the installation of ceiling panels or tiles. Some ceiling panels and tiles can be repainted, but once they are stained or soiled, most are replaced. Trim scrap and damaged and stained panels and tiles are usually discarded in landfills. Because of combustion of fuel, transportation of ceiling panels and tiles to the job site generates air pollutants, including VOCS, SO2, CO, CO2, and NOx. These pollutants contribute to a variety of environmental problems that are described above in the section on environmental considerations.
Waste Produced During Installation of Metal Suspension Systems
Some solid waste is generated as a result of cutting the steel suspension runners and cross tees to accommodate building design. There also may be some solid waste from damaged runners that cannot be used. Although some of this waste may be landfilled, the scraps, waste, and damaged framing could be recycled easily. Because of combustion of fuel, transportation of the suspension systems to the job site also results in the release
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of air pollutants, including VOCs, SO2, CO, CO2, and NOx. These pollutants contribute to a variety of environmental problems that are described above in the section on environmental considerations.
Because of their large surface area, acoustical ceiling panels and tiles have the potential to act as sinks, adsorbing chemicals from the air and reemitting them over time (EPA 1991). Tichenor and others, conducted experiments in small environmental test chambers to determine adsorption and desorption rates for vapor phase organic compounds. They found that ceiling tile adsorbed ethylbenzene at significantly higher rates (p < 0.01) than carpet and pillow; wallboard adsorbed tetrachloroethylene at significantly higher rates (p < 0.01) than the pillow, with carpet and ceiling tile representing intermediate, but indistinguishable, values; ethylbenzene adsorbed at a significantly higher rate than tetrachloroethylene on wallboard (p = 0.003) and ceiling tile (p = 0.015); wallboard desorbed at a significantly higher rate (p < 0.01) than the other three materials; [and] ceiling tile desorbed at a significantly higher rate (p < 0.01) than carpet and pillow (Tichenor et al. 1990). An EPA study testing emissions from mineral fiber ceiling tiles with paper backing did not find any major emissions from this type of tile (Sheldon et al. 1988). Wallace and others conducted a study of emissions of building materials in which they screened 15 materials, including ceiling tiles, to identify those that were responsible for high levels of VOCs found in a new office building. Although ceiling tile was found to emit 29 identifiable compounds, none was on the list of 17 target chemicals that were toxic, mutagenic, or carcinogenic. As a result, ceiling tile was not included in their subsequent in-depth study (Wallace et al. 1987). A study by Hodgson used a vacuum extraction screening procedure and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to identify major organic compounds emitted by typical building materials. This study identified the following compounds that were emitted from a mineral-fiber, fire-retardant acoustical ceiling tile: n-pentadecane, n-hexadecane, pristane, dibutyl phthalate, and di-i-butyrate, 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol. The author of this study discussed several potential sources of bias in the methods used, including a limited ability to detect compounds of low molecular weight (Hodgson 1983). Finally, one manufacturer submitted a report on one of its ceiling panels that was prepared as part of the state of Washingtons test protocol for products proposed for state office buildings. The panel was tested for emissions of total VOCs (TVOCs), formaldehyde, 4-phenyl-cyclohexane, and particles. It should be stressed that the air concentration levels were predicted on the basis of computer models of the preliminary design of the new state office building and should not be extrapolated to other buildings. The tests found that, although the product was a source of TVOCs, formaldehyde, and particles, the levels were below those required by the state. The TVOC and formaldehyde levels decreased to nondetectable levels by the end of a weeks exposure, the particle emissions decreased but remained, and the product was not a source of 4-phenylcyclohexane (Air Quality Sciences 1991). A study by Cornell University has examined a relationship between sick-building-syndrome complaints in nine buildings and fibers found in airborne and settled dust. Measurements were made of man-made mineral fibers (MMMF) in the dust assumed to be coming from fiberglass duct installation and from slag wool used in ceiling tiles. The density of total MMMF was correlated to a variety of symptoms, but neither airborne
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fibers nor settled fibers individually showed a relationship with symptoms. The study examined other indoor air quality parameters and did not find a correlation with any of them. The observed correlation with total MMMF was mainly driven by the measurements at one building that had the highest settled dust. The authors said that, although MMMF was not the only cause of symptoms, a threshold effect of MMMF may exist for sick-building-syndrome symptoms. They also stated that symptoms should be affected by office cleaning practices (Hedge et al. 1993).
Energy Consumed
No data are available on the amount of energy required to deliver and install ceiling panels and tiles and suspension systems. However, there is no indication that excessive amounts of energy are required.

Acoustical ceiling panels and tiles can be reused and recycled. Currently, these products are not recycled; however, they are occasionally reused in the refurbishment of large commercial buildings. Manufacturers are concerned about recycling panels or tiles produced by other manufacturers, since the exact components are unknown. There also is some concern over contaminants that may have been added during cleaning, repainting, etc. Reuse would require a great deal of disassembly and is currently cost prohibitive. Ceiling panels or tiles are is typically disposed of in public or private landfills. Recovery of steel suspension systems would also require a great deal of dismantling. The average life span of steel suspension systems is approximately ten years. Although steel is a highly recyclable material, no statistics are available on recycling efforts for these systems. Aluminum can be recovered, recycled, and reused endlessly. Approximately 27.5 percent of total aluminum production comes from recycled aluminum. Recovery of aluminum from demolition and replacement in the building and construction industry is minimal. Fifteen percent, or 60 million pounds, of all construction-industry aluminum is recovered. Summaries of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of ceiling panels and tiles, steel suspension systems, and aluminum suspension systems are presented in figures 13, 14, and 15, respectively.
Figure 13: Ceiling Panels and TilesRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity Building remodeling Stressor Reuse Impact/Stressor Reuse may require painting Impact/Stressor Indoor air emissions from paint Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Impact/Stressor
Solid waste Building demolition Solid waste
Landfill disposal Landfill disposal
Decreased landfill capacity Decreased landfill capacity
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Figure 14: Steel Suspension SystemsRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity Building remodeling Stressor Reuse Solid waste Impact/Stressor Conserves resources Landfill disposal Recycle Building demolition Solid waste Landfill disposal Recycle Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Wastes and emissions from recycling Decreased landfill capacity Wastes and emissions from recycling Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Figure 15: Aluminum Suspension SystemsRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity Building remodeling Stressor Reuse Solid waste Impact/Stressor Conserves resources Landfill disposal Recycle Building demolition Solid waste Landfill disposal Recycle Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Wastes and emissions from recycling Decreased landfill capacity Wastes and emissions from recycling Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Regulatory Status
Materials in the acoustical-ceiling life cycle become at least partially regulated in practically all stages. At any point in the mining stage, source-water discharge of process-generated wastewater may be subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act (CWA). Agriculture and forestry are increasingly subject to regulation for chemical use, runoff, and soil erosion under both federal and state law. Chemical use is regulated under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act and in some instances the Toxic Substances Control Act, which also regulates certain aspects of radon and asbestos remediation. In the manufacturing stage, heat sources and manufacturing processes may be subject to emission standards under the Clean Air Act (CAA). At any point in the manufacturing stage, source-water discharge of process-generated wastewater may be subject to regulation under the CWA. Storage, treatment, and disposal of any solid or hazardous wastes in the manufacturing process may be subject to regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and state solid-waste laws. Improper release of hazardous substances on any industrial, commercial, or residential site can result in cleanup requirements and substantial liability for damages under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. Some very large construction projects may have requirements under the National Environmental Policy Act if there is sufficient federal involvement. Local governments increasingly place significant environmental requirements on construction through their planning and zoning authority. Impacts to drinking water sources can result in requirements under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Typically, construction and demolition wastes are subject to state and local solid-waste laws and ordinances. Although this regulatory coverage is significant and pervasive, gaps still exist, particularly in the areas of toxic and hazardous process constituents. Principal regulatory
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Regulatory Status
requirements of each stage of the acoustical-ceiling life cycle are identified and described briefly below.

Water Pollution
Mineral mining and processing are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 436, which are described for a typical mineralgypsumin the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Clay mining and processing eventually will be subject to similar CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 436 when appropriate guidelines are developed. Perlite, basalt, and diabase eventually may be subject to such requirements as well. Bleached kraft paper mills are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 430, subparts H and I, which place limits on BOD, total suspended solids (TSS), pH, pentachlorophenol, and trichlorophenol. Increasingly, attention is being given to priority toxic pollutants and nonconventional pollutants, such as dioxin, in new plant treatment systems, as well as in upgrades of existing treatment systems. Iron ore mining is subject to effluent guidelines for ore-mining point sources under 40 CFR Part 440, Subpart A, which sets permit limits for TSS, dissolved iron, and pH. Coal-mining point sources are subject to effluent guidelines on total iron, total manganese, TSS, and pH for coal preparation plants under 40 CFR Part 434. Nickel ore mining is subject to effluent guidelines for ore-mining point sources under 40 CFR Part 440, subpart G, which sets permit limits for TSS, cadmium, copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, and pH. Zinc ore mining is subject to effluent guidelines for ore-mining point sources under 40 CFR Part 440, subpart J, which sets permit limits for TSS, cadmium, copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, and pH. Coal-mining point sources are subject to effluent guidelines on total iron, total manganese, TSS, and pH for coal preparation plants under 40 CFR Part 434. Limestone mining itself is largely unregulated under the CWA at present. Calcium carbonate production, however, is regulated under inorganic-chemicals-manufacturing point sources in 40 CFR Part 415, subpart AD, which places effluent guidelines on TSS and pH. Point-source discharges from aluminum mining are subject to effluent limitations under 40 CFR Part 440, subpart B, which establishes effluent limitations for TSS, iron, aluminum, and pH.
Air Emissions
Nonmetallic-mineral processing plants are subject to CAA new-source performance standards (NSPS) under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for construction or major modification of crushers, grinding mills, screening operations, bucket elevators, belt conveyors, bagging operations, storage bins, and enclosed truck or railcar loading stations. NSPS place particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities. Clay and perlite are covered by these requirements. Bleached kraft paper mills also may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for SO2, CO, NOx, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. New bleached kraft paper mills (including associated lime kilns) and substantial modification of existing bleached kraft paper mills, are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart BB, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. The mills also are subject to prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) standards under 40 CFR Part 51, which requires monitoring and potentially applying control technology for SO2, CO, NOx, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. PSD standards also require monitoring for the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal
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waste combustor metals (where applicable). These pollutants are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i).
Solid Waste
Solid and hazardous waste generated in the materials acquisition and processing stage are regulated under state and local regulations and, to a lesser extent, under the RCRA.

Water Pollution
Most manufacturing operations are not subject to specific effluent guidelines. Hence, their discharges must be monitored under generic National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit requirements for at least the five conventional pollutants of BOD5, TSS, pH, fecal coliform, and oil and grease, which must be treated using best conventional pollution control technology. EPA also has developed a list of 126 toxic pollutants from 65 classes of chemical compounds that may be required to be monitored and treated with best available technology economically achievable (BAT). All other pollutants are designated nonconventional and may also require treatment under BAT. Because of the variety of chemicals used in the ceiling panel and tile manufacturing process, monitoring and treatment requirements for toxic and nonconventional pollutants are most likely in this operation. The steel manufacturing and production processes are subject to considerable CWA regulation. Iron- and steel-manufacturing point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 420, which places effluent guidelines on coke making, sintering, iron making, steel making, vacuum degassing, casting, forming, descaling, pickling, cleaning, and coating for TSS, oil and grease, ammonia n, cyanide, phenols, pH, benzene, naphthalene, benzo(a)pyrene, total residual chlorine, lead, zinc, chromium, and nickel. Metal molding and casting point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 464, subpart C, which places effluent guidelines on copper, lead, zinc, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Coil-coating point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 465, subparts A and B, which place effluent guidelines on chromium, copper, cyanide, zinc, oil and grease, TSS, and pH. Electroplating point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 413, which places effluent guidelines on cyanide, titanium [T], cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc, and total metals. Ferroalloy-manufacturing point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 424, which places effluent guidelines on TSS, total chromium, chromium VI, total manganese, total cyanide, total phenols, ammonia n, and pH on the various manufacturing processes. Metal-finishing (including electroplating) point sources are regulated under 40 CFR Part 433, which places effluent guidelines on cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, silver, zinc, total toxic organics (TTO), cyanide, oil and grease, TSS, and pH.
Air Emissions
Stationary heat sources at large manufacturing operations, including steel making, may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for SO2, CO, NOx, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100 tons/year threshold for any CAA pollutant. New stationary heat sources at such facilities, or substantial modification of existing stationary heat sources, may be subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur. They also may be subject to PSD standards under 40 CFR Part 51, which requires monitoring and potentially applying control technology for SO2, CO, NOx, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. PSD standards also require monitoring for the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals (where applicable). These pollutants are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i).
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Regulatory Status
Solid Waste
Solid and hazardous waste generated in most manufacturing operations are regulated under state and local regulations and the RCRA, particularly the lubricant, solvent, abrasives, acid, and alkaline material portions of the steel manufacturing process, since most of the steel material waste is recycled back into that process. Increasingly this is the case with the solvent, acid, and alkaline materials. Those materials not recycled are generally subject to rigorous RCRA regulation in treatment, storage, and disposal facilities.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stages

Air Emissions
No federal guidelines or regulations relating to emissions of VOCs have been established at this time.
Solid Waste
Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid-waste requirements and varies widely from state to state. Steel and aluminum are two of the most easily and hence heavily recycled materials. Relatively little hazardous waste is generated in these stages of the acoustical-ceiling life cycle, so the RCRA does not come into significant play in these stages.
Regulatory Statutes and References s Clean Air Act (CAA). 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq. (i.e., Title 42 of the U.S. Code, starting with Section 7401). s Clean Water Act (CWA). 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq. s Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (CERCLA/SARA). 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. s Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). 7 U.S.C. 136. s Hoffman, Stephen, and Van Houseman. 1990. Update on Regulation for Mine Waste Management Under RCRA. Mining Engineering. November. s National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq. s Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. 1992. Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Government Printing Office. July 1. (The code is divided into titles and parts and cited in the text as ___ CFR Part ___; the parts are further subdivided with decimal, letter, and number notation into sections and subsections.) s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (RCRA). 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq. s Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). 42 U.S.C. 300f et seq. s Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). 30 U.S.C. 1201 et seq. s Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). 15 U.S.C. 2601 et seq. s U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1992. National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 1991. Office of Air and Radiation. October.
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References
References
Air Quality Sciences. 1991. Indoor Air Evaluation of Hytone Acoustical Panel for Celotex Corporation. Report no. 01138-01. September 24. American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1989a. Acoustical Panel Ceilings. Masterspec, Section 09511. May. . 1989b. Acoustical Tile Ceilings. Masterspec, Section 09512. May. American Iron and Steel Institute. 1991. AIA Material Data Sheet. Unpublished communication. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Metal Suspension Systems for Acoustical Tile and Lay-In Panel Ceiling. ASTM C 635. Philadelphia. . Standard Classification for Acoustical Ceiling Products. ASTM E 1264. Philadelphia. Bagett, Martin. 1993. Technical services, Celotex Corporation, Tampa, FL. Personal communication. May 20. Bolen, Wallace P., Robin L. Richardson, and Audrey Wilkes. 1992a. Perlite 1991 Annual Report. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. June. . 1992b. Perlite in 1992. Mineral Industry Surveys. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Einhaus, B. J. 1993. Center for Applied Engineering, Inc., St. Petersburg, FL. Personal communication. July 29. Hedge, Alan, W. A. Erickson, and G. Rubin. 1993. Effects of Man-Made Mineral Fibers in Settled Dust on Sick Building Syndrome in Air-Conditioned Offices. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Helsinki, Finland, July 1993. Vol. 1, Indoor Air 93: Health Effects. 291-96. Hodgson, A. T. 1983. Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Architectural Materials with Indoor Applications. Publication no. 17130/UC-41. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. September. Ivahnenko, T. I., et al. 1988. Liming Effects on the Water Quality in Two West Virginia Streams. In Restoration of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems. edited by R. W. Brockson and J. Wisniewski. NY: Klewer Academic Publishers. Mineral Insulation Manufacturers Association (MIMA). 1991. Response to AIAs Material Data Sheet. November 20.
Mitchell, George. 1992. Technical services, Celotex Corporation, Tampa, FL. Personal communication. September 2. National Cancer Institute (NCI). 1979. Bioassay of Titanium Dioxide for Possible Carcinogenicity. National Cancer Institute Technical Report Series no. 97. National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1990. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. June. Olem, H. 1991. Liming Acidic Surface Waters. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. Reeves, Roscoe. 1993. Technical director of AIAs Professional Systems Division, Washington, DC. Personal communication. November 21. Salokangas, Raimo, et al. 1990. Energiinnehallet i husbyggande (translated from Swedish: Energy contents in building sector). Nordisk Konference om Bygningers Totalenergiforbrug og Energirelaterede Miljobelastning, Kobenhavn 1990 (translated from danish: Nordic Conference on the Total Energy Use of Buildings and Energy Related Costs to the Environment, Copenhagen). Sheldon, L., et al. 1988. Indoor Air Quality in Public Buildings. Vol. 2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Document no. EPA/600/6-88/009b. August. Sittig, Marshall. 1975. Pollution Control in the Asbestos, Cement, Glass, and Allied Mineral Industries. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation. St. Pierre, G. R. 1987. Iron Metallurgy. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 6th ed. Vol. 9, 406-409. NY: McGraw-Hill. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter Its Mix. May. Terpordei, Valentin V. 1992. Crushed Stone: Annual Report 1990. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Tichenor, Bruce A., et al. 1990. Evaluation of Indoor Air Pollutant Sinks for Vapor Phase Organic Compounds. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto, Canada.
Tshudy, James A. 1993. Manager of Armstrongs Product Environmental Performance Innovation Center, Lancaster, Pa. Personal communication. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1993. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42) Database. . 1991. Draft of Designing for Good Indoor Air Quality. May 10. . 1975. Literature Study of the Toxic Effects of Titanium Dioxide. Office of Toxic Substances. January 15. van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David Keith Todd. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. Wallace, Lance, et al. 1987. Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Building Materials and Consumer Products. Atmospheric Environment 21(2):385-93.
MAT 09510
33
Material Report
Linoleum
Highlights
Cultivation of jute, flax, and pine, as of all agricultural products, may result in runoff of pesticides and fertilizers. Combustion of fuels to run agricultural equipment releases a variety of air pollutants. Extraction of the oils from flax releases volatile organic compounds (VOCs), processing solvents, and combustion emissions. Mining of minerals to produce fillers, pigments, and polyglass backing produces wastes, including excavation overburden and tailings waste. Production of a major pigment, titanium dioxide, may release sulfuric acid, metals sulfates, and metal chlorides into wastewater. Extraction of natural gas and crude oil to produce polyester may cause water pollution. Installation of linoleum results in linoleum wastes, which are disposed of in landfills. Disposal of used linoleum consumes landfill capacity.
Tilling of the soil can speed up soil erosion.
The total embodied energy of linoleum flooring is 7,355 Btus/lb (17.1 MJ/kg).
Indoor Air Quality
Oxidation of linseed oil can produce an odor in fresh material; the odor falls to below normally perceptible levels within a few days to a few weeks after installation.
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
Linoleum
Background
Linoleum is a resilient floor covering that consists of a backing covered with a relatively thick wearing surface. The wearing surface consists of linseed oil combined with wood flour and/or cork flour, various fillers (usually limestone), rosin binders, driers, and color pigments. Resilient floor coverings classification includes linoleum, vinyl, cork, rubber, and poured seamless floors. This classification is defined as an organic floor-surfacing material in sheet or tile form or formed in place of which the wearing surface is nontextile. Resilient in this sense is a commonly accepted term, but it does not necessarily define a physical property (ASTM F 141-93). Other uses for linoleum, such as desk tops and counter surfaces, are beyond the scope of this report. Linoleum was first produced in the 1860s in Scotland; the first plant in the United States was built on Staten Island, NY, in 1872. Since World War II, linoleum has largely been replaced by other products, such as vinyl flooring, asphalt tile, ceramic tile, carpeting, and hardwood flooring. In recent years, interest in linoleum has revived because it is manufactured primarily from natural, degradable materials and because heat-weldable seams and coving that create watertight floors have been developed. Linoleum is produced in both sheet and tile form. Sheet linoleum is available in three gauges: 0.080 inch (2.0 mm), 0.100 inch (2.5 mm), and 0.125 inch (3.2 mm). Linoleum tile is available in 0.100 inch (2.5 mm) gauge. There are four types of linoleum, each with its own manufacturing technique and appearance: plain (battleship), jasp, marbleized, and scala (a new type with a textile look). Linoleum is durable and easy to maintain. It is water resistant, which makes it suitable for bathrooms or areas where there is spillage of surface water. Its resistance to alkalis, weak acids, and ordinary household and cooking oils makes it suitable for residential kitchens and cafeterias. As with other resilient flooring, linoleum should not be used over uncured concrete in cases where there are moisture emissions from the subfloor or where the linoleum could be exposed to strong alkalis, strong acids, or petroleum solvents (Mortensen 1995a).
A life-cycle summary of linoleum is provided in figures 1 through 4. The environmental reviews contained in these material reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that occur during the entire life cycle of a material, i.e., from cradle to grave. But the life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to each impact. The following paragraphs summarize the stressors and impacts that are discussed in greater depth for each stage of the life cycle in subsequent sections. Essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. As for all acquisition and production of raw materials, linoleum results in environmental and health impacts. Cultivation of jute, flax, and pine involves the use of pesticides and fertilizer whose runoff can result in aquatic toxicity. Tilling of the soil can facilitate soil erosion and runoff, with consequent effects on the aquatic environment. Combustion of fuel to run agricultural equipment releases a variety of air pollutants. Extraction of the oils from flax releases VOCs, processing solvents, and combustion emissions. Mining of minerals to produce fillers and pigments may cause soil erosion and runoff, habitat alteration, and resulting impacts on wildlife communities. Processing of these minerals may result in particulates emissions. Production of a major pigment, titanium dioxide, may release sulfuric acid, metals sulfates,
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Linoleum

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 LINOLEUM MAT 09651
Jute
Burlap
Polyglass
(see figure 4)
Jute, flax and pine cultivation
Soil erosion
Flax seed
Hexane
Backings
Pine rosin
Linseed oil preparation
Finish
(see figure 4)
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, particulates, VOCs)
Mangane
Drier
oxidation
Linoleum "cement"
Curing/drying
Calendered linoleum
Curling/drying
Linoleum flooring
Waste
Retail storage
Wood flour (dry-ground)

and/or
(VOCs)
Adhesive
(see figure 4)
Installation
Waste
Cork waste Maintenance
Life-Cycle Summary Linoleum
KEY
Pigments
(see figure 2) Process flow Transport Boundary
Demolition
Linoleum
Filler
(see figure 3)
Output Recycling
Disposal
4
MAT 09651 LINOLEUM ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Linoleum
KEY
Process flow
Processing
Habitat change
Air emissions (H2O, O2, SOx)
Titanium dioxide
Air emissions (SO2, SO3, CO2)
Mineral separation
TiO2 processing Ferrous sulfate


Processing
Copperas red oxide
Habitat change
Pigments
(see figure 1)
Brine
Electrolysis
Sodium Hydroxide Coproducts Hydrogen Chlorine
basic pH
Black iron oxide
Scrap iron
neutral pH
Orange iron oxide Yellow iron oxide Yellow iron oxide
Barite ore mining Drilling Blasting Separation Loading
Steam
acidic pH
Beneficiation Washing, crushing, screening Water
Air
Habitat change
Coal mining Drilling Blasting Loading Cleaning
Zinc sulfide
Roasting and leaching
Lithopone
Habitat change
Coke
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Fillers

Stone, barium, carbonate, and imestone mining Grinding Drilling Separating Blasting Screening Loading Crushing
Stone dust
Limestone (CaCO3)
Grinding
Whiting
Barium carbonate
Fillers
(see figure 1) Particulates
Clay mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Drying, grinding, and storage
Clay
Life-Cycle Summary Fillers
Diatomite mining Loading Screening
KEY
Process flow
Linoleum
Diatomite
Transport Boundary
Output Recycling
6
MAT 09651 LINOLEUM ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Finish, Adhesive, and Fibrous Glass
Linoleum
catalyst
Acrolein
catalyst
Acrylic acid
Esterification
Propylene manufacture Trimerization Nonene
Acrylate monomers
Life-Cycle Summary Finish, Adhesive, and Fibrous Glass
Oil processing Desalting Distillation Catalytic Cracking
Benzene manufacture
Phenol
Wastewater(oil, grease, suspended solids, organics)
Emulsification
Acrylic latex finish

(see figure 1)
Drilling muds and cuttings Drainage wastes
Sludge
Styrene
Styrene monomer
catalyst
Nonylphenol
KEY
Ethylene
catalyst
Ethylene oxide
Styrene butadiene latex adhesive

(see figure 1)
Natural gas processing Separation Liquification Distillation
Butadiene
Emulsification
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Finish, Adhesive, and Fibrous Glass (continued)

Glass sand, limestone and borax mining Screening Drilling Loading Blasting Crushing

Effluent (phenols, DS, SS, oil & grease, ammonia)
Polyglass backing
(see figure 1)
Habitat change
KEY
Process flow Wastewater (produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, organics) Drilling muds and cuttings Drainage wastes Solids, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans Cyanides, sludge Air emissions (benzene, VOCs) Transport Boundary
Ethylene
Ethylene glycol
Output Recycling
Chromium, copper
Life-Cycle Summary Finish, Adhesive, and Fibrous Glass
Air emissions (VOCs, CO, NOX, p-Xylene)
Air emissions (polymer dust, volotilized monomers, VOCs, particulates)
p-Xylene Natural gas production Exploration Extraction

Dimethyl terephthalate
Organics: dissolved and suspended solids
Polyester
Linoleum
Heavy metals
Methanol
Linoleum
and metal chlorides into wastewater. According to NIOSH, titanium dioxide may cause lung fibrosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen (NIOSH 1990). (This would normally be a concern only during the handling of raw materials before production of the linoleum flooring.) Production of polyglass backing requires the mining of minerals to produce fiberglass, with resulting soil erosion and habitat alteration. Extraction of natural gas and crude oil to produce polyester results in various environmental impacts, including discharge of wastewater into aquatic habitats. Combustion of fuels for heating the reactant materials and during the drying and curing of the linoleum sheet may produce air emissions and requires the consumption of energy. Linoleum waste produced during installation must be disposed of and therefore depletes landfill capacity. Oxidation of the linseed oil in linoleum can produce an odor in fresh material, but the odor falls to below normally perceptible levels within a few days to a few weeks after installation. Adhesives used to install the linoleum may be a source of addition VOC emissions. Disposal of used linoleum consumes landfill capacity.

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of material for the manufacture of linoleum is presented in figure 5.
Linseed Oil Linseed oil is derived from flax seed, an agricultural product. The oil is extracted by pressing, then by solvent extraction. The growing of flax and the extraction and processing of linseed oil are discussed in greater detail in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Flax Production and the Processing of Linseed Oil
The environmental impacts associated with the growing of flax and the extraction and processing of linseed oil are discussed in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930). These impacts include the use of pesticides and fertilizer during the growing of flax. Runoff of pesticides into aquatic habitats can result in aquatic toxicity. Fertilizer runoff can result in increased loading of nutrients in aquatic systems, with consequent deoxygenation and algal blooms, habitat alteration, and possible fishkill. Other impacts of agricultural production include soil erosion and runoff, resulting in increased turbidity of aquatic environments and possible fishkill. The combustion of fuel to run agricultural equipment releases a variety of air pollutants, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause such respiratory tract problems as difficulty breathing, reduced lung function, asthma, and nasal congestion. VOCs also cause eye irritation. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx (sulfur oxides) to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. NOx also contributes to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. Extraction of the oils from flax releases VOCs, processing solvents, and combustion emissions.
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum
Figure 5: LinoleumMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Flax, pine, and jute cultivation Runoff of fertilizers
Stressor
Runoff of pesticides
Impact/Stressor
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased loading of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD
Impact/Stressor
Possible fishkill Deoxygenation/algal bloom Habitat alteration Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation
Impact/Stressor
Soil erosion and depletion Runoff
Possible loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Fuel combustion
VOCs
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems)
Global warming
Nitrogen oxides Particulates
Ground-level ozone (smog) Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
Linseed oil preparation
Pressing and solvent extraction
Fuel combustion VOC emissions
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Human health effects, including nausea, headaches, numbness, muscular weakness, eye and nose irritation, dermatitis, chemical pneumonia, and giddiness
Solvent extraction
Fugitive hexane emissions
Linseed oil processing Mining of minerals for fillers and pigments Land disturbance Tailings waste
Isomerization VOC emissions Runoff
Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD
(see impacts above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Species extinction Loss of biodiversity continued
Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
Linoleum
Figure 5: LinoleumMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Mining of minerals for filters and pigments (continued)
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above) VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Coal mining to produce coke for pigment manufacture
Tailings waste (sulfur)
Acid drainage
Decreased pH in surface waters
Contamination of groundwater Tailings waste (asbestos-like minerals) Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (dust, particulates) Wastewater Soil erosion Habitat change or loss (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification Coke making (for lithopone pigment manufacture) Air emissions VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Ammonia Dust Wastewater Dissolved solids and organics Sludge Pigment production (lithopone, titanium dioxide, synthetic iron oxides) Combustion emissions Potential human carcinogen VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Calcining and other processes Air emissions Sulfur oxides (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Dust May be carcinogenic
Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation (see impacts above)
Carbon dioxide
(see impacts above)
10
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum

Activity
Pigment production (continued) Iron oxide dust
Stressor
Titanium dioxide
Impact/Stressor
Potential for human occupational health effects Prolonged inhalation can produce siderosis, a benign pneumoconiosis
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Mining of glass sand, limestone, and soda ash (for polyglass backing manufacture) Processing of raw materials for glass manufacture (for polyglass backing)
(see mining impacts above)
Limestone processing and calcining
Air emissions Particulate emissions Fuel combustion emissions
Carbon dioxide (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Clay
Greenhouse effect Global warming
Soda ash processing and calcining
Particulate emissions VOC emissions Fuel combustion emissions Effluents
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Reduced light penetration of water Possible fishkill
Furnace cooling water Solid waste Sand processing Glass manufacture (for polyglass backing) Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (see impacts above) Lead Water vapor Effluents Increased BOD Oil Total suspended solids (TSS) Chemical oxygen demand Solid waste Fiberglass production (for polyglass backing) Air emissions Landfill disposal Hydrogen sulfide Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide Particulates VOCs Reduced landfill capacity Odors (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Fishkill Mixing of raw materials Dust Particulate emissions Decreased landfill capacity Silicosis Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
continued
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
11
Linoleum

Activity
Acquisition of raw materials for acrylic polymer and styrene butadiene manufacture
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands containing bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda
Impact/Stressor
Increased BOD Deoxygenation Environmental poisoning
Impact/Stressor
Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning
Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic waste Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Desalting process
Water pollution Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading
Eutrophication Waterborne disease
Release of oil and suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids
(see impacts above) Increased BOD (see impacts above)
Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH, high BOD Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Environmental poisoning
Catalytic cracking
Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia
Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, xylene, and mineral spirits
(see impacts above)
Acrylic polymer manufacture (finish coat)
Esterization/polymerization stage
Lacrimation, respiratory and eye irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects
12
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum

Activity
Styrene butadiene adhesive manufacture Ethylene production Air emissions Wastewater containing chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Benzene and VOCs (see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Release of styrene Eye and nose irritation, drowsiness, weakness, narcosis, and dermatitis Styrene acrylic polymer production Styrene butadiene polymer production Natural gas production (for polyglass backing) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics Fuel combustion emissions Crude oil extraction (for polyglass backing) Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (for polyglass backing) Crude oil processing (for polyglass backing) Dimethyl terephtahlate production (for polyglass backing) Polyester production (for polyglass backing) Air emissions Wastewater Air emissions VOCs, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides Xylene Organics, suspended solids, and dissolved solids VOCs and particulates CNS and irritant effects Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD (see impacts above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Release of butadiene Eye and nose irritation, headaches, dizziness, and vomiting Release of monomers Mild skin or eye irritation
Stressor
Styrene production
Impact/Stressor
Benzene production
Impact/Stressor
Fugitive emissions of benzene
Impact/Stressor
Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation
continued
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
13
Linoleum
Rosin Binders Rosin and linseed oil constitute 33 percent of linoleum. The rosin used is gum or wood rosin, which is exuded from living pine trees and harvested. No information is available on the environmental impacts associated with rosin harvest. Wood Flour and/or Cork Flour Wood flour and/or cork flour constitute another 33 percent of linoleum. Wood flour and cork flour are produced by grinding wood and cork wastes. The waste cork used in linoleum is a by-product of the manufacture of wine-bottle stoppers (Mortensen 1995c). Fillers Together with pigments, fillers constitute the remaining 33 percent of linoleum. The most commonly used linoleum filler is limestone that is ground to a fine powder (whiting). The largest manufacturer of linoleum reports using limestone alone (Mortensen 1995c). Fillers may also include stone dusts, diatomite, barium carbonate, or clay. The mining of limestone is discussed in greater detail in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The other minerals are mined much like limestone, by either open-pit or underground methods.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Fillers
The environmental impacts of mining are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Among these impacts are runoff from tailings waste, which leads to increased turbidity of surface waters, increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of aquatic habitats, and possible fishkill. Other impacts affecting wildlife communities include land disturbance and habitat alteration. The combustion of fuel to power the heavy equipment during mining operations results in air emissions. Crushing, screening, and processing of the minerals may result in particulates emissions.
Color Pigments Titanium dioxide is the standard white pigment used in linoleum. Lithopone is sometimes used, although the largest manufacturer of linoleum reports using titanium dioxide only (Mortensen 1995c). Synthetic iron oxides produce yellows, reds, browns, and blues (Hornbostel 1991). Lead and cadmium pigments are no longer used in linoleum.
Titanium Dioxide and Synthetic Iron Oxide
Titanium dioxide is produced from sand from any of several different production processes. The production of titanium dioxide and synthetic iron oxides is discussed in the material report on concrete masonry units (04220).
Lithopone
Lithopone is produced as a precipitate from the reaction of barium sulfide and zinc sulfide. The mineral barite (barium sulfate) is crushed and roasted with coke at about 1,200C (2,190F), reducing the barium sulfate to barium sulfide, a more soluble compound. The sulfide is leached from the clinker with hot water; zinc sulfide is added to the leach liquor; and lithopone is formed as a precipitate. The final pigment is composed of zinc sulfide, barium sulfate, and some zinc oxide. Barite is mined either by open-pit or underground methods, depending on local conditions. The ore may be beneficiated by jigging or flotation, or it may require only washing, crushing, and screening before being shipped to a grinding plant (Ampian 1991).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Production of Color Pigments
The raw materials for lithopone, titanium dioxide, and synthetic iron oxide pigments are mined from the earth. The environmental impacts associated with mining operations are discussed above and, in greater depth, in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
14
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum
Lithopone production involves roasting the barite ore with coke. Coal mining for coke production can result in acid drainage and land disturbance that may cause reduced reproduction, fishkill, and loss of faunal diversity. Coke making can release various air emissions, which result in smog and acid precipitation and have various effects on human health. Wastewater and sludge are also produced. The environmental effects of coal mining and coke making are discussed in the material report on steel framing (05410). The environmental and health effects associated with the production of titanium dioxide and synthetic iron oxides are discussed in greater detail in the material report on concrete masonry units (04220). One of the production processes for titanium dioxide produces ferrous sulfate, which can itself be used as a raw material for synthetic iron oxide production. By-products from these processes are often recycled, although some waste material is produced in the form of aqueous solutions. Sulfuric acid and metal sulfates in wastewater have traditionally been discarded in the ocean, and metal chloride wastewater has been disposed of by deep well injection. The effects of such disposal practices have not been identified, but concern has been raised about this form of pollution. Titanium dioxide was identified as a potential occupational carcinogen by one government agency, but was not found carcinogenic by two others. In the production of synthetic iron oxide pigments, several by-products from other industries are used as the iron source: ferrous sulfate from either titanium dioxide production or from steel pickling, as well as steel scrap. Wastewater is produced during these processes. Recently, European titanium suppliers have begun to reuse or even sell effluents from manufacture and processing, thus reducing the amount of hazardous waste produced. Hazardous wastes have been reduced from 2.33 kg of waste/kg of titanium dioxide to 0 in 1994 (Jonsson 1995). In addition, commercial uses are being developed for the solid wastes that are produced during extraction (Jonsson 1995). According to an environmental life-cycle analysis of linoleum, pigment production accounts for approximately two-thirds of the chemical waste resulting from the manufacture of linoleum (Potting and Blok 1993).
Energy Consumed
According to an environmental life-cycle analysis of linoleum, the production of pigments accounts for approximately 20 percent of total energy expenditures, even though pigments constitute only about 5 percent of the linoleum composition by weight (Potting and Blok 1993).
Linoleum Driers Lead oxide was used in the past as a drying agent, but its use ceased in the mid-1970s. Zincbased driers are now used (Jonsson 1995). Mangane (manganese diluted in linseed oil) is also used as a drier (Mortensen 1995b). The functions of driers are discussed in the material report on stains and varnishes, in the section on varnishes (09930). Backing Linoleum backings may be burlap (jute) or polyglass. One manufacturer uses a jute backing for sheet linoleum and a polyglass backing for linoleum tile (Mortensen 1995b). Plain linoleum may also contain recycled scrap.
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
15
Linoleum
Jute
Jute is obtained from the jute plant (Corchorus), which is grown primarily in India and Bangladesh. No information is available on the environmental impacts associated with the growing and harvesting of jute.
Polyglass
Polyglass is a combination of fiberglass and polyester fibers. The production of fiberglass requires the mining of raw materials; mining operations are discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). Fiberglass production is discussed in the material report on thermal insulation (07200). Polyester fiber production is discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Materials Acquisition and Manufacture of Polyglass
The raw materials for fiberglass manufacture are obtained by mining. The environmental impacts associated with mining operations are discussed above and, in greater depth, in the material report on plaster and lath (09200). The environmental impacts associated with fiberglass production are discussed in the material report on thermal insulation (07200). During the manufacture of fiberglass, small amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, particulates, and volatile organic compounds are emitted. Polyester is manufactured from chemical compounds that are derived from natural gas and crude oil. Environmental concerns associated with the extraction and processing of natural gas and with the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The environmental concerns associated with polyester fiber production are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). These concerns center on various air emissions, including VOCs and particulates.
Finish Coat A finish coat of acrylic polymer is applied to the linoleum surface. The major manufacturer of linoleum uses a water-based material (Mortensen 1995c). The manufacture of acrylic polymer is discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Materials Acquisition and Manufacture of Acrylic Polymer Finish Coat
Acrylic polymer is manufactured from chemical compounds that are derived from crude oil. Environmental concerns associated with the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Various health effects are associated with acrylic acid and acrylic polymer production. Some acrylates have moderate toxicity when ingested, absorbed through the skin, or brought in contact with the eyes. Health and environmental effects are discussed in greater detail in the material report on ceramic tile (09300).
Adhesives The typical adhesive for installing linoleum is a water-based SBR (styrene butadiene rubber) adhesive. The manufacture of SBR is discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition of Materials and the Manufacture of SBR Adhesive
Most butadiene is produced by the cracking of petroleum; environmental concerns associated with the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Various health hazards are associated with exposure to butadiene, including eye and nose irritation, headaches, dizziness, and vomiting. Wastes produced during styrene butadiene production are discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300).
16
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Preparation of Materials for the Manufacture of Linoleum
Most of the materials that are used in the production of linoleum are derived from renewable resources.
Energy Consumed
The results of a Dutch environmental life-cycle analysis of linoleum attributed one-third of the total embodied energy to the acquisition and processing of raw materials (approximately 4 MJ/kg or 1,700 Btus/lb) (Potting and Blok 1993).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacturing and fabrication of linoleum is presented in figure 6. Linoleum can be made with different mixtures of the components. One recipe for the production of a product with a weight of 2,300 g/m2 (4.24 lb/yd2) includes 27 percent linseed oil, 8 percent pine rosin, 10 percent limestone, 10 percent wood flour, 10 percent cork flour, and 5 percent pigment. The woven jute backing weighs 250 g/m2 (0.46 lb/yd2). The linoleum is finished with an acrylate lacquer (8 g/m2, or 0.01 lb/yd2) (Potting and Blok 1994). After the linseed oil, driers, and rosins are combined in a large tank, oxygen is forced through the mixture for approximately 24 hours. The linseed oil is oxidized, and a sticky, jelly-like material, called cement, is formed. The cement is cut into smaller lots, dusted with wood flour, and left to cure for approximately 10 days. When cured, it is mixed with pigments, cork flour and/or wood flour, and mineral fillers. Sometimes scrap linoleum is added. The mix is
Figure 6: LinoleumManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Linoleum manufacture
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Ground-level ozone
Impact/Stressor
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems)
Global warming
Nitrogen oxides Particulates
Ground-level ozone (smog) Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility
VOC emissions from drying process
(see impacts above)
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
17
Linoleum
calendered into sheet form, and the backing is then pressed onto the sheets using pressure and heat (Hornbostel 1991; Mortensen 1995c). In the manufacture of plain linoleum, the mix is fed to a heated roll, and the backing is fed to a cold roll. The mix and backing pass through the rollers and are consolidated by heat and pressure. For marbleized linoleum, the different colors are supplied in pellet form to the background mix before being fed to the rollers. For jasp, two or more colored mixes are combined in a striated pattern and fed into the rollers (Hornbostel 1991). These sheets are hung to cure in large heated rooms for 1 to 4 weeks, depending on the final product. These rooms are heated to 150 to 180F (65 to 82C) and can hold up to 5 linear miles of linoleum (Hornbostel 1991; Mortensen 1995c). Once the drying room has been heated to the required temperature, the heat generated by the oxidation process is often sufficient to keep the temperature at the required level during the remaining oxidation process (Mortensen 1995c).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Linoleum
The oxidation of the linseed oil produces VOCs. These are destroyed in ceramic filters during the oxidation operation, but the VOCs formed in the drying chambers are emitted to the surroundings (approximately 4.6 g/m2, or 0.136 oz/yd2) (Jonsson 1995). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems, such as difficulty breathing, reduced lung function, and asthma, as well as nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx to form ozone. Solvents (chiefly consisting of toluene, butanol, and ethyl acetate) are emitted from the sheeting (2.7 g/m2, or 0.080 oz/yd2) when the linoleum is heated (Jonsson 1995). The manufacture of linoleum requires fuel to produce heat for drying the linoleum. As mentioned above, much of the required heat is produced by the oxidation process itself. However, the combustion of fuels may contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. NOx also contributes to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. In linoleum manufacture, virtually all manufacturing waste is ground and recycled into the product. The fumes generated during drying are incinerated. Wastewater is handled in a closed system and does not leave the plant (Mortensen 1995b). Much of the dust that is generated indoors is collected by cleaning filters and is reused in the process (Jonsson 1995).
Energy Consumed
Total embodied energy of linoleum is presented below under Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage.
Construction, Use, And Maintenance Stage

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the installation, use, and maintenance of linoleum is presented in figure 7. Linoleum is commonly applied to the substrate with an adhesive, typically a water-based SBR (styrene butadiene rubber) adhesive with low VOC emissions (Mortensen 1995b). Linoleum
18
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum
Figure 7: LinoleumConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity
Installation of linoleum Installed linoleum Heat welding of seams VOC emissions Heating of thermoplastic adhesive Odors Release of fumes Odors
Stressor
Scrap linoleum is landfilled
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
installation that utilizes heat-weldable seams requires hot melt glue of an unidentified thermal plastic (Mortensen 1995c). Linoleum, like all resilient flooring, has to be protected from moisture from the substrate both during and after installation (Gustafsson 1991; Bower 1991). It should not be installed over uncured concrete or where moisture emissions from the subfloor exceed 3.5 pounds per 1,000 square feet in 24 hours (when tested with a calcium chloride test kit) (Mortensen 1995a). Neutral soaps and water are appropriate for cleaning linoleum. Dry maintenance, such as vacuuming and buffing, is recommended by one manufacturer. Such maintenance does not remove the linoleum finish and thus avoids the release of contaminated wastewater into the waste stream (Mortensen 1995a). Linoleum is very durable. In fact, ten-year-old linoleum is actually tougher than newly laid linoleum because the linseed oil continues to oxidize, forming new chemical links.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Linoleum
The waste produced during this stage consists of scrap linoleum, which is generally discarded. It is degradable.
Energy Consumed
One study provides an embodied energy value for linoleum (composed 11 percent by weight of jute backing) of 39.35 MJ/m2 or 17.1 MJ/kg (31,185 Btu/yd2 or 7,355.0 Btu/lb) with a 15-year life span (Potting and Blok 1994). About 11 percent of this energy value is attributed to transportation. One other study indicates that the total embodied energy of linoleum (composed 75 percent by weight of canvas backing, a process apparently no longer used) is a much higher 49,934 Btu/lb of product (116.15 MJ/kg). This includes 42,839 Btu/lb (99.644 MJ/kg) for process energy and 7,095 Btu/lb (16.503 MJ/kg) for transportation, about 14 percent for transportation overall (Franklin Associates 1991).
Indoor Air Quality
Linoleum is naturally antibacterial because of the continuous oxidation of the linseed oil, and is inhospitable to the growth of various bacteria. One study of forty-two building materials found that a sample of linoleum (type unspecified) emitted one suspected carcinogen and three compounds listed as airway irritants (Molhave 1982). This study did not specify what the compounds were. A more recent study by industry, however, showed no emissions of carcinogens (Mortensen 1995c).
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
19
Linoleum
A Finnish report (Saarela and Sandell 1991) analyzed VOC emissions from linoleum. Total VOC (TVOC) emissions from thirty-year-old linoleum were 0.064 mg/m2/h. These are characterized by fatty acids generated from the linseed oil in linoleum. Fatty acids can have a very strong odor, even at low air concentrations. Gustafsson (1991) reported that linoleum can sometimes produce an unpleasant smell because of the oxidation of the linoleic and other unsaturated fatty acids. This process releases aldehydes. An EPA report reviewed the literature on VOC emissions associated with resilient floor coverings including linoleum (EPA 1992). Emissions studies included headspace testing, modeling, and, most frequently, environmental test chamber studies. Much of the data collected were qualitative rather than quantitative; that is, the constituents were identified but the amounts were not determined. The report does not indicate whether the emissions studies were performed on installed flooring, which would have included the adhesive. Among the studies mentioned in the EPA review, a study of linoleum (form not indicated) identified the presence of several emissions, including formaldehyde, toluene, i-butanol, and n-butanol, all hazardous air pollutants as defined in the Clean Air Act. Another study, this one of linoleum tile, detected emissions of aliphatic hydrocarbons (6 /m2/h), aromatic hydrocarbons (35 /m2/h), halogenated hydrocarbons (4 /m2/h), and chlorinated hydrocarbons (1.3 /m2/h). The specific linoleum floorings tested in the studies above were not identified in the EPA report. Because of variations in formulation, it is difficult to make a generalization about emissions without knowing the identity of the flooring being tested and without more extensive testing of floorings. Industry indicates that most of these VOC emissions originate from solvent-based factory coatings. A major manufacturer reports using only water-based coatings (Mortensen 1995c). Linoleum is installed with adhesives (not discussed in this report) that may be a source of air emissions. Low-VOC adhesives can be used to minimize emissions, and a major producer of linoleum recommends a water-based, solvent-free styrene-butadiene-rubber adhesive (Mortensen 1995b). During installation of linoleum with heat-welded seams, fumes may be emitted from the use of thermal plastic hot-melt glue. These fumes will be produced only during the use of the thermal plastic and will dissipate after installation (Mortensen 1995c).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of linoleum is presented in figure 8. A comprehensive tabulation of environmental loading factors related to linoleum from material acquisition to recycling, reuse, or disposal is presented in figure 9. It represents the resources, energy, emissions, and waste for one square meter of linoleum based on one manufacturer (Jonsson 1995). Linoleum can be disposed of in a landfill. It is biodegradable; however, time of degradation depends on volume, oxygen supply, and other factors (Mortensen 1995b).
Figure 8: LinoleumRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity
Removal of old linoleum
Stressor
Disposal in landfill
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
20
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum
Figure 9: Total Calculated Environmental Load for a Square Meter of Linoleum

Loading Parameter Use of resources Acrylate Titanium dioxide Limestone Resin Wood Cork Jute fiber Linseed K2O P2O5 Forest land Arable land Use of energy Electricity Fossil Fuels Calorific value Recovered energy Emissions to air CO2 CO SO2 NOx 1600 g 1060 mg 4300 mg 12.8 g Linoleum production (58%) Transportation (80%) Transportation (62%) Incineration (40%) Transportation (31%) Linoleum production (20%) Linoleum production (20%) Linoleum production Powdered wood Powdered limestone Transportation Transportation Transportation Transportation Incineration Jute fiber production Titanium dioxide production 16.3 MJ 25 MJ 45.2 MJ -28.8 MJ Incineration Linoleum production (44%) Titanium dioxide (30%) Linoleum production (67%) 2.5 g 102 g 460 g 204 g 767 g 128 g 280 g 588 g 13.5 g 16.5 g 4.52 m2/year 9.82 m2/year Raw material Raw material Raw material Raw material Raw material Raw material Raw material Raw material Fertilizer Fertilizer Wood cultivation Linseed cultivation Amount Main Source
VOC Solvents Terpenes Dust Emissions to water Oil Phenol COD Total N Waste Ash Sector-specific waste Hazardous waste
5870 mg 3.12 g 34.5 mg 34.5 g 2.38 mg 0.034 mg 6.96 mg 1.14 mg 555 g 17.2 g 238 g
Source: Technical Environmental Planning Report, 1995.
No material recovery of linoleum after use occurs at the present time. Linoleum loses its softness after the linseed oil has been oxidized, and it is not known whether this change in the properties of linoleum would affect its suitability for recovery (Jonsson 1995). There is no organized reuse of linoleum. Some floor-layers state that is is possible to sand linoleum, although sanding is not done at present. Thicker linoleum would be required to permit this practice (Jonsson 1995).
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
21
Linoleum
Industry Perspective: FORBO Industries Linoleum products are environmentally safe products made from primarily natural, renewable ingredients. As such, linoleum products will not contribute to interior pollution and to a degree can improve the interior environment through the beneficial effects of continual oxidation (which prevents the growth of certain bacteria). The production of linoleum involves largely renewable resources (wood by-products, flax, cork flour, jute). Disposal of linoleum after its long, useful life has no adverse environmental effects.
Regulatory Status
No federal statutes or regulations apply specifically to the linoleum industry. Manufacturers of linoleum must meet any applicable regulations on waste handling, waste disposal, and air and water emissions.
22
MAT 09651
LINOLEUM
Linoleum
References
References
Ampian, Sarkis G. 1991. Barite. Minerals Yearbook, 1989. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). F 141-93. Bower, John. 1991. The Healthy House: How to Buy One, How To Cure a Sick One, How to Build One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. Environmental Outfitters. No date. Draft, State-ofthe-Art Building Products and Services Guide. New Canaan, CT. Franklin Associates, LTD. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Society of the Plastics Industry. FORBO Industries, Inc. No date. Product literature. Gustafsson, Hans. 1991. Building Materials Identified as Major Emission Sources. Proceedings of IAQ 1991, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)/International Council for Building Research, Studies, and Documentation (ICBR) Healthy Buildings Conference, Washington, DC. Atlanta: ASHRAE. Hornbostel, Caleb, ed. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications. 2d ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Jonsson, Asa. 1995. Life Cycle Assessment of Flooring MaterialsA Case Study and Methodological Considerations. Technical Environmental Planning Report 1995:3. Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden. Molhave, Lars. 1982. Indoor Air Pollution Due to Organic Gases and Vapours of Solvents in Building Materials. Environment International. Vol. 8. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press. Mortensen, Kelly. 1995a. Director, Support Services, FORBO Industries, Hazleton, PA. Comments on linoleum report for ERG 1994. . 1995b. Personal communication. . 1995c. Comments on linoleum report. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1990. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. June.
Potting, J. and K. Blok. 1993. The Environmental Life Cycle Analysis of Some Floor Coverings. Contribution to the First SETAC World Congress, Lisbon. March. . 1994. Life-Cycle Assessment of Four Types of Floor Covering. Department of Science, Technology and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Saarela, K., and E. Sandell. 1991. Comparative Emission Studies of Flooring Materials with Reference to Nordic Guidelines. Proceedings of IAQ 1991, ASHRAE/ICBR Healthy Buildings Conference, Washington, DC. Atlanta: ASHRAE. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1992. Indoor Air Pollution Source Catalog. EPA Contract No. 68-D1-0031, W.A. No. 07. Office of Research and Development.
LINOLEUM
MAT 09651
23
Material Report
Vinyl Flooring
Highlights
A number of the materials used in the manufacture of vinyl flooring are derived from petrochemicals, the extraction and processing of which can cause water pollution. Fuel consumption for the production of energy required for processing materials and manufacturing products results in a variety of air emissions. The production of PVC (polyvinyl chloride) can produce air emissions that, if not controlled, can cause a variety of environmental and human health effects. Emissions include chlorine, benzene, vinyl chloride monomer, and possibly dioxins and PCBs. The production of plasticizers can release wastewaters that, if not controlled, can cause environmental and human health effects. The mining of limestone (used as filler in vinyl flooring) can produce wastes such as overburden, tailings waste, and associated runoff. The production of styrene butadiene latex can release benzene, a toxic material and carcinogen. The manufacture and fabrication of vinyl flooring produce scrap waste that is disposed of in landfills. Some old vinyl flooring contains asbestos. Removal of such flooring may release asbestos dust. When vinyl flooring waste is incinerated, hydrogen chloride, metal chlorides, and dioxins may be released. Heavy metals remaining in the ash must be treated as hazardous waste.
The extraction and processing of natural gas and crude oil can result in fish-kill and habitat disruption. Petroleum and natural gas stocks are finite resources in adequate supply now.
Energy Consumption
The total embodied energy of vinyl flooring ranges from 22,561 to 27,733 Btus/lb (52.48 to 63.8 MJ/kg). The embodied energy of vinyl composition tile is 5,906 Btus/lb (13.7 MJ/kg). During stripping and waxing of vinyl flooring, VOCs and other chemicals may be released. VOCs may be released by the flooring itself and by the adhesive used to adhere the flooring.
Indoor Air Quality
VINYL FLOORING
MAT 09652
Vinyl Flooring
Background
Vinyl flooring is a type of resilient floor covering, a term that refers to a family of flooring products that also includes linoleum, asphalt tile, and rubber flooring. The term resilient refers to the ability of these materials to deform and recover from compressive forces, such as footsteps, cart wheels, or casters, or from the static load of appliances and furnishings. Resilient flooring is distinguished from carpeting, wood, ceramic, and stone. Vinyl flooring (or PVC flooring, as it is called in Europe) was first introduced in 1934 under the trade name Mipolam (Ullmann 1986). Vinyl flooring contains polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or related polymers, which act as the binder, as well as stabilizers, plasticizers, fillers, and pigments. Resilient flooring can be divided into two major types, sheet and tile. Vinyl sheet flooring includes basically three categories: layered composite, inlaid, and homogeneous. Vinyl tile consists of two basic types: vinyl and vinyl composition (Armstrong World Industries 1995). Of the sheet vinyl floorings, the layered composite is today the most popular resilient flooring for the residential market. This flooring contains a foam layer that provides cushioning and reduces sound transmission. Backing, foam, and wear layers are available in various thicknesses, depending on the intended application. Inlaid sheet vinyl is used widely in commercial and institutional applications, such as hospitals, schools, and dormitories. Because of its inlaid construction, it is sturdy and durable. Inlaid sheet vinyl consists of a felt composition or vinyl backing and an inlaid vinyl wear layer of varying thicknesses, depending on intended end use. Homogeneous sheet vinyl has been popular in Europe for commercial and industrial applications and is now finding increasing use in the United States. It is one of the most durable of the sheet floorings because of its thickness and through-color construction. Since it can be installed with heat-welded or chemically bonded seams, it is used in areas that have rigorous performance requirements, such as laboratories, clinics, and hospital operating rooms. Vinyl composition tile is used in both residential and commercial applications. In comparison to the other types of vinyl flooring, vinyl composition tile contains a high proportion (more than 80 percent) of inorganic filler, which provides mass and thickness. For residential use, designs are frequently surface-applied, often with a wear layer of clear vinyl. For commercial and institutional use, vinyl composition tile with a through-grained design is generally used. Vinyl tile differs from vinyl composition tile in having a higher amount of vinyl binder in the formula. Vinyl tile is considerably more flexible than vinyl composition tile; it has significantly higher resistance to abrasive wear and more resistance to impact damage (Ullmann 1986).
Life-cycle summaries of all the types of vinyl flooring and of resins, plasticizers and stabilizers, fillers, pigments, substrates, and finishes are provided in figures 1 through 11. The environmental reviews contained in these material reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that occur during the entire life cycle of a material, i.e., from cradle to grave. But the life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to each impact. The following paragraphs summarize the stressors and impacts that in subsequent sections are discussed in greater depth for each stage of the life cycle. Essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations.
MAT 09652
VINYL FLOORING
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Flooring (Layered Composite Sheet Vinyl)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 VINYL FLOORING MAT 09652
Finish coating Polyvinyl chloride

(see figure 11) (see figure 6) or
Polyvinyl ester (vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate)

(see figure 6)
(VOCs)
Finishing Plastisol-PVC paste wear layer
Stabilizers and costabilizers

(see figure 7)
Plasticizers, such as: DEHP Butyl benzyl phthalate TXIB

( see figure 7)
Plasticized PVC paste with filler

Air emissions (SOX NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Vinyl flooring
Waste
Vinyl flooring manufacture
Fillers: Calcium carbonate Clays Talc

(see figure 8)
(VOCs)
Plasticized PVC paste with foaming agent
Adhesive (for some flooring)
Installation
Waste
Pigments, such as: Titanium dioxide Maintenance Printing Azobis (formamide)
Life-Cycle Summary Vinyl Flooring (Layered Composite Sheet Vinyl)
(see figure 9)
Ink (PVC or acrylic)

(see figure 6 and 10)
Demolition
Vinyl Flooring
KEY
Substrate Felt and glass fibers, Styrene butadiene rubber, or Acrylic latex and limestone/talc
(see figure 10)
Disposal
4
MAT 09652 VINYL FLOORING ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Flooring (Inlaid Sheet Vinyl()
Vinyl Flooring
Life-Cycle Summary Vinyl Flooring (Inlaid Sheet Vinyl)
Polyvinyl chloride
(see figure 6) or
Finish coating
(see figure 11)

see figure 6)
(VOCs)
Finishing

(see figure 7)

(see figure 7)
Vinyl flooring
Waste
(VOCs)

(see figure 8)
Installation
Waste
Pigments, such as: Titanium dioxide
Maintenance
(see figure 9)
Substrate (optional depending upon product Felt and glass fiber

(see figure 10)
Demolition
KEY

Printing
Output Recycling
Disposal
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Flooring (Homogeneous Sheet Vinyl()
Polyvinyl chloride
(see figure 6) or
Finish coating
(see figure 11)

(see figure 6)
(VOCs)
Finishing

(see figure 7)

(see figure 7)
Vinyl flooring
Waste
(VOCs)

(see figure 8)
Lamination (for some flooring)
Installation
Waste
Life-Cycle Summary Vinyl Flooring (Homogeneous Sheet Vinyl)
Maintenance
(see figure 9)
KEY
Demolition
Vinyl Flooring
Disposal
Recycling
6
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Flooring (Vinyl Composition Tile)
Vinyl Flooring
Life-Cycle Summary Vinyl Flooring (Vinyl Composition Tile)
Polyvinyl chloride
(see figure 6) or
Finish coating
(see figure 11)

(see figure 6)
(VOCs)
Finishing

(see figure 7)

(see figure 7)
Vinyl flooring
Waste
(VOCs)

(see figure 8)
Embossing (for some flooring)
Installation
Waste
Maintenance
(see figure 9)
Demolition
KEY
Disposal
Figure 5: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Flooring (Vinyl Tile)
Polyvinyl chloride
(see figure 6) or
Finish coating
(see figure 11)

(see figure 6)
(VOCs)
Finishing

(see figure 7)

(see figure 7)
Vinyl flooring
Waste

(see figure 8)
Embossed, layered, or through-grained patterns (for some flooring)
(VOCs)
Installation
Waste
Maintenance
(see figure 9)
Life-Cycle Summary Vinyl Flooring (Vinyl Tile)
Demolition
Vinyl Flooring
KEY

Printing
Output Recycling
Disposal
8
Figure 6: Life-Cycle Summary of Resins
Vinyl Flooring
Life-Cycle Summary Resins
CO2
Acetic acid
palladium
Vinyl acetate
Polyvinyl ester (vinyl chloridevinyl acetate

(see figures 1-5)
Drainage wastes
Sludge, solids Air emissions (benzene, VOCs)
Ethylene
Chromium, copper
KEY
Heavy metals
Precipitation
Co-products Calcium chloride Salts
Brine Co-products Hydrogen Sodium hydroxide

Electrolysis
Brine sludge (magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, spent sulfuric acid, scrubbing wastes asbestos)
Ethylene dichloride
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
(see figures 1-5)
Chlorine
VC monomer, lead, zinc, methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane
Figure 7: Life-Cycle Summary of Plasticizers and Stabilizers

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
Air emissions (CO, VOCS, SOX, particulates)
Phthalic anhydride
Heavy organics
Phthalates
Plasticizer
(see figures 1-5)
Drainage wastes
Wastewater (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides)
Sludge, solids
Co-products Glycerin
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) ZnO Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Cattle Raising
Slaughtering
Tallow
Hydrolysis
Distillation
Stearates
Caustic saponification
Soaps
Stabilizers
(see figures 1-5)
Organic wastes
Soil runoff
Water
Other oils and fats
Mono- and diorganotin compounds
Corn production Planting Cultivating Fertilizing Spraying Harvesting
KEY
Soil erosion
Boundary Output
Life-Cycle Summary Plasticizers and Stabilizers
Hexane
Recycling
Vinyl Flooring
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCS, particulates)
Soybean and other oil crop growing

Soybean and other oil preparation
Partially unsaturated oils
Epoxidation
Co-stabilizers
(see figures 1-5)
10
Vinyl Flooring
Clay and talc mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Particulates

(see figure 1)
Clay and talc

(see figures 1-5, 10)
Feldspar tailings
KEY
Limestone mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating Screening
Limestone (CaCO3)
(see figures 1-5, 10)
Figure 9: Life-Cycle Summary of Pigment
Ferrous Sulfate
Sand mining Digging Screening Loading Washing Mineral separation TiO2 Processing
Titanium Dioxide
H2SO4 Runoff Habitat (soil change erosion, TSS) Tailings waste, overburden Metal sulfates metal chlorides (see figures 1-5, 10)
KEY
Life-Cycle Summary Pigment
Vinyl Flooring
11
12
Figure 10: Life-Cycle Summary of Substrates
Vinyl Flooring
catalyst
Acrolein
catalyst
Acrylic acid
Esterification
Acrylate monomers
Life-Cycle Summary Substrates
Emulsification
Acrylic latex
(see figure 11)
Benzene manufacture
Phenol
Limestone/talc
(see figure 8)
Sludge
Styrene
Styrene monomer
catalyst
Nonylphenol Acrylic latex and limestone talc
Ethylene
catalyst
Ethylene oxide
Nonene Nonylphenol ethoxylate
(see figure 1)
Trimerization Butadiene Emulsification Styrene Butadiene latex

(see figure 1)
Waste paper (cellulose)

(see figure 1)
Organic felt
(see figures 1-2)
Wood waste (cellulose)

(see figure 1)
KEY
Glass sand, limestone and borax mining Crushing Drilling Screening Blasting Loading
Glass fiber
Effluent (phenols, DS, SS, oil & grease, ammonia) (see figure 1)
Figure 11: Life-Cycle Summary of Finishes

Acrylic latex finish
(see figures 1-5)
Acrylic latex
(see figure 10) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, VOCs, CO, CO2 particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, VOCs, CO, CO2, H2S particulates)
Ammonia manufacture
Air emissions (VOCs, SO2, NO2, CO, CO2, particulates)
Ni catalyst Ni catalyst
Carbon dioxide manufacture
Urea manufacture
Al catalyst
Melamine manufacture
Melamine
(see figures 1-5)
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene) Recycling
Phosgene
Solvents
catalyst
Toluene
Dinitration
Dinitrotoluene
Toluenediamine
Phosgene, HCI
Produced water, oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, TDS organics) Drilling muds and cuttings Drainage wastes Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Solids, oil, Cyanides, ammonia, sludge phenols, sulphides, chlorides, mercaptans)
Life-Cycle Summary Finishes
Vinyl Flooring
Hexane
Flax, soybean and tung growing
Soil erosion
Linseed, soybean and tung oil preparation
Polyurethane Isomerization Drying oil

(see figures 1-5)
13
Vinyl Flooring
The acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of vinyl flooring can have a number of environmental and health effects. Several of the materials used in this process are produced from natural gas and/or crude oil. The extraction of natural gas and crude oil can discharge drilling muds, deck and sanitary wastes, and produced water containing a number of pollutants that increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, and benthic deposition and otherwise affect the environment. Ultimate effects include eutrophication, the loss of faunal diversity, and possible fish-kill. Air emissions include VOCs (volatile organic compounds), sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulates, and nitrogen oxides. These materials are produced by fuel combustion and can cause or contribute to smog, acid precipitation, the greenhouse effect, and various health effects. A number of processes throughout the rest of the life cycle of vinyl flooring also use fuel combustion and produce these same emissions. The processing of crude oil can release a variety of sludges that can contaminate groundwater and sewers, causing increased BOD and increased sewerage loading. The processing of crude oil can also release polluted wastewater and air emissions. These stressors can result in possible fish-kills and decreased faunal diversity, habitat disruption, and the release of materials that are noxious or toxic to humans. The production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can produce a number of air emissions that, if not controlled, can cause a variety of significant environmental and human effects. Among these emissions are chlorine, which is an irritant to humans; brine mud, which can cause environmental degradation; and benzene and vinyl chloride monomer, which are human carcinogens. Dioxins can be released during the manufacture of PVC. Dioxins can cause a range of significant human health effects. PCBs and other organochlorine compounds harmful to human health and the environment are also associated with PVC production. The growing of corn and grain for cattle, whose tallow is turned into stearate stabilizers that are used in small amounts, can result in fertilizer and pesticide runoff. Pesticide runoff is toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Fertilizer runoff can cause deoxygenation, habitat alteration, reduced fish reproduction, loss of faunal diversity, and possible fish-kill. Beef cattle farming, through drainage of material from feedlots, can also have adverse impacts on the aquatic environment. The cultivation of soybeans as a source of soybean oil, which is used in the manufacture of stabilizers, also can have impacts from fertilizer and pesticide runoff. The production of phthalates from petroleum for use as plasticizers can release wastewater that, if not controlled, can cause environmental impacts. Fugitive emissions of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), a potential human carcinogen, can cause health effects (DEHP may be phased out). Limestone mining can result in runoff from tailings waste and in land disturbance, with soil erosion and resulting runoff. Runoff can cause increased turbidity, benthic deposition, and BOD in streams and ponds, resulting in adverse environmental impacts. The manufacture of titanium dioxide, used in producing pigments for vinyl flooring, has potential human occupational health effects. The manufacture of acrylic resin, used in producing acrylic ink, may release acrylic monomer, which causes irritation and various other human health effects. The manufacture of glass scrim involves mineral mining, with effects similar to those mentioned above for limestone mining. It also releases such air emissions as hydrogen sulfide (causing noxious odors) and some fluorides (causing tree and crop damage, materials corrosion, and surface water acidification). Effluents released by glass scrim manufacture include phenols and ammonia that are directly toxic to aquatic organisms, along with dissolved and suspended solids and oil and grease that cause deoxygenation and increase turbidity, benthic deposition, and BOD. Loss of faunal diversity and fish-kill are possible results.
14
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VINYL FLOORING
Vinyl Flooring
The production of styrene butadiene latex can release benzene, which causes cancer, and other toxicities. The manufacture of acrylic latex coating can release acrylic monomer, mentioned above. The production of polyurethane coating may release toluene diisocyanate and phosgene, both of which are irritants. Hydrogen chloride and VOCs may also be released and are mentioned above. The manufacture and fabrication of vinyl flooring produces scrap waste that may be disposed of in landfills, decreasing their capacity. Fuel combustion releases the emissions mentioned above. VOCs are also released, with the effects mentioned above. During installation, use, and maintenance of vinyl flooring, stripping and waxing of flooring without a no-wax finish can release VOCs and other chemical emissions into the indoor air. VOCs can also be released by the flooring itself and by adhesive used to adhere the flooring to the floor. Trim scraps are normally disposed of in landfills. In the recycling, reuse, or disposal phase, used vinyl flooring is disposed of in landfills, with a consequent decrease in landfill capacity. Some vinyl flooring made before the mid-1980s contains asbestos. The demolition of such flooring is a potentially hazardous process (depending on the condition of the flooring) that should be performed by specially trained individuals to prevent exposure to asbestos dust. State and local regulations should be checked for licensing and/or certification requirements. When vinyl flooring waste is incinerated, hydrogen chloride, metal chlorides, and dioxin may be released. Heavy metals found in old formulations of vinyl flooring may remain in the incinerator ash, which then has to be disposed of as hazardous waste. To sum up regarding the PVC component of vinyl flooring, the environmental and health risks associated with PVC are greatest at the two ends of its lifetime: during manufacturing and disposal (if by incineration). Most PVC products (speaking generically) are safe to use and some offer significant durability, cost, and maintenance advantages compared with competing products (Malin and Wilson 1994).

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for vinyl flooring is presented in figure 12.
Vinyl Composition
Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyvinyl Esters
Both polyvinyl chloride (vinyl chloride homopolymers) and polyvinyl esters (vinyl chloridevinyl acetate copolymers) are used in the manufacture of vinyl flooring. As a general rule, polyvinyl chloride is used primarily in sheet flooring and vinyl tiles, whereas polyvinyl esters are usually contained in vinyl composition tiles (Ullmann 1986).
Vinyl Acetate Production. The production of vinyl acetate is discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Vinyl Chloride Monomer Production. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is produced through poly-
merization of vinyl chloride. The raw materials for vinyl chloride manufacture are ethylene and chlorine, which, in the presence of a catalyst, undergo a vapor phase exothermic reaction to form dichloroethane (or ethylene dichloride). The dichloroethane is distilled and undergoes a cracking process to form vinyl chloride monomer and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Polymerization
Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) is polymerized to PVC through three main methods: the suspension process, the emulsion process, and the bulk- (or mass-) polymerization process.
VINYL FLOORING
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15
Vinyl Flooring
Figure 12: Vinyl FlooringMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Natural gas production (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl ester production)
Stressor
Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygendepleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Fuel combustion emissions (air emissions from dieselpowered drills)
Impact/Stressor
Increased BOD Environmental poisoning
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
VOCs
Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Decreased visibility
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion
Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems; impairs ability of the blood to carry oxygen)
Global warming
Particulates
Nitrogen oxides Crude oil extraction (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl ester production) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl ester production) Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Water pollution (see impacts above)
Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation
(see impacts above)
16
MAT 09652
VINYL FLOORING
Vinyl Flooring
Figure 12: Vinyl FlooringMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Crude oil processing (raw materials for polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl ester production)
Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Release of oil and suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution
(see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above)
Habitat disruption Consumption of toxics by fish Known human carcinogen Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH Increased BOD Known human carcinogen (see impacts above) Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, and chlorides Wastewater containing phenol
Distillation process, air emissions Catalytic cracking
Mercaptans VOCs Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, cyanides, and ammonia Wastewater containing phenol
Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides VOCs Carbon monoxide Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene
Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Various human health effects Some possible human carcinogens
Vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate manufacture
Ethylene production
Benzene and VOCs Chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals
(see impacts above) Increased BOD (see impacts above) Consumption of toxics by fish Possible fishkill
Chlorine production
Air emissions
Chlorine
Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans
Brine mud
Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition (see impacts above) Possible fishkill
Wastewater
Chlorine and sulfuric acid
VINYL FLOORING
MAT 09652
17
Vinyl Flooring

Activity
Vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate manufacture (continued)
Stressor
Fuel combustion
Impact/Stressor
Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
VOCs Sulfur oxides Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates Nitrogen oxides
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl esters manufacture
Fugitive air emissions
Vinyl chloride monomer Vinyl acetate 1,3-Butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride
Known human carcinogen Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Respiratory irritation Nervous system effects
Fugitive emissions of PCBs
Endocrine system disruption, skin rash, irritation to eyes, nose, and lungs Liver and kidney damage in experimental animals
Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater
(see impacts above) Methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, zinc Dioxins Acutely toxic to many species Various health effects including cancer, birth defects, and effects to the skin, immune system, liver, kidneys, and thyroid Sludge Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above)
Stearic acid production (for manufacture of stabilizers)
Fuel combustion (see impacts above) Tallow production Beef cattle farming Drainage of material from feedlots Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Fuel combustion Corn and grain cultivation and harvesting Pesticides runoff (see impacts above) Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Fertilizer runoff Increased loading of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD Deoxygenation Habitat alteration Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
18
MAT 09652
VINYL FLOORING
Vinyl Flooring

Activity
Stearic acid production (for manufacture of stabilizers (continued)
Stressor
Tallow production (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Corn and grain cultivation and harvesting (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Soil erosion and depletion
Impact/Stressor
Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation (see impacts above)
Fuel combustion Fatty acid production Soybean oil production (for manufacture of stabilizers) Soil erosion and depletion Fuel combustion Soybean oil preparation Pressing and solvent extraction Solvent extraction Hydrolysis Soybean cultivation Fuel combustion emissions VOCs Pesticide runoff Fertilizer runoff (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased loading of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Fuel combustion VOC emissions Fugitive hexane emissions
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Human health effects including nausea, headaches, numbness, muscular weakness, eye and nose irritation, dermatitis, chemical pneumonia, and giddiness
Soybean oil processing Phthalates production (for manufacture of plasticizers) Fugitive emissions Air emissions
Isomerization VOC emissions Carbon monoxide Sulfur oxides Particulates Nonmethane VOCs Phthalates
Fuel combustion (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Health effects include endocrine system, reproductive system, and possibly carcinogenic effects
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) Wastewater containing phthalates Limestone mining (for use as filler) Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Tailings waste Environmental poisoning Reduced reproduction Runoff
Carcinogenic to experimental animals
Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
VINYL FLOORING
MAT 09652
19
Vinyl Flooring

Activity
Pigment production
Stressor
Mining of minerals Titanium dioxide
Impact/Stressor
(see mining impacts above) Potential for human occupational health effects
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Acrylic ink manufacture
Acrylic resin manufacture
Crude oil extraction Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye irritation, respiratory irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects
Acrylic resin manufacture, esterization/ polymerization stage Manufacture of cellulose fiber backing (or substrate) Glass fiber production (for use in substrate or backing) Mining of glass sands, limestone, and borax Glass fiber manufacture Fuel combustion
(see impacts above)
(see mining impacts above) Air emissions Hydrogen sulfide Fuel combustion emissions Fluorides Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Effluent Phenols Ammonia Dissolved and suspended solids and oil and grease Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Fishkill Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Odors (see impacts above)
Styrene butadiene rubber manufacture (for use in flooring substrate or backing)
Crude oil extraction Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Styrene production
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Benzene production Release of benzene Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Ethylene production (see impacts above)
Acrylic latex manufacture (for use in flooring substrate or backing)
Acrylic resin manufacture
(see impacts above)
20
MAT 09652
VINYL FLOORING
Vinyl Flooring

Activity
Mining of limestone and talc (for use in flooring substrate or backing) Acrylic coating manufacture Polyurethane coating manufacture Polyurethane production Toluene diisocyanate production Fugitive emissions Human health effects: potent irritant to the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes Fugitive emissions of phosgene Human health effects: irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract, difficulty breathing, cyanosis, and vomiting Fugitive emissions of hydrogen chloride Acid precipitation Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Human health effects include burning of the eyes and nose, choking, nausea, chest pain, headache, pulmonary edema, others VOC emissions (see impacts above) Natural gas production (see impacts above) Acrylic resin manufacture (see impacts above)
Stressor
See mining impacts above
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
In the suspension and the emulsion processes, the vinyl chloride monomer is mixed with water before the polymerization reaction begins. The water, as a reaction medium, helps make possible a close control of the reaction temperature. During the production of PVC, the polymerization reaction is not taken to completion. Instead it is stopped at a predetermined point, and the unreacted vinyl chloride is distilled out and returned to the system for later use. The slurry of water and PVC particles undergoes a stripping process that removes traces of the monomer, and then the water and PVC are separated by a centrifuging process. The PVC then is hot-air dried. Emulsion resins are spray dried and milled to a dry powder (Norsk Hydro 1992; Ullmann 1986; Borrelli 1995; Anderson 1995c). Each of these three processes is employed in the production of PVC for vinyl flooring, and each process produces materials that lend themselves to different applications (Ullmann 1986). For example, the suspension process produces relatively coarse polymer particles, whereas the emulsion process produces much finer particles. The polymer produced by the emulsion process is employed when a liquid coating (plastisol) is needed. The PVC used in vinyl flooring produced in the United States accounted for less than 4 percent of the total U.S. PVC sales of 13 billion lbs in 1994 (Anderson 1995b).
VINYL FLOORING
MAT 09652
21
Vinyl Flooring
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Preparation of the Vinyl Component of Vinyl Flooring
General Pollutants. Essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials; and the vinyl chloride manufacturing process has been closely regulated for almost 20 years. Continuous area monitoring systems are used to identify and correct possible fugitive emissions from agitator and pump seals, valves and piping joints, and storage tanks. EPA estimates that vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) emissions have been reduced by over 99 percent since workplace standards were introduced in the 1970s (Borrelli 1995). Largescale releases do occur, however. Sometimes the polymerization process has to be terminated quickly because of operator error or power failure due to storms, and the only way to control pressure within the reactor and avoid possible explosion is to release the vinyl chloride into the atmosphere (Malin and Wilson 1994) through the use of flares (Anderson 1995c). According to the Tellus Institute (1992), sources of fugitive emissions of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) include agitator seals, pump seals, valves, leaks in polymerization equipment, dryer vents, and bagging. Emissions of VCM are estimated at 1.8 pounds per ton of PVC produced in uncontrolled situations and 1.6 pounds per ton of PVC in controlled situations (Tellus Institute 1992). Industry believes, however, that the Tellus Institute has overstated VCM emissions by 15 to 50 times (Borrelli 1995). In the PVC itself, according to an industry report, the VCM content is low. During production, modern stripping technology reduces the VCM content in PVC material to about 1 to 2 parts per million or less (Borrelli 1995; Norsk Hydro 1991). Further VCM disappears during additional processing and manufacture of flooring (Norsk Hydro 1991). Vinyl chloride monomer is a known human carcinogen, and there is no evidence that an exposure level exists that does not increase risk of cancer (NIEHS 1989). As a result, vinyl chloride and PVC production facilities are strictly regulated. In the environment, VCM does not react when released into water, does not accumulate in aquatic organisms, and is not absorbed into sediments. VCM has a low aquatic toxicity. In the presence of sunlight and photosensitizers such as humic acid, VCM will decompose rapidly to carbon dioxide and hydrochloric acid. In the atmosphere, the fate of VCM will depend on the other gases present and the levels of sunlight; the half-life of VCM in the atmosphere ranges from about one day to a few hours (Norsk Hydro 1992). Ethylene dichloride (EDC), an intermediate product in the manufacture of VCM, may be released into the environment through fugitive emissions from valves, pipe joints, and storage tanks. EDC evaporates rapidly in air, where it is destroyed by reaction with air in sunlight. It is relatively stable when dispersed in water. There is no evidence of its accumulation in plants or animals, and it has a very low toxicity to aquatic life (Norsk Hydro 1992). Other pollutants from PVC production include the following air emissions: suspended solids, particulates, sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), VOCs, carbon monoxide (CO), lead, methane, 1,3-butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride. Controlled water pollutants emitted during PVC production include methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, and zinc (Tellus Institute 1992). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have also been linked to the manufacture of PVC (Costner 1995). PCBs are disruptors to the endocrine system (Rice 1995). Exposure to PCBs may cause harmful effects to the skin and eyes and may irritate the nose and lungs; PCBs have caused liver and kidney damage to experimental animals (ToxFAQs 1993). 22
Vinyl Flooring
Solid waste from PVC manufacture consists of sludge from the settling ponds. After this sludge is dewatered, it may be sold for lower-specification applications. Sludge so contaminated as to be unsalable is deposited in authorized landfill sites. There is no evidence that this waste is the source of toxic leachate. Very small particles of PVC will pass through the manufacturers wastewater treatment process and will follow the effluent to the local sewage treatment plant. These particles are inert, however, and do not present a problem to the sewage works or contribute to environmental pollution (Norsk Hydro 1992). Dioxins. There is some concern that vinyl chloride manufacture may generate dioxins that then may be released into the environment (Hileman 1993; Greenpeace 1995). Dioxin is a general term that describes a class of chemically related compounds; basically they are halogenated (chlorinated or brominated) aromatic hydrocarbons that include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls. One form of dioxin, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), is of special interest from the standpoint of toxicity, human health, and environmental effects. TCDD is fatal to certain animal species in a single, very low dose and is regarded as one of the most toxic man-made chemicals ever studied. Dioxins cause a number of adverse health effects in laboratory animals, such as cancer, birth defects, and effects to the skin, immune system, liver, kidney, and thyroid hormones (The Chlorine Chemistry Council, n.d.). Severe exposure to dioxin causes chloracne (a disfiguring skin condition) and transient liver damage in humans (Norsk Hydro 1992). Preliminary evidence may exist for a link between dioxins exposure and reproductive, developmental, and immune system effects (Greenpeace 1994). Epidemiological evidence from the site of a chemical accident that resulted in elevated dioxin levels shows a possible link between dioxin exposure and human cancer risk (Raloff 1993). Recent studies show a dose-dependent relationship between dioxin exposure and the development of endometriosis in rhesus monkeys. Endometriosis is a reproductive and immunological disease that affects an estimated five million women in the United States (Endometriosis Association 1995; Adler 1993). In response to new scientific knowledge of the biological, human health, and environmental effects of dioxins, the EPA is currently studying these issues of human and environmental exposure to TCDD and dioxins and is reassessing the potential for risk. An investigation of the PVC industryspecifically, of manufacturers of key chemicals for PVC productionwas conducted by an environmental organization (Costner 1995). Three process waste samples from plants producing vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and its precursor, ethylene dichloride (EDC), were analyzed. (The process streams containing these wastes are not released into the environment but normally undergo further processing in which the dioxins are destroyed [Borrelli 1995; Anderson 1995c].) An environmental group indicates that incineration destroys only a portion of the original dioxins in this waste and can actually produce some additional dioxin in the incineration (Rice 1995)). These process waste samples showed dioxin levels ranging from 761 parts per billion to 200,750 ppb. (Because of cost considerations, only three process waste samples and one sediment sample were analyzed for dioxin content [Costner 1995]). Twenty-five samples from nine EDC/VCM facilities were analyzed and were found to contain one or more chemicals that may indicate the presence of dioxin. (These indicator chemicals are hexachlorobenzene, 1,1,2,3,4,4-hexachloro-1,3-butadiene, tetrachlorobenzene, pentachlorobenzene, and 1,1,3,4-tetrachloro-1,3-butadiene.) Analysis of one sediment sample collected from the outflow of an EDC/VCM facility showed a total dioxin concentration of greater than 2.911 ppb (Costner 1995). According to industry, this sample was taken from an outflow serving several different types of chemical manufacturing facilities; the dioxin concentration is said to be similar to normal background soil levels (Borrelli 1995). Although minimal dioxin releases may occur during PVC manufactur-
VINYL FLOORING
MAT 09652
23
Vinyl Flooring
ing, many researchers believe that PVC manufacture is not a significant source of dioxin contamination (Malin and Wilson 1994). Natural Resource Depletion. Production of 1.0 pound of PVC requires 0.123 pounds of crude oil, 0.371 pounds of natural gas, and 0.507 pounds of salt (Franklin Associates 1991).
Energy Consumed
A study of the European polymer industry showed that 66.80 MJ of energy are consumed per kilogram of polyvinyl chloride produced (28,720 Btus/lb) (Boustead 1994). Of this total, 29.56 MJ/kg (12,710 Btus/lb) represent the total embodied energy of the feedstock for polyvinyl chloride production, and 37.24 MJ/kg (16,010 Btus/lb) are the total embodied energy of the fuels needed to power the operation. Two earlier studies estimate 27,200 Btus/lb (63.3 MJ/kg) (Chem Systems 1991) and 34,000 Btus/lb (79 MJ/kg) (Franklin Associates 1991).
Ethylene Production
Ethylene is manufactured from ethane, which is produced from natural gas. Ethylene can also be manufactured from petroleum products. Worldwide, vinyl production represents less than 0.3 percent of annual oil and gas consumption (Borrelli 1995). The extraction and processing of natural gas are described in detail in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The extraction, processing, and refining of crude oil are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The manufacture of ethylene is discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Ethylene
The environmental effects associated with the extraction and processing of natural gas and crude oil are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The environmental effects associated with ethylene manufacture are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Energy Consumed
The above-mentioned study of the European polymer industry showed that 70.17 MJ of energy are consumed per kilogram (30,168 Btus/lb) of ethylene produced (specifically, ethylene used in the production of vinyl chloride monomer) (Boustead 1994). Of this total, 47.25 MJ/kg (20,314 Btus/lb) represent the total embodied energy of the feedstock for polyvinyl chloride production, and 22.92 MJ/kg (9,854 Btus/lb) are the total embodied energy of the fuels needed to power the operation.
Chlorine Production
The production of chlorine is described in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Chlorine
The environmental effects associated with the manufacture of chlorine are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Energy Consumed
The above-mentioned study of the European polymer industry showed that 18.20 MJ of energy are consumed per kilogram (7,825 Btus/lb) of chlorine produced (specifically, chlorine used in the production of vinyl chloride monomer) (Boustead 1994).
Stabilizers
Stabilizers are used to protect the flooring composition against degradation caused by both heat and ultraviolet light during processing and during use. The stabilizers most commonly used are soaps of barium, calcium, and zinc. Certain organotin compounds may also be used.
24
MAT 09652
VINYL FLOORING
Vinyl Flooring
These are various mono- and di-organotin compounds and are chemically different from the triorganotin compounds used as biocides in crop protection. A commonly used organotin stabilizer is dioctyl tin isoctyl thioglycalate (Borrelli 1995). Organotin compounds were developed to replace the more toxic lead and cadmium soaps, which are not widely used today (Ullmann 1986; Anderson 1995b). Epoxidized oils such as soybean oil, tallate esters, and other partially unsaturated oils are frequently used as costabilizers. The particular blends of stabilizers used in vinyl flooring are proprietary (Ullmann 1986).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Stabilizers
Soaps of barium, calcium, and zinc are produced from natural or synthetic fatty acids or from stearic acid (Anderson 1995b). Stearic acid and soap production and the associated environmental effects are discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). The production of fatty acids is discussed in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930). The production of soybean oil and its associated environmental effects are discussed in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930). Tallate esters are esters of tall-oil fatty acids. Tall oil is produced from paper processing waste and is discussed in the material report on stains and varnishes (09930).
Plasticizers
The vinyl binder system is plasticized to provide flexibility and resilience as well as to facilitate processing. One commonly used plasticizer in vinyl flooring is di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Some other plasticizers are butylbenzyl phthalate, butyloctyl phthalate, and 2,2,4trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol-diisobutyrate, also known under the trade name TXIB (Gustafsson 1991; Rosell 1990). Industry indicates that DEHP has been phased out because of regulations in the state of California (Anderson 1995c). Phthalate production is described in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Plasticizers
The general environmental effects associated with the production of plasticizers are described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has stated that there is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in experimental animals. An IARC working group has reported, however, that there are no adequate data available to evaluate the carcinogenicity of DEHP in humans (7th Annual Report on Carcinogens 1994). An environmental group reports that DEHP and other phthalates have been linked to liver damage, reproductive disorders, and birth defects in animals. Endocrine system, reproductive, and carcinogenic effects are also reported (Rice 1995).
Energy Consumed
No data are available on the amount of energy required for the production of phthalates. Energy released during the exothermic conversion of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride is captured and reused (Austin 1984).
Fillers
The stabilized and plasticized vinyl component (the binder) is combined with an inorganic filler to provide mass and thickness. Calcium carbonate (limestone) is the preferred filler in vinyl flooring. Talc and clay are rarely used because of their stiffening effect. Fillers increase the dimensional stability and reduce the elasticity of vinyl flooring. They also improve flame-
VINYL FLOORING
MAT 09652
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Vinyl Flooring
spread ratings and reduce smoke generation. In the past, asbestos was used as a filler (Ullmann 1986). The extraction of limestone by mining is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Pigments
Pigments are added to provide color and opacity. The preferred white pigment is titanium dioxide. Of the colored pigments, most are inorganic; however, certain colors (blue, green, and some yellow) are available only as organic compounds (Ullmann 1986). An industry source indicates that pigments do not include heavy metals (Anderson 1995a). An environmental organization, however, on the basis of material safety data sheets, has found heavy metals as ingredients of some pigments (Beyea and Campaigne 1995). Titanium dioxide production is discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). The rotogravure design is made of PVC or acrylic ink (Anderson 1995a). Acrylic resin production is discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300).
Other Compounding Ingredients When flooring must meet certain code requirements with regard to flame spread and smoke generation, certain additional compounds may be added to the formulation. These may include aluminum oxide trihydrate, antimony trioxide, phosphate esters or chlorinated hydrocarbon plasticizers, zinc oxide, and boron compounds (Ullmann 1986). Because these materials have specialized applications, they are not discussed in this report. Substrate The substrate, or backing, used in layered composite flooring is made up of cellulose fibers, glass fiber, styrene butadiene latex, or acrylic latex, along with inorganic fillers such as limestone and talc. The substrate is adhered through use of a plastisol PVC paste (Anderson 1995a, 1995c). Inlaid sheet vinyl flooring may have a felt composition backing (Ullmann 1986). The purpose of the substrate is to establish dimensional performance of the product and to aid in processing. Vinyl composition tile is rarely manufactured with a substrate (Anderson 1995b).
Cellulose fiber is produced from wood waste (sawdust) or paper fibers. This material is picked up on a rotating screened drum or by a traveling screen. The sheet is dried by vacuum suction and steam-heated drums and then calendared and wound into large rolls to produce the backing (Kirk-Othmer 1982). The acquisition of raw materials to produce glass fiber, the manufacture of glass fiber, and the wastes generated during these processes are discussed in the material reports on thermal insulation (07200) and on gypsum board systems (joint tape) (09250). The production of SBR and acrylic latex is discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). The acquisition and processing of limestone is discussed in the material report on plaster and lath (09200); of talc, in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Foam Layer The foam layer in layered composite sheet flooring is produced from a plasticized PVC paste containing a foaming agent that releases nitrogen when the material is exposed to elevated temperatures. The nitrogen remains in the foam and produces the cell structure (Anderson 1995a, 1995b). Azobis(formamide) is usually the blowing agent (Ullmann 1986).
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Adhesive Residential tile intended to be sold to homeowners frequently has a preapplied, pressure-sensitive adhesive for ease of installation. Specific adhesives used for vinyl flooring are not discussed in this report. No-wax Finish The manufacturer may apply a melamine, water-based acrylic, or polyurethane coating as a finish. These materials are discussed in the material reports on stains and varnishes (09930) and on plastic laminates (06240).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacturing and fabrication of vinyl flooring is presented in figure 13.
Layered Composite Sheet Vinyl Layered composite sheet vinyl flooring is usually composed of a backing of filled fibrous felt composition, glass fiber, or a flexible vinyl; a foam layer; a rotogravure printed pattern; and a transparent or translucent unfilled vinyl wear layer.
Production involves the use of vinyl plastisols, which are dispersions of polymerized vinyl resins, along with plasticizers, stabilizers, pigments, and other additives. When heated to 180195C, the plasticizers solvate the resins to form a plastic film.
Figure 13: Vinyl FlooringManufacturing and Fabrication Stage

Activity
Solid manufacturing waste Solid and liquid hazardous waste Fuel combustion (layered composite sheet vinyl, inlaid sheet vinyl, vinyl composition tile, vinyl tile) Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Particulates Ground-level ozone (smog) Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Vinyl flooring manufacture VOCs (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Disposal in hazardous waste landfill VOCs Decreased hazardous waste landfill capacity Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation
Stressor
Landfill disposal
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
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In the manufacture of layered composite sheet vinyl, layers of plastisol are applied to the felt backing. In some types, a nonfoaming plastisol base coat may first be applied to the backing. It is then coated with a foamable plastisol that contains the blowing agent. (A typical formulation for this foam layer is 50 percent by weight vinyl resin, 30 percent plasticizers, 15 percent fillers and pigments, 2.5 percent blowing agent, and the remainder epoxidized oils and stabilizers.) At elevated temperatures, the blowing agent decomposes to produce the expanding gases. The foamable plastisol is then gelled, converting the plastisol from a liquid to a solid by heating, and forming a smooth printable substrate. Using vinyl inks, a pattern is applied by rotogravure printing. An embossed pattern is achieved by employing agents (in selected inks) that interfere with the expansion of the foam coat. Finally, a transparent or translucent plastisol wear layer is applied, and the entire structure is heated to a temperature adequate for complete fusion of the plastisols and expansion of the foam layer. Some manufacturers apply a surface coating of polyurethane to the final product for improved gloss retention (Ullmann 1986).
Inlaid Sheet Vinyl The inlaid vinyl wear layer in inlaid sheet vinyl flooring is composed mainly of PVC homopolymer; however, some copolymer may be used in accent colors. A typical formulation contains about 30 percent vinyl resin (weight basis). The filler, usually calcium carbonate, together with pigments, accounts for about 60 percent of the formulation. Plasticizers are generally phthalates and make up less than 10 percent of the formulation. Epoxidized oils and stabilizers make up the remainder. An unfilled vinyl matrix may sometimes be used in conjunction with this filled vinyl composition (Ullmann 1986).
After the ingredients are mixed and fused, they are milled or calendered into sheets of solid or variegated color. The sheets are fractured, cut, or ground into various shapes and sizes. Colors may be combined in a single mix. A random inlaid design is produced by casting the particles onto a backing and applying heat and pressure. Precise, repeating designs can be made by using a stencil to position the particles onto the felt backing (Ullmann 1986). Another method utilizes colored vinyl particles (i.e., chips, flakes, or beads) and a clear vinyl plastisol coating. The particles can be predispersed in the plastisol, which is then applied to a backing and fused with heat. Alternatively, the plastisol can first be applied to the backing. The particles are subsequently scattered and embedded into the coating, and the entire structure is fused with heat. To provide an overall random inlaid design, a high-density particle distribution pattern is applied. A lower density particle distribution will allow any decorative pattern printed on the backing to show through the inlaid vinyl wear layer, creating additional design effects (Waite and Stoudt 1995).
Homogeneous Sheet Vinyl Flooring The resins, plasticizers, and fillers used in the formulation for homogeneous sheet vinyl flooring are similar to those of inlaid sheet vinyl. A typical formulation consists of about 47 percent vinyl resin, 33 percent fillers and pigments, and 16 percent plasticizers. Epoxidized oils and stabilizers make up the remainder (Ullmann 1986).
Homogeneous vinyl sheet flooring is manufactured by a combination of calendering, consolidating, and laminating. After the ingredients are mixed, they are sheeted through one or more two-roll mills. Accent colors may be added to the web at one of the mills. The material is then calendered through a four-roll calender. Calendered sheets may be laminated together to produce a thicker product (Ullmann 1986).
Vinyl Composition Tile The vinyl resins normally used in vinyl composition tiles are copolymers of vinyl chloridevinyl acetate, with a vinyl acetate content of 6 to 13 percent by weight. Some PVC
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homopolymer may be blended into the resins. The manufacture of vinyl composition tile requires a high proportion of filler. A typical formulation consists of 80 percent fillers and pigments, 13 percent vinyl resins, 5 percent plasticizers, and the remainder processing aids and stabilizers. After mixing, the doughlike mass is dropped onto a two-roll mill; accent colors are added. When the graining is judged to be right, the stock is folded into blankets to allow for more uniform graining when it passes through the sheeting calender. It then passes through a second finishing calender, which reduces it to the final thickness and provides a smooth face. To produce tile with a surface-applied design, accent chips are applied to the face of the tile between the first and second calender. An embossed surface texture may be applied by passage between an additional pair of rolls. After exiting the final calender, the hot sheet may have a factory finish of wax or synthetic polish applied to it. The sheet is cooled and die-cut in a punch press.
Vinyl Tile The primary difference between vinyl composition tile and vinyl tile is in the amount of vinyl component. In vinyl tile, the stabilized and plasticized vinyl component (referred to as the binder) may be greater than 34 percent of the formula. In contrast, vinyl composition tile has no minimum binder level requirement (Ullmann 1986; Anderson 1995c).
The formulation for vinyl tile is similar to that of the filled vinyl composition used in inlaid sheet flooring. Vinyl tile is more varied in construction and manufacture than vinyl composition tile. Many of these manufacturing processes are proprietary and cannot be described here. In general, however, these processes are similar to the ones used in the production of homogeneous sheet vinyl flooring (Ullmann 1986).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Vinyl Flooring
Data on waste produced during the manufacturing stage are incomplete. One manufacturer reports that it recycles its manufacturing waste into industrial flooring and other products (Collins and Aikman, n.d.).
Energy Consumed
Data on energy consumed during the manufacturing stage are unavailable.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the installation, use, and maintenance of vinyl flooring is presented in figure 14. Vinyl flooring is commonly used in kitchens, bathrooms, laundry rooms, and recreational rooms of residential construction, in institutional settings (such as schools and hospitals), and in commercial applications where a comfortable, durable, easy-to-clean floor is required. Vinyl flooring must be protected from moisture from below. For this reason, it should not be installed over uncured concrete (Gustafsson 1991). Vinyl flooring has a useful life of fifteen years or more. In residential applications, where nowax flooring is more commonly used, no-wax vinyl flooring has the advantage of easy maintenance and may reduce the need for strippers and waxes that emit chemicals into the air. The manufacturer may apply a melamine, water-based acrylic, or polyurethane coating as a finish. Vinyl composition tile contains mineral fillers and is slightly porous; it requires a floor finish to fill the pores.
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Figure 14: Vinyl FlooringConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity
Stripping and waxing (for vinyl composition and other flooring without a no-wax finish) Trim scraps Vinyl flooring constituents: PVC resins, plasticizers, solvents, contaminants/ impurities, dye solvents Vinyl flooring adhesives VOCs (see impacts above) Other chemical emissions Landfill disposal VOCs, including Clean Air Act hazardous air pollutants Various health and/or environmental effects Decreased landfill capacity (see impacts above), and Other health effects
Stressor
VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Installation, Use, and Maintenance of Vinyl Flooring
Solid waste in the form of trim scraps is produced during the installation process. An industry source indicates that although data on quantities produced are not available, these wastes are generally small (Freeman and Tshudy 1995).
Indoor Air Quality
Emissions Data. A 1988 study by EPA identified and quantified emissions of twenty chemical substances from one type of vinyl tile. The total VOC emission rate was found to be 0.045 mg/m2/h (EPA 1988). Another EPA study reviewed the literature on VOC emissions associated with resilient floor coverings (EPA 1992). Emission studies included headspace testing, modeling, and, most frequently, environmental test chamber studies. Much of the data collected were qualitative rather than quantitative; that is, the constituents were identified but the amounts were not determined. In some cases, the references did not differentiate among sheet vinyl flooring, vinyl tile, and others. In addition, as far as can be determined, none of the emission studies was performed on installed flooring, which would have included the adhesive. The studies reviewed showed that emissions are predominantly aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, and halogenated hydrocarbons (EPA 1992). Emissions originated from the PVC resins, plasticizers, solvents, and contaminants or impurities in the raw materials used to manufacture the flooring. One study revealed high concentrations of solvent emissions; the solvents originated from the dyes that were in use at that time to produce patterns on the tiles (EPA 1992). Some of the emissions identified in the studies are substances defined by the Clean Air Act as hazardous air pollutants. Among these are formaldehyde; emissions in one study were measured at .030 mg/m2/hour. Other (hazardous) pollutants were detected (but not necessarily quantified). These include methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, trichloroethylene, ethylbenzene, glycol ether, 2butanone, benzyl chloride, and phenol. On the basis of the emission studies, product information, and contacts with industry at the time, the authors of the EPA review reached the following conclusions (EPA 1992):
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Emissions from vinyl flooring originate from the PVC resins, plasticizers, solvents, and contaminants. The adhesives used in resilient flooring installation are greater sources of indoor air emissions than the actual flooring materials. Off-gassing of organic vapors occurs during and after installation from both the flooring itself and the adhesives. There are fewer emissions from adhesive-backed vinyl tiles than from tiles requiring applied adhesives. The concentration of emissions from resilient flooring decreases substantially within twenty-four hours of installation. The use of adhesives in sheet vinyl flooring may be avoided by stretching the sheet over the floor surface and securing the edges with floor molding. Some sheet vinyl flooring can be stapled at the perimeter and glued only at the seams and portions of the perimeter. Although this reduces the amount of adhesive used, buckling can occur. The use of vinyl tiles with an adhesive backing is another option for reducing indoor emissions. These tiles produce less odor during and immediately after installation than tiles requiring adhesive (EPA 1992). Since almost all sheet vinyl flooring produced todaymost of the residential market (Freeman and Tshudy 1995)is considered no-wax, it does not require treatment with wax or sealers, which may themselves be sources of air emissions (EPA 1992). A Swedish study suggests that the plasticizer TXIB (2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanedioldiisobutyrate) may be a possible cause of health complaints in schools and office buildings that use vinyl flooring. Although this study found a correlation between TXIB and health complaints, it did not establish a causal relationship (Rosell 1990). This semivolatile ester was measured in concentrations ranging from 0.1 mg/m3 to 1 mg/m3. The materials discussed in this study are not necessarily representative of materials manufactured and used in the United States. A Finnish report (Saarela and Sandell 1991) listed VOC emission rates from samples of both new and used vinyl flooring. Several of the older samples were taken from flooring that had caused health complaints. Emissions from the complaint materials ranged from 0.273 mg/m2/h to 7.034 mg/m2/h. In all the samples, the plasticizer TXIB accounted for about half the emissions. The study indicated that certain emissions decrease slowly over time. Another study (Molhave 1982) of emissions from several different types of vinyl flooring identified twenty-seven compounds in emissions from solid PVC flooring, of which five are suspected carcinogens. Concentrations were 54.8 mg/m3 and the emission rate was 2.3 mg/m2/h. Again, the materials discussed in these studies are not necessarily representative of materials manufactured and used in the United States. Emission testing was performed by industry and an independent test facility on commonly specified commercial vinyl composition tile and commercial sheet vinyl (Armstrong World Industries 1995; Freeman and Tshudy 1995). (Material was tested in a controlled laboratory chamber in accordance with the standard method, Standard Test Method for Determining Total Volatile Organic Compound Emission Factors Using Small Environmental Chambers, as outlined under ASTM D 5116-90.) Combined results are presented in figure 15. To help in evaluating this information, a classification system for low-emission materials and products has been suggested based on emissions of total VOCs (Tucker 1990). Maximum emissions for floor coverings are 0.6 mg/m2/h at about 30 hours after installation.
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Figure 15: Total VOC Elapsed Exposure Measured in mg/m2 hr

Product Vinyl Composition Tile Sheet Vinyl (Product A) Sheet Vinyl (Product B) Sheet Vinyl (Product C) Sheet Vinyl (Product D) 1 hour .409 .355 .498 .234 .170 4 hours .300 .255 .162 .025 8 hours .197 .272 .385 .129 .066 24 hours .149 .194 .269 .078 .038 96 hours .036 .132 .162 .091 .048
A review by an industry information source of the indoor air quality literature as related to PVC building products concluded as follows (PVC Information Council 1995): No VCM and/or plasticizer emissions can be detected from PVC building products. (Another industry source indicates that some emissions have been detected from the plasticizer TXIB (Freeman and Tshudy 1995)). VOCs were emitted from PVC building materials; however, these emissions are not related to PVC itself, but to solvents and diluents. Improvement of Air Quality. When indoor air quality is considered relative to vinyl flooring, both the flooring material and the adhesive system should be taken into account. Currently, adhesive manufacturers are reducing or eliminating the use of volatile materials in flooring adhesives; consequently, many flooring adhesives are now available as water-based systems. Proper planning before installation can reduce impact on indoor air quality. Adequate ventilation should be established at the start of installation, including floor preparation (wood preparation, leveling, patching, and sealing-compound use [Anderson 1995c]). If possible, installation can be scheduled for times when the building is not occupied. Ventilation should be maintained during the installation process by the opening of doors and windows, if possible, and the use of fans to direct exhaust emissions to the outdoors. If it is not possible to direct all air to the outside, the building ventilation system should be operated to bring in maximum outdoor air. Maximum ventilation should continue for 48 to 72 hours after installation (Armstrong World Industries 1994).
Energy Consumed
One study gives the total embodied energy of vinyl products (generically and without fillers or other components) at the point of use as 34,000 Btus/lb (79.1 MJ/kg) of product (Franklin Associates 1991). Another study gives an embodied energy value of 108.5 MJ/m2 or 63.8 MJ/kg (85,973 Btus/yd2 or 27,733 Btus/lb) over a standard 8-year life span specified in this study (calculated from an embodied energy of 203.4 MJ/m2 [161,199 Btus/yd2] over a 15-year flooring equivalence period) (Potting and Blok 1994). Of this energy value, 1.6 percent is attributed to transportation, as compared to 6.5 percent in the first study. An industry report (Armstrong World Industries 1995) reviewed the first studys embodied energy and corrected the energy amount to reflect the actual composition (which includes fillers and other ingredients in addition to polymeric binders). The embodied energy reported for Armstrong Medintech Vinyl Flooring was 22,561 Btus/lb (52.48 MJ/kg), and the embodied energy reported for Armstrong 1/8 in. Vinyl Composition Tile was 5,906 Btus/lb (13.7 MJ/kg).
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A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of vinyl flooring is presented in figure 16. There is limited post-consumer recycling of scrap and used vinyl flooring in the United States. One manufacturer reclaims used floor covering and recycles the material into other products, such as parking stops and industrial flooring (Collins & Aikman, n.d.). Generally, waste vinyl flooring is taken to a landfill. Since most vinyl flooring in the United States contains a laminated backing, recycling the vinyl into new vinyl flooring is hindered because a technology does not exist to separate the layers efficiently (Anderson 1995b). Products produced outside the United States are manufactured differently and do not present this problem; recycling systems for PVC flooring are in operation in Germany and Austria. The recovered flooring is used in the base layer of new flooring (Norsk Hydro 1992).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal of Vinyl Flooring
In the past, vinyl flooring contained asbestos, a known carcinogen. Since the mid-1980s, no asbestos has been used in vinyl flooring. Safety precautions must be carefully observed, however, in removing and disposing of old vinyl flooring during remodeling, renovation, or demolition, as it often contains asbestos. Rather than remove old flooring, it is preferable to install new flooring over old asbestos-containing flooring. If removal is desired, use a professional trained in asbestos removal. State and local regulations should be checked for licensing and/or certification requirements. A publication is available that provides guidance in removing old flooring (Resilient Floor Covering Institute 1990).
Figure 16: Vinyl FlooringRecyling, Reuse, or Disposal
Activity
Waste vinyl flooring Demolition of old (mid-1980s and older) vinyl flooring Waste vinyl flooring incineration Acid precipitation Hydrogen chloride emissions
Stressor
Landfill disposal Some old vinyl flooring is a potential asbestos hazard
Impact/Stressor
Decreased landfill capacity Procedures for removal of asbestos-containing materials must be followed Human health effects
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill
Metal chloride emissions Potentially increased emissions of dioxins
Health and environmental effects Acutely toxic to many species Various health effects including cancer, birth defects, and effects to the skin, immune system, liver, kidneys and thyroid
Heavy metals (from old formulations of vinyl flooring)
Heavy metals in incinerator ash and bottom ash
Disposal as hazardous waste
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In landfills, flexible PVC may lose some of its liquid content as the plasticizer migrates into other materials. In the upper layers of the landfill, plasticizer may be degraded by biological action to carbon dioxide and water, though the rate of decay is slow. Deeper in the landfill, such biological decay will cease. Flexible PVC will eventually become the equivalent of rigid PVC, a material which is very resistant to biodegradation and, at deeper levels in the landfill, is essentially inert. Any heavy-metal compounds present are physically locked into the PVC, and it is unlikely that they will make a significant contribution to the toxic leachate from the landfill site (Norsk Hydro 1992). When PVC is incinerated, a range of combustion products are produced with a toxic potential that is similar to (or worse than [Rice 1995]) those produced from other natural and synthetic polymers. In an incinerator, PVC is converted into carbon dioxide, water, and hydrogen chloride. Metallic chlorides may also be produced from the reaction of metal soap stabilizers with the hydrogen chloride. These chlorides will be of such metals as barium, calcium, and zinc; lead and cadmium soaps, although little used today, may add heavy metal compounds to the incinerator fumes when PVC containing such metals is incinerated. Metal chloride fumes are not efficiently removed by conventional electrostatic precipitators; flue-gas washing systems are required (Norsk Hydro 1992). The presence of PVC (from all sources) in municipal solid waste makes a significant contribution to the total chlorine load in incinerator fumes, accounting for approximately half. Most of this chlorine content appears as hydrogen chloride gas; a much smaller amount appears as heavy metal chlorides, as mentioned above; finally, a very small quantity appears as a component of the micropollutants dioxins and furans. An environmental group indicates that EPA has not identified a threshold level below which health effects will not occur (Rice 1995). The necessity of removing the hydrogen chloride from the fumes increases the operating costs of incineration. However, the total removal of PVC wastes from the incinerator waste stream, although reducing hydrogen chloride emissions significantly, would still not eliminate the need for flue-gas washing. Significant concentrations of heavy metals may be found in old formulations of PVC and, if incinerated, can contribute to ash residue. Because of the heavy metal compounds they contain, fly ash and bottom ash from waste incinerators must be treated as hazardous waste and disposed of in an appropriate manner. The role of PVC in the formation of dioxins during incineration has been the subject of debate and controversy for several years. Dioxins (and the chemically related furans) are produced as unintentional contaminants of a number of products. Dioxins are produced during the bleaching of paper pulp, the manufacture of herbicides, and many other chemical processes involving chlorine and oxygen. Many combustion processes also produce dioxins. Examples include wood burning, internal combustion engines, and older municipal waste incinerators that lack proper emission controls. Dioxins can be produced in these situations only if chlorinated chemicals are involved in the combustion process (Rice 1995). A number of studies have looked at the relationship between chlorine-containing materials (including PVC) in waste streams and dioxin emissions (Norsk Hydro 1992; Rigo et al. 1995). One review analyzed test results from 1,700 municipal waste combustors, hazardous waste incinerators, medical waste incinerators, waste-fired boilers, cement kilns, and biomass combustors (Rigo et al. 1995). In most cases studied, the separation of chlorine-bearing wastes from feedstocks did not affect the amount of dioxins emitted from the combustion facilities. No general conclusion could be drawn, according to the authors of this review, since some facilities displayed increases in dioxins and others dis-
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played decreases when chlorine-increased in the feed. A review of research by an environmental group has identified several studies that did find a relationship between the amount of chlorine-containing material (including PVC) and dioxin emissions (Rice 1995). Some workers believe that significant reductions in dioxin emissions from incinerators can be achieved by optimizing combustion conditions within the incinerator (Malin and Wilson 1994) and installing flue-gas cleaning systems (Norsk Hydro 1992, 1991). Further research, however, is needed to answer this question. PVC building materials may pose a hazard to health in general and to building occupants in particular during fires (Malin and Wilson 1994). Hydrochloric acid and other toxins, including dioxins and furans, are released when PVC burns; but the greatest danger is from toxins that may be released while the PVC heats up in the early stages of a fire, before the PVC ignites. And of course no pollution control devices operate to minimize emissions in such situations. The toxins that are released from the overheated PVC can go unnoticed for a time (Malin and Wilson 1994; Rice 1995).
Industry Perspective: Resilient Floor Covering Institute Vinyl floor coverings are noted for their durability, ease of maintenance, and availability in a wide range of colors and patterns, thus making them ideal for residential, commercial, and industrial applications.
The majority of materials making up most vinyl tile and sheet vinyl products are natural fillers, such as limestone and clay, making the product much more environmentally friendly than is often suggested. In vinyl composition tile, PVC content is only 10 to 17 percent; it is somewhat higher in sheet vinyl products. The industry has voluntarily removed asbestos from flooring materials and adhesives. It has developed industry work practices for the removal of old, asbestos-containing flooring that comply with OSHA and EPA requirements. In-plant recycling programs and efforts to reduce scrap output within plants are being conducted by all manufacturers. Although limited data are available in the United States on the effect of resilient flooring on indoor air quality, a number of industry manufacturers have conducted air-sampling tests which show that their products meet the stringent requirements of the Washington State indoor air regulations for state buildings. Much of the data on emissions cited in this text are European in origin and do not characterize U.S. products, which are often very different in composition, with more natural material components. The adhesives associated with installation of resilient flooring have generally been more of a concern in relation to indoor air quality than the flooring material itself, as is pointed out in this report. Manufacturers of adhesive and flooring products have made significant progress in developing compatible adhesives with a significantly lower VOC emission. These are primarily water-based adhesives. The institute believes that vinyl floor coverings do not adversely affect the environment and place no strain on the countrys resources.
Environmental Group Perspective: National Audubon Society As long as PVC is completely bound in long molecular chains (polymerized), it is not an environmental problem. Nevertheless, the polymer state represents only one stage of the materials life cycle, and PVC remains a contentious material with inherent overall risks asso-
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ciated with its use. It should be used minimally and only where necessary. Firefighters have regularly complained about the toxic materials released by PVC in smoky fires. Although tremendous improvements in control have been made at the production sites, workers remain at risk of cancer from the production of PVC, a known carcinogen. Fugitive and stack emissions of vinyl chloride must constantly be watched. Incineration of PVC following disposal is a major source of hydrochloric acid in stack emissions. The major indoor air quality concern is the off-gassing from the adhesives used with PVC and from emissions of chemicals found in the plasticizers and other additives required to give PVC its desirable properties. (The PVC industry consumes the bulk of all plasticizers.) In addition, there are some direct emissions of unpolymerized PVC from the material itself when the material is shredded or otherwise disturbed. There are larger environmental policy questions involved with the use of PVC as well. As a class of chemicals, the organochloride compounds (such as PVC) and their degradation products are responsible for some of our most serious environmental threats. The environmental community generally wants to see a phase-out or banning of these chemicals except for essential uses. Because there are so many risks and controversies associated with PVC, alternatives should be used whenever feasible. Synthetic rubber is another (albeit imperfect) alternative to consider.
Environmental Group Perspective: Greenpeace A healthy, sustainable world cannot include PVC. This is the conclusion not only of numerous environmental groups but also of such diverse organizations as the American Public Health Association, the International Joint Commission on the Great Lakes, the Ecocycle Committee of the Swedish Parliament, and the Austrian Supreme Court, which ruled in 1994 that PVC can legally be called an environmental poison. Over 150 local and provincial authorities in Europe have reached the same conclusion, banning or severely restricting the use of PVC in public buildings.
The reason is simple. As a result of the PVC life cycle, hundreds of extremely toxic substances are emitted to the environment. Once in the environment, these substances, even in tiny quantities, cause significant injury to the health of wildlife, humans, and the global environment. During PVC production, highly toxic by-productsincluding dioxin, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and other deadly organochlorinesare generated and ultimately released into the global environment. Hundreds of others, including many substances known or suspected of causing cancer and wreaking havoc on our reproductive and immune systems, are used as additives in making PVC products. Off-gassing of toxic additives occurs during the use of many PVC products, such as flooring or wallpaper, contributing to sick building syndrome. Incineration of PVC products represents another significant source of dioxin and other compounds toxic to the environment. EPA has named medical and municipal waste incinerators as the two largest sources of dioxin; PVC makes up a significant portion of the chlorinated input to such incinerators. Accidental fires involving PVC are potentially the largest source of dioxin. Sixty percent of all PVC is used in the construction sector; virtually all modern buildings today contain considerable quantities of PVC. European studies have shown significant levels of dioxin in ash samples taken from fire sites involving PVC.
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Regulatory Status
Once in existence, these persistent, toxic, and/or bioaccumulative substances cannot be rendered completely inert or harmlessly disposed of; there is no magic bullet. Dioxin and related compounds are now found in the tissues of humans and wildlife in all corners of the globe. Half of all substances known to disrupt the endocrine system, including dioxin, are generated or used in the production of PVC products. According to the EPA, dioxin levels in the tissues of the general U.S. population are now in the same range as levels in animals which have resulted in serious effects on reproductive and immune systems. Many of these noncancer effects may already be occurring in humans, causing irreparable damage to both current and future generations. Any additional releases only add to this risk. Members of the PVC industry would have us believe that PVC is the miracle material and that modern society cannot live without it. But the fact of the matter is that society, literally, cannot live with it. By avoiding the use of PVC in the built environment, architects will play a key role in ensuring the health of the natural environment and all of life it sustains.
Regulatory Status
The manufacturing process for vinyl flooring is covered by provisions of the Clean Air Act and the Clean Air Act Amendments, including Title V; the Clean Water Act; a variety of OSHA and EPA regulations; and various other federal standards. In addition, varying state regulations apply to all manufacturing plants (Anderson 1995a).
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References
References
Adler, T. 1993. Dioxin Linked to Reproductive Disorder. Science News 144: 356. November 27. Anderson, Walter D. 1995a. Managing director, Resilient Floor Covering Institute, Rockville, MD. Personal communication. . 1995b. Comments on draft of this report. May 3 and May 16. . 1995c. Comments on draft of this report. June 29. Armstrong World Industries. 1994. Indoor Air Quality and Commercial Resilient Floor Covering. . 1995. Vinyl or Linoleum: Helpful Information to Guide the Selection Process. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Beyea, Jan, and Alys Campaigne. 1995. Science staff, National Audubon Society. Comments on draft of this report. Borrelli, Frank E. 1995. Technical director, The Vinyl Institute, Newark, DE. Comments on draft of this report. April 27, May 11, May 12, and May 15. Boustead, Ian. 1994. Eco-profiles of the European Polymer Industry. Report: Polyvinyl Chloride. Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe, Technical and Environmental Centre, Brussels, Belgium. Chem Systems, Inc. 1991. Vinyl Products Life Cycle Assessment, Final Draft Report. August. The Chlorine Chemistry Council. No date. 20 Questions & Answers about Dioxins. Chemical Manufacturers Association, Washington, DC. Collins & Aikman. No date. Company information and press release. Dalton, GA. Costner, Pat. 1995. PVC: A Primary Contributor to the U.S. Dioxin Burden. Washington, DC: Greenpeace. Endometriosis Association. 1995. News release, Tracy H. Dickinson Research Chair of the Endometriosis Association Established. Milwaukee, WI. February 9. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: Society of the Plastics Industry.
Freeman, W. H., Jr., and James Tshudy. 1995. Floor Division and Research & Development, Armstrong World Industries, Inc. Comments on draft of this report. Greenpeace. 1994. Press release, USEPA Study on Dioxin Indicates Public Health Emergency. Washington, DC. May 11. . 1995. Press release. Greenpeace Releases Data Showing that Vinyl Factories Are Huge Producers of Dioxins and the Banned Chemicals, PCBs. Washington, DC. February 21. Gustafsson, Hans. 1991. Building Materials Identified as Major Emission Sources, Proceedings from ASHRAE IAQ-91/Healthy Buildings Conference in Washington, DC. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Hileman, Bette. 1993. Concerns Broaden over Chlorine and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons. Chemical and Engineering News. April 19. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1982. 3rd ed.. Vol. 20. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Malin, Nadav, and Alex Wilson. 1994. Should We Phase Out PVC? Environmental Building News 3(1). January/February. Molhave, Lars. 1982. Indoor Air Pollution Due to Organic Gases and Vapors of Solvents in Building Materials. Environment International 8: 117-27. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Norsk Hydro. 1991. PVC in Products and as Waste: Environmental Aspects. Norsk Hydro a.s., Petrochemical Division, Oslo, Norway. . 1991. PVC and the Environment. Norsk Hydro a.s., Oslo, Norway. Potting, Jose, and Kornelis Blok. 1993. The Environmental Life Cycle Analysis of Some Floor Coverings. Contribution to the First Setac World Congress, Lisbon, Portugal. March 1993. . 1994. Life-cycle Assessment of Four Types of Floor Covering. Department of Science, Technology and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands. PVC Information Council. 1995. PVC Building Products and Indoor Air. Members briefing, note number 06/95. Raloff, J. 1993. 1976 Dioxin Accident Leaves Cancer Legacy. Science News 144: 149. September 4.
Resilient Floor Covering Institute. 1990. Recommended Work Practices for the Removal of Resilient Floor Coverings. Rockville, MD. Rice, Bonnie. 1995. Greenpeace Chlorine-Free Campaign, Greenpeace. Comments on draft of this report. Rigo, H. Gregor, A. John Chandler, and W. Steven Lanier. 1995. The Relationship Between Chlorine in Waste Streams and Dioxin Emissions from Combustors. Draft. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Washington, DC. January 6. Rosell, Lars. 1990. High Levels of Semi-VOC in Indoor Air Due to Emission from Vinyl Flooring. Proceedings from Indoor Air Conference. Toronto, Canada. Saarela, K., and E. Sandell. 1991. Comparative Emission Studies of Flooring Materials with Reference to Nordic Guidelines. Proceedings of IAQ `91, ASHRAE/ICBR Healthy Buildings Conference. Washington, DC. 7th Annual Report on Carcinogens. 1994. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Gopher. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter its Mix. May. ToxFAQs. 1993. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Tucker, W. Gene. 1990. Building with Low-Emitting Materials and Products: Where Do We Stand? Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto, Canada. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1986. 5th ed. Vol. A 11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1988. Indoor Air Quality in Public Buildings. Vol 2. EPA/600/6-88/009b. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. . 1992. Indoor Air Pollution Source Catalog. EPA Contract No. 68-D1-0031, W.A. No. 07. Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC. . 1993. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42) Database. Waite, Matthew S., and Herb Stoudt. 1995. Sheet Vinyl Research & Development and Engineering, Tarkett, Inc. Comments on draft of this report.
38
MAT 09652
VINYL FLOORING
Material Report
Carpets, Cushions, and Adhesives

Highlights
Carpet fibers made from nylon, olefin, and polyester, as well as many of the components of carpet backing and cushion, are manufactured from petrochemicals. Extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas can produce a number of wastes, including drilling muds, drill cuttings, and wastewater containing various pollutants. Fuel combustion during extraction and processing operations can result in a number of air emissions. Manufacturing synthetic fibers can produce air emissions, including polymer dust and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Raising sheep for wool fiber results in pesticide runoff and nutrient runoff, which contributes to eutrophication. Washing, dyeing, and afterwashing wool fiber produces wastewater containing various pollutants. The production of styrene butadiene (SB) for SB latex backing and adhesives may release styrene monomer and various volatile by-products. Dyeing carpeting can release hazardous water pollutants; more efficient processes developed in recent years have helped reduce these discharges. Carpet installation produces wastes in the form of scraps and wrapping material. Some of this material is recycled. The disposal of used carpeting is a major solid waste problem; new technologies are being developed to recycle postconsumer carpeting and carpet cushion materials.
Petroleum and natural gas are finite resources that are in adequate supply at present. Raising sheep for wool results in devegetation and erosion of forage land.
Energy Consumption
The embodied energy for nylon carpeting (the most common type) is 63,500 Btu/lb (147.7 MJ/kg). No data are available for the embodied energy of wool carpets or carpets made of synthetic fibers.
Indoor Air Quality
Although VOC emissions from carpets themselves appear to be low, emissions from solvent-emulsion carpet adhesives have been measured at high levels. Most adhesive manufacturers now offer low solvent or nonsolvent adhesives that have low or zero calculated levels of VOC emissions. Industry has initiated a testing and labeling program for carpeting. This label includes guidelines for installation along with consumer information on carpet emissions and health.
CARPETS, CUSHIONS, AND ADHESIVES
MAT 09680

Background
Background
Carpets are widely used in both commercial and residential construction in the United States. They serve a variety of functions in these settings, ranging from sound and thermal insulation to comfort and color design. Carpeting is used in many public facilities, including corridors (for sound absorption), waiting rooms, lobbies, and offices. It is also being used more and more in patient rooms, wards, and nurseries in health care facilities and in elementary and preschool classrooms (Carpet and Rug Institute 1995b). The three major components of a carpet installation discussed in this report are carpets, carpet cushions, and carpet adhesives.
Carpets The first carpet mill was established in 1791 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Today, more than 255 manufacturing plants are located in 23 states. In 1950 the U.S. carpet industry shipped 97 million yds2 of carpet; in 1993 shipments came to 1.5 billion yds2. Broadloom carpets (defined as carpets and rugs larger than 6 ft by 9 ft) account for 83.2 percent of the industrys shipments in square yards; tufted broadloom accounts for 81.7 percent. Today nylon accounts for 65.2 percent of all face fibers used in the manufacture of carpets and rugs, with polypropylene accounting for 24.9 percent; polyester, 9.4 percent; and wool, 0.5 percent (Carpet and Rug Institute, no date). This is a significant change from the 1950s, when carpets were mainly made of wool. Acrylic fibers, popular two decades ago, are rarely used today.
The reasons for this change in carpet materials are the introduction of new high-speed manufacturing methods, the development of lower cost (and much improved) synthetic fibers, and the relative high cost of wool suitable for carpets. In 1991 a pure wool carpet cost about twice as much as a synthetic carpet. The fastest growing segment of the carpet industry is carpet tile. It constituted approximately 3.6 percent of total carpet production in 1990 (Bodnar 1991). Nylon, polypropylene, polyester, and wool carpet fibers each have unique characteristics that determine their appropriateness for different applications:
Nylon
The latest generations of nylon fibers are considered the strongest synthetic carpet fibers with the best resistance to abrasion and stains. One major drawback of nylon carpeting is the large amount of static electricity it generates, but this can be controlled with the use of conductive fibers and topical sprays (Duffy 1995, Rhodes 1995). In 1958 the first bulk continuous filament nylon fiber was developed for commercial use, and its use in the tufting machine revolutionized the carpet industry. With this invention, carpeting could be dyed after manufacture, instead of dyeing the yarn before arrival at the manufacturing plant (with a substantial reduction in water pollution). A few years later, the development of a parallel spinning system produced spun yarns from six- to eight-inch staple fiber that offered excellent performance in cut-pile carpets. Today, manufacturers are using the fifth generation of nylon fibers, which offer better durability and the built-in ability to resist, hide, and release soil and stains (Carpet and Rug Institute 1987, 1995c). The dyeability of nylon results in improved styling flexibility (Duffy 1995).
Olefin (or Polypropylene)
Olefin rates as high as nylon in abrasion resistance, durability, and strength. This fiber also resists water soluble stains, chemicals, and fading and generates very low levels of static electricity. However, olefin lacks resiliency, has poor texture retention, and is susceptible to scarring. The use of polypropylene ribbon yarns in indoor/outdoor carpets increased the market share of this fiber (McDonald 1988).
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Background
Polyester
Polyester fiber has a luxurious hand, which makes it more common in residential than commercial installations. The latest generations of polyester have good soil resistance and hiding qualities (McDonald 1988). This fiber, however, is not as durable as nylon and does not stand up to heavy wear (Costello 1995). Although polyester takes color well, dyeing is a more involved process, requiring either high temperatures or the use of dye carriers (Duffy 1995).
Wool
Wool has a luxurious hand and is very resilient; however, it is less soil resistant, does not wear as well, and is more expensive than many of todays synthetic fibers. Wool has a propensity to generate static electricity at low humidities. Several remedies are available, including specifying the addition of steel or other conductive synthetic fibers to the yarn, antistatic latex backing, or spray treatment during manufacture. Temporary spray treatments are available for carpeting, but these may increase soiling (Ince and Bakker 1981).
Carpet Cushions The production of carpet cushioning is growing in tandem with carpet production. Approximately 708 million yds2 (591 million m2) of separate carpet cushions were produced in the United States in 1994, 73 percent of which was made of bonded urethane. Prime polyurethane cushioning followed with 17 percent; synthetic fiber, 5 percent; sponge rubber, 4 percent; and rubberized jute, 1 percent (Oler 1995a). Cushions can be attached to the carpet backing or laid separately beneath the carpet (McDonald 1988; Carpet and Rug Institute 1995c). Carpet Adhesives Two basic types of carpet adhesive have captured 90 percent of the commercial market: latex and pressure-sensitive. A carpet adhesive should last the life of the carpet. Pressure-sensitive adhesives remain tacky forever, making it possible to remove and reset the carpet at any time (Carpet Policy Dialogue Compendium Report 1991). This type of adhesive is primarily used for carpet tiles (Knudtzon 1995). Carpet Policy Dialogue Following the installation of new carpeting at the EPA headquarters in Washington, D.C., in 1988-89, agency employees made numerous complaints about health effects. In response to members complaints, the National Federation of Federal Employees Local 2050 petitioned the EPA under the Toxic Substances Control Act to initiate rule-making proceedings to reduce 4-PC (4-phenylcyclohexene) emissions from new carpets. The petition was denied due to insufficient data on 4-PC emissions from carpeting and related carpet floor-covering materials and on the health risks from exposure to such emissions. However, the carpet industry and related industries were invited to participate in a one-year carpet policy dialogue with representatives from EPA, other government agencies, nongovernmental organizations concerned with indoor air issues, and independent research scientists (Carpet Policy Dialogue Compendium Report 1991; Bayer 1991).
According to the Federal Register (notices of April 24 and August 3, 1990), the Carpet Policy Dialogue was charged with, among others, the following tasks: Developing standard methods for testing carpet emissions and obtaining commitments from industry to voluntarily commence appropriate testing of carpet to quantify the total VOC emissions from their products on a periodic basis, thus providing the interested public with comparative information on total volatile organic compound (TVOC) emissions from new products
MAT 09680

Identifying information needs for the assessment of emission control feasibility, including data on carpet manufacture and installation technology and commercial activities associated with carpet installation Evaluating potential controls for reducing emissions Identifying all VOC exposures associated with carpet installation (not only those from carpet sources) and recommending appropriate actions to reduce them (Carpet Policy Dialogue Compendium Report 1991) The Carpet Policy Dialogue group convened for a final session on September 27, 1991. Its initial goals had been met and a draft compendium report, dated September 26, 1991, had been completed. (The revised Carpet Policy Dialogue Compendium Report is available from the National Technical Information Service [NTIS].) Much of the available research on VOC emissions from carpet and related products generated during the dialogue has been presented at different conferences and is available through published papers and articles.
Life-cycle summaries of carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives are provided in figures 1 through 10. The environmental reviews contained in the ERG materials reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that occur during the life cycle of a material. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to them. The stressors and impacts discussed in greater depth in subsequent sections are summarized in the following paragraphs. Essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. The synthetic carpet fibersnylon, olefin, and polyesterare manufactured from petrochemicals, i.e., chemicals derived from petroleum or natural gas. Many of the components of carpet backing and carpet cushioning are also manufactured from petrochemicals, as are fabric dyes and carpet adhesives. The environmental effects of extracting and processing petroleum and natural gas can be significant. Pollutants include various wastewaters and solid wastes, including drilling muds and drill cuttings. The combustion of fuels for the production of energy during extraction and processing operations can result in a number of air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide), particulates, and NOx (nitrogen oxides). Processes from other parts of the life cycle of carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives also make use of fuel combustion and produce the same emissions. The production of fibers for carpeting has the potential for environmental impact. The manufacture of synthetic fibers can produce various air emissions and wastewater. Air emissions include caprolactam (the monomer used to produce nylon 6), polymer dust from polyester manufacture, and various VOCs, including fiber lubricants and combustion products from the cleaning of equipment. Raising sheep for wool can result in soil erosion, pesticide runoff, and nutrient runoff. Wastewater produced during wool fiber washing and dyeing contributes to water pollution. The production of styrene butadiene (SB) for SB latex backing and certain adhesives may release styrene monomer and various volatile by-products. Exposure to styrene can cause various symptoms of toxicity. The major component of seam sealant is trichloroethane. High levels of exposure to this chemical can cause central nervous system and respiratory depression, and it has been designated a toxic pollutant under the Clean Water Act and must be
MAT 09680

managed as a hazardous waste. New government regulations prohibit purchase of trichloroethane after 1996. Carpet dyeing has traditionally been a source of water pollution. The release of dye wastes into surface waters can cause depletion of oxygen in aquatic habitats and result in death of aquatic life. A common group of dyes, the azo dyes, can break down to form aromatic amines in streams and rivers. Some aromatic amines are health risks. The development in recent years of more efficient processes for carpet dyeing, wastewater reuse, and dye waste recovery has helped reduce such hazardous discharges. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) blowing agents formerly were used in the manufacture of some urethane and polyurethane foams employed in making carpet cushions; CFCs are no longer used. Carpet installation produces waste in the form of carpet scraps, cushion scraps, and wrapping material. Some of this material is recycled or used for other purposes. The relationship of carpeting to indoor air quality has become a concern. Although VOC emissions from carpets themselves appear to be low, emissions from traditional solvent emulsion carpet adhesives have been measured at high levels. In an installed carpet-adhesive system, the carpet can adsorb VOCs from the adhesive then reemit them into the air space of the building, thus delaying those emissions. Today some states limit VOC content in adhesives to 150 g/l (1.25 lbs/gallon) (calculated). Adhesive manufacturers have reduced VOC levels even further, and most now offer low odor, low solvent, or nonsolvent adhesives that have very low or zero calculated levels of emission (Knudtzon 1995). New carpets have a characteristic odor, which is due mainly to the chemical 4-PC (4-phenylcyclohexene) emitted from the SB latex backing. Although 4-PC has not been shown to be of concern for human health, SB suppliers have substantially reduced the 4-PC content in recent years. In response to public awareness of indoor air quality, industry has begun a testing and labeling program for carpets. This program tests individual product lines, and carpet types that do not exceed established levels for certain types of emissions are awarded the green and white CRI (Carpet and Rug Institute) Indoor Air Quality Testing Program label. This label includes guidelines for installation and consumer information on carpet emissions and health. The embodied energy for nylon carpet (the most common type) is 63,500 Btu/lb (147.7 MJ/kg). No data are available for other synthetic fiber carpets or wool carpets. The disposal of used carpeting has become a major solid waste problem. Several manufacturers are developing new technologies for recycling carpet materials. One manufacturer has established a network for the collection of discarded carpets. One type of carpet, polyester (PET), is notable in that it can be made using a significant amount (approximately 50 percent) of postconsumer plastic containers, as demonstrated by one manufacturer. Polyurethane foam cushion products are recycled into new cushions, and research continues regarding postconsumer recycling of carpet cushions.
MAT 09680
6
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Carpet
Polyvinyl chloride (see figure 5) Polypropylene/ polyethylene (see figure 4) Polypropylene (see figure 4) Styrene butadiene latex (see figure 4) Fabric, jute, or synthetic foam cushion (see figure 2) Lamination or or Secondary backing (except woven carpet) or or
Life-Cycle Summary Carpet
KEY
MAT 09680 CARPETS, CUSHIONS, AND ADHESIVES ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Fluorochemicals Stain-resist agents Dyes (see figures 6 and 7)
Stain-release agents Carpet

Sulfonated novolacs or Sulfonated aromatic aldehyde condensation products
Space dyeing
Washwater Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Finishing applications (see figures 6 and 7)
Carpet finishing Finishing agents Drying Preshearing Final shearing
Dyes Fibers (see figure 3) Heatsetting

(for improved stress resistance)
Package dyeing
Carpet fibers
Weaving or knitting or fusion bonding
Autoclave Continuous
Acid dyes (see figures 6 and 7) Premetallized, chrome or acid dyes (see figures 6 and 7)
Skein dyeing
Retail storage Carpet cushion (if needed) (see figure 2) Adhesive (see figure 8)
VOCs
Stock dyeing (most often wool)

Washwater
Installation
Waste
Dyes (see figures 6 and 7) Tufting (95% of carpets)
Polypropylene (see figure 4)
Primary backing
Piece dyeing Continuous Beck

Washwater
Maintenance
Demolition
Disposal
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Carpet Cushion

Polyethylene laminating film (see figure 4) Water or steam
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997 CARPETS, CUSHIONS, AND ADHESIVES MAT 09680
Scrap polyurethane foam
Shredding/grinding
Blending
Compressing
Slicing
Heating/ applying pressure
Bonded urethane cushion (see figure 1)
Polyol (see figure 9) Toluene diisocyanate or methylene diisocyanate (see figure 9)
Prime polyurethane cushion (see figure 1)
Blowing agents
Rubber resin Natural rubber Styrene-butadiene latex (see figures 4 and 9)
Cutting
Mixing
Thin rubber film
Vulcanizing
Sponge rubber cushion (see figure 1)
Fillers
(see figure 10)
Plasticizers (see figure 4) Other chemical ingredients
KEY
Polyester (see figure 5)
Life-Cycle Summary Carpet Cushion
Spun, bonded nylon (see figure 4)
Scrim
Output Recycling
8
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Carpet Cushion (continued)
Processing Breaking Separating Aligning Needlepunching Synthetic fiber cushion (see figure 1)
Life-Cycle Summary Carpet Cushion
Waste fiber
Polypropylene (see figure 4)
Weaving
Woven carrier
Waste jute burlap bags
Cutting, aligning, and needlepunching
Rubberized jute cushion (see figure 1)
Waste carpet strips
KEY
Acrylic coating (see figure 4)
Output Recycling
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Carpet Fibers

Metallized organic compounds Nylon (see figure 4)
KEY
Solution dyeing (i.e., before extrusion)
Olefin (polypropylene) (see figure 4)
Output Recycling
CARPETS, CUSHIONS, AND ADHESIVES MAT 09680
Inorganic dyes
Carpet fibers (see figure 1)
Wool (see figure 7)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (recycled)
Life-Cycle Summary Carpet Fibers
10
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Nylon, Polypropylene, and Acrylic and Styrene-Butadiene Latex
Air emissions (caprolactam) Air emissions (caprolactam)
Life-Cycle Summary Nylon, Polypropylene, and Acrylic and BStyrene-Butadiene Latex
NH2OH
Caprolactam
oxidation
Nylon 6
Cyclohexanone Adipic acid Cyclohexanol Adiponitrile Hexamethylene diamine

catalyst
Cyclohexane
Nylon 6,6
Polypropylene
(see figures 1,2 and 3)
Benzene
NHO3
catalyst
catalyst
MAT 09680
Acrolein
Acrylic acid
Polymerization
Polyacrylate
(see figure 8)
Esterification
Acrylate monomers
Emulsification
Acrylic latex
CARPETS, CUSHIONS, AND ADHESIVES ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997

Ethylene
catalyst
Ethylene oxide
Wastewater (produced Drilling Drainage water, oil, grease, muds wastes heavy metals, dissolved and solids, organics) cuttings
catalyst
Propylene
Trimerization
Nonene
Nonylphenol
Benzene
Phenol
Emulsification
Ethylene
Wastewater (oil, grease, dissolved solids, organics) Drilling mud and cuttings, heavy metals
Styrene
Styrene monomer

Butadiene
Mineral spirits
(see figure 8)
Plasticizers
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Recycling catalyst
Naphtha
(see figure 8)
Polyethylene
(see figure 1)
Ammonia
Carbonylation
Acetic acid
Vinyl acetate
Ethylene vinyl acetate

(see figure 8)
Figure 5: Life-Cycle Summary of Polyvinyl Chloride

Brine Co-products Hydrogen Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen chloride Electrolysis
Brine sludge (magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, spent sulfuric acid, scrubbing wastes, asbestos) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
KEY
Drainage wastes
Recycling
Ethylene
Chromium, copper
Heavy metals Air emissions (VC monomer)
Ethylene dichloride Co-products Calcium chloride Salts
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
(see figure 1) VC monomer, lead, zinc, methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane
Precipitation
1,1-Dichloroethylene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Life-Cycle Summary Polyvinyl Chloride
(see figure 8)
Chlorine
11
12
Figure 6: Life-Cycle Summary of Polyester
Life-Cycle Summary Polyester
Naphthalene (dyeing chemical)

Acetic acid
Vinyl acetate
Air emissions (polymer dust, volatilized monomers, VOCs, particulates)

Produced Drilling water, oil, muds and grease, cuttings BOD, COD, heavy Drainage metals, TDS, wastes organics

Solids, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans Cyanides, sludge
catalyst
Ethylene
Ethylene glycol
Hydrocarbons
Zinc, cadmium, chromium, copper
p-Xylene
Organics; dissolved and suspended solids
KEY
silver or ferric molybdate catalyst Process flow
Methanol
Formaldehyde (dyeing chemical)
Recycling
Refining residue
Partial combustion
Carbon black
Titanium dioxide
Fabric dyes (see figure 1)
Mineral separation
TiO2 processing
Ferrous sulfate
Habitat change Runoff (soil Tailings waste, erosion, TSS) overburden Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2,VOCs, particulates)
Chrome blue black U (see figure 7) beta-Naphthol (see figure 7) Sulfite pulping waste 2-Hydroxy-naphthalene6-sulfonic acid Ligninsulfonates
Habitat change Tailings waste, Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) overburden
Cresols
Coal pyrolysis Distillation

Coal tar distillation
Sulfuric acid (see figure 7)
Dispersing agents (dyeing chemicals) (see figure 1)
Figure 7: Life-Cycle Summary of Wool

Pesticides Hay and corn production

Pesticide and nutrient runoff
Fertilizer
Sheep raising
Soil erosion, nutrient runoff
Sheep dipping
Pesticide runoff
Wool shearing
Wool
Processing Sorting Scouring
Mothproofing agents Permethrin Silico-fluorides Chromium-fluorides Camphor Naphthalene Paradichlorobenzene Dieldrin
Cornstarch production
Tapioca production Sizing production Finishing applications

(see figure 1)
Wool fiber
(see figure 3)
Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
Dyeing application chemicals (e.g., acids, metal salts, reducing solutions, oxidizing solutions)
Fabric dyes
Fabric dyes and dyeing chemicals

(see figure 1)

Same as sulfur production (below) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Oil processing Desalting catalyst Distillation Catalytic cracking

hydrolysis
beta-Naphthol
(see figure 6) amination Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, particulates)
Naphthalene
beta-Naphthalene sulfonic acid
1-Amine-2-hydroxy
naphthalene sulfonic acid
Chrome blue black U

(see figure 6) Unreacted chemicals
Sulfur
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur trioxide
Sulfuric acid By-product sulfuric acid
Sulfur production Exploration Extraction
Brine
Electrolysis
Blue sludge (magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, spent sulfuric acid, scrubbing wastes, asbestos)
Water
Produced water, oil, Drilling Drainage grease, BOD, COD, heavy muds and wastes metals, TDS, organics cuttings Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Sodium hydroxide Coproducts Hydrogen Chlorine

Hydrochloric acid (industrial by-product)
Ni
Ammonia
oxidation
NO
Sodium nitrite
KEY
Process flow
Life-Cycle Summary Wool
Transport
Trona mining
Processing
Soda ash Water
Boundary Output
Habitat change
Recycling
13
14
Figure 8: Life-Cycle Summary of Adhesive
Life-Cycle Summary Adhesive
Mineral spirits and/or naphtha (see figure 4) or
Water
Styrene butadiene rubber (latex) (see figure 4) or Acrylic latex (see figure 4) or Ethylene vinyl acetate (see figure 4) Binder Adhesives (various combinations) (see figure 1)
Resins
Plasticizers (see figure 4)
Polyacrylate (see figure 4)
Fillers (see figure 10)
KEY
1,1,1-Trichloroethane (see figure 5)
Output Recycling
Figure 9: Life-Cycle Summary of TDI, Polyols, and Natural Rubber

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
KEY
Drainage wastes
Sludge
Phosgene
Recycling
catalyst
Toluene
Dinitration
Dinitrotoluene
Toluenediamine
(see figure 2)
Solvents
Phosgene HCl
Flax, soybean, castor-oil, safflower, and cotton growing

Linseed, soybean, castor-oil, safflower, and cottonseed oil preparation
Isomerization
Polyol (drying oil)
(see figure 2)
Hexane
Life-Cycle Summary TDI, Polyols, and Natural Rubber
Rubber tree growing
Latex tapping and collection
Coagulation
Granulation and drying
Raw natural rubber

(see figure 2)
Soil erosion
15
16
KEY
Sand/sandstone/quartzite mining Drilling Screening Blasting Washing/ Digging loading Crushing
Silica
(see figure 8)
Runoff Habitat change (soil erosion, TSS)
Clay and talc mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Particulates
Talc
(see figure 8)
Drying, grinding, and storage Clay
Feldspar tailings
(see figure 8)
Limestone and gypsum mining Drilling Grinding Blasting Separating Loading Screening Crushing
Limestone (CaCO3)
(see figure 8)
Gypsum
Runoff Habitat (soil change erosion, TSS) Tailings waste, overburden (see figure 8)


A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives is presented in figure 11.
Carpets In general, carpets are composed of a facing and a backing, which are attached during manufacture. Most carpets are dyed before assembly, as fibers.
Carpet Facing
Carpets are manufactured from a number of different fibers, most often nylon, polyester, olefin, and wool.
Nylon. The two major forms of nylon used in carpets are nylon 6,6 and nylon 6. Nylon 6,6 is
so-named because it is produced from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine, each of which has six carbon atoms. Nylon 6 is produced from the six-carbon chemical caprolactam. Adipic acid, hexamethylene diamine, and caprolactam are derived from cyclohexane, which is derived from benzene, a derivative of crude oil. The extraction and refining of crude oil and the production of benzene are discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol. The precursors for adipic acid, hexamethylene diamine, and caprolactam derive from crude oil. Distillation of crude oil yields benzene. Hydrogenation of benzene produces cyclohexane. Oxidation of cyclohexane produces cyclohexanone and cyclohexanol. Cyclohexanone reacts with NH2OH to form caprolactam, which is then converted to nylon 6. Reaction of cyclohexanol with nitric acid produces adipic acid. Adipic acid produces adiponitrile, which is converted to hexamethylene diamine. Nylon 6,6 is produced from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Nylon
The combustion of fuels for the production of energy during the manufacture of nylon can result in a number of air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which causes respiratory tract problems such as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx (sulfur oxides) to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. NOx also contributes to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Petroleum extraction and processing result in significant effects on the environment. Wastes produced from extraction and processing include wastewater that contains oil, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, toxic organics, and ammonia, among other pollutants. Major sources of pollution from the drilling system are the drilling mud and the cuttings from the bit. Large diesel engines that power the drill emit air pollutants. The environmental impacts of petroleum extraction and processing are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol. During its manufacture and use for nylon production, caprolactam (the monomer used to produce nylon 6) may be emitted into the environment, where it is rapidly degraded (continued on page 25)
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Figure 11: Carpets, Cushions, and AdhesivesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage
Activity Production of hay and corn (maize) for feeding sheep Fertilizer runoff Stressor Pesticide runoff Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased loadings of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD Fuel combustion emissions VOCs Ground-level ozone or smog Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Decreased visibility Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation Surface water acidification, reduced reproduction, possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Nitrogen oxides Sheep dipping Sheep foraging Pesticide runoff Denuding of land Land disturbance Nutrient runoff Crude oil extraction (nylon, polyester, polypropylene, dyes, polyurethane, acrylic resin, mineral spirits, naphtha) Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (nylon, polyester, polypropolene, dyes, polyurethane, acrylic resin, mineral spirits, naphtha) Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Water pollution Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Eutrophication Waterborne disease (see impacts above) Soil erosion Soil runoff Increased nutrient loading Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Increased BOD Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Deoxygenation and algal bloom Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Habitat alteration Impact/Stressor Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
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Figure 11: Carpets, Cushions, and AdhesivesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Crude oil processing (nylon, polyester, polypropylene, dyes, polyurethane, acrylic resin, mineral spirits, naphtha) Stressor Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Impact/Stressor Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading Release of oil and suspended solids Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Desalting process Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Distillation process Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs Catalytic cracking Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia Environmental poisoning Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions Sox, Nox, VOCs, CO Ammonia, benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, toluene, naphthalenes, and xylene Natural gas production (polyester, dyes, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, trichloroethane, styrene butadiene, polyethylene, acrylic resin, ethylene vinyl acetate) Nylon production Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygen-depleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Air emissions from diesel-powered drills Caprolactam production and use (Nylon 6) NOx, SOx, CO, VOCs, particulates Health effects (dermal, respiratory, and eye irritation; possible dermal sensitization; other effects Hexamethylene diamine (Nylon 6,6) Health effects (conjunctival and respiratory irritation; dermal sensitization) (see fuel consumption impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) Increased BOD5 Various human health effects Noxious odors (see impact above) High pH, high BOD Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Habitat disruption Increased BOD Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Activity Drilling sulfur wells (for manufacture of wool and other dyes) Trona mining (for manufacture of wool and other dyes) Land disturbance Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Soil erosion Habitat alteration Deoxygenation Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biotic diversity Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Manufacture of wool and other dyes Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater possibly containing unreacted petrochemicals, acid, alkali, or sodium nitrate Wool finishes Camphor, naphthalene, paradichlorobenzene, vinyl acetate, and vinylidene chloride Naphthalene, paradichlorobenzene, vinyl acetate, and vinylidene chloride Dieldrin and formaldehyde Sizing production Agricultural production (corn and tapioca) Carcinogens Pesticide runoff Fertilizer runoff Fuel combustion emissions Dimethyl terephthalate production (for polyester fiber manufacture) Wastewater Organics, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Polyester production Polyester and other dyes Air emissions Sand mining for titanium dioxide production Titanium dioxide production Sulfate process Gypsum as solid waste Calcination Decreased landfill capacity Air emissions as sulfur oxides and carbon dioxide (see impacts above) Chloride process Titanium dioxide Wastewater Lung fibrosis Potential human carcinogen (occupational) Iron chlorides VOCs and particulates (see mining impacts above) (see impacts above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Air emissions VOCs, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and xylene (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Hazardous air pollutants Toxic to humans (see impacts of wastewater discharge from crude oil production above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Stressor (see impacts of crude oil extraction above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Activity Polyester and other dyes (continued) Stressor Carbon black production Impact/Stressor Crude oil extraction Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Acetic acid and diphenyl production Polyester and other dye application chemicals Naphthalene and sulfuric acid production Formaldehyde manufacture (see impacts of wool dyes manufacture) Possible release of wastewater containing residual monomers Coal mining (for cresol production) Tailing waste/mine spoils (sulfur) Acid drainage Land disturbance Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions (dust, particulates) Wastewater containing dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Contamination of groundwater Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification Cresol production Air emissions VOCs Particulates Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Dust Wastewater containing dissolved solids and organics Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Coal tar Polypropylene production Air emissions Wastewater VOCs Benzene Potential human carcinogen (see impacts above) Known human carcinogen Human health effects include nausea and irritation May contain organics, oil and grease, suspended solids, and oxygen-depleting organics Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Deoxygenation Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill Formaldehyde may be carried off in the condensate Surface water acidification Human health effects (irritant, allergen, and possible human carcinogen) Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Runoff (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Toxic to humans (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor
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Activity Ethylene production (Styrene butadiene, polyethylene, acrylic latex, ethylene vinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride, trichloroethane) Styrene butadiene production Ethylene emissions Benzene emissions Styrene emissions Polyethylene manufacture Air emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Dust (particulates) Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrocarbons Effluent COD and BOD Total suspended solids Acidity Nitrates Surface water acidification Eutrophication (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts for hydrogen chloride above) (see impacts for VOCs above) Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Increased algal growth Increased BOD (see impacts above) Phosphates Solid wastes Landfill disposal Hazardous waste landfill disposal Vinyl chloride manufacture Ethylene production Air emissions Wastewater Eutrophication Decreased landfill capacity Decreased hazardous waste landfill capacity Benzene and VOCs Chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals (see impacts above) Increased BOD (see impacts above) Consumption of toxics by fish Possible fishkill Chlorine production Air emissions Brine mud Chlorine Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate Wastewater Fuel combustion Air emissions Chlorine and sulfuric acid VOCs Sulfur oxides Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates Nitrogen oxides Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition (see impacts above) Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Stressor Air emissions Wastewater Impact/Stressor Benzene and VOCs Contains chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor
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Activity Polyvinyl chloride manufacture Stressor Fugitive air emissions Impact/Stressor Vinyl chloride monomer 1,3-Butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride Fugitive emissions of PCBs Endocrine system disruption, skin rash, irritation to eyes, nose, and lungs Liver and kidney damage in experimental animals Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater (see impacts above) Methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, zinc Dioxins Acutely toxic to many species Various health effects including cancer; birth defects; effects to the skin, immune system, liver, kidneys, and thyroid Sludge Flax, soybean, castor, safflower, and cotton cultivation Fertilizer runoff Pesticide runoff Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased loading of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD Soil erosion and depletion Runoff Fuel combustion Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Deoxygenation/algal bloom Habitat alteration Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation Possible loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Particulates Ground-level ozone (smog) Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Landfill disposal Possible fishkill Decreased landfill capacity Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Known human carcinogen Respiratory irritation Nervous system effects Impact/Stressor
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Activity Linseed, soybean, castor, safflower, and cotton oil preparation Solvent extraction Stressor Pressing and extraction Impact/Stressor Fuel combustion VOC emissions Fugitive hexane emissions Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Human health effects including nausea, headaches, numbness, muscular weakness, eye and nose irritation, dermatitis, chemical pneumonia, and giddiness Drying oil processing Polyurethane production Toluene diisocyanat production Fugitive emissions of phosgene Isomerization VOC emissions Fugitive emissions Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Human health effects: potent irritant to the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes Human health effects: irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract, difficult breathing, cyanosis, and vomiting Fugitive emissions of hydrogen chloride Acid precipitation Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Human health effects include burning of the eyes and nose, choking, nausea, chest pain, headache, pulmonary edema, and others VOC emissions Sponge rubber cushion, synthetic fiber cushion, and rubberized jute cushion production Acrylic resin production, esterization/ polymerization stage (adhesives) Ethylene-vinyl acetate production Fuel combustion emissions Trichloroethane production Trichloroethane emissions Vinyl acetate emissions Fugitive emissions of acrylic monomer Respiratory and eye irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects Human health effects Toxicity to fish and other aquatic organisms (see impacts above) Health effects (irritant, CNS depression, respiratory depression) Production of mineral spirits and naphtha Mining of limestone, gypsum, Tailings waste silica, and clay (fillers) Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill VOC emissions (see impacts above) Materials transport Combustion emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor
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Activity Stressor Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Mining of limestone, gypsum, Runoff silica, and clay (fillers) (continued) Fuel combustion emissions
by microbial and chemical action. In water this results in a half-life of 5 to 14 days. Photochemical reaction in the atmosphere results in a half-life of about 4.9 hours (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). On September 18, 1995, a notice of proposed rule-making appeared in the Federal Register announcing that the EPA is granting the petition to delete caprolactam as a hazardous air pollutant. A review by the International Agency for Research on Cancer has indicated that caprolactam is probably not carcinogenic in humans. However, it does cause dermal, respiratory, and eye irritation and may cause dermal hypersensitivity. Nervous system, genito-urinary, cardiovascular, and reproductive effects have also been reported (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Hexamethylene diamine is a conjunctival and respiratory tract irritant and causes dermal sensitization (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).
Polyester. Polyester is manufactured from chemical compounds that are derived from nat-
ural gas and crude oil. Polyester manufacture is discussed in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). Extracting and refining petroleum and extracting and processing natural gas are discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol and melamine, respectively.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Polyester
Air pollutant emissions from polyester production include polymer dust from drying operations, volatilized residual monomer, fiber lubricants (in the form of fume or oil smoke), and the burned polymer and combustion products from cleaning the spinning equipment. Wastewater from production of dimethyl terephthalate, one of the chemical compounds used in making polyester monomer, contains organics as well as suspended and dissolved solids. The manufacture of polyester staple and the dyeing of polyester fabric may produce air emissions from the burning of fuel. Wastewater is produced from dyeing and afterwashing, which may be released into lakes and streams. Further discussion of the environmental impacts of polyester fiber production is included in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). The environmental impacts of crude oil extraction and refining are summarized above and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol. Natural gas extraction generates a variety of air and water pollutants, including air emissions from the diesel-powered drill; the discharge of produced water, drilling muds, and drill cuttings; and wastewater containing oil, grease, toxic organics, and other pollutants. The processing of natural gas produces wastewater containing toxic organics, suspended and dissolved solids, chlorides, and cyanides. The environmental impacts of natural gas extraction and processing are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under melamine.
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Olefin (polypropylene). Olefin, or polypropylene, is manufactured from propane (a gas by-
product of oil refining) combined with ethylene. The extraction and refining of crude oil and the production of polypropylene are discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Olefin
Propylene production releases air emissions in the form of VOCs. The major pollutants in raw wastewater include organics, oil and grease, suspended solids, benzene, naphthalene, and toluene. Further discussion of the environmental impacts of crude oil extraction and processing (summarized above) and the impacts of propylene production are included in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol.
Wool. Wool is the fine, soft hair (or fleece) that forms the coat of the domestic sheep. The
acquisition and processing of wool is discussed in the ERG report on fabrics for workstations (12610).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Wool
Raising sheep for wool can affect the environment, including devegetation and erosion of forage land and runoff of nutrients contributing to eutrophication. Effects may also include erosion of agricultural land and pesticide runoff during the cultivation of hay and grains. Growing these crops consumes substantial amounts of energy and results in air emissions from the burning of fuel. Wastewater produced during wool fiber washing, dyeing, and afterwashing may be released into lakes and streams. Fuel combustion during the dyeing process can contribute to air emissions. Further discussion of the environmental effects of wool fiber production can be found in the ERG report on fabrics for workstations (12610).
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Recycled plastic containers made of polyethylene tereph-
thalate (PET), a type of polyester, constitute more than half the raw material in at least one brand of carpet manufactured in the United States. Woven polypropylene and SB latex are the other constituents of this carpet. The manufacturer receives PET plastic bottles, which are cleaned and chopped into chips. The chip is then melted and extruded to form fibers, which are blended and spun to form yarn (Image Carpet 1991).
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in the production of polyester is contained in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). Energy consumed in the production of propylene is contained in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Energy consumed in the production of polyester fiber is contained in the ERG report on fabrics for workstations (12610). No information is available on the amount of energy consumed during acquisition and preparation of wool fiber.
Dyes
Dyes are applied to textile fibers in a variety of ways, depending on the properties of the fiber, of the dye, and of the final product. A variety of types of dyes may be usedinorganic, metallized organic, acid, disperse, premetallized, and chrome dyes. Two representative dyes, chrome blue black u (an azo type) and carbon black, are discussed in the ERG report on fabrics for workstations (12610), under wool and polyester, respectively. Some of the materials used to apply dyes to wool include acids, metal salts, reducing solutions, and oxidizing solutions. Dispersion agents used in dyeing polyester include ligninsulfonates; condensation products of naphthalene, sulfuric acid, and formaldehyde; condensation products of m-cresol and o-cresol, formaldehyde, and 2-hydroxy naphthalene 6-sulfonic acid; or mixtures of these materials. Dispersion agents are discussed in the ERG report on fabrics for workstations (12610), under dye application chemicals.
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for the Manufacture of Dyes and Dye Application Chemicals
The raw materials for the manufacture of dyes are derived from petroleum and natural gas. The environmental impacts of petroleum and natural gas production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol and melamine, respectively. Production of the dyes chrome blue black u and carbon black involves the combustion of fuels for the production of energy and the release of wastewater with unspecified contaminants. The environmental effects of the production of dyes and dye application chemicals are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on fabrics for workstations (12610).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during acquisition and preparation of materials for dyes and dye application chemicals.
Carpet Backing
The primary backing is usually made of woven slit-film polypropylene. The secondary backing is a woven or nonwoven fabric reinforcement laminated to the back of tufted carpeting (usually with SB latex adhesive) to enhance dimensional stability, strength, stretch resistance, lieflat stiffness, and hand. Most secondary backings are woven jute, woven polypropylene, or nonwoven polypropylene, although some manufacturers use polypropylene-polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride backings. The term secondary backing is sometimes used in a broader sense to include attached cushion and other polymeric back coatings. Because secondary backing is visible in finished carpet (while primary backing is concealed under the pile yarn), most dealers and installers refer to the secondary backing simply as backing (Turner 1995).
Polypropylene. Polypropylene is discussed above under carpet fibers. Styrene butadiene (SB) latex. SB carpet latex accounts for up to 95 percent of the U.S. market for adhesive backings (Turner 1995). SB latex is formed by the polymeric emulsion of styrene with butadiene. Styrene is produced from petroleum and natural gas: Ethylene (produced from natural gas) and the petrochemical benzene are combined to form ethylbenzene or styrene. Ethylene production is described in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950), under PVC resin. Most benzene is produced from light petroleum distillate (naphtha). Most butadiene is produced by the cracking of petroleum. Petroleum and natural gas acquisition and processing are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol and melamine, respectively.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of SB Latex
Styrene is produced from ethylene (derived from natural gas) and benzene (derived from petroleum). Exposure to styrene can cause eye and nose irritation, drowsiness, weakness, narcosis, and dermatitis (NIOSH 1990). By-products of the SB latex polymerization process may include 4-phenylcyclohexene (4-PC) and 4-vinylcyclohexene (4-VC). Because the monomeric constituents are added in excess (i.e., more material is added than will chemically react) to drive the polymerization process, a certain amount of unreacted monomer can be released at the conclusion of polymerization. The monomer is reduced via steam stripping, which also removes volatile by-products, including 4-PC and 4-VC. The industry is now attempting to further improve stripping of 4-PC, but this requires a delicate balance: The mechanical stability of SB latex may be affected by further steam stripping, which could also create additional organic-contaminated condensate and solid latex waste that would require disposal or further processing (Carpet Policy Dialogue Compendium Report 1991).
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A 1990 EPA report identified nine plants producing SB latex that were emitting toxic air pollutants that theoretically could pose a very high public health threat for surrounding communities (Reilly 1990). The EPA risk estimates were derived from a computer model and were not confirmed with empirical data. The synergistic effect of several toxins emitted at the same time was not evaluated. More recent data show that emissions from these plants of butadiene (on which the risk assessment was based) have declined more than 90 percent (SBLMC 1995). A further reduction of 44 percent below current levels is expected in the next five years as a result of the EPAs recently proposed Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) rule (SBLMC 1995). The principal air pollutants from ethylene production are benzene and VOCs. Wastewater contains chemicals that are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Further discussion of the environmental effects resulting from ethylene production is included in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950), under PVC resin. Benzene production may release air emissions in the form of VOCs. Benzene itself is a known human carcinogen (NIEHS 1989); it is also an irritant and can cause nausea and abdominal pain (NIOSH 1990). The environmental effects of benzene production are discussed further in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol. The environmental effects resulting from the acquisition and processing of natural gas and petroleum are summarized above under carpet fibers and discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under melamine and phenol, respectively. Butadiene is produced by the cracking of petroleum. Exposure to butadiene can cause eye and nose irritation, headaches, dizziness, and vomiting (NIOSH 1990). The environmental impacts resulting from the acquisition, processing, and cracking of petroleum are summarized above and are discussed in greater depth in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol.
Jute. Jute is discussed below under carpet cushions. Polypropylene-polyethylene. One manufacturer produces a carpet with a proprietary back-
ing made of a combination of polypropylene and polyethylene (Malin 1994). Polypropylene is discussed above under carpet fibers. Polyethylene is produced through the polymerization of ethylene; its manufacture is discussed in the ERG report on terrazzo (09400).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Polypropylene-Polyethylene
The environmental impacts of ethylene production (from which polyethylene is made) are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). A variety of air and water emissions and solid wastes are produced during the production of polyethylene. These are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on terrazzo (09400).
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Polyvinyl chloride is produced from chlorine and from ethylene,
which is produced either from natural gas or from petroleum products. PVC manufacture is discussed in the ERG report on vinyl flooring (09652). The manufacture of ethylene and the production of chlorine are discussed in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). Petroleum and natural gas acquisition and processing are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol and melamine, respectively.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of PVC
The environmental impacts of ethylene production are discussed above, under styrene butadiene latex backing. Potential environmental effects of PVC manufacture include
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emissions that may be released from the manufacturing process. Vinyl chloride monomer is a carcinogen and is of special concern. Dioxins, which can have a number of negative health effects, may also be generated by the PVC manufacturing process. The environmental impacts of polyvinyl chloride production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on vinyl flooring (09652).
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed during extraction and processing of crude oil and the processing of natural gas is discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240).
Carpet Cushions Carpet cushioning made from prime polyurethane, bonded urethane, and sponge rubber are discussed in this report.
Prime Polyurethane Cushions
This type of cushion is manufactured from the reaction of polyol, toluene diisocyanate or methylene diisocyanate, and water. This reaction produces carbon dioxide, which acts as the primary blowing agent. Chlorofluorocarbon-11 (CFC-11) was once used as an auxiliary blowing agent in the polymerization process; however, no CFC or HCFC blowing agents have been used since 1992 to manufacture any polyurethane product in the United States. Moreover, auxiliary blowing agents of any kind are seldom used (Peters 1995). The manufacture of polyurethane is discussed in more detail in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930). A laminating film of polyethylene (discussed above under carpet backing) is applied to this type of cushion (Oler 1995b).
Bonded Urethane Cushions
Bonded urethane, the most common cushion, is made of 90 percent scrap polyurethane, which is mixed with a prepolymer (consisting of polyol and toluene diisocyanate or methylene diisocyanate). Blowing agents are seldom used today, and no CFC or HCFC is used at all (Peters 1995). A laminating film of polyethylene (discussed above under carpet backing) is applied to one surface of this type of cushion (Oler 1995b).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Prime Polyurethane and Bonded Urethane
Isocyanates, used in the manufacture of polyurethanes, must be handled with care during the manufacturing process. The environmental effects of polyurethane production along with potential health hazards from manufacture are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930), under modern oil-borne varnishes.
Sponge Rubber Cushions
This cushion may be made of either natural rubber from Southeast Asia, Nigeria, or South America or from synthetic rubber made from styrene butadiene rubber (that does not contain 4-PC). It also contains fillers, plasticizers, blowing agents, and other chemicals. Small quantities of blowing agents are used if frothing cannot be achieved by mechanical action (Carpet and Rug Institute 1995c; Oler 1995b). A thin scrim of spun bonded nylon or polyester is applied to the surface. Except that it does not contain 4-PC, SB rubber is similar to SB latex, which is discussed above under carpet backing.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Rubber
The environmental effects of natural rubber processing are unknown.

Synthetic Fiber Cushions
This cushion uses at least 90 percent off-specification synthetic fibers. A woven polypropylene carrier may be incorporated into the fibers. Polypropylene is discussed above under carpet fibers.
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Rubberized Jute Cushions
About 10 percent of rubberized jute cushioning consists of carpet-strip leftovers from carpet manufacturing plants. Rubberized jute contains about 85 percent recycled burlap bags made from the fibrous jute plant, which grows in Bangladesh and Thailand. Rubberized jute cushions contain a polypropylene carrier mesh. An acrylic coating is sprayed onto both sides of the product. Polypropylene is discussed above under carpet fibers. Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, a petrochemical. Acrylic resin and acrylic acid are discussed in the ERG report on ceramic tile (09300), under adhesives. Today, rubberized jute cushions are virtually the only cushioning made of a natural fiber. (Only one manufacturer still makes cattle hair cushions.)
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Synthetic Fiber and Rubberized Jute Cushions
These products are composed mainly of recycled materials, and fuel combustion emissions from transporting materials are the primary environmental impact of these products at the materials acquisition and preparation stage. The environmental and health effects of fuel combustion emissions are discussed above, under carpet fibers. Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, which is derived from thermal cracking of natural gas or petroleum. The process releases significant amounts of VOC emissions and wastewater. The environmental impacts resulting from the acquisition, processing, and cracking of natural gas and petroleum are summarized above under carpet fibers and discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under melamine and phenol, respectively. Health effects of acrylic acid and some of the acrylate compounds are discussed in the ERG report on ceramic tile (09300).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during acquisition and processing of materials for carpet cushioning.
Adhesives In general, adhesives contain a vehicle, which may be water and/or petroleum solvents such as mineral spirits and naphtha, to keep the adhesive fluid until applied; a binder, which is most commonly SB latex, to give elasticity; various hydrocarbon resins to provide adhesion and tack; refined petroleum hydrocarbon processing oils, mainly naphthenic oils that are a residue after petroleum cracking (Knudtzon 1995) to plasticize (soften) and enhance tack; viscosity modifiers, such as acrylate solutions and alkali-soluble emulsion polymers, which are thickeners used to provide the consistency necessary for trowel applications; and fillers or extenders, such as limestone, gypsum, silica, and clay.
Other ingredients, which are a small proportion of the total, include freeze-thaw stabilizers, which protect the adhesive during storage and shipment, and preservatives, which are biocides included to control the growth of bacteria and fungi. These will not be discussed in this report because of the small quantities involved. Low VOC-emitting adhesives are becoming available. One such product is composed of SB latex and acrylic in combination with fillers suspended in a water vehicle (Knudtzon 1995). SB latex is used as the binder. Typical carpet adhesives include these ingredients: styrene butadiene rubber, latex acrylic emulsion, ethylene vinyl acetate, (formerly) 1,1,1-trichloroethane, mineral spirits and naphtha, and fillers.
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Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
Styrene butadiene rubber adhesives are the most commonly used type of carpet adhesive. The manufacture of styrene butadiene is summarized above under carpet backing and discussed in greater depth in the ERG report on ceramic tile (09300).
Latex Acrylic Emulsion
One type of latex emulsion used in adhesives is latex acrylic, an emulsion of acrylic resin in water. Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, a petrochemical. Acrylic resin and acrylic acid are discussed in the ERG report on ceramic tile (09300), under adhesives.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Latex Acrylic Emulsion
Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, which is derived from thermal cracking of natural gas or petroleum, which process releases significant amounts of VOC emissions and wastewater. The environmental impacts resulting from the acquisition, processing, and cracking of natural gas and petroleum are summarized above under carpet fibers and discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under melamine and phenol, respectively. Health effects of acrylic acid and some of the acrylate compounds are discussed in the ERG report on ceramic tile (09300).
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
Ethylene vinyl acetate is a co-polymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate. Ethylene is manufactured from ethane, which is produced from natural gas, but it can also be manufactured from petroleum products. The extraction and processing of natural gas and the extraction, processing, and refining of crude oil are discussed in detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). The manufacture of ethylene is discussed in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). Vinyl acetate manufacture is discussed in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
Wastes from the production of ethylene include air pollutants such as benzene and VOCs. The environmental effects of ethylene production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950), under PVC resins. EPA regulates vinyl acetate as a hazardous air pollutant and a hazardous substance. Accidental spills or releases could adversely affect human health or the environment. The environmental impacts of vinyl acetate production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250), under joint compound, polyvinyl acetate, and starch. The raw materials for ethylene vinyl acetate are derived from petroleum and natural gas. The environmental effects of petroleum and natural gas production are summarized above under carpet fibers and discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol and melamine, respectively.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
1,1,1-trichloroethane used to be the major component of seam sealant. Now, water-based seam sealants have been introduced, and as of January 1, 1996, 1,1,1-trichloroethane is no longer available for purchase (Knudtzon 1995). 1,1,1-trichloroethane is produced by the reaction of 1,1-dichloroethylene with hydrochloric acid. 1,1-dichloroethylene is produced from ethylene dichloride (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). The production of ethylene dichloride from chlorine and ethylene is described under PVC in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of 1,1,1-trichloroethane.
As of January 1, 1996, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was no longer available for purchase (Knudtzon 1995); it has been replaced by safer products. High concentrations of 1,1,1trichloroethane are irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract. High exposure can cause central nervous system depression, respiratory depression, and dysrhythmia. Because of the lack of information, the International Agency for Research on Cancer could not determine whether this chemical is carcinogenic in humans and found only inadequate data for animals (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). 1,1,1-trichloroethane has been designated a toxic pollutant under the Clean Water Act and must be managed as a hazardous waste under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).
Mineral Spirits and Naphtha
Mineral spirits and naphtha are produced by distillation of petroleum. Petroleum extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Mineral Spirits and Naphtha
Mineral spirits and naphtha are produced by distillation of petroleum. The environmental impacts of petroleum extraction and processing are summarized above under carpet fibers and discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240), under phenol.
Fillers
Various minerals, such as limestone, gypsum, silica, and clay, used as fillers in adhesives, are obtained either through open-pit or underground mining. Mining operations are described in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Minerals Used as Fillers
Minerals used as fillers include limestone, gypsum, silica, and clay. The environmental impacts of mining operations include runoff from tailings waste, leading to increased turbidity of surface waters, increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of aquatic habitats, and possible fishkill. Other effects on wildlife communities include land disturbance and habitat alteration. The combustion of fuel to power the heavy equipment during mining operations results in air emissions. Crushing, screening, and processing of the minerals may result in particulates emissions. The environmental impacts of mining operations are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200).
Energy Consumed
For information on the energy consumed in the production of adhesives, refer to the ERG reports referenced under each ingredient in the text above.
Stain-Resist, Soil-Release, and Insect-Resist Treatments Stain-resist agents are either sulfonated novolacs or sulfonated aromatic aldehyde condensation (SAC) products. A variety of man-made organic fluorine compounds are also used as treatment agents. These water-, soil-, and stain-repellent finishes are marketed under the trade names Scotchgard and Zepel. Insect-resistant treatments, or mothproofing, are applied to wool carpet yarns before their fabrication into carpets. The most widely used agent is permethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid (Carpet and Rug Institute 1995c).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Carpet Treatments
No information is available about the environmental impacts of producing stain-resist and soil-release treatments for carpet. In 1990 the World Health Organization indicated that permethrin (an insecticide chemically similar to naturally occurring pyrethrum) is not likely to present a hazard to the general human population when used as directed (Wools of New Zealand, no date). The use of these carpet treatment products can extend the useful life of carpets and thus delay the need for replacement.
Energy Consumed
No information is available about energy consumption during production of stain-resist and soil-release treatments and mothproofing for carpets.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture and assembly of carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives is presented in figure 12.
Figure 12: Carpets, Cushions, and AdhesivesManufacturing and Fabrication Stage
Activity Dyeing Stressor Release of dye wastes Impact/Stressor Dyes Mordants and bleaching and washing solutions Azo dyes Carpet manufacture Wastewater effluent Finishing agents Mothproofing agents Degrade to produce aromatic amines Increased COD Insect mortality (see impacts above) Health effects Impact/Stressor Increased BOD, COD Poisonous to aquatic life Impact/Stressor Depletion of oxygen Death of aquatic life
Carpets Carpet manufacturing comprises a number of steps, including formation of the synthetic fibers; dyeing of the fibers; and construction, treatment, and finishing of the carpet.
Forming Synthetic Fibers
Nylon, olefin, and polyester are all thermoplastic, melt-spun fibers. Synthetic fibers are extruded and solidify as they cool. Post-treatments generally enhance the physical properties of the fiber. The bundle of filaments is then put through a crimping or texturizing process, after which it is either chopped into staple fiber or wound into bulked continuous filament yarn. The yarn may be heat-set to improve its ability to withstand the stresses of dyeing and finishing and traffic wear after the carpet is put into use. Heat-setting is performed either by the autoclave method, in which batches of the yarn are treated with pressurized steam, or the continuous method, in which the yarn is heat-set in an ongoing manner (Ullmann 1988).
Dyeing Fibers
Polymer, fiber, or yarn can be dyed before the carpet is manufactured by applying the color in one of several different processes (Carpet and Rug Institute 1992).
Solution dyeing. This process involves adding color pigments to the molten polymer prior
to extrusion. The pigments used are inorganic or metallized organic compounds. About 10 percent of the carpet market is colored using this method. Dyes used can include inorganic or metallized organic compounds.
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Stock dyeing. Fibers or yarns can be dyed through stock dyeing, in which cut staple fiber is packed into a large kettle after which dye liquid is forced through the fibers continuously as the temperature is increased (the most common stock-dyed fiber is wool). Types of dyes can include acid, premetallized, and chrome dyes. Skein dyeing. In this process, yarn is dyed while on the skein. Acid dyes are used. Package dyeing. In this process, yarn is wound onto a special perforated cone. Space dyeing. This process involves knitting plain circular knit tubing, which is then printed
with dyestuffs in a multicolored pattern, steamed, washed, extracted, dried, and, finally, unraveled and rewound into cones. Coloring a carpet after manufacture is called piece dyeing. The most important dye processes for carpeting are continuous and beck (Duffy 1995). In the continuous process, the carpet is run through the dye bath and then between squeeze rollers that force the dye into the fabric. Beck dyeing, also called winch or reel dyeing, is a process whereby the carpet is passed through the dye bath in a loop that is sewed together at the ends. The loop of carpet moves over a rail, then onto a reel that immerses it in the dye and draws it through the dye bath. The carpet is kept immersed except for the few yards around the reel. Penetration of dye is obtained by continuous immersion in slack condition rather than by pressure under tension on the wet fabric (Hollen et al. 1979; Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Dyeing
The primary ecological risks from carpet dyeing generally affect water quality. Although adoption of the best available management practices and compliance with federal and state laws reduce harmful discharges, release of dye wastes has the potential to pose a major threat to water quality. The dyes themselves can increase biological and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD) in surface waters, causing oxygen depletion and death of aquatic life. Mordants (substances that enhance pigment binding) are often toxic materials such as heavy metals, and they can damage or destroy aquatic life. Similarly, bleaching and washing solutions can introduce poisonous chemicals to streams if released to the environment. Recent research on azo dyes, a common group, has confirmed that their chemical chain breaks down and produces aromatic amines, some of which pose health risks, under the sediment conditions in streams and rivers. More efficient processes have been developed for dyeing carpet, reducing the amount of dye lost in the wastewater to only about 5 percent (Turner 1995). Because dyes are an expensive commodity, manufacturers are making more effort to utilize them fully. Some coloration of the wastewater is unavoidable, however. Different treatment possibilities for removing dye from wastewater or improving recycling of dyestuff are being implemented by the industry (Tincher 1989, Carpet and Rug Institute 1995c). Electrochemical precipitation and reverse osmosis treatment have been used with good success to reduce metals and dyes in effluent water from the dyeing process. One industry representative reports a big improvement in this area since 1989 (Rhodes 1995). The use of water in carpet manufacture is being reduced with newer, more efficient dyeing techniques. One of these, continuous dyeing, is said to use as little as 11/2 to 3 gallons per square yard versus 7 to 13 gallons per square yard for the older piece-dyed method of dyeing (Turner 1995). In addition, the trend toward solution-dyed fibers has reduced water use, waste, and pollution (Turner 1995; Leonas 1995; Rhodes 1995).
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Construction Techniques
Several different techniques are used to attach yarn to the carpet backing. Tufting is by far the most widespread, with weaving, knitting, fusion bonding, and custom tufting also in use:
Tufting. Tufted carpets make up 95 percent of the U.S. carpet market. In this process the yarn
is stitched through a fabric backing, creating a loop called a tuft. Tufted carpets for residential use are generally made from undyed yarn and dyed after manufacture with the piece dyeing process, which is used mainly for solid colors. For commercial carpet, predyed yarns are often used. Secondary backing is not necessary on a woven carpet.
Weaving. Weaving is a centuries-old method of carpet formation. Carpet looms weave col-
ored pile yarns and backing yarns into a carpet, which then gets a back coating, usually of latex, to provide stability.
Knitting. Carpet knitting machines produce face and back simultaneously. Three sets of nee-
dles loop pile yarn, backing yarn, and stitching yarn together. A latex coating or secondary backing is applied to the back of the knitted carpet. Loop and cut pile textures are produced in solid color or tweed.
Fusion bonding. In fusion bonding, yarn is embedded between two parallel sheets of adhe-
sive-coated backing. The sheets are slit, forming two pieces of cut pile carpet (Kuhar 1990).
Custom tufting. Custom tufting is used to create special designs or textures. The largely motorized hand tools called single handed tufters and pass machines are used. Designs can be tufted over a normally tufted carpet.
At one manufacturer, yarn obtained partially (52 percent) from recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles is heat-set and tufted onto a backing, dyed, and secured with a second backing. One square yard of carpet uses up about 36 two-liter bottles (Image Carpet 1991). The finished carpet looks quite similar to traditional indoor synthetic carpets.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Carpet Manufacture
The biggest contributor to chemical oxygen demand (COD) of carpet wastewaters is the finish applied to the fiber, some of which washes out in the dyeing process. It amounts to 50 to 65 percent of this pollution load, an amount that could be eliminated if carpet could more effectively retain finishing agents or if these agents could be recovered from wastewater. The industry has identified this as a major area for improvement in research (Tincher 1989). One industry representative indicates this area has improved significantly since 1989 (Rhodes 1995).
Application of Stain-Resist, Insect-Resist, and Soil-Release Treatments
The latest generation of nylon carpeting incorporates stain resist agents for common food dyes. The treatment liquor is generally applied after dyeing; it can only be applied to nylon carpets. Today most residential carpet receives a soil release treatment, one of various man-made, organic fluorine compounds that are sprayed on. Usually applied while the carpet is still wet after dyeing or rinsing, they are suitable for application to all fibers.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Treatment of Carpets
The application of mothproofing to wool carpet may affect the environment. Wool carpet is much more common in Europe than in the United States, and water pollution from insecticides in Europe has become an important issue. Strict European water pollution regulations have encouraged new approaches to mothproofing treatment (Malin 1994).
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Carpet Finishing
Carpet finishing involves drying, preshearing, applying secondary backing (if needed), and final shearing. The drier forces hot air through the carpet from both sides, and beater bars can then be used on both sides of the carpet to remove wrinkles and raise the pile uniformly. Preshearing machines brush the pile up and then shear it with rotary cutting knives. Final shearing is done after the secondary backing has been applied to remove ungainly fuzz that may have collected on the surface of the pile. Secondary backings are needed on tufted carpets to enhance stability and strength. Tufted carpets may not need secondary backing in glue-down installations.
Energy Consumed
The total embodied energy of carpeting is provided below, in the section on construction, use, and maintenance.
Manufacture of Carpet Cushions The five major types of carpet cushion are bonded urethane, prime urethane, sponge rubber, synthetic fiber, and rubberized jute cushions (Carpet Policy Dialogue Compendium Report 1991; Oler 1995a):
Bonded Urethane Cushions
This type of cushion is largely made of scrap polyurethane foam, which is put through a shredder and grinder to reduce the size of the pieces to between 1/4 inch and one inch. The pieces are mixed in a blender with the prepolymer (consisting of polyol and toluene or methylene diisocyanate), and the mix is compressed. The bonding process is initiated by injecting water in fluid or steam form, which starts a reaction in the prepolymer. After it has been cooled and sliced into appropriate thicknesses, a laminating film of 0.7 to 1 mil thickness is applied to one surface of the cushion with heat and pressure. The laminating film allows the carpet to slide more easily over the cushion during installation.
Prime Urethane Cushions
This cushion is manufactured from the reaction of polyol, toluene or methylene diisocyanate, and water. Laminating film is also applied to these cushions.
Sponge Rubber Cushions
This cushion is made in a vulcanization process. Bales of rubber resin are broken up with a cutter; mixed with fillers, plasticizers, and other chemical ingredients; and reduced to a thin film. The film is moved on a steel belt into a vulcanizing oven. Blowing agents, activated by heat, expand the rubber into the grid of the steel belt, creating the rippled appearance of this type of cushion. A thin scrim of spun, bonded nylon or polyester is placed on top of the hot, rippled surface to provide dimensional stability and to serve the purpose of a laminating film.
Synthetic Fiber Cushions
This cushion type is made of waste fiber. After the fibers have been broken down, separated, and aligned, they are spread on an apron and needle-punched into a homogenous web. A woven polypropylene carrier may be incorporated for stability.
Rubberized Jute Cushions
Recycled jute burlap bags and carpet strips are cut into fine strips, which are separated and aligned in layers. A polypropylene carrier mesh is placed between the layers, after which the web is attacked by a thousand needles in a series of needle-punch looms. Acrylic is sprayed onto both sides of the punched product, usually two to three ounces of coating per square
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yard per side. This works out to a coating content for the finished product of between 10 and 15 percent.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture and Assembly of Carpet Cushions
The chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) blowing agents traditionally used for the formation of some flexible urethane and polyurethane foams are a threat to the atmospheric (upper) ozone layer (OECD 1991). Therefore, carpet foam cushion manufacturers no longer use CFCs as blowing agents for their foam (Peters 1995).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the installation, use, and maintenance of carpets is presented in figure 13.
Figure 13: Carpets, Cushions, and AdhesivesConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity Installation of carpet Stressor Waste carpet and cushion scraps Waste wrapping materials Air emissions Landfill disposal Contribution to VOC pollution Decreased landfill capacity Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation 4-PC Trichloroethane Irritation in sensitive individuals Odors Irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract Central nervous system depression, respiratory depression, and dysrhythmia at high exposure levels Use of carpet Maintenance of carpet Adsorption of VOCs by carpet and later reemission Excess shampoo residue left in carpet Irritation and various other health effects VOCs (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Carpeting is used in construction for its color, warmth, safety (slip resistance), and sound absorbency. Carpet feels warmer to the feet than a smooth floor covering (Potting and Blok 1994). It has been claimed that carpeted spaces can maintain the same level of comfort at lower temperature settings than a room with smooth floor coverings, resulting in energy savings throughout the life cycle of the carpet (Klingenberger et al. 1995). A dense carpet with long pile absorbs more sound than a thin, short pile carpet. A cushion improves sound absorbency even more. In both commercial and residential construction, carpet is often considered primary flooring and laid directly on the concrete slab. The concrete slab, as well as any wood underlayment, must be completely cured to prevent moisture damage to the carpet and lack of bonding of the adhesive. Residential carpet installations account for more than half of total carpet installations. These are generally performed by independent contractors hired by a carpet retail outlet. The architect or owner generally specifies commercial carpet installations in more detail. A number of industry publications offering installation details and specifications are listed in the references at the end of this report (Carpet and Rug Institute publications). CRI 104 and 105 are standard reference guides for installation of commercial and residential carpet (Carpet and Rug Institute 1994a, 1995a).
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There are two basic methods of installing carpet: the stretched-in, tackless strip installation and the glue-down installation. In the first method, carpet is stretched over a separate cushion. This is most often used in residential installations where maximum resiliency is desired. The second method can be single or double glue-down. A single or direct glue-down is suitable for a carpet with a secondary fabric or latex backing in heavily trafficked areas. A double glue-down is when the cushion is glued down first and then the carpet is glued on top of it. Glue-down installations can be made on many substrates, such as concrete, wood, metal, terrazzo, and ceramic tile. Industry recommends testing concrete for moisture, acidity, alkalinity, and salt content in order to select the right adhesive and ensure good bonding. Very good ventilation (if possible, 100 percent outdoor air) must be provided during carpet installation to maintain healthy indoor air quality. Some architects have also specified that the carpet be conditioned before installation, to reduce residual VOC levels (Tucker 1990). The industry provides the following recommendations concerning carpet installation (Turner 1995): Specify installation in accordance with manufacturers recommendations or industry standards for installation CRI-104 (commercial) or CRI-105 (residential). Both CRI 104 and 105 contain steps for maintaining good indoor air quality during and after installation. Specify installation performed by certified installation firms. The Floor Covering Installation Board (FCIB) certification assures that FCIB firms have demonstrated an awareness and ability to comply with industry installation standards CRI-104 and 105. Vacuuming and spot-cleaning carpets regularly will increase their durability and enhance their appearance. Dirt can be abrasive, as imbedded grit cuts the face fibers and causes the carpet to lose density and resilience. Dirt buildup in heavily trafficked areas may make it preferable to use alternative floor coverings for such areas. Shampooing or deep cleaning of a carpet can be performed in a number of ways, both wet and dry. Avoid detergents that leave a waxy or sticky residue after testing, as this residue will cause the carpet to soil more quickly in the future. Residue from the better detergents will dry to a flaky substance, which can be vacuumed up (Carpet and Rug Institute 1992). Cost comparisons on the maintenance of carpet versus hard surface flooring show that on an annual basis and over fifteen years, the cost of carpet maintenance is consistently lower. Included in these studies were the initial cost of materials, installation, cleaning labor, capital equipment, expendable supplies, and removal cost (Carpet and Rug Institute 1992).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Carpet
Carpet installation produces waste in the form of carpet and cushion scraps. Some manufacturers are looking for ways to use this waste material; for example, carpet fiber is being tested as a reinforcement in concrete (Malin 1994). Carpet wrapping is also being collected and recycled. Polyethylene wrapping material is recycled for use in garbage bags and ground coverings. Polypropylene wrapping is made into pellets again and combined with mineral filler; the material is then recycled, by injection molding, into products used in the auto industry (Leonas 1995). New technology to reduce selvage waste includes guidance systems that provide better control of width during manufacture. Continued progress may reduce selvage waste completely in the future (Leonas 1995).
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Indoor Air Quality
Research studies by many groups, including EPA, have concluded carpet is one of the lowest emitting products used in the indoor environment (Turner 1995). Many other commonly used indoor products emit VOCs at rates of up to 10 times higher than carpet (Hedge 1994). With adequate outdoor air ventilation, industry claims that most of the VOC emissions from new carpet will dissipate in the first 48 to 72 hours after installation. According to industry, carpet may have advantages over hard surface flooring because it traps and localizes many airborne particulate contaminants and holds them until they can be properly extracted by vacuuming and other cleaning methods. In addition, carpet upkeep may require fewer chemicals than other floor coverings, reducing VOC levels in a building (Turner 1995; Carpet and Rug Institute 1995b). Emissions testing. In the report of a study performed for EPA (espousing views that did not necessarily represent EPA policy), emissions from new carpet were characterized. The major emissions found were styrene, 4-PC (4-phenylcyclohexene), 2-butoxyethanol, and 4-vinylcyclohexene. The remaining identified compounds contributed only in relatively minor ways to total VOC emissions. Health effects were investigated based on the peak levels among all measurements for each chemical, although actual concentrations would decrease over time and normal exposure would be at less than these maximum levels. None of the peak exposures exceeded any relevant noncancer health benchmark levels and, as a result, no adverse health effects should be anticipated from exposure to newly installed carpet. Based on studies of workers who breathed styrene and studies of animals, the International Agency for Research on Cancer has determined that styrene is possibly carcinogenic in humans (ATSDR 1995). When the cancer risk from this styrene exposure (which occurs almost entirely within the first ten days) was evaluated, a worst case rate was calculated of 25 cancer deaths in one billion persons exposed to carpets. This rate was considered well below the risk levels EPA assumed to be protective of human health (Hetes 1992). This study did not consider potential health effects among especially sensitive individuals. In an initial study on carpet emissions by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), not enough evidence was found to show that specific chemicals emitted from carpet cause the health effects sometimes associated with new carpet installation. Studies investigating potential adverse health effects are continuing (CPSC 1993). In 1990 the Carpet Policy Dialogue was initiated to determine the source(s) of organic compound emissions related to carpet installations. Dialogue members discussed existing testing methods and recognized the need for standardized testing protocols. The need for product-by-product, company-by-company testing versus testing of representative samples of products and companies was also recognized (Levin 1991). Nineteen different SB latex-backed carpets, three cushions, and four adhesives (one a low VOC-emitting adhesive) were tested by a laboratory hired by industry. The EPA Laboratory in North Carolina also undertook some comparison testing, with results that were reasonably similar to those of the contracted laboratory (Levin 1991). Installation systems tested by the contracted laboratory were carpet on subflooring without adhesive or cushion, carpet on subflooring with adhesive (single glue-down), carpet on subflooring with cushion and no adhesive, and carpet on subflooring with adhesive and cushion (double glue-down) (Black 1991). The study showed the following: The face fiber, dye process, or topical treatment had little effect on VOC emission levels. The average 24-hour emission factor for carpets is 0.15 mg/m2/h for TVOC (total VOC emissions) and 0.064 mg/m2/h for 4-PC. These emission factors correspond to potential VOC contributions (or concentrations) of 0.061 mg/m3 TVOC and 0.026 mg/m3 of 4-PC, which decrease to barely detectable levels at the end of one exposure week.
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Compared to emissions from other building materials, the emissions from carpets were low. Bonded carpet cushions alone were shown to have slightly higher emissions than carpets. The average 24-hour emission factor for carpet cushions is 1.24 mg/m2/h. (An industry source indicates that the principal emission from cushioning is butylated hydroxytoluene [BHT]. BHT is an antioxidant widely present in houses in a number of materials, including as a preservative in food.) Carpeting is reported to act as a barrier to emissions from the cushioning, lessening the concentration of emissions released above the carpet and prolonging the period during which the emissions are present at the lower concentration (Oler 1995a). The TVOC emissions from traditional carpet adhesives proved high, and it took from three to six weeks to bring the emission levels down to EPA-suggested 30-hour levels of 0.6 mg/m2/h (default value cited by Tucker 1990). The adhesive with the highest emissions measured 120 mg/m2/h over a 24-hour period, which corresponds to a 49 mg/m3 contribution to indoor air. The mean TVOC emissions from the traditional adhesives tested were 88.5 mg/m2/h. The corresponding figures for the low-emission adhesive were 0.7 mg/m 2/h and 0.287 mg/m3. Curiously, the adhesive-plus-carpet system showed a higher emission rate than the combined individual rates for carpet and adhesive. The double glue-down did not double the emission rate, but it went from about 40 mg/m2/h to about 60 mg/m2/h (Black 1991). Emission testing during carpet installation at another site was conducted by the same independent laboratory used in the above-mentioned testing. VOC emissions from the carpet installation were tested both in situ and in a test chamber. The carpet installed was a 28-ounce, gray, textured loop nylon carpet with woven polypropylene primary backing and 100 percent urethane secondary backing with polyester scrim. The previously mentioned low-emission adhesive was used in a single glue-down installation (without cushion). The installation area measured 3,462 ft2 with a volume of 29,428 ft3. The space was designed for an airflow of 7.1 ach, and the dampers were set for 20 percent outside air (1.41 ach) continuously for 72 hours during and after the installation (Davidson 1991). This carpet and adhesive installation was found to emit very low levels of TVOC (ranging from 0.116 to 0.243 mg/m3) during installation. The TVOC levels in the space prior to installation, with less-intensive ventilation, ranged from 0.126 to 0.216 mg/m3. The primary VOC present was 1,1,1-trichloroethane, a major component of the seam sealant. Tests taken one week following the installation showed that TVOC emissions had increased slightly (ranging from 0.213 to 0.339 mg/m3) but were lower in the installation area than in another area of the building where no carpet had been installed (Davidson 1991). (For comparison, note that the State of Washington is proposing that combined emissions from all products used in new state office buildings cannot result in air concentrations of TVOC exceeding 0.5 mg/m3 [Bayer and Papanicolopoulos 1990].) A prominent researcher at the EPA has proposed a classification of low-emission materials and products based on TVOC emission rates. He suggests that maximum emissions for floor coverings be 0.6 mg/m2/h at about 30 hours after installation. This is based on a maximum contribution to the TVOC concentration in a space from any single source of 0.5 mg/m3 (Tucker 1990). Adhesives and seam sealants. Traditional carpet adhesives put off high initial emissions of VOCs (Girman 1986). The majority of carpet adhesives are based on SB latex, but some contain more volatile solvents than others. Air quality regulations promulgated in 1990 in southern California limited VOCs in adhesives to 150 g/l; this became an accepted standard nationwide in 1991. Today, all major adhesive manufacturers offer products with low solvent content, which are often marketed as low VOC-emitting products. Some manufacturers have reduced solvent levels even further, to below the national standard, and some offer products that claim to have a VOC level of zero (Turner 1995; Malin 1994). Adhesive manufacturers are developing a categorization scheme that will
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identify adhesives considered to have low emissions. When the guidelines are established (and agreed to by the EPA), it can be expected that many traditional solvent-based adhesives will be phased out. The new low-emission (or no-emission) adhesives are as effective as the solvent-based adhesives (with a few exceptions), but carpet installers must be educated to ensure the new adhesives are applied properly (Knudtzon 1995). It is expected that alternative methods of carpet installation, some using minimal amounts of adhesives, will be developed (Turner 1995). Seam sealants have been known to release such toxins as 1,1,1-trichloroethane and toluene. New government regulations require the elimination of trichloroethane by 1996. Some manufacturers now offer seam sealants with zero VOCs (Malin 1994). Backing. The characteristic new carpet odor is due mainly to the chemical 4-phenylcyclohexene, or 4-PC, emitted from the SB backing compound. 4-PC can produce personal discomfort symptoms in sensitive individuals at exposures of 1 ppb. This level is above the odor threshold, which may be below 0.5 ppb (EPA 1990a). The EPA has termed 4-PC unremarkable in regard to indoor air toxicity (EPA 1990b). Industry studies on animals at concentrations of up to 10 percent (dermal) and 60 ppm (inhalation) indicated an absence of toxicity at those high levels (Friess 1991). Standard quality carpet for residential use typically contains larger amounts of SB latex adhesive than do higher quality commercial grade carpets (Malin 1994). Although 4-PC has not been shown to affect human health, in recent years SB suppliers have substantially reduced 4-PC content in SB latex to reduce the odor from new carpets (Turner 1995, Malin 1994, SBLMC 1995). Since May 1988 average 4-PC concentrations in SB latex have decreased by more than 80 percent, from 250 ppm to 46 ppm in March 1994 (SBLMC 1995) CRI testing and labeling program. As a follow-up to the Carpet Policy Dialogue process, the Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI) began a testing and labeling program for carpets in 1992 and strengthened it in 1994. This program tests individual product types from participating manufacturers for emissions of TVOCs, styrene, 4-PC, and formaldehyde. Carpet types that do not exceed the established emissions levels are awarded the greenand-white label of the CRI Indoor Air Quality Testing Program. This label includes consumer information on the allergic symptoms some people may experience after carpet installation and ways to reduce exposure to carpet emissions. The label recommends increasing fresh air ventilation for at least 72 hours after installation, cleaning, or removal of carpeting materials. The following installation guidelines are provided on the CRI label (Carpet and Rug Institute 1994b, DeMarco 1994, Malin 1994): Vacuum old carpet before removal. Vacuum floor after carpet and pad have been removed. Always ventilate with fresh air (open doors and windows, use exhaust fans, etc.) during all phases of installation and for at least 72 hours thereafter. If adhesives and/or pad are used, request those with low chemical emissions. Follow detailed installation guidelines from the manufacturer or from the Carpet and Rug Institute. Since the programs testing began in 1992, emissions from the carpets tested have decreased, and the percentage of carpeting not meeting the labeling criteria has also decreased (Malin 1994). EPA consumer guidelines. The EPA has issued a set of consumer guidelines relating to carpeting (EPA 1993):
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Talk to your carpet retailer. Ask for information on emissions from carpeting. Ask the retailer to unroll and air out the carpet in a well-ventilated area before installation. Ask for low-emission adhesives if adhesives are needed. Consider leaving the premises during and immediately after carpet installation. You may wish to schedule the installation when most family members or office workers are out. Be sure the retailer requires the installer to follow the installation guidelines of the Carpet and Rug Institutes. Open doors and windows. Increasing the amount of fresh air will reduce exposure to most chemicals released from carpeting. During and after installation, use window fans, room air conditioners, or other mechanical ventilation equipment to exhaust fumes to the outdoors. Keep them running for 48 to 72 hours after the new carpet is installed. Contact your carpet retailer if objectionable odors persist. Follow the manufacturers instructions for proper carpet maintenance. The sink factor in indoor VOC concentrations. The interaction of indoor air pollutants with interior surfaces, called sinks, is being studied both in the United States and abroad. A surface can adsorb VOCs emitted by another material in a space and then later desorb them. (The term adsorb indicates the adhesion of molecules to the surfaces of solid bodies or liquids with which they are in contact; the term desorb means reemit.) Surfaces with the highest accessible surface area per unit mass seem to have the highest sink capacity. The large surface area and porosity of carpets give them higher sink capacity than, for instance, pillows. Such relatively smooth surfaces as wallboard and ceiling tile are also sinks, but they have a lower sink capacity than carpets. Individual VOCs are adsorbed and desorbed at different rates by the materials mentioned (Tichenor 1990). Conclusive data has not been found on the sink capacity of different carpet fibers, but two studies suggest that natural fibers such as wool and cotton have a higher sink capacity than synthetic fibers for the compounds tested (Borazzo 1990). A material of high sink capacity is assumed to have a detrimental effect on indoor air quality, as chemical concentrations will be adsorbed and later desorbed by the sinks rather than being flushed out by the ventilation at an early stage. Effects of maintenance on indoor air quality. A 1982 study reports two respiratory irritation outbreaksone in an office building, the other in a day care centerdue to shampoo residue left in carpet cleaned with underdiluted carpet shampoo. Symptoms included cough, dry throat, difficult breathing, nasal congestion, eye irritation, and headache. The symptoms lasted for several weeks, until the carpets were cleaned again. The major ingredient implicated in the shampoos in these two outbreaks and another similar incident was sodium dodecyl sulphate, a respiratory irritant in mice (Kreiss 1982). Popular cleansers for all types of surfaces were tested in an Italian chamber study, and spray carpet cleanser produced the highest VOC concentration. This product contained 1-methoxy-2-propanol, which according to the model was responsible for 20 mg/m3, and 2-methoxy-1-propanol, responsible for 0.329 mg/m3 (Colombo 1990).
Energy Consumed
Two studies by Franklin Associates, Ltd. (dated 1990 and 1991) determined the total embodied energy at the point of use for generic, average products made of the materials discussed above. These figures are shown in figure 14.
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Figure 14: Total Embodied Energy of Carpeting at Point of Use

Materials Nylon products PET products Polypropylene products Polyurethane products Hair and jute carpet cushions Natural latex rubber products Btu/lb of Product 63,500 45,800 41,000 31,000 8,000 29,000 MJ/kg of Product 147.7 106.5 95.4 72.1 18.6 67.5
Another study of common building materials gives an embodied energy value of 74.42 MJ/kg (31,990 Btu/lb) for an unspecified type of carpeting (Friedman and Cammalleri 1995). Also provided in this study is embodied energy calculated on the basis of area: 186.65 MJ/m2 (147,926 Btu/yd2). A life-cycle analysis from Utrecht University in the Netherlands gives an embodied energy value of 175.7 MJ/m2 (139,230 Btu/yd2) for nylon pile carpet over the standard eight-year life span specified in the study. The embodied energy for wool carpet is 83.7 MJ/m2 (66,318 Btu/yd2) for the same eight-year life span. (These values are calculated from embodied energy values of 329.4 MJ/m2 [261,056 Btu/yd2] for nylon pile carpet and 156.9 MJ/m 2 [124,347 Btu/yd 2] for woolen carpet over a 15-year equivalence period.) Transportation accounts for 2.6 percent and 16 percent, respectively, of these energy values (Potting and Blok 1994).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of carpet is presented in figure 15.
Figure 15: Carpets, Cushions, and AdhesivesRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Discarding used carpet Recycling used carpet Stressor Landfill disposal Wastes from remanufacture Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
One life-cycle assessment of floor coverings identifies a normal life span for carpet of eight years (Potting and Blok 1994). A different report, however, indicates the life span is 13 years (Klingenberger et al. 1995). According to one manufacturer, nylon performs better than polyester and polypropylene and thus has a longer service life (Duffy 1995). The useful life of carpeting may be extended by the use of stain-resist, soil-release, and insect-resist treatments (if an individual carpet is liable to suffer from these problems). In a life-cycle approach, such an extension proportionally decreases environmental impact on an annual basis. The disposal of used carpet has become a major solid waste problem. About 3.5 billion pounds of discarded carpet goes to landfills every year (Malin 1994). Several manufacturers are experimenting with the recycling or reuse of carpet. Recycling can range from the simple reuse of carpet in another location to using the carpet material as is for an unrelated use to breaking the carpet material down to its component molecules and manufacturing new carpet from these materials (Malin 1994).
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The Carpet and Rug Institute has developed a carpet recycling program that includes three parts: a carpet back-coding or labeling system to facilitate sorting of carpets by face fibers, a blueprint for a postconsumer carpet collection process, and a source for information and technology related to carpet recycling (Duffy 1995). Recycling methods currently used or in the experimental phase are discussed below. Some manufacturers are looking for ways to manufacture new products, either carpeting or other items made from plastic, from discarded carpet materials. One company is separating nylon from carpeting material and producing a nylon resin that is molded into automobile parts. To extract nylon and polypropylene, the carpet is reduced to powder, from which a patented separation process produces nylon and polypropylene with a purity of 98 percent (DuPont 1995). Carpeting requires a nylon more pure than this for manufacture, but because nylon is a relatively expensive polymer to produce, several companies are developing technologies for remanufacturing nylon from recycled carpet fiber (Malin 1995, DuPont 1995). These fibers are chemically broken down into their basic molecule(s), and virgin nylon (of 100 percent purity) is manufactured from these components. (Unlike nylon 6,6, nylon 6 is composed of only one type of molecule, caprolactam, which facilitates chemical recycling, or depolymerization. Allied Signal is developing depolymerization processes, and Monsanto is developing a fiber recovery process (Duffy 1995). Industry asserts that nylon carpeting is especially amenable to recycling into new carpets for the following reasons: Carpet is the largest source of postconsumer nylon available; nylon makes up the largest percentage of the postconsumer carpet stream; in the case of nylon 6, the depolymerization process is relatively simple; and nylon is a valuable polymer, selling for $0.90 to $3.50/lb (Costello 1995). One manufacturer has established a network for collecting discarded carpet. In partnership with carpet mills, dealers, specifiers, and end users, carpet is collected and identified, and markets are found for the reclaimed materials (DuPont 1995). Reclaimed carpet material has a variety of uses, including as a component in the manufacture of resins for automobile parts, as a geotextile (for stabilization of landfills or soils under roadways), in the manufacture of concretelike products, and as a fuel that is incinerated for energy recovery. Research is underway to produce a clean-burning synthetic coal from waste carpet (Malin 1994, DuPont 1995). Only one manufacturer today makes polyester (PET) carpeting with significant recycled content. Of the polyester used in this carpeting, approximately half is recycled material. The carpet mill collects postconsumer PET containers, including lower spec and colored recycled resin, for manufacture of this polyester fiber. Once PET is turned into carpet fiber, however, it is not cost-effective to recover it again for recycling. In addition, soda bottles provide a larger source of cleaner, less expensive postconsumer polyester. Therefore, high-quality reclaimed PET containers are probably better used to produce soda bottles, from which the polyester can be recycled again. At present, carpet recycling systems are based on the typical construction of carpeting: nylon face, polypropylene primary and secondary backing, and SB latex. Certain additional materials often used in carpet construction make carpet recycling more difficult, however. These include jute backing, attached polyurethane foam, metal complex dyes, and blends of face fiber types. To make recycling easier, some carpet fiber producers have suggested changes in carpet construction. Several patents have been granted for carpet manufactured with a single polymer type (for example, all nylon). However, single component carpet is, at present, more expensive to produce than conventional carpet (Costello 1995).
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Organizational Perspectives
Polyurethane foam cushion products could be recycled into new cushions. According to the Carpet Cushion Council, approximately 100 million pounds of old cushioning were used in the manufacture of about 700 million pounds of new cushioning in 1994. Research continues regarding postconsumer recycling of carpet cushions (Oler 1995a). No data are available on the amount of cushion material deposited in landfills. All adhesive manufacturers today use recyclable containers. A manufacturer of one low-emission adhesive offers recyclable corrugated cardboard containers. Each recyclable container contains two resealable plastic pouches, which probably will end up in a landfill but will take up much less space than hard plastic or metal cans (W. F. Taylor 1991; Knudtzon 1995).
Two views from the carpet industry, one from the Carpet and Rug Institute and one from the Carpet Cushion Council, are presented here.
Industry Perspective: Carpet and Rug Institute Factors such as comfort, underfoot safety, noise reduction, thermal insulation, and aesthetic value have made carpet the floor covering of choice. The safety and health of the carpet user, as well as the preservation of the environment, are of primary importance to the carpet and rug industry. Through an individual and collective commitment to continual improvements in the environmental safety of carpet and its manufacturing processes, the industry has become a leader in deriving scientific information about its products and, especially, their role in indoor air quality.
In every type of indoor environment, the issue of air quality has become as important as it is in the outdoor environment. The EPA building incident in Washington, D.C., in which employees alleged that new carpets caused air quality problems, brought carpeting to the media forefront. The lawsuit that ensued over the EPAs Waterside Mall was settled in late 1993 with a verdict stating that appropriate building maintenance had been neglected: Air circulation was inadequate, causing mildew and mold growth that very negatively affected the quality of the indoor air. It is typical for a variety of factors to affect air quality, but new carpets and their new carpet odor are often targeted for complaint. The carpet industry responded to allegations that new carpeting causes some health problems by performing extensive research to determine whether new carpets are indeed linked to these health effects. Scientific evidence has not identified any link. Despite the fact that emissions from new carpet are much less than those of other renovation and construction productsincluding paint, wallboard, wall coverings, and cleaning materialsthe carpet industry continues to strive for products with even lower emission levels. The carpet industry initiated a carpet testing program that identifies participating manufacturers products, independently and scientifically testing their product styles for total VOCs and other specific chemical emissions. When products do not exceed the criteria, they can display a green-and-white logo and an information label explaining the recommendations for installation and offering guidelines for those who consider themselves extremely sensitive to odors. Specifying a carpet product type that has been tested for emissions and displays the CRI (Carpet and Rug Institute, the national trade association representing carpet manufacturers and their suppliers) logo ensures the specifier that the product selected will emit only minimal VOCs into the indoor environment. The logo also identifies manufacturers who continually strive to improve products and to respond to environmental concerns. Contrary to the misperception about carpet and formaldehyde, the carpet industry has not used formaldehyde in the manufacture of carpet for more than twelve years.
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The carpet industry is committed to improving the environment through ongoing product stewardship initiatives. This includes responsibly designing products, improving the efficiency of the manufacturing process, and reducing waste generation and energy use. The industry is striving to minimize waste disposal of postindustrial and postconsumer components. Although used carpet represents less than one percent of total municipal landfill waste, recycling efforts by several individual companies, as well as a number of independent entrepreneurs, are ongoing. These efforts turn used carpets into geotextiles, carpet and furniture padding, sod reinforcement, and various construction materials. Several replacement products are under development, such as plastic lumber, fiberboard, fence posts, parking lot stops, automotive parts, and carpet tack strips. Several carpet fiber manufacturers are developing processes for extracting high-value resins from used carpet. They are close to perfecting ways to depolymerize these resins, returning them to their original monomer state, which could lead to closed loop recycling. At this time, component identification, sorting, and transportation are great challenges for recycling programs. Through the Carpet and Rug Institute, an industry-wide committee is actively working to resolve technical problems and create a system that uniformly identifies the components of todays complex carpet to facilitate future recycling and reuse. The committee is also evaluating life-cycle costs and viable collection systems and analyzing and encouraging alternative technologies for facilitating carpet recycling. The market is estimated to exceed 1.5 billion square yards of carpet sold yearly, with projected future growth. All surface materials must meet acoustic, thermal, ADA, nonslip, glare reduction, fatigue reduction, indoor air quality, and cleanability requirements, at the same time they accommodate the public desire for aesthetic beauty both at home and in the workplace. The softness of carpeting improves employee productivity and comfort by providing a quieter atmosphere and reduces liability from slips and falls. The visual beauty and comfortable, homelike atmosphere carpeting provides continue to make it the floor covering of choice for more than 70 percent of the floor surfaces in the United States.
Industry Perspective: Carpet Cushion Council Carpet cushioning has long been used to extend the useful life of the carpet stretched over it by maintaining the appearance of the carpet. Extensive testing and experience have shown that in commercial applications, a thin, firm cushion significantly extends the acceptable appearance of carpeting in most end uses.
Carpet cushioning has other advantages: It can provide a level of comfort and richness not obtained from carpet glued directly to the floor. It can also help reduce noise levels by absorbing both impact and ambient sound. Cushioning adds a measure of insulation that can reduce energy costs and help reduce temperature gradients. There are five generic types of carpet cushion: rubberized jute, synthetic fiber, cellular sponge rubber, prime urethane, and bonded urethane. Each type has particular features that should be fully understood before they are specified. Three types of carpet cushion represent major recycling programs: Synthetic fiber cushioning is made of carpet fibers that cannot be used as first grade fibers on the face of a carpet. They may be somewhat off in color, denier, or staple length, or they may come from start-up runs or creel ends. These fibers are sold to carpet cushion manufacturers who needle-punch them into a homogenous web for use as carpet cushioning. Rubberized jute cushioning uses recycled burlap bags from the fruit and vegetable industries and from the packaging of certain types of minerals. These burlap bags are
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Regulatory Status
made from jute in India, Bangladesh, and Thailand. Jute is an organic fiber noted for its resilience. Burlap bags are shredded, carded, and needle-punched into a web for use as a carpet cushion. Bonded urethane cushioning uses scrap urethane from the manufacture of cushion shapes for the automotive, upholstered furniture, and mattress industries. Material for bonded carpet cushioning also comes from postconsumer carpet cushioning, used car seats, and recycled mattresses. Since bonded carpet cushions have by far the largest market segment of the cushion industry, they represent one of the worlds largest recycling programs, saving hundreds of millions of pounds of urethane foam per year from finding its way into landfills.
Regulatory Status
The carpet and rug industry is pursuing full compliance with state and federal regulations controlling environmental and safety issues, such as the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, and OSHA safety standards.
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References
References
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 1995. Styrene. ToxFAQs. Atlanta, GA. Bayer, Charlene. 1991. Carpet Policy Dialogue. Progressive Architecture. March. Bayer, C. W., and C. D. Papanicolopoulos. 1990. Exposure Assessments of Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from Textile Products. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto. Black, M. S., et al. 1991. A Methodology for Determining VOC Emissions from New SBR LatexBacked Carpet, Adhesives, Cushions, and Installed Systems and Predicting their Impact on Indoor Air Quality. Proceedings from IAQ 91, ASHRAE/ICBR Healthy Buildings Conference. Washington. Bodnar, James. 1991. The Revolution of Carpet Tiles. The Construction Specifier. April. Borazzo, John E., et al. 1990. Sorption of Organic Vapors to Indoor Surfaces of Synthetic and Natural Fibrous Materials. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto. Carpet and Rug Institute. 1994. How to Specify Commercial Carpet Installation. Dalton, GA. . no date. A Profile of the United States Carpet and Rug Industry. Fact sheet. . 1987. The Carpet Specifiers Handbook. Dalton, GA. . 1992. The Carpet Specifiers Handbook. 5th ed. Dalton, GA. . 1994a. CRI-104: Standard for Installation of Commercial Textile Floorcovering Materials. Dalton, GA. . 1994b. Carpet and Indoor Air Quality in Commercial Installations: A Guide for Specifiers & Designers. Dalton, GA. . 1995a. CRI-105: Standard Industry Reference Guide for Installation of Residential Textile Floorcovering Materials. Dalton, GA. . 1995b. Carpet: the Environmentally Responsible Floorcovering of Choice. Industry In Depth. Spring. . 1995c. Comments on draft ERG report on carpet, carpet cushion, and adhesive.
Colombo, Angelo, et al. 1990. Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted from Household Products in Small Test Chambers and Comparison with Headspace Analysis. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto. CPSC (U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission). 1993. Status Report on Chemical Emissions from New Carpet. Washington, DC. Costello, Michael R. 1995. Peer review comments on carpet, carpet cushion, and adhesives ERG draft report. October 5. Davidson, J. L., et al. 1991. Carpet Installation during Building Renovation and Its Impact on Indoor VOC Concentrations. Proceedings of IAQ 91, ASHRAE/ICBR Healthy Buildings Conference. Washington. DeMarco, Anthony. 1994. Consumer Program Dispels Hype Regarding Carpets Relation to IAQ. Facilities Design & Management. June. Duffy, Ed. 1995. Comments on draft ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives from the Allied Signal Fibers Technology Center. DuPont. 1995. The Partnership for Carpet Reclamation is Working. DuPont Home Page, www.dupont.com. July. Encyclopedia of Textiles. 1980. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1990a. Indoor Air Quality and Work Environment Study. EPA Headquarters Building, Supplement to Volume 2, Results of Indoor Air Environmental Monitoring Study. Washington, DC: EPA Office of Administration and Resources Management. May. . 1990b. Carpet Response to Citizens Petition. Federal Register. 55 (79): 17404. April 24. . 1993. The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality. EPA Office of Air and Radiation and U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. EPA 402-K93-007. September. Federal Register. 1995. Vol. 60, No. 180, pp. 48081-85. Monday, September 18. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
. 1990. A Comparison of Energy Consumption by the Plastics Industry to Total Energy Consumption in the United States. Washington, DC: The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. Friedman, Avi, and Vince Cammalleri. 1995. The environmental impact of building materials in the North American building industry. Building Research and Information. Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 162-66. Friess, Seymour L. 1991. Review of Acute Toxicological Studies Performed with 4-Phenylcyclohexene (4-PCH). Performed for the Styrene Butadiene Latex Manufacturers Council. Girman, J. R., et al. 1986. Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Adhesives with Indoor Applications. Environment International. Vol. 12. Pergamon Journals Ltd. Hazardous Substances Databank. 1995. National Library of Medicine/TOXNET. August. Hedge, Alan. 1994. Carpet and Indoor Air Quality in Commercial Installations. Dalton, GA: The Carpet and Rug Institute. Hetes, Robert G., et al. 1992. Evaluation of Exposures to Volatile Organics Offgasing from New CarpetsFinal Report. EPA Contract No. CR-815509. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute. Hollen, Norma, Jane Saddler, and Anna L. Langford. 1979. Textiles. 5th ed. NY: Macmillan. Image Carpet, Inc. 1991. Material data sheet questionnaire completed for the 1992 AIA carpet report. Armuchee, GA. May. Ince, J., and P. G. H. Bakker. 1981. Control of Static Electricity in Wool Carpets. United Kingdom: International Wool Secretariat. December. Klingenberger, H., A. Bohnhoff, and C. Finetti. 1995. Life Cycle Analysis for Textile Floor Coveringsa Step to an Environmental Management System? Dornbirn, Austria: International Man-Made Fibres Congress. September 20-22. Knudtzon, Kenneth. 1995. Comments on draft ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives from a consultant to the Floor Covering Adhesives Manufacturers Committee of the National Association of Floor Covering Distributors. Kreiss, Kathleen, et al. 1982. Respiratory Irritation Due to Carpet Shampoo: Two Outbreaks. Environment International. Vol. 8. Pergamon Press Ltd. Kuhar, Mark S. 1990. We Must All Do Our Part. Flooring. September.
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References
Leonas, Karen K. 1995. Overviewing Environmental Issues Affecting the Carpet Industry. American Dyestuff Reporter. Vol. 84, No. 6., pp. 18-20, 45. June. Carpet Policy Dialogue Compendium Report. 1992. Ed. by Richard Leukroth, Jr. Office of Toxic Substances, U.S. EPA. Report PB92-115005. Available from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA, at (703) 487-4650 for $66. Levin, Hal. 1991. EPA Carpet Dialogue Concludes. Indoor Air Bulletin. Santa Cruz, CA: Indoor Air Information Service, Inc. September/October. Malin, Nadav. 1994. Carpeting, Indoor Air Quality, and the Environment. Environmental Building News. Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 1, 13-19. November/December. McDonald, Timothy B. 1988. Challenges of Synthetic Carpets. Architecture. February. NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 1990. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Oler, William. 1995a. Personal communication containing information for ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives from the executive director of the Carpet Cushion Council, Riverside, CT. . 1995b. Comments on draft ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 1991. The State of the Environment. Paris. Peters, Lou. 1995. Personal communication from the executive director, Polyurethane Foam Association, providing information for the ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives. Potting, J., and K. Blok. 1993. The environmental lifecycle analysis of some floor covering. Contribution to the First SETAC World Congress, Lisbon. March. . 1994. Life-cycle assessment of four types of floor coverings. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Department of Science, Technology, and Society, Utrecht University. Reilly, William K. 1990. Letter from the EPA, dated January 10, 1990, to the Honorable Henry A. Waxman, chairman, Subcommittee on Health and the Environment, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, with enclosure, The EPA Preliminary List of High-Risk Industrial Facilities.
Rhodes, Verne L. 1995. Comments on draft ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives from the manager of product safety at Monsanto. SBLMC (Styrene Butadiene Latex Manufacturers Council, Inc.). 1995. Comments on the draft ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives. Tichenor, Bruce A. 1990. Evaluation of Indoor Air Pollutant Sinks for Vapor Phase Organic Compounds. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto. Tincher, Wayne C. 1989. Processing Wastewater from Carpet Mills. Textile Chemist and Colorist. December. Tucker, W. Gene. 1990. Building with Low-Emitting Materials and Products: Were Do We Stand? Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto. Turner, Carroll. 1995. Information for the ERG report on carpets, carpet cushions, and adhesives from the Carpet and Rug Institute, Dalton, Georgia. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1988. Wolfgang Gerhartz, ed. 5th ed., vol. 11. NY: VCH. W. F. Taylor Company, Inc. 1991. Completed material data sheet questionnaire for 1992 AIA carpet report. Santa Fe Springs, CA. Wools of New Zealand. no date. Moth-Resist Treated Wool Carpets and Human Health.
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Material Report
Paint
Highlights
Many of the materials used to make paints are derived from petrochemicals. Oil and natural gas extraction is responsible for a variety of environmental pollutants, including air emissions and discharge of toxic wastes into lakes and streams. The major pigment in paints is titanium dioxide. Manufacture of titanium dioxide can produce wastes in the form of sulfuric acid, metal sulfates, and metal chlorides. Wastes produced during the manufacture of paint include wastes from cleaning of equipment, obsolete stock, spills, and empty bags and packaging. During demolition and renovation projects, lead contained in paints manufactured before 1978 may be released as dust, settling in carpets and other surfaces where it can continue to affect the health of building occupants.
Many ingredients in paints are derived from petrochemicals. Although oil and gas are finite resources, they are currently in plentiful supply. Several paint companies produce paint with a significant proportion of recycled material, both postconsumer and plant waste. The use of recycled materials conserves natural resources. To promote the most efficient use of available resources, the paint industry encourages the consumer to buy only as much paint as is needed, to use up the paint that is bought, or to donate unused paint to someone who can use it.
Energy Consumption
The total embodied energy at the point of use for conventional water-based paint is 33,034 Btu/lb (76.837 MJ/kg); for conventional oil-based paint it is 41,642 Btu/lb (96.859 MJ/kg). On the basis of coverage, the embodied energy for both water- and oil-based paint for exterior use is 1,390 Btu/ft2 (15.9 MJ/m2). Energy values for interior paints, water-based and oil-based, are 920 Btu/ft 2 (10.4 MJ/m 2) and 1,070 Btu/ft2 (12.2 MJ/m2), respectively.
Indoor Air Quality
VOC (volatile organic compounds) emissions occur largely during application and drying of paints. Initial emission rates can be significant. Various state regulations limiting the VOC emissions of paints and coatings are being consolidated so that one set of regulations can be used throughout the United States. In recent years, water-based paints have taken an increasingly larger share of the market; in addition, manufacturers are reducing the amount of solvent contained in oil-based paints, producing what is called a high-solids formulation. Citrus oil solvent, employed in alternative or natural paints, has caused allergies or irritation in environmentally sensitive individuals. Products containing citrus oil dry quickly; thus any problems that arise last for a relatively brief period of time.
PAINT
MAT 09900
Paint
Background and Environmental Conditions
Background
The paints discussed in this report are liquid, trade-sales paints (also called architectural coatings) that are used primarily as exterior or interior finishes on houses or commercial buildings. They are applied in the field and air dried. (Metal paints, both liquid and powder, are mainly applied to industrial architectural products in a shop environment. Product finishes and special purpose coatings are not included in this report. Stains and varnishes are discussed in the ERG report of the same name, 09930.) The National Paint & Coatings Association (NPCA) estimated that, in 1991, 470 million gallons of architectural coatings (48 percent of the paint and coatings market, which includes consumer paints) were used in homes in the United States (NPCA 1995). Conventional paints are generally classified into two basic categorieswater-based (in which the solvent is water) and oil-based (in which the solvent is an organic liquid, usually derived from petrochemicals). Oil-based paints are sometimes referred to as solvent-based. These two types of conventional paints account for most of the trade sales market in the United States. This report also covers alternative or natural paints, which are commanding an increasing share of the market in Europe and are beginning to find a small niche in the United States. Alternative paints generally have low VOC emissions, as some of them were developed for this purpose. From ancient times until fairly recently, the formulation of paint had changed very little. The early Egyptians combined lime, ochres, lampblack, white lead, and other substances with natural resins, asphalt, egg yolk and egg white, and beeswax. The Egyptians and other ancient cultures regarded paint mainly as a means of decoration. By 1700, other functions began to assume importance. For example, paint can be used to protect metal from corrosion, dampproof masonry, and protect wood from the weather. After World War I the formulation of paints changed significantly with the first use of synthetic materials (Hornbostel 1991). Changes in the formulation of paint continue to the present day. New regulations regarding air quality and the reduction of volatile emissions from paint products have triggered the reformulation of synthetic oil-based paints, a process that continues as standards become increasingly restrictive. In addition, concerns about the cumulative health effects from the use of synthetics in various products have stimulated the manufacture of paints made from traditional ingredients. These alternative paints, although made from ingredients that predate synthetics, are the product of continuing research into the chemistry of paints.
Life-cycle summaries of paint are provided in figures 1 through 7. The environmental reviews contained in the ERG materials reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and environmental impacts that could occur during the life cycle of a material. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to them. The following paragraphs summarize the stressors and impacts that are discussed in greater depth in subsequent sections. It should be noted that essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. Many of the materials in paints are derived from petrochemicals; these materials include solvents, binders, and certain additives in oil-based paint. Even the carrier in water-based paints
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Environmental Conditions
contains some solvent, and so-called natural paints contain isoaliphatic hydrocarbons, a highly refined petrochemical. The extraction of oil and natural gas from the earth can result in significant environmental impacts, among which are release of various wastewaters, disposal of drilling muds and drill cuttings, and air emissions from the diesel engines that power the drills. The processing of oil and natural gas can also result in environmental pollution in the form of wastewater and air emissions from the combustion of fuels. Certain petrochemicals used in paint are toxic and may be a concern for worker safety during manufacture. In addition, the EPA has identified four solvents used in oil-based paint (methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, toluene, and xylenes) that should be replaced with safer alternatives. The major pigment in paints is titanium dioxide. Its manufacture can produce wastes in the form of sulfuric acid and metal sulfates, which have traditionally been discarded in the ocean, and metal chlorides, which have been disposed of by deep well injection. The possible effects of such practices have not been identified. Waste produced during the manufacture of paint includes wastes from the cleaning of equipment, obsolete stock, returns from customers, off-specification products, spills, spent filler bags, and empty bags and packaging. To comply with new air quality standards regarding VOC emissions, manufacturers are reformulating their oil-based products. Also, since the enactment of the Clean Air Act, waterbased products have taken an increasing share of the market. Paints specially formulated to protect chemically sensitive persons from VOC emissions have been developed. Some of these products are based on low-toxicity synthetic components without petrochemicals or formaldehyde preservatives. A few alternative or natural paints, first developed in Europe, are now available in the United States. These products depend on natural sources, such as solvents made from citrus oil, to replace or minimize the petrochemicals in most or all of their ingredients. Disposal of unused paint and paint containers is becoming an increasingly serious problem. In fact, oil-based paints and their containers are classified as hazardous wastes in some local jurisdictions. Several paint companies are developing paint that is composed partly or almost entirely of postconsumer product and/or paint wastes from the manufacturing process. Architects and builders must consider the hazards involved in the disposal of old paint and painted materials during demolition and renovation projects. Paints containing lead were used in homes and commercial buildings until they were banned from trade-sales paints in 1978. Lead can pose a hazard to building occupants, especially children; some states license contractors to perform lead abatement actions. Some paint pigments contain toxic compounds that may be of concern during burning of demolition waste or sanding of painted surfaces.
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MAT 09900 PAINT ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Oil-based Paint Manufacture
Paint
Binder (see figure 5)
KEY
Life-Cycle Summary Oil-based Paint Manufacture
Pigment and pigment extender (see figures 6 and 7)
Recycling VOCs, pigment dust
Mixing
Discarded raw material containers, equipment cleaning wastes VOCs, pigment dust
Additives (see figure 7)
Grinding
VOCs
VOCs
VOCs
Carrier (see figure 4)
Mixing
Discarded raw material containers, equipment cleaning wastes
Filtering
Nondispersed pigment, equipment cleaning wastes
Packaging
Off-specification paint, equipment cleaning wastes
Storage
Sales
Application
Demolition
Disposal (landfill)
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Water-based Paint Manufacture
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997 PAINT MAT 09900
KEY
Dry pigment and pigment extender (see figures 6 and 7)
Mixing
Grinding
VOCs
VOCs
VOCs
Carrier (water and coalescing agent) (see figure 4)
Mixing
Filtering
Packaging
Storage
Preservative (see figure 7)
Sales
Life-Cycle Summary Water-based Paint Manufacture
Application
Demolition
Paint
Disposal (landfill)
6
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Alternative Paint Manufacture
Paint
KEY
Life-Cycle Summary Alternative Paint Manufacture
Pigment and pigment extender (see figures 6 and 7)
Mixing
Grinding
VOCs
VOCs
VOCs
Carrier (see figure 4)
Mixing
Filtering
Packaging
Storage
Sales
Application
Demolition
Disposal (landfill)
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Paint Carriers Manufacture
KEY
Isoaliphatic hydrocarbons
(see figure 3)
Naphtha
(see figure 1)
Mineral spirits
Recycling distillation (see figure 1)
Toluene
(see figure 1)
Xylene
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene) Air emissions (VOCs) (see figure 1)
Alkyl compounds
Air emissions (VOCs) Air emissions (VOCs) Organics
Propylene glycol ethers


catalyst
Propylene
oxidation
Propylene oxide
Propylene glycol
Wastewater (produced Drilling Drainage muds wastes water, oil, grease, and heavy metals, dissolved cuttings solids, organics)
Sludge, solids
Water
Ethanol
(see figure 3)
oxidation
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Polyethylene glycol/ ethylene glycol mix
Distillation
Hydro- Chromium, carbons, copper zinc, cadmium
Water
Ethylene glycol
Polyethylene glycol
Life-Cylce Summary Paint Carriers Manufacture
Acetone
(see figure 1)
Drilling muds and cuttings, heavy metals
Heavy metals
Methyl ethyl ketone

(see figure 1) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Other citrus products
Paint
Citrus growing
Organics
Citrus oil extract
Distillation
d-Limonene
(see figure 3)
8
Figure 5: Life-Cycle Summary of Paint Binders Manufacture
Paint
Gum (pine) rosin

Hexane Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Life-Cycle Summary Paint Binders Manufacture
Flax, soybean, pine, lemon, castor, safflower, cotton, and tung growing
Linseed, soybean, pine, lemon, castor, safflower, cottonseed, and tung (wood) oil preparation
Isomerization
Drying oil
KEY
Process flow
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates, benzene, vinyl acetate)
Acetic acid
palladium
Vinyl acetate
Polyvinyl acetate
(see figure 2) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)


Water Ethylene
oxidation
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol mixture
Ethylene glycol Polyethylene glycol
Distillation
Propylene
Propylene oxide
Propylene glycol
Sulfuric acid Kraft paper processing waste

Glycerol Hydrolysis Fatty acids or

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Tall oil
Natural oil
Alkyd resin
(see figure 1)
Phthalic anhydride
Heavy organics
Polyamides (optional)
Latex emulsifier
(see figure 2)
Polyisocyanate
Wastewater, oil, grease, BOD, COD Drilling mud and cuttings, heavy metals
Phosgene Toluene Dinitration Dinitrotoluene

catalyst Air emissions (VOCs) catalyst catalyst
or
Toluenediamine
Toluene diisocyanate or
Solvents, phosgene, HCI
Polyurethane (with or without accelerator)

(see figure 1)
Propylene
Acrolein
Acrylic acid
Esterification
Acrylate monomer
Acrylic polymer
(see figure 2)
Figure 5: Life-Cycle Summary of Paint Binders Manufacture (continued)

Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene) Air emissions (VOCs)
KEY
Trimerization Nonene
Boundary Output
Benzene manufacture
Phenol
catalyst Wastewater (oil, grease, suspended solids, organics) catalyst
Nonylphenol
Recycling
Sludge
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Styrene
Styrene monomer
Butadiene
Emulsification

(see figure 2)
Methane
Wastewater, oil, Drilling mud grease, dissolved and cuttings, solids, organics) heavy metals Air emissions (chlorine)
Methyl chloride
Electrolysis
Chlorine Methanol manufacture
Brine
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, lead)
Cu catalyst
Life-Cycle Summary Paint Binders Manufacture
Quartzite mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating
By-product generation
HCl
Methyl chloride
Air emissions (CO)
Air emissions (HCl)
Reduction furnace
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SO2, NOX, NH3,VOCs, particulates)
Silicon
catalyst
Silicone resin
catalyst (see figure 1) Water
Habitat change

(see quartzite mining)

Paint
Water
10
Figure 6: Life-Cycle Summary of Paint Pigments Manufacture
Paint
Iron ore mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating
Calcining Processing
Air emissions (CO2, SOX)
KEY
Process flow
Life-Cycle Summary Paint Pigments Manufacture
Habitat change
Titanium dioxide
Ferrous sulfate

Wastewater (Na2SO4)
Processing
Copperas red oxide
Mineral separation
TiO2 processing
H2SO4
Metal sulfates, metal chlorides
Pigments
Habitat change
Sodium hydroxide
basic pH
Black iron oxide
neutral pH
Scrap iron
acidic pH
Orange iron oxide
Steam Co-products Hydrogen Chlorine
Yellow iron oxide
Brine
Electrolysis
Air
Yellow iron oxide
Figure 7: Life-Cycle Summary of Paint Additives Manufacture

Benzene manufacture
Styrene
(see figure 1)
Ethylene
Wastewater (produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, organics) Drilling muds and cuttings Drainage wastes Wastewater (oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans, cyanides) Sludge
Propylene
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, H2S, particulates) catalyst
Acrolein
catalyst
Acrylic acid
Acrylate monomer
(see figure 1)
Sodium and ammonium polyacrylates

KEY
Process flow
Life-Cycle Summary Paint Additives Manufacture
Sand, quartz, limestone, mica, chalk, talc, clay, dolomite, gypsum, and borax mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Particulates
Mica, chalk, talc, silica, borax, clay, dolomite, quartz, gypsum

Paint
Habitat Runoff change (soil erosion, TSS)
11
Paint

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials for the manufacture of paint is presented in figure 8. Paints comprise three main componentsthe carrier, binders, and pigments: The carrier is the volatile constituent of the paint. It thins the resins so the paint will flow, then evaporates as the paint dries. The carrier is either water or an organic solvent derived from petrochemicals. Unlike the carrier, which does not become a permanent part of the paint film, binders are nonvolatile. They hold the solid pigment particles together and cause the paint film to adhere to the substrate. Binders may consist of resins or oils or a blend of the two. Pigments give the paint color and hiding power as well as durability. In the paint industry, pigment refers to the white pigment employed for its hiding power and pigment extenders, which are used to develop certain characteristics in the paint, such as gloss, water permeability, and workability. Pigment extenders can improve storage qualities and minimize settling of the paint solids. All paints other than white also contain color pigments (Hornbostel 1991; Mitchell 1995). A variety of additives may also be used. The selection of specific solvents, binders, pigments, and additives depends upon the properties desired in the final paint product.
Conventional Water-Based Paints Currently, most water-based paints are latex formulations that are dispersed in water. The different types of latex paint depend on the water-soluble binders used, such as acrylic resins, polyvinyl acetate, and styrene butadiene (NPCA 1991).
The major constituents of conventional water-based latex paints are the carrier, binders, pigments, surfactants and defoamers, and preservatives and fungicides: The carrier is water with some solvent, called a coalescing agent, added. The typical solvents added for this purpose are glycols and glycol ethers. The binder is a latex made from styrene-butadiene, polyvinyl acetate, and acrylic polymers and copolymers. The primary pigment used to impart hiding properties in white or light paints is titanium dioxide. Pigment extenders include calcium carbonate, dolomite, talc, clay, quartz, mica, barite, and gypsum (Hornbostel 1991; Ullmann 1991). Surfactants and defoamers are aryl alkyl sulfonates, sulfosuccinic acid esters, amines, sulfonated oils, alcohols, and sodium and ammonium polyacrylate. Preservatives and fungicides such as arsenic disulfide, phenol, copper, formaldehyde, quartenary ammonium compounds, and other compounds may be used.
Materials for Carriers
Glycols and glycol ethers. Representative glycol compounds include ethylene glycol and propylene glycol. Ethylene glycol is produced by the hydrolysis of ethylene oxide. Ethylene oxide and water are heated to about 200C, producing ethylene glycol and other polyethylene
12
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Figure 8: PaintMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Cultivation of flax, soybean, safflower, castor, cottonseed,and citrus crops Cultivation of pine trees Soil erosion and depletion Runoff Fuel combustion Fertilizer runoff Stressor Pesticide runoff Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased loading of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Particulates Ground-level ozone (smog) Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Preparation of linseed, soybean, safflower, castor, cottonseed, tung, pine, and citrus (d-limonene) oil Preparation of linseed, soybean, safflower, castor, cottonseed, and tung oil Solvent extraction Fugitive hexane emissions Human health effects including nausea, headaches, numbness, muscular weakness, eye and nose irritation, dermatitis, chemical pneumonia, and giddiness Drying oil processing Preparation of wood resin (pine rosin) Crude oil extraction (mineral spirits, alkyd resin, propylene, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, toluene, urethane, and aliphatic hydrocarbon production) Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease, BOD, dissolved solids, and toxic organics Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Extraction from pine pitch Isomerization VOC emissions Fuel combustion emissions Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Pressing and/or extraction Fuel combustion VOC emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Deoxygenation/algal bloom Habitat alteration Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation Possible loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
polyvinyl acetate, acrylic resin, COD, heavy metals, total
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Paint
Figure 8: PaintMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Crude oil extraction (mineral spirits, alkyd resin, propylene, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, toluene, urethane, and aliphatic hydrocarbon production) (continued) Offshore and coastal crude oil Deck drainage, sanitary extraction (mineral spirits, alkyd resin, propylene, polyvinyl acetate, acrylic resin, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, toluene, urethane, and aliphatic hydrocarbon production) Crude oil processing (mineral spirits, alkyd resin, propylene, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, toluene, urethane, and aliphatic hydrocarbon production) Cleaning of tankers and storage Release of oil and suspended tanks solids Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Desalting process Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Distillation process ammonia oil, chlorides, and phenols Habitat disruption Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs Catalytic cracking Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia Environmental poisoning Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions SOx, NOx, VOCs, CO Ammonia, benzene (see impacts above) Increased BOD5 Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH, high BOD5 Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Wastewater containing sulfides, Deoxygenation Increased BOD Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading and domestic wastes Water pollution Eutrophication Waterborne disease Stressor Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced Impact/Stressor Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Impact/Stressor
polyvinyl acetate, acrylic resin, sands
polyvinyl acetate, acrylic resin, groundwater or sewers
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Activity Crude oil processing (continued) Stressor Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions (continued) Natural gas production (alkyd resin, propylene, polyvinyl acetate, acrylic resin, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, and urethane manufacture) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygen-depleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Air emissions from dieselpowered drills Alkyd resin manufacture Air emissions Production of monobasic fatty acids or oils Manufacture of polyhydric alcohols NOx, SOx, CO, VOCs, particulates VOCs and particulates (see impacts of soybean oil processing) Ethylene production Air emissions, benzene, and VOCs Wastewater containing chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Ethylene glycol production Glycerol production Phthalic anhydride production Production of alkyd resin by alcoholysis or fatty acid process Iron ore and sand mining (iron Tailings waste oxide and titanium dioxide pigment production) Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Iron oxide pigment production Calcining and other processes (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions Sulfur oxides Carbon dioxide Titanium dioxide pigment production Potential for human occupational health effects Acrylic resin production, esterization/ polymerization Fugitive emissions of acrylic monomer Lacrimation, respiratory and eye irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects Mineral processing SOx emissions Release of sulfuric acid and metal salts (see effects above) Water acidification and pollution Respiratory tract problems and lung damage (see impacts above) Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Air emissions Fuel combustion emissions VOC emissions Fuel combustion emissions Fuel combustion emissions particulates, and VOCs (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Deoxygenation Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see fuel consumption impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, toluene, naphthalenes, and xylene Impact/Stressor Various human health effects Impact/Stressor
Carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, (see impacts above)
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Activity Propylene glycol and propylene glycol ether manufacture Propylene oxide production Quartz and cristobalite, talc, clay, mica, barite, and gypsum production Phenol production Air emissions Phenol VOCs Poisonous, caustic, skin blistering, CNS effects, paralysis Acetone production Phenol production Petroleum and natural gas processing Acetone Methyl ethyl ketone production Petroleum and natural gas processing Human health effects Photochemical smog Polyurethane production Toluene diisocyanate production Fugitive emissions Human health effects: potent irritant to the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes Fugitive emissions of phosgene Human health effects: irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract, difficulty breathing, cyanosis, and vomiting Fugitive emissions of hydrogen chloride Acid precipitation Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Human health effects include burning of the eyes and nose, choking, nausea, chest pain, headache, pulmonary edema, others VOC emissions Polyvinyl acetate production Air emissions Benzene VOCs NOx, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Styrene production (styrenebutadiene) Ethylene production Air emissions Wastewater Benzene production Release of benzene Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Benzene and VOCs Contains chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals (see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity (see impacts above) Human health effects (known human carcinogen) (see impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions (SOx, (see impacts above) Human health effects (see effects above) (see effects above) (see effects above) (see impacts above) Mining production calcium carbonate, dolomite, Quartz and cristobalite Stressor Air emissions, VOCs Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Air emissions, VOCs (see impacts above) Dust Silicosis Possible human carcinogen (see impacts above) in streams Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Wastewater containing organics Increased loading of organics
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Activity Stressor Impact/Stressor Human health effects (see effects above) Hydrogen chloride Acid precipitation Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Mining of quartzite Coal mining (see mining impacts above) Tailings waste/mine spoils Land disturbance/runoff Fuel combustion emissions Acid drainage (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Decreased visibility Wastewater Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Coke production Air emissions (VOCs, dust, particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide) Air emissions Wastewater Ammonia Dissolved solids and organics Materials corrosion Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Sludge Silicon production Chlorine production Carbon monoxide emissions Air emissions Brine mud Potential human carcinogens (see impacts above) Chlorine Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate Wastewater Natural gas production Wastewater Chlorine and sulfuric acid May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics Fuel combustion emissions Formaldehyde production Natural gas production and processing Formaldehyde Ethyl alcohol production Isoaliphatics Crude oil and natural gas extraction and processing Crude oil extraction and processing (see impacts above) Human health effects (irritant, allergen, possible human carcinogen) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Respiratory and eye irritation Human toxicity Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition (see impacts above) Possible fishkill Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Butadiene production (styrene- Butadiene emissions butadiene) Mineral spirits Manufacture of silicone and silicone resins Petroleum distillation Air emissions
Air emissions (dust, particulates) Eye and throat irritation
organics, and oxygen depleting (see impacts above)
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glycols, which are separated by distillation. The production of ethylene oxide results from the direct oxidation of ethylene. The production of ethylene is described in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). Propylene glycol is prepared from propylene oxides. The production of propylene glycol and propylene oxide is described in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). Propylene is produced by thermal cracking of natural gas or petroleum. The production of propylene and the extraction and processing of crude oil are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Natural gas extraction and processing are described in the same report under melamine. Propylene glycol ether, a representative glycol ether, is derived from propylene oxide and various alkyl groups. For example, propylene oxide reacts with methanol to produce propylene glycol methyl ether. The production of propylene oxide is described in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Carriers
High production temperatures during manufacture of glycols and glycol ethers may result in atmospheric VOC (volatile organic compounds) emissions. Additional emissions result from the combustion of fuels to drive these processes. These include VOCs, SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx (sulfur oxides) to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. NOx also contributes to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Wastes produced during the production of ethylene include air pollutants such as benzene and VOCs. The environmental impacts of ethylene production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on wall coverings, under PVC resin (06240). The production of propylene glycol from propylene oxide and the production of propylene oxide from propylene result in atmospheric VOC emissions. A large amount of water is required to produce propylene glycol, and wastewater containing organics is released during the manufacturing process. Increased loading of organics in streams can result in increased BOD (biological oxygen demand), increased benthic deposition, and deoxygenation. Propylene is produced by thermal cracking of natural gas or petroleum. The process releases significant amounts of VOC emissions and wastewater. The environmental impacts of propylene production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Oil extraction and processing result in significant effects on the environment. Wastes produced from extraction and processing include wastewater that contains oil, grease, oxygen-depleting organics, toxic organics, and ammonia, among other pollutants. Major sources of pollution from the drilling system are the drilling mud and the cuttings from the bit. Large diesel engines that power the drill emit air pollutants. These environmental impacts of oil extraction and production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Natural gas extraction generates a variety of air and water pollutants, including air emissions from the diesel-powered drill; discharge of produced water, drilling muds,
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and drill cuttings; and discharge of wastewater containing oil, grease, toxic organics, and other pollutants. Processing natural gas produces wastewater containing toxic organics, suspended and dissolved solids, chlorides, and cyanides. The environmental impacts of natural gas extraction and processing are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine (06240).
Materials for Binders
Styrene butadiene (SB) latex. SB latex is formed by the polymeric emulsion of styrene with
butadiene. Styrene is produced from petroleum and natural gas; ethylene (produced from natural gas) and the petrochemical benzene are combined to form ethylbenzene or styrene. Ethylene production is described in the ERG report on wall coverings, under PVC resin (09950). Most benzene is produced from light petroleum distillate (naphtha). Most butadiene is produced by the cracking of petroleum. The extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol and melamine, respectively (06240).
Acrylic latex. Acrylic resin is produced from propylene, a petrochemical. The manufacture of
acrylic resin and acrylic acid is described in the ERG report on ceramic tile, under adhesives (09300).
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA). PVA is manufactured from ethylene, which is derived from natural
gas. The manufacture of PVA is described in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). Natural gas acquisition and processing are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine (06240).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Binders
Styrene is produced from ethylene (derived from natural gas) and benzene (derived from petroleum). Exposure to styrene can cause eye and nose irritation, drowsiness, weakness, narcosis, and dermatitis (NIOSH 1990). The principal air pollutants from ethylene production are benzene and VOCs. Wastewater contains chemicals that are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Further discussion of the environmental impacts resulting from ethylene production can be found in the ERG report on wall coverings, under PVC resin (09950). Benzene production may release air emissions in the form of VOCs. Benzene is a known human carcinogen (NIEHS 1989). It is also an irritant and can cause nausea and abdominal pain (NIOSH 1990). The environmental impacts resulting from benzene production are discussed further in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). The environmental impacts resulting from the acquisition and processing of natural gas and petroleum are also discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine and phenol, respectively (06240). Butadiene is produced by the cracking of petroleum. Exposure to butadiene can cause eye and nose irritation, headaches, dizziness, and vomiting (NIOSH 1990). The environmental impacts resulting from the acquisition, processing, and cracking of petroleum are discussed in more detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). During the manufacture of polyvinyl acetate (PVA), small amounts of benzene and vinyl acetate can be released. Benzene is a known human carcinogen; vinyl acetate is regulated by the EPA as an air pollutant and hazardous substance. Additional air pollutants are released to the air from the combustion of fuels. The environmental impacts of PVA production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on gypsum board systems (09250). PVA is derived largely from natural gas. The environmental impacts of natural gas extraction and processing are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine (06240).
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Materials for Pigments and Pigment Extenders
Titanium dioxide. Titanium dioxide is produced from mineral sand primarily by one of two
production processes. The production of titanium dioxide pigment is described in the ERG report on concrete masonry, under synthetic pigments (04220).
Pigment extenders. Minerals used as pigment extenders include calcium carbonate,
dolomite, talc, clay, quartz, mica, barite, and gypsum. These are obtained through either open-pit or underground mining. Mining operations are described in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Pigments
The raw materials for titanium dioxide and pigment extenders are mined from the earth. The environmental impacts of mining operations include runoff from tailings waste, leading to increased turbidity of surface waters, increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of aquatic habitats, and possible fishkill. Other impacts affecting wildlife communities include land disturbance and habitat alteration. The combustion of fuel to power heavy equipment during mining operations results in air emissions. Crushing, screening, and processing of the minerals may result in particulates emissions. The environmental impacts of mining operations are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). One of the production processes for titanium dioxide produces ferrous sulfate, which can itself be used as a raw material for synthetic iron oxide pigment production. Byproducts from these processes are often recycled, although some waste material is produced in the form of aqueous solutions. Sulfuric acid and metal sulfates in wastewater were traditionally discarded in the ocean, a practice that industry indicates no longer occurs (NPCA 1995; TNEMEC 1995), and metal chloride wastewater has been disposed of by deep well injection. The effects of such practices have not been identified, but concern has been raised about this form of disposal. Titanium dioxide was identified as a potential occupational carcinogen by one government agency but was not found carcinogenic by two others. The environmental and health effects associated with the production of titanium dioxide are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on concrete masonry units (04220).
Surfactants and Defoamers
These materials are used in very small quantities in paints and therefore will not be discussed in this report.
Preservatives and Fungicides
These materials are used in very small quantities in paints and therefore will not be discussed in this report.
Energy Consumed
The energy required to acquire and prepare materials for the manufacture of waterbased paints is estimated at 10,000 Btu/lb in a Finnish study (Salokangas 1990). Total embodied energy for paints is presented in the section below on construction, use, and maintenance.
Conventional Oil-Based Paints Oil-based paints generally have synthetic oil bases that do not contain preservatives or fungicides, surfactants, or defoamers. The major constituents of conventional oil-based paints are as follows:
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Solvents act as the carrier to hold the resin in solution or suspension; when the solvents evaporate, the resins crosslink (dry) to form a film. Solvents and polymer size control the viscosity of the paint; solvents also affect the consistency, leveling, and adhesion of the paint, along with other characteristics. Solvents are various organic compounds such as aliphatic hydrocarbons, including mineral spirits and glycols (glycol ethers such as 2-methoxyethanol and 2ethoxyethanol); ketones, including acetone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), and methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK); aromatic and naphthenic hydrocarbons, including toluene, o-xylene, and naphtha; and esters and acetates, including 2-ethoxyethyl acetate and ethyl acetate. A large number of different solvents can be present in a single formulation of this type of paint. One manufacturer indicates that mineral spirits are the usual solvent in oil-based paints (Mitchell 1995). Binders may be either synthetic resins or oils derived from natural sources. Synthetic resins, derived from petroleum, include alkyds, polyurethanes, and silicones. Natural oils include linseed, soybean, safflower, tung, and cottonseed oils. Titanium dioxide is the primary pigment used to impart hiding properties. Pigment extenders may include talc, silica (quartz), mica, clay, and calcium carbonate. Additives such as styrene and vinyl toluene may be added to provide hardness and toughness; acrylic monomers for gloss, adhesion, and durability; methyl ethyl ketoxime as an anti-skinning agent; and formaldehyde compounds for hardness, gloss, and chemical resistance. Other additives include driers and flow control agents (Mitchell 1995). One manufacturer indicates that formaldehyde compounds are no longer commonly used (TNEMEC 1995).
Mineral spirits, produced by distilling petroleum, are composed of a variable mix of chemicals including xylene, xylol, toluene, methyl ethyl ketone, and aliphatic hydrocarbons (EPA 1992). The aromatic hydrocarbon content is limited, however, and the predominant component is aliphatic hydrocarbons (Mitchell 1995). Petroleum extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol (06240). Aliphatic hydrocarbon, a solvent, is derived from petroleum distillates (mineral spirits) that have been refined to remove the especially toxic aromatic component of the mixture. Petroleum extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol (06240). Glycols and glycol ethers are discussed above under water-based paints. Ketones are also used as additives. Most acetone is produced as a by-product of the manufacture of phenol via cumene. Propylene is the precursor in this reaction. Also, many ketones, including acetone and methyl ethyl ketone, are made by dehydrating alcohols. Purification by distillation follows. The alcohols are produced by processing petroleum and natural gas (Austin 1984). Petroleum and natural gas extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol and melamine, respectively (06240). The aromatic hydrocarbons toluene, xylene, and naphtha are obtained by distilling petroleum (Austin 1984). Petroleum extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol (06240). Esters and acetates such as ethyl acetate and 2-ethoxyethyl acetate are derived from petrochemicals. Petroleum and natural gas extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol and melamine, respectively (06240).
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Mineral spirits are produced by distilling petroleum. Aliphatic hydrocarbons are derived from petroleum distillates. The environmental impacts of oil extraction and processing are summarized above under water-based paints and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under phenol (06240). Methyl ethyl ketone is irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, and throat and may affect the central nervous system. In the atmosphere, it can cause photochemical smog. Acetone is irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, stomach, and throat and may affect the central nervous system (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Ketones, including acetone, are derived from natural gas and petroleum. The environmental impacts resulting from the acquisition and processing of natural gas and petroleum are summarized above under waterbased paints and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine and phenol, respectively (06240). Aromatic hydrocarbons are produced by distilling petroleum. Environmental effects are described above. Four of the solvents used in oil-based paint are included in a group of 17 high-priority toxic chemicals the EPA has identified for replacement with safer alternatives. These solvents are methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, toluene, and xylenes (The Hazardous Waste Consultant 1995).
Materials for Binders
Alkyd resin is chemically similar to polyester resin (described in the ERG report on wall coverings, 09950). Alkyds are the reaction product of a polyhydric alcohol (or polyol) and a polybasic acid or anhydride, which are modified with a fatty acid or oil (Austin 1984; Ullmann 1991). A large variety of compounds is available for each of these groups; some of these materials are described in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930). Polyurethanes are manufactured by modifying an oil or an alkyd resin with polyisocyanates or toluene diisocyanate to provide quick-drying capabilities and hardness. This process was described in the ERG report on stains and varnishes, under modern oilborne varnishes (09930). Silicone resins are produced from various silica compounds, which hydrolyse to form a polymer. The silica comes from quartzite, which is obtained by mining. The manufacture of silicone resins is described in the ERG report on stone veneer (04450). Oils used in oil-based paints are derived from natural sources, including flaxseed, soybeans, safflower seeds, and cottonseed. The oil is extracted from the seed by pressing, solvent extraction, or a combination of the two methods. The production and processing of two representative types of natural oils are described in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930). Linseed oil is discussed under traditional stains, soybean oil under traditional varnishes.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Binders
High production temperatures during manufacture of monobasic fatty acids and oils and of alkyd resins may result in atmospheric VOC emissions. Additional emissions result from the combustion of fuels used to drive these processes. The environmental and health effects from these air emissions are described above. Isocyanates, used in the manufacture of polyurethanes, must be handled with care during the manufacturing process. The environmental impacts of polyurethane production
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along with potential health hazards during manufacture are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stains and varnishes, under modern oilborne varnishes (09930). Most silicones are biologically inert when fully cured; however, a variety of components, some of which are toxic, can be incorporated into specialty silicones. Also potentially toxic are the intermediate by-products and emissions from the production process. The environmental impacts of silicone manufacture are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stone veneer (04450). The production of flax, soybeans, safflowers, and cotton results in natural resources depletion and waste production similar to that of other agricultural products. Preparation of the oils from the seed requires fuel and may result in air emissions. Heating of the oil and the hexane solvent used during solvent extraction can potentially release VOCs and hexane into the atmosphere. The environmental effects of natural oil production from oil seeds are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930). Linseed oil is discussed under traditional stains, soybean oil under traditional varnishes.
Materials for Pigments
These are discussed above under water-based paints.

Materials for Additives
Styrene was discussed above under water-based paints, binders. The manufacture of acrylic acid, from which acrylic monomers are produced, is described in the ERG report on ceramic tile, under adhesives (09300). Vinyl toluene and methyl ethyl ketoxime are derived from petrochemicals. Formaldehyde is produced from methanol, which is derived from natural gas. Petroleum and natural gas extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol and melamine, respectively (06240).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Additives
Vinyl toluene and methyl ethyl ketoxime are derived from petrochemicals. Formaldehyde is derived from natural gas. Formaldehyde is a pungent gas and a hazardous substance. It is an irritant and an allergen and has been classified as a probable human carcinogen (NIEHS 1989). The environmental impacts resulting from acquiring and processing natural gas and petroleum are summarized above under water-based paints and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates, under melamine and phenol, respectively (06240).
Energy Consumed
A Finnish study estimates that the energy required to acquire and prepare the raw materials needed to manufacture oil-based paints is 20,500 Btu/lb (Salokangas 1990). Total embodied energy for paints is presented in the section below on construction, use, and maintenance.
Alternative or Natural Paints Alternative or natural paints depend on natural sources, avoiding or minimizing the use of petrochemicals, for most or all of their ingredients. These products are specifically designed to result in reduced volatile emissions during use (Bio Shield 1994, Livos PlantChemistry 1989-92). Alternative paints utilize solvents derived from citrus oil (citrus terpenes) or solvents made from petroleum distillates that have been refined to remove the especially toxic aromatic hydrocarbon (such as isoaliphatic hydrocarbons). Alternative paints also contain natural oils, such as linseed oil, pine oil, lemon oil, or other oil derived from vegetable sources, and natural resins. Mineral pigments or occasionally plant pigments are used as colorants. (Note that some of these materials may also be found in conventional paints.)
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Alternative paints may include the following constituents (Bio Shield 1994; Livos PlantChemistry 1989-92): Carriers may contain isoaliphatic hydrocarbons, citrus terpenes (orange peel oil), or ethyl alcohol. Some alternative paints utilize a solvent that contains a mixture of isoaliphatics and a small proportion of orange peel oil. Oils such as linseed oil, tung (or wood) oil, pine oil, dehydrated caster oil, lemon oil, orange peel oil, and saponified beeswax are also used in one or another alternative paint product. Mica, chalk (calcium carbonate), talc, and silica are used as fillers in alternative or natural paints. Calcium octoate, zirconium octoate, and cobalt octoate are the driers used in these products. Titanium white (titanium dioxide) is the main white pigment. Color is provided by mineral pigments such as iron oxides. Plant pigments may be used with casein paint. Resins used in alternative paints include dammar resin, tree resins (rosin), methyl cellulose (from beech wood), shellac, soya lecithin. Boric salts (borax, boric acid, and ammonia in staining pastes) are used as preservatives. Casein wall paint contains casein (a milk solid), lime, clay, cellulose, talcum, and sodium phosphate. This paint contains no hydrocarbons or other solvents. Mineral pigments provide the color (Bio Shield 1994). Another type of milk paint contains lime, milk, clay, and mineral pigments (Old Fashioned Milk Paint Company 1991).
Isoaliphatic hydrocarbons. This solvent is derived from petroleum distillates that have been
refined to remove the toxic aromatic component of the mixture and to select certain hydrocarbon forms (isomers) for the end product. Petroleum extraction and refining are described in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol (06240).
Citrus terpenes. This natural solvent (d-limonene) is derived from citrus fruit, such as
oranges, lemons, and grapefruit. The oil is extracted from the peels by pressing and then distilled (Reisch 1993; Biofa Naturprodukte, no date).
Ethyl alcohol. Most ethyl alcohol (or ethanol) is made from the hydration of ethylene, a
petrochemical derived from petroleum or natural gas (Austin 1984).

Isoaliphatic hydrocarbons are derived from petroleum. Ethyl alcohol is derived from petroleum or natural gas. The environmental impacts of oil and natural gas extraction and processing are summarized above under water-based paints and are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates under phenol and melamine, respectively (06240). The extraction of citrus terpenes, or d-limonene, from citrus peels requires the combustion of fuel, which may result in various air emissions that were summarized above under water-based paints. The environmental impacts of citrus terpene production are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stain and varnishes, under natural varnishes (09930). One manufacturer of conventional paints indicates that citrus terpenes may be photochemically very reactive (Mitchell 1995).
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Material for Oils
These oils are all derived from natural sources. Linseed oil is discussed briefly above under oil-based paints, materials for binders, and in more detail in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930). Tung oil, also called wood oil, is obtained from the seed kernels of the tung tree. Tung oil production is described in the stains and varnishes report. Pine oil is produced by wood distillation. Caster oil is obtained from the seed of the caster bean (Ricinus communis). Lemon oil and orange peel oil are extracted from lemon and orange peels.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Oils
The production of crops for natural oils results in natural resources depletion and waste production similar to that for other agricultural products. Preparation of the oils from the seed requires fuel and may result in air emissions. The environmental impacts of natural oil production from oil seeds are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on stains and varnishes (09930). Linseed oil is discussed under traditional stains, citrus oil under natural varnishes.
Materials for Fillers
Mica, chalk (calcium carbonate), talc, and silica are discussed above under water-based paints, pigments, and pigment extenders.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Fillers
The environmental impacts of materials acquisition and preparation of fillers are summarized above under water-based paints, pigments and pigment extenders, and discussed in more detail in various ERG reports.
Materials for Driers
Driers, such as calcium octoate, zirconium octoate, and cobalt octoate, are used only in small amounts (1 to 2 percent by weight) and will not be discussed in detail in this report (Austin 1984).
Materials for Pigments
Titanium white (titanium dioxide) is discussed above under water-based paints. Acquisition and preparation of raw materials to produce iron oxide pigments are discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Pigments
The environmental impacts of titanium dioxide production are summarized above under water-based paints and described in greater detail in the ERG report on concrete masonry units, under synthetic pigments (04220). The environmental impacts of iron oxide pigment production are discussed in the ERG report on concrete masonry (04220).
Materials for Resins
Dammar resin and gum rosin are exuded from living trees. Methyl cellulose is made by treating wood pulp with a sodium hydroxide solution. The alkali cellulose that is formed is reacted with methyl chloride or methyl sulfate. The resulting viscous material is water soluble. Shellac is obtained from a resinous material secreted by an insect native to India (Kerria lacca) (Austin 1984). Soya lecithin is a product of soybeans.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Materials for Resins
No information is available on the environmental impacts of natural resin production. Methyl cellulose production requires burning fuels and may result in air emissions.
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Materials for Preservatives
Boric salts, borax, and boric acid are used only in small quantities in natural paints and will not be discussed in this report.
Energy Consumed
No information is available concerning the amount of energy consumed in acquiring and preparing materials for alternative paints.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with manufacturing paint is presented in figure 9. No single description of paint manufacture is possible because of the large number of different types of paint that are made. Following, however, is a generalized description of the manufacture of a house paint. The materials (consisting of a carrier containing oils and/or resins; wetting agents and sometimes thinners; and paint solids containing dry white pigments, colored pigments, and pigment extenders) are first mixed in a steel vessel with a motorized vertical shaft with blades attached. Stationary blades are attached to the sides of the vessel in some plants. The mixing
Figure 9: PaintManufacturing and Fabrication Stage
Activity Manufacture of paints Stressor Fuel combustion Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Particulates Ground-level ozone (smog) Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision VOC emissions Wastewater from equipment cleaning could contain petrochemicals, solvents, natural oils, resins, monomers, and oxygen-depleting material Empty bags and packaging, obsolete stock, off-specification products, filter bags Decreased landfill capacity (see impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Possible loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming
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operation distributes the materials uniformly and sets the paint solids with the vehicle as thoroughly as possible. In some plants, this is followed by the grinding operation, actually a high-speed dispersion operation. This is necessary because the fine dry pigments tend to clump together during mixing. The grinding operation causes these particles to be wetted by the vehicle. After the paint leaves the grinding operation, it has to be thinned to the final viscosity. Additional oils, thinners, driers, or other liquids are added, and the materials are mixed. Additional tinting is done at this stage. The paint is then strained, put into cans, and packaged for shipment. Some paint manufacturers use a computerized, color-coded system to make it possible to tint paint to the exact color specified. Most paint suppliers use an automatic mixing machine that supplies whatever pigments are necessary to the white base to produce the desired color. The paint is thoroughly shaken, after which it is ready to apply. The color-coded system enables the colors to be matched exactly at a later time (Hornbostel 1991, NPCA 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture and Fabrication of Paints
The EPA has reviewed ways to improve pollution prevention in the paint industry. A study of several paint manufacturers in California describes the types of wastes generated in the paint manufacturing process. The study demonstrated that it is possible for manufacturers to minimize waste generated using cost-effective steps (EPA 1990). In this study, wastes produced by two manufacturers were characterized and possible waste minimization actions were identified. At a plant that produced primarily trade-sales paints, 80 percent of which were water-based latex paints and the remainder oil-based alkyd resin paints, the following types of wastes were produced: equipment cleaning wastes, obsolete stock, returns from customers, off-specification products, spills, spent filter bags, and empty bags and packaging. Steps identified to reduce the quantity and toxicity of wastes generated, grouped by major categories of waste, are listed here: Equipment cleaning wastes. Replace caustic cleaning solutions for tanks and containers, use high-pressure spraying systems to reduce the amount of water required, dedicate tanks to reduce the number of cleanings required, schedule batches from light to dark to eliminate some intermediate cleaning, substitute nonhazardous pigments to reduce the toxicity of cleaning wastewaters. Obsolete stock. Improve control and monitoring of inventory and production planning. Off-specification products. Rework these materials to produce marketable products, improve quality control. Filter bags. Eliminate cartridge filters that present disposal problems, reuse bag filters and rinse and dry them before disposal. Empty bags and packaging. Use nonhazardous pigments so that empty packages are not considered hazardous, use pigments in slurry form to reduce packaging. Waste recovery and recycling. Segregate wastes to allow recovery and reworking into marketable products (including wastes from oil-based and water-based processes, cleanup wastes).
Energy Consumed
A Finnish study estimated the process energy required for conventional paints was 21,000 Btu/lb for oil-based paints and for water-based paints 22,800 Btu/lb (Salokangas
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1990). This study found that transportation energy added 140 Btu/lb for each type of paint. The total embodied energy of paint is presented in the section on construction, use, and maintenance.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction stage and the use and maintenance of paint is presented in figure 10.
Figure 10: PaintConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity Application of paint Stressor VOC emissions Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Impact/Stressor
Paints are used for a variety of purposes: to preserve and thus increase the durability of a substrate; to seal off emissions from the substrate; to increase daylight dispersion in a space; to facilitate cleaning of the surface; to cover stains; and to add a desired color. As paints are reformulated to meet changing regulations and consumer demands, some characteristics that affect application, maintenance, performance, and durability may be altered. For example, in order to comply with new air quality standards regarding VOC emissions from paints, many paint manufacturers have reformulated their oil-based paints, increasing the percentage of solids in the paint and decreasing the amount of solvent. More solids make the paint thicker, resulting in a thicker film, which requires a longer drying time. Moreover, the cured film is not as hard or as resistant to chalking or fading as older types of oil-based paints. Advantages of the reformulated oil-based paints include less cracking and peeling because the cured paint film is more flexible and, of course, less odor (Bakke 1993). Many of the alternative paints also require special handling during application and may require longer drying times. A Swedish study compared the performance of several German alternative or natural paints with that of conventional water-based and oil-based paints during application and 18 months later. The conclusions published reported that the painters had no particular problems applying the paint; the paint adhered very well to existing wallpaper and old, wooden window frames; the results were excellent after 18 months; and the air smelled pleasantly of honey and citrus. Drawbacks to using the alternative paints were that the longer drying time between each coat could create problems with dust; that an additional coat was necessary since the paint had to be applied in thin coats; and that the cost of the paint was higher (Myrsten 1989). Environmentally friendly paints are becoming available for certain paint applications that normally would require disruption of building activities during and shortly after application. One acrylic latex multicolor paint achieves the same effect as other, oil- (solvent-) based systems without the need to evacuate the area, seal it off, or have the painters wear respirators (California Products 1994). The durability of a paint finish is an important consideration in its environmental effects. If other considerations are equivalent, the paint that lasts the longest will have the least environmental impact. A U.S. manufacturer of alternative paints (DeHart 1994) indicates that its hypoallergenic paints are as durable as conventional paints. The selection of the appropriate paint for a particular job results in a longer service life for the paint and reduced deterioration of the painted surface (Sides 1995, NPCA 1995). Careful preparation of the substrate will also enhance durability.
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Paint
Oil-based paints and their containers are classified as hazardous waste in some local jurisdictions. Airborne emissions from paint are becoming more strictly regulated. Oil-based paints contain volatile organic compounds that evaporate and react with other hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight to form ground-level ozone. This ozone may contribute to the degradation of the air quality at a local level. In 1984 California adopted comprehensive legislation to establish VOC content limits for consumer coatings, including paints. Since few products on the market at that time were able to meet these new standards, coating manufacturers initiated an extensive reformulation effort to develop compliant products. Californias legislation to limit VOCs was soon followed by similar efforts in other states. Since that time, federal regulations (the Clean Air Act of 1990) are being developed to limit allowable VOC emission levels for architectural and industrial maintenance coatings, including paints. This, however, will not prevent the states from developing their own rules. As a result of preliminary agreements, 20 percent reductions in VOC emissions are being considered for architectural and industrial maintenance coatings by 1996 (from 1990 levels of 990 million pounds) (EPA 1992, Reisch 1993, NPCA 1995). Water-based products are taking an increasingly larger share of the market. In addition, manufacturers are decreasing the amount of solvents and increasing the proportion of solids in some oil-based paints, thus creating what is called a high-solids formulation. Ethylene- and propylene-based glycol ether solvents are used as coalescing aids in waterborne systems. Although these solvents are VOC contributors, their use in waterborne systems results in formulations with lower VOC content than conventional oil-based systems. Ethylene-based glycol ethers are listed as hazardous air pollutants under the Clean Air Act (Reisch 1993), and propylene-based glycol ethers, which are not, are increasingly being used as an alternative in response to requests from manufacturers and their customers. This movement away from ethylene glycol ethers is particularly prevalent in Europe (Reisch 1993). One manufacturer indicates that glycols have relatively low vapor pressures, resulting in low emission rates, and that propylene glycol and propylene-based glycol ethers have low toxicities (TNEMEC 1995). Citrus oil solvent, or d-limonene, is also a volatile organic compound (VOC). It contains 6.8 lb of VOCs per gallon (approximately 850 g/liter); proposed clean air regulations would limit VOCs to as low as 2.9 lb per gallon (350 g/liter). However, VOCs from dlimonene apparently are short-lived, persisting only 12 hours in the atmosphere. Because it is unlikely to contribute to atmospheric smog to a significant degree, some jurisdictions are considering exempting d-limonene from regulation (Reisch 1993).
Indoor Air Quality
Emissions from paints occur mostly during the application and drying phases. Emissions research has shown that only trace amounts of VOCs are present in indoor air three to seven days after application. However, emission rates immediately after application can be significant, as shown by an EPA review of the literature on VOC emissions associated with various types of coatings, including paints (EPA 1992). The EPA review identified all constituents of paints that are potential sources of indoor air pollution. Included were all potentially volatile chemicals; all solids, such as pigments, were excluded from the study. Both interior and exterior paints were reviewed because both types may be applied indoors by the consumer. Emissions research, which was
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conducted under test house conditions or in standard chambers, was surveyed and the results were compiled according to coating type. Emission testing on oil-based and water-based paints detected a variety of VOCs, many defined by the Clean Air Act as hazardous air pollutants. Hazardous pollutants associated with oil-based paints (both exterior and interior) are 2-butanone, acetaldehyde, benzene, methanol, and xylene. Hazardous pollutants associated with water-based paints (exterior and interior) are acetaldehyde, methanol, and benzene (EPA 1992). An earlier study measured emissions from common building materials, including latex paints. In this study, paint samples were allowed to dry for seven days before emissions testing. Emissions detected were tetrachloroethylene, benzenes, xylenes, and toluenes (Sheldon et al. 1988). During application of conventional, water-based paints, irritation of the mucous membranes and skin may occur, leading to headaches, acute and chronic respiratory effects, and allergic eczema (van Faassen and Borm 1990). Some emissions, such as acrylonitrile and formaldehyde, are suspected carcinogens, and substances such as ethylene glycol and ethylene glycol ethylether are suspected hazards to fetuses (van Faassen and Borm 1990). One source indicates that water-based paints may emit film-forming agents (coalescing agents) and glycol ethers more than six months after application (Gustafsson 1991). A national paint industry association indicates that carcinogenicity and neurotoxicity potentially caused by some paint components would only be associated with chronic (lifetime) occupational overexposure. Thus, these problems should not result from consumer use or residential exposure (NPCA 1995). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), an agency of the World Health Organization, released findings in 1989 indicating there is sufficient evidence to show that painters have an increased risk of cancer. There evidence regarding the carcinogenicity of occupational exposure in paint manufacturing, on the other hand, is inadequate (IARC 1989). Citrus oil solvent, employed in alternative or natural paints, is relatively harmless, although it has caused allergies or irritation in environmentally sensitive individuals (Cole and Rousseau 1990; Biofa Naturprodukte, no date). Products using citrus oil dry quickly; thus any problem that may arise with such products lasts for a relatively brief period. However, individuals who are especially sensitive to this material need to be aware of its presence in some natural products (Good and Dadd 1988). One manufacturer of conventional paints indicates that some milk paints without the protection of fungicides or mildewcides can exhibit odor problems (Mitchell 1995). In conclusion, the harmful effects of indoor air pollution can be reduced by selecting paint products carefully and by exercising certain protective measures. A national paint industry association indicates that emissions from surfaces freshly covered with latex paint may decline to less than detectable amounts during the first 24 hours after application when the area is adequately ventilated (Sides 1995). Emissions from waterborne materials would probably present less of a problem than those from oilborne materials. When building occupants are especially sensitive to indoor air pollution, lower emission paints containing lower levels of VOCs should be considered. Several companies reportedly specialize in healthful finishing products. Such alternative products are based on natural products, discussed above under materials acquisition and preparation. Other products, with proprietary formulations, are based on low-toxicity synthetic components without petrochemicals, formaldehyde preservatives, or ethylene
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glycol (DeHart 1994). These products are said to dry quickly and have little odor (Good and Dadd 1988). For most people, VOCs released by paints are noticeable for a day or less, depending on the product being applied. Emissions generated by alkyd-based paints may still be irritating to some individuals after two to three months (Bower 1991). Regardless of the type of paint being used, the product should be applied in a well-ventilated area, perhaps a room with a fan mounted to exhaust through a window. People should remain out of the area as much as possible until volatile materials are no longer being emitted and there is no odor (Hunter 1989). Individuals may experience a toxic reaction to one finish but not another.
Energy Consumed
The total embodied energy at the point of use for conventional water-based paint is 33,034 Btu/lb (76.837 MJ/kg), according to a Finnish study (Salokangas 1990). The total embodied energy at the point of use for conventional oil-based paint is 41,642 Btu/lb (96.859 MJ/kg), from the same study. Another study gives an embodied energy value of 17,342 Btu/lb (40.34 MJ/kg); the type of paint was unspecified (Friedman and Cammalleri 1995). On the basis of coverage (two coats of paint), the same study gives an embodied energy value of 917 Btu/ft2 (10.42 MJ/m2). An older study (Hannon et al. 1976) calculated embodied energy values on the basis of gallon units (including delivery and trade energy input) for water-based paints (exterior and interior) and oil- (or solvent-) based paints (exterior and interior). Values ranged from 437,025 Btu/gallon (121.806 MJ/L) to 508,475 Btu/gallon (141.720 MJ/L). Figure 11 summarizes these data.
Figure 11: Embodied Energy Value of Various Paints
Type of Paint Embodied Energy Based on Weight: Btu/lb (MJ/kg) 33,034 (76.837)3 489,0632 (136.310) 1,390 [based on 350 ft2/Gal.]2 (15.9) [based on 8.590 m2/L] 920 [based on 475 ft2/Gal.]2 (10.4) [based on 11.66 m2/L] 1,390 [based on 350 ft2/Gal.]2 (15.9) [based on 8.590 m2/L] 1,070 [based on 475 ft2/Gal.]2 (12.2) [based on 11.66 m2/L] Embodied Energy Based on Volume: Btu/Gallon (MJ/liter) Embodied Energy Based on Coverage: Btu/ft2 (MJ/m2)
Conventional water-based Water-based, exterior
Water-based, interior
437,0252 (121.806)
Oil-based, exterior
488,5282 (136.161)
Oil-based, interior
508,4752 (141.720)
Conventional oil-based Paints and related products
41,642 (96.859)3 17,342 (40.34)1 917 [2 coats] (10.42)1 [2 coats]
1Friedman 2Hannon
and Cammalleri 1995 1990
et al. 1976
3Salokangas
PAINT
MAT 09900
31
Paint

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of paint is presented in figure 12. Oil-based paints and their containers are classified as hazardous waste in some local jurisdictions. Several U.S. municipalities and counties have established programs to collect and reuse unwanted paint, mixing it together to form a beige primer. The paint is distributed free to users, as the cost of recycling is less than that of hazardous waste disposal. The quality of this remixed paint is unreliable, however, and often clogs spray nozzles (Environmental Building News 1993).
Figure 12: PaintRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Disposal of excess paint Remodeling Demolition Stressor Landfill Sanding of painted surfaces Disposal of painted material Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Dust containing lead Dust containing toxic pigments Landfill disposal Incineration Particulates and dust Eye and throat irritation Various health effects Various health effects Decreased landfill capacity Toxic air emissions from combustion Various environmental and human health effects Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
Several paint companies are now developing recycling operations that result in a better quality, more consistent product. One manufacturer offers a product that is at least 12 percent recycled paint collected from consumers and 38 percent in-house waste produced from washing equipment. The remaining 50 percent is virgin material. This company reports that before 1984, 1,500 tons of hazardous solid waste was sent annually to a landfill, waste that now is used in recycled paint. This paint is of high quality and is being used in U.S. government projects throughout the world through the General Services Administration (Environmental Building News 1993). Another manufacturer produces recycled paint that is at least 90 percent postconsumer product. Quality and color are controlled through careful sorting of the incoming material. This same company is arranging through its distributors to collect unused paint from contractors (Environmental Building News 1993). An added benefit to paint recycling is the fact that paint containers-steel cans and plastic buckets-do not take up valuable space in landfills (Environmental Building News 1993). The Waste Watch Center, a nonprofit organization, has proposed a definition of recycled paint as paint with a minimum of 50 percent postconsumer recycled content that has been reprocessed to meet specific performance specifications for a particular type (i.e., interior or exterior) paint and is available in consistent colors ( Household Hazardous Waste Management News 1994). The paint industry supports source reduction as the primary means for managing postconsumer leftover paint. In this approach, the consumer minimizes the amount of excess paint by not buying too much paint to begin with, by using up the paint that is bought, and by donating unused paint to someone who can use it. The industry finds this preferable to the forced return and recycling of unused paint that can result in unwanted and uncertain recycled products. The recycling of empty steel paint cans is encouraged by the Steel Recycling Institute (Sides 1995, NPCA 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal of Paint
In addition to the environmental concerns involved in the disposal or recovery/recycling
32
MAT 09900
PAINT
Paint
Organizational Perspective
of new paint, architects and builders must consider the issues surrounding the disposal of old painted materials during demolition and renovation projects. The primary issue is the lead-containing paints that were used in homes and commercial buildings until they were banned from trade-sales paints in 1978. It is estimated that approximately three quarters of pre-1980 privately owned housing stock and a large proportion of public housing contains some paint with lead (in later years most often on the exterior). The hazards of paints containing lead to building occupants, especially to children, have been well documented. Acute lead poisoning can occur in one to two weeks at high exposure levels. Low concentrations over a long period of time will cause chronic lead poisoning (OSHA 1991). Lead poisoning in children has been associated with brain damage in the form of learning disabilities, a reduction in IQ, and behavioral disorders such as hyperactivity and antisocial behavior. Symptoms of lead poisoning in very young children may be as ordinary as constant crying and stomachaches. In addition to the hazards of ingesting paint chips, children can be poisoned by lead dust created by remodeling projects, both exterior as well as interior; this poisoning can also affect the fetus if a pregnant woman inhales lead dust. This dust can remain in carpet and on other surfaces after remodeling is complete, continuing to affect the building occupants. It is critical that lead abatement actions be performed by qualified professionals. (Some states license contractors to perform these services.) The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) published guidelines in April 1991 for working with lead in construction. (These guidelines are reprinted in the July 1991 issue of The Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings.) The Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act added a section (Title IV) to the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in 1992. A proposed rule implementing Title IV was published in the Federal Register in 1994 that contains training/certification regulations, lead-based paint activity standards, and model state program guidelines ( The Hazardous Waste Consultant 1995). The pigments used in some conventional paints may contain toxic compounds. These substances are of concern when burning demolition waste, sanding surfaces covered with paints containing these chemicals, or performing other actions that can release these compounds into the air. Hazardous pigments include the following, according to the EPA (1976) or the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH 1990): White: antimony oxide, titanium dioxide, rutile titanium oxide. Blue: phthalocyanine blue. Green: chrome green, chromium oxide, hydrated chromium oxide, phthalocyanine green. Other: copper powders, cuprous oxide. One manufacturer indicates that some of these pigments are used less than they once were (TNEMEC 1995).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on energy consumption during the recycling, reuse, and disposal of paint.
Organizational Perspective
Industry Perspective: National Paint and Coatings Association The paint and coatings industry has made and continues to make great strides in its effort to manufacture and market end-products that are environmentally acceptable and to modify its
PAINT
MAT 09900
33
Paint
Regulatory Status
manufacturing processes to minimize waste generation and toxic releases to air, water, and soil. To this end, the industry has invested heavily in research to develop new products that will meet anticipated environmental demands as well as customers expectations regarding product performance. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 and associated regulations are expected to have a major effect both on the coatings manufacturing process and on the application and use of the end products. Industry problems in this area arise from both the requirements set forth in the federal legislation and the patchwork of differing state and local air quality regulations that overlie the federal law. For manufacturers participating in interstate commerce, the need to accommodate a variety of formulation, labeling, and administrative requirements for different areas is extremely burdensome. Paint and coatings manufacturers are continually refining their efforts to minimize waste. Industry efforts to incorporate the tenets of pollution preventionsource reduction; substitution; reuse and recycling; reduction of emissions to air, water, and soilhave been recognized and commended by the administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. Perhaps the most significant link between paint and environmental quality is the simple fact that paints and coatings protect and preserve the surfaces to which they are applied. Thus, they greatly extend the useful life of the built and manufactured environment, resulting in savings in materials and energy and a corresponding reduction in environmental pollution.
Regulatory Status
As with essentially all other industries, the paint industry is regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluent, hazardous waste, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. National VOC emission standards for architectural coatings have been proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 61 Fed. Reg. 32,729 (June 25, 1996). When the regulations are issued, content levels will apply to 55 categories of architectural coatings manufactured or imported for sale or distribution in the United States. As proposed, the regulation will require manufacturers or importers to comply with the content levels by reformulating their products as necessary and to fulfill certain labeling and reporting obligations. Under the proposed regulations, certain coatings are exempted, including (1) coatings manufactured exclusively for sale outside of the United States; (2) coatings manufactured or imported prior to April 1, 1997; (3) coatings supplied in nonrefillable aerosol containers; (4) coatings that are collected and redistributed at community-based paint exchanges; and (5) coatings sold in containers with capacities of one liter or less.
34
MAT 09900
PAINT
Paint
References
REFERENCES
Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Bakke, Timothy O. 1993. Low-Pollution Paints. Home Mechanix. Vol. 89, No. 773. March. Biofa Naturprodukte. No date. BAU Natural House Products Catalog. Concord, NH. Bio Shield. 1994. Technical Data Sheets and information from catalog The Natural Choice. Santa Fe, NM: Eco Design Co. Bower, John. 1991. The Healthy HouseHow to Buy One, How to Build One, How to Cure a Sick One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. California Products Corporation. 1994. Aquafleck Acrylic Latex Multi-Color System product information. Cole, Ray, and David Rousseau. 1990. European Paints: A Brief Review of Imported `Natural and `Low Emission Paint Products. Unpublished article for the Materials Task Force on the Environmental Resource Guide. DeHart, Nevel. 1994. Information on Safecoat paints from the president of American Formulating and Manufacturing (AFM), San Diego, CA. Environmental Building News. 1993. Products and Materials: Good Recycled Paint. Vol. 2, No. 6. November/December. Alex Wilson, ed./pub. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1992. Indoor Air Pollution Source Catalog. EPA Contract No. 68-D1-0031, W.A. No. 07. Washington: Office of Research and Development. . 1990. Guides to Pollution Prevention: The Paint Manufacturing Industry. EPA/625/7-90/005. June. Cincinnati, OH: Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory and Center for Environmental Research Information, Office of Research and Development. Friedman, Avi, and Vince Cammalleri. 1995. The Environmental Impact of Building Materials in the North American Building Industry. Building Research and Information. Vol. 23, No. 3:162-66. Good, Clint, and Debra Dadd. 1988. Healthful HousesHow to Design and Build Your Own. Bethesda, MD: Guaranty Press. Gustafsson, Hans. 1991. Building Materials Identified as Major Emission Sources. Proceedings from IAQ 91, ASHRAE/ICBR Healthy Buildings Conference. Washington, DC.
Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Used for Building Construction. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration Contract No. EY-76-S-02-2791. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois. The Hazardous Substances Databank. 1995. National Library of Medicine/TOXNET. June. The Hazardous Waste Consultant. 1995. Environmentally Friendly Replacements for `Toxic Products and Processes. Elsevier Science Inc. March/April. . 1995. Identifying, Assessing, and Abating Lead-Based Paint Hazards. January/February. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Household Hazardous Waste Management News. 1994. Paint Redux. Vol. V, No. 23. Andover, MA: Waste Watch Center. Hunter, Linda. 1989. The Healthy Home. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). 1989. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to HumansSome Organic Solvents, Resin Monomers and Related Compounds, Pigments and Occupational Exposures in Paint Manufacture and Painting. Vol. 47 Livos PlantChemistry. 1989-92. Technical Specification Sheets. Santa Fe, NM: Eco Design Company. Mitchell, Robert E. 1995. Comments on the draft ERG report on paint from the chairman of the board of Dunn-Edwards Corporation. Myrsten, Karl. 1989. NaturfargerAnalys av Begrepp, Innehall och Egenskaper. (Trans. from Swedish: Natural PaintsAnalysis of Concept, Contents, and Characteristics.) Stockholm: Swedish Council for Building Research. ISBN 91-540-5085-5. NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 1990. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
NPCA (National Paint and Coatings Association). 1982. Glycol EthersAn Update. NPCA Safety and Health Bulletin. August. . 1991. Letter to author of ERG report on paint. October 25. . 1995. Comments on draft ERG paint report. Old Fashioned Milk Paint Company. 1991. Product information. Groton, MA. OSHA. 1991. Guidelines for working with paint in construction. Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings. July. Reisch, Marc S. 1993. Paints and Coatings. Chemical & Engineering News. Vol. 71 (42):35-37, 40, 42, 44, 49, 51, 53-60, 61. October 18. Salokangas, Raimo, et al. 1990. Energi-Innehallet i Husbyggande (translated from Swedish: Energy Contents in Building Sector). Nordisk Konference om Bygningers Totalenergiforbrug og Energirelaterede Miljobelastning, Kobenhavn 1990 (translated from Danish: Nordic Conference on the Total Energy Use of Buildings and Energy Related Costs to the Environment, Copenhagen 1990). Sheldon, L., H. Zelon, J. Sickles, C. Eaton, and T. Hartwell. 1988. Indoor Air Quality in Public Buildings, Vol. II. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. EPA/600/6-88/009b. August. Sides, Stephen R. 1995. Information for the ERG report on paint from the director for health, safety, and environmental affairs at the National Paint and Coatings Association. TNEMEC Co. 1995. Comments on draft ERG report on paint. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1991. 5th ed. Vol. A 18. B. Elvers, S. Hawkins, and G. Schulz, eds. NY: VCH Publishers. van Faassen, A. and PJ. A. Borm. 1990. Indoor Air Pollution and Health Hazards by Waterborne Construction Paints. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Quality and Climate. Toronto.
PAINT
MAT 09900
35
Material Report
Stains and Var nishes

Highlights
Wastes generated in the manufacture of stains and varnishes include air emissions, largely in the form of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and wastewater from equipment cleaning. The extraction and processing of natural plant oils may release VOCs into the atmosphere. Paper-processing wastes produce tall oil, whose use in stains and varnishes reduces the waste and stream pollution that would otherwise result from the release of these wastes. Many ingredients in stains and varnishes are derived from petroleum. Oil and natural gas extraction is responsible for a variety of environmental pollutants, including air emissions and discharge of toxic wastes into lakes and streams. Isocyanates, used in the production of urethanes, are highly toxic substances which must be handled carefully during manufacture.
Many ingredients in stains and varnishes are derived from petrochemicals. Although oil and gas are finite resources, they are currently in plentiful supply. Organizations that coordinate the exchange of construction materials can help ensure that leftover quantities of stains and varnishes are passed on to others who can use them. Excess materials recycled in this way will not deplete waste disposal capacity, nor will the significant energy and resource investment contained in these products be wasted.
The total embodied energy of traditional stains and varnishes, including transportation and associated activity, is 503,668 Btus/gal (140,388 MJ/m3). VOC emissions occur predominantly during the application and drying phases of stains and varnishes. These initial emissions can be significant. In response to stricter clean air legislation, manufacturers have been working to develop stains and varnishes with lower VOC contents. Preliminary targets would have VOC emissions from these sources reduced by 20 percent no later than 1996. Water-borne stains and varnishes, which emit fewer VOCs than traditional oilborne stains and varnishes, have an increasing share of the market.
STAINS AND VARNISHES
MAT 09930

Background
Background
Stains and varnishes are liquid treatments applied to wood that affect the wood's appearance and durability. A stain is designed to impart color effects and consists of colorants in a penetrating carrier. It is not intended to form a hard coating. A varnish, in contrast, contains a resin that remains on top of the wood and dries to a hard, transparent film. (The varnishes discussed in this report are not only the traditional ones but also products more recently brought on the market that, although not chemically the same as traditional varnishes, are designed to serve the same purpose and are intended to replace them.) Stains and varnishes constitute about 9 percent of the architectural coatings produced in the United States. In 1991 interior solvent-based stains and varnishes constituted 97 percent of the stain and varnish market. Of exterior stains, 55 percent were solvent-borne and 45 percent were water-borne. Exterior solvent-based varnish represented 99 percent of the market (McDavid 1994). Traditional stains are solvent-based and made with linseed or tung oil to which a colorant has been added. The oil penetrates into the porous wood surface, sealing it against water and giving the wood a uniform color. Because of environmental regulations and health concerns, water-borne stains are becoming increasingly more popular. Unlike paint, stains do not form a closed film on the surface of the wood, but penetrate the material and provide a breathing, durable finish. This report covers wood stains and varnishes included under Masterspec 09930. Traditional varnishes are made of drying oils, resins, thinners (for workability), and driers. The volatile constituent of the varnish, the thinner or solvent, contributes to the drying of the varnish through its evaporation and does not form a permanent part of the coating. The nonvolatile constituents, the oils and resins, form a solid film that adheres to the surface on which it is applied. Traditional varnishes are oleoresinous; that is, they are solutions of a natural or synthetic resin in a drying oil and a solvent. The oil reduces the natural brittleness of the pure-resin film. Alkyd and urethane varnishes, also referred to as clear finishes, have largely replaced the traditional types because of their greater durability and ease of application. Pressure to reduce the amount of air-polluting solvents in varnishes, coupled with the desire for water cleanup of tools and for a speedier application process, has led to the development of water-borne varnishes. In recent years, alternative or natural stains and varnishes have been available in Europe and are now being imported into the United States. These products depend on natural sourceswhile avoiding or minimizing the use of petrochemicalsfor most or all of their ingredients. Although modern stain and varnish formulations incorporate a number of natural components as well, they rely to a large extent on petrochemicals. Another emphasis in the formulation of the alternative products is on improved indoor air quality and occupational health: These products are specifically designed to result in reduced volatile emissions during use. They were developed in part because of the strengthening of European regulations limiting VOC emissions (Cole and Rousseau 1990). The components and manufacture of stains and, especially, varnishes are very similar to the components and manufacture of paint. Varnish is essentially a paint without pigments. Much of the material report on paint (09900 in ERG 1994 ed.) is relevant and directly applicable to the subject of this report. Little information on the use of additives such as fungicides was found related specifically to stains and varnishes; broad discussions indicate that they are used for paints in general, including stains and varnishes. These materials are not discussed
MAT 09930

in this report, but information on such additives is found in the material report on paint (09900 in ERG 1994 ed.).
Life-cycle summaries of stains and varnishes are provided in figures 1 and 2, respectively. The acquisition and production of raw materials for stains and varnishes result in environmental and health impacts. Major plant-oil components used to produce stains and varnishes are derived from crops such as citrus trees, flax, and soybeans. Agriculture involves the use of pesticides and fertilizers, whose runoff can result in aquatic toxicity. Tilling of the soil can facilitate soil erosion and runoff, with consequent effects on the aquatic environment. The combustion of fuel to run agricultural equipment releases a variety of air pollutants, including VOCs, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates. The environmental and health effects resulting from these pollutants can also be caused by other processes that involve the combustion of fuels. Extraction of the oils from the plant material also releases VOCs, processing solvents, and combustion emissions. The acquisition and processing of petroleum and natural gas, which are used throughout the production of stains and varnishes, result in air and water pollution (including the release of VOCs) as a result of fuel combustion and other process activities. This pollution affects wildlife and human health. Air and water emissions are also released during the processing of petrochemicals into the materials used to manufacture stains and varnishes, such as alkyd resin, acrylic resin, polyvinyl chloride resin, phenolic resins, polyurethane, and solvents. The mining of minerals such as iron oxide for pigment and quartz for finishes may cause soil erosion and runoff, habitat alteration, and resulting impacts on wildlife communities. Fuel combustion also releases a variety of pollutants. The production of precursor materials and the manufacture of stains and varnishes produce various emissions resulting from fuel combustion, escaping production gases, and wastewater release. Some materialssuch as toluene diisocyanate and some quartz dusthave the potential to cause severe human health effects in the occupational environment if they are not controlled. The application of stains and varnishes releases VOCs generated by the solvent and oil components. The disposal of excess stains and varnishes decreases available landfill capacity and, if improperly handled, can result in the release of VOCs into the environment. As is the case with paints in general, a major concern with the application and drying of stains and varnishes is the potential for VOC emissions. VOCs contribute to the generation of ground-level ozone, which helps produce smog. Human health effects of ozone and smog include respiratory tract problems and eye irritation. Decreased visibility also occurs. Because of the wide variety of VOCs present in stains and varnishes, a single categorization of health effects cannot be made; however, the high concentration of VOCs released by some stains and varnishes has caused irritation, headaches, and other symptoms when adequate ventilation is not used. Some individuals who are sensitive to certain VOCs cannot tolerate their presence, even in low concentrations. As a result of restrictions imposed by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, the amount of VOCs in stains and varnishes is decreasing. Oil-borne formulations have been developed that use less solvent; water-borne formulations achieve even lower VOC levels. In addition, some water-borne varnishes, such as polyurethanes, use aliphatic solvents having lower toxicity than the aromatic solvents used in some oil-borne formulations.
MAT 09930
4
MAT 09930 STAINS AND VARNISHES ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 (REV 1998)
Figure 1a: Life-Cycle Summary of Stains
KEY
Hexane Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Process flow Transport
Life-Cycle Summary Stains

Isomerization
Drying oil
Asphalt
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzol(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
Mineral spirits
Traditional stains


Water
oxidation
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Distillation
Propylene
Propylene oxide
Propylene glycol Glycerol
Kraft paper processing waste Sulfuric acid
Tall oil
Natural oil
Hydrolysis
Fatty acids or
Alkyd resin or
Air emissions (SOX, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Phthalic anhydride
Heavy organics
Polyamides (optional)
Modern oil-borne stains
Iron oxide pigments (see figure 1c) Natural iron oxide pigment Linseed oil "Natural" stains
Natural gas processing (see figure 1b)
Oil processing (see figure 1b)
To Packaging
(see figure 1b)
Figure 1b: Life-Cycle Summary of Stains (continued)

From Oil processing (see figure 1a) From Natural gas processing (see figure 1a) Alkyl compounds
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 (REV 1998) STAINS AND VARNISHES MAT 09930
Iron oxide pigments (see figure 1c)
From Traditional stains, Modern oil-borne stains, "Natural" stains

(see figure 1a)

Air emissions (VOCs) Organics
Propylene oxide
Propylene glycol
Propylene
catalyst
Acrolein
catalyst
Acrylic acid
Esterification
Acrylate monomer
Acrylate polymer
Water Modern water-borne stains Petrochemical processing Latex emulsifier
Ethylene
Precipitation
Co-products Calcium chloride Salts Ethylene dichloride
Packaging
Air emissions (VC monomer) Air emissions (VC monomer, TSS, SOX, NOX, VOCs, CO, lead, methane, HCI, PVC, particulates)
Brine
Electrolysis
Brine sludge
Chlorine
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
VC monomer, methylene chloride, 1,1,1trichloroethane, lead, zinc
Storage
Display/sales
Life-Cycle Summary Stains
Application Quartz processing Crushing Screening Grinding
KEY
Quartz (silica) and clay mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Maintenance/repair
Habitat change
Demolition
6
MAT 09930 STAINS AND VARNISHES ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 (REV 1998)
Figure 1c: Life Cycle Summary of Stains
KEY
Process flow
Life Cycle Stains
Processing
Habitat change
Ferrous sulfate

Processing
Copper as red oxide
Mineral separation

Iron oxide pigments

(see figures 1a and 1b)
Habitat change
Sodium Hydroxide
basic pH
Black iron oxide
neutral pH
Scrap iron
acidic pH
Orange iron oxide
Brine
Electrolysis
Steam
Yellow iron oxide
Air
Yellow iron oxide
Figure 2a: Life-Cycle Summary of Varnishes
KEY
Hexane Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Process flow
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 (REV 1998) STAINS AND VARNISHES MAT 09930
Drying oil
Transport

Isomerization
Dryers Quartz
Mineral spirits
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzol(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
(see figure 2b)
Traditional varnishes Pine tree growing



Gum rosin
Esterification
Fossil resins mining and processing

Runoff (soil Tailings waste erosion, TSS) Habitat change overburden
Fossil resins
Olefins (propylene) manufacture Benzene manufacture Formaldehyde manufacture
catalyst
catalyst
Phenol manufacture
Oil, grease, TSS, organics
Phenolic resin manufacture
Resins
Water
oxidation
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Distillation
Propylene
Propylene oxide
Propylene glycol Glycerol
Kraft paper processing waste Sulfuric acid Tall oil Natural oil
Hydrolysis
Fatty acids or Polyamides (optional)

Air emissions (SOX, CO, VOCs, particulates)
To Packaging
(see figure 2b)
Alkyd resin
To Modern oil-borne varnishes (see figure 2b)
Life-Cycle Summary Varnishes
Drying oil (see figure 2b) Oil processing (see figure 2b) Natural gas processing (see figure 2b) Xylene or naphthalene
Phthalic anhydride
Heavy organics
8
Figure 2b: Life-Cycle Summary of Varnishes (continued)
To Traditional varnishes (see figure 2a) From Drying oil (see figure 2a) From Oil processing (see figure 2a) From Natural gas processing (see figure 2a) Toluene Dinitration Dinitrotoluene Phosgene Toluenediamine Toluene Diisocyanate Polyurethane (with or without accelerator) Wax
Solvents, Phosgene, HCI
Life-Cycle Summary Varnishes
From Traditional varnishes (see figure 2a) From Alkyd resin (see figure 2a)
Modern oil-borne varnishes
MAT 09930
Alkyl compounds
Mineral spirits

Propylene oxide Water Propylene

catalyst

Organics
Modern water-borne varnishes and/or
Acrolein
catalyst Air emissions (VOCs)
Acrylic acid
Esterification
Acrylate monomer
Acrylate polymer
Petroleum distillates Pine tree growing Natural drying oils
Refining Gum rosin
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
"Natural" varnishes
Packaging
Storage d-Limonene Display/sales
Citrus growing
Citrus oil extraction Other citrus products
Distillation
Quartz (silica) and clay mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Quartz processing Crushing Screening Grinding
Clay
KEY
Process flow
Application
Quartz
Maintenance/repair
Habitat change
Demolition
Recycling


A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of raw materials for the production of stains and varnishes is presented in figure 3.
Stains Stains are composed of oils or resins carrying a colorant (pigment) and diluted with a solvent. The oil (or resin) carrying the pigment penetrates into the porous wood surface and seals it against water. Unlike varnishes, most stains are not designed to leave a protective oil or resin film on top of the wood. Some formulations, however, can deposit enough of a coating (resin and pigment) to protect against weathering. Stains may be oil-borne (solvent-borne) or water-borne. Colorants are usually iron oxides, a form of asphalt, or natural earth pigments.
Stains may be categorized according to three major applications: exterior semitransparent stains, exterior opaque stains, and interior wood stains. Exterior semitransparent stains change the color of the wood and protect its substrate from damage and deterioration without concealing its appearance. Exterior semitransparent stains must be able to be applied with some uniformity, or color variations will be apparent. These stains must be protective and durable, and are often used on porches and steps. These products rely heavily on conventional oil/alkyd technology. Exterior opaque stains hide the surface of the wood and are not prone to the uniformity problems encountered with the semitransparent stains. This category is dominated by latex products. Interior wood stains are semitransparent and are designed to provide uniform color to interior wood surfaces such as trim and floors. Normally a protective clear finish is applied over the interior stain. There are critical application criteria that must be met for these stains so that a uniform color is achieved during the wiping (application) process; otherwise, streaking and uneven color can result. The application criteria and the ability to accept a clear finish distinguish interior stains from exterior stains (Sainsbury 1994).
Traditional stains
Of the traditional, oil-borne stains, the one most commonly used in the United States is composed of linseed oil, with a form of asphalt called gilsonite as the colorant carried in mineral spirits (Blackburn 1994). Other oils sometimes used in traditional stains include soybean oil and tung oil. These are discussed in the next section under varnishes.
Linseed Oil. Linseed oil is derived from flax seed (Linum usitatissimum). In the United
States, flax is grown in North Dakota, Minnesota, and South Dakota. As with other agricultural products, the production of flax depletes natural resources and produces waste. These impacts as resulting from corn production are discussed in the material report on gypsum board (09250). Linseed oil is isolated by continuous pressing, i.e., expelling, from the seed; further yield is obtained by solvent extraction (Kirk-Othmer 1993). Seeds are cut or split, freeing the meats from the hulls. The meats are rolled into thin flakes and are cooked or conditioned to rupture the oil glands. The oil is pressed from the meats in mechanical screw presses with single or double worm shafts revolving inside a heavy perforated barrel. The oil is screened, cooled, filtered, and stored for refining. The remaining oil is removed by solvent extraction. The solvent hexane is sprayed onto the flakes, where it dissolves the oil. This solution is known as miscella. The miscella is pumped to the evaporators, where the hexane is driven off by heat and recycled to extract more oil (Austin 1984). Drying oils such as linseed oil are seldom used in an unmodified state. After extraction, linseed oil is converted to a chemically more reactive form by isomerization. This involves partial rearrangement of the isolated, nonconjugated double bonds into more reactive conju-
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Figure 3: Stains and VarnishesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Flax, soybean, and citrus growing Runoff of fertilizers Stressor Runoff of pesticides Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and other aquatic organism Increased loading of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD Soil erosion and depletion Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Fuel combustion VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Tree or crop damage Materials corrosion Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxide Particulates Ground-level ozone (smog) Acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Linseed, soybean, tung, and citrus oil (d-limonene) preparation Linseed, soybean, and tung oil preparation Solvent extraction Fugitive hexane emissions Human health effects including nausea, headaches, numbness, muscular weakness, eye and nose irritation, dermatitis, chemical pneumonia, and giddiness Drying oil processing Isomerization VOC emissions Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Pressing and extraction Fuel combustion VOC emission (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming Deoxygenation/algal bloom Habitat alteration Reduced reproduction Deoxygenation Possible loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
continued
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Figure 3: Stains and VarnishesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Crude oil extraction (asphalt, mineral spirits, alkyd, resin, propylene, polyvinyl chloride resin, acrylic resin, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, phenolic resin, toluene, urethane, and aliphatic hydrocarbon production) Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (asphalt, mineral spirits, alkyd resin, propylene, polyvinyl chloride resin, acrylic resin, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, phenolic resin, toluene, urethane, and aliphatic hydrocarbon production) Crude oil processing (asphalt, mineral spirits, alkyd resin propylene, polyvinyl chloride resin, acrylic resin, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, phenolic resin, toluene, urethane, and aliphatic hydrocarbon production) Desalting process Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia oil, chlorides, and phenols Mercaptans Air emissions, VOCs Noxious odors (see impacts above) Habitat disruption Increased BOD Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Release of oil and suspended solids Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes Water pollution Eutrophication Water-borne disease Stressor Discharge of produced water containing oil, grease BOD, COD, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and toxic organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Bentonite or attapulgite clay, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Impact/Stressor Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Impact/Stressor Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
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Activity Crude oil processing (continued) Stressor Catalytic cracking Impact/Stressor Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia Environmental poisoning Catalytic cracking, gas blowdown systems, and fugitive emissions Ammonia, benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a) pyrene, toluene, naphthalenes, and xylene Natural gas production (alkyd resin, propylene, polyvinyl chloride resin, acrylic resin, propylene glycol, propylene glycol ether, phenolic resin, and urethane manufacture) Alkyd resin manufacture Production of monobasic fatty acids or oils Manufacture of polyhydric alcohols (see impacts of soybean oil processing) Ethylene production Air emissions, benzene and VOCs Wastewater containing chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Deoxygenation Possible fishkill Ethylene glycol production Glycerol production Phthalic anhydride production Production of alkyd resin by alcoholysis or fatty acid process Iron ore and sand mining (iron oxide pigment production) Tailings waste Runoff Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Fuel combustion emissions VOC emissions Air emissions Fuel combustion emissions Fuel combustion emissions Carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, particulates, and VOCs (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions VOCs and particulates (see impacts above) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygendepleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Air emissions from diesel powered drills NO x, SO x, CO, VOCs particulates (see fuel consumption impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Increased BOD Various human health effects SOx, NOx, VOCs, CO (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor High pH, high BOD Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
continued
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Activity Iron ore and sand mining (continued) Stressor Land disturbance Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Iron oxide pigment production Polyvinyl chloride resin manufacture Calcining and other processes Carbon dioxide Air emissions Vinyl chloride 1,3-Butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride Wastewater Methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, zinc Acrylic resin production, esterization/ polymerization Propylene glycol ether manufacture Wastewater containing organics Propylene oxide production Quartz and cristobalite production Phenolic resin production Wastewater could contain residual monomers including formaldehyde and phenol Phenol Formaldehyde Mining Increased loading of organics in streams Air emissions, VOCs (see impacts above) Dust Silicosis Possible human carcinogen Human health effects (irritant, allergen, and possible human carcinogen) Poisonous, caustic, skin blistering, CNS effects, paralysis Phenol production Wastewater containing BOD, COD Release of benzene Wastewater containing total organic carbon, oil and grease, total suspended solids, and other organics Carcinogenisis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Air emissions Deoxygenation VOCs Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Air emissions, VOCs Fugitive emissions of acrylic monomer Lacrimation, respiratory eye irritation, headache, skin eruptions, and other human health effects (see impacts above) Consumption of toxics by fish Possible fishkill Known human carcinogen Respiratory irritation Nervous system effects Impact/Stressor Soil erosion Loss of habitat (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Air emissions Sulfur oxides Respiratory tract problems and lung damage (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Runoff (see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Impact/Stressor
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Activity Polyurethane production Stressor Toluene diisocyanate production Impact/Stressor Fugitive emissions Impact/Stressor Human health effects: potent irritant to the respiratory tract, skin and eyes Fugitive emissions of phosgene Human health effects: irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract, difficulty breathing, cyanosis, and vomiting Fugitive emissions of hydrogen chloride Acid precipitation Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Human health effects include burning of the eyes and nose, choking, nausea, chest pain, headache, pulmonary edema, others VOCs emissions (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor
gated positions through heat treatment with catalysts such as certain metal oxides, activated nickel, or SO2 (Austin 1984).
Asphalt. Asphalt is the nonvolatile residual fraction, or heavy bottom, of crude oil refin-
ingspecifically, crude oil distillation. A form of asphalt called gilsonite is the preferred black colorant because it does not contain the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in other asphalt (McDavid 1994). Petroleum extraction and refining and related waste products are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06420). The production and waste products of asphalt are discussed in the material report on asphalt shingles (07310).
Mineral Spirits. Mineral spirits are produced by distillation of petroleum. Mineral spirits are
composed of a variable mix of chemicals, including xylene, xylol, toluene, methyl ethyl ketone, and aliphatic hydrocarbons (EPA 1992); however, the aromatic hydrocarbon content is limited (McDavid 1994). Petroleum extraction and refining are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Mineral spirits can be hazardous to human health. The effects of mineral spirits and other solvents are discussed in the material report on paint (09900 in ERG 1997 ed.).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Raw Materials for Traditional Stains
The preparation of linseed oil from flax seed requires fuel. The combustion of fuels for the production of energy can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause eye irritation and such respiratory tract problems as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, and nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals, such as NOx and SOx, to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage and contributes to acid precipitation. NOx also contributes to environmen-
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tal problems, including acid precipitation and smog. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. The heating of the oil and the hexane solvent during solvent extraction can potentially release VOCs and hexane into the atmosphere. The process of isomerization also requires high temperatures and may release VOCs. Exposure to hexane can cause lightheadedness, nausea, headaches, numbness, muscular weakness, irritation of the eyes and nose, dermatitis, chemical pneumonia, and giddiness (NIOSH 1980). The environmental and health effects of VOCs are mentioned above.
Energy Consumed
No information exists on the amount of energy consumed during the acquisition and processing of raw materials for traditional stains.
Modern Oil-borne Stains
Modern oil-borne stains have replaced much of the oil used in the carrier with alkyd resin, and iron oxide can be used as the major colorant. Otherwise, these stains are similar in composition to traditional stains.
Alkyd Resin. Alkyd resin is chemically very similar to polyester resin (described in the mater-
ial report on wall coverings (09950). Alkyds are the reaction product of a monobasic fatty acid or oil, a polyhydric alcohol (or polyol), and a polybasic acid or anhydride. A large variety of compounds are available for each of these groups. Monobasic fatty acids or oils are mainly naturally produced and may be used in the oil or the free fatty acid form. Natural fats and oils are triglycerides, composed of one glycerol and three fatty acid components. The glycerol and fatty acids can be split from the fats and oils by hydrolysis at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. A variety of animal and plant sources can be used for these triglycerides, with major input coming from soybean (or soya) oil and from tall-oil fatty acids. Soybean oil is produced much as linseed oil is (see above). Tall oil is produced from kraftpaper-processing black-liquor waste. The production of kraft paper is described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). The soapy froth skimmed off the concentrated black liquor is acidified with sulfuric acid to produce tall oil. (The name is derived from talloja, meaning pine oil in Swedish, and differentiates this product from the pine oil produced by wood distillation, another commercial product.) Tall oil is inexpensive and its use reduces waste and stream pollution that would otherwise result from the release of kraft paper wastes (Austin 1984). An important property of the oils and fatty acids used to make alkyds is their drying ability. This refers to their potential to cause solidification as a result of oxidation and polymerization. It is related to the amount of unsaturation present in the molecules and the presence of unsaturated groups adjacent (conjugated) to each other. Low unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic and palmitoleic acids contribute very little to drying ability. Tung and oiticica oil, with conjugated trienes, dry much faster than other drying oils. Indeed, too much tung or oiticica oil can cause premature drying on the surface and produce a wrinkled finish. Other factors can also cause a wrinkled finish (McDavid 1994). Consequently, these two oils may form only a small component of a fatty acid mixture. Drying ability can also be increased by isomerization. Linoleic and linolenic acids normally have nonconjugated dienes. When heated in the presence of a catalyst, the dienes can isomerize to adjacent positions and increase the drying ability (Kirk-Othmer 1992).
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Polyhydric alcohols commonly used in alkyd resins include glycerol and ethylene glycol, among others. Glycerol is produced by the hydrolysis of natural fats and oils (as discussed above). Ethylene glycol is produced by the hydrolysis of ethylene oxide. Ethylene oxide and water are heated to about 200C, producing ethylene glycol together with other polyethylene glycols that are separated by distillation. The production of ethylene oxide results from the direct oxidation of ethylene. The production of ethylene is described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Because glycerol is a component of the triglycerides that make up natural fats and oils, glycerol is automatically present as a polyhydric alcohol whenever these materials are used directly as a source of fatty acids for alkyd resin production (see above). Additional polyhydric alcohols that can be used include pentaerythritol, trimethylolethane, trimethylolpropane, and propylene glycol, among others (Kirk-Othmer 1992). Polybasic acids and anhydrides used in alkyd preparation include phthalic anhydride, isopthalic acid, terephthalic acid, maleic anhydride, adipic acid, chlorendic anhydride, and trimellitic anhydride, among others. The most important of these for alkyd resin production is phthalic anhydride because of its low cost and excellent production properties. The production and environmental effects of phthalic anhydride are described in the material report on wall coverings (09950). The other compounds may be used when the resultant alkyd requires special properties, such as greater molecular weight, higher thermal stability, increased viscosity, quicker drying, harder films, improved color, and better durability (KirkOthmer 1992) The production of alkyd resin from the materials discussed above occurs by an alcoholysis process if fats or oils (henceforth referred to as oils) are used or by a fatty acid process if fatty acids are used. The choice of one over the other is usually based on cost and availability of material. The triglyceride form of the oils is inert to the alkyd reactions. Alcoholysis first reacts the natural triglycerides (e.g., soybean oil) with polyhydric alcohol (e.g., glycerol) to redistribute the fatty acids from the oil to the polyhydric alcohol. This liberates free hydroxyl groups of the oil for subsequent reaction. To accomplish this, the oil is first heated to about 230 to 250C (446 to 482F) under inert gas. A catalyst and the polyhydric alcohol are then added. After the reaction of these materials, the polybasic acid or anhydride and any additional polyhydric alcohol are added to the reaction mixture and heated to 250C to carry out the polycondensation reaction that produces the alkyd resin. If fatty acids are used instead of oils, or if the oils represent no more than one-third of the fatty acids in the mixture, the initial alcoholysis step described above is not necessary. In this case, the reactants are all mixed together under inert gas and the reaction proceeds as described. The alkyd resin may be modified with polyamides to produce a thixotropic response. The result is a resin that turns into a gel under normal conditions. When applied to a surface for example, by brushingthe thixotropic resin thins to facilitate application. When the motion stops, the resin returns to the gel state, preventing dripping and running. The thixotropic resin is prepared by adding polyamides (up to 10 percent of the weight of the alkyd resin) to the alkyd and heating to 250C (Kirk-Othmer 1992). Polyamides are similar to nylon, and their manufacture will not be discussed here.
Iron oxides. The acquisition and preparation of raw materials to produce iron oxide pig-
ments are discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220).

Mineral Spirits. See discussion above under traditional stains.
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Raw Materials for Modern Oil-Borne Stains
High production temperatures during manufacture of monobasic fatty acids and oils and during manufacture of alkyd resin may result in atmospheric VOC emissions. Additional emissions result from the combustion of fuels used to drive these processes. The environmental and health effects from these air emissions are mentioned above.
Energy Consumed
No information exists on the amount of energy consumed during the acquisition and processing of raw materials for modern oil-borne stains.
Modern Water-borne Stains
The replacement of the oil-based carrier with water requires changes in the other components of the stain. For water-borne stains, the base is commonly acrylic resin, although other polymers, such as vinyl and polyurethane, may also be used. Because of limited hydrolytic stability, water-borne alkyd resins are not used very much. The base is often suspended in a latex emulsion in the water. About 74 percent of latex stains are based on acrylic resin (McDavid 1994). Iron oxides are common colorants. Small amounts of solvents, such as propylene glycol, propylene-based glycol ether, or similar compounds, are added. Silica may be included to provide a low-gloss finish. A representative water-borne stain contains the following ingredients: water, quartz, acrylic polymer, vinyl polymer, propylene glycol, and cristobalite, in addition to pigment and emulsifiers.
Acrylic polymer. The production of acrylic polymer (acrylic resin) and the potential health
effects from exposure to acrylic monomer are discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). Acrylic polymer is produced from propylene vapor; a discussion of propylene and the impacts associated with its production are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Vinyl polymer. Vinyl polymer (polyvinyl chloride resin), the environmental impacts associ-
ated with its production, and the consumption of energy during its production are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Vinyl acetate can also be used (McDavid 1994).
Propylene glycol. Propylene glycol and the environmental impacts associated with its pro-
duction are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Propylene and the impacts associated with its production are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Propylene glycol ether. Propylene-based glycol ethers are derived from propylene oxide and various alkyl groups. For example, propylene oxide reacts with methanol to produce propylene glycol methyl ether. The production and environmental effects of propylene oxide are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Ethylene, diethylene, and dipropylene glycol ethers can also be used (McDavid 1994). Quartz and cristobalite. Quartz and cristobalite (a type of quartz) are almost pure silica. The mining and processing of silica (glass sand) and the impacts associated with its production are discussed in the material report on glass (08810).
Quartz can occur in fused or unfused crystalline form. There is sufficient evidence to consider the unfused form of crystalline silica an animal carcinogen, and limited evidence to consider it a human carcinogen (IARC 1987). Only crystalline silica of respirable particle size (less than 10 microns) is potentially carcinogenic. Most silica used with stains and varnishes is amorphous, not crystalline (McDavid 1994).
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17

Iron oxides. The acquisition and preparation of raw materials to produce iron oxide pig-
ments are discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220).

Latex emulsification. Latex emulsification provides a way to carry immiscible resins in water
as small masses of incompletely reacted polymer. As the water evaporates, the solvents accompanying the resin help the resin to coalesce. Latex emulsification is discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300).
Alternative or Natural Stains
Stains often referred to as alternative or natural utilize natural earth pigments as colorants. Water-borne natural stains may be used as a stain (or they may be used to tint natural paints). Oil-borne stain pastes formulated with linseed oil and earth pigments are usually added to natural finishes to add color. These products are designed to provide a final finish to the wood, and in this respect they function as varnishes. The materials that make up these products are discussed in more detail in the next section, on varnishes. Linseed oil is discussed above.
Iron Oxides
Colorants are generally iron oxides or other naturally occurring mineral pigments. The acquisition and preparation of raw materials to produce iron oxide pigments are discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220).
Varnishes A varnish is a solution or colloidal dispersion of synthetic and/or natural resins in oils and/or thinners. Varnishes produce a protective coating that forms through the drying (actually, a chemical reaction) of various unsaturated oils or synthetic resins. Metallic compounds, called driers, may be added to the oil to hasten this chemical reaction. The glossiness of the finish can be diminished by adding different amounts of inorganic material, usually quartz silica. Traditional, or oleoresinous, varnishes were formerly of great importance; however, alkyd and urethane varnishes have largely replaced them. Few of the traditional varnishes remain on the market today (Austin 1984; Blackburn 1994; Rubin 1994).
Modern varnishes, or clear finishes, may be oil- or water-borne and are made from synthetic resins such as alkyds, acrylics, epoxies, nitrocellulose, phenolics, and urethanes. Some types contain siliconized alkyds, polyesters and acrylics, fluoropolymers, and polyimides (Austin 1984). Alternative or natural varnishes utilize solvents that are not derived from petrochemicals. In this report, clear finishes are included in the category of modern varnishes. Sometimes varnishes are considered to be only the traditional product.
Traditional Varnishes
Traditional varnishes are made from drying oils, driers (or oxidizers), resins, solvents (usually mineral spirits), and quartz silica. Drying oils are usually linseed oil, tung oil, or soybean oil. Resins are natural or synthetic.
Drying oils. Drying oils, in combination with the resins, help form the solid, protective film
characteristic of varnishes. Drying oils are unsaturated oils that, in drying, react with oxygen from the air; the molecules then form cross-linkages with one another. The use of drying oil is discussed above under modern oil-borne stains. The most common oils used in traditional varnishes are linseed oil, tung oil, and soybean oil. Oiticica oil, obtained from the oiticica tree (Licania rigida), is sometimes used in place of tung oil, depending on availability or price.
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Linseed oil and its extraction and preparation are discussed above under traditional stains. Tung oil, also called wood oil or chinawood oil, is obtained from the seed kernels of the tung tree (Aleurites fordii). The principal sources of the oil are Argentina and Paraguay, with about 5 percent coming from China (McDavid 1994). Tung trees were grown in the southern United States until the early 1970s, but a combination of freeze and hurricane damage, along with reduced demand, has resulted in an end to U.S. production (Kirk-Othmer 1993). Tung oil is extracted from the kernels by pressing (Austin 1984). The extraction of oils from seeds and the processing of these oils are discussed above under linseed oil in the section on traditional stains. Soybean oil is obtained from soybeans, the seed of Glycine max. It is produced in the United States as well as in Brazil, Argentina, and China (Kirk-Othmer, 1993). As with other agricultural products, the production of soybeans depletes natural resources and produces waste. These impacts as resulting from of corn production are discussed in the material report on gypsum board (09250). Virtually all new soybean installations today are solvent extractors because of their increased efficiency over hydraulic presses or screw presses. Soybean seeds are prepared by weighing and cleaning, are cracked between corrugated rolls, and are then conditioned (to rupture the oil glands) in a stacked cooker or a rotary steam-tube conditioner. Seeds may be dehulled either at this stage or after solvent extraction. The seed is then rolled into thin flakes, after which they are ready for solvent extraction. Solvent, usually hexane, is circulated over the flakes, which are carried, usually in baskets, through the several extraction stages. The oil is removed by diffusion of the solvent through the cell wall until equilibrium is reached. When the equilibrium solution is replaced with a solvent of lower oil content, the diffusion process is resumed. Solvent is removed from the oil by passing it through a rising-film evaporator followed by a stream-stripping column. The soybean oil then undergoes modification by isomerization or conjugation, as is described above under linseed oil (Austin 1984).
Driers. Catalysts or driers may be added to the oil to hasten its drying. This drying is a chemical change involving oxidation, polymerization, and cross-linkage. The driers act as oxygen carriers and are predominantly heavy metal soaps that are usually soluble in oil. The most commonly used driers include naphthenates, resinates, octoates, and linoleates of heavy metals such as cobalt, calcium, and manganese (Hornbostel 1991). These driers need be used only in small amounts (1 to 2 percent by weight) and are not discussed in detail in this report (Austin 1984). Resins. Originally, natural fossil resins such as batu, congo, and singapore were mined and were widely used for varnish manufacture. These resins are still used to some degree. Another natural resin is gum rosin, which is exuded from living pine trees. Gum rosin can be esterified with pentaerythritol or maleic anhydride to produce an esterified gum with improved water resistance (Rubin 1994).
Phenolic resins were the first of the synthetic resins to be produced and are still in wide use. Of the phenolic resins, butyl- and other alkyl-phenol formaldehydes are the most common (Rubin 1994). Phenolic resin production and the impacts associated with its production are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Solvents. The solvent used in traditional varnish is normally mineral spirits (see discussion
above).
Quartz. Quartz is almost pure silica. The mining and processing of silica (glass sand) and the
impacts associated with its production are discussed in the material report on glass (08810).
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19

Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Raw Materials for Traditional Varnishes
The production of soybean oil requires fuel. The combustion of fuels for the production of energy can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. The environmental and health effects of combustion emissions are discussed above. The heating of the soybean oil and the hexane solvent during solvent extraction can potentially release VOCs into the atmosphere. The process of isomerization also requires high temperatures and may release VOCs. The environmental and health effects of VOCs are described above. During solvent extraction, solvent losses are usually minimized by venting the process noncondensables through a refrigerated vent condenser or an oilabsorption unit. After extraction of the oil from the soybeans, the dried and toasted soybean meal is ground, screened, and stored for sale as animal feed (Austin 1984). Quartz can occur in fused or unfused crystalline form. There is sufficient evidence to consider the unfused form of crystalline silica an animal carcinogen, and limited evidence to consider it a human carcinogen (IARC 1987). Some manufacturers use only noncarcinogenic forms of silica, however. As a whole, the industry uses microcrystalline, diatomaceous, and amorphous silica. Silica is 97 to 99 percent amorphous, with 1 to 3 percent being crystalline. When crystalline silica is used, cancer warning labels are used (McDavid 1994).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for solvent extraction of oil from soybeans is 0.63 MJ/kg (271 Btus/lb) (Austin 1984).
Modern Oil-borne Varnishes
Interior varnishes, or clear finishes, are today generally the OMU (oil-modified urethane, or polyurethane) type (Blackburn 1994). A vegetable oil, generally soybean oil, is modified with toluene diisocyanate (TDI) to provide quick-drying capabilities and hardness. OMU by itself does not have good ultraviolet light resistance, and other materials must be added for outdoor varnishes. As discussed above, silica is used to vary the glossiness of the finish.
Toluene diisocyanate. Isocyanates are produced by the reaction of phosgene with amines or amine salts. TDI production uses toluenediamine as the amine. To produce this, toluene is dinitrated to dinitrotoluene, which is then catalytically reduced to toluenediamine. Treatment with phosgene produces TDI (Ullmann 1990). Polyurethane. When the isocyanate group reacts with a hydroxyl group, a urethane linkage is
formed. Oil-modified urethanes (or polyurethanes) are produced by reacting TDI, or a similar diisocyanate, with polyhydric alcohol-modified drying oils. Exterior varnishes may contain amendments such as tung oil and phenolic resin to help absorb ultraviolet light, along with a long oil alkyd (an alkyd resin compounded with a high proportion of oil) that gives the coating the necessary flexibility to move with the dynamic surface of the wood. Other exterior varnishes are based on aliphatic (as opposed to aromatic) urethane technology that provides flexibility and light resistance and does not discolor. Polyurethanes cure by different methods, depending on the formulation used. Some cure by atmospheric oxidation, some react with atmospheric moisture, and some require an accelerator (or catalyst). Accelerators consist of a small amount (0.05 to 0.5 percent) of tertiary amines or metal-containing compounds. Because of the small amount used, accelerators are not be discussed in this report (Ullmann 1991; Blackburn 1994).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Raw Materials for Modern Oil-Borne Varnishes
The production of isocyanates releases hydrogen chloride as a by-product. It is collected and sold, absorbed in water and neutralized with sodium hydroxide, or oxidized electrolytically to chlorine, which is reused in the process. Excess phosgene is reused in the process. Health and environmental effects of hydrogen chloride are discussed in the material report on brick and mortar (04210). Urethane oils do not contain free isocyanate groups and can be handled safely. Isocyanates are toxic substances that should be handled with care while being manufactured. TDI is a potent irritant to the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes. Bronchial asthmatic hypersensitivity and allergic reaction can result (Ullmann 1990, 1991). Isocyanate vapors extracted from the workplace by exhaust ventilation systems react with atmospheric water to produce polyurea and carbon dioxide. Other materials that produce vapors are the source of VOC emissions. Incompletely reacted polyurethane production waste should not be discharged but should be burned in an industrial waste incinerator. Waste polyurethane can sometimes be recycled as flake-composite materials, can be landfilled, or can be incinerated. The Polyurethane Recycle and Recovery Council has been established to develop technologies to increase recycling (Ullmann 1992). Exposure to phosgene can cause irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract, difficult breathing, cyanosis, and vomiting (NIOSH 1980).
Modern Water-borne Varnishes
There are significant differences between water-borne and oil-borne polyurethanes. These differences must be understood in order to achieve a durable, quality finish with waterbornes. There are also variations in finish achieved by different manufacturers (MacArthur 1993; Wasco 1993; Leger 1993; Roberts 1994; Purser 1994). Water-borne varnishes, or clear finishes, are based on polyurethane or acrylic emulsions or combinations of the two. They generally have low levels of solvents, usually based on propylene-based glycol ethers. These solvents are required for film formation. Wax modification provides better mar resistance (Blackburn 1994). Water-borne finishes based on polyurethanes or polyurethane/acrylics have received special attention in the last few years because of advantages in application and cleanup, improvements in durability, and lower VOCs content. Unlike traditional varnishes and oil-borne finishes, which are solutions, water-borne finishes are emulsions. In a true solution, the solvent dissolves the resin and acts as a vehicle to carry the resin across the surface being coated. When the solvent evaporates, a thin layer of resin is left on the surface as a coating. In a water-borne urethane emulsion, water acts as the vehiclebut not the solventfor the urethane resin. The resin is not dissolved in the water; but because it has embedded hydrophilic groups, it is carried by the water. Evenly dispersed particles of resin and their solvent are suspended in the water. As the water evaporates, the particles, aided by the solvent, coalesce, and a film is formed on the surface being coated (Purser 1994; Ullmann 1991). Silica is used to modify the surface glossiness, as discussed above.
Polyurethane. The basic process for producing urethane resin (polyurethane) is described above. Solvents, such as propylene glycol ethers, are used to help coalesce the polyurethane film upon evaporation of the water. Water-borne polyurethanes are available in one-pack and two-pack systems. One-pack polyurethane varnish is packaged in one container. Twopack varnish keeps the polyisocyanate component separate from the polyhydric alcohol component. One-pack aqueous dispersions are produced from urethane polymers formu-
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lated to include hydrophilic groups such as polyether radicals. Two-pack aqueous dispersions are produced from polyhydric alcohols, such as hydroxyl-containing polyacrylates, and water-emulsifiable aliphatic polyisocyanates, such as hexamethylene diisocyanate (Ullmann 1991).
Acrylic polymer. The production of acrylic polymer (acrylic resin) and the potential health
effects from exposure to acrylic monomer are discussed in the material report on ceramic tile (09300). Acrylic polymer is produced from propylene vapor; propylene and the impacts associated with its production are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Wax. Waxes are esters of various fatty acids with higher alcohols, usually monohydric, and
typically have a plastic consistency. Waxes produced by animals (e.g., beeswax) and by plants (e.g., carnauba wax) are true waxes, being esters. Mineral waxes obtained from petroleum and coal are not true waxes inasmuch as they are not esters, but they do have similar physical characteristics. The processing of waxes is not discussed in this report.
Propylene glycol ethers. Unlike mineral spirits, which are used in oil-borne polyurethane
and have aromatic components, propylene glycol is aliphatic. As a generalization, many aromatics are carcinogenic or otherwise toxic, but aliphatic compounds are usually less toxic. Water-borne polyurethanes are much safer to work with, in terms of both immediate comfort and long-term health (MacArthur 1993). The production and environmental effects of propylene glycol ethers are described above under modern water-borne stains.
Alternative or Natural Varnishes
Alternative or natural varnishes utilize solvents derived from citrus oil or solvents made from petroleum distillates that have had the toxic aromatic hydrocarbon removed. They contain natural oils, such as linseed oil and tung oil, and natural resins, such as gum rosin (Biofa Naturprodukte, no date; Livos Plant Chemistry, no date; Bio Shield 1994). These products are thus similar in composition to synthetic varnishes but have a solvent that is less noxious and oils and resins that are less refined.
d-Limonene. The natural terpene solvent d-Limonene is derived from citrus fruit, such as
oranges, lemons, and grapefruit. The oil is extracted from the peels by pressing, and the oil is then distilled (Reisch 1993; Biofa Naturprodukte, no date).
Aliphatic hydrocarbons. Aliphatic hydrocarbons solvent is used in natural varnishes, and
is apparently distinct from mineral spirits. It is derived from petroleum distillates that have been refined to remove the toxic aromatic component of the mixture. Chemically sensitive persons objected to the citrus oil solvent, and this solvent is used in response. Most natural products now utilize a mixture of limonene and aliphatic hydrocarbons as solvents. Petroleum extraction and refining and related waste products are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Linseed oil, tung oil, gum rosin. Linseed oil is discussed above under traditional stains.
Tung oil and gum rosin are discussed above under traditional varnishes in the section on drying oils and resins, respectively.
Wastes Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Raw Materials for Natural Varnishes
The extraction of citrus oil, or d-limonene, from citrus peels requires fuel. The combustion of fuels can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO. The environmental and health effects of combustion emissions are discussed above.
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Manufacturing Stage
The distillation of citrus oil can potentially release VOCs into the atmosphere. The production of aliphatic hydrocarbons from the refining of petroleum distillates also may release VOCs. The environmental and health effects of VOCs are described above. The National Paint and Coatings Association has noted that the National Toxicology Program found evidence of carcinogenicity in rats fed d-limonene (McDavid 1994). No other details were provided.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the energy consumed during acquisition and processing of raw materials for natural varnishes.
Manufacturing Stage
A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacturing of stains and varnishes is presented in figure 4. A definitive description of stain and varnish manufacture cannot be given. Manufacturers range from very small operations producing only a few hundred tons of product annually to large companies producing several hundred thousand tons. Manufacturing processes will vary according to the size of the individual operation as well as the size of the batch produced. Individual orders can range from a few pounds of product to several tons. Manufacturing plants must therefore have a corresponding mix of equipmentdifferent sizes of mixers, tanks, production equipment, and so forthto accommodate these widely varying batch sizes. The main physical process in the production of stains and varnishes involves the homogeneous, irreversible mixing of the liquid components. In the production of stains, complete wetting and a uniform, stabilized distribution of pigment particles in the liquid medium are also important. The exact manufacturing process and the materials flow depend on the manner in which the raw materials are supplied to the plant. The major manufacturers produce the resins themselves, whereas smaller factories generally purchase the resins from outside. In large factories, raw materials are usually delivered in tank trucks, and these bulk resins and solvents are stored on-site in large tanks. These raw materials can be pumped and conveyed wherever needed via pipes. Other liquid, pasty, solid, or powder raw materials are supplied, palletized, and depalletized in containers, barrels, drums, or sacks. Open-air storage facilities and warehouses for free-standing stacking are provided for this purpose. The manufacture of traditional varnishes requires the heating of oil and resin together in a kettle at 400 to 600F (204 to 316C) for 1 to 6 hours for bodying. The initial mixture has a thin consistency, but bodying thickens it. Acidity also decreases in this process. The resulting material would become solid at room temperature, so a thinner (usually mineral spirits) is added. The resulting varnish has 40 to 60 percent solids (Rubin 1994). In the manufacture of varnishes, the liquid raw materials are mixed in a specific sequence in slow- to high-speed stirrers or mixers to give a homogeneous, streak-free mixture. Solids are usually dissolved in liquids using high-speed stirring equipment. If the formulation contains dissolving and nondissolving solvents (diluents), then the nondissolving solvents are often added first, followed by the solid raw materials (powders, granules, fibers) and then finally by the true solvent. This ensures that the surfaces of the solid particles are wetted more effectively, resulting in uniform penetration of the solvents.
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Manufacturing Stage
Figure 4: Stains and VarnishesManufacturing Stage

Activity Manufacture of stains and varnishes Stressor Fuel combustion (varnish cooking) Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, pulmonary systems) Nitrogen oxides Particulates Ground-level ozone (smog) acid precipitation Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility VOC emissions Wastewater from equipment cleaning could contain petrochemicals, solvents, natural oils, resins, monomers, and oxygendepleting parameters Empty bags and packaging Decreased landfill capacity (see impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Possible loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Global warming
The stirrers are mainly of the flat-blade, disk, propeller, or turbine type. If an emulsion or an emulsion-like product is being produced, rotor-stator systems (consisting of a rotor and a stationary component inside a housing) are employed as continuous mixers (Ullmann 1991). After the mixing and blending of the ingredients, chemical reactions are initiated by heating. The mix is cooked in either open or enclosed gas-fired kettles for periods of 4 to 16 hours at temperatures of 93 to 340C (200 to 650F) (EPA 1993b). After formulation, the product is sampled, tested, and adjusted for viscosity and other important properties. The end product is then sieved, filtered, and dispensed from the endproduct mixers into large containers (drums and barrels) or small cans (Ullmann 1991)
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Stains and Varnishes
Wastes generated in the manufacture of stains and varnishes include air emissions, wastewater from equipment cleaning, empty bags and packaging, off-specification products, and obsolete stock. Fuel combustion for the production of energy during the manufacturing process may produce air emissions. The environmental and health effects of these emissions are discussed above.
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Construction, Use , and Maintenance Stage
Emissions from varnish cooking are largely in the form of VOCs. Amounts depend on the cooking temperature and duration, the solvent used, the degree of tank enclosure, and the type of air pollution controls used. Emissions from varnish cooking range from 1 to 6 percent of the raw material. Uncontrolled VOC (nonmethane) emissions from varnish manufacture are 20 kg/Mg of product (40 lbs/ton) for oil type (bodying oil) varnish; for oleoresinous varnishes, 75 kg/Mg (150 lbs/ton); for alkyd varnishes, 80 kg/Mg (160 lbs/ton); and for acrylic, 10 kg/Mg (20 lbs/ton) (EPA 1993b). Industry believes that these figures overestimate current emissions (McDavid 1994). VOC emissions may be reduced through such control measures as condensers and/or adsorbers on solvent-handling operations, as well as scrubbers and afterburners on cooking operations. Afterburners can reduce VOCs by 99 percent (EPA 1993b). Provisions of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act prohibit the discharge of process wastewater by manufacturers of oil-based paints when solvents are used to clean equipment (EPA 1993a). The industry has implemented a number of activities to promote safety and health in the production, handling, storing, shipping, and use of stains and varnishes. These include such programs as the Hazardous Materials Identification System, the Paint Industry Labeling Guide Guidelines for completing the MSDS, many guidance manuals, and an active occupational health and safety committee (McDavid 1994)
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy of stains and varnishes is discussed in the next section (Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the application of stains and varnishes during the Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage is presented in figure 5. Oil- and water-borne stains have similar staining results but different application methods. (One industry representative, however, indicates that oil-borne and water-borne stains do not yield similar staining results because of differences in penetration, lapping, and grainraising (McDavid 1994).) Oil-borne stains can be wiped on and off with a rag. Since the water-borne type raises the grain as it is applied, a rag would be grabbed by that raised grain. As a result, water-borne stain should be applied by a roller, but it can still be wiped off with a rag (Roberts 1994). Stain may also be applied with a brush, pad, or spraying. Some stains, particularly waterborne latex types, are more prone to developing lap marks than others, and directions for applying each stain should be followed. A heavier application of stain may be desired in some situations, such as on exterior siding, where a buildup of pigment is needed to protect the wood against the environment. Because of differences in formulation and effect, interior and exterior stains need different application techniques. Varnishes can be applied with a brush, pad, lambs wool applicator, or fabric-covered squeegee. After the wood is sanded and stained (if appropriate), a sealer may be applied, especially for floors. Sealers are variations of the varnish formulation and are not discussed separately. They seal the grain and fill cracks to prevent the varnish from being absorbed into the wood. Water-borne sealers may raise the grain themselves but prevent subsequent applications from doing so. The sealer coat is then sanded or screened to produce a smooth
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Figure 5: Stains and VarnishesConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Application of stains and varnishes Stressor VOC emissions Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sanding of stains and varnishes Release of slow-drying oils or monomers Release of crystalline silica Lung damage Possible human carcinogen Various health effects Release of particulates Irritation Impact/Stressor
surface. After one or two coats of sealer, one or more coats of varnish are applied (Schott 1994; Purser 1994). The durability of polyurethane varnish has made it the major floor finish, constituting 80 percent of the floor-finish market. One-pack oil-borne and water-borne polyurethane are of similar durability when applied to floors (although some believe this is not the case, and continue researching on the issue [McDavid 1994]), and two-pack polyurethane has been found to be even more durable. The use of water-borne polyurethane is increasing, accounting for 50 percent of the polyurethane used on the West Coast and 30 percent in the Midwest and on the East Coast. Not only can flooring be finished with polyurethane after installation, but it can also be pre-finished with polyurethane before delivery to the construction site (Roberts 1994). When water-borne polyurethane varnish was introduced about 1987, a variety of problems were associated with it. As a result of work by the manufacturers and of training for those who use the product, those problems have been surmounted. In addition to having the durability of oil-based finishes, water-based polyurethane generates fewer VOC emissions and can be applied in significantly less time. Cleanup is simpler, requiring only soap and water instead of solvents (Purser 1994).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Application, Use, and Maintenance of Stains and Varnishes
Oil-borne stains and varnishes require solvents to clean up application implements and spills. Water-borne materials, however, can be cleaned up with soap and water. Various solvents, present in almost all formulations, are emitted during drying. Anyone applying stains and varnishes should be aware of the potential exposure to solvents. Overexposure should be prevented by ensuring adequate ventilation and, if necessary, by using a respirator with an organic charcoal filter. Sanding of stains and varnishes prior to application of additional layers of finish may release particulates into the atmosphere. High-molecular-weight polymeric resins are likely to have little or no health effects other than physical irritation. Slow-drying oils or unreacted monomers, if present, may have health effects, depending upon the material. Silica is used in some stains and varnishes to produce a matte finish. There is sufficient evidence to consider crystalline silica an animal carcinogen, and limited evidence to consider it a human carcinogen (IARC 1987). Label information indicates that abrading or sanding of the dry film of these stains and varnishes may release crystalline silica, which has been shown to cause lung damage and cancer under long-term exposure. How much
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crystalline silica (that is not encased in a protective resinous matrix) would be released through such sanding is not known. Empty stain and varnish containers must be disposed of. Almost all stain and varnish containers are steel and can be recycled. Partially filled containers are usually discarded; however, use on-site for further touch-ups or donation of leftover material in usable quantities is preferable to disposal.
Indoor Air Quality
In 1984 California adopted comprehensive legislation to establish VOC content limits for consumer coatings, including stains and varnishes. Since few products on the market at that time were able to meet these new standards, an extensive reformulation effort was initiated by coating manufacturers to develop compliant products. Californias legislation to limit VOCs was soon followed by similar efforts in other states. Since that time, federal regulations (under the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990) are being negotiated to consolidate the various state regulations so that one set of regulations can be used throughout the United States (EPA 1992). However, this will not prevent the states from developing their own rules (McDavid 1994). These regulations will limit allowable VOC emission levels for architectural and industrial maintenance coatings, including stains and varnishes. As a result of preliminary agreements by 1996, VOC emissions from architectural and industrial maintenance coatings should be reduced by 20 percent, from 1990 levels of 990 million pounds. Further VOC reductions that will follow in 2000 (35 percent from 1990 levels) and in 2004 (45 percent from 1990 levels) should further decreases atmospheric smog (Reisch 1993; McDavid 1994). These percentage reductions have not been established in a final form and are still under negotiation (McDavid 1994). In the years since the Clean Air Act regulations have been promulgated, water-borne products have taken an increasingly larger share of the market (except for interior stains [McDavid 1994]). Ethylene- and propylene-based glycol ether solvents are used as coalescing aids in water-borne systems. Although these solvents are VOC contributors, their use in water-borne systems results in formulations with lower VOC content than conventional solvent-based systems. Ethylene-based glycol ethers, however, are listed as hazardous air pollutants under the Clean Air Act (Reisch 1993). The propylene-based glycol ethers are not so listed and are increasingly being used as an alternative in response to requests from manufacturers and their customers; this movement away from ethylene glycol ethers is taking place especially in Europe (Reisch 1993; Swartz 1993). Citrus oil solvent, used in alternative or natural stains and varnishes, is relatively harmless, although it has caused allergies and irritation in environmentally sensitive individuals (Cole and Rousseau 1990; Livos, no date). Citrus oil solvent, or d-limonene, is also a VOC. It contains 6.8 pounds of VOCs per gallon ([sic] 850 g/liter); proposed clean air regulations would limit VOCs to 2.9 pounds per gallon (350 g/liter). However, VOCs from d-limonene are apparently short-lived, persisting only 12 hours in the atmosphere. Because d-limonene is unlikely to contribute significantly to atmospheric smog, some jurisdictions are considering exempting it from regulation (Reisch 1993; McDavid 1994). Emissions from stains and varnishes occur predominantly during the application and drying phases. Emissions research has shown that only trace amounts of VOCs are present in indoor air three to seven days after application. However, initial emission rates immediately after application can be significant, as shown by an EPA review of the literature on VOC emissions associated with various types of coatings, including stains and varnishes (EPA 1992).
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In that EPA review, all constituents of solvent-borne stains and varnishes (but no waterborne products) that are potential sources of indoor air pollution were identified. Emissions research, which was conducted under test house conditions or in standard chambers, was surveyed and the results were compiled according to the type of coating. Emission testing on solvent-borne finishes, varnishes, polyurethanes, and stains detected a variety of VOCs, many defined by the Clean Air Act as hazardous air pollutants. Among the hazardous pollutants associated with these tested varnishes and stains are methyl ethyl ketone, acetaldehyde, benzene, dichloromethane, methanol, methylbenzene (toluene), and styrene. Hazardous pollutants associated with polyurethane coatings and clear finishes (exterior and interior) are methyl ethyl ketone, acetaldehyde, cyclohexanone, methylbenzene, and xylene (EPA 1992). In conclusion, the harmful effects of indoor air pollution can be reduced by carefully selecting stain and varnish products and by exercising certain protective measures. In those situations where building occupants are especially sensitive to indoor air pollution, lower emission stains and varnishes should be considered. Those products containing lesser amounts of VOCs would generally pose less of a problem than similar products containing higher amounts of VOCs. Water-borne materials would be less of a problem than oil-borne materials. Several companies indicate that they specialize in healthful finishing products. These products are based either on natural products or on low-toxicity synthetic formulations without petrochemicals. The natural products are discussed above. The components of the low-toxicity synthetic products have not been disclosed, but these products dry quickly and have low odor (Good and Dadd 1988). Some individuals are especially sensitive to the natural solvent d-limonene or citrus oil. Products using citrus oil dry quickly; thus any problem that may arise with such products lasts only for a relatively brief period of time. However, individuals who are especially sensitive to this material need to be aware of its presence in some natural products (Good and Dadd 1988). For most people, VOCs released by stains and varnishes are noticeable for a day or less, depending on the product being applied (Bower 1991). Emissions generated by some finishes may still be irritating to some individuals after two to three months. Regardless of the type of stain or varnish being used, the product should be applied in a well-ventilated area, perhaps a room with a fan mounted to direct exhaust through a window. People should remain out of the area as much as possible until volatile materials are no longer being emitted and there is no odor (Hunter 1989). Individuals may experience a toxic reaction to one finish but not to another. If persons are sensitive to an oil-borne varnish, for instance, they may be able to tolerate a water-based urethane (OBrien and Palermini 1993).
Energy Consumed
Traditional stains and varnishes have been found to contain an embodied energy of 425,868 Btus/gal (118,702 MJ/m3). Transportation and associated activity adds 77,800 Btus/gal (21,685 MJ/m 3), amounting to a total embodied energy at the job site of 503,668 Btus/gal (140,388 MJ/m3) (Hannon et al. 1976). No information was found on the embodied energy of water-borne or natural stains and varnishes.
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A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of stains and varnishes is presented in figure 6.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal of Stains and Varnishes
For purposes of recycling, reuse, or disposal, stains and varnishes that have been applied to structures are not removed or otherwise handled separately from the substrate to which they have been applied. Stained or varnished wood can be recycled like untreated wood (Metro Recycling 1993). Disposal of wood framing is discussed in the material
Figure 6: Stains and VarnishesRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage
Activity Disposal of excess stain and varnish Demolition Disposal of stained or varnished wood wastes Incineration Particulates and dust Recycle/reuse of stained or varnished wood Eye and throat irritation Waste and emissions from recycling Toxic air emissions from combustion Various environmental and human health effects Stressor Landfill Impact/Stressor Decreased waste disposal capacity Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
report on wood framing (06110). Excess stain and varnish can be passed on to other individuals or organizations that can make use of them. This can be accomplished either by direct donation, for instance, to charitable organizations, or by use of exchanges of construction material. One such exchange is the Pacific Materials Exchange in Spokane, Washington. This organization coordinates the exchange of a wide variety of building materials among subscribers around the country. It publishes a directory of available and wanted materials, with listings for nine other regional exchanges. The computerized National Materials Exchange Network functions in a similar way (Pacific Materials Exchange Industrial Resources Directory 1993). Excess stain and varnish recycled in this way will not deplete waste-disposal capacity, nor will it cause additional environmental degradation. In addition, material that has already had a significant energy and resource investment is not wasted. The National Paint and Coatings Association supports using up paint products, including stains and varnishes, at the location where they are being used. The association also recommends a waste management hierarchy of source reduction (in which minimal stain or varnish is left over), followed by reuse, recycling, and treatment, and disposal only as a last resort. Excess latex products that must be disposed of can be poured on an absorbent material such as shredded newspaper, allowed to dry, and then discarded with normal trash. Solvent-borne materials should be disposed of at household-hazardouswaste collection programs or at hazardous waste landfills, as appropriate. The industry has prepared information on reuse/disposal of paints and continues to work on such material (McDavid 1994).
Energy Consumed
No information exists on the amount of energy consumed in the recycle, reuse, and disposal of stains and varnishes.
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Regulatory Status
Regulatory Status
The major impact of regulations on stain and varnish manufacturers is the Clean Air Acts restrictions on VOC emissions. Over time, solvent-borne materials will continue to diminish, and some may be totally discontinued. The market has moved decidedly from traditional products with high VOC emissions to oil-borne and water-borne formulations with reduced VOCs. Some types of stains and varnishes have progressed in this way more than others. In some instances, development of the new products has required an educational program so that the new application techniques are properly used (Roberts 1994; Rubin 1994; Blackburn 1994; Schott 1994). In addition to achieving reduced VOCs, regulatory pressures, together with market pressures, have resulted in products that are more environmentally compatible and user friendly (McDavid 1994). Manufacturers of stains and varnishes, like other paint and coatings manufacturers, are regulated under all applicable federal and state laws and regulations. Whereas implementation of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 is the top priority for many coatings manufacturers, they must also implement other regulations, such as OSHAs Process Safety Management Rule and Hazard Communication Standard and EPAs Stormwater Permit Regulations, Toxic Release Inventory, and others.
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References
References
Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Biofa Naturprodukte. No date. BAU Natural House Products Catalog. Concord, NH. Bio Shield. 1994. Information from catalog, The Natural Choice. Eco Design Co., Santa Fe, NM. Blackburn, Roy. 1994. Vice president for operations, The Flecto Company, Inc., Oakland, CA. Personal communication. Bower, John. 1991. The Healthy HouseHow to Buy One, How to Build One, How to Cure a Sick One. NY: Carol Publishing Group. Cole, Ray, and David Rousseau. 1990. European Paints: A Brief Review of Imported Natural and Low Emission Paint Products. Unpublished article for the ERG Materials Task Force. Good, Clint, and Debra Dadd. 1988. Healthful HousesHow to Design and Build Your Own. Bethesda, MD: Guaranty Press. Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration Contract No. EY-76-S-02-2791. Energy Research Group, Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Hunter, Linda. 1989. The Healthy Home. Emaus, PA: Rodale Press. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1987. IARC Monograph on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Vol. 42. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1992. 4th ed. Vol. 2. NY: John Wiley & Sons. . 1993. 4th ed. Vol. 8. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Leger, Gene. 1993. A Building Experts Comments. Environmental Building News 2(5). Livos Plant Chemistry. No date. Technical Information Sheets and catalog. Apohaqui, New Brunswick, Canada. MacArthur, Dan. 1993. Water-based Polyurethanes. Environmental Building News 2(3).
McDavid, Soonya. 1994. Assistant director, Environmental Affairs, National Paint and Coatings Association, Washington, DC. Personal communication. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. 1989. 4th ed. Sybil P. Parker, editor in chief. NY: McGraw-Hill. Metro Recycling. 1993. Construction Site RecyclingA Guide for Architects, Builders, and Developers. Portland, OR. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1980. NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Washington, DC. OBrien, Michael, and Debbi Palermini. 1993. Guide to Resource-Efficient Building. The Sustainable Building Collaborative, Portland, OR. Pacific Materials Exchange Industrial Resources Directory. 1993. Spokane, WA. Purser, Michael. 1994. Using Waterborne Floor Finishes. Fine Homebuilding. 85:61-63. January. Reisch, Marc S. 1993. Paints and Coatings. Chemical & Engineering News 71(42):35-37, 40, 42, 44, 49, 51, 53-60, 61. October 18. Roberts, Kirk. 1994. Western regional sales manager, BonaKemi, USA, Aurora, CO. Personal communication. Rubin, Sid. 1994. Vice president, Empire State Varnish, Brooklyn, NY. Personal communication. Sainsbury, James. 1994. Representative of The Glidden Company. Personal communication, submitted through the National Paint and Coatings Association. Schott, Cathy. 1994. National Accounts Manager, Basic Coatings, Des Moines, IA. Personal communication. Swartz, Andrew J. 1993. A Formulators Guide to Water-borne Wood Finishing. American Paint and Coatings Journal. October 25. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1990. 5th ed. Vol. A 14. Edited by B. Elvers, S. Hawkins, M. Ravenscroft, and G. Schulz. NY: VCH Publishers. . 1991. 5th ed.. Vol. A 18. Edited by B. Elvers, S. Hawkins, and G. Schulz. NY: VCH Publishers. . 1992. 5th ed. Vol. A 21. Edited by B. Elvers, S. Hawkins, and G. Schulz. NY: VCH Publishers.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1992. Indoor Air Pollution Source Catalog. EPA Contract No. 68-D1-0031, W.A. No. 07. Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC. . 1993a. Federal Water Pollution Control Act. 40 CFR 446. July 1. . 1993b. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42) Database. Wasco, Alan. 1993. A Good Water-Based Polyurethane. Environmental Building News 2(4).
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Material Report
Wall Coverings*
Highlights
Manufacture of paper for wall coverings results in air emissions and substantial water effluent discharges that contain oxygen-depleting organics and toxic chlorinated compounds, such as dioxins. Timber harvesting can cause habitat alteration and destruction, soil erosion and pollutant runoff, and loss of productivity and diversity in streams. Manufacture of pigments and inks used on wall coverings results in air emissions and generation of sludges that may contain toxics. Production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) for vinyl wall coverings releases vinyl chloride monomer, a known carcinogen, and other air and water pollutants. Environmental impacts also result from the mining of clay, limestone, and other minerals used in the manufacture of vinyl wall coverings; from the extraction and processing of oil and natural gas for wall coverings and adhesives; and from pesticide and nutrient runoff from cotton and corn farming to produce backing and adhesive for vinyl wall covering.
Significant amounts of water are consumed in the manufacture of paper. Oil and natural gas, used in the manufacturing of wall coverings and adhesives, are finite resources. Manufacture of PVC requires a large amount of energy, about 34,000 Btus/lb. Papermaking is energy intensive, requiring approximately 15,650 Btus/lb. Production of antimony trioxide requires 186 million Btus per net ton (93,000 Btus/lb). Manufacture of cotton fabric requires 61,584 Btus/lb; of polyester, 23,100 Btus/lb.
Energy Consumption
Indoor Air Quality
Several tests have indicated that wallpaper and vinyl wall covering can be a source of pollutant emissions, including formaldehyde and other VOCs (volatile organic compounds); however, tests conducted over time also indicate that emissions decrease to trace levels quickly during the first one to two weeks after installation.
* The technical content of this report is the same as that published in the ERG in 1994. However, in this volume the report contains some editorial changes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 WALL COVERINGS MAT 09950
Wall Coverings
Background
Background
This report addresses paper and flexible vinyl wall coverings included under AIA Masterspec Section 09950; it does not discuss wood veneer, textiles, rigid panels, and cork. Also discussed are the adhesives used to affix wall coverings to the wall.
Wall Coverings There are many different types of products within the broad category of wall coverings. These products are based upon different constituent materials and are manufactured using different processes. As a result, the environmental considerations vary from product to product. This report presents the environmental considerations associated with vinyl wall coverings and wallpaper.
Most paper and vinyl wall coverings have two layers: a decorative layer that contains the design and texture is printed on a thin plastic coating (ground) and may also have a protective finish of clear laminate or polymer coating a substrate or backing made of paper or of woven or nonwoven fabrics The basic categories of wall coverings addressed in this report are as follows: Coated paper (referred to as wallpaper or paper), which has a paper substrate coated with a thin color layer. The decorative layer is printed on this coating, or ground, and the decorative layer and ground together represent only 10 percent of the total thickness of the wall covering. Paper- or fabric-backed vinyl (referred to as vinyl wall covering or solid vinyl), which consists of a solid vinyl ground made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin (2 to 5 mils thick for paper-backed vinyl or 2 to 10 mils thick for fabric-backed) that is laminated or coated over the backing. Fabric backing may be either woven or nonwoven. The decorative layer is printed on the vinyl. The total wall-covering thickness is about 10 to 16 mils. Industry sources estimate that less than 10 percent of wall coverings currently manufactured are backed with cloth; the predominant lightweight paper-backed and ground-wood paper-backed wall coverings hold approximately equal market shares. Wall coverings are classified as strippable or peelable. For strippable wall coverings, the substrate is saturated with a polymer to give it enough strength so that the entire wall covering can be stripped off intact with the decorative layer. For peelable wall coverings, the substrate remains on the wall when the decorative layer is peeled (ONeill 1993). Fabric-backed vinyl wall coverings are normally strippable. A new wallpaper product is made from recycled paper and wood chips. It is textured and hides cracked or damaged surfaces. It must be painted with a latex paint. It contains 66 percent postconsumer recycled paper from mixed documents, printed cardboard, printed white paper, and printed computer printout paper; 32 percent preconsumer recycled wood chips from sawmill scrap, old pallets, and discarded wood; 2 percent chemicals (unspecified, but no formaldehyde is used); and cellulose. Other specialty wall coverings, which are not addressed in this report because of the wide variety of types, include
MAT 09950
WALL COVERINGS
Wall Coverings
naturals, which are fibers such as reeds and bamboo (grasscloth), cork, and burlap; they generally have a paper backing; foils, which have a thin sheet of metallic material and a paper or fabric substrate; Mylar, which has a ground made of vacuum-metallized polyester film and a woven or nonwoven fabric substrate; although Mylar is DuPonts registered brand name for this type of wall covering, the term is sometimes used to describe similar types of wall coverings; flocks, which have a decorative surface resembling cut velvet; they are produced by laminating shredded fibers to a ground that includes paper, vinyl, Mylar, or foil; expanded vinyls, which are vinyl plastisols that have been printed and expanded under high temperatures to provide a relief or design similar to embossing; and textiles, which include fabrics such as silk, cotton, and velour; some of these wall coverings are vinyl coated.
Adhesives Adhesives used to affix wall coverings to the wall come in a variety of formulations and names. They are referred to as powder vinyl, powder cellulose, powder wheat, ready-mix lightweight vinyl, ready-mix heavyweight vinyl, ready-mix cellulose, and ready-mix vinyl-tovinyl, which is used to apply new vinyl wall covering over an old vinyl wall-covering surface and to apply vinyl borders.
Adhesives for wall coverings may be preapplied, ready-mix, or mixable. Approximately 90 percent of the wall-covering adhesives used in the United States are composed principally of starchprimarily cornstarch, but with some modified potato starch or wheat starch in some productsdextrin, and water, with small amounts of a number of additional materials, such as sodium nitrate, propylene glycol, clay (hydrous aluminum silicate), and small amounts of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsion. Although the formulae of wall-covering adhesives are largely proprietary and therefore the identity and quantities of a number of their constituents are unavailable (Smith 1993), various industry sources indicate that starch/dextrin adhesives are used for the majority of wall-covering applications (i.e., most vinyl adhesives are in reality a starch/dextrin composition). Vinyl-to-vinyl adhesives also use starch/dextrin components but include polymeric materials, such as polyvinyl acetate, as major constituents. Vinyl-to-vinyl adhesives have limited applications, chiefly in areas such as bathrooms, where moisture can limit the adherence of starch adhesives and when a vinyl material is being placed over another vinyl material. Approximately 92 million pounds of wall-covering adhesives were used in the United States in 1992 (Lohman 1993). Of that total, the great majority was starch/dextrin adhesive, and less than 10 percent was synthetic polymer vinyl-to-vinyl adhesives (Smith 1993).
The life cycles of wallpaper, vinyl wall-coverings, and adhesives are presented in figures 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The major environmental considerations concerning wallpaper, vinyl wall coverings, and wall-covering adhesives are presented below.
Wallpaper The most significant impacts associated with the manufacture of wallpaper result from papermaking and the production of pigments and inks. The manufacture of paper requires significant energy and water. Timber harvesting can cause habitat alteration and destruction, soil erosion and pollutant runoff, and loss of productivity and diversity in streams. Papermaking results in relatively small amounts of air emissions and substantial water efflu(continues on page 9)
WALL COVERINGS
MAT 09950
4
MAT 09950 WALL COVERINGS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Figure 1: Life-Cycle Summary of Wallpaper
Wall Coverings
KEY
Life-Cycle Summary Wallpaper
Air emissions (carbon disulfideate, methane, VOCs, CO, SOX, NOX, particulates, hydrogen sulfide)
Vehicle (water) Additives Glycol ether Glycerol Modified resin Starch
Water-based ink
Sludge
Titanium dioxide, carbon black, various organics and inorganics
Colorant Vehicle (resin polymers)
Air emissions (fatty acids, glycerin, acrolein, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, terpene oils, terpenes, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Produced water, oil, grease, heavy metals, TDS, organics)
Solids, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans
Sludge Cyanides Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
Acrylic resin
Mechanical pulp paper Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendering Finishing Alcohol
Sludge, wood chips Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
Solvent Methyl ethyl ketone Tetrahydrofuran Toluene Xylene Alcohol Additives
Solvent-based ink
Sludge
(VOCs)
Coating
Wastewater (sludge) (VOCs)
NaOH, Na2SO4, Cl, ClO2

Colorant
Wastewater (sludge)
Embossing and printing

Sludge

Sludge, wood chips Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
Packaging
Distribution
SO2, [Mg(HSO 3)2] NaOH, ClO2 milk of lime

Adhesive Sulfite paper (alpha-cellulose) Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendering Finishing
Sludge, wood chips
Installation
Water and surfactants
Stripping
Wastewater
Mildewcide
Disposal (incineration or landfill)
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Wall Covering

Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, lead)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 WALL COVERINGS MAT 09950
to laminating or coating Filler
Clay mining Scraping Loading Washing Degritting
Habitat change
Overburden, unused material
Habitat change
Overburden, unused material Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Antimony mining Drilling Blasting Loading Separating
Antimony ore roasting
Antimony trioxide
Mildewcide
Xylene or Naphthelene
Phthalic anhydride
Heavy organics
Phthalates
Plasticizer
KEY
Produced Drilling muds water, oil, and cuttings grease, heavy Drainage metals, TDS, wastes organics)
Cyanides Solids, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, Sludge chlorides, mercaptans
Recycling Air emissions (benzene, VOCs)
Ethylene
Chlorinated organics Chromium, copper
Ethylene dichloride
Vinyl chloride
Hydro-carbons, zinc, cadmium Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (VC monomer, TSS, SOX, NOX, VOCs, CO, lead methane, HCl, PVC, particulates)
PVC
VC monomer, methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, zinc Air emissions (Chlorine)
PVC resin
Life-Cycle Summary Vinyl Wall Covering
Wall Coverings
Salt mining
Chlorine
Stabilizer (organic or inorganic metal salts)
6
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Wall Covering (continued)
Wall Coverings
to laminating or coating Cotton ginning

Trash, seeds
Fertilizer/pesticide
Cotton growing
Runoff (pesticides, defoliants, fertilizer)
Cotton
Ethylene
CO2
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates, benzene, vinyl acetate)
Acetic acid
palladium
Vinyl Acetate
catalyst benzene solvent
Polyvinyl acetate
Starch manufacturing Separating Cleaning Washing Soaking Degerminating Drying Screening Starch sizing Woven fabric
Runoff (pesticide, fertilizer)
Soil erosion
Ammonia manufacture
Air emissions (H2S, SOX)
Urea manufacture Carbon dioxide manufacture

silver or ferric molybdate catalyst
Urea-formaldehyde resin
from Natural gas processing
Air emissions (NOX, CO, VOCs, p-xylene)
Air emissions (polymer dust, volatilized monomers, fiber lubricants, VOCs, particulates)
from Oil processing
p-Xylene
Polyester
KEY
Organics
Dissolved and suspended solids
Ethylene Cellulose
Chlorinated organics Carbons Hydro-zinc, cadmium, chromium, copper
Non-woven fabric
Ethylene glycol Acrylic resin
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Wall Covering (continued)

Laminating or coating
(VOCs)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 WALL COVERINGS MAT 09950
from woven fabric and non-woven fabric
KEY
Process flow Transport Boundary Output Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Wastewater (sludge)
(VOCs) Recycling
Embossing and printing

Sludge
Mechanical pulp paper Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendering Finishing Alcohol
Sludge, wood chips Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
Adhesive
Packaging
Titanium dioxide, carbon black, various organics and inorganics
Colorant
Distribution
NaOH, Na2SO4, Cl, ClO2
Vehicle (water) Kraft paper Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendering Finishing
Sludge, wood chips Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, chloroform)
Additives Glycol ether Glycerol Modified resin Starch
Water-based ink
Sludge
Installation
Colorant Vehicle (resin polymers) Solvent Methyl ethyl ketone Tetrahydrofuran Toluene Xylene Alcohol Additives
SO2, [Mg(HSO 3)2] or Ca(HSO3)2], NaOH, ClO2, milk of lime

Sulfite paper (alpha-cellulose) Pulping Bleaching Forming Drying Calendering Finishing

Sludge, wood chips
Water and surfactants
Demolition (Stripping)
Wastewater
Wall Coverings
Solvent-based ink
Sludge
Disposal (incineration or landfill)
8
Wall Coverings
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Vinyl Wall-Covering Adhesives
Life-Cycle Summary Vinyl Wall-Covering Adhesives
Solvents Alcohols Ketones Chlorinated solvents Benzene

KEY

Cyanides Solids, oil, Sludge ammonia, phenols, sulfides, chlorides, mercaptans
Acetone (solvent)
Boundary Output
Olefins manufacture
Propylene
Propylene oxide
Propylene glycol
Recycling
Drainage Produced wastes water, oil, Drilling grease, heavy muds metals, TDS, and organics) cuttings
Chlorine
Water
Catalyst
Ethylene
Palladium Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (CO2 )
Ethanol (solvent) Adhesives
Acetic acid Benzene Toluene (solvent)
Vinyl acetate
Catalyst
Air emissions (benzene, vinyl acetate, SO X, NOX, VOCs, CO, particulates)
Polyvinyl acetate emulsion Packaging
Air emissions (NOX) Drilling mud Wastewater, Sanitary and cuttings, and oil, grease heavy metals domestic wastewater Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Ammonia manufacturing
Nitric acid Sodium nitrate Salt or soda ash Storage
Starch manufacturing Separating Cleaning Washing Soaking Degerminating Drying Screening
Starch Dextrin Dilute acid
Sales
Installation
Runoff (pesticide, fertilizer) Soil erosion
Air emissions (SOx, NOx, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates, lead)
Clay mining Scraping Loading Washing Degritting
Limestone mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Grinding Separating Wallcoverings

Habitat change
Overburden, unused material
Habitat change
Wall Coverings
ent discharges. Air emissions also result from transporting the major component materials, particularly the logs, to paper mills. The manufacture of pigments and inks results in air emissions of resins, drying oils, petroleum oils, solvents, water vapor, fatty acids, glycerine, acrolein, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, terpene oils, terpenes, nonmethane volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulates, and carbon dioxide (CO2). Sludge from the printing process can have significant environmental impacts. Relatively little waste is generated in the construction or reuse, recycling, and disposal stages compared with the wastes generated by many other building materials that are used in greater amounts in construction.
Vinyl Wall Coverings One of the major environmental concerns associated with vinyl wall coverings is the release of vinyl chloride (VC) monomer, a known carcinogen, during the production of PVC. Significant impacts also occur from the extraction of oil and natural gas for production of PVC resins. Other air emissions from PVC production include suspended solids, particulates, sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), VOCs, carbon monoxide (CO), lead, methane, 1,3-butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, and vinylidene chloride (Tellus Institute 1992). Controlled water pollutants emitted during PVC production include methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, and zinc (Tellus Institute 1992). The principal air pollutants associated with the production of ethylene used in the production of PVC are benzene and VOCs.
Air emissions of chlorine are emitted during chlorine production, another material used in the manufacture of PVC. Additional environmental impacts result from the extraction and processing of natural gas and crude oil used to produce a number of the chemicals included in vinyl wall coverings. Environmental impacts also result from the mining of clay, limestone, and other minerals used in the manufacture of vinyl wall coverings. These impacts include mineral resource depletion, land and habitat loss from strip and pit mining, air emissions from mining operations, the combustion of fuel to power mining equipment and transport mined materials, mine tailings, and pollutant runoff, which ultimately could lead to loss of faunal diversity and possible fishkill. Significant impacts also result from pesticide, insecticide, defoliant, and nutrient runoff from cotton farming to produce the cotton used as a backing for vinyl wall coverings. Air pollutant emissions from production of polyester for vinyl wall coverings include nonmethane VOCs and particulates. Air emissions from manufacture of dimethyl terephthalate used in the production of polyester include VOCs, CO, NOx, and xylene. Wastewater from production of dimethyl terephthalate contains organics and suspended and dissolved solids. Increased loading of organics in streams can result in increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), increased benthic deposition, and deoxygenation. The manufacture of pigments and inks results in the air emissions and sludge mentioned above under wallpaper. Relatively little waste or pollution is generated in the construction or recycling, reuse, or disposal stages compared with the waste or pollution generated by many other building materials that are used in greater amounts in construction. Some wall coverings may act as a source of indoor air emissions for a short period of time after installation, and disposal of vinyl materials can pose problems.
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Wall Coverings
Wall-Covering Adhesives The significant environmental impacts associated with the production of wall-covering adhesives include pollutant and nutrient runoff during the production of corn used to manufacture starch, and the emissions and effluents resulting from the extraction of oil and natural gas used in the manufacture of polyvinyl acetate and propylene glycol. The production of nitric acid used in the manufacture of sodium nitrate, which is included in some adhesives, results in air emissions of NOx. The production of propylene glycol, another component of adhesives, results in air emissions of VOCs and release of wastewater containing organics and spent catalysts. Additional environmental impacts associated with wall-covering adhesives result from the mining and processing of clay. Production of PVA, used in some adhesives, results in emissions of small amounts of benzene and vinyl acetate. Benzene is a known human carcinogen, and vinyl acetate is regulated by EPA as a hazardous air pollutant and hazardous substance.

The types of raw materials and intermediate materials that must be acquired or produced for the manufacture of wall coverings and adhesives depend upon the specific product. The two broad types of wall coverings addressed in this report are wallpaper and vinyl wall coverings. Information on the adhesives for these wall coverings is also included. Although many constituent materials, such as paper, may be used in both types of wall covering, other constituents are quite different.
Wallpaper Wallpaper is used most commonly in residential applications. For ease of removal, some wallpapers are peelable or strippable. The least-expensive type is coated with a thin color layer on which a decorative design is printed. For peelable wallpaper, this coated layer separates from the paper backing during removal of the wall covering. Most paper in peelable wallpaper is made from wood that is mechanically pulped, but some may be produced by the kraft process. This paper tears more easily than other types of paper and is a tan color. Strippable wallpapers are made from a whiter paper that incorporates a resin binderoften an acrylic resinduring the paper-forming process. This resin improves tear strength and allows all layers of the wallpaper to be stripped cleanly from the wall surface. The binder is usually incorporated before the pulp is formed into paper. The components of acrylic resin binders and the process for manufacturing these binders are described below under vinyl wall coverings. The environmental impacts associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials used in the manufacture of wallpaper are summarized in figure 4.
Paper
The papermaking process begins with the harvesting of trees, mostly softwoods. The logs are delivered to a pulp mill, where they are debarked and chipped in preparation for the chemical pulping process or are left whole for mechanical pulping. Logging operations are discussed in the material reports on plywood (06118 in the ERG 1994 edition) and on wood framing (06110).
Mechanical Pulp Paper. In the mechanical pulping process, debarked softwood logs are held
against a rotating stone that tears the wood fibers apart. Water carries the fibers away and removes the heat of friction. The fibers are carried to a screen, where coarser particles are removed and refined to the proper size. The fine wood fibers are concentrated, and the water is recycled to the grinders. Some water must continually be added to maintain an acceptable temperature, and overflow water is released after wood fibers have been filtered out. The pulp produced by this method is referred to as ground-wood pulp. It is then processed into paper in a manner similar to that described for kraft paper in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
10
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Wall Coverings
Figure 4: WallpaperMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Logging
Stressor
Timber harvesting
Impact/Stressor
Habitat alteration Soil erosion and/or runoff
Impact/Stressor
Loss of habitat Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Greenhouse effect
Impact/Stressor
Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Fuel combustion air emissions
Stumps, limbs, logs Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area VOCs
Global warming
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation
Particulates
Nitrogen oxides
Pulping
Effluent Air emissions Air emissions
Paper manufacturing
TSS and organics Organic sulfur compounds Fuel combustion emissions Chloroform Lead
(see impacts above) Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Decreased visibility Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation Increased BOD Odors (see impacts above) Suspected human carcinogen Retardation and brain damage Bioconcentration of dioxin and consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Decreased landfill capacity Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish
Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree and/or crop damage Materials corrosion (see impacts above)
Effluent
Dioxins and toxics
Fishkill
Sludge Acrylic resin production Natural gas production
TSS and organics Landfill disposal Wastewater containing oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, oxygendepleting organics
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
continued
WALL COVERINGS
MAT 09950
11
Wall Coverings
Figure 4: WallpaperMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Acrylic resin production (continued)
Stressor
Natural gas production (continued) Crude oil extraction
Impact/Stressor
Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater containing oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, produced sands Deck drainage and sanitary and domestic wastes Desalting process wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended and dissolved solids Distillation process wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, and phenols Catalytic cracking wastewater containing oil, sulfides, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Betonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Eutrophication Water borne disease Increased BOD
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
High pH
Catalytic cracking air emissions
Ink manufacture
Air emissions
Fatty acids, glycerine, acrolein, aldehydes, ketones, terpene oils, terpenes Phenols Carbon dioxide Particulates Odors from manufacture of varnish or vehicle Colorants
Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Sulfur oxides, nitrogen VOCs, carbon monoxide, and ammonia Aldehyues, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, xylene Ground-level ozone or smog
(see impacts above) Possible fishkill (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Known human carcinogen (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Respiratory irritation
(see impacts above)
Wastewater
Increased BOD
(see impacts above)
12
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Wall Coverings
Figure 4: WallpaperMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Pigment manufacture
Stressor
Air emissions
Impact/Stressor
Carbon disulfide, carbonyl disulfide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide
Impact/Stressor
Respiratory irritation Headaches Dizziness Nausea and/or vomiting Odors Ground-level ozone or smog (see impacts above)
Impact/Stressor
VOCs, particulates, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides
The environmental effects of forest use and timber harvesting for paper production, as well as the impacts associated with papermaking, are described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for timber harvesting and hauling is discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Mechanical pulping requires 2,990 Btus (3.15 MJ) per pound of air-dried pulp. An additional 4,140 Btus (4.37 MJ) are required per pound of finished product to produce mechanical pulp paper (American Gas Association 1988).
Kraft Paper. Pulp for wallpaper may sometimes be produced chemically. The major source of
chemical pulp is the kraft process. The production of kraft paper is described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
The environmental effects and depletion of natural resources associated with the production of kraft paper are described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Energy Consumed
The energy required to produce kraft paper is discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Alpha-Cellulose (Sulfite) Paper. A finer paper is required in some types of coated paper wall
covering. In these cases, alpha-cellulose (sulfite) pulp forms the paper. This paper is produced with the same techniques as kraft paper except for the pulping and bleaching processes. The alpha-cellulose fibers are produced from wood by the sulfite extraction of lignin. Although alpha-cellulose can also be obtained from cotton clippings or linters remaining on cotton seeds, those fibers are bulky and more difficult to use than alpha-cellulose obtained from wood (McKetta 1977). The production of alpha-cellulose paper is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
The environmental impacts and depletion of natural resources associated with the production of alpha-cellulose paper are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for the production of alpha-cellulose paper is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
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13
Wall Coverings
Acrylic Resin
Acrylic resin provides tearing strength to paper used in wall coverings. It is also a useful coating material for wall coverings because of its clarity, strength, and resistance to water, ultraviolet exposure, and mildew. Acrylic resins are formed when the methyl, ethyl, and butyl esters of acrylic and methacrylic acids are polymerized by heat, light, and peroxides. The polymerization reaction is exothermic and may be carried out in bulk for castings, or by emulsion, or in solution. The molecular weight decreases as the temperature and catalyst concentration are increased. The polymers are noncrystalline and very clear. Emulsions are applied widely as textile finishes (Austin 1984). The precursors of acrylic resins are derived from petroleum.
The primary environmental impacts of concern result from the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum. These impacts are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
The polymerization reaction is exothermic. Information on the amount of energy required for production of acrylic resins is not available.
Pigments and Inks
Pigments and inks are used to print the pattern on wall coverings. These can be solvent inksor latex (water-based) inks. Although many ink formulae are proprietary, the types of inks used in wallpaper and vinyl wall coverings are similar. Water-based (latex) inks are the most widely used (70 percent or more), although some solvent-based systems are still in use. Solvent-based inkswhich contain as the primary vehicle or carrier alcohols, hydrocarbons, or organic solventsare highly regulated. For this reason, printing-ink manufacturers have been developing water-based inks, which are being used in an increasing proportion of their printing (Weinzimer 1993). There are four types of printing inks, which are grouped into two major classes: letterpress and lithographic inks, commonly called oil or paste inks flexographic and rotogravure inks, which are referred to as solvent-based inks
These inks vary considerably in physical appearance, composition, method of application, and drying mechanism. Flexographic and rotogravure inks are of very low viscosity, and they almost always dry by the evaporation of highly volatile solvents. Solvent-based inks contain solvents such as methyl ethyl ketone, tetrahydrofuran, toluene, and xylene. Inks are composed of four major constituents: colorantsincluding pigments, toners, and dyeswhich provide the color of the ink; vehicles, or varnishes, which act as carriers of the colorant and, upon drying, bind the color to the substrate; additives, which influence the printability, film characteristics, drying, speed, and end-use properties; and solvents, which are used to reduce ink viscosity and improve drying (McGraw-Hill 1993). Initially, the vehicle is prepared. Vehicles for solvent-based inks consist mainly of resin polymers dissolved in solvents, oils, or liquid resins. The ink vehicle is generally cooked in large kettles at 200 to 600F (93 to 315C) for 8 to 12 hours (EPA 1993). Next, pigments or colorants are prepared for addition to the vehicle. The pigment is ground into the vehicle with a roller mill (EPA 1993).
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Wall Coverings
Finally, water in the wet pigment pulp is replaced by an ink vehicle, commonly known as the flushing process. Pigment and vehicle are mixed in dough mixers or in large agitated tanks. Liquid inks are milled with closed head shot or sand mills and with ball mills. Special cloth bags filter liquid inks and vehicles. Filtering and milling remove impurities, pigment agglomerates, grit, and fiber (McGraw-Hill 1993). Titanium dioxide, another pigment commonly used in wall coverings, should be treated as an occupational carcinogen, according to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH also reports that inhalation of titanium dioxide can cause slight lung fibrosis (NIOSH 1990). This would be of concern only if removed wall coverings containing titanium dioxide were burned. Some ink manufacturers recycle colorants from wastewater. The colorants are either filtered or precipitated from the wastewater and are then used in the manufacture of artificial bricks and moldings (Weinzimer 1993).
Vinyl Wall Coverings Vinyl wall coverings are cleanable and durable, capable of lasting fifteen years or more. The basis of the decorative and ground layers of vinyl wall coverings is polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin. This hard, white powder is combined with other ingredients to produce a flexible plastic film. Other components are pigments for color, plasticizing oils for flexibility, and other ingredients to improve flame retardance, mildew resistance, and processing characteristics. Specifically, this layer includes:
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin, the binder that holds everything together plasticizers to make the vinyl flexible filler, usually clay or calcium carbonate, to provide opacity and lower the production cost pigments to impart opacity and color to the film antimony trioxide, the primary additive for flame retardance mildewcides to help retard mildew growth process aids, added in small amounts to help in the manufacturing process The PVC film is made by passing a mixture of the above ingredients between heated rollers. This process, called calendering, produces sheets of uniform thickness. There are four different substrates for vinyl wall coverings: woven fabric, nonwoven fabric, paper, and ground-wood kraft paper. Woven fabric is generally composed of cotton and polyester. Nonwoven fabric is usually composed of polyester, cellulose, and resin. Paper can be part of the substrate or backing for wall coverings. Paper backing is available in various thicknesses and can be coated or laminated. Ground-wood kraft paper, manufactured in Finland, is the predominant material used as the substrate for vinyl wall coverings. The environmental impacts associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials used in the manufacture of vinyl wall coverings are summarized in figure 5. The life cycle of each of the constituents in vinyl wall coverings is discussed below.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Resin
PVC makes up over 40 percent of the total plastics used in building and construction (Franklin Associates 1991). PVC is produced through polymerization of vinyl chloride, primarily through a suspension process. The raw materials for vinyl chloride manufacture are ethylene and chlorine. Ethylene and chlorine, in the presence of a catalyst, undergo a vapor phase exothermic reaction to form dichloroethane (or ethylene dichloride). The
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Figure 5: Vinyl Wall CoveringsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Logging
Stressor
Timber harvesting
Impact/Stressor
Habitat alteration Soil erosion and/or runoff
Impact/Stressor
Loss of habitat Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Greenhouse effect
Impact/Stressor
Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Stumps, limbs, logs Increased carbon dioxide Loss of recreation area VOCs
Global warming
Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Impaired vision
Sulfur dioxide
Particulates
Nitrogen oxides
Pulping
Effluent Air emissions Air emissions
Paper manufacturing
TSS and organics Organic sulfur compounds Fuel combustion emissions Chloroform Lead
(see impacts above) Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation Increased BOD Odors (see impacts above) Suspected human carcinogen Retardation and brain damage Bioconcentration of dioxin and consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) Decreased landfill capacity Ground-level ozone or smog
Surface water acidification, reduced fish reproduction, possible fishkill Tree and/or crop damage Materials corrosion (see impacts above)
Effluent
Dioxins and toxics
Fishkill
Sludge Ink manufacture Air emissions
TSSD and organics Landfill disposal Fatty acids, glycerine, acrolein, aldehydes, ketones, terpene oils, terpenes
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
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Figure 5: Vinyl Wall CoveringsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Ink manufacture (continued)
Stressor
Air Emissions (continued)
Impact/Stressor
Phenols Carbon dioxide Particulates Odors from manufacture of varnish or vehicle Colorants Carbon disulfide, carbonyl disulfide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide
Impact/Stressor
Known human carcinogen (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Respiratory irritation
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Pigment manufacture
Wastewater Air emissions
Polyvinyl chloride manufacture
Air emissions
VOCs, particulates, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides Vinyl chloride 1,3-Butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride Methylene chloride, 1,1, -trichloroethane, lead, zinc May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen-depleting organics (see impacts above) May contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen-depleting organics Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Eutrophication Waterborne disease Emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Sulfides, ammonia, oil, and chlorides Phenol
Increased BOD Respiratory irritation Headaches Dizziness Nausea and/or vomiting Odors Ground-level ozone or smog (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Known human carcinogen Respiratory irritation Nervous system effects
Wastewater
Consumption of toxics by fish Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish
(see impacts above)
Wastewater
(see impacts above)
Fuel combustion emissions Waste water
(see impacts above)
Drilling muds, drill cuttings, produced sands Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Deck drainage and sanitary and domestic wastes Desalting process wastewater
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Consumption of toxics by fish Known human carcinogen
(see impacts above)
continued
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Activity
Crude oil processing (continued)
Stressor
Distillation process air emissions Catalytic cracking wastewater
Impact/Stressor
Mercaptans VOCs Oil, sulfides, cyanides, and ammonia
Impact/Stressor
Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH
Impact/Stressor
Phenol Catalytic cracking air emissions Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, and ammonia Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene Benzene and VOCs Contains chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Chlorine
Increased BOD Known human carcinogen (see impacts above)
Surface water acidification (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Ethylene production
Chlorine production
Air emissions
Brine mud
Wastewater Phthalates production Air emissions
Clay and limestone mining
Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate Chlorine and sulfuric acid Carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, particulates, and nonmethane VOCs Runoff Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
(see impacts above) Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Possible fishkill (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Loss of habitat
Antimony trioxide mining and processing Cotton growing
Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Fuel combustion emissions Particulates Runoff of pesticides Runoff of fertilizers
(see impacts above) Toxic to fish and other marine organisms Increased loadings of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Large quantity of water required
Possible fishkill Deoxygenation and algal bloom Habitat alteration Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Soil erosion and depletion Fuel combustion emissions Irrigation
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Activity
Cotton fabric production Urea-formaldehyde manufacture
Stressor
Spent solvents Formaldehyde emissions
Impact/Stressor
Hazardous wastes Eye, nose, and skin irritation Bronchial asthma Nausea Headaches Probable human carcinogen (see impacts above) (see impacts above) VOCs and particulates VOCs, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and p-xylene Organics, suspended solids, and dissolved solids
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Polyester production
Dimenthyl terephthalate production
Natural gas extraction and processing Crude oil extraction processing Air emissions Air emissions
Wastewater
Increased BOD Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation
(see impacts above)
dichloroethane is distilled and undergoes a cracking process to form vinyl chloride monomer and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Ethylene is manufactured from ethane, which is produced from natural gas. The extraction and processing of natural gas are described in detail in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Hydrocarbon molecules in natural gas are heated to temperatures of 700 to 900F (371 to 482C) in a pyrolysis furnace to release ethylene and other light hydrocarbons. Cracked gases are cooled quickly to stop the cracking process. The resulting gases are then compressed and cooled. Ethylene can also be manufactured from petroleum products (e.g., naphtha and gas oil) through a more complicated process. The extraction, processing, and refining of crude oil are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Chlorine is manufactured by the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride. Salt is mined in underground deposits by pumping water into the deposit and forcing brine to the surface. The brine is extracted, heated, and treated with soda ash and caustic soda to remove impurities. The brine then enters an electrolytic cell, where a direct current decomposes the salt to chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen. The chlorine is collected, cooled, dried, and purified. Following purification, it is compressed and liquefied (Tellus Institute 1992). Production of one pound of PVC requires 0.123 lb of crude oil, 0.371 lb of natural gas, and 0.507 lb of salt (Franklin Associates 1991).
The potential environmental impacts of PVC production are significant, particularly air emissions of vinyl chloride (VC) monomer. Sources of fugitive emissions of vinyl chloride include agitator seals, pump seals, valves, leaks in polymerization equipment, dryer vents, and bagging. Emissions of VC monomer are estimated at 1.8 lbs per ton of PVC produced in uncontrolled situations and 1.6 lbs per ton of PVC in controlled situations (Tellus Institute 1992). Vinyl chloride is a known human carcinogen and there is no evidence that an exposure level exists that does not increase risk of cancer (NIEHS 1989).
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As a result, vinyl chloride and PVC production facilities are strictly regulated. Other air emissions from PVC production include suspended solids, particulates, sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), VOCs, carbon monoxide (CO), lead, methane, 1,3-butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, and vinylidene chloride (Tellus Institute 1992). Controlled water pollutants emitted during PVC production include methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, and zinc (Tellus Institute 1992). The principal air pollutants from ethylene production are benzene and VOCs. The uncontrolled emission factor for VOCs is 16.7 lbs per ton ethylene, and the uncontrolled emission factor for benzene is 2.22 lbs per ton ethylene. The controlled emission factor for benzene is 0.169 lb per ton ethylene (Tellus Institute 1992). Benzene is highly toxic by ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption (Hawley 1971). Sources of wastewater from thermal cracking include furnace effluent from the reactor, quench tower, acid gas scrubber, and compressors. Numerous water pollutants result from ethylene production, including chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals (zinc, cadmium, chromium, and copper) (Tellus Institute 1992). Many of these pollutants are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Wastes from chlorine production include air emissions of chlorine from the electrolytic cell and from loading tank cars. Up to 60 lbs of brine mud per ton of chlorine are produced. This brine consists of precipitates such as magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate. Spent sulfuric acid is produced at a rate of 24 lbs per ton of chlorine. This waste is generated from the drying of chlorine. Scrubbing wastes produced from wet scrubbing of chlorine tailing gases amount to 2 lbs per ton of chlorine. Up to 1.7 lbs of asbestos per ton of chlorine is disposed of (Tellus Institute 1992). The environmental effects associated with the extraction and processing of natural gas and crude oil are presented in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
The production of PVC requires 34,000 Btus (35.9 MJ) per pound of PVC product (Franklin Associates 1991). Another study using a different methodology estimated that 27,200 Btus (28.7 MJ) of energy are consumed per pound of PVC produced (Chem Systems 1991).
Plasticizers
Plasticizers provide flexibility to the otherwise brittle PVC. Phthalates are commonly used for this purpose, although different plasticizer content may be used to produce different types of film appropriate for different applications. Dioctyl phthalate, with the lowest molecular weight of the phthalate series that has low-enough volatility to be used, is typically used in the production of a general purpose PVC film. Dioctyl phthalates and other phthalates are prepared from phthalic anhydride. Phthalic anhydride is produced by the controlled oxidation of o-xylene or naphthalene in the presence of a vanadium catalyst. Since naphthalene is a higher price feedstock and has a lower feed utilization, future production growth is predicted to use o-xylene (EPA 1993). Using o-xylene as the basic feedstock, filtered air is preheated, compressed, and mixed with vaporized o-xylene and fed into the fixed-bed tubular reactors. The reactors contain the vanadium pentoxide catalyst and are operated at 650 to 725F (340 to 385C). Small amounts of sulfur dioxide are added to the reactor feed to maintain catalyst activity. The reaction is exothermic, and the heat is removed by a molten salt bath circulated around the reactor tubes and transferred to a steam generation system.
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Naphthalene-based feedstock is made up of vaporized naphthalene and compressed air. It is transferred to the fluidized-bed reactor and is oxidized in the presence of the vanadium pentoxide catalyst at 650 to 725F (340 to 385C). Cooling tubes located in the catalyst bed remove the exothermic heat which is used to produce high-pressure steam. The reactor effluent consists of phthalic anhydride vapors, entrained catalyst, and various by-products and nonreactant gas. The catalyst is removed by filtering and returned to the reactor. The reactor effluent containing crude phthalic anhydride plus products from side reactions and excess oxygen passes to a series of switch condensers where the crude phthalic anhydride cools and crystallizes. The condensers are alternately cooled and then heated, allowing phthalic anhydride to form and then melt from the condenser tube fins. Phthalic anhydride is separated from the other products of this reaction (water, maleic anhydride, and benzoic acid) by dehydration and vacuum distillation. Naphthalene and o-xylene are derived from crude oil. Naphthalene is prepared by the demethylation of methylnaphthalene, resulting from fractionated crude oil. O-xylene is extracted during petroleum refining. The extraction and processing of crude oil are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Production of phthalic anhydride, dioctyl phthalates parent compound, using o-xylene results in controlled air emissions of 12 to 15 lbs of CO per ton of phthalic anhydride, 9.4 lbs of SOx per ton of phthalic anhydride, 10.5 to 11.7 lbs of particulates per ton of phthalic anhydride, and 0.1 lb of nonmethane VOCs per ton of phthalic anhydride, with CO constituting over half of the total emissions (EPA 1993). The production of phthalic anhydride using naphthalene results in air emissions of 20 to 100 lbs of CO per ton of phthalic anhydride, 1.1 to 20 lbs of SOx per ton of phthalic anhydride, and 0.1 to 2 lbs of nonmethane VOCs per ton of phthalic anhydride. The production of naphthalene and o-xylene involves the release of wastes from petroleum processing, which is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
No data are available on the amount of energy required for the production of dioctyl phthalate. Energy released during the exothermic conversion of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride is captured and reused (Austin 1984).
Filler
Filler, usually clay or calcium carbonate, is added to vinyl wall covering to provide opacity and to lower the production cost. The mining and processing of clayas well as the waste generated, natural resources depleted, and energy requiredare presented in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). The mining and processing of calcium carbonate, or limestone, along with the waste generated, natural resources depleted, and energy required, are provided in detail in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Pigments
The production of pigments is described above under wallpaper, along with the waste generated, natural resources depleted, and the energy required.
Antimony Trioxide
Antimony is seldom found in nature as native metal because of its strong affinity for sulfur and metallic elements such as copper, lead, and silver. In its elemental form, antimony is a silvery-white, brittle, crystalline metal that figures poor electrical and heat conductivity properties. Antimony trioxide, the most important of the antimony compounds, is used in
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flame-retarding formulations for many materials, including vinyl wall coverings. Most commercial grades of antimony trioxide contain between 99.2 and 99.5 percent antimony trioxide with varying amounts of impurities such as arsenic, iron, and lead (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). In 1991 antimony was produced from ores and as a by-product of the smelting of base ores in about 23 countries. China, the worlds leading producer, accounted for about 54 percent of the worlds total estimated mine production during 1991. In the same year, antimony production from domestic source materials was derived largely from the recycling of lead-antimony batteries. Primary antimony was recovered as a by-product from the smelting of domestic lead and from silver-copper ores. Recycling plus U.S. mine output supplied less than half of the estimated domestic demand (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). Antimony deposits are typically small and often mined in conjunction with other ores. Stibnite (Sb2S3) is the predominant ore mineral of antimony. Simple antimony deposits consist principally of stibnite or, rarely, native antimony in a siliceous gangue, commonly with some pyrite, and in some places with a little gold and small amounts of other metal sulfides, principally silver and mercury. Complex antimony deposits consist of stibnite associated with pyrite, arsenopyrite, cinnabar, or scheelite, or of antimony sulfosalts with varying amounts of copper, lead, and silver, as well as common sulfides of these metals and zinc. Most of the antimony produced in the United States is from complex deposits (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). Many of the typically small mines contain irregular and scattered ore bodies that cannot be readily exploited by large-scale mining methods. Mining methods used in mines that recover metalliferous ores, of which antimony is a minor constituent, are designed for producing the principal metals such as gold, lead, or silver. There are four methods of recovering antimony from ores: volatilization, blast furnace, reverberatory furnace, and an electrolytic method that yields a very high-purity metal. The antimony content of ores determines the method of recovery (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). Antimony oxide is a by-product of antimony ore roasting. Roasting of the ore to yield a volatile trioxide or the stable nonvolatile tetroxide is the only pyrometallurgical procedure suitable for low-grade ores (5 to 25 percent antimony content). The sulfur is oxidized and removed from waste gases, and the volatilized antimony oxide is recovered in flues, condensing pipes, a baghouse, precipitators, or a combination of these. The temperature and quantity of available oxygen determine the kind and quantity of the oxide produced. The oxide produced by this method is generally impure and can be reduced to metal. However, careful control of volatilization conditions will produce a high-grade oxide that can be sold directly to consumers (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). Water-jacketed blast furnaces are used in several plants to reduce ores containing 25 to 40 percent antimony. Oxides, sulfides, or mixed ores, residues, mattes, slags, and briquetted fines or flue dusts can be used as blast furnace charges. A high smelting column and comparatively low air pressure are used, and the slag and metal are separated in the hearth (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). Antimony sulfide can be separated from the gangue of sulfide ores by melting in a reverberatory furnace. A reducing atmosphere is kept to prevent oxidation. The solidified product is called liquated or needle antimony and may be used as sulfide or converted to antimony metal by iron precipitation (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). The United States has limited antimony resources, principally in Alaska, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada.
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Environmental problems associated with the processing of antimony metal and ores are minimal because emissions and effluents are controlled at the processing site (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991). Antimony compounds are irritants and can cause central nervous system, gastrointestinal, and cardiac effects following inhalation or contact. The permissible exposure limit is 0.5 mg/m3, and the immediate-danger-to-life-orhealth level is 80 mg/m3 (NIOSH 1978). These exposure limits are designed to protect workers who might be exposed to these high levels of dust in workplace air. Estimates of the abundance of antimony in the earths crust range from 0.2 to 0.5 part per million. There are limited deposits of antimony in the United States, primarily in Alaska, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada. Most domestic demand is met by recycling and imports (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991).
Energy Consumed
The energy required for the production of antimony trioxide from stibnite ores is 186 million Btus (196,230 MJ) per net ton of antimony trioxide (U.S. Department of the Interior 1991).
Mildewcides
A variety of mildewcides are used in vinyl wall coverings. These may include organic and inorganic compounds. Commonly used materials include acrylonitrile, chlorinated phenols, salicylanilide, copper ammonium fluoride, and copper ammonium carbonate. Inorganic mildewcides, such as arsenic, copper, and mercury compounds, have been almost entirely replaced by organic mildewcides. Organic fungicides, of which mildewcides are a subcategory, are generally classified as dithiocarbamates, chlorinated phenols, or carboximides (Austin 1984). Mildewcides used in wall-covering adhesives are present in low-enough concentrations that they are not required to appear on material safety data sheets. Since formulae for mildewcides are considered proprietary information, no data on their use in wall covering or wall-covering adhesives are available (Smith 1993).
The manufacture of mildewcides is highly regulated because of the toxicity of many of these agents; therefore, emissions should be minimized. Releases of mildewcides could cause damage to ecosystems. Accidental releases of these agents during storage or shipping are the primary environmental concern relative to the manufacture of vinyl wall coverings.
Energy Consumed
No data are available on the amount of energy required for the manufacture of mildewcides.
Woven Fabric
Woven fabric is made by blending synthetics (polyester) with cotton. The synthetics can be used in the warp (length), the fill (width), or both. Shrink and stretch can be controlled by using different blends. Light sheeting uses warp yarns that range from a 50-50 blend of polyester and cotton to 100 percent polyester, and it uses fill yarns that range from 100 percent cotton to 100 percent polyester. The same fabric blends can be used for heavy sheeting and osnaburg. Woven fabric used in wall coverings is made mostly from virgin material.
Cotton. Cotton production is highly mechanized in the United States; in other countries,
however, manual and animal labor are used extensively. Chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides are used extensively in the United States and other countries. Fertilizer generally contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Lime and sulfur are also applied to cotton crops. Cotton growers are the third-largest user of pesticides on a per-acre basis and the
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largest user of insecticides on a per-acre basis. The specific chemicals applied vary by geographical region, soil type, and climate. Pesticides may contain a myriad of chemicals. Defoliants are also used in conjunction with mechanized harvest equipment to speed harvest time by eliminating leaves and other debris from the plant. After the cotton is harvested, it is processed in a cotton gin to separate the cotton lint from the seed and trash. It is then baled with burlap or jute bagging and wire. After bagging, the lint is sampled, graded, and sold. Cotton that is harvested manually contains far less trash than cotton that is harvested mechanically. The trash that remains after ginning is toxic because of the chemicals applied in the field. Cotton seeds may be used for planting the next crop or may be transported to an oil processing mill for use as a food product after refining (McGraw-Hill 1993). Cotton fabric is manufactured from the baled cotton. Production of one pound of cotton fabric requires 1.249 lbs of cotton (Franklin Associates 1991). Fibers are carded, blended, and spun into continuous strands. Carding reduces cotton to a fiber strand called sliver. Strands of sliver are woven together to form a uniform product ready for spinning. Modern spinning plants typically use integrated machinery that performs many of the spinning operations in a single unit. Spinning twists fibers together to form a continuous strand of yarn. The yarns are coated with a protective coat or sizing prior to weaving. Sizing, typically composed of starch or other polymers, is used to protect the fibers from damage. During weaving, one set of yarns running in the machine direction (warp) is interwoven with another set of yarns running across the machine (filling or weft). Fabric is woven on a loom through a complicated series of lifting and interweaving of yarns. All looms use six basic components: a warp beam, heddles, harnesses, a tool to insert the filling yarns (e.g., shuttle, rapier, or fluid jet), a reed, and a take-up roll. The type of weave pattern desired will determine the movement and positioning of the six components. Modern mechanical looms are capable of weaving thousands of yarns at once, producing complex weaving patterns and a wide range of woven products. After weaving, the sizing is removed from the fabric in a wet process before it is dried. Removal of the sizing, or desizing, prevents the fabric from stiffening. The woven fabric is cleaned and prepared for dyeing or printing. This results in a clean, absorbent product ready for coloring and finishing. Natural fibers, including cotton, require additional treatment to remove oils, waxes, and other impurities from the fibers. In the case of cotton, prolonged hot treatment with sodium hydroxide and strong detergent is necessary to remove naturally occurring impurities. Sizing must be removed using enzymes or peroxide, which convert starch sizing to more soluble materials. Strenuous washing is required to remove the residues from this processing. Surfactants such as sulfates and sulfonates typically are used to clean the fabric. After impurities are removed, bleaching is required if the end product is to be a white or light-colored fabric. Hydrogen peroxide is the most widely used bleaching agent. Finishing entails a group of mechanical and chemical operations that give the fabric the desired feel and performance characteristics. Softening agents, such as polyethylene glycol monostearate, may be applied. Polymeric materials such as PVA or polymerized ureaformaldehyde resins are used to provide stiffness to fabrics. The production of PVA is discussed below under adhesives. Urea-formaldehyde resin is produced by the catalytic condensation of urea and formaldehyde. The production of urea-formaldehyde resins is described in the material report on particleboard (06124 in ERG 1994 ed.). The manufacture of urea and formaldehyde is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
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Fire-retardant chemicals, such as antimony trioxide, may be applied at this time, along with mildewcides to prevent bacterial growth and mildew. Finishes are usually applied by an operation known as padding, which consists of drawing the fabric through a water solution of the chemicals to be applied, followed by passage of the fabric through a set of squeeze rolls to remove excess liquid. A wetting agent, or penetrant, may be included in the solution to aid penetration into the fabric. Preparation of a cotton-polyester blend is similar to that described above for 100 percent cotton fabric.
Runoff of pesticides, defoliants, and fertilizers and soil erosion are the major environmental concerns associated with growing cotton for textiles. By their very nature, pesticides are toxic to some organisms and thus can have significant adverse effects on humans and/or ecological systems. Cotton growers account for a substantial portion of the agricultural use of pesticides. In addition, cotton requires application of fertilizers. Production of phosphate fertilizers generates air emissions of particulates and fluoride (EPA 1993). Agriculture is responsible for 68 to 83 percent of the non-point-source loadings of sediment, nitrogen, phosphorus, and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) due to the runoff of fertilizers. Increased loadings of these pollutants in streams can result in increased algal bloom, depletion of oxygen, habitat alteration, loss of faunal diversity, and possible fishkill. Minimizing the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and defoliants can help alleviate these environmental problems. Soil erosion in cotton fields can be reduced by the use of low-impact sustainable-agriculture practices such as conservation tillage and increased crop rotation. Another environmental concern is the emissions from combustion of the fuel used in planting, cultivating, fertilizing, irrigating, spraying, harvesting, and transporting the cotton. Diesel and gasoline are probably the most common fuels used in the agricultural sector. Emissions from the combustion of these fuels contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, as discussed above. The use of polymerized urea-formaldehyde resin may result in emissions of formaldehyde that affect indoor air quality. A number of effects on human health have been associated with exposure to formaldehyde. These include eye, nose, and skin irritation; bronchial asthma; nausea; headaches; and allergic sensitization. Formaldehyde has been classified as a probable human carcinogen, primarily on the basis of studies of laboratory animals exposed to high doses of formaldehyde (NIEHS 1989). Some textile manufacturing operations generate hazardous waste that must be handled according to Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) requirements. Most of the hazardous waste that is generated by textile manufacturers comes from the use of solvents in dry-cleaning fabrics, dyeing fabrics, coating fabrics, and cleaning machinery. Spent solvents are listed as hazardous wastes, and some may be included in the expanded list of toxicity characteristic chemicals. Insecticides may also contain toxicity characteristic chemicals. Wastewaters and other process waters that contain these chemicals are considered hazardous if they fail the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) test (EPA 1990a). Techniques for reducing waste in textile manufacturing operations have been developed; these include dye bath and bleach bath reconstitution and various water conservation procedures. Cotton is considered a renewable resource; however, it requires large quantities of water and depletes the soil in which it is planted.
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Energy Consumed
Production of cotton fabric requires 61,584 Btus (64.97 MJ) per pound of product (Franklin Associates 1991). Production of urea-formaldehyde resin requires 33,600 Btus (35.45 MJ) per pound of product (Franklin 1991). Evaporation of excess water during cotton textile manufacturing is an energy-intensive procedure (McGraw-Hill 1993).
Polyester. Polyester is manufactured from chemical compounds that are derived from nat-
ural gas and crude oil. Production of 1 lb of polyester requires 0.402 lb of natural gas and 0.430 lb of crude oil (Franklin Associates 1991). Polyester fibers are polymers of the ester formed from dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol. Polymerization is a two-stage process in which the monomer is first prepared either by an ester interchange between dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol or by direct esterification of terephthalic acid. The second stage is the polymerization of the monomer. The polymer is extruded from the bottom of the polymerizer through a slot onto the surface of a water-cooled drum. The ribbon is cut to chips and dried before melt spinning. Spinning is performed in a metal vessel surrounded by a Dowtherm heated jacket. The entire unit is kept above the melting point of the fibers. The polyester flakes melt upon entering the vessel and flow to the melt chamber. The molten polymer passes through the melt chamber to the gear spinning pumps and then to a sand filter, followed by screens and a spinneret plate. The filaments are solidified by air in a cooling chimney and pass to a steam-humidifying chamber. Moisture in the steam-humidifying chamber is brought slowly to equilibrium to stabilize the length of the spun polymer. Heat is applied, and the filaments are stretched to 3 to 6 times their original length (Austin 1984). Dimethyl terephthalate is prepared by oxidation of p-xylene and subsequent esterification with methanol. P-xylene is produced from petroleum, and methanol is manufactured using CO and hydrogen from synthesis gas and a copper-based catalyst (Austin 1984). Ethylene glycol is produced from ethylene, which is derived from natural gas or petroleum.
Air pollutant emissions from polyester production include polymer dust from drying operations, volatilized residual monomer, fiber lubricants (in the form of fume or oil smoke), and the burned polymer and combustion products from cleaning the spinning equipment. Relative to the solvent spinning processes, the melt spinning of polyester fibers does not generate significant amounts of volatilized monomer or polymer, so emission control measures typically are not used in the spinning area. Finish oils that are applied in the polyester fiber spinning operations are usually recovered and recirculated. When applied, finish oils are vaporized in the spin cell to some extent and, in some instances, are vented either to de-misters, which remove some of the oils, or to catalytic incinerators, which oxidize significant quantities of volatile hydrocarbons. Small amounts of finish oils are vaporized in the postspinning process. Vapors from hot draw operations are typically controlled by such devices as electrostatic precipitators. Emissions from most other steps are not controlled. The principal air emissions from the production of polyester include 0.6 lb of nonmethane volatile organics and 252 lbs of particulates per 1,000 lbs of polyester fiber spun (EPA 1993). Air emissions from production of dimethyl terephthalate include VOCs, CO, NOx, and p-xylene. Wastewater from production of dimethyl terephthalate contains organics as well as suspended and dissolved solids. Increased loading of organics in streams can result in increased BOD, increased benthic deposition, and deoxygenation. Environmental concerns associated with the extraction and processing of natural gas and the extraction, processing, and refining of petroleum are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
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Energy Consumed
Production of polyester requires 23,100 Btus (24.37 MJ) per pound of product (Franklin Associates 1991).
Nonwoven Fabric
Nonwoven fabrics are composed of cellulose and synthetic fibers bound together by a synthetic resin, such as acrylic resin. The synthetic fibers are long and impart high strength. The synthetic fibers in nonwoven fabrics generally are polyester. The cellulose portion is needed for hangability, since most wall-covering adhesives will not stick to polyester. Nonwoven fabrics are currently 85 percent cellulose and 15 percent polyester. Nonwoven fabrics used in wall coverings are made mostly from virgin material. The production of cellulosealong with the wastes generated, natural resources depleted, and energy required for productionare described in the material report on acoustical ceiling systems (09510). The production of polyester was described above. The production of acrylic resin is described above under wallpaper.
Paper
A description of the paper manufacturing process, wastes generated, natural resources depleted, and energy required for the production of paper is presented above under wallpaper.
Wall-Covering Adhesives Adhesives in general are classified as either natural or synthetic, depending on the type of polymer in the formulation. Natural adhesives include natural vegetable-based adhesives, containing starches and dextrins, and natural animal-based adhesives, containing casein. Synthetic adhesives include solid polymers and solid rubbers, emulsions, liquid polymers, hot melts, and pressure-sensitive adhesives. The natural adhesive resins used with wall coverings are generally water dispersible, but the synthetics often require an organic solvent to disperse them. Manufacturers use water and/or one or more solvents, depending upon the consistency, flow, and application properties they desire in the final adhesive formulation. Because the natural adhesives do not need large amounts of solvents to produce the desired properties, they tend to have lower solvent-emission rates than synthetic adhesives.
Wall-covering adhesives are composed principally of starch (largely cornstarch, but with some modified potato starch or wheat starch in some products), dextrin, and water, with small amounts of a number of additional materials, such as sodium nitrate, propylene glycol, and clay (hydrous aluminum silicate). Some adhesives include small amounts of PVA emulsion as a filler and plasticizer. (In vinyl-to-vinyl adhesives, PVA may be the major active adhesive ingredient.) Other minor additives may include tackifiers, curing agents, stabilizers, antifoams, and thickeners. Tackifiers are usually some type of modifying resin different from the base resin, and thickeners are usually solid materials such as clay, silica, or calcium carbonate (limestone). These materials are typically not volatile. The newer pastes for vinyl wall coverings are lightweight, clear-drying adhesives. These products leave dull, transparent films when dry, eliminating the appearance of paste residue inherent in the traditional opaque clay-based adhesives (AIA 1991). In response to environmental concerns, the industry has developed latex-based and hot-melt pressure-sensitive adhesives with fewer solvents than other synthetic adhesives. These adhesives are not currently in major use. Solid polymers and solid rubbers, which contain the highest levels of solvents, have the highest potential for organic solvent emissions. The environmental impacts associated with the acquisition and preparation of materials used in the manufacture of wall-covering adhesives are summarized in figure 6.
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Figure 6: Wall-Coverings AdhesivesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity
Corn production for starch and dextrin
Stressor
Runoff of pesticides Runoff of fertilizers
Impact/Stressor
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Increased loadings of sediment, nitrogen, Increased BOD VOCs
Impact/Stressor
Possible fishkill Deoxygenation and algal bloom Loss of faunal diversity Ground-level ozone or smog
Impact/Stressor
Habitat alteration Possible fishkill Respiratory tract problems and reduced lung function Eye irritation Impaired vision
Sulfur dioxide
Particulates
Nitrogen oxides
Sodium nitrate production
Natural gas extraction
Propylene glycol production
Air emissions Natural gas extraction Crude oil extraction
Wastewater that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics Nitrogen oxides (see impacts above) Wastewater that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, produced sands Deck drainage and sanitary and domestic wastes
Greenhouse effect Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation Increased BOD Consumption of toxics
Surface water acidification, reduced reproduction, possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Possible fishkill (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Eutrophication Waterborne disease
(see impacts above)
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Figure 6: Wall-Coverings AdhesivesMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity
Propylene glycol production (continued)
Stressor
Crude oil processing
Impact/Stressor
Desalting process wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Distillation process wastewater containing sulfides, ammonia, oil, chlorides, and phenols Distillation process air emissions Catalytic cracking wastewater containing oil, sulfides phenols, cyanides, and ammonia
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Phenol is a known human carcinogen Consumption of toxics by fish
(see impacts above)
Mercaptans VOCs High pH
Odors (see impacts above) Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill (see impacts above)
Clay mining
Runoff Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Benzene VOCs (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, and ammonia Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene (see impacts above) Runoff Loss of habitat
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above) Species extinction Loss of biodiversity
Polyvinyl acetate production
Runoff Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions
Known human cardinogen (see impacts above)
Solvents production
Natural gas extraction Crude oil extraction and processing
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Starch
The production of starchalong with the wastes generated, natural resources depleted, and energy required for productionis discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Dextrin
Unlike starch, dextrin dissolves readily in water to yield various adhesives, pastes, and gums. Dextrins are made by heating dry starch with dilute acid, resulting in partial hydration. The process occurs in round, steam-jacketed tanks that are open at the top and equipped with a scraper. The scraper prevents sticking during the heating period, which may vary from 2 hours for some white dextrins to 15 hours for certain gums (Austin 1984).
The environmental concerns associated with the production of dextrin are very similar to those for starch production, as described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). Additional wastes include the dextrin remaining in the heating tank after removal of the product. This residue is released in the wastewater. There are no adverse impacts associated with this wastewater, however, since dextrin is not toxic and is biodegradable.
Energy Consumed
No data are available on the amount of energy required for the production of dextrin.
Sodium Nitrate
Large natural deposits of sodium nitrate occur in the highlands of Chile; however, with todays lower ammonia costs, most sodium nitrate is produced from reactions between salt or soda ash and nitric acid. Nitric acid is generated by the oxidation of ammonia in the presence of a platinum-rhodium gauze catalyst. Most nitric acid produced in the United States is manufactured using the single-pressure process. In this process, a multistage rotary compressor with intercoolers between stages is driven by a steam turbine and a power recovery turbine. Stage intercooling is regulated to give an outlet temperature near 230C (446F) at 1 MPa. The outlet air is split, 85 percent going to the converter and 15 percent to heat exchangers and the bleach column. The hot compressed air is mixed with superheated ammonia and sent to the converter, which operates at 800 to 950 kPa. The air-ammonia mix, containing about 10 percent ammonia, passes through a stack of about 30 layers of 80 mesh platinum and 10 percent rhodium gauze. Combustion is rapid, with an exit temperature of 940C (1,724F). The conversion to nitric oxide is 94 to 95 percent, and about 62 g of platinum alloy is required per metric ton of daily acid capacity. Converter exit gas is passed through a steam superheater, a waste heat boiler, and a tail gas preheater, emerging at about 200C (392F). It then passes into a cooler-condenser, which produces 40 to 45 percent nitric acid that contains about 40 percent of the fixed nitrogen. Both cooled exit gas and dilute nitric acid pass on to the absorber, still under full pressure of 980 kPa. The absorber-reactor is a sieve plate or bubble cap unit with cooling coils on each of the 20 to 50 trays. Gas enters at the bottom, dilute nitric acid enters partway up the column, and cold water enters at the top. The temperature of the exit gas is near 10C (50F). The acid leaving the bottom of the column contains some NOxmostly as N2O4 (colorless), but some as red NO2. This is bleached by being passed through a column countercurrent to the 15 percent primary air (needed for oxidation of NO to NO2) bled off from the air compressor (Austin 1984). Ammonia is produced by the reforming of natural gas together with air (Austin 1984). Production of ammonia is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
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NOx are released during the production of nitric acid because it is too expensive to capture more than 97 to 98 percent of the NO leaving the gauze. Federal air pollution regulations, however, require 99.8 percent absorption. Three methods are currently used to meet this requirement: Stack gas is reheated to 680C (1,256F) and reacted with natural gas. The combustion reaction between natural gas and NO increases the gas temperature and decreases emissions of NO. Reheated stack gas can be treated with ammonia or hydrogen in a catalytic reactor to reduce the NO to N2. Additional absorption capacity operating at low temperature (e.g., 5C, or 41F) can sufficiently increase absorption of NO. The environmental impacts of natural gas extraction and processing are described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
Energy Consumed
There is no information available on the amount of energy required to produce sodium nitrate.
Propylene Glycol
Propylene glycol is prepared from propylene oxides by liquid phase, acid- or base-catalyzed hydration. A large excess of water is required. Propylene oxide is produced from propylene by the chlorohydrin method or the oxirane process. The chlorohydrin method involves the reaction of propylene with an aqueous chlorine solution at 35 to 50C (95 to 122F). The resulting mixture of alpha- and beta-chlorohydrin is dehydrochlorinated using excess alkali. The propylene oxide is driven out of the reaction mixture by steam and then purified by distillation. In the oxirane process, isobutane is oxidized to the hydroperoxide in liquid phase with air or oxygen. Epoxidation is accomplished using a tungsten, vanadium, or molybdenum catalyst system (Franklin Associates 1991). The production of propylene is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240).
The environmental effects associated with production of propylene are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The production of propylene glycol from propylene oxide and the production of propylene oxide from propylene result in air emissions of VOCs. A large amount of water is required to produce propylene glycol, and wastewater containing organics is released during the manufacturing process. Increased loading of organics in streams can result in increased BOD, increased benthic deposition, and deoxygenation.
Energy Consumed
No information on the amount of energy required to produce propylene glycol is available.

Clay
Clay is added to adhesives as a filler. The mining and processing of clayalong with the wastes generated, natural resources depleted, and energy required for clay productionare described in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsion
PVA is used as the binder in less than 10 percent of wall-covering adhesives (Smith 1993). PVA is prepared by introducing a benzene solution of vinyl acetate containing the desired catalyst into a jacketed vessel. A description of the manufacturing process for polyvinyl
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acetate, along with the environmental impacts and energy requirements associated with its production, is presented in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250).
Solvents
Organic solvents may be used singly or in combination with other organic solvents. They may be used in combination with water as dispersants for adhesive resins used with wall coverings. Manufacturers design proprietary adhesive formulations, including the type and quantity of solvents, to optimize such adhesive properties as consistency, flow, and ease of application. As a result, the specific composition of solvents is generally not released. A variety of compounds, such as alcohols, aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, and chlorinated hydrocarbons, may be used in these products. Specific solvents that have been used include ethanol, toluene, and acetone. These chemicals are produced by petroleum processing.
The production of solvents involves the release of wastes from petroleum processing, which is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The environmental/health impact of solvents varies from little to significant. For example, ethanol is not listed as a hazardous air pollutant under the Clean Air Act (CAA), or as a toxic chemical under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), or as a hazardous substance under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). But some chlorinated solvents are listed as hazardous air pollutants under CAA, as toxic chemicals under SARA, and as hazardous substances under CERCLA.

Although the specific procedures used to manufacture wall coverings vary by type, the generic process can be described as follows: a substrate is combined with a wear layer, which is then finished by the addition of the pattern to the wall covering. A protective finish may be added, and adhesive may be applied to the back for prepasted wall coverings. The environmental impacts associated with the manufacture of wallpaper, vinyl wall coverings, and wallcovering adhesives are summarized in figure 7.
Figure 7: Wall CoveringsManufacturing and Fabrication Stage
Activity
Coating or laminating
Stressor
Waste PVC
Impact/Stressor
Carcinogens may be released when PVC is incinerated Some solvent is recycled
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Printing
Adhesive application Cutting and packaging
Waste acrylic resin Sludges containing solvents and waste ink Excess adhesive Trim scraps
Vinyl can be separated from fabric and recycled
In the initial step, the ground material is formed by combining the fabric or paper substrate with a wear layer. There are two commonly used techniques: coating and laminating. Vinyl wall coverings are coated or laminated with PVC. Wallpaper is coated with a different polymer, usually acrylic. Coating involves the application of a liquid vinyl or acrylic polymer onto the paper or fabric. Vinyl may also be applied as a plastisol, which results when PVC resin is dispersed in a plasti-
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cizer. The acrylic polymer contains resins to provide durability, colorants to provide pattern and color, and chemicals to provide mildew and fire resistance. The ground with its wet coating is passed through ovens to drive off water or solvents. The coated ground is then ready for finishing (Weinzimer, no date a, b, c, d). In the second techniquelaminatinga solid sheet of PVC or vinyl film is combined with a paper or fabric backing. In the lamination process, adhesive is applied to the PVC film, and this material is then attached to the backing using heat and pressure to cure the adhesive. The resulting laminate is ready for finishing. The coated or laminated ground can be finished by embossing and printing. Embossing produces a three-dimensional or textured effect on the surface. The embossed pattern can imitate wood grains, fabrics (silks, burlaps, linens), grasscloth, or other materials. Embossing is produced by passing the coated or laminated ground between two rollers, one of which contains the embossing design, under high pressure. Heat must be used with vinyl materials to soften the surface. The most commonly used printing techniques for wall coverings are surface printing, flexographic printing, screen printing, and gravure printing. Surface printing generally produces a stenciled effect. The process employs lightweight metal print cylinders on which the areas around the design are cut away, leaving the design raised. The rollers are inked (one for each color) and passed over the wall covering. Flexographic printing is similar to surface printing, except that the rollers are made of flexible materials, generally rubber. Screen printing employs flat or rotary screens. In flat (or silk) screening, the design is produced on a flat mesh screen, with the areas around the design plugged or blocked. Ink is applied to the screen and forced through the mesh with a rubber squeegee. In rotary screening, round mesh cylinders with internal squeegees force the ink onto the surface of the wall covering. Gravure printing is the costliest printing method, requiring copper plating on the cylinders and a photochemical engraving or etching process. It is also the most versatile. In this method, tiny cells or ink reservoirs are engraved into the surface of the print cylinder. By varying the size and placement of each cell, varying amounts of ink can be deposited on the wall covering. Wallpapers and vinyl wall coverings may be treated with a stain-resistant laminate (polyvinyl fluoride) or coating (acrylic resin or proprietary formulations). Polyvinyl fluoride resists common stains; however, acrylic coatings only delay the penetration of common stains. Some wall coverings have the adhesive preapplied to the backing. These materials are coated on the backing surface with a liquid formulation of the adhesive, which is then dried before the wall covering is rolled and packaged.
A granulation process has been developed to separate fabric from the vinyl in trim scraps from vinyl wall-covering manufacturing. This allows the vinyl to be recycled into other vinyl-coated fabrics for use in such products as barbecue grill dust covers and mobile home upholstery. This system has reduced by millions of pounds the vinyl disposed of in landfills. Used lubricating machine oils, contaminated calender color paste, excess unreusable plastisols, and cleaning solvents can be sold to fuel blenders. The fuel blenders mix this waste with other fuels and sell the resulting mixture to cement producers to be burned in kilns. The ash produced is blended into cement. This procedure reclaims energy and eliminates sources of pollution and the need for landfill disposal. EPAs standards for air emissions and water effluents from ink manufacturing have been instrumental in reducing the use of toxic metals in inks. Those standards have also pro-
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moted conversion from solvent inks to water-based inks. One manufacturer has been able to recycle 5 million pounds of solvent inks per year by recovering excess inks from the printing process.
Energy Consumed
Energy is required to heat adhesives during curing, to heat adhesives during drying, and for embossing. No data are available on the amount of energy required for the production of wallpaper and vinyl wall coverings.

Installation of wall coverings involves preparation of the wall, application or wetting of adhesive, cutting the wall covering to size and shape, and applying the wall covering to the wall. The environmental impacts associated with the installation of wall coverings are summarized in figure 8. Preparation of the wall can include scraping and sanding to smooth the surface; washing and cleaning of the surface to remove dust, dirt, and mildew; application of alkyd or acrylic primer; and application of lining paper. In general, heavier vinyl wall coverings require less-exacting wall preparation than wallpaper and lighter vinyl wall coverings.
Figure 8: Wall CoveringsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage
Activity
Cutting during installation
Stressor
Trim scraps
Impact/Stressor
Disposal in landfill decreases landfill capacity Incineration of vinyl wall covering may release carcinogens Disposal in landfill decreases landfill capacity Possible respiratory and other human health effects
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Adhesive application
Excess adhesive
Installation and use
Some studies have found emissions of indoor air pollutants from wall coverings
Wallpaper comes in rolls in different lengths and widths. Standard American rolls come in widths of 18 to 36 inches and lengths ranging from 12 to 24 feet. A single standard American roll has about 34 to 36 sq. ft. European wall coverings come in slightly smaller rolls, approximately 27 to 29 sq. ft. Tools used to install wall covering include a yardstick for measuring, scissors and razor knife for trimming, seam roller, a putty knife, levels, smoothing brush to smooth out wall coverings, sponges, buckets, and a water tray for wetting prepasted wall coverings. After calculating the amount of wall covering needed, the wall must be prepared to improve adhesion of the wall covering to the surface. Wall preparation varies according to the condition of the wall, the type of wall covering to be applied, and the type of adhesive used. Primer or sealer is an acrylic or oil-based coating designed for use under wall covering to seal porous surfaces prior to hanging. This report does not include primer in the life-cycle assessment of wall coverings. Primer helps wall covering adhere by reducing the walls capacity to absorb moisture from the adhesive. Primer is applied to the cleaned and patched surface like paint. Priming is recommended on painted surfaces, unpainted surfaces, wallpapered walls, and drywall. If mildew is in evidence, the walls should be scrubbed with a mixture of bleach
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and water. Any uneven places on the wall should be spackled and sanded smooth before the wallpaper is hung. Prepasted wall coverings are submerged in water for the amount of time indicated by the manufacturers instructions prior to hanging. Submersion times will vary based on the type of adhesive used and the type of wall covering. Adhesive mixes are prepared by blending the powdered adhesive with cold water until smooth. Most wall coverings currently in use are washable. Most manufacturers recommend cleaning wall coverings with a mixture of a mild soap and water. Thorough rinsing of cleaned wall coverings is essential. Some wall coverings can be treated with a clear plastic covering to prevent staining and color dissipation and to improve washability.
Waste Generated
The type of pattern on the wall covering will significantly affect the amount of waste produced during installation, since the pattern must be matched as each strip is hung. In general, the longer the vertical pattern, the more waste there will be. The randommatch patterns are the least wasteful since there is no need to match the pattern horizontally. A vertical stripe is an example of a random-match pattern. Straight-match or straight-across-match patterns must be matched to continue the pattern of the previously hung panel, with the repeat pattern at the same distance from the ceiling in each panel. A horizontal stripe would be an example of this pattern. The amount of waste will depend upon the size of the pattern and the distance between repetitions. Drop-match patterns have the most potential for waste since they do not repeat themselves at the same distance from the ceiling. A diagonal stripe is an example of this pattern. If adhesive must be applied to the wall covering during installation, some waste adhesive is likely. Excess adhesives made of starch and dextrin do not pose substantial environmental, indoor air, or disposal problems, since almost all are water soluble and contain little, if any, toxic constituents. Water-based adhesives are less likely to outgas VOCs, eliminating concerns about indoor air quality.
Energy Consumed
Most of the energy required for installation of wall coverings is labor. Power tools are not required for installation.
Indoor Air Quality
Studies of indoor air emissions from various building products have yielded conflicting results concerning wall coverings. These results are summarized below. In a Danish study on emissions from wall coverings, no compound was measured in concentrations exceeding the Danish threshold level values, which are similar to American threshold limit values (TLVs). Emissions from a paper and vinyl wall covering included 21 compounds, of which two were possible carcinogens, three were airway irritants, and two were odorous compounds. The concentration of total VOCs emitted was 0.95 mg/m3 at an emission rate of 0.04 mg/m2/hr. A vinyl and glass-fiber wall covering emitted 32 compounds, of which three were possible carcinogens, seven were airway irritants, and three were odorous compounds. The concentration of total VOCs emitted was 7.18 mg/m3 at an emission rate of 0.30 mg/m2/hr. Emissions from a printed paper wall covering included 12 compounds, of which one was a possible carcinogen and one was an airway irritant. The concentration of total VOCs emitted was 0.74 mg/m3 at an emission rate of 0.30 mg/m2/hr (Molhave 1982). An EPA study indicated that wallpaper was a substantiated source (meaning that quantitative data have been obtained by chamber tests or that qualitative data are available from headspace tests or other sources) for emissions of formaldehyde, n-hexane,
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2-methylpentane (isohexane), toluene, xylenes, nonane, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, decane, and undecane. The concentrations of these emissions were not provided in the study report (Tucker 1988). Another study measured emissions from wallpaper applied to sheetrock panels. Emissions from the 22 panels, measuring 1.98 m x 1.22 m, were measured in a 34 m3 chamber. The study found that, following a one-week aging period, four VOCs were present well above background levels. These included n-decane (30 mg/m3), n-undecane (47 mg/m3), 1,1,1-trichloroethane (13 mg/m3), and 1,2-dichloroethane (48 mg/m3) (Wallace et al. 1987). A study performed by Anderson Laboratories tested the effects of gaseous emissions from several samples of vinyl wall covering and vinyl-coated wall covering on groups of four mice. The animals were exposed for 30 to 60 minutes and examined for signs of sensory and pulmonary irritation. Sensory irritation ranged from no irritation in some groups to moderate irritation in others. Pulmonary irritation ranged from none in some groups to severe in others (Anderson 1992). A vinyl wall covering met the standards established by the state of Washington for several new office buildings. Chamber tests indicated that the specific vinyl wall-covering sample tested was not a source of formaldehyde, 4-phenylcyclohexene, or National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) pollutants. The vinyl wall covering was a source of VOCs, with total VOC concentrations of a maximum of 0.260 mg/m3. The test also detected benzene, a known human carcinogen, at a low concentration at the 24-hour exposure point; after 144 hours, benzene was not detected. Styrene (a probable human carcinogen), toluene, xylene, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane were also detected at the 24-hour exposure point; only trace amounts of toluene remained after 144 hours (Air Quality Sciences 1992). One manufacturer, producing a nonwoven backed wall covering that can contain a small amount of residual formaldehyde, reports that its woven-polyester and polyester-cottonblend wall coverings are not an emission source. The same manufacturer has examined its vinyl wall coverings for other potential emissions. This manufacturer reports that some residual ketones and toluol used in the ink are present when the wall covering leaves the plant. The manufacturers tests indicate that the solvents volatilize quickly when the wall covering is first unrolled and then at a slower rate. The emissions become nondetectable after 2 weeks. These emissions will decrease or be eliminated as the use of solvent-based inks is reduced and eventually replaced by water-based inks (Barden 1993).

When a wall covering has lost its visual appeal, another layer of wall covering may be applied over it if the original wall-covering surface is sound and well adhered to the wall. Frequently, however, it may be preferable to remove the old wall covering before installing the new. Strippable wall covering may be peeled entirely off the wall surface by hand. Peelable wall coverings can be removed similarly, leaving the substrate paper behind. If the substrate is tightly attached to the wall, new wall covering can be applied directly to it, or the substrate can be removed. If the substrate is removed, it may be necessary to wash the wall with warm water to remove old paste. A primer/sealer may be used before applying the new wall covering. The environmental impacts associated with this stage of the life cycle of wall coverings are summarized in figure 9. There are several techniques available for removing nonstrippable wall coverings: The decorative layer may be removed manually. Mechanical scrapers using some type of metal blade
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Regulatory Status
Figure 9: Wall CoveringsRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity
Removal of used wallcoverings
Stressor
Solid waste
Impact/Stressor
Disposal in landfill decreases landfill capacity Incineration of vinyl wall covering may release carcinogens Increased BOD
Impact/Stressor
Impact/Stressor
Washwater containing dissolved adhesive and dirt
Increased benthic deposition Deoxygenation
can be used to remove one or more layers of wall covering at a time from a dry wall. Steamers can apply moisture and heat to facilitate scraping off the wall covering. Stripping solutions containing surfactants that will speed the dissolution of the wall-covering adhesive can be applied to abraded wall covering. The wall covering can then be scraped off. After the old wall covering is removed, the wall should be cleaned and coated with a primer or sealer before a new wall covering is hung. Washwater containing dissolved adhesive and dirt is normally disposed of through the sewer system. These materials will increase the organic loading in the discharge stream, which could result in increased BOD, increased benthic deposition, and deoxygenation (van der Leeden et al. 1990). Waste wall covering would normally be disposed of with refuse that is either landfilled or incinerated. Incineration of PVC could release hydrogen chloride and various other products of incomplete combustion (Austin 1984). Recycling of removed wall coverings is difficult. Because of the wide variation in additives and contaminants, removed wall-covering material is not uniform in composition. In some instances, it has been possible to recycle mixed PVC to a lower-grade product, like carpet backing. This approach to recycling does not produce a very high value product. The alternative approach is to separate the reclaimed PVC into many carefully screened categories of waste to achieve uniform composition. This process is labor intensive. For the most part, it has not been financially feasible to recycle on a large scale using either approach.
Regulatory Status
Materials in the life cycle of wall coverings become at least partially regulated in practically all stages. In the mining stage, any point-source water discharge of process-generated wastewater may be subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act (CWA). Agriculture and forestry are increasingly subject to regulation for chemical use, runoff, and soil erosion under both federal and state law. Chemical use is regulated under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and, in some instances, under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). TSCA also regulates certain aspects of radon and asbestos remediation. In the manufacturing stage, heat sources and manufacturing processes may be subject to emission standards under the Clean Air Act (CAA). As in the mining stage, any point-source water discharge of process-generated wastewater in the manufacturing stage may be subject to regulation under the CWA. Storage, treatment, and disposal of any solid or hazardous wastes in the manufacturing process may be subject to regulation under RCRA and state solid-waste laws. Improper release of hazardous substances on any industrial, commercial, or residential site can result in cleanup requirements and substantial liability for damages under the Comprehensive Environmental Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). Some very large construction projects may have requirements under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) if there is sufficient federal involvement.
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Wall Coverings
Regulatory Status
Local governments increasingly place significant environmental requirements on construction through their planning and zoning authority. Impacts to drinking-water sources can result in requirements under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Typically, construction and demolition wastes are subject to state and local solid-waste laws and ordinances. Although this regulatory coverage is significant and pervasive, gaps still exist, particularly in the areas of toxic and hazardous process constituents. Principal regulatory requirements of each stage of the life cycle of wall coverings are identified and described briefly below.
Materials Acquisition and Preparation Stage Some mining and processing of the major nonliving resources are heavily regulated. Oil and natural gas extraction are subject to effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 435, which places oil and grease limitations on offshore and coastal exploration and production facilities. Limestone processing plants are subject to CAAs new-source performance standards (NSPS) under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart LL, for construction or major modification of crushers, grinding mills, screening operations, bucket elevators, belt conveyors, bagging operations, storage bins, and enclosed truck or railcar loading stations. NSPS place particulate matter and opacity limits on these facilities. Clay processing is subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for particulate matter. Point-source discharges from antimony mining and processing will be subject to effluent limitations under 40 CFR Part 440, subpart I, when EPA establishes them.
Agricultural production is much less regulated. Cotton and corn growing are largely unregulated. However, application of agricultural chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides are regulated under FIFRA, and the water quality aspects of soil tillage are increasingly becoming subject to best management practices and other nonregulatory conservation programs under Department of Agriculture regulation and non-point-source pollution regulatory programs under state laws. Grain elevators are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart DD, for fugitive and process emissions of particulate matter. Logging operations on federal forest lands are subject to national forest management plans that are increasingly requiring best management practices to reduce the adverse environmental effects of forestry. These requirements are also increasingly being applied through state regulation and even, in some cases for long-term economic reasons alone, on private forest lands. In pulping operations, barking processes may be subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 429, subpart A, which forbids the discharge of process wastewater to waters of the United States for mechanical barking operations and sets effluent guidelines for BOD, TSS, and pH for hydraulic barking operations. Bleached kraft paper mills are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 430, subparts H and I, which place limits on BOD, TSS, pH, pentachlorophenol, and trichlorophenol. Increasingly, attention is being given to priority toxic pollutants and nonconventional pollutants, such as dioxin, in new plant treatment systems, as well as in upgrades of existing treatment systems. Bleached kraft paper mills may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead. New bleached kraft paper mills (including associated lime kilns), or substantial modification of existing bleached kraft paper mills, are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart BB, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur, and to prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) standards under 40 CFR Part 51. PSD standards require monitoring for and potentially applying control technology for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead, plus the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal
38
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WALL COVERINGS
Wall Coverings
Regulatory Status
waste combustor metals (where applicable), which are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i). Any facility can be subject to stationary source requirements for National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) pollutants (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead) under 40 CFR Part 51 if it employs fossil fuel boilers of more than 250 million Btus (263,750 MJ) per hour capacity. Solid and hazardous waste generated in the materials acquisition and processing stage, particularly in papermaking operations, are regulated under state and local regulations and to a lesser extent under RCRA. Sludges from the recycled papermaking process may have significant RCRA treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) facility compliance requirements, particularly in larger mills, where sludge volumes are likely to be most significant.
Manufacturing and Fabrication Stage Most manufacturing operations are not subject to specific effluent guidelines. Hence, their discharges must be monitored under generic National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit requirements for at least the five conventional pollutants of BOD, TSS, pH, fecal coliform, and oil and grease, which must be treated using best conventional pollution control technology (BCT). EPA has also developed a list of 126 toxic pollutants from 65 classes of chemical compounds that may be required to be monitored and treated with best available technology economically achievable (BAT). All other pollutants are designated nonconventional and may also require treatment under BAT. Because of the variety of chemicals used in the adhesives manufacturing process, monitoring and treatment requirements for toxic and nonconventional pollutants are most likely in this operation.
A number of manufacturing processes are subject to specific CWA point-source effluent guidelines. Grain mills are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 406. Textile mills, such as cotton and synthetic cloth manufacture, are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 410. Organic chemicals, plastics, and synthetic fibers processes, such as polyester and PVC manufacture, are subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 414. Inorganic chemical manufacturing is subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 415. Fertilizer manufacturing is subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 418. Petroleum refining is subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 419. Manufacture of oil-based inks is subject to CWA effluent guidelines under 40 CFR Part 447. Stationary heat sources at large manufacturing operations may be subject to CAA emission standards under 40 CFR Part 51 for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead if they reach the 100 tons/year threshold for any CAA pollutant. New stationary heat sources at such facilities, or substantial modification of existing stationary heat sources, may be subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart OOO, for particulate matter and total reduced sulfur, and possibly to PSD standards under 40 CFR Part 51. PSD standards require monitoring for and potentially applying control technology for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead, plus the additional pollutants listed in 40 CFR 51.166(b)(23)(i): asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, fluorides, sulfuric acid mist, hydrogen sulfide, total reduced sulfur, municipal waste combustor organics, and municipal waste combustor metals (where applicable), which are to be controlled at less than appropriate emission thresholds established in 40 CFR 51.166(i)(8)(i). Petroleum refineries are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subparts J, K, and GGG, for particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, and VOCs. Lime manufacturing plants are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart HH, for opacity. PVC manufacture is also subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subparts VV, CCC, FFF, III, KKK, LLL, NNN, QQQ, and VVV, for VOCs. Polymer manufacturing plants are subject to
WALL COVERINGS
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Wall Coverings
Regulatory Status
CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart DDD, for VOCs. Natural gas processing facilities are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart LLL, for sulfur dioxide. Synthetic organic manufacturing processes are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart NNN, for VOCs. Refinery wastewater treatment facilities are subject to CAA NSPS under 40 CFR Part 60, subpart QQQ, for no detectable emissions of VOCs. All of these facilities can be subject to stationary source requirements for National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) pollutants (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, and lead) under 40 CFR Part 51 if they employ fossil fuel boilers of more than 250 million Btus (263,750 MJ) per hour capacity. Solid and hazardous waste generated in most manufacturing operations are regulated under state and local regulations and to a lesser extent under RCRA. Adhesives manufacturing, which may use more hazardous constituents, such as PVA, ethylene glycol, and antifungal agents that may end up as contamination in solid-waste streams, is the most likely candidate for such regulation.
Construction, Use, and Maintenance and Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stages No federal guidelines or regulations relating to emissions of VOCs have been established at this time. Disposal of construction debris is governed by state and local solid-waste requirements, which vary widely from state to state. Regulatory Statutes and Reference s Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 U.S 7401 et seq. (i.e., Title 42 of the U.S. Code, starting with Section 7401). s Clean Water Act (CWA), 33 U.S 1251 et seq. s Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), 42 U.S 9601 et seq. s Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 7 U.S 136. s National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 42 U.S 4321 et seq. s Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Government Printing Office. July 1, 1992. s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA), 42 U.S 6901 et seq. s Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 42 U.S 300f et seq. s Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), 30 U.S 1201 et seq. s Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 15 U.S 2601 et seq.
40
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WALL COVERINGS
Wall Coverings
References
References
Air Quality Sciences, Inc. 1992. Indoor Air Quality Evaluation of Vinyl Wallcovering for Hensel Phelps Corporation and accompanying correspondence. Prepared for the State of Washington Department of General Administration, Report no. 01185-03. January 14. Alexander, Susan, and Brian Greber. 1991. Environmental Ramifications of Various Building Materials Used in Construction and Manufacture in the United States. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. October. American Gas Association. 1988. Industrial Sector Energy Analysis: The Paper Industry. American Gas Association, Planning and Analysis Group. Arlington, VA. American Institute of Architects (AIA). 1991. Masterspec Evaluations: Section 09950Wall coverings. Washington, DC. April. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). 1988. Standard Specification for Wallcovering, Designation F 1141-88. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Ampian, Sarkis G. 1985. Clays. In Mineral Facts and Problems (Preprint from Bulletin 675). Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. 1988. Clays. 1988 Minerals Yearbook. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Ampian, Sarkis G., and Rosa L. McGee. 1990. Clays in 1989. Mineral Industry Surveys. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. December. Anderson, R. C. 1992. Use of ASTM E 981 to Estimate Irritant Potency of Room Air and Offgassing of Commercial Products. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Barden, Bruce. 1993. Technical Director, GenCorp Polymer Products, Columbus, MI. Personal communications. October 8 and 14. Brown, Harry L., Bernard B. Hamel, Bruce A. Hedman, Michael Koluch, Birar C. Gajanana, and Philip Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. U.S. Department of Energy, Contract no. E(11-1)2862. Fairmont Press Edition. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. 1991. Annual Report.
Chemical Fabrics and Films Association, Inc. (CFFA). 1991. Letter in response to Material Data Sheet. January 18. Cleveland, OH. Chem Systems, Inc. 1991. Vinyl Products Life Cycle Assessment, Final Draft Report. August. Colombo, A., M. DeBortoli, E. Pecchio, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt, and H. Vissers. 1990. Chamber Testing of Organic Emissions from Building and Furnishing Materials. The Science of the Total Environment 91:237-49. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. Davis, Lawrence. 1992. Gypsum Annual Report 1990. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. April. Forbes, David R. 1992. Mills Preparing for Next Century with New Pulping, Bleaching Techniques. Pulp and Paper 66(9):79-90. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: Society of the Plastics Industry. Godish, Thad. No date. Indoor Air Pollution Control. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. Goldfarb, Alan S., C. Vanessa Fong, Gerald R. Goldgraben, James Konz, and Pamela Walker. 1979. Hazards Associated with Organic Chemical Manufacturing: Polymerization Processes for Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyether Glycols. Technical Report no. MTR-78W00364-04. The Mitre Corporation, McLean, VA. May. Hawley, Gessner G. 1971. Condensed Chemical Dictionary. 8th ed. Heimburger, Stanley et al. 1988. Kraft Mill Bleach Plant Effluents: Recent Developments Aimed at Decreasing Their Environmental Impact, Part I. Tappi Journal. October. Hileman, B. 1992. Industrial Ecology Route to Slow Global Change Proposed. Chemical and Engineering News. August 24. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Hunter, Linda Mason. 1989. The Healthy Home. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. Ivahnenko, T. I., J. J. Rento, and J. H. Rauch. 1988. Liming Effects on the Water Quality in Two West Virginia Streams. In Restoration of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems, edited by R. W. Brockson and J. Wisniewski. Klewer Academic Publishers.
Kirk-Othmer. 1982. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Levin, Hal. 1989. Building Materials and Indoor Air Quality. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews 4 (Oct.-Dec.). Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, Inc. Lohman, Roger. 1993. Chemquest, Inc., Cincinnati. Personal communication. October 14. MacCleery, Douglas W. 1990. Brief Overview of the Condition and Trends of the U.S. Forests. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. March 15. McGraw-Hill. 1993. McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science & Technology. NY: McGraw-Hill. McKetta, John J. 1977. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 2, Additives to Alpha. NY: Marcel Dekker. Molhave, Lars. 1982. Indoor Air Pollution Due to Organic Gases and Vapours of Solvents in Building Materials. Environment International 8:117-27. National Decorating Products Association and Wallcoverings Association. 1991. Wallcoverings Product Knowledge Manual. December. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1978. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. . 1990. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development. No date (a). Dyebath and Bleach Bath Reconstitution for Textile Mills. Raleigh, NC. . No date (b). Water Conservation for Textile Mills. Raleigh, NC. Olem, H. 1991. Liming Acidic Surface Waters. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. ONeill, Michael. 1993. Eisenhardt Wall-coverings, Hanover, PA. Personal communication. October 12. Patterson, Sam H., and Haydn H. Murray. 1975. Clays. Industrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels). American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. Rubin, Edward S. et al. 1992. Realistic Mitigation Options for Global Warming. Science 257 (July 10).
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References
Smith, Fred. 1993. President, Fred Smith Adhesives. Personal communication. October 5. Tellus Institute. 1991. The Tellus Institute Packaging Study Project Summary. November. . 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter its Mix. May. Tucker, W. Gene. 1988. Emissions of Air Pollutants from Indoor Materials: An Emerging Design Consideration. 5th Canadian Building and Construction Conference, Montreal, Canada. November 27-29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1988. Toxic Release Inventory. Office of Toxic Substances. . 1990a. Textile Manufacturing. Publication no. EPA/530-SW-90-027e. . 1990b. Toxic Release Inventory. Office of Toxic Substances. . 1992. Pollution Prevention Research Strategy. Office of Research and Development. August. .1993. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42) Database. van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David Keith Todd. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers. Wallace, Lance et al. 1987. Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Building Materials and Consumer Products. Atmospheric Environment 21(2):385-93. Weinzimer, L. 1993. Marketing director, Polytex Environmental Inks, Ltd., Bronx, NY. Personal communication; information for wall coverings report. April 26. Weinzimer, Mel. No date (a). How Wallcoverings Evolve Involves Many Processes. Wallcovering Consultant. . No date (b). Printing Plays an Important Role in Creating a Fashion Product. Wallcovering Consultant. . No date (c). Variety of Constructions Creates a World of Wall covering. Wallcovering Consultant. . No date (d). Many Changes Ahead for Wall coverings in the 90s. Wallcovering Consultant.
White, Allen et al. 1992. Total Cost Assessment: Accelerating Industrial Pollution Prevention Through Innovative Project Financial Analysis with Applications to the Pulp and Paper Industry. Washington, DC: Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. May.
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Material Report
Fabrics for Workstations

Highlights
Wastes generated in the production of wool include pesticide that may be spilled during application to sheep, fertilizer and pesticide runoff from crops used to feed sheep, wastewater from the washing of raw wool and woven fabric, and emissions from the combustion of fuel. Wastes generated to acquire and prepare materials used in polyester production include pollutants that may be released during the extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas. These pollutants include VOCs (volatile organic compounds) released into the air and various toxic wastes discharged into lakes and streams. The production of polyester fiber may release polymer dust, residual monomers, fiber lubricants, and combustion products. The production of dyes requires the acquisition and processing of petroleum, natural gas, and coal, with associated environmental and health impacts. The various finishing treatments used on fabrics require the acquisition of petrochemical and mineral components. Operations associated with these materials often involve the combustion of fuel. The release of pollutants may be associated with each of these phases.
Many ingredients in synthetic fabrics are derived from petrochemicals. Although oil, gas, and coal are finite resources, they are currently in plentiful supply. Natural fibers are produced by living plants or animals. The availability of such fibers is related to the availability of the organisms that produce them. Some synthetic fibers are produced from alcohols made from plant material, a renewable resource.
Production of polyester fiber requires 23,100 Btus (24.37 MJ) per 1.0 lb (0.45 kg) of fiber produced. Fabrics, especially synthetic fabrics, as well as other workstation components, can release noticeable amounts of VOCs into the indoor air. Most of these releases occur upon installation of new materials. In some areasfor example in Europebuildings may be heated to elevated temperatures to help drive off VOCs before occupancy. This heating must be done carefully. Alternatively, flush out the building with 100 percent outside air for 2 to 4 weeks after installation.
FABRICS FOR WORKSTATIONS
MAT 12610

Background
Workstations are a type of modular office furniture that combines work surfaces, storage, and privacy partitions in a single unit. The components are modular; that is, they can be assembled in a variety of different arrangements to suit the available space and the needs of the occupants. As an alternative to conventional office construction utilizing drywall to divide office space permanently, workstations provide the flexibility to alter work space configurations without the disruption and waste that usually result when office space is remodeled. This report concerns only the fabric used to construct this furniture, not the workstations themselves. Some workstation partitions are upholstered in fabric that provides sound-deadening qualities along with an attractive appearance and pleasing texture. Information provided by a major manufacturer of workstations (Ankney 1994), as well as information from office furniture suppliers, indicates that a number of fabrics are commonly used for this purpose, including wool, worsted wool, elastomeric wool, wool and polyester blend, polyester, vinyl, modacrylic, silk and flax, nylon, and chlorofiber. Discussed in this report are two commonly used fabrics for workstations: a major natural fabric, wool, and the major synthetic fabric, polyester. Wool, a natural fiber obtained from the fleece of the domestic sheep, has been harvested from ancient times to provide clothing and household coverings. Sheep were domesticated probably as early as 10,000 B.C. The Romans practiced selective breeding and brought sheep husbandry to Spain and Britain. Today, fabric made from wool holds an important place in the textile industry because of its properties of insulation, absorbency, resilience, and ability to take dye well. Wool is often blended with synthetic fibers such as polyester (Academic American Encyclopedia 1994). Polyester was introduced in 1951, and its popularity increased throughout the following decades. Variations in the manufacturing processes produce fabrics with wide-ranging characteristics affecting such qualities as loft, bulk, reflectance, and hand. Polyester is often blended with other synthetic and natural fibers (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980).
A life-cycle summary of wool and polyester fabrics is provided in figures 1a and 1b. The raising of sheep for wool is, environmentally speaking, a relatively benign operation. Because sheep are excellent foragers, they can effectively use the food that is available; however, they may eat almost all of the plant on which they are foraging. This could denude the soil and cause erosion. Pregnant and lactating ewes require supplemental feeding of hay and corn (maize), and this agricultural production does result in some impact to the environment. In addition, sheep are immersed in a pesticide solution to combat external parasites, and this practice may release toxic material into streams and lakes. Washing the raw wool fiber and the woven fabric requires large amounts of water, as do dyeing and afterwashing. Release of this wastewater into lakes and streams can contribute to water pollution. Manufacturing the fabric requires the burning of fuel to produce steam for milling and to provide heat for pressing. Dyeing also requires heat for the process. The combustion of fuel for the production of energy can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including NO x (nitrogen oxides), SOx (sulfur oxides), CO (carbon monoxide), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), and particulates. These emissions can contribute to a number of environmental problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidification, fishkill, smog, decreased visibility, greenhouse effect, global warming, tree/crop damage, materials corrosion, eye irritation, and lung damage.
MAT 12610

Polyester is produced from petroleum and natural gas. The extraction and processing of natural gas may have significant environmental impacts, among which are the discharge of wastewater containing such contaminants as oil, grease, oxygen-depleting parameters (BOD, [biological oxygen demand] and COD [chemical oxygen demand]), toxic organics, dissolved solids, and heavy metals. Drilling produces drilling mud and drilling bit cuttings as wastes. Air pollution can be produced by the large diesel engines that power the drill. Air pollutants emitted during fuel combustion and the resulting environmental impacts are mentioned above. The extraction and processing of crude oil can release air pollutants, including VOCs, mercaptans, SOx, CO, ammonia, aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene. Water pollutants from crude oil processing can include oil sludge, oil, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, dissolved solids, BOD, chlorides, mercaptans, and cyanides. Wastes that may be produced during oil extraction include produced water, drilling mud, deck drainage, sanitary and domestic waste, oil, grease, and heavy metals. The environmental impacts of polyester fiber production may include various air emissions such as polymer dust from drying operations, volatilized residual monomer, fiber lubricants (in the form of fume or oil smoke), and the burned polymer and combustion products from cleaning the spinning equipment. The manufacture of polyester staple and the dyeing of polyester fabric require the burning of fuel to provide heat. The combustion of fuel can cause environmental impacts, which are mentioned above. Dyeing and afterwashing require a great deal of pure water; release of insufficiently treated wastewater can be a cause of stream pollution. The assembly of workstations produces waste in the form of fabric scrap and trim, which can be recycled. Some manufacturers recycle their fabric scrap by using it as sound-deadening material in some of their panels. In addition, surplus scrap may be sold to recyclers and used in other applications. Recycling reduces the amount of virgin material that must be used and reduces the burden on landfills. Packaging materials, for components delivered to the factory as well as for assembled workstations delivered to the customer, are an additional source of waste. At least one manufacturer is working to reduce packaging. One suggestion to help eliminate or greatly reduce packaging is to blanket-wrap the product for shipping (Strobridge 1995). Used workstations can be remanufactured and resold for further use. Several manufacturers design their workstations so that they can be easily disassembled and reupholstered with new fabric. Remanufacturers remove old fabric and sell it to reprocessors, who recycle it for various uses.
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*
Figure 1a: Life-Cycle Summary of Wool and Polyester Fabrics
Chrome blue black U Pesticides
Fabric dyes Sheep raising
Dyeing application chemicals (eg., acids, metal salts, reducing solutions, oxidizing solutions) Sheep dipping Cornstarch production Fluorocarbons Mothproofing agents Silico-fluorides Chromium-fluorides Camphor Naphthalene Paradichlorobenzene Dieldrin
Life-Cycle Summary Wool and Polyester Fabrics
Dyeing
Wastewater
Inspection Carding Spinning
Air emissions (SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates)
Weaving
Dyeing
Wastewater
Fertilizer
Hay and corn production
Wool shearing
Wool
Processing Sorting Scouring
Dyeing
Wastewater
Flame retardants Aryl bromophosphate Organic halogen-phosphorous compounds Tetrakis hydroxymethyl phosphonium chloride Triethanolamine Trimethylol melamine Trisagiridinyl phosphine oxide
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (NOX, CO, ammonia aldehydes, particulates, benzene, benzol(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene)
Tapioca production Sizing production Stain inhibitors Finishing applications Mildew, mold, and rot inhibitors Copper compounds Chromium compounds Chlorinated phenols Metallic soap Miscellaneous coatings Vinyl acetate Vinylidene chloride Formaldehyde resins
hydrolysis
Perching
MAT 12610 FABRICS FOR WORKSTATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996
Finishing processes and applications
Finished wool fabric

same as sulfur production (below) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Oil processing Desalting catalyst Distillation Catalytic cracking

beta-Naphthanol
amination
Workstation assembly
Naphthalene
beta-Naphthalene sulfonic acid
1-Amine-2-hydroxy
naphthalene sulfonic acid
see top left of this chart Sulfuric acid By-product sulfuric acid *
Packaging
Sulfur
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur trioxide
Sulfur production Exploration Extraction
Brine
Electrolysis
Blue sludge (magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, spent sulfuric acid, scrubbing wastes, asbestos)
Water
Chrome blue black U

Unreacted chemicals
Storage
Produced water, oil, Drilling Drainage grease, BOD, COD, heavy muds and wastes metals, TDS, organics cuttings Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Sodium hydroxide Display/sales Coproducts Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrochloric acid (industrial by-product) Remanufacture Setup Ammonia
oxidation
Natural gas processing Separation Liquefication Ni Distillation

NO
Sodium nitrite
KEY
Process flow
Maintenance/repair
Transport
Trona mining
Processing
Soda ash
Boundary Output
Disposal
Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden Recycling
Figure 1b: Life-Cycle Summary of Wool and Polyester Fabrics

Additional flame retardants Tribrominated polystyrene Polycarbonate oligomers of tetrabromobisphenol Poly(dibromophenylene oxide) Decabromodiphenyl oxide Ethylene bis(tetrabromophthalimide) (The above chemicals are compounded with Antimony oxide.)
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996 FABRICS FOR WORKSTATIONS MAT 12610
Naphthalene
Air emissions (benzene, VOCs) Air emissions (polymer dust, volotilized monomers, VOCs, particulates)


catalyst
Ethylene
Ethylene glycol
Polyester
Chlorinated Zinc, cadmium, Hydroorganics chromium, copper carbons
p-Xylene
Dimethyl terephtalate
Organics; dissolved and suspended solids
KEY
Sizing polymers
silver or ferric molybdate catalyst
Habitat change Runoff, soil Tailings waste, erosion, TSS overburden
Finishing applications except mothproofing (see figure 1a)
Output Recycling
Methanol
Formaldehyde Mineral separation
Finishing processes and applications
beta-Naphthol (see figure 1a) Sulfite pulping waste
2-Hydroxy-naphthalene6-sulfonic acid Ligninsulfonates
TiO2 processing
Finished polyester fabric
Dyeing
Wastewater
Workstation assembly
Ferrous sulfate
Air emissions (SO2, NOX, NH3, VOCs, particulates) Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Cresols Packaging Sulfuric acid (see figure 1) Titanium dioxide Storage

Air emissions (SOx, NOx, CO2, CO, VOCs, particulates)
Coal pyrolysis Distillation

Coal tar distillation
Life-Cycle Summary Wool and Polyester Fabrics
Dispersing agents
Chrome blue black U

Unreacted chemicals
Display/sales
Dyeing application chemicals Dispersion agents

Refining residue
Partial combustion
Carbon black
Fabric dyes
Setup
Maintenance/repair Weaving
Dyeing
Wastewater
Fiber production
Dyeing
Wastewater
Yarn production
Dyeing
Wastewater
Remanufacture
Disposal


A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of wool fibers and raw materials for polyester fabric is presented in figure 2.
Wool
Fiber
Wool is the fine, soft, wavy hair (or fleece) that forms the coat of a living animalthe domestic sheep, Ovis aries. Sheep are bred on all continents and in all climates; they are raised for their meat as well as for their wool. In the United States, sheep are raised primarily for their wool. The leading sheep-raising states are Texas, California, Wyoming, and Colorado. Here, large flocks of 1,000 or more, raised for wool, are grazed on the range (Academic American Encyclopedia 1994). Sheep are excellent foragers and, being ruminants, can effectively utilize both pasture forage and harvested roughage. During the winter, pregnant ewes require legume hay or a mixed hay with a high percentage of legume. Lactating ewes are fed corn (maize) for its high energy content. Range sheep of the western United States are often of mixed breeding and are very hardy and thrifty. They are often crosses carrying the breeding of long-wool sheep, developed in England, and the French Rambouillet, descended from the fine-wool Merino breed. Sheep are wintered in bands, or flocks, of 1,000 to 4,000 head at lower altitudes. In summer, they are moved to their summer range at much higher altitudes in bands of 1,000 to 1,500. Sheep are often infested with external parasites such as ticks, lice, and mites. Sheep dip, a liquid pesticide, is used to prevent infestation (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1984). Wool-fiber production is a continuous process, in contrast to the periodic shedding of the coat of most other hair-growing animals. Production of wool fiber depends on the rate of growth, which in turn is affected by such factors as the breed of the sheep and diet. The texture and quality of fleece grown by a particular animal is determined largely by heredity. Nutrition can affect the quality of wool in terms of length, diameter, and tensile strength of the fibers (Academic American Encyclopedia 1994). The first step in the process of converting wool fiber into fabric is shearing the sheep. Clipping the fleece from the hide of the animal is generally performed annually in the spring, except in Texas and California, where, due to climactic conditions, sheep are shorn biannually. Hand or power clippers are used in shearing. Skilled shearers can clip the entire fleece in one continuous piece. The wool is then sorted, each fleece yielding several different grades of wool fiber (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980).
Dyes
Dyes are compounds that are colored and can impart that color to something else with some permanency. The color-producing structure is called a chromogen, and the part that affects solubility and adherence is called the auxochrome. The chromogen is usually an aromatic (i.e., based on a benzene ring) structure that contains a color-giving group called the chromophore. Common chromophores include the azo, nitroso, nitro, ethylene, carbonyl, carbon-nitrogen, and carbon-sulfur groups. The extent to which these groups and their bonds influence electron transitions between molecular orbitals produces absorption bands in the visible light spectrum. The result is color associated with each of the dyes. Auxochromes commonly include amine, hydroxyl, nitrogen-carbon radical, carboxyl, and sulfonic groups (Austin 1984). A wide variety of dyes are used with fabrics, each having different properties that vary for specific fabrics. A dye may have a desired color but may not form a stable bond with a fabric unless a special application method is used (discussed below, under manufacturing). An
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Figure 2: Wool Fibers and Raw MaterialsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation

Activity Production of hay and corn (maize) for feeding of sheep Stressor Runoff of pesticides Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Impact/Stressor Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
Runoff of fertilizers
Increased loadings of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus Increased BOD VOCs
Deoxygenation and algal bloom Loss of faunal diversity Ground-level ozone or smog
Habitat alteration Possible fishkill
Sulfur dioxide
Particulates
Nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse effect Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction
Surface water acidification, reduced reproduction, possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Deoxygenation Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill
Sheep dipping Sheep foraging
Runoff of pesticides Denuding of land Land disturbance
(see impacts above) Soil erosion Soil runoff
Crude oil extraction (for manufacture of wool dyes)
Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics Drilling muds, drill cuttings, produced sands Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes
Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Eutrophication Water-borne disease
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning
Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (for manufacture of wool dyes) Crude oil processing (for manufacture of wool dyes)
Desalting process wastewater
Emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids
(see impacts above)
continued
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Figure 2: Wool Fibers and Raw MaterialsMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)
Activity Crude oil processing (for manufacture of wool dyes) (continued) Stressor Distillation process wastewater Distillation process air emissions Catalytic cracking wastewater Impact/Stressor Sulfides, ammonia, oil and chlorides Phenol Mercaptans VOCs Oil, sulfides, cyanides, and ammonia Impact/Stressor Consumption of toxics by fish Known human carcinogen Noxious odors (see impacts above) High pH Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Impact/Stressor (see impacts above)
Surface water acidification Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction, loss of faunal diversity, possible fishkill
Natural gas production (for manufacture of wool dyes)
Drilling sulfur wells (for manufacture of wool dyes) Trona mining (for manufacture of wool dyes)
Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygendepleting organics Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts of crude oil extraction, above) Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden
Phenol VOCs, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and ammonia Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene (see impacts above)
Known human carcinogen (see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Runoff
Land disturbance
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Soil erosion Habitat alteration
Deoxygenation Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biotic diversity
Manufacture of wool dyes
Fuel combustion emission Wastewater possibly containing unreacted petrochemicals, acid, alkali, or sodium nitrite Camphor, naphthalene, paradichlorobenzene, vinyl acetate, and vinylidene chloride Naphthalene, paradichlorobenzene, vinyl acetate, and vinylidene chloride Dieldrin and formaldehyde Agricultural production (corn and tapioca)
Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts of wastewater discharge from crude oil production, above) Toxic to humans
Wool finishes
Hazardous air pollutants
Wool sizing production
Carcinogens Runoff of pesticides Runoff of fertilizers Fuel combustion emissions
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Activity Natural gas production (for polyester fiber manufacture) Stressor Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen depleting organics Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
(see impacts above)
Crude oil extraction (for polyester fiber manufacture) Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (for polyester fiber manufacture) Crude oil processing (for polyester fiber manufacture) Dimethyl terephthalate production (for polyester fiber manufacture)
(see impacts above)
(see impacts above)
Air emissions
VOCs, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and xylene
(see impacts above)
Wastewater
Polyester production Polyester dyes
Air emissions Sand mining for titanium dioxide production Titanium dioxide production
Organics, suspended solids, and dissolved solids VOCs and particulates (see mining impacts above) Sulfate process
Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD (see impacts above)
Gypsum as solid waste Calcination
Chloride process Titanium dioxide
Carbon black production
Polyester dye application chemicals
Acetic acid and diphenyl production Naphthalene and sulfuric acid production Formaldehyde manufacture
Crude oil extraction Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction Crude oil processing Toxic to humans (see impacts of wool dyes manufacture) Possible release of wastewater containing residual monomers Tailing waste/mine spoils (sulfur) Acid drainage Land disturbance
Wastewater Lung fibrosis Potential human carcinogen (occupational) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (See impacts above)
Decreased landfill capacity Air emissions as sulfur oxides and carbon dioxide (see impacts above) Iron chlorides
Formaldehyde may be carried off in the condensate Surface water acidification Contamination of groundwater Soil erosion Habitat alteration (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Coal mining (for cresol production)
Human health effects (irritant, allergen, and possible human carcinogen) Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Runoff (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
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Activity Polyester dye application chemicals (continued) Stressor Coal mining (for cresol production) (continued) Impact/Stressor Air emissions (dust, particulates) Wastewater containing dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Air emissions Impact/Stressor Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification VOCs Particulates Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Dust Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Potential human carcinogen Impact/Stressor
Cresol production
Wastewater containing dissolved solids and organics Coal tar Production of sizing for polyester Toxic effects
Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Deoxygenation Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill
example of a fabric dye is chrome blue black u, an azo dye. To produce this dye, petroleum is catalyzed to naphthalene which is sulfonated by sulfuric acid to produce beta-naphthalene sulfonic acid. In the process, the isomer alpha-naphthalene sulfonic acid is hydrolyzed to produce naphthalene, which is reused. The beta-naphthalene sulfonic acid is then hydrolyzed by caustic fusion to beta-naphthol. Beta-naphthol is then aminated and sulfonated to produce 1-amino-2-hydroxy naphthalene sulfonic acid. This acid is then heated and reacted with sodium nitrite, water, beta-naphthol, sodium hydroxide, and hydrochloric acid to produce 4sulfo-2-hydroxynaphthalene-1-azo-beta-naphthol, chrome blue black u (Austin 1984). Various other dyes may be used with wool, depending upon the desired effect. The application of dye to the wool fibers is discussed below under manufacturing. Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur, which in the United States is obtained primarily by extraction from porous sulfur-bearing limestone. Concentric pipes are inserted into the rock, hot air and water are pumped into the formation, and liquid sulfur rises to the surface through the exit pipe. The liquid sulfur is transported in insulated tank cars or trucks or in heated barges or ships. This reduces freight costs and provides a purer sulfur than if the sulfur were allowed to cool and solidify. In the contact process, liquid sulfur is oxidized over vanadium catalyst to sulfur dioxide gas and then to sulfur trioxide gas, which reacts with water to produce sulfuric acid. The process is so exothermic that sulfuric acid production plants are also co-generators of electrical power reclaimed from the waste heat. In addition to being produced as described above, sulfuric acid is also generated during sulfur dioxide pollution abatement from metal smelting and industrial fuel combustion (Austin 1984). Most hydrochloric acid is produced as a by-product of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon chlorination. The production of sodium hydroxide is discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). Sodium nitrite (NaNO2) is produced by reacting the oxidation product of ammonia (NO) with soda ash (Na2CO3) in the presence of oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide. The production of ammonia from natural gas is described in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Soda ash is produced by mining trona from the huge deposits in Wyoming and California. The trona is processed by solution, clarification, filtration, crystallization, drying, and calcining (Austin 1984).
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Dyeing Application Chemicals. Dyes are applied to textile fibers in a variety of ways depending upon the properties of the fiber, dye, and final product. Some of the materials used in the application of dyes to wool include acids, metal salts, reducing solutions, and oxidizing solutions.
Additional Finishing
Fabric may be treated with various finishing materials to achieve certain fabric properties. The materials with which wool may be treated are described in this section. Cornstarch and tapioca are used as sizing, or slashing (Donaldson 1995). (The production of cornstarch was discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems09250.) Copper and chromium compounds as well as chlorinated phenol followed by metallic soaps may be used to inhibit mildew, mold, and rot. Some chemicals may be added to the dye bath to mothproof the fiber: silico-fluorides and chromium-fluorides impart mothproofing properties, and other mothproofing-agent components include camphor, naphthalene, and paradichlorobenzene, among others (EPA 1992). An EPA catalog indicates that dieldrin has been used as a mothproofing agent, but whether it continues to be used is not known (EPA 1992). Resistance to waterborne stains and to oil-borne stains is provided by various fluorocarbons. Flame-retardant finishes include such agents as aryl bromophosphate and organic halogenphosphorous compounds. Other flame retardants include tetrakis hydroxymethyl phosphonium chloride, triethanolamine, trimethylol melamine, and trisagiridinyl phosphine oxide (EPA 1992). Other coatings, for unspecified purposes, are made by application of vinyl acetate, vinylidene chloride, and formaldehyde resins, among other compounds (EPA 1992).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Preparation of Wool Fiber, Dyes, and Finishes
Pregnant and lactating ewes require supplemental feeding of hay and corn. The growing of hay and grains has an impact on the environment. The environmental concerns associated with agricultural production are discussed in the material report on gypsum board systems (09250). To combat external parasites, sheep are immersed in a pesticide solution (sheep dip). Pesticides used in this way can run off into streams and lakes. Since by their nature pesticides are toxic such contamination of aquatic habitats may lead to fishkill or a loss of biotic diversity. When foraging, sheep may eat so much of the plant on which they forage that the land becomes denuded, resulting in possible erosion (Beckering 1994). Other impacts may include water use from irrigation of feed crops and animal consumption. Sheep produce methane, associated with global warming, at a rate of about 19.4 lbs (8.8 kg) per year. The production of dyes requires the acquisition and processing of petroleum, the effects of which are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Production of the dye chrome blue black u involves the combustion of fuels for the production of energy, which can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smogwhich have been found to cause eye irritation and such respiratory tract problems as difficulty breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, and nasal congestion. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. NO x also contributes to environmental problems including acid precipitation and smog. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the
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cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. Wastewater is also released with unspecified contaminants. This wastewater possibly contains unreacted petrochemicals, acid, alkali, or sodium nitrite. Effects of these contaminants would be similar to those produced by petrochemical processing, discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Camphor, naphthalene, and paradichlorobenzene are known to have human toxicity on the basis that a threshold limit value has been established. Naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene are defined as hazardous air pollutants by the Clean Air Act. Dieldrin, should it still be used as a mothproofing agent, is a known carcinogen (EPA 1992). Vinyl acetate and vinylidene chloride are both hazardous air pollutants as defined by the Clean Air Act and have had threshold limit values established, indicative of human toxicity. If the formaldehyde resins are based on urea-formaldehyde formulations, formaldehydewhich is a known animal carcinogen and suspected human carcinogenmay be released (EPA 1992). There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of formaldehyde in animals, and there is limited evidence for its carcinogenicity in humans (U.S. Public Health Service 1989). The drilling of wells for the extraction of sulfur has environmental effects similar to those produced by the drilling of wells for gas or petroleum acquisition. Trona is acquired through underground mining (for Wyoming deposits) and open-pit mining (for California deposits). The environmental impacts of mining are described in the material report on plaster and lath (09200).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the amount of energy consumed during acquisition and preparation of wool fiber, dyes, and finishes.
Polyester
Fiber
Polyester fiber production is discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950).
Dyes and Pigments
The discussion of fabric dyes presented above for wool applies also to polyester. Azo dyes are the predominant colorants used to color polyesters; some anthraquinone dyes are also used, as are a variety of others, to a lesser extent. Chrome blue black u, discussed above under wool, is an azo dye that can be used with polyester. Most dyeing occurs after fiber production, and the application of dyes onto polyester is discussed below under manufacturing. Dyes are applied to some polyester before the fiber is extruded. In this situation, the colorant is mixed into the liquid polyester. In this way, extreme lightfastness of the dyed goods can be achieved. The additive used most frequently to change the normal transparent, white appearance of polyester is titanium dioxide (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987a). This compound dulls the appearance of the fibers. The production of titanium dioxide is discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). Carbon black is added to the plastic to produce black fibers. Carbon black is a very finely divided, nonporous carbonaceous material formed of polynuclear aromatic platelets. Most carbon black is produced by the oil furnace method. Highly aromatic oil, often a residue of refinery catalytic cracking, is partially combusted at 2,552 to 3,002F (1,400 to 1,650C) in a refractory-lined reactor. Nozzle design, reaction chamber geometry, temperature, residence time, and intensity of gaseous turbulence are all critical in achieving the correct amount of combustion. Following water quenching, close to 100 percent recovery is achieved by use of precipitators, cyclones, and insulated, fiberglass bag filters.
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Additional polyester dye bath constituents have been identified whose specific functions are not known. These include acetic acid, beta-oxynaphthoic acid, diphenyl, and paraphenylphenol (EPA 1992).
Dye Application Chemicals. As is indicated above, dyes are applied to textile fibers in a vari-
ety of ways, depending upon the properties of the fiber, the dye, and the final product. Polyester is dyed with disperse dyes in water unless its composition is specifically configured for other application processes. Dispersion agents used in this process include ligninsulfonates; condensation products of naphthalene, sulfuric acid, and formaldehyde; condensation products of m-cresol and o-cresol, formaldehyde, and 2-hydroxy naphthalene 6-sulfonic acid; or mixtures of these materials (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987a,1987b). Ligninsulfonates are produced as a waste product in sulfite pulping for alpha-cellulose paper and are discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). The production of naphthalene and sulfuric acid is discussed above. The production of formaldehyde is discussed in the material report on plastic laminates (06240). Cresols are produced by the distillation of coal tar, which is formed by the pyrolysis of coal. The acquisition and processing of coal are discussed in the material report on steel framing (05401). The production of 2-hydroxy naphthalene 6-sulfonic acid is similar to the production of 1-amino-2-hydroxy naphthalene sulfonic acid discussed above, except that there is no amination at the 1- position. When high temperatures cannot be used in the dyeing of mixed fibers (i.e., mixtures of polyester and wool) because of the damage the heat can do to the nonpolyester fiber, carriers must be used to swell the polyester fiber and increase the absorbance of dye. The chemical identity of these carriers has not been found in the literature; however, these materials cause problems with wastewater cleanup (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987b).
Additional Finishes
The finish materials listed under wool can also be used to finish polyester, although mothproofing would not be required. Polyester is also sized, like wool; however, the sizing agent is a synthetic polymer. In addition to those treatments, some flame retardants can be included in the molten polyester before the fibers are formed. Flame-retardant chemicals used with polyester include tribrominated polystyrene, polycarbonate oligomers of tetrabromobisphenol A, poly(dibromophenylene oxide), decabromodiphenyl oxide, and ethylene bis(tetrabromophthalimide). The individual flame retardant is formulated by mixing the bromine-containing compound with antimony oxide (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1988).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Preparation of Polyester Fiber, Dyes, and Finishes
The environmental impacts of polyester fiber production are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). Waste from fabric dyes is discussed above under wool. Additional products used with polyester fibers include titanium dioxide and carbon black. The environmental effects of titanium dioxide are discussed in the material report on concrete masonry (04220). The production of carbon black involves the acquisition and processing of petroleum and the release of emissions resulting from fuel combustion. Acetic acid and diphenyl are known to have human toxicity on the basis that a threshold limit value has been established. Production of coal tar and cresols releases air emissions and wastewater that have effects similar to those produced during coal mining. There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of coal tars in experimental animals and in humans (U.S. Public Health Service 1989).
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Manufacturing Stage
Certain synthetic fibers are being made from alcohols produced from renewable sources such as corn and wood chips (Beckering 1994). Whether these fibers include polyester is not certain.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the amount of energy consumed during acquisition and preparation of polyester fiber, dyes, and finishes.
Manufacturing Stage
A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacturing of wool and polyester fabrics is presented in figure 3.
Wool
Manufacture of Wool Fabric
From the time raw wool enters the mill until the time it emerges as finished fabric, it may undergo more than seventy special handlings. Two different systems or processes for wool production yield two different types of wool fabric: worsteds and woolens. In the making of worsted fabric, the individual wool fibers are more carefully aligned parallel to each other, rather than crossing over each other. The worsted system entails a greater number of steps and results in a fabric with a harder, smoother surface; worsted fabrics are generally used in tailored clothing. The woolen system is the basic process and the one that will be discussed here. The woolen system uses short fibers or mixed long and short fibers. No combing is done; the woven cloth, known as a woolen fabric, has a rougher appearance than that of worsted wool. The basic steps of the woolen process are as follows: After sorting, wool is scoured to remove dirt. Wool may be dyed at this stage (this process is known as stock dyeing), or dyeing may take place at later stages. Wool is inspected for quality; then it is carded, a process that opens the fibers, makes a homogeneous mix, and rolls the fibers into a roving, or slightly twisted strand. The fiber is then spun by being drawn out and twisted into a continuous strand called yarn, which is wound on a bobbin. Wool that is dyed at this stage is called yarn dyed. Yarn is then conditioned to allow efficient weaving, and all kinks are removed by steam pressure. Wool may be sized (slashed) to achieve a smooth out-surface profile, create greater evenness, and add strength. Sizing is used only in the warp yarn in weaving (not in knitting). Sizing is used exclusively for single-ply and thin yarn. Heat is used to fix the size on the yarn, requiring a lot of energy (Donaldson 1995). The warp yarns are prepared to specifications for color and size. Yarn is drawn-in by the loom operator; that is, each of the threads in the warp is drawn through small eyes in wires called heddles. Drawing-in controls the fabrics pattern. Yarn is woven by interlacing the warp with yarn run crosswise (the filling). Modern mechanical looms are capable of weaving thousands of yarns at once, producing complex weaving patterns and a wide range of woven products. When wool is dyed at the fabric stage, it is called piece dyed. The wool fabric is then perched, which means that it is placed on high frames and closely scrutinized. In a process called burling, all knots, loose threads, and slubs are removed. In the finishing process, some fabric is fulled (or milled) by a process combining heat, moisture, friction, and pressure to shrink the cloth considerably in both width and length. At this stage, the fabric loses its open-weave appearance. The fabric is then washed and rinsed to remove all the impurities and dirt that were picked up through the previous operations; it is next dried and straightened on a high-speed set of over-and-under heated rollers. It may then be sheared on a machine with revolving razor-sharp blades to attain a uniformly even
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Manufacturing Stage
Figure 3: Wool and Polyester FabricsManufacturing Stage

Activity Washing raw wool fiber and fabric Stressor Runoff of wastewater Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor
Wool fabric manufacture
Use of large amounts of water Fuel combustion emissions
VOCs
Ground-level ozone or smog and reduced lung
Respiratory tract problems function Eye irritation Decreased visibility
Sulfur dioxide
Respiratory problems and reduced lung function Acid precipitation
Particulates
Nitrogen oxides Dyeing of wool Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater containing toxic chemicals Wastewater containing toxic chemicals Fuel combustion emissions Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater containing toxic chemicals Wastewater containing toxic chemicals Titanium dioxide (see impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (see impacts above)
Greenhouse effect Affects human cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems Impairs ability of blood to carry oxygen Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired visibility Ground-level ozone or smog Acid precipitation Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction
Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction, Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Global warming
(see impacts above) (see impacts above) Loss of biotic diversity Possible fishkill
Application of finishes to wool Manufacture of polyester fabric Dyeing of polyester
Applications of finishes to polyester
Lung fibrosis Potential human carcinogen (occupational)
Application of sizing to polyester
Wastewater containing toxic chemicals
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Manufacturing Stage
pile or nap. After being moistened on a dewing machine, the wool fabric receives its final pressing while passing through heated rollers (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980).
Dyeing
For a fabric to be colored, the dye must penetrate the fiber and either combine chemically with it or be locked inside the fiber. Fibers that dye easily are those that are absorbent and that have dye sites in their molecules, which will react with the dye molecules. Wool is a good example of a fiber that is both absorbent and has many dye sites. The dye reacts with the surface molecules first. Moisture and/or heat swell the fibers, causing the molecule chains to move farther apart so that more reactive groups are exposed to react with the dye. During drying, the chains move back together, trapping the dye in the fiber (Hollen et al. 1979). Wool is frequently dyed with acid dyes. These are salts whose acid component contains the colorant. Sometimes colorfastness is increased by the application of metallic salts, especially chrome, to the dyed fabric as an after-treatment. In the application process, acid dyes become insoluble in an acid bath and the color is fixed in the fabric. Some vat dyes are used with wool. These colorants are placed in a reducing solution to treat the fabric. The reducing solution makes the dyes alkali-soluble and colorless. The fibers are then placed in an oxidizing solution, or in air, and the color returns (Austin 1984). The stage at which dye is applied to fabric is often governed by fabric design. When wool is dyed at the fabric stage it is called piece dyeing; in this method, dyeing is performed after routine finishing but prior to other finishes. Yarn dyeing is performed before weaving; this technique can be used to produce multicolored yarn. In stock dyeing, the wool fibers (stock) are dyed before they have been spun or blended. Stock dyeing is often used for producing mixed colors or heather effects. The exact process employed in piece dyeing depends on the fiber, weight of the fabric, type of dye, and degree of penetration required in the finished product. The most widely used method is pad dyeing. In this method the fabric is run through the dye bath in open width and then between squeeze rollers that force the dye into the fabric. The fabric runs through the machine at a rapid rate, 30 to 300 yards per minute. This method is the basis for all continuous dye processes. Beck dyeing, also called winch or reel dyeing, is a process whereby the fabric is passed through the dye bath in a loose rope that is sewed together at the ends. The ropes of fabric move over a rail, then onto a reel that immerses them in the dye and draws the ropes of fabric through the dye bath. The fabric is kept immersed except for the few yards around the reel. Penetration of dye is obtained by continuous immersion in slack condition rather than by pressure on the wet fabric under tension (Hollen et al. 1979; Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980).
Wool fabric may undergo additional finishing steps, including various chemical treatments that extend the function of the fabric by making it resistant to mildew, moths, water, stains, flame, and so forth. The growth of mildew, mold, and rot can be inhibited by treating the fabric with compounds of copper, chromium, and mercury. Chlorinated phenol followed by metallic soaps also may be used (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980). Mothproofing is accomplished through various trademarked processes that utilize chemicals such as silico-fluoride and chromium-fluoride (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980). Moth-control chemicals may also be added to the dye bath to permanently change the fiber, making it unpalatable to the clothes-moth larvae (Hollen et al. 1979).
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Manufacturing Stage
Fluorocarbon resins marketed under the trade names Scotchgard and Zepel are some of the water-, soil-, and stain-repellent finishes available for fabric treatment. Not only are they effective in their repellent action but they are also durable (Hollen et al. 1979). A flame-resistant fabric is one that is slow to burn and/or self-extinguishing but not necessarily flameproof. Fabrics may be made flame resistant in three ways (Hollen et al. 1979): Use inherently flame-resistant fibers (does not apply to polyester or wool). Use fiber variants that have been made flame resistant by having flame retardants added to the spinning solution (polyesters can be treated in this way). Apply flame-retardant finishes to the fabrics (polyesters and wool can be treated in this way). Among the flame-retardant finishes available for wool are aryl bromophosphate and organic halogen-phosphorous compounds (Hollen et al. 1979). One major manufacturer of fabriccovered workstations indicates that all of its fabrics are treated with flame retardants (Beckering 1994). For some manufacturers, flame-retardant finishes are applied only upon request (Strobridge 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Wool Fabric
Washing the raw wool fiber and the woven fabric requires large amounts of water. Runoff of wastewater can cause increased turbidity, increased benthic deposition, and increased biological oxygen demand (BOD) in lakes and streams, which may lead to deoxygenation of waters, loss of faunal diversity, and possible fishkill. The manufacturing process requires the burning of fuel to produce steam for milling and to provide heat for pressing. The combustion of fuel for the production of energy can contribute to a variety of air emissions, as described above. Dyeing requires the burning of fuel to produce heat. Dyeing and afterwashing require a great deal of pure water; runoff of wastewater is a cause of stream pollution (Hollen et al. 1979). Toxic chemicals in the runoff water can cause increased BOD, environmental poisoning, and deoxygenation of streams and lakes, which can lead to reduced reproduction, loss of biotic diversity, and possible fishkill. The application of additional finishes (such as flame retardants and stain repellents) to the fabric may also result in runoff of toxic wastewater into streams and lakes, with its accompanying environmental impacts.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the amount of energy consumed during manufacture of wool fabric.
Polyester
Manufacture of Polyester Fabric
After the polyester emerges from the spinneret, the filament is drawn out on heated rolls to several times its original length to give the fiber high strength, tenacity, and resilience. The resulting product is called filament yarn and is indefinite or continuous in length. Filament yarn is produced flat or with various crimped textures; thus, it is possible to modify the hand, bulk, and optical appearance of downstream goods. Twisting together several continuous filaments produces multifilament yarns.
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Manufacturing Stage
Polyester may also be produced in short, controlled lengths called staple. Staple is cut from continuous filament, and yarns spun from it are known as staple yarns. These yarns are important in the production of polyester blends. Polyester staple is produced through a series of steps, as follows: After leaving the spinneret, the molten tow, or loose rope of filaments, is cooled. The tow is then gathered in a parallel run, then drawn on heated tension rollers which elongate the tow by a ratio of three to four times, much as in polyester filament production. Drawing the tow increases its strength threefold, drawing the random molecules into a parallel formation. The tow goes into compression boxes, which force the fiber to buckle back on itself, 9 to 15 crimps per inch. Crimping holds the fiber together, giving it coherence during the yarn-spinning stage. The crimped tow is dried at 100 to 150C to set the crimp. The crimped and heat-set tow is cut into lengths, determined by eventual end use. The fiber is spun into yarn and woven into cloth in much the same way as described above for wool. Blending of the fiber with other types of synthetic or natural fibers is performed at this stage.
Dyeing
Disperse dyes are colorants with low water solubility that are suitable for dyeing hydrophobic fibers and fabrics; their major application is for dyeing polyesters. The dye chemicals are dispersed in colloidal form in an aqueous solution. In the process of coloring polyester with disperse dyes, the dye is adsorbed from the solution onto the fiber surface, from which it diffuses into the interior of the fiber (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987a). Of the various classes of disperse dyes, the azo and the anthraquinone dyes are the most important. Azo dyes are employed to create almost the entire range of shades; anthraquinone derivatives are used for red, violet, blue, and turquoise. The remaining dye classesquinophthalone, methine, naphthalimide, naphthoquinone, and nitro dyesare used mainly to produce yellow shades (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987a). As with the dyeing of wool, polyester can be dyed during the fiber, the yarn, or the fabric stage. Synthetic fibers such as polyester also can be dyed while they are still in the liquid state and before they have been extruded through a spinneret (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980). Soluble dyes (or pigments, if extreme lightfastness is required) are utilized for this purpose. To produce black fibers, carbon black is usually added (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987b). The dyeing process most widely used with polyester fibers is the exhaust process. If the fabric to be dyed is 100 percent polyester, it can be dyed using the high-temperature (HT) process, which is carried out in aqueous media under pressure and at a temperature of 125 to 140C. If the fabric contains wool in the blend, the HT process will damage the wool. In this situation, the dyeing must be carried out in the open or under low pressure (95 to 110C) with a carrier. These carriers are swelling agents for the polyester fiber; they temporarily loosen intermolecular bonds in the fiber. Removing these carriers from wastewater presents a problem, however. In recent years, polyester fibers have been developed that can be dyed to deep shades in the open without need for a carrier. These fibers contain block co-monomers, generally polyglycols. However, use of these modified polyesters results in minor losses in the lightfastness of the dyes (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987b). In addition to the exhaust process, continuous processes also are used. With the aid of saturated steam, superheated steam, or hot air, high throughputs (which improve the economics of dyeing) can be achieved (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987b).
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Polyester fabrics, like wool fabrics, may undergo certain finishing treatments, such as sizing and the application of water-repellent finishes and soil- and stain-repellent finishes. Discussion of these treatments is included under wool. Unspecified polymers are used to size polyester, instead of the cornstarch or tapioca used for wool. Application of the sizing requires that a lot of energy be used for heating (Donaldson 1995). Polyester fibers can be produced that are flame retardant by using phosphorus compounds that are co-condensed with the polyester molecule (co-polymers) (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987b). One major manufacturer of fabric-covered workstations indicates that all of their fabrics are treated with flame retardants (Beckering 1994). Some manufacturers provide this treatment only upon request (Strobridge 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Polyester Fabric
The environmental impacts of polyester fiber manufacture are discussed in the material report on wall coverings (09950). The manufacture of polyester staple requires the burning of fuel to provide heat for drawing out, crimping, and drying. The combustion of fuel causes environmental impacts, which are discussed above. As in the dyeing of wool, the dyeing of polyester requires the burning of fuel to produce heat. Dyeing and afterwashing require a great deal of pure water; runoff of wastewater is a cause of stream pollution (Hollen et al. 1979). Toxic chemicals in the runoff water can cause increased BOD (biological oxygen demand), environmental poisoning, and deoxygenation of streams and lakes, which can lead to reduced reproduction, loss of biotic diversity, and possible fishkill. The polymeric sizing used with polyester is very toxic (Donaldson 1995). The application of additional finishes (such as flame retardants and stain repellents) to the fabric may also result in runoff of toxic wastewater into streams and lakes, with its accompanying environmental impacts. According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, titanium dioxide can cause slight lung fibrosis and should be treated as an occupational carcinogen (NIOSH 1990).
Energy Consumed
Production of polyester fiber requires 23,100 Btus (24.37 MJ) per 1.0 lb of product (Franklin Associates 1991).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of fabrics for workstations is presented in figure 4. The processes used to incorporate fabric into the structure of workstations not discussed in this report. Both polyester and wool fabrics have qualities that contribute to their suitability for workstation applications. Fabric made from polyester keeps its shape, is lightweight and strong, and resists abrasion. It is not damaged by sunlight or harmed by mildew or moths (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980). Polyester fibers have a number of qualities that contribute to the versatility of polyester fabric (Ullmanns Encyclopedia 1987b): ease of dyeing combined with high fastness properties variable and easily adjustable shrinkage properties high chemical, solvent, and UV resistance low flammability of even the standard polymer, which can be further improved by
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19

Figure 4: Fabrics for WorkstationsConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Assembly of workstations Emission of VOCs from fabric and finishes Stressor Scrap fabric Discarded packaging Hazardous air pollutants and other toxic chemicals Impact/Stressor Reduced landfill capacity Reduced landfill capacity Human health and environmental effects Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
modification without significantly impairing other valuable fiber properties retention of most soil on the surface, where it is easily removed with water or solvents Wool fabric is resilient, strong, and has good insulating properties. It takes dye well and has a pleasing texture or hand. Wool fiber is made up of a protein called keratin. This protein is composed of polypeptide chains that are arranged side by side. The chains are not straight but crimped and are tied together by cross links resembling rungs of a ladder. This chemical structure contributes to the fibers strength, elasticity, and resiliency. When the fiber is stretched, the crimped sides of the ladder straighten out; when the extended fiber is released, the cross links help pull the fiber back into its original crimped position (Encyclopedia of Textiles 1980). Maintenance of fabric upholstery in workstations consists of occasional vacuuming. Stains can be removed with upholstery cleaners or spot removers. Fabric workstations are designed to provide some privacy, reduce indoor noise, and filter noise coming from outdoors, promoting a quieter and more productive work environment (Steelcase 1993, Strobridge 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Assembly and Use of Workstations and Maintenance of Fabrics
Waste in the form of fabric scraps and trim is produced during assembly of workstations. One manufacturer of workstations uses shredded fabric scrap as a sound-deadening material in some of its panels (Steelcase 1993). Surplus scrap that cannot be used is sold to recyclers; in this way the material finds additional usesfor example, as sound deadener in appliances and automobile doors (Beckering 1994; Kenney 1994). Recycling of fabric reduces the amount of virgin material that must be used and reduces the burden on landfills. Additional waste is generated during assembly in the form of discarded packaging for workstation components. More packaging waste is generated when the product is delivered to the customer. One manufacturer has worked with materials suppliers to reduce or eliminate packaging for materials delivered to the factory, by developing reusable plastic containers for furniture components (Steelcase 1993). In addition, customers are given the option of receiving their merchandise packaged or not, thus reducing waste at delivery. Blanket-wrapped products are one way to eliminate packaging waste and reduce damaged products by 30 percent (Strobridge 1995).
Indoor Air Quality
An EPA review of the literature found that very little information is available on VOC emissions associated with materials used in constructing upholstered furniture. In this review, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are potential sources of emissions from upholstered furniture were identified. Although none of these compounds was actually identified through emission testing, the study concluded that certain upholstery treatments, such as water repellents, mildew proofing, fire retardants, and stain guard, may be
20
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a significant source of emissions from upholstered furniture. Some of these constituents of upholstery fabrics have been defined by the Clean Air Act of 1990 as hazardous air pollutants; they are listed as follows: Naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene are used as moth-proofing agents for wool fabrics; vinyl acetate, vinylidene chloride, and formaldehyde resins are coatings on fabrics. Other chemical constituents are known to have human toxicity (on the basis that a threshold limit value has been established): acetic acid and diphenyl are polyester dye bath constituents; camphor is a mothproofing agent for wool and wool blends; and vinyl acetate and vinylidene chloride are coatings on fabric. If the formaldehyde resins are based on urea-formaldehyde formulations, formaldehydewhich is a known carcinogenmay be released (EPA 1992). There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of formaldehyde in animals and limited evidence for its carcinogenicity in humans (U.S. Public Health Service 1989). Individuals may be sensitive to a variety of particulates and gases released from fabrics (and other materials). These may be fabric fibers, treatment chemicals such as sizing, or chemical emissions such as formaldehyde. If the architect can identify the material to which an exposed individual is sensitive, specifications can be made to avoid the use of that material. Some recommendations have been made that only natural, untreated fabrics should be used where sensitivity is an issue (Hunter 1989). However, sensitive individuals are often allergic to natural products. Untreated polyester is used as a hypoallergenic material for these people. Industry indicates that, although fabrics are a potential source of indoor air pollution from workstations, they have proven to be a lesser source than adhesives and coatings used on wood-surfaced furniture (Beckering 1994). Much work has been done and continues to be done to increase the use of adhesives and back coatings that minimize this potential (Foley 1995). Also note that in addition to the fabric, backing materials, glues, and colorants used in manufacturing the furniture, which are not discussed in this report, may be sources of emissions. The release of VOCs from fabrics is an important consideration for new installations in office buildings. In Europe, after furniture and carpet have been installed, buildings will be heated at 80 to 100F (27 to 38C) before occupancy to drive off VOCs. This practice has not proven to be economically viable in the United States, but it does indicate that off-gassing is a potential concern. If not carefully controlled, this practice of bake out can cause damage to the building and furniture (Beckering 1994). One industry source indicates that after bake out, VOCs rise to original levels. An alternative process is to flush out the building air with 100 percent outside air, 24 hours per day, 7 days per week, for 2 to 4 weeks (Strobridge 1995).
Energy Consumed
No information exists on the embodied energy of fabrics for workstations.

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of fabrics for workstations is presented in figure 5. Used workstations can be remanufactured and resold for further use. Several manufacturers design their workstations so that they can be easily disassembled and reupholstered with new fabric (Steelcase 1993; Culbertson 1994). Remanufacturers purchase used workstations from companies that are scaling back or closing, as well as from those that are remodeling or expanding. They disassemble the workstations; sand, repair, refinish, and paint the frames; and reupholster the panels (Kenney 1994; Open Plan Systems 1993). Once, one remanufac-
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21

Regulatory Status
Figure 5: Fabrics for WorkstationsRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity Transport of fabric for recycling Disposal of waste fabric Stressor Fuel combustion Landfill disposal Impact/Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor (see figure 3 for impacts) Impact/Stressor
turing company, after disassembling the workstations, used the old fabric to wrap the framing components for shipment to the factory for remanufacturing. Because the pieces could not be seen through the fabric, however, this proved a hindrance to processing. Now the company sells the used fabric to a reprocessor that shreds the fabric so it can be made into insulation and carpeting for automobiles (Kenney 1994).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Recycle, Reuse, and Disposal of Fabric for Workstations
Fuel is consumed in the transport of workstation fabric for recycling. The consumption of fuel produces a variety of air emissions, as mentioned above. Workstations can last at least 20 years (Ankney 1994; Beckering 1994); at the present time, there is little information on ultimate disposal of workstation components (Beckering 1994). If recycling or remanufacturing of worn-out workstations is not an option, they would be landfilled. With remanufacturing, however, the useful life span could be somewhat longer than 20 years.
Energy Consumed
No information exists on the amount of energy consumed in recycling, reuse, or disposal of fabrics for workstations.
Regulatory Status
To date, the industry has been able to meet federal indoor air standards (Beckering 1994).
22
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References
References
Academic American Encyclopedia. 1994. Grolier Electronic Publishing. Ankney, Tom. 1994. Senior Product Safety Engineer, Product Standards and Testing, Herman Miller Inc., Zeeland, MI. Personal communication. Austin, George T. 1984. Shreves Chemical Process Industries. 5th ed.. NY: McGraw-Hill. Beckering, Jack. 1994. Senior Manager, Advanced Systems Technology, Steelcase Inc., Grand Rapids, MI. Personal communication. Culbertson, Carla. 1994. Commercial Furniture Manufacturers: 1994 Review. Interior Concerns Newsletter. Supported by Harbinger Carpet, Atlanta, GA. Published in Mill Valley, CA. Donaldson, Alan. 1995. Comments on draft of this report. Encyclopedia of Textiles. 1980. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Foley, William. 1995. Comments on draft of this report. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building, Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: Society of the Plastics Industry. Hollen, Norma, Jane Saddler, and Anna L. Langford. 1979. Textiles. 5th ed. NY: Macmillan. Hunter, Linda M. 1989. The Healthy Home. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. Kenney, Steve. 1994. Salesman, Open Plan Systems, McLean, VA. Personal communication. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1990. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Macropaedia.1984. Vol. 10. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. Open Plan Systems, Inc. 1993. Company brochure. Richmond, VA. Steelcase Inc. 1993. Company brochure. Grand Rapids, MI. Strobridge, James. 1995. Comments on draft of this report.
Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1987a. 5th ed. Vol. A 8. . 1987b. 5th ed. Vol. A 10. 1988. 5th ed. Vol. A 11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1992. Indoor Air Pollution Source Catalog. EPA Contract no. 68-D1-0031, W.A. no. 07. Office of Research and Development. U.S. Public Health Service. 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens: Summary 1989. NTP 89-239. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Prepared for the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC.
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23
Material Report
Pipe
Highlights
Mining ores for the manufacture of galvanized steel and copper used in metal piping produces wastes in the form of overburden and tailings. Energy use and fuel combustion during mining operations result in atmospheric emissions. Water pollutants from mine runoff can cause reduced aquatic productivity and deoxygenation. The production of iron, steel, and copper metals and alloys is a potential source of wastewater that is toxic to aquatic life and sludges that contain heavy metals. Copper processing can release copper dust into the air, contaminating soils. Extracting and processing petroleum and natural gas generate a variety of air pollutants and wastes, including drilling muds, drill cuttings, and various wastewaters. The production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) occasionally releases vinyl chloride monomer, chlorine, brine mud, and benzene. The release of dioxins has also been associated with PVC production. During the construction process, waste is generated in the form of scrap pipe material.
Impacts from mining can be significant in terms of habitat alteration and destruction, as well as erosion of soil. Petroleum and natural gas are finite resources that are in adequate supply at present.
Energy Consumption
Embodied energy values for nonmetallic pipes (2-inch) range from 12,225 Btu/ft (42.21 MJ/m) for polybutylene to 23,373 Btu/ft (80.9 MJ/m) for acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene pipes. The embodied energy for 2-inch copper pipes (Schedule M) is 32,107 Btu/ft (111.1 MJ/m).
Indoor Air Quality
There is some evidence that PVC building materials, including PVC pipes, may release hazardous emissions during fires, posing a hazard to building occupants.
PIPE
MAT 15410
Pipe
Background
Background
The scope of this report includes plumbing pipes that are installed within and adjacent to buildings. Piping discussed in this report includes pipes intended for water distribution systems; soil, waste, and vent systems; and storm drain systems. Specifications for such pipes are included in MasterSpec Section 15410Plumbing Piping (MasterSpec 1991). Not included within the scope of this report are the flanges, valves, and various fittings that accompany the pipes to make up a plumbing system. However, since most of these components are made of the same plastic or metal materials used for the pipes, much of the information in this report also applies to them. Although the terminology is not standardized, in general, pipes are heavier than tubes and have threaded or grooved couplings. Tube walls are thinner than pipe walls, although the standards do not necessarily define pipes and tubes by weight. Copper and stainless steel are often manufactured as tubing (Richardson 1995). The history of piping goes back to the ancient Romans, who used water pipes made of lead. In fact, the Latin word for lead, plumbum, came from the word for waterspout and is the basis of the word plumber (Ullmann 1990). In medieval times, hollow wooden logs provided the towns with water. Cast-iron pipes came into common use in England and France in the early nineteenth century and were first used in Philadelphia in 1817 and in New York in 1832. In 1887 the first pipe made of Bethlehem steel was made in the United States. Other metals, such as copper, are also used to make pipes. Commercial production of plastic pipes has a more recent history, beginning with the production of ABS and PVC pipe in 1949 and 1950, respectively (Nayyar 1992). Figure 1 provides an overview of the types of pipe used in buildings and their applications.
Metallic Pipes The suitability of any type of metal pipe for any application is determined by characteristics such as corrosion resistance (including the ability of the material to resist both the corrosive effects of the fluid likely to flow through the pipe and the effects of ambient conditions on the exterior) and the physical strength of the pipe (including its ability to withstand both the internal pressure of the liquid and the external wear and tear that may occur during installation or while the piping is in service).
Cast-iron soil pipes are acceptable for any nonpressure, noncorrosive sanitary and storm water drain service. Ductile iron (DI) pipes, available for use either as nonpressure gravity sewer pipe or pressure pipe, are suitable for any noncorrosive plumbing service. Both types of iron pipe provide sound-deadening properties that may make this material especially suitable for waste piping. Steel pipes are sometimes used in vent systems, drain systems that do not carry human waste, indirect waste lines, and potable water systems. Steel pipes are usually galvanized to retard corrosion. Copper pipes and tubes can be used for a variety of purposes, including distribution of potable water, fuel, fuel gas, and medical gas; process piping; and fire sprinkler systems. Water service and drainage uses of copper tubing are covered in this report. Copper water tubing is used for domestic water service and is manufactured according to three wall thickness schedules: types K, L, and M. Each type has the same outside diameter, but K has the greatest wall thickness and pressure rating, and M the smallest. Copper drainage tube (DWV, i.e., drain, waste, and vent) is a nonpressure pipe used for indirect waste lines or local branch lines (Nayyar 1992, LeVan 1995b, Wilging 1995). The federal Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1987 banned use of lead pipe in potable water systems. According to a lead industry source, the last municipal use of lead pipe for this purpose ended 30 years ago. Lead pipe may still be used for sewage and vent systems, but this
MAT 15410
PIPE
Pipe
Background
Figure 1: Piping Types and Applications

Materials for potable water (distribution) Materials for sanitary waste and drain (aboveground within buildings) Materials for sanitary waste and drain (underground within buildings) Materials for storm drainage (aboveground within buildings) Materials for storm drainage (underground within buildings) Materials for vent piping (aboveground) Materials for vent piping (underground) ABS Pipe, Schedule 40 DWV (ASTM D2661) ABS Pipe, Cellular Core (ASTM F628) Cast-Iron Soil Pipe, Bell and Spigot (ASTM A74) Cast-Iron Soil Pipe, Hubless (CISPI 301, ASTM A888) Cellular Core PVC Sewer and Drain Pipe (ASTM F891) Cellular Core PVC DWV Pipe, IPS Schedule 40 (ASTM F891) Copper Water Tube, Type K or L (ASTM B88) Copper Water Tube, Type M (ASTM B88) Copper Tube, DWV (ASTM B306) Copper (Water) Tube, K, L, M (B88) and Copper Drainage Fittings (ANSI B16.23) CPVC Plastic Pipe, Schedule 40 and 80 (ASTM F441) and SDR-PR (ASTM F442) CPVC Plastic Water Distribution Systems (ASTM D2846) Ductile-Iron Pipe (AWWA C151) (ASTM C151) Ductile-Iron Pipe with Threaded Flanges (AWWA C115) (ASTM C115) Galvanized Steel Pipe (ASTM A53) Galvanized Steel Pipe (A53) and Cast-Iron Drainage Fittings (ASME B16.12) PB Plastic Water Distribution Systems (ASTM D3309) PVC Pipe, DWV (ASTM D2665) PVC Pipe, Pressure Schedule 40, 80 (ASTM D1785) and SDR-PR (D2241) Potable water outside buildings, chilled water, and process piping
use is uncommon (Smith 1995). Lead pipe is not included in the MasterSpec specifications and for this reason will not be included among the products discussed in this report.
Plastic Pipes Plastic pipes are made from either thermoplastic or thermosetting material. While thermoplastic materials can be softened and reshaped repeatedly with the application of heat, thermosetting materials are permanently shaped by an initial heat treatment. Most plastic pipes are thermoplastic, and more than 95 percent of the 4,200 million pounds of plastic used to manufacture pipes in 1989 was thermoplastic. About 75 percent of this material was polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 15 percent was polyethylene (PE), 4 percent was acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and 6 percent was comprised of other plastics, including chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) and polybutylene (PB), among others (Nayyar 1992). Domestic production of all thermoplastic pipes in 1955 was approximately 40 million pounds, 1 percent of the amount produced in 1989 (Nayyar 1992). (Polyethylene pipe will not be discussed
PIPE
MAT 15410
Pipe
in this report because its principal uses typically do not occur within buildings [Pugliese 1995a], although there are some applications for polyethylene in building sewer pipe.) More plastic pipe (based on footage) is used than all other types of pipe combined. However, in 1992 plastic piping accounted for only a quarter of the value of the leading pipe material, steel, because of the major use of plastics in small-size pipes. Plastics are becoming available in increasingly larger sizes, up to 60 in. (152 cm) for pressured delivery systems and up to 108 in. (274 cm) for drains. Plastic pipe is used for a variety of purposes, including water and gas supply systems outside of buildings; hot and cold water distribution systems within buildings; drain, waste, and vent (DWV) piping; drain and sewer systems; culverts; and a variety of commercial applications. The plastic piping covered in this report is restricted to the scope of plumbing installed within and adjacent to buildings. It is highly resistant to a variety of chemical and waste effluents and soils. Available in long lengths, it has low resistance to fluid flow and a low initial cost. Disadvantages of plastic pipe may include its lower mechanical strength (when compared to steel pipe), lower pressure ratings at elevated temperatures, and low resistance to solvents (Nayyar 1992, Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association 1995, Wilging 1995). Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe is used for potable water outside buildings and drain systems within and outside buildings. PVC pipes provide the greatest strength and stiffness at least cost and are the most widely used of the plastic pipes. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) is similar to PVC in many properties, but the additional chlorine in its structure improves its pressure ratings at temperatures above 73F. It can be used up to nearly 200F for pressure uses and up to about 210F for nonpressure applications. CPVC pipes are used for domestic hot and cold water distribution and residential and light hazard fire sprinkler applications. Polybutylene (PB) pipe has superior long-term strength that is maintained at temperatures of nearly 200F. Major applications for PB pipes are residential hot and cold water distribution systems and residential fire sprinklers. Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) is used primarily in drain, waste, and vent pipes. It is rigid and temperature resistant and maintains its toughness at low temperatures. ABS resin weighs less than PVC.
Life-cycle summaries of pipe are provided in figures 2 through 7. The environmental reviews contained in the ERG materials reports are a compilation of all identified stressors and potential environmental impacts that occur during the life cycle of a material, from cradle to grave. The life-cycle analyses in these reports do not attempt to rank the potential impacts quantitatively or otherwise assign a value to them. The following paragraphs summarize the stressors and impacts for each stage of the life cycle that are discussed in greater depth in subsequent sections. Essentially all industries are regulated in regard to air emissions, wastewater effluents, hazardous wastes, and worker exposure to hazardous materials. Control equipment and procedures have been designed to help industries comply with these regulations. The mining of ores needed to manufacture the galvanized steel and copper used in metal pipe production results in significant environmental impacts, including particulate emissions, processing water discharge, and noise. Mining activities result in various air emissions from the combustion of fuel required to produce energy. These emissions contribute to a variety of environmental and health problems, including acid precipitation, lake acidifica-
MAT 15410
PIPE
Pipe
tion, killing of fish, smog, decreased visibility, global warming, tree/crop damage, corrosion of materials, eye irritation, and lung damage. Tailings and slag piles can be sources of water pollutants when exposed to natural precipitation; treatment and control of such runoff is required to prevent stream and groundwater pollution. (While iron ore is mined to produce cast iron in some parts of the world, this is not necessary in the United States, where domestic cast iron is produced practically entirely from recycled scrap.) The production of iron, steel, and copper metals and alloys may release toxic metal-containing gases and particulates in exhaust gases. Filters and exhaust gas control devices are required to contain these materials, which would otherwise have health and environmental effects. The land disturbance, soil erosion, and habitat alteration resulting from mining often can be mitigated by careful restoration management. The raw materials needed to produce polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acrylonitrile-butadienestyrene (ABS), and polybutylene (PB) are derived from petroleum and/or natural gas. The extraction and processing of petroleum and natural gas generates a variety of air and water pollutants. The manufacture of cast iron, steel, and copper and the fabrication of pipes from these materials is, in the absence of environmental pollution controls, a potentially significant source of pollutants discharged to water, air, and land. These pollutants include combustion sources that produce air emissions, wastewater discharges that are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms, and sludges containing heavy metals. Copper processing, if performed dry, can release copper dust in the air; contaminated soils can contain sufficient copper to be toxic to soil microorganisms. Although flue dust from copper refineries can be captured and recycled, high levels of arsenic in the dust can present problems. The production of PVC can produce a number of air emissions that, if not controlled, can have a variety of significant environmental and health effects. The vinyl chloride manufacturing process has been closely regulated for two to three decades; however, large-scale releases of vinyl chloride monomer, a human carcinogen, occasionally occur. Other pollutants from the manufacturing process include chlorine, which is an irritant to humans; brine mud, which can cause environmental degradation; and benzene, which is a human carcinogen. The release of dioxins, which can cause a range of significant human health effects, has also been associated with the production of PVC. By-products of acrylonitrile production, used in the manufacture of ABS, include hydrogen cyanide and acetonitrile. These materials, which can affect human health in various ways, are used for other chemical processes. Acrylonitrile is considered a hazardous waste and a toxic pollutant. Use of cleaners, primers, and solvent cements to join plastic pipe can release VOCs (volatile organic compounds) into the atmosphere. The heating of metal during welding of metal pipe can release metal oxides into the air, which may result in a variety of health effects. During the construction process, waste is generated in the form of scrap pipe material, which is normally disposed of in landfills. Cast-iron and ductile iron pipe may frequently be recycled after demolition of structures because of their high scrap value. There is some evidence that PVC building materials, including PVC pipe, may pose a hazard to building occupants during fires by releasing hazardous emissions.
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MAT 15410
6
MAT 15410 PIPE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997
Figure 2: Life-Cycle Summary of Metal Pipe Making
Pipe
White iron (see figure 4) Gray iron (see figure 4) Ductile iron (see figure 4) Malleable iron (see figure 4) Iron pipe casting Centrifugal sand mold Centrifugal metal mold Cast-iron pipe
Solid waste (metals) recycled
KEY
Process flow
Life-Cycle Summary Metal Pipe Making
or
or
Recycling
or
Steel (see figure 4)
Steel pipe casting Static Centrifugal
Steel pipe
Solid waste (metals) recycled
Galvanized steel pipe

Sludges (containing metals and other toxic chemicals), spent cleaning solutions, spent bath solutions
Air emissions (SOX, NOX, CO2, VOCs, CO, particulates)
Copper pipe
Packaging
Zinc ore mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Screening Loading
Zinc smelting Sales

Runoff (soil Habitat erosion, TSS) change
Filler metal
(for welding, brazing, soldering)
Assembly* Welding Brazing Soldering

Metal scraps: recycled or landfilled
Demolition Copper pipe fabrication Extrusion Piercing Welding of flat sheets

Recycled
Copper (see figure 5)
* Note: Screw threading, O-ring, compression gasket, and other connection techniques are not addressed in this report.
Disposal (landfill)
Figure 3: Life-Cycle Summary of Plastic Pipe Making
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997 PIPE MAT 15410
CPVC (see figure 6) PVC (see figure 6)
Extrusion
CPVC pipe
KEY
Extrusion
Solid PVC pipe
Extrusion Blowing agent Extrusion
Foamcore PVC pipe
Foamcore ABS pipe
ABS (see figure 7)
Extrusion
Solid ABS pipe
Packaging Acetone (see figure 6) Methyl ethyl ketone (see figure 6) Tetrahydrofuran (see figure 6) Sales Cyclohexanone (see figure 6) PVC, CPVC, or ABS resin (see figures 6 and 7) Solvent cement
Solvent cleaner
Primer
Solvent cement assembly*

* Note: Screw threading, O-ring, compression gasket, and other connection techniques are not addressed in this report. Plastic scraps: landfilled
Life-Cycle Summary Plastic Pipe Making
Demolition
Polybutylene (see figure 7)
Extrusion
Polybutylene pipe
Packaging
Sales
Heat fusion assembly*

Plastic scraps: landfilled
Pipe
Disposal (landfill)
8
Figure 4: Life-Cycle Summary of Iron and Steel
Pipe
Air emissions (CO, particulates)
Life-Cycle Summary Iron and Steel
CO (fuel for steelmaking)
Calcination
Lime
Iron making
Solid waste (slag)
Habitat change
Scrap iron
Cast iron
Coke making Distillation Pig iron

Cast-iron processing
White iron
KEY
(see figure 2) Iron ore Ingot casting Gray iron (see figure 2) Ductile iron Scrap procurement (see figure 2) Malleable iron
(see figure 2) Steel (see figure 2)
Iron, chromium, manganese, and nickel ore mining Drilling Crushing Blasting Grinding Loading
Chromium, manganese, and nickel ore processing
Steelmaking Blast furnace Basic oxygen furnace Electric furnace Open hearth furnace Oxygen
Solid waste (slag)
Habitat change
Figure 5: Life-Cycle Summary of Nonferrous Metals

Copper mining Drilling Loading Blasting
Copper beneficiation Crushing Flotation Grinding
Copper smelting and refining

Water effluent
Copper (see figure 2)
Water effluent Runoff (soil erosion, TSS) Habitat change Tailings waste, overburden
KEY
Copper ore (in-ground) Leaching
Water effluent Process flow Transport Boundary Output Recycling
Air emissions (SO2, CO, CO2, particulates)
Air emissions (metal gases and particulates)
Lead mining Drilling Loading Blasting
Lead sintering, reduction, and refining

Slag, dross
Lead (see figure 2)
Habitat change
Silver
Life-Cycle Summary Nonferrous Metals
(see figure 2) Ore processing Metal processing Tin (see figure 2) Antimony
Silver, tin, and antimony mining Blasting Drilling Loading
Pipe
Habitat change
(see figure 2)
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Figure 6: Life-Cycle Summary of Polyvinyl Chloride and Solvent Cement Components
Pipe
Life-Cycle Summary Polyvinyl Chloride and Solvent Cement Components
Methyl ethyl ketone

(see figure 3)
Acetone
(see figure 3)
Drainage wastes
Tetrahydrofuran
(see figure 3)
Ethylene
Cyclohexanone
Chlorinated organics Hydrocarbons, zinc, cadmium Chromium, copper (see figure 3)
Heavy metals Air emissions (VC monomer)
Ethylene dichloride Co-products Calcium chloride Salts
Vinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
VC monomer, lead, zinc, methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane (see figure 3)
Brine
Precipitation
Chlorination
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride

(see figure 3)
KEY
Electrolysis
Chlorine
Figure 7: Life-Cycle Summary of Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene and Polybutylene

Butylenes
Separation
1-Butene
Oil processing Desalting Distillation Catalytic cracking Butadiene

Polymerization
Polybutylene
(see figure 3)
Styrene-acrylonitrilebutadiene copolymer
Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene (ABS)
(see figure 3)
Drainage wastes
Sludge, solids
Benzene manufacture
Styrene
Styreneacrylonitrile copolymer
Residual monomers (recycled)
Ethylene
Cracking
Air emissions (VOCs) Wastewater (oil, grease, dissolved solids, organics) Drilling muds and cuttings, heavy metals
Life-Cycle Summary Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene and Polybutylene
catalyst
KEY
Ni catalyst
Ammonia manufacture
Acrylonitrile manufacture
Acrylonitrile
Oxygen
Wastewater Hydrogen cyanide, acetonitrile (recycled)
Ammonia sulfate (recycled)
Pipe
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Pipe

A summary of the environmental stressors associated with the acquisition and preparation of raw materials for pipe is presented in figure 8.
Metallic Pipe Materials Metal pipes generally are fabricated from iron and steel (ferrous metals) or copper.
Ferrous Metals (Iron and Steel)
Cast-iron soil pipe and ductile iron pipe are made from 100 percent recycled scrap steel and iron. While some foreign cast iron is produced from iron ore, essentially no domestic cast iron is produced this way (Horn 1995; LeVan 1995a). Iron ore mining and processing, coal mining, and coke production are therefore not included in the life-cycle analysis of cast-iron soil pipe and ductile iron pipe. The basic raw material for steel is iron ore, which is mined using mainly open-pit methods. Iron ore mining and beneficiation, which includes crushing, screening, drying, and washing, are discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). The steel industry is a major consumer of coal, from which coke is made. Coke is used in the manufacture of pig iron from iron ore. Coal is mined primarily by underground methods, although a small amount is extracted by strip mining. Limestone, processed into lime, is used in steelmaking. The iron and steel industry consumes more oxygen than all other industries combined. Coal mining and coke production, limestone mining and processing, and oxygen manufacture are discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). Several elementssuch as nickel, manganese, and chromiummay be added to molten steel to change or modify the properties of the finished steel. Nickel, manganese, and chromium may be mined by surface or underground methods, depending on the type of deposit. The mining and processing of these three metals are discussed in the ERG report on steel framing. Zinc, required for galvanizing steel, is acquired largely from surface mines. The mining and processing of zinc are discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Raw Materials for Iron and Steel Production
The environmental effects of mining iron ore, coal, limestone, nickel, manganese, chromium, and zinc are discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). These impacts may include runoff from tailings waste, which may lead to increased turbidity of surface waters, increased biological oxygen demand (BOD), deoxygenation of aquatic habitats, and possible fishkill. Other environmental impacts from mining include land disturbance and alteration of wildlife habitat. Surface and pit mining for iron ore both generate a large amount of overburden and unused rock and soil. Runoff from iron ore mining can contain minerals and metals toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. Some iron ore deposits may also contain minerals that could pose risks to human health; for example, an asbestoslike mineral may be found in taconite deposits. Coal mining also generates a substantial amount of mine spoils and overburden. These rock and soil wastes are usually acidic and may contain a high concentration of acidforming materials, particularly sulfur. Runoff from mine spoils may acidify soils, groundwater, and surface waters and may lower the pH of surface waters to a point toxic to aquatic life. (continued on page 17)
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Figure 8: PipeMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Mining of iron, nickel, manganese, chromium, zinc, and copper ores and limestone Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) VOCs Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Impaired ability of the blood to carry oxygen Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Tree/crop damage Materials corrosion Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Coal mining to produce coke for steel manufacture Contamination of groundwater Tailings waste (asbestoslike materials) Land disturbance Soil erosion Habitat alteration Runoff Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Decreased visibility Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Dust May be carcinogenic Tailings waste (sulfur) Acid drainage Decreased pH in surface waters Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Global warming Runoff (see impacts above) Loss of habitat Species extinction Loss of biodiversity Stressor Tailings waste, unused rock, and overburden Impact/Stressor Runoff Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Air emissions (dust, particulates) Eye and throat irritation
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Figure 8: PipeMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage (continued)

Activity Coal mining to produce coke for steel manufacture (continued) Cokemaking (for steel manufacture) Air emissions VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates Ammonia Dust Wastewater Dissolved solids and organics Materials corrosion Eye and throat irritation Decreased visibility Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Sludge Limestone processing and calcining Nickel ore processing Chromium ore processing Zinc ore processing Air emissions Particulate emissions Fuel combustion emissions Air emissions Wastewater Particulates Fuel combustion emissions Zinc production Wastewater containing various metals and organics Environmental poisoning Copper ore processing (concentration) Natural gas production (raw materials for PVC, ABS, polybutylene, and solvent cement system components for plastic pipe) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, and total dissolved solids; also may contain oxygen depleting parameters (BOD and COD) and organics Air emissions from diesel powered drills VOCs Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Particulates Nitrogen oxides Crude oil extraction (raw materials for PVC, ABS, polybutylene, and solvent cement system components for plastic pipe) Discharge of produced water that may contain oil, grease, heavy metals, dissolved solids, toxic organics, and oxygen depleting organics (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Environmental poisoning Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Tailings waste Heavy metals in tailings runoff (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Increased BOD Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Environmental poisoning Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Possible human carcinogen Carbon dioxide (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Sulfur dioxide (see impacts above) Greenhouse effect Global warming Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Stressor Wastewater Impact/Stressor Dissolved solids, organics, and sulfuric acid Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Increased BOD Surface water acidification (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Reduced reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
Solid waste containing chromium Toxic to humans and wildlife
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Activity Crude oil extraction (continued) Offshore and coastal crude oil extraction (raw materials for PVC, ABS, polybutylene, and solvent cement system components for plastic pipe) Crude oil processing (raw materials for PVC, ABS, polybutylene, and solvent cement system components for plastic pipe) Cleaning of tankers and storage tanks Desalting process Release of oil and suspended solids Wastewater containing emulsified and free oils, ammonia, phenols, sulfides, suspended solids, and dissolved solids Thermal pollution Distillation process ammonia, oil, and chlorides Wastewater containing phenol Distillation process Catalytic cracking Air emissions Wastewater containing oil, sulfides, cyanides, and ammonia Wastewater containing phenol Air emissions from gas blowdown systems and fugitive emissions Known human carcinogen Mercaptans VOCs Increased pH Increased BOD Deoxygenation Known human carcinogen VOCs Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ammonia Benzene Aldehydes, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalenes, toluene, and xylene Ethylene production Air emissions Benzene VOCs Chlorinated organics, hydrocarbons, and metals Consumption of toxics by fish Possible fishkill Chlorine production Air emissions Chlorine Respiratory and eye irritation Toxic to humans (for vinyl chloride manufacture) Increased BOD (see impacts above) (see impacts above) (for vinyl chloride manufacture) Wastewater Increased pH Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Various human health effects Some possible human carcinogens (see impacts above) Noxious odors (see impacts above) Reduced fish reproduction Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill Habitat disruption (see impacts above) Wastewater containing sulfides, Consumption of toxics by fish Increased BOD Consumption of toxics by fish (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Bottom sludge and emulsified oil can contaminate groundwater or sewers Increased BOD Increased sewerage loading Stressor Drilling muds, drill cuttings, well treatment, and produced sands Deck drainage, sanitary and domestic wastes Impact/Stressor Bentonite or attapulgite clays, barium sulfate, lime, and caustic soda Water pollution Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Environmental poisoning Eutrophication Waterborne disease Impact/Stressor (see impacts above)
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Activity Chlorine production (continued) Wastewater Styrene production (for ABS manufacture) Ethylene production Benzene production Fugitive emissions, styrene Butadiene production (for ABS manufacture) Fugitive emissions, butadiene Acrylonitrile productio (for ABS manufacture) Air emissions Ammonia Irritation of eyes and nose Central nervous system effects Increased pHn Irritant to the respiratory tract, eyes, and skin Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Hydrocarbons Fuel combustion emissions Acrylonitrile, fugitive emissions (see impacts above) Asphyxia Irritant effects Central nervous system effects Carcinogenesis in animals By-products of acrylonitrile production Production of butylenes Acquisition of materials for brazing and soldering of metal pipe Acquisition and preparation of materials for solvent cement system components for plastic pipe Can cause photochemical smog Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acetone Tetrahydrofuran Cyclohexane Production of PVC, CPVC, and ABS (see manufacturing and fabrication stage) Fugitive emissions Various human health effects Fugitive emissions Mining of silver, copper, zinc, tin, lead, phosphate, and antimony Extraction, processing of natural gas and crude oil Methyl ethyl ketone production Fugitive emissions Various human health effects (see impacts above) Hydrogen cyanide Acetonitrile Health effects include asphyxia (see mining impacts above) Potentially fatal poison Various health effects VOCs (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Catalytic cracking of crude oil Stressor Brine mud Impact/Stressor Contains magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate Chlorine and sulfuric acid (see impacts above) Release of benzene Irritation of eyes and nose Central nervous system effects (see impacts above) Carcinogenesis, nausea, abdominal pain, irritation Impact/Stressor Increased turbidity Increased benthic deposition Possible fishkill Impact/Stressor Deoxygenation Loss of faunal diversity Possible fishkill
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The combustion of fuels for energy production during mining of these materials, crushing operations, and transport of raw materials to the manufacturing facility can contribute to a variety of air emissions, including VOCs (volatile organic compounds), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide). VOCs contribute to a variety of environmental problems, including the formation of ozone or smog, which has been found to cause respiratory tract problems such as difficult breathing and reduced lung function, asthma, eye irritation, and nasal congestion. VOCs can react with sunlight and other chemicals such as NOx and SOx (sulfur oxides) to form ozone. SO2 can cause respiratory tract problems and lung damage, and it contributes to acid precipitation. Increases in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. CO impairs the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and adversely affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been linked to respiratory illness and lung damage. NOx also contributes to environmental problems, including acid precipitation and smog. In addition to these emissions from fuel combustion, particulates (dust) may be generated from the minerals themselves during crushing, screening, and processing operations. Coke oven emissions are complex mixtures of coal and coke particles, vapors, gases, and tars. Toxic gas emissions from coke plants may pose very significant risks to people who work in them or live nearby. Wastewater from coking operations contains dissolved solids and other organics; the resulting sludge is considered a hazardous waste. The production of lime from the calcining of limestone results in air emissions, especially particulates and sulfur dioxide. The primary environmental problem associated with nickel production is the emission of sulfur dioxide during processing of sulfide-containing ore. The SO2 emitted from smelter stacks combines with atmospheric water to produce acid rain. Chromium-containing residues from the roasting and/or leaching of chromium ores, if untreated, are toxic. The wastewater from zinc production facilities can contain various metals and organics. A number of zinc smelter facilities have been listed as Superfund sites. No information is available on the waste produced from the manufacture of oxygen.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed during the acquisition of raw materials for iron and steel production is discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401).
Copper
Copper mining is discussed in the ERG report on terrazzo (09400). After the copper ore has been mined, crushed, and milled, it is concentrated in a process called froth flotation. Copper may also be obtained by leaching the waste rock or overburden at the site of the copper mine (dump or heap leaching) or by in-place leaching (leaching the copper from ores still in the ground). These processes are also discussed in the ERG report on terrazzo (09400).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Copper Ore
Copper mining operations produce significant amounts of solid waste in the form of waste rock or overburden from open-pit mines and tailings from the concentration process. Storage and disposal of these wastes must comply with the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act.
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Mining operations produce runoff, which must be impounded and treated before release into surface systems. Water effluents from concentrator tailing ponds may carry significant levels of heavy metals. Solutions from leaching operations may enter surface waters and groundwater (Kirk-Othmer 1993). Copper is toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms such as clams and scallops and can cause reproductive abnormalities in such species (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). In the United States, copper concentrators practice maximum water recycling; recycling of water from dump-leaching operations is also common practice (Kirk-Othmer 1993).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the energy consumed in mining and processing copper ore.
Plastic Pipe Materials In addition to the plastic resins used to manufacture plastic pipes, various additives may be used to produce certain effects during manufacture or when the pipes are in use. The specific additives and amounts used depend on the plastic and its properties, the processing method employed, and the performance or economic properties desired in the final product. Use of these additives is restricted by the changes they might cause in the performance attributes of the plastic pipe, including such qualities as rigidity, impact strength, chemical resistance, and rupture strength. The major types of additives used in thermoplastic pipe materials include the following:
heat stabilizers, which protect against thermal breakdown, especially during processing antioxidants, which prevent oxidative degradation ultraviolet stabilizers, which prevent degradation from ultraviolet radiation from the sun when pipe is stored or used outdoors lubricants, which reduce viscosity and drag while passing through the equipment pigments, which color the plastic processing aids, which improve the homogeneity of the plastic property modifiers, which improve specific properties fillers, which reduce volume cost, increase stiffness, or modify processing characteristics Because of the variety of additives and the different effects they impart, these materials will not be discussed in this report.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC)
The raw materials for the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) are ethylene, which is produced either from natural gas or from petroleum products, and chlorine. The extraction and processing of natural gas and crude oil and the refining of crude oil are discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). The manufacture of ethylene and the production of chlorine are discussed in the ERG report on wall coverings (09950). If additional stiffness is desired in the PVC material, a filler, generally finely ground calcium carbonate, may be added. The mining and processing of limestone is discussed in the ERG report on plaster and lath (09200). The total ingredients needed for the production of 1 kg CPVC are crude oil, 340,900 mg; iron ore, 272 mg; limestone, 373,088 mg; water, 11,733,680 mg; bauxite, 150 mg; sodium chloride, 1,356,300 mg; sand, 15,816 mg (APME 1994).
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Relatively small quantities of other ingredients may be added to the PVC. However, because of the minimal quantities involved, these additives will not be discussed in this report.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Preparation of Raw Material for PVC and CPVC
The extraction and processing of natural gas and crude oil generate a variety of air and water pollutants, which are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Among these pollutants are air emissions (including VOCs, SO2, NOx, particulates, CO2, and CO) from the diesel engines that power the drill. The environmental and health effects of these pollutants are discussed above under mining of raw materials for iron and steel production. Major sources of pollution during natural gas and crude oil extraction include drilling muds and the cuttings from the bit; these processes also generate wastewater, which may contain oil, dissolved solids, oxygendepleting organics, and toxic substances, among other pollutants. The ultimate effects of these pollutants, when discharged to lakes and streams, are eutrophication, loss of faunal diversity, and possible fishkill. Natural gas and crude oil processing also cause air emissions that include the emissions from fuel combustion listed above, ammonia, aldehydes, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, biphenyl, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, toluene, and xylene.
Energy Consumed
The energy consumed during natural gas and crude oil extraction and processing is discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240).
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
ABS is made by combining copolymers of styrene-acrylonitrile with copolymers produced by reacting styrene-acrylonitrile and butadiene (Nayyar 1992, Kirk-Othmer 1991). Acrylonitrile is produced by ammoxidizing propylene with ammonia and oxygen to produce acrylonitrile and water in the presence of a catalyst and heat. Propylene is produced by cracking natural gas and petroleum and ammonia is produced from natural gas, as discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). The production of styrene and butadiene is discussed in the ERG reports on concrete masonry (04220) and ceramic tile (09300), respectively.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Mining and Processing of Raw Materials to Produce ABS
By-products of acrylonitrile production include hydrogen cyanide and acetonitrile, which are used for other chemical production. Residual ammonia is neutralized with sulfuric acid, and the resultant ammonium sulfate is recycled as fertilizer. Offgas containing nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons is either released directly into the atmosphere or passed through an incinerator to oxidize the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Waste disposal involves deep-well injection, wet air oxidation, ammonium sulfate separation, biological treatment, and incineration (Kirk-Othmer 1991). The combustion of fuel required for acquiring and processing the materials to produce ABS and for its production releases sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, VOCs, and particulates. The environmental and health effects of these emissions are summarized above under iron and steel mining. Feedstock for ABS production comes from petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, which is discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Release of pollutants during these processes can cause a variety of environmental and health effects. These are summarized above under acquisition and preparation of raw materials for PVC and CPVC.
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There is limited evidence for the carcinogenicity of acrylonitrile in humans but sufficient evidence for its carcinogenicity in animals (NIEHS 1989). Acrylonitrile is also an asphyxiant and an irritant, and it can affect the central nervous system (NIOSH 1990). It is considered a hazardous waste and a toxic pollutant under federal regulations. The effects of butadiene, including eye and nose irritation and effects on the central nervous system, are discussed in the ERG report on ceramic tile (09300). The effects of styrene, which include eye, skin, and nose irritation and CNS, are discussed in the ERG report on ceramic tile (09300). Ammonia irritates the respiratory tract, eyes, and skin (NIOSH 1990). Cyanide is a potentially fatal poison that affects the cardiovascular and central nervous systems (NIOSH 1990). Acetonitrile can have various health effects, including asphyxia, nausea, and chest pain (NIOSH 1990).
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the energy consumed in the acquisition of materials used to produce ABS plastic. (However, the total embodied energy of ABS pipe is provided in the section on the construction, use, and maintenance stage.)
Polybutylene
Polybutylene used in piping is prepared from 1-butene that is polymerized (Muehlner 1995). A group of four C4 mono-olefins, including 1-butene, are obtained together from the cracking of petroleum and natural gas; these are termed butylenes. (The extraction, processing, and cracking of petroleum and natural gas are discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates [06240].) After butylenes are produced, they must be separated. Initial separation is achieved by distillation, but 2-butene and isobutylene have such similar boiling points that total separation cannot be achieved. Four additional techniques can be used to achieve separation: (1) Isobutylene can be polymerized, leaving 1-butene behind. (2) Addition reactions with alcohol, acids, or water selectively produce pure isobutylene and 1-butene. (3) Isobutylene can be selectively extracted with a liquid solvent. (4) Isobutylene can be physically separated from 1-butene by absorbents. Purified 1-butene can then be used for polymerization (Kirk-Othmer 1992).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Extraction and Processing of Raw Materials to Produce Polybutylene
Butylenes are not acutely toxic; however, the extent of chronic toxicity is not known. Their vapors can displace oxygen and cause asphyxia (Kirk-Othmer 1992). Feedstock for butylene production comes from petroleum and natural gas extraction and processing, which is discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Release of pollutants during these processes can cause a variety of environmental and health effects. These are summarized above under acquisition and preparation of raw materials for PVC and CPVC.
Materials for Brazing and Soldering of Metal Pipe Silver, copper-phosphorus, and copper-zinc filler metals are most often used for copper brazing. Tin-antimony is used for most soldering applications for pipes that conduct potable water, although tin-silver solder may also be used. Drain, waste, and vent soldering can be performed using tin-lead. These metals are acquired through mining.
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Solder flux components contain zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. Zinc is obtained by mining or from scrap metal or waste. The chlorine required to produce these two compounds comes from hydrochloric acid or sodium chloride (salt). Hydrochloric acid is produced as a by-product of certain chemical processes. Salt is mined from underground deposits by pumping water into the deposit and forcing brine to the surface. Ammonia is produced from natural gas.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Extraction and Processing of Materials for Brazing and Soldering of Metal Pipe
The environmental effects of copper and zinc mining are discussed above. In general, tin, silver, antimony, lead, and phosphorus mining have similar environmental effects. Natural gas extraction and processing are discussed in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240). Release of pollutants during these processes can cause a variety of environmental and health effects. These are summarized above under acquisition and preparation of raw materials for PVC and CPVC.
Solvent Cement System Components for Plastic Pipe The cleaner, primer, and solvent cement solutions used to join certain types of plastic pipe are composed of various mixtures of the same chemicals. These chemicals include methyl ethyl ketone, acetone, tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexanone, and a plastic resin (PVC, CPVC, or ABS). The production of the PVC is discussed in the ERG report on vinyl flooring (09652). The production of CPVC and ABS is discussed later in this report in the section on manufacturing and fabrication. The other materials (methyl ethyl ketone, acetone, tetrahydrofuran, and cyclohexanone) are produced by processing petroleum and natural gas. The production of petroleum and natural gas are discussed above.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Acquisition and Processing of Solvent Cement System Components for Plastic Pipe
The extraction, production, and processing of petroleum and natural gas results in the release of VOCs, SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, and particulates. The impact of these materials is described above. Methyl ethyl ketone is irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, and throat and may affect the central nervous system. In the atmosphere, it can cause photochemical smog (discussed above). Acetone is irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, stomach and throat and may cause central nervous system effects. Tetrahydrofuran can cause headaches and dermatitis and can affect the eyes and the respiratory tract. Cyclohexanone irritates the skin, eyes, nose, and throat and may affect the central nervous system (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the manufacture and fabrication of pipe is presented in figure 9.
Ferrous Metals Discussed in this section is the manufacture of pig iron, steel, galvanized steel, and cast iron. Fabrication if iron and steel piple is also covered.
Pig Iron Manufacture
The first step in producing steel is reducing the iron ore with coke and limestone in the blast furnace. In this process, the oxygen is removed from the ore, leaving a mixture of iron and carbon along with other elements as impurities. The limestone combines with the impurities (continued on page 24)
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Figure 9: PipeMaterials Acquisition and Preparation Stage

Activity Iron and steel manufacturing Stressor Fuel combustion emissions Impact/Stressor VOCs Impact/Stressor Ground-level ozone (smog) Impact/Stressor Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Sulfur dioxide Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced reproduction Possible fishkill Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Greenhouse effect Human health effects (cardiovascular, nervous, pulmonary systems) Impaired ability of the blood to carry oxygen Nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Decreased visibility Eye irritation Acid precipitation Surface water acidification Reduced fish reproduction Possible fishkill Particulates Eye and throat irritation Bronchitis Lung damage Impaired vision Solid waste (slag) Liquid wastes Recycled as scrap feed Pickling solutions Spent wash water Oils and lubricants Sludge Landfill disposal Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Decreased landfill capacity Leaching of toxics to groundwater Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals Galvanizing Solid waste (metal) Wastewater Recycle Spent bath solutions Spent cleaning solutions Rinse water Sludge Copper smelting Solid wastes in the form of slag or dust piles Metals and organics filtered from bath solutions Fuel combustion emissions from recycling Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Toxic to aquatic organisms and mammals (see impacts above) Global warming
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Activity Copper smelting (continued) Stressor Wastewater containing heavy metals Air emissions Impact/Stressor Toxic to fish and aquatic organisms Sulfur dioxide Copper dust Copper pipe fabrication Air emissions Copper fumes Copper dust Fugitive emissions Toxic to soil microorganisms Irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, nose, and throat Can cause nausea, gastric pain, and diarrhea PVC and CPVC manufacture Fugitive air emissions Vinyl chloride monomer Vinyl acetate 1,3-butadiene, chloroprene, ethylene dichloride, hydrogen chloride, propylene, vinylidene chloride Fuel combustion emissions Wastewater (see impacts above) Methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, lead, and zinc Dioxins Acutely toxic to many species Various health effects including cancer, birth defects, effects to the skin, immune system, liver, kidneys, and thyroid Sludge ABS manufacture Fugitive emissions Acrylonitrile Landfill disposal Asphyxia Irritant effects Central nervous system effects Carcinogenesis in animals Butadiene Styrene Polybutylene manufacture Copper production (for brazing and soldering) Zinc production (for brazing and soldering) Tin processing (for brazing and soldering) Antimony processing (for brazing and soldering) Tin dust Tin fume Antimony dust Irritant to the eyes and airways Persistent exposure may cause a benign pneumoconiosis Gastrointestinal effects Dermatitis Chronic exposure can cause pneumoconiosis, bronchial and tracheal irritation, skin rash, and other symptoms Lead processing Emissions in the form of lead Contamination of lakes and Consumption of toxics by fish Solid waste (metal) Recycle Fuel combustion emissions from recycling (see fuel combustion impacts above) Fuel combustion emissions (see impacts above) (see impacts above) Irritation of eyes and nose Central nervous system effects Irritation of eyes and nose Central nervous system effects Decreased landfill capacity Consumption of toxics by fish Possible fishkill Known human carcinogen Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms Respiratory irritation Nervous system effects Respiratory tract problems and lung damage Can disrupt nutrient cycling in soil Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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Activity (for brazing and soldering) Stressor dust or lead absorbed to particulate matter Impact/Stressor streams Various health effects, including gastrointestinal, neuromuscular, and central nervous system Solid waste in the form of slag Emissions in the form of lead dust or lead absorbed to particulate matter Wastewater containing lead Manufacture of ammonium chloride flux Manufacture of zinc chloride flux Fugitive emissions of ammonium chloride Fugitive emissions of zinc chloride Caustic (can cause ulceration of exposed skin and irritation of the respiratory tract) Contamination of lakes and streams Respiratory and skin irritation Consumption of toxics by fish Bioconcentration in shellfish (see impacts above) Impact/Stressor Bioconcentration in shellfish Impact/Stressor
and floats them to the top of the molten metal, where they can be removed as slag. The product removed from the blast furnace is called pig iron, an impure form of iron containing about 4 percent carbon. Liquid pig iron can be used directly for metal castings; more often, it is remelted for further refining.
Steel Manufacture
Steel is defined as an alloy of iron with not more than 2 percent carbon by weight. Conventionally, steel is produced by refining pig iron by oxidizing impurities and excess carbon. Steel production is discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401).
Galvanized Steel Manufacture
Galvanizing is the process by which a thin protective coat of zinc is applied to the steel to protect it from corrosion. Zinc production and galvanized steel production are discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401).
Cast-Iron Manufacture
Pig iron that has been remelted is known as cast iron; it contains carbon in excess of 2 percent by weight. Recycled iron and steel scrap can be used in addition to or in place of pig iron. In the manufacture of cast-iron soil pipe and ductile iron pipe, recycled scrap metal is used exclusively as the raw material (Horn 1995; LeVan 1995a). Although inferior to steel in malleability, strength, toughness, and ductility, cast iron can be cast into complicated shapes and is less costly than steel. There are four basic types of cast iron: white, gray, ductile, and malleable iron. White iron contains iron carbide, which makes the iron hard and brittle. Gray cast iron has graphite in the form of crystals and is easily machined. Ductile iron is gray iron treated with small amounts of magnesium, which causes the graphite to form spheroids and helps impart high strength and ductility. Malleable iron is white cast iron that has been heat treated, changing the iron carbide into nodules of graphite (Nayyar 1992).
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Fabrication of Iron and Steel Pipe
Cast-iron pipes are produced from two processes: centrifugal sand mold casting and centrifugal metal mold casting. Centrifugal castings are formed after the molten metal has been poured into a rotating mold, which continues its rotation until solidification of the metal is complete. Centrifugal casting produces high-quality castings that are free of defects caused by shrinking. Cast-steel pipes are produced by either static or centrifugal casting processes.
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Iron and Steel Manufacture and Fabrication of Pipes
The steel industry is a significant source of industrial pollutants discharged to water, air, and land. These pollutants are discussed in greater detail in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). In general, the wastes take the form of solid and liquid by-products of processing as well as air emissions and wastewater discharges. Many of these wastes are toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms when discharged into receiving streams. Combustion sources that produce air emissions include blast furnace stoves, boilers, soaking pits, and reheat furnaces. The type and amount of air pollutants emitted depend on the fuels burned but could include SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides), particulates, CO2 (carbon dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide), and VOCs (volatile organic compounds). The environmental and health effects of these pollutants are described above under mining. Scrap waste from cutting, drilling, and grinding operations is usually recycled. In spite of recycling efforts, steelmaking produces various solid and hazardous wastes, usually in the form of sludges from the manufacturing processes, which are not easily recycled. The galvanizing process also creates waste; metals and toxic chemicals may be present in the wastewater used for rinsing a fabricated item. Other wastes from the galvanizing process include sludges, spent cleaning solutions, and spent bath solutions.
Energy Consumed
Energy consumed in the manufacture of steel is discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). The embodied energy of cast-iron pipe is provided in the section on construction, use and maintenance.
Copper
Copper Manufacture and Fabrication of Copper Pipes or Tubes
Copper smelting and refining are discussed in the ERG report on terrazzo (09400). Copper and copper alloy tubes are made by a piercing and/or extrusion process or by welding strips into a cylindrical shape. The seamless pipes produced through the extrusion process are the most common commercial form of copper and copper alloy tube. In the extrusion process, the heated copper or copper alloy billets are formed into shells by heavy hydraulic presses. The hollowed out billet is then extruded through a die and over a mandrel to form the outside and inside diameters of the tube. In the piercing process, a heated copper billet is first pierced, then rolled over a mandrel, which determines the inside diameter of the tube. The pierced shell is drawn through a die and over a plug to obtain the inside and outside diameters (Nayyar 1992; Kireta 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Copper Manufacture and Fabrication of Copper Tube
Smelting operations produce solid waste in the form of slag or dust piles. Storage and disposal of these wastes must comply with the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act.
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Water effluents from smelters may carry significant levels of heavy metals, which are toxic to fish and aquatic organisms. In the United States, smelters and refineries practice maximum water recycling (Kirk-Othmer 1993). Sulfur dioxide is produced when copper and iron sulfide minerals are oxidized, an essential step in copper smelting. In recent years, the copper industry has achieved dramatic reductions in SO2 emissions. Consequently, U.S. copper smelters are now a minor source of SO2 emissions. The sulfur dioxide in the smelter offgas is recycled and used to manufacture sulfuric acid (Kirk-Othmer 1993). Copper processing operations can release copper dust into the air. Air levels of copper in the United States have been reported to vary from 10 to 570 ng/cu m, with the highest values found in urban areas. The high levels of copper (and other metals) that can occur in soils exposed to atmospheric deposition can be toxic to certain soil microorganisms and can disrupt important microbial processes in the soil, such as nutrient cycling. Studies have reported lower fungal species diversity in soils contaminated with heavy metals; copper was found to be more toxic to these species than other metals. Elevated levels of copper have been measured in grasses growing in the vicinity of a copper refinery complex. Grasshoppers feeding on these grasses contained elevated levels of copper, which accumulated in them, following the seasonal increase of copper levels in the grasses (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Flue dust from copper refineries can be separated from the offgas with electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, cyclones, and wet scrubbers, after which this metal-containing dust is recycled. A growing problem is the increasing arsenic content of the available copper ores, as much of this arsenic is captured in the flue dust (Ullmann 1989). Inhalation of copper fumes or dust can irritate the upper respiratory tract, eyes, nose, and throat. Fumes from the heating of metallic copper can cause nausea, gastric pain, and diarrhea. Occupational exposure to copper fumes comes from copper ore smelting and related metallurgic operations and from welding. Sources of copper dust include metalworking and polishing (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).
Energy Consumed
The total energy required to manufacture copper products is 43,982,000 Btu per ton (51,151 J/ton) (Franklin Associates 1991). In the production of copper, mining consumes about 20 percent of the total energy requirement; milling, around 40 percent; smelting, from 10 to 20 percent; and converting and refining, the remaining 20 to 30 percent. Pollution control accounts for a large percentage of the energy demand for smelting (Kirk-Othmer). The embodied energy of copper tubing is provided in the section on construction, use, and maintenance.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC)

Manufacture of PVC and CPVC
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is produced through polymerization of vinyl chloride. The manufacture of PVC is discussed in the ERG report on vinyl flooring (09652). PVC used for pipe is sometimes referred to as rigid PVC, which indicates that it does not contain plasticizers. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) is a chemical modification of PVC. It is similar to PVC but includes additional chlorine in its chemical structure. CPVC is manufactured from PVC by first dispersing PVC resin grains in a water slurry and (in some processes) swelling them with the addition of a chlorinated hydrocarbon. After removing oxygen from the reactor, this mixture is heated to a temperature of 50 to 60C. Chlorine is added continuously and the system irradiated with UV light to produce chlorine radicals. The product is washed
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with an inorganic base to remove the hydrogen chloride, then it is dried (Ullmann, vol. 21, 1992; Pugliese 1995b; B. F. Goodrich 1994).
Fabrication of PVC and CPVC Pipe
PVC and CPVC pipes are manufactured by conventional extrusion; that is, the melt is forced through a die, which shapes the product. Twin screw-type extruders are universally used for PVC and CPVC. An extruder consists of heated barrels fitted with screws and a feed hopper and terminated in a die. Pipes are made by forcing the PVC melt through an annular die. The hole is shaped by an internal mandrel supported and centered by a device called a spider, which supports the mandrel in a way that allows the melt to flow around the support, forming a seamless extrudate. The pipe then enters a sizing unit, usually a vacuum trough, in which the pipe is pressed against the walls of the unit by air pressure. The pipe then is solidified by additional cooling, usually in a water bath or spray. Finally, it is cut to length by saws or guillotines and stacked (Kirk-Othmer 1983; Ullmann 1992; Wilging 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of PVC and CPVC and Fabrication of PVC and CPVC Pipe
The environmental impacts of PVC manufacture are discussed in the ERG report on vinyl flooring (09652). These include the production of a number of air emissions that, if not controlled, can cause a variety of significant environmental and human health effects. Among these are chlorine, which is an irritant to humans; brine mud, which can cause environmental degradation; and benzene and vinyl chloride monomer, which are human carcinogens. Dioxins that can cause a range of significant human health effects can be released during the manufacture of PVC. PCBs and other organochlorine compounds harmful to human health and the environment are also associated with PVC production. Industry indicates that to a great extent it controls the release of vinyl chloride monomer and other pollutants and that the impact of these PVC-related emissions on health and the environment is overstated. Figure 10 provides information on the air emissions, water effluents, and solid wastes produced during manufacture of one kilogram of CPVC (APME 1994). No information is available concerning the environmental impacts of PVC and CPVC pipe fabrication.
Figure 10: Gross Outputs per kg of CPVC (APME 1994)

Air Emissions (mg) Dust Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Sulphur oxides Nitrogen oxides Chlorine Hydrogen chloride Hydrocarbons Metals Chlorinated organics 2,652 1,836 1,459,920 8,840 10,880 1 156 13,600 2 490 Water Effluents (mg) COD BOD Acid as H+ Metals Chloride ions Dissolved organics Suspended solids Oil Dissolved solids Other nitrogen Chlorinated organics Sulfate ions Sodium ions Calcium ions 748 54 75 136 249,280 680 1,632 34 340 2 7 2,924 4,684 124,420 Solid Waste (mg) Industrial waste Mineral waste Slag and ash Inert chemical Regulated chemicals 1,224 44,880 31,960 56,520 816
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Energy Consumed
Energy consumed during the manufacture of PVC is discussed in the ERG report on vinyl flooring (09652). The embodied energy of PVC pipe is provided in the section on construction, use, and maintenance. An industry estimate of the energy required to produce PVC (including mining) is 48.024 MJ/kg. CPVC requires 52.792 MJ/kg to produce (B. F. Goodrich 1994).
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
ABS Manufacture
ABS combines the rigidity and resistance to chemicals and solvents of styrene-acrylonitrile with the impact resistance of the styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene elastomer. The properties of the plastic can be adjusted by varying the proportions of the components. Styrene and acrylonitrile monomers are fed into a reactor either suspended in water (in an emulsion or a suspension process) or by themselves (in a continuous bulk process). The polymerized product is devolatilized or steam stripped to remove residual monomers. The styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer is in the form of a latex from the emulsion process and a water slurry from the suspension process; these are dried before final use. The continuous bulk process directly yields a molten polymer. Styrene-acrylonitrile is reacted with butadiene to produce a styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymer. ABS plastic is made by combining styrene-acrylonitrile with styrene-acrylonitrile-butadiene (Nayyar 1992; Kirk-Othmer 1991).
Fabrication of ABS Pipe
Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene pipe is manufactured by extrusion, using a process similar to that for PVC. ABS pipe extrusion, however, employs a vented extruder to allow gases to escape, which gives the plastic a better surface appearance. A two-stage extrusion process is also employed to allow more control over melting (Kirk-Othmer 1991; Ullmann 1992). ABS plastic can be extruded to produce solid-core or foam-core pipe. For foam-core pipe, a dry blowing agent is added to the ABS introduced into the extruder. The blowing agent reacts in the extruder to release a gas that forms a foam with the liquefied polymer. The pipe made from this foam weighs less than similar solid core pipe (Kirk-Othmer 1991).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During ABS Manufacture and Fabrication of ABS Pipe
During ABS manufacture, unreacted monomers are still present after the reaction and are reused in the polymerization processes. Effects of acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene are discussed above. No information is available on the environmental impacts of fabricating ABS pipe.
Energy Consumed
No information is available on the energy consumed in the production of ABS plastic. The embodied energy of ABS pipe is provided in the section on construction, use, and maintenance.
Polybutylene
Polybutylene Manufacture
Poly(1-butene) (the polybutylene used in polybutylene plastic pipe) is produced by solution polymerization of 1-butene monomer using a Ziegler-Natta catalyst system. Hydrogen is used as the chain terminator. The reactor converts approximately 20 percent of the 1-butene (monomer) to polybutylene (polymer); the remaining monomer acts as a solvent for the polymer. After polymerization, the catalyst is neutralized and removed from the polymer/monomer solution using an aqueous dilute caustic (NaOH) solution. This aqueous phase is separated from the polymer/monomer phase. The monomer is stripped from the polymer by heating the solution under pressure, then quickly reducing the pressure to flash
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off the 1-butene. This 1-butene is mixed with fresh make-up 1-butene, purified, and recycled back to the reactor. The molten polymer is further processed in an extruder to remove any remaining volatile hydrocarbons. Additives used to control product color, stabilization, processing, and performance are added to the polymer melt. The finished polymer is pelletized and sampled for quality control analysis. The polymer pellets are packaged in railroad hopper cars or 1,000 lb boxes.
Fabrication of Polybutylene Pipe
Polybutylene pipe is fabricated by extrusion, in a process similar to that of PVC.

Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Polybutylene and Fabrication of Polybutylene Pipe
During polybutylene manufacture, the combustion of natural gas and recycled process fuel provides process heating. Combustion of natural gas and recycled process fuel releases small concentrations of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, VOCs, and particulates. Further discussion is found in the ERG report on plastic laminates (06240) and summarized above under mining of raw materials for iron and steel production. The neutralized catalyst salts (oxides of aluminum and titanium) are removed from the aqueous phase (described in the section on polybutylene manufacture above) and are dumped in landfills as nonhazardous waste. The aqueous phase is further processed and neutralized before discharge. No information is available on the environmental impacts of polybutylene pipe fabrication.
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy for the manufacture of polybutylene is approximately 25,000 Btu/lb and can be categorized as follows: monomer (1-butene), 71 percent; yield losses (e.g., recycled process fuel, scrap polymer), 7 percent; other process materials, 1 percent; natural gas, 14 percent; and electricity, 7 percent. Energy consumed by the extrusion of polybutylene pellets into pipe is estimated at less than 1 Btu/lb.
Materials for Brazing and Soldering Metal Pipe Silver, copper-phosphorus, and copper-zinc filler metals are most often used for copper brazing. Tin-antimony is used in most soldering applications for tube conducting potable water, although tin-silver solder may also be used. Drain, waste, and vent soldering can be performed using tin-lead, but it is common practice to use nonlead solders even on DWV piping. This avoids the problem of confusing solders and mistakenly using a lead solder in a drinking water system (Kireta 1995).
Solder flux components contain zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. Zinc chloride is produced by treating hydrochloric acid with zinc, zinc oxide, zinc scrap metal, or zinc-containing waste. Impurities include iron and manganese, which are removed through precipitation. Ammonium chloride can be produced by several different methods. One method involves the reaction of sodium chloride with ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water, followed by the crystallization and removal of sodium bicarbonate. Ammonium chloride can also be produced by reacting sodium chloride with a boiling ammonium sulfate solution, followed by crystallization. Another method involves neutralizing an ammoniacal liquid with hydrochloric acid or absorbing ammonia vapors in hydrochloric acid (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).
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Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Manufacture of Materials for Brazing and Soldering Metal Pipe
See above for environmental impacts and health effects of copper manufacture. Zinc manufacture is discussed in the ERG report on steel framing (05401). Most operations associated with extracting and processing tin ore are wet processes. Tin dust and tin oxide fume may escape during bagging of the concentrate and during smelting operations, as well as during periodic cleaning of bag filters used to remove particulate matter from the flue gas of smelter furnaces. Tin dust is an irritant to the eyes and airways. Persistent exposure to tin dust or fumes is known to cause a benign pneumoconiosis (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Antimony processing produces a fine dust. Acute antimony poisoning, which can occur under industrial conditions, can cause gastrointestinal symptoms and dermatitis. Chronic exposure can cause pneumoconiosis, bronchial and tracheal irritation, skin rash, and other symptoms. Emissions of antimony dust from smelters can be controlled by filter-scrubbers. Antimony is considered a toxic pollutant under the Clean Water Act (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Lead may enter the environment during ore processing, smelting, or refining, primarily as dust released to the atmosphere or in particulate matter that has absorbed lead. Lead may be deposited on soil, where it is generally retained in the upper 2 to 5 cm. Lead may enter water from atmospheric fallout, runoff, or wastewater. Stacks and slag heaps of primary and secondary lead smelters may also introduce lead into the environment through emissions. Lead poisoning can result from inhaling airborne lead particulate matter or fumes or from ingesting lead from water or food. People living in the vicinity of lead mining, processing, and use operations may be exposed to lead principally by ingesting dust. Symptoms of acute lead poisoning include nausea, abdominal pain, and vomiting. Chronic lead poisoning can result in gastrointestinal, neuromuscular, and central nervous system effects, among others. Lead bioconcentrates in some shellfish, such as mussels (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Ammonium chloride is designated as a hazardous substance, and wastewater discharge of this substance is regulated. It is a mild skin and respiratory system irritant, and the dust is irritating to eyes, nose, and throat. Ammonium chloride is not considered a serious industrial hazard (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Zinc chloride is designated as a hazardous substance and wastewater discharge of it is regulated. Zinc chloride is caustic and can cause ulceration of exposed skin surfaces and irritation of the respiratory tract (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the construction, use, and maintenance of piping is presented in figure 11. Individual pieces of pipe are connected to form a complete plumbing piping system. Pipes can be joined in several ways: Screw threading is used for smaller steel, iron, and some plastic pipe; welding for larger steel or iron pipe; brazing/soldering for copper pipe and tube; groove/O-ring sealing; flange sealing; compression rings/insert fittings (plastics); compression gaskets and couplings (cast iron); solvent cement (ABS, PVC, and CPVC); and heat fusion (polybutylene) (Noble 1995; Nayyar 1992; Haltum 1995; Hornbostel 1991; Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute 1992). This report discusses only those connection methods that join pipes
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Figure 11: PipeConstruction, Use, and Maintenance Stage

Activity Construction Stressor Welding metal pipe Use of cleaners, primers, and solvent cements to join plastic pipe Impact/Stressor Metal oxide emissions VOC emissions Impact/Stressor Metal fume fever Various health effects, including irritation of mucous membranes,dermatitis, headache, dizziness Ground-level ozone (smog) Respiratory tract problems Decreased visibility Eye irritation Waste in the form of scrap pipe materials Packaging for cast-iron pipe (wooden crates) Use of PVC pipe Accidental fire Toxic air emissions Recycled Fuel combustion emissions from transport (see figure 8 for impacts of fuel combustion) Landfill disposal Decreased landfill capacity Impact/Stressor
together into solid, monolithic units: welding, brazing, soldering, solvent cement, and heat fusion. Larger iron, steel, or copper pipe can be joined by welding. In the welding process, an electric arc created between an electrode and the pipes to be joined increases the temperature of the pipes to the melting point, allowing filler metal (also melted in the process) to fuse with the pipe metal. The filler metal used with a weld depends on the metals of the pipes to be welded. To prevent the development of oxide coatings that would inhibit fusing of the metals, fluxes or gas shields are used to keep oxygen away from the welding point. When heated, fluxes release gas that blankets the joint to keep oxygen away. A gas blanket directly covers the weld area with an air-excluding gas. Various welding processes can be used, but they all share these common elements (Nayyar 1992). Since most metal pipe can be welded, brazing has limited use. It is most often used to join copper pipe. Brazing is a technique used to join pipes in which the metal of the pipe is not heated enough to melt. The molten filler metal (>840F, 449C) wets the heated pipe metal and is drawn into the pipe joint by capillary action. After cooling, the joint is solid. While a butt joint can be used, a lapped joint is most efficient. As with welding, a flux is used to prevent oxidation of the joint. During brazing, the heat melts the solid flux, which is then displaced by the molten filler metal. Filler metals most often used with copper pipe include silver, copper-phosphorus, and copper-zinc (Nayyar 1992). Soldering is used to join copper tube. Soldering is similar to brazing, but the temperature is lower, usually between 450 and 500F (232-260C). A greater overlap of the pieces to be joined is required than in brazing. The solder filler metal used for nonpotable water systems (e.g., DWV systems) is usually a tin-lead mixture ranging from 5 percent tin and 95 percent lead to 70 percent tin and 30 percent lead, although the most common ratio is 50 percent tin and 50 percent lead. As in brazing, a flux is used. The use of lead solder is not permitted in potable water distribution systems, so the solder metal for them is usually a tin-antimony or tin-silver mixture (Nayyar 1992). The two connection techniques for plastic pipe discussed here are solvent cementing and heat fusion. In solvent cementing, the joining surfaces of the pipe are partially dissolved by a solvent solution, brought together, and allowed to fuse. The surfaces must be prepared to ensure good fusion. This may involve cleaning with a cloth, piece of sandpaper, or solvent
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cleaner solution. The purpose is to fully expose the plastic to the solvent and to the mating surface. If grease or similar material needs to be removed, simple wiping or sanding will not be sufficient and a solvent cleaner designed for plastic pipe must be used. Solvent cleaners used on PVC, CPVC, and ABS contain methyl ethyl ketone and acetone. Usually, PVC, CPVC, and ABS pipe can be coated with solvent cement and fused in place. If the pipe is cold or the pipe surface is glazed, the dissolution process is slower, and it can take longer to make a good joint. The solvent cement solution is a mixture of solvents and plastic resin, resulting in a diluted solvent concentration. A primer solution containing tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexanone, and some methyl ethyl ketone (but no resin) can be used to soften the pipe surface. After softening, the solvent cement is used to fuse the surfaces. The solvent cement typically includes tetrahydrofuran (the main solvent), acetone (a secondary solvent), methyl ethyl ketone (a solvent that serves as a filler/extender), cyclohexanone (which gives the cement more working time) and the appropriate plastic resin. Different solvent cements can be used with one or more plastics. ABS solvent cement (containing the standard solvents plus ABS resin) only works with ABS plastic. However, PVC solvent cement (containing PVC resin) can be used with PVC and ABS plastic, and CPVC solvent cement can be used with CPVC, PVC, and ABS plastic (Haltum 1995; National Home Center Institute 1991; Oatey 1994). Plastic pipe can also be joined by heat fusion, using one of two systems: socket-spigot (in which a smaller diameter pipe end fits into a larger diameter end) and butt end (in which just the ends of the pipes are joined). In these methods, the pipe ends are heated, brought together, and allowed to fuse. The socket fusion system is usually employed for smaller pipes, up to 4 in. (8.8 cm) (Nayyar 1992). Two situations have been identified in which polybutylene piping systems have a shorterthan-normal life span. In the early 1980s, piping system failures occurred when the acetal fittings then used to join polybutylene pipe deteriorated. While the polybutylene pipe itself did not degrade, the deterioration of the acetal fittings was erroneously associated with the polybutylene pipe. Currently, acetal fittings have been replaced with metal inserts and compression fittings, which do not have the problem (Muehlner 1995; Pugliese 1995a). The use of polybutylene has been banned in a few localities since 1993 on the basis of an industry study indicating that polybutylene pipe may have a shortened life span under high chlorine conditions (> 4 ppm Cl in water). The industry is contesting the ban on the basis that chlorine is not found at that high level except at drinking water treatment plants. By the time water reaches locations where polybutylene pipes are used, the chlorine has dissipated to lower levels (Muehlner 1995; Pugliese 1995a; Hirani 1995).
Waste Produced and Natural Resource Depletion During Construction, Use, and Maintenance of Pipe
The construction process generates waste in the form of scrap pipe material. Cast-iron pipe is packaged in wooden crates that are recycled after delivery to the construction site (LeVan 1995a). The heating of metal during welding can release metal oxides into the air. The inhalation of these freshly produced metal oxides can produce an illness called metal fume fever. The two metals that most commonly cause this illness are zinc and copper, but antimony, tin, lead, silver, and iron may also be involved. A variety of symptoms are associated with metal fume fever, including a sweet or metallic taste, blurred vision, stiff neck, shortness of breath, dyspnea, headache, and gastrointestinal effects. Note that metal fume fever should not be confused with the pneumonitis caused by cadmium and other more toxic metals (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995).
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Use of the cleaners, primers, and solvent cements needed to join plastic pipe can release VOCs into the atmosphere. As a result of Clean Air Act regulations, cleaner solutions for plastic pipe (that do not have VOCs) will be developed and primers may disappear altogether. New plastic pipe joining techniques without VOCs should be developed soon, as well; in California, there is a deadline for this of January 1, 1998 (Haltum 1995). Solvents that evaporate into the air during solvent cementing of plastic pipe include tetrahydrofuran, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and cyclohexanone. As present in the solvent cement, these chemicals can irritate mucous membranes; cause dermatitis, headache, and dizziness; and have other negative effects on human health (Oatey 1994). Such health effects can be averted by good industrial hygiene and proper work space ventilation (Borelli 1995). PVC building materials may pose a hazard to building occupants during fires (Malin and Wilson 1994; Hartzell 1990). Hydrochloric acid and other toxins (including dioxins and furans) are released when PVC burns, but the greatest danger is from toxins that may be released while the PVC heats up in the early stages of a fire, before it ignites. Toxins released from overheated PVC can go unnoticed for a time (Malin and Wilson 1994). PVC building materials, including pipe, that find their way into waste incinerators can also produce these toxins. Industry indicates that studies have found no measurable hazardous emissions that can be traced to plastic piping in building fires. Fire impinging on water-filled pipes may even be extinguished by the water (Wilging 1995). Another industry source indicates that PVC materials such as PVC pipes have superior fire performance properties when compared to other combustible building materials. In addition, the toxic potency of smoke from PVC is similar to that from wood and other common materials. This is because the typical combustion products of PVC are either common to other materials (such as CO and CO2) or are of limited actual hazard in a fire (such as hydrogen chloride, which reacts with other chemicals shortly after being formed in a fire) (Borelli 1995; Vinyl Institute 1995). In areas where drinking water is soft or slightly acidic, lead from lead-soldered pipe joints can dissolve in the tap water, contributing to long-term chronic exposure of the population. Lead concentrations have been shown to increase in water that remains in the distribution system overnight (Hazardous Substances Databank 1995). Lead solder is no longer used to join pipe that carries drinking water.
Energy Consumed
The embodied energy for several types of pipe and pipe material is presented in figure 12. These amounts include energy used to extract raw materials (including the energy value of the raw materials), to process the raw materials, and to produce the finished product. Quantities in the following table are derived by calculation unless referenced from another source.
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Figure 12: Embodied Energy of Pipe Materials

Embodied energy of material 47,700 111 Btu/lb1 MJ/kg Embodied energy of 2 pipe 23,373 80.9 Btu/ft MJ/m Embodied energy of 4 pipe 69,165 Btu/ft 239.4 MJ/m 51,516 Btu/ft* 178.3 MJ/m 68,000 Btu/ft2 235.4 MJ/m
Pipe material Plastics ABS (Sch. 40) Solid ABS (Sch. 40) Foam core PVC (Sch. 40) CPVC SDR 11 (CTS) CPVC (Sch. 40, IPS) PB (SDR 11) Metals Copper (Sch. L) Copper (Sch. M) Cast Iron (4 no hub)
Weight of 2 pipe 0.49 lb/ft3 0.73 kg/m 0.368 lb/ft3 0.548 kg/m 0.676 lb/ft(3 1.006 kg/m 0.0830 lb/ft6 1.236 kg/m 0.760 lb/ft6 1.131 kg/m 0.489 lb/ft6 0.727 kg/m
Weight of 4 pipe 1.45 lb/ft3 2.16 kg/m 1.08 lb/ft3 1.61 kg/m 2.00 lb/ft 2 3.00 kg/m
47,700 Btu/lb*1 111 MJ/kg 34,000 79 25,000 58 25,000 58 25,000 58 Btu/lb1 MJ/kg Btu/lb6 MJ/kg Btu/lb6 MJ/kg Btu/lb6 MJ/kg
17,554 Btu/ft* 60.8 MJ/m 22,984 79.6 Btu/ft MJ/m
20,750 Btu/ft6 71.7 MJ/m 2.249 lb/ft6 3.348 kg/m 0.729 lb/ft5 1.082 kg/m 19,000 Btu/ft6 65.6 MJ/m 12,225 Btu/ft6 42/21 MJ/m 56,200 Btu/ft6 194.2 MJ/m 18,225 Btu/ft5 63.08 MJ/m
21,991 51 21,991 51 14,891 35
Btu/lb1 MJ/kg Btu/lb1 MJ/kg Btu/lb1 MJ/kg
1.75 lb/ft4 2.60 kg/m 1.46 lb/ft4 2.17 kg/m 5.80 lb/ft3 8.60 kg/m
5.38 lb/ft4 8.01 kg/m 4.66 lb/ft4 6.93 kg/m 7.40 lb/ft2 11.00 kg/m
38,484 133.2 32,107 111.1 86,368 298.9
Btu/ft MJ/m Btu/ft MJ/m Btu/ft MJ/m
118,312 Btu/ft 409.5 MJ/m 102,478 Btu/ft 354.7 MJ/m 110,200 Btu/ft2 381.4 MJ/m
*Does not include energy involved in the incorporation of nitrogen gas to form the foam
1 2 3 4 5 6
Franklin 1991 Malin and Wilson 1994 LeVan 1995b Murphy 1995 Pugliese 1995b Wilging 1995

A summary of the environmental stressors and impacts associated with the recycling, reuse, or disposal of pipes is presented in figure 13. Industry sources indicate that cast-iron and ductile-iron pipes, as well as copper pipes and tubes, may frequently be recycled. In fact, after 50 or 75 years scrap iron and copper pipes in a building are worth more than their original cost (LeVan 1995a; Kireta 1995). Poly(1-butene) (or polybutylene) pipe has been evaluated using long-term testing and extrapolation techniques. These methods have estimated a 50-year lifetime at temperatures of 70C (158F) (Ullmann 1992)
Figure 13: PipeRecycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage

Activity Demolition Stressor Disposal in landfills Recycling of iron pipes Impact/Stressor Decreased landfill capacity Fuel combustion emissions from (see figure 9 for impacts of transport and reprocessing fuel combustion) Impact/Stressor Impact/Stressor
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References
References
APME (Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe). 1994. Eco-Profiles of the European Polymer Industry, Report #6: Polyvinyl Chloride. April. As cited in B. F. Goodrich 1994. B. F. Goodrich. 1994. The Facts About Temprite CPVC: How It Impacts the Environment and Our Everyday Lives. Cleveland, OH. Borelli, Frank E. 1995. Letter to Brian Pugliese, Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association, commenting on the final ERG report on pipe. Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute. 1992. Why You Need to Specify Cast-iron Plumbing for Your Home. Chattanooga, TN. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: Society of the Plastics Industry. Haltum, Ed. 1995. Information provided for ERG report on pipe by the chairman of the Environmental Issues Committee for the Plastic Pipe Industry. Hartzell, Gordon E., Arthur F. Grand, and Walter G. Switzer. 1990. Toxicity of Smoke Containing Hydrogen Chloride. Fire and Polymers: Hazards Identification and Prevention. Gordon L. Nelson, ed. American Chemical Society Symposium Series 425. Hazardous Substances Databank. 1995. National Library of Medicine/TOXNET. June. Hirani, Sindhu G. 1995. Ban of polybutylene pipes remains in effect, special appeals court rules. Gazette. May 24. Horn, Greg. 1995. Information provided for the ERG report on pipe by the director of regional engineering of the Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association, Birmingham, AL. Hornbostel, Caleb. 1991. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications. 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Kireta, Andrew. 1995. Comments on pipe report by the national program manager of the Copper Development Association. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 1983. 3rd ed. Vol. 23. NY: John Wiley & Sons. 1991. 4th ed. Vol. 1. NY: John Wiley & Sons. . 1992. 4th ed. Vol. 4. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
. 1993. 4th ed. Vol. 7. NY: John Wiley & Sons. LeVan, Bill. 1995a. Information provided for the ERG report on pipe by the Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute, Chattanooga, TN. 1995b. Comments made on the ERG pipe report by the Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute, Chattanooga, TN. Malin, Nadav, and Alex Wilson. 1994. Should we phase out PVC? Environmental Building News. Vol. 3, no.1. January/February. MasterSpec. 1991. Section 15410Plumbing Piping. Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects. Muehlner, Roland. 1995. Information provided for the ERG report on pipe by the senior staff research chemist, Shell Oil. Murphy, Frank. 1995. Information provided for the ERG report on pipe by the vice president for sales, Cerro Copper Products, St. Louis, MO. National Home Center Institute/National Retail Hardware Association. 1991. Working with Plastic Pipe. Nayyar, Mohinder L. 1992. Piping Handbook. 6th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences). 1989. Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens. Research Triangle Park, NC. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 1990. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. Noble, James. 1995. Information provided for ERG report on pipe by the executive vice president of the Mechanical Contractors Association of America. Oatey Co. 1994. Oatey All Purpose Cement Material Safety Data Sheet. Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association. 1995. Information provided for the ERG report on pipe. Pugliese, Brian P. 1995a. Information provided for the ERG report on pipe, including Spec-Data sheets on PVC and CPVC plastic pipe, from the managing director of the Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association, Glen Ellyn, IL. . 1995b. Comments on the final ERG report on pipe.
Richardson, Walter. 1995. Information provided for the ERG report on pipe by the piping specialist, AIA/MasterSpec. Smith, Gerald. 1995. Information for the pipe report from the executive director of the Lead Industries Association. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1989. 5th ed. Vol. A 7. Weinheim: VCH Verlag. . 1990. 5th ed. Vol. A 15. Weinheim: VCH Verlag. . 1992. 5th ed. Vol. A 20 and A 21. Weinheim: VCH Verlag. Vinyl Institute. 1995. Combustion Products of Vinyl and Other Building Materials. Morristown, NJ. Wilging, Robert C. 1995. Consolidated comments prepared for the Plastic Pipe and Fitting Association on the final ERG report on pipe.
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Appendix A
Methodology
PA R T 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N
1.1 Project Overview When architects design and specify materials for a project, they consider a number of variables such as cost, aesthetics, availability, durability, maintenance, manufacturers reputation, customer needs and preferences, and code compliance. It is difficult, however, for architects to include environmental considerations in their decisions because the information they need is not readily available. The Environmental Resource Guide (ERG) is intended to provide this information to architects, designers, specifiers, builders, community planners, and interest groups. Originally designed to address the entire design process, from site selection and planning through design, construction, operation, and renovation or demolition of the building, the ERG currently focuses on building materials.
The ERG is a project of the American Institute of Architects, with cooperative funding from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys Office of Research and Development. The basic premise of the ERG is that the members of the design community are in a position to make a significant contribution to enhancing the quality of the environment and preventing pollution if they have the tools to consider environmental factors in the hundreds of decisions they make on each project. The environmentally conscious architect or designer takes an integrated approach to the built environment, addressing environmental aspects of site selection and land use planning, energy use and conservation, waste management, and materials selection. Materials selection, which is the focus of this methodology report, is an important step in the constellation of decisions that shape the built environment. Generally, there are several alternative approaches or materials available for each design element or specific architectural application; these alternatives carry environmental burdens and may offer environmental benefits. The reports on materials in the ERG are designed to present the information an architect needs in order to consider environmental effects of various alternative materials, along with all of the other factors involved in design and materials selection. The reports do not tell architects, designers, and specifiers which product or material to select, but instead present information to enable users to make better selections and use materials more wisely on their own.
1.2 The Concept of Life-Cycle Assessment The materials reports in the ERG use a life-cycle framework. Life-cycle assessment (LCA) uses a systems approach to identify and examine constituents, processes, inputs and outputs associated with these processes, and resulting environmental issues from cradle to grave (or cradle to cradle, as many prefer to view the process). LCA studies cover raw material acquisition, product manufacture, product use, and product recycling, reuse, or disposal. LCA practitioners have defined four components of a complete LCA: (1) a scoping and goal-setting process, during which study objectives are defined and study boundaries are determined; (2) an inventory, which is a quantitative identification of energy and raw material inputs at each stage of the life cycle as well as outputs consisting of air emissions, effluents, and solid waste, products, and co-products; (3) an impact assessment, which characterizes and assesses the ecological and human health impacts of the energy, resource, and waste factors identified in the inventory; and (4) an improvement assessment, which evaluates opportunities for prevention or reduction of environmental burdens.
The LCA-based methodology designed for the ERG identifies the environmental effects of building materials from cradle to grave, with the overall concept of life-cycle assessment providing the framework for the research. This methodology follows many of the guidelines
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developed by the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) and the EPA. However, this methodology differs from those guidelines and most previously published studies in the following respects: It streamlines LCA methodology by using qualitative as well as quantitative information. Guidelines for full-scale LCA studies, primarily inventories to date, require quantification. It addresses the impact of various processes on the environment and human health. Most LCA studies conducted to date consist of an inventory of inputs and outputs, with analyses based on the volume of these inputs and outputs rather than the effects. Most LCA studies either do not assess impact or include impact only in terms of less is better. It expands the concept of the use stage of the life cycle. LCA methodologies have not fully developed the use stage. The AIA methodology tailors the use stage to include the types of information needed by the building community. It addresses generic materials rather than specific products. This protects proprietary product formulation information while providing information on categories of materials and their environmental considerations. It includes an explicit valuation process. In weighing the importance of various potential environmental effects of alternative materials, the client, designer, and other relevant decision makers can explicitly select the environmental values or criteria that they will use in the project. Part 2 discusses these adaptations in detail.
1.3 The Environmental Resource Guide Project The approach that underlies the ERG applies the life-cycle concept to the entire building, beginning with site selection and site planning and continuing through design, construction, and use to final demolition or renovation. This approach enables architects or planners to understand and consider the environmental factors at each stage of building design, construction, use, and renovation or demolition. Using this approach, they can see the effects of various design decisions and materials choices throughout the life cycle of the building as well as the cascading effects of each decision on other decisions. This will enable them to avoid boxing themselves into a corner, or having decisions made early in the process dictate less than optimal decisions as the project progresses. In other words, the architect can look at the project comprehensively, from start to finish, before actually beginning.
Most of the information presented in the ERG is designed to support decisions related to specific buildings. There is recognition, however, that decisions and actions at other levels also shape the built environment, ranging from treaties on global environmental issues to a manufacturers selection of chemical constituents for a particular product. In between, there are federal standards and regulations, public and private labeling and certification programs, state laws, local zoning ordinances, industry association standards, and community development projects, as well as the force of public opinion. The decisions made by these different entities may be contradictory, since decision-makers often operate in isolation from one another or respond to conflicting pressures. The architect is in a unique position to serve as an integrator for all of the entities that affect the built environment.
1.4 Purpose and Contents of This Report This report presents the methodology that was developed to prepare reports on building materials. The report also presents data collection tools that can be used to replicate materials research conducted for this project or to gather and analyze information on additional materials.
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Part 2 presents an overview of LCA concepts, establishes a framework for the methodology, and discusses the adaptation of LCA concepts for building materials studies. Part 3 presents the research methodology developed for the ERG, including (1) the overall approach to the inventory, impact, and improvement stages and (2) step-by-step procedures and worksheets for those who want to use this approach in studies of their own products. This section also describes some of the lessons learned from applying the methodology in conducting research for the ERG.
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This section presents the framework used for the building materials research. This framework is based on the concepts of life-cycle assessment (LCA), but it includes modifications that were made to reflect the particular needs of the building community. Section 2.1 presents a brief overview of LCA concepts; section 2.2 discusses how these concepts were adapted for the ERG; section 2.3 discusses how the information is presented in the ERG.
2.1 Overview of Life-Cycle Assessment In its current state of development, life-cycle assessment is an objective process that identifies the material and energy inputs and outputs, with their associated environmental burdens, of specific products from cradle to grave (or cradle to cradle). These environmental burdens can be the result of energy consumption, waste generation and disposal, or natural resource use and depletion. LCA quantifies the energy consumed, waste generated, and resources used, and identifies the effects of these factors on the environment. These assessments cover the entire life cycle of the product or process, from raw material acquisition and processing through manufacture, fabrication, and use, to final recovery, reuse, recycling, or disposal, unless the scope is explicitly limited by the researcher. They also include the process of transporting materials or final products and the use of packaging.
LCA methodology development efforts have focused on the following four components: Scoping. A scoping phase was added recently to the framework of LCA. It is an initial stage that includes defining the study goals and boundaries. Inventory analysis. The inventory analysis identifies and quantifies the energy and raw material inputs as well as the waste (air emissions, effluents, and solid wastes), product, and co-product outputs at each stage of the life cycle. Impact assessment. The impact assessment characterizes and assesses the human health and environmental impacts of the energy, resource, and waste factors identified in the inventory. Improvement assessment. The improvement assessment identifies and evaluates opportunities for prevention or reduction of environmental burdens. Life-cycle assessment is not a new concept. First applied to environmental and energy issues in the 1960s, it has received increasing attention in recent years for several reasons: First, there has been increasing recognition that many environmental programs of the past have succeeded only in moving pollution from one medium to anotherfrom water to air or from air to solid waste. It has become clear that more holistic approaches to solving environmental problems are needed. Second, recent emphases on pollution prevention have led those in industry and government to look at the causes of pollution both upstream and downstream from the production processduring the entire life cycle of products and their constituents. Some companies are actively seeking safer materials for use in their operations and are
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also integrating product stewardship concepts into relationships with their clients to encourage responsible handling of products downstream. Third, as companies and entire industries see the advantages of green marketing, lifecycle assessments are increasingly being used to document claims of the environmental superiority of one product or material over another. Finally, efforts in several countries to implement environmental labeling programs have sparked interest in LCA as a method for acquiring and analyzing data to support the programs. Many of the methods used for conducting life-cycle assessments were developed and tested during the 1970s and 1980s. A paper entitled Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis: A Life Cycle Environmental Assessment for Products and Procedures (Hunt et al., undated) describes the methods used over the past two decades to address the inventory stage of LCA as it is defined by SETAC and EPA. The history of LCA is discussed in several recent publications, including EPAs Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles (Vigon et al. 1993). While most of these studies used similar overall approaches, they differed in the treatment of specific issues. It became clear that work was needed to define in detail the methodology of life-cycle assessment.
Figure 2-1: Life-Cycle Framework
Material acquisition and preparation Manufacturing and fabrication Construction, use, maintenance Reuse, recycling, or disposal
Over the past five years, several projects have been undertaken to define more clearly the methodology of life-cycle assessment and to reach consensus among researchers on this methodology. Beginning in August 1990, SETAC held a series of workshops to examine various aspects of LCA, with the objective of developing consensus on approach, definitions, and methodology. SETAC has published several reports based on these workshops. At the same time, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency initiated a project to develop guidelines for life-cycle assessment, beginning with the inventory stage. Other organizations in the United States, Europe, and Canada have also been working on LCA methods and approaches. The International Standards Organization (ISO) has established a forum in an effort to develop consistency among the various LCA activities. (Additional information on LCA approaches and methods is contained in references cited in the bibliography.) Life-cycle assessment has been criticized during the past few years. Studies conducted to compare alternative consumer products (such as cloth versus disposable diapers, paper versus plastic grocery bags, and paper versus styrofoam containers for fast-food items) led to inconclusive resultsdifferent interests could interpret the studies to support their own claims. It was clear that the design of these studies had a significant impact on the final results and that the assumptions, study boundaries, and other factors could shift the outcome. A continuing criticism of LCA is that it is too expensive and too time-consuming. Many companies cannot afford to conduct LCA studies of their products using the EPA/SETAC guidelines. Until recently, however, those involved in LCA methodology development insisted that the approach could not be simplified or streamlined without compromising its validity. Now, there is growing recognition that the use of the life-cycle concept as an approach can yield useful information. SETAC and EPA are examining the concept of streamlining LCA to determine whether model approaches can be established to guide those studies.
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2.2 Adaptation of LCA to Building Materials Research LCA was modified for use in the AIA materials research for several reasons:
First, building materials are different from other consumer products in several important respects: (a) they become part of assemblies and structures in the building and their life cycle becomes linked to these assemblies and structures; (b) the disposal stage is in the distant future and it is difficult to predict recycling, reuse, or disposal options that will exist; (c) location of the building can be an important factor in weighing the environmental considerations of alternative materials; and (d) the environmental profile of a material can vary depending on how the material is used in the building. Second, funding available to AIA did not permit full-scale LCAs of all building materials to be included in the project. Some streamlining of the methodology was required. Third, the information needs of architects, designers, and specifiers are different from those of researchers and some LCA practitioners. Architects, designers, and specifiers may not need the precision and degree of quantification required by academic researchers. The modifications that were made to the LCA approach and methodology as outlined by EPA and SETAC include expansion of the use stage to include building performance characteristics, local and global availability of materials, and the concept of useful life and durability; focus on impact and improvement in addition to inventory; explicit identification of user values involving the client, the designer, and the builder in setting priorities among environmental and other factors; and expansion of the use of peer review to include stakeholders in the entire research process. Each of these modifications is discussed in the sections that follow. These modification have been developed over the first four years of AIAs ERG project. They have not, however, been implemented fully in the research conducted to date.
2.2.1 Expansion of the Use Stage
Most members of the building community are focused on the use stage of the materials life cycles. A life-cycle framework expands the perspective of the architect and builder to include consideration of the upstream and downstream effects of materials selection. In previous LCA methodology projects, the use stage has received less emphasis and development than the materials acquisition and manufacturing stages. As a result, there is less guidance available on methods for study. The use stage requires the most tailoring to the type of product or material under study. For example, the types of data to be gathered and presented on a consumer cleaning product, a carpeting product, and a building framing material are very different, and as a result it is difficult to develop generic categories of data, decision rules, and analytical techniques. EPA defines the use stage as beginning after distribution of finished products or materials to the consumer and ending when these products or materials are either recycled or discarded (Vigon et al. 1993). It includes maintenance and cleaning requirements. Four elements were added to the use stage for the AIA materials reports: Performance characteristics. Alternative building materials can have significantly different effects on energy efficiency (thermal performance, lighting load) and indoor air quality. These effects, both positive and negative, should be reported.
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Local and global availability. The concept of availability has two components. Local availability focuses on transportation factors: those products that are produced nearby from locally available materials will avoid the environmental burdens associated with transporting raw materials and finished products. Depending on local availability, the best product for a given application may vary from one part of the country to another. Global availability includes consideration of the depletion of finite resources worldwide, a key issue in sustainability. Even when these resources are currently abundant, how much more production can they support without becoming endangered? If a new product or material replaces an existing one in terms of market share, are resources available in sufficient quantity to support this level of production? Durability and useful life. Durability and useful life of the material in a given application are critical. Even if material A is superior to material B on all environmental parameters, it may not be the best selection if its useful life is far less than that of material B for a given function. To represent these effects accurately, one should account for the effects by multiplying them to reflect the number of times material A must be replaced during the life of material B. For example, one could compare energy efficiency on the basis of Btus per square foot, but to be accurate, the comparison should be made on the basis of Btus per square foot per year of useful life. This issue is complicated by the fact that innovations can occur during the life of a very durable product that can change the environmental profile of that product versus the alternatives. If the longerlife product also had a higher first cost, it might not be replaced, even if an environmentally preferable product entered the market.
2.2.2 Focus on Impact and Improvement
Most of the LCA methodology development work to date has been in the area of inventory analysis, and this is the only area in which consensus has been gained on approach and methods. SETAC, EPA, and others have begun work on developing methods for impact assessment, but it might be years before a consensus document, such as those published by SETAC and EPA on inventory methods, is completed. SETAC and EPA have not begun work on improvement assessment, although work is being conducted in this area by the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM). Information on impact and improvement opportunities is crucial to the building community. Those who are using LCA inventory results alone to make decisions or improve products are basing their analyses on the assumption that less is best and that those products with the smallest quantity of releases are better. This is not always the case, however, since a small quantity of a highly toxic substance can be far more damaging to the environment or human health than many larger releases. Therefore, it is important for the users of the material reports to know not simply the volume of wastes or resources depleted but also the potential effects on human health, plant and animal species, and ecosystems. Approaches to classifying and weighting various impacts have been developed for this project and are described in part 3. In addition to providing information on impacts, the reports in the ERG provide guidance on what steps can be taken in response to the information. What opportunities exist for an architect or builder to effect improvements in materials themselves or in their applications? These opportunities can include selecting one alternative over another, demanding better materials from manufacturers, using installation or application techniques that improve environmental performance, and other approaches. This analysis can also include consideration of whether the material or an alternative is necessary at all: can another item be reused instead of selecting a new material? Can the building be designed to avoid the need for the item altogether?
2.2.3 Explicit Identification of User Values
One of the objectives of the ERG is to encourage the explicit inclusion of environmental criteria in the initial programming phase and during subsequent design phases. In selecting
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these environmental criteria, the client and designer must decide which environmental values are most important to them for a particular project. No individual project can address all environmental goals and criteria, such as maximizing energy efficiency in building performance, maximizing the quality of indoor air, minimizing embodied energy in the building, minimizing generation of toxic or hazardous materials, eliminating the use of materials derived from endangered or scarce resources, maximizing the use of recycled or reused materials and minimizing the use of virgin material, and minimizing the waste produced in building operation, among others. The critical factor, from a methodological perspective, is that these valuations be made explicit and that a system be presented to assist the user of the ERG in determining values. The application reports in the ERG facilitate the valuation of specific impact categories by the user. The reports present impact assessments of alternative materials in specific categories, such as atmospheric emissions, energy use, and effects on human health. The reports do not compare the relative importance of these categoriesthose decisions are left to the userbut highlights issues of particular significance.
2.2.4 Expansion of the Concept of Peer Review
Peer review, as defined by EPA and other scientific organizations, involves a technical review of documents and reports by experts in specific fields. The AIA project has expanded the concept of peer review to include a variety of stakeholders during the entire research process, from scoping the study boundaries through reviewing the final draft report. The peer review of a report on a building material should include manufacturers of the material, researchers from academia or government, representatives of environmental or public interest groups, and representatives of the building community. In addition, it could include community planners, manufacturers of alternative products, and experts in reuse or recycling. Resource constraints have prevented full implementation of this process during the initial years of the AIA project, but the intent is to implement it in future years. At the start of the research, the stakeholders and peer reviewers help define the material and determine the scope and boundaries of the study. They provide data for the study, review data submitted by others, and identify the issues of greatest interest and concern for the building community so that these issues can receive appropriate attention in the study. They can also establish performance criteria. As the study progresses, they identify inconsistencies in data and disagreements on interpretation. The group provides a forum in which these issues can be discussed and agreements or compromises can be reached (including the agreement to disagree). Finally, the stakeholders and peer reviewers can be very helpful in identifying opportunities for improvement, providing a reality check for some ideas and a point of departure for others. Discussions might generate ideas for future actions, such as product or process improvements for manufacturers, additional research for academics and interest groups to fill in gaps in data, and practical steps for the building community.
2.3 Presentation of Life-Cycle Assessments Reporting formats have evolved during the project to focus on the different types of information of interest to architects, designers, and specifiers; manufacturers of products; community planners; and researchers. These formats include two different kinds of reports, each designed for a different segment of the target audience. The two kinds are (1) material reports and (2) application reports. Material reports are directed toward product manufacturers and researchers, as well as those architects, designers, and specifiers who want to know more about the life cycles of materials, including the constituents and processes required to produce materials, maintain them, and recycle, reuse, or dispose of them. Application reports are directed toward architects, designers, and specifiers who are seeking easily accessible comparisons of alternative materials.
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2.3.1 Material Reports
The material reports present information gathered on the material life cycle. These reports include detailed flow diagrams that illustrate the life cycle for all of a materials constituents and processes. For each stage of the life cycle, the reports present inventory information on the material, energy, and water inputs, and on the outputs to the air, water, and land. They also identify potential stressors and environmental effects associated with these inputs and outputs at each stage of the life cycle. These reports are written for a technical audience, primarily product manufacturers and researchers. Specifically, the material reports include a summary of key environmental considerations throughout the life cycle; a description of the material, its various types, and its uses in buildings; complete and detailed materials flow diagrams, from an LCA perspective, for the materials covered in the reports; identification and description of all the constituent materials and processes involved in the life cycle; an inventory of the material, energy, and water inputs and the waste outputs (air emissions, waterborne waste, and solid waste) associated with each of the constituent materials and processes throughout the life cycle; identification of stressors and potential impacts associated with the inputs and outputs of these processes, presented in text and in a summary exhibit; organizational perspectives, both industry and environmental. These perspectives enable industry representatives and environmental groups to refute points in the report, add material they feel is important, or explain particular points of interest; brief descriptions of relevant regulations that apply to the material and the processes in its life cycle.
2.3.2 Application Reports
The applications reports present comparisons of alternative materials for specific applications. The reports are intended to enable architects, designers, and specifiers to understand quickly the environmental aspects of various materials within a product category and the differences between these materials from an environmental perspective; help architects, designers, and specifiers choose one material over others on the basis of sound information on environmental considerations; help architects, designers, and specifiers reduce the environmental impact of a building by reducing the quantity of a particular material or by using that material in a manner that reduces environmental impact; and help manufacturers understand the most important environmental impacts associated with their products life cycles as compared to alternative products and, on the basis of this information, to reduce the environmental impacts of their products. The application reports describe the benefits and environmental concerns associated with each material alternative, beginning with brief summaries and providing increasingly detailed information in text and graphic formats. In many cases, the better alternative for a given application depends on how the material is used or which manufacturing process was used. These factors may be under the control of the architect or designer, and the reports present these opportunities.
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The application reports include the following: highlights of the environmental considerations associated with alternative materials, and a summary of recommendations a comparison graphic that presents the comparative performance of the alternatives in several impact categories (see figure 2-2) a summary of the environmental impacts of each alternative organized by impact category detailed recommendations for architects, designers, and specifiers in such areas as choosing a material, reducing material use, using materials wisely, and the like a summary of the environmental life cycle of each alternative, based on the technical report references
Figure 2-2: Sample Applications Matrix
Material A Material B Material C Material D Material E Material F Material G Material H Material I Material J Material K Material L Material M Material N
The reports present a summary of the entire life cycle of the material. The application reports go beyond the conventional LCA use stage to emphasize possibilities for improvement in this stage to reflect the interests of architects, designers, and specifiers as well as the fact that the operational stage of a building is likely to have a significant environmental impact. They also discuss design considerations related to the materials. For example, a report on wood framing and steel framing would include discussion of the need for thermal barriers if steel is used in external walls. A report on glazing might include discussion of the different requirements for glazing on north and south facing walls and the uses of glazing in daylighting; these topics are important in reducing operational energy in a building.
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PA R T 3 : M AT E R I A L S R E S E A R C H P R O C E S S
The approach used in the AIA materials research includes four life-cycle stages similar to those outlined in EPAs inventory guidelines: (1) materials acquisition and preparation; (2) manufacturing and fabrication; (3) construction, use, and maintenance; and (4) recycling, reuse, or disposal. The first two stages of the life cycle of a building material are similar to the life cycle of a consumer product or other commodity. Once the material is incorporated into the building during the construction/use/maintenance stage, however, its life cycle becomes linked to that building and its life cycle. As a result, the final two stages of the life cycle involve additional complexities for building materials. The relationship between the building material life cycle and the facility life cycle are illustrated in figure 3-1. The stages in the building material life cycle are defined below in terms of the materials research methodology.
Figure 3-1: Facility and Material Life Cycle
FACILITY LIFE CYCLE Operation, use, and maintenance
Site selection
Construction and installation
Reuse, recycling, or disposal
Building materials and products
BUILDING MATERIALS LIFE CYCLE
Manufacturing and fabrication
Material acquisition and preparation
Materials Acquisition and Preparation. This stage includes all of the activities that occur
prior to acquisition of feedstock materials by the manufacturer of the product or material that is the subject of the study. It includes mining of ores, minerals, and rocks; extraction of petroleum and natural gas; harvesting of trees; growing and harvesting of agricultural products; and raising and slaughtering or shearing of animals. It also includes the processing of these raw materials into the products needed by the manufacturer. This can include crushing, grinding, and calcining of minerals and rocks; beneficiation of ores; refining of petroleum; production of chemicals; manufacture of intermediate products; and other activities. This stage also includes transportation of the materials and the acquisition of recovered and recycled materials. The major environmental issues at this stage are natural resource use and depletion, energy consumption, water consumption, and waste generation and their impacts on health and the environment.
Manufacturing and Fabrication. This stage includes all of the processes that convert feedstock materials into the final product that is ready for distribution and use. The major environmental issues at this stage are energy consumption, water consumption, and waste generation. Construction, Use, and Maintenance. This stage includes transportation of the product to the job site; installation of the material in the building; maintenance requirements; and durability and anticipated life of the material. The concept of durability is complex for several
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reasons: (1) the useful life of alternative building materials, such as roofing products, can vary tremendously, and (2) the actual life of building materials, particularly decorative materials, is frequently shorter than the theoretical life because of changing styles. A major issue at this stage is the effect of installation and of the material itself on indoor air quality. Another important issue is the effect of the material on building energy performance (thermal, lighting, etc.). Construction waste is also a concern. Beginning with this stage, the materials incorporated into assemblies or components can no longer be treated as separate entities in a life-cycle assessment. Instead, they must be viewed as part of those assemblies or structures during use and final disposition. Materials that are readily recyclable before their use in the building might become incorporated into an assembly, making recovery difficult or impossible.
Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal. This stage includes how the material is handled during
remodeling, renovation, or demolition of the building. Building materials constitute an enormous solid-waste problem, and yet in most parts of the country there is little recovery and recycling or reuse of renovation and demolition waste. Recyclable materials may be incorporated into components or assemblies, making their recovery difficult. Recently, projects have demonstrated the economic feasibility of separating and recycling construction waste in specific cases. Some building materials contain hazardous materials and must receive special treatment for disposal. The following presents the modified LCA approach and methodology used to conduct research on materials for the ERG. It addresses all components of life-cycle assessment: scoping and goal definition, inventory, impact assessment, and improvement assessment. Each section begins with a discussion of the approach, definitions of concepts and terms, and guidelines for design of the study. The approach is followed by a step-by-step description of the procedures for using the approach. The procedures sections include worksheets and instructions to assist readers in applying this methodology.
3.1 Scoping and Goal Definition The scoping and goal definition stage establishes study objectives and boundaries, as well as system boundaries for the processes within the life cycle. The boundaries of both the study and the systems define explicitly what elements are included and what elements are excluded.
3.1.1 Approach to Setting Study Objectives and Boundaries
The first step in the scoping process is to select and define the material to be studied. In the AIA project, materials are selected for study on the basis of such criteria as frequency of use and concern over specific environmental issues, particularly indoor air quality issues. Definition of the material by the study team sets initial study boundaries by determining what will be included in each report. This can be complex since the ERG looks at generic materials and categories of materials rather than specific products. For example, reports have covered paint, wall coverings, and insulation. Each of these categories includes a wide range of specific products. Further, many materials require a system of accessories for installation. For example, gypsum wallboard requires tape and joint compound, and ceiling tiles require a suspension system. As part of this process, the functional units to be used for each material are defined. These units can include gallons, liters, linear feet, pounds, kilograms, square feet, or other metrics. It is important to establish units that have meaning for the users and the material under study. In general, the most appropriate unit is the one in which the material is most commonly sold or specified. The following guidelines have been developed for scoping study objectives and boundaries for the material reports:
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For very broad categories of materials, such as paint or wall coverings, all of the commonly used types of products are included in the study. Those products that are used rarely or only in special applications may be excluded to narrow the study to a more reasonable scope. The major accessory items needed to install or use a material in a complete assembly are included. Thus, the report on gypsum wallboard also includes joint tape and joint compound, and the report on plaster also includes lath. Alternative green products that have begun to capture a significant market share for a particular material category are included, as well as traditional products. For example, the report on paint includes information on some of the lower-emitting paints as well as conventional paints. The appropriate geographic level is defined. In general, the analysis is not restricted to a particular geographic area or conditions in a particular region. For some materials, however, geographic factors are relevant to the analysis and should be included. During the scoping stage, the report users help to frame issues and questions that are of most interest to them for each material. For example, in the scoping process for the report on paint, architects raised many questions about European paints that were being introduced in the United States, including concerns about emissions from these paints as well as issues of durability, cost, and ease of handling. As a result of this process, the report placed more emphasis on alternative products than some of the other reports do. If architects are involved in the design of the study, it is more likely to yield the information that will answer their questions and provide useful guidance. Some practitioners in industry streamline the inventory to focus on impact areas that are expected to be of most concern for the product under study. These practitioners base their scoping efforts on estimates by experts of the most important types of impacts for the product. These impact categories then drive the inventory. For examples of this approach, see the article by Graedel, Allenby, and Comrie (1995). While the material reports for the ERG address all elements of the life cycle and all inputs and outputs, particular attention is focused on those areas highlighted by architects and experts during the scoping process.
3.1.2 Approach to Setting System Boundaries
Delineation of system boundaries is a crucial step in the inventory. EPAs Inventory Guidelines and Principles defines a system as a collection of operations that together perform some defined function. The most broad-based system begins with raw materials acquisition and continues through intended or consumer use and final disposition (Vigon et al. 1993). AIA has adopted this broad definition for the total system. Subsystems are also defined within this total system. These subsystems generally encompass steps in the life cycle, such as specific mining operations or manufacturing processes. Architects are generally most interested in information on the total system, whereas manufacturers might be more interested in specific subsystems that they can affect, such as their own operations and perhaps the operations of their suppliers. Architects are also interested in learning about variations within the subsystems that affect the final results of the analysis, such as manufacturing operations that use recycled postconsumer waste material as feedstock as opposed to those that use only virgin materials. If other factors are equal in comparing two alternative materials for a particular application, this variation could swing the decision. The following general guidelines are used in establishing system boundaries for conducting the AIA materials research: All identifiable constituents of the material are traced back to their rawest form as they are mined, harvested, or produced. In some cases, identification of constituents may be
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difficult because of the proprietary nature of product formulations or specific processes. Transportation of materials and products, including recycling of wastes, should be included when information is available. In most cases this information must be estimated, since numerous potential processing, production, or use sites might be involved. Manufacture of equipment used for mining, harvesting, processing, transporting, manufacturing, installing, and other operations is excluded from the study. Substances that are used, recovered, and reused as catalysts for processes are included only insofar as they represent hazardous and toxic materials present at the facility and subject to accidental spills and releases. These materials are not traced back through their life cycles. The life cycles of cleaning products and processes are excluded from the system; a qualitative note on requirements for cleaning and data on releases from cleaning materials is included. While these guidelines have been followed in drawing the boundaries for building materials research, not all information sources use identical approaches. As a result, data from two different studies generally should not be aggregated and should be compared carefully. Boundary issues are discussed in more detail in the sections that follow.
3.1.3 Procedures for Scoping and Goal Definition
Procedures for scoping, setting goals and objectives, and establishing boundaries are described in figure 3-2.
3.2 Inventory Analysis The major objectives of the inventory are to identify all of the constituents used in the material, the quantities of these constituents used per unit of material (whenever possible), and the processes involved, and then to construct flow diagrams that depict the inputs and outputs of the processes throughout the materials life cycle. EPAs Life-Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles (Vigon et al. 1993) provides a template that is applied to each process at every stage of the life cycle to organize the collection of data. This template, presented in figure 3-3, depicts the material and energy inputs and outputs.
The major difference between the inventory procedures outlined in EPAs Guidelines and Principles and the methods described in this report is that EPAs approach requires quantitative data, whereas the AIAs approach streamlines the methodology by using both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data are sought and used when they can be obtained. When quantitative data are not available, however, qualitative information is used instead. Data availability is a major concern in LCA. There are no publicly available LCA databases at this writing, although there are several efforts underway to make LCA information more readily available. As a result, those conducting LCA studies must initiate an extensive data collection effort. A further barrier to data collection is reluctance on the part of many manufacturers to release specific data on product formulations (quantities of inputs) and wastes (quantities of outputs) to protect proprietary information. The approach used in the AIA material reports enables the studies to be conducted for far lower cost and is essential for the AIA project to be feasible within the constraints of limited resources. It has other benefits as well: it allows general information to be obtained when manufacturers maintain that specific data are proprietary; it allows generic materials to be addressed rather than specific products, so that AIA does not appear to be endorsing one product over another; and it allows the inclusion of variables in the studies that have been excluded from other studies because of the lack of data.
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Figure 3-2: Procedures for Scoping and Goal Setting

Scoping is an iterative process. Initial scoping establishes the foundation for the study. As the study progresses, the objectives and study boundaries should be revisited occasionally by the stakeholders to ensure that the study will in fact provide the information needed for the material report and that the original objectives are on target. Step 1: Assemble the stakeholders for the study to participate in the scoping process. This group should include experts on all of the major processes and constituent materials as well as experts with broad environmental and human health knowledge. For the AIA material reports, this group includes manufacturers and their associations, researchers, and environmental group representatives. For an in-house study by a product manufacturer, this could include product R&D staff, marketing staff, operations staff, and purchasing staff. Step 2: Establish the study objectives. Discuss with the stakeholder group questions such as the following: Why are we conducting this study? For the AIA reports, the primary purpose is meeting the information needs of architects, designers, and specifiers through publication in the ERG. How will we use the results? Will they be used to guide material selection for a particular project? Will they be used in-house for product improvement, to assess a possible substitution of constituents or processes, to identify potential vulnerability of the product in terms of current or future regulations, or for other purposes? For the AIA reports, the information will be used to prepare material reports and application reports, and the information elements required for those reports should drive the study. Are there any specific questions we need to have answered? Are there any specific environmental issues that are of particular concern? These questions and issues will vary for each material and group of alternatives. What level of detail is needed to answer the questions or meet the study objectives? Step 3: Define the material or product to be studied. Are there any accessory materials that should also be included? Step 4: Define the functional unit for the material or product under study. Step 5: Discuss the study design and potential data sources. Identify areas in which data exist and areas in which research will be needed. Potential sources of data are included in sections 3.2 and 3.3 of this report. Step 6: Prepare a brief write-up of the results of the initial scoping process for review by the stakeholder group. Revise in response to comments to ensure consensus on the basic study objectives and design.
Figure 3-3: LCA Template

Energy Water
Raw or intermediate materials
Products Co-products
Atmospheric emissions
Solid waste
Waterborne wastes
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Although some reviewers might argue that this approach does not provide a definitive answer for the architect, it provides information that architects, designers, and specifiers can use to compare alternatives and make decisions. Further, quantitative inventory studies are not necessarily more definitive; previously published studies have been interpreted differently to support entirely opposite conclusions (see articles in the New York Times, September 22, 1990, and Wall Street Journal, February 27, 1991). Section 3.2.4 presents procedures and worksheets for conducting the inventory analysis.
3.2.1 Materials and Process Flows
A crucial step in the inventory is the development of a complete and detailed materials flow diagram for the entire life cycle of the generic material. (Figure 3-4 presents an example of a materials flow diagram.) Construction of the materials flow diagram begins with a thorough examination of the components used in manufacturing the building material. All of the constituent materials and processes used in manufacturing the product are identified. The initial flow diagrams depict the materials required and the processes that occur during the life cycle. They differ from mass balance or material balance diagrams in that they do not quantify the constituents at each step. These diagrams serve to organize collection of data on inputs and outputs as well as impacts. The definition of constituent materials is consistent with EPAs definition of raw/intermediate materials as those that are present in the finished product, although they may be transformed chemically (Vigon et al. 1993). Materials are not excluded on the basis of a minimum threshold quantity (e.g., less than 1 percent of the input to a given process or to the product as a whole). In making these decisions a priori, the researcher risks omitting important elements of the study. Once the constituents of the material under study are identified, each of these constituents is traced back through its life cycle to its rawest or most basic form, to minerals in the earth, trees in a forest, etc. All of the intervening processing steps are also identified. Unlike some approaches, the boundary is not limited on the basis of the number of steps removed from the manufacturing process (e.g., the one-step-back decision rule, which limits the number of steps that a constituent must be traced upstream). All previous steps are included to ensure that all of the health and environmental effects associated with the constituents of the product can be taken into consideration. Not only is the life cycle of the material traced back to the acquisition of raw materials, but the material flow is also traced forward through the stages of construction, use, and maintenance to final recycling, reuse, or disposal. In these stages, the materials become linked to assemblies and structural elements of the building, and the life cycle of the material joins the life cycle of the building itself. For some materials, the preparation of the materials flow diagram is straightforward; for most, it is complex. The complexity arises from several factors. First, some materials are in fact many different productspaint is an excellent example. There are many different types of paints, each having its own formulation. Although some of the ingredients are common to all paints, most ingredients and their quantities vary from one type of paint to another. For materials that are composed of diverse products, categories of constituents are determined (in paint, for example, these categories include carriers, binders, pigments, mildewcides, and surfactants) and then the various specific constituents used in each category for the different types of products are identified. Separate flow diagrams are prepared when the variations among the types of products are significant. Complexity can also arise from the use of many different processes to manufacture a given item. For example, steel can be manufactured by any of four processes, each of which uses some different raw materials, consumes different amounts of energy, and produces different
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Figure 3-4: Sample Materials Flow Diagram
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Materials Research Process Sample Materials Flow Diagram
Gypsum mining Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing Screening
Gypsum calcining Heating Cooling
Gypsum board manufacture Mixing Slurrying Spreading Shaping Molding Sealing

Trim scraps (recycled or landfilled)
Habitat change
Additives Accelerator Starch (gypsum or Glass fiber potassium Perlite sulfate) Vermiculite
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Joint tape Debarking Chipping NaOH Na2SO4 Cl ClO2 Joint compound

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quantities of waste. In these cases, each of the processes is described, and the most common one is noted. If one particular process clearly dominates within an industry or for the production of a particular product constituent, the research might be limited to that process. Some products can be manufactured from virgin or recycled constituents. In these cases, both processes are reported, and the differences between the two are noted in terms of energy, resource savings, and waste generation. Finally, some chemicals can be manufactured by different processes and from entirely different raw materials. For example, ethylene can be manufactured from liquefied natural gas, naphtha, gas oil, diesel fuel, ethane, propane, or butane. In these cases, the most commonly used process(es) is (are) reported. Another problem at this stage is that the formulation of most products is considered proprietary information by their manufacturers. Most manufacturers will provide a general listing of component materials, but they might not identify the specific chemicals used and rarely provide information on the quantities of constituents used in manufacturing their products. The major sources of information for the inventory are manufacturers, industry associations, product information, and published reports on industries, products, and industrial processes. An initial literature search is conducted to identify information that is available, and a preliminary flow diagram based upon that information is prepared. For some materials, information is readily available in published sources; for composite materials, such as plastic laminates or acoustical ceiling tiles, there is little information on the products themselves. After this initial data-gathering effort, manufacturers and industry associations are contacted to verify the information and to fill in the gaps. In addition, these discussions provide information on recent improvements in processes or use of safer substitute feedstocks, use of recycled materials, properties of constituents, as well as trends in manufacturing of the material. The major research problem encountered by the AIA project at this stage is that the manufacturers of the building material under study frequently do not have information on the composition of the materials they acquire for their manufacturing process. Therefore, additional manufacturers or associations must be contacted to obtain these data. This could become an impossibly complex and onerous task. However, as one moves upstream in the life cycle closer to raw materials, there is more published information available.
3.2.2 System/Subsystem Inputs
For each constituent and process identified in the materials flow diagram, the inputs and outputs are identified. Figure 3-5 in section 3.2.4 presents step-by-step procedures for identifying inputs and outputs. (Inputs are discussed in this section; outputs are discussed in the next section, 3.2.3.) The inputs included in this approach are similar to those specified in EPAs Inventory Guidelines and Principles: energy, water, and resource materials (raw and intermediate).
Energy. Energy is consumed during the life cycle of a material to run various processes and
to transport the raw and intermediate materials and the final product. This energy may be obtained from coal, natural gas, petroleum, hydropower, nuclear power, wind, or wood biomass. Process energy is reported in quantities of fuel used by type (if this information is available) and then is converted to total Btus or MJ consumed by various subsystems. If information on fuel consumption by type is not available, energy consumption can be reported in total Btus or MJ. This may be necessary when various manufacturers use different fuel types for production of the same or similar products. Further, the data currently available from published sources frequently include only total Btus or MJ.
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Transporting materials must be accounted for throughout the life cyclefrom one processing stage to another, from the distributor to the job site, and from the building to a recycling center or a disposal site. In some cases, the transportation energy dwarfs other environmental considerations. Precise data on transportation energy require knowledge of the locations of the producers of all constituent materials, of the manufacturer of the material under study, of the distributor, of the building in which the material is used, and of the recycler or disposal site. The AIA studies cannot obtain this information because it is not studying specific products. As a result, we can only estimate the magnitude of transportation throughout the life cycle can only be estimated exploring whether constituents are transported across the country or to other countries for fabrication, where the building materials are manufactured, and how they are transported. In general, lightweight and less-bulky items require less transportation energy. Materials produced close to the building site from locally available materials require less transportation energy. A second type of energy input is the energy value of a natural resource, or its inherent energy. This input accounts for the use of raw materials (that are also important sources of fuel) to produce materials rather than energy. Inherent energy is generally calculated for petroleum, natural gas, and coal; since wood is not generally viewed as a primary energy source in the United States, most U.S.-based studies do not include inherent energy of wood. The use of petroleum, natural gas, and coal to produce chemicals or other materials removes them from the finite supply of available fueltherefore the cost of using these raw materials includes their value as fuel sources. Available sources of data vary as to their inclusion of this energy type; when it is available, it is included in the energy figures reported. Finally, some sources report total embodied energy (in Btus or MJ) of the material or product at the point of use. Embodied energy includes all of the process energy, transportation energy, and inherent energy expended during the life cycle up to a particular point. Examples of published sources of data on process energy, inherent energy, and embodied energy include Franklin Associates, Ltd., Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries, 1991. This study was conducted for the Society of the Plastics Industry. Data were drawn from published sources as well as personal interviews. The models used apply statistical estimates of energy conservation measures to develop projections from older data. Brown, H. L. et al., Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes, 1985. This study was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy. It is based largely on analysis of secondary data (process flow sheets, Census of Manufacturers data, etc.), although two on-site surveys were conducted for each four-digit industry category. Stein, H. G. et al., Handbook of Energy Use in Buildings, 1976, and Hannon, B. M., et al., Energy Use for Building Construction, 1976. These sources are drawn from a study conducted under a contract with the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration. It used an energy input/output model developed at the Center for Advanced Computation, University of Illinois, to analyze 1967 energy requirements data. Quantitative data on energy inputs are available for a wide range of processes. The reports cited above provide quantitative analyses of processes or embodied energy for materials. The major shortcoming of these studies is the age of the data. Most of the conclusions presented in these reports are based on data that are ten to twenty years old. Some authors have applied statistical factors to account for conservation measures that are likely to have been implemented in the intervening years. However, these figures generally do not take into consideration the most recent changes in production processes and their impacts on energy consumption.
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Manufacturers can also use internal sources of information in conducting LCAs. These sources include accounting and purchasing information on fuel purchased for various operational equipment, as well as information on overall consumption of electricity. If possible, energy used for general lighting, office operation, and employee benefits should be excluded from the analysis.
Water. EPA defines water consumption for inventory input as the fraction of total water
withdrawal from surface or groundwater sources that either is incorporated into the product, coproducts (if any), or wastes, or is evaporated (Vigon et al. 1993). The EPA Guidelines and Principles explicitly excludes water taken from a stream, lake, or river and later returned to the same location in essentially the same condition. In practice, it is often difficult to determine how water should be considered. Therefore, AIAs material reports include information on those processes that require large amounts of water and those that discharge large amounts of water. The issue of water consumption is very important in some parts of the United States and may be considered less important where water resources are more abundant. The ERG does not attempt to address these regional questions but provides users with information on water requirements so that they can explore the implications for their client and community.
Resources. As noted under section 3.2.1, Materials and Process Flows, the materials used in
manufacturing a building material or product are traced back to their rawest form, and that section contains a more complete discussion of resource issues. The constituents, the quantities of these constituents, the acquisition and processing of the constituents, and the wastes generated as a result of production of these constituents should be identified. Each constituent is treated as a separate product, and its life cycle is traced upstream (back to raw materials) to determine the energy, water, wastes, and environmental and health impacts of its production. The Bureau of Mines within the U.S. Department of the Interior is an excellent source of information on resources. This information is available in printed reports and through the MINES database. Manufacturers can obtain data on materials inputs from the purchasing, engineering, or research and development departments.
3.2.3 System/Subsystem Outputs
Outputs of a system or subsystem (refer to figure 3-3) include the product or material under study, plus wastes and co-products. The reports prepared for the ERG include indoor air emissions of the product or material in use as a special category of output, since this topic is of particular interest to architects, designers, and specifiers.
Waste Generated. Three major categories of waste are included in the studies: air emissions,
effluents, and solid wastes. Wastes are reported for each subsystem. Wastes can be defined as pretreatment wastes or as actual releases or discharges after treatment. Both definitions have value and both types of wastes have been reported when the data are available. The advantages of including uncontrolled, pretreatment wastes are that (1) this information is more complete since environmental controls generally address only regulated pollutants, and (2) this permits consideration of fugitive emissions and accidental spills. To simplify data collection and analysis procedures, only controlled releases are included on the worksheets provided in figure 3-11 (page 33). Another distinction is that between regulated and unregulated releases. Inventories have traditionally focused on regulated substances because these data are the most consistently available, but it is useful to identify all substances if possible. It is far more difficult to obtain data on unregulated wastes, since monitoring of these substances is generally not required.
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Atmospheric emissions are airborne pollutants associated with activities within a subsystem. They are generally reported in terms of weight per unit of product within the subsystem. Examples of pollutants included in this category are criteria air pollutants (total suspended particulates [TSP], particulate matter smaller than 10 microns in diameter [PM10], sulfur oxides [SOx], nitrogen oxides [NOx], carbon monoxide [CO], volatile organic compounds [VOCs], and lead); air toxics (benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, lead, mercury, etc.); greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting substances; and others. These emissions can include dust and particulates from crushing and grinding of mined ores and minerals, fuel combustion emissions by bulldozers and trucks, and stack emissions from manufacturing facilities. Control technologies used to treat airborne wastes generate other waste solids and sludges that should also be included in the inventory under the appropriate category. This type of information is often difficult to obtain, but when available should be reported under solid wastes or effluents, depending upon the disposal method. Sources for data on airborne emissions include information provided by manufacturers and industry associations, EPAs AP-42 database (Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources), studies of specific industries, and engineering texts and reports on industrial processes. Permits for specific facilities can also be examined, although it might not be possible to assign emissions to specific product lines if more than one product is produced at the facility. Water-borne wastes are pollutants that are discharged with process effluent. Waterborne wastes include those pollutants that are still present in the effluent after treatment, as well as spills. Indicators of water pollutants include biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), oil and grease, and pH. BOD and COD are not actual pollutants but are indicators of organic-matter content, while pH is a measure of acidity/alkalinity. Toxic pollutants can include any of the hazardous or toxic chemicals used in the subsystem process. Sources for data on waterborne wastes include information provided by manufacturers and industry associations, EPA regulatory support studies (such as the Development Documents for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards), effluent levels established for each industry using Best Available Technology, NPDES permits and other permits, and engineering texts and reports on industrial processes. Solid wastes and sludges are the third category of wastes. Information on solid wastes is more difficult to obtain because these wastes are regulated primarily in terms of their disposal, and then only if they are classified as hazardous or are disposed of off-site. These wastes include industrial process scrap, postconsumer waste, fuel combustion residues, and the residual material generated by pollution control devices. They can range from materials that are voluminous but nontoxic to highly concentrated sludges of toxic materials. Therefore, these wastes must be characterized carefully, since volume or weight alone can be highly misleading. Sources for information on solid waste and sludges include information provided by manufacturers and industry associations, information from industry and citizen groups dedicated to material recovery and recycling, and engineering texts on industrial processes. A manufacturer can also refer to permits; bills of lading related to disposal of hazardous wastes are an additional source.
Indoor Air Emissions. Indoor air pollution is considered primarily during the construction,
use, and maintenance phase of the life cycle, although there can be indoor air considerations during renovation. Indoor air quality has become an increasing concern to architects, designers, specifiers, and builders. Indoor air pollutants include all of those substances that
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are emitted by a material or product during its installation or use. These emissions can result from the volatilization of compounds contained in the product, such as formaldehyde in resins, or can derive from residual cleaning solvents or other chemicals from the manufacturing, installation, or maintenance processes. Pollutants are emitted during combustion processes in some furnaces, stoves, and other appliances, and during cleaning and maintenance. Indoor air pollutants also include particulates, such as dust and fibers, that are generally more likely to occur during construction and installation. Finally, some building materials and products have the capacity to act as a sink, adsorbing compounds in the air and re-emitting them over time. Indoor air quality is a very complex topic for several reasons. First, data on emissions from building materials are incomplete and often incompatible or contradictory. Study approaches vary. Some studies focus on emissions of one material in a controlled chamber test; others study concentrations of all pollutants in existing buildings. Studies of the same type of product from different manufacturers or simply from different manufacturing facilities will often result in different conclusions. Second, the emissions of most products change over time, and the decay rates for emissions are different for various products and under different conditions. For some products, such as joint compound, the emissions decline significantly after several hours of drying, whereas for others, such as particleboard, formaldehyde emissions may continue for months. Sources for data on indoor air emissions include scientific studies published in peer-reviewed journals and presented at conferences and symposia, studies by EPA, studies by industry associations and environmental groups, and publications aimed at chemically sensitive people.
Co-products. Co-products are defined by EPA as a marketable by-product from a process
(Vigon et al. 1993). In EPAs Inventory Guidelines and Principles and published LCA inventory studies, allocation of a portion of inputs and outputs to co-products as well as to the product under study is a crucial issue. It is, however, a complex issue. Early LCA inventories allocated input and output burdens to products and co-products based on weight of each. While this is a simple approach, it is often misleading. An extreme example would be allocating solid waste produced during diamond mining by weight, with the result that the co-product rock, which can be used in road aggregate, would receive almost the entire burden and the diamond would receive little or none. The generation of co-products and the proportion of co-product to product varies by facility in most cases; therefore, accurate co-product allocation requires data on individual facility inputs and outputs. Although common industry practice might be to produce a co-product along with a given product, or theoretical models might predict that a co-product will be generated, the actual quantities will likely vary among companies and facilities. In studies using qualitative information, co-product allocation is not a crucial issue. It is still important to note when there are significant co-products in a process, but it is not necessary to devise a method in each case that fairly allocates inputs and outputs between or among products and co-products. The approach used for the AIA material reports lists co-products but does not attempt to apportion outputs to them.
3.2.4 Procedures for Inventory Analysis
The first three figures that follow present step-by-step procedures for conducting the inventory analysis, along with worksheets to assist in organizing the information. Figure 3-5 presents procedures for preparing the materials flow diagram. Figure 3-6 presents a worksheet to assist in preparing the materials flow diagram. Figure 3-7 illustrates application of the LCA template to the materials flow diagram.
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Figure 3-5: Preparation of the Materials Flow Diagram

The first task in constructing the inventory is to prepare a detailed materials flow diagram. Figure 3-4 illustrates a completed materials flow diagram. The procedure for preparing the materials flow is presented here. Step 1: Start with the processes that are performed at the facility to manufacture the product under study. a. Identify all of the materials used in manufacturing the product under study, based on the definitions presented in the previous sections. Information sources include purchasing as well as product R&D and facility operations/management personnel. b. Begin to draw the materials flow diagram with these materials flowing into the manufacturing process. c. Include estimates or actual figures on the quantities of the materials used to produce a unit of product as it is most commonly sold (e.g., a gallon of paint). d. Figure 3-6, Materials and Process Flow Diagram Worksheet, might be helpful in organizing this information. Step 2: For each of the materials identified in Step 1, trace the constituents back to a raw materials stage as defined, including any intermediate materials or processes. This step can be time-consuming and tedious, since it requires obtaining information from a variety of sources. List each raw and intermediate material on figure 3-6, or draw your own flow diagram using this format. a. To obtain the information, go to suppliers or to product Material Safety Data Sheets, or use the references cited in the report text. b. Include estimates of quantities of these constituents if they are available. Step 3: Look downstream in the life cycle of the product after manufacture and identify the uses in the building sector. For some materials, there are many diverse uses. List these on figure 3-6 or on your own flow diagram. Step 4: Look at the final stage in the products life cycle, when the building is demolished or renovated, and identify the possibilities for reusing, recycling, or disposing of the product or the assembly to which it is linked. List these on Figure 3-6 or your own flow diagram. Apply the LCA template illustrated in Figure 3-3 to each box on the Materials and Process Flow Diagram. See figure 3-7 for illustration. Use the worksheets in figures 3-9, 3-11, and 3-13 to record information. Instructions for the worksheets are given in figures 3-8, 3-10, and 3-12.
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Figure 3-6: Materials Process Flow Diagram Worksheet

Raw materials/Intermediate acquisition A Manufacturing and fabrication Use Reuse, recycle, or disposal
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Figure 3-7: Illustration of Application of LCA Template to Materials and Process Flow Diagram
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The next series of figures presents instructions and worksheets for identifying system or subsystem inputs and outputs for the inventory. The first two stages of the life cycle, material acquisition and manufacturing, use the same worksheet (figure 3-8 presents procedures for completing the data recording sheets for inventory inputs and outputs for the first two lifecycle stages, and figure 3-9 presents the Inventory Data Recording Sheet for these two material acquisition and manufacturing stages). Instructions for the construction, use, and maintenance stage are provided in figure 3-10 and the Inventory Data Recording Sheet for construction, use, and maintenance is presented in figure 3-11. Instructions for the recycling, reuse, or disposal stage are provided in figure 3-12, and the Inventory Data Recording Sheet for recycling, reuse, or disposal is presented in figure 3-13.
3.3 Impact Assessment This section presents background information on life-cycle impact assessment methodology and concepts that provided the foundation for the design of AIAs approach. This is followed by a discussion of AIAs approach to impact assessment and a description of the procedures used in conducting impact assessment.
3.3.1 Background on LCA Impact Assessment Approaches
Impact assessment is an inherent part of life-cycle assessment, whether it is performed formally or informally. The user might simply assume that less is better and that the fewer materials and the less energy used and the less waste released, the better it is for the environment. Or the user might recognize certain waste products in the inventory that are human carcinogens or environmental toxins and seek to reduce those specific releases he or she knows are most potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Impact assessment methodology has not been developed as fully as the methodology for conducting inventories, and consensus has not been reached within the community of LCA practitioners on impact assessment methods. Efforts by SETAC and EPA have yielded a conceptual framework for impact assessment, but the practical methods for implementing this framework have not been finalized. The framework proposes three components that would be present in a full-scale impact assessment (Fava et al. 1993). Classification: the process of assigning and initially aggregating the inventory data into relatively homogeneous groupings of impacts Characterization: the process of identifying human health and environmental impacts of concern (assessment endpoints) and selecting actual or surrogate indicators (measurement endpoints) to describe these impacts Valuation: the explicit process of assigning relative values, ratings, or weights to impact categories, using informal or formal valuation methods Recent discussions among LCA practitioners have suggested that the valuation component should be separated from the impact assessment and should instead become part of the improvement assessment or interpretation phase. The SETAC framework also describes five impact assessment approaches that involve varying levels of complexity and different types of data. These impact assessment approaches are listed and described briefly below in increasing order of complexity (based on Fava et al. 1993): 1. Loading Assessment. This type of assessment defines impact on the basis of the quantity or volume of inputs and/or outputs in the inventory, on the assumption that less is better. Loading assessments do not identify the effects of these inputs or outputs. Data needed for this type of assessment are produced by the inventory and consist of the quantities of inputs and outputs, expressed as mass, volume, or other measure. (continues on page 36)
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Figure 3-8: Procedures for Identifying System/Subsystem Inputs and Outputs

Instruction for Inventory Data Recording Sheet Materials Acquisition and Manufacturing Stages Procedures for completing the Inventory Data Recording Sheet for the first two stages of the life cycle, Materials Acquisition and Manufacturing, follow. These recording sheets are presented in figure 3-9. Data Element Material/process Instructions and Definition of Data to Be Provided Specify subsystem covered by this recording sheet (e.g., production of benzene, mining of coal). Indicate the most commonly used unit in which the material or product covered by this worksheet is sold or specified (e.g., gallon of paint, square yard of carpet, linear board foot). Indicate materials, energy, and water required by each of the subsystem processes under the categories that follow. List raw or intermediate materials or products required by each of the subsystem processes, type, quantity or unit, and reference. Provide name of the material and other useful identifying information. Report the amount of material used in the process to produce one unit as defined above. Note the source of the information (e.g., in-house records, vendor name, publication with title, author, and year). Indicate energy used to operate each of the subsystem processes and equipment, including type, quantity, and reference. Report energy by type, if known, and omit total energy. Or, if unknown by type, report total energy on the appropriate line. Report quantity of fuel by type, if known (e.g., gal., kWh, tons). Note the source of the information (as above). Report energy value or inherent energy, based on the quantity of petroleum, natural gas, or coal used to produce constituent materials. Report total energy expended during the life cycle, up to and including this stage, expressed in Btus. Report this information if available from published source(s), and cite source. It is not necessary to calculate this number. Instructions and Definitions of Data to be Provided Indicate whether the transportation required to bring materials to this system/subsystem is short (all materials available locally or regionally) medium (materials shipped from nearby regions) long (materials shipped coast-to-coast or internationally) Indicate mode of transportation. If actual mileage is known, report that number and mode of transport. Process water Report the quantity of water used in the process that is not returned to its source in the same condition, temperature, and quality.
Defined unit of product
Inputs
Material inputs
Type Quantity/unit
Reference
Process energy
Type
Quantity Reference Inherent energy
Embodied energy
Data element Transportation
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Figure 3-8: Procedures for Identifying System/Subsystem Inputs and Outputs

Instruction for Inventory Data Recording Sheet Materials Acquisition and Manufacturing Stages Data Element Outputs Instructions and Definition of Data to Be Provided Indicate wastes and useful products generated by the system/subsystem processes under the following categories: Name the product or material that is the subject of the worksheet, the quantity (generally one unit), and the source of the information (include published sources and in-house records). List additional marketable by-products produced concurrently with the product, number produced per unit of product, and source of information. List all airborne wastes generated during the process and discharged to the atmosphere after treatment by pollution control devices. Include specific gases and particulates from point sources (e.g., stacks) and area sources (e.g., storage piles). Provide the quantity released per unit of product and the source of the information. List wastes that are discharged to receiving waters, after pre-treatment to remove some or all pollutants. Provide the quantity released per unit of product and the source of the information. List nonhazardous solid materials and sludges, including sludges from wastewater treatment and solids from emission control devices, that are incinerated, disposed of in landfills, or composted. List hazardous wastes that must be stored or disposed of in a controlled facility and indicate (HAZ) after each listing. Indicate material resources by weight and alteration of land or water habitat by area (acres, hectares, etc.).
Product
Co-product
Air emissions
Effluent discharges
Solid wastes
Resource depletion
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Figure 3-9: Sample Inventory Data Recording Sheet

Materials Acquisition and Manufacturing Stages MATERIAL/PROCESS:__________________________________________________________________ DEFINED UNIT OF PRODUCT:_________________________________________________________
INPUTS Type Material Input (1) Material Input (2) Material Input (3) Material Input (4) Material Input (5) Material Input (6) Material Input (7) Material Input (8) Process Energy (1) Process Energy (2) Process Energy (3) Process Energy (4) Process Energy (5) Process Energy (6) Process Energy (7) Process Energy (8) Process Energy (9) Process Energy (10) Process Energy (11) Process Energy Inherent Energy Embodied Energy Transportation of material s Long s Rail Electricity_________ Coal_____________ Natural Gas_______ Petroleum_________ Nuclear___________ Hydro_____________ Wind_____________ Solar______________ Wood/biomass_________ Solid waste_________ Other_____________ Total_____________ Quantity/Unit s Medium s Air s Ship Reference s Short or actual miles s Pipeline s Other
Type(s) of transportation used s Truck Process Water
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Materials Acquisition and Manufacturing Stages MATERIAL/PROCESS:__________________________________________________________________ DEFINED UNIT OF PRODUCT:_________________________________________________________
OUTPUTS Type Product Co-product (1) Co-product (2) Co-product (3) Air Emission (1) Air Emission (2) Air Emission (3) Air Emission (4) Air Emission (5) Air Emission (6) Air Emission (7) Air Emission (8) Effluent Discharge (1) Effluent Discharge (2) Effluent Discharge (3) Effluent Discharge (4) Effluent Discharge (5) Effluent Discharge (6) Effluent Discharge (7) Effluent Discharge (8) Solid Waste (1) Solid Waste (2) Solid Waste (3) Solid Waste (4) Solid Waste (5) Solid Waste (6) Solid Waste (7) Solid Waste (8) Quantity/Unit Reference
Resource Depletion (1) Resource Depletion (2)
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Figure 3-10: Procedures for Identifying System/Subsytem Inputs and Outputs

Instruction for Inventory Data Recording Sheet Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage The Inventory Data Recording Sheet for the Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage is divided into three sections, one each for construction, use, and maintenance. Specific definitions and instructions are presented below only for items that differ from the Materials Acquisition and Manufacturing Stages Recording Sheet. The recording sheet is presented in figure 3-11. Data Element Application/Use Instructions and Definition of Data to Be Provided Specify the application for which data are presented; if the material or product is used in constructing an assembly, specify the assembly, and provide information about the entire assembly in figures 3-11 and 3-13. Indicate all materials, energy, and processes required to install the material or product into the building. Also include construction of assemblies that occurs at the job site. Include the span of time from installation to removal. Do not include maintenance activities. Useful life Indicate the potential or theoretical useful life of the product; in parentheses, indicate the actual or average length of time that the product or material is kept in use. Indicate the energy that is consumed by the material, product, or assembly in use (if any). Provide the energy type (electricity, etc.) and the quantity used during a year (if data are not available on an annual basis, indicate the time period used). Indicate the effects of the material, product, or assembly on total energy consumption in the buildingto increase the energy required by the building or to decrease the energy required. Indicate indoor and outdoor air emissions that occur during use (note whether indoor or outdoor in parentheses after each emission listed). Include the time frame with the quantity/unit, such as per hour, and note the rate at which the emissions decay over time. Include routine processes required to keep the material or assembly in use. Do not include breakage and repairs. List all routine processes, such as cleaning, recoating, replacement of filters, etc., that are needed to keep the material, product, or assembly in use. Indicate the frequency with which these processes are performed and the products used in performing the maintenance processes. It is not necessary to perform complete LCAs of these products.
Installation
Use
Energy consumed
Energy use effects
Air emissions
Maintenance
Process
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Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage MATERIAL/PROCESS:__________________________________________________________________ DEFINED UNIT OF PRODUCT:_________________________________________________________ SPECIFY APPLICATION/USE IN BUILDING:________________________________________________
INSTALLATION INPUTS Type Material Input (1) Material Input (2) Material Input (3) Material Input (4) Energy Input (1) Energy Input (2) Energy Input (3) Energy Input (4) s Long s Rail Quantity/Unit s Medium s Air s Ship Reference s Short or actual miles s Pipeline s Other
Transportation of material
Type(s) of transportation used s Truck Process Water
INSTALLATION OUTPUTS Type Air Emission (1) Air Emission (2) Air Emission (3) Air Emission (4) Air Emission (5) Effluent Discharge (1) Effluent Discharge (2) Effluent Discharge (3) Effluent Discharge (4) Effluent Discharge (5) Solid Waste (1) Solid Waste (2) Solid Waste (3) Solid Waste (4) Solid Waste (5) Quantity/Unit Reference
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Figure 3-11: Sample Inventory Data Recording Sheet (continued)

Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage MATERIAL/PROCESS:___________________________________________________________________ DEFINED UNIT OF PRODUCT:__________________________________________________________ SPECIFY APPLICATION/USE IN BUILDING:_________________________________________________
USE ISSUES Useful life of the material/product __________________________________________________________ Effect of material/product on building energy consumption: Effect on lighting: s Increases energy use s No effect s Reduces energy use Describe increase or decrease __________________________________________________ Estimate amount of increase or decrease_________________________________________ Effect on heating: s Increases energy use s No effect s Reduces energy use Describe increase or decrease __________________________________________________ Estimate amount of increase or decrease_________________________________________ Effect on cooling: s Increases energy use s No effect s Reduces energy use Describe increase or decrease___________________________________________________ Estimate amount of increase or decrease_________________________________________ OUTPUTS DURING USE STAGE Type Air Emission (1) Air Emission (2) Air Emission (3) Air Emission (4) Air Emission (5) Effluent Discharge (1) Effluent Discharge (2) Solid Waste (1) Solid Waste (2) Quantity/Unit Reference
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Construction, Use, and Maintenance Stage MATERIAL/PROCESS:___________________________________________________________________ DEFINED UNIT OF PRODUCT:__________________________________________________________ SPECIFY APPLICATION/USE IN BUILDING:_________________________________________________
MAINTENANCE REQUIRED Type Maintenance Process (1) Maintenance Process (2) Maintenance Process (3) Frequency Products Used
MAINTENANCE INPUTS Material Input (1) Material Input (2) Material Input (3) Material Input (4) Energy Input (1) Energy Input (2) Energy Input (3) Energy Input (4)
Type
Quantity/Unit
Reference
MAINTENANCE OUTPUTS Type Air Emission (1) Air Emission (2) Air Emission (3) Air Emission (4) Air Emission (5) Effluent Discharge (1) Effluent Discharge (2) Effluent Discharge (3) Effluent Discharge (4) Effluent Discharge (5) Solid Waste (1) Solid Waste (2) Solid Waste (3) Solid Waste (4) Quantity/Unit Reference
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Figure 3-12: Procedures for Identifying System/Subsytem Inputs and Outputs

Instruction for Inventory Data Recording Sheet Recycling, Reuse, or Disposal Stage Instructions for completing the Inventory Data Recording Sheet for the Recycle, Reuse, or Disposal Stage of the life cycle are provided below. The recording sheet is presented in figure 3-13. Data Element Recycling Instructions and Definition of Data to Be Provided This category involves recovering materials, products, or assemblies that have completed one life of use; changing the form or function of the materials, products, or assemblies; and applying the new material, product, or assembly in its new form. This new use might be outside the building and construction sector. This category involves a second (or third, etc.) use of the material, product, or assembly in the same or similar application. For example, exterior brick and doors can be reused without changing form or function. This category includes the various options for handling discarded items that have completed their useful lives and are not reused or recycled. Primary methods are landfilling and incineration.
Reuse
Disposal
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Recycling, Reuse, and Disposal Stage MATERIAL/PROCESS:__________________________________________________________________ DEFINED UNIT OF PRODUCT:__________________________________________________________ SPECIFY APPLICATION/USE IN BUILDING:_________________________________________________
RECYCLING Can the material or product be recycled? Transportation required s Very difficult s s s s s s s Long s Yes s Medium s Short s No s Unknown
How difficult is recovery and recycling of the material? s Some effort required s Not difficult Describe problems/barriers in recovering and recycling this material The material is incorporated into an assembly and cannot be easily separated. There is no market (or insufficient market) for the material. There is no system for separating and collecting the material during demolition. It is too expensive to separate, collect, and ship the material to a recycler. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
What is the current rate of recycling (what percentage is recycled)?_____________________________
REUSE Can the material or product be reused in its current form? Transportation required s Long s Medium s Yes s No s Unknown
s Short
What is the current rate of reuse (what percentage is reused)?_________________________________
DISPOSAL What disposal method(s) is(are) most commonly used for this material? s s s Construction and Demolition (C & D) landfill Other landfill Incineration s Yes s No
What are the volume and weight of a unit of the material disposed?____________________________ Are there hazardous constituents that require special disposal methods? If yes, describe_________________________________________________________________
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The advantages of this approach are its simplicity and the availability of data; the disadvantage is that it does not distinguish among the hazards or risks posed by various inputs and outputs. 2. Equivalency Assessment. This approach converts inventory items (such as CFCs and HCFCs) into common units (such as ozone depletion potential) to permit comparison of the contribution of various inventory items to a specified impact. The advantage of this approach is that it permits comparisons among inventory items; the disadvantages are that common units do not exist for many impact categories, and the approach does not help in comparisons among various dissimilar impacts. 3. Toxicity, Persistence, and Bioaccumulation Assessment. This approach brings in indicators of hazard and exposure. It uses information on the inherent chemical and/or physical properties of inventory items (such as biotoxicity) as indicators of hazard, and information on persistence and bioaccumulation as indicators of exposure. Much, though not all, of this information is available, but gathering the data adds to the effort required to conduct the LCA study. 4. Generic Exposure/Effects Assessment. This approach uses generic human health and environmental effects information to model potential impacts of inventory items. The models estimate the fate, transport, and partitioning of substances released in hypothetical, computer-simulated environments. 5. Site-Specific Exposure/Effects Assessment. This approach uses site-specific data to model human health and environmental effects of inventory items. These studies require a significant commitment of labor, time, and financial resources to gather site-specific data. They also require a clear definition of the relevant sites for each stage of the lifecycle process, which could be extremely complex.
3.3.2 Background on Impact Assessment Concepts
There are several concepts used in life-cycle impact assessment that require definition. These concepts include: impacts and impact categories stressors impact networks or impact chains valuation concepts of risk, exposure, and effect Each of these concepts is defined and discussed below. Impacts and Impact Categories EPAs working definition of impact for LCA purposes, which has been adopted in the AIA methodology, is a potential consequence or endpoint associated with a process or activity identified in the inventory, which may be manifested in a change in the natural environment, an effect on human health, or a change (most likely a reduction) in resource availability (U.S. EPA 1995). As described previously in the discussion of inventory analysis, each subsystem process during the life cycle is associated with inputs of energy, resources, and water, and outputs of waste and other products. Each of these inputs and outputs has potential impact on the natural environment, human health and welfare, and resource availability and quality. It is important to stress that impact assessments for LCAs address potential impacts, not actual impacts. This is necessary because (1) actual impacts must be measured at a specific location under specific conditions; (2) actual impacts are dependent on the exposure of potentially affected populations to the release; and (3) actual impacts can be affected by simultaneous releases of other contaminants. None of these conditions can be met within the current LCA framework without unreasonable expense. Potential impacts do not have these characteristics. (See discussion of risk, exposure, and effect concepts below.)
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There may be hundreds of potential impacts that can be identified during the life cycle of a product under study. In an effort to organize information on impacts into a manageable form, EPA, SETAC, and other LCA practitioners are developing impact categories. Most use broad categories related to human health, ecosystems, and resources. Some also include considerations of social welfare and economic factors related to these three primary categories. Consensus has not been reached on the definition of impact categories, but several examples of impact categorization schemes follow to indicate the direction that methodology development efforts are taking. Impact categories developed by EPA are presented in figure 3-14, and those developed by SETAC are presented in figure 3-15. Stressors An important concept in linking processes or activities with impacts is the stressor. Stressors are those specific releases or consumption of resources that potentially lead to an impact. Stressors can be chemical or physical. For example, timber harvesting (a process required for paper manufacture) can lead to depletion of forests (a stressor) that can lead to habitat alteration or loss, and subsequent loss of biodiversity or species extinction (impacts). In another example, chemical stressors can lead to specific effects that have impacts on human health. Impact Networks or Impact Chains The examples presented above illustrate another important concept in impact assessment stressors rarely result in a single impact or just first-order, direct impacts. A stressor can often lead to more than one impact, and each impact can become a stressor that leads to additional impacts. These complex relationships between processes, stressors, and impacts can be termed impact networks or impact chains. The AIA methodology follows these impact networks or chains as far as available information allows, identifying all of the potential impacts along the chain. The relationship between stressors and impacts to form impact networks or chains is illustrated in figure 3-16. There is rarely only one stressor in a given environment, and therefore the link between stressor and impact is further complicated. The effects of multiple stressors and impacts may be greater than, or at least different from, the sum of the individual stressors and impacts involved. Analyses of this synergy will of necessity be site-specific and are therefore beyond the scope of LCA. Valuation Valuation is another important concept in impact assessment, and one of the most difficult. Valuation involves assigning weights or ratings to various impact categories to indicate their relative importance in increasing risk to human health and the environment. In other words, is an impact on the atmosphere more or less important than an impact on water quality? Is ozone depletion more or less important than acidification of surface waters? How should effects on human health be weighted against effects on ecosystems? Although scientific evidence can inform this discussion, it cannot provide solid and incontrovertible answers to these and similar questions. Inevitably, subjective values must enter into the debate. In the current efforts of SETAC and EPA to develop a quantitative impact assessment methodology, valuation is posited as the final stage in the analysis and involves assigning explicit relative values or weights to different impacts or impact categories. SETAC and EPA are considering various formal valuation methods, but no consensus has yet been reached on which method(s) is(are) appropriate.
(continues on page 40)
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Figure 3-14: Suggested Impact CategoriesEPA

Ecosystem Impacts Atmosphere toxicity impacts ozone depletion greenhouse effect visibility changes smog/fog ground-level ozone buildup climate change (micro and macro) Water toxicity impacts contamination depletion (surface and groundwater) thermal changes turbidity changes acidification nutrification eutrophication chemical alteration Soil toxicity impacts salinity lateritization podzolization acidification fertilization erosion Other geomorphology impacts biodiversity impacts habitat alterations Family structural changes stability changes employment Acute effects accidents radiation noise odor, taste microorganisms Human Health Chronic effects carcinogenic mutagenic teratogenic neurological damage reproductive disorders major organ diseases (heart, lung, liver) physiological anemia skin disease sterility Flow (renewable)* water resources forest products agricultural products freshwater products saltwater products flora and fuana space (e.g., landfill) wind power ocean tidal power solar power Community public services infrastructure satisfaction Social government relation regulations quality of life Natural Resources Stock (nonrenewable)* fossil fuels minerals atomic energy soil atmosphere hydrosphere aesthetics of the planet Economic property value changes inflation opportunity costs sectoral effects Social Welfare Demographic migration morbidity fertility mortality
*The terms stock and flow are used in place of nonrenewable and renewable resources in this document. (Source: U.S. EPA 1995).
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Figure 3-15: Suggested Impact CategoriesSETAC

Ecological Health Structure Population, community, and ecosystem Trophic levels Habitat Function Productivity Processes (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles) Biodiversity Habitat loss Rare and endangered species Human Health Acute effects (safety issues) Chronic effects (disease issues) Resource Depletion Stock (nonrenewable) resources Flow (renewable) resources Ecological, Human Health, or Resource Depletion Associated with Social Welfare Air, water, and land quality/quantity (e.g., use impairment) Agricultural productivity Natural resource productivity (e.g., fish and timber) Recreation Materials damage (e.g., buildings and cultural resources) Aesthetics (e.g., visibility, noise, and odor) (Source: Fava et al. 1993).
Figure 3-16: Sample Impact Network or Chain
CO2
as a stressor
Greenhouse effect
as a stressor
Global warming
as a stressor
Regional climate change
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There have been several efforts in recent years to identify and prioritize environmental impacts that provide insight for life-cycle valuation. EPAs Science Advisory Board (SAB) ranked environmental impacts according to four parameters (Science Advisory Board 1990): spatial or geographic scale of the impact (with larger or broader scales having higher priority than smaller scales) severity of the hazard (with more-toxic substances having higher priority than lesstoxic substances) degree of exposure (with readily mobilized substances having higher priority than lessmobile substances) penalty or severity of consequence for being wrong (with those problems with longer remediation times having higher priority than those with shorter remediation times) On the basis of parameters, the Science Advisory Board classified a number of identified environmental problems into three categories (high risk, medium risk, and low risk) in terms of their priority: Relatively high-risk problems Habitat alteration and destruction Species extinction and overall loss of biological diversity Stratospheric ozone depletion Global climate change Relatively medium-risk problems Herbicides and pesticides Toxics, nutrients, biochemical oxygen demand, and turbidity in surface waters Acid deposition Airborne toxics, including smog-related constituents Relatively low-risk problems Oil spills Groundwater pollution Radionuclides Acid runoff to surface waters Thermal pollution Different groups often differ in their perspectives on the importance of environmental issues and the risks they pose. For example, the public generally considers hazardous waste dumps to pose a far greater risk than the scientific community perceives these risks to be. There is no definitive consensus on the relative importance of environmental problems, so users of LCA information must apply their own values and priorities. Concepts of Risk and Exposure Concepts of risk and exposure affect the ability of LCA research to identify and assess impacts. Understanding these basic concepts is important for interpreting and understanding LCA impact assessment and its limitations. Substances range in inherent toxicity from those that are relatively harmless even in large amounts to others that cause death if encountered even in small quantities. For an effect to occur, there must be exposure to the substance. Risk can be defined as the probability that a substance will produce harm under certain conditions of use and is a function of toxicity or hazard, and exposure.
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Humans and other animals can be exposed to substances through inhalation, ingestion, dermal absorption, and parenteral administration (routes other than the intestinal canal). The route of exposure affects the relative toxicity of the agent, as do the relative concentration of the substance, the dose rate, and the frequency of dosing: a large single dose of an acute toxin will usually have more effect than the same total dose given over time. The relationship that associates the dose of a chemical with the effects it causes is called the dose-response relationship. Dose-response can be thought of in two ways. First, as exposure increases, the proportion of the population that manifests the response increases, and second, as exposure increases, the intensity of an individuals response increases. For some substances, a large change in dose is required before there is a significant change in response; for others, a small change in dose will elicit a large increase in response. For every substance, there are several dose-response relationships: a substance that produces irritation at low doses may cause more severe symptoms or even death at high doses and in other conditions. For most substances, there is a dose or level below which they have no effect on those exposed. Scientists attempt to establish thresholds to define the doses that are associated statistically with a zero response among exposed populations. These thresholds are derived from experimental research, and the extent to which the statistical threshold actually reflects the true threshold for a substance depends on the experimental conditions used in the study on which the threshold is based. Thresholds can be expressed in several ways: the low-observed-effect level (LOEL) or low-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL), which is the point at which a response begins to be observed, and the no-observed-effect level (NOEL), which is the highest dose administered and found not to produce a given response. Permissible Exposure Limits use safety factors to provide additional assurance that exposed populations are not likely to suffer harm. Since information on exposure will generally not be developed using this or any other LCA methodology, it is not possible to reach conclusions about the actual risk posed by a materials life cycle. LCA permits only some relative ratings and identification of potential concerns.
3.3.3 Approach to Impact Assessment
The approach to impact assessment developed for AIAs ERG involves identification of potential stressors and their potentially associated impacts, classification of potential impacts, and assessment of the significance of each potential impact category in the life cycle of the materials under study. It does not include a quantitative characterization process that associates a specific level of impact with a given stressor in a materials life cycle. The impact assessment approach uses quantitative and qualitative information on processes, inputs, and outputs to identify and classify potential stressors and impacts. This provides insight into issues that, to date, have remained difficult to quantify, such as habitat alteration and threats to biodiversity. Stressors and potential impacts are identified for each of the inventory inputs and outputs. The impact assessment criteria contained in attachment A of this report provide preliminary guidance on stressors and impacts associated with inventory items, and these criteria are currently undergoing further development. Additional information on these linkages can be found in published scientific literature. The technical reports in the ERG provide information on some of the most common stressor-impact chains associated with building materials. In some cases, the potential impacts of a stressor have not been determined with certainty. The impact categories selected for the ERG methodology are based on previous efforts of EPA, SETAC, and others (see figures 3-14 and 3-15) as well as the specific needs and interests of architects. They aggregate information from the inventory into categories that have meaning for the user group. Specific elements that have been added to the AIA approach to impact assessment include
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Impacts that relate to the use stage of the life cycle, such as the effects of durability on life-cycle impact and the effects of the material on the energy performance of the building. Positive effects of the material, such as recyclability or providing a use for waste materials The categories are presented in figure 3-17 and are discussed in more detail in sections 3.3.4, 3.3.5, and 3.3.6.
Figure 3-17: AIA Environmental Resource Guide Impact Categories
Potential effects on the environment and ecosystems Impacts on the atmosphere and air quality Impacts on water quality and/or availability Impacts on land/soil quality and/or availability Alteration or loss of biodiversity/habitat Resource depletion Potential effects on human health Impacts on workers/installers Impacts on building occupants or users (including indoor air quality) Impacts on the community or general population, nationally or internationally Energy efficiency Process energy use during the product or material life cycle Transportation energy use during the product or material life cycle Effects of the product or material on total building operational energy use and efficiency Other factors related to building materials/building operation Durability/useful life of the product or material Maintenance requirements for the product or material during its useful life Reusability or recyclability of the product or material at renovation or demolition
The AIA application reports present the impact categories in a matrix format to facilitate comparison of alternatives (see figures 3-20 and 3-21). The AIA project will use expert opinion to review the results of the material studies and to determine relative performance of alternative materials in various impact categories. These experts will review the final technical reports and participate in the analysis that provides the basis for the application reports. In some cases, the experts can identify differences in performance that are of overwhelming importance in a particular application. These experts will include representatives of academia and other research organizations, industry and industry associations, environmental groups, and the design profession. A different mix of expertise is assembled for each application report to address all of the various topic areas involved. Finally, valuation (the ranking or weighting of various impact categories) is performed by the architect/designer, the client, and other decision makers during the programming stage of each project as the goals and environmental criteria for that project are established. During this process, architects and their clients can set environmental goals for a project to guide subsequent decisions. These goals can include minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources, minimizing energy consumption during the life cycle or maximizing operational energy efficiency, and others. Figures 3-18 through 3-20 describe procedures and provide worksheets for impact assessments. Figure 3-21 shows a sample chart with recorded results.
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Figure 3-18: Procedures for Identifying and Assessing Potential Impacts

This process should be performed by a group of experts, including stakeholders (industry and environmental interests). The group should include experts in the various processes involved in the life cycle. It should also include individuals with expertise in environmental issues and chemistry. For reports published in the Environmental Resource Guide, AIA selects and manages this group of experts. Step 1: Identify Impacts of Concern. Based on the material and process flow diagrams, inventory sheets, and expertise of the members of the group, assess the impact categories for each alternative material. Use figure 3-19 to assess specific impact categories contained in the matrix cells under columns 2-5 (e.g., stratospheric ozone depletion potential). Use the criteria provided in attachment A to assign one of the following four ratings to each impact category (when information is not available, place a question mark [?] in the square): s s Good to excellent performance Intermediate performance Poor performance Performance varies within a given range, depending on factors specified in notes
s
s
Indicate the rating in the square ( s ) beside each impact category. The fourth criterion allows the assessor to note cases in which a material can have two different effects depending upon how it is used, whether recycled or virgin material was used in its manufacture, and which practices were used in production. It can also be used to indicate the variation in effects on water quality based on conditions in the receiving waters. The square can include combinations of black and white. Step 2: Summarize Impacts. In the first column of figure 3-19, summarize all of the specific impact categories to develop one indicator for each broad area of effects (e.g., air quality/atmospheric effects). This should be based on the expert judgment of the group performing the assessment, and should include their estimates of the relative potential contribution of the product under study to the specific impacts. Assign one of the ratings noted above to each area. Step 3: Prepare Summary Matrix. Transfer ratings to summary matrix (figure 3-20). Be sure to include any relevant explanatory notes; notes are required for each divided square. Figure 3-21 presents a completed sample.
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Figure 3-19: Impact Assessment Categorization and Rating Worksheet

Material or Product Materials Acquisition and Processing Manufacturing Construction, Use, Maintenance Renovation or Demolition
1. Ecological/ Environmental Effects 1.1 Air quality/ atmospheric effects s stratospheric ozone depletion potential s global warming potential s photochemical oxidant creation potential s degradation of visibility s contribution of toxics s acidification s formation of odors s s s s s s s s s s process water consumed nutrient loading eutrophication toxicity to aquatic life toxicity in drinking water toxicity in fish acidification thermal alteration odors/visual degradation increased sedimentation s stratospheric ozone depletion potential s global warming potential s photochemical oxidant creation potential s degradation of visibility s contribution of toxics s acidification s formation of odors s s s s s s s s s s process water consumed nutrient loading eutrophication toxicity to aquatic life toxicity in drinking water toxicity in fish acidification thermal alteration odors/visual degradation increased sedimentation s stratospheric ozone depletion potential s global warming potential s photochemical oxidant creation potential s contribution of toxics s acidification s stratospheric ozone depletion potential s global warming potential s contribution of toxics s acidification s formation of odors
1.2 Water quality/ availability
s increased sedimentation
s contribution of toxins to landfill leachate s increased sedimentation
1.3 Land/soil effects
s compaction s erosion s alteration of soil chemistry/contamination s reduced landfill space s consumption of nonrenewable resources s consumption of resources in limited supply s alteration of habitat s effects on reproduction, morbidity, mortality in plant and animal species s effects on endangered species
s alteration of soil chemistry/contamination s reduced landfill space
s reduced landfill space
s reduced landfill space
1.4 Resource depletion
s consumption of nonrenewable resources
NA
NA
1.5 Alteration or loss of habitat or biodiversity
s alteration of habitat s effects on reproduction, morbidity, mortality in plant and animal species s effects on endangered species
NA
NA
2. Human Health and Welfare Effects 2.1 Worker/installer health s potential exposure through use of carcinogens and other potentially hazardous substances in processes s potential exposure to dust and particulates s potential for accidents NA s potential exposure through use of carcinogens and other potentially hazardous substances in processes s potential exposure to dust and particulates s potential for accidents NA s potential exposure to chemical hazards s potential exposure to dust and particulates s potential exposure to other hazards s potential exposure to lead s potential exposure to asbestos s potential exposure to other hazards
2.2 Building occupant health (IAQ)
s potential exposure to chemical hazards s potential exposure to dust and particulates s potential exposure to biological contaminants NA
s potential exposure to lead dust
2.3 Community health and welfare
s release of carcinogens s release of other harmful substances s effects on economy or society
s release of carcinogens s release of other harmful substances
s contribution of toxins to landfill leachate s release of hazardous substances in incineration
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Figure 3-19: Impact Assessment Categorization and Rating Worksheet (continued)

Material or Product Materials Acquisition and Processing Manufacturing Construction, Use, Maintenance Renovation or Demolition
3. Energy Effects 3.1 Process and inherent energy s energy consumed s inherent energy of materials s total transportation requirements s energy consumed s energy consumed s energy consumed s energy recovered
3.2 Transportation energy
s total transportation requirements
3.3 Effects on operational energy
NA
NA
s contribution to thermal gain or loss s use as thermal mass
NA
4. Building Operation Factors 4.1 Durability NA NA s theoretical useful life s average age at replacement s frequency of cleaning s type of cleaning s frequency of recoating or refurbishing s type of recoating or refurbishing s other NA NA
4.2 Maintenance
NA
NA
NA
4.3 Reusability/ recyclability
NA
NA
s ease of recovery s reusability s recyclability
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Figure 3-20: Impact Assessment Summary Matrix Worksheet Environment and ecosystems Health and welfare Building operation
Air Quality /atmospheric impacts
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Transportation
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Figure 3-21: Sample Impact Assessment Matrix Environment and ecosystems Health and welfare Building operation
Air Quality /atmospheric impacts
6
7
Transportation
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3.3.4 Impacts on the Environment and Ecosystems
Ecological Impacts Ecological impacts include effects on the atmosphere and air quality, surface and ground water quality and availability, and land or soil quality and availability. Depletion of resources and effects on habitats and biodiversity are also included. A large body of literature addresses the effects of specific activities, processes, and releases on the environment. This literature includes environmental impact assessments conducted under the National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA), regulatory support studies conducted by EPA to provide information for development of specific regulations, ecological and health risk assessments, and basic research conducted by university researchers, other federal agencies (such as the Forest Service and Department of Energy), and EPA scientists. It also includes studies conducted by environmental groups and by industry associations. Much of this literature has been subjected to peer review and the findings are widely accepted; other, more recent findings may still be under debate. Many important impacts on the natural environment are not amenable to quantification. As a result, some LCAs have excluded these factors from the scope of the study and have not addressed them at all. Since the building-materials LCA approach is built on both qualitative and quantitative data, inability to quantify is not necessarily a barrier, and these important impacts can be included in our studies. Potential impacts on the atmosphere and air quality include stratospheric ozone depletion, contribution to the greenhouse effect and global warming, degradation of visibility, addition of toxic and hazardous substances, contribution to ground-level ozone or smog, acidification, and odors. The first two impacts are global in nature; the others are more localized. These impacts could also affect the health of plant and animal species, including humans. They could also have effects on the built environment and on the social and economic structure of communities. Potential impacts on the quality and availability of water (both groundwater and surface water) include acidification, eutrophication (or increase in nutrients, often with oxygen deficiency), nitrification, thermal changes, increases in turbidity, contamination with toxic or hazardous substances, chemical alteration, and depletion. These impacts could result in further impacts on aquatic communities, including changes in productivity, reduced reproduction, disease, and death, and on human health and welfare, including changes in morbidity and mortality as well as loss of economic and recreational resources. In addressing water quality impacts, it is important to consider different geographical scales. Some impacts occur at a national, continental, or international scale. These impacts may be expected anywhere the material is extracted, used, or disposed of, because of the inherent nature of the material as opposed to the characteristics of the receiving water. Other impacts must be considered on a regional or local scale. These impacts to be expected are dependent on regional or local characteristics of receiving waters. For example, acidification of surface waters is not likely to occur in desert areas, where surface waters have high concentrations of dissolved salts, and are more likely in regions with low-ionic-strength surface waters, such as where high precipitation rates occur on relatively unweathered surface geology. Potential impacts on the quality and availability of land and soil include acidification, erosion and changes in geomorphology, soil compaction, and alteration of soil chemistry (including chemical transformations and depletion of nutrients). These impacts also include removal of land from available stock for use as a landfill or other storage area for solid wastes and sludges, or alteration of land so that its productivity or habitability is changed.
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Since most of the resources that are used during the life cycles of building materials are finite, it is important to note the depletion of resources and the effects acquiring these resources for building material manufacture will have on future worldwide resource availability. Much of this information is available in publications from the U.S. Departments of Interior and Commerce. For example, the Bureau of Mines produces reports on numerous minerals and the industries that extract them. In addition, sources of information include reports or papers on particular materials, and literature produced by academic researchers, environmental groups, and industry associations on natural resources. Examination of impacts on resource availability focuses on nonrenewable resources. AIA has adopted EPAs definition of a renewable resource as one that is being replaced in the environment in a time frame relevant to the society (Vigon et al. 1993, p. 45). Nonrenewable resources are those that are not being replaced or are being replaced over a time frame so long that it is not relevant to human beings. An important component of this definition is that the resource is not merely able to be replaced but that it is being replaced. Thus, as EPA notes, the replacement must actually be occurring. This impact category also reflects the use of recycled materials in production, since materials using recycled content will require depletion of far fewer resources. Alteration or loss of habitat and subsequent effects on biodiversity and individual species are a special case of the potential impacts on air, water, and land. In this case, the impacts are related to the effects on animal and/or plant communities, with particular emphasis on those that are rare or endangered. This category of impact is receiving more emphasis as people become more aware of and concerned about the importance and value of maintaining biodiversity and preventing the extinction of species as well as minimizing the disruption of ecosystems whenever possible.
3.3.5 Impacts on Human Health and Welfare
All chemical substances can potentially affect human health and welfare. Methods have been devised to permit most chemicals, no matter how toxic, to be handled safely. These methods relate to limiting the dose or controlling the exposure. Additionally, technologies are available and new technologies are under development to control releases of certain chemicals to the environment during the product life cycle. There is a large body of information on the impacts of specific compounds on human health, but the effects of many compounds are not known with certainty. Data are most complete on those compounds that are highly toxic or have been identified as carcinogens or are suspected of carcinogenicity. (See, for example, the Annual Report on Carcinogens published by the National Institute on Environmental Health Sciences, the Bioassay Reports prepared by the National Toxicology Program, and the reports of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA] also publishes manuals on exposure levels for specific compounds.) There are several complex issues concerning assessment in LCA of the impact of specific stressors on human health. One issue involves exposure and thresholds. In general, a person must be exposed to a threshold level of a potentially harmful substance for the harmful effect to occur. Below that threshold level, there is no observable harmful effect. In LCA impact assessment, it is often impossible to determine (1) whether actual individuals were exposed to a substance and (2) whether the exposure level exceeded the defined threshold for an observable effect. This is an issue that LCA practitioners and risk assessors are currently exploring to determine how risk assessment concepts can be applied in an LCA context.
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Another issue is that there are differences in the ways people react to some substances. In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the existence of chemically sensitive individuals for whom exposure to minute quantities of some substances can provoke a reaction. This raises the question of whether human health impacts should be limited to the effect on the average person or whether the unusual effects on chemically sensitive individuals should also be considered. Since architects should be able to respond to special requests from chemically sensitive clients, our approach has been designed to report information available on the impacts on this population. Although much of this information is anecdotal, it could be very useful to an architect faced with a need to minimize the possibility of chemical sensitivity in a particular project. Effects on human health include a wide range of conditions. These include, among others: toxicity biochemical/metabolic effect cardiovascular effect specific organ effect narcotic effect neuropathic effect ocular effect physical irritation respiratory effect sensitization effect sensory irritation skin/dermal effect systemic toxicity carcinogenicity teratogenicity community health and welfare/quality of life issues odors habitable space economic issues Our approach provides information on human health in three areas that are particularly relevant to the building community: Potential Impacts on Workers and Installers. Although LCAs generally define worker health issues as outside the LCA boundary, we have included the potential effects of materials on workers, particularly at the job site. Effects can include exposure to chemicals, dust, and other potential health hazards. Our approach assumes that correct procedures are followed for material handling and installation and that all appropriate OSHA standards are met. Potential Impacts on Building Occupants or Users. This area focuses on indoor air quality and its effects on building users (occupants, tenants, visitors, and maintenance workers), a topic of considerable concern to architects and designers. Potential Impacts on the Community or General Population. In many cases, the information available on possible human health effects of the chemicals or other materials released during the life cycle of the building material is more generic. This information is based on laboratory testing and other studies, and generally relates the effects to dosage or exposure levels.
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3.3.6 Other Factors Related to Impact Assessment
Several factors that relate to impacts have been added to the approach because of the interest of the target audience in these elements. Some of these factors are discussed more thoroughly in section 2.2. The elements that have been added include Energy Efficiency. This includes process and transportation energy during the life cycle, which are standard inventory items. It also includes the effect of the material on the overall operational energy of the building. This includes effects on heating, cooling, and lighting loads. Durability/Useful Life. Since building materials can have vastly different useful lifetimes, it is important to include this information in the LCA. The effects of materials with shorter lifetimes than the alternatives must be multiplied to account for replacement over the longer lifetimes of the alternatives. Maintenance Requirements. Maintenance processes, including cleaning, repainting, refinishing, etc., are included in the building material studies, but the life cycles of the products used in these processes are beyond the scope of the studies. Therefore, descriptions of the types and frequency of maintenance are included in the reports to permit some comparison. Reusability or Recyclability of the Material. It is important for architects and designers to know which materials can be reused or recycled and how they can facilitate reuse or recycling in their designs (through ease of separation of assemblies and recovery of materials). Many materials are technically reusable or recyclable but are not currently being reused or recycled. The infrastructure for recovering these materials is lacking, the materials are bound up in assemblies, or alternatives are less expensive.
3.3.7 Procedures for Impact Assessment
Impact assessment will be performed by a panel of experts and stakeholders who have knowledge of the industrial processes involved in the life cycle and the environmental issues that arise. At least one panel member should have expertise in chemistry. No single individual has expertise in all of the areas covered in the studies, so it is necessary to assemble a group of experts. It is also important that stakeholders be represented in the group. Frequently, expertise on industrial processes resides with product manufacturers. The impact assessment criteria presented for use by the experts reflect the wide variation in the stage of development of indicators for LCA impacts. In some areas, equivalency methods have been developed that permit comparison of the relative effects of various factors. Stratospheric ozone depletion and global warming are two examples. In other areas, however, there are no equivalency models. In fact, in some areas, there are no clear criteria that can be presented within a particular impact category. Many of the effects on soil fall into this category as an example. Although there are quantifiable approaches to measuring soil compaction and other parameters of soil alteration, these approaches are not suitable for use in LCA since they require data that are not available. In these areas, the experts must rely on their expertise and relative comparisons among materials. Figure 3-18 describes procedures for identifying potential impacts on the basis of the inventory, classifying the impacts, and preparing the impact assessment reporting format. Figure 3-19 provides specific impact categories and Attachment A (page 57) presents preliminary criteria that are being considered for each specific impact category. Figure 3-20 provides the format for presenting the impact assessment. It is essential that figures 3-18 through 3-20 be prepared by a group of experts, as indicated above. For application reports published in the ERG, AIA is responsible for selecting the appropriate panel of experts and managing the assessment process.
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3.4 Improvement Assessment Improvement assessment, from the architects perspective, has three components: selecting better materials from an environmental perspective, specifying procedures with the materials selected to reduce their environmental impacts, and looking for opportunities to reuse or recycle materials. AIAs application reports are designed to provide information and suggestions for architects, designers, and specifiers in these three areas.
3.4.1 Selecting Environmentally Preferable Materials
The application reports are intended to enable users to compare alternative materials and to select the ones that are, for a given application and client, environmentally preferable. The application reports will present comparisons of materials along several dimensions, including the impacts described in section 3.3. The summary matrix in each application report will enable the user to identify the material or materials that (1) have the best overall environmental profile(s), (2) perform well in impact categories that may be of particular interest, or (3) have the fewest categories in which they perform poorly. For some materials, selection of the best alternative requires consideration of aspects of the life cycle that are generally outside the scope of the LCA approach, such as economics and social welfare issues. For example, some architects, designers, and specifiers have stopped specifying tropical woods because they are concerned about the destruction of the rain forest. In the report on tropical woods in the ERG (October 1992), however, this practice is discouraged because it ultimately may reduce the value of the wood in the forests and lead to harvesting for other purposes, such as use as a heating fuel, and not replanting because of decreased demand and value. Instead, the report suggests that the architect look carefully for indications that the woods have been harvested using sustainable forestry approaches or come from a country in which such approaches are practiced.
3.4.2 Reducing Environmental Impacts of Materials Selected
For many materials, there are steps that can be taken in building design or construction to improve the materials performance in terms of environmental impact. For example, particleboard that contains urea-formaldehyde resins can be encapsulated in surfacing materials to reduce indoor air emissions, and steel framing used in exterior walls can be installed with thermal barriers. In another example, care can be taken to schedule carefully and to proceed with installation of materials so that materials that may act as sinks are not installed and left unfinished while materials with high emissions are installed. For example, gypsum wallboard should be finished, taped, and painted or covered before some types of carpeting are laid and before adhesives and other solvent-containing materials are used.
3.4.3 Recycling and Reusing Materials to Reduce Impacts
In the past, there has been little recovery, recycling, and reuse of construction materials. It was assumed that the cost of recycling and reuse were prohibitively high and that the cost of new materials was significantly lower. In recent years, however, the cost effectiveness of recovering and recycling and reusing materials has been demonstrated in numerous projects. In some projects, the architect can reuse existing structures rather than razing and rebuilding them, thus avoiding the life-cycle impacts of some foundation and envelope materials and reducing the solid waste generated at the site. Demolition debris can be separated at the job site and recycled or reused in the new construction or it can be hauled away and recycled or reused at other sites. The applications reports provide information on opportunities for recycling or reuse of each material.
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The reports also encourage architects, designers, and specifiers to think about renovation or demolition of the building during the initial design stages so that the design can incorporate opportunities for recovery and recycling or reuse of materials.
3.4.4 Procedures for Improvement Assessment
The procedure to be used in identifying opportunities for improving the environmental profile of the building through materials selection is to have the experts assembled for the impact assessment discuss the various alternatives. In effect, the processes of assessment, comparison, and identification proceed concurrently: as impacts are assessed and materials are compared, the experts identify areas in which the architect can affect environmental performance.
3.5 Data Quality Issues The data that are available on each of the materials come from a wide variety of sources. The studies that have produced the data use different approaches and methods. As a result, the data often cannot be aggregated, compared, or manipulated easily. When these differences cannot be resolved, the various sets of data are presented and the inconsistencies are noted. Data quality issues include
Incompatibility. Because this methodology works from secondary data, incompatibility of data is a major issue. The methods, definitions, and boundaries used in the data sources are frequently different. As a result, aggregation of information from two lifecycle stages might be impossible if the information for each stage came from a different source, as is often the case. Inconsistency. Closely related to incompatibility is the issue of inconsistency. Data from two studies may be inconsistent for the reasons noted above: differences in methods, definitions, and boundaries. Incompleteness. Another issue is that information is not available on some processes and on the energy required and waste produced by these processes. Therefore, there are gaps in the data on some materials. Bias. Some data have been produced to promote specific interests. Since the assumptions and boundaries selected for a study can affect its outcome, bias can be introduced without blatant methodological flaws. Proprietary Data. Companies consider much of the information needed for an LCA to be proprietary, particularly information on the proportions of constituent materials. To address these issues, the following guidelines have been developed: Note the source and citation for all information and, when possible, describe the methods used in the study and reasons for inconsistency with other sources. Use the fewest possible data sources for any material and for categories of materials to reduce inconsistencies and incompatibilities. Note explicitly the gaps in data so that the user will be aware that the information is incomplete. When data are taken from sources that have an interest in the outcome of the study, examine the study carefully for bias. In addition, seek confirmation of the study results from another source. If confirmation cannot be found, use the study cautiously, identify its sources, and include caveats about the potential for bias. Use industry averages to avoid the problem of claims of proprietary data and to smooth out the inevitable inconsistencies among the data for different facilities and manufacturers. Sources of information include several categories: (1) industry and industry associations, (2) environmental and issue-based organizations, (3) government agencies, such as EPA, DOE, and DOI, (4) published books, reports, conference proceedings, and articles from the United
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States and abroad, (5) unpublished reports, papers, and works in progress from the United States and abroad, (6) product specifications and information sheets, and (7) the experience of architects in the field. Manufacturers and industry associations are important sources of information for product manufacturing processess and the energy and wastes associated with those processes. Certain limitations to industry and association data, however, must be considered in the assessment. First, unless they have conducted a LCA of their product(s), individual companies and associations can only address a part of the material or product life cycle. For example, a manufacturer may have very little information on the raw materials acquisition stage or the use and disposal stages. Therefore, it may be necessary to contact several companies or associations to obtain complete data. Second, data gathered from different companies and associations are not necessarily comparable across alternative materials or products. Third, companies often do not maintain data for production processes, energy requirements, or waste streams on the basis of a specific "material" or "product." Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to obtain data broken down into the desired LCA categories. Fourth, the information some companies view as proprietary and are reluctant to provide it. Finally, gathering information for the LCA can require significant time and effort on the part of companies. Although industry and association data are far from perfect, the involvement of these organizations in this project is crucial for two reasons. First, industry and association review of the draft reports ensures that the information presented is fair. Second, as more companies and associations become aware of the environmental impacts associated with their products, they are likely to become motivated to develop less polluting processes and products. Environmental and issue-based organizations also provide useful information and comments on the reports. In some cases, these organizations have conducted their own studies of the environmental impacts of materials. They can provide data and additional contacts who are actively involved in research. As is the case with industry data, this information must be reviewed carefully to avoid bias. There are numerous published sources that contain data relevant to the ERG. These include government documents, journal articles, and books. The benefit of citing published reports is that the user can refer to the full documents for more information or for confirmation of the validity of the information. The limitations of these reports are that many are out-of-date and they rarely present information in the form that is needed. The studies upon which the reports are based use different assumptions, tests, or measurement methods, and therefore the results are often not comparable. Unpublished reports, work in progress, and paper presentations at conferences have provided a wealth of information. These data are generally more current than published material and, in talking with the author or researcher, one can often find answers to specific questions. Thus, they have been used whenever possible. Product specifications and information sheets provide some information that is relevant to the ERG. It must be recognized, however, that this information has been produced for sales and marketing purposes and may not provide objective data. Finally, the experience of architects in the field has provided invaluable data to the project. Increasingly, architects, designers, and specifiers are trying to use more environmentally friendly materials. Their experience with the accuracy of manufacturers claims, ease of handling, durability, and other factors has added an essential reality check to the ERG. It is anticipated that more of this type of information will be included in future reports.
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Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boustead, I. 1992. Life Cycle Inventories: A Qualitative Description, included as Appendix 2 in Scientific Certification Systems Life Cycle Inventory and Environmental Report Card. Brown, H. L., B. B. Hamel, B. A. Hedman, M. Koluch, B. C. Gajanana, and P. Troy. 1985. Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes. Fairmont Press. Canadian Standards Association. 1992. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment. CSA-Z760, Working draft no. 5B. August. Consoli, F., D. Allen, I. Boustead, N. de Oude, J. Fava, W. Franklin, B. Quay, R. Parrish, R. Perriman, D. Postlethwaite, J. Seguin, and B. Vigon, eds. 1993. Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A Code of Practice. Draft, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Davis, Gary. 1993. The Use of Life Cycle Assessment in Environmental Labeling Programs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/742-R-93-003. Fava, J. A., R. Denison, B. Jones, M. A. Curran, B. Vigon, S. Selke, J. Barnum. 1991. A Technical Framework for Life-Cycle Assessments. Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Fava, J. A., F. Consoli, R. Denison, K. Dickson, T. Mohin, B. Vigon, eds. 1993. A Conceptual Framework for Life-Cycle Impact Assessment. Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Forintek Canada Corporation. 1992. Building Materials in the Context of Sustainable Development, Project Planning and Organization. Phase I report, vol. 1, working draft. March. Forintek Canada Corporation and Wayne B. Trusty & Associates Limited. 1991. Building Materials in the Context of Sustainable Development: An Analytical Framework. Working draft. December. Franklin Associates, Ltd. 1991. Comparative Energy Evaluation of Plastic Products and Their Alternatives for the Building and Construction and Transportation Industries. Washington, DC: The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. Graedel, T. E., B. R. Allenby, and P. R. Comrie. 1995. Matrix Approaches to Abridged Life Cycle Assessment, Environmental Science and Technology. 29(3). Graedel, T. E. and B. R. Allenby. 1995. Industrial Ecology, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Hannon, B. M., R. G. Stein, B. Z. Segal, D. Serber, and C. Stein. 1976. Energy Use for Building Construction. COO-2791-3. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration. December. Heijungs, R., J. B. Guinee, G. Huppes, R. M. Lankreijer, H. A. Udo do Haes, and A. Wegener Sleeswijk. 1992. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Products. Leiden: Centrum voor Milieukunde. Hunt, R. G., J. D. Sellers, W. E. Franklin. No date. Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis: A Life Cycle Environmental Assessment for Products and Procedures. Elsevier Science Publishing Company, Inc. and Franklin Associates, Ltd. Keoleian, G. A., and D. Menerey. 1992. Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual, Environmental Requirements and the Product System. Working draft, April 16. Science Advisory Board. 1990. Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental Protection. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA. EPA SAB-EC 90-021. Scientific Certification Systems. 1992. Life Cycle Inventory and the Environmental Report Card. Working draft, May 5. Tellus Institute. 1992. CSG/Tellus Packaging Study: Assessing the Impacts of Production and Disposal of Packaging and Public Policy Measures to Alter its Mix. Vols. 1 and 2, 89-024/5. Boston, MA: Tellus Institute for Resource and Environmental Studies. Tolle, D., R. Lang, J. Becker, K. Pugsley, and B. Vigon. 1993. Life-Cycle Assessment: Public Data Sources for the LCA Practitioner. Draft final report, September 2. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. 1992. Green Products by Design: Choices for a Cleaner Environment. OTA-E-541. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. October. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1988. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Vol. 1. Stationary Point and Area Sources (AP-42). Research Triangle Park, NC. . 1995. Life Cycle Impact Assessment: A Conceptual Framework, Key Issues, and Summary of Existing Methods. EPA Publication no. 452/R-95/002. Vigon, B. W., D. A. Tolle, B. W. Cornaby, H. C. Latham, C. L. Harrison, T. L. Boguski, R. G. Hunt, and J. D. Sellers. 1993. Life-Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles. EPA/600/R-92/245. Weitz, K., and J. Warren. 1992. Life Cycle Impact Analysis. Part I: Issues. Working draft. Research Triangle Institute. December 11.
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Attachment A
PRELIMINARY CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
This attachment presents potential impact assessment criteria being considered by the AIA. These criteria, when finalized, will be used by expert reviewers to rate materials in various impact categories. The AIA has drawn potential criteria from two reports that have described initial efforts to develop impact criteria for LCAs (Tolle et. al. 1994 and Heijungs et al. 1992). Many areas are not addressed by these two reports. In some of these areas, AIA is developing criteria based on available information on environmental effects; in other areas, no criteria have been proposed. It should be emphasized that the material in this attachment is preliminary and is presented to encourage dialogue and discussion.
Impact Group Impact Category Potential Criteria for Assessing Impact
1. Ecological/Environmental Effects 1.1 Air quality Stratospheric ozone depletion potential Global warming potential Photochemical oxidant creation potential Calculation of ozone depletion potential relative to CFC-11 (Tolle et al. 1994; Heijungs et al. 1992, based on World Meteorological Organization, 1991). Calculation of global warming potential relative to CO2 (Tolle et al. 1994; Heijungs et al. 1992, based on Houghton, et al., 1992). Classification based on ratio of change in emission of VOC and ozone concentration (Tolle et. al. 1994). Factors relative to ethylene (Heijungs et al. 1992, based on United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 1991). Degradation of visibility Contribution of toxics Acidification Formation of odors Appropriate measures not identified. Measures of opacity are not appropriate; distance (in miles) of visibility reduction not available. Classification as hazardous based on Hazardous Air Pollutant list in Section 112 of Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990. Appropriate measures not identified. Acidification measures available for water and soil. Ranking of substances based on an odor threshold value that represents the conditions at which 5 percent of the population can detect the difference between a sample of air mixed with that substance and a sample of clean air (Heijungs et al. 1992). Total gallons used. Combination of nutrient loading with eutrophication under consideration. Ranking of substances in terms of their potential for nutrification (Heijungs et al. 1992). Classification of compounds for their acute and chronic effects to aquatic life, based on the relative ranking of their lowest observable effects level , as presented in Quality Criteria for Water 1986 (U.S. EPA 440/5-86-001). Aquatic toxicity factors (Heijungs et al. 1992). Toxicity to marine aquatic life Classification of compounds for their acute and chronic effects to aquatic life, based on the relative ranking of their lowest observable effects level, as presented in Quality Criteria for Water 1986 (U.S. EPA 440/5-86-001). Aquatic toxicity factors (Heijungs et al. 1992). Toxicity in drinking water and fish Classification of compounds for their acute and chronic effects to human life as a result of fish consumption and ingestion of water and fish, based on the relative ranking of their known toxicities, as presented in Quality Criteria for Water 1986 (U.S. EPA 440/5-86-001). Human toxicity factors of substances in water (Heijungs et al. 1992). Acidification Ranking of compounds relative to SO2, with the acidification potential based on the potential amount of H+ per mass unit relative to the same parameter for SO2 (Heijungs et al. 1992).
1.2 Water quality
Process water consumed Nutrient loading Eutrophication Toxicity to freshwater aquatic life
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Attachment A
Impact Group 1.2 Water quality (continued)
Impact Category Thermal alteration Odors/visual degradation Increased sedimentation
Potential Criteria for Assessing Impact Increases and decreases in temperature are negative factors. Applicability of odor scale used for air under consideration. Data to assess opacity not available. Increases in sedimentation are a negative factor. Methods for measuring compaction are available, but data required for use of the methods not available. Appropriate measures and classification system not identified. Appropriate measures and classification system not identified. Classification based on volume of waste to be placed in landfill and toxicity of waste. Classification of resource renewability based on renewability and current supply (Tolle et. al. 1994). Classification of resource renewability based on renewability and current supply (Tolle et. al. 1994). Classification of abiotic resource depletion for resources whose reserves may become insufficient within 100 years (Heijungs et al. 1992). Classification of extent of habitat alteration based on acres altered and time for recovery (Tolle et. al. 1994). Classification of factors for terrestrial and aquatic toxicity (Heijungs et al. 1992).
1.3 Land/soil effects
Compaction Erosion Alteration of soil chemistry Reduced landfill space
1.4 Resource depletion resources
Consumption of non-renewable Consumption of resources in limited supply
1.5 Alteration or loss of habitat/biodiversity
Alteration of habitat Effects on reproduction, morbidity, mortality in plant and animal species Effects on endangered species
Any effect on endangered species is a negative factor.
2. Human Health and Welfare Effects 2.1 Worker/installer health Potential exposure to carcinogens and other potentially hazardous substances Potential exposure to dust and particulate matter Potential for accidents 2.2 Building occupant health Potential exposure to carcinogens and other potentially hazardous substances Potential exposure to dust and particulate matter Potential exposure to biological contaminants 2.3 Community health and welfare Release of carcinogens Release of other harmful substances International Agency for Research on Cancer reports on carcinogens, OSHA Threshold Limit Values. Human toxicity factors for substances present in air, water, and soil (Heijungs et al. 1992). Search of current research on particulate exposure under way. Appropriate measures and classification system not identified. International Agency for Research on Cancer reports on carcinogens OSHA Threshold Limit Values. Human toxicity factors for substances present in air, water, and soil (Heijungs et al. 1992) Search of current research on particulate exposure under way. Search of current research on biological contaminants under way. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) reports on carcinogens. Substances classified as hazardous are listed in Section 311 of the Clean Water Act. Substances classified as hazardous air pollutants under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. Substances for which drinking water standards have been developed, including Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs), Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs), Reference Doses (RfDs), and Drinking Water Equivalent Levels (DWELs) as well as classification of substances according to carcinogenicity (U.S. EPA.). OSHA Threshold Limit Values. Human toxicity factors for substances present in air, water, and soil (Heijungs et al. 1992).
NOTES
Effects on economy or society
Description and assessment of specific effect. No classification system identified.
METHODOLOGY
APDX A
57
Methodology
Attachment A
Impact Group 3. Energy Effects 3.1 Process and inherent energy 3.2 Transportation energy 3.3 Effects on operational energy
Impact Category
Potential Criteria for Assessing Impact
Energy consumed Inherent energy of materials Total transportation requirements Contribution to thermal gain or loss Use as thermal mass
Total Btus expended for processes to produce the material or product. Actual energy (caloric) value of the material where primary fuels are used as constituents or ingredients. Classified from small region to global based on miles (Norberg-Bohm et al. 1992). Conductance (C) or conductivity (k) values for materials1 (ASHRAE, 1993). Values for density and specific heat (ASHRAE, 1993)2.
4. Building Operation Factors 4.1 Durability Theoretical useful life Average age at replacement 4.2 Maintenance Frequency of cleaning Type of cleaning Frequency of recoating or refurbishing Type of recoating or refurbishing 4.3 Reusability/recyclability Ease of recovery Total years. Total years3. Number of cleanings per week. Pollution impacts and toxicity of materials required. Number of years between recoating or refurbishing. Description of recoating or refurbishing. Appropriate classification system not identified. Factors include ease of separation, availability of recovery infrastructure. Reusability Recyclability Current rate of reuse; theoretical rate of reuse. Current rate of recycling; theoretical rate of recycling.
1. Considered only where materials can contribute to the desired resistance to heat flows (e.g., in building envelope between outside air and interior spaces, between heated and unheated spaces, etc.) 2. Relevant only to materials being used for thermal storage functions or contributing to desired thermal lag. 3. Influenced by specific application and function, location of the material in place, frequency and degree of use, maintenance programs, etc. SOURCES CITED ASHRAE. 1993. Handbook of Fundamentals, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Heijungs, R. ed. 1992. Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment of Products: Guide October 1992 and Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment of Products: Backgrounds October 1992. CML (Centre of Environmental Science) in Leiden, TNO (Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research) in Apeldoorn, and B&G (Fuels and Raw Materials Bureau) in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Houghton, J. T., B. A. Callander, and S. K. Varney, 1992. Climate Change in 1992. The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Norberg-Bohm, V., W. C. Clarke, B. Bakshi, J. Berkenkamp, S. A. Bishko, M. D. Koehler, J. A. Marrs, C. P. Nielsen, A. Sagar. 1992. International Comparisons of Environmental Hazards: Development and Evaluation of a Method for Linking Environmental Data with the Strategic Debate Management Priorities for Risk Management. CSIA Discussion Paper 92-09, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. Tolle, D.A., B. W. Vigon, J. R. Becker, M. A. Salem. 1994. Development of a Pollution Prevention Factors Methodology Based on Life-Cycle Assessment: Lithographic Printing Case Study. U.S. EPA Document Number 600/R-94/157. United NationsEconomic Commission on Europe, 1991. Protocol to the convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or Their Transboundary Fluxes. Geneva. U.S. EPA. 1986. Quality Criteria for Water 1986 (and updates), U.S. EPA Document Number 440/5-86-001. U.S. EPA. 1995. Drinking Water Regulations and Health Advisories, May 1995. Available from the Office of Water Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791. World Meteorological Organization. 1991. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1991. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project-Report No. 25.
58
APDX A
METHODOLOGY
Appendix B
Publications
Books
Sustainable Strategies and Global Perspectives
Brower, Michael. Cool Energy: Renewable Solutions to Environmental Problems (MIT Press, 1994). The author argues that renewable energy could provide as much as half of Americas energy needs in forty years. He asserts that if evaluated from a broad perspective, renewablessolar, wind, biomass, hydroelectric, and geothermalcould be a cheaper source of energy than fossil fuels. Several policy approaches are also presented for shifting to renewable resources. Brown, Lester R., ed., et al. State of the World 1996 (Worldwatch Institute, 1996). Addresses global issues and trends relating to achieving a sustainable society. Topics include climate change, sustainable water strategies, preserving agricultural resources, bioinvasion, infectious diseases, human rights and environmental justice, and shifting to sustainable industries. Well documented with comprehensive endnotes. Conseil International du Batiment. Linking & Prioritizing Environmental Criteria: Proceedings of CIB TG-8 International Research Workshop (Environmental Research Group, School of Architecture, University of British Columbia, 1995). Contains the papers and summaries of working sessions from the meeting of the Conseil International du Batiment held on November 1516, 1995, in Toronto, Canada. Thirty international environmental authorities explore both technical and nontechnical issues relating to how environmental systems and strategies will be prioritized, linked, and evaluated. Edwards, Brian. Towards a Sustainable Architecture: European Directives and Building Design (Butterworth Architecture, 1996). This book can help design and construction professionals understand the implications and the opportunities emanating from European environmental laws and directives. The authoralong with other contributorsexamines sustainable architecture and development from various vantage points, including construction products and professional services, energy and pollution, environmental impact, recycling, and ecology, among others. The text is interspersed with many examples, case studies, illustrations, and charts. While European-based, the books basic message will be of value to design professionals anywhere. Hawken, Paul. The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability (Harper Business, 1993). Calls for converting to an economy that sustains rather than destroys the earth. Hawkens approach would preserve whats best in the market system (e.g., the drive to innovate) and fix its habit of shifting external costs to taxpayers and future generations. He proposes replacing the current assortment of income, payroll, and corporate taxes with green taxes on nonrenewable resources, emissions, toxins, and other environmentally degrading items. Roodman, David Malin, and Nicholas Lenssen. A Building Revolution: How Ecology and Health Concerns Are Transforming Construction (Worldwatch Institute Press, 1995). Worldwatch Paper 124 addresses the environmental impacts brought about by modern buildings that ignore or overpower nature. In text and charts, presents a variety of examples worldwide that display sustainable building concepts and strategies. Urges a broad set of changes in the way the built environment is designed, developed, and regulated. Schmidheiny, Stephan. Changing Course (MIT Press, 1992). An extraordinary call to action from the business community. Approaches environmental issuesincluding sustainable development, energy, the costs of environmentalism, and technology cooperationfrom a management perspective. James Gustave Spaeth of the World Resources Institute called it nothing less than a road map to the corporate future in addressing environmental issues. Impressive case studies. Wann, David. Biologic (Johnson Books, 1990). Beginning with the statement, Realizing that we are on a precarious, self-defeating path environmentally, what practical steps can we take to get ourselves back on course? Wann posits answerssome of them hopelessly optimistic, some refreshingly perceptive. World Resources Institute Staff. World Resources, 199495: A Guide to the Global Environment (Oxford University Press, 1994). A wealth of data for anyone interested in global issues. Contains an abundance of data on economics, population, land cover, food and agriculture, forests and rangelands, biodiversity, energy and materials, water, and atmosphere and climate. Articles address topics and trends centered on resource consumption, population growth, and women in the context of sustainable development. Lyle, John Tillman. Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development (John Wiley & Sons, 1994). Draws heavily on interdisciplinary examples from the Center for Regenerative Studies at California State Polytechnic University, which serves as a living laboratory for regenerative design. Offers valuable information to planners, architects, and landscape designers wishing to expand their knowledge on how to integrate natural and made-made processes. McHarg, Ian L. Design with Nature (Doubleday & Co., 1971; John Wiley & Sons, 1992 reprint). Reprint of a classic on ecologically based design reiterates our symbiotic relationship with nature. With chapters on such subjects as Nature in the Metropolis and Sea and Survival, McHarg portrays nature as an ally and respected friend. Graphically presented site analyses demonstrate suitability of natural and man-made features. In a new preface, McHarg describes the impetus for the work, which is even more relevant today. Olgyay, Victor. Design with Climate (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992 edition). First published in 1949, this book offers ever-relevant information on regionalbased architecture accomplished through scientific analysis and response to climatic conditions. Covers concepts and principles about the effects of climate on humans; comfort and regional evaluation; and approaches for achieving effective architectural principles in site selection, solar control, wind studies, and use of materials. Schiler, Marc, and Anne Simon. Energy Efficient and Environmental Landscaping (Appropriate Solutions Press, 1995). An updated and revised version of Landscape Design that Saves Energy (Morrow, 1981). Covers landscaping plans and plant placement guidelines for four major U.S. climate zones; implementation strategies for landscape plans; environmental considerations including water efficiency, natural lawn care, landscaping for wildlife, use of native plants, nontoxic pest management, and composting. Appendix contains recommendations and data to help with tree placement. Thayer, Robert L., Jr. Gray World, Green Heart: Technology, Nature and the Sustainable Landscape (John Wiley & Sons, 1994). Weaves a theoretical framework to build a future in which technologies would serve rather than dominate nature. The author provides a vision for achieving a sustainable landscape that conserves resources while preserving the essential ecological characteristics of those resources. Van der Ryn, Sim, and Peter Calthorpe. Sustainable Communities: A New Design Synthesis for Cities, Suburbs and Towns (Sierra Club Books, 1986). This publication originated from a design workshop on ecology and the community that asked, What would cities and suburbs look like if we could redesign them toward sustainability? Fascinating insights by knowledgeable leaders in the fields of design and ecology.
Sustainable Planning and Site Design

Dramstad, Wenche E., James D. Olson, and Richard T. Forman. Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning (Island Press, 1996). Presents a collection of key ecological landscape design and planning principles under headings of patches, edges and boundaries, corridors and connectivity, and mosaics. Case study examples illustrate how principles have been applied at different scales. The format is concise with numerous diagrams to illustrate concepts. Lists of sources for further reading are included for each of the principles. Lewis, Philip H., Jr. Tomorrow By Design: A Regional Design Process for Sustainability (John Wiley & Sons, 1996). Presents a comprehensive model and process for regional design, development, and restoration. Part 1 deals with the purpose and application of the process on a national scale. Part 2 outlines the process on a regional level. Part 3 applies the evolving process at the local scale of the circle city. Process elements include resource value inventory, creative analysis, synthesis of two- and three-dimensional design options, and an educational effort to assure the citizens role in decision-making.
PUBLICATIONS
APDX B
Publications
Environmentally Responsible Building Design

Barnett, Dianna, with William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building (Rocky Mountain Institute, 1995). An introduction to the principles embodied in sustainability. Touches upon considerations for site selection and development, transportation, building placement, configuration, shell design, energy use, water conservation, building ecology, and facility operations. Helpful to designers, students, and facility owners seeking a succinct overview of subject. Crosbie, Michael. Green Architecture: A Guide to Sustainable Design (AIA Press, 1994). Presents profiles of forty-three buildings that display various degrees of greenness. The energy and environmental aspects of each project are presented in brief narratives accompanied by color photographs. Covers a range of building types in diverse geographic locations. Crowther, Richard L., FAIA, ed. Ecologic Architecture (Butterworth Architecture, 1992). The author states that every choice made from concept, to design, to realization is a demand that results in ecologic and biologic consequence. Urging that architecture be viewed from a new perspective, the book presents the necessity for ecological design and shaping a context for it. It also addresses an assortment of ecologic concepts, strategies, and guidelines for diverse elements of the built and natural environments. The authors own projects are presented as case studies. Daniels, Klaus. The Technology of Ecological Building: Basic Principles and Measures, Examples and Ideas (Birkhauser Verlag, 1997). Part 1 focuses on basic principles of ecological building. Part 2 provides examples for buildings of tomorrow with an emphasis on passive design concepts. Part 3 addresses a host of active measures associated mostly with renewable energy. Shows how ecological concepts can be applied to deep-plan and high-rise structures, building types not normally equated with environmentally responsive design. Technical concepts are elegantly illustrated with numerous diagrams and drawings. Easton, David. The Rammed Earth House (Chelsea Green, 1996). A treatise on a construction technique with ancient origins. The core content of this book deals with the how to for site preparation; foundations; soil selection, use, and compaction; and the erection of building components, including doors, windows, and structural elements. Opening chapters offer a history of earth as a building material and discuss site and architectural factors to be considered in developing residential design solutions. Appendices contain step-by-step photos, a sample home design program, how to identify soil types, a case study, and structural design data for earth structures. Fanney, A. H., K. M. Whitter, A. E. Traugott, and L. N. Simon, eds. U.S. Green Building Conference1994 (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1994). Proceedings of the Green Building Conference (February 1994) cosponsored by NIST and the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). Topics include assessment methodologies and performance criteria for green buildings in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States; an overview of green building programs in government and nonprofit organizations; case studies; and future technology needs.
Fanney, A. H., K. M. Whitter, T. B. Cohn, eds. Second International Green Building Conference and Exposition (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1995). Proceedings of the annual conference (August 1995) cosponsored by NIST and the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). Includes 18 papers presented by CEOs, planners, practicing architects, and researchers in the vanguard of green buildings. Topics cover sustainability and approaches to it; assessments for materials and facilities, and the economics and benefits of energy-efficient and environmentally responsible design. Fanney, A. H., and P.R. Svincek, eds. Third International Green Building Conference and Exposition1996 (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1996). Proceedings of the NIST and the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) conference of Novemeber 1996. Selected topics address the role of CEOs in bringing green products and services to market; the status of the USGBC Environmental Design Building Rating System; examples of green building projects from throughout the world; sustainable building materials; energy conservation; solar photovoltaics; indoor air quality issues; and design tools and resources for green buildings. Kibert, Charles J., ed. Sustainable Construction: Proceedings of First International Conference of CIB TG 16 (University of Florida Center for Construction and Environment, 1994). Brings together information from Canada, Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, and the U.S. Presents trends in sustainable development, site design and planning, life-cycle environmental assessments, recycling and use of waste materials, green materials indexing, new products, and more. The conference was held in Tampa, Florida, in November 1994. Marinelli, Janet, and Paul Bierman-Lytle. Your Natural Home: The Complete Sourcebook and Design Manual for Creating a Healthy, Beautiful, and Environmentally Sensitive House (Little, Brown and Co., 1995). The first third of the book describes and discusses five houses designed and built by Bierman-Lytle. Design checklists are included for such topics as home building on a budget, choosing a site, and creating an environmentally friendly apartment. The remainder of the book lists some 2,000 building products grouped under the headings of structure, life-support systems, interior surfaces, furnishings, appliances and fixtures, childrens products, and home maintenance products. National Audubon Society and Croxton Collaborative, Architects. Audubon House (John Wiley & Sons, 1994). Tells the story about the transformation of a 19th-century building into the National Audubon Societys headquarters. Presents the strategies and methods used to integrate energy and environmentally sensitive concepts into the design process and explains how economic trade-offs were factored into that process.
National Park Service. Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1993). While directed toward NPS facilities, the information is readily applicable to many building types. Opening sections cover sustainable principles, setting goals through interpretive methods, development impacts, and preserving and enhancing cultural resources. Remaining sections address site and building design, energy management, water supply, waste prevention, and facility maintenance and operations (available through U.S. Government Printing Office). Pearson, David. The Natural House Book (Simon & Schuster, 1989). A visually stimulating primer for the layperson and professional designer. Describes in detail the workings of a natural house, including lighting, color, energy, utility systems, etc. Many references, sources, color sketches, drawings, and photos. Pijawka, K. David, and Kim Shetter. The Environment Comes Home (Herberger Center for Design Excellence, Arizona State University, 1995). The Environmental Showcase Homedeveloped by the Arizona Public Servicedemonstrates the possibilities and potential benefits for regionally sensitive single-family housing design when environmental factors become a priority. Addresses planning, design, and construction strategies with in-depth presentations on energy efficiency, water conservation, and building materials within a life-cycle context. Well illustrated with numerous photographs, charts, tables, and product data. Romm, Joseph J., and William D. Browning. Greening the Building and the Bottom Line (Rocky Mountain Institute, 1994). Eight building case studies provide evidence that energy-efficient building and office design can enhance worker productivity. The resulting cost savings from improved productivity far exceeds the cost savings from the energy saved. For example, an increase of one percent in productivity can provide savings to a company exceeding its entire energy bill. Steele, James. Sustainable Architecture: Principles, Paradigms, and Case Studies (McGraw-Hill, 1997). The concept and contradictory nature of sustainability is covered in the opening chapters, followed by an international cluster of architectural and planning case studies, many of which are located in third world countries. Environmental economics and the relationship between frequently used building materials and sustainability are also profiled. Recommends that planning and design combine the best technological advances with the best traditional methods and that design solutions be tested against green principles. Steen, Athena Swentzell, Bill Steen, David Bainbridge with David Eisenberg. The Straw Bale House (Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 1994). Describes design and building of straw bale houses from A to Z. Opening chapters discuss history, benefits, and common concerns about this energy-efficient and environmentally friendly technology. Subsequent chapters cover the how-to of designing and integrating straw bales for foundations, walls, roofs, floors, and interiors.
APDX B
PUBLICATIONS
Publications
Thomas, Randall, ed. Environmental Design: An Introduction for Architects and Engineers (E & FN SPON, 1996). A highly readable primer and guide on the e nvironmental principles of architecture and engineering. While drawing largely on examples from the United Kingdom, the concepts and guidelines presented in this volume are far-reaching. Each of the 10 chapters is devoted to a specific aspect of environmental building design, including energy balance, site planning, materials and construction, energy sources, lighting, thermal comfort, and ventilation. Contains five case studies of UK buildings. Van der Ryn, Sim, and Stuart Cowan. Ecological Design. (Island Press. 1996). The first part of the book deals with the connection between the concept of sustainablility and design and the underlying principles and philosophy of ecological design. The second part, The Ecological Design Process, presents what the authors believe are fundamental principles for ecological design: solutions grow from place, ecologocal accounting informs design, design with nature, everyone is a designer, and make nature visible. Contains resource listings and an annotated bibliography. Yeang, Ken. Designing With Nature (McGraw-Hill, 1995). The author develops a set of nine fundamental premises for an ecological approach to design. He then fits together an interactions framework to define and communicate the relationships between designed systems and the natural environment. This provides the basis for design strategies that address choices of materials and construction systems; choices for service systems; and spatial planning. Zieber, Laura. The Ecology of Architecture (Whitney Library of Design, 1996). Includes a history of ecology in architecture; renewable resource technologies; profiles of several leading-edge firms and individuals in the environmental design field; the process of creating ecologically conscious architecture; and eight examples of North American buildings that embody environmental design approaches.
Passive Solar Industries Council (PSIC). Passive Solar Design Strategies (PSIC, 1994). This publication, used in the passive solar design workshops sponsored by PSIC, can be customized for any of more than 240 locations in the United States. It includes the basics of passive solar design, regionally appropriate design strategies, data on performance potential, information on materials, and worksheets for performance calculations. Watson, Donald, ed. The Energy Design Handbook (AIA Press, 1993). Brings together explanations, examples, and references of energy design strategies appropriate to specific climates and applications. Part one covers architectural and mechanical systems (e.g., passive, daylighting, HVAC, active solar) that architects and engineers can use to create climate responsive, energy-efficient architecture. Part two addresses thermal energy and economic analysis methods. Many useful illustrations, charts, and tables. Watson, Donald, and Kenneth Labs. Climatic Building Design (McGraw Hill, 1993). Originally published in 1983, this updated edition provides detailed guidance on how to take advantage of local climatic and site conditions in residential design. Fundamentals and principles are covered in such topics as heat flow, comfort, solar gain, etc. The core of the work profiles 50 practice techniques that designers can apply directly in the design process. Contains climatic data for all regions of the United States. The bibliography is extensive. Steven Winter Associates, Inc. (Adrian Tuluca, lead author). Energy Efficient Design and Construction for Commercial Buildings (McGraw-Hill, 1997). Provides nontechnical discussions about energy-saving techniques for commercial, institutional, educational, health care, and high-rise buildings. Techniques presented with case study examplescover building envelope, glass and glazing, efficient lighting, HVAC equipment, heat recovery, cogeneration, HVAC control systems, and tools for energy-efficient design.
Building Materials
Anink, David, Cheil Boonstra, and John Mak. Handbook of Sustainable Building: An Environmental Preference Method for Selection of Materials for Use in Construction and Refurbishment (James & James, 1996). This is an English translation of the reference document that originally appeared in Dutch as Handleiding Duurzame Woningbouw. The book recommends environmentally preferable building materialsas well as those not recommendedfor a variety of building elements in new construction and renovation. Although the original Dutch edition included commercial and institutional materials, this edition addresses only residential materials. Emphasis is on European products. Building Materials in the Context of Sustainable Development: Phase III Summary ReportThe LifeCycle Analysis Framework (Forintek Canada Corporation and Wayne B. Trusty and Associates, 1995). Documents the ambitious effort by an alliance of Canadian industry and government groups to develop a computer model to determine environmental impacts for various building components, assemblies, and systems. To date, materials covered include wood, steel, and concrete as used for building structural systems. Hornbostel, Caleb. Construction Materials: Types, Uses, and Applications (John Wiley & Sons, 1991). Encyclopedic in scope, this volume describes hundreds of building materials and products under consistent headings of physical and chemical properties, types and uses, history and manufacture, and favorable and unfavorable conditions for use. Includes numerous illustrations, charts, and tables. Although environmental considerations are not addressed, this remains the bible for information on building materials. Kibert, Charles J., and Gisela Bosch. Green Building Materials 96: Summary Report (University of Florida Center for Construction and Environment, 1996). Summarizes issues concerning the analysis, certification, and design and implementation of information sources for green building materials presented at a forum attended by manufacturers, specifiers, architects, and builders in September 1996. Materials addressed include concrete, floor coverings, insulation, metals, paints and sealants, piping products, wallboard, and wood and wood products. Lorenz, David. A New Industry Emerges: Making Construction Materials from Cellulosic Wastes (Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 1995). This book provides a snapshot of the infant waste fiber construction industry, which uses cellulosic wastes for the production of reconstituted wood, panel, and composite products in the United States and Canada. The rising disposal costs of waste materials from wheat straw, soy flour, recycled paper, and urban waste wood give a growing impetus for their use in alternative construction materials.
Daylighting and Lighting Energy-Efficient and Passive Solar Design

Energy Tools (AIA/American Collegiate Council on Architectural Research, 1992). Describes and evaluates tools to help architects improve the energy performance of buildings. Includes analytical techniques for energy analysis, daylighting, window design, passive and active solar systems, and construction. Each method or program is profiled for its operation and use, user friendliness, applications, and benefits. Mazria, Edward. The Passive Solar Energy Book (Rodale Press, 1979). Out-of-print classic on passive solar and cooling design. Provides in-depth background for understanding solar design and explores 27 design patterns or rules-of-thumb for passive design. Appendices contain tools for predicting building energy performance; charts for locating the suns position in North America; and computerized analyses of solar heat, specific gravity, and thermal conductivity for 160 solids and liquids. Ander, Gregg. Daylighting: Performance and Design (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995). A concise, up-to-date treatment of daylighting. Covers fundamental design issues, variables, and strategies for integration with electric lighting. Reviews manual, computer, and physical daylight modeling methods and tools. Contains case studies for retail, office, institutional, and industrial facilities. Well-annotated bibliography. Moore, Fuller. Concepts and Practice of Architectural Daylighting (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991). Updated edition covers historic responses and basic concepts; design strategies; and an assortment of physical, graphical, and computer analysis methods. Appendices contain a variety of analytical aids such as sundials, sun angle charts, and illuminance overlays. Schiler, Marc. Simplified Design of Building Lighting (John Wiley & Sons, 1992). A direct presentation of natural and electrical lighting. Reconciles current Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) definitions with older calculations and terms. Each chapter includes examples and exercises. Analysis methods and lighting systems are more heavily emphasized than design strategies.
PUBLICATIONS
APDX B
Publications
Indoor Air Quality and Health

AIA. Designing Healthy Buildings (The American Institute of Architects, Committee on the Environment, 1993). A compilation of key papers presented at the 1992 COTE symposium on indoor air quality, materials, and systems for building ecology. Bearg, David W. Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems (Lewis Publishers/CRC Press Inc., 1993). Examines the relationship between HVAC equipment and indoor air quality with a focus on commercial office spaces. Discusses HVAC systems from micro and macro perspectives, criteria and methods for evaluating ventilation system performance, and potential sources of air contaminants. A practical guide for those responsible for the design, installation, operation, maintenance, and evaluation of HVAC systems. Bower, John. The Healthy House (Carol Communications, 1989). In-depth look at how to construct a healthy house, especially with respect to chemically sensitive people. Chapters break down by stages of building (e.g., planning, location, etc.) and building components (e.g., foundation systems, steel framing, windows and doors, etc.). Hays, Steve M., P.E., C.I.H., Ronald V. Gobbell, AIA, and Nicholas R. Ganick, P.E. Indoor Air Quality (McGraw-Hill, 1995). Written for professionals in the building industry, this sourcebook provides a foundation for indoor air quality (IAQ) analysis and control. The subject is treated in an interdisciplinary manner from the perspectives of industrial hygiene, mechanical engineering, and architecture. Demonstrates how to conduct occupant interviews; collect and analyze samples, diagnose and deal with air-movement problems, minimize pollution caused by VOCemitting materials, and more. Holdsworth, Bill, et al. Healthy Buildings: A Design Primer for a Living Environment (Longman, 1992). Advocating health as a design element, the work explores forces that contribute to a well-tempered environment including external factors (e.g., climate, air quality, soil, radiation,) and internal factors (e.g., construction physics, building materials, peoples needs, processes). Includes international case studies and a chapter on materials. Moeller, Dade W. Environmental Health (Harvard University Press, 1992). Written as a core text for the classroom as well as a key reference source, the book combines research findings with thorough coverage of environmental health problems and solutions. Sample sections include environmental health, air in home and community, the workplace, water and sewage, food, solid waste, standards, and monitoring.
Building for a Future Association for Environment Conscious Building Nant-y-Garreg Farm, Saron, Llandysul, Carmarthenshire, England SA44 5EJ Tel/fax 0155 937 0908 Quarterly. 35/year outside U.K. Each edition features general and technical articles on environmental topics, including product evaluations. While European-based, the reports cover international events and happenings. Building for a Future is published by the Association for Environment Conscious Building (AECB), which offers other green publications. Buildings Energy Technology National Technical Information Service U.S. Department of Commerce Springfield, VA 22161; (703) 487-4630 Monthly. $180/yr in U.S.; $360/yr outside U.S. Bulletins prepared by the Department of Energy containing abstracts of worldwide information on technology required for economic energy conservation of buildings and communities. Covers energy conservation for residential, commercial, industrial, municipal, and institutional buildings. Building with Nature Carol Venolia, P.O. Box 4417 Santa Rosa, CA 95402-4417 (707) 579-2201 Bimonthly. $35/yr U.S.; $50/yr foreign. Mission is to inform and inspire designers, builders, and inhabitants of built environments who want to transform the way we relate to place. Promotes building design with minimum energy expenditure, resource depletion, and toxic byproducts. Each issue focuses on a specific topic such as earth materials, toxicity, lighting, floor coverings. Energy Design Update Cutter Information Corp. 37 Broadway, Arlington, MA 02174-5552 (617) 648-8700; fax (617) 648-8707 Monthly. $337/yr; $157/yr for educators/builders Newsletter addresses all aspects of energy-efficient home design and construction, industry news, research summaries, and product reviews. Computer on-line information server provides full text of all past issues. Written for architects, builders, and engineers. Energy User News Chilton Company 201 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19089 (610) 964-4028; fax (610) 964-4647 Monthly. $69.50/yr News and information for the application of energyefficient products and building strategies in commercial, institutional, and industrial facilities. Environmental Building News RR 1, Box 161, Brattleboro, VT 05301 (802) 257-7300; fax (802) 257-7304 E-mail: ebn@ebuild.com Web site: www.ebuild.com Monthly. $79/yr for individuals and small companies; $139 for companies with more than 25 employees. Newsletter for environmentally sustainable design and construction featuring in-depth articles, checklists, latest news, reviews of building products, case studies, and information sources.
Environmental Periodicals Bibliography International Academy at Santa Barbara 800 Garden Street, Suite D Santa Barbara, CA 93101-1552 (805) 965-5010; fax (805) 965-6071 Quarterly. Cost varies. A resource for researching areas of the environment relating to human ecology, air, energy, land resources, water resources, nutrition and health. Tracks more than 400 international journals (scientific as well as popular). Quarterly on CD-ROM; monthly online with Knight-Kidder (Dialog File 68); CSA Environmental Routenet. Green Building Digest The Technical Aid Network (ACTAC) 64 Mount Pleasant, Liverpool, England L3 5SD 0151 708 7607; fax 0151 708 7606 Monthly. 29 for 6 issues domestic; 35 outside UK. Provides information on environmental issues for building materials and products (mostly of European origin) in order to allow specifiers and purchasers to include environmental considerations in their decision-making. Product profiles identify major environmental concerns, rank impacts and considerations for each, and present a technical analysis. Indoor Air Bulletin Indoor Air Information Service, Inc. P.O. Box 8446, Santa Cruz, CA 95061-8446 (408) 426-6624, fax (408) 426-6522 Monthly. $195/yr U.S.and Canada; $235/yr all other and foreign. Focuses on indoor air quality but considers all aspects of indoor environment important to occupant health, comfort, and productivity. Useful for architects, engineers, interior designers, facility owners, building managers, indoor environmental researchers, consultants, and policy makers. Indoor Air Quality Update Cutter Information Corporation 37 Broadway, Arlington, MA 02174-5552 (617) 648-8700; fax (617) 648-8707 Web site: www.cutter.com Monthly. $317/yr U.S.; $377 foreign. A 16-page newsletter bringing practical, timely solutions to indoor air quality problems. Reports on latest technologies, litigation issues, case studies, and more. Interior Concerns Newsletter Interior Concerns Environmental Resources P.O. Box 2386, Mill Valley, CA 94942 (415) 389-8049; fax (415) 388-8322 www.interiorconcerns.org Bimonthly. $35/yr. Provides information for designers, architects, and builders who want to keep current on the newest environmental products, issues, and technologies. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology Parthenon Publishing One Blue Hill Plaza, P.O. Box 1564 Pearl River, NY 10965; (914) 735-9363 Quarterly. $58/yr individual. Provides an international forum on ecology, economics, and sociology as related to sustainable development and use of world resources. Contributions address biodiversity, global climatic warming, resource management, and wildlife conservation $60.
Periodicals and Newsletters

Alternatives Journal Faculty of Environmental Studies University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 (519) 885-1211 x6783; fax (519) 746-0292 Quarterly. $27.50/yr in U.S. This journal provides critical and informed analysis of environmental issues from a Canadian perspective. Serves as a forum in which environmental activists, academics, and professionals exchange information.
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PUBLICATIONS
Publications
The Last Straw Out on Bale (Un) Ltd. P. O. Box 42000 Tucson, AZ 85783 (520) 882-3848 Bimonthly. $28/yr. U.S., $33 Canada, and $43 foreign. Provides articles on solar technologies for transportation and building applications. Covers thermal systems, photovoltaics, educational programs, environmental concerns, legislation, and products and services. Solar Today The American Solar Energy Society 2400 Central Avenue, Suite G-1 Boulder, CO 80301; (303) 443-3130 Bimonthly. $29/yr. Provides articles on solar technologies for transportation and building applications. Covers thermal systems, photovoltaics, educational programs, environmental concerns, legislation, and products and services.
Energy Efficient Building Products Shelter Supply, Inc. 17725 Juniper Path Lakeville, MN 55044 (800) 762-8399; (612) 898-4500 Catalog contains an assortment of products and technologies for energy-efficient, healthier home construction. Products include vapor barriers, foam, insulation, caulking and sealants, HVAC equipment, and more. Introduction identifies and describes energy and environmental problems frequently encountered in houses. Free Green Building Products and Materials Resource Directory North Carolina Recycling Association (NCRA) 7330 Chapel Hill Road, Suite 207 Raleigh, NC 27607 (919) 851-8444 Sponsored by the Energy Division of the North Carolina Department of Commerce, this directory contains profiles green building products appropriate for use in the southeastern United States. Organized by CSI sections, includes the name and a description of each product, the manufacturer, the composition (ingredients) of the product, waste products and by-products from the manufacturing process, tests performed, the recyclability of the product, postconsumer content, preconsumer content, recycled content, R-value (for insulating products), embodied energy, energy efficiency, the distributor, and general remarks. No longer in a printed format, the document is available free through the worldwide web. Contact NCRA for how to access information. Green Spec: Specifications for Environmental Sustainability Kalin Associates, Inc. 154 Wells Avenue Newton Center, MA 02159 (617) 964-5477; fax (617) 964-5788 A database of more than 400 green building products with specification language organized by CSI MasterFormat. A fact sheet for each product gives general information, environmental considerations, features and advantages, and identifies the most significant environmental attributes of the product. Model specification language is provided which users can incorporate into their own specifications. Threering binder has companion diskettes in either IBM or Macintosh formats. $195.00 + $10.00 shipping. Guide to Resource-Efficient Building Elements Center for Resourceful Building Technology P.O. Box 100, Missoula, MT 59806 (406) 549-7678; fax (406) 549-4100 The guide is a directory of building products manufacturers whose products make efficient use of primary resources or are made from recycled materials. It is updated yearly and also contains sections on resource-efficient design, job-site recycling, and resource management. $25.00 + $3.00 shipping.
Harris Directory of Recycled Content Building Materials BJ Harris 522 Acequia Madre Santa Fe, NM 87501 (505) 995-0337; fax (505) 820-1911 email: bjharris@igc.apc.org Electronic database containing well over a thousand records representing more than 5,000 recycledcontent building materials. Information is retrievable in the CSI Masterformat; available on all computer platforms. Disk and handbook on how to select greener products available for 45.00 plus shipping. Interior Concerns Resource Guide Interior Concerns Environmental Resources P.O. Box 2386, Mill Valley, CA 94942 (415) 389-8049; fax (415) 388-8322 Web site: www.interiorconcerns.org The original guide for sustainable, healthy building and design. Using a CSI Masterformat outline, the 230-page document offers current educational information, listings of products and manufacturers, case studies, consultants, and additional sources for further ecological research. Updated regularly. $40.00. Local Government Sustainable Buildings Guidebook: Environmentally Responsible Building Design and Management Public Technology, Inc. 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20004-1793 (800) 784-8976; (202) 626-2400 http://pti.nw.dc.us Although directed toward local government officials, design professionals will find this compact, informative guide useful. Covers the basics of sustainability and provides an overview of sustainable strategies for predesign, site design, and building design. Profiles several pilot building projects and four model sustainable programs in Seattle, Minneapolis, Austin, and San Jose. $25.00. McRecycle U.S.A. McDonalds Corporation McDonalds Plaza, Oak Brook, IL 60521 (800) 220-3809; (630) 623-5779 The McDonalds Corporation asked manufacturers to submit products with recycled content that could be used in the construction, remodeling, furnishing, and supplying of McDonalds restaurants. This resulted in the registration of about 900 products organized by CSI Masterformat divisions. Although tailored to McDonalds needs, not all products have been tested. This information has been made available to the public in the interest of stimulating the recycling market. Free Minnesota Recycled Products Directory Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance 520 Lafayette Road North, 2nd Floor St. Paul, MN 55155-4100 (800) 657-3843; (612) 296-3417 A guide to recycled-content products made by Minnesota companies. The types of products listed include agricultural, construction, janitorial, landscape, office, and packaging. Includes recycled content, list of distributors and retailers, buy-recycled tips, and other resources. Free
Catalogs and Guidebooks

AFM Product Catalog American Formulating & Manufacturing 350 W. Ash Street, Suite 700 San Diego, CA 92101 (619) 239-0321; fax (610) 239-0565 AFM offers Safecoat paints, stains, protective sealers, cleaners, and carpet care products formulated without toxic chemicals. They are designed to prevent or alleviate indoor air pollution and to be safe for the chemically sensitive. Alternative Energy Sourcebook Real Goods Trading Corporation 555 Leslie Street, Ukiah, CA 95482 (800) 762-7325; fax (707) 468-9394 The Sourcebook is a compendium of energy-sensible products and technologies for the home, power generation, off-the-grid living, electric vehicles, and more. $24.95 + $4.95 shipping. Construction and Demolition Waste Recycling Guide Integrated Solid Waste Management Office 200 North Main Street, Room 1450 CHE Los Angeles, CA 90012 (213) 237-1444; fax (213) 847-3054 e-mail: 15wmo@loop.com A local guide for recycling construction and demolition debris and salvage materials in the Los Angeles area. Includes an introductory section that discusses issues of CDL recycling. Free Earth-Wise Builders Products and Materials METRO 600 NE Grand Avenue Portland, OR 97232 (503) 797-1663; fax (503) 797-1795 The products guide is published by METRO, a government agency serving the tricounty region including Portland. The guide is designed to help architects and builders locate hundreds of environment friendly building products. Available on computer disk. $1.00
PUBLICATIONS
APDX B
Publications
Official Recycled Products Guide (RPG) Recycling Data Management Corp. P.O. Box 577, Ogdensburg, NY 13669 (800) 267-0707 Now in its eighth year, this guide contains more than 4,500 certified recycled product listings spanning more than 800 product classifications, from paper to rubber and plastics. Entries are currently self-certified according to EPA guidelines. However, the company is beginning to work with Green Cross of Oakland, California, and other certification agencies to identify products that have passed independent verification. $65.00 for condensed version; $315.00 for full edition. REDITMResources for Environmental Design Index Iris Communications Inc. P.O. Box 5920 Eugene, OR 97405-0911 (800) 246-0104; (541) 484-9353; fax (541) 484-1645 iris@oikos.com Web site: www.oikos.com/irisinfo/ The REDITM is a comprehensive database listing the manufacturers and suppliers of building materials that are energy efficient and environmentally responsible. Currently, more than 1,700 companies are listed representing 5,500 products. REDI is available free on the Oikos Web site (www.oikos.com) and is updated weekly. Many Web listings include links to detailed product information and reviews. Available in print for $25.00 plus shipping. Updated quarterly. Residential Construction Waste Management: A Builders Field Guide National Association of Home builders (NAHB)Research Center 400 Prince Georges Boulevard Upper Marlboro, MD 20774 (301) 249-4000 A practical guide on how to develop a waste management plan, how to reduce framing waste, and facts and information about a range of waste management issues including subcontractor contracts, recycling, clean-up services, commingled recovery, and jobsite separationof waste materials among others. Although directed toward residential builders, architects and specifiers involved in residential or light commercial design will find the guide helpful. Free Resource Efficient Building Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance 520 Lafayette Road North, 2nd Floor St. Paul, MN 55155-4100 (800) 657-3843; (612) 296-3417 Identifies a series of key questions to ask when designing and constructing resource-efficient buildings. Also contains a list of actions aimed at specific audiences namely, clients, architects and designers, contractors and trades people, local government building plan reviewers, and suppliers of building materials. Free.
Resource Guide to Sustainable Landscapes and Gardens Environmental Resources, Inc. 2041 East Hollywood Ave. Salt Lake City, UT 84108-3148 (801) 485-0280 The 199596 edition provides landscape design professionals and others involved in landscaping decisions with information on environmentally sensitive and sustainable landscaping practices. Contains 1,100 listings of information sources, landscaping materials, and products that are reused, recycled, energy-efficient, or made from sustainable resources. In CSI Masterformat classifications. $37.50. Resource Guide to Recycled-Content Construction Products Integrated Solid Waste Management Office 200 North Main Street, Room 1450 CHE Los Angeles, CA 90012 E-mail: iswmo@loop.com (213) 237-1444; fax (213) 847-3054 A guide with 55 pages of listings of recycled-content construction products available nationally. Included are an introductory section and an annotated reference list. Free. Solar Living Sourcebook Real Goods Trading Corporation 555 Leslie Street Ukiah, CA 95482 (800) 919-2400; fax (707) 462-4807 The Sourcebook is a compendium of energy-sensible products and technologies for the home, power generation, off-the-grid living, electric vehicles, and more. $24.95 + $4.95 shipping. Sourcebook for Sustainable Design: A Guide to Environmentally Responsible Building Materials and Processes Architects for Social Responsibility c/o The Boston Society of Architects 52 Broad Street, Boston, MA 02109-4301 (617) 951-1433 x221 The Sourcebook identifies products and materials that do not damage the environment. Each division of this guide, organized in the 16-division Masterformat, includes an overview of the environmental issues applicable to each category of materials followed by lists of environmentally appropriate materials and products for that category. $25.00. Sustainable Building Technical Manual: Green Building Design, Construction, and Operation Public Technology, Inc. 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20004-1793 202-626-2400 (800)-784-8976 (publications sales) Web site: http://pti.nw.dc.us A compendium of information on green building practices. Discusses economics and environment, predesign issues, site issues, building design, the construction process, operations and maintenance, and issues and trends. The format for most sections includes a short introduction, highlights and background on the significance of the topic, suggested practices and checklists, a list of resources for more information, and numbered endnotes for works cited in the text. $68.00.
Sustainable Landscapes and Gardens, 3rd edition Environmental Resources, Inc. 2041 East Hollywood Avenue Salt Lake City, UT 84108-3148 (801) 485-0280 The 19961997 edition provides landscape design professionals and others involved in landscaping decisions with 486 pages of information on environmentally sensitive and sustainable landscaping practices. The guide contains more than 2,000 listings of information sources, landscaping materials, and products available from businesses, distributors, organizations, and manufacturers. Features materials and products that can be reused or recycled, are energy-efficient, and made from sustainable resources. Uses CSI Masterformat classifications. $35.00 postpaid within the U.S.A. WasteSpec: Model Specifications for Construction Waste Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling Triangle J Council of Governments P.O. Box 12276 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 (919) 549-0551 WasteSpec provides model specification language aimed at reducing or recycling building construction and demolition waste. Arranged in the CSI 16division format, the documents provisions address the following: waste reduction techniques; reuse of waste material on the construction site; salvage of materials for resale or reuse; return of unused material for credit; and recycling of waste for use in the manufacturing of new products. Each provision is coded to signify its probable effect on project costs. The document comes in a combined text and diskette format. (Specify MS DOS, Macintosh, or Word Perfect). $28.00. Call with fax number for order form.
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PUBLICATIONS
Appendix C
Organizations
Nonprofits and Associations

Alliance to Save Energy 1200 18th Street, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20036 (202) 857-0666 The Alliance focuses on increasing energy efficiency in new and existing buildings. It promotes energyefficient housing through energy rating systems, assesses impacts of federal and state fiscal policy, and identifies suppliers of energy-efficient products and services nationwide. American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy 1001 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 801 Washington, DC 20036 (202) 429-8873 Addressing both energy and environmental issues, ACEEE organizes conferences on building energy efficiency to enable researchers, program managers, government officials, and industry representatives to exchange information. American Forests P.O. Box 2000, Washington, DC 20013 (202) 667-3300 Offers resources to those involved in land-use planning and development including Building Greener Neighborhoods, Trees As Part of the Plan, an easy to read book on how and why developers can conserve trees around new development and CITYgreenTM desktop, GIS-based software program that quantifies the benefits of the urban ecosystem including stormwater reduction, energy conservation, air pollution reduction, carbon storage, and wildlife habitat. The American Institute of Architects Committee on the Environment 1735 New York Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20006 (202) 626-7300 The AIAs Committee on the Environment (COTE) works to create sustainable buildings and communities by advancing, disseminating, and advocating environmental knowledge and values to the profession, industry, and the public. Members provide volunteer resources and expertise to fulfill its mission of guiding architects toward sound ecological and economic decisions. American Solar Energy Society, Inc. 2400 Central Avenue, Suite G-1 Boulder, CO 80301 (303) 443-3130 ASES is a national organization dedicated to advancing the use of solar energy. ASES promotes the widespread near-term use of solar energy, fosters the use of science and technology in the application of solar energy, and encourages basic and applied research and development in solar energy.The Society hosts a National Solar Energy Conference once a year. Building Environment and Thermal Envelope Council National Institute of Building Sciences 1201 L Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20005 (202) 289-7800 Identifies and coordinates research and other programs on building envelope energy and the indoor environment. NIBS is a nonprofit, nongovernmental organization that brings together representatives of government, private industry, labor, and consumer interests to address problems facing the building design and construction industry. Center for Maximum Potential Building Systems, Inc. 8604 FM 969 Austin, TX 78724 (512) 928-4786 Internationally recognized, the center is a nonprofit ecological planning and design firm that works with public entities, professional organizations, community groups, universities, and individuals in pursuit of sustainable development policies and practices, ranging from individual buildings to entire regions. Emphasizes a comprehensive approach to using resources on a regional basis. Center for Resourceful Building Technology P.O. Box 100 Missoula, MT 59806 (406) 549-7678 CRBT is a nonprofit organization dedicated to educating the public on issues related to housing and the environment, particularly innovative building materials and technologies that place less stress on regional and global ecosystems. CRBT conducts research, provides education, and demonstrates resource-efficient building materials and practices. Co-op America 1612 K Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20006 (202) 872-5307 Co-op America is a national nonprofit membership organization working toward a just and sustainable economy by promoting socially and environmentally responsible businesses. Co-op America publishes the National Green Pages, a directory of more than 1,800 socially responsible companies and organizations. This directory includes sections on architects/construction and building kits/manuals. Energy Efficient Building Association 2950 Metro Drive, Suite 108 Minneapolis, MN 55425-1560 (612) 851-9940 EEBA is an international association dedicated to the development, dissemination, and acceptance of information relevant to the design, construction, and operation of energy- and resource-efficient buildings that provide quality living environments. Provides members expert information through conferences, workshops, publications, and professional networking. Energy Outreach Center Olympic Renewable Resources Association 512 East 4th Avenue Olympia, WA 98501 (360) 943-4595; fax (360) 943-4977 E-mail: eoc@olywa.net The EOC works with individuals and at the community level to stop global warming at the earliest possible stage, and promotes the transition to a sustainable society. EOC has three focus areas: 1) resource efficient buildings; 2) efficient use of materials; and 3) efficient transportation and land use. Activities include research, publications, meetings, special events, a full-time educational visitors center, and fee-based technical services. International Institute for Bau-biologie and Ecology, Inc. P.O. Box 387 Clearwater, FL 34617 (813) 461-4371; fax (813) 441-4373 E-mail: baubiologie@earthlink.net Web site: http://www.bau_biologieusa.com The institutes mission is the education of architects, interior designers, builders, and the public in how to create healthy houses and offices. Focus is on electromagnetic radiation, indoor air quality, and the offgassing of building materials; the institute offers this information through home study courses and seminars. Northeast Sustainable Energy Association 50 Miles Street Greenfield, MA 01301 (413) 774-6051 NESEA promotes energy efficiency, sustainable energy design, and the use of renewable energy. All NESEA conferences and workshops cover environmental aspects of the building industry. Its office is housed in the Northeast Sustainability Center, an evolving project that will serve as a renewable energy design model for a sustainable future. Passive Solar Industries Council 1511 K Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20005 (202) 628-7400; fax (202) 393-5043 E-mail: psicouncil@aol.com Web site: www.psic.org PSIC is the national organization of the passive solar industry. Dedicated to improving the design and performance of residential, commercial, and institutional buildings. PSIC offers a range of design tools and software, CEU-approved workshops, case studies, videos, and other materials.
ORGANIZATIONS
APDX C
Organizations
Rainforest Alliance 65 Bleecker Street New York, NY 10012 (212) 677-1900 Dedicated to preserving tropical rain forests, the Rainforest Alliance certifies lumber from tropical rain forests through its Smart Wood Program. Initiated in 1990, the Smart Wood Program is the oldest and largest forestry certification program in existence. Though its initial focus was on tropical forests, the program now focuses on all forest types through a network of regional certified nonprofit organizations. Rocky Mountain Institute 1739 Snowmass Creek Road Snowmass, CO 81654-9199 (970) 927-3851 RMI is a nonprofit educational foundation. Its Green Development Services program conducts research on incorporating environmentally and economically sound measures into real estate projects. Also offers consulting services to architects, planners, developers, and corporations on ways to integrate energy-efficient and environmentally responsive design into specific projects. Tropical Forest Foundation 225 Reinekers Lane, Suite 770 Alexandria, VA 22314 (703) 518-8834 TFF is a coalition of industry, association, and environmental groups that promote tropical forests through sustainable forestry. TFF sponsors programs for architects and designers, providing information on how to obtain tropical hardwoods from sustainable sources. U.S. Green Building Council 90 New Montgomery Street, Suite 1001 San Francisco, CA 94105 (415) 543-3001; fax (415) 957-5890 E-mail: usgreen@well.com The U.S. Green Building Council is a national nonprofit, environmentally based coalition that promotes green building policies, programs, and technologies throughout the United States. Its projects include the National Green Building Resource Center, National Green Building Rating System, National Green Building Demonstration Projects, product standards, and conferences.
Indoor Air Quality Information Clearinghouse U.S. Environmental Protection Agency P.O. Box 37133 Washington, DC 20013-7133 (800) 438-4318; (202) 484-1307; fax (202) 484-1510 E-mail: iaqinfo@aol.com Web site: www.epa.gov/iaq/ Information specialists provide information, referrals, publications, and database searches on indoor air quality. Information includes pollutants and sources, health effects, control methods, commercial building operations and maintenance, standards and guidelines, and federal and state legislation. The clearinghouse can provide information on constructing and maintaining homes and buildings to minimize indoor air quality problems. National Energy Information Center 1F-048 Forrestal Building 1000 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20585 (202 586-8800 Provides information on Department of Energy (DOE) programs and distributes fact sheets and publications on energy resources, consumption, imports, exports, and related economic and statistical information. National Renewable Energy Laboratory U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) 1617 Cole Boulevard Golden, CO 80401 (303) 275-3000 NREL is a leading laboratory for research and development of renewable energy technologies. Projects include energy-efficient design and engineering of passive and active solar buildings and energy-efficient window techniques. Photovoltaic Systems Assistance Center Sandia National Laboratories P.O. Box 5800, Mail Stop 0753 Albuquerque, NM 87185-0753 (505) 844-3698 E-mail: pvsac@sandia.gov The center has been involved with numerous photovoltaic systems in the United States and has assisted with several international projects sponsored by such organizations as the World Bank and the U.S. Agency for International Development. Offers information and assistance to the photovoltaic industry, public utilities, and system designers, and maintains a state-of-the-art database on the performance of photovoltaic systems. Solar Thermal Design Assistance Center Sandia National Laboratories Organization 6216, Mailstop 703 Albuquerque, NM 87185 (505) 844-3077 The center is part of the Renewable Energy Program at Sandia National Laboratories, a multiprogram Department of Energy facility. The center provides professional consultation and direct technical assistance in applying or developing solar thermal technologies.
Government
Green Lights/Energy Star Buildings Programs U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 401 M Street, SW, 6202J Washington, DC 20460 (888) STAR-YES Managed by the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Division of the U.S. EPA, the Green Lights and Energy Star Buildings Programs seek to work cooperatively with companies, governments, and other institutions to encourage the use of energy-efficient lighting and other building technologies, including air conditioning and air distribution systems.
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ORGANIZATIONS
Appendix D
Glossary
Active solar system A solar energy system that requires the importation of off-site energy to operate the systems fans, pumps, controls, etc. Aerobic digestion The use of microorganisms that require oxygen to decompose organic waste materials into compost. See composting. Albedo The ratio of the amount of light reflected by a surface to the light falling on it. Air change The replacement of a quantity of air in a volume of space within a given period of time. Usually expressed in cubic feet per minute or in number of air changes per hour. Ambient lighting Lighting throughout a space that produces general illumination. Ancillary material A material used by the manufacturing system producing that product, but not used directly in the formulation of the product. Atmospheric emissions Residual discharges of emissions to the atmosphere (usually expressed in pounds or kilograms per unit output). Biomass The weight of living material, occasionally used as an energy source. British thermal unit (Btu) Unit of heat equivalent to the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. One Btu equals 225 calories. Building envelope Building elements (e.g., walls, roofs, floors, etc.) that enclose conditioned spaces and through which thermal energy may be transferred to and from the exterior. Building orientation Considered in relation to onsite placement, building orientation is concerned with the direction of prevailing winds and the position of north-south, east-west exposures as these relationships affect heat loss-gain properties of the building. By-product See Co-product Calorie Metric unit of heat equivalent to the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Centigrade. One calorie equals 3.97 x 10-3 Btus or 4.18 joules. Carcinogen A chemical substance or type of radiation that can cause cancer in exposed animals or humans. Carrying capacity The maximum number of organisms an ecosystem can support over an extended period without significant degradation of the ecosystem. Chimney effect The tendency of air or gas in a duct, passage, or other vertical space to rise when heated due to its lower density compared with that of the surrounding air. Climate-dominated building A building in which the energy consumption is driven by heat loss or gain through the buildings envelope.
Cogeneration The simultaneous production and use of heat energy and electricity. Composting A waste management option involving the controlled biological decomposition of organic materials into a relatively stable humuslike product that can be handled, stored, and applied to the land without adversely affecting the environment. Conduction The process by which heat energy is transferred through materials (e.g., solids, liquids, gases) by molecular excitation of adjacent molecules. Conductivity (k) The quantity of heat in Btus that will flow through one square foot of a homogeneous material, one-inch thick, in one hour, when there is a temperature difference of one degree Fahrenheit between its surfaces. Convection The transfer of heat between a moving fluid (e.g., liquid or gas) and a surface, or the transfer of heat within a fluid by movements within the fluid. Cooling load The rate at which heat must be removed by cooling equipment to maintain the constant value assumed when calculating heat gain (the cooling load differs from heat gain in that the radiant part does not immediately appear as a cooling load but is absorbed by surfaces enclosing the space that later may transfer heat to indoor spaces when surfaces become warmer than indoor air). Co-product Material, other than the principal product, that is generated and retained for further commercial purposes because it has some alternative value or function. Sometimes called by-product. Daylighting The use of controlled natural lighting methods indoors through skylights, windows, and reflected light. Degree day, heating Unit of measurement based on temperature difference and time, used to estimate average heating requirements for a building. (For a given day, when the outside temperature is below 65F. , there are as many degree days as there are Fahrenheit degrees difference in temperature between the mean temperature and the base temperature of 65F.) Demand The rate at which energy of fuel is consumed by a piece of equipment, a system, or the building as a whole. Disposal Various options for handling discarded items that have completed their useful lives and are not reused or recycled. Primary disposal methods are landfill or incineration. Diversity factor A multiplier applied to building heating or cooling loads to account for the likely nonoccurrence of part of a load. Diversity factors are usually based on professional judgment. Ecology The study of the relationships among organisms and between organisms and their surroundings.
Ecosystem A level of organization within the living world that includes both the total array of biological organisms present in a defined area and the chemicalphysical factors that influence the plants and animals in it. Embodied energy At a specific point in the life cycle of a product, embodied energy accounts for all energy expended for production processes and transportation plus the products inherent energy. For example, the embodied energy for a building construction product is the sum of all process energy, transportation energy, and inherent energy up through the delivery of the product to the construction site. Emissivity The property of emitting heat radiation that is possessed by all materials to varying degrees. Energy analysis Comprehensive study of a buildings energy use and costs to determine how much, when, why, and where energy is used in the building. Energy audit An examination and analysis of a buildings architectural elements, environmental support systems (e.g., HVAC, lighting, etc.), fuel consumption records, operation and use patterns, and, sometimes, code compliance. Energy audits also identify opportunities for improving energy performance. Energy budget A design or consumption budget for a building or space use expressed in energy units that reflect the energy used to operate the various service systems. (Budget figures may also be expressed for source energy consumption accounting for energy used in conversion, transportation, and distribution.) Energy The capacity for doing work. Different types of energy may be transformed from one form into another (e.g., thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical). English units express energy in Btus or kilowatt hours (kwh). The International System of Units (SI) expresses energy in joules (J), in which one joule equals one watt-second. Environment The sum of the surrounding external conditions within which an organism, community, or object exists. Environment is not an exclusive term. Organisms can be and usually are part of another organisms environment. Flow natural resources A term used in life-cycle analysis to represent renewable sources such as water, forest products, solar energy, wind power, etc. See renewable resource. Footcandle English unit of measurement for average illumination on a surface. One footcandle equals one lumen per square foot. Fossil fuel Decayed organic matter stored within the earth, transformed over millions of years into coal, petroleum, natural gas, and peat. Fugitive emissions The emissions from valves or leaks in process equipment or material storage that are difficult to measure and do not flow through pollution control devices.
GLOSSARY
APDX D
Glossary
Gray water A general term for domestic wastewater that does not contain sewage or fecal contamination. Greenhouse effect The predicted excessive warming of the atmosphere resulting from the accumulation of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Also, the ability of some transparent materials such as glass to transmit radiation shorter than about 2.5 microns and block radiation of longer wavelengths. Heat gain As applied to HVAC calculations, the amount of heat gained by a space from all sources, including people, lights, machines, sunshine, etc. It represents the amount of heat that must be removed from a space to maintain desired indoor conditions (see cooling load). Heat loss The sum cooling effect of a building structure when the outdoor temperature is lower than the desired indoor temperature. It represents the amount of heat that must be provided to a space to maintain comfortable conditions indoors. Heat pump Refrigeration system designed so that the heat extracted at a low temperature and the heat rejected at a higher temperature may be used alternatively for heating and cooling functions. Heating load The rate at which heat must be provided by heating equipment to maintain indoor air comfort conditions. Holistic design An integrative and comprehensive design approach that considers the interrelatedness of a projects parts, components, systems, and subsystems, in order to optimize energy and environmental performance. Humidity, relative The ratios of the amount of water vapor actually present in the air to the greatest amount possible at the same temperature. Hydrosphere That portion of the earth composed of liquid water such as lakes, rivers, ponds, and oceans. Illuminance The density of luminous flux incident on a surface. Expressed in footcandles (English) and lux (SI). Impact A potential consequence or end point associated with a process or activity identified in the life-cycle analysis inventory that is manifested in a change in the natural environment, an effect on human health, or a change (most likely a reduction) in resource availability. Impact analysis The assessment of the environmental consequences of energy and natural resource consumption and waste releases associated with an actual or proposed action. Impact networks or chains A series of stressors and impacts, each of which is caused by its predecessor. Improvement analysis The component of lifecycle assessment concerned with the evaluation of opportunities to achieve reductions in environmental releases and resource use. Indoor air pollution Air contaminants inside a building derived from such sources as cigarette smoke, fuel combustion for heating or cooking, certain building materials, and radon.
Indoor air quality Air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations as determined by cognizant authorities and with which a substantial majority (80 percent or more) of the people exposed do not express dissatisfaction. Infiltration Outdoor air leakage into a building, normally occurring at cracks around doors and windows and other openings caused by pressure effects of wind and differences between indoor and outdoor air density. Inherent energy The energy value of primary fuels (e.g., petroleum, natural gas, and coal) used as raw materials to make a product. Wood is not considered a primary fuel in the United States. As a result, life-cycle studies performed in the United States do not include the energy value of wood in the products inherent energy. (Inherent energy is sometimes referred to as energy of material resource or latent energy.) Inputs Materials, energy, and water required by subsystem processes in the life-cycle stages. Insolation Solar radiation incident to the earths surface. Insulation Material having a relatively high resistance to heat flow and used primarily to retard the flow of heat. Inventory analysis See life-cycle inventory. Kilowatt (kw) Unit of power equal to 1,000 watts or to energy consumption at the rate of 1,000 joules per second. Kilowatt-hour (kwh) Unit of electrical energy consumption equal to about 3,412 Btus (3.6 x 106 joules). Life-cycle All stages of a products life, beginning with raw materials acquisition, and continuing through processing, materials manufacture, product fabrication, and use, and concluding with waste management, recycling, or reuse programs. Life-cycle assessment A concept and a methodology that holistically evaluates the environmental considerations of a product or activity over its life cycle. Sometimes referred to as cradle-to-grave or cradle-to-cradle analysis. Life-cycle inventory The identification of energy, resource usage, and environmental emissions for a particular product, process, or activity. Life-cycle stages For building materials and products, life-cycle stages include raw materials and energy acquisition; manufacturing (including materials manufacture, product fabrication, and packaging and distribution); installation into the building; use and maintenance during the operation of the building; and the reuse, recycling, or disposal of the product. Load-dominated building A building whose energy is driven by its internal loads, such as power for equipment and lighting, heat from people and processes, and the like. Lumen Measure of light intensity; one lumen per square foot equals one footcandle.
Lux SI unit of measurement for average illumination on a surface. One lux equals one lumen per square meter. Nonrenewable resource A resource that cannot be replaced in the environment as fast as it is being consumed. Fossil fuels (e.g., coal, petroleum, natural gas) are examples of nonrenewable energy sources. The term stock natural resources is used in life-cycle analysis in lieu of nonrenewable resources. Offgassing The normal gas emissions from a process, equipment, or material. Outputs Wastes or useful products generated by system or subsystem processes. Ozone A very reactive gas produced by photochemical reactions or lightning in the troposphere and by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation in the lower stratosphere. Ozone depletion The reduction in the concentration of stratospheric ozone as a consequence of chemical reactions caused by chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) and other halocarbons. Passive solar systems An energy system in which no appreciable off-site energy is used to accomplish the transfer of thermal energy. Thermal energy flows are accomplished by natural means (e.g., radiation, conduction, and natural convection) although some auxiliary energy may be used for controls. Primary components include south-facing glazing for solar collection and a thermal mass for heat absorption, storage, and distribution. See thermal storage wall Peak load Maximum predicted energy demand of a system. Photovoltaics Solid-state cells (typically made from silicon) that directly convert sunlight to electricity. Power In connection with machines, power is the time rate of doing work. In connection with the transmission of energy of all types, power refers to the rate at which energy is transmitted. British units express power in British thermal units per hour (Btu/hr) or in watts (w). SI units also measure power in watts (w). Process energy Energy used to operate each of the subsystem processes and equipment. Product Something produced that has an existing value or potential use. A finished building product is in the form in which it will be used, including the packing required for shipment to the building site. R-value Thermal resistance equal to the reciprocal of conductivity. Radiation The direct transport of energy through space by means of electromagnetic waves. Raw materials Materials (or feedstocks) used in subsequent manufacturing processes. Raw materials can be primary or secondary (e.g., recovered or recycled). Recycling Involves recovering materials and products that have completed one life of use; changing the form or function of the materials and products; and applying the new material or product in its new form either within or outside of the building sector.
APDX D
GLOSSARY
Glossary
Reflectance Ratio or percentage of the amount of light reflected by a surface to the incident amount. The remainder of light not reflected is either absorbed or transmitted through the material. Renewable resources A resource that is being replenished at a rate equal to or greater than its rate of depletion. Examples of renewable energy resources (sometimes referred to as regenerative, nondepletable, or current income energy) include solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass resources. In life-cycle analysis, renewable resources are referred to as flow natural resources. Reuse A second, third, etc. use of a material, product, or assembly for the same application. Risk assessment An evaluation of potential consequences to humans, wildlife, or the environment caused by a process, product, or activity and including both the likelihood and the effects of the event. Shading coefficient The fraction of total solar heat gain from a particular glazing system to that of one sheet of clear 18-inch (3 mm) double-strength glass. Theoretically, the shading coefficient can vary from 0 (e.g., no solar energy transmitted) to 1.0 (all solar energy transmitted, such as through unshaded clear glass). Sick building syndrome Health problems associated with working in sick building environments. Symptoms often include headaches and eye and respiratory irritation. Factors contributing to sick buildings often include inadequate ventilation, pollutant emissions, contamination from outside sources, and biological contamination. Smog A general term used to describe (1) any condition in which visibility is reduced because of air pollution, or (2) elevated levels of photochemical oxidants in the atmosphere. Solar heat gain factor The amount of sensible heat gained by a space from the sun equal to the solar energy striking the glass, reduced by a shading factor to compensate for the solar energy transmittal characteristics of the type of glazing used (see shading coefficient) and the effectiveness of the shading devices. Solid waste Solid products or materials disposed of in landfills, incinerators, or compost. Can be expressed in terms of weight or volume. Stock natural resources Life-cycle term used to refer to nonrenewable resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, and soil. See nonrenewable energy. Stratosphere The second layer of the atmosphere above the earth. The stratosphere begins at about 7 miles (11 km) of altitude and extends to about 30 miles (48 km). Stressor A set of conditions (e.g., specific releases or consumption of resources) that may lead to an environmental impact. Stressors can be physical or chemical.
Sustainability A concept that subscribes to meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability principles aim to guide economic growth in an environmentally sound manner, emphasizing appropriate and efficient use of natural resources. Sustainable design or development An approach to building planning, design, and construction that embraces the concept of sustainability. Symbiosis An association between two different organisms such that both organisms profit from the relationship. Synergy The process of working together so that the result is greater than the sum of the individual parts. Relative to toxic chemicals or other pollutants, synergy refers to the combined effect of two or more substances acting together being greater and sometimes altogether different than the two acting separately. Systeme Internationale (SI) Internationally used system of standards for units and dimensions. Task lighting Lighting that is located at and focused on a particular work function (e.g., reading, writing, using a computer terminal, etc.). Task lighting can often be controlled by the nearest worker. Temperature A measure of heat intensity. British units are expressed in Fahrenheit and SI units in Centigrade. Thermal pollution The addition of heat to a body of water (e.g., lake, pond, stream). This may change the ecological balance, threatening the survival of some types of life or favoring the survival of other organisms, such as algae. Thermal storage wall A masonry or water wall (i.e., interior wall of water-filled containers) used to store heat from the sun. Toxicity The nature and degree of a given agents adverse effects on living organisms. Transportation The movement of raw materials and products between different locations throughout life-cycle stages. Troposphere The layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface of the earth, extending up about 5.5 to 10 miles (9 to 16 km). U-value The heat flow rate through a given construction assembly (air to air) expressed in Btu/hr/s.f./ degree difference between indoor and outdoor temperatures. Useful life The potential or theoretical period of time that a material or product can fulfill its intended function. This can differ from actual life. Valuation The process in life-cycle analysis impact assessment to assign relative values, ratings, or weights to impact categories using formal or informal methods. Vapor barrier A construction component that is impervious to the flow of moisture and air. Used to prevent condensation in walls and other locations of insulation.
Ventilation The process of supplying or removing air, by natural or mechanical means, to or from any space. Such air may or may not have been conditioned. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Chemicals that contain carbon molecules and are volatile enough to evaporate from material surfaces into indoor air at normal temperatures (referred to as offgassing). Examples of building materials containing VOCs include solvents, paints, adhesives, carpeting, and particleboard. Waste An output with no marketable value that is disposed to the environment. Also any material released to the environment through either air, water, or land, and has no beneficial use. See solid waste. Watt (w) Amount of work available from an electric current of one ampere at a potential of one volt. Also a metric unit of power equal to the rate of energy consumption of one joule per second. Wetlands Environments characterized by shallow or fluctuating water levels and abundant aquatic and marsh plants. Includes marshes, swamps, bayous, bogs, fens, sloughs, and ponds. Xeriscaping Landscape design using natural and drought-tolerant species of plants and appropriate water-management design.
GLOSSARY
APDX D
Index
A
ABS. acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene accelerators for fireproofing components, materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:35 acetates, in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 acetone effects, MAT 15410:21 production, MAT 09900:16 acetonitrile, effects, MAT 15410:20 acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:1-8 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09510:8, 25-28 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09510:27-28 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09510:7-8, 20-22, 31-32 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09510:2-17 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 09510:8, 28 types of, MAT 09510:2 use of, examples of, PROJ 10:5 ACQ. See ammonial copper quaternary compound acrolein, APP 6:18, 22, MAT 08840:9 acrylate solutions, in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30 acrylic construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 7:20 life cycle, APP 7:18-20 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 7:19-20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 7:18-19 UV exposure and, APP 7:20 acrylic acid effects, APP 7:19 waste produced in manufacturing, MAT 08840:9 acrylic acid precursor, effects, APP 11:9 acrylic glazing environmental impact, APP 7:5 environmental performance, APP 7:2 indoor air quality effects, APP 7:20 monolithic, specifications for, MAT 08840:3 recycling, MAT 08840:25 acrylic ink, manufacture, MAT 09652:20 acrylic latex in linoleum, life cycle, MAT 09651:6, MAT 09680:10 manufacture, MAT 09652:20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09900:19 acrylic polymer for linoleum, MAT 09651:12, 16 in stains, MAT 09930:17 in varnishes, MAT 09930:22 acrylic resin in adhesives, MAT 04450:16, 20, MAT 09300:20 as fireproofing adhesive, MAT 07400:35 in glazing, APP 7: 18-19 life cycle, MAT 04450:8, MAT 07400:11, MAT 08840:7 materials flow diagram, APP 11:9 in non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:9, 13
in paint, APP 6:18, MAT 09900:15, 19 production, APP 11:9 in stains and varnishes, APP 6:26, MAT 09930:13, 17, 22 in terrazzo, MAT 09400:16-17, 26 in wallpaper, MAT 09950:11-12, 14 waste produced by, MAT 07400:35-36 acrylic sheet categories, MAT 08840:19 life cycle, MAT 08840:4 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 08840:19-21 materials flow diagram, APP 7:18 acrylonitrile in ABS, MAT 15410:28 effects, APP 10:22, MAT 15410:20 production, APP 10:22, MAT 15410:16, 19 acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) embodied energy of, APP 7:23 foam-core, embodied energy of, MAT 15410:34 life cycle, MAT 15410:11 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 15410:23, 28 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:19-20 pipe, MAT 15410:4 solid, embodied energy of, MAT 15410:34 waste produced in manufacturing, MAT 15410:19-20, 28 acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) pipe embodied energy, APP 10:1 environmental impacts, APP 10:10 environmental performance, APP 10:3 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 10:23 life cycle, APP 10:22-23 manufacture, APP 10:23 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 10:22 materials flow diagram, APP 10:22 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 10:23 additives in carpet adhesives, APP 8:28 in concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:21-22 in grout, MAT 04220:24 in mortar, MAT 04220:23 in paint, APP 6:16, MAT 09980:2, 12, 20, 22 in stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:2-3 adhesives for carpet. See carpet adhesives for ceramic tile, MAT 09300:7, 20-22 for fireproofing, MAT 07400:3 in glued laminated timber. See glulam adhesives for linoleum, MAT 09651:6, 16 in plywood. See plywood adhesives for stone veneer, MAT 04450:8, 18-20 for vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:14 for wall coverings, MAT 09950:3, 8, 10, 27-32 for wallpaper, APP 11:8, 10 adipic acid, APP 8:22, MAT 09680:17 admixtures in concrete, MAT 03100:2 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 03100:12-13
waste produced in manufacturing, MAT 03100:12-13 adobe brick, MAT 04210:3-10. See also brick construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 04210:29-30 energy consumption associated with, MAT 04210:27 industry perspective, MAT 04210:31 life cycle, MAT 04210:8 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 04210:22, 25-27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 04210:12-14, 18-20 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, MAT 04210:31 soils for, MAT 04210:18-19 stabilizers and costabilizers in, MAT 04210:19-20 adobe mortar, MAT 04210:4, 20, 27, 29-30 aggregates in concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:10-15 energy consumption associated with, MAT 03100:12 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 03100:11-12 in structural concrete, APP 9:9 in terrazzo, MAT 09400:11 waste produced in manufacturing, MAT 03100:11-12 air-cooled blast furnace slag, MAT 04220:14 air distribution system, examples of, PROJ 2:5-6 natural cooling, PROJ 1:5-7 air emissions. See also indoor air quality effects with acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:30-31 definition of, APDX A:20 with lumber and lumber milling, MAT 06110:24 with steel, MAT 05410:33-34 with wood framing, MAT 06110:24 Air Krete. See magnesium silicate aldehydes, from veneer dryer, MAT 06118:18 aliphatic hydrocarbons in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 production, MAT 09900:22 in varnishes, MAT 09930:22 alkyd resin manufacture, MAT 09900:15, MAT 09930:12 in modern oil-based stain, APP 6:25-26 in oil-based paint, APP 6:17 in stain, MAT 09930:15-16 alkyds, MAT 09900:22 alpha-cellulose paper, MAT 06240:4 manufacture, energy consumed in, MAT 06240:19 materials acquisition and preparation, MAT 06240:17-19 in wallpaper, APP 11:8, MAT 09950:13 waste produced in manufacturing, MAT 06240:18-19 alternative clear finishes construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:31 environmental impact, APP 6:13 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle, APP 6:31 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:31 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 6:31
INDEX
Index
alternative paints construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:24 environmental impact, APP 6:6 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle, APP 6:23-24, MAT 09900:6 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:23-24, MAT 09900:23-26 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 6:24 alumina in portland cement, APP 9:9, MAT 03100:7, 14 production, MAT 04450:11, MAT 09510:19, 22 aluminum framing fabrication, MAT 04450:11-12 life cycle, MAT 04450:6 aluminum ore in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:29 mining, MAT 07400:22 waste produced by, MAT 07400:29 aluminum, production, MAT 04450:11, MAT 09510:24 aluminum sulfate, MAT 07400:24 aluminum suspension systems, MAT 09510:17, 19 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09510:26 life cycle, MAT 09510:5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09510:8, 22, 24 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09510:7 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 09510:29 waste produced in installation, MAT 09510:26-27 American Architectural Manufacturers Association, APP 7:11 American Forest & Paper Association, MAT 06110:2223, MAT 06118:9-13 ammonia effects, MAT 15410:20 production, APP 10:22 ammonial copper quaternary compound (ACQ), as plywood treatment, MAT 06118:14 ammonium chloride effects, MAT 15410:30 flux, MAT 15410:24, 29 ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, as fireproofing catalyst, MAT 07400:32 ammonium polyphosphate, water insoluble as fireproofing catalyst, MAT 07400:32 annealing, APP 7:15 antimony effects, MAT 15410:30 processing, MAT 15410:23 antimony trioxide mining and processing, MAT 09950:18 in vinyl, APP 11:13 in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:21-23 antraquinone dyes, for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 application reports, APDX A:8-9 impact assessment matrix, APDX A:42, 46-47 architectural coatings, APP 6:1-32 applying, recommendations for, APP 6:15 comparative environmental performance, APP 6:2 excess, dealing with, recommendations for, APP 6:15 life cycles, APP 6:16-31 nonconventional, APP 6:1
specifying, recommendations for, APP 6:14-15 zero-VOC, APP 6:14 aromatic hydrocarbons, in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 arsenical salts, in glulam preservative, APP 9:20 arsenic, mining, MAT 06118:8, 12 asbestos, MAT 07400:3 regulatory status, MAT 07200:14-15 asphalt, MAT 07310:10-12 airblown, MAT 07310:8, 10 delivery, transfer, and storage, MAT 07310:11-12 emulsion, MAT 04210:19-20 in oil-based stain, APP 6:25 production and handling, MAT 07310:9 in stain, MAT 09930:14 waste produced and natural resources depleted by, MAT 07310:11-12 asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:1-6 coating, MAT 07310:14 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 07310:16 cutting and packaging, MAT 07310:15 embodied energy, MAT 07310:16 indoor air quality effects, MAT 07310:16 life cycle, MAT 07310:3 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 07310:13-16 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07310:6-13 mineral surfacing, MAT 07310:14 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 07310:17 waste produced and natural resources depleted by, MAT 07310:15-16 Association of Wall and Ceiling Industries, MAT 07400:40 atmosphere and air quality, potential impacts on, APDX A:48 autoclaved cellular concrete, MAT 03100:17-18 azo dyes, for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15
B
backings. See also substrates for ceramic tile, MAT 09300:24 for linoleum, MAT 09651:7, 15-16 ball clays, MAT 09300:10 barite as pigment extender, MAT 09900:20 production, MAT 09900:16 basalt, MAT 09510:12-13 cleaning, MAT 09510:9 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09510:13 mining, MAT 09510:9 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09510:13 bauxite calcining, MAT 09300:12 life cycle, MAT 07400:12 mining, APP 9:10, MAT 03100:8, MAT 09510:19 refining, MAT 04450:10, MAT 09510:19 benzene, APP 6:18, APP 8:22 from ethylene production, APP 6:21, MAT 09680:28 in ethylene production, APP 11:12 in fireproofing, MAT 07400:18, 27 and polycarbonate resin production, MAT 08840:16 from polyvinyl acetate manufacture, APP 11:14,
MAT 09900:19 in styrene butadiene latex, APP 8:25, MAT 09680:27 in traditional varnish, APP 6:28 binders in alternative paint, APP 6:23 definition, MAT 09900:12 life cycle, MAT 09900:8-9 in oil-based paints, APP 6:16-18, MAT 09900:2123 in water-based paints, APP 6:21, MAT 09900:12, 19 biodiversity, effects on. See habitat, loss or alteration of bisphenol A, APP 7:21, MAT 08840:15-16 for fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 black liquor, MAT 09250:14 bleaching solution, APP 8:26 block production, MAT 06118:16 blowing agent, in intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 blue face lath, MAT 09200:2 bonded urethane cushion environmental impact, APP 8:13 environmental performance, APP 8:4 manufacture, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:36 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:29 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:29 bonding agents for fireproofing, MAT 07400:37 manufacture, MAT 07400:25 borax, mining, MAT 07310:7, MAT 07400:22 Boustead Life-Cycle Inventory Model, PROJ 4:11 Boyne River Ecology Centre (Shelburne, ON), PROJ 3:1-11 background, PROJ 3:1-2 construction, PROJ 3:9-10 design response, PROJ 3:2-9 form and configuration, PROJ 3:2-3 heating and hot water, PROJ 3:5 hybrid electrical power system, PROJ 3:6-7 insulation, PROJ 3:4 lighting, PROJ 3:4-5 materials selection, PROJ 3:8-9 use and operation, PROJ 3:10-11 ventilation and cooling, PROJ 3:6 wastewater treatment system, PROJ 3:7-8 brass divider strips, for terrazzo, MAT 09400:28-29 manufacture, MAT 09400:18 brazing, MAT 15410:31 materials, MAT 15410:20-21, 29-30 brick, APP 3:3, MAT 04210:1-10. See also adobe brick; fired clay brick coloring agents in, MAT 04210:15-16, 23 comparative environmental performance of, APP 3:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:27-30 energy consumption associated with, MAT 04210:15-16, 19-20, 25, 28-29 life cycle, APP 3:10-13 manganese, PROJ 6:11 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 3:1213, MAT 04210:20-27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 3:10-11, MAT 04210:10-16
INDEX
Index
materials flow diagram, APP 3:10 organization perspectives, MAT 04210:31-32 regulatory status, MAT 04210:32 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:30-31 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 04210:14-16, 19-20, 24-26, 28-30 brine, in polycarbonate glazing, APP 7:20 building material life cycle, stages in, APDX A:10 butadiene in ABS, MAT 15410:28 effects, APP 10:22, MAT 09680:28, MAT 09900:19 production, APP 10:22, MAT 09900:17, MAT 15410:16 in styrene butadiene latex, APP 8:25 2-Butoxyethanol, in carpet, MAT 09680:39 butyl acetate as fireproofing solvent, MAT 07400:32 for intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 production, MAT 07400:23 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33 butyl alcohol as fireproofing solvent, MAT 07400:32 production, MAT 07400:24 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33 butylenes, production, MAT 15410:16
C
calcination, APP 6:18 calcium carbonate (CaCO3), MAT 09300:7, 21. See also gypsum; limestone as pigment extender, MAT 09900:20 in portland cement, MAT 03100:7 production, MAT 09900:16 calcium formate in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:29 life cycle, MAT 07400:12 manufacture, MAT 07400:23 waste produced by, MAT 07400:30 calcium oxide, production, MAT 04210:12 calcium sulfate, in portland cement, MAT 03100:14 calendering in PVC manufacturing, APP 11:14 camphor, for mothproofing wool, APP 11:17 caprolactam, MAT 09680:17-25 effects, APP 8:23 carbon black in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:27 for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 production, MAT 07400:21 for wallpaper, APP 11:9 carbon dioxide (CO2) as blowing agent, MAT 04220:23 from cement production, MAT 03100:7, 14-15, MAT 04220:3, 16-17 in concrete masonry production, drying process, MAT 04220:24 effects on health, MAT 07400:26 from fireproofing manufacturing, MAT 07400:26 from fuel combustion, MAT 08840:14, 22, MAT 09680:4, MAT 09900:18, MAT 15410:17, 25 as impact criteria, APDX A:56 from plywood manufacture, MAT 06118:18 and trees, MAT 06180:3 from wood waste disposal, MAT 06118:7
carbonizing agent, in intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 carbon monoxide (CO) effects on health, MAT 07400:26 from fireproofing, MAT 07400:26 from plywood manufacture, MAT 06118:18 from wood waste disposal, MAT 06118:7 carbon monoxide (CO), from fuel combustion, MAT 08840:14-15, 22, MAT 09680:4, MAT 09900:18, MAT 15410:17, 25 carpet(s), APP 8:1-32, MAT 09680:1-49. See also carpet adhesives; carpet backing; carpet cushions alternatives to, APP 8:20 construction techniques, in manufacturing, MAT 09680:35 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09680:37-43 dyes for, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:26-27, 34, 39 embodied energy of, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:43 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09680:42-43 environmental considerations, MAT 09680:4-5 EPA guidelines for, MAT 09680:41-42 finishing, MAT 09680:36 indoor air quality effects, APP 8:30, MAT 09680:5, 39-42 industry perspective, APP 8:30, MAT 09680:45-47 installation, APP 8:20-21, 30, MAT 09680:37-38 life cycle, APP 8:22-31, MAT 09680:6 maintenance, recommendations for, APP 8:21 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:33-36 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:22-26, MAT 09680:17-29 mold and mildew in, APP 8:30 organization perspective, MAT 09680:45-47 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 8:21, MAT 09680:43-45 regulatory status, MAT 09680:47 sink factor in, MAT 09680:42 specifying, recommendations for, APP 8:20 testing and labeling, MAT 09680:41 treatments for, MAT 09680:32-33, 35 tufted, APP 8:22 tufted broadloom, APP 8:26 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:35, 38 carpet adhesives comparative environmental performance, APP 8:5 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 8:29-30 environmental considerations, MAT 09680:4-5 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09680:40-41 latex emulsion, APP 8:29 life cycle, APP 8:28-31, MAT 09680:14 low-VOC, APP 8:20, 30 materials acquisition and preparation/manufacture, APP 8:29 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:30-32 minimizing use of, APP 8:20 multipurpose, APP 8:5, 17, 29 peel-and-stick, APP 8:5, 19, 29 pressure-sensitive, APP 8:5, 18, 29 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 8:31
Carpet and Rug Institute, MAT 09680:45-46 IAQ testing program, APP 8:20, MAT 09680:5, 41 carpet backing, MAT 09680:27-29 comparative environmental performance, APP 8:3 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09680:41 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:27-29 primary, MAT 09680:27 secondary, MAT 09680:27 Carpet Cushion Council, MAT 09680:46-47 carpet cushions comparative environmental performance, APP 8:4 life cycle, APP 8:27-28, MAT 09680:7-8 manufacture, MAT 09680:36-37 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:37 carpet facing, materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:17-26 carpet fibers background, MAT 09680:2-3 comparative environmental performance, APP 8:2 environmental considerations, MAT 09680:4 life cycle, MAT 09680:9 Carpet Policy Dialogue report, MAT 09680:4 carpet tiles, APP 8:30, MAT 09680:2 use of, examples of, PROJ 10:5 carriers in alternative paints, APP 6:23, MAT 09900:24 in carpet adhesives, APP 8:28 in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:2122 in conventional water-based paints, MAT 09900:12-19 definition, MAT 09900:12 life cycle, MAT 09900:7 in oil-based clear finish, APP 6:29 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09900:22 cast iron embodied energy of, MAT 15410:34 manufacture, MAT 15410:24 versus steel, APP 10:21 cast-iron pipe embodied energy, APP 10:1 environmental impacts, APP 10:9 environmental performance, APP 10:3 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 10:21 life cycle, APP 10:21 manufacture, APP 10:21 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 10:21 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 10:21 cast-iron soil pipes, MAT 15410:2 castor cultivation, MAT 09680:23, MAT 09900:13 castor oil in alternative paints, MAT 09900:25 preparation, MAT 09680:24 catalyst, in intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 caulk life cycle, MAT 08840:7 oil-based, MAT 08840:18 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:18 cavity wall flashing, APP 3:9 CCA. See chromated copper arsenate
INDEX
Index
ceiling panels and tiles. See also acoustical ceiling systems energy consumption associated with, MAT 09510:21 life cycle, MAT 09510:3 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09510:7, 20-21 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09510:2-6, 8-17 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 09510:28 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09510:21, 26 cellulose, APP 2:6 acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09510:1415 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:27 embodied energy, estimated, APP 2:21 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09510:14-15 in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:28 life cycle, APP 2:27-28, MAT 07400:12 particulates and fibers, indoor air quality effects, MAT 07200:10 preparation, MAT 09510:10 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09510:14 cellulose fiber, in vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:26 cellulose insulation, MAT 07200:2. See also thermal insulation constituents, MAT 07200:5-6 embodied energy, MAT 07200:9 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 07200:8 use of, examples of, PROJ 10:5 Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association, MAT 07200:12 cement masonry, MAT 04210:18 in terrazzo, MAT 09400:25 cement blocks. See concrete masonry units (CMUs) cementitious fireproofing background, MAT 07400:2 concealed. See concealed cementitious fireproofing construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 07400:37-38 exposed. See exposed cementitious fireproofing materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:18-30 weight, MAT 07400:38 cementitious matrices, for terrazzo, MAT 09400:25-26 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09400:26 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09400:26 cementitious terrazzo installation, MAT 09400:26-27, 35-36 preparation, MAT 09400:35 cement kiln dust, APP 9:10, MAT 03100:7, 15 cement kilns, fuel materials for, APP 9:10 ceramic tile, APP 3:5, MAT 09300:1-9 abrasives, MAT 09300:6, 12, 19, 27 adhesives for, MAT 09300:20
backing, MAT 09300:24 ball clay in, MAT 09300:10 colorants in, MAT 09300:5, 12, 17-19, 26-27 comparative environmental performance of, APP 3:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09300:29-31 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09300:16, 28-29 for exterior cladding, APP 3:17-21 fillers, MAT 09300:10-15 firing, MAT 09300:25, 27-29 flux in, MAT 09300:15-16 forming of, MAT 09300:24-26 glazes, MAT 09300:2-3, 11, 16-17, 25, 27 grinding and storage of raw materials, MAT 09300:25 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09300:31 industry perspective, MAT 09300:32 installation materials, MAT 09300:19-24 life cycle, MAT 09300:4 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09300:24-29 material acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09300:10-24 mortar for, MAT 09300:7-9, 12-13 regulatory status, MAT 09300:32 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, MAT 09300:31 salvaged and recycled materials in, MAT 09300:16 use of, examples of, PROJ 10:5 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09300:15, 17-18, 20-24, 26, 28, 30 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in carpet cushion production, MAT 09680:5, 29, 37 environmental characteristics of, APP 2:22, MAT 07200:7 in insulation materials, APP 2:22 chlorinated paraffins as fireproofing blowing agent, MAT 07400:32 production, MAT 07400:23 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33 chlorinated phenols, in polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, MAT 15410:4 embodied energy of, MAT 15410:34 chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe, MAT 15410:19, 27-28 embodied energy, APP 10:1 environmental impacts, APP 10:7 environmental performance, APP 10:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 10:19 life cycle, APP 10:19 manufacture, APP 10:19, MAT 15410:23, 26-27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 10:19, MAT 15410:18-19 materials flow diagram, APP 10:17 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 10:19 chlorine, MAT 08840:8 from polycarbonate resin production, MAT 08840:15, 17 production, APP 11:13 production MAT 09652:24, MAT 09950:18, MAT 15410:15-16 in waterborne stain, APP 6:26
chromated copper arsenate (CCA), APP 9:18-20, MAT 06180:6-7, 13-14 disposal of, MAT 06118:8, 24 EPA precautions related to, MAT 06180:18-19 life cycle, MAT 06180:5 materials flow diagram, APP 9:19 as plywood preservative, MAT 06118:8 as plywood treatment, MAT 06118:14 precautions for, MAT 06118:8 chrome alumina pink spinel, MAT 09300:18-19 chrome blue black u dye, for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 chromium (chromite ore) mining, MAT 05410:6, 15, 17-19, MAT 06118:8, 12, MAT 06180:12, MAT 09510:17-18, MAT 15410:13 processing, MAT 15410:14 chromium fluorides, for mothproofing wool, APP 11:17 citrus, MAT 09930:10 cultivation, MAT 09900:13 oil, APP 6:31, MAT 09930:10 terpenes, APP 6:23-24, MAT 09900:24 C. K. Choi Building (Vancouver, BC), PROJ 9:1-12 background, PROJ 9:1-2 building form and plan, PROJ 9:3-5 construction, PROJ 9:10-11 design response, PROJ 9:2-10 electrical systems, PROJ 9:9 floor plans, PROJ 9:5 isometric view, PROJ 9:4 landscaping design, PROJ 9:9 location, PROJ 9:2 location plan, PROJ 9:3 materials selection, PROJ 9:7 mechanical systems, PROJ 9:7-8 sanitary systems, PROJ 9:8-9 site design, PROJ 9:2-3 site plan, PROJ 9:4 structural system, PROJ 9:6-7 use and operation, PROJ 9:11-12 claddings, APP 3:1-27 building design, recommendations for, APP 3:8 comparative environmental performances of, APP 3:2 exterior, specifying, recommendations for, APP 3:8-9 installing, recommendations for, APP 3:9 recommendations for architects, APP 3:8-9 clay in acoustical ceilings, MAT 09510:10, 15 in brick production, MAT 04210:10-15, 20-25 in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30, 32 in ceramic tile, MAT 09300:10 in linoleum, MAT 09651:14 in paint, MAT 09900:16, 20 in plaster and lath, MAT 9200: 12-13 in wall covering adhesives, MAT 09950:31 Clean Water Act, National Pollution Discharge Elimination System, MAT 06118:25 clear finishes. See alternative clear finishes; oil-based clear finishes; waterborne clear finishes clinker, APP 9:10 coal dust, APP 10:15 coalescing agents, in waterborne paint, APP 6:21-22 coal, mining and processing, MAT 04450:12, MAT 05410:6-7, 9-10, MAT 07400:21, MAT 09200:19-20, MAT 09510:9-10, 18, MAT 09651:10, MAT 15410:13-14
INDEX
Index
energy consumption associated with, MAT 05410:12 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 05410:10-11 coatings architectural. See architectural coatings for fireproofing, MAT 07400:36 for glass, manufacture, APP 7:15-16 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 08840:17 coke in steel, APP 9:12-13 waste produced by, MAT 07400:29 cokemaking, MAT 04450:12-13, MAT 05410:6-7, 9-14, MAT 07400:22, MAT 09200:20-21, MAT 09510:10, 14, 18, MAT 09651:10 energy consumption associated with, MAT 05410:12-13 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 05410:11-12 colorants. See also pigment(s) in brick, MAT 04210:15-16 in ceramic tile, MAT 09300:5, 17-19 for fireproofing, MAT 07400:25 for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 in vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:13 Committee on Renewable Resources for Industrial Materials, MAT 06118:6 community health and welfare, potential impacts on, APDX A:50 composting toilet system, PROJ 9:8-9 concealed cementitious fireproofing energy consumed by, MAT 07400:27 life cycle, MAT 07400:4 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:18-27 mineral components, MAT 07400:25-26 non-mineral components, MAT 07400:27-28 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:26-28 concrete, MAT 03100:1-24 autoclaved cellular, MAT 03100:17-18 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 03100:17-19 embodied energy of, MAT 03100:19 energy consumption associated with, MAT 03100:19 environmental benefits, MAT 03100:22 environmental considerations, MAT 03100:3-7 indoor air quality effects, MAT 03100:19 life cycle, MAT 03100:4 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 03100:13-17 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 03100:7-13 organization perspective, MAT 03100:21-23 poured, MAT 03100:18 ready-mix, embodied energy of, MAT 03100:19 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 03100:2021 regulatory status, MAT 03100:23 for structural framing. See structural concrete waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 03100:18-21 concrete blocks. See concrete masonry units (CMUs) concrete joists one-way, with beams, APP 9:7 two-way, with beams, APP 9:7
concrete masonry units (CMUs), APP 3:6, MAT 04220:1-10. See also portland cement additives, MAT 04220:21-22 aggregates, MAT 04220:10-15 comparative environmental performance of, APP 3:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 3:24, MAT 04220:27-29 energy consumption associated with, MAT 04220:15, 20-23, 25-27, 29 fly ash, MAT 04220:18-19 indoor air quality effects, MAT 04220:28-29 industry perspective, MAT 04220:31 insulation inserts in, MAT 04220:22-23 life cycle, APP 3:21-24, MAT 04220:4-5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 3:2324, MAT 04220:24-27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 3:21-23, MAT 04220:10-27 materials flow diagram, APP 3:22 mortar and, MAT 04220:23 pigments, MAT 04220:8, 18-21 regulatory status, MAT 04220:31 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 3:24, MAT 04220:30 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 04220:15, 19-24, 26, 28 water in, MAT 04220:22 condensible organic compounds, from veneer dryer, MAT 06118:18 construction debris, recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 06118:23, PROJ 8:13, PROJ 10:8-9 construction debris, recycling, reuse, or stage of, PROJ 5:14-15, PROJ 6:12, PROJ 7:11 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APDX A:10-11 of acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:8, 25-28 of adobe brick and mortar, MAT 04210:29 of alternative clear finish, APP 6:31 of alternative paint, APP 6:24 of asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:16 of brick and mortar, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:27-30 of carpet, APP 8: 29-30, MAT 09680:37-43 of carpet adhesives, APP 8:29-30 of cellulose insulation, APP 2:27-28 of cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:37-38 of ceramic tile, APP 3:21, MAT 09300:29-3 of concrete, MAT 03100:17-19 of concrete masonry units, APP 3:24, MAT 04220:27-29 of fabrics for workstations, MAT 12610:19-21 of fiberglass insulation, APP 2:25 of fireproofing, MAT 07400:37-39 of foamed magnesium oxychloride fireproofing, MAT 07400:37-38 of framing fasteners, APP 1:16 of glass, APP 7:17, MAT 08810:17-18 of glued laminated timber, MAT 06180:18-20 of gypsum board, MAT 09250:33-35 of gypsum board systems, APP 4:11, MAT 09250:33-35, 39 of intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:38 of laminated glass, APP 7:25 of linoleum, APP 5:16, MAT 09651:18-20 of mineral wool insulation, APP 2:26-27 of modern oil-based stain, APP 6:26 of mortar, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:27
of non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:23-25 of oil-based clear finish, APP 6:30 of oil-based paint, APP 6:20-21 of paint, MAT 09900:28-31 of pipe, MAT 15410:30-34 of plaster, MAT 09200:28-29, 31 of plastic laminates, MAT 06240:22-23 of plywood, MAT 06118:19-23 of polycarbonate insulation, APP 7:22-23 of polyisocyanurate insulation, APP 2:32-33 of polystyrene insulation, APP 2:30-31 of polyurethane insulation, APP 2:32-33 of precast concrete, APP 3:26 of sprayed-fiber fireproofing, MAT 07400:37-38 of stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:25-28 of steel framing, APP 1:14-15, MAT 05410:29-31, 34 of stone veneer, APP 3:17 of terrazzo, MAT 09400:34-38 of traditional oil-based stain, APP 6:25 of traditional varnish, APP 6:28-29 of vinyl flooring, APP 5:11, MAT 09652:29-32 of wall coverings, MAT 09950:34-36 of waterborne clear finish, APP 6:31 of waterborne paint, APP 6:22-23 of waterborne stain, APP 6:27 of wood framing, APP 1:10-11, MAT 06110:20-21 copper drainage tube, MAT 15410:2 fabrication, MAT 15410:23 fumes, APP 10:12 mining, APP 10:12 in pipe, MAT 15410:13-14, 17-18, 23, 25-26 smelting, APP 10:12 in terrazzo divider strips, MAT 09400:29 water tubing, MAT 15410:2 copper pipe, MAT 15410:2 embodied energy, APP 10:1 environmental impacts, APP 10:4 environmental performance, APP 10:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 10:13 life cycle, APP 10:12-13 manufacture, APP 10:12-13 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 10:12 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 10:12-13 co-products, as inventory output, APDX A:21 cork flour, MAT 09651:14 corn, production, MAT 09680:18, MAT 09950:28, MAT 12610:7 cornstarch. See starch cotton cultivation MAT 09680:23, MAT 09950:18 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09950:26 fabric production, MAT 09950:19 oil, preparation, MAT 09680:24 production, APP 11:13-14 in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:23-26 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09950:25 cotton insulation, APP 2:15, PROJ 5:5-7 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 life cycle characteristics of, APP 2:33-34 use of, examples of, PROJ 5:12, PROJ 7:10 CPVC. See chlorinated polyvinyl chloride pipe
INDEX
Index
cristobalite, production, MAT 09900:16, MAT 09930:13 cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), for piping, APP 10:20 crude oil, extracting and processing, APP 7:20, APP 10:22, MAT 06118:8, 11-12, MAT 06240:7-8, MAT 07310:8, MAT 07400:20-21, 27-28, MAT 08840:8, 10-11, MAT 09652:16-17, MAT 09680:18-19, MAT 09900:13-15, MAT 09930:11-12, MAT 15410:14-15, 17 MAT 09680:18-19 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06240:16 offshore and coastal, MAT 04210:13 waste produced and natural resources depleted by, MAT 06240:15-16, MAT 07310:11-12 crushed stone, processing, MAT 09400:14 crystalline silica, from varnish production, APP 6:28 cullet generation, APP 7:16 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 7:11, 16 cumene, MAT 08840:16 cumene hydroperoxide, MAT 08840:8, 15 cyanide, effects, MAT 15410:20 cyclohexanone, effects, MAT 15410:21
D
dammar resin, production, APP 6:24 data quality issues, in life cycle assessment, APDX A:53-54 daylighting examples of, PROJ 3:4-5, PROJ 4:4, PROJ 9:5-6 fenestration design and, APP 7:13 debarking, MAT 06180:9 defoamers for conventional water-based paints, MAT 09900:12 production, APP 6:22 Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), MAT 06118:25 depletion of resources. See resource availability, potential effects on dextrin in wall covering adhesives, MAT 09950:30 in wallpaper adhesives, APP 11:10 diabase rocks, MAT 09510:12-13 cleaning, MAT 09510:9 energy consumed by, MAT 09510:13 mining, MAT 09510:9 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09510:13 dicalcium silicate, MAT 03100:13 dichloroethane (EDC), in PVC, APP 10:17, APP 11:11 dicumyl peroxide, in HDPE resin, APP 10:20 dicyandiamide, as fireproofing blowing agent, MAT 07400:32 diesel fuel, in concrete production, APP 9:10 dimension stone, MAT 04450:2-4 life cycle, MAT 04450:5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 04450:20-21 quarrying and preparation, MAT 04450:4-17 dimethyl terephthalate, MAT 09680:25 in polyester, APP 8:24, APP 11:15 production, MAT 09680:20, MAT 09950:19, MAT 12610:9
dioxins in cement production, MAT 03100:16 from pulp mills, MAT 09200:23-24 vinyl chloride manufacture and, MAT 09652:2324 vinyl flooring disposal and, MAT 09652:34-35 dispersion agents, in dyeing, MAT 09680:26 disposal. See recycling, reuse, or disposal stage distribution piping, environmental performance, APP 10:2 d-Limonene, MAT 09900:29 in alternative paint, APP 6:23 in varnishes, MAT 09930:22 dolomite as pigment extender, MAT 09900:20 production, MAT 09900:16 dolomitic limestone, mining, MAT 07400:22 dose-response relationship, concept of, APDX A:41 drag-out (from galvanizing), MAT 05410:27 drain piping, environmental performance, APP 10:3 driers in alternative paints, APP 6:23, MAT 09900:24 for linoleum, MAT 09651:15 for varnishes, MAT 09930:19 drilling, MAT 06118:8 drying agents, in traditional varnish, APP 6:27 drying oils in alternative clear finish, APP 6:31 for carpet cushions, APP 8:28 in traditional varnish, APP 6:27 in varnishes, MAT 09930:18-19 ductile iron manufacture, MAT 15410:24 pipes, MAT 15410:2 durability and useful life as element of use, APDX A:6, 10-11 as impact category, APDX A:51 Duracell Corporate Headquarters (Bethel, CT), 6:1-14 background, PROJ 6:1-3 building design, PROJ 6:2 construction, PROJ 6:12 design response, PROJ 6:3-10 energy conservation, PROJ 6:6-10 environmental goals, PROJ 6:3-4 habitat and wildlife program, PROJ 6:13 heating and cooling systems, PROJ 6:8-9 materials selection, PROJ 6:10-11 project requirements, PROJ 6:2-3 project team, PROJ 6:2 recycling program, PROJ 6:13 site design, PROJ 6:3-5 use and operation, PROJ 6:12-13 dye application chemicals, production, MAT 09680:21 dyeing continuous, MAT 09680:34 package, MAT 09680:34 piece, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:34 skein, MAT 09680:34 solution, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:33 space, MAT 09680:34 stock, MAT 09680:34 waste produced by, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:5, 34 dyes manufacture, MAT 09680:20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:24, MAT 09680:26-27 for polyester, MAT 12610:12-13 for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15
production, MAT 09680:21 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:27 for wool, MAT 12610:6-11 for wool wall coverings, APP 11:17-18
E
ecological design, principles of, PROJ 8:2 ecological impacts. See environment and ecosystems, potential effects on EDC. See dichloroethane edge spacers, low-conductivity, APP 7:11 electric-arc furnace, APP 9:14 embodied energy of acoustical ceiling tiles, MAT 09510:21 of asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:16 of carpet, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:43 of ceramic tile, MAT 09300:29 in concrete, APP 9:11 of concrete, MAT 03100:19 of drywall, APP 4:10 of Environmental Showcase Home, PROJ 4:8 of fabric for workstations, MAT 12610:26 of galvanized steel lath, MAT 09200:26 in galvanized steel pipe, APP 10:16 of glass, APP 7:23, MAT 08810:5, 17 of glued laminated timber, MAT 06180:1, 18 of gypsum, MAT 09200:11-12 of hydrated lime, MAT 09200:9 of insulation, APP 2:18, 21, 25-26, 30, MAT 07200:6, 9, 12 as inventory input, APDX A:18 of linoleum, APP 5:6, MAT 09651:19 of lumber, APP 1:6, 16 in metal and plastic plumbing pipe, APP 10:1 of nylon carpet fibers, MAT 09680:5 of paint, APP 6:20, MAT 09900:31 of pigments, APP 3:23 of piping materials, MAT 15410:34 of plaster and lath, MAT 09200:1, 9, 17, 26 of plastic resins, in glazing, APP 7:23 of plywood, MAT 06118:18-19, 23 of polybutylene, MAT 15410:29 of polycarbonate resin, in glazing, APP 7:22-23 of pressure-treated lumber, MAT 06110:16 of ready-mix concrete, MAT 03100:19 of resilient flooring, APP 5:11, 14, 16 of resins, MAT 09200:16 of saturated felt, MAT 07310:16 in Solar Living Center, PROJ 8:13 of stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:28 of steel, APP 9:14 of terrazzo constituents, MAT 09400:25-26, 30 of wood framing, MAT 06110:13 emissions. See also waste production from cast-iron pipe manufacture, APP 10:21 from coke ovens, APP 9:13, APP 10:14 from CPVC production, MAT 15410:27 from ethylene production, APP 10:20 from glass manufacture, APP 7:17 nonparticulate, from cement production, MAT 03100:15-16 from paint manufacture process, APP 6:19 from petroleum cracking, APP 10:22 from plywood, MAT 06118:21 from plywood manufacture, MAT 06118:17-18 from polyester production, APP 11:15 testing, for carpet, MAT 09680:39-40
INDEX
Index
toxic, in cement production, MAT 03100:16 from traprock mining, MAT 07400:29 from vinyl chloride, APP 11:12 from wallpaper, APP 11:11 from wood waste disposal, MAT 06118:7 energy, as inventory input, APDX A:17-19 energy consumption, associated with acoustic ceiling systems, MAT 09510:12-16 adobe brick, MAT 04210:19-20, 27, 30 aggregate, MAT 03100:12 alpha-cellulose paper, MAT 06240:19 asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:15-16 basalt and diabase rock, MAT 09510:13 brick, MAT 04210:15-16, 19-20, 25, 28-29 building use, PROJ 6:6-10, PROJ 7:6-8, PROJ 10:6-7, 10-13, PROJ 12:5-7, 9-12 carpet, MAT 09680:42-43 ceiling panels and tiles, MAT 09510:21 cellulose, MAT 09510:14-15 cementitious matrices, MAT 09400:26 ceramic tile, MAT 09300:16, 28-29 chromium, MAT 05410:19 clay, MAT 09510:15 coal mining, MAT 05410:12 cokemaking, MAT 05410:12-13 concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:27 concrete, MAT 03100:19 concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:15, 20-23, 25-27, 29 copper, MAT 09400:29, MAT 15410:26 cotton, MAT 09950:26 crude oil, MAT 06240:16 dimension stone, MAT 04450:17 epoxy resin, MAT 09200:16 ethylene glycol, MAT 09250:29 exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:30 fired clay brick, MAT 04210:25, 28-29 formaldehyde, MAT 06240:12 glass, APP 7:15-16, MAT 08810:17 glass sand, MAT 08810:10 glued laminated timber, MAT 06180:18 gypsum, MAT 09200:11, MAT 09250:12 gypsum board, MAT 09200:28, MAT 09250:12, 31-32 gypsum board systems, MAT 09250:12, 16-17, 22, 24, 28-33, 35 high-density polyethylene, MAT 09400:30-31 intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:34 iron ore, MAT 05410:9 iron oxide pigments, MAT 04210:16 limestone, MAT 05410:15, MAT 08810:11, MAT 09200:9, MAT 09250:22 linoleum, MAT 09651:15, 17-19 logging, MAT 06110:10 lumber and lumber milling, MAT 06110:13 manganese ore, MAT 05410:17 melamine, MAT 06240:12 mineral wool, MAT 09510:12 mortar, MAT 04210:17, 25, MAT 04220:23 paint, MAT 09510:16-17, MAT 09900:27-28, 31 paint additives, MAT 09900:23 paper, MAT 09200:24-25, MAT 09250:16-17 perlite, MAT 09510:16 phenol, MAT 06240:15 phenolic resin, MAT 06240:13 pipe, MAT 15410:32-33 plaster, MAT 09200:9, 11, 14-17
plastic pipe, MAT 15410:28 plywood, MAT 06118:18-19, 23 plywood adhesive, MAT 06118:13 polybutylene pipe, MAT 15410:29 polycarbonate sheet, MAT 08840:22 polyester, MAT 09950:27, MAT 12610:19 polyethylene terephthalate, MAT 09680:26 polyvinyl acetate, MAT 09250:24 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), MAT 09652:24, MAT 09950:20 portland cement, MAT 03100:11, 16-17, MAT 04210:17, MAT 04220:17, MAT 09200:14 resins, MAT 06240:10 shale, MAT 04210:15 soda ash, MAT 08810:13 stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:28 stearic acid/stearates, MAT 04220:22 steel, APP 1:12-13, 16, MAT 05410:9, 12-13, 15-17, 19, 21, 25-27, MAT 06110:10-12 steel framing, APP 1:12, MAT 05410:9, 12-13, 2527, 31 steel lath, APP 4:14, MAT 09200:21-22, 26 steel pipes, MAT 15410:25 stone curtain walls, MAT 04450:24 stone veneer, MAT 04450:17-20, 22 titanium dioxide, MAT 04220:20 varnishes, MAT 09930:20 vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:24-25, 32 wood, MAT 06118:14 wood framing, MAT 06110:10-12, 16, 20-21, 24 zinc, MAT 05410:21 energy efficiency building measures for, payback times for, PROJ 10:7 as impact category, APDX A:42, 51 energy production, associated with, nickel, MAT 05410:16 Energy Resource Center (Downey, CA), PROJ 2:1-10 background, PROJ 2:1-3 construction, PROJ 2:8-9 design response, PROJ 2:3-8 environmental goals, PROJ 2:2-3 materials, PROJ 2:7-8 site selection and project requirements, PROJ 2:12 use and operation, PROJ 2:9-10 energy system controller, examples of, PROJ 10:9-10, PROJ 12:6 energy systems, example of, PROJ 8:4-5, 9-11, 14 Engineered Wood Association, MAT 06118:24 engobes, MAT 04210:15, 23. See also brick environmental building regulations and standards, PROJ 10:3 environmental goals, examples of, PROJ 2:2-3, PROJ 5:2, PROJ 6:3-4, PROJ 7:3, PROJ 10:2-3 environmentally preferable materials, as improvement category, APDX A:52 environmental problems, EPA-ranked categories of, APDX A:40 Environmental Sciences and Engineering Building (Houghton, MI), PROJ 11:1-10 background, PROJ 11:1-2 building design, PROJ 11:5 building sections, PROJ 11:7 construction, PROJ 11:10 design response, PROJ 11:2-10 environmental features, PROJ 11:5-8 environmental model, PROJ 11:2-3
floor plans, PROJ 11:6 interaction opportunities, PROJ 11:8 just in time flexibility, PROJ 11:9-10 materials selection, PROJ 11:8 operation and use, PROJ 11:10 site design, PROJ 11:4-5 site plan, PROJ 11:4 Environmental Showcase Home (Phoenix, AZ), PROJ 4:1-14 active energy systems, PROJ 4:4-5 background, PROJ 4:1 construction, PROJ 4:12-13 design response, PROJ 4:2-12 environmental benefits, PROJ 4:5-6 materials selection, PROJ 4:8-12 passive energy strategies, PROJ 4:2-4 thermal and energy analysis, PROJ 4:5 use and operation, PROJ 4:13-14 waste recycling systems, PROJ 4:7 water conservation, PROJ 4:7 environment and ecosystems, potential effects on, as impact category, APDX A:42, 48-49 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) carpeting guidelines, MAT 09680:41-42 impact categories of, APDX A:38 impact valuation scheme of, APDX A:40 precautions for inorganic arsenicals, MAT 06118:8 epoxy floors fine aggregate, installation, MAT 09400:37 trowel finish, installation, MAT 09400:36 epoxy resin energy consumption associated with, MAT 09200:16 for fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 life cycle, MAT 04450:8 manufacture, MAT 04450:13-14, MAT 09200:16, MAT 09400:18 materials flow diagram for, APP 3:15 production, MAT 07400:18, 23 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33 waste produced in manufacturing, MAT 09200:16 EPS. See expanded polystyrene equivalency assessment, APDX A:36 esters, in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 ethyl alcohol in alternative paints, APP 6:23, MAT 09900:24 production, APP 6:23-24, MAT 09900:17 ethylene, APP 6:18 in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:27 manufacture, MAT 09680:31 in polypropylene, APP 8:24 production, APP 10:20, APP 11:12, MAT 09652:24, MAT 09680:22, MAT 09950:18, MAT 15410:15 in PVC, APP 10:17, APP 11:11 in styrene butadiene latex, APP 8:25, MAT 09680:27 in waterborne paint, APP 6:21 ethylene dichloride, effects, APP 8:25 ethylene glycol energy associated with, MAT 09250:29 in polyester, APP 8:24, APP 11:15 production of, MAT 09250:21, 29 in waterborne paint, APP 6:21
INDEX
Index
ethylene glycol monobutyl ether effects, MAT 07400:34 as fireproofing solvent, MAT 07400:32 production, MAT 07400:24 waste produced by, MAT 07400:34 ethylene oxide, production, MAT 09900:18 ethylene vinyl acetate materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:31 production, MAT 09680:24 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:31 expanded polystyrene (EPS), APP 2:8-9, MAT 07200:2. See also insulation; thermal insulation blowing agents, APP 2:23 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 embodied energy of, APP 2:21, MAT 04220:26 foams, MAT 04220:22-23, 26-27 life cycle, APP 2:29-31, MAT 04220:6, MAT 07400:11 materials flow diagram, APP 2:29 expanded slag, MAT 04220:14-15 expansion sleeves, recommendations for, APP 10:11 exposed cementitious fireproofing energy consumed by, MAT 07400:30 life cycle, MAT 07400:5 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:28-30 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:29-30 exposure, concept of, APDX A:41 extenders, in carpet adhesives, APP 8:28 extruded polystyrene (XPS), APP 2:7, MAT 07200:2. See also insulation; thermal insulation blowing agents, APP 2:23 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 life cycle, APP 2:29-31
F
fabric(s). See also reinforcing fabric nonwoven, in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:27 in vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:13-14 woven, in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:23-27 fabrics for workstations, MAT 12610:1-3 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 12610:19-21 indoor air quality effects, MAT 12610:20-21 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 12610:14-19 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 12610:6-14 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 12610:2122 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 12610:20, 22 fabric wall coverings. See wall coverings facility, life cycle, stages in, APDX A:10 feldspar mining, MAT 09300:11, 15-16 processing, MAT 07310:9, MAT 09300:11, 15-16 tailings, MAT 09300:16 felt(s), MAT 07310:6 organic, MAT 09652:14
fenestration design. See also windows and energy performance, APP 7:12 movement of sun and, APP 7:10 recommendations for, APP 7:13 ferrous sulfate, life cycle, MAT 09652:11 fiberglass insulation, APP 2:4, MAT 07200:2, PROJ 6:11. See also thermal insulation comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 constituents, MAT 07200:4 embodied energy, APP 2:21, MAT 07200:9 life cycle, APP 2:24-25 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 07200:6 recycled glass cullet in, APP 7:18 rigid, blowing agents, APP 2:23 fibrous particulate matter, indoor air quality effects, MAT 07200:9-10 filler(s) in alternative paints, APP 6:23, MAT 09900:24 in carpet adhesives, APP 8:28 in ceramic tile, MAT 09300:10-15 life cycle, MAT 09680:16 in linoleum, MAT 09651:5, 14 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:32 in vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:10, 25-26 in vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:13, MAT 09950:21 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:32 finishes. See also wall finishes in linoleum, MAT 09651:6, 16 for plywood. See plywood finishes reduction in use of, PROJ 1:7 in vinyl, MAT 09652:13 fired clay brick, MAT 04210:2-3, 5-10. See also brick construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 04210:27-29 industry perspective, MAT 04210:31-32 life cycle, MAT 04210:6 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 04210:20-25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 04210:11-12 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, MAT 04210:3031 fireproofing, MAT 07400:1-42 background, MAT 07400:2-3 categories, MAT 07400:2 cementitious. See cementitious fireproofing construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 07400:37-39 environmental considerations, MAT 07400:3-18 foamed magnesium oxychloride. See foamed magnesium oxychloride fireproofing indoor air quality effects, MAT 07400:18, 39 industry perspective, MAT 07400:40-41 intumescent mastic. See intumescent mastic fireproofing manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 07400:36-37 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:18-36 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 07400:40 regulatory status, MAT 07400:41 sprayed-fiber. See sprayed-fiber fireproofing waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:38 weights, MAT 07400:38
fireproofing adhesives materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:35-36 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:35-36 fireproofing components, life cycle, MAT 07400:11-13 fireproofing resins, life cycle, MAT 07400:9 fire protection, definition, MAT 07400:2 fire retardants for plywood, MAT 06118:15, 19 for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 for vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:13 flashing, for masonry walls, APP 3:9 flax, MAT 09651:9, MAT 09930:10 cultivation, MAT 09680:23, MAT 09900:13 float glass. See also glass manufacture, APP 7:15-16 materials flow diagram, APP 7:14 production, APP 7:14 floor framing, MAT 06110:2 flooring. See also linoleum; resilient flooring; vinyl flooring flue dust, from copper production, APP 10:12, MAT 15410:26 fluorocarbons, in polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 flux. See asphalt fluxes, for soldering, APP 10:13 fly ash, MAT 03100:11, MAT 04220:17-18 in cement, APP 9:8, 10 foamed magnesium oxychloride fireproofing construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 07400:37-38 life cycle, MAT 07400:6 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:30-31 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:30-31 forest(s) replanting, MAT 06118:7 single-species, MAT 06118:7 Forest Stewardship Council, APP 9:16 forest use, APP 9:16, MAT 06118:6 history, MAT 06118:6-7 for papermaking, APP 11:8 formaldehyde, APP 6:19, MAT 06180:7, MAT 06240:4, MAT 07310:2 acquisition and preparation, MAT 06240:12 effects, MAT 06118:8, 21 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06240:12 in glulam adhesive, APP 9:20 levels of exposure, MAT 06118:21-22 production, MAT 06118:12, MAT 06180:11, MAT 09900:17, 23 reduction of, MAT 06118:23 sources, MAT 06118:22-23 in traditional varnish, APP 6:28 from veneer dryer, MAT 06118:18 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06240:12 form-release agents, indoor air quality effects, APP 9:11 fossil fuel extraction, APP 9:20 framing systems, light. See steel framing; wood framing froth flotation, APP 10:12 fuel cells, PROJ 12:5-6, 9-10
INDEX
Index
fungicides, for conventional water-based paints, MAT 09900:12 fusion bonding, in carpet manufacture, MAT 09680:35
G
galvanized steel, manufacture, MAT 15410:24 galvanized steel pipe embodied energy, APP 10:16 environmental impacts, APP 10:5 environmental performance, APP 10:2-3 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 10:16 life cycle, APP 10:13-17 manufacture, APP 10:15-16 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 10:13-15 materials flow diagram, APP 10:14 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 10:16-17 galvanizing, MAT 15410:22, 24 generic exposure/effects assessment, APDX A:36 gilsonite, in oil-based stain, APP 6:25 glascrete, APP 7:18 glasphalt, APP 7:18 glass, MAT 08810:1-5 aerogel units, MAT 08810:4 annealing, MAT 08810:16 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 7:17, MAT 08810:17-18, 20-21 embodied energy of, APP 7:23 energy consumption associated with, APP 7:1516, MAT 08810:17 environmental impact, APP 7:3-4 environmental performance, APP 7:2 finishing, MAT 08810:16 indoor air quality effects, APP 7:17, MAT 08810:18 insulated, APP 7:9 life cycle, APP 7:14-18, MAT 08810:6, MAT 09400:12 low-emissivity, MAT 08810:3-4 manufacture, APP 7:15-17 manufacturing and fabrication, MAT 08810:2-3, 13-17, 20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 7:14-15, MAT 08810:5-13, 20 melting and forming, MAT 08810:15 organization perspective, MAT 08810:18-19 plasma, MAT 08810:4 radiation-shielding, MAT 08810:4 recycled, in ceramic tile, MAT 09300:16 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 7:11, 1718, MAT 08810:18, 20-21 switchable, MAT 08810:4 technical advances in, MAT 08810:3-4 types of, MAT 08810:3 waste produced and resources depleted by, APP 7:16, MAT 08810:16-17 glass fiber in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:28 in fireproofing, MAT 07400:18 indoor air quality effects, MAT 07400:39 manufacture, MAT 07310:7, MAT 09250:19 production, MAT 07400:22 waste produced by, MAT 07400:29 glass filler, APP 7:18 glass sand, MAT 08810:8-10
in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:25 mining, MAT 07310:7, MAT 08810:7 processing, MAT 08810:8 glaze for asphalt, life cycle, MAT 07310:5 calcining, MAT 07310:9 in ceramic tiles, MAT 09300:16-17 mining, MAT 09300:11, 17 processing, MAT 07310:9, MAT 09300:11, 17 glazed ceramic mosaic tiles, MAT 09300:2 glazed wall tiles, MAT 09300:2 glazing, APP 7:1-26 comparative environmental performance, APP 7:2 durability, recommendations for, APP 7:10-11 energy performance improvement strategies, APP 7:9-10 and energy use, APP 7:17 selection, APP 7:9-10 spectrally selective, APP 7:9-10 glazing properties energy performance, APP 7:12 recommendations for, APP 7:11 glazing systems maintenance, APP 7:17 useful lifetime, APP 7:17 global availability, as element of use, APDX A:6 glued laminated timber (glulam), MAT 06180:1-8 adhesives, used in manufacture of, MAT 06180:8 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 06180:18-20 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06180:18 environmental impact, APP 9:6 environmental performance, APP 9:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 9:21 life cycle, APP 9:18-21, MAT 06180:4-6 manufacture, APP 9:20-21 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 06180:14-18 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 9:19-20, MAT 06180:8-14 preservatives, MAT 06180:5, 7, 13-14 preservative-treated, MAT 06180:17-18 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 9:21 regulatory status, MAT 06180:21 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, MAT 06180:2021 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06180:13-14, 17-18, 20-21 glulam. See glued laminated timber glulam adhesives, APP 9:18, MAT 06180:6, 8 materials flow diagram, APP 9:18 glycol ethers, materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09900:12-18 glycols in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09900:12-18 grange peel oil, in alternative paints, MAT 09900:25 granite dimension stone, MAT 04450:2. See also dimension stone quarrying, MAT 04450:9-16 granite, mining, MAT 09400:14 granulated slag, MAT 04220:14 gravel in concrete, MAT 03100:11 mining, MAT 03100:8
green board, MAT 09250:2, 34 green liquor, MAT 09250:14 Greenpeace, MAT 09652:36-37 grout for ceramic tile, MAT 09300:22-24 for concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:23-24, 27 gum rosin in alternative clear finish, APP 6:31 production, APP 6:24 in traditional varnish, APP 6:28 gypsum, MAT 09200:10-11, MAT 09250:3-10 calcining, MAT 09200:7, 11-12, 30, MAT 09250:78, MAT 09400:15 in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30, 32 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09200:11 industry perspective on, MAT 09250:36-37 life cycle, MAT 07400:15 mining, MAT 03100:8, MAT 07400:19, MAT 09200:7, 30, MAT 09250:3, 7, 9-10, 37-38, MAT 09400:15, MAT 09680:24-25 as pigment extender, MAT 09900:20 in plaster, MAT 09200:6 in portland cement, MAT 03100:7, 14 processing, MAT 04210:11, MAT 09250:7-8, MAT 09400:15 processing and calcining, MAT 07400:19 production, MAT 09900:16 reuse, recycling, or disposal, MAT 09250:35-36 synthetic, MAT 09250:9 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09250:10-11, 21-22 gypsum board, MAT 09200:22-25, MAT 09250:1-3 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09250:33-35 embodied energy of, APP 4:10 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09200:28, MAT 09250:12, 31-32 industry perspective on, MAT 09250:36-37 as lath, APP 4:12, MAT 09200:22-28 life cycle, MAT 09250:4 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 4:10, MAT 09200:22-24, 26-28, MAT 09250:30-32, 38-39 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 4:7-8, MAT 09250:3-17 materials flow diagram, APP 4:7, 13 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 4:11, MAT 09250:35-36 waste produced and resources depleted by MAT 09200:22-24, 26-27, MAT 09250:10-12, 30-31 gypsum board systems, APP 4:3, 7, MAT 09250:1-3. See also gypsum board comparative environmental performance, APP 4:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 4:11, MAT 09250:33-35, 39 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09250:12, 16-17, 31-33, 35 indoor air emissions, MAT 09250:34-35 joint compound in, MAT 09250:17-30 joint tape in, MAT 09250:17 life cycle, APP 4:7-11 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 4:10, MAT 09250:30-33, 38-39 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 4:7-9, MAT 09250:3-30, 37-38 paper in, MAT 09250:2, 12-17 regulatory status, MAT 09250:37-39
INDEX
Index
reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 4:11, MAT 09250:35-36 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09250:10-12, 14-17, 21-24, 28-34 gypsum drywall. See gypsum board gypsum lath board, APP 4:12, MAT 09200:22-25
hydrochlorofluorocarbons. See HCFCs hydrogen chloride, MAT 07400:31 hydrogen sulfide, from urea production, MAT 07400:33
I
impact and improvement concept of, APDX A:36 focus on, by ERG, APDX A:6 impact assessment, APDX A:25-51 approach to, APDX A:25-26, 41-47 categorization and rating worksheet for, APDX A:44-45 concepts of, APDX A:36-37 criteria for, APDX A:56-58. See also impact categories data quality issues, APDX A:53-54 definition of, APDX A:3 factors, related, APDX A:51 procedures for, APDX A:43, 51-52 summary matrix worksheet for, APDX A:46-47 impact categories concept of, APDX A:37 EPA-developed, APDX A:38 potential, APDX A:56-58 SETAC-developed, APDX A:39 used in AIA ERG, APDX A:41-42 valuation of, APDX A:7, 37-40 impact chains. See impact networks impact networks concept of, APDX A:37 sample, APDX A:39 impact reduction, as improvement category, APDX A:52 improvement assessment categories of, APDX A:52-53 definition of, APDX A:3 focus on, by ERG, APDX A:6 procedures for, APDX A:53 Indiana limestone, MAT 04450:3, 24-25. See also limestone Indiana Limestone Institute of America, MAT 04450:24-25 indoor air emissions, as inventory output, APDX A:20-21 indoor air quality effects, APDX A:20-21 of acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:27-28 of acrylic glazing, APP 7:20 of asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:16 of carpet, APP 8:30, MAT 09680:5, 9-42 of concrete, APP 9:11, MAT 03100:19 of concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:28-29 examples of, PROJ 10:9, 13-14 of fabrics for workstations, MAT 12610:20-21 of fireproofing, MAT 07400:18, 39 of glass, MAT 08810:18 of gypsum board systems, MAT 09250:34-35 of insulation, MAT 07200:9-11 of linoleum, MAT 09651:19-20 of non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:25 of paint, MAT 09900:29-31 of plaster, MAT 09200:29 of plastic laminates, MAT 06240:22 of plywood, MAT 06118:21-23 of sealants, APP 7:17 of stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:27-28 of vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:30-32 of vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:14
H
habitat loss or alteration of, APDX A:49 management plan, examples of, PROJ 6:13 hair carpet cushion, embodied energy of, MAT 09680:43 in plaster, MAT 09200:15-16 save tannery operation, MAT 09200:8, 15-16 hardwood plywood background, MAT 06118:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 06118:20 embodied energy, MAT 06118:19 end use categories, MAT 06118:20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06118:9-13 Hardwood Plywood and Veneer Association, MAT 06118:24 hay, production, MAT 09680:18, MAT 12610:7 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), from veneer dryer, MAT 06118:18 HCFCs (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons) environmental characteristics of, APP 2:22, MAT 07200:7 in insulation materials, APP 2:22 HDPE. See high-density polyethylene health. See human health heavy timber environmental impact, APP 9:5 environmental performance, APP 9:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 9:17 life cycle, APP 9:15-18 manufacture, APP 9:17 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 9:15-17 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 9:18 Heliodon, Pacific Energy Center, PROJ 8:5 hematite, MAT 04220:18, MAT 05410:4-7 hexamethylene diamine, APP 8:22, MAT 09680:17 effects, APP 8:23 hexane, APP 6:18, MAT 08840:18 high-density polyethylene (HDPE), MAT 09400:30-31 embodied energy of, APP 7:23 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09400:30-31 manufacture, MAT 09400:22-23 for piping, APP 10:20 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09400:30 hog fuel, in timber manufacture, APP 9:17 HUD (Department of Housing and Urban Development), MAT 06118:25 human health, potential effects on, as impact category, APDX A:42, 49-50 HVAC systems. See also thermal systems examples of, PROJ 9:8, PROJ 11:5, PROJ 12:8-9 hydrated lime, MAT 04210:17 hydrocarbon resins, MAT 09300:21, MAT 09680:30 hydrochloric acid, APP 8:27-28 by-product production, MAT 09400:20
of VOCs, APP 6:20 of wall coverings, MAT 09950:35-36 of wallpaper, APP 11:11 of wood framing, MAT 06110:21 inherent energy, as inventory input, APDX A:18 inherent toxicity, APDX A:40 ink, MAT 09200:24 manufacture, MAT 06240:9, MAT 09652:20, MAT 09950:12 materials acquisition and preparation, MAT 06240:18 in wallpaper, MAT 09950:14-15 inks, for wallpaper, APP 11:9 insect-resist carpet treatment application, MAT 09680:35 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:32-33 installation and application recommendations. See also construction, use, and maintenance stage for architectural coatings, APP 6:14-15 for carpeting, APP 8: 20-21 for claddings, APP 3:9 for glazing, APP 7:9-11 for insulation, APP 2:19-20 for resilient flooring, APP 5:5-6 for wall finishes, APP 4:5-6 installation, use, and maintenance stage of ABS pipe, APP 10:23 of cast-iron pipe, APP 10:21 of concrete, APP 9:11 of copper pipe, APP 10:13 of CPVC pipe, APP 10:19 of galvanized steel pipe, APP 10:16 of glued laminated timber, APP 9:21 of heavy timber, APP 9:17 of polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16-17 of polyethylene pipe, APP 10:21 of PVC pipe, APP 10:18-19 of structural steel, APP 9:14-15 of vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:14 of wallpaper, APP 11:11 of wool wall coverings, APP 11:18 installers, potential impacts on, APDX A:50 Institute of Asian Research, PROJ 9:1 insulation. See also fiberglass insulation; thermal insulation blowing agents, APP 2:23 CFCs and HCFCs in, APP 2:22 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 embodied energy of, APP 2:21-23 environmental advantages of, APP 2:21 examples of, PROJ 3:4, PROJ 4:2-3, PROJ 6:8, 11, PROJ 7:9, PROJ 8:6 foam, MAT 07200:4-5, 7-8 indoor air quality, effects on, MAT 07200:9 installing, recommendations for, APP 2:19-20 minimum thermal resistances (R), recommended, APP 2:18 recommendations for architects, APP 2:18-20 roof, APP 2:19 specifying, recommendations for, APP 2:18-19 use of, examples of, PROJ 12:7 intumescent mastic fireproofing background, MAT 07400:2 components, life cycle, MAT 07400:10 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 07400:38
10
INDEX
Index
energy consumed by, MAT 07400:34 environmental considerations, MAT 07400:18 life cycle, MAT 07400:8 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:32-34 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:32-34 weight, MAT 07400:38 inventory analysis, APDX A:13-25 definition of, APDX A:3 inventory data recording sheet, APDX A:28-29, 31-33, 35 materials and manufacturing stages, APDX A:2629 materials flow diagram, APDX A:15-17 procedures for, APDX A:21-25 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APDX A:34-35 system/subsystem inputs, APDX A:17-19, 26-27, 30, 34 iron life cycle, MAT 15410:8 manufacture, MAT 15410:22 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:12-17 in portland cement, APP 9:9, MAT 03100:7, 14 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:12-17 iron ore, MAT 05410:4-7 beneficiation of, APP 9:12, APP 10:14 mining, APP 9:12, APP 10:14, MAT 03100:8, MAT 05410:6, 8-9, MAT 09200:19, 30, MAT 09400:15, MAT 09510:17-18, MAT 09900:15, MAT 09930:12-13, MAT 15410:13 in steel, APP 9:12 iron oxide dust, MAT 07400:27 iron oxide, in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:26 iron oxide pigment, MAT 04220:18-21 in alternative paint, APP 6:23 life cycle, MAT 04220:8, MAT 09400:8, MAT 09930:6 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:18 in modern oil-based stain, APP 6:25 natural, MAT 04210:11, 15-16, MAT 04220:18 production, APP 6:22, MAT 03100:9, MAT 09900:15, MAT 09930:13 synthetic, MAT 04220:18-21, MAT 09651:14 in waterborne stain, APP 6:26 isoaliphatic hydrocarbons in alternative paints, APP 6:23, MAT 09900:24 production, MAT 09900:17 isocyanates, APP 8:27, MAT 09900:22-23 isopropanol, life cycle, MAT 07400:11 isopropyl alcohol as fireproofing solvent, MAT 07400:32 production, MAT 07400:24 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33
materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 4:9, MAT 09250:17-30 joint tape life cycle, MAT 09250:5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09250:32, 38-39 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 4:8-9, MAT 09250:17-19 jute, MAT 09651:9, 15-16 environmental impact, APP 8:10 recycled, APP 8:26, 28 jute carpet backing. See also rubberized jute cushion embodied energy of, MAT 09680:43 environmental performance, APP 8:3 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:25-26
K
kaolin, MAT 09200:12-13, MAT 09300:7, 15 Keenes cement, MAT 09200:16-17 ketones, in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 kraft paper, MAT 06240:4, 17 life cycle, MAT 08840:6 manufacturing and fabrication, APP 7:19, MAT 08840:13-14, MAT 09250:12-17, 38 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 08840:18-19 production, MAT 08840:8 in vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:13 in wallpaper, APP 11:8, MAT 09950:13 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:18-19
L
laminated glass construction, use, maintenance, and disposal stage, APP 7:25 environmental impact, APP 7:8 environmental performance, APP 7:2 life cycle, APP 7:23-25 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 7:25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 7:24-25 materials flow diagram, APP 7:24 land and soil quality and availability, potential impacts on, APDX A:48 landscaping design, examples of, PROJ 8:4, PROJ 9:9 latex acrylic emulsion materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:31 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:31 latex binders materials flow diagram, APP 6:22 production, APP 6:22 latex emulsification, and stains, MAT 09930:18 latex-portland cement, MAT 09300:22 lath, MAT 09200:1-3, 17. See also plaster; steel lath gypsum board as, APP 4:12, MAT 09200:22-25 life cycle, MAT 09200:5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09200:25-28, 30-31 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09200:17-25 waste produced and resources depleted by, in materials acquisition and preparation, MAT 09200:17-24
J
joint compound antibacterial and antifungal agents for, MAT 09250:29-30 life cycle, MAT 09250:6 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09250:32-33 material flow diagram, APP 4:10
lathing board. See gypsum board layered composite sheet vinyl, MAT 09652:3, 26-28 lead effects, MAT 09900:33, MAT 15410:30 in paint, APP 6:21, MAT 09900:3, 33 on previously painted surfaces, APP 6:15 processing, MAT 15410:23-24 in solder, APP 10:13 life-cycle assessment (LCA) concept, APDX A:1, 3-7 criticisms of, APDX A:4 presentation of, APDX A:7-9 template for, APDX A:14, 24 lighting design strategies for, PROJ 8:8-9 examples of, PROJ 1:7, PROJ 2:4-5, PROJ 3:4-5, PROJ 5:5, 10-11, PROJ 6:9-10, PROJ 7:7-8, 10 natural, examples of, PROJ 9:5-6, PROJ 11:7 with occupancy sensors, PROJ 5:10 ligninsulfonate, in polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 lime hydrated, MAT 04210:17 production, MAT 05410:13-15, MAT 07400:23, MAT 09200:6 limestone, MAT 08810:10-11, MAT 09200:6-9. See also dimension stone calcining, MAT 04210:12, MAT 07400:31, MAT 08810:7-8, MAT 09200:6-9, MAT 15410:14 in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30, 32 in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:25 as dimension stone, MAT 04450:3 energy consumption associated with, MAT 05410:15, MAT 09200:9, MAT 09250:22 in glass, APP 7:14 life cycle, MAT 07400:15 mining, APP 9:13, APP 10:15, MAT 03100:8, MAT 04210:11, MAT 05410:6, 13-14, MAT 07310:7, MAT 07400:19, MAT 08810:7, MAT 09200:69, MAT 09400:15, MAT 09510:17-18, MAT 09680:24-25, MAT 15410:13 organization perspective on, MAT 04450:24-25 in portland cement, APP 9:9, MAT 03100:7 processing, MAT 08810:7-8, MAT 15410:14 in steel, APP 9:12 as vinyl flooring filler, MAT 09652:26 in vinyl products, APP 10:18 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 05410:14, MAT 09200:8-9 linoleum, APP 5:4, MAT 09651:1-8 adhesives, MAT 09651:6, 16 backings, MAT 09651:7, 15-16 comparative environmental performance of, APP 5:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 5:16, MAT 09651:18-20 driers for, MAT 09651:15 embodied energy, APP 5:16 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09651:15, 17-19 fillers, MAT 09651:5 finishes, MAT 09651:6, 16 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09651:19-20 life cycle, APP 5:12-16, MAT 09651:3-7 linseed oil, MAT 09651:8 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 5:15, MAT 09651:17-18
INDEX
11
Index
materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 5:12-15, MAT 09651:8-17 materials flow diagram, APP 5:12 organization perspectives, MAT 09651:22 pigments, MAT 09651:4 regulatory status, MAT 09651:22 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 5:16, MAT 09651:20-21 total calculated load per square meter, MAT 09651:21 use of, examples of, PROJ 5:13, PROJ 10:5 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09651:14-19 linseed oil, MAT 09651:8-9 in oil-based stain, APP 6:25 preparation, MAT 09680:24, MAT 09900:13, MAT 09930:10 in stain, MAT 09930:9-15 waste produced by, MAT 08840:18 loading assessment, APDX A:25-36 local availability, as element of use, APDX A:6 logging, APP 1:8-9, MAT 06110:6-10; MAT 06180:9, MAT 06118:9-10, MAT 06240:8-9, MAT 08840:13, MAT 09950:11 effects, MAT 06118:6 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06110:10 regulation of, MAT 09250:38 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06110:6-10 and water pollution, MAT 06110:23 low-e glass, APP 7:9, 13 manufacture, APP 7:15, MAT 08810:3 low-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL), APDX A:41 low-observed-effect level (LOEL), APDX A:41 lumber and lumber milling, MAT 06110:12-16. See also glued laminated timber; logging; wood framing air pollution from, MAT 06110:24 energy consumption associated with, APP 1:10, MAT 06110:13 treatment of, MAT 06110:13-18 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06110:13-14
M
magnesite, calcining, MAT 07400:31 magnesium chloride life cycle, MAT 07400:12 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:30 waste produced by, MAT 07400:30-31 magnesium oxide life cycle, MAT 07400:12 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:30 production, MAT 07400:23 magnesium oxychloride, production, MAT 07400:23 magnesium silicate (Air Krete), APP 2:14, MAT 07200:2. See also insulation; thermal insulation comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 life cycle characteristics of, APP 2:33 maintenance. See also construction, use, and maintenance stage requirements, as impact category, APDX A:51
manganese dioxide in brickmaking, MAT 04210:15 mining, MAT 04210:11, 15 manganese, mining, MAT 05410:6, 15, 17, MAT 09510:17-18, MAT 15410:13 man-made mineral fibers (MMMF), indoor air quality effects, MAT 07400:39 manufacture of ABS pipe, APP 10:23 of cast-iron pipe, APP 10:21 of copper pipe, APP 10:12-13 of CPVC pipe, APP 10:19 of galvanized steel pipe, APP 10:15-16 of glued laminated timber, APP 9:20-21 of heavy timber, APP 9:17 of pig iron, APP 9:14 of plywood adhesives, MAT 06118:8 of polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 of polyethylene pipe, APP 10:20 of portland cement, APP 9:10 of PVC pipe, APP 10:18 of structural concrete, APP 9:10-11 of structural steel, APP 9:14 of vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:14 of wallpaper, APP 11:10 of wool wall coverings, APP 11:18 manufacturing and fabrication stage of acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:20-22 of acrylic glazing, APP 7:19-20 of acrylic sheeting, MAT 08840:19-21 of adobe mortar, MAT 04210:27 of architectural precast concrete, APP 3:24 of asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:13-16 of brick, APP 3:12-13, MAT 04210:20-27 of carpet, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:33-36 of carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:33-36 of cellulose insulation, APP 2:27 of ceramic tile, MAT 09300:24-29 of concrete, MAT 03100:13-17 of concrete masonry units, APP 3:23-24, MAT 04220:24-27 of dimension stone, MAT 04450:20-21 of fabrics, MAT 12610:14-19 of fiberglass insulation, APP 2:24-25 of float glass, APP 7:15-16 of framing fasteners, APP 1:16 of glass, APP 7:15-16, MAT 08810:13-17 of glued laminated timber, MAT 06180:14-18 of gypsum board, APP 4:10, MAT 09200:22-24, 26-28, MAT 09250:30-32, 38-39 of gypsum board systems, APP 4:10, MAT 09250:30-33, 38-39 of kraft paper, APP 7:19 of laminated glass, APP 7:25 of lath, MAT 09200:25-28, 30-31 of linoleum, APP 5:15, MAT 09651:17-18 of mineral wool, APP 2:26 of mortar, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:25 of non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:19-23 of oil-based clear finish, APP 6:30 of paint, MAT 09900:26-28 of pipe, MAT 15410:21-30 of plaster, MAT 09200:25, 30-31 of plastic laminates, MAT 06240:19-21 of plywood, MAT 06118:15-19 of polycarbonate glazing, APP 7:22 of polyester resin, MAT 04450:15-16, 19-20 of polyisocyanurate insulation, APP 2:32
of polystyrene insulation, APP 2:30 of polyurethane insulation, APP 2:32 of portland cement, MAT 03100:13-17 of precast concrete, APP 3:24 of stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:23-25 of steel, APP 1:13-14, 16, MAT 04450:13, MAT 05410:2-3, 22-29, 33-34, MAT 06110:10-12, MAT 09510:23 of steel fasteners, MAT 06110:16, 19-20 of steel framing, APP 1:13-14, MAT 05410:3, 2425, 33-34 of steel lath, APP 4:14, MAT 09200:20, 25-27 of stone veneer, APP 3:17, MAT 04450:20-22 of terrazzo, MAT 09400:32-33 of traditional oil-based stain, APP 6:25 of traditional varnish, APP 6:28 of vinyl flooring, APP 5:10, MAT 09652:27-29 of wall coverings, MAT 09950:32-34 of wood framing, APP 1:9-10, MAT 06110:12-20 marble, MAT 04450:2-3. See also dimension stone mining, MAT 09400:14 in terrazzo, MAT 09400:13, 24-25 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09400:24-25 masonry cement, MAT 04210:18 masonry wall construction, thermal characteristics of, APP 3:8 material reports, APDX A:8 inventory analysis in, APDX A:13-25 objective- and boundary-setting approach in, APDX A:11-12 materials environmentally preferable, as improvement assessment category, APDX A:52 reducing environmental impact of, as improvement assessment category, APDX A:52 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APDX A:10 of ABS pipe, APP 10:22 of accelerators, MAT 07400:35 of acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:8-17 of acrylic glazing, APP 7:18-19 of alternative clear finish, APP 6:31 of alternative paint, APP 6:23-24, MAT 09900:2326 of architectural coatings, MAT 08840:17 of asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:6-13 of brick, APP 3:10-11, MAT 04210:10-16 of carpet, APP 8:22-26, MAT 09680:17-29 of carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30-32 of carpet backings, MAT 09680:27-28 of carpet cushions, APP 8:27-28, MAT 09680:2930 of carpet treatments, MAT 09680:32-33 of cast-iron pipe, APP 10:21 of cellulose insulation, APP 2:27 of cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:18-30 of ceramic tile, APP 3:17-20, MAT 09300:10-24 of concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:18-27 of concrete, MAT 03100:7-13 of concrete masonry units, APP 3:21-23, MAT 04220:10-27 of conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:2023 of conventional water-based paints, MAT 09900:12-20 of copper pipe, APP 10:12
12
INDEX
Index
of CPVC pipe, APP 10:19 of dyes, MAT 09680:26-27 of exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:28-30 of fabrics, MAT 12610:6-14 of fiberglass, APP 2:24 of fillers, MAT 09680:32 of fireproofing, MAT 07400:18-36 of fireproofing adhesives, MAT 07400:35-36 of foamed magnesium oxychloride fireproofing, MAT 07400:30-31 of framing fasteners, APP 1:16 of galvanized steel pipe, APP 10:13-15 of glass, APP 7:14-15, MAT 08810:5-13 of glued laminated timber, APP 9:19-20, MAT 06180:8-14 of gypsum board, APP 4:7-9, MAT 09250:3-30, 37-38 of hardwood plywood, MAT 06118:9-13 of heavy timber, APP 9:15-17 of intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32-34 of laminated glass, APP 7:24-25 of lath, MAT 09200:17-25 of linoleum, APP 5:12-15, MAT 09651:8-17 of magnesium chloride, MAT 07400:30 of magnesium oxide, MAT 07400:30 of masking materials, MAT 08840:18-19 of metal lath, MAT 07400:36 of metallic pipe, MAT 15410:12-18 of mineral wool, APP 2:26 of modern oil-based stain, APP 6:26 of non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:9-19 of nylon, MAT 09680:17-25 of oil-based caulk, MAT 08840:18 of oil-based clear finish, APP 6:29-30 of oil-based paint, APP 6:16-19 of paint, MAT 09900:12-26 of pipe, MAT 15410:12-21 of plaster, MAT 09200:6-17, 30 of plastic laminates, MAT 06240:5-19 of plastic pipes, MAT 15410:18-20 of plywood, MAT 06118:9-15 of plywood adhesives, MAT 06118:13-14 of plywood finishes, MAT 06118:13 of polycarbonate glazing, APP 7:20-22 of polycarbonate resin, MAT 08840:15-17 of polyester carpet, MAT 09680:25 of polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15-16 of polyethylene glazing, MAT 08840:19 of polyethylene pipe, APP 10:20 of polyisocyanurate insulation, APP 2:31-32 of polypropylene carpet, MAT 09680:26 of polystyrene insulation, APP 2:29-30 of polyurethane insulation, APP 2:31-32 of portland cement, MAT 03100:7-11 of precast concrete, APP 3:24-25 of PVC pipe, APP 10:17-18 of reinforcing fabric, MAT 07400:36 of rubberized jute cushions, MAT 09680:30 of sealants, MAT 08840:17-18 of sealers, MAT 07400:36 of softwood plywood, MAT 06118:13-15 of solvents, MAT 07400:35 of sprayed-fiber fireproofing, MAT 07400:31 of stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:9-23 of steel, APP 1:12, MAT 05410:4-21, 32-33
of steel framing, APP 1:11-13, MAT 05410:4-21, 32-33 of steel lath, APP 4:12, MAT 09200:18-22 of stone veneer, APP 3:14-16 of structural concrete, APP 9:9-10 of structural steel, APP 9:12-13 of styrene butadiene latex carpet backing, MAT 09680:27-28 of substrate primers, MAT 07400:35 of terrazzo, MAT 09400:13-32 of topcoats, MAT 07400:36 of traditional oil-based stain, APP 6:25 of traditional varnish, APP 6:27-28 of vinyl flooring, APP 5:7-10, MAT 09652:15-27 of vinyl wall covering, APP 11:11-14 of wall coverings, MAT 09950:10-32 of wallpaper, APP 11:8-10 of waterborne clear finish, APP 6:30-31 of waterborne paint, APP 6:21-22 of waterborne stain, APP 6:26-27 of wood, MAT 06118:9-14 of wood framing, APP 1:8-9 of wool, MAT 09680:26 of wool wall coverings, APP 11:17 materials composition, and inventory development, APDX A:15-17 materials flow diagram, APDX A:15-17 application of LCA template to, APDX A:24 preparation of, APDX A:22 sample, APDX A:16 worksheet for, APDX A:23 materials research framework for, APDX A:3-9 process, APDX A:10-54 materials safety data sheets, of manufacturers, PROJ 5:11 materials selection economic/functional responsibility and, PROJ 4:11 energy efficiency and, PROJ 4:9 examples of, PROJ 1:7, PROJ 2:7-8, PROJ 3:8-9, PROJ 4:8-12, PROJ 5:11-13, PROJ 6:10-11, PROJ 7:8-10, PROJ 8:9-11, PROJ 9:7, PROJ 10:4-5, PROJ 11:8-9 life-cycle assessment and, PROJ 4:11-12 manufacturer qualities and, PROJ 4:11 resource responsibility and, PROJ 4:9-10 social/public health responsibility and, PROJ 4:10 melamine embodied energy of, APP 7:23 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06240:12 as fireproofing blowing agent, MAT 07400:32 life cycle, MAT 09652:13 manufacture, MAT 07400:18 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06240:10-12 in plastic laminates, MAT 06240:2-4 production, MAT 06240:6, MAT 07400:23 resin, MAT 06240:5-12 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06240:11-12 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33 melamine-formaldehyde resin, for fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 melamine phosphate, as fireproofing catalyst, MAT 07400:32
melamine resin production, MAT 07400:23 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33 mercury, in paint, APP 6:22 metal and plastic plumbing pipe, APP 10:1-24 embodied energy, APP 10:1 environmental impacts, APP 10:4-10 environmental performance, APP 10:2-3 installing, recommendations for, APP 10:11 selecting, recommendations for, APP 10:11 metal connectors, for timber framing, APP 9:8, 17 metal fume fever, APP 10:13 metal lath. See steel lath for fireproofing, MAT 07400:3 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:36 metallic pipes, MAT 15410:2-3 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 15410:30 embodied energy of, MAT 15410:34 joining methods, MAT 15410:30-31 life cycle, MAT 15410:6 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 15410:25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:12-18 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:25 metallic soaps, in polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 methane, from sheep, APP 11:17 methanol, APP 6:19 methyl cellulose, MAT 09900:25 production, APP 6:24 methyl chloride life cycle, MAT 04450:8 in oil-based paint, APP 6:17 methylene diisocyanate, in polyurethane carpet cushions, APP 8:27 methyl ethyl ketone, MAT 09900:22 effects, MAT 09900:22, MAT 15410:21 in oil-based paint, APP 6:16 production, MAT 09900:16 methyl ethyl ketoxime, APP 6:18-19 production, MAT 09900:23 methyl isobutyl ketone, MAT 09900:22 in oil-based paint, APP 6:16 methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), MAT 07400:35 methyl methacrylate effects, APP 7:19 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:9-14, 21 MIBK. See methyl isobutyl ketone mica, MAT 09250:24-25, 28 in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:28 life cycle, MAT 07400:14 mining, MAT 07400:19, 29, MAT 09250:20, 25 as pigment extender, MAT 09900:20 production, MAT 09900:16 Michigan Technological University, See Environmental Sciences and Engineering Building, PROJ 11:1-10 mildewcides in paint, APP 6:24, MAT 09900: 30 in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:23 for wallpaper, APP 11:10 milk-based paint, APP 6:24 mineral aggregates, life cycle, MAT 07400:14-15
INDEX
13
Index
mineral products handling and storage, MAT 07310:9 mining, MAT 07310:9 minerals for asphalt, MAT 07310:12-13 processing, MAT 03100:8 in terrazzo, MAT 09400:13, 24-25 mineral spirits, MAT 09300:7, 22 in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30 in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:32 in oil-based paint, APP 6:16 in oil-based stain, APP 6:25 production, MAT 09680:24, MAT 09900:17 in stain, MAT 09930:14 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:32 mineral wool in acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:8-14 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09510:12 in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:28 in fireproofing, MAT 07400:18 indoor air quality effects, MAT 07400:39 life cycle, MAT 07400:13 manufacture, MAT 07400:22, MAT 09510:10 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09510:11-12 mineral wool insulation, APP 2:5, MAT 07200:2. See also thermal insulation comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 constituents, MAT 07200:4 estimated embodied energy of, APP 2:21 life cycle, APP 2:26-27 manufacture, MAT 07200:7 MMMF. See man-made mineral fibers monoammonium phosphate, as fireproofing catalyst, MAT 07400:32 mordants, APP 8:26 mortar, APP 3:3, MAT 04210:3, 5 additives, MAT 04220:23 adobe, MAT 04210:4, 20 for ceramic tile, MAT 09300:7-9 comparative environmental performance of, APP 3:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:27-29 energy consumed by, in materials acquisition and preparation, MAT 04210:17, MAT 04220:23 life cycle, APP 3:10-13, MAT 04210:7, MAT 04220:9 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 3:11-12, MAT 04210:11-12, 17-18, MAT 04220:13 pigments, MAT 04220:23 waste produced and resources depleted by, in manufacturing and fabrication, MAT 04210:25 mothproofing agents, for wool wall coverings, APP 11:17 mud, mining, MAT 03100:8, MAT 09400:15
N
naphtha in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:32 production, MAT 09680:24 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:32 naphthalene, for mothproofing wool, APP 11:17 naphthenic hydrocarbons, in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 National Audubon Society, MAT 09652:35-36 National Fenestration Rating Council, APP 7:9 National Glass Association, MAT 08810:18-19 National Paint and Coatings Association, MAT 09900:33-34 National Park Service, PROJ 5:1 National Pollution Discharge Elimination System, Clean Water Act, MAT 06118:25 National Terrazzo & Mosaic Association, Inc, MAT 09400:39 National Wood Window and Door Association, APP 7:11 natural cooling, examples of, PROJ 1:5-7, PROJ 5:5, 7 natural gas in ethylene, APP 10:20 extraction and processing, APP 6:17, APP 11:12, MAT 06118:8, 12, MAT 06180:11, MAT 06240:7, MAT 07400:28, MAT 09680:25 in polycarbonate glazing, APP 7:20 production, APP 7:21, MAT 07310:8, MAT 07400:20, MAT 08840:12, MAT 09400:20, MAT 09652:16, MAT 09680:19, MAT 09900:15, MAT 09930:12, MAT 15410:14 natural lighting, examples of, PROJ 2:4-5, PROJ 3:4, PROJ 4:2-4, PROJ 5:5, PROJ 11:7 natural resource depletion, associated with acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:13 acrylic window units, MAT 08840:22 acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) pipe, MAT 15410:19-20, 28 asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:11-12, 15-16 brick and mortar, MAT 04210: carpet, MAT 09680:35, 38 carpet cushions, MAT 09680:29, 37 cementitious matrices, MAT 09400:26 concrete, MAT 03100:18-21 copper pipe, MAT 15410:17-18, 25-26 fabrics for workstations, MAT 12610:20, 22 glass, MAT 08810:10 high-density polyethylene, MAT 09400:30 iron and steel, MAT 15410:12-17 kraft paper, MAT 08840:18-19 marble and mineral chips, MAT 09400:24-25 melamine, MAT 06240:11-12 methyl methacrylate, MAT 08840:9-14 mineral wool, MAT 09510:11-12 neoprene, MAT 09400:30 non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:25 nylon carpet, MAT 09680:17-25 oil-based caulk, MAT 08840:18 paint, MAT 09510:16, MAT 09900:23, 25, 27, 29, 32-33 phenol, MAT 06240:14-15 phenolic resin, MAT 06240:13 plastic laminates, MAT 06240:5-10, 20, 22 plastic pipe, MAT 15410:27 polybutylene, MAT 15410:20
polybutylene pipe, MAT 15410:29 polycarbonate resin, MAT 08840:15-17 polycarbonate sheet, MAT 08840:22 polyester, MAT 09680:25, MAT 09950:26, MAT 12610:13-14, 19 polyethylene, MAT 08840:19 polypropylene, MAT 09680:26 portland cement, MAT 03100:10-11, 14-15 prime polyurethane carpet cushions, MAT 09680:29 resinous terrazzo, MAT 09400:32 rubberized jute cushions, MAT 09680:30 silicone elastomer, MAT 08840:18 soldering materials, MAT 15410:21, 30 stains, MAT 09930:14-15, 17, 24-25 steel pipe, MAT 15410:25 styrene butadiene latex carpet backing, MAT 09680:27-28 terrazzo, MAT 09400:33, 37-38 varnishes, MAT 09930:20-27, 29 wall coverings, MAT 09950:33-34 wool carpet, MAT 09680:26, MAT 12610:11-12, 17 natural rubber carpet cushion, embodied energy of, MAT 09680:43 life cycle, MAT 09680:15 production, APP 8:28 natural ventilation, examples of, PROJ 9:5-6 neoprene manufacture, MAT 09400:22 in terrazzo divider strips, MAT 09400:29 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09400:30 NEXT21 experimental housing project (Osaka, Japan), PROJ 12:1-12 background, PROJ 12:1-2 building design, PROJ 12:2-3 construction, PROJ 12:8 design response, PROJ 12:2-8 ecological gardens, PROJ 12:4 energy systems, PROJ 12:5-7 energy use, PROJ 12:1011 environmental components of, PROJ 12:4-5 floor plans, PROJ 12:3 operation and use, PROJ 12:9-12 nickel mining, MAT 05410:6, 15-16, MAT 09510:17-18, MAT 15410:13 processing, MAT 15410:14 nitrogen dioxide, effects, MAT 07400:26 nitrogen oxides effects, MAT 07400:26 from fireproofing, MAT 07400:26 from fuel combustion, MAT 08840:14-15, 22, MAT 09680:4, 17, MAT 09900:18, MAT 15410:17, 25 from plywood manufacture, MAT 06118:18 from wood waste disposal, MAT 06118:7 non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:1-26 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 08840:23-25 environmental considerations, MAT 08840:3-8 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 08840:19-23 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 08840:9-19 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 08840:25 regulatory status, MAT 08840:25
14
INDEX
Index
waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:25 nonylphenol ethoxylate (NE), MAT 09300:7, 21-22 production, MAT 07310:9 no-observed-effect level (NOEL), APDX A:41 North American Insulation Manufacturers Association, MAT 07200:12-13 nylon, MAT 09680:2 embodied energy of, APP 7:23 life cycle, MAT 09680:10 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:17-25 materials flow diagram, APP 8:23 production, MAT 09680:19 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:17-25 nylon carpet fibers adipic acid in, MAT 09680:5, 17 embodied energy of, MAT 09680:5, 43 environmental impact, APP 8:6 environmental performance, APP 8:2 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:22-23
O
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, MAT 06118:25 oil-based clear finishes construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:30 environmental impact, APP 6:11 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle, APP 6:29-30 manufacture, APP 6:30 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:29-30 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 6:30 oil-based paints construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:20-21 conventional, APP 6:4, MAT 09900:20-23, 31 environmental performance, APP 6:2 exterior, embodied energy of, MAT 09900:31 interior, embodied energy of, MAT 09900:31 life cycle, APP 6:16-21, MAT 09900:4 manufacture, APP 6:19 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:16-19 waste produced and resources depleted by, APP 6:19 oil-based stains (modern) construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:26 environmental impact, APP 6:8 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle, APP 6:25-26 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:26 oil-based stains (traditional) construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:25 environmental impact, APP 6:7 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle, APP 6:25 manufacture, APP 6:25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:25
recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 6:25 waste produced by, APP 6:25 oil-borne stains, modern, MAT 09930:15-17 oil-borne varnishes, modern, MAT 09930:20-21 oils in alternative paints, MAT 09900:24-25 in oil-based paint, MAT 09900:22 plant-based, APP 6:17-18 oilseed, production, MAT 08840:12 olefin. See polyethylene; polypropylene open building approach, PROJ 12:2, 8 open-cell polyisocyanurate, APP 2:13 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 organization perspectives on brick, MAT 04210:31-32 on carpet, MAT 09680:45-47 on ceramic tile, MAT 09300:32 on concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:31 fireproofing, MAT 07400:40-41 on gypsum board, MAT 09250:36-37 on Indiana limestone, MAT 04450:24-25 on linoleum, MAT 09651:22 on paint, MAT 09900:33-34 on plastic laminates, MAT 06240:25 plywood, MAT 06118:24 on terrazzo, MAT 09400:39 on thermal insulation, MAT 07200:12-13 on vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:35-37 on wood framing, MAT 06110:22-23 organochlorines, from PVC pipe, APP 10:19 organophosphates, APP 8:23 Osaka Gas Company, See NEXT21 experimental housing project, PROJ 12:1-12 oxygen, manufacture, MAT 05410:15
P
paint, MAT 09900:1-35 alternative. See alternative paints and cancer risk, APP 6:20, MAT 09900:30 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09900:28-31 embodied energy of, APP 6:20, MAT 09900:31 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09510:16-17, MAT 09900:27-28, 31 environmental considerations, MAT 09900:2-3 for fireproofing, MAT 07400:36 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09900:29-31 low-VOC, PROJ 10:5 manufacture, MAT 09510:11 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09900:26-28 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09510:16-17, 19, MAT 09900:12-26 no-VOC, PROJ 7:9 oil-based. See oil-based paints organization perspective, MAT 09900:33-34 recycled, definition, MAT 09900:32 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 09900:3233 regulatory status, MAT 09900:34 use of, examples of, PROJ 5:13, PROJ 7:10 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09510:16, MAT 09900:27, 29, 32-33 water-based. See waterborne paints paint additives, MAT 09900:11 in conventional oil-based paints, MAT 09900:21 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09900:23
palladiana. See terrazzo paper. See also joint tape energy consumed by, in manufacturing and fabrication, MAT 09200:24-25, MAT 09250:16-17 in gypsum board systems, MAT 09250:2, 12-17 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 06240:9, MAT 09200:22-25, MAT 09250:8, 19, 38, MAT 09950:11 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06240:17-19 in plastic laminates, MAT 06240:4 pulping, MAT 09250:8, 14 stock preparation, MAT 09250:13 in wallpaper, MAT 09950:10-13 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09200:22-24, MAT 09250:14-16 paradichlorobenzene, for mothproofing wool, APP 11:17 particulates from cement production, MAT 03100:15 effects, MAT 07400:37 from fireproofing, MAT 07400:26 from fuel combustion, MAT 08840:22, MAT 09680:4, MAT 09900:18, MAT 15410:17, 25 from propylene production, MAT 08840:14 from traprock mining, MAT 07400:29 passive energy strategies, APP 7:13, PROJ 4:2-4 paver tiles, MAT 09300:2 peer review, APDX A:7 pentachlorophenol preservative, APP 9:18-20 life cycle, MAT 06180:5 materials flow diagram, APP 9:19 production, MAT 06180:12-13 pentaerythritol, for intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 performance characteristics, as element of use, APDX A:5 perlite, APP 2:16, MAT 09250:27, MAT 09510:15-16 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:25-26 life cycle, APP 2:34, MAT 07400:14 mining, MAT 07400:19, MAT 09250:20, 27-28, MAT 09510:10-11 processing, MAT 09250:28 permethrin, MAT 09680:33 for mothproofing wool, APP 11:17 petroleum in acrylic resin production, APP 7:18 catalytic cracking, APP 6:17, APP 8:23, APP 10:22, APP 11:9 cracking, APP 8:25 desalting process, APP 6:17, APP 8:23 distillation, APP 11:9 in ethylene, APP 10:20 extraction, APP 6:16-17, APP 11:12, MAT 006240:14-15, MAT 09680:17 processing, APP 8:23, MAT 09680:17 in wood preparation, MAT 06118:14 petroleum hydrocarbon processing oils, MAT 09680:30 petroleum process oil life cycle, MAT 07400:11 manufacture, MAT 07400:31 production, MAT 07400:23
INDEX
15
Index
phenol acquisition and production, MAT 06240:13-16 effects, MAT 06118:8 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06240:15 in glulam adhesive, APP 9:20 in plastic laminates, MAT 06240:2-4 production, MAT 06118:11, MAT 06180:8, 10, MAT 06240:7, MAT 07310:9, MAT 09900:16 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06240:14-15 phenol-formaldehyde in adhesives, MAT 06118:14 manufacture, MAT 06118:8 production, MAT 06118:11 phenolic adhesives, for plywood, MAT 06118:13-14 phenolic foamboard insulation, APP 2:11, MAT 07200:2. See also insulation; thermal insulation blowing agents, APP 2:23 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 life cycle characteristics of, APP 2:33 phenolic resin embodied energy of, APP 7:23 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06240:13 materials acquisition and preparation, MAT 06240:13-16 materials flow diagram, APP 6:28 production, MAT 06240:7, MAT 09930:13 in traditional varnish, APP 6:28 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06240:13 phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde (PRF), MAT 06180:12 as adhesive, APP 9:18, 20 life cycle, MAT 06180:6-7 production, MAT 06180:11-12 4-Phenylcyclohexene, APP 8:30, MAT 09680:5, 27, 39, 41 phosgene, MAT 08840:8, 15 and polycarbonate resin production, MAT 08840:16 phthalates, in vinyl, APP 11:13 phthalates, production, MAT 09652:19, 25, MAT 09950:18 phthalic anhydride, in modern oil-based stain, APP 6:26 pickle liquor, MAT 05410:24 pig iron, APP 10:13 manufacture, APP 9:14, APP 10:15, MAT 15410:21-24 in steel, APP 9:12 pigment(s) in alternative paints, APP 6:23, MAT 09900:24 for asphalt, life cycle, MAT 07310:5 in concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:18-21 definition, MAT 09900:12 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09900:20 in glaze, MAT 09300:5 grinding, MAT 09400:16 in grout, MAT 09300:5 iron oxide. See iron oxide pigment life cycle, MAT 03100:6, MAT 07400:17, MAT 09900:10 in linoleum, MAT 09651:14-15
manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09400:16, MAT 09950:13 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06240:18, MAT 09900:20 materials flow diagram, APP 1:13, APP 6:19 in mortar, MAT 04220:23 in oil-based paints, APP 6:16, MAT 09900:21 for polyester, MAT 12610:12-13 production, MAT 07400:19 in PVC pipe, APP 10:18 in terrazzo, MAT 09400:25-26 in vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:11, 26 for wallpaper, APP 11:9 in wallpaper, MAT 09950:14-15 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09900:20 in water-based paints, MAT 09900:12 pigment extenders materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09900:20 in oil-based paint, APP 6:16 production, APP 6:22 pine oil, in alternative paints, MAT 09900:25 pine rosin, preparation, MAT 09900:13 pine tree cultivation, MAT 09651:9, MAT 09900:13 pipe(s), MAT 15410:1-35. See metal and plastic plumbing pipe; specific type construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 15410:30-34 embodied energy of, MAT 15410:34 energy consumption associated with, MAT 15410:32-33 environmental considerations, MAT 15410:4-5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 15410:21-30 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:12-21 metallic. See metallic pipes plastic. See plastic pipes recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 15410:34 types and applications, MAT 15410:3 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:32-33 plaster, MAT 09200:1-3 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09200:28-29, 31 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09200:9, 11, 14-17 epoxy resins in, MAT 09200:16 fiber in, MAT 09200:15-16 gypsum and, MAT 09200:10-11 hair and fiber in, MAT 09200:15-16 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09200:29 Keenes cement in, MAT 09200:16-17 life cycle, MAT 09200:4 limestone and, MAT 09200:6-9 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09200:25, 30-31 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 4:13-14, MAT 09200:6-17, 30 materials flow diagram, APP 4:13 portland cement and, MAT 09200:12-14 regulatory status, MAT 09200:29-31 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, MAT 09200:29, 31 sand in, MAT 09200:14-15 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09200:8-11, 13-17, 28-29
plaster and lath system, APP 4:4, 12, MAT 09200:1-3. See also lath; plaster comparative environmental performance, APP 4:2 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 4:12-14 plasterboard. See gypsum board plaster of Paris, MAT 09200:17 plastic glazing, cleaning, APP 7:11. See also non-glass glazing plasticizers, MAT 09652:25 life cycle, MAT 09652:9 materials flow diagram, APP 5:9 in PVC, APP 11:11, 13 in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:20-21 plastic laminates, MAT 06240:1-5 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 06240:22-23 indoor air quality effects, MAT 06240:22 life cycle, MAT 06240:3 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 06240:19-20, 26-27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06240:5-19, 26 organization perspectives on, MAT 06240:25 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 06240:2225 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06240:20, 22 plastic pipes, MAT 15410:3-4 joining methods, MAT 15410:31-32 life cycle, MAT 15410:7 manufacturing and fabrication stage, 15410:26-29 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:18-20 plastic plumbing pipe. See metal and plastic plumbing pipe plumbing fixtures, low-flow, PROJ 5:8, PROJ 7:11 use of, examples of, PROJ 7:10 plumbing pipe. See metal and plastic plumbing pipe plywood, MAT 06118:1-27 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 06118:19-23 embodied energy, MAT 06118:18-19, 23 end use categories, MAT 06118:20 energy consumed by, MAT 06118:18-19, 23 environmental considerations, MAT 06118:2-8 indoor air quality effects, MAT 06118:21-23 industry perspective, MAT 06118:24 life cycle, MAT 06118:3 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 06118:15-19 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06118:9-15 panel production, MAT 06118:15-19 product standards, MAT 06118:20 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 06118:2324 regulatory status, MAT 06118:25 treatment, MAT 06118:19 waste produced by, MAT 06118:17-18, 20, 24 plywood adhesives application, MAT 06118:17 energy consumed by, MAT 06118:13 life cycle, MAT 06118:4 manufacture, MAT 06118:8 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06118:13-14
16
INDEX
Index
waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06118:14 waste produced by, MAT 06118:13 plywood finishes application, MAT 06118:19 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06118:13 plywood preservatives application, MAT 06118:19 life cycle, MAT 06118:5 toxicity, MAT 06118:8 PM acetate, as fireproofing solvent, MAT 07400:32 polyacrylate modified terrazzo, installation, MAT 09400:36 polyaminoamide resin, for fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 polybutylene embodied energy of, MAT 15410:29, 34 life cycle, MAT 15410:11 manufacture, MAT 15410:23, 28-29 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:20 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:20 polybutylene pipe, MAT 15410:4 energy consumption associated with, MAT 15410:29 fabrication, MAT 15410:29 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:29 polycarbonate construction, use, maintenance, and disposal stage, APP 7:22-23 embodied energy of, APP 7:22 life cycle, APP 7:20-23 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 7:22, MAT 08840:11-12 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 7:20-22 polycarbonate glazing embodied energy of, APP 7:23 environmental impact, APP 7:6-7 environmental performance, APP 7:2 indoor air quality effects, APP 7:23 manufacturers, APP 7:20 recycling, MAT 08840:25 thermal efficiency of, MAT 08840:23 polycarbonate resin manufacture, MAT 08840:8 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 08840:15-17 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:15-17 polycarbonate sheet double-walled, U factors for, MAT 08840:24 energy consumption associated with, MAT 08840:22 installation, recommendations for, MAT 08840:24 life cycle, MAT 08840:5 manufacture of, MAT 08840:20, 22 materials flow diagram, APP 7:21 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:22 polycarbonate window units, fabrication of, MAT 08840:20, 23 polyester in carpet, MAT 09680:3 dye application chemicals, MAT 12610:9-10, 13
dyes, MAT 12610:9, 15, 18 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09950:27, MAT 12610:19 finishes, MAT 12610:13-15, 19 life cycle, MAT 09680:12, MAT 12610:4-5 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:25, MAT 12610:12-14 production, MAT 09680:20, MAT 09950:19, MAT 12610:9, 17-19 recycling, APP 11:15 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 8:24 sizing, MAT 12610:10, 13 in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:26-27 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:25, MAT 09950:26, MAT 12610:13-14, 19 polyester carpet fibers environmental impact, APP 8:8 environmental performance, APP 8:2 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:23-24 polyester resin life cycle, MAT 04450:8 manufacture, MAT 04450:15-16, 19-20 materials flow diagram, APP 3:16, APP 8:24, APP 11:14 production, MAT 09400:23 waste produced and natural resources depleted by, MAT 04450:19-20 polyester wall coverings afterwashing, APP 11:16 dyeing, APP 11:15-16 environmental impacts, APP 11:5 environmental performance, APP 11:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 11:16-17 life cycle, APP 11:15-17 manufacture, APP 11:16 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 11:15-16 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 11:17 sizing for, APP 11:15 polyethylene manufacture, MAT 08840:14, MAT 09680:22 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 08840:19 production, APP 7:20 recycling, MAT 09680:38 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:19 polyethylene pipe environmental impacts, APP 10:8 environmental performance, APP 10:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 10:21 life cycle, APP 10:20-21 manufacture, APP 10:20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 10:20 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 10:21 polyethylene terephthalate energy consumption associated with, MAT 09680:26 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:26
polyglass backing, MAT 09651:7, 11, 13, 15-16 life cycle, MAT 09651:7 materials flow diagram, APP 5:14 waste produced and resources depleted by, APP 5:16 polyisocyanurate, APP 2:10, MAT 07200:2. See also insulation blowing agents, APP 2:23 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 embodied energy, estimated, APP 2:21 life cycle, APP 2:31-33 open-cell, APP 2:2-3, 13 Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacture Association, MAT 07200:12 polymeric substances, materials flow diagram, APP 5:10 polymerization, APP 7:19, APP 8:25, MAT 06240:13 polymethyl methacrylate, MAT 08840:9 polyols for carpet cushions, APP 8:28 life cycle, MAT 09680:15 polypropylene in carpet, MAT 09680:2 life cycle, MAT 09680:10 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:26 materials flow diagram, APP 8:24 production, MAT 09680:21 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:26 polypropylene carpet backing, environmental performance, APP 8:3 polypropylene carpet fibers embodied energy of, MAT 09680:43 environmental impact, APP 8:9 environmental performance, APP 8:2 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:24 polypropylene-polyethylene materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:28 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:28 polypropylene sheet, environmental impact, APP 8:9 polystyrene. See also expanded polystyrene; extruded polystyrene in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:27 embodied energy of, APP 7:23 life cycle, APP 2:29-31 production, MAT 04220:12-13, MAT 07400:21 polystyrene foam insulation embodied energy, MAT 07200:9 inserts, MAT 04220:22-23, 26-27 polyurethane as coating, manufacture, MAT 09652:21 embodied energy, APP 7:23, MAT 07200:9 life cycle, MAT 09652:13 manufacture, APP 6:17 materials flow diagram, APP 6:29 in oil-based clear finish, APP 6:29 in oil-based paint, MAT 09900:22 production, MAT 09400:17-18, MAT 09680:24, MAT 09900:16, MAT 09930:14 in varnishes, MAT 09930:20-22 in waterborne stain, APP 6:26
INDEX
17
Index
polyurethane carpet products, embodied energy of, MAT 09680:43 polyurethane foam, APP 8:27 polyurethane insulation (foam), MAT 07200:2. See also insulation; thermal insulation polyurethane insulation (spray), APP 2:2-3, 12, 23 embodied energy of, APP 2:21 life cycle, APP 2:31-33 polyvinyl acetate (PVA), APP 6:22 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09250:24 life cycle, MAT 07400:11 manufacture, MAT 07400:22 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09900:19 in polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 production, MAT 09250:20, 22-23, MAT 09900:16, MAT 09950:29 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09250:23-24 polyvinyl acetate (PVA) adhesive for fireproofing, MAT 07400:35 for plywood, MAT 06118:13 for vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:14 polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsion for fireproofing sealer, MAT 07400:36 in wall covering adhesives, MAT 09950:31-32 polyvinyl butyral film manufacturers, APP 7:24 production, APP 7:24 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) disposal of, MAT 09652:34-35 embodied energy of, APP 7:23, MAT 15410:34 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09652:24, MAT 09950:20 MAT 15410:28 environmental group perspectives on, MAT 09652:35-37 industry perspective on, MAT 09652:35 life cycle, MAT 09652:8, MAT 09680:11, MAT 15410:10 manufacture, MAT 09680:23, MAT 15410:23, 2627 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:28-29, MAT 15410:18-19 materials flow diagram, APP 8:25, 29 production, MAT 09400:22, MAT 09652:14, 18, MAT 09950:17 in terrazzo divider strips, MAT 09400:29 for vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:15-21, 26 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09652:22-24, MAT 09680:28-29, MAT 15410:19 in waterborne stain, APP 6:26 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) carpet backing environmental impact, APP 8:11 environmental performance, APP 8:3 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:25 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe, MAT 15410:4 embodied energy, APP 10:1 environmental impacts, APP 10:6 environmental performance, APP 10:2-3 fabrication of, MAT 15410:27-28 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 10:18-19 life cycle, APP 10:17-19 manufacture, APP 10:18
materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 10:17-18 materials flow diagram, APP 10:17 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 10:19 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:27 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin manufacture, MAT 09930:13 in vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:15-20 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09950:19-20 polyvinyl esters. See also vinyl acetate; vinyl chloride life cycle, MAT 09652:8 manufacture, MAT 09652:18 in vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:15 portland cement, MAT 04210:17 energy consumption associated with, MAT 03100:11, 16-17 with latex, MAT 09300:22 life cycle, MAT 03100:5, MAT 04210:8, MAT 04220:7, MAT 07400:16, MAT 09400:9 manufacture, APP 9:10, MAT 07400:3-18 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 03100:13-17 materials acquisition and preparation, MAT 03100:7-1, MAT 04220:15-17 materials flow diagram, APP 3:11-12, APP 9:9 in plaster, MAT 09200:12-14 production, MAT 03100:7, MAT 04210:11-12, MAT 07400:19-20, 26, MAT 09200:13-14, MAT 09400:16 in structural concrete, APP 9:9 types, MAT 03100:3 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 03100:10-11, 14-15, MAT 04220:16-17 Portland Cement Association, MAT 03100:21-23 portland pozzolanic cement, MAT 09200:13 pozzolan, MAT 09200:13 precast concrete (architectural), APP 3:4, 7 comparative environmental performance of, APP 3:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 3:26 life cycle, APP 3:24-26 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 3:24 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 3:24-25 materials flow diagram, APP 3:25 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 3:26 preservatives in carpet adhesives, APP 8:28 for conventional water-based paints, MAT 09900:12 for glued laminated timber, MAT 06180:5, 13-14 for glulams, APP 9:18-20 for plywood. See plywood preservatives PRF. See phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde Primary Glass Manufacturers Council, MAT 08810:18-19 prime polyurethane cushion environmental impact, APP 8:12 environmental performance, APP 8:4 manufacture, MAT 09680:36 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:27-28, MAT 09680:29 materials flow diagram, APP 8:27 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:29
primers. See substrate primers process energy, as inventory input, APDX A:17 propane, in polypropylene, APP 8:24 propylene, APP 6:18 embodied energy of, APP 7:23 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:22, APP 7:18-19, MAT 08840:14-16 production, APP 11:9, MAT 09900:18 propylene glycol manufacture, MAT 09900:16 production, MAT 09950:28-29 in stains, MAT 09930:17 in wall covering adhesives, MAT 09950:31 in waterborne paint, APP 6:21 propylene glycol ether manufacture, MAT 09900:16 in stains, MAT 09930:17 in varnishes, MAT 09930:22 in waterborne paint, APP 6:21 protective film, life cycle, MAT 08840:6 pulping, MAT 06240:9, MAT 08840:13, MAT 09950:11 pulp paper, in wallpaper, APP 11:8 PVA. See polyvinyl acetate PVC. See polyvinyl chloride pyrophyllite, MAT 09300:7, 15
Q
quality of life issues. See community health and welfare, potential impacts on quarry tiles, MAT 09300:2 quartz in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:25 life cycle, MAT 07400:15 mining, MAT 07400:19, MAT 09400:14 as pigment extender, MAT 09900:20 production, MAT 09900:16, MAT 09930:13 quartzite. See also silica mining, MAT 03100:8, MAT 08840:12 Queens Building (Leicester, UK), PROJ 1:1-9 background, PROJ 1:1-2 construction, PROJ 1:7-8 design response, PROJ 1:2-7 form, PROJ 1:2-4 heating, PROJ 1:5 lighting, PROJ 1:7 materials, PROJ 1:7 natural ventilation and cooling, PROJ 1:5-7 use and operation, PROJ 1:8-9 ventilation analysis, PROJ 1:5-6
R
Rainforest Alliance, MAT 06118:9 Real Goods Trading Corporation, See Solar Living Center, PROJ 8:1-14 recycled materials, use of, PROJ 2:7-8, PROJ 6:10-11 recycling and reuse, as improvement category, APDX A:52-53 recycling program, examples of, PROJ 11:7-8 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APDX A:11. See also reusability or recyclability of material of ABS pipe, APP 10:23 of acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:28 of alternative clear finish, APP 6:31 of alternative paint, APP 6:24 of asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:17 of brick, APP 3:13, MAT 04210:30-31 of carpet, APP 8:21, MAT 09680:43-45
18
INDEX
Index
of carpet adhesives, APP 8:31 of cast-iron pipe, APP 10:21 of cellulose, APP 2:28 of ceramic tile, APP 3:21, MAT 09300:31 of concrete, MAT 03100:20-21 of concrete masonry units, APP 3:24, MAT 04220:30 of construction debris, MAT 06118:23, PROJ 5:1415, PROJ 8:13, PROJ 10:8-9 of copper pipe, APP 10:12-13 of CPVC pipe, APP 10:19 of cullet, APP 7:11, 16 of fabrics for workstations, MAT 12610:21-22 of fiberglass, APP 2:25 of fireproofing, MAT 07400:40 of framing fasteners, APP 1:16 of galvanized steel pipe, APP 10:16-17 of glass, APP 7:11, 17-18, MAT 08810:18 of glued laminated timber, APP 9:21, MAT 06180:20-21 of gypsum board, APP 4:11, MAT 09250:35-36 of gypsum board systems, APP 4:11, MAT 09250:35-36 of heavy timber, APP 9:18 of linoleum, APP 5:16, MAT 09651:20-21 of mineral wool, APP 2:27 of non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:25 of oil-based clear finish, APP 6:30 of paint, MAT 09900:32-33 of pipe, MAT 15410:34 of plaster, MAT 09200:29, 31 of plastic laminates, MAT 06240:22-25 of plywood, MAT 06118:23-24 of polyester wall coverings, APP 11:17 of polyethylene pipe, APP 10:21 of polyisocyanurate, APP 2:33 of polystyrene, APP 2:31 of polyurethane, APP 2:33 of precast concrete, APP 3:26 of PVC pipe, APP 10:19 of stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:29 of steel framing, APP 1:15, MAT 05410:31-32 of stone veneer, APP 3:17 of structural concrete, APP 9:11 of structural steel, APP 9:15 of terrazzo, MAT 09400:38-39 of thermal insulation, MAT 07200:11-12 of traditional oil-based stain, APP 6:25 of traditional varnish, APP 6:29 of vinyl flooring, APP 5:11-12, MAT 09652:33-35 of vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:14-15 of wall coverings, MAT 09950:36-37 of wallpaper, APP 11:11 of waterborne clear finish, APP 6:31 of waterborne paint, APP 6:23 of wood framing, APP 1:11 Reeves Residence (Dewees Island, SC), PROJ 7:1-12 appliances, PROJ 7:8 building envelope, PROJ 7:6 construction, PROJ 7:11-12 cost of green products used, PROJ 7:11 design guidelines, PROJ 7:2-3 design response, PROJ 7:4-8 environmental goals, PROJ 7:3 HVAC system, PROJ 7:6-7 indoor air quality, PROJ 7:8 materials selection, PROJ 7:8-10 use and operation, PROJ 7:12
regulatory status of acoustical ceiling tiles, MAT 09510:29-32 of asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:17 of brick, MAT 04210:32 of carpet, MAT 09680:47 of ceramic tile, MAT 09300:32 of concrete, MAT 03100:23 of concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:31 of fireproofing, MAT 07400:41 of glass, MAT 08810:19-21 of glued laminated timber, MAT 06180:21 of gypsum board systems, MAT 09250:37-39 of Indiana limestone, MAT 04450:25 of lath production, MAT 09200:30-31 of linoleum, MAT 09651:22 of non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:25 of paint, MAT 09900:34 of plaster, MAT 09200:29-31 of plastic laminates, MAT 06240:25-26 of plywood, MAT 06118:25 of stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:30 of steel, MAT 05410:32-34 of steel framing, MAT 05410:32-34 of terrazzo, MAT 09400:39 of thermal insulation, MAT 07200:13-15 of vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:37 of wall coverings, MAT 09950:37-40 of wood framing, MAT 06110:23-25 reinforcing fabric, MAT 07400:3 life cycle, MAT 07400:13 manufacture, MAT 07400:25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:36 Resilient Floor Covering Institute, MAT 09652:35 resilient flooring, APP 5:1-17, MAT 09652:2. See also linoleum; vinyl flooring building design, recommendations related to, APP 5:5 comparative environmental performances of, APP 5:2 installing, APP 5:5-6 recommendations for architects, APP 5:5 specifying, recommendations, APP 5:5 resin(s). See also acrylic resin; alkyd resin; epoxy resin; phenolic resin; polyester resin; polyvinyl chloride resin; silicone resin in alternative paints, APP 6:23, MAT 09900:24-25 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06240:10 hydrocarbon, MAT 09300:21 life cycle, MAT 09400:10 materials acquisitions and preparation stage, MAT 06240:5-16 melamine, MAT 06240:5-12 in plastic laminates, MAT 06240:2-4 for varnishes, MAT 09930:19 in vinyl, MAT 09652:8 waste produced and natural resources depleted by, MAT 06240:5-10 in waterborne clear finish, APP 6:30 resinous matrices, materials for, MAT 09400:31 resinous terrazzo installation, MAT 09400:34-37 materials for installing, MAT 09400:31-32 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09400:32 resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF), MAT 06180:8 life cycle, MAT 06180:6-7 production, MAT 06180:10
resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) adhesive, APP 9:18, 20 resource availability, potential effects on, APDX A:49 resources, as inventory input, APDX A:19 reusability or recyclability of material. See also recycling, reuse, or disposal stage as impact category, APDX A:51 reuse. See recycling, reuse, or disposal stage reverberatory furnace, APP 10:12 RF. See resorcinol-formaldehyde Ridgehaven Green Office Building (San Diego, CA), PROJ 10:1-14 background, PROJ 10:1-3 building systems, PROJ 10:6-7 construction, PROJ 10:8-10 design response, PROJ 10:3-7 educational display, PROJ 10:13 energy consumption, PROJ 10:10-12 environmental and energy goals, PROJ 10:2-3 environmental specification approach, PROJ 10:4 maintenance, PROJ 10:13 materials costs, minimizing, PROJ 10:5-6 materials selection, PROJ 10:4-5 project requirements, PROJ 10:1-2 site plan, PROJ 10:2 use and operation, PROJ 10:10-14 risk and exposure, concept of, APDX A:40 rosin, used in linoleum, MAT 09651:14 rubberized jute cushion. See also jute environmental impact, APP 8:16 environmental performance, APP 8:4 manufacture, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:36-37 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:30 production, MAT 09680:24 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:30
S
safflower cultivation, MAT 09680:23, MAT 09900:13 preparation, MAT 09900:13 safflower oil, preparation, MAT 09680:24 salt, in PVC, APP 10:17, APP 11:11 sand, MAT 09200:14-15. See also glass sand acquisition and preparation, MAT 09200:14-15 for brickmaking, MAT 04210:12, 15, 23 in concrete, MAT 03100:11 mining, MAT 03100:8, MAT 07400:22-23, MAT 09900:15, MAT 09930:12-13 in mortar, MAT 04210:17-18 processing, MAT 07400:23 in structural concrete, APP 9:9 in terrazzo, MAT 09400:25 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09200:14-15 sandstone, MAT 04450:3 mining, MAT 03100:8 sawdust, precautions for, MAT 06118:8 scoping, in life cycle assessment approach to, APDX A:11-13 definition of, APDX A:3 procedures for, APDX A:14 scrap iron, in steel, APP 9:12-13 scrap steel, MAT 05410:8, 31-32
INDEX
19
Index
sealants for carpeting, low-VOC, APP 8:20 indoor air quality effects, APP 7:17, MAT 09680:40-41 life cycle, MAT 08840:7 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 08840:17-18 for polycarbonate glazing, APP 7:23 sealers for fireproofing, MAT 07400:3 low-VOC, PROJ 10:5 manufacture, MAT 07400:25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:36 for terrazzo, MAT 09400:26-27, 31-32 seeding, MAT 09200:2 SETAC impact assessment approaches of, APDX A:25-36 impact assessment categories of, APDX A:39 sewage and waste systems, examples of, PROJ 8:11, PROJ 9:8-9 sgraffito, MAT 09200:2 shale, MAT 04210:10-15, MAT 04220:10-14. See also clay sheep dipping of, APP 11:17, MAT 09680:18, MAT 12610:7 foraging of, APP 11:17, MAT 09680:18, MAT 12610:7 sheet vinyl. See vinyl sheet flooring shellac, production, APP 6:24, MAT 09900:25 sick building syndrome, MAT 03100:19, MAT 07400:39, MAT 09510:27-28, PROJ 4:10 siderites, MAT 04220:18 siderosis, MAT 07400:27 sieve bends, MAT 09250:23 silica in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30, 32 dust, MAT 09200:15 in glass, APP 7:14 mining and processing, MAT 03100:8, MAT 09200:12, MAT 09300:11, MAT 09400:14, MAT 09680:24-25 in portland cement, APP 9:9, MAT 03100:7 in waterborne stain, APP 6:26 silica dust, MAT 07400:30 silicic acid in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:29 life cycle, MAT 07400:11 waste produced by, MAT 07400:30 silico-fluorides, for mothproofing wool, APP 11:17 silicon carbide, production, MAT 09300:12 silicone(s) manufacture, MAT 09900:17 materials flow diagram, APP 6:18 in oil-based paints, APP 6:17, MAT 09900:23 silicone elastomer materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 08840:18 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 08840:18 silicone resin life cycle, MAT 04450:8, MAT 08840:7 manufacture, MAT 08840:12-13, MAT 09900:17 materials flow diagram for, APP 3:16 in oil-based paint, MAT 09900:22 production, MAT 04450:15, 18-19
waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 04450:19 sinter, APP 10:14 site-specific exposure/effects assessment, APDX A:36 sizing for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 for wool wall coverings, APP 11:17 sizing, production, MAT 09680:20 slag, MAT 03100:11-12, MAT 04220:10-15, MAT 07400:29, MAT 09510:13-14 recycling, MAT 09510:9 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09510:13-14 slate, MAT 04450:3 SmartWood Program, MAT 06118:9 smelting, APP 10:12 smog, APP 6:20 soaps in concrete, APP 9:10 in polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 in vinyl products, APP 10:18 soda ash, MAT 08810:11-13 in dyes, APP 8:24 in glass, APP 7:14 mining, MAT 08810:7 for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 processing and calcining, MAT 08810:7-8 sodium nitrate production, MAT 09950:28 in wall covering adhesives, MAT 09950:30-31 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09950:31 softwood plywood applications, MAT 06118:20 background, MAT 06118:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 06118:20 embodied energy, MAT 06118:19 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06118:13-15 preservatives for, MAT 06118:8 soil-release carpet treatment application, MAT 09680:35 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:32-33 Solar Living Center (Hopland, CA), PROJ 8:1-14 background, PROJ 8:1-2 building design, PROJ 8:5-9 construction, PROJ 8:12-13 context of, PROJ 8:2-3 corporate sponsors, PROJ 8:12 design response, PROJ 8:2-11 energy system, PROJ 8:4-5, 9-11, 14 energy use, PROJ 8:14 floor plan, PROJ 8:5 landscape design, PROJ 8:4 lighting, PROJ 8:8-9 materials selection, PROJ 8:9-11 sanitary systems, PROJ 8:11 site design, PROJ 8:3-5 site plan, PROJ 8:4 thermal load analysis, PROJ 8:11 thermal systems, PROJ 8:6-8, 13 use and operation, PROJ 8:13-14 water supply systems, PROJ 8:11 soldering materials, MAT 15410:31 acquisition, MAT 15410:16 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT
15410:29-30 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:20-21 for plumbing pipe, APP 10:13 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:21, 30 solid wastes and sludges from acoustical ceiling systems, regulation of, MAT 09510:31-32 definition of, APDX A:20 from steel manufacturing, MAT 05410:34 from wood framing, MAT 06110:24 solvent(s) in alternative clear finish, APP 6:31 effects, APP 6:24 for intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 life cycle, MAT 07400:11 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:35 in oil-based paints, APP 6:16, 18, MAT 09900:21 production, MAT 09950:29 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 6:29 in wall covering adhesives, MAT 09950:32 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09950:32 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33-34 in waterborne stain, APP 6:26 solvent-based inks, for wallpaper, APP 11:9 solvent cementing, MAT 15410:31-32 solvent cement system components life cycle, MAT 15410:10 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 15410:16, 21 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:21 solvent cleaners, MAT 15410:32-33 solvent welding, APP 10:18 soya lecithin, production, APP 6:24 soybean, MAT 09930:10 cultivation, MAT 09680:23, MAT 09900:13 soybean-based proteinaceous glue, MAT 06118:14 soybean oil preparation, MAT 09680:24, MAT 09900:13, MAT 09930:10 production, MAT 09652:19 species, individual, effects on. See habitat, loss or alteration of sponge rubber cushion environmental impact, APP 8:15 environmental performance, APP 8:4 manufacture, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:36 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:29 production, MAT 09680:24 sprayed-fiber fireproofing background, MAT 07400:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 07400:37-38 environmental considerations, MAT 07400:18 indoor air quality effects, MAT 07400:39 life cycle, MAT 07400:7 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:31 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:31 weight, MAT 07400:38
20
INDEX
Index
stabilizers and costabilizers, MAT 09652:24-25 in adobe, MAT 04210:19-20 life cycle, MAT 09652:9 materials flow diagram, APP 5:9 stain-resist carpet treatment application, MAT 09680:35 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:32-33 stains. See also stains and varnishes life cycle, MAT 09930:4-6 low-VOC, PROJ 10:5 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09930:9-18 oil-based. See oil-based stains traditional, MAT 09930:9-15 waste produced and resources depleted by, in materials acquisition and processing, MAT 09930:14-15, 17 waterborne. See waterborne stains stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:1-8 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09930:25-28 embodied energy, MAT 09930:28 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09930:27-28 manufacturing stage, MAT 09930:23-25 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 09930:29 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09930:24-27, 29 starch, MAT 09510:15 for intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 processing, MAT 09250:22-23 production, MAT 07400:23, 31, MAT 09510:10 for wallpaper adhesives, APP 11:10 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09250:24 waste produced by, MAT 07400:31 stearic acid, in concrete, APP 9:10 stearic acid/stearates, production, MAT 03100:3, 8-9, MAT 04220:12, 21-22, MAT 09652:18-19 energy consumption associated with, MAT 04220:22 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 04220:22 steel embodied energy of, APP 9:14 energy consumption associated with, APP 1:1213, 16, MAT 05410:9, 12-13, 15-17, 19, 21, 25-27, MAT 06110:10-12 furnaces for, APP 9:14 hot-rolled, APP 10:16 versus iron, APP 10:21 life cycle, MAT 15410:8 manufacture, MAT 15410:22, 24 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 1:13, 16, MAT 04450:13, MAT 05410:2-3, 22-29, 3334, MAT 06110:11, MAT 09150:23 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 05410:4-21, 32-33, MAT 15410:12-17, 32-33 recycling, APP 10:15 regulatory status, MAT 05410:32-34 scrap, MAT 05410:8, 31-32 for structural framing. See structural steel waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 15410:8-21, 25-27 zinc-coated, in terrazzo divider strips, MAT 09400:29 steel divider strip, manufacture, MAT 09400:19
steel fasteners, APP 1:5. See also steel life cycle, APP: 16, MAT 05410:5, MAT 06110:4 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 06110:16, 19-20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06110:10-12 steel framing, APP 1:1, 4, MAT 05410:1-4. See also steel annealing, MAT 05410:24 choosing, recommendations for, APP 1:6 comparative environmental performance, APP 1:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 1:14-15, MAT 05410:29-31, 34 energy consumption associated with, APP 1:12, MAT 05410:9, 12-13, 25-27, 31 with exterior extruded polystyrene foam insulation, APP 1:2 fasteners, APP 1:5, 16 galvanizing, MAT 05410:24-25 hot and cold rolling, MAT 05410:24 indoor air quality effects, MAT 05410:31 life cycle, APP 1:11-15, MAT 04450:7, MAT 05410:5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 1:1314, MAT 05410:3, 24-25, 33-34 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 1:11-13, MAT 05410:4-21, 32-33 painting, MAT 05410:24-25 recommendations for architects, APP 1:6-7 reducing material use with, recommendations for, APP 1:6 regulatory status, MAT 05410:32-34 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 1:15, MAT 05410:31-32 tempering, MAT 05410:24 using materials wisely, recommendations for, APP 1:6-7 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 05410:8-9, 25-27, 31 steel furnaces, APP 10:15-16 steel lath. See also steel energy consumption associated with, APP 4:14, MAT 09200:21-22, 26 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09200:20, 25-27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 4:12, MAT 09200:18-22 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09200:18-21, 26-27 steel pipes, MAT 15410:2 steel suspension systems construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09510:26 life cycle, MAT 09510:4 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09510:7, 21-23 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09510:7, 17-18 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 09510:29 waste produced by, MAT 09510:26-27 stone curtain walls. See also stone veneer construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 3:17, MAT 04450:22-24 energy consumption associated with, MAT 04450:24 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 04450:23 stone panels, prefabricated, MAT 04450:9, 20, 22-23
stone veneer, APP 3:4, MAT 04450:1-9. See also stone curtain walls adhesives, MAT 04450:8, 18-20 comparative environmental performance of, APP 3:2 energy consumption associated with, MAT 04450:17-20, 22 frameworks for. See aluminum framing; steel framing life cycle, APP 3:13-17, MAT 04450:5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 3:17, MAT 04450:20-22 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 3:14-16, MAT 04450:9-20 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 3:17, MAT 04450:24 waste produced and natural resources depleted by, MAT 04450:17-20, 22 straw, MAT 04210:14, 20 straw-bale construction, PROJ 8:6 stressors, concept of, APDX A:37 structural concrete embodied energy in, APP 9:11 environmental impact, APP 9:3 environmental performance, APP 9:2 indoor air quality effects, APP 9:11 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 9:11 life cycle, APP 9:9-11 manufacture, APP 9:10-11 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 9:9-10 materials flow diagram, APP 9:9 recommendations for, APP 9:7 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 9:11 structural framing, APP 9:1-22 comparative environmental performance, APP 9:2 life cycles, APP 9:9-21 selecting, recommendations for, APP 9:7 using, recommendations for, APP 9:7-8 structural steel. See also steel environmental impact, APP 9:4 environmental performance, APP 9:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 9:14-15 life cycle, APP 9:12-15 manufacture, APP 9:14 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 9:12-13 materials flow diagram, APP 9:12-13 from mini-mills, APP 9:7 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 9:15 and thermal performance of building envelope, APP 9:14-15 structural terrazzo. See terrazzo styrene, APP 6:18, MAT 09300:20-21 in ABS, MAT 15410:28 in carpet, MAT 09680:39 effects, APP 10:22, MAT 09680:4, 27, 39 in fireproofing, MAT 07400:18 production, APP 10:22, MAT 07310:9, MAT 09300:14, MAT 09680:27, MAT 09900:16, MAT 15410:16 styrene acrylic latex, MAT 09300:7, 21
INDEX
21
Index
styrene butadiene life cycle, MAT 09652:12 manufacture, MAT 07310:9, MAT 09651:6, 12-13, MAT 09652:20 production, MAT 09680:22 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09651:16 in waterborne paint, APP 6:21 styrene butadiene latex, MAT 09300:7, 21 in carpet adhesives, MAT 09680:30 carpet backing, environmental performance, APP 8:3 life cycle, MAT 09680:10 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:25, MAT 09680:27-28, MAT 09900:19 materials flow diagram, APP 8:25 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:27-28 styrene butadiene rubber, MAT 09680:29 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:31 substrate primers for fireproofing, MAT 07400:3, 37 manufacture, MAT 07400:24 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:35 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 07400:35 substrates, in vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:12, 26 sulfite paper, in wallpaper, APP 11:8 sulfonated aromatic aldehyde condensation products, MAT 09680:32 sulfur in dyes, APP 8:24 well drilling for, MAT 09680:20 sulfur for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 sulfur dioxide from copper production, APP 10:12, MAT 15410:26 effects, MAT 07400:26 from fireproofing, MAT 07400:26 from fuel combustion, MAT 08840:14, 22, MAT 09680:4, MAT 09900:18, MAT 15410:17, 25 from plywood manufacture, MAT 06118:18 from wood waste disposal, MAT 06118:7 surface preparation materials, for terrazzo, MAT 09400:26, 31 surfactants for conventional water-based paints, MAT 09900:12 production, APP 6:22 sustainable forestry, APP 9:16, MAT 06118:7, 9-14 synthesis gas, and polycarbonate resin production, MAT 08840:17 synthetic fiber cushion environmental impact, APP 8:14 environmental performance, APP 8:4 manufacture, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:36 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:28, MAT 09680:29 production, MAT 09680:24 synthetic resins, in oil-based paint, APP 6:16
T
talc, MAT 09250:26-27, MAT 09300:10-15 as filler, life cycle, MAT 09652:10 milling, MAT 09250:27 mining, MAT 09250:20 as pigment extender, MAT 09900:20 production, MAT 09900:16 tallow, production, MAT 03100:12 tannery operations, hair save, MAT 09200:8, 15-16 TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), MAT 09652:23 effects, APP 10:18, APP 11:12 terrazzo, MAT 09400:1-13 aggregate in, production, MAT 09400:11 chips, sizing standards, MAT 09400:24 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09400:34-38 divider strips, MAT 09400:6-7, 27-31 industry perspectives on, MAT 09400:39 installation, MAT 09400:34-35 life cycle, MAT 09400:5 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09400:32-33 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09400:13-32 polyethylene inserts, MAT 09400:7 precast, installation, MAT 09400:37 recycling, reuse, and maintenance stage, MAT 09400:38-39 types, MAT 09400:2-3, 34-35 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09400:33, 37-38 tetrahydrofuran, effects, MAT 15410:21 thermal insulation, MAT 07200:1-3. See also insulation construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 07200:9-11 energy consumption associated with, MAT 07200:6, 9 industry perspectives on, MAT 07200:12-13 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 07200:6-8 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07200:4-6 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 07200:1112 resources depleted by, in processing, MAT 07200:6 types of, MAT 07200:2 waste produced, MAT 07200:5-6, 8-9 thermal systems, examples of, PROJ 8:6-8, 13, PROJ 12:5-7 Thoreau Center for Sustainability (Presidio of San Francisco, CA), PROJ 5:1-15 background, PROJ 5:1-2 construction, PROJ 5:14 design response, PROJ 5:5 energy analysis, PROJ 5:9-10 environmental goals, PROJ 5:2 lighting design, PROJ 5:10 materials selection, PROJ 5:11-13 mechanical and electrical systems, PROJ 5:7-8 photovoltaics, PROJ 5:8 recycled waste materials, PROJ 5:15 use and operation, PROJ 5:14-15 tile. See also ceramic tile; vinyl tile unglazed ceramic mosaic, MAT 09300:2 Tile Council of America, Inc, MAT 09300:32
timber. See also heavy timber salvaged, APP 9:8, 16 timber framing, metal connectors for, APP 9:8 timber harvesting, APP 9:15-16, APP 11:8, MAT 06118:10 runoff from, APP 9:16 waste produced by, APP 9:16 timber hauling, MAT 06118:10 titanium dioxide, MAT 09300:22-24, MAT 09651:14 in alternative paint, APP 6:23 in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:26 effects, APP 11:9-10 energy consumption associated with, MAT 04220:20 life cycle, MAT 09652:11 manufacture, MAT 07400:27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:18 mining and processing, MAT 04220:19 for polyester wall coverings, APP 11:15 production, APP 6:22, MAT 09900:15 in PVC pipe, APP 10:18 for wallpaper, APP 11:9 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 04220:19-20 in waterborne paint, APP 6:21 toluene, MAT 09900:22 effects, MAT 07400:34 as fireproofing solvent, MAT 07400:32 in oil-based paint, APP 6:16 production, MAT 07400:24 waste produced by, MAT 07400:34 toluene diisocyanate life cycle, MAT 09680:15 in oil-based clear finish, APP 6:29 in oil-based paint, APP 6:17 in polyurethane carpet cushions, APP 8:27 in varnishes, MAT 09930:20 topcoats for fireproofing, MAT 07400:3 life cycle, MAT 07400:13 manufacture, MAT 07400:25 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 07400:36 toxicity in human health impact category, APDX A:50 persistence, and bioaccumulation assessment, APDX A:36 transportation energy, as inventory input, APDX A:18 traprock cleaning, MAT 07400:21 mining, MAT 07400:21, 29 processing, MAT 07400:18 treatments, for plywood, MAT 06118:13-15, 19 tricalcium silicate, MAT 03100:13 1,1,1-Trichloroethane, MAT 09680:4-5 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:31-32 production, MAT 09680:24 in seam sealant, APP 8:29-30 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:32 trona, MAT 08810:11-13 mining, MAT 09680:20, MAT 12610:8 tropical woods, MAT 06118:6 tufting, in carpet manufacture, MAT 09680:35 custom, MAT 09680:35
22
INDEX
Index
tung oil in alternative paints, MAT 09900:25 preparation, MAT 09900:13 production, APP 6:27 tung, preparation, MAT 09930:10 TXIB (2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol-diisobutyrate), MAT 09652:31
U
University of British Columbia, C.K. Choi Building, PROJ 9:1-12 urea embodied energy of, APP 7:23 as fireproofing blowing agent, MAT 07400:32 manufacture, MAT 07400:18 waste produced by, MAT 07400:33 urea-formaldehyde, APP 9:18, MAT 06180:12 in asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:8 indoor air quality effects, MAT 06118:21 life cycle, MAT 06180:6-7 manufacture, MAT 06118:8 in polyester wall coverings, APP 11:16 production, MAT 06118:12, MAT 06180:12 regulatory status, MAT 07200:14 users, potential impacts on, APDX A:50 user values, ERG identification of, APDX A:6-7 use stage, adaptations for AIA materials reports, APDX A:5-6
V
valuation concept of, APDX A:37-40 used in AIA ERG, APDX A:42 varnishes. See also stains and varnishes alternative/natural, MAT 09930:22-23 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09930:20 life cycle, MAT 09930:7-8 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09930:18-23 nontraditional, APP 6:1 traditional, APP 6:2, 10, 27-29, MAT 09930:18-20 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09930:20-23 veneer plaster topcoat, for fireproofing, MAT 07400:3, 36 veneer, preparation, MAT 06118:15-16 venetian terrazzo. See terrazzo ventilation analysis, methods for, PROJ 1:5-7 during carpet installation, APP 8:21 examples of, PROJ 3:6, PROJ 4:4 natural, examples of, PROJ 1:5-7, PROJ 5:5, PROJ 9:5-6 and paint application, APP 6:21 vent piping, environmental performance, APP 10:3 vermiculite, APP 2:17 comparative environmental performance of, APP 2:2-3 in concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:25 exfoliation, MAT 07400:19, 26 life cycle, APP 2:34, MAT 07400:14 mining, MAT 07400:19
vinyl definition, APP 11:11 manufacture, APP 6:26 materials flow diagram, APP 6:27, APP 11:12 in waterborne stain, APP 6:26 vinyl acetate, MAT 09250:22-24 in carpet adhesives, APP 8:29 in exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:28 in fireproofing, MAT 07400:18 manufacture, MAT 09652:8, 17 from polyvinyl acetate manufacture, MAT 09900:19 waste produced by, MAT 07400:29 vinyl chloride effects, APP 8:25 manufacture, MAT 09400:21-22, MAT 09652:8, 15, 17, MAT 09680:22 vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), MAT 09652:15, 2223 effects, APP 10:18, APP 11:12 vinyl composition tile, MAT 09652:2, 6, 28-29 vinyl copolymer emulsion, for fireproofing, MAT 07400:32 4-Vinylcyclohexene, MAT 09680:27, 39 vinyl flooring, APP 5:3, MAT 09652:1-15 comparative environmental performance of, APP 5:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 5:11, MAT 09652:29-32 embodied energy, APP 5:11 energy consumption associated with, MAT 09652:24-25, 32 fillers, MAT 09652:10, 19, 25-26 finishes, MAT 09652:13, 27 foam layer in, MAT 09652:26 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09652:30-32 life cycle, APP 5:7-12, MAT 09652:3-13 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 5:10, MAT 09652:27-29 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 5:7-10, MAT 09652:15-27 materials flow diagram, APP 5:8 organization perspectives, MAT 09652:35-37 plasticizers and stabilizers in, MAT 09652:9, 19, 24-25 regulatory status, MAT 09652:37 resins in, MAT 09652:8 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 5:11-12, MAT 09652:33-35 substrates in, MAT 09652:12, 26 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09652:22-24, 30, 33-35 vinyl polymer, in stains, MAT 09930:17 vinyl sheet flooring, MAT 09652:2-5, 27-28, 31. See also vinyl flooring vinyl tile, MAT 09652:2, 7, 29. See also vinyl composition tile; vinyl flooring vinyl toluene, APP 6:18-19 production, MAT 09900:23 vinyl wall coverings, MAT 09950:9 environmental impacts, APP 11:4 environmental performance, APP 11:2 fillers, MAT 09950:21 indoor air quality effects, APP 11:14 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 11:14 life cycle, APP 11:11-15, MAT 09950:5-7
manufacture, APP 11:14 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 11:11-14, MAT 09950:15-27 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 11:14-15 VOC (volatile organic compound) emissions from concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:27 effects, MAT 07400:26 from fireproofing, MAT 07400:18, 26, 39 from petroleum cracking, APP 10:22, APP 11:9 from polyester production, APP 11:15 from PVA production, APP 11:14 from PVC pipe, APP 10:19 from veneer dryer, MAT 06118:18 from vinyl chloride, APP 11:12 from vinyl wall coverings, APP 11:14 from wood waste disposal, MAT 06118:7 VOC (volatile organic compound) emissions from acoustical ceiling tiles, MAT 09510:1, 6, 13, 15, 26-27 from alternative clear finish production, APP 6:31 from carpet, APP 8:30, MAT 09680:5, 39-40, 42 from ceramic tile, MAT 09800:3, 9-10 from d-limonene, APP 6:24 from ethylene production, APP 6:21, MAT 09680:28 from fuel combustion, MAT 09680:30, MAT 09900:18, MAT 15410:17 from glue laminated timber, MAT 06180:3, 7 from glycol manufacture, MAT 09900:18 from gypsum board system joint compound, MAT 09250:32 from gypsum board systems, MAT 09250:1, 15-16, 23-24, 34, 36 indoor air quality effects, APP 6:20, MAT 07200:10-11 from linoleum, MAT 09651:16, 18, 20 from linseed oil preparation, MAT 08840:18 from modern oil-based stain, APP 6:26 from oil-based clear finish production, APP 6:30 from oil-based paints, APP 6:16, 20-21 from paint, MAT 09510:16, MAT 09900:29-30 from paint curing, APP 6:23 from petroleum processing, MAT 09680:4 from pipe maintenance chemicals, MAT 15410:33 from plaster and lath, MAT 09200:2, 11 from plastic glazing sealants, MAT 08840:25 from plastic laminates, MAT 06240:4 from polycarbonate sheet manufacture, MAT 08840:22 from propylene production, MAT 08840:14 from sealants, APP 7:23 from stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:14-15, 21, 23, 26-27 from terrazzo, MAT 09400:1-2, 28 from varnish production, APP 6:28 from vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:30-32 from wall covering adhesives, MAT 09950:31 from wall coverings, MAT 09950:20, 26, 39-40
INDEX
23
Index
W
wall coverings, APP 11:1-18, MAT 09950:1-10 adhesives for, MAT 09950:3, 27 alternative, APP 11:7 construction, use, and maintenance stage, MAT 09950:34-36 environmental impacts, APP 11:3-6 environmental performance, APP 11:2 indoor air quality effects, MAT 09950:35-36 maintenance, recommendations for, APP 11:7 manufacturing and fabrication stage, MAT 09950:32-34, 39-40 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09950:10-32, 38-39 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, MAT 09950:3637 selecting, recommendations for, APP 11:7 types of, MAT 09950:2-3 vinyl. See vinyl wall coverings waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09950:33-35 wall finishes, APP 4:1-15. See also gypsum board systems; plaster and lath system building design, recommendations for, APP 4:5 comparative environmental performance, APP 4:2 installation, recommendations for, APP 4:5-6 life cycle, APP 4:7-14 recommendations for architects, APP 4:5-6 specifying, recommendations for, APP 4:6 wallpaper, MAT 09950:3-9 environmental impacts, APP 11:3 environmental performance, APP 11:2 indoor air quality effects, APP 11:11 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 11:11 life cycle, APP 11:8-11, MAT 09950:4 manufacture, APP 11:10 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 11:8-10, MAT 09950:10-15 patterns, recommendations for, APP 11:11 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 11:11 washing solution, APP 8:26 waste piping, environmental performance, APP 10:3 waste production and resource depletion, associated with acrylic acid, MAT 08840:9 acrylic polymer, MAT 09651:16 acrylic resin, MAT 07400:35-36 acrylic window units, MAT 08840:22 acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, MAT 15410:1920, 28 admixtures, MAT 03100:12-13 adobe brick, MAT 04210:10 aggregate, MAT 03100:11-12 alpha-cellulose paper, MAT 06240:18-19 aluminum ore, MAT 07400:29 asphalt, MAT 07310:11-12 asphalt shingles, MAT 07310:15-16 basalt and diabase rock, MAT 09510:13 binders, MAT 09900:19, 22-23 bonded urethane cushions, MAT 09680:29 brazing materials, MAT 15410:21, 30 brick, MAT 04210:14-16, 19-20, 24-25, 27-30 butyl acetate, MAT 07400:33 calcium formate, MAT 07400:30 carpet, MAT 09680:35, 38 carpet cushions, MAT 09680:37 carpet treatments, MAT 09680:35
carriers, MAT 09900:22, 24 ceiling panels and tiles, MAT 09510:21, 26 cellulose, MAT 09510:14 cementitious matrices, MAT 09400:26 ceramic tile, MAT 09300:15, 17-18, 20-24, 26, 28, 30 chlorinated paraffins, MAT 07400:33 chromium, MAT 05410:18-19 clay, MAT 09510:15 coke, MAT 07400:29 concealed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:26-28 concrete, MAT 03100:18-21 concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:15, 19-24, 26, 28 conventional water-based paints, MAT 09900:1819 copper, MAT 09400:29, MAT 15410:17-18, 25-26 cotton, MAT 09950:25 crude oil, MAT 06240:15-16 dimension stone, MAT 04450:17 dyeing, APP 8:26, MAT 09680:27, 34 epoxy resin, MAT 07400:33, MAT 09200:16 ethylene glycol, MAT 09250:29 ethylene glycol monobutyl ether, MAT 07400:34 ethylene vinyl acetate, MAT 09680:31 exposed cementitious fireproofing, MAT 07400:29-30 fabrics for workstations, MAT 12610:20, 22 fillers, MAT 09680:32 fireproofing, MAT 07400:38 fireproofing adhesives, MAT 07400:35-36 foamed magnesium oxychloride fireproofing, MAT 07400:30-31 formaldehyde, MAT 06240:12 glass, APP 7:16, MAT 08810:16-17 glass fiber, MAT 07400:29 glass sand, MAT 08810:9-10 glued laminated timber, MAT 06180:8, 13-14, 1721 gypsum, MAT 09200:11-12, MAT 09250:10-12, 21-22 gypsum board, MAT 09200:22-24, 26-27, MAT 09250:10-12, 30-31 gypsum board systems, MAT 09250:10-12, 14-17, 21-24, 28-34 high-density polyethylene, MAT 09400:30 intumescent mastic fireproofing, MAT 07400:3234 iron ore, MAT 05410:8-9, MAT 15410:12-17 iron oxide pigments, MAT 04210:16 isopropyl alcohol, MAT 07400:33 kraft paper, MAT 08840:18-19 latex acrylic emulsion, MAT 09680:31 lath, MAT 09200:17-24 limestone, MAT 05410:14-15, MAT 08810:11, MAT 09200:8-9 linoleum, MAT 09651:14-19 logging, MAT 06110:6-10 lumber and lumber milling, MAT 06110:13-14 magnesium chloride, MAT 07400:30-31 manganese ore, MAT 04210:17, MAT 05410:17 marble and mineral chips, MAT 09400:24-25 melamine, MAT 06240:11-12, MAT 07400:33 melamine resin, MAT 07400:33 metal suspension systems, MAT 09510:26-27 methyl methacrylate, MAT 08840:9-14 minerals, MAT 07310:12-13
mineral wool, MAT 09510:11-12 mortar, MAT 04210:25 neoprene, MAT 09400:30 nickel, MAT 05410:16 non-glass glazing, MAT 08840:25 nylon, MAT 09680:17-25 oil-based caulk, MAT 08840:18 oil-based paint, APP 6:19 oils, MAT 09900:25 paint, MAT 09510:16, MAT 09900:27, 29, 32-33 paint additives, MAT 09900:23 paper, MAT 09200:22-24, MAT 09250:14-16 perlite, MAT 09510:16 phenol, MAT 06240:14-15 phenolic resin, MAT 06240:13 pigments, MAT 09900:20 pipe, MAT 15410:32-33 plaster, MAT 09200:8-11, 13-17, 28-29 plastic laminates, MAT 06240:20, 22 plastic pipe, MAT 15410:27 plywood, MAT 06118:17-18, 20, 24 plywood adhesives, MAT 06118:13-14 polybutylene, MAT 15410:20 polybutylene pipe, MAT 15410:29 polycarbonate resin, MAT 08840:15-17 polycarbonate sheet, MAT 08840:22 polyester, MAT 09680:25, MAT 09950:26, MAT 12610:13-14, 19 polyester resin, MAT 04450:19-20 polyethylene, MAT 08840:19 polyglass backing, APP 5:16 polypropylene, MAT 09680:26 polypropylene-polyethylene, MAT 09680:28 polyvinyl acetate, MAT 09250:23-24 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), MAT 09652:22-24, MAT 09680:28-29, MAT 09950:19-20, MAT 15410:19 portland cement, MAT 03100:10-11, 14-15, MAT 04220:16-17, MAT 09200:13-14 prime polyurethane cushions, MAT 09680:29 resinous terrazzo, MAT 09400:32 resins, MAT 06240:5-10 rubberized jute cushions, MAT 09680:30 sand, MAT 09200:14-15 shale, MAT 04210:14-15 silicic acid, MAT 07400:30 silicone elastomer, MAT 08840:18 silicone resin, MAT 04450:19 slag, MAT 09510:13-14 soda ash, MAT 08810:12-13 soldering materials, MAT 15410:21, 30 solvent cement system components, MAT 15410:21 solvents, MAT 07400:33-34, MAT 09950:32 sprayed-fiber fireproofing, MAT 07400:31 stains and varnishes, MAT 09930:14-15, 17, 24-27, 29 starch, MAT 07400:31, MAT 09250:24 stearic acid/stearates, MAT 04220:22 steel, MAT 05410:8-12, 14-21, 25-27, MAT 15410:12-17 steel framing, MAT 05410:8-9, 25-27, 31 steel lath, MAT 09200:18-21, 26-27 steel pipes, MAT 15410:25 stone curtain walls, MAT 04450:23 stone veneer, MAT 04450:17-20, 22 straw, MAT 04210:20 styrene butadiene, MAT 09651:16
24
INDEX
Index
styrene butadiene latex, MAT 09680:27-28 substrate primers, MAT 07400:35 terrazzo, MAT 09400:33, 37-38 thermal insulation, MAT 07200:5-6, 8-9 timber harvesting, APP 9:16 titanium dioxide, MAT 04220:19-20 toluene, MAT 07400:34 traditional oil-based stain, APP 6:25 1,1,1-trichloroethane, MAT 09680:32 urea, MAT 07400:33 varnishes, MAT 09930:20-23 vinyl acetate, MAT 07400:29 vinyl flooring, MAT 09652:22-24, 30, 33-35 wall coverings, MAT 09950:33-35 wood, MAT 06118:9-14 wood framing, MAT 06110:16, 19-21 wool, MAT 09680:26, MAT 12610:11-12, 17 xylenes, MAT 07400:34 zinc, MAT 05410:20-21 waste recycling systems, examples of, PROJ 4:7 Waste Watch Center, MAT 09900:32 water in concrete masonry units, MAT 04220:22 as inventory input, APDX A:19 waterborne clear finishes construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:31 environmental impact, APP 6:12 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle, APP 6:30-31 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:30-31 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 6:31 waterborne paints construction, use, and maintenance stage: for alternative paint, APP 6:22-23, 24; for conventional paint by conventional paint, MAT 09900:22-23 effects on humans, MAT 09900:30 embodied energy of, conventional paint, MAT 09900:31 environmental impact, APP 6:5 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle: APP 6:21-24, MAT 09900:5 low- and no-VOC, APP 6:23 manufacturing: for alternative paint, APP 6:24, MAT 09900:26-28 manufacturing: for conventional paint, APP 6:22, MAT 09900:26-28 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:21-22 materials acquisition and preparation stage: for alternative paint, APP 6:23-24, MAT 09900:23-26 materials acquisition and preparation stage: for conventional paint, APP 6:21-22, MAT 09900:12, 18-20 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 6:23 waste produced and resources depleted: by alternative paints, MAT 09900:24-25; waterborne stains construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 6:27 environmental performance, APP 6:2 life cycle, APP 6:26-27 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 6:26-27
modern, MAT 09930:17-18 modern, environmental impact, APP 6:9 waterborne varnishes, modern, MAT 09930:21-22 waterborne wastes, as inventory output, APDX A:20 water heaters, examples of, PROJ 9:9 water pollution with acoustical ceiling systems, MAT 09510:30-31 with cement production, MAT 03100:16 with CPVC production, MAT 15410:27 with dyeing, MAT 09680:35 with ethylene production, APP 6:21-22 with logging, MAT 06110:23 with plywood adhesive manufacture, MAT 06118:8 with polyester production, APP 11:15 with propylene production, APP 6:22 with steel, MAT 05410:32-33 with wood framing, MAT 06110:23-24 with wool manufacture, APP 11:18 water quality and availability, potential impacts on, APDX A:48 water supply systems, examples of, PROJ 8:11, PROJ 9:8-9 wax, in varnishes, MAT 09930:22 welding, APP 10:16 white liquor, MAT 09250:14 white mineral oil. See petroleum process oil window frames, low-conductivity, APP 7:10 windows. See also fenestration design air leakage rates for, recommendations for, APP 7:10 high-performance, APP 7:10 installation, APP 7:11 metal-frame, thermal breaks for, APP 7:9 operable, APP 7:10 salvaged, APP 7:11, 17-18 solar control film for, PROJ 10:6 use of, examples of, PROJ 9:5-6 wood. See also lumber and lumber milling arsenical-treated, EPA precautions for, MAT 06180:18-19 coated, recycling, APP 6:31 effective use, MAT 06118:7 embodied energy, MAT 06118:6 energy consumed by, MAT 06118:14 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 06118:9-14 pentachlorophenol-treated, EPA precautions for, MAT 06180:19 preserving, MAT 06118:17 treated, precautions with, MAT 06118:8 waste, MAT 06118:7 waste produced by, MAT 06118:9-14 wood ash, disposal of, MAT 06118:17 wood dust, APP 9:17 from glued laminated timber production, APP 9:21 wood flour, MAT 09651:14 wood framing, APP 1:1, 3, MAT 06110:1-6. See also glued laminated timber; logging choosing, recommendations for, APP 1:6 comparative environmental performance, APP 1:2 construction, use, and maintenance stage, APP 1:10-11, MAT 06110:20-21, 24-25 energy consumption associated with, MAT 06110:10-12, 16, 20-21, 24 fasteners, MAT 06110:10-12. See also steel fasteners
indoor air quality effects, MAT 06110:21 life cycle, APP 1:8-11, MAT 06110:3 lumber for, APP 1:10, MAT 06110:6-10, 12-16 manufacturing and fabrication stage, APP 1:9-10, MAT 06110:12-20 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 1:8-9, MAT 06110:6-10, 23-24 organization perspective, MAT 06110:22-23 reducing material use with, recommendations for, APP 1:6 regulatory status, MAT 06110:23-25 reuse, recycling, or disposal stage, APP 1:11, MAT 06110:22, 24-25 using materials wisely, recommendations for, APP 1:6-7 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 06110:6-10, 1619-21 wood preserving, MAT 06180:15, 17-20. See also preservatives wood rosin, preparation, MAT 09900:13 wool in carpet, MAT 09680:3 dye application chemicals, MAT 12610:11 dyes, MAT 12610:15-16 finishes, MAT 09680:20, MAT 12610:8, 11-12, 1517 life cycle, MAT 09680:13, MAT 12610:4-5 manufacture, MAT 12610:14-17 materials acquisition and preparation stage, MAT 09680:26, MAT 12610:6-12 sizing, MAT 12610:8, 11 washing, MAT 12610:15 waste produced and resources depleted by, MAT 09680:26, MAT 12610:11-12, 17 wool carpet fibers environmental impact, APP 8:7 environmental performance, APP 8:2 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 8:23 wool wall coverings dyeing, APP 11:17-18 environmental impacts, APP 11:6 environmental performance, APP 11:2 installation, use, and maintenance stage, APP 11:18 life cycle, APP 11:17-18 manufacture, APP 11:18 materials acquisition and preparation stage, APP 11:17 mothproofing agents for, APP 11:17 recycling, reuse, or disposal stage, APP 11:18 sizing for, APP 11:17 workers, potential health impacts on, APDX A:50 W. R. Grace & Company, MAT 07400:40-41
X
XLPE. See cross-linked polyethylene xylenes, MAT 09900:22 effects, MAT 07400:34 as fireproofing solvent, MAT 07400:32 in oil-based paint, APP 6:16 production, MAT 07400:24 waste produced by, MAT 07400:34
INDEX
25
Index
Z
zinc mining, MAT 05410:6, 19-21, MAT 09510:17-18, MAT 15410:13 processing, MAT 15410:14 production, MAT 15410:14, 23 smelting, APP 10:15, MAT 04450:13, MAT 05410:19-21, 28, MAT 06110:11, MAT 09200:18, 20, MAT 09510:23 in terrazzo divider strips, MAT 09400:18, 27-28 zinc chloride, effects, MAT 15410:30 zinc chloride flux, MAT 15410:24, 29 zinc oxide, manufacture, MAT 09300:12, 18-19
26
INDEX
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S
N OT E S

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ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE

Edited by Joseph A. Demkin, AIA The American Institute of Architects Wa s h i n g t o n , D . C .

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

/ CHICHESTER / WEINHEIM / BRISBANE / SINGAPORE / TORONTO

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998

Appendixes Appendix A: Methodology Appendix B: Publications Appendix C: Organizations Appendix D: Glossary

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

Joseph A. Demkin, AIA Editor

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

Overview: The Environmental Resource Guide

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

Preface: 1997 Supplement

Preface: 1997 Supplement

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997

Preface: 1997 Supplement

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1997

Preface: 1998 Supplement

Preface: 1998 Supplement

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998

Preface: 1998 Supplement

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1998

The Queens Building, De Montfort University

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

Figure 1: Queens Building Plans

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

Figure 2: Queens Building Isometric

shared electro-mechanical laboratory, mechatronics and robotics

staff offices on top floor

stacks to promote through ventilation to teaching rooms

electronics and computing laboratories

everyday entrance through protected courtyard

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

Figure 3: Cross-Section of the Queens Building

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

Use and Operation

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

The Queens Building

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

Energy Resource Center

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

ENERGY RESOURCE CENTER

Energy Resource Center

ENERGY RESOURCE CENTER

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996

Energy Resource Center

Figure 1: Floor Plan

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE GUIDE 1996