6.

1 Introducere
6.2. Tipuri de date şi indicatori fundamentali
6.2.1 Tabele utilizate în analiza datelor
6.2.2 Reducerea datelor
6.2.3 Legăturile dintre caracteristici
6.3 Analiza componentelor principale (ACP)
6.3.1 Metoda analizei componentelor principale
6.3.2 Geometria caracteristicilor şi indivizilor
6.3.3 Determinarea axelor principale şi a factorilor principali
6.3.4 Analiza tabelelor de proximitate
6.3.5 Studiu de caz
6.4. Clasificarea
6.4.1 Clasificarea neierarhică
6.4.2 Clasificarea ierarhică
6.4.3 Studiu de caz

TERMENI CHEIE

Analiza componentelor principale Inerţie interclase

Analiza factorială Inerţie intraclase
Analiză discriminantă Axe principale
Clasificare Componente principale
Medie Factori principali
Dispersie Clasificare ierarhică
Inerţie Clasificare neierarhică
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

'(&,=,,675$7(*,&(ù,$1$/,=$'$7(/25

6.1. Introducere
$QDOL]D GDWHORU HVWH R GLVFLSOLQ  úWLLQ LILF  GHVSULQV  GLQ VWDWLVWLFD FODVLF  úL FDUH

XUP UHúWH DQDOL]D XQXL YROXP IRDUWH PDUH GH GDWH vQVR LW  GH GHWHUPLQDUHD UHOD LLORU FH VH

stabilesc între acestea.

3ULPHOHPHWRGHVSHFLILFH$QDOL]HL'DWHORUDXIRVWHODERUDWHGHF WUH+RWWHOLQJvQDQLL

’30 fundamentând analiza pe componente principale(1)úLDQDOL]DFDQRQLF SULQGH]YROWDUHDGH

OXFU ULDQWHULRDUHDOHOXL&6SHDUPDQúL.3HDUVRQ

3kQ  OD v nceputul anilor ’60 dezvoltarea AD s-D I FXW vQ SDUWLFXODU SH GLUHF LL

WHRUHWLFH SX LQ DERUGDELOH SHQWUX SUDFWLFLHQL GHRDUHFH HUD QHFHVDU XQ YROXP IRDUWH PDUH GH

FDOFXOH 2 GDW  FX GH]YROWDUHD FDOFXODWRDUHORU HOHFWURQLFH DFHVW QHDMXQV D IRVW vQO WXUDW úL de
DLFLRSXWHUQLF GH]YROWDUHúLXWLOL]DUHDLQVWUXPHQWHORURIHULWHGHDQDOL]DGDWHORU

ÌQ PRPHQWXO GH ID  VXQW QXPHURúL FHUFHW WRUL FDUH VWXGLD]  DFHVW GRPHQLX GLQWUH

care se pot aminti: Gilbert Saporta, J.M. Burouche, J. Benzecri etc.

În cadrul statLVWLFLLFODVLFHVHVWXGLD] GHRELFHLPXO LPLUHVWUkQVHGHLQGLYL]LFHVXQW
GHVFULúL SULQWU-XQ QXP U UHODWLY PLF GH FDUDFWHULVWLFL ,SRWH]HOH SUREDELOLVWH SULYLQG HVWLP ULOH

GH SDUDPHWUL úL WHVWH VWDWLVWLFH VXQW IRDUWH UHVWULFWLYH ÌQ SUDFWLF  vQV  vQWkOQLm numeroase

VLWXD LLvQFDUHLQGLYL]LLVXQWGHVFULúLSULQWU-XQQXP UPDUHGHFDUDFWHULVWLFLFD]vQFDUHDQDOL]D

DFHVWRUDFXPHWRGHOHFODVLFHHVWHUHODWLYGLILFLO 

0HWRGHOH XWLOL]DWH GH F WUH DQDOL]D GDWHORU SHUPLW VWXGLXO JOREDO DO LQGLYL]LORU úL

caractHULVWLFLORU DFHVWRUD LQGLIHUHQW GH GLPHQVLXQHD FROHFWLYLW LL DQDOL]DWH SUHFXP úL R

UHSUH]HQWDUH JUDILF  VXJHVWLY   6H SRW F XWD DVHP Q UL úL GHRVHELUL vQWUH LQGLYL]L – conform
anumitor criterii –VHSRWHIHFWXDFODVLILF ULúLRUGRQ ULGHPXO LPLVHSRWDQDOL]DUHOD LLOHFDUH

H[LVWW  vQWUH FDUDFWHULVWLFL ÌQFD]XOvQ FDUH UHOD LLOH GLQWUHFDUDFWHULVWLFL VXQW FRUHODWHDWXQFL VH

poate reduce dimensiunea analizei doar la caracteristicile independente. Pentru aceasta se va

HIHFWXDRWUDQVIRUPDUHJHRPHWULF DVSD LXOXLFDUDFWHULVWLFLORUDVWIHOvQFkWV VHSRDW YL]XDOL]D

VXJHVWLY vQ SODQ UHOD LLOH GLQWUH LQGLYL]L úL OHJ WXULOH GLQWUH FDUDFWHULVWLFL I U  D VH SLHUGH XQ

YROXPVHPQLILFDWLYGHLQIRUPD LL

ÌQ UDSRUW FX WLSXO SUREOHPHL úL FX QDWXUD GDWHORU VWXGL ate se va alege metoda de
DQDOL] SRWULYLW 

$FHDVW  DERUGDUH PXOWLGLPHQVLRQDO  D GDWHORU V -a dezvoltat în multe domenii ale

YLH LL HFRQRPLFH úL VRFLDOH FXP DU IL vQ úWLLQ H QDWXUDOH ELRORJLD ]RRORJLD JHQHWLFD

ERWDQLFDvQ úWLLQ HOH XPDQH PHGLFLQ  sociologie, psihologie), în economie (marketing,
PDQDJHPHQWúWLLQ HSROLWLFHHWF

'LIHUHQ HOHHVHQ LDOHvQWUHPHWRGHOHXWLOL]DWHGHF WUHVWDWLVWLF úLDQDOL]DGDWHORUVXQW

sintetizate în tabelul 6.1.

(1)
Hotteling, H. – Analysis of a Complex of Statistical Variables into Principal Components, Journal of
Educational Psychology, 1933, vol. 24, pag. 417-441, 498 –520.
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

Tabelul 6.1
1XP UGHLQGLYL]L 1XP UGH

caracteristici
Analiza datelor mare mare
6WDWLVWLFDFODVLF redus redus

În acest capitol sunt prezentate principalele metode folosite de analiza datelor.

'XS  R VFXUW  WUHFHUH vQ UHYLVW  D LVWRULFXOXL DQDOL]HL GDWHORU vQ SDUDJUDIXO DO GRLOHD

sunt prezentate WLSXULOH GH GDWH úL LQGLFDWRULL XWLOL]D L  3DUDJUDIXO  FRQ LQH PHWRGD

DQDOL]HLFRPSRQHQWHORUSULQFLSDOHvPSUHXQ FXH[HPSOHúLVWXGLLGHFD]

3DUDJUDIXO GHVFULHPRGXOvQFDUHVHHIHFWXHD] FODVLILF ULOHSULQ LQWHUPHGLXO

DQDOL]HLGDWHORUúLXQDPSO u exemplu de utilizare a acestora.

ÌQ FDGUXO $' PDL vQWkOQLP DQDOL]D IDFWRULDO  DQDOL]D FRUHVSRQGHQ HORU DQDOL]D

FDQRQLF úLDQDOL]DGLVFULPLQDQW FDUHLPSOLF XQDSDUDWPDWHPDWLFPDLFRPSOLFDW

 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

6.2. Tipuri de date úLLQGLFDWRULIXQGDPHQWDOL

În cadrul A.D. datele sunt în general reprezentate în cadrul unor tabele (tablouri). Într-un
WDEHOGHGDWHVXQWGHVFULúLLQGLYL]LLDQDOL]D LvPSUHXQ FXFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHDIHUHQWH

Un individ UHSUH]LQW  HQWLWDWHD GH ED]  DVXSUD F UXLD XQ REVHUYDWRU HIHFWXHD]  XQ

RDUHFDUHQXP UGHREVHUYD LL3RWILWUDWD LFDLQGLYL]LILUPHOHFOLHQ LLXQXLPDJD]LQDQLPDOH

RUDúH UL DQL HWF 0XO LPHD LQGLYL]LORU REVHUYD L SRDWH IL XQ HúDQWLRQ GLQWU R SRSXOD LH vQ
-
cazul unui sondaj) sau chiDU vQWUHDJD SRSXOD LH 3HQWUX DQDOL]D VWDWLVWLF  FODVLF  HVWH HVHQ LDO

PRGXO vQ FDUH VH HIHFWXHD]  VRQGDMXO UHVSHFWLY OHJLOH SUREDELOLVWH  SH FDUH OH UHVSHFW 

SRSXOD LD DQDOL]DW  vQ WLPS FH SHQWUX DQDOL]D GDWHORU HVWH LQWHUHVDQW  VWUXFWXUD SRSXOD LHL

reVSHFWLYHI U DVHGHGXFHvQPRGQHFHVDUOHJLW LOHYDODELOHSHQWUXSRSXOD LH

O FDUDFWHULVWLF  DVRFLDW  XQXL LQGLYLG VDX XQHL SRSXOD LL UHSUH]LQW  R SURSULHWDWH

LQWULQVHF DFHOXLLQGLYLGSURSULHWDWH FHvOHYLGHQ LD] GLQPXO LPHDDQDOL]DW  'HH[HPSO u, în

FD]XO SRSXOD LHL DQJDMD LORU XQHL ILUPH FDUDFWHULVWLFL DU SXWHD IL YkUVWD YHFKLPHD VWDUHD

FLYLO QLYHOXOVWXGLLORUVDODULXOGRPLFLOLXOHWF

Caracteristicile asociate indivizilor pot fi cantitative sau calitative.

6SXQHPF RFDUDFWHULVWLF HVWHFDQWLWDWLY GDF DFHDVWDSRDWHILDSUHFLDW SHRVFDO 

QXPHULF  Exemple de caracteristici cantitative sunt: salariul, vârsta, profitul, cifra de afaceri,
YROXPXO YkQ] ULORU SURGXF LD HWF &X DOWH FXYLQWH R FDUDFWHULVWLF  HVWH FDQWLWDWLY  GDF  LD

valoUL vQ VSD LXO Rn  úL DVXSUD DFHVWHLD VH SRW HIHFWXD RSHUD LLOH DOJHEULFH X]XDOH DGXQDUH

VF GHUHvQPXO LUHvPS U LUHFDOFXOXOPHGLHLHWF

O FDUDFWHULVWLF HVWHFDOLWDWLY GDF QXHVWHDSUHFLDW QXPHULFQXLDYDORULvQVSD LXO

n
R ) . Exemple de astfel GH FDUDFWHULVWLFL VXQW VH[XO SURIHVLD ORFXO QDúWHULL QLYHOXO LHUDUKLF
VWDUHDFLYLO HWF

Caracteristicile calitative pot fi cardinale sau ordinale.

2 FDUDFWHULVWLF  HVWH RUGLQDO  GDF  DQVDPEOXO YDORULORU SH FDUH OH SRDWH OXD SRDWH IL

RUGRQDWGXS XQ anumit criteriu ( de exemplu nivelul studiilor sau nivelul ierarhic).
O FDUDFWHULVWLF  HVWH QRPLQDO  GDF  QX SRDWH IL RUGRQDW  GH H[HPSOX VH[ FXORDUH

domiciliu etc).
$VXSUDFDUDFWHULVWLFLORUFDOLWDWLYHQXVHSRWHIHFWXDRSHUD LLOHDOJHEULFHX]XDOH

În continuare vom prezenta principalele tipuri de date utilizate în analiza datelor.

6.2.1 Tabele utilizate în analiza datelor

Tabelul indivizi – caracteristici

3HQWUX R PXO LPH GDW  GH LQGLYL]L vPSUHXQ  FX FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH DIHUHQWH VH

FRQVWUXLHúWH WD belul indivizi – FDUDFWHULVWLFL VXE IRUP  PDWULFHDO  SH UkQGXUL ILLQG QRWD L

LQGLYL]LLVWXGLD LLDUSHFRORDQHFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHFDUHvLGHVFULX

'H H[HPSOX SHQWUX DQJDMD LL XQHL ILUPH SXWHP FRQVWUXL WDEHOXO LQGLYL]L –
caracteristici prezentat în tabelul 6.2.
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

Tabelul 6.2
CARACTERISTICI

  
      
 Loc  
Nume Sex Vechi- Studii Salariu Nivel Profesie
prenume me brut ierarhic copii matrim
1 Ionescu M 45 20 Superi- 5,5  inginer 2   Bucu-
Vasile oare       ! i
2 Popescu F 32 7 Medii 2,5 Pers.    " ! #  3 $%  & #
Claudia TESA
3 .
4 .
INDIVIZI

5 .
6 .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
n .

În FDGUXO DFHVWXL WDEHO VH J VHVF DWkW FDUDFWHULVWLFL FDQWLWDWLYH YkUVW  YHFKLPH

VDODULXQXP UFRSLLFkWúLFDUDFWHULVWLFLFDOLWDWLYHQXPHVWXGLLVH[QLYHOLHUDUKLFSURIHVLH

VLWXD LH PDWULPRQLDO   ÌQ LQWHULRUXO WDEHOXOXL VH DIO  GDWHOH HIHFWLYH ce privesc indivizii,

respectiv Ionescu va fi descris prin sex –PDVFXOLQYkUVW – 45 ani, vechime – 20 ani etc.
Pentru a putea efectua analiza datelor prezente vom separa caracteristicile cantitative
de cele calitative (tabelul 6.3):
Tabelul 6.3
CARACTERISTICI

9kUVW Vechime Salariu brut 1XP UFRSLL

1 45 20 5,5 2
2 32 7 2,5 3
3
4
5
6
Indivizi

.
.
.
.
.
.
n

Pentru a putea prelucra caracteristicile calitative, vom construi un tabel în care vom
asocia variabilelor calitative valori numerice disjuncte: de exemplu pentru sex vom aloca
YDORULOHSHQWUXE UED LúLSHQWUXIHPHL7DEHOXOFRQ LQHRDVWIHOGHGHVFULHUHDGDWHORU

Tabelul 6.4
CARACTERISTICI
Sex 6LWXD LHPDWULPRQLDO /RFQDúWHUH Nivel ierarhic
M F & V W QHF V GLYRU DW Buc Provin- Muncit Pers Pers
. cie tesa cond.
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
indivizi

3
.
.
.
n
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

În tabelXODQWHULRUVXQWHYLGHQ LDWHFDUDFWHULVWLFLFDOLWDWLYHDVRFLDWHFHORU n indivizi.

$FHVWH FDUDFWHULVWLFL vQUHJLVWUHD]   PRGDOLW L GLVWLQFWH vQ FDUH SRW IL vQFDGUD L LQGLYL]LL

vQUHJLVWUD L'HH[HPSOX,RQHVFX9DVLOHHVWHE UEDWF V WRULWQ VFXWvQ%XFXUHúWLúLFDUHIDFH

parte din conducerea firmei.

8WLOLWDWHD DFHVWHL UHSUH]HQW UL GHULY  GLQ IDSWXO F  vQ DFHVW PRG VH SRW UHSUH]HQWD vQ

DFHODúL WDEORX GH GDWH DWkW YDULDELOHOH FDQWLWDWLYH FkW úL YDULDELOHOH FDOLWDWLYH vQ H[SULPDUH

QXPHULF FHHDFHYDSHUPLWHDQDOL]DFDQWLWDWLY DDFHVWRUD

(YLGHQW vQ DFHDVW  UHSUH]HQWDUH DYHP R UHSUH]HQWDUH D GDWHORU FDOLWDWLYH VXE IRUP 

FDQWLWDWLY 

'H DVHPHQHD HVWH SRVLELO V  UHSUH]HQW P úL YDULDELOHOH FDQWLWDWLYH VXE IRUPD

variabilelor indicative (cele care pot lua valori disjuncte, 0 sau 1) grupând indivizii în clase
GH H[HPSOX GXS  JUXSH GH YkUVW  VDX GH YHQLW )DSWXO F  XQ LQGLYLG IDFH SDUWH GLQWU-o

DQXPLW FODV vOYRPLQGLFDSULQPHQ LRQDUHDFLIUHLvQORFD LDSRWULYLW 

7DEHOHGHFRQWLQJHQ

Un tabel de coQWLQJHQ GHVFULHOHJ WXULOHFHH[LVW vQWUHGRX FDUDFWHULVWLFLFDOLWDWLYH

UHVSHFWLY YRU FRQ LQH IUHFYHQ HOH GH DSDUL LH DOH LQGLYL]LORU FRQVLGHUD L DVRFLD L FX

caracteristicile analizate.
3HQWUX H[HPSOXO FRQVLGHUDW DQWHULRU GDF  YRP FRQVWUXL WDYHOXO GH FRQWLQJHQ  vQWUH

VLWXD LD PDWULPRQLDO  úL QLYHOXO LHUDUKLF YRP RE LQH vQ ORFD LD (i,j) QXP UXO GH LQGLYL]L FX

statutul matrimonial i FH VH DIO  vQ SR]L LD LHUDUKLF  j. 7DEHOXO  FRQ LQH WDEHOXO GH

FRQWLQJHQ DIHUHQW

Tabelul 6.5
Caracteristici Muncitori Personal TESA Personal
conducere
& V WRULW 10 3 5
1HF V WRULW 2 4 1
'LYRU DW 1 5 2

'H H[HPSOX vQ ILUP  H[LVW   PXQFLWRUL F V WRUL L  SHUVRDQH GLQ FRQGXFHUHD

ILUPHLGLYRU DWHHWF

Într-XQ DVHPHQHD WDEHO LQGLYL]LL DX IRVW UHJUXSD L úL QX PDL SRW IL GLVWLQúL vQ PRG
individual.
7DEHOHOH GH FRQWLQJHQ  SRW IL GHWHUPLQDWH SOHFkQG GH OD YDULDELOHOH LQGLFDWLYH

$VWIHO GDF  YRP FRQVLGHUD FDUDFWHULVWLFD VLWXD LH PDWULPRQLDO  úL  YRP QRWD FX X1 matricea
DIHUHQW  UHVSHFWLY SHQWUX QLYHOXO LHUDUKLF YRP nota cu X2 PDWULFHD FRUHVSXQ] WRDUH WDEHOXO

GHFRQWLQJHQ UH]XOW GLQSURGXVXOFHORUGRX PDWULFHUHVSHFWLY

t
X1 X2 = X (6.1)

unde XUHSUH]LW WDEORXOGHFRQWLQJHQ 

Tabele de proximitate (apropiere, distan 

'DF  SHQWUX R PXO LPH GH LQGLYL]L VXQW GHILQLWH SURSULHW L GH DVHP QDUH VDX GH

GLVRFLHUH LDU DFHVWHD SRW IL GHVFULVH SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO XQHL P VXUL DWXQFL VH SRW FRQVWUXL

WDEHOHOHGHSUR[LPLWDWH'HH[HPSOXWDEHOXOGLVWDQ HORUGLQWUHSULQFLSDOHOHRUDúHDOH5RPkQLHL

constituie un H[HPSOX GH WDEHO GH SUR[LPLWDWH 8Q DVWIHO GH WDEORX HVWH vQ JHQHUDO VLPHWULF úL
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

FRQ LQH QXPHUH SR]LWLYH DQDORJH GLVWDQ HORU VDX LQYHUVHORU GLVWDQ HORU ([LVW  úL VLWXD LL vQ

FDUHDFHDVW UHJXO QXHVWHUHVSHFWDW UHVSHFWLYvQFD]XOGLVWDQ HORUGHWLS neeuclidian.

9RPGHILQLQR LXQHDGHGLVWDQ 

$SOLFD LD d : A → R VH QXPHúWH GLVWDQ  GDF   úL QXPDL GDF  UHVSHFW  XUP WRDUHOH

SURSULHW L

i) d (a,b) ≥ 0 , oricare ar fi a,b ∈ A;

ii) d (a,a) = 0, oricare ar fi a ∈ A;
iii) d (a,b) = d (b,a), oricare ar fi a,b ∈ A; (simetrie)
iv) d (a,b) ≤ d (a,c) + d (c,b) oricare ar fi a,b,c ∈ ALQHJDOLWDWHDWULXQJKLXODU 

'DF  LQHJDOLWDWHD WULXQJKLXODU  QX HVWH vQGHSOLQLW  DWXQFL YRP VSXQH F  d UHSUH]LQW 

un operator de disimilaritateGLVFRUGDQ 

6.2.2 Reducerea datelor

PHQWUX DVLQWHWL]DR PXO LPHGHGDWH VXQWIUHFYHQWXWLOL]D L³LQGLFDWRULLUHGXúL´

$VWIHOGHLQGLFDWRULVXQWPHGLDPHGLDQDGLVSHUVLDFRYDULDQ DDEDWHUHDPHGLHS WUDWLF HWF

'DW ILLQGRPXO LPHGHvQUHJLVWU ULYRPFDOFXOD

a) media
1 n
x= ⋅ ∑ xi PHGLDDULWPHWLF VLPSO  (6.2)
n i =1
n
x = ∑ p i xi PHGLDDULWPHWLF SRQGHUDW  (6.3)
i =1

unde : n -QXP UXOGHvQUHJLVWU UL

xi –YDORDUHDvQUHJLVWU ULLL
pi –IUHFYHQ HOHGHDSDUL LHDOHFDUDFWHULVWLFLLxi;
x - media.

7RWXúL QX HVWH VXILFLHQW V  FDUDFWHUL] P R PXO LPH GRDU SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO PHGLHL

3HQWUX R GHVFULHUH PDL FRPSOHW  YRP GHWHUPLQD úL DEDWHUHD PHGLH S WUDWLF  UHVSHFWLY

dispersia.
b) DEDWHUHDPHGLHS WUDWLF

σ 2=
1 n
∑ xi − x
n i =1
( )
2
sau (6.4)

n
σ 2 = ∑ p i ⋅ xi − x
i =1
( ) 2
(6.5)
c) dispersia
σ = σ2 (6.6)

ÌQ WDEHOXO  VXQW SUH]HQWDWH GRX  VHULL GH vQUHJLVWU UL SHQWUX FDUH VXQW FDOFXODWH

PHGLLOHúLGLVSHUVLLOH
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

Tabelul 6.6
Nr. Crt. x1 x2
1 15 3
2 17 25
3 35 32
4 57 79
5 34 23
6 24 45
7 27 2
8 13 7
9 8 15
10 22 21
Total 252 252

,QGLFDWRULLUHGXúLSHQWUXFHOHGRX VHULLVXQW

x1 = 25,2 x 2 = 25,2
σ 1 = 804,504 σ 2 = 1165,584

Chiar daF  PHGLD HVWH DFHHDúL SHQWUX DPEHOH vQUHJLVWU UL DFHVWHD QX VXQW  OD IHO
deoarece dispersiile lor nu coincid. Astfel, cea de-DGRXDvQUHJLVWUDUHHVWHPXOWPDLHWHURJHQ 
FXLQGLYL]LPDLGLVSHUVD L

2EVHUYD LH 0HGLD úL GLVSHUVLD DUH VHQV GRDU SHQWUX YDULDELOH FDQWLWDWLYH QX úL SHQWUX

variabile calitative.

/HJ WXULOHGLQWUHFDUDFWHULVWLFL

A) OHJ WXUDGLQWUHGRX FDUDFWHULVWLFLFDQWLWDWLYH

0HWRGHOH SUH]HQWDWH vQ FRQWLQXDUH DQDOL]HD]  OHJ WXULOH OLQLDUH FH H[LVW  vQWUH

caracteristici. Pentru caractHUL]DUHD DFHVWRU OHJ WXUL YRP XWLOL]D FRHILFLHQWXO GH FRUHOD LH

OLQLDU UHVSHFWLYUDSRUWXOGHFRUHOD LH

&RHILFLHQWXO GH FRUHOD LH OLQLDU  GLQWUH GRX  FDUDFWHULVWLFL FDQWLWDWLYH VH GHWHUPLQ 

astfel:
σ xy
r (x, y ) = (6.7)
σ x ⋅σ y
unde: σ xy -FRYDULQ DGLQWUHFDUDFWHULVWLFL
σ x , σ y - dispersiile caracteristicilor xúLy.

&RYDULDQ DGLQWUHGRX FDUDFWHULVWLFLVHFDOFXOHD] DVWIHO

σ xy =
1 n
( )( )
∑ xi − x ⋅ y i − y sau
n i =1 (6.8)
= ∑ p ⋅ (x − x )⋅ (y − y )
n
σ xy i i i
i =1
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

&RHILFLHQWXOGHFRUHOD LHOLQLDU VHGHILQHúW e astfel:

n
∑ ui
2

r = 1−
2 i =1
(6.9)
∑ (y )
n 2
i −y
i =1

unde r –FRHILFLHQWXOGHFRUHOD LHOLQLDU 

ui = yi –a x –b, cu a,bSDUDPHWULLGUHSWHLGHUHJUHVLHFDUHDUDW OHJ WXUDGLQWUH

variabilele xúLy.

Exemplul 1. 6H FRQVLGHU  GDWHOH GLQ WDEHOXO  FDUH GHVFULX SUH XO XQRU DSDUWDPHQWH

úLVXSUDID DDFHVWRUDvQUHJLVWU UL3UH XOHVWHYDULDELOD

y,LDUVXSUDID DHVWHYDULDELODx.
Pentru aceste date s-DXFDOFXODWPHGLLOHGLVSHUVLLOHFRHILFLHQWXOGHFRUHOD LHUHVSHFWLY
dreapta de regresie cDUHGHVFULHOHJ WXUDGLQWUHYDULDELOH

Tabelul 6.7
Nr. 6XSUDID  3UH \
2
Crt. (x) (m ) (milione lei)
1 28 130
2 50 280
3 55 264
4 60 320
5 48 258
6 38 350
7 86 306
8 68 255
9 33 150
10 45 235
Total 511 2548

Grafic, norul de puncte ce rezulW  GLQ UHSUH]HQWDUHD vQWU -un sistem de axe x,y este în
figura 6.1.

3UH

6XSUDID [

Figura 6.1

'UHDSWDGHUHJUHVLHFDUHGHVFULHOHJ WXUDGLQWUHVXSUDID úLSUH HVWH

y=ax+b+u (6.10)
cu u –DEDWHUHDGLQWUH\úLGUHDSWDGHUHJUHVLH
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

n n

∑ u i2 = ∑ (y − ax − b)
i =1 i =1
2
(6.11)

Parametrii dreptei de regresie sunt a = 3,524úLb = 74,707

Deci yˆ = 3,524 x + 74,707
( )
Centrul de greutate al norului este dat de x, y = (51,1; 254,8), respectiv valorile medii
ale caracteristicilor considerate.

2EVHUYD LL

a) r ≤ 1 SHQWUXRULFHVHULHúLLQGLF SDQWDGUHSWHLGHUHJUHVLH
b) GDF  r = 0 DWXQFL QX H[LVW  QLFL R OHJ WXU vQWUH x úL y, iar dreapta de regresie este
RUL]RQWDO 

c) GDF  r = 1DWXQFLFRUHOD LDHVWHSHUIHFW GHRDUHFHGLIHUHQ HOH uiVXQW]HURúLVHULLOH

VHFRQIXQG 

d) 'DF  r = -1 DWXQFLFRUHOD LDHVWHSHUIHFWQHJDWLY FRPSRUWDPHQWXOFHORUGRX VHULL

find identic, dar de semne contrare;

e) &X FkW FRHILFLHQWXO GH FRUHOD LH HVWH PDL PDUH FX DWkW H[LVW  R OHJ WXU  PDL

SXWHUQLF vQWUHYDULDELOHOHDQDOL]DWHUHVSHFWLYGDF VHDSURSLHGH –DWXQFLH[LVW R

SXWHUQLF OHJ WXU QHJDWLY 

f) Cu cât r VH DSURSLH GH ]HUR FX DWkW OHJ WXULOH VXQW PDL VODEH úL QX VH SRW HIHFWXD

SUHGLF LLFXSULYLUHODHYROX LDXQHLYDULDELOHDQDOL]kQG RSHFHDODOW  -

În exemplul anterior r = 0,89 FHHD FH LQGLF  R OHJ WXU  SXWHUQLF  vQWUH SUH XO XQXL

DSDUWDPHQWúLVXSUDID DDFHVWXLD

%/HJ WXUDGLQWUHGRX YDULDELOHFDOLWDWLYH

3HQWUX D GHVFULH OHJ WXULOH FH H[LVW  vQWUH YDULDELOHOH FDOLWDWLYH QX VH SRW XWLOL]D WDEHOH

de date indivizi –FDUDFWHULVWLFLFLGRDUWDEHOHGHFRQWLQJHQ 

$VWIHO SHQWUX D P VXUD GHSHQGHQ D GLQWUH GRX   FDUDFWHULVWLFL FDOLWDWLYH VWDWLVWLFD

FODVLF  SURSXQH GHWHUPLQDUHD SH ED]D WDEHOXOXL GH FRQWLQJHQ  D  XQHL DOWH YDULDELOH FH YD

urma o lege cKL S WUDW  ℵ ). Acest indicator este utilizat frecvent în cadrul analizei datelor,
2

PDLDOHVvQFD]XODQDOL]HLFRUHVSRQGHQ HORU

Exemplul 2  3HQWUX R ILUP  VH FXQRDúWH WDEHOXO GH FRQWLQJHQ  FH GHVFULH VDODULD LL

XQHLILPHvQUDSRUWFXQLYHOXOLHUDUKLFúLRULJLQHDVRFLDO WDEHOXO

Tabelul 6.8
2ULJLQHVRFLDO

Nivel ierahic Personal de UDQ Muncitor Altele

conducere Total
Muncitor 11 14 107 75 207
Personal TESA 1 10 60 31 210
Personal de conducere 23 2 16 40 81
Total 35 26 183 146 390

Fie nij HOHPHQWXOVLWXDWODLQWHUVHF LDOLQLHLi cu coloana j.

Vom nota: suma elementelor de pe linia i cu ni• = ∑ nij (6.12)
j

suma elementelor de pe coloana j cu n• j = ∑ nij (6.13)

i

suma elementelor din tabel n = ∑∑ n

i j
ij . (6.14)
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

n ⋅n
2
 
 nij − i• • j 
D2 = ∑ 
n  = n ⋅  nij2 
ni • ⋅ n• j ∑∑
 i j ni • ⋅ n• j
− 1

(6.15)
i,j  
n

Atunci variabila D2 FDOFXODW FRQIRUPUHOD LHLXUPHD] ROHJH ℵ 2 cu

(p–1)(q-1) grade de libertate, unde p úL q UHSUH]LQW  QXP UXO GH PRGDOLW i posibile pentru
variabilele calitative analizate.
În exemplul nostru D2 = 69,2.
'DF  pij YD P VXUD SUREDELOLWDWHD GH D DYHD VLPXOWDQ PRGDOLW LOH i úL j, aceasta va

GHSLQGHGRDUGHSUREDELOLW LOHPDUJLQDOHpiúLpj ( pentru datele noastre pij este estimat prin nij

/ n ; pi prin ni• n úLDOXLpj prin n• j n ).

2
'DF  GRX  FDUDFWHULVWLFL VXQW LQGHSHQGHQWH DWXQFL YDORDUHD OXL D  HVWH DSURSLDW  GH

]HURLDUGDF DUHRYDORDUHPDUHDFHDVWDYDLQGLFDROHJ WXU SXWHUQLF .

Aplicând testul ℵ 2 variabilei D2 RE LQHP SHQWUX R YDULDELO  FX  JUDGH GH OLEHUWDWH
(date de (p-1)(q-1)úLFXRSUREDELOLWDWHGHGHDILLQGHSHQGHQW RE LQHPGLQWDEHOXOOHJLL
ℵ 2 o valoare de 16,81. Cum D2 = 69,2  PDL PDUH GHFkW  UH]XOW  F  YRP UHVSLQJH
LSRWH]DGHLQGHSHQGHQ 

&/HJ WXUDGLQWUHRYDULDELO FDOLWDWLY úLRYDULDELO FDQWLWDWLY 

2YDULDELO FDOLWDWLY y GHSLQGHGHRYDULDELO FDQWLWDWLY xGDF FHLQiLQGLYL]LGHVFULúL

prin modalitatea i a variabilei calitative au aceleaúL YDORUL yi FRUHVSXQ] WRDUH YDULDELOHL
cantitative xi$EVHQ DOHJ WXULLHVWHP VXUDW GHF WUHUDSRUWXOGHFRUHOD LHη definit astfel:

σy
η 2= i
(6.16)
σ y

O valoare a lui ηDSURSLDW GH]HURYDLQGLFDOLSVD OHJ WXULORUGLQWUHYDULDE ile; în timp

FHRYDORDUHDSURSLDW GHYDLQGLFDROHJ WXU SXWHUQLF 
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

6.3 Analiza componentelor principale (ACP)

$QDOL]DFRPSRQHQWHORUSULQFLSDOHHVWHRPHWRG VSHFLILF DQDOL]HLGDWHORUSULQFDUHVH

FDUDFWHUL]HD]  WDEORXUL LQGLYL]L -caracteristici de tip numeric, respectiv tablouri în care sunt
HYLGHQ LDWH p caracteristici pentru n indivizi.

6.3.1 Metoda analizei componentelor principale

x1 úL x2 HVWH XúRU GH UHSUH]HQWDW vQ SODQ

ÌQ FRQGL LLOH vQ FDUH DYHP GRX  FDUDFWHULVWLFL

HYROX LDDFHVWRUDSUin intermediul norului de puncte aferent indivizilor. Aici fiecare individ va

( )
fi descris de coordonatele sale, xi1 , xi2   LDU DQDOL]D GDWHORU GLVSRQLELOH VH HIHFWXHD]  XúRU
FKLDUúLYL]XDOÌQILJXUDVXQWSUH]HQWDWHFkWHYDGLQWUHOHJ WXUile posibile.

x2 x2
x2

x1 x1 x1
D$EVHQ D E/HJ WXU SXWHUQLF  &$EVHQ DOHJ WXULL

OHJ WXULLGLQWUH între variabile formarea a trei grupe

variabile omogene

Figura 6.2.

'DF  VXQW WUHL FDUDFWHULVWLFL DWXQFL vQF  HVWH SRVLELO V  UHSUH]HQW P JHRPHWULF

PXO LPHD LQGLYL]LORU XWLOL]kQG VSD LXO WULGLPHQVLRQDO vQV  SHQWUX PDL PXOW GH  FDUDFWHULVWLFL

UHSUH]HQWDUHDJHRPHWULF QXPDLHVWHSRVLELO 

3ULQ LQWHUPHGLXO DQDOL]HL FRPSRQHQWHORU SULQFLSDOH YRP F XWD V  UHGXFHP FHOH p

FDUDFWHULVWLFL OD GRDU GRX  FHOH HVHQ LDOH úL DSRL V  UHSUH]HQW P JHRPHWULF vQ SODQXO

GHWHUPLQDWGHDFHVWHDLQGLYL]LLFRQVLGHUD L$FHDVWDVHYDUHGXFHODSURLHFWD rea indivizilor din

VSD LXOp-dimensional într-un plan.
&XPGHSHQGHQ HOHGLQWUHFDUDFWHULVWLFLQXVXQWvQPRGQHFHVDUOLQLDUHGLVWDQ HOHGLQWUH

LQGLYL]L QX VXQW vQ PRG QHFHVDU S VWUDWH SULQ SURLHFWDUHD ORU vQ SODQ ÌQ DFHVWH FRQGL LL YRP

F XWDV UHGXFHPGLVWRUVLXQLOHJHQHUDWHGHSURLHF LHFkWPDLPXOWSRVLELO

(YLGHQW HVWH QHFHVDU  GHILQLUHD SODQXOXL SH FDUH VH YD HIHFWXD SURLHF LD UHVSHFWLY D

SODQXOXL SH FDUH GLVWDQ HOH VXQW FHO PDL ELQH FRQVHUYDWH 3HQWUX GHWHUPLQDUHD DFHVWXLD YRP

adopta criteriul ma[LPL] ULL PHGLHLS WUDWHORU vQWUHSURLHF LLOH f1,f2,….,fp ale coordonatelor unui
individ pe un plan.
3HQWUX D GHWHUPLQD DFHVW SODQ HVWH VXILFLHQW V  J VLP GRX  GUHSWH GLQ FRPSRQHQ D VD

d1úLd2.'DF d1úLd2 sunt perpendiculare, atunci vom avea:

d 2 ( f i ; f j ) = d 2 (α i ;α j )+ d (β
2
i ;β j ) (6.17)

unde iúL i VXQWSURLHF LLOHFRRUGRQDWHORUSXQFWXOXL ei pe d1úLd2.

Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

$VWIHO YRP F XWD PDL vQWkL d1 SULQ PD[LPL]DUHD PHGLHL GLVWDQ HORU d 2 (α i ;α j ), apoi
d2  SHUSHQGLFXODU  SH d1, PD[LPL]kQG PHGLD GLVWDQ HOor d 2 (β i ; β j ). Se poate continua în
acest mod determinând d3,d4,…,dp drepte perpendiculare între ele.
Acestea vor reprezenta axele principale ale norului de puncte.

3URLHF LD SXQFWXOXL (

ei de coordonate xi1 , xi2 ,..., xip ) pe axele principale conduce la
determinarea unor noi coordonate, (c , c ,..., c 1
i
2
i i
p
).
Aceste noi coordonate se numesc componente principale.

)LHFDUHFRPSRQHQW  ckHVWHGDW GHYHFWRUXOFHGHVFULHFRRUGRQDWHOHFHORUQLQGLYL]LSH

axa dkúLYDILRFRPELQD LHOLQLDU DFDUDFWHULVWLFLORULQL LDOH

c k = u1k ⋅ x 1 + u 2k ⋅ x 2 + ... + u kp ⋅ x p . (6.18)

k
&RHILFLHQ LL u1k , u 2k ,..., u kp IRUPHD] IDFWRUXOSULQFLSDOX .

'HFL FHD PDL EXQ  UHSUH]HQWDUHD GDWHORU FX DMXWRUXO D q caracteristici (pentru q < p)
VHRE LQHFXDMXWRUXO
primelor q componente principale.
Analiza componentelor principale este una din cele mai bune metode de reducere a
QXP UXOXL GH FDUDFWHULVWLFL VHPQLILFDWLYH úL SHUPLWH R EXQ  UHSUH]HQWDUH JHRPHWULF  D GDWHORU

LQL LDOH 5HGXFHUHD GDWHORU QX YD SXWHD IL HIHFWXDW  GDF  FHOH p FDUDFWHULVWLFL LQL LDOH QX VXQW
LQGHSHQGHQWHúLDXFRHILFLHQ LLGHFRUHOD LHQHQXOL

$&3 HVWH R PHWRG  IDFWRULDO  GHRDUHFH UHGXFHUHD QXP UXOXL GH FDUDFWHULVWLFL QX VH

face printr-R VLPSO  VHOHF LH FL SULQ FRQVWUXF LD GH QRL FDUDFWHUL stici la care se ajunge pornind
GH OD FHOH LQL LDOH SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO ³IDFWRULORU´ &XP DYHP GH D IDFH FX FRPELQD LL OLQLDUH
-
UH]XOW F HVWHRPHWRG OLQLDU 

$OWH PHWRGH IDFWRULDOH SURPRYDWH GH DQDOL]D GDWHORU VXQW DQDOL]D FRUHVSRQGHQ HORU

analiza canoniF  úL  DQDOL]D IDFWRULDO  GLVFULPLQDQW  DFHVWH PHWRGH DQDOL]kQG UHSUH]HQW UL

JHRPHWULFHDOHGDWHORU6SHFLILFXO $&3HVWHDFHODF VWXGLD]  FDUDFWHULVWLFLQXPHULFHFHMRDF 

DFHODúL URO vQ WLPS FH DQDOL]D FRUHVSRQGHQ HORU VWXGLD]  FDUDFWHULVWLFL FDOLWDWLYH iar analiza
FDQRQLF úLDQDOL]DGLVFULPLQDQW VWXGLD] FDUDFWHULVWLFLJUXSDWHvQFDOHGLVWLQFWH

,QVWUXPHQWHOH PDWHPDWLFH XWLOL]DWH YRU IL FHOH DOH DJHEUHL OLQLDUH úL DOH FDOFXOXOXL

matriceal.

6.3.2 *HRPHWULDFDUDFWHULVWLFLORUúLLQGLYL]LORU

PorninGGHOD QRUXOGHSXQFWHDOLQGLYL]LORUGHWHUPLQDWvQVSD LXO p-dimensional vom

GHILQL XUP WRDUHOH HOHPHQWH FHQWUXO GH JUHXWDWH DO QRUXOXL GH SXQFWH PDWULFHD GH YDULDQ -

FRYDULDQ úLPDWULFHDFRHILFLHQ LORUGHFRUHOD LH

Centrul de greutate al norului de puncte (g) va fi un individ fictiv ce are drept

coordonate media caracteristicilor de tip k pentru cei n indivizi:

( 1 2
g = x , x ,..., x
p
) (6.19)
în care ponderile sunt considerate egale, 1/nSHQWUXWR LLQGLYL]LL
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

Definim de asemenea abaWHULOHPHGLLS WUDWLFHSHQWUXFHOH p caracteristici, σ 2j .

/HJ WXULOH GLQWUH FDUDFWHULVWLFL OXDWH GRX  FkWH GRX  YRU IL GHVFULVH GH FRYDULDQ HOH

σ ij VDX GH FRHILFLHQ LL GH FRUHOD LH rij (vor fi de calculat p(p-1)/2 FRHILFLHQ L $VWIHO YRP
construi matricea V – QXPLW  PDWULFH GH YDULDQ  – FRYDULDQ  FDUH YD FRQ LQH SH GLDJRQDOD
SULQFLSDO  DEDWHULOH PHGLL S WUDWLFH DOH FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU  LDU vQ UHVW FRYDULDQ HOH GLQWUH

caracteristicile j úLk.

 σ 12 σ 12 .... σ 1 p 
 
 σ 21 σ 2 .... σ 2 p 
2

 . . . . 
V = 
 . . . . 
. . . . 
 
 σ p1 . . σ 2p 

0DWULFHDFRHILFLHQ LORUGHFRUHOD LHGHFRUHOD LHVHFRQVWUXLHúWHvQPRGDVHP Q WRUSH

GLDJRQDOD SULQFLSDO  YRP DYHD YDORDUHD 1 (deoarece r (xi;xi ) = 1 úL vQ UHVW YRP DYHD
FRHILFLHQ LLGHFRUHOD LHGLQWUHFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHjúLk.

 1 r12 .... r1 p 
 
 r21 1 .... r2 p 
 . . . . 
R= 
 . . . . 
. . . . 
r 
 p1 . . 1 

0DWULFHD GH YDULDQ -FRYDULDQ  úL PDWULFHD FRHILFLHQ LORU GH FRUHOD LH VXQW PDWULFL
WUDWLFHGHGLPHQVLXQHp x púLVLPHWULFHGHRDUHFH σ
S
ij = σ ji respectiv rij = rji .

Notând cu D1/s matricea diagoQDO 

1 / σ 0 .... 0 
 1

 0 1/ σ 2 .... 0 
 . . . . 
D1 / σ = 
 . . . . 
 . . . . 
 0 . 1/ σ 
 . p 

RE LQHPUHOD LDPDWULFHDO 

R = D1 / σ V D1 / σ . (6.20)

'DF YRPFRQVLGHUDF WRDWHFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHVXQWGHPHGLHQXO  – respectiv vom centra

j
tabelului de date luând x = x − x - atunci centrul de
FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH SULQ UHFRQVWUXF LD
0
j j

greutate al norului de puncte va fi plasat în originea sistemului de axe ce descrie norul de

puncte.
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

Notând cu X matricea cu n OLQLL úL p coloane cu datele centrate (considerate de medie

]HURDWXQFLYRPDYHDXUP WRDUHDUHOD LHPDWULFHDO 

V = tX D X, (6.21)

unde: tX –UHSUH]LQW PDWULFHD XWUDQVSXV 

 p1 0 .... 0 
 
 0 p 2 .... 0 
 . . . 
D –HVWHPDWULFHDGLDJRQDO DSRQGHULORU D= .  .
 . . . 
 
0 . p n 
 .
ÌQFRQWLQXDUHYRPSUHVXSXQHF WRDWHFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHVXnt centrate.

6SD LXOLQGLYL]LORU

Fiecare individ este reprezentat de un punct cu p coordonate, deci este un vector din
(
Rp, deci ei = xi1 , xi2 ,..., xip .
VSD LXO )
2SULP SUREOHP HVWHDFHHDDP VXU ULLGLVWDQ HLGLQWUHLQGLYL]LFHHDFHVHUHGXFHOD

aGHILQLRPHWULF VDXRGLVWDQ 

&HD PDL VLPSO  GLVWDQ  HVWH FHD HXFOLGLDQ   7RWXúL DSDUH SUREOHPD FRPSDU ULL

FDUDFWHULVWLFLORUGLVWLQFWHFXPDUILYkUVWDVDODULXOVDXQXP UXOGHFRSLL

9RPGHILQLRGLVWDQ GHWLSHXFOLGLDQDVWIHO

(
d 2 = a1 x11 − x 12 ) 2
(
+ a 2 x12 − x 22 )
2
(
+ ... + a p x1p − x 2p ,)
2
(6.22)

FHHDFHUHYLQHODDvQPXO LILHFDUHFDUDFWHULVWLF FX a j , cu aj pozitiv.

7RWXúL SHQWUX D SXWHD FRQVLGHUD GLVWDQ HOH HXFOLGLHQH D[HOH WUHEXLH V  ILH

SHUSHQGLFXODUHFHHDFHQXHVWHvQWRWGHDXQDDGHY UDWSHQWUXQRUXOGHSXQFWHLQL LDO

3HQWUX D[H REOLFH vQWUH FDUH H[LVW  XQJKLXO  IRUPXOD GLVWDQ HL vQWUH GRX  SXQFWH

devine:
(
d 2 = x1k − x 2k ) + (x
2
1
j
− x 2j ) 2
( )(
− 2 x1k − x 2k x1j − x 2j cos θ) (6.23)

ÌQIRUPDFHDPDLJHQHUDO YRPGHILQLGLVWDQ DGLQWUHGRLLQGLYL]LDVWIHO

( )( )
n p
d 2 (e1 ; e2 ) = ∑∑ m kj x1k − x 2k x1j − x 2j . (6.24)
k =1 j =1

Notând cu M PDWULFHD IRUPDW  GLQ HOHPHQWHOH mkj putem scrie matriceal formula
GLVWDQ HL

d 2 (e1 ; e2 ) = t (e1 − e2 )⋅ M ⋅ (e1 − e2 ) (6.25)

 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

Matricea MWUHEXLHV ILHVLPHWULF úLSR]LWLYGHILQLW RDUHFDUH3HQWUXFD]XOSDUWLFXODU

în care M este matricea unitate, rHOD LD GH PDL VXV HVWH FKLDU WHRUHPD OXL 3LWDJRUD IRUPXOD
SHQWUXGLVWDQ HHXFOLGLHQH

Produsul scalar a doi vectori , definit prin intermediul matricii M este:

e1 ; e2 M
= t e1 ⋅ M ⋅ e2 . (6.26)

ÌQDFHVWFD]VSXQHPF DPvQ]HVWUDWVSD LXOLQGLYL]LORUFXRVWUXFWXU HXFOLGLDQ vQFDUH

matricea MVHQXPHúWHPHWULFDVSD LXOXL

Cele mai utilizate metrici utilizate în cadrul analizei componentelor principale sunt
FHOH GDWH GH PDWULFLOH GLDJRQDOH FHHD FH FRQVW  vQ SRQGHUDUHD FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU Frecvent este

XWLOL]DW PHWULFDM = D , care are forma:

1/ σ 2

1 / σ 2
0 .. 0 
 1

 0 1/ σ 2
. . 
M = D1 / σ 2 = 2

 . . . . 
 0 0 0 1 / σ 2p 


$FHDVWD SUHVXSXQH vPS U LUHDILHF UHLFDUDFWHULVWLFL FX DEDWHUHD PHGLH S WUDWLF  FHHD

FH IDFH FD GLVWDQ HOH GLQWUH LQGLYL]L V  QX PDL GHSLQG  GH XQLWDWHD GH P VXU   UDSRUWXO xi/σj
HVWHI U GLPHQVLXQH$VIHOYRP DORFDILHF UHLFDUDFWHULVWLFLDFHHDúLLPSRUWDQ LQGLIHUHQWGH

dispersia sa. Cu alte cuvinte, metrica D1 / σ 2 UHVWDELOHúWH XQ HFKLOLEUX vQWUH FDUDFWHULVWLFL

GHRDUHFHDEDWHUHDPHGLHS WUDWLF DILHF UHLFDUDFWHULVWLFLYDIL

2EVHUYD LH 2ULFH PHWULF  VLPHWULF  SR]LWLY GHILQLW  M SRDWH IL VFULV  FD SURGXV GH

matrici M = tT T. Atunci produsul scalar între e1úLe2 va fi:

e1 ; e2 M
= t e1 ⋅ M ⋅ e2 = t e1 t T ⋅ T ⋅ e2 = t (T ⋅ e1 )⋅ (T ⋅ e2 ) = T ⋅ e1 ; T ⋅ e2 I
(6.27)

Cu alte cuvinte, alegând convenabil matricea T se poate reduce metrica la matricea

unitate I.

ÌQFRQWLQXDUHYRPSUH]HQWDPRGXOvQFDUHVHGHWHUPLQ FRRUGRQDWHOHXQXLLQGLYLGGXS 

modificarea sistemului de axe.

'DF  YRP SOHFD GH OD XQ VLVWHP GH D[H RUWRQRUPDWH x1,x2,…,xp SURLHF LD XQXL individ
SH R GUHDSW  d YD GHWHUPLQD R QRX  FDUDFWHULVWLF  c, cu valorile c1,c2,…,cp care vor fi

SURLHF LLOH SXQFWHORU ei  SH DFHVW  GUHDSW  'DF  D HVWH YHFWRUXO XQLWDU DO OXL d iar M este

PHWULFDXWLOL]DW SHQWUXxUH]XOW 

e1 = t e1 Ma = t (Ma )e1 (6.28)

(deoarece MHVWHVLPHWULF 

 n 
Luând u = M aUH]XOW GLUHFW c = X ⋅ u =  ∑ u j xij  (6.29)
 j =1  i =1, p
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

cYDILRFRPELQD LHOLQLDU DFHORU pFDUDFWHULVWLFLLQL LDOHSULQLQWHUPHGLXOIDFWRULORUu.

'DF  M = I atunci u = a.

,QHU LD

Vom numi LQHU LH D QRUXOXL GH SXQFWH PHGLD S WUDWHORU GLVWDQ HORU FHORU n puncte la
centrul de greutate:

℘= ∑p ⋅ ei = ∑ pi t ei Mei
2
i M
(6.30)
i i

$FHDVW  FDQWLWDWH YD P VXUD GHS UWDUHD SXQFWHORU QRUXOXL vQ UDSRUW FX FHQWUXO GH

greutate (cu alte cuvinte dispeUVLD JOREDO  D QRUXOXL GH SXQFWH 2 LQHU LH QXO  VDX DSURSLDW 

GH ]HUR DUDW  F  WR L LQGLYL]LL VXQW LGHQWLFL VDX DSURDSH LGHQWLFL FRQIXQGD L FX FHQWUXO GH

greutate g.
6H SRDWH DU WD XúRU IDSWXO F  LQHU LD   ℘ VHWH HJDO  FX PHGLD S WUDWHORU FHORU n(n-1)/2
GLVWDQ HvQWUHSXQFWHOHQRUXOXL

'H DVHPHQHD SXWHP GHILQL LQHU LD vQ UDSRUW FX XQ DOW SXQFW h, diferit de centrul de
greutate:

℘h = ∑p i ⋅ d 2 (ei ; h ) (6.31)
i
/HJ WXUDGLQWUH ℘úL℘hHVWHGDW GHIRUPXODOXL+X\JKHQV

℘h = ℘ + d 2 (g;h) (6.32)

Deci ℘h este întotdeauna mai mare decât ℘LDUYDRDUHDPLQLP VHRE LQHGDF  h = g.

'HDLFLRE LQHPF DF XWDXQSODQFHDVLJXU PD[LPL]DUHDLQHU LHLSURLHF LLORUFHORU n

SXQFWH HVWH HFKLYDOHQW  FX GHWHUPLQDUHD SODQXOXL FH WUHFH ³FHO PDL DSURDSH´ GH PXO LPHD

SXQFWHORU QRUXOXL vQ VHQVXO PLQLPL] ULL PHGLHL S WUDWHORU GLVWDQ HORU GH ODSXQFWHOH QRUXOXL OD

plan.
9RPSUHVXSXQHF SODQXOSULQFLSDOúLPDLPXOWD[HOHSULQFLSDOHWUHFvQWRWGHDXQDSULQ

centrul de greutate al norului de puncte. De asemenea, ℘VHPDLSRDWHGHWHUPLQDFXUHOD LD

℘ = Tr (MV) (6.34)

(cu Tr (MV) desemnând urma matricei MV, respectiv suma elementelor de pe

GLDJRQDODSULQFLSDO 

2EVHUYD LL

• 'DF  M = I DWXQFL LQHU LD HVWH HJDO  FX VXPD DEDWHULORU PHGLL S tratice asociate celor p
caracteristici;
• 'DF M = D
1/ s2
atunci avem:

Tr(MV) = Tr (D1 / s 2 V ) = Tr (D1 / sVD1 / s ) = Tr (R ) = p (6.35)

deci urma matricei MVHVWHHJDO FXQXP UXOGHFDUDFWHULVWLFL

 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

• Pentru o matrice M RDUHFDUH LQHU LD HVWH HJDO  FX VXPD DEDWHULORU S WUDWLFH DOH

carecteristicilor transformate prin intermediul matricii T, cu M = tT T.

6SD LXOFDUDFWHULVWLFLORU

)LHFDUH FDUDFWHULVWLF  HVWH vQ UHDOLWDWH R OLVW  GH YDORUL QXPHULFH FX DOWH FXYLQWH OH

YRPFRQVLGHUDFDXQYHFWRUGLQVSD LXO n dimensLRQDOQXPLWVSD LXOFDUDFWHULVWLFLORURn.

a) Metrica

3HQWUX VWXGLHUHD DSURSLHULL GLQWUH FDUDFWHULVWLFL WUHEXLH V  vQ]HVWU P VSD LXO FX R

PHWULF DGLF V GHWHUPLQ PRPDWULFHGHRUGLQQSR]LWLYGHILQLW úLVLPHWULF 'DF SHQWUX

VSD LXO LQGLYL]LORU VH SXQH SUREOHPDDOHJHULL PHWULFLL XWLOL]DWH SHQWUX VSD LXO FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU

QX PDL DSDUH DFHDVW  SUREOHP  GHRDUHFH DFHDVW  PHWULF  WUHEXLH V  ILH GDW  GH SRQGHULOH

indivizilor pi. Argumentele pentru folosirea acestei metrici sunt:

n
• 3URGXVXO VFDODU D GRX  F aracteristici xj úL xk este t x j ⋅ D ⋅ x k = ∑ pi ⋅ xij ⋅ xik , chiar
i =1
σ jk pentru cazul caracteristicilor centrate;
FRYDULDQ D

• Norma unei caracteristici x j  HVWHDEDWHUHD PHGLHS WUDWLF  σ 2j , cu alte cuvinte

D
³OXQJLPHD³XQHLFDUDFWHULVWLFLYDILHJDO FXDEDWHUHDPHGLHS WUDWLF 

Într-XQ VSD LX HXFOLGLDQ XQJKLXO θ GLQWUH GRL YHFWRUL VH GHWHUPLQ  SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO

produsului scalar:

x j ; xk σ
cos θ = =
jk
(6.36)
σ j⋅σ
jk
x ⋅ x
j k
k

cu alte cuvinte cosinusul unghiului dinWUHGRX FDUDFWHULVWLFLFHQWUDWHHVWH FRHILFLHQWXO

GHFRUHOD LHOLQLDU

'DF vQFD]XOVSD LXOXLLQGLYL]LORUQHLQWHUHVHD] vQVSHFLDOGLVWDQ HOHGLQWUHSXQFWHvQ

FD]XOVSD LXOXLFDUDFWHULVWLFLORUYRUILPDLLPSRUWDQWHXQJKLXULOHGLQWUHDFHVWHD

b) caracteristici determinate de un tablou de date

'DF  x1, x2, …, xp VXQW FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH P VXUDWH DVXSUD FHORU Q LQGLYL]L DWXQFL YRP

RE LQHQRLFDUDFWHULVWLFLXWLOL]kQGFRPELQD LLOLQLDUHGHWLSXO c = u1 ⋅ x 1 + u 2 ⋅ x 2 + .... + u p ⋅ x p ,

ceea ce se reduce la alegerea unor noi D[HvQVSD LXOLQGLYL]LORU
0XO LPHD WXWXURU FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU RE LQXWH SULQWU-XQ DVIHO GH SURFHGHX IRUPHD]  XQ

VXEVSD LX YHFWRULDO W DO VSD LXOXL FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU 'DF  QXH[LVW  QLFL R OHJ WXU  OLQLDU vQWUH

FDUDFWHULVWLFLDWXQFLDFHVWVXEVSD LXHVWHGHGLPHQVLXQHSDOWIHOHVWHGHGLPHQVLXQHPDLPLF 

$VDFXPDPPDLDU WDWFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHFQRXRE LQXWHVHGHWHUPLQ SULQUHOD LD c

= X uvQFDUHXUHSUH]LQW IDFWRUXODVRFLDWOXLFRPSRQHQWHLSULQFLSDOH c.
$EDWHUHDPHGLHS WUDWLF YDIL

σ c2 = t c ⋅ D ⋅ c = t u ⋅t x ⋅ x ⋅ u = t u ⋅ V ⋅ u (6.37)
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

'HWHUPLQDUHDD[HORUSULQFLSDOHúLDIDFWRULORUSULQFLSDOL

La începutul acestui paragraf am definit d1 D[D SULQFLSDO  SULQ SURSULHWDWHD F  PHGLD

S WUDWHORU GLVWDQ HORU SURLHF LLORU SXQFWHORU QRUXOXL SH GUHDSW a d1 HVWH PD[LP  Aceasta
SUHVXSXQHPD[LPL]DUHDLQHU LHLSURLHF LLORUUHVSHFWLYD ∑ i i2 , cu ci P VXULOHDOJHEULFH
p
i
⋅ c

DOHSURLHF LLORUOXLei pe d1 (deoarece d1 trece prin centrul de greutate al norului de puncte).

Cum d1 este axa prinFLSDO  D QRUXOXL FRPSRQHQWHOH ci sunt dispersate maxim posibil,
cu alte cuvinte cHVWHFRPELQD LDOLQLDU DxiGHGLVSHUVLHPD[LPDO 
$[HOH úL IDFWRULL SULQFLSDOL v1, v2, …, vp (pentru cazul în care M = I ) sunt vectorii

SURSULLDLPDWULFHLGHYDULDQ  – FRYDULDQ 9YHFWRULSURSULLDVRFLD LYDORULORUSURSULL λ1, λ2,

…, λp GHVFULVHvQRUGLQHGHVFUHVF WRDUH
9RPFRQVLGHUDQRLOHD[HDOHVSD LXOXLLQGLYL]LORUFDILLQGYHFWRULLSURSULLDLPDWULFHLFH

YDULDQ -FRYDULDQ FHHDFHFRQGXFHODOLQLDUL]DUHDRSHU atorului liniar asociat lui V.

2EVHUYD LH

• 5HDPLQWLP F   YDORULOH SURSULL  DVRFLDWH XQHL PDWULFH V VXQW VROX LLOH HFXD LHL
det(V - λ I ) = 0.

• 9HFWRULLSURSULLDVRFLD LVXQWDFHLYHFWRULXiFHVDWLVIDFUHOD LD

V ui = λi ui -GDF ui este un vector colRDQ ODGUHDSWDDVRFLDWYDORULLSURSULLλi;

uj V = λj uj –GDF uj este un vector linie la stânga asociat valorii proprii λj .

0DWULFHDYDULDQ HLFRPSRQHQWHORUSULQFLSDOHYDILvQDFHVWFD]

λ 0 
 1 
 λ 
V =
2

. 
 
 0 λ p 


Componentele principale vor fi decLQHFRUHODWHGRX FkWHGRX 

Prin metoda analizei componentelor principale se înlocuiesc cele p caracteristici

LQL LDOHSULQFDUDFWHULVWLFLQHFRUHODWHGHGLVSHUVLHPD[LPDO úLFXLPSRUWDQ GHVFUHVF WRDUH

3HQWUX D GHWHUPLQD GLUHFW D[HOH IDFWRULL úL FRP ponentele principale în raport cu X
PDWULFHDGDWHORULQL LDOHYRPIDFHXUP WRDUHOHWUDQVIRUP UL

V ⋅ u = λ ⋅ u = TV t T ⋅ u ⇒
T ⋅ TV tT ⋅ u = λ t T ⋅ u ⇒
t
(6.37)
MVu = λ ⋅ u

Cum u = M D UH]XOW F  M V M a = λ M a  DGLF  V M a = λ a (deoarece M este

UHJXODW 

Cu alte cuvinte, axele principale vor fi vectorii proprii ai matricei VM, iar factorii
principali vor fi vectorii proprii ai matricei MV.
&RPSRQHQWHOHSULQFLSDOHVHRE LQGLQUHOD LDc = X u. (6.38)
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

Suma valorilor proprii : λ1 + λ2 + …+ λp HVWHFRQVWDQW úLHJDO FXXUPDPDWULFHL V, Tr

V, respectiv a MVúLGHDVHPHQHDHVWHLQHU LDWRWDO ℘.
Raportul λk / ℘ VH QXPHúWH FRQWULEX LD D[HL N OD LQHU LD WRWDO  LDU   λ1 + λ2 ) / ℘ va
P VXUD JUDGXO GH DSODWL]DUH D QRUXOXL GH SXQFWH SH SODQXO SULQFLSDO &X FkW DFHDVW  YDORDUH

este mai mDUHFXDWkHVWHPDLEXQ UHSUH]HQWDUHDQRUXOXLGHSXQFWHvQDFHVWSODQ

1XP UXO GH YDORUL SURSULL QHQXOH YD GD GLPHQVLXQHD VSD LXOXL vQ FDUH VH HIHFWXHD] 

REVHUYD LLOH 2 YDORDUH SURSULH QXO  YD LQGLFD H[LHWDQ D XQHL UHOD LL OLQLDUH vQWUH FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH

LQL LDOH

2EVHUYD LL

• Valorile proprii ordonate λ k DUDW RUGLQHDLPSRUWDQ HLFDUDFWHULVWLFLORU

• 5HSUH]HQWDUHDJUDILF VHHIHFWXHD] vQ SODQXOGHWHUPLQDWGHD[HOH SULQFLSDOHFHOH

ce corespund valorilor proprii λ1úLλ2 );

• &RQWULEX LD SULPHORU GRX  YDORUL SURSULL vQ WRWDO LQHU LH D QRUXOXL GH SXQFWH HVWH

HVHQ LDO &XFkWDFHDVW FRQWULEX LHHVWHPDLPDUHFXDWkWUHSUH]HQWDUHDSXQFWHORU

vQSODQXOSULQFLSDOHVWHPDLEXQ 

• În unele cazuri se poate reduce studiul caracteristicilor doar la primele q

FRPSRQHQWH FHOH FDUH DX R FRQWULEX LH GH SHVWH   vQ WRWDOXO LQHU LHL DSUHFLLQG

F UHVWXOFDUDFWHULVWLFLORUDXRFRQWULEX LHQHVHPQLILFDWLY 

• 0HWRGDSHUPLWHVWDELOLUHDRUGLQLLúLLPSRUWDQ HLFDUDFWHULVWLFLORUVWXGLDWH

6.3.4 Analiza tabelelor de proximitate

ÌQXQHOHDSOLFD LLQXVXQWFXQRVFXWHYDORULOHOXDWHGHFDUDFWHULVWLFLGDUVXQWFXQRVFXWH

GLVWDQ HOHGLQWUHLQGLYL]LFXDOWHFXYLQWHHVWHFXQRVFXWWDEHOXOGHSUR[LPLWDWH8QH[HPSOXvQ

acest caz îl poate constitui studiul caracteristicilor unor produse, caracteristici apreciate
VXELHFWLYGHF WUHFRQVXPDWRULGRDUSHED]D³GLVWDQ HL´GLQWUHSURGXVH3HQWUXDSXWHDHIHFWXD

R DQDOL]  D FRPSRQHQWHORU SULQFLSDOH WUHEXLH V HSUH]HQW P JUDILF GLVWDQ HOH GLQWUH HOHPHQWH

P UFLDOHXQXLSURG us de exemplu).
'DWHOH GH SOHFDUH YRU IL LQFOXVH vQ WDEORXO GLVWDQ HORU GLQWUH  FHL Q LQGLYL]L

3UHVXSXQHPF DFHVWHGLVWDQ HVXQWHXFOLGLHQHSHQWUXvQFHSXWúLvQDFHVWFD]FHLQLQGLYL]LSRW

IL FRQVLGHUD L SXQFWH vQWU XQ VSD LX GH GLPHQVLXQH S QHFXQRVFXW vQ]HVWUDW FX R PHWULF  0
-
'DF DPFXQRDúWHFRRUGRQDWHOHSHD[HRUWRJRQDOHFKLDUDUELWUDUHDWXQFLV -ar putea construi un
tabel indivizi-FDUDFWHULVWLFLúLV VHHIHFWXH]HR$&3

ÌQV FRPSRQHQWHOHSULQFLSDOHFFDUHIRUPHD] FRRUGRQDWHOHSHD[HOHSULQF ipale) sunt

t
vectorii proprii ai matricei X M X D. $FHDVW  PDWULFH VH FDOFXOHD]  vQV  GRDU SH ED]D

GLVWDQ HORUGLQWUHLQGLYL]L

ÌQFRQFOX]LHHVWHVXILFLHQWV FDOFXO PYHFWRULLSURSULLSHQWUXDRE LQHRUHSUH]HQWDUH

D LQGLYL]LORU SH XQ VSD LX GH GLPHQVLXQH T vQ FDUH GLVWDQ HOH VH YRU P VXUD SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO

SURFHQWDMXOXLLQHU LH

2EVHUYD LH $SOLFDUHD PHWRGHL $&3 SHQWUX XQ DVHPHQHD WLS GH GDWH VH QXPHúWH

DQDOL] IDFWRULDO DXQXLWDEHODOGLVWDQ HORU

6.3.5 Studiu de caz.

În continuare vom prezenta XQ VWXGLX GH FD] UHVSHFWLY XQ H[HPSOX GH DQDOL]  D
componentelor principale pornind de la datele cu privire la cheltuielile publice efectuate în
)UDQ D vQWUH DQLL  – 1971. Datele sunt prezentate în tabelul 6.9. Astfel, sunt prezentate

procentual princLSDOHOH FKHOWXLHOL SXEOLFH SUHY ]XWH vQ EXJHW SHQWUX ILHFDUH DQ GLQ FHL
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

FRQVLGHUD L 9RP DYHD  GH LQGLYL]L UHSUH]HQWD L GH DQL úL UHVSHFWLY  FDUDFWHULVWLFL

reprezentate de tipul de cheltuieli publice efectuate.

Structura cheltuielilor publice în perioada 1872-1971(%)
Tabelul 6.9
Nr. An ADS AGR CI TR LOC EDU ACS VR APA DAT DIV Total
crt.
1 1872 18.0 0.5 0.1 6.7 0.5 2.1 2.0 26.4 41.5 2.1 100
2 1880 14.1 0.8 0.1 15.3 1.9 3.7 0.5 29.8 31.3 2.5 100
3 1890 13.6 0.7 0.7 6.8 0.6 7.1 0.7 33.8 34.4 1.7 100
4 1900 14.3 1.7 1.7 6.9 1.2 7.4 0.8 37.7 26.2 2.2 100
5 1903 10.3 1.5 0.4 9.3 0.6 8.5 0.9 38.4 27.2 3.0 100
6 1906 13.4 1.4 0.5 8.1 0.7 8.6 1.8 38.5 25.3 1.9 100
7 1909 13.5 1.1 0.5 9.0 0.6 9.0 3.4 36.8 23.5 2.6 100
8 1912 12.9 1.4 0.3 9.4 0.6 9.3 4.3 41.1 19.4 1.3 100
9 1920 12.3 0.3 0.1 11.9 2.4 3.7 1.7 1.9 42.4 23.1 0.2 100
10 1923 7.6 1.2 3.2 5.1 0.6 5.6 1.8 10.0 29.0 35.0 0.9 100
11 1926 10.5 0.3 0.4 4.5 1.8 6.6 2.1 10.1 19.9 41.6 2.3 100
12 1929 10.0 0.6 0.6 9.0 1.0 8.1 3.2 11.8 28.0 25.8 2.0 100
13 1932 10.6 0.8 0.3 8.9 3.0 10.0 6.4 13.4 27.4 19.2 0 100
14 1935 8.8 2.6 1.4 7.8 1.4 12.4 6.2 11.3 29.3 18.5 0.4 100
15 1938 10.1 1.1 1.2 5.9 1.4 9.5 6.0 5.9 40.7 18.2 0 100
16 1947 15.6 1.6 10.0 11.4 7.6 8.8 4.8 3.4 32.3 4.6 0 100
17 1950 11.2 1.3 16.5 12.4 15.8 8.1 4.9 3.4 20.7 4.2 1.5 100
18 1953 12.9 1.5 7.0 7.9 12.1 8.1 5.3 3.9 36.1 5.2 0 100
19 1956 10.9 5.3 9.7 7.6 9.6 9.4 8.5 4.6 28.2 6.2 0 100
20 1959 13.1 4.4 7.3 5.7 9.8 12.5 8.0 5.0 26.7 7.5 0 100
21 1962 12.8 4.7 7.5 6.6 6.8 15.7 9.7 5.3 24.5 6.4 0.1 100
22 1965 12.4 4.3 8.4 9.1 6.0 19.5 10.6 4.7 19.8 3.5 1.8 100
23 1968 11.4 6.0 9.5 5.9 5.0 21.1 10.7 4.2 20.0 4.4 1.9 100
24 1971 12.8 2.8 7.1 8.5 4.0 23.8 11.3 3.7 18.8 7.2 0 100
Sursa: C. André úL 5 'HORUPH /¶pYROXWLRQ GHV GpSHQVHV SXEOLTXHV HQ )UDQFH  – 1971) rapport
CORDES, Cepremap, Paris, 1976

6HPQLILFD LDWLSXULORUGHFKHOWXLHOLHVWHXUP WRDUHD

ADS –$GPLQLVWUD LHSXEOLF 

LOC –/RFXLQ H
AGR –$JULFXOWXU 
VR – Veterani de r ]ERL
EDU –(GXFD LHúLFXOWXU 
APA –$S UDUH
ACS –$FWLYLW LVRFLDOH
TR – Transporturi
CI –&RPHU úLLQGXVWULH
DAT –'DWRULHSXEOLF
DIV - Diverse

Mediile celor 11 caracteristici sunt coordonatele centrului de greutate:

g = ( 12.2; 2; 3.9; 8.3; 4; 9.9; 4.8; 4.3; 30.3; 19.1; 1.2 )
Dispersiile celor 11 caracteristici sunt:
si = ( 2.2; 1.6; 4.5; 2.5; 4.2; 5.2; 3.4; 4.2; 7.3; 12.2; 1 )
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

0DWULFHDGHFRUHOD LHDFHORUFDUDFWHULVWLFLHVWH

ADS 1
AGR -0.8 1
CI 0.00 0.60 1
TR 0.23 -0.27 0.09 1
LOC 0.04 0.44 0.89 0.17 1
V= EDU -0.15 0.73 0.47 -0.21 0.23 1
ACS -0.13 0.81 0.62 -0.20 0.49 0.88 1
VR -0.69 0.04 0.02 -0.31 0.05 0.16 0.29 1
APA 0.10 -0.45 -0.54 0.16 -0.38 -0.52 -0.57 -0.42 1
DAT 0.03 -0.69 -0.80 -0.15 -0.76 -0.67 -0.81 -0.05 0.26 1
DIV 0.15 -0.28 -0.35 0.11 -0.44 -0.25 -0.53 -0.38 0.02 0.55 1
ADS AGR CI TR LOC EDU ACS VR APA DAT DIV

'LQDQDOL]DPDWULFLLGHFRUHOD LHVHGHVSULQGSULPHOHLQWHUSUHW UL

- FRHILFLHWXOGHFRUHOD LHGLQWUHFKHOWXLHOLOHSHQWUXORFXLQ HúLFHOHSHQWUXLQGXVWULHúL

FRPHU  HVWH GH  FHHD FH DUDW  R OHJ WXU  SXWHUQLF  DSURDSH OLQLDU  vQWUH FHOH

GRX  FDUDFWHULVWLFL &X DOH FXYLQWH FHOH GRX  WLSXUL GH FKHOWXLHOL DX HYROXDW vQ

DFHODúLVHQVvQPDUHDPDMRULWDWHDDQLORUDQDOL]D L

- ÌQ VFKLPE FRHILFLHQWXO GH FRUHOD LH GLQWUH FKHOWXLHOLOH SHQWUX  DGPLQLVWUD LH úL FHOH

SHQWUX LQGXVWULH úL FRPHU  HVWH  FHHD FH DUDW  OLSVD FRPSOHW  D OHJ WXULORU GLQWUH

aceste tipuri de cheltuieli.

7RWXúLSHQWUXDYHULILFDFHOHDILUPDWHWUHELXHV DSURIXQG PDQDOL]HOHúLSULQWUDVDUHD

norului de puncte aferent în planul axelor principale (vezi figura 6.3)

Calculele prezentate în continuare au fost efectuate cu ajutorul pachetului de programe
SPADN. 0HWULFD XWLOL]DW  D IRVW D1 / s 2  FHHD FH D SUHVXSXV FHQWUDUHD úL UHGXFHUHD FHORU 
caracteristici. Astfel factorii principali s-DXRE LQXWSULQGLDJRQDOL]DUHDPDWULFLLGHFRUHOD LH5
9DORULOHSURSULLDWDúDWHPDWULFLL X pentru metrica M = D sunt prezentate în tabelul
1/ s2
6.10
Tabelul 6.10
Nr. Valoare vQLQHU LH %
Crt. proprie cumulat
1 4.98 45.3 45.3
2 2.05 18.6 63.9
3 1.29 11.7 75.6
4 0.99 9.0 84.6
5 0.71 6.5 91.1
6 0.56 5.1 96.2
7 0.20 1.8 98
8 0.12 1.1 99.1
9 0.06 0.5 99.6
10 0.04 0.4 100
11 0 0 100
total 11 100

6XPD YDORULORU SURSULL HVWH HJDO  FX QXP UXO GH FDUDFWHULVWLFL GHRDUHFH  D IRVW DOHDV 

metrica M = D1 / s 2 , deci va fi 11. Ultima valoare proprie este 0 deoarece cele 11 caracteristici
sunt corelate printr-RUHOD LHOLQLDU ILLQGSURFHQWHGLQFKHOWXLHOLOHSXEOLFHVXPDORUHVWH
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

3ULPHOH GRX  YDORUL SURSULL UHSUH]LQW  DSUR[LPDWLY  GLQ LQHU LDWRWDO  D QR rului de
SXQFWH GHFL UHVWUkQJHUHD DQDOL]HL GRDU OD SULPHOH GRX  FRPSRQHQHWH SULQFLSDOH HVWH

VHPQLILFDWLY 

2EVHUYD LH . Este dificil de apreciat de la ce procent în sus putem neglija componentele

SULQFLSDOH FDUH DX PDL U PDV $FHDVWD GHSLQGH vQ SULPXO UkQG GH QXP UXO GH FDUDFWHULVWLFL

studiate, deoarece cu cât acesta este mai mare, cu atât ponderea primelor componente poate
VF GHDúLWRWXúLV U PkQ VHPQLILFDWLY 

Primii doi vectori principali v1úLY2 sunt:

t
v1 = (-0.08; 0.37; 0.37; -0.06; 0.32; 0.35; 0.42; 0.13; -0.27; -0.40; -0.25 )
t
v2 = ( -0.52; -0.00, -0.24; -0.44; -0.28; 0.10; 0.07; 0.56; -0.15; 0.21; -0.08)

Reprezentarea indivizilor în planul principal

În tabelul 6.11 sunt indicate coordonatele celor 24 de indivizi în planul determinat de

axele principale. Componentele c1 úLF2 vor da coordonatele indivizilor în planul principal.

Tabelul 6.11
An c1 c2 An c1 c2
1872 -2.90 -1.02 1932 0.27 1.96
1880 -2.77 -2.01 1935 0.66 2.30
1890 -2.42 -0.22 1938 -0.40 1.34
1900 -2.06 -0.75 1947 1.08 -2.25
1903 -2.34 -.017 1950 2.37 -2.17
1906 -1.98 -0.63 1953 1.20 -1.13
1909 -1.91 -0.81 1956 2.93 -0.23
1912 -1.43 -0.77 1959 2.69 -0.14
1920 -2.14 -0.96 1962 3.06 0.11
1923 -1.14 2.88 1965 3.14 -0.31
1926 -1.67 2.61 1968 3.70 0.47
1929 -1.12 1.83 1971 3.24 0.09

2SULP REVHUYD LHHVWHDFHHDF H[LVW SDWUXJUXSHGLVWLQFWHELQHLQGLYLGXDOL]DWH

- grupa 1 –DQLLGLQDLQWHGHSULPXOU ]ERLPRQGLDO

- grupa 2 –DQLLGLQWUHFHOHGRX U ]ERDLHPRQGLDOH
- grupa 3 –DQLLGHLPHGLDWGXS FHOGH-DOGRLOHDU ]ERLPRQGLDO
- grupa 4 – perioada dintre anii 1956 – 1971.

)LJXUDLOXVWUHD] UHSUH]HQWDUHDvQSODQXOGHWHUPLQDWGHD[HOHSULQFLSDOH
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

Axa 2
1923
1928 1935
1900
1932

1929
1938

1968
1962
1971
1890
1959 1958
1903 1906 Axa 1
1965
1900 1912
1920 1909 1953
1872

1947
1880 1950

Figura 6.3

&XP ILJXUD RE LQXW  PDL VXV HVWH R SURLHF LH QX WUHEXLH V  VH FRQIXQGH DSURSLHULOH

dintre punctele din planul pULQFLSDOFXFHOHUHDOHGLQVSD LXOLQGLYL]LORUÌQDFHVWHFRQGL LLPDL

WUHEXLH DQDOL]DW  úL FDOLWDWHD  UHSUH]HQW ULL vQ ILHFDUH SXQFW UHVSHFWLY GH D DQDOL]D XQJKLXULOH

GLQWUH YHFWRUL úL SURLHF LLOH ORU 'DF  YDORDUHD FRVLQXVXOXL VH DSURSLH GH  DWXQFL SURLHF LD VH

FRQIXQG  FX YHFWRUXO LQL LDO vQV  GDF  YDORDUHD FRVLQXVXOXL VH DSURSLH GH ]HUR DWXQFL SRW

DSDUHSUREOHPHGHLQWHUSUHWDUHDUH]XOWDWXOXLRE LQXW

'LQDQDOL]DFRVLQXVXULORUUH]XOW F DSURDSHWR LDQLLVXQWELQHILJXUD LSRDWHPDLSX LQ

anii úLFDUHDXXQFRVLQXVGH
ÌQ FRQGL LLOH vQ FDUH VH RE LQ PDL PXOWH HOHPHQWH VODE UHSUH]HQWDWH DFHDVWD VH

GDWRUHD]  LQHU LHL UHGXVH D SODQXOXL SULQFLSDO úL YD IL QHFHVDU   úL  DQDOL]D SODQXULORU GHILQLWH

de componentele principale 3,4,5 etc.

,QWHUSUHWDUHDFRPSRQHQWHORUSULQFLSDOHúLDD[HORUSULQFLSDOH

8QD GLQWUH FHOH PDL GHOLFDWH SUREOHPH HVWH DFHHD D LQWHUSUHW ULL VHPQLILFD LHL

FRPSRQHQWHORU SULQFLSDOH FDUH VXQW vQ UHDOLWDWH  R FRPELQD LH OLQLDU  D FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU GH

plecare. SuQW DGRSWDWH GRX  SXQFWH GH YHGHUH SH GH R SDUWH VXQW DQDOL]DWH FRUHOD LLOH FX

FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH LQL LDOH LDU SH GH DOW  SDUWH VXQW DQDOL]D L LQGLYL]LL WLSLFL SHQWUX PXO LPHD GH

start.

D &HUFXO FRUHOD LLORU  &DOFXOXO FRUHOD LLORU GLQWUH FRPSRQHQWHOH SULQFLSDOH úL

FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH LQL LDOH HVWH XúRU GH HIHFWXDW vQ FD]XO PHWULFLL
D1 / s 2 , respectiv coeficientul de
j
FRUHOD LH OLQLDU  GLQWUH [   úL ck este egal cu componenta j din vectorul propriu k vQPXO LW  FX

λ k .De aicLUH]XOW F S WUDWHORUFRHILFLHQ LORUGHFRUHOD LHGLQWUH[MúLFk este k.

ÌQ FD]XO QRVWUX WDEHOXO UDSRDUWHORU GH FRUHOD LH vQWUH FRPSRQHQWHOH SULQFLSDOH úL

FDUDFWHULVWLFLHVWHXUP WRUXO
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

Tabelul 6.12
&DUDFWHULVWLF  r(c1;xj) r(c2;xj)
ADS -0.17 -0.74
AGR 0.82 -0.01
CI 0.83 -0.34
TR -0.14 -0.63
LOC 0.72 -0.40
EDU 0.79 0.14
ACS 0.93 0.10
VR 0.29 0.81
APA -0.61 -0.22
DAT -0.89 0.30
DIV -0.55 -0.11

3ULPD FRPSRQHQW  SULQFLSDO  HVWH SR]LWLY FRUHODW  FX SURFHQWXO GLQ EXJHW DORFDW

DFWLYLW LORU VRFLDOH FRPHU XOXL úL LQGXVWULHL UHVSHFWLY DJULFXOWXULL úL QHJDWLY FRUHODW  FX

FKHOWXLHOLOH GHVWLQDWH DS U ULL QD LRQDOH úL SO LL GDWRULHL SXEOLFH  &X DOWH FXYLQWH vQ UDSRUW FX

SULPD FRPSRQHQW  SULQFLSDO  DSDUH R SULP  JUXSDUH D FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU LQL LDOH $FHDVWD QH

SHUPLWHV LQWHUSUHW PSR]L LDLQGLYL]LORUSHSODQXOSULQFLSDOFXFkWXQLQGLYLGVHVLWXHD] PDL

ODGUHDSWDvQSODQFXDWkWVHYDGHS UWDGHPHGLHSULQYDORULPDULDOHFDUDWHULVWLFLORU$&6&,

AGR, concomitent cu valori mici în medie SHQWUX '$7 úL $3$ 3XQFWHOH VLWXDWH OD VWkQJD

corespund apropierii caracteristicilor.

3HQWUXDGRXDFRPSRQHQW SULQFLSDO DF UHLLPSRUWDQ HVWHGHRULPDLPLF GHFkW

DSULPHLREVHUY PF SULQFLSDODRSR]L LHVHJ VHúWHvQWUHEXJHWXODORFDWYHWHUDQLORUGHU ]ERL

úLFHODORFDWDGPLQLVWUD LHL

'DF  YRP UHSUH]HQWD ILHFDUH FDUDFWHULVWLF  SULQWU -un punct într-un sistem de axe
GHWHUPLQDWGHSULPHOHGRX FRPSRQHQWHSULQFLSDOHDWXQFLREVHUY PF DFHVWHDVHYRUvQVFULH

vQLQWHULRUXOXQXLFHUFGHUD] $FHVWDVHQXPHúWHFHUFXOFRUHOD LLORUVHUHPDUF XúRUIDSWXO

F  ( ) ( )
r 2 c1 ; x j + r 2 c 2 ; x j ≤ 1.

VR

DAT
EDU
ACS

DIV AGR
APA CI
TR
LOC
ADS

Figura 6.4

$QDOL]D DFHVWHL UHSUH]HQW UL SHUPLWH LQWHUSUHWDUHD FRPSRQHQWHORU SULQFLSDOH úL

observarea grupurilor de cararcetristici corelate negativ sau pozitiv.

$FHDVW UHSUH]HQWDUHDUHSHQWUXFDUDFWHULVWLFLDFHODúLUROSHFDUHvQDUHSODQXOSULQFLSDO

pentru indivizi.
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

E /RFXO úL LPSRUWDQ D LQGLYL]LORU 2EVHUYkQG F  GH -a lungul axei 1 anii sunt aproape
vQ RUGLQH FURQRORJLF  DFHDVWD YD SHUPLWH V  SXQHP vQ HYLGHQ  HYROX LD WHPSRUDO  D

FKHOWXLHOLORU SXEOLFH  6H SRW GHWHUPLQD LQGLYL]LL FDUH FDUDFWHUL]HD]  vQ PRG GHWHUPLQDQW D[D

UHVSHFWLY  SULQ FDOFXOXO FRQWULEX LHL XQXL SXQFW OD IRUPDUHD D[HL N $FHDVW  FRQWULEX LH YD IL

pi ⋅ cik2 / λ k   FDUH HVWH SDUWHD GLQ DEDWHUHD PHGLH S WUDWLF  D FRPSRQHQWHL Fk  GDWRUDW 
LQGLYLGXOXLL$VIHOSHQWUXD[DFRQWULEX LLOHGRPLQDQWHUHYLQDQLORUúLLDUSHQWUX

D[DDQLORUúL

$FHDVW  LQWHUSUHWDWH QX DUH VHQV GHFkW vQ FD]XO vQ FDUH QH LQWHUHVHD]  V  DQDOL] P úL

indivizii ce fac parte din norul de puncte. În cazul unor sondaje sau alegeri aleatoare
LQWHUHVHD]  PDL SX LQ LQGLYL]LL úL PDL PXOW FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH DFHVWRUD ÌQ DFHVW FD] $&3 VH YD

rezuma la studierea caracteristicLORUDGLF DFHUFXOXLFRUHOD LLORU

2 DOW  GLILFXOWDWH LPSULPDW  GH DFHVW  DQDOL]  HVWH DFHHD D LQIOXHQ HL GDWHORU DEHUDQWH

'DF  YRP DQDOL]D IRUPDUHD D[HORU úLFRQWULEX LDLQGLYL]LORU vQ IRUPDUHD D[HORU SULQFLSDOH XQ

LQGLYLG DEHUDQW LQIOXHQ HD]  VHPQLI icativ analiza. 'LQ DFHVW PRWLY GXS  LGHQWLILFDUHD DFHVWRU

LQGLYL]LHVWHUHFRPDQGDELOV ILHHOLPLQD LúLDSRLV VHUHLDDQDOL]D

Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

6.4. Clasificarea
&ODVLILFDUHD vúL SURSXQH FD SULQ PHWRGHOH VDOH V  JUXSH]H LQGLYL]LL XQHL PXO LPL GDWH

într-XQ QXP U PDL PLF GH FODVH RPRJHQH $OWIHO VSXV YRP UHGXFH QXP UXO GH LQGLYL]L SULQWU -o
DVRFLHUHDFRUHVSXQ] WRDUHDGDWHORU

([LVW GRX PDULWLSXULGHPHWRGHGHFODVLILFDUHDGDWHORU

- PHWRGH QHLHUDUKLFH vQ XUPD F URUD UH]XOW  GLUHFW R SDUWL LH vQUW XQ QXP U IL[DW GH
-
clase.
- PHWRGH LHUDUKLFHvQXUPDF URUDUH]XOW SDUWL LLvQ FODVHGLQFHvQFH PDLPDUL 8Q

H[HPSOX vQ DFHVW VHQV vO FRQVWLWXLH FODVLILF ULOH GLQ ]RRORJLH vQ VSHFLL JHQXUL

familii, ordine etc.

În cadrul metodelor de clasificare datele sunt organizate fie în tabele de proximitate

(sau de disimilaritate) între cei n LQGLYL]L DQDOL]D L SULQ FDUDFWHULVWLFL FDQWLWDWLYH ILH vQ WDEHOH
FHFRQ LQFRRUGRQDWHOHLQGLYL]LORUvQFD]XOFDUDFWHULVWLFLORUFDOLWDWLYH

Pentru cazul caUDFWHULVWLFLORUFDOLWDWLYHYDILQHFHVDU GHILQLUHDXQHLGLVWDQ H

ÌQ XOWLPLL DQL DOJRULWPLL GH FODVLILFDUH DX FXQRVFXW R HYROX LH H[SRQHQ LDO  R GDW  FX

dezvoltarea mijloacelor electronice de calcul. Tocmai de aceea în continuare vom prezenta

metode de cODVLILFDUHúLQXDOJRULWPL

6.4.1 &ODVLILFDUHDQHLHUDUKLF

ÌQFD]XOFODVLILF ULL QHLHUDUKLFHQH SURSXQHP V JUXS P FHL n indivizi în k clase astfel

vQFkW LQGLYL]LL GLQ DFHHDúL FODV  V  ILH FkW PDL DVHP Q WRUL SRVLELO LDU FODVHOH V  ILH FkW PDL

individualizatH 3HQWUX DFHDVWD HVWH QHFHVDU  GHILQLUHD XQXL FULWHULX JOREDO SULQ FDUH V  VH

P VRDUH DSURSLHUHD VDX GLVWDQ D GLQWUH LQGLYL]LL DFHOHLDúL FODVH GHFL FDOLWDWHD XQHL SDUWL LL

'DF  YRP GLVSXQH GH XQ DVHPHQHD FULWHULX FHO SX LQ GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH WHRUHW ic, am putea
FRQVWUXL WRDWH JUXS ULOH SRVLELOH úL DSRL V  ILH UH LQXW  FHD PDL EXQ  ÌQ UHDOLWDWH GDWRULW 

QXP UXOXL PDUH GH GDWH DQDOL]DWH DFHDVW  YDULDQW  HVWH H[FOXV  FKLDU úL SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO

FDOFXODWRDUHORU'HH[HPSOXLQGLYL]LSRWILJUXSD LvQFODVHGLVWLQFWHvQQXPDLSX LQGH

4
 GH PLOLRDQH GH SRVLELOLW L UHVSHFWLY $ 14   SRVLELOLW L ÌQ DFHVW FRQWH[W

DOJRULWPLL HODERUD L FDXW  V  GHWHUPLQH R VROX LH DSUR[LPDWLY  FkW PDL DSURSLDW  GH FHD

RSWLP 

3ULQFLSLLOH GH ED]  FH VWDX OD HODERUDUHD PDMRULW LL DOJRULWPLORU HVWH PD[LPL]DUHD

LQHU LHLLQWHUFODVHúLPLQLPL]DUHDLQHU LHLLQWUDFODVH

,QHU LDLQWHUFODVHúLLQWUDFODVH

Considerând cei n LQGLYL]L DL PXO LPLL FD SXQFWH vQ VSD LXO HXFOLGLDQ SUREOHPD

FODVLILF ULL VH SRDWH UHGHILQL SULQ F XWDUHD XQHL SDUWL LL GH k HOHPHQWH GLQ PXO LPHD LQL LDO  D

celor n indivizi.
,QHU LDXQXLQRUGHSXQFWH ℘FDUHYDILHOHPHQWXOSULQFLSDODOFODVLILF ULORUUHSUH]LQW 
GLVSHUVLD SXQFWHORU QRUXOXL vQ MXUXO FHQWUXOXL V X GH JUHXWDWH 2 FODVva fi cu atât mai
RPRJHQ FXFkW LQHU LD VD YDIL PDL PLF  ÌQDFHVW FRQWH[WILH ℘1,℘2,…,℘k  LQHU LLOHILHF UHL

clase calculate în raport cu centrele lor de greutate g1, g2,…,gk 6XPD DFHVWRU LQHU LL VH
QXPHúWHLQHU LHLQWUDFODVHúLRYRPQRWDFX℘w, respectiv vom avea:
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

k
℘w = ∑
j =1
℘j (6.39)

'HFLSHQWUXDDYHDFODVHFkWPDLRPRJHQHLQHU LDLQWUDFODVH ℘wWUHEXLHV ILHFkWPDL

PLF 

&RQVLGHU P DFXP  PXO LPHD FHQWUHORU GH JUHXWDWH g1, g2, …, gk DOH ILHF UHL FODVH úL g

centrul de gUHXWDWH DO QRUXOXL GH SXQFWH LQL LDO 3HQWUX DFHDVW  PXO LPH YRP FDOFXOD LQHU LD
DVRFLDW FDUHVHYDQXPLLQHU LHLQWHUFODVH:

k
℘b = ∑
j =1
pj d2 (gj ; g) (6.40)

cu: pj - ponderea clasei j în total;

d2 (gj ; g) - GLVWDQ D HXFOLGLDQ  GH OD FHQWUXO GH JUHXWDWH DO FODVHL j la centrul
de greutate al norului de puncte.
℘b -LQHU LDLQWHUFODVH

2 YDORDUH PDUH D LQHU LHL LQWHUFODVH YD LQGLFD R EXQ  VHSDUDUH D FODVHORU GHFL HVWH

necesar ca ℘b V ILHFkWPDLPDUH

Teorema lui Huyghens GHVFULH OHJ WXUD GLQWUH LQHU LD LQWUDFODVH úL LQHU LD LQWHUFODVH

UHOD LHFHHVWHHFKLYDOHQW FXUHJXODGHDGXQDUHDGLVSHUVLLORUUHVSHFWLY

℘w + ℘b = ℘ (6.41)

&X DOWH FXYLQWH VXPD LQHU LLORU LQWHUFODVH úL LQWUDFODVH SHQWUX RULFH SDUWL LR nare a
PXO LPLL n de puncte în kFODVHHVWHFRQVWDQW úLHJDO FXLQHU LDWRWDO DQRUXOXLGHSXQFWH

ÌQ DFHVW FRQWH[W SUREOHPD PD[LPL] ULL LQHU LHL LQWHUFODVH ℘b HVWH HFKLYDOHQW  FX

SUREOHPDPLQLPL] ULLLQHU LHLLQWUDFODVH ℘w.

2EVHUY P vQV  F  DFHVW FULWHULX QH SHUPLWH V  FRPSDU P GRDU GRX  SDUWL LL FX DFHODúL

QXP U GH FODVH &HD PDL EXQ  SDUWL LH vQk FODVH YD DYHD vQWRWGHDXQD R LQHU LH LQWHUFODVH PDL
PDUH GHFkW FHD PDL EXQ  SDUWL LH vQk+1 FODVH GHFL YD IL ³PDL SX LQ EXQ ´ /D OLPLW  FXP
fiecare indiviG SRDWH IL FRQVLGHUDW R VLQJXU  FODV  YRP RE LQH ℘w = 0, deoarece fiecare
LQGLYLG HVWH FKLDU FHQWUXO GH JUHXWDWH DO FODVHL VDOH 1RL YRP F XWD R vPS U LUH vQ k clase

stabilite a-SULRUL SRUQLQG GH OD R SDUWL LH GH VWDUW DOHDWRDUH úL DPHOLRUkQG VXFFHVLY
“peUIRUPDQ HOH³DFHVWHLD
9RP SUH]HQWD GRX  PHWRGH GH FODVLILFDUH úL DQXPH PHWRGD ³FHQWUHORU PRELOH´ úL

metoda “nucleelor mobile (dinamice)”.

A. Metoda centrelor mobile

$FHDVW PHWRG SUHVXSXQHSDUFXUJHUHDXUP WRULORUSDúL

Pas 1. Se stabilesc k centre arbitrare c1, c2, …, ck .

Pas 2  ÌQ MXUXO ILHF UXL FHQWUX VH JUXSHD]  LQGLYL]LL GLQ PXO LPH FDUH VXQW FHL PDL

DSURSLD L *HRPHWULF DFHDVWD VH UHGXFH OD vPS U LUHD VSD LXOXL vQ k zone definite în planul
mediatoarelor segmentelor cicj.
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

Pas 3. Pentru claseOHDVWIHOIRUPDWHVHFDOFXOHD] FHQWUHOHGHJUHXWDWH g1(1) , g 2(1) ,..., g k(1) .

ÌQSDUWL LDDVWIHORE LQXW VHFDOFXOHD] LQHU LDLQWUDFODVH

Pas 4. 6H FRPSDU  LQHU LD LQWUDFODVH RE LQXW  GXS  JUXSDUH FX FHD RE LQXW  OD SDVXO

DQWHULRU 'DF  DFHDVWD nu estH PDL EXQ  DWXQFL QH RSULP úL FRQVLGHU P SDUWL LD RE LQXW  OD

DFHVWSDVFHD PDLEXQ SRVLELO 'DF QXDWXQFLYRPUHYHQLODSDVXO UHJUXSkQGLQGLYL]LLLQ

jurul centrelor de greutate stabilite la pasul 3.

2EVHUYD LH ÌQ SUDFWLF  V D GHPRQVWUDW IDSWXO F  DFHVW DOJRULWP FRQYHUJH UDSLG F WUH
-
VROX LDILQDO vQ GHLWHUD LLGHRDUHFHODILHFDUHHWDS LQHU LDLQWUDFODVHVHPLFúRUHD] 
-

,QFRQYHQLHQWXO DFHVWHL PHWRGH HVWH F  VH SRW RE LQH FODVH YLGH FX DOWH FXYLQWH YRP

RE LQHPDLSX LQGH k clase. În plusVROX LDILQDO GHSLQGHGHSXQFWXOGHSOHFDUHúLHVWHSRVLELO

V QXVHRE LQ RSWLPXOJOREDOFLGRDUFHDPDLEXQ SDUWL LHvQUDSRUWFXSXQFWXOGHSOHFDUH

B) Metoda nucleelor mobile (dinamice)

(PLOH'LQGD\DGH]YROWDWRPHWRG GHFODVLILFDUHFHSRDWHILFRQVLGHUDW RJHQHUDOL]DUH

DPHWRGHLFHQWUHORUPRELOH'LIHUHQ DIXQGDPHQWDO GLQWUHDFHVWHDHVWHXUP WRDUHDvQWLPSFH

vQ FD]XO PHWRGHL FHQWUHORU PRELOH FODVD HVWH GHILQLW  SULQWU -un singur punct, respectiv centrul
V XGHJUHXWDWHFDUHHVWHIRDUWHSRVLELOV QXFRLQFLG FXQLFLXQXOGLQLQGLYL]LLGLQPXO LPH

vQFD]XOPHWRGHLQXFOHHORUPRELOHVHSOHDF GHOD qLQGLYL]LSHQWUXILHFDUHFODV Acest grup de

qLQGLYL]LYDIRUPD³QXFOHXO´FODVHLLDUGDF HVWHELQHDOHVYDUHSUH]HQWDFODVDUHVSHFWLY PDL

ELQHGHFkWRIDFHFHQWUXOV GHJUHXWDWH$FHVWHQXFOHHQHYRUSHUPLWHV FRQVWUXLPvPS U LUHD

pe cele k clase dorite.

$OJRULWPXOGHGHWHUPLQDUHHVWHXUP WRUXO

Pas 1.6HDOHJDOHDWRUVDXGXS XQDQXPLWQXPLWFULWHULXq puncte de k ori (respectiv

k nucOHHSHQWUXILHFDUHFODV FkWHXQXO

Pas 2.  3HQWUX SXQFWHOH DOHVH DQWHULRU VH JUXSHD]  LQGLYL]LL GLQ PXO LPH vQ UDSRUW FX

GLVWDQ HOHGHODDFHúWLDODQXFOHH

Pas 3.6HFDOFXOHD] LQHU LDLQWUDFODVH

Pas 4. ÌQ FDGUXO ILHF UHL FODVH VH DOHJ DOWH q puncte, reprezentative pentru clasa
UHVSHFWLY $FHVWHSXQFWHYRUIRUPDQRXOQXFOHX

Pas 5. 3HQWUX QRLOH QXFOHH VH IDFH R UHJUXSDUH D LQGLYL]LORU PXO LPLL LQkQG FRQW GH

GLVWDQ HOHID GHDFHVWHD

Pas 6. 6H FDOFXOHD]  LQHU LD LQWHUFODVH SHQWUX FODVHOH QRX IRUPDWH 'DF  DFHDVWD HVWH

PDL PDUH GHFkW  FHD RE LQXW  DQWHULRU DWXQFL QH RSULP 'DF  QX YRP UHOXD DOJRULWPXO GH OD

pasul 4.

3HQWUXDSXWHDGHUXODDFHVWDOJRULWPDYHPQHYRLHGHWUHLIXQF LL

- RIXQF LHSULQFDUHV VHP VRDUHGLVWDQ DGHODXQLQGL vid la nucleu;

- R D GRXD IXQF LH SULQ FDUH SHQWUX LQGLYL]LL XQHL FODVH V  VH DOHDJ  FHOH q puncte
FDUHV UHSUH]LQWHFHOPDLELQHFODVDUHVSHFWLY 
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

- RDWUHLDIXQF LHFDUHYDP VXUDFDOLWDWHDXQHLSDUWL LL

2GDW GHILQLWHFHOHWUHLIXQF LLDOJRULWPXOSRDWHILSXVHIHFWLYvQSUDFWLF 

2EVHUYD LH &D úL vQ FD]XO PHWRGHL FHQWUHORU PRELOH FDOLWDWHD XQHL SDUWL LL GHSLQGH GH

DOHJHUHDQXFOHHORULQL LDOH O modalitate de a elimina acest inconvenient este aceea de a alege

PDLPXOWH QXFOHH LQL LDOH GH D FDOFXOD SDUWL LLOHDVWIHO RE LQXWH úL GH D DOHJH SHFHDPDL EXQ 

9RP REVHUYD F  YRU H[LVWD LQGLYL]L FDUH VH YRU JUXSD SHUPDQHQW vQ DFHOHDúL FODVH LQGLIHUHQW

GH SXQFWHOH GH SOHFDUH $FHVWH JUXSXUL GH LQGLYL]L VH QXPHVF ³IRUPH IRUWH´ DOH PXO LPLL GH

SXQFWHLQL LDOHúLIRUPHD] VXEFODVHRPRJHQH

3UREOHPD GH ED]  HVWH DFHHD F  QXP UXO IRUPHORU IRUWH HVWH GLIHULW GH k QXP UXO

FODVHORUvQFDUHGRULPV SDUWL LRQ PPXO LPHD

$FHVWH PHWRGH SHUPLW DQDOL]D úL SDUWL LRQDUHD UDSLG  vQ k clase a indivizilor unei
PXO LPL vQV  DUH LQFRQYHQLHQWXO RE LQHULL XQXL QXP U IL[DW GH FODVH 'DF  DFHVW QXP U QX

FRUHVSXQGHFRQILJXUD LHLPXO LPLLUH]XOWDWXOHVWHQHVHPQLILFDWLY

ÌQ FD]XO vQ FDUH QXP UXO GH LQGLYL]L GLQ PXO LPH HVWH IRDUWH PDUH DWXQFL HVWH PDL

FRPRGV XWLOL] PPHWRGHOH de clasificare ierarhice.

6.4.2 &ODVLILFDUHDLHUDUKLF

ÌQ UDSRUW FX SXQFWXO GH SOHFDUH FODVLILFDUHD LHUDUKLF  VH SRDWH IDFH SULQ PHWRGH

ascendente sau prim metode descendente.

0HWRGHOH DVFHQGHQWH SUHVXSXQ V  VH SOHFH GH OD PXO LPHD LQGLYL]LORU FRQVLGHUD L

ILHFDUHFkWHR FODV úLDSRLSULQJUXS ULVXFFHVLYHV  VHWUHDF  ODXQ QXP U GLQFHvQFHPDL

mic de clase.
0HWRGHOHGHVFHQGHQWHSRUQHVFGHODDFRQVLGHUDPXO LPHDLQL LDO FDRVLQJXU FODV úL

DSRLV VHHIHFWXH]HVHSDUDUHDDFHVWHLDvQFODVHF ât mai mici, conform criteriilor de clasificare.

9RPSUH]HQWDvQFRQWLQXDUHRPHWRG GHFODVLILFDUHDVFHQGHQW 

3ULQFLSLXO GH ED] HVWH DFHOD DO FRQVWUXLULL SHQWUX vQFHSXWD n clase, apoi a n-1 clase,

n-2 clase etc, clase ce se includ în sens ascendent. 6LVWHPXO GH JUXSDUH YD IL XUP WRUXO GDW 
ILLQG R SDUWL LH vQ k + 1 clase, gruparea în k FODVH VH YD RE LQH UHJUXSkQG GRX  GLQ FODVHOH

SDUWL LHLPDLPDULÌQDFHVWFRQWH[WYRUIL n – 2SDUWL LLGHGHWHUPLQDWFX nQXP UXOLQGLYL]LORU

GLQPXO LPHDDQDOL]DW 

În acest caz avem de-D IDFH FX FODVLILFDUHD LHUDUKLF  GHRDUHFH ILHFDUH FODV  D XQHL

SDUWL LLHVWHLQFOXV vQWU RFODV DSDUWL LHLXUP WRDUH

-
5H]XOWDWXOXQHLDVHPHQHDFODVLILF ULVHUHSUH]LQW X]XDOVXEIRUP GHDUERUH

Exemplul 1 )LH PXO LPHD GH puncte (indivizi) a, b, c, d, e. Vom avea succesiv
XUP WRDUHOHSDUWL LLUHSUH]HQWDWHvQILJXUD

Pk UHSUH]LQW  SDUWL LDk, unde k LQGLF  QXP UXO GHFODVH RE LQXW vQ PRPHQWXO UHVSHFWLY
DO FODVLILF ULL &X FkW LQGLFHOH k HVWH PDL PDUH FX DWkW SDUWL LD HVWH PDL HWHURJHQ  'H

DVHPHQHDvQILJXUDVHREVHUY vQSDUWHDGUHDSW DDUERUHOXLGHFODVLILFDUHvQF XQLQGLFDWRU

FH LD YDORULOH        $FHVW LQGLFDWRU VH QXPHúWH grad de agregare úLDUDW  QLYHOXO

LHUDUKLFSHFDUHVHDIO FODVDUHVSHFWLY 
Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

P5 = a/b/c/d/e 4

P4 = ab/c/d/e 2,5
P3 = ab/cd/e 2

P2 = ab/cde 0,5
P1 = abcde
0
a b c d e

Figura 6.5

'DF  VH FXQRDúWD DUERUHOH GH FODVLILFDUH VH SRDWH UH LQH vQ RULFH PRPHQW R SDUWL LH

într-XQQXP UGRULWGHFODVHHVWHVXILFLHQWV W LHPDUERUHOHODQLYHOXOGHDJUHJDUHGRULWSHQWUX

DRE LQHFODVHOHFDUHQHLQWHUHVHD] VDXV vOFRQVLGHU PODQLYHOXO Pk, iar kYDLQGLFDQXP UXO

de clase.
3ULQFLSDOD SUREOHP  D PHWRGHORU GH FODVLILFDUH LHUDUKLF  R FRQVWLWXLH GHILQLUHD

FULWHULXOXLGHUHJUXSDUHDGRX FODVHFHHDFHVHUHGXFHODGHILQLUHDXQHLGLVWDQ HvQWUHFODVH

7R L DOJRULWPLL GH FODVLILFDUH LHUDUKLF  DX vQ JHQHUDO DFHHDúL GHVI úXUDUH OD ILHFDUH

HWDS  VH YRUF XWDGRX FODVHFkWPDLDSURSLDWHFDUH VH YRUDJUDJDvQWUXQDVLQJXU 3URFHGHXO

YDFRQWLQXDSkQ ODRE LQHUHDXQHLVLQJXUHFODVH

9RPSUH]HQWDGRX FULWHULLSULQFDUHYRPGHILQLGLVWDQ GLQWUHFODVH

A) &ULWHULXOLQHU LHL:DUG

ÌQ FRQGL LOH vQ FDUH LQGLYL]LL VXQW UHSUH]HQWD L SULQ SXQFWH vQWU XQ VSD LX HXFOLGLDQ
-
SXWHPGHILQLFDOLWDWHDXQHLSDUWL LLSULQLQWHUPHGLXOLQHU LHLLQWHUFODVHVDXLQWUDFODVH$PY ]XO

IDSWXOF WUHFHUHDGHODRSDUWL LHFX k + 1 clase la una cu k FODVHSULQUHJUXSDUHDDGRX FODVH

vQWUXQDVLQJXU FRQGXFHODGLPLQXDUHDLQHU LHLLQWHUFODVH

$VWIHO FULWHULXO GXS  FDUH YRP IDFH JUXSDUHD YD IL XUP WRUXO YRP JUXSD DFHOH FODVH

pentru care SLHUGHUHDGHLQHU LHHVWHFHDPDLVF ]XW $FHDVWDHVWHHFKLYDOHQWFXUHXQLUHDFHORU

PDLDSURSLDWHFODVHOXkQGGUHSWGLVWDQ SLHUGHUHDGHLQHU LH

5HDPLQWLPF LQHU LDLQWHUFODVHUHSUH]LQW PHGLDS WUDWHORUGLVWDQ HORUGHODFHQWUXOGH

JUHXWDWHDOILHF U ei clase la centrul de greutate g al norului de puncte. Fie A úLB GRX FODVHFH
YRUILUHXQLWHúLgA respectiv gB FHQWUHOHORUGHJUHXWDWHúLpA respectiv pB ponderile claselor în
WRWDOÌQDLQWHDUHXQLULLDFHVWRUDLQHU LDLQWHUFODVHHVWHGHVFULV SULQsuma a doi termeni:

p A ⋅ d 2 (g A ; g ) + p B ⋅ d 2 (g B ; g ). (6.42)

'XS UHXQLUHUH]XOW RVLQJXU FODV GH SRQGHUH pA + pBúLFXFHQWUXOGHJUHXWDWH gAB,

LDUFRQWULEX LDDFHVWHLFODVHODLQHU LDLQWHUFODVHHVWH ( p
A + p B )⋅ d (g AB ; g ) .
2
(6.43)
 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

Pierderea de ineU LHLQWHUFODVHHVWH

p A ⋅ d 2 (g A ; g ) + p B ⋅ d 2 (g B ; g ) − (p A + p B )⋅ d 2 (g AB ; g ) =
p A ⋅ pB (6.44)
= ⋅ d 2 (g A ; g B )
p A + pB

p A ⋅ g A + pB ⋅ g B
deoarece g AB = . (6.45)
p A + pB

'HDLFLREVHUY PF 

p ⋅p
d 2 (g ; g AB ) = ⋅ d 2 (g A ; g ) + ⋅ d 2 (g B ; g ) − A B ⋅ d 2 (g A ; g B ) (6.46)
pA pB
p A + pB p A + pB p A + pB

(generalizare a toremei medianei: figura 6.6)

gA gAB gB

Figura 6.6

Deci vom SXWHDOXDFDGLVWDQ vQWUHFODVHOH AúLB cantitatea:

p A ⋅ pB
δ (A, B ) = ⋅ d 2 (g A ; g B ). (6.47)
p A + pB

'DF  C HVWH R D WUHLD FODV  DWXQFL GLVWDQ D GLQWUH FODVD C úL UHXQLXQHD FODVHORU A úL B
va fi:

(p A + pC )⋅ δ (A; C )+ (p B + pC )⋅ δ (B; C )− pC ⋅ δ (A; B )

δ (C ; A ∪ B ) = (6.48)
p A + p B + pC

Algoritmul Ward poate fi formalizat astfel:

• vQSULPDHWDS VHvQORFXLHVFGLVWDQ HOH d dintre punctele eiúL ej prin δij GLVWDQ HOH
modificate prin:
pi ⋅ p j
δ ij = ⋅ d 2 (ei ; e j ). (6.49)
pi + p j
• vQ HWDSD D GRXD VH YRU F XWD LQGLYL]LL SHQWUX FDUH GLVWDQ D ij HVWH PLQLP  úL VH

reunesc clasele de ponderi pi + pj la nivelul indicelui de agregare ij.

Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

• VH YD FRQWLQXD UHJUXSkQG FODVHOH GXS  SULQFLSLXO SUH]HQWDW DQWHULRU úL UHOD LLOH GH

calcul (6.48-6.49).

B) 'LVWDQ HQRQHXFOLGLHQH

ÌQFRQGL LLOHvQFDUHGLVWDQ HOH GLQWUHLQGLYL]LQXVXQWHXFOLGLHQHDWXQFLHVWHQHFHVDUV 

DGRSW PRDOW PRGDOLWDWHGHDSUHFLHUHGHRDUHFHLQHU LDQXPDLFRQVWLWXLHXQFULWHULXRELHFWLY

SHQWUX FDOFXOXO GLVWDQ HL GLQWUH FODVH 9RP GHILQL GLVWDQ D GLQWUH GRX  FODVH A úL B în trei
PRGDOLW L

- criteriul saltului minim sau criteriul inf:

d(A;B) = inf (d (ei;ej)), cu ei ∈ A, ej ∈ B ; (6.50)

- criteriul diametrului sau criteriul sup :

d(A;B) = sup (d (ei;ej)), cu ei ∈ A, ej ∈ B ; (6.51)

- criteriul mediei :

d (A; B ) = ∑∑ d (e ,e ),
1
ei ∈ A , e j ∈ B ; (6.52)
p A ⋅ pB
i j
i j

5HOD LD  UHSHFW iv criteriul inf, WLQGH V  IDYRUL]H]H UHJUXSDUHD D GRX  FODVH FH

FRQ LQODIURQWLHU SXQFWHDSURSLDWH5LVFXOHVWHDFHODGHDSXQHvQDFHHDúLFODV SXQFWHUHODWLY

vQGHS UWDWH$FHDVW GLVWDQ HVWHvQV IRDUWHXWLOL]DW GDWRULW SURSULHW LORUVDOHPDWH matice.

5HOD LD  UHVSHFWLY FULWHULXO sup,  UHPHGLD]  vQ SDUWH DFHDVW  SUREOHP  vQV 

H[DJHUHD]  vQ GLUHF LD RSXV  UHVSHFWLY SULQ IDSWXO F  YD FRPSDUD SXQFWHOH FHOH PDL

vQGHS UWDWHúLGLQDFHVWPRWLYUH]XOW F WRDWHSXQFWHOHVXQWDSURSLDWHvQWUH ele.

5HOD LDUHVSHFWLYFULWHULXOGLVWDQ HLPHGLLHVWHXQFRPSURPLVvQWUHDFHVWHD

3ULQFLSDODSUREOHP HVWHDFHHDF vQUDSRUWFXFULWHULXOIRORVLWDSDUFODVLILF ULGLIHULWH

Exemplul 2 6HFRQVLGHU RPXO LPHGHSXQFWHvQFDUHGLVWDQ HOHGL ntre indivizi sunt

H[SULPDWHvQWDEHOXO2EVHUY PF GLVWDQ HOHQXVXQWHXFOLGLHQHGHRDUHFH

d(c; e) > d (c; d) + d( d; e) (respectiv 6 > 2 + ½)

Tabelul 6.13
a b c d e
a 0 3 7 3 4
b 3 0 4 4 1
c 7 4 0 2 6
d 3 4 2 0 ½
e 4 1 6 1/2 0

Vom clasiILFD DFHDVW  PXO LPH IRORVLQG FHOH WUHL FULWHULL GH JUXSDUH 5H]XOWDWHOH VXQW

prezentate în figura 6.7

 'HFL]LLVWUDWHJLFHúLDQDOL]DGDWHORU

4,75
3 7

2 3,3

1 4
2,5
1/ 3
2 1/2
0
d e b c 0
a 1/2
d e b a c
Criteriul inf
0 Criteriul mediei
d e b a c

Criteriul sup

Figura 6.7

6ROX LH: Pentru criteriul inf:

♦ P5 = a/b/c/d/e

♦ P4 = a/b/c/de
d ( a ; b ) = 3 d (b; c ) = 4 d (c ; d ) = 2
d (a ; c ) = 7 d (b; d ) = 4 d (c ; e ) = 6
d (d;e) = ½ (min) deoarece: d (a ; d ) = 3 d (b; e ) = 1
d (a ; e ) = 4

♦ P3 = a/c/bdc deoarece:

d (a ; (d ; e )) = inf (d (a; d ); d (a ; e )) = inf (3;4 ) = 3

d (b; (d ; e )) = inf (d (b; d ); d (b; e )) = inf (4;1) = 1
d (c; (d ; e )) = inf (d (c; d ); d (c; e )) = inf (2;6 ) = 2

inf (3,1,4) = 1, deci bYDILXUP WRUXOHOHPHQWJUXSDW

♦ P2 =a/cbde deoarece

d (a ; (b; d ; e )) = inf (d (a ; b ); d (a ; d ); d (a ; e )) = inf (3,3,4 ) = 3

d (c; (b; d ; e )) = inf (d (c; b ); d (c; d ); d (c; e )) = inf (4 ,2 ,6 ) = 2

LQI GHFLXUP WRUXOHOHPHQWJUXSDWYDILF

♦ (YLGHQWXOWLPDSDUWL LHYDIL31 = acbde .

7RWXúLPDLHVWHQHFHVDUFDOFXOXOQLYHOXOXLGHDJUHJDUH

d (a ; (c ; b; d ; e )) = inf (d (a ; c ); d (a ; b ); d (a ; d ); d (a ; e )) = inf (3;7;3;4 ) = 3

Macroeconomie. Decizii strategie

ÌQPRGDQDORJVHFDOFXOH] úLSHQWUXFHOHODOWHFULWHULLGHFODVLILFDUHQLYHOXOGHDJUHJDUH

úLJUXSDUHDVSHFLILF 

2EVHUY P F  vQ FHOH WUHL FODVLILF UL GRDU d úL e se grupea]  PHUHX – deci vor forma

forma forteDPXO LPLL-vQWLPSFHvQUDSRUWFXGLVWDQ DXWLOL]DW YRPRE LQHJUXS ULGLIHULWHD

FHORUOD LLQGLYL]L

ÌQSUDFWLF HVWHUHFRPDQGDELOV XWLOL] PPDLPXOWHWLSXULGHFODVLILF UL'DF vQFDGUXO

acestora se va observa repetarea anumitor grupuri de indivizi, atunci acestea vor forma clase
RPRJHQH FDUH UH]LVW  OD RULFH PRGLILFDUH D FULWHULXOXL ÌQ FRQGL LLOH vQ FDUH VH RE LQ GLIHUHQ H

PDUL vQWUH FODVLILF UL DWXQFL HVWH SRVLELO FD PXO LPHD GH LQGLYL]L V  QX SRDW  IL FODVLILFDW 

semnificativ indiferent ce criteriul utilizat.

8QD GLQWUH FHOH PDL LPSRUWDQWH GLILFXOW L FH VWDX vQ ID D FODVLILF ULL HVWH GHILQLUHD

GLVWDQ HORUVDXDGLVLPLODULW LORUGLQWUHLQGLYL]LPDLDOHVvQF]XOFHORUGHVFULúLGHFDUDFWHULVWLFL

calitative.

6.4.3 Studiu de caz

&RQVLGHU P GDWHOH FX SULYLUH OD FKHOWXLHOLOH SXEOLFH SUH]HQWDWH vQ SDUDJUDIXO  9RP

S VWUD PHWULFD D1 / s 2  úL YRP FDOFXOD GLVWDQ HOH GLQWUH FHL  GH LQGLYL]L FDUH vQ FD]XO QRVWUX
VXQW DQLL GXS  FDUH vL YRP FODVLILFD GXS  PHWRGD :DUG 3RQGHULOH DQLORU VXQW FRQVLGHUDWH

HJDOHLDUFODVHOHVXQWQXPHURWDWHGHODOD&RQIRUPWDEHOXOXLGLVWDQ HORUDUH]XOWDW

R SULP  FODVLILFDUH  SUH]HQWDW  vQ WDEHOXO  $QLL DX IRVW JUXSD L vQ UDSRUW FX GLVWDQ HOH

dintre HL GH H[PSOX FHL PDL DSURSLD L VXQW DQLL  – 1906, apoi 1959 – 1962 etc. Suma
QLYHOHORUGHDJUHJDUHHVWH UHVSHFWLYILHFDUHQLYHO HVWHHJDOFXVXPDSLHUGHULORUGHLQHU LH

UH]XOWDW  GLQJUXSDUHDDGRX HOHPHQWHFXDOWHFXYLQWHVXPDSLHUGHULORUGHLQHU LH YDILHJDO 

FX LQHU LD WRWDO  D QRUXOXL GH SXQFWH HJDO  FX QXP UXO GH FDUDFWHULVWLFL GHRDUHFH V -a
FRQVLGHUDWGUHSWPHWULF  D1 / s 2 ) .
Tabelul 6.14
Nr. Clasei Elemente reunite Nivel de agregare
25 1900 1906 0.02
26 1959 1962 0.03
27 1909 1925 0.04
28 1890 1927 0.06
29 1932 1935 0.06
30 1965 1968 0.07
31 1956 1926 0.08
32 1912 1928 0.09
33 1947 1953 0.11
34 1903 1932 0.13
35 1923 1926 0.13
36 1929 1935 0.14
37 1971 1930 0.18
38 1938 1929 0.18
39 1880 1920 0.24
40 1950 1933 0.39
41 1872 1934 0.40
42 1931 1937 0.42
43 1939 1941 0.43
44 1936 1938 0.46
45 1940 1942 1.09
46 1943 1944 1.94
47 1945 1946 4.31