Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
THIS DOCUMENT INCLUDES ALL REQUIRED INFORMATION TO CLARIFY EMBRAERS OPERATIONAL PHILOSOPHY REGARDING APPROACH SPEEDS. THIS MANUAL IS APPLICABLE TO EMB-145, EMBRAER 170 AND EMBRAER 190 FAMILIES OF AIRPLANES.
GENERAL PUBLICATION
* Title ................ REVISION 6 0-LEP * 1..................... REVISION 6 2..................... REVISION 4 0-TOC 1..................... REVISION 5 2..................... REVISION 4 GP 1..................... REVISION 4 2..................... REVISION 4 3..................... REVISION 4 4..................... REVISION 4 5..................... REVISION 4 6..................... REVISION 4 7..................... REVISION 4 8..................... REVISION 4 9..................... REVISION 4 10................... REVISION 4 11................... REVISION 4 * 12................... REVISION 6 * 13................... REVISION 6 14................... REVISION 5 15................... REVISION 5
GP-1971
* 16 .................. REVISION 6
0-LEP
REVISION 6
Page 1
GENERAL PUBLICATION
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
0-LEP
Page 2
REVISION 4
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GP-1971
0-TOC
REVISION 5
Page 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GENERAL PUBLICATION
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
0-TOC
Page 2
REVISION 4
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of this publication is to clarify Embraers operational philosophy regarding approach speeds by providing sufficient background theory to aid operators with their own operational policy related to this topic. This publication provides guidelines only and does not annul, amend or complement instructions recommended in the Airplane Flight Manual.
GP-1971
GP
REVISION 4
Page 1
GENERAL PUBLICATION
During certification, the actual landing distance is demonstrated as follows: Standard temperature. Landing configuration: landing gear and flaps set for landing. Stabilized approach at VREF. Changes in configuration, power or thrust, and speed, must be made in accordance with the established procedures for service operation. Determination on a level, smooth, DRY and hard-surfaced runway. The landing must be made without excessive vertical acceleration, tendency to bounce, nose over, ground loop, porpoise, or water loop. If any device is used that depends on the operation of any engine (such as thrust reversers), and if the landing distance would be noticeably increased when a landing is made with that engine inoperative, the landing distance must be determined with that engine inoperative unless the use of compensating means will result in a landing distance not more than that with each engine operating. The reverse thrust effect is not accounted for during Embraer airplane landing certification. The landing may not require exceptional piloting skill or alertness. The pressure on the wheel braking systems may not exceed those specified by the brake manufacturer (maximum braking capability) and may not be used so as to cause excessive wear of brakes or tires. Means other than wheel brakes may be used if that means: Operation is reliable and safe; Operation is such that consistent results can be expected in service; and is such that exceptional skill is not required to control the airplane. In regards to Embraer airplanes, other braking resources means the use of spoilers on ground.
GP
Page 2
REVISION 4
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
V=0 50 ft
ACTUAL DRY DISTANCE DRY FIELD LENGTH = 1.67 X ACTUAL DRY DISTANCE
50 ft
ACTUAL DRY DISTANCE DRY FIELD LENGTH = 1.67 X ACTUAL DRY DISTANCE WET FIELD LENGTH = 1.92 X ACTUAL DRY DISTANCE 15%
GP
REVISION 4
Page 3
EM170AOM980029A.DGN
V=0
EM170AOM980028A.DGN
GENERAL PUBLICATION
GP
Page 4
REVISION 4
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
GP-1971
GP
REVISION 4
Page 5
GENERAL PUBLICATION
+ VW VW 50 ft VW V=0
W V=0 50 ft
FIGURE 3: UNIFORM WIND MODEL We can conclude that, using the uniform distribution model, adding the same headwind value to VREF, will produce the same performance as a calm wind approach on VREF. Since conditions in nature are not constant, the model must be adjusted for changes to be more accurate.
EM170AOM980030A.DGN
GP
Page 6
REVISION 4
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
h V = VW 50
1 7
Where VW is the headwind component at 50 ft above the threshold and h is the height above ground. Consider again the runway at sea level. If the threshold is crossed with VREF plus the same value of the headwind at 50 ft, the resultant effect will be the same as an increasing tailwind acting upon the airplane, reaching the maximum value of exactly VW at h=0 ft. This leads to an increasing ground speed that would produce a longer effective field length when compared with crossing the threshold on VREF at 50 ft with calm wind.
GP-1971
GP
REVISION 4
Page 7
GENERAL PUBLICATION
+ VW VW 50 ft VW V=0
IS EQUIVALENT TO ...
V W = 0 AT h = 50 ft V=0 50 ft VW MAX AT h = 0 ft
FIGURE 4: VARIABLE WIND MODEL How can you eliminate this performance penalty? It can be verified that if the threshold is crossed with VREF plus half the value of VW , the performance effect is approximately equivalent to a uniform vertical headwind distribution with half the intensity of the wind estimated at 50 ft over the threshold. That is the reason to assume half the headwind value of AFM data. In this manner, the boundary layer performance effect is traded to a constant wind model, as shown on the following figure.
EM170AOM980031A.DGN
GP
Page 8
REVISION 4
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
+ VW VW 50 ft VW V=0
IS EQUIVALENT TO ...
+ VW V W /2 50 ft V W /2 V=0
W V=0 50 ft
FIGURE 5: WIND EQUIVALENCE This can be verified in the numerical example below: Consider an EMBRAER 170 landing at a sea level airport with o OAT=15 C. At maximum landing weight (32800 kg) and VREF = 128 KIAS, the following results are verified with the AFM data: For Calm wind and VREF at threshold: Unfactored Landing Distance = 810 m. For 10 KIAS Headwind and VREF+5 kt at threshold: Unfactored Landing Distance = 805 m. For 10 KIAS Headwind and VREF+10 kt at threshold: Unfactored Landing Distance = 850 m. If using full headwind value added to VREF, the Unfactored Landing Distance is 4.94% greater than when using VREF with calm wind.
GP-1971
GP
REVISION 4
Page 9
GENERAL PUBLICATION
If using half the headwind value added to VREF, the Unfactored Landing Distance is 0.62% less than when using VREF with a calm wind. Within CAFM performance software, the wind model is considered until the height that the Mean Aerodynamic Chord stands above the ground, when the airplane is completely landed (with all nose and main landing gear wheels on ground). But, in the real world, numerical models are based on assumptions that may not be so simple to put into equations.
GP
Page 10
REVISION 4
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
GP-1971
GP
REVISION 4
Page 11
GENERAL PUBLICATION
GP
Page 12
REVISION 6
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
GP-1971
GP
REVISION 6
Page 13
GENERAL PUBLICATION
The theoretical VAPP would be 149 KIAS. Considering that VFE for flaps 45 is 145 KIAS, VAPP is set to 145 KIAS and VREF is set to 134 KIAS. Nevertheless, the pilot in command is responsible for electing the best flap setting for a given approach and landing considering all related operational factors.
GP
Page 14
REVISION 5
GP-1971
GENERAL PUBLICATION
This recommended limit must also be chosen in such way that it is possible to gradually remove it during the approach in order to reach VREF at threshold. More than 20 KIAS over VREF may lead to difficulties in decelerating during the last seconds of the approach. For maximum VAPP values, refer to the AOM Performance/Approach section.
ABNORMAL/EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Some abnormal/emergency procedures in the QRH require a VREF adjustment that considers an adequate speed margin in order to meet the following criteria: 30 bank margin to shaker activation; Tail strike avoidance; Rate of descent on touchdown not higher than 600 ft/min and; Acceptable flight qualities.
In all Embraer airplanes the baseline VREF, which is applied to the ABNORMAL correction, is related to the highest flap position even if the landing is performed with lower flap positions. This means that VREF FULL for EMBRAER 170/175/190/195 and VREF45 for ERJ 135/140/145/Legacy are used for baseline.
General Guidelines for ABNORMAL procedures: THE MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL FLAP LIMIT SPEED MUST ALWAYS BE RESPECTED AND IS THE UPPER VAPP LIMIT FOR ABNORMAL PROCEDURES. IN CASE OF MULTIPLE MALFUNCTIONS THAT REQUIRE SPEED ADJUSTMENT ON VREF, THE GREATEST VALUE OF NEW VREFS MUST BE ADOPTED.
GP-1971
GP
REVISION 5
Page 15
GENERAL PUBLICATION
SECTION V CONCLUSIONS
From the certification point of view, landing performance data presented in AFM/AOM is generated considering that the airplane will be at VREF once it has reached the threshold and is at a height of 50 ft above the ground. From a practical point of view, every pilot knows that almost every approach is better if the airplane maintains a speed higher than VREF on final approach in order to assure a speed margin above stall should turbulent air or variable wind conditions be encountered along the flight path. Due to these reasons (or at the Captains discretion for safety reasons), sometimes it is not possible to cross the threshold exactly at VREF. It must be clear that VAPP must be the upper limit in this case. In this scenario, the pilot must always keep in mind that the performance achieved cannot be determined exactly but may be close or better than the calm wind performance data. Crossing the threshold with VREF at 50 ft height will always produce, at least, the predicted performance in the AFM.
GP
Page 16
REVISION 6
GP-1971