Frying Technology and Practices

Frying Technology and Practices
Copyright 2004 by AOCS Press. All rights reserved.
Frying Technology and Practices
Editors Monoj K. Gupta

MG Edible Oil Consulting International Richardson, Texas
Kathleen Warner
National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research U.S. Department of Agriculture Peoria, Illinois
Pamela J. White
Department of Food Science Iowa State University Ames, Iowa
PostScript Picture AOCS press/logo
Champaign, Illinois
AOCS Mission Statement To be the global forum for professionals interested in lipids and related materials through the exchange of ideas, information science, and technology. AOCS Books and Special Publications Committee M. Mossoba, chairperson, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland R. Adlof, USDA, ARS, NCAUR, Peoria, Illinois J. Endres, The Endres Group, Fort Wayne, Indiana T. Foglia, USDA, ARS, ERRC, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania L. Johnson, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa H. Knapp, Deaconess Billings Clinic, Billings, Montana A. Sinclair, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia P. White, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa R. Wilson, USDA, REE, ARS, NPS, CPPVS, Beltsville, Maryland Copyright 2004 by AOCS Press. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher. The paper used in this book is acid-free and falls within the guidelines established to ensure permanence and durability.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Frying Technology and practices / editors, Monoj K. Gupta, Kathleen Warner, Pamela J. White p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-893997-31-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Frying. 2. Oils and fats, Edible. I. Gupta, Monoj K. II. Warner, Kathleen. III. White, Pamela J. 612.01577--dc21 TX689.F79 2004 641.77--dc22 2004003927
Printed in the United States of America. 08 07 06 05 04 5 4 3 2 1
Preface
The frying of food products for culinary delight has been known to humans for centuries. Frying was one of the fastest ways to prepare foods. Most of the products were pan fried. The Chinese wok, Indian Kadai, and the Western frying pan were used for frying food at home. These early frying pans eventually evolved into kettles and n a lly into the sophisticated continuous fryers of today. Precise moisture- and texture-controlling devices have been developed to fry diverse types of food products. These foods include sliced potatoes to make potato chips, sheeted and cut corn chips, extruded products, pellets that expand to large volumes and shapes, as well as batter-coated products, ranging from chicken, to sh, to various vegetables. Improved packaging techniques and packaging materials have increased the shelf life of various products, which has helped in their distribution. Partly dehydrated food (also known as par-fried) products, such as French fries and fried chicken, have reduced the cost and increased the production efficiency of food service and restaurant operations. The processes of extraction and rening of vegetable oil have improved significantly over the past three decades. During the same period, the oil-rening equipment and rening techniques have greatly improved. The oil processors are now able to deliver rened vegetable oils with higher quality and stability to the food industry. Numerous publications are available on frying that describe the effect of the frying process on the oil quality and avor stability of the fried product. These publications constitute a tremendous source of information regarding the chemistry of frying oil and the fried food. Overall frying equipment, oil quality, packaging, and the distribution system have improved greatly. However, there has been very little advancement in the process of training personnel in the frying operation to improve their knowledge of the properties of the oil and the impact of frying on its degradation. Of all components in the frying operation, the oil has the greatest impact on the avor stability of the fried product, plant personnel are insufficiently trained to apply appropriate techniques in a frying operation that would allow them to maintain the highest level of oil quality in the process. The personnel in a frying operation require a thorough understanding of the physical and chemical properties of the frying oil and the effect of the frying process on oil quality. This knowledge would enable them to protect the oil against undue damage, thus enabling them to avoid the operating techniques that can cause oil degradation in the frying process. An oil with a minimum amount of damage can deliver fried foods with high avor stability. A number of books and technical papers have been published on frying. Most of them explain oil chemistry and degradation products of the oil. Some describe certain frying processes. This book is a unique compilation of theoretical discus-
sions of oil chemistry and the mechanism of oil breakdown as well as the practical aspects related to frying. For example, this book includes: (i) basic frying-oil chemistry and the techniques for the protection of the frying oil; (ii) frying techniques involving coated foods; (iii) food safety and regulatory aspects related to frying and the practical issues; and (iv) the proper techniques required for the day-to-day operation of a frying process. Kathleen Warner and Pamela J. White have been known for many years as fundamental as well as applied researchers in the eld of fats and oils. Ron Sassiela is a well-known scientist and author in the eld of coated-food technology. David Firestone has been a renowned gure in the fats and oils area for many decades, Rick Stier is a food scientist who has devoted many years to understanding and assisting the frying industry. Finally, Monoj K. Gupta has had a long history in vegetable-oil processing as well as years of experience in the frying industry. His familiarity with vegetable-oil processing allowed him to develop an in-depth understanding of the frying process. He was able to envision opportunities to improve the shelf life of fried products by applying oil-quality management techniques that are applied in vegetable-oil processing to produce high-quality oil and to protect it against degradation. This accumulated experience along with specic techniques are discussed in several chapters of this book, culminating in the suggestion of practical solutions to numerous situations faced by frying operators and supervisors in their industry. Monoj K. Gupta Kathleen Warner Pamela J. White
Contents
Chapter 1
Preface
Chapter 1 The Frying Industry Monoj K. Gupta Chapter 2 Chemical and Physical Reactions in Oil During Frying K. Warner Chapter 3 Selection of Frying Oil Monoj K. Gupta Chapter 4 Role of Antioxidants and Polymerization Inhibitors in Protecting Frying Oils Kathleen Warner, Caiping Su, and Pamela J. White Chapter 5 Procedures for Oil Handling in a Frying Operation Monoj K. Gupta Chapter 6 The Effect of Oil Processing on Frying Oil Stability Monoj K. Gupta Chapter 7 Critical Factors in the Selection of an Industrial Fryer Monoj K. Gupta, Russ Grant, and Richard F. Stier Chapter 8 Critical Elements in the Selection and Operation of Restaurant Fryers Monoj K. Gupta Chapter 9 Technology of Coating and Frying Food Products Ronald J. Sasiela Chapter 10 Fried Foods and Their Interaction with Packaging Kenneth S. Marsh Chapter 11 Toxicology of Frying Fats and Oils Richard F. Stier Chapter 12 Regulatory Requirements for the Frying Industry David Firestone
Chapter 1
The Frying Industry

Monoj K. Gupta
MG Edible Oil Consulting International, 9 Lundys Lane, Richardson, TX 75080
Introduction: Historical Background

Mankind has consumed fried food for centuries. Long ago, fried foods were prepared and consumed by the family at meal times or at gatherings with friends. Today, fried foods can be purchased in various forms. Shelf-stable packaged salty snack food has become common in every country. Fried foods are also served in restaurants, by food services, and at home. In the United States, nearly 2 billion pounds of oil is used annually for frying salty snack foods. The French fry manufacturers, breaded chicken and fish processors, as well as the restaurants and food services use several billion pounds of oil annually for frying. Freshly fried donuts, although not a salty snack, are popular as a snack or breakfast item. Fried salty snack food is a source of culinary delight throughout the world. The advanced countries in the West can provide some documents showing the origins of certain types of snack foods. Countries with old cultures and traditions have had snack foods for centuries but do not have any formal documentation showing when or how these products were introduced. For example, the people of India have consumed popped corn kernels for centuries. The corn was popped in a bed of hot sand. The people of the Indian subcontinent have used several other salty snack foods for centuries. These snack foods include nuts, grains, leguminous products, and extruded grains. Fried wafers were served on all social occasions in India. However, there are no documents showing the dates of origin for any of these products. The original inhabitants of North, Central and South America consumed fire-roasted corn and other vegetables. People in the Orient also have their indigenous snack foods but no historical data can be obtained to establish their source and the date of origin. United States of America. Probably the most documented snack food development can be traced in the United States. According to information recorded in the History of Snacks (1), the modern potato chip began as a joke in 1853 in a Saratoga Springs resort in New York. The railroad magnate Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt was dining at the resort one evening when he sent the fried potatoes back to the kitchen because they were too thick. George Gum, the cook on duty, decided to thinly slice potatoes, deep fry and salt the fried chips. The chips were thin, crispy, and salty. What was meant to be a joke turned out to be the birth of
modern day potato chips. The product was an instant hit. The Saratoga Chips became a fad with the resorts socialite patrons. Soon the recipe spread throughout the eastern region of the country. In 1890, Cleveland entrepreneur, William Tappenden, started delivering potato chips that had been fried in his kitchen to the neighborhood stores. As the business grew, his barn became the first potato chipproducing factory in the country. Products were made in different parts of the country, and were delivered to the stores in sacks. It became apparent that this packaging could not protect the product well against moisture. In 1926, Laura Scudder first introduced potato chip bags. She and her employees used a hot iron to seal the edges of folded wax paper. They filled the formed bag and sealed the top in the same manner. Before this time, the retailers had to dispense potato chips from cracker barrels or large glass display jars. In 1933, the Dixie Wax Paper Company of Dallas introduced the first pre-print wax glassine bags, called Dixie's Fresheen. Nonbleeding ink was used to print on one side of the paper. The National Potato Chip Institute (NPCI) was founded in 1937. The first challenge of the NPCI was to educate both retailers and the consumers about potato chips and their uses. Some retailers believed that potato chips were similar to soap chips and were to be used on washday. Other retailers suggested to the consumers that they should place the chips in a bowl, and add sugar and cream to the chips. In 1959, the National Potato Chip Institute (NPCI) changed its name to Potato Chip Institute International (PCII), to reflect the worldwide membership. Later in 1976, there was yet another name change to Potato Chip/Snack Food Association (PC/SFA) to reflect the existence of snack foods other than potato chips. The headquarters of the PC/SFA also was moved from Cleveland to the Washington, DC area. In 1986, the PC/SFA again changed its name. It celebrated its Golden Anniversary with the new name Snack Food Association (SFA). Todays leader, Frito-Lay of Texas, has brought about the most dramatic evolution in the American snack food industry. It all started in 1932, with two individuals who were producing two entirely different products in two separate parts of the country. Mr. Elmer Doolin of San Antonio started the Fritos brand corn chips. The Frito company expanded and moved its headquarters to Dallas in 1933. Mr. Doolin came across a corn product that had a very unique flavor and texture. He sought out the company owner and purchased the company with all the rights to the secret process, formula, and the process equipment in 1938. The kitchen of Mr. Doolins mother was the first manufacturing plant for the Fritos brand corn chips. Elsewhere, Mr. Herman W. Lay started to sell potato chips to the stores in Nashville TN, the same year that Mr. Doolin started to sell his product in San Antonio. Mr. Lay was delivering his potato chips to the stores using his 1929 Model A Ford truck. By 1934, his company had established six delivery routes. In 1938, through reorganization the companys name was changed to H.W. Lay & Company. The company started to flourish under the new name and organization, selling Lays brand Potato Chips.
The industry suffered from a short supply of raw material and fuel from 1941 to 1945, when United States was engaged in the Second World War. Business expansion and development were essentially halted during those years because of food and fuel rationing. In 1945, the Frito Company granted a license to the H.W. Lay Company to be the first exclusive franchise to manufacture and distribute Fritos corn chips in the Southeast. A close relationship grew between the two companies. In September of 1961, just 29 years after they had begun their ventures, the Frito Company and H.W. Lay Company merged to become the Frito-Lay Company. Mr. Doolin died in 1958. He did not see the merger of the two companies but he saw his Frito Company become a dominant snack food enterprise before his death. In 1965, Frito-Lay and Pepsi-Cola merged. Today, Frito-Lay is the leading snack foodproducing company in the world. The company sells numerous salty snack food products including include potato chips, corn chips, extruded products, nuts, and a variety of other products. Salty snack foods in the United States have gone through significant changes during the past two decades. In the 1980s, the presence of high saturated fatty acids in animal fats was linked to coronary heart disease. This finding caused the removal not only of animal fats but also palm oil, palm olein, and coconut oil from U.S. snack foods. Palm oil, palmolein, and coconut oils were called Tropical Oils and were labeled as Bad for You Oils. The name Tropical Oil was later dropped because the FDA disallowed this form of labeling. Unfortunately, palm oil, palm olein, and coconut oils were replaced with hydrogenated soybean oil. No questions were raised about the increased saturated fatty acids in hydrogenated soybean oil. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a heavy promotion of Low-Fat and Fat-Free salty snack foods. Some low-fat baked products were also introduced with partial or total replacement of fat using fat-replacers available in the market. The idea was to reduce the fat calories in the snack food. However, most of these products exhibited poor consumer acceptance after the initial trial period was over. In reality, the U.S. Surgeon Generals report indicated that introduction of these products did not help the general public lose weight. There are probably many reasons for the discrepancy between the low calories per serving and lack of weight loss (or even weight gain) by the users of these low-fat and fat-free products. Probably the most significant development in the fat-free salty snack food area was the introduction of Olestra, better known as Olean by its inventor, Procter & Gamble Company of Cincinnati, OH. Olestra is a sucrose polyester, in which the fatty acids can be derived from soybean, cottonseed, or other vegetable oils. Olestra is indigestible. It can fry snack food like regular vegetable oils, which is what made Olestra very attractive to the snack food manufacturers. The FDA approved Olestra for making salty snack food in 1996. Frito-Lay introduced potato chips and tortilla chips fried in Olestra in the late 1990s and marketed the products under the brand name WOW. The brand expansion was quite promising but it never reached the level of prominence in the snack food arena
because of some complaints from consumers of gastrointestinal discomfort and diarrhea. Also, there were negative reports from the consumer advocates on Olestra. Fried salty snack foods are considered to be an indulgence food and are consumed for pleasure. Most of the low-fat and no-fat products are lacking in flavor, texture, and mouth-feel attributes compared with products fried in oils. Consumers began to move away from the low-fat and no-fat products after having consumed them for a period of time. It seems that the majority of the salty snack food users still prefer the taste of the full-fat products. United Kingdom. Potato chips are one of the most popular and oldest savory snacks sold in the UK. It is believed that Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Francis Drake brought potatoes to England from Peru in 1570. Soon the crop expanded into various parts of Europe, and by the end of the 18th century, potatoes were available almost everywhere on the European continent. A man named Frank Smith started his potato chip plant and sold the product in the early 1900s. The chips were sold in bags made of grease-proof paper. Germany. Frank Flessner and his wife Ella started their Stateside Potato Chip Company in Germany in 1951. The chips were made at home, packaged in glassine bags, and delivered to the U.S. Army base in Germany. U.S. soldiers were his primary clients. By 1961, the company had established two manufacturing plants. Flessner convened a meeting in Frankfurt, Germany among Flessner, Harvey Noss (USA), David Sword (UK), and John Zweifel (Switzerland). This marked the beginning of semiannual meetings whose participants would eventually form the European Snack Food Association (ESA). Both ASA and ESA provide numerous valuable services to the members of the respective Associations including information on legislative, economic, technical, and political issues related to the snack food industry. Other Cultures and Regions. The history of the snack-food industry or of its products is difficult to obtain in other countries because of the lack of documented information. For example, Indians consume at least 300 different varieties of salty snacks that are fried in vegetable oils. These products contain grains, pounded rice, nuts, vegetables, raisins, legumes, coconut, and seasoning to suit the palates of the people in the various parts of the country. Although these products have been used for centuries, no one can determine the date or the place of origin of most of these products. This market has advanced from a cottage industry to the manufacturing sector in the past three decades. A large number of these products are exported to the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and many European countries. The salty snack food industry is now entering into the area of Natural and to some degree Organic products that are being fried in nonhydrogenated vegetable oils. This sector is expected to grow rapidly. However, the limiting factors are availability and cost of the ingredients. This situation is not expected to improve in the near future, although the demand for this category of product has already increased.
Major Categories of Salty Snack Foods in the United States Potato chips, the number one salty snack food in the United States, are celebrating their 150th year. The growth, flavor categories, and presentation of the product have gone through several revolutionary changes. The process has evolved from the kitchen fryer to the most modern automated continuous fryers. The packaging has changed from paper sack to glassine paper bags to the metallized film packaging with nitrogen flush for better shelf life. In 2001, potato chips sales in the United States were estimated at 1.848 billion pounds, with approximate sales of $6.039 billion. Tortilla chips were the next biggest sellers, with ~1.5 billion pounds and an estimated revenue of $4.1 billion in the United States in 2001. Table 1.1 lists the predominant salty snack foods sold in the United States in 2001 and 2000. Sales of potato chips, the number one salty snack food product in the United States, have grown at an annual rate of 34%. The product is sold in the country through various channels as listed in Table 1.2. Table 1.3 lists the top 20 brands of potato chips in the United States and their sales figures for the year 2001. The fatfree category showed a significant decline in sales in 2001 compared with previous years. This decline occurred in part because of reduced interest in the niche market as well as the negative reports on Olestra by various consumer advocates.
TABLE 1.1 Year 2001 and 2000 Salty Snack Food Sales in the United Statesa,b
Segment Potato chips 2001 2000 Tortilla/Tostada chips 2001 2000 Corn snacks 2001 2000 Pretzels 2001 2000 Snack nuts 2001 2000 Microwave popcorn 2001 2000 Ready-to-eat popcorn 2001 2000 Sales (million $) 6039.2 4955.3 4148.2 3950.7 933.7 914.5 1204.1 1193.4 1839.6 1812.4 1273.3 1245.9 466.9 490.4 Change (%) +7.0 +5.7 +5.0 +5.4 +2.1 +7.9 +0.9 2.2 +1.5 +7.7 +2.2 +7.7 4.8 0.5 Volume (million lbs) 1848.6 1610.8 1501.9 1483.2 279.1 280.0 580.1 586.3 515.9 503.9 453.9 448.1 124.5 130.9 Change (%) +3.0 +4.7 +1.3 +3.6 0.3 +2.8 1.1 +3.1 +2.3 +4.2 +1.3 +5.5 5.1 0.5 Continued
TABLE 1.1 (Cont.)

Segment Unpopped popcorn 2001 2000 Cheese snacks 2001 2000 Pumpkin/Sunflower seeds 2001 2000 Meat snacks 2001 2000 Pork rind 2001 2000 Variety pack 2001 2000 Others 2001 2000 Total 2001 2000
aSource: bAccording
Sales (million $) 78.1 80.3 1027.1 990.4 138.3 131.1 2011.2 1739.8 498.5 511.8 345.9 347.6 1794.2 2325,6 21,798.3 20,689.2
Change (%) 2.8 +0.6 +3.7 +7.7 +5.5 +15.7 +15.6 +31.7 2.6 +21.8 2.6 +3.1 +3.5 0.4 +3.5 +6.4
Volume (million lbs) 87.1 90.6 332.6 324.2 52.4 51.2 139.5 121.4 83.7 83.1 76.6 86.8 392.4 597.5 6468.3 6398.0
Change (%) 3.9 1.4 +2.5 +4.4 +2.4 +11.7 +14.9 +26.2 +0.7 +24.9 11.8 +4.9 1.6 0.8 +1.4 +3.6
Reference 3, p-SI-5. to the Snack Food Association, the consumption of snack food in the United States, based on a population number of 272 million, for the year 2000 was as follows: The U.S. consumed 1680 potato chips per person. The number of potato chips consumed in the U.S. was 451,024,000,000 (451 billion). The number of pounds of snack foods consumed per person was 23 lbs. Meat snacks posted the highest increase in sales with a >30% gain. The total snack sales worldwide were an estimated $55 billion (U.S. Commerce Department). According to the U.S. AgExporter (4), U.S. exports of savory snacks were $1.6 billion.
Tortilla chips are the second largest category of salty snack food sold in the United States as shown in Table 1.1. In 2001, the sales of tortilla chips in the country was $4.148 billion, with an average growth of 5%. Like potato chips, tortilla chips are also sold in the United States through various channels as listed in Table 1.4. Table 1.5 lists the top 20 brands of tortilla chips in the United States. As with potato chips, fat-free tortilla chips showed a significant loss in sales volume. The snack food business has grown from a $13.8 billion industry in 1992 to $21.8 billion in 2001. Table 1.6 lists snack food sales chronologically for the past decade. The volume growth for the snack food industry has been 34%, with a few
TABLE 1.2 Sales Channels for Potato Chips in the United Statesa
Location Supermarket Grocery stores Mass merchandiser Warehouse club Drug store Convenience Store Vending machine Food service Other
aSource:
Product sold (%) 43.1 10.0 8.1 2.5 2.6 15.6 5.0 4.7 8.3
Reference 3, p-SI-49.
exceptionally high and low growth years. The revenue increase has been steady except in 1995, when the snack food market lost both volume and net dollar sales. The general economy and the cost of ingredients were believed to be responsible for the low sales volume.
TABLE 1.3 Top 20 Brands of Potato Chips in the United States During 2001a
Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
aSource:
Brand Lays Ruffles Wavy Lay's Pringles Private label Utz Wise Ruffles Flavor Rush Lays Bistro Gourmet Ruffles WOW Pringles Right Crisps Herr Jays Cape Cod Lays WOW Old Dutch Golden Flake Pringles Fat Free Pringles Cheesums Mike-Sells
Volume (million $) 834.2 334.6 290.3 224.4 149.8 68.0 59.4 56.6 51.0 50.2 49.1 47.5 43.1 42.8 41.5 37.1 27.9 27.0 20.2 19.8
Change (%) +2.2 +1.0 +54.3 +7.4 +3.7 +8.5 1.5 18.6 N/A 5.8 13.8 +10.0 +3.7 +13.3 10.6 +10.9 +1.6 14.5 +7.6 0.9
$ Share (%) 29.9 12.0 10.4 8.0 5.4 2.4 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.7
Volume (million lb) 266.3 92.5 91.9 67.5 68.0 21.8 19.9 14.5 11.4 8.5 13.4 15.9 14.3 8.5 6.9 13.1 9.0 5.5 5.9 6.5
Change (%) 1.4 4.1 +48.9 +1.6 +2.9 +5.3 1.7 16.7 N/A 19.6 20.2 +1.0 +5.3 +12.7 23.4 +8.9 +2.3 15.1 +4.1 2.5
TABLE 1.4 Sales Channels for Tortilla Chips in the United Statesa
Location Supermarket Grocery stores Mass merchandiser Warehouse club Drug store Convenience Store Vending machine Food service Other
aSource:
Product sold (%) 40.1 12.8 7.5 3.9 1.9 13.5 5.8 4.7 9.8
Other Categories of Snack Foods In addition to chips, popcorn and nuts, there are many different fried snack foods sold in almost every country. Some of these are made from extruded dough, whereas others are made from pellets. The products are generally fried at 190C.
TABLE 1.5 Top 20 Brands of Tortilla Chips in the United States During 2001a
Rank Brand 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Doritos Tostitos Private Label Santitas Mission Baked Tostitos Tostitos Scoops Doritos Extremes Tostitos WOW Doritos WOW Old Dutch Tostitos Santa Fe Gold Pardinos Herr Snyder's of Hanover Garden of Eatin Blue Chips Utz Daines Guiltless Gourmet Chi Chi Fiesta
Volume (million $) 709.9 594.5 85.7 68.7 47.9 40.3 36.6 29.3 24.1 19.6 15.7 12.3 11.7 9.7 9.3 8.8 8.3 7.4 7.0 6.6
Change (%) +4.7 2.7 +4.5 +7.3 +3.6 19.9 N/A N/A 9.6 10.0 +4.0 +2172.0 38.5 +6.7 +4.5 +43.5 +9.4 3.7 +2.6 +7.0
$ Share (%) 37.6 31.5 4.5 3.6 2.5 2.1 1.9 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3
Volume (million lb) 220.5 175.1 45.6 39.7 27.3 9.8 9.2 8.6 4.3 3.3 6.4 3.5 4.5 3.8 4.7 2.0 3.4 3.4 1.3 2.8
Change (%) +2.7 7.1 +1.8 +8.7 1.6 28.7 N/A N/A 20.8 21.3 +3.0 +2204.5 42.9 +3.9 5.2 +45.1 +4.6 12.0 0.2 +1.2
aSource:
TABLE 1.6 Snack Food Sales from 1992 to 2001a

Year 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992
aSource:
Sales (billion $) 21.80 20.69 19.38 18.17 16.84 15.41 15.09 15.05 14.66 13.80
Growth (%) +5.1 +6.3 +6.2 +7.3 +8.5 +2.1 +0.3 +2.6 +5.9 +2.7
Volume (billion lbs) 6.47 6.38 6.17 5.90 5.77 5.61 5.54 5.69 5.52 5.18
Growth (%) +3.3 +3.3 +4.4 +2.2 +2.8 +1.3 2.7 +3.0 +6.2 +5.0
The fried products are dusted with seasonings and packaged. This is one of the growing segments in the snack food area. Types of Oil Used in Making Salty Snack Foods It is interesting to note that the oils used in making salty snack foods follow the rule of availability and cost. For example, in the United States, potato chips were fried in liquid cottonseed oil from the beginning. Other oils such as peanut and corn, were also used. The potato chips fried in cottonseed oil became the Gold Standard for potato chips in the United States because of the taste of the product and the availability of the oil in the country. However, as the supply of cottonseed oil began to fall in recent years and that of corn oil began to rise at a moderate price increase, the snack food industry switched over to corn oil. Sesame seed oil and sunflower oils have been traditionally used more commonly in Mexico to fry snack foods because the consumers like the taste of the products fried in these oils. However, the supply of partially hydrogenated soybean oil and palmolein at reduced cost prompted many snack food processors to switch over to these oils. People in India and China like food fried in peanut oil. Here the people have started to use palmolein, palm oil, and other less costly oils to remain profitable in the business. In many African and South American countries, almost any indigenous oil is used for frying. Malaysians use palm and palmolein for frying. The Philippinos and South Indians have used coconut oil for frying and cooking foods for centuries, simply because these oils have been available in the region. In todays snack food industry, the frying oil is chosen on the basis of the following criteria: (i) product flavor; (ii) texture; (iii) mouth-feel; (iv) aftertaste; (v) product shelf life; (vi) availability; (vii) cost; and (viii) nutritional requirements. The snack food companies in the advanced countries use the first four criteria listed above to determine the acceptability of any oil for a given product. Items (v)
(vii) are related to the companys profitability. The last item is becoming more important in affluent countries in which consumers are able to pay the high price for the product fried in the so-called healthful oils that are low in saturated fats and are not hydrogenated. The prime examples are high oleic sunflower, high oleic canola, midoleic canola, mid-oleic sunflower (NuSun), and low-linolenic canola oils. For the most part, even in countries such as the United States, the cost and availability of oil are very critical for the sustenance of a snack food manufacturer. The reason is that there is a huge price gap between the more abundant oils such as palmolein or soybean compared with high-oleic sunflower, NuSun (mid-oleic sunflower), or high oleic safflower oils. Soybeans, the largest source of vegetable oil in the world, are grown predominantly in the United States, Argentina, and Brazil. Some other countries, such as India and China, also produce soybeans. Palm oil is the second largest source of vegetable oil in the world. Worldwide, palm oil production is growing at a much faster rate than is soybean oil. Malaysia and Indonesia are the principal growers of palm oil. Palm oil is also produced in Central America, South America, Africa, and India. Canola (low erucic acid rapeseed), the third largest oilseed crop in the world, grows mainly in Canada and Europe. In addition to soybeans, China and India also produce mentionable quantities of low erucic acid rapeseeds. Sunflower is the fourth largest oilseed crop growing primarily in the former Soviet Union, the United States, Argentina, Canada, and Europe. Other countries such as South Africa and India also produce sunflower seeds for crushing. Table 1.7 lists the latest world oilseed and oil production figures (2). Palmolein is used for frying salty snack food in almost every country except the United States. Cottonseed, corn, partially hydrogenated soybean, canola and sunflower oils are used in the United States for frying. In addition, small amounts of liquid canola, high-oleic sunflower and high-oleic safflower and NuSun oils are also used for frying snack foods in the U.S. A review of the data in Table 1.7 shows that soybean oil is the world leader in volume, followed by palm oil. However, in the salty snack food area, palmolein and palm oil are used in more countries than soybean oil. Soybean oil is used heavily in baked foods. Cottonseed, sunflower, and peanut oils are produced in much smaller volumes and are generally consumed locally by the producing countries. Evolution of the Frying Industry into Diverse Products The frying industry has evolved significantly from the early days of chips. The fryers have become larger and more sophisticated in terms of product-feed, internal construction, oil temperature control, and distribution. Efforts have been made to reduce the volume of oil in the frying system to reduce the oil turnover time, thus preserving the quality of the oil. Batch fryers have been traditionally used to produce smaller volumes and harder texture in the fried chips. New continuous fryers have successfully duplicated the harder texture of the kettle-fried chips, but at a much higher production rate.
TABLE 1.7 World Production Figures of the Major Oilseeds and Oilsa
Seeds produced 2001/02 Type of oil Soybean Palm Canola Sunflower Cottonseed Corn Peanut (groundnut) Coconut
aSource:
Seeds produced 2000/01
Oils produced 2001/02
Oils produced 2000/01
(million metric tons) 184.21 37.47 23.11 36.43 24.11 175.20 37.14 24.41 37.27 22.94 29.37 24.73 13.51 7.38 4.27 1.11 5.46 3.19 27.05 23.83 13.95 8.67 3.94 1.09 4.87 3.51
Reference 2.
Continuous fryers with a very specialized design of the frying bed have been introduced to fry preformed chips with a very low oil turnover time. Normally, these products require a very short fry time. Par-fried products, such as French fries, potato nuggets, chicken, or chicken fried steaks, are all par-fried products that are frozen immediately after frying and stored at 5 to 10F. The product is distributed in freezer trucks. These products are fried directly from Freezer to Fryer without any thawing and served immediately in restaurants, through food services, and even at home. These products have the great advantage of convenience and reduced cost. Products, such as par-fried French fries, chicken, and coated vegetables require shortening with a fairly high level of solids, which can be achieved through the standard hydrogenation process as it is done in the United States and several other countries. Batter-coated fish fillets are fried in either lightly hydrogenated oil or nonhydrogenated oil. The storage temperature of 5 to 10F helps protect the oil from rapid oxidation. This allows the food processors to use nonhydrogenated oils. Three countries, the United States, Canada, and the Netherlands, are the major producers and exporters of frozen French fries. According to the Department of Commerce, the U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Statistics, the United States exported nearly $316 million worth of frozen French fries in 2002. The export statistics on frozen French fries for the past 6 years are listed in Table 1.8. Other parfried frozen products include fish sticks, breaded shrimp, and par fried chicken as mentioned above. Table 1.9 lists the production and sales figures of fish sticks and breaded shrimp from 1992 to 2001. An alternative shortening for French fries or heavy-duty industrial frying can be made via fractionation of palm oil and/or the interesterification process. This approach has been applied successfully in several countries outside of North America. These shortenings have higher amounts of palmitic and stearic acids than
TABLE 1.8 French Fries Production Data for the United States (19972001)
Year Volume (million lbs) 1997 13,162.8 1998 14,293.2 1999 14,019 2000 14,686 2001 12,671
the conventional hydrogenated shortening. However, if the trans fatty acids are considered as fatty acids that behave like saturated fatty acids, the interesterified product contains a significantly lower amount of cholesterol-promoting fatty acids (combined saturated and trans fatty acids). At present, these products are more expensive than the conventionally hydrogenated shortening. Possibly the concern over trans fatty acid might encourage the oil processing industry to look into a more economical way to produce interesterified shortening in the near future. Pourable shortening, made from fully hydrogenated soybean (or canola) oil and lightly hydrogenated soybean or canola oil can provide the functionality of the heavy-duty frying shortening with a significantly lower trans fatty acid content. The trans fatty acid content of the pourable shortening can be reduced practically to zero by replacing partially hydrogenated soybean or canola oil with liquid oils, such as high-oleic sunflower, canola, safflower, or NuSun, corn or cottonseed, which are low in linolenic acid. This, of course, is a costlier proposition. Comments on the Par-Frying Process Although par-frying is a very attractive means for large-scale product distribution, this method will not produce a shelf-stable product if one attempts to par-fry the salty snack product and distribute it to the large-scale snack food manufacturers, who in turn pull the product from the freezer, fry it, package, and distribute it. The product will develop a rancid flavor very rapidly. This is because the product in the par-frying process absorbs less oil than in the full-frying process. This increases the oil turnover time in the fryer, causing more damage to the oil and forms a higher concentration of free radicals in the oil. These free radicals are carried by the product and further catalyze the oxidative degradation of the oil in the product during storage.
TABLE 1.9 Fish Sticks and Breaded Shrimp Production Data for the United States (19972001)
Fish sticks Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 (million lbs) 31.37 31.19 29.49 18.11 19.51 (million $) 64.30 63.47 63.40 42.55 41.53 Breaded shrimp (million lbs) 117.47 109.48 119.15 121.40 152.19 (million $) 334.94 333.26 351.89 375.45 539.63
There is always an exchange of oil between the food product and the frying oil. A high concentration of free radicals in the fryer feed will result in higher concentration of free radicals in the final fryer. This will accelerate the autoxidation process in the frying oil and reduce the shelf life of the re-fried product even when it is packaged in nitrogen flushed and metallized bags. The product will have a fraction of the shelf life of the same product fried under normal processes (not parfried and refried). Miscellaneous Fried Snacks Donuts. Freshly fried donuts are very popular and used for breakfast or snack. These products are yeast-raised and fried in hydrogenated shortening to provide the taste. Interesterified shortening or that made from fractionated palm oil components can be used to fry donuts. Shelf-stable donuts are sold in the supermarkets, convenience stores, or gas stations. These products are generally baked, instead of fried for longer shelf life. Fried Nuts. Peanuts, cashews, sunflower seeds, and pumpkin seeds are sold in various forms, such as fried, dry roasted, coated, and glazed. In frying nuts, there is very little oil pick up by the product. This greatly increases the oil turnover time in a fryer. It will be clear from the discussions in the later chapters in this book that the type of oil used in this process must have good oxidative stability to obtain good shelf life for the product. Some manufacturers use nonhydrogenated canola oil in this process. The high-linolenic acid in liquid canola oil does not provide good shelf life for the product. The liquid oil used in this process must have a low linolenic acid content, e.g., cottonseed, corn, high-oleic sunflower, NuSun, low-linolenic canola, or high-oleic canola. Otherwise, one must use lightly hydrogenated canola or soybean oil to achieve good shelf life. Stuffed vegetables, breaded vegetables, breaded shrimp, for example, are fried at the restaurants and served immediately. These products are generally fried in liquid oils or in pourable shortening. Snack Food Market in Europe As mentioned earlier, the snack food industry is quite large and extensive in Europe. It is more difficult, however, to obtain comprehensive data on all types of snack foods in European countries compared with the United States. The overall tonnage of potato chips and other snack foods and snack nuts are shown in Table 1.10. In comparison with the United States, per capita consumption of snack food in the European Union is much lower.
Summary
The frying industry includes restaurant as well as restaurant operations. Restaurants fry fresh foods or use a wide variety of par-fried products such as French fries, potato wedges, stuffed cheese sticks, potato skins, vegetable/cheese stuffing, or batter-coated
vegetables. These products are fried and served immediately. The frozen par-fried products are fried at the restaurants without thawing. This helps the product to retain good oil flavor as well as a crunchy crust. Packaged salty snack food products require a long shelf life after frying and packaging. This makes it essential to use an oil that has good oxidative and flavor stability. Par-fried foods use oils ranging from liquid [refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD)] oil to heavily hydrogenated shortening. Shelf-stable snack foods must use oils such as RBD oils with low or no linolenic acid, lightly hydrogenated soybean, or canola oil with a linolenic acid content of <2%. The snack food industry must be constantly engaged in product innovation to retain the customer base. To achieve this objective, the industry has to maintain several core-brand products, such as salted potato chips, tortilla chips, or extruded corn products. In addition to the core brands, most companies have to maintain a variety of flavor extensions of the same core product base. Some of these products may even appear as novelty items. Snack food companies have to constantly monitor acceptability of the products and take appropriate action when the product sales begin to show a decline. Many companies use an in-and-out strategy for new line extension of any brand. This means that the companies introduce a novel flavor applied to the salted product for a limited time and then change to some other flavor. The flavors might even be rotated over a period of time depending on the consumer acceptance. The consumer trend in Western countries and elsewhere has become dynamic. The favorite seasonings from India and the Far East have become popular in Europe. Several Mexican flavors such as jalapeno and salsa have become household products in the United States. Some of the Western flavors, such as cheese and salt and vinegar, are gaining approval in the Eastern markets. References
1. Snack Food Association web site, History of Snacks (http://www.sfa.org/news.html) (2002). 2. Oil World (http://www.oilworld.de) (2002). 3. Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery (2002) Vol. 91. 4. United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, U.S. AgExporter: (http://www.fas.usda.gov) (2002).
Chapter 2
Chemical and Physical Reactions in Oil During Frying

K. Warner
National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 North University Street, Peoria, IL 61604
Introduction
Foods are fried to provide desirable color, texture, and flavor. These positive attributes result from the many chemical and physical reactions that take place during frying. Without these reactions, fried foods would not be crisp and golden brown nor would they have that characteristic deep-fried flavor. Frying can also negatively affect frying oils and fried food. At high temperatures, the oil changes significantly because of the many chemical and physical reactions that produce degradation compounds that affect the functional, sensory, and nutritional qualities of oils and fried food. In the early stages of frying, many of these changes are generally required to provide the desirable characteristics typical of fried food. However, if the oil is allowed to deteriorate too much, then poor quality food and shortened fry life of the oil results. The physical and chemical changes that occur during frying have been studied extensively to develop new frying oils, as well as additives and handling procedures that help protect oils from extreme changes during frying. This chapter will describe the objectives of frying as well as the physical and chemical changes in oils during frying. The positive and negative effects of these changes on the oils and fried food will be discussed. Practical methods to measure and inhibit oil deterioration will be described.
Objectives of Frying/Frying Cycles

During deep fat frying, food is cooked by a direct transfer of heat from the hot oil to the cold food. The following processes occur in a well-maintained frying operation. As food is added to the hot oil, the temperature of the oil decreases. Moisture from the food forms steam rapidly before subsiding as the water in the food dissipates. Steam bubbles are created in the oil. As frying continues, the food becomes brown in color. Oil is absorbed into the food creating a crisp texture and deep-fried flavor in the food. As frying continues, oils deteriorate because of the frying conditions used, including high heat and moisture. Unless procedures are followed to keep the oil from continuing to deteriorate, oils will degrade with increasing frying as they proceed through the five stages in the life cycle of frying oil.
The first stage of the cycle begins when the oil is fresh; however, oils in this phase provide only a little browning and food may look undercooked. Deep-fried flavor intensity of the food is usually also low. Frying operations will often condition the oils by using a blend of used and fresh oil at the start and then adding the used oil in the fryer at a certain rate along with some fresh oil. This conditions the oil rapidly and at no additional cost. The oil is at its optimum during the second phase of the cycle. The food has a desirable golden brown color, it is fully cooked, and it has optimal deep-fried flavor. The small amount of oil deterioration that has taken place by this point is actually required to provide the desirable deep-fried flavor in the food. Some oils will develop this characteristic deep-fried food flavor more quickly than others depending on the fatty acid composition of the oil. For example, cottonseed oil with high (5055%) linoleic acid produces significantly higher intensities of fried food flavor in potato chips and French fried potatoes than do oils with low (10%) linoleic acid, such as high (8090%) oleic oils. As fatty acids decompose at high temperature conditions, volatile degradation products produce characteristic flavors. Some oxidation products, such as 2,4-decadienal, which is a break down product of linoleic acid, are important in the formation of the typical deep-fried flavor. One objective of the frying operation should be to try to keep the oil at or near this stage of the cycle. During the third part of the cycle, the oil continues to deteriorate; it is lower in quality than at the second stage, but is still acceptable. The fried food has a darker brown color and slight off-flavors may be detectable in the food at this phase. By the fourth stage, the oil has deteriorated even further and the oil quality is marginal. The food has a dark brown color and moderate-to-strong off-flavors, and the oil has begun to foam. Foaming will prevent the uniform cooking of the food, so that the fried food may not be fully cooked. By the time the oil reaches the fifth and last cycle of its fry life, severe oil degradation is occurring. Foaming of the oil is a major problem; the fried food has an unacceptable flavor and may not be fully cooked in the center because foaming has limited the direct contact of oil and food. Unless frying conditions are adjusted to maintain the oil in the second phase of the cycle, the oil will continue to deteriorate and may have to be discarded.
General Physical and Chemical Changes in the Frying Oil

Physical changes in oils that occur during heating and frying include increased viscosity, darkening in color, and increased foaming as frying time continues. At the same time, the smoke point of the oil decreases. The frying operator may not notice these effects until the oil has been used for prolonged periods of time. Although many frying operations rely simply on visual inspection of the oil to determine that these negative effects are occurring, specific methods exist to measure degradation processes and products quantitatively. For example, free fatty acids (FFA), carbonyl compounds, and high-molecular-weight products will increase with increased frying time and can be measured chemically or by chro-
matography. We will discuss later how these chemical compounds form and cause the physical changes in the oil. With the increase in these compounds, unsaturation, flavor quality, and the level of essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic) decreases concurrently and can be monitored by chromatography and by smelling the frying oil. Some frying operations, such as restaurants, discard frying oils when frying causes excessive foaming of oil, when the oil tends to smoke excessively, or when the oil color darkens. In addition, abused oil increases in off-odors, such as acrid and burnt, and the fried food develops off-flavors as well. Procedures to inhibit frying oil deterioration will be discussed later in the chapter.
Physical Changes in Oils During Frying During deep-frying, heat is transferred from the oil to the food, while water is evaporated from the food and oil is absorbed by the food (Fig. 2.1). Oil is also adsorbed onto the surface of the fried food. Factors, such as shape and size of the food, and oil temperature, significantly affect these processes. Understanding the physical processes of how food fries will help in optimizing the frying process to produce good quality food and oil with longer fry life. Oil losses depend on the type of fried food; for example, potatoes absorb more oil than does meat. The type of frying vat also affects the oil stability. For example, oil heated in a pressure deep-fat fryer deteriorates less than oil heated in an open vat. Physical changes in
Fig. 2.1. Physical and chemical reactions that occur during frying.
oils that occur during heating and frying include increased viscosity, color darkening, increased foaming, and decreased smoke point. Methods are available to measure these physical changes quantitatively, but they are usually evaluated subjectively by visual inspection during practical frying. Although visual inspections are usually not used in research studies, they are often used by restaurants to determine when to discard frying oils. For example, a visual inspection could determine when there is excessive foaming of the oil, when the oil begins to smoke excessively, or when the oil color becomes too dark. Smelling the odors from the heating oil will also identify deteriorated oil if the odors are sharp, pungent, and burnt. The relationship of physical and chemical changes in oil is usually predictable because the decomposition products from the chemical breakdown of the oil cause the physical changes in frying oil, such as increases in viscosity, color, and foaming. Chemical Changes in Oils During Frying The primary purpose of frying is to produce the distinctive fried food flavor and crisp texture that are so desirable. A small number of chemical changes are necessary so that we have food with golden brown color and deep-fried flavor. As mentioned previously, oil that has just been heated to frying temperature will not produce the color and flavor typical of oil that has been conditioned or heated for several hours before frying. During deep-fat frying, various deteriorative chemical processes, such as hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization, take place, and oils decompose to form volatile products and nonvolatile monomeric and polymeric compounds (Fig. 2.1). Chemical changes during frying increase FFA, carbonyl compounds, and polymeric compounds and decrease fatty acid unsaturation. With continued heating and frying, these compounds further decompose until breakdown products accumulate to levels that produce off-flavors and potentially toxic effects, leaving the oil no longer suitable for frying. The amounts of these compounds that are formed and their chemical structures depend on many factors, including oil and food types, frying conditions, and oxygen availability. In addition, these chemical reactions (hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization) are interrelated, producing a complex mixture of products. Hydrolysis. As food is fried in oil, air and water cause chemical reactions. Water and steam hydrolyze triacylglycerols producing monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols, and eventually FFA and glycerol (Fig. 2.2). Glycerol will partially evaporate because it volatilizes at temperatures >150C, and the reaction equilibrium is shifted in favor of other hydrolysis products. The extent of hydrolysis is a function of various factors such as oil temperature, interface area between the oil and the aqueous phases, and amount of water and steam, because water will hydrolyze oil more quickly than steam. FFA and low-molecular-weight acidic products produced from oil oxidation enhance hydrolysis in the presence of steam during frying. Degradation products from hydrolysis decrease the fry life of the oil. The level of the FFA is a measure of the degree of hydrolysis in the oil.
Fig. 2.2. Hydrolysis
process for frying oils.
Oxidation. Oxygen is present in fresh oil and more is added to the frying oil when food is placed in the fryer. Heat, along with the addition of food, produces a series of reactions including the formation of free radicals, hydroperoxides, and conjugated dienoic acids. The chemical reactions that occur during the oxidation process help to form both volatile and nonvolatile decomposition products. For example, ethyl linoleate oxidation leads to the formation of conjugated hydroperoxides, which can form noncycling long-chain products or they can cyclize and form peroxide polymers. The oxidation mechanism in frying oils is similar to autoxidation at room temperature; however, the unstable primary oxidation products (hydroperoxides) decompose rapidly at frying temperatures into secondary oxidation products, such as aldehydes and ketones (Fig. 2.3). Secondary oxidation products that are volatile contribute significantly to the odor of the oil and flavor of the fried food. For example, unsaturated aldehydes, such as 2,4-decadienal, 2,4-nonadienal, 2,4-octadienal, 2-heptenal, or 2-octenal, contribute to the desirable, characteristic deep-fried flavor in oils during the second phase of the frying cycle. However, saturated and unsaturated aldehydes such as hexanal, heptanal, octanal, nonanal, and 2-decenal, produce distinctive off-odors in the frying oil. The fruity and plastic offodors typical of heated high-oleic oils can be attributed primarily to heptanal, octanal, nonanal, and 2-decenal. In deteriorated frying oil, acrolein is primarily responsible for the typical acrid odor. Analysis of primary oxidation products, such as hydroperoxides, at any one point in the frying process provides little information because their formation and decomposition fluctuate rapidly and are not easily predicted. During frying, oils with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as
Fig. 2.3. Oxidation process for frying oils.
linoleic acid, have a distinct induction period of hydroperoxide formation followed by a rapid increase in peroxide values, then a rapid destruction of peroxides. Measuring levels of PUFA, such as linoleic acid, can help determine the extent of thermal oxidation. Oxidative degradation will produce oxidized triacylglycerols containing hydroperoxide-, epoxy-, hydroxy-, and keto-groups and dimeric fatty acids or dimeric triacylglycerols. Volatile degradation products can be saturated and monounsaturated hydroxy-, aldehydic-, keto-, and dicarboxylic-acids, hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and aromatic compounds. Polymerization. Polymerization results in the formation of compounds with high molecular weight and polarity (Fig. 2.4). Polymers can form from free radicals or triacylglycerols by the Diels-Alder reaction. Cyclic fatty acids can form within one fatty acid; dimeric fatty acids can form between two fatty acids, either within or between triglycerides; and polymers with high molecular weight are obtained as these molecules continue to cross-link. As polymerized products increase in the frying oil, the viscosity of the oil also increases. Causes of Oil Deterioration Degradation of frying oil is affected by many factors, such as unsaturation of fatty acids, oil temperature, oxygen absorption, metals in the food and in the oil, and type of food (Table 2.1). The type of food being fried alters the composition of the frying oil because fatty acids are released from fat-containing foods, such as meat and fish, and their concentration in the frying oil increases with continued use. Breaded and battered food can degrade frying oil more quickly than nonbreaded
Fig. 2.4. Polymerization process for frying oils.
food. For example, onion rings are more detrimental to the oil than potato chips, possibly because of the breading material that accumulates in the oil. However, even foods such as potatoes degrade oil stability because of the increased addition of oxygen as the food is added to the frying oil. Food particles accumulating in the oil also deteriorate oil quickly; therefore, filtering oils will help remove these particles along with other oxidation products and can help to extend oil fry life. Frying protocols of intermittent or continuous frying affect fry life. For example, cottonseed oil heated intermittently had as much polar material as oil heated continuously for three times as long. This difference may be caused by the
TABLE 2.1 Factors Affecting Frying Oil and Fried Food Degradation
Oil/food Balance amount of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids for optimal oil fry life, healthfulness, flavor quality, and stability of fried food Choose oils with moderate-to-high stability Consider nature of food: nonbreaded/battered foods degrade oils less than do breaded/ battered foods Chelate metals in oil with use of metal chelator, such as citric acid Use oils with good initial quality Do not allow degradation products to accumulate in oil Use antioxidants and antifoam additives Process Keep oil temperature neither too high nor too low Avoid prolonged frying time Minimize aeration/oxygen absorption Keep frying equipment in good condition Maintain continuous frying, which is better than intermittent frying Add makeup oil to ensure good oil turnover rate Filter oil and clean fryer
increased amounts of fatty acyl peroxides that decompose upon repeated heating and cooling, causing further oil damage. Replenishing the fryer with fresh oil is commonly done in most frying operations; however, in the snack food industry in which more make-up oil is added than in restaurant-style frying, a complete turnover time of 812 h can be achieved in a continuous fryer. Levels of the reaction products in frying oil can also be affected by absorption into the fried food. Evaporation of aldehydes and ketones takes place, but fatty acids are not distilled under frying conditions. Some amount could be removed from the fryer as entrainment in the water vapor leaving the fryer and being removed through the exhaust duct. However, the accumulation of degradation products in the frying oil and their eventual absorption in fried foods is of primary concern when commercial frying is done under abusive conditions. In summary, the following characteristics of the oil and/or food affect the amount of oil deterioration during frying: type of food, type of oil, unsaturation/saturation of fatty acids, metals in food or oil, initial oil quality, degradation products in the oil and additives to the oils, such as antioxidants and antifoam agents. The following frying procedures also affect oil deterioration: frying time and rate, oxygen, fryer type, surface-to-volume ratio of the oil, oil temperature, continuous or intermittent frying, addition of makeup oil, and filtering of oil. Products from Oil Deterioration In deep fat frying, both thermal and oxidative decomposition of the oil occur, producing volatile and nonvolatile decomposition products. These two types of compounds are of interest because the volatile compounds affect the flavor of the food and the room odor of the frying oil, whereas the nonvolatile compounds affect how long the oil can be used for frying and how long the fried food can be stored before it is consumed. Not only do these compounds adversely affect the stability of the frying oil as already discussed, but the foods fried in deteriorated oils may also contain a significant amount of decomposition products that have potentially adverse effects on the food safety, flavor, and flavor stability of the fried food. The volatile compounds are responsible primarily for flavor (both positive and negative) in the fried food. Undesirable off-flavors can be produced if frying oil is allowed to deteriorate. Nonvolatile compounds, such as polymers, at low levels, may not have much effect on the flavor of a food that is consumed immediately after frying; however, they do affect the fry life of the oil and the shelf life of aged fried food. Thermal polymers may exist in an edible product, but the conditions for their formation are not usually encountered in commercial practice because snack food frying processes are found to be less drastic when good operating protocols are followed. Effects of Volatile Compounds on Flavor of Fried Food When oils are heated to frying temperatures, many compounds are produced as the fatty acids decompose. For example, when pure linoleic acid, a major fatty acid in
most vegetable oils, is heated, the primary volatile compounds include pentane, acrolein, pentanal, 1-pentanal, hexanal, 2- and/or 3-hexanal, 2-heptenal, 2-octenal, 2,4-nonadienal, 2,4-octadienal, and 2,4-decadienal. All of these compounds produce characteristic odors and flavors that affect the room odor of the frying oil and the flavor of the fried food. The 2,4-decadienal is the major contributor to deepfried flavor, but 2-heptenal, 2-octenal, 2,4-nonadienal, 2,4-nonadienal, and 2,4octadienal also are described as producing a deep-fried odor. Some compounds listed above will usually produce off-odors. For example, an acrid odor is a result of acrolein, and grassy odor is produced by hexanal and 2- and/or 3-hexanal. Frying oils such as high-oleic sunflower have undesirable fruity and plastic odors because of the volatile compounds that decompose from oleic acid. Heptane, octane, heptanal, octanal, nonanal, 2-decenal, and 2-undecenal can be found in most oils because they arise from the oxidation of the oleic acid. But when oleic acid is a major component of the oil, such as in high-oleic (>80%) oils, the off-flavor and odors such as plastic/waxy and fruity are noticeable. Fruity flavors are produced from octanal and nonanal, and plastic/waxy from 2-decenal and 2-undecenal. This information helps explain the origin of the deep-fried flavor that is characteristic of high-linoleic frying oils, but that is present only at low levels in higholeic oils. In addition, the types of chemical compounds derived from oleic acid help explain why high-oleic oils have plastic, waxy and fruity odors that are hardly noticeable in oils with low levels of oleic acid. Effects of Nonvolatile Compounds on Fry Life of Oil Nonvolatile products in deteriorated frying oils include polymeric triacylglycerols, oxidized triacylglycerol derivatives, and cyclic compounds. Polymeric triacylglycerols result from condensation of two or more triacylglycerol molecules to form polar and nonpolar high-molecular-weight compounds. The nonpolymerized part of the oil contains mainly unchanged triacylglycerols in combination with their oxidized derivatives. In addition, it contains monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols, partial glycerides containing chain scission products, triacylglycerols with cyclic and/or dimeric fatty acids, and any other nonvolatile products. However, much oil deterioration is required for a significant amount of these polymers to form. In continuous potato chip processing, this is not usually a problem because frying conditions are monitored carefully and a high oil turnover rate is achieved. However, oil used in industrial batch fryers (kettle fryers) or small-scale batch frying operations, such as restaurants, is found to deteriorate more because of high oil turnover time. Measuring Deterioration Products The physical and chemical changes occurring in frying oils and the many compounds formed in deteriorated frying oil have been reported extensively. Although these compounds often are used to measure degradation, many of the existing
methods are based on measuring nonspecific compounds that may or may not relate to oil degradation or fried food quality. Therefore, it is not surprising that frying is often described as more of an art than a science. In fact, the frying industry is still searching for the ultimate criteria to rapidly evaluate frying stability of oils and fried food flavor quality and stability. The standard methods used to measure degradation products in frying oils include polar components, conjugated dienes and fatty acids, as well as rapid analyses, such as the dielectric constant (Table 2.2). Four well-known rapid tests include Food Oil Sensor (FOS) (Northern Instruments, Lino Lakes MN), which measures the dielectric constant in frying fat relative to fresh oil; the RAU-Test, which is a colorimetric test-kit that contains redox indicators reacting with the total amount of oxidized compounds; Fritest (E Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), which is a calorimetric test-kit sensitive to carbonyl compounds; and the Spot Test, which assays FFA to indicate hydrolytic degradation and FFA. The Food Oil Sensor correlates better with polar compounds than do the RAU-Test, Fritest, and Spot test. The amounts of FFA are usually not a reliable indication of deteriorated frying fat. Practically, commercial frying oil operators want to know When should frying oil be discarded? Because there are many variables that affect oil degradation as discussed previously, a specific method may be useful for one operation, but not for another. Determining the endpoint of a frying oil requires good judgment, knowledge of the particular frying operation, as well as the type of frying oil, appropriate analytical measurements, and the expected shelf life of the fried food. Some of the laboratory methods used to measure degradation products in frying oil include column chromatography and high-performance sizeexclusion chromatography to detect both polar and nonpolar compounds. Several techTABLE 2.2 Methods to Measure Deterioration Products in Frying Oil
Nonvolatile compounds and related processes Iodine value Fatty acid composition Total polar compounds Free fatty acids Dielectric constant Nonurea adductforming esters Fryer oil color Viscosity Smoke point Foam height Volatile compounds and related processes Peroxide value Conjugated dienes Volatile compounds Sensory analysis of odor and flavor Method/Reference AOCS Cd 125/93 (1) AOCS Ce 16293 (1) AOCS Cd 2091/97 (1) AOCS Ca 5a-40/93 (1) (Fritsch, 1981) (2) (Firestone, 1961) (3) AOCS Td 3a-64/93 (1) (Stevenson, 1984) (4) AOCS Cc 9a-48/93 (1) (Billek, 1978) (5) Method/Reference AOCS Cd 853 (1) AOCS Ti 1a-64 (1) AOCS Cg 494 (1) (Warner, 1995) (6)
niques, including direct injection, static headspace, dynamic or purge-and-trap headspace, and solid phase microextraction, all of which use capillary gas chromatography, can analyze volatile compounds. The rapid methods mentioned above, such as the Food Oil Sensor, can be used successfully to estimate frying stability in restaurant-type frying operations. Measuring Deterioration Products Related to Fry Life Nonvolatile decomposition products are a better measure of degradation of frying oil than are volatile products because volatile compounds are constantly forming and decomposing. Nonvolatile higher-molecular-weight compounds are reliable indicators of fat deterioration because their accumulation is steady and they are not volatile. For example, total polar compounds usually increase linearly with increasing frying time and polymers have also been shown to increase with increasing heating time. High statistical correlations have been obtained between number of fryings and amounts of decomposition products in the oil, including total polar compounds, diacylglycerols, triacylglycerol polymers, and triacylglycerol dimers. FFA may not correlate significantly with the number of fryings. Changes from hydrolysis and oxidation parallel each other during frying as indicated by the high correlations between levels of triacylglycerol polymers and triacylglycerol dimers (from oxidation) and diacylglycerols (from hydrolysis) with the number of fryings. Four methods to assess frying oils are commonly used in European laboratories and include gel permeation chromatography (GPC), liquid chromatography (LC) on a silica gel column, polar and nonpolar components column chromatography on silica gel (CC), and petroleum etherinsoluble oxidized fatty acids. Measuring petroleum etherinsoluble oxidized fatty acids is usually time consuming and inaccurate. The GPC method is able to determine dimeric and oligomeric triacylglycerols in frying oil irrespective of the presence of oxidized compounds, whereas the LC method can indicate the total amount of polar and oxidized compounds. Separating polar and nonpolar components by CC is simpler and faster than the other three methods mentioned above. The formation and accumulation of nonvolatile compounds are responsible for physical changes in frying oil, such as increased viscosity, darkening in color, increased foaming, and decreased smoke point as described earlier. Most methods for assessing deterioration of frying oils are often based on these changes. Nonspecific methods for measuring nonvolatile compounds in deteriorated frying oil include FFA, nonurea adduct-forming esters, peroxide value, benzidine value, acid value, ultraviolet absorbance, refractive index, and petroleum etherinsoluble oxidized fatty acids. None of these methods are considered good measures of heat abuse. In Europe, values of 2427% polar materials are common endpoints for discarding frying oil in restaurant frying. However, if fried foods are to be stored for a period of time before they are consumed, the level of polar materials must be much less than the 24% endpoint, with recommendations of <10% polar materials.
Measuring Deterioration Products Related to Flavor Because many of the volatile decomposition products volatilize during frying, it is difficult to obtain an accurate representation of oil deterioration by instrumental and chemical analyses of these compounds. Methods that measure volatile compounds directly or indirectly include peroxide value, gas chromatographic volatile compound analysis, and sensory analysis. These methods are much better for measuring the quality and stability of the fresh and aged fried food than for measuring the quality of the frying oil itself. The peroxide value is not a good measure of heat abuse in frying oils because peroxides are unstable at frying temperature. Peroxides decompose very easily into secondary oxidation products; therefore, analysis of peroxides at random times of oil use tells little about the overall quality of the oil. Gas chromatographic volatile compound analysis measures compounds that are directly related to the flavor of the fried food. The fatty acid composition of frying oils has a major effect on the volatile compounds detected in the oil and on the flavor of the fried food. Although frying oils are complex mixtures of triacylglycerols, a wide variety of fatty acids, and many minor constituents, degradation compounds are primarily from the fatty acids. As expected, unsaturated fatty acids contribute significantly more to the formation of volatile compounds than do those from the more stable saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic and stearic. The stability of oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid, is between that of the PUFA and the saturated fatty acids. Identifying volatile compounds in fried food is important because these compounds help in understanding the chemical reactions that occur during frying, and because the flavor of deep fat fried food is caused by the volatile compounds. Although the volatile compounds are continually changing in the frying oil, measuring these compounds in the frying oil can give some indication of oil deterioration; however, care should be taken in interpreting data on volatile compounds in used frying oil because of the fluctuations in formation and degradation of the compounds at frying temperature. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry can be used to identify volatile compounds in the frying oils such as hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols, furans, esters, ethers, acids, and lactones. The total amounts of volatile compounds increase as the oil temperature increases, but they then can decompose to form other compounds, thereby creating a cycling pattern of volatile compound formation and degradation. Volatile compounds can be identified and quantified from fresh and aged fried food. The amounts and types of volatile compounds in the food depend on the type of frying oil, the quality of the fryer oil at the time of product collection, and on the length of storage of the food. Sensory evaluation is still the method most often used by different countries to determine when to discard frying oil. Scientific groups in Germany use sensory assessment of frying oils; however, if the assessment does not give a clear indication that the oil is deteriorated, then instrumental or chemical analysis is used to support a final decision on oil quality. The 3rd International Symposium on Deep-
Fat Frying (7) recommended that sensory parameters of the fried food be the principal quality index for deep fat frying. To further confirm oil abuse, total polar materials should be <24% and polymeric triacylglycerols <12%. Sensory analysis of frying oil and fried food quality may be conducted by analytical descriptive/discriminative panels using trained, experienced panelists or by consumer panels using untrained judges. However, results from consumer panels that measure the flavor likeability of food are usually dependent upon individual likes and dislikes rather than objective standards used by trained panels. Consumer panels may find no differences in fried food flavors, whereas a trained, experienced analytical descriptive panel can usually detect significant differences in the type and intensity of flavors in fried food prepared in various oil types. More research is required to understand the relationship between fried food flavor and the volatile and nonvolatile decomposition compounds produced in frying oils. Inhibiting Frying Oil Deterioration The factors affecting hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization, which eventually produce oil deterioration, can be controlled and their effects can be limited. For example, to help inhibit frying oil deterioration, choose a fresh oil with good initial quality, no prior oxidation, low levels of PUFA, and low amounts of catalyzing metals. The extent of these degradation reactions can be controlled by carefully managing frying conditions, such as temperature and time, exposure of oil to oxygen, continuous or intermittent frying, oil filtration, and turnover of oil. The effects of adding antioxidants and antifoam additives, which can help maintain oil quality, will be discussed in another chapter. References
1. AOCS, Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists Society, 5th edn., edited by D. Firestone, AOCS Press, Champaign, IL, 1998. 2. Fritsch, C.W., Measurements of Frying Fat Deterioration: A Brief View, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 58:272 (1981). 3. Firestone, D.W., Horwitz, L., Friedman, and G.M. Shue, Heated Fats I. Studies of the Effects of Heating on the Chemical Nature of Cottonseed Oil, Ibid. 38:253 (1961). 4. Stevenson, S.G., M. Vaisey-Genser, and N.A.M. Eskin, Quality Control in the Use of Deep Frying Oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 61: 1102 (1984). 5. Billek, G., G. Guhr, and J. Waibel, Quality Assessment of Used Frying Fats: A Comparison of Four Methods, Ibid. 55: 728 (1978). 6. Warner, K., Sensory Evaluation of Oils and Fat-Containing Foods in Methods to Assess Quality and Stability of Oils and Fat-Containing Foods, edited by K. Warner, and N.A.M. Eskin, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1995, p. 30. 7. Anonymous, Recommendations of the 3rd International Symposium on Deep Fat Frying, Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102:594 (2000).
Chapter 3
Selection of Frying Oil

Monoj K. Gupta
MG Edible Oil Consulting International, 9 Lundy's Lane, Richardson, TX 75080
Introduction
It is very important to select an oil that is appropriate for each individual type of snack food because the oil plays an essential role in developing the proper taste of the fried product. A wide variety of snack food is sold in the market, such as potato chips, tortilla chips, cheese-coated extruded snacks, fried noodles, batter-coated products such as fish fillet, coated or filled vegetables, chicken, and French fries. Each of these products has specific requirements for flavor, texture, appearance, and keeping quality. In each case, the oil either complements the base ingredients or enhances the overall flavor of the product. The oil can also influence the flavor release from the seasoning applied on the product. In short, the oil contributes to the success or failure of a product in gaining consumer acceptance. Basis for Oil Selection Oil is used for frying and also for spraying on the surface of the fried product to apply seasoning. The seasoning can be dairy powder or a blend of spices and dairy components to impart a flavor to the product that is very appealing to most consumers. In most cases, the frying oil and spray oil are the same for a given product. However, some exceptions might exist. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the following criteria are used by the snack food industry for selecting oil for a given product: (i) appearance; (ii) aroma/flavor; (iii) texture; (iv) mouth-feel; (v) aftertaste; (vi) product shelf life; (vii) availability; (viii) cost; and (ix) nutritional requirements. Appearance, Aroma/Flavor, and Texture. The appearance of the snack food makes the first impression on the consumer. The consumer notices the aroma and then the flavor of the product is captured as it is tasted. The texture of the product is noticed after the product appearance and flavor have made an impression. If the product does not have an appealing appearance or appetizing aroma and flavor appeal, the consumer may not even try it or may try it with reservation. This may influence the judgment made concerning the texture of the product. Texture. Texture is the next most important attribute for the snack food. The chips must be crispy to the first bite but not necessarily too hard for potato chips or
tortilla chips. The crispness/hardness can be a function of the frying condition, consistency (solids content) of the oil, the composition and thickness of the food being fried, frying temperature, and fry time. For example, hard-bite potato chips are fried in liquid cottonseed, corn, or peanut oil at temperatures <330F (lower than the 350360F used for regular potato chips) for 36 min to obtain the hard texture. Batter-coated chicken or French fries have to be fried in a hydrogenated fat to obtain the crisp texture. Mouth-Feel. Mouth-feel is also very important. The product must not be dry or sticky, and it must cause little or no packing between and on the surface of the tooth, known as tooth packing. The fried chips must have neither an oily nor a waxy mouth-feel. Generally, hydrogenated oils and palm oil produce a waxy mouth-feel in fried chips. It is a common experience among palm oil users that the product tastes waxy especially when the weather is cold. This is because palm oil solidifies at 38C, which is higher than the normal body temperature. Products do not leave a waxy mouth-feel when they are fried in one of the following oils: palmolein (melting point 2224C), liquid cottonseed or liquid corn oil (do not solidify even at 15C). Products fried in liquid cottonseed oil and liquid corn oil may appear oily on the surface and may leave oil on the fingertips. Aftertaste. The product must have a pleasant aftertaste, i.e. the consumer should not experience any lingering unpleasant taste after swallowing the snack food. Shelf Life. Shelf life is very important for both technical as well as commercial success of the product. It is important to note that a product may exhibit poor shelf life even if the fresh product had very good flavor and texture. This can occur for one or both of the following reasons: (i) Development of poor texture due to moisture gain by the product during storage; (ii) development of oxidized or rancid flavor due to oxidation of the oil in the product during storage. Moisture permeation through the packaging film is the cause for the moisture gain and the loss of product texture. This can also be accompanied by the development of a stale flavor in the product. Moisture gain by the product can be significantly reduced by using a packaging film with high moisture barrier properties and by proper moisture control in the product during frying. An oxidized or rancid flavor is observed in the packaged product if the incoming frying oil is of poor quality or has been damaged in the frying process. Both of the above-mentioned phenomena greatly reduce the time required by the company for the distribution and sale of the product. The shelf life of a product can be defined in different ways as shown below: 1. The product is as good as fresh when it is tasted on the last date printed on the package. 2. The product has developed unacceptable flavor and/or or texture at any point during storage. The code date on the package might not have expired at the time the product became unacceptable.
Many product manufacturers seem to have confused notions about shelf life and the code date for the product. They seem to feel that code date and shelf life are identical. It must be remembered that the code date for the product is based on the time required by the company for warehousing, distribution, and retail sales of the product. Some of these activities may be out of the company's own system and, therefore, cannot be fully controlled by the company. In such cases, the company has to look at the realistic time of product delivery to the store shelf, and the time needed for sale of the product at the store. The product must be either as good as fresh or acceptable to the consumers at the point the product is consumed. This time period may be long. The existing packaging material may not provide the required shelf life to the product to meet the necessary code date. In this case, the company may have to use a packaging film either with higher moisture or gas barrier property (or both), possibly a different type of oil for frying, nitrogen flush in bags, and have a proper oil quality management system in operation. These are the economic factors that a company must take into account to arrive at an appropriate code date for the product. The first six criteriaappearance, aroma/flavor, texture, mouth-feel, aftertaste, and product shelf lifeare often considered to be the criteria for technical success for the product. One must note that in the process of achieving these success criteria, the oil used in frying must have high oxidative and thermal stability. However, one must be careful about choosing the oil for the product, i.e., avoiding the selection of an oil that has low availability and a high price. In that case, the technical success will lead to economic failure. Therefore, one should exercise good judgment to achieve a proper balance between the technical success and the economic success for the company. Nutritional Needs. Nutritional concern has been on the top of the list of all progressive-minded snack food companies. Unfortunately, availability of the healthful oils at an affordable price and ample supply has been the Achilles heel for the advancement of these oils in the snack food industry. Some companies are using these oils in their niche market products. At present, the volume is small compared with the total snack food market. Most well-known healthful oils are low in saturated fat and low in linolenic acid. Examples of such oils are listed below: High-oleic sunflower High-oleic safflower Low-linolenic canola High-oleic canola Mid-oleic sunflower (NuSun)
These oils do not require hydrogenation for heavy-duty industrial frying. Unfortunately, the combined production volume of all of these oils is not sufficient to meet the current demand for frying oil in the industry. The snack food industry
used nearly 2 billion pounds of oil in the year 2001 in the United States. The combined production of all of the oils listed above falls short of 500 million pounds. Their supply is not expected to match the need for cottonseed, palmolein, and partially hydrogenated soybean oil within the foreseeable future. Therefore, manufacturers of snack food in the United States will continue to use the oil that is readily available and is reasonably priced in their respective countries. Specific Applications. For products such as cheese snacks, or snacks with filling, a certain amount of solid fat is required at ambient temperature for two reasons: (i) to prevent run-off of the coating or the filling material from the surface or inside of the product; and (ii) to provide a certain amount of fat melting in the mouth during chewing so that there is a release of fat-soluble flavor from the seasoning and, in some instances, the added perception of a cooling effect caused by the melting of the fat crystals. Partially hydrogenated soybean oil, canola oil, cottonseed oil, and corn oil are used in this type of application. Where available, palm oil becomes a natural choice as a coating oil. For spray oil on tortilla chips, it can be demonstrated that each type of oil brings out a distinctive flavor character of the seasoning. Some of the oils bring out the dairy note from the cheese coating, whereas others can bring out a more garlic or onion note. The mechanism for these phenomena has not been investigated. For this reason, one must experiment with each type of oil and determine the best combination between the type of spray oil and the seasoning used for topical application. For frying batter-coated fish or vegetables, a crispy outer crust and a tender and moist interior are required. This is accomplished primarily by selecting the coating material applied on the product. Therefore, liquid oil or lightly hydrogenated oil can be used to make these products. These products are par-fried, frozen immediately, packaged, and then stored at 5 to 10F (20 to 23C). The product is distributed in trucks with refrigeration and then stored again at 5 to 10F in freezers at the final destination. The frozen product is fried (without thawing) and served immediately in restaurants or food services. The liquid oil used in the par-fry process must have good oxidative stability; otherwise, these products can develop oxidized flavor even when they are stored in freezers at 5 to 10F. Final frying of the product can be done either in liquid oil or hydrogenated fat. Pre-cooked chicken is also prepared and delivered in the same manner as described above. The only difference is that the oil used in this case requires more solids to maintain the extra crispy crust. Final frying of the product is generally done in hydrogenated fat. French fries are one of the most popular products throughout the world. The potatoes are cut, water-washed, pretreated with citric acid, calcium and magnesium salts, blanched, par-fried, and frozen like fish or chicken. The fat system requires a certain amount of fully hydrogenated fat to maintain the dry surface appearance and crispy taste of the fried product. The fried product must maintain its crispness at the restaurant or in a food service for 57 min after it is removed from the fryer.
In the absence of fully hydrogenated fat, the product loses its crispness very quickly and the restaurant or the food service employee has to throw away the fried product. Although the process of making French fries includes steps in which the cut potatoes are soaked in calcium and magnesium salts to impart some firmness to the raw product, the absence of a fully hydrogenated fraction in the frying shortening still makes the product less acceptable. It was mentioned earlier that the oil plays a large role in determining the flavor and texture of the fried product to be accepted by consumers. For example, in the United States, mostly liquid cottonseed oil is used to fry potato chips, with very few exceptions. Liquid cottonseed oil is considered to be the gold standard for frying potato chips in this country. Liquid corn oil, lightly hydrogenated sunflower oil, NuSun (mid-oleic sunflower oil), and blends of cottonseed and corn oil have been used to substitute for the liquid cottonseed oil with good success. In fact, Procter & Gamble Company has found NuSun oil to be a better choice for their Pringles brand potato chips for flavor and consumer acceptability. In all of these cases, the oil has complemented the potato base and has developed the flavor character desired by the U.S. consumers. Peanut oil (groundnut) and sesame seed oil also produce very pleasing flavor character in potato chips. However, they are both scarce and costly. Palmolein is used extensively throughout the world for frying potato chips. The product has a pleasant flavor character and an agreeable aftertaste. Unfortunately, the snack food and other industries in the U.S. market discontinued the use of palmolein and palm oil in late 1980s because of the high saturated fatty acid content. Since that time, many nutritionists around the world have shown that palm oil is not as harmful as it was labeled by certain entities in the U.S. (13). The oil is currently used extensively in Europe, Latin America, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, Africa, and Asia. Palmolein has been sold as single-, double- or triple-fractionated oils to offer more liquid fractions for application in various products including snack food. La Fabril in Ecuador introduced a fractionated palmolein that is low in trisaturated and tripolyunsaturated triglycerides. Potato chips and tortilla chips fried in this oil demonstrate excellent flavor character and stability. Unfortunately, the oil is somewhat more expensive than palmolein. Snack food manufacturers in the region blended this oil with soybean oil to reduce the cost. This practice resulted in products with poor flavor character and stability. Liquid soybean oil, as well as liquid canola oil, contains ~78% linolenic acid, which makes the oils very unstable in frying. Both oils are hydrogenated to reduce the linolenic acid content to <2% to achieve oxidative stability in these oils. Soybean oil and canola oil are found to be less desirable in frying potato chips in the United States, Mexico, and a few other countries. On the other hand, partially hydrogenated canola oil is used in Canada for frying potato chips and other snack foods. The growth of the tortilla chip industry has been somewhat faster than that of the potato chip segment in the United States. Lightly hydrogenated soybean oil
(iodine value of 100 4) is considered to be the gold standard for frying tortilla chips in the United States. Use of corn oil is increasing in the country to fry tortilla chips. Certain niche markets use high-oleic safflower and high-oleic sunflower oils. In addition, certain manufacturers in the United States also use various grades of liquid canola oil including partially hydrogenated canola oil, high-oleic canola oil, or lowlinolenic canola oil. Palmolein, again, is used quite extensively in various other countries to fry tortilla chips to impart excellent flavor character and stability. Standard sunflower oil contains >60% linoleic acid, which makes the oil unsuitable for frying shelf-stable products. The oil has to be hydrogenated to an iodine value of 100 2, or have a linoleic acid content of 35 2%. Both potato chips and tortilla chips fried in this lightly hydrogenated sunflower oil demonstrate good flavor character and shelf-life stability. Steps for the Selection of Oil for a Snack Food Selection of oil for a specific snack food is important for achieving a product that is liked by the consumer for flavor and texture and so on. A snack food company faces the challenge of selecting oil for a product under the following situations: Is the oil needed to formulate a new product? Is the oil to be used as an alternate to an oil already in use for an existing product? New Product. In the case of a new product, the frying oil must be carefully selected on the basis of consumer acceptability, and acceptable product shelf life. In addition to meeting the above requirements, one must make sure that the selected oil also meets the requirements of availability and cost as well as any nutritional requirements provided by the corporation. Alternate Oil For an Existing Product. Selecting alternative oils is a common practice in the industry when the company requires flexibility to change the type of oil in an existing product. This is an economic decision based solely on the availability and cost of the oil without sacrificing product acceptability and shelf life. The oil must meet the following criteria to be certified as an alternative to the existing oil in use: 1. Test product must be tested against the existing product (control) prepared under identical process conditions based on consumer tests. 2. An approved consumer testing protocol must be used. Test product must be equal to the control in all product attributes both when fresh and at the end of the desired code date. 3. Test product must have shelf-life stability equal to or better than the control. 4. The test oil should handle the same way as the control oil. No special equipment should be required to handle the new oil.
At this point, the oil is technically approved and must go through the standard economic evaluation by the procurement department. However, for all practical purposes, it works better if the technical group is in close communication with procurement from the very beginning of the process. At this juncture, procurement should identify more than one supplier for the new oil. The technical group should analyze the samples chemically for confirmation of the quality. Sometimes a small-scale test might be advisable for a disaster check on the oil from a different supplier. This is because on some occasions, the same type of oil with apparently identical chemical analyses may not deliver the same product flavor. This can happen for a variety of reasons as described in Chapter 8. A case study on this subject is outlined below: U.S. consumers do not like potato chips fried in partially hydrogenated soybean oil. The consumers can detect the difference in the flavor of the potato chips, when they are fried in an oil blend that contains a very small amount of soybean oil in liquid cottonseed oil. Soybean oil was specially processed, hydrogenated to <2% linolenic acid content, deodorized, and then blended with liquid cottonseed oil. The blended oil was used to make potato chips and then compared against the control product made with 100% liquid cottonseed oil. The test results showed that the fresh potato chips made with blended oil, containing 2550% of the specially processed soybean oil, had acceptability identical to that of the control. The acceptability for the test products made with the blended oils was marginally lower than the control at the end of the code date. Consumers found the potato chips flavor unacceptable when the oil blend contained 10% of conventionally processed soybean oil with the chemical analyses identical to those specially processed. The test oils were prepared by different oil processors. The oil from one of the processors could be added up to 50% with cottonseed oil and the experts as well as the consumers could not detect any difference between the test product and control. The oils from the other processors could be added only up to 25% in the oil blend to produce similar results. All three companies obtained the crude soybean oils from garden variety soybeans. The finished oils from the three processors had identical chemical analyses. Therefore, this kind of difference could be attributed only to the specific processing techniques applied by the individual processors. It is always advisable to test the oil from a new supplier on a small scale to ensure that all product criteria are met before the supplier is accepted as a qualified oil supplier. Selection of Oil For Frying at Restaurants. Selection of oil for a restaurant follows the basic laws of supply and cost. The food service industry operates under very tight profit margins. As a result, the restaurant owner chooses the least expensive oil that produces a satisfactory product and has a satisfactory fry life. Restaurants use
partially hydrogenated soybean oil, pourable shortening, all-purpose frying shortening, and various other oils to fry a wide variety of products. Palm oil and palmolein can also be used in restaurants, although these oils are not currently used in the United States.
Summary
The selection of oil for any product, whether new or existing, is determined by the following criteria: Successful product performance as determined by consumer acceptance and/or preference test. No plant modification is required to use a new type of oil. Any plant modification should be justifiable by either direct saving on the cost of oil or from potential increase of sales. The oil must be available as a commodity for economic reasons. It must be a good technical as well as economic fit for the company. The oil must show high consumer acceptability in a new product category or must be at least as good as the control in the case of an existing product. References
1. Hornstra, G., A.A.H.M. Hennissen, D.T.S. Tan, and R. Kalafusz, Life Science, Plenum Publishing Co., 1987, p. 69. 2. Hornstra, G., and R.B. Lussenburg, Relationship Between the Type of Dietary Fatty Acid and Arterial Thrombosis Tendency in Rats, Atherosclerosis 22:499519 (1975). 3. Sundram, K., K.C. Hayes, and O.H. Siru, Dietary Palmitic Acid Results in a Lower Serum Cholesterol than a Lauric-Myristic Acid Combination in Normolipemic Humans, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 59:841846 (1994).
Chapter 4
Role of Antioxidants and Polymerization Inhibitors in Protecting Frying Oils

Kathleen Warnera, Caiping Sub, and Pamela J. Whiteb
aNational
Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, IL, and bFood Science and Human Nutrition Department and Center for Crops Utilization Research, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
Introduction
The fatty acid composition of oils has a major effect in determining how stable an oil will be during frying, but other factors, such as the amounts and types of naturally occurring minor oil constituents and of chemical and natural additives, can affect oil stability and the quality of fried food. Minor oil constituents, including tocopherols, -carotene, and chemical antioxidants, have been shown to improve the quality and stability of salad oils. Oil processors put additives, such as methyl silicone and antioxidants, into frying oils during or after processing. This chapter presents information about the effects on fry life of several types of naturally occurring compounds and other additives. Protective Properties of Tocopherols Tocopherols are natural antioxidants found in oilseeds, but the amounts of the four primary homologs, , , , and -tocopherol, vary widely in oils. Tocopherols are phenolic antioxidants that react with free radicals in oils to interrupt the oxidative reaction, thereby inhibiting oxidation of the fatty acids (Fig. 4.1). Utilizing oils with these naturally occurring antioxidants is one way in which to enhance the frying life of oils and the storage stability of fried foods. Another option is to add the natural antioxidative components as extracts to oils. Tocopherols degrade much faster in oils heated to frying temperature than at ambient temperature. Because the tocopherol concentration is reduced as oils are heated at frying temperatures, their loss has been used as a measure of the level of oil deterioration. Many studies have shown the changes in tocopherol content of oils as they are used for frying and the different rates at which the various tocopherol homologs degrade. Gordon and Kourismska (1) reported that -tocopherol in rapeseed oil was lost much more quickly than - and -tocopherols. BarreraArellano et al. (2) confirmed the finding that -tocopherol losses were rapid when they heated triolein, trilinolein, and a 1:1 blend of these two lipids. Marquez Ruiz
CH3 HO H3C CH3 CH3 HO CH3 | [CH2CH2CH2CH3]3 CH3 CH3 CH3 | [CH2CH2CH2CH3]3 CH3 HO H3C CH3 CH3 | [CH2CH2CH2CH3]3 CH3
5,7,8 Trimethyl -Tocopherol HO
7,8 Dimethyl -Tocopherol CH3 | [CH2CH2CH2CH3]3 CH3 CH3
5,8 Dimethyl -Tocopherol
8 Methyl -Tocopherol
Fig. 4.1. Structures of , , , and -tocopherols.
et al. (3) also found that the natural levels of tocopherol affected the fry life of sunflower oil. Potatoes fried in sunflower oil oxidized more slowly than potatoes fried in high-oleic sunflower oil even though the sunflower oil contained 19% polar compounds, whereas the potatoes fried in high-oleic sunflower oil had 16% polar compounds. The authors attributed the differences in stability to the fact that the sunflower oil had 100 ppm -tocopherol and the high-oleic sunflower oil had only 10 ppm at the start of the storage study. On the other hand, the greatest losses were for -tocopherol in peanut oil used for frying (4) and in a blend of soybean and rapeseed oil (5). Miyagaura et al. (5) also found that the tocopherols were retained more if potatoes fried in the oil were coated with a batter than if the potatoes had no batter. Much of the research indicates that -tocopherol degrades more quickly than do other tocopherols. This conclusion, coupled with the finding that only one of its oxidation products showed antioxidant activity, favors the use of -tocopherols in frying oil. Warner et al. (6) found that -tocopherol inhibited the formation of total polar compounds in triolein used for frying potato chips and prevented rancidity in the aged chips even though very low or no amount of -tocopherol remained in the oil or in the oil extracted from the potato chips. The oxidation products of -tocopherol were assumed to have helped inhibit the deterioration of the oil and the chips. Some researchers found that the loss of tocopherols is inhibited by combining tocopherols with other additives in the frying oil. For example, Gordon and Kourimska (7) ststudied changes in tocopherol content of oil used for deep-fat frying of potatoes and found that -tocopherol was lost much more quickly than - or -tocopherol. Without added antioxidants in the frying oil, -tocopherol was reduced by 50% after 45 fryings, but it required 7 and 78 fryings for - and tocopherol, respectively, to reach 50% depletion. However, the presence of rosemary extract or ascorbyl palmitate in the frying oil caused a significant reduction in the rate of loss of the tocopherols.
The fatty acid composition of the oil also affects the rate of tocopherol loss in oils. Yuki and Isikawa (8) found that the loss of tocopherols was much greater in saturated fats than in more unsaturated ones. These results are similar to those of Frankel et al. (9) who found that tocopherol loss was significantly less in highly unsaturated oils than in more saturated ones, such as lard and cottonseed oil. They theorized that hydroperoxides formed in the polyunsaturated oils decomposed before they reacted with the tocopherols because they are very unstable compared with the very stable hydroperoxides formed in monounsaturated oil. The hydroperoxides from saturated oils do not decompose before they can react with the tocopherols because of their high stability. Although most oils contain tocopherols, some oils contain other compounds that can help inhibit oxidation as well. Adding the natural antioxidative components from one type of oil to other oils that lack much antioxidant protection is another option to enhance frying oil stability. Some oils are processed to preserve natural antioxidants including olive oil, rice bran oil, sesame oil, and red palm oil. Abdalla (10) found that 1% of the unsaponifiable matter from olive oil distillate improved the frying life of the oil and the oxidative stability of potato chips fried in sunflower oil. The positive effects were attributed to the tocopherols, squalene and avenasterol, in the olive oil distillate. Red palm olein is processed to preserve naturally occurring high levels of -carotene, tocopherols, and tocotrienols. In frying tests, red palm olein had better frying stability than did corn oil or palm olein on the basis of free fatty acids, viscosity, and iodine value (11). They also reported that crackers fried in the red palm olein had better oxidative stability than those fried in the other oils. Warner and Zhang (12) found that rice bran oil improved the frying stability of both cottonseed and sunflower oils when blended at a 1:3 ratio. Protective Properties of Chemical Antioxidants Oil processors usually add chemical antioxidants to processed oil to retard undesirable changes during frying and to extend the shelf life of the food fried in the oil. Antioxidants, such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT ) (Fig. 4.2), are effective in inhibiting oil oxidation at ambient temperatures, but these additives volatilize easily at frying temperatures, especially when water is present. In tests on heated palm olein with no frying, the oil lost 70% of its original BHT and 60% of the original BHA after 8 h (13). Freeman et al. (14) reported no protective effects of 200 ppm BHT in heated sunflower oils. The effects of BHT in heated cottonseed oil with water added showed that BHT had no inhibitory effect on the deterioration of the oil during frying (15). A large portion of BHT was lost through steam distillation. Warner et al. (16) reported that 80% of the 70 ppm of BHT was lost from lard after frying six batches of French fried potatoes, possibly as a result of steam distillation. None of the 50 ppm of original BHA remained after frying four batches of potatoes.
2-+3-tert-butyl4-hydroxyanisole
2,6-di-tert-butylp-hydroxytoluene
tertbutylhydroquinone
Fig. 4.2. Structures of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ).
Tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) (Fig. 4.2) has been reported to have better stability in frying oils than do BHA and BHT (1); therefore, it can protect the frying life longer and also carry through to help protect the fried food during storage. Carlson and Tabacchi (17) found that added TBHQ as well as added -tocopherol decreased the rate of -tocopherol loss in partially hydrogenated soybean oil, hydrogenated soybean/palm oil, and corn oil used for frying French fries. The -tocopherol loss in the frying oils increased significantly with increasing fatty acid oxidation. No significant changes in -tocopherol levels in the French fries occurred during 4 d of frying, but these authors observed a 40% reduction in tocopherol in the frying oils. TBHQ, lecithin, ascorbyl palmitate, rosemary extract, BHA, BHT, and tocopherol were studied in rapeseed oil during the frying of French fries (1). The rosemary extract and ascorbyl palmitate both inhibited dimer formation during deep-fat frying and retarded losses of natural tocopherols in the oil. The stability of the frying oil decreased as the tocopherols were depleted along with an increase in hydroperoxides generated in oil samples after frying. Che Man et al. (18) found that TBHQ was better than -tocopherol in decreasing free fatty acids, polar compounds, and polymers in palm olein used for frying. On the other hand, - t o c opherol was better than TBHQ in reducing anisidine values. They found no synergistic effects as reported in some studies. Some reports in the literature indicate that TBHQ may not have much effect on frying oil stability. Rhee (19) showed that the combination of 200 ppm TBHQ and 1 ppm methyl silicone worked synergistically to reduce oxidation and polymerization of partially hydrogenated soybean oil, but that methyl silicone played the major role. BHA and BHT had the same effect as TBHQ. The effects of methyl silicone will be discussed later in this chapter. In a study of the effects of oil additives on room odors of heated soybean oil and hydrogenated soybean oils, Warner and co-workers (20) found that the addition of 200 ppm TBHQ did not affect the intensities of the odors. They found that the combination of TBHQ and methyl sili-
cone did decrease odor intensities; however, the methyl silicone was primarily responsible for this effect. Frankel et al. (21) also showed that TBHQ was less effective in frying oils alone than when added with methyl silicone. Protective Properties of Herbal Extracts The addition of natural antioxidants has been studied extensively in frying oils and has shown positive effects. Jaswir and co-workers (2225) found that herbal extracts of rosemary and sage improved the sensory acceptability of potato chips. In another study using rosemary and sage extracts with BHA and BHT, Che Man and Tan (26) found that the oxidation of the palm olein frying oil was inhibited in the following order of effectiveness: rosemary oleoresin > BHA > sage extract > BHT > control. The same order was reported in potato chip stability. Rapeseed oil containing rosemary extract and methyl silicone had lower levels of polar compounds and polymers, and French fried potatoes had improved flavor quality (27). The effect of the rosemary extract alone was not measured. Even breading material from cottonseed flour has been shown to inhibit frying oil degradation because the flour contained polyphenolic compounds (28). Protective Properties of Antioxidant Decomposition Products As previously discussed, the breakdown products of antioxidant compounds can have antioxidant properties. Kim and Pratt (29) identified and characterized the decomposition products of TBHQ heated at frying temperatures, including tertiary butylbenzoquinone (TBBQ) as the primary and major oxidation product of TBHQ. They reported that the interconversion between TBHQ and TBBQ played the greatest part in the antioxidant effectiveness and carry-through effect of TBHQ. Silicone (Methyl Silicone, Polydimethylsiloxane) Definition and Uses. A silicone is an organo-silicon polymer with a silicon-oxygen framework (30). The most basic silicone compound, polydimethylsiloxane, is a high-molecular-weight liquid polymer having a very low vapor pressure (<1 mm Hg) (31). Polydimethylsiloxane also has very low water solubility (<100 ppb). Because it has a specific gravity of <1 g/cm3 (less than that of water), it will initially form a surface film if discharged into water. Its formula, shown in Figure 4.3, is the simplest form of any silicone (30). Polydimethylsiloxane products are fluids with varied viscosities, depending on the molecular weight of the polydimethylsiloxane. These fluids are clear, colorless, and odorless; thermally, chemically, and shear stable; and soluble and emulsifiable with many organic materials. Thus, they have many applications in industrial and food processes. Generally, silicones have low toxicity. Silicones meet the requirements for evaluation methods and testing levels under CFR 177.2710, are food-grade and, thus, are approved by the Food
Fig. 4.3. Formula structure of polydimethylsiloxane (31).
and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in food materials and equipment that may incidentally come in contact with foods (32). The use of polydimethylsiloxane to suppress foaming in aqueous systems is well known and widely applied. It was first reported by Martin (33) that a concentration of 0.03 ppm of polydimethylsiloxane was sufficient to inhibit the oxidation of frying oil over a prolonged heating period. Since then, numerous studies (14,20,34,35) have reported antioxidant effects (more accurately referred to as antipolymerization effects) in frying oils of silicone-based additives at levels of 0.015 ppm with surface concentration between 0.03 and 12.7 g/cm2 (Table 4.1). Yan and White (35) showed that the addition of 1.0 ppm methyl silicone (2.8 g/cm2) significantly reduced the loss of fatty acids in lard with two times the added cholesterol. Babayan (36) also showed that low concentrations of polydimethylsiloxane would raise the smoke point of an oil by as much as 25F (4C). Proposed Mechanisms. Although the antipolymerization effects of polydimethylsiloxane in frying or at static high temperatures have been studied, the mechanism by which methyl silicone protects oil is not completely understood. According to Gordon (37), four possible explanations exist for the protective effects of polydimethylsiloxane. First, the methyl silicone may represent a physical barrier that prevents the penetration of oxygen into the oil from the atmosphere. Freeman et al. (14) argued against this first explanation, however, which assumes that oxygen diffuses through the silicone layer less rapidly than through the surface layer of oil molecules. He concluded that there is no reason why this should be so.
TABLE 4.1 Different Concentrations of Methyl Silione Used by Different Researchers
Concentration used (ppm) Minimum effective 0.01 0.06 2 5 1 0.2
aNA,
Full protective 0.02 0.10
Oil weight (g) 30 30 NAa 200 500 600
Surface area (cm2) 10.2 33.2 NA 78.5 176.6 176.6
Amount of silicone (g/cm2) Minimum effective 0.03 0.05 NA 12.7 2.8 0.7 Full protective 0.06 0.09 NA Ref. (14) (14) (34) (20) (35) (35)
not available.
A second explanation for the molecule's effect may be that polydimethylsiloxane presents an inert surface to the atmosphere, thus inhibiting oxidation at the surface. Third, it may act as a chemical antioxidant, being oxidized and inhibiting the propagation of free-radical chains with its effectiveness arising from its concentration at the surface where oxidation occurs. Fourth, and finally, polydimethylsiloxane may inhibit convection currents in the surface layer, which in turn inhibits the absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere and the distribution of oxygen through the fat. Indeed, other researchers (14,38) demonstrated that silicone prevented convection currents in the surface layer, and that the rate of oxidation of the oil was dependent on the rate and duration of the convection currents. An alternative finding is that the temperature of the air-oil interface is approximately 100F (38C) lower than that in the fryer. It is reasonable to think that convection currents would play a part. This reasoning also may explain the results of a study by Rock et al. (34), who showed that methyl silicone could both promote and inhibit polymerization at a level of 2 ppm in frying fats, depending upon the method of heating. When thermostatically heated in a fryer at 375F (190C), with or without frying, fats containing methyl silicone deteriorated more slowly than did controls without the additive. The reverse was true when these fats were heated and maintained at 375F (190C) in an oven. The most reasonable conclusion from the above possible mechanisms is that the protective effect of methyl silicone is caused by a monolayer of silicone on the oil-to-air surface. Further, Freeman et al. (14) showed that the critical concentration for autopolymerization activity of methyl silicone in frying oil responded to this monolayer on the air-to-oil surface. Indeed, it is the surface concentration, rather than the bulk concentration that governs the protective effect. Freemans results suggested that, in general, the minimum effective surface concentration must be between 0.05 and 0.06 g/cm2 of surface, as noted earlier in this chapter. Interaction of Silicones with Fried Foods. Freeman et al. (14) further investigated the fate of silicone in relation to the fried product. When potato chips were fried in an oil containing 2 ppm silicone, the silicone content of the used oil was reduced to <1 ppm and the surplus was taken up by the potato chips. It was recommended that silicone should not be used at levels >2 ppm in frying oils because silicones picked up by the fried food can affect the results of experiments designed to measure oxidation in fried foods (14). Silicone products are also widely used for lubricating laboratory glassware; thus, trace amounts can easily contaminate samples. This fact, coupled with the small amounts required to inhibit oil oxidation, can give misleading results in experiments designed to study oxidation phenomena. Researchers should be aware of the potential contamination and take precautions to avoid anomalous results. General Recommendations on Amounts of Silicones. Overall, it is recommended that silicone-based additives to oils used for frying foods be present at lev-
els of 0.022 ppm, with the minimum effective surface concentration between 0.05 and 0.06 g/cm2 and full protective surface concentration between 0.06 and 0.09 g/cm2 (14). Plant Sterols and Components with Related Effective Structures Studies (39,40) have demonstrated that some plant sterols (Fig. 4.4), isolated from oat, olive, corn, wheat germ, and Vernonia anthelmintica exhibited antipolymerization properties in oils heated at 180C (41,42). One of these sterols, 5-avenasterol (Fig. 4.4), was similar to methyl silicone in its effectiveness at 100180C when the oil was heated on a hotplate, but not in an oven (Gordon and Williamson, unpublished data). In addition, 5-avenasterol seemed to be concentrated in a layer
Plant sterols 5-Avenasterol 5-Avenasterol Vernosterol Fucosterol Stigmasterol -Sitosterol Citrostadienol Spinasterol Lanosterol (30 carbons) Ergosterol (29 carbons) Cholesterol (27 carbons)
Double bond 5,24(28) 7,24(28) 8,14,24(28) 5,24(28) 5,22 5 7,24(28) 7,22 8,27 5,22 5
Fig. 4.4. Structures of ethylidene side chain, undecylenic acid, linalool, linalyl acetate, and plant sterols (44,45).
at the surface (37). These findings suggest that 5-avenasterol acts as a chemical antipolymerizer on the surface of frying oils, where oxygen is present. Other plant sterols exhibiting antipolymerization effectiveness include 7-avenasterol, fucosterol, citrostadienol, and vernosterol (Fig. 4.4) (39). However, sterols, including cholesterol, stigmasterol, ergosterol, lanosterol, -sitosterol, and spinasterol, were either ineffective or slightly increased polymerization (43). Gordon and Magos (39) theorized that the presence of unhindered hydrogen atoms on an allylic carbon atom in the ethylidene side chain (Fig. 4.4) leads to rapid reaction with lipid free radicals. Isomerization leads to a relatively stable allylic tertiary free radical, which is slow to react further, and this interrupts the autoxidation chain (Fig. 4.5). Stigmasterol does not have antipolymerization (antioxidant) activity, presumably because the rate of loss of hydrogen atoms at the tertiary carbon atoms (C-20 and C-24) is slow, as a result of steric hindrance to the approach of a free radical. Thus, sterols with unhindered hydrogen atoms in the ethylidene side chain are most effective. Gordon and Magos (39) also proposed that further antipolymerization effects may arise from the presence and position of one or more endocyclic double bonds. For example, vernosterol has an effect arising from the rapid formation of free radicals at C-29, but slower formation of free radicals at C-11 or C-16. The latter free radicals are stabilized by delocalization over two double bonds, which also contribute to the antipolymerization activity of the sterol. Thus, vernosterol should be more effective than sterols with one endocyclic double bond, such as fucosterol. This effect was, indeed, demonstrated by Sims et al. (1972), who showed the order of effectiveness of the sterols in safflower oil at 180C to be as follows: vernosterol > 7 -avenasterol > fucosterol. Other compounds having these structural properties include linalool and undecylenic acid (Fig. 4.4). Both compounds have a terminal double bond, or one that will shift to the terminal position with heat. Linalool, which is relatively volatile at frying temperatures, was reacted with acetate to form the more stable linalyl acetate (LA), for testing in frying oils. The addition of LA at 0.04% was as effective as methyl silicone at 0.3 ppm (35). The high-temperature antipolymerization effect of undecylenic acid on soybean oil heated at 180C also was reported, but at a reduced effectiveness compared with that of LA (35,42).
Fig. 4.5. Mechanism for the antipolymerization (antioxidant) activity of sterols (N = sterol ring) (39).
Although these plant sterols are currently not commercially available as frying fat additives, they can promote frying oil stability in their native form, either leached out from foods fried in the oil, or from the oil source itself. Perhaps these compounds will be developed commercially to provide an alternate choice to the silicones as a natural polymerization inhibitor in frying fats. Effects of Silicone Combined with Other Antioxidants or Polymerization Inhibitors The antipolymerization effect of silicone also has been studied in comparison to or in combination with other active components (14,20,35,41,43), such as citric acid (CA), BHT, TBHQ, polymeric antioxidant-Anoxomer (polymeric AO), LA, and plant sterols. Freeman et al. (14) hypothesized that in normal frying practices, the alternate heating and cooling operation should give more rapid deterioration of the oil than would an equivalent continuous heating period (see Chapter 5 in this book). Conventional phenolic type antioxidants, discussed earlier in this chapter, protect the oil during the cool periods; thus they would be expected to provide greater protection with the alternating regimen than with continuous heating. In a study evaluating alternate heating and cooling periods, however, BHT had no protective effect on the oil, whereas silicone had a very marked effect (14). The inactivity of the antioxidant suggests that BHT was substantially destroyed during the first hot period, but not silicone. Warner et al. (20) showed that methyl silicone had the strongest effect of any additive (CA, TBHQ, or a polymeric antioxidant, polymeric AO) when used alone, in decreasing objectionable room odors in statically heated soybean oils. In all soybean oils tested in the study, the additive treatment responsible for the greatest decrease in room odor intensity was methyl silicone, in combination with either CA or CA + TBHQ, indicating a synergistic effect. General Overall Recommendations for Additives in Frying Fats/Oils Antioxidants naturally present in oils can help extend frying oil life and shelf life of the fried food. Blending oil containing high levels of naturally occurring antioxidants with oil containing low levels may improve its stability. The loss of tocopherols in oils may be retarded by the addition of other antioxidants. Tocopherol loss is lower in less saturated oils than in more saturated oils. Use of herbal extracts and chemical antioxidants has been shown to have a wide range of effectiveness in frying oils. Antipolymerization compounds, such as silicone and some plant sterols, can be used alone or in combination with other additives in frying to protect oil decomposition and the fried food.
Silicone can be used in frying at levels of 0.022 ppm, with the minimum effective surface concentration between 0.05 and 0.06 g/cm2, and a full protective surface concentration between 0.06 and 0.09 g/cm2. Plant sterols, such as vernosterol, 7-avenasterol, and fucosterol, may be good alternate choices as natural polymerization inhibitors in frying fats. References
1. Gordon, M.H., and L. Kourimska, The Effects of Antioxidants on Changes in Oils During Heating and Deep Frying, J. Sci. Food Agric. 68:347 (1995). 2. Barrera-Arellano, D., M.V. Ruiz-Mendez, G.M. Ruiz, and M.C. Dobarganes, Loss of Tocopherols and Formation of Degradation Compounds in Triacylglycerol Model Systems Heated at High Temperature, J. Sci. Food Agric. 79:1923 (1999). 3. Marquez-Ruiz, G., M. Polvillo, N. Jorge, M.V. Ruiz-Mendez, and M.C. Dobarganes, Influence of Used Frying Oil Quality and Natural Tocopherol Content on Oxidative Stability of Fried Potatoes, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 6:421 (1999). 4. Holownia, K.I., M.C. Erickson, M.S. Chinnan, and R.R. Eitenmiller, Tocopherol Losses in Peanut Oil During Pressure Frying of Marinated Chicken Strips Coated with Edible Films, Food Res. International 34:77 (2001). 5. Miyagawa, K., K. Hirai, and R. Takezoe, Tocopherol and Fluorescence Levels in DeepFrying Oil and Their Measurement for Oil Assessment, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 68:163 (1991). 6. Warner, K., W.E. Neff, F.J. Eller, Enhancing the Quality and Oxidative Stability of Aged Fried Food with Gamma Tocopherol, J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:623 (2003). 7. Gordon, M.H., and L. Kourimska, Effect of Antioxidants on Losses of Tocopherols During Deep-Fat Frying, Food Chem. 52:175 (1994). 8. Yuki, E., and Y. Ishikawa, Tocopherol Contents of Nine Vegetable Frying Oils, and Their Changes Under Simulated Deep-Fat Frying Conditions, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 53: 673 (1976). 9. Frankel, E.N., P.M. Cooney, H.A. Moser, J.C. Cowan, and C.D. Evans, Effect of Antioxidants and Metal Inactivators in Tocopherol-Free Soybean Oil, Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 61:1036 (1959). 10. Abdalla, A.E.M., Antioxidative Effect of Olive Oil Deodorizer Distillate on Frying Oil and Quality of Potato Chips, Fett/Lipid 101:57 (1999). 11. Fui, W.K., and T.S. Tee, Frying Performance of Red Palm Olein, RBD Palm Olein, and Corn Oil, Grasas Aceites 49:373 (1998). 12. Warner, K., and F. Zhang, Effects of Minor Oil Constituents in Rice Bran Oil and Cottonseed Oils. Institute of Food Technologists Annual Meeting Abstracts, p. 358 (1999). 13. Augustin, M.A., and S.K. Berry, Efficacy of the Antioxidants BHA and BHT in Palm Olein During Heating and Frying, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 60:1520 (1983). 14. Freeman, I.P., F.B. Padley, and W.L. Sheppard, Use of Silicones in Frying Oils, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 50:101 (1973). 15. Peled, M., T. Gutfinger, and A. Letan, Effect of Water and BHT on Stability of Cottonseed Oil During Frying, J. Food Sci. Agric. 26:1655 (1975). 16. Warner, C.R., W.C. Brumley, D.H. Daniels, F.L. Joe, and T. Fazio, Reactions of Antioxidants in Foods, Food Chem. Toxicol. 24:1015 (1986).
17. Carlson, B.L., and M.H. Tabacchi, Frying Oil Deterioration and Vitamin Loss During Foodservice Operation, J. Food Sci. 51:218 (1986). 18. Che Man, Y.B., L. Jialong, and J.L. Liu, The Effects of TBHQ and Alpha-Tocopherol on Quality Characteristics of Refined-Bleached and Deodorized Palm Olein During Deep-Fat Frying, J. Food Lipids 6:117 (1999). 19. Rhee, J.S., Effect of Methyl Silicone, TBHQ, and BHA/BHT on Frying and Storage Stabilities of the Vegetable Salad Oil in High Density Polyethylene Bottles, Korean J. Food Sci. Technol. 10:250 (1978). 20. Warner, K., T.L. Mounts, and W. F. Kwolek, Effects of Antioxidants, Methyl Silicone, and Hydrogenation on Room Odor of Soybean Oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 62:1483 (1985). 21. Frankel, E.N., K. Warner, and K.J. Moulton, Effects of Hydrogenation and Additives on Cooking Oil Performance of Soybean Oil, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 62:1354 (1985). 22. Jaswir, I., and Y.B. Che Man, Use Optimization of Natural Antioxidants in Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Olein During Repeated Deep Fat Frying Using Response Surface Methodology, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 76:341 (1999) 23. Jaswir, I., Y.B. Che Man, and D.D. Kitts, Optimization of Physicochemical Changes of Palm Olein with Phytochemical Antioxidants During Deep-Fat Frying, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 77:1161 (2000). 24. Jaswir, I., Y.B. Che Man, and D.D. Kitts, Synergistic Effects of Rosemary, Sage, and Citric Acid on Fatty Acid Retention of Palm Olein During Deep-Fat Frying, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 77:527 (2000). 25. Jaswir, I., Y.B. Che Man, and D.D. Kitts, Use of Natural Antioxidants in Refined Palm Olein During Repeated Deep-Fat Frying, Food Res. Int. 33:501 (2000). 26. Che Man, Y.B., and C.P. Tan, Effects of Natural and Synthetic Antioxidants on Changes in Refined, Bleached, and Deodorized Palm Olein During Deep-Fat Frying of Potato Chips, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 76:331(1999). 27. Reblova, Z., J. Kudrnova, L. Trojakova, and J. Pokorny, Effect of Rosemary Extracts on the Stabilization of Frying Oil During Deep Fat Frying, J. Food Lipids 6:13 (1999). 28. Rhee, K.S., S.E. Housson, and Y.A. Ziprin, Enhancement of Frying Oil Stability by a Natural Antioxidative Ingredient in the Coating System of Fried Meat Nuggets, J. Food Sci. 57:789 (1992). 29. Kim, C.M., and D.E. Pratt, Degradation Products of 2-tert-Butylhydroquinone at Frying Temperature, J. Food Sci. 55:847 (1990). 30. Silicone.net, http://www.silicones.net/faq.shtml (2003). 31. Dow Corning Corporation, Corporate Center, Midland, MI, Dow Corning Corporation Material Data Safety Sheet: 17 (2003). 32. Winn, A., Silicones for Medical Applications; Selecting the Proper Grade and Test Protocol, http://www.appliedsilicone.com/article.html (2003). 33. Martin, J.B., Stabilization of Fats and Oils, U.S. Patent 2,634,214; April 7, 1953. 34. Rock, S., L. Fisher, and H. Roth, Methyl Silicones in Frying FatsAntioxidant or Prooxidant? J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 44:102A (1967). 35. Yan, P.S., and P.J. White, Linalyl Acetate and Methyl Silicone Effects on Cholesterol and Triglyceride Oxidation in Heated Lard, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 68:763768 (1991). 36. Babayan, V.K., Silicones to Raise the Smoke Point, U.S. Patent 2,998,319; Aug. 29, 1961. 37. Gordon, M.H., The Mechanism of Antioxidant Action In Vitro, in Food Antioxidants, edited by B.J.F. Hudson, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1990, pp. 1318.
38. Rock, S.P., and H. Roth, Factors Affecting the Rate of Deterioration in the Frying Quality of Fats II, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 41:531533 (1964). 39. Gordon, M.H., and P. Magos, The Effect of Sterols on the Oxidation of Edible Oils, Food Chem. 10:141147 (1983). 40. White, P.J., and L.S. Armstrong, Effect of Selected Oat Sterols on the Deterioration of Heated Soybean Oil, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 63:525529 (1986). 41. Boskou, D., and I.D. Morton, Effect of Plant Sterols on the Rate of Deterioration of Heated Oils, J. Sci. Food Agric. 27:928932 (1976). 42. Yan, P.S., and P.J. White, Linalyl Acetate and Other Compounds with Related Structures as Antioxidant in Heated Soybean Oil, J. Agric. Food Chem. 38:19041908 (1990). 43. Sims, R.J., J.A. Fioriti, and M.J. Kanuk, Sterol Additives as Polymerization Inhibitors for Frying Oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 49:298301 (1972). 44. Cyberlipid.org, Sterols, http://www.cyberlipid.org/sterols/ster0003.htm (2003). 45. Eskin, M., Plant Food Can Be an Important Factor in the Reduction of Risk for Chronic Disease, http://www.cjche.ca/News/protect/may99/pg1741.pdf (2003).
Chapter 5
Procedures for Oil Handling in a Frying Operation

Monoj K. Gupta
Introduction
Fried food products constitute one of the major sectors in the food industry. The operation requires careful selection of raw materials and control of processing and packaging to deliver a product with the highest quality. Therefore, it is important for the frying operation to implement and follow certain procedures. Like all other processing or manufacturing operations, the frying operation begins with a sound specification for the fresh incoming raw materials, accompanied by well-defined operating standards. In the area of raw materials, we will focus primarily on the oil. Different types of oil are used for frying a wide range of snack foods. The oils differ, for example, in melting points, the degree of saturation, or color. However, there are many common analytical standards that apply to all types of oil used in the snack food industry. These are discussed in detail. The oil is subjected to very harsh physical and chemical conditions in a fryer. Thus, the frying oil must have very high stability. This is why the frying oil should have more stringent analytical standards than those required for making salad oils or margarine products. In addition to the quality standards for the fresh oil, there are essential elements required for successful frying performance of the oil. These include the procedures for oil receiving, oil unloading, oil storage, fryer operation, fryer shutdown, fryer sanitation, and storage of used oil, in addition to proper packaging of the product. Fresh Oil Quality Specifications Normally, different oils are used for frying different snack foods. As mentioned in Chapter 3, most of these oils are not interchangeable among the products. For any given product, the frying oil is chosen on the basis of the following criteria: (i) product flavor; (ii) product texture; (iii) mouth-feel; (iv) aftertaste; (v) availability; (vi) product shelf life; (vii) cost; and (viii) nutritional requirements. Items (i)(iv) are related to product quality and consumer acceptability. These are established through consumer tests for preference and acceptance. Item (vi) is established through shelf-life test protocols suitable for the type of product, the distribution system, and the packaging material. Neither consumer acceptability nor shelf life for a product can be achieved if the incoming oil quality is unsatisfactory. Items
(v), (vi), and (vii) are economic factors that determine the cost of the final product. Recently, item (viii) has been receiving more attention because of the new knowledge about trans fat and saturated fat intake in our diet. Frying is a process in which heat transfer, mass transfer, and chemical reactions occur simultaneously. Hot oil supplies the thermal energy and removes moisture from the food. The food develops fried food flavor and darker surface color through the Maillard reaction. At the same time, several simple and complex chemical reactions take place in the oil. The principal reactions in the oil are the following: hydrolysis, autoxidation, and polymerization. Hydrolysis is the reaction between the triglyceride and water, which produces free fatty acids (FFA), diglycerides, and monoglycerides during frying. Oil and water must be in perfect solution for this reaction to occur. Oil and water, however, are not intersoluble, except at very high temperature (>500F), a temperature far beyond the range of normal frying and achieved only under high pressure. The intersolubility of oil and water can be greatly increased by adding a small amount of surfactant (emulsifier), such as soap or natural emulsifiers (phospholipids, diglycerides, and monoglycerides). Vegetable oils always contain small amounts of phospholipids, diglycerides, and monoglycerides. The chemical refining process can produce appreciable quantities of diglycerides and monoglycerides in the refined oil if the crude oil is of poor quality, if there is a caustic overdose in the refining process, or if the oil is refined a second time for some reason. Most of the monoglycerides, but not the diglycerides, are distilled in the deodorizer. Thus, fresh oil may contain an appreciable amount of diglycerides and a small amount of monoglycerides. These natural surfactants present in the fresh oil can increase the intersolubility of oil and water and promote hydrolysis of the oil in frying. Therefore, fresh oil for frying applications must contain very low levels of these natural emulsifying agents (see Table 5.1). Monoglycerides and diglycerides depress the smoke point of oil. This may prevent the operator from heating the oil to the proper frying temperature, resulting in underfried products. A low smoke point of the oil can also be a fire hazard in the frying operation. Diglycerides decompose to produce monoglycerides during frying. Therefore, fresh oil for frying must contain these compounds at low levels. Lower than normal smoke point indicates incomplete refining of the oil. This can have an adverse effect on the shelf life of an industrial product. A low initial smoke point in the fresh oil may lead to excessive discarding of oil in a restaurant or food service operation. In addition to the above compounds, the oil may contain high levels of calcium and magnesium as natural trace impurities. These impurities are especially noticed in the refined oil when very poor quality crude oil is used. Sometimes, these impurities can be found at high levels in refined oils due to inadequate refining and bleaching of the crude oil. Calcium and magnesium form soap when they react with the FFA or the neutral oil. These soaps then act as emulsifying agents. Therefore, frying oils must
TABLE 5.1 Analytical Standards Recommended for Frying Oils

Analysis Triglyceride (%) Monoglyceride (%) Diglycerideb (%) Free fatty acid (%) Peroxide value (mEq/kg) para-Anidisine value Soap (ppm) Phosphorus (ppm) Iron (ppm) Calcium (ppm) Magnesium (ppm) Sodium (ppm) Chlorophyllc (ppb) Lovibond colord Tocopherolse (ppm) Polar compounds (%) Polymers (%) Conjugated dienes (%) Active oxygen methodf (h) Oxidative Stability Index (h)g Smoke point (F)h Flavor grade
aCommercial bCommercial
Desired standard 9698 <0.3? <1.0? <0.03 <0.5 <4.0 0.0 <0.5 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Trace 30 Depends on oil type 8001000 02 01 01.0 Depends on oil type Depends on oil type See footnote 8
Not > (Not <) 96 0.4 1.5 0.05 1.0 6 0.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 70 1200 (700) 4.0 2.0 1.5 (7) (7)
Analytical method (AOCS) Cd 11c-93 Cd 11b-91 Cd 11d-96 Cd 11b-91 Cd 11d-96 Ca 5a-40 Cd 8b-90 Cd 18-90 Cc 17-95 Ca 12b-92 Ca 18b-91 Ca 15b-87 Ca 15b-87 Ca 15b-87 Cc 13d-55 Cc 13b-45 Ce 8-89 Cd 20-91 Cd 22-91 Ti 1a-64 Cd 12-57 Cd 12d-92 Cc 9a-48 Cg 2-83
palm oil or palmolein contains a higher concentration (as much as 1%). palm oil or palmolein contains a higher concentration (411%). c<30 ppb for soybean and canola. Promotes photooxidation at higher concentrations. d<0.1 for soybean, canola, sunflower; <3.0 for cottonseed and palm; <2.0 for corn. e800 ppm in cottonseed, soybean; 500600 ppm in sunflower, corn and canola. f1520 h in corn, and cottonseed; 1215 h in soybean, canola and sunflower (with no antioxidants); 3040 h for high-oleic sunflower; 4050 h for palm oil; 5060 h for palmolein; 100 h for heavy-duty frying shortening; 150200 h heavy-duty frying shortening with tert-butylhydroquinone as antioxidant. g89 h at 110C test for cottonseed, corn, soybean (100 iodine value). h460F minimum for chemically refined fresh seed oils; 410428F for physically refined palmolein.
have very low concentrations of calcium and magnesium (Table 5.1). Copper can catalyze the hydrolysis of oil, but the copper content of refined vegetable oils in the United States is extremely low. Metals, such as iron, can initiate autoxidation. Freshly processed oils always contain trace amounts of iron. Autoxidation is one of the major modes of oil degradation in frying. Autoxidation of oil leads to poor flavor and reduced shelf life in a fried product. Therefore, frying oil must contain a very low level of iron (Table 5.1). Conjugated dienes are formed at the onset of autoxidation in the oil and are indicative of the oxidative state of the oil. Conjugated dienes are formed from the polyunsaturated fatty acids in the oil. For example, in linoleic acid, the double
bonds are located between the following carbon atoms in the fatty acid molecule: 9 and 10; 12 and 13; 15 and 16. The double bonds in this molecule are separated by two single bonds between the carbon atoms. At the onset of autoxidation, the double bonds shift to the following positions: between carbon atoms 10 and 11; 12 and 13 (remains unchanged); 14 and 15. Here, the double bonds are separated by one single bond between two carbon atoms. A high value of conjugated dienes in the oil indicates that the oil will undergo oxidation rapidly, when it is exposed to high temperature and oxygen. Therefore, it is important to receive fresh oils containing low levels of conjugated dienes for frying (Table 5.1). The peroxide value (PV) indicates the primary state of oil oxidation. A low PV is required for frying oil. The p a r a-anisidine value (pAV), which indicates the secondary state of oil oxidation, is a very important indicator of frying oil stability. Crude oil containing a high PV can be refined, bleached, and deodorized to a low PV, but the pAV would remain high in such an oil, indicating a poor history or abuse of the oil before refining. Such oil would oxidize rapidly in the fryer. Therefore, it is important to set low values for both PV and pAV for the fresh oil (Table 5.1). FFA are readily removed in the refining and deodorization steps. Therefore, properly refined oil should always have a low FFA content (0.020.04%). A FFA content >0.05% in the fresh oil indicates improper or incomplete refining and deodorizing of the crude oil. Therefore, one can expect the oil to perform poorly in frying, showing both rapid hydrolysis and autoxidation. Therefore, the FFA in a fresh frying oil must be <0.05%. Some argue that the addition of citric acid or phosphoric acid as a chelator in the deodorized oil increases the FFA. Therefore, a maximum value of 0.05% for FFA may be too low. In the author's experience, the amount of chelator added in the oil increases the FFA by 0.006%. Therefore, in the opinion of the author, this is a weak argument. A value of FFA >0.05% indicates that there might be some trace impurities left in the oil, which can reduce the shelf life of the fried product. Polymers are formed when the oil is heated. The amount of polymers formed during frying depends on: (i) frying temperature; (ii) type of oil; (iii) type and composition of the food being fried; (iv) type of fryer; and (v) operating conditions in a given fryer. The frying process generates two types of polymers, i.e., thermal p o l ymers and oxidative polymers. Thermal polymers are formed when heat is applied to the oil. Oxidative polymers are formed when two or more of the free radicals from the autoxidation reaction react together to form a larger molecule (commonly referred to as the termination step in autoxidation). Thermal polymers can impart a bitter aftertaste to the freshly fried product. Oxidative polymers may not always indicate a problem with flavor in the fresh product, but may cause rapid deterioration of the flavor of the product during storage. The formation of thermal polymers in frying can be avoided through proper fryer operating practices. The presence of trace metals and natural emulsifiers can produce oxidative polymers in the oil during frying; thus, the fresh oil must contain low levels of these components. Table 5.1 lists the recommended analytical standards for fresh frying oil. This list does not include the melting points, solid fat contents or Lovibond colors,
because these values vary with the type of oil. Table 5.1 indicates that ~9698% of the oil is comprised of triglycerides (or neutral oil). The rest of the components are nontriglycerides. All vegetable oils contain tocopherols, which are natural antioxidants. The goal of proper oil refining is to retain a high level of these tocopherols in the deodorized oil. The most common tocopherols in vegetable oils are , - (small amounts), -, and -tocopherols. -Tocopherol provides resistance to photooxidation of the oil; - and -tocopherols provide autoxidative stability to the oil. Therefore, oils with higher levels of - and -tocopherols, low linolenic acid, and low levels of trace impurities exhibit higher oxidative stability in the frying process. Table 5.1 indicates that the level of tocopherols must not exceed certain upper limits (shown for soybean oil). A high concentration of tocopherols can cause rapid oxidation of the oil in frying because some of the decomposition products of tocopherols are prooxidants. The PV of the oil must be 0.0 mEq/kg in freshly deodorized oil. A higher value may indicate either a poor vacuum in the deodorizer or improper cooling and storage of the deodorized oil. The PV must be <1.0 mEq/kg as received at the frying plant. In addition, the oil must be treated with citric acid at the end of the deodorization cycle by the processor to chelate and reduce trace metals in the oil. The flavor of the oil must be bland, weak buttery, or weak nutty. The color of the oil must be typical and there must be absolutely no off- or foreign odor in the fresh oil. Oil Loading at the Oil Processor and Transportation Oil Loading. The snack food manufacturing company must specify the method for loading fresh oil into a truck or rail car. They also must specify sampling and sanitation procedures related to oil storage, loading, and the mode of filling the vessel. Table 5.2 presents the list of procedures a snack food manufacturer should insist upon from an oil supplier (processor). The oil manufacturers operation should be inspected by the snack food company staff to confirm compliance. Some of these procedures are related to oil quality and stability, whereas others relate to product safety or regulatory requirements. The specific items are designated as Q, P S, or R, to indicate quality, product safety, and regulatory compliance, respectively, in the specific areas indicated. Oil Transportation. Trucks are generally used for shipping oil relatively short distances, requiring 212 h of travel time. A team of two drivers is used for longer distances where nonstop driving is needed. Hydrogenated oils can solidify during travel, especially in the winter. Heated and insulated trucks with proper temperature control can be used. The heating coils should preferably be located in an outer jacket to avoid scorching of the oil, but this type of truck is rare. Some trucks use the heat from the truck exhaust to prevent oil solidification, but this practice usually results in poor temperature control and can cause scorching of the oil during
TABLE 5.2 Oil Loading Procedures at the Oil Processora

1. Both the inside and outside of the truck must be clean (PS, Q). 2. There should be no foreign odor in the truck (Q, PS). 3. Cleanliness certificate must indicate the material transported in the previous load and it must be food compatible (PS). 4. The certificate must show where the truck was washed and when (P S). 5. Oil is stored in the storage tank under nitrogen protection (Q). 6. Headspace oxygen in the oil storage tank should be <0.5% (Q). 7. The oil storage tank must have temperature control (Q) . 8. Liquid oil temperature must be <110F (Q). 9. Hydrogenated oil temperature must be no >10F above the melting point of the oil (Q). 10. The oil passes through a bag filter with a 25- to 100-m opening before filling the truck (P S). 11. The oil is saturated with nitrogen as it is being pumped into the truck, using an in-line nitrogen diffuser (Q). 12. The track is loaded from the bottom (bottom filled) (Q). 13. Oil samples are taken from the top, middle, and bottom of the truck after loading is completed by using a zone sampler, mixed in a clean container, and then analyzed. This is the official oil loading analysis (not from the storage tank) (Q). 14. A loading sample is shipped along with the truck (Q, R). 15. A Cerificate of Analysis must be signed by the supplier showing the type of oil and all pertinent analyses. This certificate is sent along with all shipping documents (Q, R). 16. The truck must be filled to the fullest capacity. A minimum air space is left on top of the oil (Q). 17. Do not transport partially filled trucks (Q) . 18. Use a smaller or a compartmentalized truck for smaller loads (Q). 19. After the truck is loaded, the headspace in the truck is purged with nitrogen and then the hatch is closed (Q) . 20. Seals are applied at the appropriate locations (top hatch, discharge line, or any other port through which one could access the oil inside the truck) (P S). 21. Seal numbers are recorded on the Bill of Lading (PS). 22. The supplier should retain a representative shipping sample of the oil for future reference (Q, PS).
aP S, product
safety; Q, oil quality; R, regulatory compliance.
transit. Refined oil is also transported in rail cars in the United States, generally for long distance deliveries. Two thousand-pound totes are used for smaller users. These totes are very convenient. Some of them are reusable, which makes this practice environmentally friendly. Receiving Oil at the Snack Food Plant. It is necessary for a snack food manufacturer to have well-defined procedures for oil receiving, unloading, and storage. The oil receiving procedure is outlined in Table 5.3. The oil must not be unloaded until all quality, product safety, and regulatory conditions as outlined in Table 5.3 are met. Oil Unloading. After the oil is released for unloading, certain unloading procedures as outlined in Table 5.4 must be followed. However, sometimes the hydro-
TABLE 5.3 Oil Receiving and Unloading at the Snack Food Planta
1. Check the appearance of the truck. It must be clean on the outside. If not, the truck should be rejected (P S). 2. Inspect the seals. They must not be broken. Do not accept the oil if one or more seals are broken or missing (P S). 3. Do not unload the oil if the numbers on the seals do not match (PS, R, Q) those recorded on the Bill of Lading. 4. Resolve the discrepancy with the help of the purchasing department and the supplier. Do not unload the oil until the matter has been resolved (PS, R, Q). 5. Check the Bill of Lading for the type of oil and compare it against the Certificate of Analysis. These two must match (Q, R) . 6. If there is a disagreement between the two, the type of oil in the truck or rail car, it must be resolved with the help of the supplier and/or analytical tests (Q, R) and the purchasing department. 7. The oil can be considered for unloading only after the oil is positively identified (Q, R). 8. Once the issue is resolved, open the top hatch and check the interior of the truck or rail car. Do not accept the oil if one or more of the following occur: The truck has a foreign odor (P S). The oil contains foreign matter (P S). The oil has an unusual color (PS, Q). 9. If the oil passes through steps 19, check oil temperature. It must be <110F for liquid oil (Q). 10. Hydrogenated oil may have to be melted first. Use the procedure outlined under oil unloading (Table 5.4). 11. Collect oil samples from top, middle, and bottom of the track using a zone sampler, mix them in a container, and analyze for free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), color, odor, and flavor (Q). 12. Accept the oil for unloading if: FFA 0.05%, maximum (Q) PV <1.0 mEq/kg, maximum (Q) Odor None (Q, PS) Flavor Sweet, buttery or nutty (Q)
aSee
Table 5.2 for abbreviations.
genated oil has to be melted before sampling and unloading. The key in melting the solidified fat in the vessel is to use low-pressure (<25 psi, preferably <15 psi) saturated steam, a thermodynamic steam trap to condense the steam in the heating coil, and discharge the condensate at a preset temperature. Table 5.5 outlines the procedure for heating an oil truck or rail car. Figure 5.1 shows the schematic diagram for the oil heating system to prepare the truck or the rail car for unloading, and Figure 5.2 shows the schematic diagram for the oil unloading system. Heating a Truck or Rail Car to Melt the Solidified Fat. Trucks or rail cars are heated with low-pressure, saturated steam. Steam contains thermal energy. Most of the energy in steam is present as latent heat of condensation. Nearly 1000 Btu of heat is released when 1 lb of low pressure steam is condensed. Therefore, forcing complete condensation of the steam increases the energy utilization from the
TABLE 5.4 Oil Unloading Procedure

1. Check and verify inventory space in the designated tank for unloading the oil. Dedicated tanks must be used for each type of oil (Q, R) . 2. Check if there is any oil left in the tank. If so, collect a sample and analyze for free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), and flavor. The results must indicate the following: FFA <0.05% (Q) . PV <2.0 (if the tank is nitrogen blanketed) (Q). <4.0 (if the tank is not nitrogen blanketed) (Q). Flavor Good (Q). 3. Discard the oil if the FFA is >0.05% (Q), and/or the PV is >4.0 mEq/kg. 4. Do not unload fresh oil on top of the used oil if the analysis of the residential oil in the tank does not meet the above standards (Q) . 5. Use up the oil rapidly if the FFA is <0.05% but the PV is >2.0 mEq/kg (Q). The upper limit for PV is 4.0 mEq/kg (Q). 6. Start the oil-unloading pump. 7. The oil must pass through a filter located on the suction side of the unloading group. Use a basket filter with a 150-mesh stainless steel screen (PS). 8. Inspect the basket after every load is finished for any foreign material (P S). 9. The oil from the filter should pass through an in-line nitrogen diffuser to saturate the oil with nitrogen (Q). 10. Discharge the oil into the storage tank. The discharge pipe must extend to the bottom of the tank, near the floor (Q). 11. Blow the line clear with nitrogen at the end of unloading the vessel to clear the line (Q, R). 12. Check the oxygen content in the tank after unloading the oil (Q). 13. Sparge the tank with nitrogen if the oxygen content is >0.5% and continue to sparge the tank until the oxygen in the tank is <0.5% (Q)
aSee
Table 5.2 for abbreviations.
steam. Presetting the condensate discharge temperature to a low limit reduces the risk of overheating or scorching the oil at the heating surface. Oil Storage The oil must be stored properly after it is unloaded. During storage, the oil must be monitored daily. The following daily checks are recommended: (i) oxygen in the tank head space; (ii) PV of the oil; (iii) FFA of the oil; and (iv) temperature of the oil. The oxygen in the tank head space must be maintained at <0.5%. The tank head space should be purged with nitrogen if the oxygen content is high. Purging of the tank head space should continue until the oxygen in the tank head space drops below 0.5%. A rise in PV indicates the presence of dissolved oxygen in the oil. Using a cintered metal diffuser at the bottom of the tank, one should sparge the oil with nitrogen to remove the dissolved oxygen from it. The sparging procedure should continue until the PV stabilizes. The oil should be used rapidly if the PV continues to rise. The FFA in oil does not rise during storage when the oil is properly processed; however, its constant value should be confirmed by resampling. A rise in FFA in
TABLE 5.5 Heating Truck or Rail Cara

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Have a supply of 1015 psig saturated (not superheated) steam. Have a thermodynamic steam trap. The capacity of the steam trap should be based on: The amount of oil to be melted in certain number of hours. Condensate discharge temperature is set at 140150F. Spot the truck or rail car at the unloading station of heating. Connect the steam supply line to the inlet of the heating coil. Crack open the steam valve to purge the condensate from the line and the heating coil in the vessel. Close the valve. Connect the thermodynamic steam trap at the discharge side of the heating coil. Slowly open the steam valve. Steam will flow into the coil and start condensing. Condensate will discharge through the trap as it reaches the preset discharge temperature. These steps will greatly reduce the time to melt the solidified fat in the vessel.
Note: The bulk temperature in the vessel will remain <130F when the procedure is followed properly.
aRefer
to Figure 5.1.
fresh oil during storage can be caused by the following: high oil storage temperature, a leak on the heating coil, especially if it is steam heated, or high phosphorus (>3 ppm) in the fresh oil. The oil must not be used if the FFA rises during storage and exceeds 0.05% because this indicates some basic problem with the oil and the risk of early development of rancid flavor in the packaged snack food in storage. The temperature of the oil and the possibility of a coil leak must be investigated and corrected
Thermodynamic stream trays.

Fig. 5.1. Schematic diagram for steam heating system.
Fig. 5.2. Schematic diagram for the oil unloading system.
immediately. In the absence of high oil temperature or coil leaks, phosphorus in the oil should be checked. The oil must be returned to the supplier for reprocessing if it has a high phosphorus content (see Table 5.1). The liquid oil temperature must be maintained below 110F in storage. The storage temperature for hydrogenated oil will depend on its melting point. Overheating of oil in storage must be avoided. Immediate corrective action should be taken if there is any sign of overheating of oil in a tank. Fryer Operation: (Start-up, Shutdown, Steady-State Operation, Temporary Shutdown, Used Oil Storage, and Sanitation) There are strict requirements for each of the pertinent steps in a fryer operation, start-up, shutdown, steady-state operation, temporary shutdown, used oil storage, and sanitation. For ease of explanation, the description will begin with a complete shutdown procedure and used oil storage. Some of the typical shutdown practices used by the snack food industry are discussed below: Intermittent Operation (for 8 or 16 h/d). Practice 1: At the end of the operation, the oil is left in the fryer to cool down naturally. Practice 2: The oil is naturally cooled, filtered, and put back into the fryer. Practice 3: Practice 2 is followed but the fryer is sanitized before the oil is returned to the fryer. Practice 4: The oil is naturally cooled, filtered, and stored in a holding tank under atmospheric conditions. The fryer is sanitized. The oil remains in the holding tank. In all of the above cases, the fryer is started with the used oil, plus a small amount of fresh makeup oil added to reach the fryer fill-volume. Fresh oil is then added to the fryer to replenish the fryer volume during frying. The above practices seriously damage the oil, and produce snack foods that have poor shelf-life stability. None of the above practices are good for oil quality. The underlying causes for the degradation of oil in the these practices are discussed:
The oil left in the fryer can absorb oxygen from the air and undergo primary oxidation, forming peroxides (measured as PV). This PV increase may not be noticed because the peroxides rapidly decompose when the oil is heated in the fryer the next day and the PV drops to a lower value. When the peroxides decompose, the pAV value increases and catalyzes further oil decomposition. This process will be discussed in detail later in this chapter. Unfiltered oil retains all of the crumbs, which become charred with the heat. These charred materials in the oil can absorb a large amount of the oil decomposition products and can catalyze oxidative, and to some degree, hydrolytic reactions in the oil during subsequent frying. The suspended material in the oil can alter the color and flavor of the product being fried, and may result in product rejection for color and/or flavor. The above-mentioned fryer shutdown procedures may be satisfactory for parfried frozen products because the product is stored in the freezer until the product is fried and served. Normally, a par-fried product is consumed immediately after it goes through the final frying step in the restaurant or food service operation. In these instances, the effect of poor oil quality is less evident. However, even the frozen par-fried products can develop off-flavor, depending on the absolute level of oil degradation at the time the product is collected. Continuous Operation. Like the intermittent processes, the shut-down procedure can vary greatly in a continuous frying operation. Typical practices are listed. Practice 1: The oil is circulated through the oil recirculating system where a built-in atmospheric cooling device cools the oil. The cooled oil is left in the fryer for the next start-up. Practice 2: Typically, the oil is cooled to 250260F by circulating the oil. The oil is filtered and stored in a temporary holding tank. The fryer is sanitized and the oil is transferred back into the fryer. In this type of operation, the same temporary holding tank is used in conjunction with different fryers. Practice 3: The oil is cooled and filtered as described in Practice 2. The oil from each fryer is stored in its own holding tank under atmospheric conditions. The fryer is sanitized. The procedures outlined above are slightly better than those described for the intermittent operations. However, there are some concerns regarding oil degradation because absorption of oxygen by the oil is directly proportional to the surface area of the oil. Therefore, leaving the oil in the fryer, as described under Practices 1 and 2, increases oxygen absorption by the oil and causes high oil oxidation during storage. In addition to the large surface area, the fryer contains a large amount of residual heat from the tons of metal around the fryer pan. This heat is transmitted back into the oil as it is left in the fryer, causing a rise in temperature and polymerization, in addition to oxidation of the oil. Sharing the same temporary holding tank raises the following concerns: (i) It increases the chances for cross-mixing of oils from fryers that are frying different products, which may affect product flavor; (ii) cross contamination of oils may violate the product-labeling requirement,
which can become a regulatory issue; and (iii) the cooling of the oil to 250260F is not enough to minimize oil degradation during storage. Fryer Shutdown and Used Oil Transfer Procedure To achieve proper shutdown and maintain good oil quality, it is necessary to have a cooling system that cools the oil rapidly at the end of the operation. The oil is then saturated with nitrogen before it is stored in a holding tank maintained under nitrogen protection. This practice minimizes the oxidative degradation of the oil as it is generally experienced in the frying industry. In reality, the oil in the fryer is damaged most during the following operating steps: (i) shutdown; (ii) start-up; (iii) temporary fryer shutdown; and (iv) low fryer throughput. Oxidative degradation of oil can be monitored simply by following the PV values during shut down because under this condition, the rate of formation of PV exceeds that of its breakdown. Figure 5.3 shows the PV data from a continuous potato chip fryer with natural cooling. The PV rose from 4 to 35 in 120 min while the oil temperature dropped from 350 to 245F. The PV of the oil was 6 at 15 min and 8 after 30 min of cooling. The PV rose sharply after 30 min and reached a value of 35 after 120 min of oil circulation. These changes suggest that the sharp increase in PV during shutdown could be controlled if the fryer oil is cooled rapidly and immediately when frying is stopped. The oil could be protected further by saturating it with nitrogen and then storing it in a holding tank, which itself is maintained under a nitrogen blanket (like fresh oil). The head-space oxygen content must be <0.5%. Purging and sparging requirements for the holding tank are the same as those described for oil storage. Table 5.6 outlines recommended fryer shutdown procedures. The schematic diagram for the oil cooling system is shown in Figure 5.4. Comment: It is important to cool the oil as soon as the frying process stops, to minimize the increase in the PV of the oil caused by the reaction with oxygen. This is because the secondary and tertiary oxidation products are formed as the peroxides break down. Peroxides do not impart off-flavor to the fried product but the breakdown components impart off-flavor to the fried product and reduce its shelf life. Nitrogen sparging helps remove the dissolved oxygen from the oil. Some of
Cooling time, 15-min interval
Fig. 5.3. Peroxide value (PV) in fryer oil at shutdown.
TABLE 5.6 Recommended Oil Cooling Procedures

1. Make sure that the city water supply is on, the surge tank is full, and the mechanical float is working before fryer shutdown. 2. Turn off the heat as soon as the last product enters the fryer. 3. Sample the oil and check the peroxide value (PV) and free fatty acids (FFA) just before cooling starts. 4. Open the manual valve MV-2. 5. Open the manual valves at the inlet and outlet of the filter and the cooler (not shown in the diagram). 6. Start cooling water pump P-2 as soon as the last product leaves the fryer. 7. Open the 3-way valve to recirculate the oil back to the fryer. 8. Start oil pump P-1. 9. Open the 3-way valve to the holding tank when the oil temperature (leaving the cooler) reaches 260270F. 10. Alternatively, cool the oil to 140F by recirculating it through the cooler and then transfer it to the holding tank. 11. Open the nitrogen feed into the in-line diffuser as soon as oil transfer begins. 12. Adjust nitrogen flow to 0.120.15 ft3/gal oil flow per minute. 13. Continue to transfer the oil to the holding tank until the fryer is empty. 14. Close the nitrogen valve. 15. Stop the water pump and oil pump. 16. Drain the fryer, heat exchanger, piping, and accessories by using a positive displacement scavenger pump and send the oil to the holding tank. 17. Prepare for sanitation. 18. Check the PV and FFA in the oil in the holding tank immediately after the oil has been transferred. Notes: The FFA in the oil will be the same as it was before the oil was cooled and transferred. The PV in the oil from the holding tank must be no greater than 5 units above what was observed in Step #3. Used oil stored for >5 d may not be suitable for use.
Refer to Figure 5.4.
the dissolved nitrogen comes out of the oil as the oil enters the holding tank. In addition, the nitrogen blanket in the holding tank (not shown in the diagram) prevents additional oxygen absorption at the surface of the oil in storage. Figure 5.5 shows the PV data when the oil is cooled down rapidly through an external cooler using a system like the one shown in Figure 5.4. The oil temperature dropped to 140F in 25 min and the PV of the oil rose only from 4 to 6 mEq/kg during cooling. Fryer Sanitation It is always recommended that the fryer and the accessories be sanitized at the end of the operation. The purpose of sanitation is to remove the residual oil and the particulate matter accumulated in the system. If not sanitized, the residual oil in the
Fig. 5.4. Schematic diagram for oil cooling and transfer.
system will continue to be oxidized, producing free radicals that catalyze further oil decomposition during the subsequent operation. The crumbs act as a sponge and absorb the decomposed oil components, creating a concentrated source of catalyst for oil decomposition. Nonsanitized fryers show rapid hydrolysis and oxidation of the oil in subsequent operation. Table 5.7 lists the recommended steps for fryer sanitation. Fryer Start-Up Several prestart-up checks are recommended to have a smooth fryer start-up, as well as to obtain good product shelf life. These include the following: (i) check the fresh oil quality (PV, FFA, pAV, and flavor); (ii) check the used oil quality (PV, FFA and pAV); (iii) check all preparatory and feed systems; and (iv) precheck the packaging system, seasoner, salt applicator, and the conveyor to packaging.
Cooling time, 15-min interval
Fig. 5.5. Peroxide value (PV) in fryer oil during shutdown with rapid cooling.
TABLE 5.7 Fryer Sanitation Procedures

1. Open the manual drain valves to remove the last bit of oil remaining in the system. 2. Close the valves. 3. Fill the fryer with water (no caustic or detergent), heat the water to 170180F, and circulate it for 15 min to remove most of the oil from the system. 4. Drain the water. 5. Close all drain valves. 6. Refill the fryer with water, heat it to 170180F, and start recirculating the water. 7. Add sufficient caustic into the fryer to make a 5% solution (no stronger). 8. Circulate the caustic solution for 46 h. Maintain the heat. 9. Drain the water from the fryer. 10. Refill the system with water, circulate for 15 min and drain it. 11. Refill the fryer with water for a second rinse. 12. Add one quart to two gallons of vinegar into the fryer, depending on the size of the fryer and continue recirculation for 15 min. 13. Rinse the fryer once more. 14. Check the pH of the water in the fryer while recirculating. The pH of the sample should be the same as that of the city water, and not always 7. This is because the pH of the city water is not always 7. The pH must be read on a pH meter, for accuracy, and not with pH paper. 15. Empty the fryer. 16. Open all drain valves to drain the residual water. 17. Close the drain valves. 18. Check the fryer pan for cleanliness. For small direct-fired fryers, the pans are sometimes cleaned with sanitizing foam, containing detergent. The pan must be thoroughly rinsed and the pH of the rinse water also must be checked. Notes: The residual oil from the fryer system is pumped out using a scavenger pump during shutdown. However, the residual water from the fryer system is not removed at the end of sanitation in the same manner. Because water can remain in the frying system, one can expect the caustic solution also to be present after sanitation unless proper neutralization is done with the vinegar. Caustic remaining in the system reacts readily with the FFA and the neutral oil, as the fryer is filled and the oil dewatering step is begun. The presence of soap in the oil causes a rapid increase in FFA in the fryer oil, rapid oil oxidation, and loss of product shelf life. Proper neutralization and careful drainage of the residual water is therefore important to reduce the start-up time and the risk of having any leftover caustic or detergent in the system. There is a misconception among the snack food operations that the pH of the rinse water must be 7.0. This is incorrect. The pH of the water after the final rinse must match that of the city water used for rinsing the fryer. City water may have a pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.5, depending on the soil condition in the area. Therefore, checking for a pH of 7.0 can allow either acid or alkali to remain in the system. The pH of the rinse water is checked with pH paper in most plants. A pH meter should be used for better accuracy.
The above inspection must be completed 34 h before actual frying of the product to prevent undue delays at start-up while the hot oil remains in the idle fryer. Any issue with the equipment must be corrected even before the oil is
pumped into the fryer. Oil analyses must be performed on the fresh and used oils to confirm their suitability for use. Recommended oil analyses are listed below: Fresh Oil: FFA < 0.05% and no higher than at receipt TPV <2, preferably <1 PAV <6, preferably <4 Flavor: Bland, sweet, or buttery
Note: The above values of PV and pAV for fresh oil are higher than the ones shown in Table 5.1. This is because there is always some increase in these values while the oil is stored, even under nitrogen. Used Oil: FFA <0.5%, and no higher than at shutdown PV <5 mEq/kg, preferably no >2 mEq/kg units above the PV value at shutdown
After all prechecks are made and found satisfactory, the plant has to prepare for start-up. The recommended procedure is listed in Table 5.8. Comment: A layer of foam on the surface of the oil during dewatering indicates the presence of soap left in the system due to poor rinsing during sanitation. The soap then catalyzes the hydrolysis and oxidation of the fryer oil. The oil must be removed from the fryer and discarded. The fryer must be rinsed and refilled with new oil. The presence of soap in the fryer oil can greatly reduce product shelf life. In addition, contamination of fryer oil with soap can be considered adulteration in certain countries. This may result in a fine from the local or federal regulatory agency. Therefore, the contaminated oil must be discarded. Fryer Operation A fryer is like a chemical reactor. It requires a uniform feed, proper temperature control, and replenishment of reactant (oil) at a steady rate as it is depleted by the oil absorption in the fried product by uniformly feeding the fryer with product at the designed rate. This concept suggests that the following conditions must be maintained: the fryer is operated at the maximum designed capacity at all times; the inlet and outlet temperatures of the oil are maintained according to the process specifications; the oil makeup is done automatically, using a level control system; and the fryer is not shut down frequently such as for lunch and coffee breaks. During normal operation of a continuous fryer, the FFA rises, reaches a steady-state value within 24 h of frying, and remains essentially unchanged unless process interruptions occur. The steady-state value for FFA depends on the following factors: (i) type of product being fried; (ii) temperature of frying; (iii) type of fryer; and (iv) impurities in the incoming oil. In a single-zone fryer, potato chips are fried in oil with an inlet temperature of 350365F and a temperature drop of
TABLE 5.8 Fryer Start-Up Procedure

1. Check the quality of the used and fresh oil and make sure they meet the required standards. 2. Using the analytical data, determine the ratio of used and fresh to be used at the start. 3. The fresh oil to used oil ratio should be varied from 50:50 to 80:20, depending on the peroxide value (PV) and free fatty acids (FFA) of the used oil, assuming that PV of the fresh oil is still <2.0. Note that after storage, the fresh oil PV may go up to 2.0 even under nitrogen protection. 4. Check the fryer pan for cleanliness. If satisfied, check and make sure all drain valves are closed. 5. Start filling the fryer no more than 2 h before actual frying. 6. Heat the oil to 210F with recirculation (where applicable) for dewatering the oil. Do not exceed 220F. This step is followed to remove any residual water from sanitation. 7. After dewatering, hold the oil at low heat. 8. Start heating the oil immediately after dewatering. Heat the oil to the desired frying temperature and start frying as soon as the oil reaches the frying temperature. 9. Bring the fryer throughput to its designed rate within 1530 min. 10. Use fresh oil only for make-up for at least 2 h. 11. Start using a blend of fresh and used oil (50:50 or some other ratio) until the used oil is finished. Notes: Heating the oil to a higher temperature during detwatering does not decrease the drying time significantly. On the other hand, it oxidizes the oil before start-up. Use of an oil blend improves the shelf life of the start-up product compared with 100% used oil at start-up. Use of 100% fresh oil is not recommended because of the underdeveloped fried flavor, sometimes called green flavor, in the product. Some snack food companies use 100% fresh oil at the start and then use 100% used oil for make-up. This procedure is also not recommended because the oil takes a long time to recover after all of the used oil is consumed. Using a blend of fresh and used oil for make-up after the fryer has been started up with 100% fresh oil is the recommended procedure.
4045F, between the inlet and the outlet of the fryer. In a multizone fryer, the oil enters the fryer at different locations; this helps to retain a more even temperature along the fryer and can also significantly increase the oil volume unless the design is done with utmost care. Frying time for potato chips is generally 23 min. Tortilla chips are fried in oil with an inlet temperature of 350360F for ~60 s. There is a temperature drop of 810F in the oil between the inlet and exit of the tortilla chip fryer. The fryer pan can be designed in the shape of a horseshoe or straight, like that of a potato chip fryer. Extruded products and pellets are fried for <60 s at higher temperatures, ranging from 380 to 420F. Free Fatty Acids The FFA value of the fryer oil is checked in almost every frying operation to determine oil quality during frying. The FFA ranges between 0.24 and 0.28% in a continuous potato chip fryer, and between 0.30 and 0.35% in a continuous tortilla chip fryer. The FFA can be somewhat lower for a tortilla chip fryer, if the chips are made from masa and not from corn freshly cooked with lime. The FFA of the fryer oil is
Frying time (h)
Fig. 5.6. Free fatty acids (FFA) in a continuous potato chip fryer.
higher in the case of pellets or extruded products, which are fried at a much higher temperature as indicated above. Figure 5.6 shows typical FFA trends in a continuous potato chip fryer. One can see that the FFA stabilized at 0.240.26% and did not rise during frying. Figure 5.7 helps explain why the oil degrades rapidly when it is left idle at a high temperature. The FFA is expected to remain unchanged when the process runs smoothly and without frequent interruptions. However, as mentioned earlier, many operations have two coffee breaks and a lunch break during every shift. No product is fried during this time and the oil remains in the fryer with full heat and sometimes with recirculation through the oil heater. Because of the many reactions occurring simultaneously in the fryer as mentioned earlier, the fryer is like a chemical reactor. The following example will explain the effect of fryer idle time on oil quality: The fresh oil introduces some reactants into the fryer during frying, for example FFA or oxidation products. Let this be called Input (I). The fryer generates products of the reaction, depending on the fryer temperature and the product being fried. Let this be called Generation (G). Some products of the reaction are carried out by the fried products. Let it be called Outlet (O). Some minute amounts of reaction products leave through the vent and the oil loss. These will not be counted.
Fig. 5.7. Fryer/reactor.
The general material balance can be expressed as follows: Output (O) Input (I) + Generation (G) = Accumulation (A) or, O I+G=A [2] [1]
At steady-state operation at the designed temperature and throughput, no increase in FFA is observed. The product carries out the FFA coming in with the fresh oil and that generated in the fryer. The same is true for the other oil breakdown products. Therefore, there is no accumulation of FFA and the value of A in the above equation is 0. Thus, at steady state, the equation reduces to: OI+G=0 or, O=I+G [4] [3]
This sequence explains why no increase in FFA is seen under steady-state operation at the designed production rate. During a temporary fryer shutdown, there is no output or input but the generation continues. Starting from Eq. [2], I O + G = A, Input, I = 0 (zero) and, Output, O = 0 (zero). Therefore, G=A [5]
At temporary shutdown, the reactions in the oil continue, and the products of the reaction accumulate in the oil. There is no product to carry out the oil breakdown products that are accumulated during temporary shutdown. As a consequence, the FFA and other products of the reaction in the fryer oil rise to a higher plateau than before. This is why the fryer oil tends to exhibit a higher FFA and higher PV after every temporary shutdown. This scenario explains why frequent fryer shutdowns will lead to higher FFA and other oil breakdown products in the fryer oil. Generally, one can see a steep rise in the PV and other analyses of the fryer oil after every temporary shutdown. Figure 5.8 shows an example of the rise in the FFA with each temporary shutdown. Eventually, the FFA went out of control. Fryer Turnover Time. The definition of fryer turnover time is the theoretical number of hours required to use up all of the oil in a frying system (e.g., fryer pan, piping, heater, filter) through absorption by the product fried in it if no make-up oil were supplied. Generally, it is calculated on the basis of designed throughput of the fryer as follows:
Frying time (h)

Fig. 5.8. Free fatty acids (FFA) in a continuous potato chip fryer with interrupted operation.
Total amount of oil in the frying system Production rate Amount of oil in the product Amount of oil picked up by the product Theoretical oil turnover time
4000 lbs 2000 lbs/h 40% 0.4 2000 = 800 lbs/h 4000/800 = 5 h
The actual oil turnover time for the fryer will be somewhat higher because there is low product throughput during start-up and none during normal shut down and brand changeovers or temporary shutdowns. As a general rule, the best fryer utilization is between 85 and 90% of its designed capacity. Using this guideline, one would expect the oil turnover time for the fryer in the above example to be between 5.55 and 5.88 h. Importance of the Steady-State Operation at Full Production. On the basis of the above discussions on the reaction in the fryer and the oil turnover rate, one can appreciate the value of operating the fryer at full capacity and with few or no interruptions. The following events occur at low fryer throughput: Product output Product input Generation Oil turnover time Accumulation Low Low Continues at the same rate because it is temperature dependent Becomes significantly higher. It is infinity during temporary shutdown, start-up, and final shutdown Increases significantly
At lower fryer throughput, the turnover time for the oil in the fryer increases, generating more oil breakdown products, which increases the accumulation factor (A) in Eq. [1]. As the production continues at reduced throughput, the accumulation of the oil breakdown products continues to increase. Many of these compounds are catalytic in nature, i.e., they promote further hydrolysis and oxidation of the oil, which results in a very rapid increase of FFA and oxidation products in the fryer. The product picks up these compounds at higher levels, which reduces the product shelf life. Figure 5.9 shows a typical example of a potato chip fryer
Frying time (h)

Fig. 5.9. Free fatty acids (FFA) in a continuous potato chip fryer operated at 60% throughput.
operated at 60% of the designed throughput. The FFA level in the fryer oil became >0.5% in <24 h. In comparison, at normal steady-state production, the FFA reached 0.240.26% and remained unchanged during the operation (Fig. 5.8). The level of FFA in the fryer oil is generally used as the primary indicator of oil quality. Indeed, decisions regarding partial or total replacement of the oil in the fryer are made on the basis of the FFA value. Therefore, there is a general feeling among snack food processors that the shelf life of the product is related to the FFA content of the oil in the fryer. Although this concept has merit, the shelf life of snack food is not totally dependent on the FFA content of the oil in the fryer. In reality, the FFA do not impart poor flavor to the product until they begin to become oxidized. Therefore, there must be other compounds that are formed from the FFA or the fatty acid moieties on the triglycerides during frying that contribute to the poor flavor of the fresh product. Many of these compounds also reduce the shelf life of the product. Oxidation and degradation of the FFA and the triglycerides are the primary causes for poor flavor and shelf life of snack foods. Peroxide Value. The first step in oil oxidation is the formation of the peroxides. These compounds are formed from the reaction between the unsaturated fatty acids and oxygen. The reacting fatty acids may come from the FFA or the triglycerides in the oil. Peroxides do not impart any off-flavor to the product. The peroxides, however, are very unstable. They decompose and form various types of compounds, such as aldehydes or ketones. Most of these compounds impart poor flavor to the product and also reduce its shelf life. A group of these compounds can be analyzed and results expressed as the pAV. Thus, the oil is expected to have a high pAV if the oil had a high PV at some point. The compounds that constitute pAV can react further to form more complex compounds, such as polar compounds, polymers, cyclic fatty acids, and many other compounds. Controlling pAV in the fresh oil is important. The recommended value for fresh frying oil is <4.0 as shown in Table 5.1. Measurement of pAV in the fryer oil
also can provide information on the long-term stability of certain types of snack foods. The PV in fryer oil increases during dewatering (drying) of the oil, which occurs at the start-up. It decreases rapidly, soon after frying starts, resulting in an increase in pAV. This scenario explains why the time for the entire process of dewatering and beginning of frying must be short. Figure 5.10 shows the typical PV values in a continuous potato chip fryer. One can see how they increase during dewatering and heating of the oil and the sharp drop that occurs as soon as frying begins. Figure 5.10 indicates that the PV increased sharply during dewatering. Some PV breaks down, but the rate of formation of PV at this stage is far greater than that of decomposition until frying starts. After the start of frying, the PV decreases to a low value, ranging from 2 to 4. At steady state, the rate of formation of PV and the rate of its decomposition are nearly equal, which explains why the PV remains low throughout actual frying. The PV in the fryer oil will increase under the following conditions: (i) the oil comes in contact with air in the frying system; and (ii) the production rate drops. The PV will plateau at a higher level after the fryer has undergone several temporary shutdowns and the oil is not cooled during these occurrences. There is a belief among snack food processors that determining PV in a hot fryer oil is inaccurate. Some experts even recommend not checking the PV in a fryer oil. The author of this chapter is of a different opinion. Measurement of PV is extremely important! The oil must be analyzed for PV immediately after sampling, and via techniques that slow down the reaction in the oil immediately after sampling. A continuous fryer for potato chips or tortilla chips would have a PV of 2.04.0 mEq/kg under the steady-state condition. A higher number indicates additional oil oxidation and should be investigated. In addition to hydrolysis and oxidation, there are several other reactions that occur simultaneously in a fryer. The oil undergoes the primary reactions of hydrolysis
DURING DEWATERING AND HEATING
AFTER PRODUCTION STARTS
AT STEADY STATE
During dewatering and start-up Fig. 5.10. Typical peroxide value (PV) in a continuous potato chip fryer.
and peroxide formation. The secondary and tertiary reactions occur at later stages of oil decomposition. These reactions are more rapid under the following conditions: (i) the fryer is operated intermittently; (ii) the product throughput is lower than the designed capacity; (iii) the product is made in batch fryers in which the oil turnover time is very high. Normally, the reactions become autocatalytic in the tertiary reaction stage, and are manifested as uncontrolled FFA in the fryer oil. In addition, the oil increases in its content of alcohol, acids other than FFA, polymers, and other decomposition compounds. Oxidative polymers also are formed at this stage. Figure 5.11 shows the complete picture of the various paths of oil reaction that can occur in a fryer. Oxidative polymers contain high amounts of oxygen. They also are highly reactive and decompose into other free radicals that degrade the oil in the product, even if the latter has been packaged in bags made with high gas barrier film and flushed with nitrogen. Badly abused oils are generally high in oxidative as well as thermal polymers. Generally, a high level of thermal polymers in the fryer oil will impart a bitter aftertaste to the fresh product. Oxidative polymers, on the other hand, may not affect the fresh product flavor. However, the product tends to develop an
Fig. 5.11. Oil decomposition in frying. Source: JAOCS 58: 272 (1981).
oxidized flavor shortly after production and storage, resulting in an early product failure during storage. Table 5.9 lists the recommended analyses for the oil and product samples during production and the frequency of testing. Temporary Fryer Shut Down Although it is desirable to have continuous fryer operation, there are temporary fryer shutdowns that occur fairly regularly for one or more of the following reasons: (i) down time for two coffee breaks and one lunch break in every shift; (ii) mechanical issues on the product feed side of the operation; (iii) operational issues with the salt applicator, seasoning applicator, or the conveying system leading to packaging; and (iv) mechanical breakdown on the packaging line. Item (i) causes the most damage to the fryer oil in any frying operation. This practice is discretionary and should always be avoided. Items (ii)(iv) arise from unforeseen situations. Some of these breakdowns may require hours for correction. The oil degrades rapidly when the oil is hot and left in the fryer. As noted earlier, oil decomposition products accumulate in the fryer while the fryer is down (Fig. 5.7). This increases the concentration of the free radicals and other oil breakdown products that catalyze oil breakdown. The effect of these reactions can be observed in the fryer oil at restart. Figure 5.9 demonstrates the effect of frequent fryer shutdowns on FFA in the fryer oil. Figure 5.12 shows the PV and pAV data in a continuous potato chip fryer in which frying was interrupted three times. The PV in the fryer oil increased each time the fryer went down. The PV value decreased each time the fryer was restarted. However, the steady-state value of PV attained a higher plateau after every restart of the fryer. Similar phenomena were observed with FFA in which it
TABLE 5.9 Recommended Frequency for Oil and Product Analysesa
Analysis Oil FFA PV pAV Product Moisture Oil content Salt Seasoning Taste/flavor
aFFA, free fatty bNormally
Frequency Every 2 h Every 2 h Every 2 h
Normal limit 0.020.035 Variableb Depends on the product
Shutdown limit <0.5 Depends on the product
Every 2 h Every 2 h Every 2 h Every 2 h Every 2 h
<1.5%c Depends on the product Depends on the product Depends on the product Must meet standards
<1.5%c Depends on the product Depends on the product Depends on the product Unacceptable flavor
acids; PV, peroxide value; pAV, p a r a-anisidine value. the PV in a potato chip or tortilla chip fryer is 34, at steady state. cMost fresh fried snack foods have a moisture content of 11.5%.
Frying time (h)

Fig. 5.12. Peroxide value (PV) and para-anisidine value (pAV) in fryer oil during frequent shutdowns.
TABLE 5.10 Recommended Procedures for Oil Handling During Temporary Fryer Shutdown
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Turn off the following items as soon as the fryer goes down: Oil heater Oil recirculation pump Paddle wheels Remove the conveyor. Obtain the best estimate on the anticipated down time for the fryer whenever it goes down. If the down time is going to be >30 min, start cooling the oil using the oil cooling system shown in Figure 5.4. Continue cooling the oil and hold it in the fryer; when the temperature reaches 140F, shut down the recirculation pump and hold the oil in the fryer. If the fryer is ready to be restarted while the oil is still being cooled, stop cooling, start reheating the oil and proceed with the operation. Take an oil sample to check the free fatty acids (FFA) and peroxide value (PV) before restart, to monitor the oil quality. Establish a quality guideline for the use of the oil, based on product shelf-life data. If the maintenance work takes more than 46 h, the oil must be transferred to the holding tank, by using the proper shutdown procedures described in Table 5.6. Sanitize the fryer as described in Table 5.7.
8. 9.
Note: Certain specialists in fryer design and operation believe that heating and cooling the oil causes more damage than keeping the oil hot in the fryer during temporary fryer shut down. This belief is not correct. The oil decomposes many times faster while it is hot than when it is cooled down and reheated later.
increased after each temporary shutdown (see Fig. 5.8). Oil oxidation during temporary fryer shutdowns can be minimized by rapidly cooling the oil in the fryer as soon as the fryer goes down. Table 5.10 outlines the recommended procedure for oil cooling. The oil cooling system is shown in Figure 5.4. Special Comments The process for making tortilla chips uses lime in the corn-cooking step, which loosens the hulls and incorporates some flavor into the chips. The corn is washed in a washer to remove the excess lime on the corn. This part of the operation is often overlooked by the operators. Sometimes the flow of wash water is interrupted or the spray nozzles are plugged. In these situations, the excess lime on the corn surface enters the fryer, reacts with the FFA to form soap, and causes a very rapid rise in FFA in the fryer oil. Transferring oil from one fryer to another is common in a frying operation. This practice can result in poor product flavor and poor shelf life of the product. In addition, the plant may face some labeling issues, these may not be addressed by the product label, if the personnel are not careful about mingling the oils from different fryers.
Summary
Frying involves very complex reactions. There is simultaneous heat and mass transfer. Many chemical reactions take place between the oil and oxygen, the oil and moisture, and the oil and the food being fried. All of these processes occur under high heat, which increases the reaction rates geometrically, compared with those at ambient temperature. The type of fryer, method of fryer operation, and the type of food being fried also influence these reactions. Oil will always undergo some reactions in frying. Adherence to the procedures outlined above can significantly reduce these reactions and greatly enhance the quality of the oil and the shelf life of the fried products. References
1. Seifensieder, L.L., Zig 64:122 (1937). 2. Chang, S.S., and F.A. Kummerow, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 31:324 (1954). 3. Frankel, E.N., in Flavor Chemistry of Fats and Oils, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1985, p. 1. 4. Nawar, W.W., in Flavor Chemistry of Fats and Oils, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1985, p. 39. 5. Fritsch, C.W., J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 58:272 (1981). 6. Gupta, M.K., INFORM 4:1267 (1993).
Chapter 6
The Effect of Oil Processing on Frying Oil Stability

Monoj K. Gupta
Introduction
Fried foods, whether deep-fried, pan-fried, or stir-fried are one of the most popular culinary delights enjoyed by consumers throughout the world. This is true regardless of nationality or ethnic background. In many parts of the world, fried snacks or entrees are prepared and consumed fresh, but packaged, shelf-stable snack foods are marketed in both industrialized and developing countries. As frying and storage technologies have advanced, so has the technology of packaging. Partially dehydrated (par-fried) products are increasingly packaged and stored in freezers for later distribution. These products are transported in the frozen state to food service establishments where they are immediately stored in freezers. The frozen products are then prepared in small restaurant-style fryers and served. Some par-fried frozen products also are sold in supermarkets. Frying oils are derived largely from vegetable sources, such as soybean, palm, canola, sunflower, cottonseed, corn, peanut (groundnut), and sesame seed. These oils are refined, bleached, and deodorized. Soybean, canola, and sunflower oils are lightly hydrogenated for use in frying applications. In addition to these products, coconut oil is widely used in the Philippines and parts of South India for cooking and frying. In some rural parts of the world, rendered, unrefined animal fats are still used in food preparation, including fried foods. Home-fried foods or those fried in restaurants are consumed soon after they are prepared. The effect of oil off-flavor in these foods is usually not perceived unless the oil is badly abused in the fryer. The snack food industry has established that the flavor of fresh products, as well as those stored frozen, is highly dependent upon the quality of the oil in the fryer at the time the product was initially collected. Shelf-stable fried snack foods are packaged and distributed; thus, several weeks or even months may pass before the product is sold and consumed. During that period, the oil in the fried food continues to degrade. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain a minimum level of oil quality standards for the oil during frying to ensure that consumers enjoy good flavor quality in the fried product even weeks after the product has been packaged. Additionally, the use of packaging with nitrogen flush and proper conditions for distribution and storage can greatly prolong the shelf life of the products. All packaged fried food products require certain code dates for freshness. Some packages state that a product will retain its freshness until the date printed
on the package. In reality, some products do last even a little longer than the code date, but the converse is also true. The code date and shelf life of a product are related but are not synonymous. The code date for a product is established on the basis of the time required for warehousing and distribution of the product, plus the time required for the product to be purchased from the retail store and consumed. On the other hand, a product is considered to have reached the end of its shelf life when consumer taste tests indicate that the product either does not taste fresh or it has an unacceptable flavor or texture (or both). Oil quality affects the product flavor, and the texture of the product is affected by the excess moisture pickup by the product during storage. The shelf life of a product is established through storage stability studies, using consumer acceptance tests as a barometer. These tests help select the type of packaging required to obtain the desired shelf life for the product based on the code date required for the product. Occasionally, the code date required by sales lead time may be unrealistic for maintaining the shelf life of the product, even with the added expense of the highest quality oil and the best packaging material available. The product code date and the selection of packaging material for a product must be balanced carefully to obtain maximum shelf life and, at the same time, maximize the financial return for the corporation. Oil continues to degrade while the product is in storage. Nitrogen flush and the use of gas barrier packaging can enhance shelf life. However, these precautions do not provide absolute protection from oil degradation. If the oil in the fryer was heavily degraded at the time the product was packaged, all safeguards and later procedures become useless. Therefore, it is very important to implement strict operating standards for oil handling as described in Chapter 5. Mechanism of Frying Frying is a combined process of mass and heat transfer and chemical reactions between oil and air, oil and moisture (from the food), and oil and various food constituents, such as proteins, carbohydrates, or chemical additives. The combined reactions between the proteins and carbohydrates in the food and the hot oil in the fryer generate fried flavor and surface color via the Maillard reaction and some oxidative reactions in the oil itself. Most frying operations are conducted at an oil temperature of 300365F. Extruded products and pellets are typically fried at 380420F. Heat from the frying oil penetrates the product and vaporizes its internal moisture. The water vapor migrates to the surface of the food and escapes as steam. As the moisture content drops, the surface of the product turns from a golden yellow to a light- or mediumbrown color. Figure 6.1 is a pictorial representation of these physical phenomena that take place during frying. The oil also undergoes a series of chemical reactions during frying. These include hydrolysis, oxidation (autoxidation, photosensitized oxidation, and photochemical oxidation), and thermal decomposition (polymerization).
Fig. 6.1. Heat and mass transfer in frying.
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis is the reaction between a water molecule and a triglyceride molecule. The reaction can be described as shown in Figure 6.2. Hydrolysis produces a molecule of free fatty acid (FFA) and a molecule of diglyceride. The reaction can continue between a diglyceride molecule and another molecule of water to produce a molecule of monoglyceride and another molecule of FFA. Ultimately, the reaction can yield a molecule of glycerol and three molecules of FFA; however, the occurrence of this complete reaction in a fryer is rare. The hydrolysis of oil can occur only when oil and water are in perfect solution. Oil and water do not mix, but they do become soluble when subjected to very high temperatures (500F) and high pressure. Hydrolysis can occur at normal frying temperatures in the presence of a small amount of surfactant. A surfactant (emulsifier) can come from various sources: 1. Processed oil High amounts of phospholipids, left in the oil resulting from poor refining and bleaching conditions. Higher than normal levels of diglycerides and monoglycerides present in the oil. Normally, excess caustic treat is required to refine poor quality crude oil, which produces higher diglycerides and monoglycerides in the processed oil.
Fig. 6.2. Hydrolytic reaction. R1, R2, and R3 represent fatty acid moieties such as palmitic, stearic, oleic, etc.
Soap left in the refined oil resulting from poor bleaching processes. Incompletely refined and bleached oil may contain higher than normal levels of calcium and magnesium. These metals form soaps with the FFA in the fryer oil and become surfactants. 2. Food to be fried Certain food products contain naturally occurring alkali (e.g., sodium, potassium) and alkaline earth metals (e.g., calcium, magnesium) that can form soaps with the FFA in the fryer oil, thus providing the necessary surfactant to promote hydrolysis of triglycerides during frying. Leavenings, used in certain batter coatings, contain mono- and dicalcium phosphates, sodium aluminum phosphate, and sodium bicarbonate. These metal ions can form soaps with the FFA during frying, which provides the necessary surfactant for hydrolysis of the fryer oil. Sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP), used in the wash water to minimize enzymatic reactions in vegetables, also can produce soap with the FFA during frying. 3. Operation Caustic (or soap), left in the fryer system from sanitation procedures, can promote hydrolysis in the fryer oil. Several oil decomposition products have surface-active properties and can promote hydrolysis of oil during frying. Oxidation Autoxidation. Autoxidation is a free-radical mechanism. Free radicals are formed whenever the oil is heated. These free radicals then carry on an autoxidative reaction in the presence of a metal ion, such as iron. The reaction steps in autoxidation are shown below: Step # Unsaturated fatty acid (RH) + Initiator (Metal) R (Free radical) (1) R + O2 ROO (Peroxy radical) ROO + RH ROOH (Hydroperoxide) + R (Free radical) R + R RR (2) (3) (4)
Step 1 (Initiation): unsaturated fatty acid forms a free radical through catalytic reactions with a metal ion initiator. Step 2 (Oxidation): the free radical reacts with oxygen and forms a peroxy radical. Step 3 (Propagation): the peroxy radical reacts with an unsaturated fatty acid and forms hydroperoxide and a free radical. The free radical continues the reaction cycle as shown in Scheme 1:
Scheme 1.
This reaction cycle continues until there is no more unsaturated fatty acid left in the oil or no more oxygen is available. Step 4 (Termination): two or more free radicals can react with each other to form dimeric or polymeric compounds; this happens primarily when there is no more oxygen or no more unsaturated fatty acid left in the system. However, the reaction between the free radicals occurs even during propagation (Step 3). The frying process itself is one of the biggest sources for generating free radicals in the oil. However, this is not the only source of free radicals in a fryer oil. The fresh oil itself may contain free radicals under the following conditions: 1. The crude oil is derived from seeds that have either been damaged or stored under high heat and high humidity, triggering enzymatic reactions. 2. The oil is derived from crude oil that has been stored for a long time and has developed a high peroxide value. 3. The oil is unduly heated in the refinery without nitrogen protection, causing free radical formation. 4. The oil is bleached under poor vacuum, allowing air exposure to the oil. This condition leads to a high peroxide value (PV), and the peroxides rapidly break down to form various free radicals. 5. Hot bleached oil is stored in atmospheric storage tanks before it is deodorized. 6. The vacuum in the deodorizer is poor, which allows the oil to react with the oxygen present to form dimers, polymers, cyclic fatty acids and various other free radicals. 7. The deodorized oil is stored in atmospheric storage tanks. 8. Deodorized oil is loaded into the storage tanks by discharging it at the top of the tank. The free fall through the air space in the tank increases oxygen absorption, which leads to a high PV in the oil, and eventually results in a high free-radical content in the oil. 9. Loading a truck or a rail car by dropping the oil from the top and not from the bottom (bottom-loading) can cause oxygen absorption by the oil that eventually increases the PV of the oil. Therefore, one can appreciate the great number of possibilities for the fresh oil to develop a high concentration of free radicals via oxidation. Such oils undergo
rapid degradation in the fryer and produce oxidized or rancid flavor in the finished product during storage. Photosensitized Oxidation. Photosensitized oxidation can occur when a product contains a photosensitizer, and the product is exposed to fluorescent or daylight through clear packaging material. In this process, peroxides are formed via the singlet oxygen reaction mechanism, which is 1500 times faster than the autoxidation reaction mechanism. Chlorophylls and their breakdown components (pheophytins, pheophorbides, and pyropheophorbides) are 10 times stronger photosensitizers than their corresponding parent compounds. Chlorophylls are present primarily in soybean and canola oil, but they also can be found in sunflower and cottonseed oils at much lower levels. Inadequate or improper bleaching may leave a high amount of chlorophyll in oil, or produce high levels of chlorophyll decomposition, causing photooxidation in the packaged snack food. Photochemical Oxidation. This type of oxidation occurs when oil is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light in the presence of a metal ion. Unsaturated fatty acids in the oil oxidize under these conditions. This reaction is as rapid as autoxidation. A photochemical reaction in fried foods can be observed when the fried foods are kept under UV light to keep them warm. Oxidation Promoted by Surfactants. Surfactants in the oil can also promote autoxidation, in addition to hydrolysis. For example, a high phospholipid content in the frying oil can reduce the interfacial tension between the oil and air during frying, causing excessive foaming. This increases the oxygen uptake by the oil causing rapid oxidation. Soap in fresh oil also reacts in the same manner and increases oil oxidation during frying. High levels of diglycerides or monoglycerides react similarly to phospholipids or soap, causing rapid oil oxidation. High levels of calcium or magnesium in the fresh oil can also form soap in the fryer, and react in the same manner as the other surfactants described above. The consequence of having high levels of these impurities can be devastating to the frying process. This is why fresh oil used for frying must meet very stringent specifications. Oils that are satisfactory for margarine and shortening formulation (for baking) may not always exhibit good stability during heavy-duty industrial frying. Table 5.1 in the preceding chapter shows the recommended oil specifications for frying applications. The oil must be low in trace impurities, monoglycerides and diglycerides, and must have zero soap. Thermal Decomposition Oil undergoes thermal decomposition in the fryer. Overheating of the oil in frying produces high levels of thermal polymers in the fryer oil. Frequent fryer shutdowns and restarts generally increase oxidation and hydrolysis of the oil. It was men-
tioned earlier that heating causes the formation of free radicals in the oil, which leads to the formation of oxidative polymers in fryer oil. Thus, heat can produce both thermal and oxidative polymers. Vegetable oil is subjected to high heat during the refining process. Therefore, inappropriate heating of the oil during processing can also produce high polymers in the freshly refined oil. A high polymer level in fresh oil indicates poor oil quality and the potential for poor shelf life for the product fried in it. Thermal polymers can impart a bitter taste to a fresh product. Oxidative polymers may not have any initial effect on product flavor but can produce an oxidized or rancid flavor in stored products, even with a nitrogen flush. Table 5.1 shows that the fresh oil must have a maximum polymer content of 1.0%. Discussion The reactions in the oil during frying, such as hydrolysis, autoxidation, and thermal decomposition are temperature dependent. These reactions are expected to proceed rapidly during frying because of the high oil temperature. Unfortunately, no frying operation can be carried out without high oil temperature. It is possible, however, to minimize breakdown reactions by using a good quality oil containing minimal amounts of impurities. Each impurity has a different role in oil degradation. Thus, understanding the type of degradation can help pinpoint the impurity involved. With this knowledge, one can outline an appropriate course of action to prevent oil degradation, starting from fresh oil quality and carrying it through the frying process. For example, hydrolysis requires a surfactant to solubilize oil and water. Therefore, fresh oil for frying must have the levels of impurities specified in Table 5.1, i.e., the phosphorus content must be low (1.0 ppm maximum), the soap content must be 0, and the monoglyceride content must be low. Table 5.1 indicates that the maximum FFA in the fresh oil for frying application should be <0.05%. Some may argue that the FFA can be higher because of the addition of citric acid to the oil. Therefore, 0.05% may not be a realistic upper limit for the FFA. In the experience of this author, all new refineries in the United States and Mexico have been obtaining 0.020.04% FFA in fresh oils with 50 ppm of citric acid added at the cooling stage of the deodorizer. Use of 50 ppm of citric acid increases the titrated FFA value in the processed oil by 0.0050.006%. Therefore, the addition of citric acid to the deodorized oil should not be a major contributor to the FFA value of the oil. Arguments have been raised by many oil processors that a value of 0.07% or even 0.1% FFA in fresh oil should be acceptable for frying applications. The author believes that a value of 0.1% FFA in fresh oil is satisfactory for making baking shortening and margarine. A high initial value of 0.1% for FFA can greatly reduce the frylife of the oil in a snack food operation in which the fryer oil is terminated at a FFA value of 0.5%. Depending on the mode of operation, as will be described in Chapter 7, one can experience a very rapid rise in FFA in the fryer oil. This can result in a higher economic losses because part or all of the fryer load of oil is discarded frequently due
to the rapid rise of FFA in the fryer oil. FFA >0.05% also indicates less than satisfactory refining and bleaching. A higher concentration of phosphorus can increase the value of FFA in freshly deodorized oil. It is experienced occasionally that the FFA in corn oil cannot be reduced to a lower value in the deodorizer. This has been associated with high phosphorus in the incoming oil to the deodorizer. Physically refined palmolein, containing high phosphorus, exhibits similar behavior. High phosphorus in the fresh oil can rapidly increase the fryer oil FFA, even if the operation is conducted under standard operating conditions. Therefore, rapidly increasing FFA during frying may be an indication of insufficient refining and bleaching of the oil. Sometimes the oil supplier demands a higher price for fresh oil with guaranteed low FFA. It is an economic decision that the snack food processor has to make to create a balance between the marginally higher oil price against the cost of oil thrown away due to the rapid rise in the FFA during frying. Case Study 1. FFA in a continuous potato chip fryer rose from 0.04 to 0.2% in <4 h. Normal progression of FFA in a fryer is 0.040.08% in 8 h. Further investigation revealed that the oil contained 3 ppm of phosphorus. Table 5.1 recommends a maximum phosphorus content of 1.0 ppm in fresh oil for frying. Case Study 2. In this case, the FFA in a fresh oil storage tank rose from 0.03% (at receipt) to 0.08% after 2 wk, at a storage temperature of <100F. Fresh oil should not exhibit any increase in FFA when stored under ambient conditions. Further investigation showed that the oil contained 4 ppm of phosphorus. Autoxidation requires metal ions to initiate the formation of free radicals. Free radicals are formed not only in the frying process but also at various stages of vegetable oil processing as stated below: 1. Decomposition of oil starts from the moment the seeds are harvested, stored, and subsequently cracked for extraction. 2. Free radicals are formed whenever the unsaturated fatty acids are exposed to trace metals, oxygen, light, and heat. The formation can happen in crude oil extraction, refining, bleaching, deodorization, oil storage, transportation, unloading, and storage at the point of use. An oil processor could prevent or minimize the formation of the free radicals in the oil by being aware of the sources and taking the appropriate preventive steps. In the vegetable oil processing industry, it is common knowledge that refined oil obtained from poor quality crude (oil) exhibits poor stability. There are various reasons for this. Poor quality crude oil generally contains high levels of free radicals, lower tocopherols, and has a high PV. Generally, these oils do not have good flavor stability. The following example illustrates this point. In a controlled experiment, Evans et al. allowed the PV of crude oil to increase before refining the oil. The PV in the crude oil ranged from 8.0 to 73 mEq/kg. The oils were refined, bleached, deodorized, and then stored at 60C in the dark. The
oil samples were pulled out of storage and flavors were examined by an expert panel. The results are shown in Figure 6.3. The freshly deodorized oils had acceptable flavor; however, the flavor grades for samples with the initial PV values of 22.1, 56, and 73 in the crude oil dropped sharply after 3 d of storage. When an oil with a high PV is deodorized, 90% of the triglyceride molecules containing cleavaged unsaturated fatty acid moieties (origin of peroxides) remain in the oil. Although these amounts would be at levels of parts per million, these compounds are highly reactive free radicals that catalyze autoxidation in the processed oil, even if the PV has been reduced to zero v ia bleaching and deodorization. In addition, these compounds promote secondary and tertiary oxidation steps in the oil, resulting in poor oil stability. Food fried in oil made from highly oxidized crude oil exhibits poor flavor during storage. Sometimes, even with 100% fresh oil at start-up, the fryer oil exhibits rapid oxidation within a few hours after the start. Generally, oil refiners do not monitor the PV of the crude oil. It is critical that they do so, especially if they are supplying frying oil to snack food manufacturers. Case Study. Frying oil was obtained that met standard specifications on FFA (<0.05%) and PV (<1.0 mEq/kg.). The oil started to develop a high para-anisidine value (pAV) value soon after frying began. The fried snack food had unacceptable flavor. Further investigation indicated the following: (i) the incoming oil had a pAV ranging from 9 to 15; (ii) the crude oil used in making this processed oil had very high PV, ranging from 18 to 27 mEq/kg before the oil was processed. This case illustrates why frying oil must not be made from a crude oil that has already developed a high PV. Storing crude soybean oil for several months before refining is not an issue unless the oil has been exposed to air (oxygen). Soybean oil is known to develop a fishy flavor, even after the oil is hydrogenated, deodorized, and properly stored. Researchers have proposed various hypotheses for the development of this flavor. However, one described in Figure 6.4 seems to explain this phenomenon well. It has been proposed that if oxidized crude soybean oil is left in contact with the lecithin, the oil can develop a fishy flavor in storage, even if the oil is properly processed later. It is suggested that the formation of the secondary amines in the reaction process is responsible for the fishy flavor. Lecithin forms trimethyl amine
Storage time (d)

Fig. 6.3. Oil flavor stability with a high peroxide value (PV) in the crude oil.
Fig. 6.4. Suggested mechanism for the development of fishy flavor in soybean oil.
oxide in the presence of oxygen, which reacts with the hydroperoxide formed in soybean oil and produces secondary amines and formaldehyde. The secondary amines impart a fishy odor and flavor to the oil. Research has shown that soybean oil with a fishy odor/flavor contains formaldehyde and nitrogen. Lecithin is a source of nitrogen. Therefore, it is important for oil refiners to make sure the crude oil is not exposed to oxygen during handling and storage. It has also been suggested that soybean oil be water degummed to a phosphorus content 50 ppm, dried, and then stored for better long-term flavor quality. Bleaching reduces trace impurities such as phosphorus, iron, calcium, magnesium, chlorophyll, and various oil breakdown compounds. The addition of an appropriate amount of citric acid along with acid-activated clay facilitates the removal of the trace impurities. In addition, the use of a vacuum and mechanical agitation are critical for proper bleaching with minimum oil oxidation. Insufficient bleaching of the oil can leave high concentrations of trace impurities in the oil due to the following: (i) low bleaching temperature; (ii) insufficient amount of bleaching clay and/or citric acid; (iii) poor quality bleaching clay; and (iv) inadequate or insufficient contact time between acid-activated clay, citric acid, and oil. High bleaching temperature, on the other hand, can oxidize the oil, greatly reducing the amount of tocopherols and increasing the free radical content in the oil. The atmospheric bleaching process also can oxidize the tocopherols of the oil and increase the concentration of the free radicals in bleached oil. Oxidation of tocopherols can also affect the flavor and color stability of the oil. In the presence of oxygen and acidic pH, chlorophyll undergoes decomposition to form pheophytins, pheophorbides, and pyropheophorbides. These breakdown compounds of chlorophyll are 10 times stronger photosensitizers than their parent compounds. There are two types of chlorophyll present in the soybean oil, i.e., chlorophyll-A and chlorophyll-B. Chlorophyll-B and its decomposition products are stronger photosensitizers than chlorophyll-A or its decomposition compounds. Products fried in oils containing high chlorophyll and its decomposition products will exhibit poor photooxidative stability if the products are packaged in clear bags. Thus, improper bleaching can significantly reduce the stability of the fried product. Snack food companies must make oil processors aware of these factors so
they will begin to use appropriate equipment and implement proper process conditions to obtain a high quality bleached oil. In certain oil processing operations, hot bleached oil is stored in atmospheric tanks for several hours or days before the oil is deodorized. This can significantly increase the concentration of free radicals in the oil. One can expect poor flavor stability in the fried products in storage. To obtain better oil stability, one must follow the steps outlined below: Cool to <110F before storage. Saturate the oil with nitrogen before it is discharged into the storage tank. Have a nitrogen blanket in the storage tank. Discharge the oil as close as possible to the floor of the tank.
Hot oil can be stored for a few hours with full nitrogen protection; however, this step does not completely prevent formation of free radicals. Therefore, cooling the oil before storage is the preferred option. Deodorization is the final step in the oil refinery, where the FFA and other volatile matter are steam-distilled under vacuum. Critical variables in deodorization are: Vacuum (operating pressure) Deaeration time Heat bleaching time Deodorization temperature Distillation time Quality of feed oil Volume of stripping steam Distribution of stripping steam Differential pressure across the packed column Internal cooling temperature Citric addition temperature Final cooling
The operating pressure or conversely the operating vacuum in a deodorizer is one of the most important process variables from the standpoint of oil oxidation. Most modern deodorizers are designed for an absolute operating pressure of <3 mmHg. Some equipment manufacturers continue to design deodorizers for an operating pressure of <6 mmHg. In either case, the FFA are removed easily from the oil. The odorbearing compounds take somewhat longer to distill. The purpose of low operating pressure (conversely high vacuum) is to facilitate the removal of these volatile impurities. The high vacuum also removes the dissolved oxygen from the oil in the deaeration step before the oil is subjected to high temperature for heat bleaching and deodorization.
Under higher operating pressure, dissolved oxygen is not sufficiently removed from the oil. Consequently, oil produced under poor vacuum (high operating pressure) exhibits higher levels of dimers, polymers, and oil oxidation products. Deodorized oil, containing a high concentration of dimers, develops poor flavor during storage, which can reduce product shelf life if the oil is used for frying shelf-stable snack foods. Davies and his co-workers prepared mixtures of deodorized oil with dimers as shown in Table 6.1. Properly refined and deodorized oil was added with dimers at the levels shown in Table 6.1. The oil samples were stored at 60C and in the dark. The oil samples were checked for flavor by a group of trained panelists. The results are shown in Figure 6.5. The following results were observed: (i) the control and the sample with 0.5% dimers maintained similar flavor grades during the test; (ii) the fresh oil sample containing 1% dimers had an acceptable flavor but it deteriorated rapidly during the test; and (iii) the sample containing 2% dimers had unacceptable flavor even in the fresh oil sample. It is well established in the oil processing industry that operating the deodorizer under poor vacuum increases the level of dimers in the deodorized oil. The results of the above test clearly explain why oils deodorized under poor vacuum do not retain their flavor well in storage. One should expect that such oils would produce fried foods with a poor shelf life. Deodorized oil must be saturated with nitrogen at the point it leaves the final cooler. At this point, the oil temperature should be ~100F, but absolutely no higher than 110F. The hydrogenated oil temperature must not be >10F above its melting point. Storage tanks must have a nitrogen blanket with temperature indicators. The oxygen content in a tank must be <0.5%. Atmospheric storage of deodorized oil causes the PV to increase. The typical scenario in an atmospheric storage tank is shown in Figure 6.6. After the tank is loaded, the PV should be low. Dissolved oxygen in the oil starts reacting with any unsaturated fatty acids present. This reaction is more pronounced at the top of the tank because of the presence of air above the oil surface; this is evident when the PV of the oil increases as the oil level goes down. The PV reaches a maximum at a low oil level in the tank and drops sharply to a low value as the tank receives a load of fresh oil. This process is repeated over and over again
TABLE 6.1 Mixtures of Deodorized Oil and Dimersa
Deodorized oil (%) 100.0 (Control) 99.5 98.5 98.0
aSource:
Dimers 0.0 1.0 1.5 2.0
Reference 15.
Storage time (d)

Fig. 6.5. Effect of dimers (Dim) on oil flavors.
as shown in Figure 6.6. The rise and fall pattern of the PV has a graphic representation very much like a sawtooth. The PV in the oil does not rise in a similar manner when the oil is protected by nitrogen. This process involves saturating the deodorized oil with nitrogen and maintaining a nitrogen blanket in the tank. Figure 6.6 shows that the PV of the oil remained low when the oil was protected with nitrogen.
Summary
As discussed earlier, oil undergoes simultaneous hydrolysis, autoxidation, and thermal decomposition during frying. These reactions are accelerated because of
n Atmospheric
Time (wk)
Fig. 6.6. The peroxide value (PV) of deodorized oil after each week of storage under atmospheric and nitrogen atmosphere.
the high temperature in the fryer. Hydrolysis requires a surfactant to solubilize oil and water to react and form FFA. Fresh oil can carry high phospholipids, diglycerides, monoglycerides, calcium, magnesium, and even soap if the oil is derived from poor quality seeds, poor quality crude oil, or is improperly processed. Free radical reaction is the primary source for oxidation of the oil, both in the fryer and during storage of the fried products. A certain amount of free radicals is always present in fresh oil. However, excessive oxidation of oil during processing, storage, loading, and transport can significantly increase the amount of the free radicals in oil, which can reduce both the fry-life of a sample of oil as well as the shelf life of products fried with that oil. Although decomposition of oil can be minimized in the fryer by implementing proper procedures (as discussed in Chap. 5), success in that area is rather limited when the fresh oil contains a high level of free radicals. The presence of high levels of trace metals is indicative of either poor quality crude oil or poor processing. High levels of trace metals in fresh oil always reduce its performance in frying and storage stability of the fried product.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made: 1. Oil processors must recognize that frying is the most difficult application for the oil. The oil must be able to withstand the harsh environment of heat, agitation, exposure to oxygen, and chemical reactions with the food ingredients in the frying process. Current oil quality parameters used in the oil industry are adequate for manufacturing margarine and baking fat. However, these quality parameters may not be sufficient for the oil to be used in heavy-duty industrial frying for all of the reasons that have been discussed in this chapter. Therefore, the oil processors must take special care in making frying oil so that the oil is low in phosphorus, trace metals, and also low in factors causing oil decomposition as outlined in Table 5.1. 2. Reducing the PV in the oil through bleaching and deodorization does not completely guarantee good oil quality. Autoxidation produces several compounds that impart desirable, as well as undesirable flavor to the fried products. Some of these compounds are volatile, but the majority (90%) of them are not. These nonvolatile compounds are highly reactive and are primarily responsible for the development of poor flavor in the fried products during storage. 3. The specifications for frying oil should include pAV, dimers, polymers, and preconjugated dienes in addition to the other standard analyses. The oil processors do not normally test fresh oils for these attributes. Therefore, this will require special negotiations with the oil suppliers. 4. The breakdown of chlorophyll must be minimized. Avoiding excessive contact between the oil and air as well as atmospheric bleaching can reduce chlorophyll breakdown.
5. To avoid the development of off-flavor in stored products, phosphorus in crude soybean oil must be reduced to a very low level before it is refined. 6. Deodorized oil must always be protected with nitrogen to minimize the formation of peroxides during storage and handling after deodorization. 7. The PV in the crude oil must not be allowed to rise above a value of 8.0 mEq/kg for good flavor stability. 8. Snack food companies and the oil processors must communicate openly so that each party comes to understand the others needs. This dialogue will enable oil processors to understand issues and variables involved in frying and respond to the needs of snack food companies. Oil processors may have to upgrade their equipment and/or operating controls to implement proper process and product standards that satisfy the requirements of their snack food manufacturing clients. References
1. Gupta, M.K., in Proceedings of the World Conference on Oilseeds Technology and Processing, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1992. 2. Seifensieder, L.L., Zig 64:122 (1937). 3. Frankel, E.N., in Flavor Chemistry of Fats and Oils, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1985. 4. Lomano, S.S., and W.W. Nawar, J. Food Sci., 47:744 (1982). 5. Nawar, W.W., in Flavor Chemistry of Fats and Oils, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1985. 6. Mistry, B., and D.B. Min, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 65:528 (1988). 7. Ward, K.R., J.K. Daun, and C.T. Thornstainson, INFORM 4:519 (1993). 8. Min, D.B., in Flavor Chemistry of Fats and Oils, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1989. 9. Frankel, E.N., Handbook of Soy Oil Processing and Utilization, American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 1987. 10. Paulose, M.M., and S.S. Chang, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 50:147 (1970). 11. Gupta, M.K., INFORM 4:1267 (1993). 12. Evans, C.D., E.N. Frankel, P.M. Cooney, and H.A. Moser, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 37: 452 (1960). 13. Robertson, J.A., W.H. Morrison, and O. Burdick, Ibid. 50:443 (1973). 14. Evans, C.D., G.R. List, R.E. Beal, and L.T. Black, Ibid. 51:544 (1974). 15. Davies, W.L., and E. Gill, J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 55:141 (1936). 16. Blumenthal, M.M., J.R. Trout, and S.S. Chang, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 53:496 (1976). 17. List, G.R., T.L. Mounts, and A.C. Lancer, Ibid. 69:443 (1992). 18. Gupta, M.K., Improvement of Soybean Oil Flavor Through Processing, Presented at the Annual Meeting of the AOCS, Atlanta, GA, May, 1994.
Chapter 7
Critical Factors in the Selection of an Industrial Fryer

Monoj K. Guptaa, Russ Grantb, and Richard F. Stierc
aMG
Edible Oil Consulting International, 9 Lundys Lane, Richardson, TX 75080, bRichSeapak Corporation, Brunswick, GA, and cConsulting Food Scientists, 627 Cherry Avenue, Sonoma, CA 95476
Introduction
Food preparation requires a certain amount of dehydration. This can be complete dehydration (fried snack foods) or only partial dehydration such as in stir-frying and sauting. Frying provides the fastest means for food dehydration, allowing shelf-stable snack foods to be made. This is why industrial frying has evolved into a multibillion dollar industry in the United States and abroad. The frying process is quite simple when dealing with frying at home or small-scale production. It becomes quite complex once the process crosses the threshold from a small frying operation to a largescale production. Todays consumer expects consistent quality in a packaged fried food. Success of a food processor depends on the consistency of product quality delivered at a reasonable cost. Therefore, it is important to make a methodical evaluation of available frying systems and their suitability for a specific application. Batch frying is used only for low-volume production and, in some cases, to make products with specific characteristics. Crunchy kettle-fried chips are a good example. However, this process is more costly. Some snack food processors have been using continuous fryers to produce hard-bite chips by manipulating the frying conditions. In this chapter, we will discuss the criteria for selection of a fryer.
Types of Industrial Fryers

There are three types of industrial fryers, namely, batch fryers, continuous fryers, and vacuum fryers. Batch Fryers These fryers resemble the so-called restaurant fryers, except that they are much larger in size, capable of frying several hundred pounds of product per batch (Fig. 7.1). Batch fryers are used for small-scale production or for frying very special types of products such as kettle-fried Hawaiian-style potato chips. The oil is placed in a large pan where it is heated by gas burners located under the pan. A level control maintains the oil level and a temperature control device maintains the temperature of the oil in the pan. In certain installations, the oil is heated in an external
Fig. 7.1. Batch fryer (courtesy of Heat & Control).
heat exchanger. The oil is continuously taken out of the fryer, circulated through the oil heater and returned back into the fryer pan. The former method of heating the oil is known as the direct heating system (Figs. 7.2 and 7.3) and the latter is called the indirect heating system (Figs. 7.2 and 7.4). The external oil heaters can be either steam-heated or gas-fired. The steam heat exchangers are generally shell and tube type with the oil passing through the tubes and steam on the jacket side. Moderate pressure (180200 psi) steam is used. The gas-fired heaters are of different designs. In some of the heaters, the oil in tubes is directly in the path of the flue gas. Others use the hot flue gas from the burners to heat air, which in turn heats the oil in the tubes. The following sequence of events occurs during the operation of a batch fryer: 1. The oil temperature is allowed to reach the desired steady state condition. 2. The product is added in discrete amounts to the pan. 3. The oil temperature drops sharply and then recovers at the point at which the product reaches the desired end-point moisture content. 4. The product is stirred either with a manual stirrer or with an automatic stirrer. Direct heated fryer
Oil level
Filter
Indirect heated fryer

Oil level
Filter
Heat exchanger
Fig. 7.2. Direct and indirect heating systems (courtesy of Heat & Control).
Fig. 7.3. Direct fired heating system (courtesy of Heat & Control).
5. The product is removed from the fryer with a take-out conveyor. 6. The product is sometimes centrifuged to remove the excess oil on the surface. 7. The product is then seasoned and packaged. Continuous Fryers Continuous fryers are used for large-scale production of fried snacks. The oil is heated in a straight or horseshoe-shaped pan with temperature and level controls. The product is fed into the fryer at one end and the fried product is taken out from the opposite end by a take-out conveyor. The internal construction of the fryer varies greatly with the type of product fried. This is described later in this chapter. As in batch fryers, the oil in a continuous fryer is heated either in direct or indirect oil heaters.
Fig. 7.4. Indirect heated fryer (courtesy of Heat & Control).
Vacuum Fryers A vacuum fryer is used to fry fruits or vegetables whose original product color is retained with minimum browning. These fryers are very expensive and generally do not have high production capacity. The most commonly used fryers of this category are batch fryers. Continuous vacuum fryers are extremely costly and are rarely used. These fryers have several distinctive features including the following: 1. The fryer is operated under vacuum. Typical operating pressure is <100 mmHg. 2. The frying is conducted at ~250F. The food can be dehydrated at this temperature under vacuum. 3. The food is placed in a basket. 4. The basket is inserted and placed in the vacuum chamber above the surface of the oil. 5. The vacuum is applied. 6. The basket is lowered into the hot oil at ~250F. 7. Frying begins and the oil temperature drops (as described in a batch fryer). 8. The oil is circulated continuously through an external heater. 9. The oil regains the temperature when the moisture content of the product reaches the predetermined value. 10. The vacuum in the fryer is broken slowly. 11. The fryer is opened and the product basket is taken out. 12. The excess oil is allowed to drain and the product is cooled before packaging.
Criteria for Fryer Selection

Selection of a fryer is very important for producing a given end product. The fryer must meet the process criteria that are necessary to fry the product; otherwise, it becomes difficult to achieve the desired attributes in the finished product. This requires an understanding of the product and the appropriate process(es) to create it. The following is a list of items that are considered to be important for selecting a fryer for a given product: (i) product characteristics desired; (ii) production volume (fryer capacity); (iii) heat load requirement; (iv) oil turnover time required; (v) fines removal and oil filtration; (vi) cleaning and maintenance; (vii) emission; (viii) specific fryer equipment; (ix) mode of heating oil, i.e., direct heating or indirect heating; and (x) technical support from the fryer manufacturer. For the fried product to be appealing to consumers, it must exhibit the following attributes: flavor, texture, aroma, appearance, mouth feel, aftertaste, and overall satisfaction. Fried products can be classified into two broad groups, e.g., (i) noncoated products, such as salty chips, seasoned or simply salted, donuts, nuts, and miscellaneous extruded and sheeted products, meatballs, turkey breasts; (ii) coated
products, such as breaded seafood, chicken, vegetables, or corn dogs. Each product is unique in terms of texture, flavor, appearance, color, and taste. Par-fried (partially dehydrated) products can be both coated and noncoated. These products are partially dehydrated in the frying process and immediately frozen in blast-freezers. The products are then stored at 10 to 20F (23 to 28C). Freezer-trucks are used for their distribution. Restaurants and food services are the principal users of par-fried products although many of these products are sold in supermarkets. These products are kept in the freezer at 10 to 20F until they are ready to be fried and are put directly into the fryer without thawing. The most common par-fried products include the following: French fries, various other potato products, coated vegetables, cheese-filled peppers and other vegetables, poultry products, and batter-coated fish fillets. Food coating is typically done through a multistep process in which layers of coating materials are applied in several steps. A wide variety of coatings is used, including tempura batter, seasoned flour, or various grades of breadcrumbs that are called J-Crumb. Product Characteristics As discussed earlier, each type of fried product has its own characteristic texture, color, and appearance. They are also made from different raw materials. The feed materials have different properties and the fried products have different bulk densities. One needs to be aware of the characteristics of the fried products in order to be able to select appropriate designs for the fryer and the feed systems. Some important product attributes that should be considered for the selection of a frying system are as follows: (i) type of product to be fried; (ii) product buoyancy; (iii) coating system applied to the product; (iv) surface color and product texture desired; (v) types of fines produced during frying. Type of Product to be Fried. Once the product type and its characteristics are defined, it becomes important to investigate any special features that might be required to prepare, feed, and fry the product. If no special features are required, the food manufacturer should evaluate the fryers already available in the market that would produce the desired product. However, one must consider the versatility of the design so that more than one product could be fried in the same fryer without sacrificing efficiency or quality. In most instances, the basic fryer design might be suitable for frying many products. However, one should expect to encounter differences in the feed system, conveyor, submerger, the take-out system, and oil filtration device in systems that are intended to produce different types of product. Product Buoyancy. This is an important consideration in selecting the required features in a fryer. Different conveyor designs are used in the fryers to handle products with different buoyancy. There are products that naturally float and are
allowed to do so in the fryer. Typical examples of this type of product are donuts and nuts. There are other products that change their specific gravity and float as they are being fried. An example of such a product is pork rinds. Potato chips have to be submerged part of the time during frying. There are products that remain submerged in the oil throughout the frying time. Typical examples include breaded chicken and chicken fried steaks. Two types of feed systems are used to feed products into the fryer. They are the dough, slurry, or extruded product feed system, and the individual product feed system. Doughnuts, corn chips, or formulated potato products use the first-mentioned feed system. The products are fed as viscous fluids or as solids (or semisolids). They are extruded directly into the frying oil. Product feed (the latter system) is used when solid or semisolid products are conveyed into the fryer. This includes potato chips, pastries (fried Danish), French fries, fish sticks, meat patties, pellets, and most coated products. The solid products may be dropped directly into the cooking oil. Kettle-style chips are an example in which the feed material is sliced directly into the oil. Free starch on the surface, sugars in the feed material together with the frying condition provide the unique flavor, color, and bite to these kettle-fried chips. The following are some guidelines for the selection of fryer: (i) one must know whether the food product sinks in the fryer oil or it floats; (ii) for semibuoyant product the fryer will require only a main (bottom) conveyor if the product sinks or a submerger conveyor if the product is buoyant. This keeps the product submerged in the oil for a certain period during frying while the main conveyor carries the product through the fryer. For those products that change buoyancy during frying, the fryers must have a main and submerger conveyor. Coating System Applied to the Product. Coating of the product highly complicates the fryer design and the overall process. The following are some important considerations for the selection of a fryer for coated products: (i) Determine whether a still-bath of oil fryer (typically direct-fired fryer) would be suitable for the desired application. (ii) Generally, an indirect-heat fryer produces better results because the oil flows through the fryer bed. Surface Color and Product Texture Desired. Sometimes there is a need to set the outer surface of the coating in hot oil before the product touches the internal conveyor of the fryer. This is called the free-fry zone, which is located at the beginning of the fryer. This applies to many tempura-coated products, as well as potato chips and various other fried products. This prevents the product pieces from sticking to the fryer conveyor or to each other (clumping) before the product reaches the frying zone. The free-fry or convey-in varies with the products to be fried.
Types of Fines Produced. The fines accumulate in the fryer pan during frying. These are primarily carbohydrate material (or proteinaceous material from poultry, meat, or fish). The crumbs become charred during frying. Thus, accumulation of fines can darken the fryer oil. This leads to a darker colored product with a burnt taste. This is why it is necessary to remove the fines from the fryer either continuously or at certain frequency. One could use a fryer with a still-bath for products that generate low or moderate amounts of fines. The fines can be removed in a continuous filtration system. In addition, the fryers are sanitized (boil-out) every night at the end of frying. This removes all of the fines that accumulate in the fryer even after continuous filtration of the oil. Continuous oil filtration is more desirable for products that generate large amounts of fines during frying. Indirect-heat fryers with continuous and high oil flow make it easier to remove a large portion of the fines from the fryer via continuous oil filtration. However, with a very high accumulation of crumbs or sludge, it is recommended to have a set of bottom-dredging bars that push the accumulated material from the fryer pan into a filter. The filtered oil is returned at an appropriate location on the fryer. Production Volume (Fryer Capacity) The fryer capacity is chosen on the basis of the production volume required for the business. Various factors are taken into account to determine the actual capacity of a fryer including the following: (i) the number of operating hours per day (8, 16, or 24); (ii) frying time needed for proper moisture and texture control of the product; (iii) frequency of fryer sanitation required; (iv) company's warehousing and distribution system; and (v) required product code date based on the shelf life and sales and distribution requirements. The above information is used to determine the physical dimensions of the fryer, the belt width, and belt loading, which is defined as: (i) product in lb/ft2 area of the belt, (ii) product in lb/ft of belt, or (iii) the number of pieces per linear foot of the belt. Some key points in determining the fryer size include the desired production rate in pounds per hour, the physical dimensions of the product, the fry time required, and the belt loading, typically in lb/ft2. The following is an example for calculating belt-loading (lb/ft2): Desired production rate = 3000 lb/h Recommended product loading = 1.5 lb/ft2 Cook area required = (3000 lb/f)/(1.5 lb/ft2 60 min) = 33.3 ft2 For calculating fryer length: Process (fry-time) = 1 min Fryer width = 3.33 ft Fryer length = 33.3ft2/3.33 ft = 10 ft
Heat Load Requirement The primary function of a fryer is to remove the moisture from the product being fried. The fryer oil supplies the heat to vaporize the free water present in the food and heat required to bring the product to the frying temperature. The majority of the heat is required for vaporizing the free moisture from the product. There are several points in the process during which thermal energy is lost. Therefore, the thermal capacity of the fryer must be in excess of the theoretical amount of energy required for the dehydration and heating of the product alone. Areas in which heat is lost during frying that must be taken into account in designing the oil heating system include the following: Heating the product feed from room temperature to the final fryer temperature Dehydration of the fried product Rate of dehydration of the product Heating of all physical equipment, including the piping and filters Radiation heat loss from the fryer, furnace, and other ancillaries Heat loss through the fryer exhaust Heat loss through the gas heater flue Thermal efficiency of the heat exchange system
Heat load calculations are made to determine the actual heat load requirement for a fryer designed for a specific product type and production volume. The typical heat (number of BTU) required for various products is listed in Table 7.1. These numbers clearly vary with the type of product. Potato chips require the highest amount of heat energy because of the very high moisture content of the raw potatoes (~80% moisture). The calculation of the frying heat load is made as follows: product type, 3-pass coated (predust, batter, bread) Chicken Tender; production rate, 4000 lb/h; BTU
TABLE 7.1 Heat Load Requirements for Frying Various Products
Product Potato chips Tortilla chips Corn chips Batter-coated and breaded par-fried producta Egg rolls and burritosb Nuts Fried snack pies
aThis bThis
Frying oil temperature (F) 370 375 390 375 365 325 365
Heat requirement (BTU/lb) 4500 1500 2250 350 200 500 10001500
heat is only for setting the crust and not for cooking the meat or fish inside. is only to fry the shell. The filling inside is precooked .
requirement, 350 BTU/lb; heat required = 4000 350 = 1,400,000 BTU/h. This amount must be corrected for the various sources of heat loss listed above. The proper heat load design for a fryer must also take the following factors into consideration: (i) temperature differential across the length of the fryer, known as Delta-T, (ii) the recovery time or response time for the heating system to maintain proper oil temperature, and (iii) minimizing temperature overshoot. Delta-T Through the Fryer. This is the temperature difference between inlet (feedend) and outlet (discharge-end) seen in the fryer when it is operated at its designed capacity. When the fryer is idle, the temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the fryer are essentially the same (i.e., Delta-T = 0). A temperature differential is established between the inlet and the outlet of the fryer once frying resumes. This temperature differential is critical to achieve the desired product characteristics (e.g., dehydration rate, amount of dehydration, development of texture, or color). In an indirect-heat oil flow fryer (Fig. 7.4), this temperature differential can be designed into the system to a precise degree. By designing the oil flow through the fryer within a specific velocity range, the energy (heat) absorbed by the product at the fryer inlet can produce a predictable temperature gradient (Delta-T) down the length of the fryer. Most direct-fired fryers (Fig. 7.3) have dual control heat banks (either fire-tubes or thermal radiators) that can be set to different temperature set-points at each end of the fryer, thus providing a fairly reliable Delta-T. Recovery (Response) Time. This represents the capability of the fryer to respond to increased frying load and is influenced by the following two factors: (i) availability of excess thermal energy beyond the amount of heat required to fry the product and compensate for the losses, and (ii) the type of heat exchanger in the system. Typically, tube-fired fryers (Figs. 7.2 and 7.3) are the slowest in reacting to major heat load changes. These systems are the slowest to both cool down and heat up. There is always a time lag between the heat supplied to the tubes and the transfer of heat to the fryer oil. This results in large temperature swings. A temperature swing of 1015F is fairly common in this type of direct-fired fryer. Thermal fluid radiator direct-fired fryers are faster and more predictable because they utilize thermal fluid flow through the radiator to regulate the heat availability. Once the fryers internal thermocouple senses the need for a temperature change to remain on set-point, the thermal fluid flow valve adjusts to the correct thermal fluid flow requirement, thereby sending less or more hot thermal fluid to the radiator. A temperature swing within the range of 7 to 10F is fairly common. Indirect-heat external heat exchangers have the fastest response to any change in heat load and can react almost instantaneously. A temperature swing of 2F is typical. This can be further reduced by precision control of the oil flow. Oil Turnover Time Required This is a ratio of the weight of the oil in a system to the hourly rate of oil picked up by the product. Turnover is expressed in hours. This is one of the major factors in
designing the frying system. An example of the calculation of oil turnover time is as follows: Oil content in the frying system (fryer pan and accessories, including piping) = 4000 lb Production throughput = 2000 lb/h Amount of oil in the product = 25% Oil carried out by the product = 500 lb/h Theoretical oil turnover time = (4000 lb oil)/ (500 lb/h oil pick-up) = 8 h This number is based on a production rate of 100% designed throughput with no down time. In reality, it takes time for fryer start-up, shut down, and brand changeover. In addition, there are needs for mechanical repair from time to time and there is also a short period after the start-up when the production rate is not at 100% of the designed capacity. This brings the fryer utilization down to ~8090%. Therefore, actual turnover time for the above fryer would be as follows: 8/0.8 = 10.0 h , or 8/0.9 = 8.9 h. For potato chips fryers, a theoretical oil turnover time of 8 h is considered highly desirable. For tortilla chips, the desired theoretical oil turnover time is 6 h, and that for extruded corn products is 4 h. Oil turnover time is chosen on the basis of the type of product and the frying temperature. High turnover time increases oil degradation and reduces product shelf life. Therefore, for any fryer, it is preferable to have the lowest oil turnover time. Fines Removal and Oil Filtration As mentioned earlier, fines from the fryer should be removed to minimize darkening of the fryer oil and prevent burnt flavor in the product. Figure 7.5 displays various types of filters used to remove fines. Paper filters are not ideal. They cause high oil loss and also allow the hot oil to be exposed to air for a long period. The fryer system generally contains a filter to remove the coarse material from the oil. Sometimes this is augmented with a finer filter that removes the smaller particles from the fryer oil. In many applications, one must use a combination of a motorized and a centrifugal filter (or a rotary drum filter, Fig. 7.6). The type of filter for a fryer should be chosen carefully on the bases of the size, the amount, and the degree of hardness of the fines to be removed from the fryer oil. For products that produce heavy amounts of fines, such as breaded products or sugar-infused products, a bottom-dredging system is used as mentioned earlier. This is a specially designed conveyor system. The fryer manufacturer should be informed of the need for heavy fine removal during frying. Sometimes a continuous filtration system is used to clean the fryer oil. In this process, it is recommended that ~5% of the fryer oil be removed, filtered through an in-line filter, and returned to the fryer. This system can be good, but in most cases, the flow of oil through the fryer is not uniformly distributed due to various
Continuous paper filter Dual basket filter
Centrifugal
Motorized catch box filter
Fig. 7.5. Various types of filters for fines (courtesy of Heat & Control).
factors. This allows fines to accumulate on the fryer pan at various spots; these are not removed by the filter. In other words, a continuous filter of this type is as good as the system's capability to push all of the fines through the filter, with minimum accumulation in the fryer.
Fig. 7.6. Rotary drum filter (courtesy of Heat & Control).
In many operations, an oil treatment system is used. This takes out the fines and also treats the oil to reduce free fatty acids, color, oxidized material, and soap from the fryer oil. This has been proven to improve the fry life of the oil and also to extend product shelf life. The oil can be treated at the end of frying or during frying. In the former case, a batch system is used. In the latter case, a small amount (typically 5%) of the fryer oil is treated through a system similar to the schematic diagram shown in Figure 7.7. There are many treatment agents that are commercially available for oil treatment. Although such treatment can be beneficial, not every treatment material on the market is satisfactory. Some of them reduce free fatty acids via an acid/base reaction. The base metals in these treatment agents are typically calcium and magnesium salts, which react with the free fatty acid, forming calcium and magnesium soaps. These soaps in the oil cause a rapid rise in free fatty acids and also cause rapid oil oxidation. Reactions in the fryer oil have been discussed in several chapters in this book. It is important, then, that the reduction in free fatty acids is not accomplished via an acid/base reaction. Cleaning and Maintenance Fryers must be sanitized at the end of production. This can occur at the end of the week as in a continuous potato chip or tortilla chip fryer. If the operation is carried out for only one or two shifts a day, the fryer must be sanitized at the end of the day's production. Without sanitation, the frying system can contain a certain amount of degraded oil, which acts as catalyst for rapid oil degradation when the fryer is restarted the next day. The fryer pan and the accessories are sanitized either with dilute caustic solution or commercial sanitizing detergents. Fryer cleaning and
Fig. 7.7. A fryer oil treatment system.
sanitation procedure were discussed in Chapter 5. Inaccessible parts, such as the hood and stack, are sanitized by an automatic sanitizing device called CIP (cleaning in place) process. Emission The fryer emits steam, odor, and volatile chemicals. In several states in the United States and also in many other countries, it is mandatory to install a scrubber on the fryer stack to control emission from the fryer. Specific Fryer Equipment The fryer is the centerpiece of the entire frying system (Fig. 7.8). The industrial frying system consists of a multitude of accessories (Fig. 7.9), including the following: a continuous potato chip fryer, continuous tortilla chip frying system, and extruded products. Continuous Potato Chip Fryer. An industrial potato chip fryer has many components as follows: a potato washer that washes the potatoes to clean the mud or sand from the surface of the potatoes; a destoner to remove rocks coming with the potatoes; a peeler with which the peels are removed with a minimum loss of the tuber (this can be either a mechanical or a steam peeler); an inspection belt from which the defective potatoes are manually removed; a water-vat in which the peeled potatoes are held before they are sliced, which protects the potato surface from browning. Very large tubers are cut into smaller pieces. The potatoes are sliced to the desired thickness in high-speed slicers. Water is added to the slicer along with potatoes to wash off the starch separated during slicing. This starch is recovered for sale. The potato slices are further washed to remove the surface starch from the slices to
Fig. 7.8. Potato chip fryer (courtesy of Heat & Control).
Fig. 7.9. Typical continuous frying system (courtesy of Heat & Control).
minimize darkening of the oil due to charring of the starch. This also protects the potato chips from turning brown and developing a burnt flavor during frying. The slices are fed into the fryer in a single layer via a high-speed draining/feed belt. This reduces the formation of clusters and minimizes the amount of water entering the fryer along with the feed. The potato slices come into contact with the highest temperature oil in the fryer and pass through a section called the free-fry zone. The slices (chips) then enter the frying zone where their forward flow along the length of the fryer is controlled by a set of paddle wheels. The paddles rotate at some preset rate (rpm) and the intermeshing of the adjoining paddles is set carefully by the fryer manufacturer to move the product evenly along the length of the fryer without causing any interference or product breakage. The chips then pass through a zone in which a submerger belt holds the product under the oil surface and moves it along the direction of product flow. This completes the product dehydration and texture development of the product. The fried product is carried out of the fryer by a take-out conveyor, which allows the excess oil to drain from the product and also cools the product as it is conveyed to packaging. Salting is done soon after the product leaves the fryer, if the chips are not to be seasoned. However, care must be exercised to prevent any salt from blowing into the fryer. Salt in the fryer oil can adversely affect the oil quality. Seasoning is applied in a tumbler (Fig. 7.10). This unit (as shown in Fig. 7.10) is part of the tortilla chip process. The basic difference between the tumblers used for the two products is shown in Table 7.2. Most seasonings come preblended with salt. Therefore, no additional salt is required. The temperature of the product and that of the spray oil can be critical for many types of seasoning. High temperature can adversely affect the stability of the seasoning during product storage. The seasoned product is packaged. Sometimes snack food manufacturers use metallized bags and nitrogen flush for retaining product freshness. The bags are placed in cases and are sent to the warehouse for distribution. The product quality is checked after frying, after applying the seasoning, and after it is filled in bags. The fryer oil quality is checked at a certain frequency. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 5. At the end of operation, the fryer oil is cooled, filtered, and stored in a
Fig. 7.10. Tortilla chip production line with seasoning tumbler (courtesy of Heat &
Control).
holding tank. The fryer is sanitized. An external oil cooler is beneficial for the used oil quality. Some manufacturers of snack food use nitrogen protection for their used oil in the holding tank (as well as in the fresh oil storage tank). Continuous Tortilla Chip Frying System. The main ingredient in tortilla chips is corn. The corn is used in two difjferent ways, i.e., freshly cooked corn or corn flour (masica). Processing of the former is described in detail. Corn is cooked in a vat or in a continuous cooker. A certain amount of lime (calcium hydroxide) is added. The lime helps soften the outer shell of the corn. The
TABLE 7.2 Differences in Seasoning Tumblers Used for Potato and Tortilla Chips
Product Potato chips Tortilla chips Oil spray added before applying the seasoning No Yes General description Powdered seasoning is applied to the product. A small amount of oil is sprayed on the product surface before the seasoning is applied. The oil helps the seasoning to adhere.
lime also adds flavor to the product. The cooked corn is washed thoroughly to remove the excess lime from the surface. The corn is then ground to make dough, called masa. Grinding is done to produce the masa with a very specific degree of grinding of the corn. Water is also added to the masa in the grinder (also known as a mill) to provide a water content of ~50%. The masa is then sheeted and cut to specific size and shape. The raw chips then pass through a gas-fired toaster oven. The raw chips lose some moisture and also develop some toast-points on the surface. This gives the pleasant toasted flavor in the finished product. The degree of toasting is carefully controlled. Overtoasting as well as undertoasting of the chips produces undesirable flavor in the fried chips. The chips from the toaster-oven then pass through a proofer (also known as an equilibrator). This is a chamber with open sides. The chips pass through a series of special conveyor belts. The object is to achieve an even distribution of moisture in the chips. This also makes the chip color and texture of the fried chips more uniform. The product is then fried either in a horseshoe fryer or a straight-through fryer. The frying time is very short compared with potato chips. In principle, the product removal, salting, and the seasoning application techniques are very similar to those in the potato chips operation. However, tortilla chips have a much lower oil content and less surface oil compared with potato chips. Therefore, a small amount of oil is sprayed on the chips to obtain better adhesion of the seasoning. The seasoned product is filled mostly in clear bags. Some manufacturers use metallized bags with nitrogen flush. The fryer is sanitized and the used oil is placed in a holding tank similar to that discussed for potato chips. The fryer is sanitized. The general scheme of the tortilla chip frying system is shown in Figure 7.11. Extruded Products. There are many extruded snack products that are fried or baked after extrusion, then seasoned and packaged for distribution. One of the popular products is an extruded corn chips product. This product is made either from the cooked corn or from masica but is pressed out through extruders. The product is fried at a somewhat higher temperature than either tortilla chips or potato chips. A baked version is also produced, but it is made from masica as the primary raw material. There are many other extruded ethnic products with savory flavors on the market in the
Fig. 7.11. Tortilla chip fryer system (courtesy of Casa Herera, Inc.).
United States. They have a wide range of ethnic flair, from Asian, to Indian, to Mexican. Mode of Heating Oil In practice, there are two major heating systems used for heating the cooking oil, i.e., direct internal heating and external heating. Many determining factors come into play when deciding what type of fryer may be selected. Among these factors are the type of product being produced, the equipment cost, space availability, manufacturers experience, and environmental issues. Other factors exist as well. In a direct internal heating system, gas (natural or propane) and to a lesser extent electrical heaters are used to heat the oil in the fryer. On rare occasions fuel oil may be used. The heating elements are immersed in the cooking oil directly below the product zone. Heating is achieved by firing (igniting gas) inside these heating tubes or elements. The heat is transferred directly into the oil by conduction through the heating element. Temperature control is achieved by modulating the fuel input to the burners or switching the electrical elements on and off. A thermocouple or temperature probe in the oil is used to sense oil temperature and a controller regulates the burners to provide heat to the oil. Immersion tubes can be run across the fryers or lengthwise. Foods that are processed in direct-heated systems include kettle-style chips, battered and breaded products (fish, meat, poultry, and vegetables), oil-roasted nuts, doughnuts, and other snack foods. Figure 7.2 shows a direct heating system. This kind of heating system has a number of disadvantages. The primary one is the lack of temperature control as described earlier. An external heating system uses either high-pressure saturated steam or natural gas as the source of heat. In a steam heater, the oil is pumped through a bank of tubes with steam condensing on the outside. This is an excellent system for heating frying oil. Heating oil with saturated steam prevents overheating of the oil. It is highly recommended to avoid superheated steam so as not to overheat or scorch the oil. Overheating of the oil is common in gas-fired heaters, due to the high skin temperature of the heating coil surface. A modified design for the gas-fired system can reduce overheating of the oil. In this design, the hot flue gas from the gas burner heats inducted air. The hot air then passes across the tubes through which the fryer oil is recirculated. An indirect heating system is superior to direct heating for better oil flow and distribution through the fryer. The system also allows better temperature control. The disadvantage is that the external heating system increases the oil volume. This can increase oil turnover time for the fryer. Therefore, the system must be carefully designed to minimize the oil volume. Technical Support from the Fryer Manufacturer Care must be exercised in selecting the fryer from any manufacturer. The past performance, customer service, and technical support are important considerations for selecting a fryer from a given manufacturer.
The Changing Market Low Oil Snacks. Since the 1990s, consumers have been looking for reduced-fat snack foods. The demand for reduced-fat and no-fat products was rising in the 1990s but appears to have reached a plateau. However, there is a market for reduced-fat snack foods. According to the Food and Drug Administration, a food can be labeled Reduced Fat if the oil content is reduced by 331/3% of the original (standard) level. Fabricated snack foods can be prepared with reduced fat in the formula v i a reduced oil pickup. Potato chips are par-fried and the remainder of the moisture is removed in a chamber using high-velocity steam, hot air, or nitrogen. The final product is similar in appearance to standard fried potato chips, except that the low-oil product is far less oily on the surface. The low-oil product has a reduced fried food flavor compared with regular potato chips. Baked Potato Chips. The demand for low-fat cookies and crackers increased in the 1990s. There was also an increased demand for baked potato chips at that time. The product is made with potato flakes as the primary ingredient. The dough is sheeted, cut into desired size and shape, and then baked. Although the product met the demand from a specific segment of the general consumer group, the popularity of the product never grew. As a matter of fact, the sales of low-oil and no-oil products have declined. Chapter 1 of this book provides some statistics on snack food consumption in the United States. There has been a shift in consumer demand as well as industry patterns for low-oil and no-oil products. The current thrust is on healthful products made with natural, organic ingredients using nonhydrogenated oil. Fryers with Special Features Multizone Fryers. Large-scale production lines use multizone fryers. The heated oil enters the fryer at several entry points (Fig. 7.12). Dehydration of the product
Fig. 7.12. Multizone fryer (courtesy of Heat & Control).
Fig. 7.13. (Courtesy of Heat & Control).
can be controlled better with this system. A disadvantage of this design is that one must take extra care to ascertain that the oil volume is not too high; otherwise the oil turnover time can increase and cause rapid oil degradation. Heat Wave Fryers. This is an innovation of the Heat & Control company (Hayward, CA). Hot oil is allowed to come down on the product like a curtain as the product passes through on a special belt. The fryer has the ability to fry a variety of products. The oil volume required is low and the actual oil flow and contact with the food is gentle, thus minimizing oil degradation. This type of fryer is capable of frying coated products, fabricated, formed products and various products that are individually fed on the fryer-in feed. The oil volume is much lower than required in a standard design fryer of equal production capacity. These fryers are more costly but are more efficient in terms of heat utilization and attaining product characteristics. Fryer manufacturers are constantly looking for ways to improve fryer design, heat efficiency, and oil filtration capability in order to meet the challenge of the friedfeed industry.
Chapter 8
Critical Elements in the Selection and Operation of Restaurant Fryers

Monoj K. Gupta
Introduction
Restaurants serve freshly fried foods to their customers. These products are fried in small countertop or floor-model fryers. Food-service operations or fast-food restaurants generally fry par-fried fish, meat and vegetable products in floor-model fryers. Selection of a specific type of fryer depends on the application. For example, in small restaurants in which the demand is sparse and the volume is not high, a countertop fryer is adequate for the service. In a fast-food restaurant, the fryer must have a high capacity and quicker heat recovery for fast service. Typically, a floor-model fryer with large oil volume and high heat capacity is used. A floormodel pressure fryer is used for frying chicken, breaded shrimp, or breaded fish. Turkey fryers in which a whole bird is fried and served have become common in certain areas. Some floor-model fryers are equipped with oil filters, in which the oil is filtered at a certain frequency. Very few floor-model fryers provide a continuous oil filtering system. Oil cooling devices are not provided. Oil in the vat cools naturally when frying stops and the fryer is turned off. Restaurant fryers are most damaging to the oil because of the prolonged exposure of the oil to high temperatures and frequent down times during the day when no frying is conducted. The oil is filtered once or twice each day in most restaurants. Some restaurants use powders that remove the free fatty acids (FFA) and color from the oil. This procedure has both advantages and disadvantages, which will be discussed later. Types of Restaurant Fryers The principal categories of restaurant fryers are: Countertop fryers Floor-type fryers that are used by fast-food and food-service operations Pressure fryers Turkey fryers
Countertop Fryers. These fryers are very convenient for frying small quantities of food at a time, and can have single or dual baskets. The oil capacity can range from 15 to 30 lbs, with ~15 to 20 lbs in single-basket fryers. These fryers are equipped with temperature control systems that can heat the oil to 400F (204.4C) and automatically shut off the heat to let the oil cool down to 200F (93.3C) if the fryer is left idle for several minutes. The oil remains at this temperature until frying is resumed. The heat capacity of these fryers ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 BTU/h. There are countertop pressure fryers that are typically used for frying fish or shrimp. These fryers are normally equipped with a single pressure setting and automatic shut-off, and are very convenient to use for small-scale restaurants and also for research projects. Examples of countertop fryers are pictured in Figure 8.1. Floor-Model Fryers. Floor-type fryers (Fig. 8.2) are most common in restaurants and food-service institutions. The capacity varies greatly. The oil-holding capacity of the frying pan ranges from 40 to 90 lbs. The fryers can have single or dual baskets or split frying pans with individual temperature controls. The oil is heated by either gas or electricity. The heat capacities of these fryers can range from 90,000 to 200,000 BTU/h. Some fryers are designed to have rapid heat recovery to respond to the high demand of fast-food restaurants. Generally, the fryer controllers have an on-off power switch that turns on power either to the gas control system or to the heating elements, if the fryers are electrically heated. The control system typically has two operating modes, i.e., standby and high heat (or fry). The fryer is kept on standby when the demand is low, such as after the lunch rush or in the late evening. Most restaurant frying is carried out at 335375F (168190.6C). A specific amount of food is placed in a basket, which is lowered into the vat. The temperature drops immediately and then it gradually recovers. It is important for the oil temperature to recover within a specific period of time to obtain proper texture, appearance, and flavor of the fried food. This recovery time is especially critical
Single basket
Dual basket
Fig. 8.1. Three types of countertop fryer.
Pressure fryer
Fig. 8.2. Typical floor-type restaurant fryer.
for chicken, fish, and other meat products because the interior of the product must reach a specific temperature to prevent food-borne diseases associated with such products. For other products, such as French fries, vegetables, funnel cakes, or coated cheese, the temperature profile for the frying oil is important to maintain the desired product characteristics. Table 8.1 shows a typical oil temperature profile during frying of French fries in a twin-pan countertop fryer, Model 5301A manufactured by Star Manufacturing International, (Smithville, TN). The individual vats had an oil capacity of 15 lbs and a total thermal capacity of 45,000 BTU/h. Table 8.2 indicates the temperature profile for frying par-fried coated chicken. These floor-type fryers generally have V-shaped frying pans. The narrow lower part of the pan is known as the cool zone, where the oil temperature is much lower than that in the frying zone, above. This physical arrangement allows the food crumbs to accumulate in the cool zone, which minimizes scorching of this material. Scorched food material can darken the fried food and also impart a burnt taste.
TABLE 8.1 Fryer Oil Temperature Profile During Frying of French Friesa
Steps Initial fryer oil temperature Fryer oil temperature dropped immediately Temperature after first 1 min 30 s Temperature after 2 min 45 s Product is taken out and temperature is allowed to recover to fry the next batch
aThe
Fryer oil temperature [F (C)] 375 2 (190.6 1.1C) <330 (165.6C) 330 (165.6C) 345350 (173.9176.7C) 375 2 (190.6 1.1C)
batch size was 0.75 lb; the total fry time/batch was 2 min 45 s.
TABLE 8.2 Fryer Oil Temperature Profile During Frying of Par-Fried Chickena
Steps Initial fryer oil temperature The fryer oil temperature dropped rapidly Temperature after 4 min Interior temperature of the product Product was taken out and temperature was allowed to recover to fry the next batch
aThe
Fryer oil temperature [F (C)] 360 2 (182.2 1.1C) 330 (165.6C) 350 (176.7C) 160 (71.1C) 360 (182.2 1.1C)
batch size was 1 lb; the total fry time/batch was 4 min.
Some manufacturers offer floor-model fryers with built-in filters (see Fig. 8.3). These filters are made of stainless steel mesh, a layer of filter paper normally used on the screen. A built-in pump circulates the oil through the screen for several minutes. The filtered oil is used to flush the residual solids in the fryer pan. The filtered oil is put back in the fryer pan and stored until the next operation. Generally the oil is filtered once or twice daily. Certain restaurants perform filtration three times a day. External filters (see schematic diagram in Fig. 8.4) are also available to filter the fryer oils. These filters are very similar to the built-in filters; they can be hazardous, however, because of the high oil temperature and more manual operation. Burns from hot oil are one of the most common accidents in a fast-food restaurant. Continuous oil filtration systems are also available in certain fryer brands. Pressure Fryers. Pressure fryers are used for frying almost any type of product, although they are used largely for frying chicken, meat products, and breaded shrimp. The fryer is equipped with a lid that can be held tightly to maintain specific pressure inside the frying vat. The pressure can range from 5 to 15 psi (lbs/in2). The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established the standard
Fig. 8.3. Floor fryer with oil filter system.
Fig. 8.4. Schematic diagram for a general filter system for a restaurant fryer.
pressure setting of 15 psig (lbs/in2 gauge) in 1917. This was done primarily for food and operator safety. The older model fryers operated only at a single pressure setting of 15 psig by the jiggle-top load setting. By changing the load on the jiggletop relief valve, one could reduce the operating pressure. The newer fryers can operate at low (5 psig), medium (810 psig), and high pressure (15 psig). Typical applications for the various operating pressures are listed in Table 8.3. Par-fried foods or other prepared foods have specific recipes that recommend the pressure settings to be used. This makes it essential to have a pressure fryer that is not simply preset at a specific operating pressure, limiting the capability of the restaurant. The primary benefit of a pressure fryer is the rapid fry time. Another claimed benefit is the retention of good flavor in the product. For example, the Original Recipe of Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) is fried in pressure fryers. It is claimed that the subtle volatile flavor components are better retained in the product due to enclosed pressure frying. This is a reasonable claim because, in contrast,
TABLE 8.3 Applications for Various Operating Pressures in Pressure Fryers
Operating pressure (psig) Operating temperature (F) Type of food fried Low 5 220 Fish, breaded shrimp, soft-textured vegetables Medium 810 235 Rice, pudding, or custard High 15 250 Every type of food
during conventional frying, the food aroma is released and lost into the surrounding area, such as the kitchen. Some of the volatile flavor components are stripped from the food by the evaporating water during frying. The flavor components penetrate into the product more in a pressure fryer. Like the other restaurant fryers, pressure fryers are available in countertop as well as floor models. Figure 8.5 shows both types of fryers. Turkey Fryers. These fryers have become common in recent years. The fryer is cylindrical in shape and has a perforated basket to hold the food. The fryer can cook a whole turkey or chicken in 6 min. The heat source is normally natural gas and is supplied from the bottom of the frying pan. The entire system includes the following components: (i) stainless steel stock pot; (ii) a vented lid perforated basket (or rack) for the poultry; (iii) a grab hook on the basket; (iv) thermometer; (v) a gas cooker; and (vi) a seasoning injector to inject oil and seasoning into the bird. The heating system has a temperature regulator and a thermal capacity of 150,000 to 200,000 BTU/h. Figure 8.6 shows a typical turkey fryer with its accessories. Typical Fryer Operation at a Restaurant The typical restaurant operation involves starting up the fryer early in the morning. The frying temperature can range from 335 to 375F (168190.6C), depending on the product. The oil is maintained at a certain minimum temperature when there are no customers. The typical routine in a restaurant fryer operation is as follows: The fryer is started in the morning with lunch and dinner as the busiest times; the rest of the time, business is slow. The oil must be kept hot at all times; it is filtered once each day, or sometimes two or three times a day. The fryer is cleaned at night and refilled with the used oil. A small amount of fresh oil is added for make-up.
Countertop type
Floor type
Fig. 8.5. Two types of pressure fryer.
Fig. 8.6. Turkey fryer with its accessories.
Selection of Oil for Restaurant Frying Oil receives the harshest treatment in a restaurant fryer. The oil remains hot for 1618 h/d; during this time, the hot oil remains in the fryer without any food being fried. Under these conditions, the oil is damaged rapidly. It can develop an unpleasant abused odor, which can produce unappetizing fried food flavor. Because food at a restaurant is consumed within minutes after frying, the effect of bad oil quality is not always apparent to the consumers. However, occasionally, such food held under ultraviolet (UV) light develops an off-flavor reminiscent of oxidized or abused oil. The type of fat used in a restaurant is generally made from partially and fully hydrogenated oils. The oils are derived from various sources, such as soybean, cottonseed, palm, canola, and animal fat such as tallow. Table 8.4 lists the typical shortenings and oils used in a restaurant. Effect of Restaurant Frying on Oil and Food The restaurant serves fried food to receive customer satisfaction. This can be achieved only by meeting the following criteria: 1. Produce palatable food 2. Maintain good product flavor 3. Maintain good product texture 4. Do not produce oil-soaked product 5. Do not have the coating fall off the food 6. Maintain long fry-life for the oil
TABLE 8.4 Typical Oils and Shortenings Used in Restaurant Frying

Product Extra crispy chicken French fries Batter-coated vegetables Frying fat Hydrogenated shortening with a melt point of 105115F (4046C) Comments Made from soybean, cottonseed, palm, or canola oil with varying degrees of hydrogenation. Frying shortenings also contain synthetic antioxidant (TBHQ) and, in most cases, an antifoaming agent such as polydimethyl siloxane. Soybean oil with an iodine value (IV) of 90100 is commonly used in the United States. Canola oil with an IV of 8090 is used. Palm oil is used in Asia, Europe, Africa, Central America and South America. All restaurant frying oils should contain TBHQ and polydimethyl siloxane for good performance.
Pourable shortening with a melt point of 108115F (42.246C)
Batter-coated shrimp Batter-coated fish fillet Onion rings Lightly coated chicken for pressure frying
Lightly hydrogenated soybean or canola oil, palm oil or palm olein Pourable shortening with a melt point of 100105F High-oleic sunflower, high-oleic canola, low-linolenic canola; NuSun can also be used
Abbreviation: TBHQ, tert-butylhydroquinone.
However, the restaurant has to operate under certain constraint which have a great effect on the success or failure in meeting the above criteria. Typical examples of the constraints in a restaurant operation are as follows: (i) prolonged exposure of the frying oil to high heat; (ii) contamination of the oil with the metals, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and other impurities from the food coating and pretreatment; and (iii) reactions from the accumulated crumbs in the fryer. All of these affect the oil quality. When the oil becomes dark, the food may reflect the dark oil color or burnt flavor, and may even appear underfried, depending on the quality of the oil in the fryer. The common effects on the oil in the fryer are as follows: (i) decomposition of the oil; (ii) darkening of the oil; (iii) development of off-flavor in the food; (iv) incomplete frying; and (v) the accumulation of crumbs in the fryer. A large number of impurities are also formed in the fryer during operation. These compounds are damaging to the oil in many ways. Some cause hydrolysis of
the oil, forming FFA, whereas others cause oxidation and polymerization of the oil. Specific impurities accumulated in the fryer oil include phosphorus and trace metals from the food and the coating material; protein from the meat product; carbohydrates from vegetable products and the coatings; carbon particles formed from the starch and other carbohydrates; and oxidation products from the oil breakdown. Phosphates of calcium, magnesium, and aluminum are used in the batter coating and in the pretreatment of French fries. These metals form soap with the FFA in the oil. The soap then catalyzes the hydrolysis process, causing rapid formation of more FFA. At some point, this reaction becomes autocatalytic when the FFA content in the oil rises very rapidly. Protein causes darkening of the oil through the Browning reaction process that develops the fried food flavor. Carbohydrates react with the oil and eventually lead to hydrolysis. Charred products from both carbohydrate and protein sources accumulate in the oil, causing darkening, as well as the development of off-flavor in the fried food. The charred materials act as adsorbents of the oil decomposition products, which are polar in nature. These compounds are free radicals and cause further oxidation of the oil in the fryer. This is why the oil in restaurant fryers has the following characteristics: high FFA, excessive oil oxidation, and high polymerization. During frying of foods containing lipids at a measurable level (such as parfried French fries, chicken, or fish fillet), there is always an exchange of fats between the fryer oil and the oil/fat from the food being fried. Table 8.5 shows a typical fatty acid composition in a restaurant fryer, in which the par-fried chicken was fried in corn oil for 80 h. The data indicate that the oil in the fryer had a significant increase in palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids and a significant reduction in linoleic acid concentrations. This indicates an exchange of oil between the food and the fryer oil. Improving Restaurant Fryer Operation The quality of fried food and the performance of the fryer at a fast-food restaurant or in food-service operations can be significantly improved by implementing certain operation procedures as listed below: 1. Clean the fryer thoroughly every night. Remove all gums and deposits by scrubbing the fryer pan and the heating coils. 2. Look for hot spots, indicated by discoloration of the fryer pan surface, and repair or replace the pan if there are hot spots. 3. Filter the oil at least once or twice each day. 4. Add fresh oil to the fryer at regular intervals, such as every 2 h. 5. Treat the oil once or twice each day with proper treating agents, which are commercially available. 6. Develop a plan to discard the fryer oil on the basis of product taste and flavor.
TABLE 8.5 Composition Change of Fatty Acids in the Fryer During Chicken Frying
Fatty acid Palmitic (C16:0) Stearic (C18:0) Oleic (C18:1) Linoleic (C18:2) Linolenic (C18:3) Fat extracted from fresh par-fried chicken 13.2 7.3 45.7 32.5 1.2 Fresh corn oil in the fryer (%) 10.70 1.97 28.59 57.33 0.97 Fryer oil after 80 h of frying 11.83 4.45 37.81 44.37 1.04
Measuring Oil Quality in the Fryer Measuring oil quality to decide whether to discard it is one of the most ill-defined and empirical operations conducted in a restaurant. In most operations, the restaurant manager or a senior employee decides when the oil from a fryer should be discarded. Generally, oil color and/or the foam height in the fryer are used to determine the termination point for the oil. Both approaches are subjective and can lead to error, with the oil either being discarded prematurely or used beyond its limit for optimal product flavor and taste. There are several physical and chemical quick tests available to restaurants. In most cases, they have either operational or cost limitations. In addition, restaurants undergo very high rates of turnover of personnel in the kitchen. The personnel who operate the kitchen do not always feel comfortable with the test kits. Therefore, testing oil at a restaurant is a major challenge. There are no Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations on frying oil quality in the United States. Chile and most countries in Europe have adopted some form of regulations to control the quality of frying oil at restaurants. This, to some degree, compels the restaurant personnel to learn the techniques of testing fryer oil for quality and to determine when to discard it. Several test methods have been introduced to make a quick determination of oil quality in the fryer. These methods and devices may be classified as physical and chemical. Physical Tests: Noninstrumental. These include oil color, clarity, and foam height. In the past, color wands and color strips were promoted to determine the oil quality in a restaurant fryer. These were not very successful because they did not provide any practical help to the restaurant personnel. This is because a universal color standard does not apply for all types of oil. Sometimes cottonseed oil, corn oil, and palm olein turn darker than soybean or sunflower oil in a restaurant-type fryer even though the oil quality is perfect for frying foods. The restaurant operator would believe that darker colored oil was bad, and therefore throw away perfectly good oil just because of its darker color. Oil clarity diminishes as the oil is used. Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) introduced a visual tester that they called the visibility tester. It is a stainless steel rod
attached to a shiny silver disk at the end. The rod has a linear scale showing three indented marks, which are used to judge shortening quality. The shiny disk is lowered into the oil with the depth of insertion monitored on the rod. A penlight is held next to the rod, turned on and the disk observed. The oil is discarded if the disk is not visible at a certain depth. All of the above tests are highly subjective. They may or may not help the restaurant personnel to manage the oil quality and decide when to discard it. Physical Tests: Instrumental. These include Fri-Check, viscosity meter, food oil sensor, and the 3M PCT tester. Dr. Christian Gertz of Hagen, Germany developed the Fri-Check testing device. The test relates the viscosity and density of the oil to its degradation as determined by the concentration of polar material and polymers. The unit consists of an electronic box with a removable steel tube. The tube is filled with the oil to be tested and maintained at constant temperature. A cylindrical metal piece is then carefully released at the top of the tube filled with oil. The time required by this object to fall a measured height is noted. This time is dependent on the density and viscosity of the oil. Because the density and viscosity of the oil increase with the formation of polar materials and polymers in frying, the falling-time can be related to the degree of oil decomposition. In actual tests, the Fri-Check data correlated well with the percentage of polar material and polymers in the oil. The system is relatively simple and can be used for monitoring degradation of used frying fats in a restaurant. G.E.C. Marconi of Chelmsford, England and the scientists at Leatherhead Food Research developed an instrument to measure viscosity of oil. The principle of operation is similar to that of a tuning fork. Dampening of the vibration depends on the viscosity of the surrounding fluid, and resonance depends on density. This instrument could be used at a restaurant; however, determination of the actual point of termination for the oil can be difficult at a restaurant. The Northern Instrument Company has been marketing the Food Oil Sensor since the late 1970s. The instrument monitors the change in the value of the dielectric constant in frying fat. This value increases as the oil is degraded due to the formation of polar material in the oil. Operation of this instrument is simple but is prone to error due to improper cleaning of the instrument. This makes the instrument less suitable for restaurants. This is a good tool for a research laboratory. The 3M Company (Europe) introduced an instrument called the Polar Compound Tester or PCT 120. This instrument operates on the principle of polarity developed in the oil with frying. Although the instrument is easy to use and provides good information, some restaurant operators find it difficult to use. Chemical Tests. These include Oxifrit and Fri-Test (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany); alkaline contaminant material/polar component material (ACM/PCM; Mir-Oil); total polar material (TPM), FFA, and water emulsion titratables (WET; Test Kit Technologies); acid value (AV; Advantek; and Shortening Monitor-3M).
The Merck Company developed the Oxifrit and Fri-Test to measure oil quality in frying operations, especially in restaurants. The Fri-Test measures the alkali color number to indicate oxidized fatty acid (OFA) and the Oxifrit Test measures oxidation products in the fryer oil. Both tests are colorimetric and use a solventbased reagent system. The only drawback to these tests is that like many other methods, they are complicated for restaurant personnel. The ACM and PCM tests were developed and patented by Libra Laboratories. Patent and distribution rights are now owned by Oil Process Systems of Allentown, PA. Oil Process Systems, also known by the name of Mir-Oil, manufactures and distributes filter materials. The ACM test measures alkaline contaminant materials, which include soaps. The PCM test measures polar contaminant materials (accumulated polar), which are solvent-based colorimetric tests. These tests produce quick results and could be used at a restaurant. However, the addition of a solvent makes it difficult for restaurant personnel. Test Kit Technologies has been manufacturing and marketing rapid tests for measuring TPM, FFA percentage, and WET for >10 y. The Gel-in-Tube Instant Chemistry (GITIC) technique is used. With the GITIC technology, hot oil samples are collected from the fryer, filtered, and added directly to the gel. The oil melts the gel and the components of the gel react with the oil to produce a color. While still hot, the tube is placed in a small colorimeter and a reading is obtained. The reading may be related directly to oil quality and used for monitoring oil oxidation. The TPM test is a single-phase test, whereas the FFA and WET tests have two phases, producing a colored bottom layer, all of which are read by the instrument. The users must establish their own color limits to reflect the oil quality standards for their product. This instrument is simple but the cost of the tubes can be prohibitive for many restaurants. In addition, the restaurants are not trained to develop their own oil quality criteria for discard as required by this instrument. The 3M Company of St. Paul, Minnesota developed the Shortening Monitor, which consists of a white strip of paper, measuring 0.3 3.75 in., with four blue bands across it. The strips are used as a dip test to measure accumulated FFA, similar to commonly used pH papers. The tests were developed to provide users, especially those in the fast-food industry, with an inexpensive means to objectively measure FFA in cooking oil. This test might be suitable for restaurants because the FFA in restaurant fryers tend to run high and might be effective in predicting the imminence of a lower smoke point in the fryer oil. Advantec manufactures and distributes test strips for measuring the acid value (AV) in the fryer oil. The product is marketed in Asia through Ajinomoto. This is similar to the 3M test-strip, and monitors acid value in the oil. The operator places a plastic strip with an indicator on the tip into the cooking oil. The color indicator changes from dark blue to a light olive green color depending on the acid value of the oil. The color chart is given in Table 8.6. This test strip can be a useful addition to FFA percentages for assessing oil quality criteria in a restaurant fryer.
TABLE 8.6 Color Chart Used to Gauge the Acid Value of the Oil
Color Blue Dark green Green Light green Olive Very light olive Acid value (%) 0.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Filtration and Treatment of Oil The oil from the fryer must be cleaned routinely to obtain good fried food quality. Oil filtration can be done through an external filter in which the oil is collected in a pot with a screen at the bottom. In many operations, a filter paper or filter cloth is used on top of the filter screen. The oil is circulated through the screen with the help of a pump. The fryer pan is rinsed with the clean oil and then the filtered oil is put back into the fryer pan. This process removes most of the particulate matter accumulated at the bottom of the pan (cool zone) during frying. This can help reduce the burnt color and flavor in fried food. Some fryers have built-in filters (see Fig. 8.3). The external type filter is shown in Figure 8.4. Impurities in the oil can be removed more effectively by treating the oil with treatment powders. These materials remove the soap and polar materials from the oil. This can significantly improve the fry life for the oil. There are several oil treatment powders that are available in the market to treat the fryer oil during filtration. Manufacturers of these chemicals claim that the frying oil can be used longer when these treatment chemicals are used. Some of these materials can significantly reduce the FFA and color in the fryer oil. Restaurant owners like to have lighter color oil because the point of oil discard is based mainly on the darkness of the oil. However, some of these treatment materials reduce FFA by chemically reacting with alkali, which produces soap in the oil due to the reaction between the FFA and the alkali metal present in the treatment material. The presence of soap in the fryer oil can lead to the following phenomena: Foaming in the fryer, which can increase oxidation of the oil and reduce its fry life Development of an unpleasant flavor in the fried food Change in the appearance of the fried food Food adulteration; according to the regulatory guidelines in many countries including the United States, the presence of soap in a frying oil may adulterate the food Therefore, one must select a treatment powder that does not react chemically with the FFA, but removes the oil impurities by a physical adsorption process.
While selecting the material from a supplier, the restaurant owner or manager must look at the test data from the company and make sure that the soap content in the oil after treatment is not higher than before treatment. In addition, one must be knowledgeable about the recommended oil temperature for the addition of these chemicals in the oil. The temperature of contact can be critical in the case of certain treatment ingredients. For example, certain treatment materials contain citric acid. Citric acid is a metal chelator and is expected to remove the excess metal ions that are absorbed by the fryer oil during frying. Unfortunately, citric acid breaks down if the oil temperature is >284F (140C). Oil, transferred to the filter basin, can be hotter because the frying temperature in a restaurant fryer is much higher and the operator may not allow sufficient time for the oil to cool under the ambient condition before the treatment material is added to the oil. Incidentally, restaurant fryers do not have any oil cooling capability. The oil temperature is not necessarily checked before the treatment starts. Therefore, the oil treatment will produce variable results in the day-to-day operation in part because of the destruction of the citric acid. Some manufacturers claim that their material does not have to be removed from the oil. This would be against the Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) according to the U.S. FDA and the Food Codex. The treatment material, added into the oil should be circulated through the filter screen for 515 min, as described earlier. The cleaned oil is then put back into the fryer. The fry life of the oil is increased by 2550% in some instances. The flavor of the fried food also improves with the oil treatment, which is significant. However, one must look at the overall economics. The cost of oil treatment material, the recommended frequency of treatment, dosage of the treatment material, and the savings on oil must be checked carefully to justify the use of the material.
Summary
Restaurant fryers are designed to fry small quantities of foods on demand and serve them promptly after they are fried. The oil in a restaurant fryer is damaged more than in a continuous industrial fryer. A kettle fryer used in the industrial operation comes close to a restaurant fryer in terms of oil damage. There is a wide range of sizes of fryers available to meet the need of a restaurant. Countertop fryers are especially suited to small restaurants. Floor-type fryers, which have much larger frying pan and production capability, are used in fast-food restaurants and large food-service operations. Pressure fryers can be used for frying various food products for quick frying. However, this type of fryer provides the added advantage that the flavor is retained better in the food and the oil generally has a longer fry life. Turkey fryers are unique. These are being used more and more by restaurants to fry the whole birds. Oil quality is important in producing good product flavor at a restaurant. Because the food is consumed soon after it is fried, one could allow a higher degradation of the fryer oil quality compared with that for packaged snack food. Fresh
oil quality standards for restaurant frying must be similar to those listed in Table 5.1 (Chap. 5). One must remember that not all of these analyses are performed routinely by the oil processors. Therefore, it may cost more for the oil if one wants all of those analyses to be performed on every receipt of oil. This is cost prohibitive for any type of operation. In the United States, there is very little problem with the mono- and diglycerides in seed oils. Therefore an occasional check on the trace impurities, such as iron, FFA, calcium, and magnesium may be sufficient for fresh oils for restaurants. Oil filtration at the fryer is required to improve the flavor and appearance of the fried food at a restaurant. In addition, treatment of the oil with some treatment material in a proper manner can improve the fry life of the oil. This, in turn, can provide a significant improvement in the product flavor and appearance. One must be careful about choosing the type of treatment material and make sure that it does not produce soap in the oil. Extra soap in the oil will reduce the frying performance of the oil after treatment. There are no good procedures or gadgets to check the oil quality in a restaurant fryer. The procedure or the gadget must be simple and foolproof for it to be effective in a restaurant kitchen. Some of the gadgets described earlier are relatively simple, but still are difficult to monitor when one has to depend on a fryer operator who does not have the basic skills to operate an instrument or a testing device that requires specific operational procedures to be followed. One must use the procedures outlined above for typical restaurant fryer operations along with good judgment to enhance the performance of a restaurant fryer. References
1. 2. 3. 4. Anonymous, Test Strip for Frying Fats, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 63:838 (1986). Anonymous, Oils and Fats Research at Leatherhead Food RA, Inform 3:586 (1992). Anonymous, Viscosity Tester Method, KFC Corporation R & D/QC (1995). Gertz, C., Chemical and Physical Parameters as Quality Indicators of Used Frying Oils, Eur. J. Lipid Technol. 102:566 (2000). 5. Graziano, V.J., Portable Instrument Rapidly Measures Quality of Frying Fat in Food Service Operations, Food Technol. 33:52 (1979). 6. Kress-Rogers, E., P.N. Gillatt, and J.B. Rossell, Development and Evaluation of a Novel Sensor for In Situ Assessment of Frying Oil Quality, Food Control xx:163 (1990).
Chapter 9
Technology of Coating and Frying Food Products

Ronald J. Sasiela
Icelandic USA Incorporated, Cambridge, MD 21613
Introduction
The frying of coated food products is a complex subject studied by many specialty companies that market batter and breading ingredients and equipment companies that supply coating and frying systems to food processors and restaurants. This chapter provides a broad overview of these two segments of the industry; the interested reader is referred to the extensive reference list, as well as web sites of those major corporations. Why Coat Products Before Frying? This question may appear trivial at first, but it is subtle in many ways. The art, and it is often more an art than a science, of coated food products is replete with many stories of successful new products and those that were relegated to the scrap heap. Certainly there are few individuals who do not know about the start and popularity of Kentucky Fried Chicken by an astute businessman Colonel Harlan Sanders back in the 1950s. Using a secret recipe of 16 herbs and spices, he commercialized the finger-lickn good taste that has grown to nearly 10,000 restaurants in >40 different countries, with current annual sales of $9.7 billion (1,2). Escoffier, in his classic 1941 text Guide Culinaire, devoted no less than eight full pages to explaining the then true art of sauting and frying. He states in a succinct manner: All products . . . must be put into the fat when it is very hot in order that a hardened coating may form on their surfaces which will keep their juices in (3). Perhaps the key and most important reason for coating food products is to add to their taste. Whether it be for adding flavor to a somewhat bland food (the spices of Harlan Sanderss chicken coating) or the coatings antidrying effect on Escoffiers veal cutlet, without their respective farinaceous enrobing, the final creations would not have made it, so to speak, to the radar screen in present-day marketing jargon. Coatings also have a profound effect on the cost of the final product, almost always reducing its price per pound to the consumer, while providing a valueadded feature. For example, by starting with chicken tender strips at $2.00/lb and applying 30% batter and breading at a hydrated cost of $0.30/lb, the ingredient cost of the final coated chicken tender strip would be $1.49/lb, or a reduction in cost of 25.5%. Of course, the labor expense and equipment amortization charges
would partially offset that cost difference, yet the added benefits to the restaurant owner or retail customer in convenience are often incalculable. They would now have a consistent tasty coated food product that could simply be dropped into the restaurant fryer for a quick 3- to 4-min service, or be baked at home, both without the laborious, time-consuming procedure of preparing the individual coated pieces. Deep-frying at home is regarded as a great inconvenience by U.S. consumers especially, who prefer not having to deal with the safety issues of hot frying oil and the lingering frying oil aroma that can extend well beyond the kitchen. In fact, a famous jingle coined by an early New York chain pioneer in take-out fried chicken went, Don't cook tonight, call Chicken Delight! Product convenience was a cornerstone of their successful marketing strategy when established in 1964. Mr. Clarence Birdseyes 1932 pioneering of commercial freezing systems and the advent of a frozen distribution system in the United States paved the way for a new frozen fish dinner. When he helped invent the ubiquitous fish stick in the 1950s, it was the convenience of oven baking a crumb-coated fish fillet segment that attracted the attention of consumers, especially those not close to a coastline where fresh seafood would have been readily available (Dr. Aaron Brody, personal communication, 2003). This author can personally attest to the marvel and celebration that accompanied the arrival of the first large chest freezer in his parents small corner grocery store in Brooklyn, New York at that time. The advent of the novelty and convenience of quick-frozen foods was underway. The development of the frozen fish block, a boneless, skinless cohesive mass of fillet, subsequently opened the path for low-cost, mass-produced seafood that surged to popularity. Arthur Treachers Fish & Chips similarly increased to nearly a 2000-unit franchise based on the original patented technique of making true English-style, batter-coated cod fillets for eagerly awaiting diners (4). No doubt, their use of peanut oil as a frying medium contributed a subtle taste preferred by patrons (Neil J. Trager, personal communication, 2003). The popularity of the famous Wisconsin Friday-night fish fry for which virtually every restaurant in that state serves batter-coated fish fillets, further attests to the insatiable longing for the mouthfeel delivered by (i) the flavor of the moist food substrate, in this case often codfish, (ii) the crispy, mildly seasoned, puffed batter coating, and (iii) the sensory experience of the warm frying oil on the palate. Types of Coatings Used on Food Products Food coatings can be broken down into several classification systems. For instance, one could refer to liquid coatings or dry granular particles as being the final covering on the product before frying (5). The type of processing equipment also could dictate how one refers to a certain type of product (6). It can be helpful to initially classify the product, keeping in mind (i) its intended final method of cooking, and (ii) its desired surface texture (7). This approach clearly delineates the ingredients and process to be used to create the final consumed product. Start with the end in mind might be an appropriate expression. Secondary considera-
tions of crust color, seasoning levels, visuals in the crust (e.g., herbs or seeds) can be regarded as cosmetic in nature, always being subservient to the two lead objectives. Such an approach would initially require that the product be predetermined for final preparation by the following techniques: regular, impingement, or convection oven baking; deep fat frying; grilling; microwave oven; quartz oven; broiling; and pan sauting, or other heating appliance or a combination of two or more intended cooking procedures. The second group of selection criteria would resonate from the food's surface textural considerations. These include a choice of the following: cracker meal; American-style bread crumbs; Japanese-style bread crumbs; fresh bread crumbs; coarse crushed crackers; extruded crumbs; root vegetables, e.g., shredded potatoes; chicken-fried steak coating; tempura batter; fish and chip batter; and corn dog batter. Annual Amounts of Coated Products Manufactured The annual combined volume of the commonly coated food substrates processed in the United States well exceeds billions of pounds. Consumption of French fried potatoes alone in the United States is 45 lb/capita (~10 billion lb/y) with an increasing percentage of that switching to unique coated versions exhibiting extended heat-lamp superiority and tantalizing coated seasoned crusts. Once a commodity, the lowly French fry has been elevated to near pedestal status because it is now used by fast food chains to differentiate themselves in an ever increasingly competitive market segment. Indeed, French fry wars have been fought between the two leading fast food hamburger chains in the United States, based on a coating technology arsenal (8)! French fry manufacturing companies have begun advertising lines of spicy options for restaurants to select from. Names such as Flamethrower FriesTM (9) and Redstone CanyonTM Seasoned Fries with Spirited Flavor Kickin Crunch (10) leave little to the imagination of their intent. That latter potato processor's ad even boasts . . . the world leader in French fries and an innovator in batters and coatings. Similarly, seafood consumption in the United States is currently 15 lb/capita, with much of that consumed with a batter or breading coating. In 2001, U.S. production of fish sticks reached 43,014,000 lb, fish portions sold 189,186,000, and breaded shrimp sold 152,192,000 lb for a combined economic value of $816,362,000 (11). Nearly 26.4% of Germanys 167,000 tons of seafood consumed annually is in battered and breaded forms (Dr. Reinhard Schubring, personal communication, 2003). Processed poultry parts, coated vegetables, cheese, and corn dogs are the other major contributors to the multibillionpound market for coated foods. A fast food chains need for quick service resulted in increasing use of their deep-fat fryers. Demands for signature coated foods that can be cooked rapidly, utilizing the limited culinary skill level of their staff, have followed. This list (Table 9.1) is not meant to be exhaustive, but purely illustrative and a primer for further innovative thought.
TABLE 9.1 Commonly Battered and Breaded Food Products

Seafood Fish sticks Fish fillets and portions Oysters Shrimp Clam strips Calamari rings Poultry Bone-in chicken parts Chicken strips (tenders) Chicken patties Chicken nuggets Turkey cutlets Cheese sticks Vegetables Onion rings, strips, chips, blossom Bell peppers Okra Eggplant Sauerkraut balls Cucumbers Cauliflower Potatoes Mushrooms Zucchini Stuffed jalapeo peppers Meat products Corn dogs Pork fritters Veal cutlet patties Ground meat patties Nuts Ravioli
Fried ice cream Fruit Apple fritters Fried bananas
Ingredients and Processing Equipment Commonly Used for Batter, Breading, and Frying
Types of Batters and Their Commercial Applicators Adhesion-Type Batters. These are pumpable, meaning they can be recirculated within applicator machines without adversely affecting their functionality. They are used as the initial fluid over which dry breading is then applied. Adhesion-type batters usually consist of a blend of wheat flour, food starch, corn flour, gums, milk, eggs, and seasonings. Commercially, batters of this type, as well as others, are produced by batter and breading companies staffed by food technologists experienced in cereal science (see web sites in the References). Batter mixes are conveniently sold in 50-lb multiwall bags that provide protection during storage and transportation, yet are relatively easy to open. Some have pull-tabs on their outermost paper ply, which allows it to be readily stripped off (Fig. 9.1 foreground). Removal of this outer paper layer eliminates the introduction of extraneous matter that may be clinging to the outside of the bag into the batter mixing system and is a Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP). Water is the usual liquid used to hydrate the dry batter mix. It is inexpensive, sanitary, readily available, and does not vary in characteristics. Virtually any other fluid can be used such as beer, carbonated
Fig. 9.1. Foreground: Batter mixes are sold commercially in 50-lb bags and often feature a GMP strip tab to remove their outer ply. Background: A fully automatic batter mixer with a continuous viscosity chart recorder.
water, corn syrup, honey, or buttermilk, either full strength or diluted. One manufacturer recently introduced a coated seafood product line based on the use of a popular Buffalo wing hot sauce as its hydrating fluid (12). The actual mixing of the dry batter mix with the water is accomplished by several methods. The most common and efficient technique is to use equipment that has been specifically designed to accomplish that task. Large orbital mixing bowls with a wire whisk, or batch box mixers that automatically meter in a predetermined amount of water for 50 lb of dry mix are useful. However, equipment that (i) prepares the batter as it is needed, (ii) senses the batters viscosity and records it on a continuous chart, (iii) adjusts viscosity accordingly, (iv) chills the batter and (v) pumps it back to the batter applicator, can be well worth the additional investment by reducing downtime and delivering a more consistent quality product (Fig. 9.1 background). By preparing the batter only at the time it is needed, rather than in large batches ahead of time, the potential for waste of unused, leftover liquid batter is reduced and more importantly, the possibility of microbiological growth in the batter is minimized. Commercial stainless steel machines for application of adhesion batters vary from small 6-in wide tabletop models (13) to 40-in wide high-capacity units (Fig. 9.2). Note in the photograph the double weir design of the overflow trough,
Fig. 9.2. A 40-inch wide commercial SureCoat batter applicator. Photo courtesy
www.heatandcontrol.com.
air blower piping at the discharge, and a rod handle to a strainer basket (unseen) at the pumps sump reservoir. All of these features are useful to guarantee complete and uniform controlled batter coverage at the top, sides, and bottom of the food pieces. Batters of this type have to be prepared within a solids/liquid ratio that does not exceed the engineering limits of the recirculating pump in the batter applicator. Batter viscosity is directly influenced by the ratio of dry mix to water (Table 9.2). Note that the viscosity of high-starch batters is extremely sensitive to its batters solids/liquid ratios. They have a relatively narrow range of functionality and machinability. At higher solid ratios (>45%), the batter becomes too thick to be
TABLE 9.2 Effect of the Percentage of Solids on Batter Viscosity
% Batter solids 25 33.3 40 50 60 66.6
aKerry
Equivalent lb water/ 50 lb dry mixa 150 100 75 50 33.3 25
Viscosity (cps) at 20C 25 50 103 7720 TTTM TTTM
Viscosity (cm) at 15 s 23+ 23+ 23+ 3.75 TTTM TTTM
Industries starch batter mix #4630; TTTM, too thick to measure.
handled by the equipment, and at low solid ratios (<35%), the batter is nearly water thin and its adhesive functionality is compromised. When processing frozen substrates, the freezing point of the batter is critical for subsequent crumb adhesion. If the batter is too thin, it may form an undesirable ice film on the food's surface b e f o r e the battered piece has an opportunity to reach the crumb applicator machine, thereby resulting in poor coating adhesion and inadequate weight gain. Conversely, if the batter is excessively thick, it will contribute to tailings, i.e., unsightly attached tabs at the trailing edge of the breaded food piece. High-starch batters exhibit rapid settling when not under agitation. The deposited slurry from such settling can adversely affect pumps upon start-up due to the high shear forces they create. In a prototype development unit, one must watch the batter and periodically stir it to prevent settling of solids to the bottom (Fig. 9.3). The photograph illustrates three common batter viscosity-measuring devices: from front to back, a Bostwick consistometer for thicker tempura batters (14), two drain cup (Zahn, Stein, Norcrossnot shown) viscometers for thinner batters, and a universal Brookfield rotating-spindle viscometer (15). A cross spirit level is used to calibrate the interior of the trough of the Bostwick unit so that it is always plumb in both directions, i.e., side-to-side and front-to-back. A thermometer is used in conjunction with the viscometer because viscosity is a function of temperature. Viscosity measurement, not accompanied by its temperature, is suspect. Other socalled all-purpose batters do not have the high level of modified food starch commonly found in fish applications. However, they do not display that tenacious adhesion function and offer a broader range for the viscosity/solids ratio. Puff-Type, Tempura Batters. These differ from the above described adhesion batters as follows: They have significantly higher viscosity; their leavening content is much higher; they are not coated with any breading material; the food is simply dipped into the batter, excess batter removed, and then placed in hot frying oil to
Fig. 9.3. Using a wire whip to periodically stir settling batter ensures consistent sample characteristics. Viscosity measuring devices can range from the simple to the sophisticated.
set the coating; and they often result in a smooth surface texture. The typical arrangement of process steps to produce a batter-coated food product is illustrated in Figure 9.4. The food is prepared for tempura coating in any number of ways. For example: (i) A 16-lb commercial fish block can be cut into attractive 1.0-oz wedges (16). (ii) The pieces of fish are predusted with a fine-mesh flour. (iii) They are passed through the prepared liquid batter. (iv) They are conveyed under an air blower that removes excess liquid batter. (v) The product is then dropped into a continuous fryer at 375F for 25 s. (vi) The fried product is passed through a continuous freezer to drop its internal temperature to ~0F. Finally, the frozen product is packaged as a two-ounce finished product. Both the batter applicator and the fryer have unique design features (Fig. 9.5) that allow for handling of the wet drippy batter. In the late 1960s, Kris Gunnarsson, plant manager at Coldwater Seafood Corporation (now Icelandic USA, Inc.) overcame the challenges required to pioneer this new product category (17). This same coating sequence would be followed for virtually any food product with desired variations in the substrate-to-coating ratio. Unique formulations continue to be created for this coating category. Low-fat absorption rice coatings (18) and enhanced textural characteristics (19) are but two such recent examples. The liquid tempura applicator is of a nonrecirculating type, meaning that the batter is deposited in the batter reservoir and is not pumped. It is a static bath, through which the food products are passed. Because of the thickness of the batter and its high leavening content, the food pieces are generally conveyed in place, i.e., they are held in their orientation beneath the thick viscous batter by the friction of both an upper and lower open weave belt (Fig. 9.6). The food pieces have an extended dwell time in the batter,
Fig. 9.4. The puff-type tempura process.
Fig. 9.5. An illustration of the interior of a tempura fryer with Teflon slats onto which the wet battered food is deposited. Oil is not shown. Photo courtesy www.heatandcontrol.com.
during which the batter hydrates the foods surface predust, thereby providing superior coating adhesion. Corn Dog-Type Batters. These are used as a coating for skewered hot dogs, breakfast sausage on a stick, and other similar novelty items. Historically, they are characterized by a yellow cornmeal profile, moderate leavening puff, and often a slightly sweet taste. The consistency of this batter is critical to its proper adhesion, coverage, and flow on the skewered frankfurter. The working viscosity has a narrow operating range because of the unique manner with which the batter is applied to the hot dog. The racked skewered franks are first conveyed through the cornmeal-rich batter. Then they are withdrawn from the batter tank and rapidly inverted. The batter is thus allowed to partially flow back (by gravity) from the free end of the frank toward its wooden skewer. At the correct moment of that inverted, reversed flow, the rack is reinverted and placed into the hot frying fat, resulting in a longitudinally uniform thickness of smoothly expanding batter clinging to the hot dog (Fig. 9.7). Too viscous a batter will result in excess coating pickup, a doughy interface, splits in the outer crust, with lack of flow toward the skewered end, and a
Fig. 9.6. Commercial tempura batter applicators must transport the food piece through a thick batter while maintaining alignment and orientation. Courtesy of FMC FoodTech.
Fig. 9.7. Commercial corn dog illustrating its wooden skewer, the interior expanded batter crumb (exposed) uniformly wrapping the hot dog, and the free end that enters the hot frying oil first.
bulged free end. Similarly, too thin a batter results in a thin coating at the free end of the corn dog and excess batter running onto the wooden skewer. Careful controls at the batter mix manufacturers facility and similar controls at the processor level are critical for a satisfactory end product. Products in this category include breakfast sausage coated with a pancake-type batter, regular corn dogs with chicken, turkey, beef, or a beef/pork/cheese bit blend. Jalapeno peppers can be found in some products sold in the market. Batter flavors such as crunchy honey and chili are also available. Mini corn dogs (nonskewered) and even a cheeseburger corn dog have been marketed in this unique corn dog product form. Factors Influencing Fryer Oil Absorption in Coated Products. Frying fat that is absorbed into a batter, or battered and breaded food product is influenced by several factors (20). Because the absorption is a surface effect, the primary contributor to fat absorption is the amount of surface area of the product exposed to the frying medium. A general rule of thumb is to anticipate an amount between 8 and 12% by weight of the raw breaded product. However, secondary factors will affect the actual amount. Some of the most common factors are listed in Table 9.3. In addition to these factors, there are many adjuncts to conventional coating systems that are available that can help curb excess fat absorption. Many of these are proprietary in nature, and are offered by both coating supply and basic ingredient manufacturing companies (2237). Types of Breading Materials and Their Commercial Applicators Cracker Meal. Cracker meal is a commercial term that is used to identify an older, yet still commonly used, low-cost granular breading material. It is typically
TABLE 9.3 Factors Affecting Increased and Reduced Fat Absorption by Coating
Increased absorption Higher surface area/volume ratio Greater crumb porosity Higher leavening content Low fryer oil temperatures (21) A floating fried food Using broken down oil Reduced absorption Lower surface area/volume ratio Denser crumb consistency Lower leavening content Higher fryer oil temperatures Totally submerged fried food Using new oil
processed in large band ovens as wide sheets of flour and water dough whose moisture level is 3540%. That moisture, and the heat of the oven act to gelatinize the starch component of the flour. Quick-acting chemical leavening may be added to the dough to tenderize it and provide some porosity. Because of the relatively short dough-mixing cycle time, yeast does not have adequate time to work as a leavening agent in this material. The baked hot dough sheets are then coarsely broken and dried to a moisture level that will allow milling to the desired mesh size. The resulting breading contains <12% moisture and exhibits several unique properties for use as a food-coating agent. With its starch now fully activated (pregelatinized), it will have high water absorption. When it comes in contact with wet batter enrobing a food, it will rapidly absorb the batter's moisture. This will cause the coating to become rigid and the food can then withstand belt transfers on a highspeed production line and subsequent packaging. The cracker meal will complete the two-step coating sequence initiated by the wet batter dip and provide an attractive appearance to the final surface of the fried food. When used as a predust in a multiple-pass coating system, its granulation is generally kept to no coarser than a 20-mesh size (Fig. 9.8). The breading will seal the surface to help retain the foods moisture, and can be further used as a vehicle to deliver seasonings, flavors, and textures to the consumer. It also helps retard freezer burn of the frozen stored food. Granulation Considerations, and Their Relationship to Fryer Operations. Of all the possible attributes of a breading material, it is its granulation that has the most profound influence on its functionality. Collectively, Figures 9.99.12 graphically display the important characteristics of granulation. The aesthetic attributes of coverage and absence of coating voids (Fig. 9.9) must be considered when developing a coated food product. Coating pickup (Fig. 9.10) directly influences the cost of a battered and breaded food. The sensory attributes of fried crust color (Fig. 9.11), and crispness (Fig. 9.12) can be enhanced by selection of the proper granulation. A coarse granulation is generally an 8-, 6-, or 4-mesh crumb. Excessive coarseness of a coating can contribute positively to the textural appearance of a fried food, but may also result in greater particle falloff when fried and during subsequent handling, including shipping and distribution because of the weak bond to the batter film. Careful packaging of the coarsely coated product is
Prepare food substrate (deglaze, slice, blanch, devein)
Coating in first batter
Fine-mesh predust cracker meal
Dipping and coating in slightly thicker second batter
Outer crumb coating
Freezing
Packing
Fig. 9.8. The breading process.
one approach to maintain the optimal texture for the consumer. A cost analysis should be made of the packages added cost vs. deliverable sensory benefit. Maillard Reaction Agents. In 1912, L.C. Maillard elucidated the various, now well-recognized variables that affect product flavor and color (38). They are responsible for some of the unique flavor of coated foods, as well as color development. By understanding the dependency of each of the reactants, a food technologist can use the Maillard reaction somewhat like an artists pallet, to create a spectrum of crust colors, ranging from very light to dark golden brown and with shades of red. The two reactants are classically described as a reducing sugar and a protein. The reducing sugar, generally a monosaccharide, is either naturally occurring in the coating ingredients or added to the coating formulation. Possible candidates include dextrose (glucose or corn sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose, and fructose present in corn syrup and invert sugar. The higher the percentage of the monosaccharide, the greater will be the crust color development. Often as little as 0.5% dextrose will be sufficient to achieve a significant increase in the crust color, which
Good
Fair
Poor Fine Medium Coarse Granulation

Fig. 9.9. As the breading particles become coarser, coating coverage lessens.
will be a brown shade. Dry dairy whey (a lactose source) is a low-cost ingredient that is often used to enhance color. However, compared with dextrose, about three times as much whey is required to achieve the same degree of crust color darkness. The shade will also have a slight reddish hue in addition to the brown color. Dry potato flour has the unique ability to produce a distinctive reddish hue in a fried coating. One coating supplier has created a convenient ring-bound, dual-color hue chart for use with both brown and reddish colored coatings (Fig. 9.13). Although the disaccharide sugar does not enter into the Maillard reaction, it produces the same crust color darkening as a monosaccharide when it is used as a fermentable carbohydrate in yeast-leavened breads (Neil J. Trager, personal communication, 2003). In addition to the two chemical reactants, the Maillard reaction depends on: (i) temperature, (ii) pH, (iii) time, and (iv) moisture level. The Maillard reaction requires a minimum temperature of 239F for activation. The reaction rate accelerates with temperature rise. Typical deep fat fryers operate at 325400F, which accounts for the characteristic coloring of fried foods. The Maillard reaction proceeds rapidly in basic pH (>7) and slows down under acidic pH (<7). Therefore, the pH and the concentration of the two reactants can be used to customize the
High
Low Fine Medium Granulation Coarse
Fig. 9.10. Coating weight pickup passes through a maximum as the breading granulation varies.
Dark
Medium
Light Fine Medium Coarse Granulation
Fig. 9.11. Fry color increases with coarseness of the breading.
crust color of fried products requiring different cooking times. Time is also important in crust color development and directly affects the end products appearance. The Maillard reaction is inhibited by high moisture levels in the coating, which accounts for the lack of crust color development when a par-fried product is oven baked. For regular or microwave coated products, the desired crust color must be fully developed before the products are frozen because no significant color increase will be gained by the consumers oven baking cycle in a microwave oven. It is important to note that the high moisture level of the coating inhibits the Maillard reaction even in a 425F oven and prevents darkening of the crust. By contrast, the same product, deep-fried at 350F, will shortly become darker because the hot frying oil will quickly desiccate the coating and allow the Maillard reaction to proceed swiftly. Bread Crumbs There are four generally accepted types of bread crumbs used commercially for coating food products. In contrast to cracker meals, bread crumbs are leavened with yeast, have a porous cell structure, a significantly lower bulk density, and exhibit exceptional crispness on a coated food.
High
Low Fine Medium Granulation Coarse
Fig. 9.12. A baked or fried products crispness will be influenced by the coatings granulation.
Fig. 9.13. Using a color chart is a convenient way to quantify the subjective attribute of crust color. Use of a calibrated digital thermometer confirms that the fryers thermostat is functioning properly.
American-Style Breadcrumbs. These are made by a conventional bread-making technique. This consists of the development of a true elastic bread dough that is allowed to ferment; the dough is then deposited into loaf pans (12 lb), where the proofing step takes place. The pans are then transferred into a hot oven to bake for 2030 min. The loaves are removed from the pans, allowed to cool, and stale. The stale loaves are then shredded, dried to a moisture level of ~10%, milled to the desired granulation, and then packed into 25- to 35-lb bags. These crumbs are characterized by their generally spherical particle size, porous cell structure, and both pale interior crumb and darker exterior crust color (39). When used as a coating, they offer the benefit of a highlighted crust, meaning there are multicolored (light and dark) particles on the surface that add to its aesthetic appeal. The dough itself can be left plain or colored with paprika, annatto, or caramel. The porous cell structure provides a greater level of crispness, both initially out of the fryer/ oven compared with cracker meal and during holding time under a commercial food service heat lamp or similar storage appliance. Because the loaves proofing stage can be regulated, it is possible to achieve crumb textures from very tender to very firm and crunchy. The latter are useful for coatings designed for microwave reheating, although they still do not result in the level of crispness achievable by frying.
Japanese-Style Bread Crumbs. These are characterized by their unique slivered particle appearance. They are made from a yeast-leavened dough, but unlike American-style bread crumbs, they are baked in much larger pans (1020 lb) by a dialectic heating, rather than hot oven, process. The loaf pans have two opposing metal faces, separated by a nonconductive 4- to 6-in spacer. High voltage electric current is automatically attached to each of the metal plates, which causes the dough to heat by electrical resistance. The doughs salt level must be generally <2%; otherwise, pan arching and excessive heat buildup will be experienced. As the dough reaches >200F it begins to release steam (loose moisture) and gradually loses conductivity, thereby bringing the bake cycle to its self-limiting end. This process can be carried out in ambient air, i.e., no hot oven air contacts the loaf; thus, it bakes to a crustless finish. The large baked dough loaf is removed from its pan and allowed to cool and stale overnight. The shredding of the loaf is carried out with special mills that retain the highly desired striated, elongated pure white crumbs, sometimes mistakenly confused with rice. Because of the full gelatinization of the flour starch throughout the loaf, these crumbs exhibit very high water absorption. Their shape produces extremely crisp coatings, both when fried, as well as oven baked. They are the coating of choice for premium shrimp. Versions are sold colored with hues of yellow, red, and brown (40). A toasted crumb has been the basis of a popular retail shakable breading mix for many years (41). One coating manufacturer uses a continuous extrusion process that stretches the ropelike dough to elongate the pores in the dough and thereby mimic the traditional dialectic process result (42). The use of these coarse crumbs requires specialized breading equipment designed to avoid their breakdown due to their fragility and evenly coat all sides of the food (Fig. 9.14). Fresh bread crumbs are used only to a limited extent by food processors because of the troublesome logistical considerations associated with handling a perishable commodity in their facility when the option of using dry, shelf-stable breading is available (43). The selection of processing equipment that will properly handle the moist fragile crumbs is also a hurdle that prevents entrants into that ingredients use (44). Consumer preferences for fresher foods, however, may eventually see both an increase in development in this coating area, as well as improved equipment design for the processor beyond those already in the marketplace (45). Extruded crumbs are manufactured by HHST (high heat short time) equipment that produces an expanded granule mimicking conventional baked-loaf bread crumbs. They offer an additional opportunity to provide consumers with a spectrum of textures and grains that ordinarily do not allow processing by conventional techniques described above. Because the hot extrusion process does not rely on gluten development in the dough, non-gluten grains such as soy, rice, and oats can also be processed by this technique. They are available in a wide assortment of textures such as light, brittle, crispy, crunchy, or tender. Bright colors, a marketing trend in the new millennium, are easily incorporated into these extruded crumbs (46).
Sifter plate pattern
Sifter plate Pressure rolls Blower tubes
Crossfeed screw (to vertical screw)
Fig. 9.14. Commercial Japanese-style bread crumb machines have special sifter plates that aid in the uniform application of coarse particles. Courtesy of FMC FoodTech.
Flour-Type Breading Flour-type breading is probably one of the earliest types of dry coating materials used in food preparation. As the name implies, the primary ingredient is simply wheat flour. Historically, it has been the coating used to prepare bone-in poultry parts, after they were first dusted and dipped in a milk and egg wash. This base layer of dusting and batter on the food has a tendency to remain pliable when subsequently coated with the flour and tossed about in a breading pan or in commercial breading equipment. The resultant surface texture is rough and flaky. The surface also develops finger marks and smudge marks from contact with adjacent pieces of substrate. The flour selected for the breading is generally patent flour, with a higher protein content than that associated with other types of breadings. Although most cracker meals are made with 89% protein flour, the use of 12% high-gluten flour for this coating is common. The extra protein acts to both absorb the surface moisture more quickly and to create a crispier texture. The fact that the coating remains pliable is crucial to the in situ creation of the rough surface. Because of the lack of gelatinization of this fine flour-based breading material, it has much more of a tendency to stay suspended in the frying medium and can
cause the oils premature breakdown. It also can contribute a burnt taste to the final fried food. Chicken parts are fried at a significantly lower temperature than other foods to allow the heat to penetrate to the bone. This avoids the presence of unsightly wet blood being noted by the consumer, as well as ensuring the control of pathogenic bacteria, especially Salmonella. Quick-service restaurants will operate their fryers at 325F for chicken cooking (vs. 360F for most other foods), and may need up to ~15 minutes fry time, depending upon the thickness of the chicken pieces. The low native browning characteristics of patent flour allow the food to be cooked for this length of time without becoming too dark. Frequently filtering the fryer oil through a fine mesh filtering medium removes the suspended flour in the frying oil. The breaded chicken is allowed to rest for 25 minutes before it is placed in the frying oil. This hydrates the surface flour by the moisture from the batter, which helps to prevent excessive flour fall-off in the fryer. In commercial breading applications, a drum-type breading machine is often selected to prevent flour dust in the work environment. Air blowers are used to remove excess flour from the coated food pieces. Recent innovations have occurred in the design of this basic equipment. A convertible drum that can repeatedly tumble the food, or bread it in a level plane, and then spread the food out evenly onto a conveyor belt for subsequent frying has gained popularity (4749). Conversely, earlier drum dusters left a pyramid-shaped stream at their exit, which resulted in coating damage and loss of production rates. The result of continuous drum-process equipment is to deliver an aesthetically pleasing product with a so-called homestyle textured surface as described above. Composite Breading Composite breading is a mixture of the above six described breading agents to create unique signature coating. Examples include simple blends of the individual breadings alone. However, when a two-part blend is anticipated, it is cost effective to add other agents as well. Seasonings, herbs, flavors, salt, seeds, colorings, and nutmeats are but some of such coating-enhancing agents. For example, one manufacturer offers a Thai gourmet breader made of a blend of traditional complementary flavors including creamy coconut, ginger, lemongrass, and red chili, served up in a festive crispy breader (50). The frying of such compounded, often coarse, breading materials must take into account the adhesion of those particles to the food surface and the risk of inadvertently introducing unwanted allergens into the frying medium (51,52). Root Vegetables Root vegetables have recently begun to be used as coating agents on commercially available seafoods (53). The use of shredded potatoes, sweet potatoes, carrots, and other such ingredients is still a sleeper, primarily because of the logistical issues concerning their efficient preparation at the processor level and a marketing recog-
nition of their full potential (54). Consumer appeal is widely recognized by potato crusted. . . entrees on leading fine restaurant menus and is expected to expand its appearance into the casual and fast food service sector with time. Types of Commercial Fryers Direct-Fired Fryers. This refers to commercial fryers that have their oil heating source within the body of the fryer itself. This could consist of heating tubes that are either traverse or longitudinal to the length of the fryer (Fig. 9.15). Electrical heating elements inserted within tubes, or natural or propane gas that is fired from one side and vented out the opposite side can supply the BTU input. The advantages of a direct-fired fryer are its low initial cost and small footprint within the plant. These fryers react instantly to surges in product throughput via thermostats strategically located at the beginning and exit of the oil bath. A continuous crumb and sediment removal system helps control the amount of suspended charred crumbs in the oil, thereby adding to product quality (Fig. 9.16). When heated by combustion gases, direct-heated fryers have a tendency to develop a circular oil current that can influence crust color uniformity across the width of the fryer. The oil directly above where the flame enters the heating tube is always hotter than that at the opposite exhaust side of the fryer. The hot oil rises and circulates across the top of the fryer to the cooler side. It also tends to sweep the product to the cooler side of the fryer, causing an uneven exit pattern at the fryer discharge. Tube baffles, to more evenly distribute the heat, are only marginally effective in controlling these dissymmetry phenomena. The use of a chart-recording thermometer is essential to monitor the fryers performance and aid in future troubleshooting of fryer performance (Fig. 9.17). One manufacturer has designed a totally novel method of frying that relies on repeated exposure of the food to a succession of thin curtains of hot frying oil (Fig. 9.18) (55,56). Indirectly Heated Fryers. These rely on an external heater in which the oil is heated either directly or indirectly by natural gas (Fig. 9.19). The other forms of
Cooking oil Sediment
Gentle
Tubes Heat source Sediment settles to the cold zone
Fig. 9.15. Direct-heated fryers have heating tubes submerged in the oil. Courtesy of FMC FoodTech.
Fig. 9.16. Charred crumb particles can be deposited onto the surface of prefried foods (top), whereas well filtered oil leaves products clean of defects (bottom).
heating are steam or thermal fluids. Electrical heaters are rare in this type of fryer. These are much more costly to install because of the remote furnace, pumps, and piping, but offer many advantages over the direct-heat fryers. The latter offer more uniform heating of the oil, less noise and heat level in the vicinity of the fryer, and better oil temperature control.
Fig. 9.17. Continuous chart recorder for a fryer can provide important temperature history useful for troubleshooting.
Fig. 9.18. HeatWave frying system uses curtains of hot oil to repeatedly baste the food. Photo courtesy www.heatandcontrol.com.
Mathematical Relationships for Coated Products Pickup is an expression that represents the percentage of coating in the final product. For example, if a 50-g food piece were coated to 75 g, the pickup would be: [(75 g/ 50 g) /75 g] 100 = 33.3% pickup. The final product is considered to be the total collective weight additions of the coating steps, i.e., heating, such as partial or fully frying, or oven baking, and includes the weight of any frying oil, water glaze, or sauce. Yield is the percentage change of the products weight using its starting weight as the basis of the calculation. Using the same data as above: (75 g/50 g) 100 = 150% yield. Belt loading is useful in determining the anticipated production rate of a
Cooking oil
Sediment
Turbulent
Oil is stirred up sediment settles on product
Boiler cooking oil direction Heat source
Fig. 9.19. Indirect heated fryers have oil heated by a remote furnace. Courtesy of FMC FoodTech.
coated food product. It can be measured simply by laying out a 1-ft2 area and arranging the raw food product in that square as if it were being supplied to the beginning of the processing line. Proper spacing of the food pieces on the grid must take into account the tendency of adjacent pieces to contact one another further along in the production process when defects called doubles or marriages will occur. Conversely, excess spacing between pieces has a direct influence on achieving the lines maximum output and optimizing the fryers oil turnover rate (Fig. 9.20). Conveyor speed is useful to calculate the expected production rate of a production line. It is generally measured in ft/min with a typical value of 15100 ft/min. For example, if a 3-ft wide processing line has a belt loading capacity of 1.5 lb and a speed of 25 ft/min, its rate would be: (1.5 lb/ft2) (3 ft) (25 ft/min) (60 min/h) = 6750 lb/h. In addition to belt loading as a means of projecting production rates, it may be necessary to use a particular piece of equipment on that processing line that has a limiting capacity. Such could be the case in the following examples: (i) a pattyforming machine that can cycle no faster than perhaps 40 strokes/min; (ii) the fryer time required to reach a regulatory-required internal temperature; (iii) freezer cooling capacity; or (iv) packaging limitations. It is not desirable to operate conveyors at any higher rate than that minimum limiting resource. Transfer is the term generally used to indicate the movement of the food being coated from one piece of processing equipment to the next in line. Proper selection and control are critical to maintain maximum coating quality and production output in such transfers. Transfers can be level or they can be overlapped. In the latter arrangement, the discharge of the first conveyor is slightly projected over the second one. This arrangement allows the piece to drop a short distance, and is used when the food will not properly transfer in a level plane, such as with round foods like mushrooms or scallops. Conveyor speeds are generally adjusted to increase ~2 ft/min at each transfer. This differential helps maintain spacing as the food pieces accumulate coating material. Selection of a transfer is perhaps most important for batter-coated products where the drippy, liquid batter-coated item is being moved directly into hot frying oil (Fig. 9.21).
Target
Low output Too low Balanced Belt loading
Doubles Too high
Fig. 9.20. Awareness of belt loading balances line output and product quality.
Fryer
Top submerger belt
Star rollers
Teflon slat Main fryer infeed conveyor conveyor Fig. 9.21. The transfer of batter-coated food is accomplished using a pointed roller into a Teflon slatted fryer. Courtesy of FMC FoodTech.
Critical Control Points The U.S. FDA Hazard Guide for Seafoods provides guidelines to protect against toxin formation by Staphylococcus aureus (57) in the hydrating batter. The recommended cumulative critical temperatures limits for the use of hydrated batter are: (i) not to exceed 50F for >12 h, or (ii) not to exceed 70F for >3 h. The temperature of the hydrated batter is constantly monitored. The batter and the associated product must be destroyed if there is any deviation from the recommended conditions during operation. Refrigeration equipment or ice can be used to manage the temperature condition of the hydrated batter in the process. A temperature recorder is recommended to constantly monitor the temperature of the batter. This can limit the risk of any deviation in the process. Regulatory Considerations for Coated Products The regulation of coated food products is under the auspices of three federal agencies. The manufacture of meat and poultry products is handled by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) with no fee required for the inspection service. That agency also issues regulations and label approval for all child nutrition (CN) foods that are served as part of the national school lunch program. Coated beef and poultry products are limited to a coating content of 30%. Thereafter, they are required to use the expression fritter rather than patty. The USDA places its distinctive shield on every processed package. The National Marine Fisheries Service, a subagency of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), is the fee-paid organization that is responsible for on-site seafood inspection at processing plants that desire an optional government shield to be placed on their packages. It has established a detailed listing (Table 9.4) of minimum fishery content percentages for the full range of processed products manufactured under their jurisdiction. This subagency has established Standards of Identity for many of the most commonly coated seafood products (58). For instance,
TABLE 9.4 Minimum Flesh Content Requirements for USDC-Inspected Productsa,b

USDC grade mark (%) Fish Raw breaded fillets Precooked breaded fillets Precooked crispy/crunchy fillets Precooked battered fillets Fish portions Raw breaded portions Precooked breaded portions Precooked battered portions Fish sticks Raw breaded sticks Precooked breaded sticks Precooked battered sticks Scallops Raw breaded scallops Precooked breaded scallops Precooked crispy/crunchy scallops Precooked battered scallops Shrimp Lightly breaded shrimpd Raw breaded shrimpd Precooked crispy/crunchy shrimp Precooked battered shrimp Imitation breaded shrimpe Oystersf Raw breaded oysters Precooked breaded oysters Precooked crispy/crunchy oysters Precooked battered oysters Miscellaneous Fish and seafood cakes Extruded and breaded products
aThis
PUFI mark (%) 50 50 50 40 50 50 40 50 50 40 50 50 50 40 65 50 50 40 No minimum; encouraged to put % on label 50 50 50 40 35 35
75 65 72 60 50 50 65 50
list of minimum flesh requirements for standardized and nonstandardized breaded and battered products is provided to ensure that all users of U.S. Department of Commerce (USDC)-inspected fishery products are aware of the minimum flesh requirements. These requirements apply to all species of battered and breaded fish and shellfish. PUFI, Processed Under Federal Inspection. bNOTE: USDC will certify coated, nongraded products without a standard of identity, etc., such as breaded fish sticks, breaded portions, and similar breaded fish products that contain less than 50% fish flesh if a statement immediately follows as part of the statement of identity declaring the amount of fish flesh actually present; e.g., Breaded Fish Sticks Containing 45% Fish. cNo USDC grading standard exists for products without Grade A percentages. dFDA Standard of Identity requires that the product contain 50% shrimp flesh by weight. If a product is labeled lightly breaded, it must contain 65% shrimp flesh. eAny product with a Standard of Identity that contains less flesh than the standard requires must be labeled imitation. fFlesh content on oyster products can be determined only on an input weight basis during production.
there is a distinction made between frozen raw breaded shrimp that requires at least 50% shrimp content and frozen raw lightly breaded shrimp, that stipulates at least 65% shrimp content (59). Breaded shrimp with >50% coating is required to be labeled imitation shrimp. The FDA is the agency with regulatory authority over all non-meat or nonpoultry plants, including seafood facilities. Labeling of coated vegetables, cheese, seafood, fruit, or nuts, for example, must comply with that agencys guidelines, which in some instances may be different from the USDA provisions. Finished Product Sensory Issues The critical sensory factors that influence consumer response to a coated food product are as follows: 1. Crispnessboth initially and as the food continues to be masticated. 2. Oilinessthe sensation of warm oil on the palate is a universally enjoyed experience. However, in excess, it causes the food to appear to be greasy and undesirable. An excessively low fat level makes the food dry, tough, chewy and unpleasant tasting. 3. Flavorthe trend in coated foods is to enhance the seasoning level, with some markets expecting very intense Buffalo Wing-type heat. The salt content of some coated food products can reach high levels; chicken breadings are an example. Variety and balance are important in formulating a winning product. 4. Crust colorplays an important role in the initial visual acceptance or rejection of a coated product. A fried color chart is a useful tool. One coating manufacturer even has placed a color chart on its web site. 5. Heat lamp holding capacityis the time that the fried food can be kept under the heat lamp and still maintain acceptable flavor. This is particularly important for fast food restaurants and food services that have to keep some product under the heat lamp for ready service to the customers. 6. Durabilityis the ability of the coated cooked product to withstand anticipated handling abuse at the cooking site. A cheese stick that blows out its core into the frying oil before it reaches the desired internal temperature is not going to be acceptable to consumers. Similarly, a fish portion that breaks easily when handled with tongs as it is being assembled into a sandwich will result in delayed service and increased cost. In both these examples, corrective measures with the coating system can offer a solution. Common Fryer Problems and Troubleshooting Them Scorched particles are the cause of burnt flavor and sometimes darker product color. This can be corrected. Initially, it is imperative that the source of the problem be minimized; then, proper operating procedures are put in place. Generally,
the problem originates from a high concentration of loose flour or dusting material on the food surface. Introduction of excessive breading particles into the fryer causes scorching of the released material in the fryer. The situation is generally created by the following factors: (i) using a breading that is too coarse; (ii) improper transfer of products into the fryer; (iii) excess fryer oil turbulence; and (iv) contact with the fryers submerger belt, which allows abrasion of the coating. Adequate continuous filtration of the fryer helps remove particles as they are released into the oil. Off-flavors are often associated with a lack of sufficient turnover rate in the fryer, thus allowing breakdown products to build up in the frying oil. If a fryer holds 500 gal of frying oil (~3750 lb) and the fat absorption of the cooked food is 8%, the minimum 7.5-h production rate should be 6250 lb/h to utilize the 500 gal. Less than that rate accelerates oil breakdown and leads to the development of offodors. Another contributor to undesirable flavors is the cross-transfer of flavors from the previous cooking of a high-intensity coated food followed by a much blander food. The frying oil can become the source of flavor carryover. Suitable filtration and treatment with appropriate filtering aids can offer relief for this quality issue. Discarding of the oil is an option. Excessive crust color arises from out-of-control Maillard reactions. One subtle addition is the phenomenon found when the product fries to the proper crust color in the manufacturers facility yet is excessively dark at the subsequent restaurant site. This condition can often be traced to partial warming of the frozen product during storage or distribution. Under these conditions, the enzyme system within the coating becomes activated and may combine with proteinaceous fluids from the thawing food core. The enzymes then convert the flour in the coating to sugars, which in turn become available for the Maillard browning reaction. Frost in the packages generally indicates temperature abuse of the frozen product. Excess electrolytes in the coating, depressing the coatings freezing point, can exacerbate the condition. Batter texture issues and coating blow-off during frying are generally caused by the following: (i) Lack of control of the batter viscosity; (ii) excessive free fatty acid levels (or oil breakdown) in the frying oil; (iii) incorrect product entry from the batter applicator into the hot oil; (iv) excessively high oil temperature; (v) lack of adequate rinsing of the fryer after caustic cleaning; and (vi) an incorrectly formulated batter. Strict process controls during tempura batter processing will reap many benefits to the processor by reducing waste and maintaining consistent product quality, thereby providing complete customer satisfaction. Acknowledgments
The author would like to express his appreciation to James Padilla and Bill Klein of Heat and Control, Inc. for supplying several of the photographs, FMC FoodTech for several of the figures; Monoj Gupta, Neil J. Trager, Andrea Pohl, Terry L. Hogan, and Dr. Christy A. Sasiela for offering valuable critical review of the chapter draft.
References
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22. U.S. Patent 5,527,549, Method of Making Improved Fried Battered and Breaded Foods, Griffith Laboratories Worldwide, Inc., 1996. 23. U.S. Patent 5,601,861, Method of Making Battered and Breaded Food Compositions Using Calcium Pectins, T. Gerrish, C. Higgins, and K. Kresl; 1997. 24. U.S. Patent 5,753,286, Coated Food and Method of Coating, Kerry Industries, 1998. 25. Fry ShieldTM, The Healthier, Lower-Fat Frying Choice, two-page advertising bulletin, Kerry Industries, Beloit, WI, 1996. 26. U.S. Patent 5,217,736, Potato and Other Food Products Coated with Edible Oil Barrier Films, Opta Food Ingredients, Inc., 1993. 27. U.S. Patent 4,917,909, Low Fat Potato Chips and Process for Preparing , GAF Chemicals Corp., 1990. 28. Reduced Oil Absorption and Increased Moisture Retention in Batter-Coated Fried Foods with Methocel Premium Food Gums, four-page technical information bulletin, Dow Chemical USA, Midland, MI, undated. 29. U.S. Patent 5,372,829, Process for Preparing Low-Fat Fried Food, Merck & Co., 1994. 30. U.S. Patent 5,492,707, Process for Preparing Low-Fat Fried-Type or Baked Food Products, Monsanto Co., 1996. 31. Dip System Cuts Fat in Fried Foods, Food Product Design, Newlyweds Foods, May 1994. 32. An Innovative Approach to Enhance the Value and Quality of Breaded Fried Foods, NewlyWeds Fat Barrier 2000 , two-page advertising bulletin, Newlyweds Foods, Chicago, IL, undated. 33. U.S. Patent 4,943,438, Bread Crumb Coating Composition and Process for Imparting Fried-Like Texture and Flavor to Food Product, ConAgra, Inc., 1990. 34. U.S. Patent 4,518,620, Process for Breading Food, Central Soya Company, 1985. 35. What is Newly CrispTM?, two-page advertising bulletin, NewlyWeds Foods, Chicago, IL, undated. 36. U.S. Patent 5,770,252, Process for Preparing a Breaded Food , L. McEwen, M. Yurchesyn, K. Wypior; National Sea Products, 1998. 37. U.S. Patent 6,013,292, Low Fat Food Product, Schechter, S., Superior Nutrition Corp., 2000. 38. Baking & Confectionary Section, The Maillard Reaction , Food Technology International, May 2002, p. 112. 39. American Style Bread CrumbsYour Formula for Success, two-page advertising bulletin, Golden Dipt/Modern Maid Division, Fenton, MI, undated. 40. Kerry Coatings, The Unexpected, 12-page advertising booklet, Beloit, WI, distributed 2003. 41. U.S. Patent 4,068,009, Bread Crumb Coating Composition and Process, J. Rispoli, M. Rogers, and J. Russo; General Foods Corp., 1978. 42. U.S. Patent 4,423,078, Production of Oriental-Style Breading Crumbs, D. Darley, D. Dyson, and D. Grimshaw; The Griffith Laboratories, Ltd., 1983. 43. Coating Handbook for Prepared Foods Processors, Heat and Control, Inc., Hayward, CA, 1999, p. 17. 44. Fresh BreadcrumbTM Fish Portions Coated with Freshly Ground Loaves of Bread, fourpage sales booklet #S324, Icelandic USA, Inc., Norwalk, CT, 2002. 45. U.S. Patent 4,936,248, Breader for Coating Edible Food Products with Fresh Bread Crumbs, Stein Associates, 1990.
46. Breadings, eight-page advertising booklet, NewlyWeds Foods, Chicago, IL, 1999. 47. U.S. Patent 6,158,332, Convertible Drum-Type Coating Apparatus, R. Nothum, Sr., and R. Nothum, Jr., 2000. 48. U.S. Patent 5,728,216, Continuous Tumble Coating and Breading Apparatus , E.J. London; Stein, Inc., 1998. 49. Food Processing Equipment, A.K. Robins, LLC, advertising booklet, Baltimore, MD, undated. 50. Gourmet BreadersThai, one-page advertising sheet, Kerry Ingredients, Beloit, WI, 2003. 51. Taylor, S.L., Allergies to Oil, Food Allergy News, 3:4, 2001. 52. Food Allergy Awareness: An FDA Priority, Food Safety Magazin e, Bailey, C., ed., FebruaryMarch 2001, Washington, DC. 53. Tater CrustTMShredded Potato Coated Fish Portions, four-page advertising booklet #S325, Icelandic USA, Inc., Norwalk, CT, 2000. 54. Sasiela, R.J., Troubleshooting Seafood ProductsShredded Potato Coatings, Food Industry J. 5:2, pp. 146148, Leatherhead Food Research Association, Surry, UK, 2002. 55. HeatWave Frying System, six-page brochure, Heat and Control, Inc., Hayward, CA, 2000. 56. U.S. Patent 6,067,899, Breaded Products Fryer, A. Caridis, L. Murgel, C. Beitsayadeh, J. Silverter; Heat and Control, Inc., Hayward, CA, 2000. 57. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Hazards and Controls Guidance, Chapter 15, 3rd edn., Washington, DC, June 2001. 58. Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations, 11404. 59. Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations 161.175, 6.
Appendix
Some Coated Foods Web Sites*
Coated foods regulatory and related web sites: www.fda.gov U.S. Food & Drug Administration: the lead agency for processed seafood, vegetable, cheese, etc., a primary resource for HACCP regulations www.nmfs.noaa.gov National Marine Fisheries Service: a U.S. agency responsible for the inspection of coated seafood www.usda.gov United States Department of Agriculture: a U.S. agency responsible for the inspection and labeling of coated meat and poultry products www.uspto.gov United States Patent and Trademark Office: access to U.S. food patents Batter and breading suppliers web sites: www.griffithlabs.com Griffith Laboratories: a global supplier of batter, breading, and seasoning ingredients www.kerryingredients.com Kerry Ingredients: a global supplier of coating, and ingredients, and extrusion technology www.mccormickflavor.com McCormick Foods: a major seasoning and coating ingredient supplier. Print out a useful fry color chart from this site www.newlywedsfoods.com NewlyWeds Foods: a global coating and seasoning ingredient supplier
www.premiereblending.com
Premiere Blending Company: a supplier of seasoning and coating ingredients www.richmondbaking.com Richmond Baking Company: an Indiana-based manufacturer of unique coarse cracker meals www.washingtonquality Washington Quality Foods: a mid-Atlantic global supplier of foods.com coating ingredients and bakery mixes www.sagevfoods.com Sage Foods: a rice-based coating ingredient supplier www.semills.com Southeast Mills: a supplier of flour-based coating ingredients http://www.extension.iastate. Iowa State University basic primer about batter formulation edu/Publications/N2857.pdf ingredients Batter and breading equipment web sites: www.akrobbins.com A Maryland-based custom manufacturer of coating and other food processing equipment www.bettcher.com Bettcher Industries: an Ohio manufacturer of coating equipment www.fmcfoodtech.com FMC: parent corporation of Stein Equipment Company: an early developer of a broad range of coating and frying equipment www.heatandcontrol.com A major California-based supplier of a broad range of batter, breading, frying, grilling and marinating equipment www.koppens.com A major Holland-based, coating equipment supplier www.nothum.com A Missouri-based coating equipment supplier www.orbitalfoods.com Used batter, breading and frying equipment www.barsso.com/engels.htm Used batter, breading and frying equipment www.used-food-processingUsed batter, breading and frying equipment machinery.co.uk/ stock_list.htm Coated seafood related sites: Website U R L www.nfi.org www.icelandic.com www.seaclam.com www.seaclam.com www.frionor.com
www.blountseafood.com./ breaded_items.htm www.tampamaid.com www.conagrafoods.com/ brands/singleton.jsp? BrandID=any www.icelandseafoodcorp.com Samband of Iceland brand, division of SIF: a Virginia processor of battered and breaded seafood www.seapak.com Rick-Sea Pak Corporation: a Georgia processor of coated shellfish www.gortons.com Gortons: a major U.S. national retail brand of assorted seafood products www.phillipsfoods.com Phillips Foods Inc.: a Maryland processor of coated crab and seafood www.sealord.com Sealord: a New Zealand based seafood processor
Brief description National Fisheries Institute: a U.S. seafood trade organization Icelandic brand: a Maryland-based leading supplier of processed seafood products, Icelandic USA, Inc. Sea Watch International, Ltd.: Maryland processor of clam strips, calamari, etc. Frionor: a Rhode Island supplier of processed seafood items, Division of American Seafood Corp. Blount Seafood: a Rhode Island processor of coated scallops, shrimp, mussels Tampa Maid Foods Inc.: a Florida processor of breaded shellfish Singleton Seafoods: a Florida processor of shrimp, and other coated seafood
www.vikingseafoods.com www.seafood.ucdavis.edu/ HACCP/Compendium/ chapt02.htm www.mackayeeffish.com/ crumbed.htm www.unilever.ca/Divisions/ bluewater.html www.fpil.com www.mrspauls.com www.kpseafood.com www.tridentseafoods.com www.unisea.com www.st.nmfs.gov/st1 http://ag.ansc.perdue.edu/ aquanic/publicat/govagen/ fas/uk5075.htm
Viking Seafood Co.: a New England-based processor of breaded fish products Battered fish HACCP guidelines
Mackay Reef Fish Supplies Pty. Ltd.: an Australian fish processor BlueWater Seafoods: a major Canadian seafood processor Fishery Products International: Newfoundland-based seafood processor Mrs. Pauls Kitchens: part of the Aurora Foods group which also includes major U.S. retail brand Van De Kamps King & Prince Seafood, a Georgia-based processor of shrimp Trident Seafoods, a Seattle-based processor of seafood UniSea Corporation: owner of the Mrs. Fridays brand, a Los Angeles-based seafood processor U.S. Fisheries Statistics and Economics London Annual Seafood Report
Coated poultry related web sites: www.tysonfoodsinc.com Tyson Foods: an Arkansas-based world leader in processed poultry products www.perdue.com Perdue foodservice: a major East coast processor of poultry Other informative coated products web sites: www.1800Poppers.com Formerly Anchor Food Products: a major coated appetizer processor (aka Poppers), now a division of McCain Foods www.giorgiofoods.com Giorgio Foods: Pennsylvania processor of coated mushrooms, cheese sticks, appetizers www.phillipsfoodsinc.com Phillips Foods: a manufacturer of breaded mushrooms and appetizers www.jon-linfoods.com Jon-Lin Frozen Foods: a California manufacturer of breaded onion rings, squash, fruit, and battered French toast sticks www.simplotfoods.com Simplot Foods: a major processor of coated potato, and finger foods www.lambweston.com Lamb-Weston: another potato powerhouse with seasoned and coated fries www.mccainusa.com Manufacturer of seasoned French fries and other appetizers http://www.fosterfarms.com California-based processor of poultry and various corn dogs www.jimmydean.com Corn dog manufacturer
*Note: Web sites often change and are solely guidelines; therefore, conduct a search if a listing is not responsive. Some sites require registration. No company or product endorsement is made by its listing here or elsewhere in this chapter.
Chapter 10
Fried Foods and Their Interaction with Packaging

Kenneth S. Marsh
Kenneth S. Marsh & Associates, Ltd., Seneca, SC
Packaging Functions
Packaging plays a number of critical roles for fried foods. Consistent with virtually any food product, it must contain the product, protect it against moisture, oxygen, and sometimes light, and protect it against shock, vibration, and mishandling during storage and shipping. The packaging must present information consistent with the regulatory requirements. In addition to these protection functions, packaging helps present the product in a manner that differentiates it from competitive products to attract purchasers. This diversity of functions crosses company departmental boundaries, which can lead to conflicts and disagreements, with various groups working on the product having different objectives. For example, purchasing may seek the least expensive package material; marketing prefers the most impressive option; production is easier with a loose package, but distribution damage is reduced with a snug package. Therefore, the selection of packaging material for a product can become a complicated process in a corporation in which multiple groups are involved in making the decision. A humorous manifestation of this occurred when the corporate director of packaging for a Fortune 500 company put a nonmoisture-, nonoxygen-sensitive food product packaged in a Kraft bag (commonly referred to as a brown paper bag). He presented the bag at a marketing meeting that included senior management. To the incredulous committee he stated that his proposed package satisfied the protection requirements, and anything more should be considered as marketing expense. The point is that the package must both protect and present the product. Consumers are exposed to many packages during their supermarket ventures. Any package, therefore, has little opportunity to grab the consumers attention. Competition for attention in the supermarket is extremely fierce. Studies suggest that the time to gain the consumer's attention ranges between a few seconds and tenths of seconds. Mr. Harckham recommends that the company line therefore make a statement as the consumer comes down the aisle, and then each individual product differentiate itself when the consumer is in front of the shelf. His example was not fried foods, but illustrates the concept. Lipton soups (as do Campbell's) exhibit a strong presence with strong red and white bands, which tell the consumer Here are Lipton soups. The graphics presented to consumers looking directly at the shelf, however, clearly differentiate one flavor from others. A critical look at
other company products will show whether their products compete as a company or as individual products. Company identity through creative packaging and presentation can greatly influence a consumer's attention. Procedures to specify protection functions and distribution requirements will be presented later in this chapter. The following will present generalized requirements for various types of foods. Packaging Examples Bakery. Bakery products typically require a short shelf life because their raison dtre is freshness. Products may require some moisture protection, and often require grease protection, not for the product, but for the product presentation. Grease spots on a package would detract from the clean appearance of a fresh product. Typical materials are coated board and coated papers in which the coatings may be polyethylene or wax, either of which provides both limited moisture protection (if sealed) and resistance to grease wicking. Packaging examples for bakery items will utilize donuts. Similar packages also apply to other bakery items. Figure 10.1 shows donuts in a thermoformed polystyrene (PS) tray. This represents an inexpensive packaging material, with high clarity, rigid feel, a hinged cover, which facilitates reclosure, but which offers little moisture or oxygen protection. As with the following examples, low barrier protection is appropriate because of short shelf-life requirements. Figure 10.2
Fig. 10.1. Thermoformed polystyrene tray.
Fig. 10.2. Use of a window box in a coated board box.
exhibits a window box, which offers product visibility in a coated board box, whereas Figure 10.3 illustrates windowed bags, which contain a grease-resistant coating or treatment to avoid wicking and polymer bags for donuts. The polymer bag, which shows the entire product, is also formed on the packaging line and offers faster line speeds to the manufacturer.
Fig. 10.3. Window bags with a grease-resistant coating and polymer bags.
Fig. 10.4. A tray with overwrapped film.
Figure 10.4 shows donuts in a tray with overwrapped film. The tray can be expanded polystyrene (EPS), PS, polyolefin, polyester, or expanded polyolefin. The overwrap may be polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyolefin, or other polymers. This package offers a fresh bakery look and shows the product. A final option is presented in Figure 10.5, which shows fresh bakery, i.e., no package. This option
Fig. 10.5. An example of no packagingfresh baked goods.
provides the shortest shelf life, but suggests freshness. It offers the customers the opportunity to mix and match different varieties into a single purchase. From the environmental perspective, no package offers a nonpolluting option, but also gives no protection to the product. It makes labeling difficult (must be supplied through external media). Snacks. Snack items usually require oxygen and moisture protection because these products are typically low in moisture (to provide crispness) and high in oil content. The protection requirements will relate to the expected shelf life, i.e., the length of time between production and consumption, which in turn relates to the distribution system and the distribution environment. A number of possible tradeoffs exist. Controlled temperature (and possibly relative humidity) during warehousing will influence the amount of moisture pick-up and oil degradation in the product. However, this is a costly proposition. A distribution that allows more rapid deployment of the product distribution, such as the Frito Lay system, can reduce the packaging protection requirements. In addition to chemical protection, packaging must offer protection from physical abuse from shock, vibration, and compression. Much of this function is borne by the distribution package, typically a corrugated shipper, or overwrapped tray. The primary package (the package in direct contact with the product) also plays a role. Cans provide stacking strength and shock protection. Corrugated boxes offer less stacking strength than cans, but actually can provide more shock protection because paperboard will absorb rather than transmit shock pulses. Polymer pouches also provide shock protection if the pouch is inflated before sealing. Potato or corn chip pouches, for example, are typically inflated, often with nitrogen to reduce oxidation and to provide protection against shocks. Tip: Testing protocols for distribution packages, such as the ASTM D4169 (1) and ISTA procedures suggest drops be made on different orientations of the shipper, and on surfaces, edges, and corners. Usually the different orientations (bottom, side, end, top) are included to test shippers falling on these alternate panels, with the normal (bottom facing down) orientation set. It is recommended that one must look at the results to determine whether an alternate orientation offers better protection [by exhibiting a higher effective free fall drop height than the normal configuration (2)]. If this is true, consider changing the product orientation in the shipper to provide additional protection with virtually no cost increase. Unlike the donut examples above, snacks typically have longer shelf lives and therefore require more barrier protection than that offered by coated paperboard containers. Therefore, most snacks are packaged in polymeric films with a wide range of moisture and gas barrier properties. The amount of protection relates to the shelf-life requirements, and the storage environment. An important trade-off is possible in which the distribution system affects the packaging requirements. Frito Lay has developed a system consisting of ~50 manufacturing plants and 900 distribution centers (DC). This system allows products to
be manufactured and delivered to the retail facilities within weeks, and more often within days after production. This rapid deployment reduces the protection requirements of the package. Therefore, Frito Lay can present fresher products (or more oxygen-sensitive products) to the store shelves more rapidly than would be feasible with a more modest grocery distribution system with fewer plants and DC, simply because they can obtain product. The simplest and least expensive snack package is a polyolefin bag, such as the linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) bags. These bags offer moisture protection but no oxygen protection; therefore, they are used for products that will sell quickly, or are not expected to exhibit rancidity during the time they remain on the shelf. Orientation of the polymeric films improves both clarity and barrier properties. Figure 10.6 presents an example of bags with these properties. Clear bags can be made from single or multiple films. Laminated or co-extruded structures allow for combinations of properties that are more suitable for a given product than those available through any single film. For example, oriented polypropylene (OPP) provides a moisture barrier but little oxygen barrier. Incorporating a barrier layer, such as ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) or polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) can add substantial oxygen barrier to the package. Because these barrier materials are usually more difficult to seal, a heat seal layer is added as the inside layer. Clear bags with the added barrier properties have the advantage of showing the product, as seen above in Figure 10.6. Aluminum may add high oxygen and light protection to a laminate. Aluminum foil is essentially impermeable to oxygen and moisture as long as it is free of pin-
Fig. 10.6. Clear bags made of linear low-density polyethylene.
holes or cracks. Because foil does not provide an easy sealing mechanism and is prone to tearing in thin films, the barrier is achieved by incorporating thin foils into a laminated structure. Pouches with a foil barrier provide excellent oxygen protection. These gusseted pouches will stand vertically on the shelf and help sell the product. Foil can also be incorporated into structures in which paperboard is utilized to provide strength and rigidity. A Pure-Pak container can be incorporated with aluminum foil to achieve the barrier properties. Composite cans of various shapes and sizes (Fig. 10.7) use a thicker paperboard layer to add rigidity and stacking strength to the packaging. The preformed potato sticks cans in Figure 10.7 were initially protected from impact with a corrugated medium placed between the chips and the composite can, but this protection is no longer used. Aluminum provides other attributes that allow the container to become part of the product. The foil pan (Fig. 10.8), which is thicker than foils used in laminates, is used to cook the popcorn, and clearly differentiates the enclosed product from competitors with valueadded features. Although many snack foods are packaged in foil laminates, most current snack packages now use metallized substrates (Fig. 10.9). Aluminum is sputtered onto films in extremely thin layers, thereby using considerably less aluminum than even the thinnest foils. One can differentiate foil structures from metallized structures by cupping a bag snugly against ones face and looking directly into the bag toward a bright light. The presence of pinholes of light and thin lines (cracks in the foil) indicate that the structure contains foil. Metallized films will transmit light through the material, and the amount of light transmitted will be inversely proportional to the amount of aluminum lay-down, and the amount of printing inks. If little light
Fig. 10.7. Composite cans have a thicker paperboard layer to improve rigidity and stacking.
Fig. 10.8. Use of an aluminum container as part of the product (foil pan) clearly differentiates it from competing products (bottle and gusset pouch).
comes through, the lay-down is heavy; if light comes through easily, the lay-down is light. The degree of barrier properties in a packaging film is a function of the amount of aluminum and the contiguity of the layer. Extremely thin lay-downs of aluminum may provide a bright metallic appearance to the package and printing, but provide little barrier properties. For example, an overseas airlines company discovered that their peanuts were becoming rancid. The degree of metallization on the peanut pouches was found to be very light so that the oxygen barrier was not significantly enhanced over the base material. The perception was that they were employing a barrier material, which was not the case. The aluminum metallization in this case gave a metallic appeal to the graphics, but offered almost no barrier enhancement. The solution was to improve the amount and integrity of the aluminum lay-down and thereby improve the barrier properties of the film. The attraction of a metallized substrate can be combined with a presentation that shows the product by using pattern-metallized films, which leave a clear window. The dynamic graphics that resulted from inks printed on foils or metallized films became so ubiquitous that one company introduced a matte finish to differentiate their product. This finish was identified as a deli look, which suggested freshness. An extension of packaging snacks as individual products is the multipack, which allows a forum for consumers to try other products in a company's line. Snacks that are less susceptible to environmental influences, such as popcorn kernels, may be packaged in boxes. This option is also used for more sensitive products, such as butter-flavored popcorn (oxygen sensitive) with a bag-in-box
Fig. 10.9. Metallized substrates (aluminum).
package. Consumer benefits may be enhanced with susceptor inserts which focus microwave energy to concentrate heat and promote browning or popping (Fig. 10.10). Additional convenience was mentioned earlier with the popping pan. Other presentations of snack packaging include bags clipped to a display rack, or low barrier snack bags. Potato chips represent a large portion of fried snack products and illustrate many packaging challenges. Additional discussion of the technical aspects of potato chips (as a representative of this and other fried chips) is therefore warranted. The bulk density of potato chips is typically 0.056 g/mL. This is a light product with a very large surface area. As a result, the headspace in the package, if air, would contain sufficient oxygen to oxidize the oils used in the frying process. Air allows uptake exceeding 3 mL O2/g at STP (standard temperature and pressure). With sufficient oxygen within the package, the oxygen barrier will provide disappointing results. The solution is to exclude the oxygen from the package before sealing, and then maintain low oxygen within the package by appropriate barrier materials. Therefore, an inert gas, typically nitrogen, is used in the packaging of fried snacks. Very significant increases in storage life are realized if: Oxygen (O2) levels in the headspace are kept below 2% Oxygen (O2) barrier films are employed A light barrier is incorporated into the packaging film
Fig. 10.10. Use of bags in a box for microwave products.
Studies that compare different materials used for potato chip pouches were compiled by Robertson (3). A polyethylene bag whether high density (HDPE) or low density (LDPE) (moisture barrier, but poor oxygen barrier) provided a 15-d shelf life at 27C, 65% relative humidity. A PVC/PVDC copolymer-coated polypropylene bag provided 810 wk shelf life before the chips were unsalable due to loss of crispness. Potato chips packaged in polypropylene (PP)/aluminum foil pouches lasted ~27 wk before becoming unsalable due to rancid flavor development. Chips packaged in OPP/LDPE/PVC, HDPE/EVA copolymer with an ultraviolet light (UV) absorber developed a distinct oxidized flavor within 7 d of storage at 21C and 55% relative humidity under 140230 foot-candles of continuous fluorescent light. Potato chips stored under similar conditions, but with a brown lightabsorbing pigment or an aluminum foil/LDPE construction were stable for 10 wk of storage. The code date for a product is dictated primarily by the distribution system of the company. The product can fail due to moisture uptake and/or oil oxidation during distribution and storage. Shelf life of the product can be ensured by careful selection of a packaging material that offers the required moisture and oxygen barrier properties. The extended code date for a product is achievable at a cost. This requires a careful evaluation of the overall need for product protection, distribution time, and the systems that are in place for a given product. Frozen Fried Foods. Frozen foods are protected by temperatures that slow oxidative, chemical and biological reactions and bind water (in the form of ice), thus eliminating possible access by microorganisms. The storage temperature is the major player in protecting frozen foods. Fried foods require little packaging protection. However, no freezer maintains a constant temperature. Frost-free freezers eliminate frost by periodically heating the freezer walls and thereby driving off frost. In addition, the temperature rises every time the freezer door is opened, and is brought down again after closing. As a result, temperatures fluctuate in the freezer.
The water-holding capacity of warmer air is greater than that of colder air. Even if the freezer temperature rises just a few degrees, the air space in a package will hold more water. Water sublimes (converts from ice directly to vapor) from the product in the package and increases the relative humidity in the package headspace. When temperatures fall, water-holding capacity decreases and water condenses onto the colder surface. Because the chilling is external, the colder surface is the package, and ice crystals form on the inside surface of the package. The cycle, therefore, is that water leaves the product and condenses inside the package, resulting in freezer burn, which is a textural change in the product caused by localized drying. Reduced headspace in the package can minimize this problem. The tighter the package, the smaller the effect, with vacuum packaging being the most effective for this purpose. The recommendation for frozen foods, therefore, is to make the package as tight as feasible for any product. A simple package is a polyethylene bag (Fig. 10.11). It has the advantages of low cost and resistance to fats and oils. Paperboard is also used (Fig. 10.12), but paperboard consists of hydrophilic cellulose fibers, which can wick oils and make the package unsightly (as mentioned above with bakery products). Coatings or polymers are used to prevent wicking. This is why most paperboard containers that are in direct contact with frozen fried products are coated. Another way to separate product from contacting a paperboard container is to employ an internal container, such as a bag or tray, for the product (Fig. 10.13). Other Fried Products and Outlets. Most of the products mentioned above are sold through traditional grocery systems or smaller retail outlets such as convenience stores and gas stations. Bakeries, which used to be separate facilities, are increasingly incorporated into supermarket chains. Additional trends are home
Fig. 10.11. Frozen product in polyethylene bag.
Fig. 10.12. Frozen product in paperboard container.
meal replacement (HMR) systems in which prepared meals are offered at supermarkets in competition with restaurants, and kiosks in which specialty products are grouped for sale. Both of these developments offer freshly prepared foods for todays meal. They also offer new snacks such as fried pies with overwrap.
Fig. 10.13. Paperboard container with an internal container, e.g., a bag or tray.
Packaging Systems for Fried Foods: Selection and Evaluation The previous section illustrates the many options for packaging of various fried foods. This section will cover the technical aspects of the packaging choice, that is, those aspects that provide suitable protection for the product itself. This protection includes the barrier requirements, which define the shelf life of the product, and physical protection, which allows the product to survive the distribution system. The primary protection, which defines the shelf life of the product, will be discussed first. Distribution protection will follow. Shelf Life. The company manufacturing and distributing the product must define the shelf-life requirements for any product. Often a group of employees (a committee) performs the task of specifying the desired shelf life for a product. This process might be based on experience with existing products and past experience. The companys product distribution system plays an important part in determining the desired shelf life of the product. The choice of shelf life has a significant effect on the image and profitability of the product. A major consideration for shelf life is the stability of the product itself. Any product containing unsaturated fats or oils will be prone to oxidation; thus, the product will be oxygen sensitive. Fried products are also dried (moisture flashes off during frying) and are usually also moisture sensitive. It deserves mention that the type of package will directly affect product shelf life. For example, a snack item, which (in packed form) becomes soggy in 1 mo, and becomes unacceptably rancid in 4 mo, will be viewed as moisture sensitive because it first becomes unacceptable through a moisture gain. The same product, with a moisture barrier that is adequate for maintaining crispness will be viewed as an oxygen-sensitive product. In addition to the primary protection for shelf life, the package must protect the product through the distribution environment. This has been mentioned earlier and will be discussed in detail later in this chapter. Company philosophy affects the packaging choice. A company that competes on price may choose an inexpensive package providing limited shelf life (minimum barrier), and possibly simplified graphics for cost containment. Alternatively, a company may choose a premium image, with better packaging, longer shelf life (or higher quality within the shelf life through better barrier), and more attractive art work. The distribution system, as previously mentioned, also affects the selection of the packaging material. The goals for packaging can be stated as follows: to provide adequate protection for the product from production to consumption, to be cost effective, to be able to be handled by the packaging machinery at the plant, and to be environmentally responsible. In addition, it must also present, inform, and help sell the product. Many criteria are used to define shelf life. As a general rule, business efficiency is enhanced when the production capacity, inventory capability, and distribution system are taken into consideration to define the shelf-life requirement for a prod-
uct. This requires knowledge of the distribution system and the production of sufficient product to maintain the pipeline with product plus sufficient surplus to maintain the supply. The business model, therefore, is to produce product with a shelf life that matches the distribution system and meets the product quality standards as desired by the customers. The packaging barrier properties required to provide the needed shelf life for a product will vary with the package size. The same product packaged in a smaller size has a shorter shelf life than that in a larger package because the larger package has less film surface area per unit weight of the product in it. Therefore, the product in a larger package comes in contact with a smaller amount of moisture and oxygen diffused into the package compared with a smaller package within the same time span. Therefore, for a given product and package shape, the larger the product size, the lower the barrier requirements necessary for a given shelf life. With this in mind, let us discuss barrier properties of different packaging materials. When choosing a packaging material, it is prudent to remember that the barrier properties of packaging materials vary widely. Glass and metal (such as cans or foils) are the only materials that provide an absolute barrier to gases (such as oxygen) and vapor (such as moisture). Even these materials supply an absolute barrier only if they have full integrity. Rigid containers of either glass or metal must be sealed, and the sealant materials also have a finite barrier property. Some gases and vapors can permeate through the sealant. Therefore, metal cans or glass containers provide good protection but are not absolute. Foils are good barriers as long as t h e y have no pinholes or cracks. However, thin unprotected foils are prone to both pinholes and cracking. This is why foils are usually laminated to polymers and/or paper to make the material more resistant to damage in handling. The ultimate barrier property of the packaging film depends on the choice of laminate and the thickness of the layers, including the foils. Plastics can provide a wide range of barrier properties to both gases and moisture. No polymeric material supplies an absolute barrier. Figure 10.14 presents a number of packaging materials that are currently used or have historically been used for packaging snack foods. The values are representative of particular polymers, but keep in mind that different resins with the same name may vary in permeability characteristics (i.e., check with suppliers). The graph shows that some polymers, such as polyolefins, comprise a relatively good moisture barrier, but poor oxygen barrier. Other materials, such as EVOH, are excellent oxygen barriers, but poor moisture barriers. PVDC and METPET (metallized polyester, with good lay-down) are excellent barriers to both gases and moisture. Figure 10.15 presents the barrier properties in a different format, i.e., the cost of sufficient polymer to provide an arbitrary unit of barrier performance. All of the oxygen barriers are the same, as are all of the moisture barriers. The graph shows that using polyethylene for the oxygen barrier, for example, would be very costly because an unreasonable wall thickness would be required to obtain the desired level of oxygen barrier. This material, however, provides a cost-effective moisture
WVTR
02TR
Fig. 10.14. Film permeabilities. Source: Kenneth S. Marsh & Associates, 1985, with
permission.
barrier at a reasonable thickness, although HDPE, a more expensive resin, is more cost effective for moisture protection. A very thin EVOH film will provide an excellent oxygen barrier, but would be too thin to provide a suitable package. EVOH is therefore typically incorporated into a laminate to provide the gas barrier while other components add mechanical strength, moisture barrier, and heat stability. Specific strength and barrier properties, therefore, can be designed in a cost-effective manner with an appropriate choice of polymer combinations in a lamination or coextrusion. Packaging materials must be evaluated to determine the shelf life that they will provide for a given product. This is usually determined through storage studies at both ambient and accelerated conditions. High-temperature/high-humidity storage studies do accelerate degradation and allow for more rapid assessment of performance than ambient studies, but the kinetics (reaction rates) will vary with products and must be evaluated with the specific product before accelerated tests can be evaluated correctly. Any program that states that an accelerated condition is some multiple of ambient is valid only if it has been verified on a specific product through a statistically validated test. Mathematical modeling can be employed to shorten the time required to test packaging materials. The first step is to determine limits for any agent that defines
WVTR Protection
02TR Production
Fig. 10.15. Relative cost of different barriers. Source: Kenneth S. Marsh & Associates, 1985, with permission.
the quality of the product. For snack products, this often includes moisture, which affects texture, and oxygen, which promotes rancidity. For all products, there is an upper limit for moisture content and the degree of oil oxidation in the fresh product. A threshold value for each of these parameters also exists to define the end point for consumer acceptance. It is necessary to meet the maximum moisture and oil oxidation standards in manufacturing. The packaging material is then chosen to match the desired shelf life, given the product distribution system in place. Although a target value may be specified for any critical parameter, production variability exists. Furthermore, the acceptable range, which is defined by the company, is ideally wider than the production range (Figure 10.16). If this were not true, the product would have no shelf life. The amount of oxygen or moisture that can be tolerated is the amount that can be absorbed between production and threshold or acceptable levels. Again, the quality acceptance criteria will be related to those points that are chosen on the basis of consumer acceptance data. Once an acceptability range is established and a quantity of permeant is specified, barrier requirements can be calculated. For example, if a product is known to be able to tolerate x grams of oxygen before it becomes unacceptable, one can calculate the barrier required to allow x grams during the shelf-life requirement at a specified storage environment. A simple calculation is to define the oxygen trans-
Process condition
Fig. 10.16. Quality profile. Source: Kenneth S. Marsh & Associates, 1991, with per-
mission.
mission per day and match that to barrier specifications of films. However, such a procedure will overspecify barrier because transmission changes as oxygen levels increase within the package (Figure 10.17). A more accurate procedure will compensate for the changes in oxygen level. Calculations of minimum barrier requirements for a given shelf life provide a means to choose suitable barrier materials. It is still prudent to verify the choices with storage studies, but such studies can be restricted to confirming materials that are likely to succeed and eliminating those that are not likely to provide the required shelf life. Furthermore, if both ambient and accelerated shelf-life studies are performed, the kinetics can be determined such that accelerated studies can be properly evaluated for future studies. In addition to barrier requirements, other means can be used to extend shelf life. For example, nitrogen flushing removes oxygen from the package. Oxygen or moisture absorbers (active packaging) can also be employed to reduce the effects of agents that permeate the package. Packaging films are now available that absorb oxygen as it is permeating the film, thereby reducing the influx into the product. Shelf life can be influenced by changing environmental conditions, which are typical for noncontrolled distribution systems (controlled is refrigerated and frozen distribution). High-temperature, high-humidity conditions experienced early in the distribution cycle will have a more detrimental effect on shelf life than similar conditions experienced later. Figure 10.18 shows the shelf life of a food product vs. month of production. Products shipped during the summer months had shorter shelf lives than those produced during cooler periods. Furthermore, as expected,
Time (mo)
Fig. 10.17. Permeant accumulation. Source: Kenneth S. Marsh & Associates, 1991, with
permission.
Month of production
Fig. 10.18. Shelf life vs. month of production. Source: Kenneth S. Marsh & Associates, 1984, with permission.
the shelf life of products shipping to warmer locations had reduced shelf life (unless stored in climate controlled warehouses). Such information could be used to improve product performance by possibly changing packaging requirements (if regionally produced) or advertising to improve product flow through more critical regions. Physical Protection. Physical protection can be achieved through the primary packaging container, such as nitrogen injection into potato chip bags as mentioned earlier, or through the distribution packaging, such as a corrugated shipper. Additional cushioning may be employed if necessary. The physical requirements are typically defined through distribution testing. In years past, this was performed with shipping tests in which product was sent through distribution and evaluated for damage. Simulated testing is now typically performed on packaged products. In this test, packages are shock-tested to simulate impacts, vibration-tested to simulate transportation forces, and compression-tested to simulate warehouse stacking. Standard procedures are available through the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and International Safe Transit Association (ISTA). The simulated testing procedure must be appropriate for the distribution system through which the product is shipped. Applications that vary widely from standard conditions should be carefully evaluated against the test results. For example, field supplies for military operations may need to pass a standard for helicopter drops (150-ft drop at 100 knots with 75% survival) that is significantly greater than grocery distribution, but designed for an appropriate critical operation. The distribution packaging must be designed to withstand the shock experienced through the distribution system. The ability to do so is often expressed as the effective free-fall drop height (EFFDH), i.e., the highest level from which the product can be dropped and withstand an acceptable level of damage (Table 10.1). The greater this value is, the greater the height from which it can be safely dropped. Keep in mind that heavier products typically experience lower drops in
TABLE 10.1 Fragility Evaluation Drop Tests

Effective free fall drop (in) Product Chips I Chips II Snack I Snack II Snack III Snack IV Base 14 17 24 24 34 18 Side 14 11 6 52 60 18 End 32 17 30 19 25 18
distribution. For example, a unitized shipment on a pallet will experience much lower drops than a single package. Vibration occurs during transportation, and varies with the mode of transport, such as truck, rail, ship, or air. Most food products do not have sufficient profit margins to justify additional cushioning materials to dampen vibration. Compression strength is critical for stacking strength, and specifies how high pallets may be stacked. The distribution testing is performed with packages that have been equilibrated to standard conditions, usually 73F/50% relative humidity. This is done to allow comparison among different studies and different testing laboratories. If storage conditions differ from standard conditions, it is important to recognize that compression strength may not match expectations. Storage in hotter, humid environments will severely reduce the compression strength of corrugated packaging. The author strongly advises that anyone who specifies packaging for food (or any) product should follow the product through the entire production and distribution system. This includes observing incoming quality assurance for the raw materials and the packaging material that are used to make the product, production, transport to the warehouse, warehouse operation, transport to retail outlets, the logging of product, stacking onto the retail shelves, and use of the product. Such an analysis may uncover anomalies in the system that alter the product in a disproportionate manner. Many companies either assume that they know these systems, or anticipate a certain level of performance. Actual observations of these various systems may suggest ways to improve the product, improve the package, or improve the distribution system, and ways to improve profitability. Improving profitability with packaging systems does not necessarily mean decreasing packaging costs. The author evaluated the distribution system for a frozen product and discovered that a disproportionate amount of damage was caused during the log-in process at the supermarket chain. In high humidity environments, moisture condensed onto the product, which had to be exposed to be logged in. A carton improvement and moisture-protective coating increased packaging costs by $200,000 per year, but resulted in a $1.7 million reduction in damages. Reducing Distribution Costs. It is recommended that the product be followed through the distribution system to better understand the following: How the packaging performs throughout the distribution system Where damage may occur in the system Once the information is collected and the system performance is understood, one must take the following steps: (i) define the action steps needed to correct the issues; and (ii) take appropriate action to improve performance. These principles may be extended with increased knowledge of the entire system. The above discussion of shelf life included a description of changes in shelf life that result from changing environmental conditions. Analysis and documentation of these changes may offer additional means for improving profits. It is possible to utilize this infor-
mation to improve profitability if one studies the effects of various city climates in relationship to the actual product shelf life obtained in the various geographic locations. The company could try to better match distribution system to product turnover rates as suggested in Figure 10.18. One could modify advertising and coupons to accelerate the sale of products in warmer climates if the packaging was designed for these more critical regions. Such action may enable the company to reduce the cost of packaging, thereby resulting in a major savings. It suggests that one could design the package for the entire market as opposed to the worst geographic location. Another option for varying regional performance is to vary regional packaging. This requires additional product codes, which obviously means additional expense. However, if the savings in packaging materials exceeds these costs, profit improvement is achieved. The practicality of this option depends on its economic viability. An additional benefit of studying distribution environments is that it allows comparison between new and existing markets. For example, a domestic company that wishes to expand to foreign markets may evaluate additional packaging requirements to meet the needs for those markets. Modern technology can be employed to carry this concept further. The author has proposed a Computer-Aided Distribution in which temperature/humidity sensors could be installed in distribution centers and possibly transport vehicles and containers. These sensors could record the actual conditions that specific products have experienced, and be used to pull products on the basis of available shelf life instead of first-in/first-out systems that cannot compensate for abused product. This system would require a database consisting of all shipments with dates, destinations, and environmental readings, a computer program to calculate available shelf life, and an interface that modifies pull dates of products in the specific distribution center. Needless to say, it would require a highly sophisticated computer system that the distribution staff would have to follow exactly.
Conclusions
The author strongly advises any person who is responsible for the design or specification of a packaging system to follow the product through its entire manufacturing and distribution system periodically and observe products in the entire distribution system. Such action will demonstrate how well the system is performing. Viewing products in distribution will also suggest how products compare with competition, which may well lead to ideas that may benefit the company. Testing and evaluation of actual product through distribution conditions can pinpoint problem areas. Any aspect of these areas that results in a disproportionate amount of product damage makes them the focus of opportunity for profit improvement. Packaging can reduce damage and improve sales. A relatively common practice is to choose the lowest cost packaging material for a given product. This may appear to be a sound business option, but it may compromise profitability in the
long run. Often there is a trade-off among product, packaging, distribution, and a more protective package. The final decision should be based on profitability. Packaging that promotes sales through better presentation, and convenience features such as easy opening, resealable pouch, and so on may not only enhance sales, but also allow for consumer acceptance of a higher price. Packaging attracts customers at the supermarket and plays the role of principal salesman for the product at the store. Therefore, it is directly related to the company's profitability. The package will influence the initial sale; the product quality will determine repeat sales. References
1. ASTM D4169-94, Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Shipping Containers and Systems, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1994. 2. Marsh, K.S., Influence of Product Orientation on Shock Resistance of Snack Foods, Packaging Technol. Eng. 8:36 (1999). 3. Robertson, G.L., Food Packaging: Principles and Practice, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1993.
Chapter 11
Toxicology of Frying Fats and Oils

Richard F. Stier
Consulting Food Scientists, 627 Cherry Avenue, Sonoma, CA 95476
Introduction
Fatty foods, especially fried foods, are enjoyed by people of all countries, and fat has been used for thousands of years by almost every civilization. No matter where one travels, these delicious products are offered as part of the daily fare. In Europe, frites and fried pastries are mainstays of the diet. The Chinese produce a fried dough product bearing a name that literally translates as fried rope. Tempura, a fried battered product, is a staple of Japanese cookery. Fried and seasoned grains, chips and wafers have been part of daily snacks in the subcontinent of India for centuries. A small sampling of popular fried foods in the United States includes French fries, fried chicken, fried snack foods (chips and nuts), donuts, pastries, and pies. Modern day consumers have been made to believe that the foods that are tasty and rich in taste are bad for one's health. Many physicians have called all fried foods bad because they are fried in oil and are rich in fat calories. To some degree, this is true because overindulgence of any type of food, whether it is rich or lean in energy, could be harmful to health. In addition, some consumer advocates have indicated that frying generates compounds that could pose health hazards. Deep-fat frying is probably one of the most dynamic processes in all of food processing. The oil, as well as the fried food, undergoes dramatic chemical changes during the frying process. The oil is subjected to prolonged heat stress that can break down the oil, producing a large number of compounds that can affect the flavor, taste, and storage life of the product. Some of the oil breakdown products may cause some gastrointestinal distress when the food is consumed in very large quantities. In reality, properly operated fryers do not heavily damage frying oil, and the oil does not pose any toxicological danger. Concern over the health implications of oil and fried foods have led to a great deal of research in this area. A considerable amount of research has been performed over the past six decades. Researchers have tried to understand whether normal frying generates any harmful compounds in the oil or fried foods and whether heated and/or abused oils are safe for human consumption. Most of these studies were conducted on laboratory animals to determine: (i) the effect on health and longevity of the test animals, their organs, and survival; and (ii) food utilization, absorption of nutrients, and the growth pattern of the test animals. The majority of the feeding studies utilized oils that were heated and abused excessively. No frying operation, whether industrial or restaurant, would treat the
fryer oils in the way these researchers did. Therefore, one must exercise proper judgment when drawing conclusions from the studies. However, this kind of laboratory research has been and will continue to be extremely important. Studies with heated fats and oils do provide the regulatory agencies with the background information for enacting laws and/or establishing guidelines to protect the health and welfare of the consumers. This chapter will review the effect of heated oils on human health.
Dietary Issues
There have been several major changes during the past two decades in consumer, industry, and government attitudes toward the consumption of fats and oils. Fats or oils have been labeled as one of the less desirable constituents in our daily diet. These findings have spawned the proliferation of so-called Low-Fat and FatFree products in almost every category of packaged foods. Unfortunately, fats and oils (lipids), along with proteins and carbohydrates, are the primary nutrients in the human diet. Without some fat, the diet is incomplete. The studies conducted by the Surgeon General of the United States indicate that consumption of low-fat and nofat products has not produced a leaner population. Unfortunately, the contrary is true, and the U.S. population is getting fatter. Early Research Work on Heated Oils Research on frying fat and oils began in the early part of the 20th century. The home economics departments of various universities in the Midwest took the pioneering role in this area. Studies were conducted in the early 1930s to determine the nutritional effects of heat on fats. Morris and his colleagues (1) reported that rats given heated lard as their diet developed vitamin E deficiency. Their work also showed that rats suffered growth failure and weight loss when their diet contained 50% lard that was heated for 120 min at 300C. Roffo (2) reported that rats developed tumors when their diet consisted of sunflower oil, olive oil, lard, tallow, or cholesterol that had been heated for 30 min at 350C. Later workers refuted these findings on the basis that the tumors failed to meet the established criteria for cancer. Crampton and Millar (3) observed that rats had a high rate of mortality when they were fed a diet consisting partly of polymerized linseed oil. The linseed oil was heated for 615 h at 275C with carbon dioxide sparged through the oil to exclude air. Harris (4) reported that laboratory rats suffered impaired growth and ill health when they consumed fish oils heated for 812 h at 280C. Lane et al. (5) observed no tumor formation in rats when the diet consisted of oil browned for 30 min at 350C. These rats, however, seemed to have a higher incidence of papillon and ulcers. Lassen et al. (6) showed that sardine oil that had been heated to high temperatures was less digestible than unheated oil. Crampton and his colleagues reported results in a series of papers in 1951 (7). In one study, the rats received a diet of baked feed consisting of 1020% of linseed, soy,
cottonseed, rapeseed, corn, peanut, or herring oil. The oils were individually heated for 30 h at 275C and then incorporated into a baked product. Baking was done at 375F for 20 min. Test rats receiving the diet containing 20% heated oil showed increased weight loss. The linseed oil diet seemed to have the worst effect on the rats. In a second study by Crampton et al. (8), the heated linseed oil was fractionated by a distillation process into distillate and residue. Heavy mortality and overall poor health were observed in the group administered the residue fraction in their diet. The distillate fraction was found to be relatively less harmful to the rats, but was more deleterious than the unheated oil. Deuel et al. (9) made citric acid esters of glycerol. The esters were heated for 8 h at 205C and potato chips were fried with the heated ester. Rats were fed a diet consisting of heated esters and fried potato chips. Neither diet had any adverse effects on the test rats. Frahm et al. (10) observed deleterious effects in mice fed heat-polymerized whale oil. Crampton et al. (11) showed impaired weight gain in rats whose diets were high in polymerized oils. They also fractionated the heated oils into six fractions, ranging from straight-chain compounds to cyclic compounds. They observed that the diet containing 20% of the cyclic monomers (non-ureaadducting fraction) caused high mortality in the test rats. The diet containing 20% of the straight-chain compounds did not have any adverse effect on the rats. Raju and Rajagopalan (12) heated sesame, peanut, and coconut oils in open pans at 270C. The thermal polymers thus produced in the oils caused depressed growth rates in test animals. Kaunitz and co-workers (13) heated lard and cottonseed oils with aeration for 200 h at 95C. The heated lard contained 17% polymers and the heated cottonseed oil contained 40% polymers. Rats fed the diet containing 20% of these oxidized and polymerized fats suffered from high mortality. Adverse effects were also noted in rats fed diets consisting of 10% of these oxidized and polymerized fats. The adverse trends reversed when the rats were fed diets containing fresh oils. Crampton et al. (14) fed the non-urea adductforming components from linseed, soy, and sunflower oils to rats. The fractions from linseed oil had the most deleterious effects on the test rats. The effects from the soybean oil were less pronounced and the sunflower oil had the least effect. Johnson et al. (15) observed that corn oil, thermally oxidized at room temperature, depressed growth in rats. The growth rate became normal once the diet was changed to fresh corn oil. All of the above-mentioned work and the results are summarized in Table 11.1. Subsequent Feeding Studies on Heated Fats Neither commercial fryers nor restaurant fryers are operated under the test conditions discussed in the previous section. These are extreme heating conditions and the results obtained do not represent real-life situations in the frying industry. Melnick
TABLE 11.1 Early Research on Heated and Oxidized Oils

Oil Lard Sunflower Linseed Soy Cottonseed Rapeseed Peanut Corn Fish Sesame Peanut Parameters 20 min at 300C 30 min at 350C 630 h 275C Results Depressed growth; weight loss Tumors Depressed growth Weight loss Death Reference (1) (2) (3) (8) (14)
812 h at 280C Open pans at 270C
Depressed growth; ill health Depressed growth
(4) (12)
(16) called many of these early studies impractical. He presented information on used oils gathered from 89 commercial chip-frying operations and indicated that there was little change in the iodine value of the oils as a result of frying, and polymer contents were not an issue. Rice et al. (17) examined fats from restaurants, bakeries, and chip producers. They observed that rats experienced only slight decreases in energy and slight increases in liver size when the diet contained even the most abused oils in this group of products. Alfin-Slater et al. (18) noted that growth, reproduction, lactation, and longevity in rats were not impaired when cottonseed oil was heat-polymerized to effect a drop of 5% of its fresh iodine value. Witting et al. (19) suggested that the incorporation of a single peroxide group into fatty acid molecules was enough to cause toxicity in rats and mice. Nishida et al. (20), on the other hand, reported that the test rats fed heated oils had reduced cholesterol. Perkins and Kummerow (21) heated corn oil for 48 h with agitation. The abused oil was then fractionated via distillation. Weanling rats died within 7 d when they were fed the residue fraction from the non-ureaadducting fatty acids. Alfin-Slater et al. (22) heated various vegetable oils for 60100 min at 610F under vacuum. In their feeding studies, no evidence of nutritional impairment was noted, except for soybean oil, which was found to be highly polymerized under the test conditions. A slight decline in digestibility was also observed with this oil. Custot (23) warned that improper frying could severely damage the oils. Keane et al. (24) conducted a study using heated oils from commercial operations. No toxicity was observed in the rats; in fact, those rats fed the heated fats gained weight. The same study reported that oils heated and oxidized under laboratory conditions produced lower growth rates in test rats, but no toxicity was observed in these rats. Rice et al. (25) reported that there was no reason to believe that fats were nutritionally damaged by normally accepted good practices in present-day food preparation. They also observed that the frying oils suffered undesirable changes
in viscosity, browning, and product flavor before the oils reached the state at which biological effects could be observed. They observed biological activity on laboratory rats when they were fed the oil that had been foaming in a potato chip fryer. No specific cause for the foaming was reported. Perkins (26) presented a review of earlier work in the area of frying fat toxicity and posed three questions: (i) Are polymers formed in unsaturated oils during deodorization, processing, and use? (ii) Are polymeric materials absorbed on food products in the fryer; if so, to what extent? (iii) What are the physiologic and nutritional effects of these polymeric materials? The researchers determined that the oil can be polymerized during oil refining if proper precautions are not taken. The polymers are also absorbed by the fried food, but no partitioning effect has been proven. Firestone et al. (27) and Friedman et al. (28) reported that heating cottonseed oil for 190 h at 225C increased its viscosity. They reported that heating the oils increased viscosity and molecular weight and lowered the iodine value. They observed that rats fed this abused oil suffered from a lack of nutrient absorption. They hypothesized that such abused oils might have interfered with absorption of other nutrients. The forced feeding of urea filtrate monomers and dimers to weanling mice resulted in death. Similar adverse effects were observed when the non-ureaadducting fatty acids were included in the diet. These researchers were the first ones to propose using this class of compounds as an indicator of the quality of heated oils. In 1962, Poling et al. (29) studied the influence of temperature, heating time, and aeration on the nutritive value of heated cottonseed oil. They found that the changes in the oil were proportional to the severity of the conditions. They also reported that the oils with a high level of change were subjected to conditions that were more severe than those encountered in the normal frying process. Test animals had enlarged livers when they were fed damaged oils in their diet. Fleischman et al. (30) recommended against both reusing and overheating oils because these would cause additional hydrolysis and oxidation in the oil. They commented that frying appears to decrease the hypocholesteremic effect of the high concentration of polyenoic acids in raw oils. Raju et al. (31) heated peanut, sesame, and coconut oils in an open iron pan for 8 h at 270C. Rats fed a diet containing 15% of these oils had reduced growth rates, reduced food intake, increased liver weight, reduced vitamin-B storage, reduced carbohydrate absorption, and higher blood glucose and cholesterol. Perkins and Van Akkeren (32) demonstrated that intermittent heating and cooling of cottonseed oil caused the oil to break down rapidly. Oil heated intermittently for 66 h and oil heated continuously for 166 h contained the same amount of polar materials. They concluded that oils in small operations in which the turnover is low may be damaged more rapidly than those in large operations in which oil turnover is more rapid. This was found to be the case in actual practice. Kaunitz et al. (33) conducted long-term feeding studies in which rats were fed a diet that included up to 30% fat. The fat had been oxidized for 40 h at 60C, with
airflow of 12 L/min. Cottonseed, chicken fat, beef fat, and olive oils were used. They found that death rates and lesions observed after death were greater in rats that had consumed the oxidized oils, except for the oxidized olive oil. A year later, Kaunitz (34) participated in an IFT-sponsored symposium on the Chemistry and Technology of Deep Fat Frying. In his summary concerning the effects of cooking and storage he noted that: Intelligent cooking or even storage procedures may improve the quality of some dietary fats. Nolen et al. (35) conducted a feeding study on rats using hydrogenated soybean oil, cottonseed oil, and lard. These oils were used under restaurant conditions until they were judged to be unfit for use. These fats made up 15% of the diet. The used fats were slightly less absorbable and gave correspondingly slower growth rates. There were no clinical, pathologic, or metabolic criteria to suggest that the used fats adversely affected the population consuming them. Distillable nonureaadducting fractions from used fats proved somewhat toxic when high concentrations were administered to weanling rats. Their conclusion was: Although heating of fats under actual frying conditions does cause the formation of substances which can be shown to be toxic, the level of such substances and the degree of their toxicity are so low as to have no practical dietary significance. Nolen conducted additional studies (36,37) with hydrogenated fats. He concluded that hydrogenated fats, either fresh or used, did not affect reproduction in rats. Poling et al. (38) conducted long-term feeding studies on laboratory rats. The rats were fed heated (182C for 120 h) cottonseed salad oil, corn oil, lard, and hydrogenated vegetable shortening. They found no significant differences between the heated and unheated oils. They stated that, The absence of adverse effects attributable to the heated fats during the life span of the rats is further evidence of the safety of these fats of the quality customarily consumed by the human population. In 1972 and 1973, Ohfuji and his colleagues in Japan conducted a series of studies on the nutritive value of heated oils (3941). They found a toxic dimer in abused oils, and concluded that this was found in the most polar fraction of the oils. This dimer itself was more digestible than the thermally oxidized oil. The oils were heated for 90 h at 275C in the presence of air or nitrogen. They did report that they were able to recover small amounts of the dimer in some commercial cooking oils. Billek et al. (42,43) presented their findings on sunflower oil obtained from the commercial production of fish fingers. They isolated different fractions from the oil before and after it had been used for frying, and used these for feeding studies. They found that rats consuming the polar fraction had significantly lower weight gains than the other test animals. As a result of this study, they proposed that the polar fraction could be used as an index of oil quality. They concluded that 30% polar material in fryer oil represented a safe number, a value that was reduced later to 27% for regulatory purposes. This is the non-ureaadducting fraction. This, indeed, was a revival of the work done by Firestone et al. in 19601961. Polar materials are, in fact, now used in several European nations as a quality index in
restaurant fryer oils. At the AOCS meeting in 1978, Clark presented a review on the state of heated oils, reporting that there was no evidence that oils used in commercial operations were abused to the point that they would create health problems. In 1978, Lang et al. (45) published a study based on 10 years of animal feeding studies, in which three generations of rats were fed heated and unheated oils at a level of 10% of their diet. The study concluded, Frying fats heated under conditions of good commercial practice are not detrimental to the health of test animals. Billek (46) commented that even after 20 years, the study made by Lang et al. has not been criticized and its conclusions are still valid. Fong et al. (47) used the Ames test (microcosms) as a means of evaluating Chinese peanut oils for aflatoxins. They detected mutagenic activity in fresh oils, an activity that decreased with repeated cooking. This study demonstrated that heating could remove certain undesirable components from fresh oils, i.e., the aflatoxins. Aflatoxins can be present in cold-pressed peanut oil. This is not the case for peanut oil produced in Western countries because the oil is processed at a high temperature. Taylor and his colleagues (48,49) conducted two studies to determine whether mutagens were present in fried foods and the effect of frying conditions on mutagen formation. Their work agreed with that of many others, i.e., mutagens are not a problem if oils are not abused. Goethart et al. (50) conducted a study on frying oils and foods from canteens in The Netherlands and also conducted their own frying studies. Their work indicated that there was a slight decline in weight gain and some differences in liver and kidney size in animals fed more abused oils (frying up to 14 d). They did not find any evidence of mutagens in fried foods or heated oils. Hageman et al. (5153) also conducted work using the Ames test on heated oils and foods. These workers observed increased mutagenicity in the polar fraction of the oil with increasing abuse. They were unable to isolate the mutagenic components within the polar fraction. In 1990, Addis (54) postulated that cholesterol oxides and other oxidative materials formed as result of heating oil may act as initiators of arterial damage. These materials allegedly damage the arterial walls, setting the stage for plaque deposition. Marquez-Ruiz (55) indicated that thermally oxidized fats might have adverse effects on human health. Industry and Food Service Practices Researchers in the field of nutrition have stated that handling of frying oils under normal operating conditions does not pose any health hazards, even though most fried foods are rich in oil or fat. This was reiterated at the 3rd International Symposium on Frying sponsored by the DGF (56). They made the following statement: There are no health concerns associated with consumption of frying fats and oils that have not been abused at normal frying conditions. The next question is whether oil abuse is indeed a problem in the food processing and food service industries. There are a number of studies that indicate that oils used in commercial
frying are not abused (16,57,58). The oils from these studies did not pose any health concern. When abused, oils break down into hundreds of compounds. Many of these compounds are detrimental to the shelf life of the oils and the products made with them. Complaints from German consumers about fried food quality at restaurants and their aftermath that prompted scientists in that country to initiate studies on fryer oil quality in restaurants, which led to the first recommendations for regulating frying fats (59). Blumenthal (60) evaluated hundreds of oil samples from industrial and food service frying operations and related those samples to actual practices. He found that the oils from the commercial chip fryers were least abused. This is primarily due to high oil-takeout by the food and constant replenishment with fresh oil (Table 11.2). Industrial fryers are used for foods such as French fries and battercoated and breaded products; these are much more abused than the products produced in chip fryers. The fast food, coffee-shop doughnut, and institutional frying operations are the most abusive to frying oil. This agrees with the observations of Perkins and Van Akkeren (32). Table 11.2 compares average values of oil qualities for these industries (60). As noted in Table 11.2, the fast food and restaurant businesses do create abused oils. However, in actual practice, very few restaurant operations allow their oils to reach such high polar concentrations. Trans Fatty Acids Trans fatty acids are the trans isomers of unsaturated fatty acids. Most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids are found in the cis form. The cis and trans forms refer to the position of the hydrogen around the double bonds on the fatty acid chain. These hydrogen atoms are held in place at the double bond. When the atoms are on the same geometric side of the chain, they are referred to as being in the cis position; those on opposite sides of the chain are in the trans position. Trans fatty acids, however, are not simply the products of human chemistry. There are several naturally occurring sources of trans acids. They may be found in some plant oils, such as tung and pomegranate oil. However, these are not common edible oils. They are also formed in fats from ruminants, such as cattle and sheep.
TABLE 11.2 Approximate Levels of Polar Materials at Which Various Industry Segments Discard Oila
Industry Snack foods Industrial Restaurant and institutional
aSource:
Polars at discard (%) 1113 1517 2227
Reference 82.
The bacteria in the rumen produce trans acids, found in these animals. The levels of trans acids found in natural sources is quite low (15% of total fat). If the triglyceride being examined has a high level of trans acids, these will pack together, forming a solid fat. This is a function of the straight chains formed by trans acids. Because they are straight, they will pack more tightly and form crystals or hard fats. Harder fats have higher melting points (Table 11.3). In fact, the melting points of trans acids are midway between those of saturated and the cis unsaturated isomer. The development of the hydrogenation process is credited to a French chemist named Sabatier. The process is now >100 years old. Hydrogenation allows oil refiners to harden fats using hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. The most common catalyst used is nickel. One common misunderstanding is that hydrogenation produces only saturated fats from the unsaturated fats. In fact, a percentage of existing unsaturated fatty acids is converted to both saturated fats and the trans isomers of the naturally occurring cis forms. As described above, the trans isomers have higher melting points than do the original cis isomers, which allows processors to manufacture a variety of plastic fats from the hydrogenated fats. These plastic fats have a wide range of functional characteristics, depending upon their makeup. Over the years, oil refiners have continually refined the hydrogenation process. The makeup of the finished product is a function of the type of processing the oil undergoes. By controlling process time, pressure, temperature, catalyst quality, rate of agitation, and quality of the feedstock and filtration, a range of products may be produced. One of the most critical quality control points is the catalyst. Old or poisoned catalysts produce finished products with higher levels of trans acids. The greater the degree of hydrogenation, the harder the fat. In a fully hydrogenated product, all of the double bonds are eliminated and the resulting product is hard and brittle. Fully hydrogenated oil has essentially zero trans fat content (Table 11.4). Fats and oils are prone to oxidation and other reactions. In particular, soybean and canola oils are susceptible to oxidation. Soybean and canola oils used for frying shelf-stable snacks are typically brush or lightly hydrogenated to reduce the linolenic acid content in the oil, which enhances oxidative stability. Oils used for doughnut, food service, or restaurant frying are more heavily hydrogenated. It is logical to ask how much trans fatty acids do people consume and does this pose a potential health risk? It is difficult to determine the consumption of trans fat in
TABLE 11.3 Melting Points of C18 Fatty Acids
Fatty acid Stearic acid Oleic acid (c i s) Linoleic acid (c i s) Elaidic acid (t r a n s) Formula C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:1 Melting point (C) 69.9 10.013.0 5.0 44.5
TABLE 11.4 Proportion of Trans Fatty Acids in Food Products

Food category Margarine (stick) Margarine (tub) Household salad/cooking oils Household shortenings Foodservice frying fats and oils Baking fats (foodservice) Butter
aSource:
Total fatty acids as trans (%) 2530 1320 0 1418 640 1035 29
Reference 63.
our daily diet, because the daily diet comprises a very complex mixture of different foods and it varies with individual eating habits. Dr. David Firestone of the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Dr. W.M.N. Ratnayake (61) showed that there was no single method applicable for all samples. One major barrier to determining the amount of trans fatty acids in the diet is that no one has yet developed a comprehensive database on the subject. As an example, the FDA allows food processors to utilize nutritional databases, such as those in the USDA Handbook 8 series (62), or those developed by suppliers for their products to prepare nutritional labels. The databases listing trans fatty acid contents in various foods are not readily available; thus, anyone who wishes to determine whether their foods contain these materials must have the food analyzed. Dickey and Caughman (63) from the USDA have developed a compilation of fatty acid profiles, including trans acids, for >100 foods, but more work is needed. The amount of trans fatty acids in the daily diet has been a subject of debate for a number of years. In the United States, estimates vary from 7.6 to 15.2 g/d. In 1985, an expert panel report prepared for the FDA (64) estimated daily consumption to be 8.3 g/d. Estimates prepared by the edible oil industry in 1984 and 1989 were 7.6 and 8.1 g/d, respectively. Hunter and Applewhites 1986 estimate for daily consumption was 2.36.6 (65). Enig et al. (66,67) determined the average daily consumption to be 13.3 g for adolescents and 14.9 g for adults. These latter estimates have been criticized by the edible oil industry as not being realistic based on hydrogenated oil production. There have been reports that in some countries daily consumption of trans fatty acids may be as much as 48 g/d. Even though there is debate over the exact average daily consumption of trans acids, it is clear that there are a number of foods that may have high levels of trans acids. Many of these foods are, unfortunately, common snack foods. Doughnuts contain >30% fat, a third of which is trans fat; this computes to ~5 g of trans fat per doughnut. It is estimated that 10 potato chips, which contain 10 g of total fat, contain 2.2 g of trans fat when they are fried in partially hydrogenated soybean or canola oil.
The expert panel report from 1985 mentioned above concluded: The available scientific information suggests little reason for concern with the safety of dietary trans fatty acids at present and expected use levels of linoleic acid. This report also called for additional studies to clarify certain issues (64). In 1988, the Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils (68) concluded that: Concerns that have been raised about possible relationships between atherosclerotic disease or cancer are not supported by reliable data. In their 1994 Food Fats and Oils report (69), their position changed somewhat concluding that: Overall, the data indicate that trans acids behave similarly to saturates with respect to raising plasma cholesterol; however, the extent of cholesterol raising was less than that by saturates. A 1995 report issued by ILSI (70), the International Life Sciences Institute, concluded that the existing data did not support a link between consumption of trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease. Publications by a number of researchers, especially Hunter and Applewhite (65,71), support the position that there are no health concerns from consumption of hydrogenated fats and oils. On the other hand, a large number of people and organizations indicate that their research data suggest health concerns related to the consumption of trans fatty acids. There is concern that trans fats act more like saturated fats. Table 11.5 presents the time line of health concerns regarding dietary fatty acids. Although the reports that support the safety of hydrogenated fats focus on coronary heart disease, this table indicates that there are other possible health concerns. A 1994 report by the Danish Nutrition Council (72) concluded that, Trans fatty acids
TABLE 11.5 Time Line of Concerns About Health Issues Regarding Dietary Trans Fatty Acidsa,b
Date 1956 1958 1970s 1970s 1977 1978 1980s 1989 1990s 1990s 199394 1994
aSource:
Researcher H. Sinclair A. Keys W.E. Connor and others F.A. Kummerow G.V. Mann M.G. Enig University of Maryland Enig, Teter, and Barnard T. Hamis et al. Mensink and Katan B. Koletzko Harvard University Willet et al. G.V. Mann
Concerns expressed Increased cancer EFA deficiency Increased heart disease Adverse effect on serum cholesterol Adverse effect on serum cholesterol Increased heart disease Increased cancer mortality Altered mixed function oxidase enzymes; milk fat depression; decreased insulin binding Decreased testosterone, abnormal sperm Adverse effect on CHD risks; total cholesterol; LDL-C; HDL-C; LP(a) Low birth weight infants, altered n-3 EFA status Increased heart disease, increased cancer risk Increased heart disease
Reference 83.
bAbbreviations: EFA, essential
fatty acids; CHD, coronary heart disease; LDL-C, low density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-C, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; LP(a), lipoprotein a.
increase the likelihood of developing atherosclerosis and possibly have a harmful effect on the growth of the fetus. As a result of this study, the Danish Council requested a reduction in trans fatty acid content of foods. The continuing research of the Dutch workers, Mensink (73,74) and Katan (75,76), and of the German researcher, Koletzko (77,78), all of whom have indicated that trans fats increase health risk suggests that the effect of trans fatty acid on human health requires further clarification. The American Council on Science and Health (79) has made one of the best and most objective overviews of the trans fatty acid situation on science and health. Their report indicates that consumption of trans acids has an adverse effect on blood lipoproteins compared with unmodified vegetable oils. They indicate that more work is required to compare trans and saturated fats, and that studies on populations that have linked high intakes of trans fats with heart disease have had weaknesses in their methodology. One wonders what the future will hold for hydrogenated fats and oils. These fats offer a wide range of functions useful for the processing industry, especially the baking industry. The alternative to using hydrogenated fats would be to return to using animal fats or the so-called tropical oils, something that is not likely to happen. The American Council on Science and Health suggests using less fat and a more intelligent selection of types of foods, which is a good common sense recommendation no matter what ones diet (79). It is likely that there will be some changes in foodservice frying fats and maybe even industrial oils. These products are highly hydrogenated for stability and extended fry life. Even though members of the edible oil industry defend hydrogenation, they are cognizant of the increasing consumer awareness of trans fats and are looking for alternatives. An example of an alternative product is one created by Cargill Specialty Oils. In 1998, they released a line of no or low trans-fatty acid products, and used the no-trans feature as a tool for marketing the products as healthy oils. According to Cargill spokespeople, We now have a line of oils which fit the all-natural definition and have no hydrogenation required so theyre a healthier alternative without any compromise on flavor or shelf-life stability. Environmental Concerns There are literally thousands of compounds formed in the oil during deep-frying of foods. Fritsch (57) summarized the many classes of materials that are formed during frying. A fryer has been compared to a large steam distillation apparatus. As the water in food boils off, the steam removes volatile compounds from the oil. At one time, these went up the stack and into the environment, but today, these volatile materials are either trapped in a spray tower or burned as fuel. One of the volatile degradation products of deep-fat frying is a mutagenic compound, called acrolein, also known as acrylaldehyde, acrylic aldehyde, and 2propenal. This compound is a clear or yellow compound with a disagreeable odor. The presence of blue smoke indicates that the oil is degrading and that acrolein
may be released. It vaporizes much more easily than water. The chemical formula is: H2C=CH-CHO. Small amounts of acrolein may be found in fried foods and cooking oils. Acrolein that is inhaled will leave the body within minutes. As with any compound, the effects on health vary with the amount and length of exposure. Short exposures to low levels of the compound may cause eye watering and throat irritation and soreness. Acrolein exposure at 170430 ppb will result in irritation. These effects disappear within minutes after the exposure stops. Higher levels of the compound and longer exposure times may affect the lungs so severely that death could result. There is no available information on the effects of consuming foods or beverages containing acrolein. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has established limits for acrolein of 0.1 ppm (100 ppb) in workroom air to protect workers during an 8-h workday over a 40-h work week. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) recommends that the concentration in workroom air be limited to 0.1 ppm averaged over an 8-h shift (Table 11.6).
TABLE 11.6 Health Effects from Breathing Acrolein
Short-term exposure (1 4 d) Levels in air (ppm) 0.00005 0.17 0.26 0.43 Length of exposure (min) 40 40 40 Description of effects Minimum risk level Eye irritation Nose irritation Throat irritation
Long-term exposure (1 4 d) Levels in air (ppm) 0.00009 xxx Length of exposure (min) xxx xxx Description of effects Minimum risk level based on animal studies The health effects of long term exposure to humans to air containing specific levels of acrolein are not known Exposure to acrolein Concentration (ppm) 1.02.3 1.2 0.80.9 Effects Medium to severe eye irritation in 5 minutes Extremely irritating to all mucous membranes within 5 min; lacrimation Changes in amplitude of respiratory membranes; slightly increased respiratory frequency; decreased eye sensitivity to light; changes in optical chronaxy Slight eye and nose irritation; no effect on respiratory frequency or amplitude; odor perceived 30% felt eye irritation in 2 min; increased annoyance and no eye or nose irritation during repeated exposure Odor threshold for most acrolein sensitive people Threshold for affecting electrocortical activity
0.30.5 0.140.15 0.030.034 0.02

aSource:
Reference 84.
Some scientists have theorized that this compound may have had several insidious effects on the industry, particularly fast food and restaurant operations. Dr. Michael Blumenthal (personal communication) suggested that acrolein in the work environment has contributed in part to the rapid turnover in that industry. This may be true, although the work environment itself in a fast food restaurant is a large factor in the high turnover rate among workers. At an IFT short course in 1994, Eskin (80) addressed the acrolein issue at length. He presented materials relating to cancer risk in Chinese women and cooking with oil. Because acrolein is a prime degradation compound, the implication was that it could be a contributor to the development of the disease. This is supported by a recent publication by Chinese scientists who isolated a series of mutagens from fumes of peanut oil used for cooking. The issue of heated fats and public health has not been a focus in the United States, but as noted earlier, this is an issue in Europe. Firestone et al. (81) first presented a review of the regulatory situation pertaining to heated fats and oils at the 1990 meeting of the Institute of Food Technologists. In that publication, it was noted that Belgium, France, Germany, Spain, and Switzerland were among the countries who had established regulatory limits for polar materials in restaurant frying oils, the segment most likely to abuse oil in the restaurants. It was, in fact, abuse of frying fats at the restaurant level that led to the studies that resulted in the recommendations to establish regulatory limits for frying fats and oils. Ironically, Germany, where this work was done, has not established regulations on the national level, but only in its individual states. Since that time, other EU nations have followed the Germans in establishing regulatory limits for restaurant oils. These guidelines and regulations are presented in Table 11.7.
Summary
The basic belief in the scientific community is that heated oils, particularly those that have not been abused, are not a health hazard. Some compounds found in abused oils are potential mutagens, but the levels at which they are found are low, and the consequent health effect is considered to be small. Test animals fed large quantities of abused oil or fractions tend to gain weight at a slower rate than those given fresh or less abused oils, apparently due to the indigestible compounds (polymers) formed in the fryer oil. Other studies using these same badly abused oils have even resulted in the development of tumors or worse in test animals. Conversely, other studies have shown that slightly heated oils are more digestible than fresh oils. When conducting animal feeding studies using heated oils, it was shown that it is essential to ensure that diets are balanced so that the actual effects of the oils may be observed. Some of the early work has been questioned because of this exact point. The most deleterious compounds were found in the non-ureaadducting fraction of abused oils, which contains highly polar materials. As early as 1961, polar
compounds were proposed as an index for oil quality and safety for fryer oils. A 30% limit was recommended. Many years after this initial recommendation, the enactment of regulations or guidelines in several European nations has occurred, targeted at ensuring the production of safe and wholesome foods in the restaurant and food service industries. This discard point for polar materials generally coincides with the best practices of cooks in restaurants in the United States. The basic message to users of frying fats was clearly stated in the DGF recommendations of 2000. To ensure that there are no health concerns, it is essential that the quality of frying oil be controlled. If oil quality is allowed to degrade, health concerns are only part of the issue. In a cost-conscious world, the real issue is economics. The use of abused oil for frying produces poor quality food. Consumers may reject such food because of poor flavor. Because the food industry relies on repeat business, such actions may result in a long-term loss of business for the operation. References
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Suggested Reading
Allen, R.R., Hydrogenation, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 58:166169 (1981). Anonymous, Fat Trans-Formation, Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery, December 4, 1988. Blumenthal, M.M., Presented at IFT Sponsored Short Course, Understanding Deep Frying of Foods, Atlanta, Georgia, June 2425, 1994. Brooks, D., Some Perspectives on Deep-Fat Frying, INFORM 2:10911095 (1991). Brown, M.H., Heres the Beef: Fast Foods Are Hazardous to Your Health, Sci. Dig.:3136, 7677 (April, 1986). Buxtorf, U.P., W. Manz, and M. Schupbach, Gebiete Lebensm. Hyg. 67:429 (1976). Castang, J. Ann. Fals. Exp. Chim. 74:701 (1981). Chang, S.S., R.J. Peterson, and C.T. Ho, Chemical Reactions Involved in Deep Fat Frying of Food, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 55:718 (1979). Clark, W.L., and G.W. Serbia, Safety Aspects of Frying Fats and Oils, Food Technol. 45:8486 (1991). Dickey, L.E., Trans Fatty Acid Content of Selected Foods, INFORM 6:484 (1995). Firestone, D., Worldwide Regulation of Frying Fats, INFORM 4:13661371 (1993). Gao, Y.-T, W.J. Blot, W. Zheng, A.G. Ershow, C.W. Hsu, L.I. Levin, R. Zhang, and J.F. Frameni, Jr., Lung Cancer Among Chinese Women, Int. J. Cancer 40:604609 (1987). Gertz, C., Analytical Aspects and Possibilities of the Development of Acrylamide in Fried Foods, Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 104:762771 (2002). Guhr, G., and J. Waibel, Untersuchung an Friterfetten: Zusammenhange Zwischen dem Gehalt an PetrolatherUnloslichen Oxidierten Fettsauren und dem Gehalt an Polaren Substanzen bzw. dem Gehalt an Polymeren Triglyceriden, Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 80:106 (1978). Hayes, K.C., Designing a Cholesterol-Removed Fat Blend for Frying and Baking, Food Technol. 50:9297 (1996).
Jones, L.A., and C.C. King, Cottonseed Oil, National Cottonseed Products Association and Cotton Foundation, Memphis, TN, 1990. Kamal-Eldin, A., L.A. Appelqvist, C. Gertz, and F.R. Stier (1996) Enhancing the Frying Performance of High Oleic Sunflower Oil Using a Specially Manufactured Sesame and Rice Bran Oil, presented at the Annual Meeting of the AOCS, Indianapolis, IN. Kochkar, S.P., Stabilisation of Frying Oils with Natural Antioxidant Components, Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102:552559 (2000). Mankel, A., Zur Analytik und Beurteilung von Fritrenfetten II. Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 72:677688 (1970). Marquez-Ruiz, G., M.C. Perez-Camino, and M.C. Dobarganes, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 69: 930 (1992). Melton, S.L., Nutritional Needs for Fat and the Role of Fat in the Diet, in Deep Frying: Chemical, Nutrition and Practical Application s, edited by E.G. Perkins and M.D. Erickson, AOCS Press, Champaign, IL, 1996. Potter, N.N., Food Science, 2nd edn., AVI Publishing, Westport, CT (1973). Silkeberg, A., Stable Oil Composition, U.S. Patent Pending (1996). Stevenson, S.G., M. Vaisey-Genser, and N.A.M. Eskin, (1984) Quality Control in the Use of Deep Frying Oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 61:1102. Stier, R.F., The Functions of Trans Fatty Acids, Baking & Snack 19:7886 (1997). Tareke, E., P. Rydberg, P. Karlsson, S. Eriksson, and Tornqvist, Analysis of Acrylamide, A Carcinogen Formed in Heated Foodstuffs, J. Agric. Food Chem. 50:49985006 (2002). Thompson, J.A., M.M. Paulose, B.R. Reddy, R.G. Krishnamurthy, and S.S. Chang, A Limited Survey of Fats and Oils Used for Deep Fat Frying, Food Technol. 21:405412 (1967). United States Food and Drug Administration, FDA Proposes New Rules for Trans Fatty Acids in Nutritional Labeling, Nutrient Content Claims and Health Claims, HHS News, November 12, 1999. United States Food and Drug Administration, Detection and Quantitation of Acrylamide in Foods Draft Method, United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, July 23, 2002. United States Food and Drug Administration, FDA Draft Plan for Acrylamide in Food, United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, September 20, 2002. United States Food and Drug Administration, Food Labeling: Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling and Nutrition Content Claims, Fed. Regist. 63:216, p. 61711, November 9, 1998. Wolfram, G., Recent Findings on Nutritional Properties of Heated FatsA General Review, Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 81:559562 (1979). Wu, S.-C., G.-C.Yen, and F. Sheu, Mutagenicity and Identification of Mutagenic Compounds of Fumes Obtained from Heated Peanut Oil, J. Food Protect. 64:240245 (2001).
Chapter 12
Regulatory Requirements for the Frying Industry

David Firestone
Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC 20204
Introduction
Improper frying operations result in degradation of frying fats and diminish the quality and wholesomeness of fried food. Although there are no worldwide regulations and guidelines for control of frying fats and frying operations, a number of European countries, concerned with the quality of fried foods and possible health risks to consumers, have issued regulations and guidelines for control of frying fats and frying operations (1,2). State and local agencies in the United States as well as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have not promulgated specific regulations or guidelines controlling the quality of frying fats because it has not been determined that frying fats used in the preparation of fried foods are injurious to health. However, the Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA/FSIS) Meat and Poultry Inspection Manual contains several general guidelines for frying meat and poultry products (3), and the agency has issued a plant sanitation directive requiring cleaning of frying equipment at regular intervals (4). Safety and other aspects of frying technology have been discussed at symposia of the Institute of Food Technologists and German Society for Fat Science (Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Fettwissenschaft, DGF) (58). Quality Control After the 1979 symposium on frying fats and oils (6), the DGF recommended that total polar compounds be determined to complement traditional organoleptic (sensory) evaluation of frying fat quality. This method (9), involving silica gel column chromatography, became a standard reference method in many European countries concerned with possible health risks from improper use of frying fats. Determination of polymerized (dimeric and polymeric) triglycerides by gel permeation (size exclusion) high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) (10) is also used widely for the control of frying fat quality. Many analytical tests have been proposed for evaluation of frying fat quality (Table 12.1). Quick tests are also available for carrying out in situ evaluations at the fryer. These include the Oxifrit Test (redox indicator) and the Fritest (carbonyl compounds) distributed by E. Merck (Darmstadt, Germany), and the Veri-Fry quick tests available from Libra Laboratories (Metuchen, NJ).
TABLE 12.1 Laboratory Tests for Oil Quality Determination

Acid value Anisidine value Carbonyl value Color Cyclic fatty acids Dielectric constant Conjugated diene value
aTBA,
Epoxides Fatty acid composition Free fatty acids Iodine value Peroxide value Polymeric triglycerides
Refractive index Smoke point TBA testa Total polar compounds Trans fatty acids Viscosity Total volatiles
thiobarbituric acid.
FDA Regulations The FDA has not established specific regulations to control the quality of frying fats. However, frying fats are regulated by the general provisions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which states that a food is deemed adulterated if it contains any poisonous or deleterious substance which may render it injurious to health [sec. 402 (a)(1)], if it contains any added poisonous or added deleterious substance (other than specified substances such as pesticides [402 (a)(2)], if it consists in whole or in part of any filthy, putrid or decomposed substance, or if it is otherwise unfit for food [sec. 402 (a)(3)], or if it has been prepared, packed or held under insanitary conditions whereby it may have been contaminated with filth, or whereby it may have been rendered injurious to health [402 (a)(4)]. Also, section 404 of the Act mandates the Secretary of Health and Human Services to promulgate regulations to control contamination of food with microorganisms during the manufacture, processing, or packing of food products distributed in interstate commerce. Concerned about food safety, the FDA has been leading an effort in the United States to improve coordination among public health and food regulatory officials to improve food safety programs to minimize outbreaks of foodborne illness (11,12). This effort has included programs to apply Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) plans to food preparation facilities as well as the establishment of a national database on the occurrence of food-borne disease risk factors within the retail segment of the food industry, which included improper handling of food and poor sanitation (13). Five practices and behaviors were noted that resulted in the most significant out of compliance rate: 1. Cold holding of potentially hazardous food (PHF) at 5C. 2. Ready-to-eat (RTE), PHF cold holding at 5C. 3. Commercially processed RTE, PHF date marked. 4. Surfaces/utensils cleaned/sanitized. 5. Proper, adequate hand washing.
In addition, a set of procedures were developed for standardizing and certifying retail food inspection and training officers to ensure that retail foods are safe, unadulterated, and honestly presented to the consumer (14). FDA programs to reduce food-borne illness, encourage voluntary HACCP-based efforts from industry, and standardize food inspection procedures include use of the Food Code (15) as a general reference document by state and local government agencies responsible for overseeing food safety in retail establishments. Although the Food Code is neither federal law nor federal regulation, it represents the FDAs best advice for a uniform system of regulation to ensure that food at retail is safe. The various sections of the Food Code cover employee health; personal cleanliness and hygiene practices; food handling, preparation, and presentation; equipment installation, use, and sanitation; water plumbing and waste handling; physical facilities; storage and use of toxic materials (e.g., sanitizers, drying agents, pesticides, fruit and vegetable washing chemicals); and compliance and enforcement procedures including approval of HACCP plans. Section 3401.11 of the Food Code specifies that all parts of a food be heated to minimum temperatures and holding times to ensure that the foods are safe. Section 4301.14 states that ventilation hood systems should be sufficient in number and capacity to prevent grease or condensation from collecting on walls and ceilings. Section 6202.12 states that heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems should be designed and installed so that make-up air intake and exhaust vents do not cause contamination of food, food-contact surfaces, equipment, or utensils. An Annex specifies a series of enforcement mechanisms and references including management and personnel guidelines for ensuring food safety, food establishment inspection, and preparation of inspection reports; HACCP guidelines including procedures to ensure that HACCP systems are working, plus typical flow diagrams; food processing requirements; and a set of model forms and guides including HACCP guidelines and HACCP Food Inspection Report forms. The Food Code does not specifically specify optimum frying temperatures because it is concerned primarily with the destruction of microorganisms that cause food-borne illness. However, the Food Code specifies that all parts of a food be heated to 63C for 3 min (minimum) and for longer holding times at lower temperatures (121 min at 54C). In 1998, FDA drafted a document Managing Food Safety: A HACCP Principles Guide for Operators of Food Establishments at the Retail Level (16), based on input from industry, academia, and consumers, as well as state and local food regulators, to assist food establishment employees in preparing safe food. The document is intended to serve as a guide for preparing a simple plan based on HACCP principles. It includes sections on identifying critical control points, developing corrective actions, carrying out verification procedures (e.g., checking monitoring and corrective action records), and maintaining facilities equipment. USDA/FSIS Guidelines and Directives The Meat and Poultry Inspection Manual of the Food Safety and Inspection Service of the Department of Agriculture (FSIS/USDA) (17) contains some gener-
al guidelines for frying meat and poultry products. Observing that deep fat frying times vary with the temperature of the fat, the amount of replacement fat added periodically, and treatment of the fat during use, the guidelines state that excessive foaming, darkened color and objectionable odor or flavor are evidence of unsuitability and require fat rejection. The guidelines also state that the frying fat should be discarded when it foams over the vessel's side during cooking or when its color becomes almost black as viewed through a colorless glass container. The serviceable life of fat can be extended by holding the frying temperature below 204C (400F), replacing one third or more each day, filtering as needed, and cleaning the system at least weekly. Adding an antifoam agent (dimethylpolysiloxane) to fresh fat is recommended. For poultry, the FSIS guidelines advise that to completely fry poultry parts, time and temperature required depends upon product type and weight, and upon equipment. Acceptable frying operation should be carried out at approximately 190C (375F) or higher for 1013 min when parts are not precooked . . . commercially prepared fats may contain antioxidants or antifoaming agents . . . used fat may be made satisfactory by filtering, adding fresh fat, and regularly cleaning the equipment. Large amounts of sediment and free fatty acid content in excess of 2% are usual indicators that frying fats are unwholesome and require reconditioning or replacement. Sediment is usually removed by filtering. Adding fresh fat or new fat reduces the free fatty acid to acceptable levels. The guidelines note that fat used for fish products is not satisfactory for frying poultry. Solid frying fat may be kept liquid if the holding temperature does not fall below 54C (130F) to prevent localized excess heating and fat breakdown during melting. FSIS directive 11.000.2 (18) requires cleaning of frying equipment at regular intervals and allows continuous filtering or flushing with clean fat for limited periods of time and notes that complete drainage, followed by dismantling and scouring or otherwise thorough cleaning, is necessary for acceptable sanitizing. Traces of water and detergents increase rate of fat breakdown. They must be completely removed from pipelines, valves, filters, and pumps, must be of sanitary construction, readily accessible to cleaning, and preferably constructed of stainless steel. Rubber and some types of plastic connecting lines are not acceptable. State and City Regulations in the United States Inquiries were made at intervals during 19892001 to 35 U.S. State health departments and food control agencies to determine whether regulations and guidelines were available for control of frying fats and frying operations in restaurants and processing plants. The replies generally indicated that there were no specific regulations other than those requiring that fats used in food preparation and food service establishments be obtained from approved sources and are not adulterated. Many health departments replied that there were no specific regulations for frying fats, frying operations, and fried foods other than the general regulations for sanitation and recommendations in the 1999 Food Code or earlier versions of the Code.
The State of Wisconsins Department of Health and Social Services stated candidly that its Restaurant Inspection Program does not have any procedures for checking frying fats in restaurants. Our only concern is that frying fats and oils be obtained from an approved source and be maintained in a reasonably clean condition. Due to high cooking temperatures used in deep frying operations, frying fats and oils have not been considered a public health hazard as it relates to bacterial contamination. Deep-frying operations in restaurants are viewed as an issue of food quality rather than food safety. Typically, deep-frying operation problems are related to exhausting fumes and concerns regarding consumer complaints related to food odors and off taste that may result. The Food Protection Division of the Allegheny County Health Department (Pittsburgh, PA) has no specific regulations for control of frying fat or fried food quality other than regulations designed to protect consumers from food that contains pathogens. The Department does note that when oxidation occurs or fatty acids increase in oils due to usage, the oils will have a lower smoke point or a fishy, rancid taste thus rendering them unusable from a quality standpoint. The Chicago Department of Health regulates fats and oils under the general provisions of chapter 4344 of the Municipal Code of Chicago, which addresses sanitation practices in food establishments. Food products require approved labels and should be free of rancidity. When routine inspections are made, frying fats are checked for color, sediments, and foreign objects as well as excessive smoke. If necessary, fat and oil samples are collected for determination of rancidity by the Kreis test. The Fulton County (Atlanta, GA) Food Service Sanitation Regulations do not mention frying fats except for the cleaning of frying equipment and proper disposal of spent cooking fats. The State Department of Health regulates Food Service establishments in South Dakota. Cooking equipment that utilizes oil or grease is required to be located under exhaust hoods that vent to the outside. Plumbing systems must comply with the state Plumbing Code that requires grease-traps to prevent grease from entering wastewater systems. The FDAs Division of Federal-State Relations advised the Connecticut Department of Health (in response to an inquiry to FDA in 1990) that (i) there is no standard frequency for filtering fat used in deep-fat frying operations (the filtering material should be clean and the oil should be clear and properly stored); (ii) any presence of off odors or visible evidence of foreign material, filth, or other adulterants would warrant discarding the fat; and (iii) fat must be adequately protected from contamination during use, storage, or filtering. The State of Montanas Food and Consumer Safety Section regulations require the following: Ventilation hoods in food service establishments to be installed at or above all commercial type deep fryers, broilers, fry grills, steam-jacketed kettles, hot-top ranges, ovens, barbecues, rotisseries, dishwashing machines, and similar equipment which produces comparable amounts of steam, smoke, grease, or heat.
Ventilation hoods and devices shall be designed to prevent grease or condensation from collecting on walls and ceilings, and from dropping into foods or onto foodcontact surfaces. Filters or other grease-extracting equipment shall be readily removable for cleaning and replacement if not designed to be cleaned in place. The Denver Department of Health requires in addition to adequate ventilating hoods, use of a velometer to test equipment in restaurants to ensure that the hoods maintain adequate air velocities. The St. Louis Department of Healths Food Service Establishment ordinances also require that ventilating hoods be designed to prevent grease or condensation from collecting on ceilings and walls or from dripping onto food contact surfaces, and specifies that grease extracting equipment be readily removable for cleaning if not designed to be cleaned in place. The New Orleans Department of Health requires food service establishments to have grease control devices for separating and retaining water-borne fats, oil, and grease before the wastewater exits the trap and enters the sanitary sewer collection and treatment system. Discharged wastewater should be free of oil or grease exceeding 250 mg/L. Specifications and instructions are provided for grease interceptors and operation of oil and grease waste disposal systems. Regulations and Guidelines in Europe and Other Countries Although federal, state and local agencies in the United States are concerned primarily with greater control or elimination of food-borne pathogens from the food supply, other countries, chiefly in Europe, have issued regulations and guidelines intended to assist in providing better quality as well as safe fried foods. Between 1990 and 2001, 53 countries were contacted about regulations for frying fats and fried food. Responses were received from 34 countries, including 19 of 21 European countries. Austria, Belgium, Chile, France, Hungary, Italy and Spain have specific laws, regulations, or standards for frying fats. Other countries have no specific laws or regulations for frying fats although several countries (Finland, Germany, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Sweden) enforce measures for practical control in food establishments. Regulations or guidelines of individual countries are shown in Table 12.2. Additional information follows on regulation of frying fats and fried foods in these and several other countries. Australia The National Food Authority, established in August 1992, is responsible for the development of food standards and food safety education. Enforcement of food standards and surveillance of food establishments are carried out by the states and territories, which have their own food laws and regulations. Frying fats are not regulated in detail by the 1987 Australian Food Standards Code, which does prescribe standards for various foods, including frying fats, and states that edible fats and oils used in frying may contain sorbitans and polysorbates as well as not >10 mg/kg dimethylpolysiloxane.
Australian Defense Force specification 55-2 (November 1984) requires that deep-fat frying be in accordance with good manufacturing practice and comply with state and territory food regulations. Solid fat for deep-fat frying should comply with the following: (i) moisture, not >3 g/kg; (ii) free fatty acids, not >1 g/kg; (iii) slip melting point between 38 and 49C; (iv) peroxide value, not >2 mEq/kg; (v) gallates, not >0.1 g/kg; and (vi) clean flavor and free from objectionable odor. Liquid fat for deep-frying should comply with similar requirements for moisture, free fatty acids, peroxide value, and gallate content. In addition, saturated fatty acid content should not be >500 g/kg total fatty acids. Fats for deep-frying should not contain mineral oil or >50g/kg erucic acid. According to the Victoria Health Department, municipal councils are responsible for monitoring food premises. Frying oils are subject to collection and analysis for iodine value, saponification value, acid value, peroxide value, and unsaponifiable matter, as well as qualitative tests for adulterants. Some local councils use Oxifrit Test kits to determine the degree of deterioration of frying fats used in kitchens and bakeries. Austria The Austrian Codex Alimentarius (Austrian Foodstuffs Book) states that frying fat should not exhibit unpleasant odor and taste, unacceptable appearance (dark color, foaming), or a high level of carbonaceous residue. Also, frying fats should have an acid value <2.5, smoke point >170C, and total polar compounds <27%, or oxidized fatty acids insoluble in petroleum ether <1%. Frying fats should not be heated above 180C. Belgium A royal decree issued in 1974 defined quality standards for edible fats and oils. An additional royal decree issued in 1978 authorized additives in edible oils, including up to 3-mg/kg dimethylpolysiloxane in frying oils. Oils intended for frying must be labeled Oil for Frying, and dimethylpolysiloxane, if present, must be listed on the label. A royal decree issued in 1988 (19,20) forbade preparation of fried food in frying fat heated above 180C or with a free fatty acid content >2.5%, DPTG >10%, total polar compounds >25%, viscosity >37 mPa s at 50C (food fats) or 27 mPa s at 50C (food oils), or smoke point <170C. Frying oils and fats may not contain >2% linolenic acid. The law specifically forbids preparation of fried food in equipment not provided with temperature control. Frying fats should not transfer to the fried food improper odor or taste. The sale of used oils and fats for subsequent use in processing food products for human consumption as well as direct or indirect reuse in the food industry is forbidden. Chile Paragraph V, Article 226 of the 1998 Food Law requires that vegetable oils and lard used for frying should be discarded if (i) free acidity expressed as oleic acid is
>1%; (ii) smoke point is <170C; or (iii) oxidized fatty acids not soluble in petroleum ether are >1%, or total polar compounds are >25%. Czech Republic Guidelines of the National Health Institute effective January 1, 1995 include recommendations that total polar compounds in frying oils should be <25% and that DPTG be <10%. France A 1905 constitutional law allowed French authorities to regulate food preparation and to specify conditions for analysis (21). A 1973 regulation specified that deepfrying fat should not contain >2% linolenic acid. Synthetic antioxidants (butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, and gallates) are permitted, as are natural tocopherol concentrates in oils and fats intended for industrial use (in minimum 5-kg containers). Silicone additives are prohibited. Decree No. 86857 of July 18, 1986 (21) specifies that fats and oils with >25% total polar compounds are unfit for human consumption. Germany There are no specific laws or regulations in Germany for control of frying fats. Recommendations resulting from the first two DGF symposia on frying fats (5,6), however, have been generally applied to the control of edible fats and oils and frying fats. These recommendations were established following reports of gastrointestinal distress after fried food was eaten. According to A. Seher of the Federal Institute for Fat Research in Mnster, an epidemiological group was unable to link abused fat with these episodes, but it revealed that many restaurants were abusing fat, particularly those frying meaty foods. According to the 1973 DGF recommendations, used frying fats are considered to have deteriorated if (i) taste or flavor is unacceptable, (ii) smoke point is <170C and the content of oxidized fatty acids insoluble in petroleum ether is 0.75%, or (iii) the content of oxidized fatty acids insoluble in petroleum ether is >1%. After development of the method for determining total polar compounds in 1979, the DGF recommended allowing no >27% total polar compounds in food fats. The basic recommendations of the DGF are still valid. Recommendations adopted by the Arbeitskreis Lebensmittelchemischer Sachverstandiger der Lander und des Bundesgesundheitsamtes (ALS) (Working Sector of the Food Chemical Authorities of the Local and State Health Offices) in 1991 are as follows: sensory characteristics (appearance, odor, and taste) of frying fats are of primary importance; petroleum etherinsoluble fatty acids, maximum 0.7%; total polar compounds, maximum 24%; smoke point, minimum 170C; smoke point difference (from unheated fat), maximum 50C; acid value, maximum 2.0%.
A third International Symposium on Deep-Fat Frying, held March 2021, 2000 in Hagen/Westphalia, Germany, resulted in adoption of the following recommendations for frying oils (8): 1. The principal quality index for deep fat frying should be the sensory parameters of the food being fried. 2. Analysis of suspect frying fats and oils should utilize two tests to confirm abuse, as follows: Total polar compounds Polymeric materials (polymerized triglycerides) 3. The use of rapid tests for monitoring oil quality is recommended. Rapid tests should exhibit the following characteristics: Correlate with internationally recognized standard methods Provide an objective index Be easy to use Be safe for use in food processing/preparation areas Quantify the oil degradation Be field rugged 4. Affirming previous work: There are no health concerns associated with consumption of frying fats and oils that have not been abused at normal frying conditions. 5. Encourage development of new and improved methods that provide fats and oils chemists and the food industry with tools to conduct work more quickly and easily. Work should strive to develop methods that are environmentally friendly, using lower quantities of and less hazardous solvent systems. 6. Encourage and support basic research focused on understanding the dynamics of deep fat frying and the frying process. Research should be cross-disciplinary, encompassing oil chemistry, food engineering, sensory science, food chemistry, and nutritional sciences. 7. One of the basic tools to ensure food and oil quality is the use of filtration. Filter materials should be used to maintain oil quality as needed. 8. Used, but not abused, frying oils may be topped up or diluted with fresh oil with no adverse effects on quality. Abused fats and oils were defined in the first two recommendations. The symposium delegates left for further discussion the subject of what constitutes a long-life frying oil claim in keeping with recommendations 1 and 2. Hungary There are no mandatory regulations in Hungary for frying oil quality. Standard No. Msz-08190787, valid January 6, 1988, recommends determination of total polar
compounds for estimation of fat quality as follows: <25%, acceptable quality; between 25 and 30%, frying fat should be changed; >30%, frying fat is unusable. The National Institute of Food Hygiene and Nutrition recommended that iron and copper fryers should not be used, and that frying temperatures should be kept between 160 and 180C. Smoke point <180C indicates that the fat has deteriorated and should be discarded. The surface-to-volume ratio of fryers should be minimized. Sunflower oil may be used for up to 810 h of frying, if treated carefully. Corn oil may be used for 1013 h, and lard, for 1820 h, if treated carefully. After frying, the oil should be filtered and stored at a low temperature. Deteriorated frying oils should not be used for human consumption or for animal feed. Iceland Guidelines issued by the Environmental and Food Agency of Iceland are as follows: 1. Use fats and oils intended for deep frying. Many types of salad oil do not maintain their quality at the temperatures used for deep frying. 2. Do not mix used fats or oils with new ones because that would accelerate deterioration. 3. Clean all frying equipment regularly and filter the fat. All dirt and residue of detergents and cleaning products adversely affect the quality of fats and oils. Avoid contact of copper or copper compounds with fat. Do not apply salt to foodstuffs above the frying pan because metal compounds in salt could result in deterioration of the fat. 4. The appropriate frying temperature is 165190C. Higher temperatures result in dark color, oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymerization. If the temperature is too low, the frying time is too long, affecting the quality of foodstuffs. To minimize the drop in temperature, it is important not to overload the frying pan. 5. When the fat is heated, the temperature should not be set higher than the temperature to be used for frying. 6. Durability of fat can be prolonged by keeping the temperature between 90 and 120C when the fat is not in use. 7. Because the heat transfer in solid fat is low, it should be melted at low temperatures to avoid overheating certain parts of the fat. Slight burning or overheating of fat can accelerate deterioration and spoil all of the fat in the pan. 8. Remember that spoiled frying fat can have adverse health effects. Israel Although Israel has no specific regulations for cooking and frying oils, guidelines published by the Swedish National Food Administration (22) are recommended for
application by Food Control Administration inspectors. Israels Food Control Administration submitted a request to the Standards Institution of Israel in 1992 that a requirement for total polar compounds be added to the vegetable oil standard, but the request was rejected. Italy The Ministry of Health issued a regulation January 1, 1991 for fats and oils used for frying to prevent possible risks to consumers from improper or excessive use of fats for frying. The regulation specifies the following: (i) use only those oils and fats for frying that are resistant to heat; (ii) avoid frying temperatures >180C; (iii) total polar compounds should not be more than 25 g/100 g; (iv) prepare the food to be fried properly, avoiding the presence of water and addition of salt and spices, which accelerate changes in frying fat, as much as possible; (v) allow excess oil to drain from the food; (vi) change the oil frequently, check the quality of the oil or fat during frying, and do not use oil too long (indicated by darkened color, viscosity, and tendency to smoke); (vii) filter the oil if it will be used again and clean the filter and fryer because charred crust, viscous oily residue, or old oil accelerates alteration of the oil; (viii) avoid reconditioning oil (addition of fresh oil) because fresh oil changes rapidly when in contact with used oil; and (ix) protect frying oils and fats from light. Japan There are no formal regulations in Japan regarding the quality of frying oil. With respect to food establishments, however, the following guidelines exist for determining when to discard frying oil: (i) if the smoke point is <170C; (ii) if the acid value is >2.5; and (iii) if the carbonyl value is >50. Luxembourg There are no specific regulations for frying fat in Luxembourg. General regulations in force for all foods, however, also apply to frying fats. For practical control in food establishments preparing fried food, the food inspector uses E. Mercks Fritest. If the Fritest is positive, then frying fat is checked for free fatty acids, total polar compounds, taste, color, odor, and appearance. Use is allowed of up to 3 mg/kg of dimethylpolysiloxane in frying fats. The Netherlands Food laws in The Netherlands are enforced by 16 food inspection services, each covering an inspection area of about one million people. Inspectors sample the frying oil or fat in restaurants, snack bars, fish shops, and so forth. Samples are brought to the laboratory where they are checked for odor, taste, acid value, and DPTG content. Frying fat or oil is unfit for human consumption if the acid value is >4.5 and/or DPTG content is >16%.
Portugal There are no specific regulations for frying fats and oils in Portugal. However, the Ministry of Agricultures Food Quality Institute examines frying and cooking oil for color and odor and also by E. Mercks Fritest and Oxifrit Test and Libra Laboratories Veri-Fry quick tests. If positive, the oil is analyzed for content of total polar compounds, which should be no >25%. It is recommended that frying temperatures should be not be greater than 180C. Scandinavian Countries The Scandinavian countries have no specific laws or regulations applicable to frying fats. General regulations applicable to edible fats and oils apply to frying fat. Norways laws require foods to be free of pollutants and toxic substances and specify that only tocopherols and citric acid may be added to fats and oils. For practical control in restaurants and fast-food establishments, Norwegian inspectors may use organoleptic evaluation or the Fritest. In Sweden, the Oxifrit Test is used as a quick test, and the method for total polar compounds is used as a reference method. In Finland, fat is considered spoiled when color, odor, and taste are <1 when checked using a scale of 1 to 5, or when the acid value is >2.5 and the smoke point is <170C (23). Vegetable oil is spoiled when color, odor, and taste are <1, or when the Fritest is >2, acid value is >2, and smoke point is <180C. It is also considered spoiled when the decrease in iodine value (compared to that of unused oil) is >16, acid value is >2, and smoke point is <180C. These guidelines have been used since 1976. In 1991, the National Food Administration of Finland issued a circular that was to be observed by all public health boards outlining procedures for sampling and analysis of frying fat. Test criteria are as follows: sensory evaluation (smell, taste, color); total polar compounds, maximum 25%; acid value, vegetable oil, 2.0; acid value, solid fat, 2.5; smoke point, vegetable oil, minimum 180C; smoke point, solid fat, minimum 170C; Fritest, vegetable oil, maximum 2 (scale 13); Oxifrit Test, <3 (scale 14); food oil sensor, <4 (scale 06). In addition, information is provided on the choice of kettle material (stainless steel is recommended) and the proper use and cleaning of frying equipment. Last, an inspection form is presented (Fig. 12.1) to be completed by the health inspector and provided to the food laboratory. The Swedish National Food Administration (NFA) prepared a document in 1989 presenting advice and guidelines on handling frying fat. A summary of the NFA guidelines is shown in Table 12.3. An English edition was issued in June 1990 (22). Its purpose is to encourage the employees of food establishments to prepare high quality fried food. The NFA recommends the use of the Oxifrit Test as a quick test for kitchen staff or local food control inspectors. According to Food Control Ordinance SLV FS 1990:10, food producers must have some form of quality control program approved by control officials. The NFA recommended use of the Oxifrit Test as part of compulsory quality control programs. In Sweden, antifoam agents, such as silicones, are not permitted in frying oil because they mask natural foaming in deteriorated oil.
Fig. 12.1. Food laboratory inspection form (Finland National Food Administration).
Singapore The Food Control Department of the Ministry of the Environment has no specific regulations controlling frying fats. However, the quality of fats and oils is monitored by checking physical appearance, and peroxide value of used fats is checked to ensure that it is not >10 mEq/kg.
TABLE 12.3 Swedish National Food Administration Guidelines for Deep-Fat Frying
1. All fat in the fryer must be changed before it smokes or foams. Use tests such as Food Oil Sensor or Oxifrit Test to indicate when it is time to change. 2. Strain the fat and clean the fryer once daily. Rinse carefully after cleaning. Solid material and detergent residue in the fat accelerate breakdown of the fat. Store the strained fat at room temperature or at lower temperatures in a covered stainless steel vessel. If iron pots are used, they should be rinsed only with hot water. Detergents remove the protective film of polymerized fat that builds up during use. 3. Frying temperature should be 160180C (320356F). At lower temperatures, the product absorbs more fat. At higher temperatures, the fat deteriorates more quickly. 4. Use fat specially intended for frying. 5. Avoid salting or seasoning fried food over the fryer. Salt and seasoning can accelerate breakdown of the fat. 6. Lower the temperature when not frying and protect the fat from light. 7. The fryer should have no iron, copper, or brass parts that come in contact with the heated fat. 8. Keep a constant level of fat in the fryer. Fry a little at a time to keep the temperature as even as possible. Prefry when large amounts will be prepared. 9. Use a separate fryer, if possible, for potatoes. The fat deteriorates more rapidly when meat or fish are fried than when only potatoes are fried. 10. Caution: Do not overheat. If the fat temperature rises above 300C (572F), the fat may burn.
Spain Royal decrees of 1981 and 1983 regulate transportation, processing, and commerce of edible fats and oils but are not applicable to frying. However, a more recent decree protecting consumers (24) specifies that frying oils and fats must not contain foreign compounds, must contain <25% total polar compounds, should satisfy sensory evaluations, must not alter the quality of fried foods, and must not be sold for subsequent use in preparing food products after use in preparing fried food. Switzerland Food control is carried out by the individual member states (cantons) of the Swiss confederation. Basic food legislation is contained in the federal law of 1905 (25). A 1936 ordinance deals with labeling and advertising of food and food additives, as well as investigation and inspection of food establishments. Laboratories of the large cantons are responsible for food control in each region. The Swiss Food Ordinance controls frying oils and fats in restaurants and catering facilities and gives guidelines for food preparation and sale. The Swiss Public Health Office issued a list of permitted additives and maximum levels in
foods, including coloring agents, antioxidants, and emulsifiers allowed in food fat and oil (these additives do not improve frying performance and are not used in frying oils). Silicone additives are forbidden. Food inspectors check frying oil for odor, taste, color, and smoking and observe the state of hygiene in food establishments. Suspect frying oil quality is checked on the spot by the Fritest. If positive, the oil is checked in the laboratory for the level of total polar compounds. Food control officials generally follow the DGF recommendation that frying oil should not contain >27% total polar compounds. Frying oil is considered to be deteriorated if odor and taste are objectionable, or if not clearly objectionable, the smoke point is <170C and total polar compounds are >21%, or total polar compounds exceed 27%. These criteria are based on the assumption that a careful, experienced cook monitors not only the quality of the frying oil, but also the hygiene of the kitchen. If the frying oil does not adhere to the recommendations, owners of establishments deemed sanitary are warned to take care of the frying oil in use. Owners of unsanitary establishments are asked to improve conditions as well as frying oil quality.
Summary
Frying fats in the United States are subject to control under the general provisions of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. The FDA has not issued specific regulations because it has not been determined that frying fats used in deep-frying are injurious to health. The Meat Inspection Manual of the USDAs Food Safety and Inspection Service contains several general guidelines for frying meat and poultry products. Several other countries, mainly in Europe, have issued regulations or guidelines for control of frying fats and fried food because of interest in improving the quality and acceptability of fried foods. References
1. Firestone, D., R.F. Stier, and M.M. Blumenthal, Regulation of Frying Fats and Oils, Food Technol. 45:9094 (1991). 2. Firestone, D., Worldwide Regulation of Frying Fats and Oils, INFORM 4:13661371 (1993). 3. Meat and Poultry Inspection Manual , Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., December 1990, Section 1840, p. 125. 4. Combined Compilation of Meat and Poultry Inspection Issuances for 19841990, Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., FSIS Directive 11.000.2, April 28, 1987, Section cc, p. 14. 5. Anonymous, Meeting Summary, D.F. Symposium on Frying and Cooking Fats, Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 75:449 (1973). 6. Baltes, J., C.H. Krauch, A. Seher, V. Wolf, and N. Zollner, D.F. Symposium on Frying and Cooking Fats, Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 81 (Special Issue):493574 (1979). 7. Blumenthal, M.M., and R.A. Carr, Symposium on the Chemistry and Technology of Deep-Fat Frying, Food Technol. 45:6796 (1991).
8. Anon., 3rd International Symposium on Deep-Fat Frying, March 2021, 2000, Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102:507593 (2000). 9. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists Society, 5th edn., American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 2001, Official Method Cd 2091. 10. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists Society, 5th edn., American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign, IL, 2001, Official Method Cd 2291. 11. Food Safety Initiate Update, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN), FDA, Washington, D.C., January 28, 2000 (see http://www.cfsan.fda.gov). 12. National Food Safety Programs , December 24, 2001 (see http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/ ~dms/fs-toc.html or www.foodsafety.gov). 13. Report of the FDA Retail Food Program Database of Foodborne Illness Risk Factors, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN), FDA, Washington, D.C., August 10, 2000 (see http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/retrsk.html). 14. FDA Procedures for Standardization and Certification of Retail Food Inspection/ Training Officers, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC, August 28, 2000 (see http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~ear/rfi-toc.html). 15. Food Code, 1999 Recommendations of the United States Public Health Service Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C., PB 99-115925. 16. Managing Food Safety: A HACCP Principles Guide for Operators of Food Establishments at the Retail Level, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC, April 15, 1998 (see http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/). 17. Meat and Poultry Inspection Manual , Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., December 1990, section 18.90, p. 125. 18. Combined Compilation of Meat and Poultry Inspection Issuances for 19841990, Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., FSIS Directive 11.000.2, 42887, section cc, p. 14. 19. Dehaene, J.-L. and W. Demeester-de Meyer, Royal Decree on Use of Edible Fats and Oils for Preparation of Fried Foods, Belgian State J. 20:15441545 (1988). 20. Rev. Fr. Corps Gras 38:224 (1991). 21. J. Officiel de la Republic Francaise 118:9126 (July 24, 1986). 22. General Advice on Handling Frying Fats (SLV FS 1990:2), National Food Administration, Uppsala, Sweden, 1990. 23. Marcuse, R., Fette Seifen Anstrichm. 81:4 (1979). 24. Quality Standard for Heated Fats and Oils, Official State Bull. (Spain), No. 26, January 31, 1989, pp. 26652667. 25. Public Health in Europe 28, Food Safety Services, 2nd edn., World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe, WHO, Copenhagen, 1988, pp. 177180.

Frying Technology and Practices

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