UNIT-V

DESIGN & SELECTION

Design of Pneumatic Logic Circuits

• Pneumatic control is ideal for a vast variety of low-cost industrial automation
applications, both simple and complex. Welding and fabricating machines, press
tools, automatic machine tools, assembling, material handling, packaging, food
and beveraging, printing and mining are some of the fields where pneumatic
power can be applied to get its full advantage.
• The main advantage of a pneumatic control system is the use of the same power
medium throughout the system for performing both work function and control
function thus avoiding the need for additional interface elements.
1. Classic method
2. Cascade method
3. Step-counter method
4. Logic Design method (with Karnaugb-Veitch Maps)
5. Combinational circuit design
Classic Method
• The classic method is based on the knowledge of pneumatic logic elements and
application of the logics. As already mentioned, each pneumatic element is a logic
element performing various logic functions like AND, NAND, OR, NOR etc.
• The principle of Boolean algebra and De Morgan theorem are employed to solve
problems in the analysis of control logics.
• In boolean algebra, input signals and output signals are expressed by means of
letters. The logical Illocutions are denoted by symbols. For example, OR is used
as {+) or U, AND is used as (.) or fl.
If input signal A or signal B gives an output Y, the logic equation is written as A + B Y.
Some common logic nomenclature along with logic equations are shown in figure 14.1 in
at a bular form.
Step 1: Analyses the pre-conditions of the system
Step 2: As per the pre-conditions, write the control equation
Step 3: If needed, De Morgan’s theorem is applied to simple the control equation
Step 4: Based on the control equation, the logic block diagram can be drawn Step 5: The
logic equations are selected and the pneumatic circuit diagram can be drawn
Cascade Method
The cascade method is simple to apply and results in reliable and easily understood
circuits.
Steps involved
Step 1: Each cylinder is given a code letter and theft sequence is determined. For
example K, B A-, B- etc. ‘+‘ and represent extension and refraction of the cylinder
respectively.
Step 2: The sequence is split into minimum number of groups. Care should be taken to
see that no letter is repeated within any group. Next the circuit is draswiup using the
following steps.
Step 3: Each group is assigned a pressure manifold line which must be pressurised only
while that particular group is active. So the number of pressure lines equals the number of
groups.
Step 4: Selecting the valves.
a. The limit valves are denoted as a a b b etc. where the suffix 0 corresponds to valves
which are actuated at the end of return stroke and the suffix I corresponds to valves which
are actuated at the end of forward stroke. Each cylinder requires two limits valves and it
equals twice the number of cylinders. Each manifold line supplies air pressure to those
limit valves within its particular group.
b. In order to pressurise the various manifold lines in the proper order, one or more group
changing valves or cascade valves are employed. The number of group valves always
equals the number of groups minus one.
c. For each cylinder, a pilot operated direction control valve is selected. The number of
cylinder acting valves equals the number of cylinders.
Step 5: The valves are connected as follows. The output of each limit valve is connected
to the pilot input corresponding to the next sequence step with one exception. The limit
valve corresponding to the last step of the given group is ‘not’ connected to the actuating
valve of the next cylinder, but rather to the pilot line of a group changing valve so as to
pressurise the manifold of the next group. This manifold line is then connected to the
pilot line corresponding to the first step of the next group.
Step-Counter Method
• A step-counter is a digital modular pounter, constructed from stepping units
which serve as sequence steppers for asynchronous sequential fluid power
controls. A basic stepping unit as shown in Fig 14.5 is built from a signal output
MEMORY valve and a pre-switched AND valve with two inputs. Achieving an
output signal from the stepping unit requires
a. a signal input at line 1, which serves as a preparation signal arising from the preceding
stepping unit and
b. line 2, a confirmation signal which confirms the completion of the cylinder movement
by the preceding stepping unit
c. line 4 resets the memory valve of the preceding stepping unit
d. line 5 serves as a preparation signal to prepare the next stepping unit
e. line 6 is the reset signal from the next stepping unit
f line 3 switches the D.C.V

Steps Involved
Step 1: Draw the position-step diagram. Position-step diagram is used to represent
movement of drive elements. In position-step diagram the X-axis represents steps i.e., the
sequence of operation is divided into a number of steps which are expressed as 1, 2, 3, 4
etc. The Y-axis represents position and is indicated as 0, 1. The functional lines are drawn
in thick lines and they determine the position of the driving unit. Any change of position
of a member has to start or stop at a corner of the squares.
Step 2: From the position-step diagram, the number of stepping units are decided.
Step 3: Draw the cylinders and their memory valves (D.C.Vs). Connect the memories to
the cylinders.
Step 4: Draw the step-counters.
Step 5: Draw the position sequence valves.
Step 6: Connect the stepping units and valves.

Electrical Control of Fluid Power

Components Of Electrical Controls
The basic devices commonly used in the control of fluid power systems are
1. Switches
a) Push button switches
b) Pressure switches
c) Limit switches
d) Temperature switches
2. Solenoids
3. Relays
4. Timers
Switches
These are control members used to make or break the electrical circuit.
a. Push button switches These switches make or break contact only as long as they are
held pressed and hence they are called momentary switches. They are used mainly for
starting and stopping the operation of a machine.
The three common types of push button switches are

b. Pressure switches Pressure switches open or close their contacts based on system
pressure. They generally have high pressure and low pressure settings

c. Limit Switches Limit switches, open and close circuits when they are actuated either at
the end of the retraction or extension stroke of hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. The
limit switches are mechanically actuated by various elements like plunger, cams, roller
and levers. The speed at which the limit switch is operated is very important from the
control point of view.
The symbols for limit switches are

d. Temperature switches A temperature switch is an instrument that automatically senses

a change in the temperature and opens or closes an electrical switch when a pre-
determined temperature is reached. Temperature switches can be used to protect a fluid
power system from serious damage when components such as a pump or strainer or
cooler begin to malfunction. The resulting excessive build-up in oil temperature is sensed
by the temperature switch which then shuts off the entire system.
The symbols used for temperature switches are
Solenoids
• A solenoid is an electromechanical device which can convert electrical power into
mechanical force and motion. Solenoids provide a push or pull force to remotely
operate fluid power valves.
• There are two types of solenoids: AC and DC. It consists mainly of a plunger,
wire or coil and a body. The working principle is such that when an electric
current is passed through a coiled wire, a magnetic field is set up around the wire.
• The force due to the magnetic field pulls or pushes the plunger and this force is
fed to the spool.

Relays
• Relays are switches whose contacts (one or more) open or close when their
corresponding coils are energised. Relays are used for energising and de-
energising solenoids which operate at a high current level.
• A low voltage circuit can be used to energise relay coils which control the high
voltage contacts used to open and close the circuits containing solenoids.
• As shown in the figure, when i- SW is closed, the coil is energised. This pulls on
the spring loaded relay arm to open the upper set of normally closed contacts and
close the lower set of normally open contacts.

Electro-Hydraulic/ Pneumatic Circuits

• When drawing electro-hydraulic or electro pneumatic circuits, separate circuits
are drawn for the fluid system and the electrical system. Each component is
labelled to show exactly how the systems interface.
• Electrical circuits use Ladder Diagrams. The ladder diagram is a representation of
hardware connections between switches, relays, solenoids etc., which constitute
the basic components of an electrical control system.
• The left leg of the ladder is connected to the power and the right to the ground.
The operation of the total system can be understood by an examination of the
 fluid power circuits and the ladder diagram as they show the interaction of all the
components.
Reciprocation of a Cylinder using Pressure Switches
• The figure shows a system which uses two pressure switches to control the
operation of a double acting hydraulic cylinder. Each pressure switch has a set of
normally open contacts.
• When switch 1-SW is closed the cylinder reciprocates continuously until 1-SW is
opened.
The sequence of operation is as follows assuming solenoid A was last energised.
i) When solenoid A is energised, the oil from the pump flows through the valve into the
blank end of the cylinder.
i When the cylinder has been filly extended the pressure builds up to actuate pressure
switch 1-PS. This energises SOL B.
iii) When solenoid B energises, the oil then flows to the rod end of the cylinder.
iv) Upon fl.ill retraction, the pressure builds up to actuate 2-PS. During retraction of the
cylinder, 1-PS has been de-actuatc’d to de-energise SOL B.
v) The closing of the contact 2-PS energises SOL A to once again begin the extending
stroke of the cylinder

Control of a Cylinder using a Single Limit Switch

• The figure shows a system which uses a single solenoid and a single limit switch
to control a double acting hydraulic cylindet In the ladder diagram, one relay with
a coil designated 1-CR and two noimally open sets of contacts I-CR (NO) are
used.
• The limit switch is labelled l-LS (NC) and the two push button switches, one
normally closed (labelled stop) and one normally opened (labelled start), are also
included.
The sequence of operations is as follows
i) When the START button is momentarily pressed, the relay coil 1-CR is energised
which closes both the contacts of I-CR.
i Upper 1-CR contacts serves to keep the coil I-CR energised even though the START
button is released.
119 Lower I-CR contacts closes to energise solenoid A to extend the cylinder.
iv) At the end of the forward stroke, the piston rod cam actuates I -LS (NC) and opens to
de-energise coil I-CR.
v) The de-energisation coil 1-CR causes both the I-CR contacts to open.
vi) Due to the opening of the lower I-CR contact, the solenoid A de-energises and the
valve returns to its spring mode. The cylinder then retracts.
vii) The retraction ofcylinder again closes the 1 -LS but coil I-CR is ‘not’ energised
because the START button and upper I-CR contacts are in the open position. The
cylinder stops at the end of the retraction stroke.
viii) This cycle is repeated each time the START button is momentarily pressed. The
STOP button is a panic button and when pressed the extension stroke is immediately
stopped and it hilly retracts the cylinder.

Dual Cylinder Sequencing Circuit

The figure illustrates a circuit that gives a cycle sequence of two pneumatic cylinders.
The cycle sequence initiated by the momentary pressing of the START button is as
follows.
I. Press start button
2. Cylinder I extends
3. Actuate limit switch l-LS
4. Cylinder 2 extends while cylinder I retracts
5. Actuate limit switch 2-LS
6. Cylinder 2 retracts
7. Cycle is completed
The operation is as follows:
i When the START button is depressed momentarily, SOL A is energised to allow the
flow through valve Ito extend cylinder I and actuate l-LS.
ii. As limit switch 1-LS is a double pole single throw type actuation of limit switch 1 -LS
opens the holding circuit for relay I-CR and simultaneously closes the holding circuit for
relay 2-CR.
iii This de-energises SOL A and simultaneously energises SOL B. This returns valve I to
its spring offset mode and switches valve 2 into its solenoid actuated mode. As a result,
cylinder I retracts while cylinder 2 extends.
iv. When 2-LS is actuated, the holding circuit for relay 2-CR is broken, which de
energises solenoid B to shift valve 2 back to its spring offset mode thus causing the
retraction of the cylinder 2.
v. The STOP button is used to break the source of electrical power in the circuit and it
instantly retracts both cylinders.

Regenerative Circuit
• A regenerative circuit is used to speed up the extending speed of a double acting
hydraulic cylinder.
• The figure illustrates a regenerative circuit controlled with two solenoid valves, a
pressure switch and two check valves.
The circuit operation is as follows
i) When switch 1-SW is manually turned to the extend position, solenoid A is energised
which causes the cylinder to extend.
ii) Oil from the rod end flows through check valve 4 tojoin the incoming oil from the
pump to provide a rapid cylinder extension in the regenerative condition.
iii) When oil pressure builds up due to loadings on the cylinder, it actuates a normally
open pressure switch I-PS. As a result, coil 1-CR and solenoid C become energised. Rod
end oil is vented directly back to the oil tank throughi valve 2. As a result, the cylinder
extends slowly as it drives a high resistive load. Relay contact 1-CR-A provides a holding
circuit for relay coil 1-CR and
Microelectronic Control of Fluid Power

PLC Construction
• A PLC can be defined as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable
memory to store instructions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and
arithmetic to control machines or proce,sses.
• It is a software based instrument and hence it can be programmed using an easy-
to-learn programming language.
The three basic elements of PLC are
I. Central processing unit (CPU) with an associated memory
2. Input modules
3. Output modules
Central Processing Unit
• The CPU receives input signals from the various input modules and based on the
programs stored in the memory, decides on the appropriate signals, which it
transmits to the respective output modules.
Memory
In choosing a PLC, the available memory capacity plays an important role. The different
memory types used in PLC of both volatile and non-volatile type are given below.
1. RAM (Random access memory) — Volatile to — prograimdevelopment
2. Read/Write memory—Non volatile
3. ROM (Read only memory) —Non-volatile to store execution program
4. PROM (Programmable read only memory)
5. EPROM (Erasable PROM)
6. I3EPROM (Electrically erasable PROM)
Programming The PLC
• PLC is programmed by means of a programming device. The programming
device is usually detachable from the PLC and it can be shared between the
different controllers.
• Different devices ranging from simple teach pendent type devices to special
programmed keyboards and CRT displays are adopted.
• Most of the programming methods used today for PLCs are based on the ladder
logic diagram. There are various approaches for entering the program into the
PLC.
1. Ladder diagram based
2. Low-level language based on Boolean expressions
3. Functional blocks
4. High-level languages
Ladder Diagram Based
• The ladder logic diagram is converted into a PLC ladder diagram by using the
conventions of PLC ladder diagram construction.
This method requires the use of a keyboard and a CRT with limited graphic capability to
display the symbols, representing components and their inter-relationships in the ladder
logic diagram.
Low-Level Language Based on Boolean Functions
• The second method makes use of tow-level language using the Boolean AND,
OR, NOT functions.
 • Using the language instructions, the programmer constructs the ladder diagram by
specify the various components and their relationships for each rung. Some
common instructions are

Functional Blocks
• Functional blocks provide another means to input high-level instructions.
However the format in which the instructions are entered is the same as the ladder
logic diagram.
• The instructions are composed of operational blocks. Each block has one or more
input and output. Within the block, certain operations take place on the inputs to
transform the signals into the desired outputs.
• The functional blocks include operations such as timers and counters, control
computations using equations, data manipulations and data transfer to other
computer based systems.
High-Level Languages
• The principal advantage offered by the high-level language for programming the
PLC is their capability to perform data processing and calculations on values
other than binary.
• This permits the use of a more complex control algorithm for communication with
computer based systems and to display the data on a CRT control.
PLC Operation
• In the PLC, the program steps defined by the ladder diagrams are executed
simultaneously and continuously. First the inputs to the PLC are sampled by the
processor and the contents are stored in memory. Next the control program is
executed.
• The input values stored in memory are used in the control logic calculations to
determine the value of the output. Finally the outputs are updated to agree with
the calculated values.
• This cycle consisting of reading inputs, executing the control program and
revising the outputs is referred to as a scan.
Microprocessor Construction
• The word microprocessor is popularly used when referring to a microcomputer.
But a microprocessor forms only a part of a microcomputer and must be used
along with other devices.
• The basic elements of a microcomputer are (i) Microprocessor (ii) Memory (iii)
Input/output device (iv) Power supply. This system is on a single board and it is
interfaced with the fluid power system and provided with a power supply and a
program. A typical arrangement of a microcomputer is shown in Fig 16.4.
Microprocessor
• The microprocessor is the brain of a microcomputer. Microprocessors are
described as large scale integrated circuits.
• This is due to the many thousands of tiny electronic circuits from which they are
made. However, to use them they are represented by groups of registers each with
its own purpose. Typically a register consists of 8 bits.
Memory
• The memory of a microcomputer holds the program or programs currently being
used and provides storage for information such as input values, results of
calculations etc.
DC Power Supplies
• A complete fluid power system with a microcomputer will require various power
supplies at different voltage levels. For example, atypical microcomputer needs a
stable supp of 5V while a solenoid will have a moderately stable 24V DC supply
or even an AC voltage supply.
• Power provided by the mains need to be converted to produce DC voltage. There
are two main types of power supply.
1. Linear (low frequency)
2. Switch mode (high frequency)
Bus
• An interconnecting structure of the microcomputer is called the bus. An 8-bit
microprocessor will have 8 lines for transferring words of data, perhaps 16 lines
for carrying a memory address and a few lines for control and power supply.
• Data are transferred through the bus system to the various devices. Information on
the locations of the addresses are transferred via the address bus.
Interfacing
• Microcomputers usually work with different levels ofvoltage and currents than
those used by sensors and actuators. The means of effecting the connection
between items which are not directly compatible is called interfacing.
• For example, the microcomputer is incapable of driving the solenoid directly and
an interface is needed.
Programming the Microprocessor
A microprocessor can be programmed using either a low-level language or a high-level
language or a combination of the two.
Low-Level Language Programming
• Both machine code and assembly language are commonly referred to as low-level
language.
• Machine code is the one that the microprocessor executes. Hexadecimal (HEX)
number system is used for this.
• As the hexadecimal number is to a base of 16, the digits are from Ito 9 and A, B,
C, D, E, F are used to represent the rest of the numbers upto 16. Assembly
language is a symbolic or mnemonic form of machine code.
High-Level Language Programming
• There are many high-level languages available. A program which is written in
high- level language is the easiest and therefore cheaper to produce.
• In applications concerning control and monitoring of machinery, it is invariably
found that certain portions of the program require precise time or extra speed.
• In these circumstances, it may be necessary to write these portions as subroutines
in machine code and then insert them into the program in high-level language. As
processing speed of processors increases so the proportion of programming
needed to be done in machine code will decrease.
• A high-level language must also be translated into machine code. This is done by
a program called a ‘compiler’ or alternatively executed at the time of use by a
program called an ‘interpreter’.
Microprocessor Operation
• Microprocessor does its work by moving data or information between itself, the
memory and the 1/0 device. It performs simple logical operations on data.
• The sequence in which it performs the operations is stored in the memory. Data
are coded in the form of binary digits called bits.
• Information is handled in units of a fixed number of bits called bytes. The rate at
which a microprocessor executes instructions is governed by a timing device
referred to as a clock.
Difference Between PlCs And Microcomputers
• The question usually is whether to use a microcomputer or a PLC. So it might be
useflul to know the difference between PLCs and microcomputers.