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Comparison of Field Results and Digital Simulation Results of Voltage-Sourced Converter-Based FACTS Controllers
Kalyan K. Sen, Senior Member, IEEE, and Albert J. F. Keri, Senior Member, IEEE
AbstractThis paper compares the field results of Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)-based Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers, such as STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM), Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), and Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) with that obtained from the computer models of the FACTS controllers using an Electro-Magnetic Transients Program (EMTP) simulation package. The operational results of the actual equipment include the control of the line voltage and the control of the real and reactive power flow in the line. The correlation of the results establishes the validity of the models. The protection scheme of the FACTS controllers during faults and contingencies is also described. The simulation results can be used to accurately predict the behavior of an actual controller. Index TermsConverters, FACTS, load flow control, power electronics, power system transients, power transmission, power transmission control, UPFC.

Fig. 1. Unified Power Flow Controller in a simplified network.

I. INTRODUCTION LEXIBLE Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) controllers, namely STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM), Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), and Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), are used to control the bus voltage and/or the power flow through an electrical transmission line. The UPFC consists of two solid-state Voltage-Sourced Converters (VSCs), which are connected through a common dc link capacitor. Each converter has a coupling transformer with the utility interface. The VSC1, known as STATCOM, injects an almost sinusoidal current, of variable magnitude and in quadrature with the line voltage, at the point of connection. The VSC2, known as SSSC, injects an almost sinusoidal voltage, of variable magnitude and in quadrature with the line current, in series with the transmission line. When the STATCOM and the SSSC operate as stand-alone controllers with open dc link switch, they exchange almost exclusively reactive power at their terminals. When both VSCs are operating together as a UPFC with closed dc link switch, the injected voltage in series with the transmission line can be at any angle with respect to the line current; therefore, the exchanged power at the terminals of the SSSC can be reactive as well as real. The real power exchanged by the
Manuscript received February 13, 2002. K. K. Sen is with the Westinghouse Electro-Mechanical Division Technology Center, Mount Pleasant, PA 15666 USA (e-mail: kalyan.sen@wxemd.com). A. J. F. Keri is with American Electric Power, Gahanna, OH 43230 USA (e-mail: ajkeri@aep.com). Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2002.804012

SSSC with the line flows bidirectionally to the line through the STATCOM and the common dc link capacitor. In addition, the STATCOM carries a reactive current to regulate the bus voltage independently. The concept of a shared dc link between a shunt-connected VSC and a series-connected VSC was first introduced in the Active Power Line Conditioner (APLC) [1], [2] for distribution power level applications. The same concept was implemented in the UPFC [3][5] for transmission power level applications. The objective in this paper is to demonstrate that the simulation results of a VSC-based FACTS controller can be used to accurately predict the behavior of the controller in the field. This demonstration is substantiated with the comparison of results from the computer simulation and actual field measurements. The operation of the model is verified with the model connected to a simple 2-bus network. Although the simulation and field results correlate qualitatively, a proper representation of field data requires, in general, the simulation of 100 or more buses, which is out of the scope of this paper. II. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL A power system network has been set up for simulation in conjunction with the VSC-based FACTS controllers. The network is a simplified 2-bus model as shown in Fig. 1. The net, and a source work consists of an equivalent source voltage, , at the Inez substation bus, INEZ, an equivalent reactance, , at the Big Sandy bus, and a line reactance, source voltage, , between Big Sandy and the bus, BUS05. This model is used to verify the response of the controller following a step change in the reference of the control inputs. The description of the FACTS controller models [6][8], in EMTP and the application of the models in the AEP network are given below. The objective for this model is to characterize the behavior of the UPFC as viewed from the network terminals, especially the dynamic behavior during disturbances and faults on the power system. The model provides the implementation of the automatic power flow controller using the series-connected

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Fig. 3.

Modeling structure of a FACTS controller.

Fig. 2. Unified Power Flow Controller.

VSC2 and bus voltage control using the shunt-connected VSC1, including protective limits on series voltage injection, and overcurrent and overvoltage limits for both VSCs. The UPFC model in EMTP is shown in Fig. 2. The model consists of two multi pulse harmonically neutralized voltage-sourced converters, VSC1 and VSC2, two magnetic circuits, MC1 and MC2, shunt coupling transformer, XFSHN, and series coupling transformer, XFSRS, shunt breaker, SHNBRK, series breaker, SRSBRK, dc Link Switch, DCLS, bypass breaker, BYPBRK, line breaker, LBR, current and voltage sensors, and a control and protection unit. The model is a virtual representation of the actual UPFC at its terminals. Two idealized twenty four-pulse three-level VSCs, each of which is rated at 160 MVA, are connected at their dc link capacitor terminals. The control unit implements basic control and protection schemes. The gating signals for the pole valves are generated on the fly. The ideal pole voltages are mathematically combined to produce two three-phase harmonically neutralized converter voltage sets, and . The VSC1 is operated at a fixed dead angle to produce a forty eight-pulse voltage source and the VSC2 is operated as a twenty four-pulse variable magnitude voltage source. The coupling transformers include a lumped leakage reactance that is an equivalent of all the leakage reactances of the intermediate magnetic circuits and the main transformers. The lumped leakage reactance is 15% of the converter rating and divided equally on both primary and secondary sides. The dc link capacitor is modeled by a single lumped capacitor (14.1 F, 190 kV) sized in accordance with other model parameters, including the transformer leakage reactance, to preserve the same dynamics in the model as in the real , across the dc link capacitor is mainsystem. The voltage, tained by the instantaneous power balance equation at both AC and dc sides of the two converters. Special effort has been made to model the rectifier action that charges the dc link capacitor to the peak of the AC bus voltage when the VSC1 gating is inhibited. At that moment, the ideal VSC is replaced by a six-pulse rectifier bridge circuit with appropriate snubber circuits. The dc link capacitor overcharges until the VSC1 gating begins, which discharges the dc link capacitor to the normal level. The voltage variation across the dc link capacitor is correctly represented and also represented is the operation of the voltage clamp that discharges the dc link capacitor partially when certain overvoltage

threshold is exceeded. The model does represent the behavior of the FACTS controller in the presence of negative sequence and harmonic line voltages and currents. In the model, the bypass of VSC2 is a representative of an electronic bypass on the secondary side using the VSC2 valves. The behavior of the UPFC during disturbances is in large part determined by a number of threshold levels and delay times. These numbers determine the current and voltage thresholds and timing delays associated with protective action and they are set in the first instance to values that seem reasonable for the actual equipment. This model is well suited for system transients studies. Fig. 3 shows the modeling structure of a FACTS controller. The inputs from the voltage and current measuring units, the breaker status and the operatorvoltage reference, voltage slope (also known as droop) and the real and the reactive power references are fed to the control & protection unit. The output of the control & protection unit is a set of low voltage optical signals. These optical signals are fed to the Valve Interface Circuit, which converts them into electrical gating signals that turn ON and OFF the semiconductor switches of the high power VSC, which is connected to the power system network through its coupling transformer. The output of the control & protection block is also another set of low voltage electrical signals that operate the interposing relays, which operate the high power breakers and disconnect switches that connect the FACTS controller with the power system network. Fig. 4 shows the control block diagram of the UPFC, which can be divided into two parts: the control of the VSC1 as a shunt compensator and the control of the VSC2 as a series compensator. An instantaneous 3-phase set of transmission line voltages, , at BUS 1 is used to calculate the reference angle, , . which is phase-locked to the phase of the bus voltage, An instantaneous 3-phase set of measured VSC1 currents, , is , and reactive decomposed into its real or direct component, , respectively. An instantaneous or quadrature component, 3-phase set of measured line currents, , is decomposed into its real or direct component, , and reactive or quadrature component, , respectively. An instantaneous 3-phase set of measured line voltages, , at BUS 1 is decomposed into its direct com, and quadrature component, , respectively. The ponent, , is calculated. magnitude of the BUS 1 voltage, The control for the VSC1 works in such a way that the desired , (adjusted by the droop bus voltage magnitude reference,

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Fig. 4. Control block diagram of a Unified Power Flow Controller. Fig. 5. Protection scheme of a Unified Power Flow Controller.

factor, ) is compared with the BUS 1 voltage magni, using an outer voltage control loop and the error tude, is passed through an error amplifier, which produces the refof the VSC1 current. The erence quadrature component, , is defined as the allowable voltage error droop factor, at the rated reactive current flow through the VSC1. The reference quadrature component, , is compared with the measured , of the VSC1 current using an inner quadrature component, reactive current control loop and the error is passed through an error amplifier, which produces a relative angle, , of the VSC1 voltage with respect to the BUS 1 voltage. The phase angle, , of the VSC1 voltage is calculated by adding the relative angle, , of the VSC1 voltage and the phase-locked-loop angle, . This is called Voltage Control mode of operation. The dc link , is dynamically adjusted in relationship capacitor voltage, with the VSC1s AC terminal voltage. Note that for a particular , if the reference quadrature bus voltage magnitude demand, , exceeds the rated current of the VSC then component, is limited to 1 pu and the bus voltage is regulated to an intermediate value. The controllable range of the bus voltage can easily be determined by operating the VSC1 with the inner refrom 1 pu to 1 pu. active current control loop and varying , of the converter curThe reference quadrature component, rent is defined to be either positive if the VSC1 is emulating an inductive reactance or negative if it is emulating a capacitive reactance. This is called Reactive Current Control mode of operation. In this case, there is no need for the use of the outer voltage control loop. The control for the VSC2 works in such a way that the deand , are compared with sired real and reactive power, and , using an authe measured real and reactive power, tomatic power flow control algorithm and the errors are passed through an error amplifier, which produces, with respect to the bus voltage, the direct and the quadrature components of the seand , respectively. Next, the magries injection voltage, , at the output of the VSC2 and its relnitude of the voltage, ative angle, , with respect to the reference phase-locked-loop angle are calculated. The phase angle, , of the VSC2 voltage is calculated by adding the relative angle, , of the VSC2 voltage and the phase-locked-loop angle, . This is called Automatic Power Flow Control mode of operation. Note that for a particand , demand, if the magniular real and reactive power,

tude of the voltage, , exceeds the rated voltage of the VSC is limited to 1 pu and the real and reactive power flow then are regulated to an intermediate value. The controllable range of the real and reactive power flow can easily be determined with within the open loop voltage injection by injecting the rated its entire 360 range. This is called Voltage Injection mode of operation. In this case, there is no need for the use of the automatic power flow control algorithm. The general protection scheme of a UPFC is shown in Fig. 5. When the VSCs are operated as stand-alone compensators, the basic protection scheme is as follows. The VSC1 stops gating when the instantaneous overcurrent through it exceeds a set value or the bus voltage drops below a set value. The VSC2 goes into an electronic bypass mode when the instantaneous overcurrent through it exceeds a set value. When both VSCs are operated together as a UPFC, the VSC2 is bypassed when the VSC1 stops gating for the following reason. Since the real power exchanged by the VSC2 with the line flows bidirectionally through the dc link capacitor and the VSC1, VSC2 must be bypassed when the VSC1 is stopped. The dc link capacitor is prevented from being excessively charged by switching on a resistive clamp circuit when the dc voltage rises above a set value and by switching off when the dc voltage falls below a set value. III. RESULTS For the comparison of simulation and field results, step changes in the reference of the control inputs and the subsequent response have been used. The natural real and the reactive power flow on the Big Sandy to Inez line (represented ) at the bus, BUS05, flowing toward the with a reactance UPFC are 312 MW and 68 Mvar, respectively. The voltage at the Inez bus, INEZ, is 0.97 pu. Fig. 6 shows the changes in (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real and reactive power, and (c) shunt converter reactive power due to the operation of the 160 MVA, 138 kV rated STATCOM only while the SSSC is injecting no voltage in series with the line. The STATCOM is operated in Reactive Current Control mode with a step reference of 1 pu capacitive at 50 ms, 1 pu inductive at 175 ms, and zero reactive current at 300 ms. The voltage at the Inez substation bus can be varied between 0.91 pu

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) Fig. 6. (a), (b), and (c) STATCOM simulation resultscontrolling voltage at Inez bus(series converter not operating). (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real power and line reactive power, (c) shunt converter reactive power and (d) STATCOM test resultscontrolling voltage at Inez bus(series converter not operating).

and 1.02 pu. The real and the reactive power flow on the Big Sandy to Inez line at the Inez substation bus can be varied from 293 MW to 325 MW and 0 to 132 Mvar, respectively. When the STATCOM is operated at 1 pu capacitive current control mode, it delivers 163 Mvar reactive power to the Inez bus. When the STATCOM is operated at 1 pu inductive current control mode, it absorbs 145 Mvar reactive power from the Inez bus. Fig. 6(d) shows the corresponding test results. These test results verify the computer simulation results on a qualitative basis. Fig. 7 shows the changes in (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real and reactive power, and (c) shunt converter reactive power due to the operation of the 160 MVA, 138 kV rated STATCOM and the 160 MVA, 13.33 kV rated SSSC as a UPFC. The STATCOM is operated in Voltage Control mode to hold the Inez bus voltage at 1 pu level at 50 ms. The real and the reactive power flow on the Big Sandy to Inez line at the bus, BUS05, change from 312 MW to 316 MW and from 68 Mvar to 101 Mvar, respectively. At 200 ms, the reactive power flow in the line is brought to zero. While holding unity power factor load on the line and bus voltage at 1 pu level, the real power flow in the line was varied between 266 and 366 MW. The STATCOM exchanges an appropriate amount of reactive power with the line to hold the bus voltage at 1 pu level. Fig. 7(d) shows the corresponding test results. These test results verify the simulation results on a qualitative basis. Fig. 8 shows the changes in (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real and reactive power, and (c) shunt converter reactive power due to the operation of the 160 MVA, 138 kV rated STATCOM and the 160 MVA, 13.33 kV rated SSSC as a UPFC. The STATCOM is operated in Voltage Control mode to hold the Inez bus voltage at 1 pu level at 50 ms. The real and the reactive power flow on the Big Sandy to Inez line at the bus, BUS05, change from 312 MW to 316 MW and 68 Mvar to 101 Mvar, respectively. While holding the reactive power flow in the line at 101 Mvar and bus voltage at 1 pu level, the real power flow in the line is varied between 266 and 366 MW. The STATCOM exchanges appropriate amount of reactive power with the line to hold the bus voltage at 1 pu level. Fig. 8(d) shows the corresponding test results. These test results verify the simulation results on a qualitative basis. Fig. 9 shows the changes in (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real and reactive power, and (c) shunt converter reactive power due to the operation of the 160 MVA, 138 kV rated STATCOM and the 160 MVA, 13.33 kV rated SSSC as a UPFC. The STATCOM is operated in Voltage Control mode to hold the Inez bus voltage at 1 pu level at 50 ms. The real and the reactive power flow on the Big Sandy to Inez line at the bus, BUS05, change from 312 MW to 316 MW and 68 Mvar to 101 Mvar, respectively. While holding the real power flow in the line at 316 MW and bus voltage at 1 pu level, the reactive power flow in the line is varied between 51 and 151 Mvar. The STATCOM exchanges appropriate amount of reactive power with the line to hold the bus voltage at 1 pu level. Fig. 9(d) shows the corresponding test results. These test results verify the simulation results on a qualitative basis. Fig. 10 shows the changes in (a) Inez bus voltage and (b) line real and reactive power due to the operation of the 160 MVA, 13.33 kV rated SSSC. The SSSC is operated in Reactance

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(a) (a)

(b) (b)

(c)

(c)

(d) Fig. 8. (a), (b), and (c) UPFC simulation resultscontrolling real power on Big SandyInez line. (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real power and line reactive power, (c) shunt converter reactive power and (d) UPFC test resultscontrolling real power on Big SandyInez line.

(d) Fig. 7. (a), (b), and (c) UPFC simulation resultsholding unity power factor while changing line power. (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real power and line reactive power, (c) shunt converter reactive power, and (d) UPFC test resultsholding unity power factor while changing line power.

Control mode [7]. First, a 0.5 pu voltage at 50 ms and an additional 0.5 pu voltage at 175 ms are injected in quadrature and

lagging the line current so that a capacitive reactance is emulated in series with the line. The real and the reactive power flow on the Big Sandy to Inez line increase. At 300 ms, a 0.5 pu voltage is injected in quadrature and leading the line current so that an

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(a) (a)

(b) (b)

(c)

(c) Fig. 10. (a) and (b) SSSC simulation resultschanging line real and reactive power(shunt converter not operating). (a) Inez bus voltage (unregulated), (b) line real power and line reactive power, and (c) SSSC test resultschanging line real and reactive power(shunt converter not operating).

STATCOM is not operating, the bus voltage is not regulated. Fig. 10(c) shows the test results corresponding to a capacitive reactance emulation. These test results verify the simulation results on a qualitative basis. IV. CONCLUSION FACTS controllersSTATCOM, SSSC, and UPFC, have been modeled using an EMTP simulation package. The UPFC consists of two voltage-sourced convertersone injects an almost sinusoidal current at the point of connection and the other injects an almost sinusoidal voltage in series with the transmission line. In the UPFC operation, the dc link switch is closed. The injected voltage in series with the line can be at any angle with the prevailing line current, thereby emulating an impedance in series with the line. The shunt-connected current source has two components. First, the real component, which is in phase with the bus voltage, carries real power that is exchanged by the series-connected voltage source and losses in the UPFC. Second, the reactive component, which is in quadrature with the bus voltage, emulates an inductive reactance or a capacitive reactance at the point of connection. When the

(d) Fig. 9. (a), (b), and (c) UPFC simulation resultscontrolling reactive power on Big SandyInez line. (a) Inez bus voltage, (b) line real power and line reactive power, (c) shunt converter reactive power and (d) UPFC test resultscontrolling reactive power on Big SandyInez line.

inductive reactance is emulated in series with the line. The real and the reactive power flow on the line decrease. Since, the

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STATCOM and the SSSC are independently operated, the dc link switch is open. A STATCOM regulates the bus voltage and, in turn, regulates the reactive current flow through it. An SSSC injects a voltage in series with the transmission line and in quadrature with the line current. The operation of the model is verified with the model connected to a simple 2-bus network. Although the simulation and field results correlate qualitatively, a proper representation of field data requires, in general, the simulation of many more buses than the 2-bus network.

REFERENCES

Kalyan K. Sen (S83M87SM01) was born in Bankura, WB, India. He received the B.E.E. degree (with first-class honors), the M.S.E.E. degree, and the Ph.D. degree from Jadavpur University, Calcutta, WB, India, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, and Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, all in electrical engineering, in 1982, 1983, and 1987, respectively. He is currently a Fellow Engineer with the Westinghouse Electro-Mechanical Division Technology Center, Mount Pleasant, PA. He spent three years as an Assistant Professor at Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, before joining Westinghouse Electric Corporations Science and Technology Center, as a Senior Engineer, where he was a member of the FACTS development team for nine years. From 1999 to 2001, he worked at ABB Power Systems, Vsters, Sweden, and at the Corporate Research Center, Vsters, Sweden. He is the coinventor of the Sen Transformer for FACTS applications. He is also the cofounder of SEN Engineering Solutions, where he pursues his interests in affordable power flow controllers. His interests are in power converters, electrical machines, control, and power system simulations and studies. Dr. Sen is an editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY and an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer from the Power Engineering Society.

[1] E. J. Stacey and M. B. Brennen, Active Power Conditioner System, U.S. Patent 4 651 265, 1987. [2] M. B. Brennen, Low cost, high performance active power line conditioners, in Third Int. Conf. Power Quality: End-Use Applicat. Perspectives, EPRI, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Oct. 2427, 1994. [3] L. Gyugyi, A unified power flow control concept for flexible ac transmission systems, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C, vol. 139, no. 4, July 1992. [4] N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTSConcept and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems. New York: IEEE Press, 2000. [5] B. A. Renz et al., AEP unified power flow controller performance, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 14, pp. 13741381, Oct. 1999. [6] K. K. Sen, STATCOMSTATic synchronous COMpensator: Theory, modeling, and applications, in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Winter Meeting, 1999, pp. 11771183. [7] , SSSCstatic synchronous series compensator: Theory, modeling, and applications, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 13, pp. 241246, Jan. 1998. [8] K. K. Sen and E. J. Stacey, UPFCUnified power flow controller: Theory, modeling, and applications, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 13, pp. 14531460, Oct. 1998.

Albert J. F. Keri (SM80) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from University of Missouri, Columbia, in 1972, and the M.B.A. degree from Ohio University, Athens, in 1985. He joined American Electric Power, Gahanna, OH, in 1972 and was involved with protection and relaying for the first two years. He transferred to the Research Section in 1974 where he has been involved with EMTP, insulation coordination studies, system harmonics investigation, field tests, single-phase switching techniques, loss reduction techniques, and equipment failure analysis. In 1999, he transferred to System Dynamics Analysis where he has been also involved with planning and stability calculations. He has taught for 14 years a variety of graduate and undergraduate courses on a part-time basis. He has been a Consultant to power companies in the U.S., Venezuela, Korea, Brazil, etc. He has authored or co-authored many technical papers and patents. Dr. Keri holds a P. E. License and is the chairman of the IEEE General Systems Subcommittee.

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