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Bnd productive system.
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Agroforestry News

Vacciniums
Volume 13 Number 1
November 2004
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 13 Number 1 November 2004
Contents
2 News: Austrian traditional agroforestry /20 years of
alley cropping / Agroforestry in the Himalayas /
Agroforestry in northeastern China / Hazelnut 2004
cropping data / Chestnut cropping 2004/ Walnut
cropping 2004 / Heartnut cropping 2004 / Conifers can
minimize frost exposure / More health benefits of
walnuts
7 Vaccinium: the Blueberry family
24 Apple cultivar disease-resistance trial
29 Using Nitrogen-fixing shrubs in nut orchards
30 Book review: The Earth Care Manual
31 Compendium of edible fruits: (1) trees
40 Classified adverts
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the
Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common fannat.
Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the
reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered
on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame
species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any
illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops.
Editor: Martin Crawford.
Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust.
Editorial , Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington,
Totnes. Devon. TOg 6JT. UK Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 13 No 1 Page 1
News
Silvopasture in the Alps
The multipurpose utitisation of agricultural and forest resources has a long tradition in the Alps.
As the(e are many settlements in the valleys of the Alps, mountain forests often serve as
protection against natural hazards (particularly avalanches), in addition to timber production.
Farmers graze their cattle in mosaics of coniferous forests, open pastures with diverse
herbaceous vegetation, and half open pastures with dwarf shrubs and young trees.
The Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research studied both the benefits of
forest grazing for cattle, and the implications on forest structure and biodiversity. The condition
of young trees was assessed and the selection of herbaceous species recorded, the digestibility
of the herbage calculated, and the long-term influence on forest structure studied.
The results suggest that young conifers are not severely damaged by grazing cattle if stocking
density is low and the ranges are sufficientry large, enabling the cattle to select herbage plant
species of adequate digestibility. Grazed forests have a more open and heterogeneous
(diverse) structure than ungrazed forests. The increased insolation promotes both plant species
diversity and natural regeneration. Thus sustainable management of Alpine silvopastoral
systems can combine animal nutrition, biodiversity and avalanche protection.
Source: Mayer, A & Kreuzer,M: Silvopastoral Systems in the Alps. 1
st
World Congress of Agroforestry Book
of Abstracts, University of Florida, 2004.
Austrian traditional agroforestry practices
In Austria's rural regions traditional practices such as grazed orchards, fodder trees, hedges
and forest grazing still exist. J Studies over the past 8 years have identified various traditional
practices, including ash (Fraxinus excelsior) as fodder trees, larch (Larix decidua) meadows and
grazed forests; and new forms of agroforestry including mouflon and fallow deer in high stem
pear and apple orchards, Shropshire sheep in Christmas tree (Abies alba) plantations, pigs in
elderberry (Sambucus nigra) plantations, ana wild boar and domestic pig crossbreeds in spruce
afforestation.
The main motives for farmers to integrate agroforestry practices are related to raising site
productivity, complying with higher organic standards for animal husbandry and to widen
product variety. Farmers listed benefits such as: microclimate amelioration, higher soil fertility,
additional fodder and higher fodder quality, slope stabilisation, animal welfare and additional
income.
Source: Vogl , C & Stockinger, K Austnan Farmers Knowledge and Innovations Related to Traditional and
New Silvopastoral Practices with its Potential for Organic Farming. 1,t World Congress of Agroforestry Book
of Abstracts, University of Florida, 2004.
Results of 20 Years of alley cropping
There is good economic potential in the Midwestern USA when tree plantations of high-value
veneer wood are intercropped with annual cash crops. Management of resource availability in
the cropping alley are limited to those which maintain veneer wood production goals.
~ n this study, several black walnut (Juglans nigra) management options were examined for their
Impacts on tree and maize production including thinning (years 9 & 15), above ground branch
Page 2
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 13 No 1
pruning (year 17) and below ground root cutting (year 11). Thinning in years 9 and 14 resulted
in the highest tree diameter growth across the period but had little effect on reversing declining
crop yields. Tree root cutting immediately improved crop access to nutrients and water so that
there was little difference in crop yields observed between middle and edge row crops of maize.
This response dissipated by year 16 when crop production declined by up to 96% as trees
continued to grow and light became limiting across the 8.5 m alley. However, above ground
branch pruning in year 17 returned crop yields to up to 81% of year 11 values.
Source: Kiparski, G & Gillespie, A: Productivity and Competition Vector Changes over Two Decades in a
Temperate Alley Cropping System in Midwestern USA. 1$1 World Congress of Agroforestry Book of
Abstracts, University of Florida, 2004.
Agroforestry in the Himalayas
Agroforestry is one of the basic tradition occupations of millions inhabiting the Himalayas, with
both simultaneous and sequential systems practised. While simultaneous systems such as
boundary planting, alley cropping and silvopasture are common in the drier heights of the
northern and western Himalayas, the humid eastern and southern Himalayas inspire shifting
cultivation, taungya systems and multi-strat a systems (forest gardens and farms) . Hundreds of
Himalayan tribes have almost institutionalised agroforestry practices, and the indigenous
knowledge of mountain dwellers in terms of plot selection, crop selection, crop rotation etc. has
often proved far superior to that of a 'special ist'.
In the Himalayas, forests are part of the agro-pastoral continuum: most Himalayan tribes use
grasslands and forests as common proerty under collective tenure - utilisation of land by
spacing trees and crops, management and regeneration are collectively supervised by the
indigenous communities who rely heavily on oral tradition and experience. The multi-strata
system combining large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) with Nepalese alder (Alnus
nepalensis) adopted in the Sikkim Himalayas has proved to be sustainable and highly profitable.
Source: Choudhury, M: Indiginous Knowledge and Agroforestry Practices in the Eastern Himalayas, India.
1 s l World Congress of Agroforestry Book of Abstracts. Uni versity of Florida, 2004.
Agroforestry in Northeastern China
Northeastern China accounts for about 10% of the total land area in China, has a temperate
climate and is considered on of the most important cereal production areas. To protect the 20
million Ha of croplands from soil erosion and desertification. and to improve agricultural
production, various agroforestry systems have been established and developed. These include:
1. The large-scale farmland shelterbelt networks established since the 1950's for
protecting farmlands from wind erosion and desertification in the west of the region,
2. The combination of farmlands. shelterbelts and woodlots for protecting farmlands from
water and soil erosion in the northern high plain roUing slope area of the region,
3. The special northern ecological homegarden combining fruit tree planting and small
protected production of vegetables.
4. Pigs and biogas in homegardens developed and extended in the mid and southern
areas of the region,
5. The combination systems of medicinal herb production and tree plantations in the
eastern area of the region.
Source: Wen, 0 et al : Agroforestry in Northeastern China. l SI World Congress of Agroforestry Book of
Abstracts, University of Florida, 2004.
Hazelnut 2004 cropping data
This was the first year of crop measurement, mainly due to the fact that squirrels were finaUy under control
(using live traps). Good yields were obtained from all cultivars, the highest yields from Pearson's Prolific
(Nottingham Cob) and White Filbert. The largest nuts, though were mainly from more recent cultivars -
Butler, Caraber, Ennis and the oldff Hail's Giant.
-- --- ------- ------------ -- -- S e p tern be r --------------- ----- --- ---------
Date 14 15 1] 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Cultiva}

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X
xr
X X X X X X X X X X X X
Carabel ------------- X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Ennis ______________ .L
x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Gunslebert -------1x
X X
1
X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Hall's Giant ------.Lx X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X
xr
X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Webbs Prize COb f x X X X X X X X X X X X X X
White Filbert------rX X X_X X X X X X X X X X X X X
'X' in bold indicates period of heaviest cropping.
White Filbert lIIIITlITlTIIIIIrrrrmmTTTTm
Webbs Prize f-W
LW
...L,l.u.J..j...LJ..ld-
LW
4,1,1
Cob
Pearsons f-WLW..u.u..u..LJ..L.L.I..j
Prolific
KentCob
Halls Giant h-rr",-nTTTTTTrr,....,..,,-;'
Gu nslebert I
Ennis h-rr"'rTTTTTTTTrr"''''TTTT,J1
Cos ford h-rr",nnTTfTrr-I
Corabel
Butler !IIIq:ITlITjTIII:jIttrprrl-UJlLU
o 2 3 4 5 6
Average nut weight (9)
Page 4
Chestnut cropping - 2004
Our chestnut variety trial in Dartington, Devon was planted in the winter of 1995-0, with at least
two trees of each variety planted (more of some to ensure good pollination). 2004 represents
the ninth year of growth for the trees.
The trees is our chestnut trial cropped extremely well for the second year running. Despite the
average summer conditions, cropping started on 241h September and continued until 26
th
October (when all remaining nuts were brought down by several days of gales.)
The best cropping cufti vars, as in previous years, were:
Belle Epine
Bouche de 8etizac
Bournette
Marigoule
Marlhac
Rousse de Nay
Verdale
Vignals
Total 2004 crop, kg
26.20
9.91
8.28
18.02
14.35
16.89
7.27
9.63
Start of harvest
19 October
29 September
13 October
24 September
12 October
24 September
29 September
29 September
After harvest and weighing, the nuts are quickly sorted (by hand), the small nuts (under about
109) being separated off. The larger nuts were sold through a local farm shop, the smaller ones
dried for storage and further processing.
Walnut cropping - 2004
Our walnut variety trial in Dartington, Devon was planted in the winter of 1995-6, with two trees
of each variety planted. 2004 represents the ninth year of growth for the trees.
This was the first year of crop measurement, mainly due to the fad that squirrels were finally under control
(using live traps). In previous years there has been serious squirrel damage to the bark of some trees as
well as predation on the nuts.
Yields in general were disappointirgly low. Highest yields were from Broadview, Femor and Femette - all
yielding a"ouild 2 kg (and with Broadview this despite a bad attack oJNalnut blight.)
Walnuts are known heavy feeders and the low yields may be due, at least to some extent, to lack of
feeding (the trees have only been fed once, with rotted manure, five years ago). Hence next spring they
will receh.e a heavy feed to stmulate better cropping.
Heartnut cropping - 2004
Our heartnut trial was planted in the winter of 19956 and consisted on 28 seedling trees grown
from seed obtained from known mother trees in Ontario, Canada. The aim of the trial is to
select out the best fruiting trees to name and propagate on. Cropping on some trees started in
2002. In the winter of 2003/4, trees which showed no sign of flowering were removed.
Cropping was good on some trees in 2004. All trees were very healthy with no symptoms of the
leaf and nut diseases seen on walnuts. The best tree, E14, bears nuts which resemble
buartnuts more than true heartnuts - total crop was about 1.2 kg, and cropping was very early,
starting on 141h September (about the same time as hazelnuts). Trees producing more 'true'
heartnuts ripened their nuts later, from l SI October.
Conifers can minimize frost exposure
Agricultural production in temperate climate areas is constrained by cold weather which limits
the growing season. Radiation frosts frequently injure vegetation early and late in the growing
season even when air temperatures are warm enough to maintain plant health. Radiation frosts
occur at night when clear sky conditions result in a large net loss in long wave radiation from
plant surfaces and a lack of wind minimises convective heat gain from the air.
Obstrueting the open sky from the plant upward field-ot-view is one strategy for reducing the
severity of radiation frost by providing a surface much warmer than open sky with which plants
exchange long wave radiation. Shade cloth or fleece mounted over vegetation is effective but
costly. Trees can provide a much cheaper solution which minimises radi ation frost damage.
USDA Experiments in Virginia show that conifers work extremely well in protecting nearby crops
from radiation frost damage: under 77% canopy cover, up to 11 C of frost protection was
gained. Clearly, there will also be shadi ng effects, possibly detrimental to a forage or tree crop
interplanted within rows of conifers, hence careful design would be necessary in such a system.
These experiments would indicate that there will be significant benefits of planting trees, shrubs
or other crops close and to the south of coniferous or other evergreen vegetation, in terms of
radiation frost protection. In addition, crops thus situated would suffer very little from any
shading effects.
Source: Feldhake, C: Proximity to Conifers Minimizes Frost Exposure. NNGA 93'd Annual Report, 2002.
More health benefits of walnuts
A new clinical study shows that substituting walnuts for monounsaturated fat in a Mediterranean
diet improves, and even restores, endothelial function (the property of arteries to dilate in order
to meet an increased d e m a ~ d for blood, for example due to a physical effort). Walnuts also
reduce harmful cell adhesion molecules which are associated with atherosclerosis (hardening of
the arteries). These dual effects enhance the circulatory system, therefore aiding in the
prevention of heart disease.
Published in 'Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association', the study concludes that
the results provide further support for the inclusion of walnuts in healthy diets. As well as the
effects mentioned, the walnut diet decreased both total and LDL cholesterol.
Walnuts differ from all other nuts because of their high content of alpha-linolenic acid, a fatty
acid, which may provide additional anti-artherogenic properties.
Page 6 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 13 No 1
~ ~ - --
-- -
Vaccinium: the Blueberry family
Introduction
Blueberries and cranberries in many forms have been gathered from the wild and eaten by
people for thousands of years. The berries are also appreciated by many birds (grouse,
partridge, quail, American robins, European blackbirds and thrushes) and many mammals. In
North America the berries form an important part of the diet of bears and chipmunk, while deer,
elk, rabbit and hare graze on the leaves and young stems.
North America contains the largest number of edible species, also the important commercial
ones - blueberries and cranberries . Some European countries do have extensive amounts of
wi ld plants which are sti ll harvested commercially. for example in Poland and Lithuania.
Some of the wild species are named huckleberri es in North America, but they should not be
confused with Gaylussacia which are the better known huckleberries with edible fruit.
Edible uses
Most species of Vaccinium have edible fruit which has long been gathered from wild plants and
eaten raw or cooked (V.arboreum is the only cultivated species with inedible berries.)
Many Native Americans combined dried pounded meat with melted fat and any available dried
berries (often Vaccinium species) to make ' pemmican' which would store for a long time and be
easily carried. They also added fresh or died berries to stews. The settlers from Europe
brought recipes with them which they used to make jams, jellies, cakes, cookies and so on.
Cultivated forms of blueberries are derived from V.corymbosum (Northern highbush) which is
suited to cold winter regions; V.ashei (Rabbiteye) which need moderate winter chilli ng and are
suited to shorter winter regions; and a group of hybrids involving V.angustifolum, V.ashei,
V.corymbosum, and V.darrowii (together called Southern high bush types) which need low
winter schilling and is suitable for mild winter regions.
Medicinal uses
Many species of Vaccinium have long been used medicinally. In North America, Indian tribes
used (and continue to use) every part of the plants - flowers, fruits , leaves, young shoots, bark
and roots.
In the 18
th
century, bilberries (V.myrtillus) were widely used in Europe as an astringent to treat
diarrhoea, as a diuretic, to prevent scurvy and as a mouthwash to sooth mouth ulcers.
During World War II , British and Canadian air force pilots found that their night vision improved
after eating bilberry jam over a long period. This Jed to much clinical research in the decades
that followed. Air traffic controllers, airline pilots and truck drivers have also reported improved
night vision when given regular extracts of bilberry fruit. Other visual benefits which have been
noted are an improvement in myopia (shortsightedness) and the relief of symptoms of tired
eyes.
The red, blue or violet pigments in the skins of Vaccinium fruits are due to the presence of
organic chemicals (polyphenols). They act primarily as antioxidants which mop up harmful free
radicals in the body (these are produced by the normal process of converting oxygen into
energy in the cells of the body, and the toxins associated with them are normally disposed of by
a healthy body. However, when produced in excess or not efficiently removed, they can be
highly destructive and destroy the outer membranes of healthy cells , causing degeneration and
death of cell sin tissues where they are active. Antioxidants combine with free radicals and
render them harmless.) These polyphenols also have other effects, some being antibacterial
and antiviral, others are anticarcenogenic, antiangiogenic and antiallergenic. They also boost
levels of glutathione in the body, an important agent which helps repair damaged DNA and in
the liver detoxifies carcinogens and other toxins. There is evidence that raising levels of
glutath,ione can reduce age-related diseases and increase life span .

These polyphenols are in greatest concentration sin the small-berries species and varieties .
They are 3-4 times more potent than vitamin C and are not destroyed by cooking.
There is also evidence of improved microcirculation from eating Vaccinium fruits or their
extracts, in the brain (improving brain functions), eyes, mucous membranes of the digestive and
pulmonary systems, connective tissues (aiding arthritis sufferers) etc.
Vaccinium berries also have powerful antibacterial action in the intestine, especially on coli
bacteria, and they promote healing of gastric ulcers. The berries also contain ellagic acid,
which is a powerful anticarcinogen.
Cranberry juice is well established as excellent for fighting urinary infections, and other
Vaccinium fruit juice has similar qualities. This is due to tannins, which prevent bacteria from
sticking to the bladder lining. Sweetened juice will not be so effective.
In practical everyday terms, regular consumption of Vaccinium fruits should benefit general
health, delay the onset of degenerative diseases associated with aging, help combat tied eyes
and help prevent urinary infections.
Cultivation
Soil
Vacciniums generally like acidic soils, ideally with a pH of 4.5 to 5.5 (but up to 6.5 is often ok) ,
ideally a sand or loam which is well drained with plenty of organic matter. They do not tolerate
clay soils or soils above pH 7.0 (neutral). Alpine species require very good drainage, whereas
some other species require moist or boggy conditions.
It is better to use containers if the soil is alkaline. Most species do well in containers and will
live many years. Plant small young plants in small containers, and gradually pot up into larger
and larger containers over the years (this goes for all container planting). Container grown
plants are especially prone to drying out in summer and require at least daily irrigation,
otherwise a lack of flowers and fruit the following year will result.
All Vacciniums will only grow healthily if they are growing in association with mycorrhizal fungi.
Spores of such fungi are usually present in peat, hence container grown plants, which are
usually grown in ericaceous composts incorporating some peat, are already inoculated with
types of beneficial fungi.
Irrigation
For heavily fruiting species, some irrigation is often necessary, if only in very dry summer
spells. In very dry soils, growth and flower bud formation is often poor. Collected rainwater is
best although occasional use of neutral or even alkaline irrigation water won't hurt.
PageS
n ... :::c:a:::
Planting
Autumn planting is preferable in mild climates like most of the UK. Plants and mulch with bark
or sawdust.
Siting
Most species prefer full sun or slight shade although some prefer part shade (see species
details and table below).
Vacciniums are notably resistant to honey fungus .
Flowering
All the Vacciniums produce bell-like flowers, typical of the Ericaceae, usually white or pinkish.
Pollination is via bees, usually wild bees ego bumble bees, for which these are very beneficial
plants. Most species are not self-fertile, hence two selections should be grown for good fruiting.
Fruiting
Fruits ripen in early to late autumn. Fruits vary widely in size from species to species, some are
very small (4-5 mm) and hardly worth bothering with, while others are larger. Quality also
varies, with the flavour, aroma and acidity differing widel y. For the smaller fruited species, a
hand held comb harvester (easily made from a hand held plastic dustpan with fingers cut from
the leading edge) is by far the quickest way to harvest fruits, and is the traditional North
American form of hand harvesting.
Propagation
Seed
Most species can be propagated by seed. If possible sow fresh seed (dried seed can remain
dormant for up to 2 years) , squeezing the flesh and seeds out from the fruit and sowing the lot.
Warm region species won' t need stratification, but cold region species usually need 3-4 months
of cold stratification (or a few days in a freezer can trick them into germinating). Use a 50:50
peat:sand or peat:perlite/ vermiculite compost. Grow on in an ericaceous compost and do not
overfeed. The young seedlings may require shade in the summer.
Suckers, stolons & runners
This is simply the removal of lateral plant extensions which have already formed roots. It is a
simple method for spreading plants such as cranberries, lingonberries and ground cover
species like V.caespitosum, V.crassifolium and V.deliciosum. Some larger shrubs send up
suckers which can be removbed and potted up for a year before planting out.
Cuttings
Most of the evergreen species root readily as semi-hardwood or even hardwood cuttings. Late
summer is the usual time for taking semi-hardwood cuttings, when the current years growth has
become firm but not woody, but any time except high summer often works.
Cuttings from the deciduous species are more difficult to root and timing is critical. Semi-
hardwood cuttings are best, taken as soon as they are firm enough in summer. Terminal
cuttings, including the growing tip of shoots, are usually used. Some require bottom heat and
mist or high humidity conditions. Use a similar compost as for seed sowing. Hormone rooting
liquid or powder is useful. Leave over winter in their containers and pot up in spring when they
start to grow.
The species
Listed below are species with known edible fruits or other uses. There are several others
species which almost certainly have edible fruits too. including the American species V.a/to-
mantaum, V.caesium (deerberry). V.candicans, V.fuscatum, and V.marianum.
V.alaskaense - Alaska blueberry
A very hardy species native to coastal regions from N,. Catifornia to Alaska; sometimes regarded
as a ferm of V.Dvalifolium.
Fruits are dark. bloom less, often not prolific (although there is much variability) and moderately
sweet.
V.amoenum - Large cluster blueberry
Large deciduous shrub from southeastern N.America, growing to 4 m high but only half that in
cultivation. Bears black fruits about 8 mm across.
Fruit are edible, raw or cooked.
V.angustifolium - Sweet lowbush blueberry
A dwarf, woody, usually deciduous shrub fround growing in a wide variety of areas in North
America on peaty or sandy soil with pH 2.8 to 6.0. It forms a spreading mat from underground
rhizomes, with uprights 30-45 cm tall. Narrow elliptic leaves are 5-17 mm wide and 17-40 mm
long, green but changing to a vivid red or orange in autumn. White or pinkish flowers in May
are followed by blue or black sweet fruits, to 12 mm across, in late summer and early autumn.
Var. laevifolium grows a little taller and wider than the species, and has larger leaves.
Var. nigrum (Syn. V.brittonit) also has larger leaves, likes poor sandy soi ls, and bears shiny
black berries.
Thousands of tonnes of wild blueberries, mainly from this
species, are harvested each year. Mechanical harvesting
occurs where large level fields and sufficient acreage justify
the capital expenditure; but a lot of hand harvesting, often by
children or students on vacation, also take:;; place. Yields are
2.5-7.5 tonnes/ha, the higher yields obtained onl y when
herbicides are used to control weed competition. Most of the
crop is frozen and sold, mainly to Germany and Japan.
'Augusta' , ' Brunswick' , 'Chigneto' and ' Russell' are
selections with good blue fruit colour, good flavour, late
blooming, disease resistance, heavy yields etc.
A tea is made from the leaves and dried fruits - used as a
tonic, and for colic and labour pains.
V.arboreum - farkleberry, sparkleberry
A deciduous or semi-evergreen large shrub or small tree occasionally growing up to 9 m high,
more often 3-4.5 m high, with grey bark. Has leathery leaves, white flowers in summer and
black shiny berries (which do not ripen properly in the UK). Native to Southeastern N. America.
The fruits, though they have been eaten in times of famine, are not at all pleasant (dry, bitter
and astringent).
Medicinally, the berries, root-bark and leaves are very astringent and have been used in the
treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, sore throats etc.
Said to be an excellent vigorous rootstock for 'Rabbiteye' blueberries (V. ashei).
Tannin is obtained from the bark and root.
The wood is heavy, hard, very close grained. Used for tool handles etc.
V.arbuscula
Deciduous shrub growing 60 cm high from western N.America. Bears edible fruits.
V.arctostaphylos - Caucasian whortleberry

A slow growing, densely branched, deciduous shrub growing 1.5 to 3 m high and 11 . 8 m wide.
Leaves are dark green, to 10 cm long by 23 cm wide - they turn brilliant purple and red early in
autumn. Whitish flowers in midsummer and followed by round, shiny, purpleblack berries, 1 cm
across. Tolerates poor dry soils ands some exposure. Native to Turkey, Bulgaria and the
Causasus; hardy to -15C.
Fruits are borne abundantly and have a nice flavour.
The Circassian people of the Caucasus use a decoction of the leaves as a tea called 'broussa
tea' which looks like black tea.
V.ashei - Rabbiteye blueberry
An erect spreading shrub reaching 3 m high, relatively deep rooted. Adapted to hot dry
summers - drought tolerant. White or pinkish flowers followed by blueblack fruits, to 20 mm
across.
Native to the Southeastern USA, this is one of the cultivated species, grown in mild or short
winter regions. There are several good fruiting forms. They like the same conditions and
management as other cultivated blueberries (a detailed article on blueberries is in Agroforestry
News, Vol 8 No 1 and our Factsheet F23). They are not self-fertile, so a mixture of varieties
must be grown for cross pollination.
'Baldwin' - vigorous upright bush, very productive, moderate chilling requirement. Fruits firm,
dark blue, medium size, sweet. ripen over a very long period (67 weeks).
' Beckyblue' - vigorous, tall spreading bush, low chilling requirement . Fruits medium sized,
firm, good flavour.
' Brightwell' - vigorous upright bushes. Fruits medium sized, firm, light blue, good flavour.
Good cropper.
' Briteblue' - Moderately vigorous and spreading bush, moderate chilliung requirement. Fruits
large, firm, hold on bush well.
'Centurion' - vigorous, narrowly upright bush, moderate chilling requirement, later ripening.
Fruit medium size, dark blue, good aromatic flavour.
' Chaucer' - Vigorous, spreading bush with upright canes, flowers prolifically, low chilling
requirement. Fruit light blue, medium size, good flavour, produced over a long period.
' Climax' - upright spreading bushes. Fruits medium sized, firm, good aromatic flavour, ripens
over a short period.
' Premier' - vigorous spreading bushes, moderate chilling requirement , good autumn colour.
Fruits large, firm, good aromatic flavour. Tolerates higher pH soi l than most blueberries.
'Tifblue' - vigorous upright bush, moderate chilling requirement. Fruit light blue, firm, medium
to large, good flavour, hold well on bush when ripe but prone to splitting after heavy rain.
V.x atlanticum
Naturally occuring hybrid of V.angustifolium x V.corymbosum. Simi lar to the latter (highbush
blueberry) but a smaller plant , to 1 m high. Bears large blue bloomy fruits to 20 mm across.
V.atrococcum - Downy swamp huckleberry, black highbush blueberry
A many branched deciduous shrub growing 1.5 to 3 m high. Bears pinkish red flowers in late
spring followed by round black sweet fruits, 6-8 mm across. Native to Eastern N.America.
'Leucococcum' - fruits are translucent, white tinged green or yellow.
V.australe
Large qeciduous shrub 2-4 m high, forming small colonies, from the eastern USA. White or
pinkish flowers are followed by blue fruits, 7-12 mm across with a good flavour.
V.boreale
A dwarf deciduous shrublet growing only 2-16 em high. often growing with V.angustifolium,
making dense clumps and spreading by surface rhizomes. Leaves are 12-20 mm long by 3-5
mm wide. Fruits are blue, small (3 mm across) , sweet. A Subarctic species from Eastern
N.America, found in forest tundra and upland meadows on exposed rocky sites.
V.brachybotrys
Native to China (Yunnan).
The fruits are valued for food.
The leaves and young stems are used in Chinese medicine.
V.bracteatum
A well-branched evergreen shrub up to 3 m high, nearer 1 m in cultivation. Ught green shiny
leaves are 5 cm x 2 cm. White flowers in late summer are followed by edible small berries, 5-6
mm across, ripening purple-black in warm climates. Native to Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan;
hardy to -23C.
The plant has been used in the treatment of cancer in China.
V. caesariense
Deciduous shrub to 1.5 m high from Eastern, N.America. Edible fruits 8 mm across.
V.caespitosum - Dwarf huckleberry, dwarf blueberry
A spreading dwarf deciduous shrub growing 4-60 cm high, forming a ground-hugging mat of
yellow-green or reddish green stems. Pinkish white flowers in late spring/early summer are
followed by blue-black fruits , 5-8 mm across, sweet flavoured. A very hardy species from the
north of N.America in all types of site.
The Indians of British Columbia harvested the fruit in large quantities.
A tea is made from the leaves and dried fruits, which is antiseptic, astringent, carminative, and
hypoglycaemic.
V.corymbosum - Northern highbush blueberry
A very variable deciduous shrub, typically 1.2-1 .8 m high but occasionally double that. It
usually forms a compact shrub, but it sometimes sends out suckers from adventitious buds on
the roots up to 1 m away from the main plant, particularly if disturbed by burning or damaged by
animals or people. Leaves are ovate or narrowly elliptic, 38-54 mm long by 17-25 mm wide.
They turn bright colours in the autumn. White flowers are followed by blue-black fruits , to 20
mm in diameter, sometimes with a bloom. Synonym V.virgaturn.
Native to North America, this is one of the main
cultivated species. They thrive in their native habitat in
the dappled shade of pines and cedars. There are
numerous good fruiting forms. A detailed article on
blueberries is in Agroforestry News, Vol 8 No 1 (and our
Factsheet F23).
The form constablaei (previous V.eonstablaei) is a
compact plant about 90 em high with small-medium, blue
bloomed fruits with good autumn colour.
A tea is made from the leaves and dried fruit which is
astringent and pectoral.
V.crassifolium - Creeping blueberry,
thick-leaved whortleberry
Evergreen shrublet , creeping by rooting a leaf nodes.
forming a dense mat. Upright reddish stems reach 15
cm, with small downy leaves. Pinkish or white flowers in
late spring/early summer are followed by shiny, purple-black berries 12 mm across. Native to
southeastern USA in dry sunny situations near pine trees .
'Wells Delight' - has bright reddish-bronze young growth. Fruits small, dark purple. Used for
ground cover in acid soil conditions and sun or light shade, planted 60 cm apart.
V. cylindraceum
A semi-evergreen large upright shrub, drought tolerant and tolerant of neutral soils not too
heavy. Bark on older branches is an attractive green-brown pattern. Bright green glossy leaves
are 5 cm long, often falling in late winter. Greenish-yellow flowers are borne from midsummer
onwards in profusion, followed by cylindrical blue-black bloomy fruits , to 25 mm long and 8 mm
wide. Native to the Azores but hardy in Britain.
The frui ts are sweet with a mild pleasant flavour.
V.darrowwii
An evergreen shrub growing to 90 cm high, spreading by rhizomes. Has pale green leaves, 12
x 5 mm, white flowers and light blue fruits. Native to the southern USA. Heat and drought
resistant , this is one of the species used to breed southern highbush blueberries. Needs a hot
summer climate to thrive.
There are numerous good fruiting forms. A detailed article on blueberries is in Agroforestry
News, Vol 8 No 1 (and our Factsheet F23).
V.de/avayi
A compact densely branched evergreen shrub growing 30-90 em high, sometimes more in warm
shady locations. Creamy white or pink flowers in early summer, often hidden by foliage, are
followed by small fruits, 4-5 mm across, bluish-purple to black. Native to China, requires good
drainage. Hardy to _10C.
V.deliciosum - Cascade bilberry, blue huckleberry
A dwarf deciduous shrub forming tufted mats usually 10-30 cm high, spreading by rhizomes into
extensive colonies in the wi ld. Leaves 17-33 x 5-8 mm, thick and tough. Pink flowers in late
spring/early summer are followed by sweet blue-black berries, 5-8 mm in diameter. Native to
alpine meadows and subalpine conifer woods in western North America.
The fruits are sweet with a good aroma and flavour.
V.duclouxii
Large deciduous shrub growing to 3 m high from China (Yunnan). Bears fruits 5 mm in
diameter.
Fruit are sweet and good to eat.
V.dunalianum
A large shrub or small tree reaching 6 m high in the wild but less in cultivation. Has large
leaves, 7 ~ 1 2 cm x 2.5-4.5 cm with long tapering points. Flowers in early summer are followed
by round black berries, 5 mm across. Native to the Himalayan region at 1600-3000 m.
The fruits are valued for food in Yunnan (China).
V. elliottii
Deciduous shrub with numerous branches growing 2-4 m high, forming clumps, from the
southeastern USA. Pink flowers in spring are followed by edible blue-black fruits 8 mm across.
V.erythrocarpum - Bearberry, southern mountain cranberry
An open shrub, 9 0 ~ 1 8 0 cm high. Pink flowers in early summer are followed by red to black
berries 8-12 mm across. Native to high elevations in the southern USA, associated with spruce
forests.
Fruit is rather inferior, with an acidic tastelessness.
V.floribundum (Syn. V.mortinia)
An evergreen shrub growing .90-180 cm high, wide spreading. Masses of pale pink flowers in
early summer are followed by round berries that turn from red to blue-black as they ripen.
Native to Ecuador, Peru and Columbia, but hardy in southern England to -10C or so.
Fruits are juicy and pleasantly flavoured.
V.fragi/e
A compact evergreen shrub usually growing 15-23 cm high, occasionally to 90 cm. Glossy
green leaves, masses of white-pink flowers in summer and reddish black fruits, 6 mm across.
Likes a well drained soil. Native to China (Yunnan) , hardy to -23C.
The fruits are valued for food in China.
V. glaucoalbum
An evergreen shrub growing 50-1 20 cm high, forming dense patches by suckering. Whitish-pink
flowers in late spring/early summer are followed by round black berries with a blue bloom, 6 mm
across, persisting on the plant. Native to Tibet and Nepal and prefers semi-shade and shelter-
will grow in neutral soils.
Fruits are edible but with an unpleasant aftertaste.
V.griffithianum
A semi-evergreen low shrub growing 1.2 m tall and 1.5 m wide with arching branches. Flowers
in midsummer are followed by small , persistent , blue-black , rather hard fruits. Native to China,
prefers semi-shade or sun in southern England - hardy to perhaps -10C.
V.hirsutum - Hairy huckleberry, woolly berry
A deciduous shrub growing 60-90 cm high, suckering freely and forming dense thickets. All
parts are covered in hairs. Whitish-pink flowers in late spring/early summer are followed by
black hairy sweet fruits, 6 mm across, somewhat gritty and insipid. Likes a moist shady
position. Native to Southeastern USA.
V.hirtum
A much-branched deciduous shrub growing 90-120 cm taU and less wide. Fruits are red, round
or oval, 8 mm across. Native to Japan. Likes a semi-shaded site and soil with plenty of organic
matter.
V.x intermedium
Naturally occuring hybrid of V.myrtillus x V.vitis-idaea. A low shrub to 25 cm high, deciduous r
semi-evergeen. Pink flowers in early summer are followed by round dark violet edible fruits, 6
mm across.
V.iteophyl/um
The fruits are valued for food.
V.japonicum
Shrub growing 90 cm high with slender branches - evergreen in warm climes. Pink flowers in
spring and summer are followed by small glossy red berries 5-8 mm in diameter, acid flavour.
Likes the shade of a woodland or forest garden.
V.koreanum
Deciduous shrub from Korea. Bears edible fruits.
V./eucanthum
Bears blue-back fruits, 5 mm in diameter.
V.macrocarpon - Cranberry
This is the true cranberry, widely grown commercially in North
America. Full details of cranberries and their cultivation can
be found in Agroforestry News, Vol 9 No 2 (and our factsheet
F28).
A low growing, trailing woody perennial that forms a dense
spreading mat. Flowers in May, June or later are followed by
pinkish, red or purple fruits. Plants can be grown as a ground
cover planted about 1 metre apart each way - they spread
rapidly when thriving.
The fruits have a sharp flavour, especially when only just ripe;
they sweeten slightly with age and some wait until November
to harvest them when they are quite soft and sweet.
V.me/anocarpum - Georgia blueberry
Deciduous shrub to 1.2 m high with whitish downy young shoots from Southeastern USA. White
or green tinged flowers in late spring/early summer are followed by glossy edible reddish-violet
fruits 8-10 mm across.
V.membranaceum - mountain bilberry, mountain huckleberry
Deciduous shrub forming clumps 30-150 em high. Whitish fruits in summer are followed by
purplish-black fruits. 5-8 mm across, delicious but acid.
Native to cold upland areas of N.America. Difficult to cultivate as it seems to require very
specific climatic conditions that occur in its native habitat at 900-2100 m. Prefers well drained
slopes under scattered trees out of frost pockets.
Fruits have been harvested for centuries by native Americans in the Rocky Mountains for use
raw or dried (in the sun or over a fire) for winter use.
Leaves are used in a medicinal tea which is antiseptic, astringent , carminative and
hypoglycaemic.
V.modestum
Small deciduous shrub from eastern Asia growing 15 cm high and spreading. Pink flowers are
followed by violet fruits, pleasant tasting.
V.moupinense
A compact dwarf evergreen bush 60 cm high by 90 cm wide. Leathery leaves, very glossy
green. Reddish-brown flowers in late spring and summer are followed by round, purple-black
fruits 5-6 mm across. Native to China (Szechuan).
V.myrsinites - Florida evergreen blueberry, ground blueberry
Colonising evergreen shrub 45-90 cm high with small leathery leaves. Whitish-pink flowers in
spring are followed by round, shiny black fruits, 12 mm in diameter. Native to SE USA, and
thrives in England.
V.myrtilloides - Velvet-leaved blueberry, Sour-top blueberry
North American deciduous shrub with uprights 10-117 cm high. The plant is downy, with long
green elliptical leaves 8-17 mm wide by 20-38 mm long. White or pink flowers in late spring and
early summer are followed by blue fruits 5-8 mm across. Produces prolific fruit crops in many
mountainous western areas.
The fruits are widely harvested as part of the wild blueberry harvest - see V.anguslifo/ium for
more details.
The Ojibwa people used the fruits, drying them on rush mats in the sun and storing them for use
in the winter. The fruits on the lower slopes of mountains ripened first, and family groups
moved gradually upwards to reach later ripening plants.
Leaves are used to make a tea (medicinal?)
V.myrtillus - Blaeberry, Hartberry, Whortleberry, Wimberry
The most common European species. Found on upland moors and in scrub woodlands, it has a
low growing habit (30-50 cm high) and produces fruits 5-10 mm in diameter. Is still often
harvested wild, and harvested commercially where labour is cheap.
'Leucocarpum' - fruits are a dirty white colour.
The dried leaves are used medicinally for a variety of complaints. The leaves should be
harvested in early autumn, only green leaves being selected, and then dried i n gentle heat. A
tea made from the dried leaves is strongly astringent , diuretic, tonic and an antiseptic for the
urinary tract. It is also a remedy for diabetes if taken for a prolonged period. The leaves
contain glucoquinones, which reduce the levels of sugar in the blood.
A decoction of the leaves or bark is applied locally in the treatment of ulcers and in ulceration of
the mouth and throat. A distilled water made from the leaves is an excellent eyewash for
soothing inflamed or sore eyes.
The fruit is astringent , it is commonly used in the treatment of diarrhoea etc. The fruit is most
effective if used when dry. The skin of the fruits contains anthocyanin and is specific in the
treatment of hemeralopia (day-blindness). The fruit is a rich source of anthocyanosides, which
have been shown experimentally to dilate the blood vessels .
A green dye is obtained from the leaves and the fruit and is used to colour fabrics.
A blue or black dye is obtained from the fruit , which can be used as an ink.
V.neg/ectum (Syn. V.stamineum var.neg/ectum) - Deerberry
A deciduous shrub to 1.5 m high from Southeastern USA. Pinkish-white flowers in late spring
are followed by edible fruits, roundish. 6 mm across, green to yellow.
V.nummu/aria
An evergreen shrub about 60 cm high and 90 cm wide with glossy dark green leaves. Pink
flowers in spring are followed by fruits 5-6 mm across, round, black, edible. Native to Sikkim
and Bhutan, hardy to about -15C.
V.occidenta/is - Western huckleberry
A compact shrub growing 75 cm high. White or pink flowers are followed by round shiny fruits,
6 mm across, blue-black. Grows in subalpine wet meadows in Western N.America ..
Fruits are harvested by local people.
V.o/dhamii
A compact upright deciduous shrub growing 90-300 cm high. Many greenish-yellow flowers in
midsummer are followed by round black bloomy edible fruits , 8 mm across. Native to Japan,
Korea and China. (Syn. V.ciliaturn).
V.ova/ifolium - Oval-leaved blueberry, tall bilberry, mathers
Very hardy deciduous species, closely related to V.myrtiffus. Grows 1-3 m high, narrow and
upright. Pink flowers in spring and summer are followed by blue-black berries, often with a
bloom, 8-10 mm across, which do not persist for long on bushes. Native to western North
America.
The fruits, though edible, are not very palatable due to a gritty texture.
The leaves are used to make a medicinal tea which is antiseptic, astringent , carminative and
hypoglycaemic.
V.ovatum - Evergreen huckleberry, shot huckleberry
A large bushy evergreen shrub reaching 3.7 m high and 3 m in spread. Whitish-red flowers in
early summer are followed in late autumn by purple fruits, 5-6 mm across. which persist on
bushes for a month or more once ripe. Native to western North America, where it harvested
from the wild on a semi commercial basis. Its ornamental value makes it a valuable garden
plant.
The fruits have a sweet , slightly musky flavour. This fruit was valued by American Indians
because it ripened after all other berries had been harvested.
The leaves are used to make a medicinal tea which is antiseptic, astringent , carminative and
hypoglycaemic.
'5t Andrews' - dwarf form, only 23 cm high, forming mats 1 m in diameter. Used for ground
cover .
V.oxycoccus - Small cranberry, mossberry, spiceberry, buckberry
An evergreen creeping shrub with fine woody stems and reddishbrown young growth. Short
upright shoots up to 3 em high bear tiny ovateelliptical leaves about 5 mm long and 3 mm wide.
The leaves turn reddish in the autumn. Flowers are borne sparsely, white or pink, and are
followed by glossy fruits, 512 mm in diameter, turning deep red when ripe, persisting a long
time over the winter. Native to All northern hemisphere cool regions.
' Gigas' - vigorous , shade and drought tolerant. Produces a few large berries that have sterile
seeds. Found in isolated locations in North America, Europe and northern Asia.
' Quadripetala' - has larger fruit. Occurs in NW North America. may be a hybrid with true
cranberry.
The Inuit harvested the berries, using their tart flavour as a counterbalance to the fatty food.
The juice of the fruit is used to clean silver.
A red dye is obtained from the fruit.
Plants can be grown as a ground cover planted about 1 metre apart each way.
V.oxycoccus var mir;:rocarpum - European cranberry
Similar to the species, but has elongated fruit and smaller leaves. Found in Northern Europe
and Asia.
V.oxycoccus var ova/ifolium .
Has large leaves, dark brown stems and large fruit which are glossy and have a bloom. Native
to eastern Asia and Western North America.
V.padifolium - Madeira whortleberry
In cultivation an evergreen densely-branched shrub about 1.8 m high and wide. Yellowish-red
flowers in summer are followed by edible round blue juicy fruits, 8-12 cm across. Native to
Madeira but hardy in England.
V.pallidum - Hillside blueberry, dryland berry
A variable deciduous shrub forming colonies 10 70 cm high. White flowers in late spring are
followed by blue or black edible fruits, 6-8 mm across. Native to eastern USA, drought tolerant,
likes sun or partial shade.
V.parvifolium - Red huckleberry, red bilberry
An upright shrub up to 2.4 m high, often evergreen in milder areas. Bears glossy red berries,
12 mm across, which look and taste similar to cranberries . They persist on bushes when ripe
for two months or more. Native to western N.America, likes partial shade.
The fruits have long been used by Native Ameri cans, eaten fresh or made into preserves; also
dried. They were widely used as a means of luring fish in streams by deceiving them into
thinking they were salmon eggs.
The leaves are used to make a medicinal tea which is antiseptic, astringent, carminative and
hypoglycaemic.
V.praestans - Kamchatka bilberry
A dwarf creeping deciduous shrub growing to 15 cm high. Pinbkish flowers in early summer are
followed by large bright red round fruits, 12 mm across, juicy with a sweet aromatic flavour.
Native to northern Japan in boggy situations - prefers a cool moist site.
Vaccinum 'Prince Charming'
A hybrid of V.arctostaphylos x V.cylindraceum, a bushy semi-evergreen shrub which flowers
prolificall y and produces a heavy crop of black bloomy berries, 12 mm x 8 mm.
V.pubicalyx
The fruit s are valued for food.
V.retusum
A small evergreen shrub growing 45-100 cm high with hairy stems and tough leaves. Whitish-
red flowers in latre spring are followed by black round edible fruits, 5 mm across. Native to the
eastern Himalayas. Likes a well-drained stony site in sun or shade.
V.scoparium - Grouseberry, dwarf red whortleberry
Small deciduous shrub from Western N.America, growing 15 cm high, forming extensive
colonies. Pink flowers are followed by edible red fruit 6 mm across. Sometimes included in
V.myrtillus. Native to western N.America.
The leaves are used to make a medicinal tea which is antiseptic, astringent, carminative and
hypoglycaemic.
V.serratum
Deciduous shrub from the Himalayas.
As well as edible fruits, the acid tasting flowers are used in curries.
V. sieboldii
A large evergreen shrub. Flowers are followed by round blue-black bloomy fruits, 5 mm across.
Native to parts of Japan.
V.sikkimense
A small evergreen shrub growing 60 em high and 90 em across with dark green leaves. Berries
turn blue-black in autumn. Native to the Himalayas and hardy in southern England.
V.simulatum
Deciduous shrub growing to 1 m high from Eastern N.America. Bears delicious fruits 10 mm
across.

V.smallii
Oeciduous shrub to 1.5 m high from Japan. White flowers in late spring/early summer are
followed by delicious blue-black fruits 6-7 mm across.
V.sprengelii
Evergreen or deciduous shrub to 3 m high from Eastern Asia. Whitish-pink flowers in late
spring are followed by edible reddish-black fruits 5 mm across; leaves also used in a tea .

V.stramineum - Deerberry
Deciduous shrub from Eastern N.America, growing 80-300 em high. Bears edible green or
yellow fruit 10 mm across, sometimes excellent raw but very variable.
V. tallapausae
Deciduous shrub from Eastern N.America. Bears edible fruits.
V.tenellum - Small cluster blueberry
Deciduous shrub growing 25-40 em high from Southeastern USA. Pinkish flowers are followed
by edible shining black fruit 6-8 mm across.
The fruits are edible but with a poor texture and flavour.
V.uliginosum - Bog blueberry, bog whortleberry
A small open deciduous shrub growing 30-60 cm tall. Pale pink flowers in late spring/early
summer are followed by round fruits, 5-12 mm across, blue-black and bloomy, with a nice
sweet flavour. Native to all north northern hemisphere regions, found in moist moorland
situations. Var. sa/icinum was syn. V.sa/icinum.
The Inuit harvested the b e r ~ i e s during late summer and stored them in sealskin pouches in
pockets of frozen tundra to give some added interest to the tedious diet of seal and fish during
the long winter months.
All parts of the plant are used by native peoples for medicinal purposes. The leaves are made
into a tea which is antiseptic, astringent, caqT1inative, hypnotic and hypoglycaemic.
V. va cillans - Dryland blueberry, sugar huckleberry
Deciduous shrub growing 20-120 cm high, forming extensive colonies, from Eastern USA in dry
places. Yellowish-green flowers in late spring are followed by dark blue bloomy fruits fruits 5
mm across and considered excellent eating.
V. vitis-idaea - Lingonberry, Cowberry, Mountain cranberry
A low growing, semi-woody evergreen shrub. Leaves are bright green, oval, 5-20 mm long by 5
mm wide, glossy above and dull below. Plants gradually spread outwards for 90 cm or more via
runners or stolons, forming mats with uprights reaching 20 cm high. Flowers are white or pale
pink in late spring/early summer, and fruits are bright glossy red, 5-12 mm in diameter.
This grows widely across the colder parts of North America, Europe and Asia. The habitats
where it is found vary from quite dense woods, to heath, grass moorland, raised bogs, rocky
exposed cliffs and even mountain summits. It is sometimes known as the 'dry cranberry'
because it prefers drier conditions than most of its relatives.
' Erntedank' - tolerates exposed conditions
'Ida' - Swedish introduction with very large berries up to 50 g each. Growth vigorous, upright.
' Koralle' - Dutch selection, the main cuttivar used in commercial production. Ught ted fruit of
,
J
)
)
moderate size, borne young, heavy cropper. Bushy upright
growth, doesn't spread fast.
' Linnea' - Swedish introduction, a heavy cropper. Fruits quite
large, very aromatic; growth vigorous, upright.
' Red Pearl' - Dutch selection, fast growing, compact, uprights
to 34 cm high. Less fussy about soil conditions than other
cvs . Flowers twice and produces berries in summer and
autumn; fruits 8 mm across, dark red, excellent quality.
'Regal' - American selection, vigorous, moderately spreading,
20 cm high. Fruits 8 mm across. Flowers twice, main crop in
autumn.
'Sanna' - Swedish introduction, spreads moderately, 30 cm
high, very heavy cropper with excellent quality fruits.
'Splendor' - American selection, vigorous, moderate spread,
20 cm high. Carmine red fruits, 8 mm across, heavy cropper.
Flowers twice, main crop in autumn
'Sussi' - Swedish introduction, spreads readily, 18 cm high.
Heavy yields or mediumlarge berries, excellent quality.
The leaves are used in a medicinal tea which is antiseptic,
They are used in the treatment of gonorrhoea, arthriti s, rh"Ulnatism. diabetes and diarrhoea.
The leaves are gathered in early summer and dried for later use.
The mature fruits are eaten fresh or dried as a remedy for diarrhoea.
A yellow dye is obtained from the leaves and stems; a purple dye is obtained from the fruit.
Can be grown as a ground cover plant , spreading by underground runners. Plants are best
spaced about 30 cm apart.
V.vitis-idaea ssp. minus is also widely distributed and is simil ar to the species but of smaller
habit, leaves, flowers and frui t.
Lingonberry fruits have been of great importance in human diets wherever it is found and are
still widely gathered from wifd plants, as well as being grown commercially. They are best
picked after a sharp frost, and store well (at least 2 months in a fridge, several years in a
freezer). If un picked they will remain a long time on the plants through the winter.
The berries have a richer, aromatic, less astringent flavour than commercial cranberries. They
are rich in magnesium and vitamins A and C, and are well known for their use to treat blood
disorders and urinary tract infections.
The berries have traditionally been made into a tart jelly with a high vitamin C content , often
eaten with meat. The jelly is excell ent for relieving symptoms of sore throats and colds. Other
products made from the fruits are juices, syrups, wine and liqueur, pickles and sauces, candy
and ice cream. Lingonberries are undergoing a revival and are being increasingly grown
commercially in Europe. The harvest from Sweden alone is estimated at 200,000 tons in a good
year. Mature plants can yield 1 kg of berries (13.5-25 tonne/ha).
Cultivated lingonberries require acidic soil (pH 4.0 to 5.0) and a low level of nutrients - poor
sandy salls are ideal. They are usually grown in beds or rows , with plants 30-45 cm apart.
Mulching with shredded pine bark or sawdust is beneficial. As they are shallow rooting,
irrigation in dry summer months is often required, using drip irrigation. Cross pollination
produces a better fruit set and larger fruit, so 2 or more varieties should be planted. A
mechanical aid is useful for harvesting, even just a hand-held scoop (as used for cranberries).
Propagation is by stem cuttings taken in late summer. Weed control needs special attention.
e
Key to table of Vaccinium species
DIE - indicates Deciduous (D), Evergreen (E) or Semi=evergreen (SE). Sometimes species are
evergreen in mild winter regions and deciduous in cold regions, hence E I D.
Height & Width - in em for mature plants
Ught - indicates light conditions preferred in the UK. )J. = sun = partial shade
Fruit size - in mm. Two figures, ego 20 x 10, indicates a cylindrical shape rather than round.
,
Fruit col - fruit colour when ripe
Zone - indicates hardiness zone.
Table of Vaccinium species
Species DIE
V.alakaense 0
V.amoenum 0
V.angustifolium 0
V.arboreum O/SE
V.arbuscula 0
V.arctostaphylos 0
V.ashei DIE
V.x atlanticum 0
V.atrococcum 0
V.australe 0
V.boreale 0
V.brachybotrys
V.bracteatum
E ,
V.caesariense
0
V.caespitosum 0
V.corymbosum 0
V.crassifolium E
V.cylindraceum SE
V.darrowwii E
V.delayavi E
V.deli ciosum 0
V.duclouxii
0
V.dunalianum 0
V.elliottii 0
V.erythrocarpum
V.floribundum E
V.fragile E
V.glaucoalbum E
V.griffithianum
SE
V.hirsutum 0
V.hirtum 0
V.intermedium O/SE
V.iteoDhvllum
V.japonicum O/E
V.koreanum 0
Page 22
Light Height
~
~
200
~
30-45
~
450
~

150-300
~
300
~
100
u
150-300
~
200-400
2-16
u
~
100
~
150
~
4-60
~
120-180
~
15+
~
150-300
~
90
~
30-90
~
10-30
~
300
~
300+
~
200-400
~
90-180
~
90-180
~
15-23

50-120
u
120

60-90

90-120
~
25

90
~
Width Fruit Fruit col Zone
size
dark blue 2
100 8 black 5
spreads 12 blue/black 2
6 black 7
100-180 10 purple/black 6
to 20 blue/black 8
100 to 20 blue 3
6-8 black 4
7-12 blue 6
spreads 3 blue
5-6 purple/black 5-7
8
spreads 5-8 blue/black 2
120 to 20 blue/black 2
spreads 12 purple/black 7
25 x 8 blue/black 8
spreads light blue
4-5 purple/black 7
spreads 5-8 blue/black 6
5 9
5 black 8
8 blue/black 6
9-12 red/black 6
200 blue/black 8-9
6 red/black 6
spreads 6 black 8-9
150 blue/black 8
spreads 6 black 6
75 8 red 6
6 dk violet 6
5-8 red 6
-
Species DIE Light Height Width Fruit Fruit col
size
V.leucanthum
5 blue/black
V.macrocarpon D
~
15 spreads 15 red/purple
V.melanocarpum D
~
120 8-10 red/violet
V.rnembranaceum D
~
30-150 5-8 purple/black
V.modestum D
~
15 50+ violet
V.moupinense E
u
60 90 5-6 purple/black
V.myrsinites E
y
45-90 spreads 12 black
V.myrtiJloides D
~
10-117 5-8 blue
V.myrtillus D
~
30-50 spreads 5-10 blue/black
V.neglectum D
u
100-150 6 green, yellow
V.nummularia E
~
60 90 5-6 black
V.occidentalis D
u
75 6 blue/black
V,oldhamii D

90-300 6-8 black
V.ovalifolium D

100-300 50-150 8-10 blue/black
V.ovatum E
~
370 300 5-6 purple
V.oxycoccus E
~
3 spreads 5-12 deep red
V.padifolium E
u
180 180 8-12 blue
V.pallidum D
u
10-70 spreads 6-8 blue/black
V.parvifolium D/E

240 12 red
V.praestans D
u
10-15 spreads 12 red
V. 'Prince Charmin/::!' SE 12 x 8 black
V. pubicalyx
V.retusum E
u
45-100 5 black
V.scoparium D
u
15 spreads 6 red
V.serratum D
u
V.sieboldii E
u 5 blue/black
V.sikkimense E
u
60 90 blue/black
V.simulatum D
u
100 10
V.smal1ii D

150 6-7 blue/black
V.sprengelii D/E
~
300 5 red/black
V.stramineum D
~
80-300 10 green,yellow
V.tallapa usae D
~
V.tenel1um D
"
25-40 6-8 black
V.ul iginosum D

30-60 5-12 blue/black
V.vacillans D

20-120 spreads 5 dark blue
V.vitis-idaea E

20-40 spreads 5-12 red
Tolerate neutral soi ls: V.cylindraceum, V.glaucoa/bum.
Sources
A.R.T. Supply lingonberries, blueberries, cranberries (from 2005)
Trehane Nursery, Stapehill Road. Hampreston, Wimborne. Dorset, BH21 7ND.
Supply a wide range of Vacciniums.
References
Crawford, M: A.R.T. species database 2004.
Huxley, A: The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan Reference, 1999.
Trehane, J: Blueberries, Cranberries and other Vacciniums. Timber Press, 2004.
Zone
2
6
6
8
9
7
2
3
9
7-8
6
6
3
7
2
8-9
4
6
4
9
3
6
7
5
6-8
2
6
2
Page 23
---- --- - ~ - - - -
---- ~ - ----=-=-- --- - - ----- -
Apple cultivar disease-resistance trial
Results
Introduction
88 culti vars of apple identifjed for potential di sease resistance against scab and canker were
planted at our Dartington research site in winter 1998/9. Trees were grafted onto M9
rootstocks, staked and mulched.
Severi ty of leaf scab and apple canker was recorded during the growing seasons of 2002, 2003
and 2004, using a scale 0 to 9 where 0 = no symptoms observed; 3 = mild symptoms observed,
6 = severe symptoms observed to 9 = very severe symptoms observed. In addition, aphid
damage to leaves was recorded in 2003 and 2004, using a similar scale. The results averaged
over the years of measurement were as follows:
Cultivar leaf scab canker aphids Notes
Alfriston 2.2 0 3.0
Annie Elizabeth 1.0 1.0 1.0 I (2)
Bardsey 1.0 0 1.0 I (2)
Beauty of Bath 2.8 2.3 2.5
Belle de Boskoop 1.0 6.5 1.0
Ben's Red 0.7 0 1.5
BramleY5 Seedl ing 0.5 0 5.0 (1 )
Brownlees Russet 2.5 0 2.0
Catshead 0.8 0 0
Cheddar Cross 2.5 0.3 1. 5
Cockle Pippin 0.5 0 0 (1 )
Cornish Aromatic 1.8 2.0 0.5
Cornish LonQstem 1.0 3.5 0
Court of Wick 1.5 0 0
Crawley Beauty 0.8 0 3.0
Crimson Beauty of Bath 2.5 0-7
2.0
Crimson KinQ dessert) 1.0 2.0 3.0
1)
Egremont Russet 1.2 3.2 1.5
Emneth Early 2. 1 0 2.0
Fair Maid of Devon 0.7 0 1.0
Farmers Glory 0.7 0 1.0
Forge 2.2 1.0 1.5
Gavin 1.8 2.5 0 ( 1 )
Gladstone 2.7 0 1.0
Golden Bittersweet 0 0 0.5
Golden Harvey 2.0 0.7 1.0
Golden Nugget 1.5 0 0 (1 )
Golden Pippin 1.2 0 2.0
Golden Russet 2.3 0 1.0
Grenadier 1.7 0 2.0
Halstow Natural 0.2 0 2.0
Hoary Morning 1.0 0 0
HockinQs Green 3.5 1.0 2.5
Hollow Core 0.5 0 0
Isle of Wight Pippin 0 0 1.0
-
Cultivar leaf scab canker aphids
John Standish 1.0 0 1.0
Johnny Andrews 0.7 0 0
Katv 0 0 0
Keswick Codling 0 0 0
Lane's Prince Albert 0.7 0 0
Leathercoat Russet 0.5 2.0 3.5
London Pippin 1.2 0 1.5
Longkeeper 2.0 0.2 0
Lord Derby 0.7 0 1.0
Lord of the Isles 1.3 2.3 0
Lucombes Pine 3.7 0 3.5
May Queen 1.8 0 1.0
Monarch 0.5 3.2 0.5
Newton Wonder 1.2 0 0.5
Northwood 0.3 0 0.5
Payhembury 0.3 0 0
Pear Apple 1.2 0.7 1.0
Peter Lock 1.7 2.5 1.5
Pigs Nose 1.0 0 0
Pineapple Russet of 1.8 0 0
Devon
Plum Vite 1.5 1.0 0
Ponsford 0.8 0 1.5
Queen 1.8 1.0 1.5
Red Belle de Boskoop 1.0 1.8 1.0
Red Devil 2.0 0 0.5
RevWWilks 1.5 0.2 0.5
Rival 1.3 0 2.5
Rosemary Russet 1.5 0.7 1.0
Ross Nonpareil 2.3 1.7 0.5
Roundway Magnum 1.0 0.7 0.5
Bonum
Sam Young 1.5 0 1.0
Sanspareil 1.3 0 0.5
Saw ?it 1.7 0 1.0
Scrumptious 2.0 0 1.0
Sidney Strake 0.9 0 0.5
Sour Bay 1.7 0.3 0.5
Sweet Bav 1.0 0 0.5
Taunton Cross 1.7 0.3 0
Tom Putt 0.5 0 0
Tommy Knight 0.4 0 0
Wellinoton 0 0 0
Wilhelm Ley 2.3 7.0 0
Winston 1.7 0.7 0.5
Winter Peach 2.7 2.5 1.5
Woolbrook Pippin 0.7 1.0 0
(1) Leaf scab & canker results for 2002 and 2003 only
(2) Leaf scab & canker results for 2003 and 2004 only
Notes
(1 )
2
(1 )
2)
(2)
(2)
1
Page 25
O'Arcy Spice, Franklyns Golden Pippin, Red Beauty of Bath, Tregonna King and Williams Pride
were originally planted in the trial but died of bad attacks of canker. Wilhelm Ley also died
from canker damage after several years.
Disease ratings - canker
Many varieties continue to show no signs of canker at all, a very few showed moderate signs
(scores 2.5 - 4.0 mean the canker is probably manageable by pruning it out reach year) , and a
few showed severe signs. Most of the badly affected cultivars have already died in the trial
(Wilhe'm Ley died in winter of
canker Cullivar canker
1 I a
a Saw Pi! a
I Ben's Red
a >Cll
Bramleys idnev Strake I (
; Russet I ( ;weet Bay 10
10 'om Putt
10
Cockle Pippin
a Tommv Kniaht 10
Court of Wick a I a
, Beauty
a 0.2
a
Rev WWilks 0.2
Fair Maie I of Devon a
0.3
Glory
a Sour Bay 0.3
a Taunton Cross 0.3
I Golden i a
1 Beauty of Bath
'.7
! Golden Nuqqet Golden Harvey
'.7
, Golden Pippin Pear Apple 0.7
Golden Russet
a ' Russet
0.7
a
1 Bonum .7
Halstow Natural
Hoary I ( Annie I 1.0
Hollow Core
10
Forge 1.0
Isle of Wiqht Pippin
a
Green
Johr i
a F lum Vite
Johnny
a
(
lueer 1.0
Katy
a
: Pippin 1.0
Keswick
a loss .7
Lane's Prince Alber
a
led Belle de .8
London Pippin
a
1 Aromatic 2.0
Lord Derby
a
1 King ( 2.0
.ucom bes--.fi.rie a
I Russet 2.0
May Queen Beauty of Bath 2.3
Lord of the Isles 2.3
a
Gavin 2.5

a
Peter Lock 2.5
Winter Peach 2.5
1 Rus. of Devon : Russet 3.2
a
3.2

a
:ornish 3.5

6.5
Sam Young ( 7.0
Disease ratings leaf scab
Very few varieties have suffered leaf scab of a severity where it would have affected general
tree health - basically, anything under a score of 3.0 can be judged pretty healthy, and only a
couple of varieties exceeded this on average.
Cultivar leaf scab Cultivar leaf scab
Golden Bittersweet a Newton Wonder 1.2
Isle of Wight Pippin a Pear Apple 1.2
Katy a Lord of the Isles 1.3
Keswick Codlina a Rival 1.3
WellinQton a Sanspareil 1.3
Hal stow Natural 0.2 Court of Wick 1.5
Northwood 0.3 Golden Nuaoet 1.5
Pavhembury 0.3 Plum Vite 1.5
Tommy Kni ht 0.4 Rev W Wilks 1.5
Bramleys Seedling 0.5 Rosemary Russet 1.5
Cockle Pippin 0.5 Sam Youna 1.5
Hollow COfe 0.5 Grenadier 1.7
Leathercoat Russet 0.5 Peter Lock 1.7
Monarch
0.5 Saw Pi t 1.7
Tom Putt
0.5 Sour Bay 1.7
Ben's Red 0.7 Taunton Cross 1.7
Fai r Maid of Devon 0. 7 Winston 1.7
Farmers Glory 0. 7 Cornish Aromatic 1.B
Johnnv Andrews 0.7 Gavin 1.B
Lane's Prince Albert 0.7 May Queen 1.B
Lord Derby 0.7 Pineappl e Russet of Devon 1.B
Woolbrook Piooin 0.7 Queen l.B
Catshead O.B Golden Harvev 2.0
Crawley Beauty O.B Longkeeper 2.0
Ponsford O.B Red Devil 2.0
Sidney Strake 0.9 Scrumotious 2.0
Anni e Elizabeth 1. 0 Emneth Early 2.1
Bardsey 1.0 Alfri ston 2.2
Belle de Boskooo 1.0 Forae 2.2
Cornish Lon stem 1.0 Golden Russet 2.3
Crimson King (dessert) 1.0 Ross Nonparei l 2.3
Hoary Mornina 1.0 Wilhelm Lev 2.3
John Standish 1.0 Brownlees Russet 2.5
Pi s Nose
1.0 Cheddar Cross 2.5
Red Belle de Boskooo 1.0 Crimson Beautv of Bath 2.5
Roundwav Maanum Bonum 1.0 Gladstone 2.7
Sweet Bay 1.0 Winter Peach 2.7
Egremont Russet 1.2 Beauty of Bath 2.B
Golden Pippin 1.2 Hockinas Green 3.5
London Pippin 1.2 Lucombes Pine 3.7
Page 27
Pest ratings aphids
Aphid damage varied considerably between cultivars, but on most the problem was of minor
importance - a rating of under 2.5 indicating no real problem. A few cuUivars showed severe
infestations and on these cropping is affected if no action is taken against the aphids.
Cultivar aphids Cultivar aphids
Catshead 0
Belle de Boskoop 1.0
CockJe;Pippin 0 Fair Maid of Devon 1.0
Cornish Longstem 0
Farmers Glory 1.0
Court of Wick 0 Gladstone 1.0
Gavin
0
Golden Harvev 1.0
Golden Nugget 0 Golden Russet 1.0
Hoary MorninQ
0
Isle of Wioht Pippin 1.0
Hollow Core 0 John Standish 1.0
Johnny Andrews
0
Lord Derby 1.0
Katy
0
May Queen 1.0
Keswick Codling 0 Pear Acole 1.0
Lane's Prince Albert 0 Red Belle de Boskoop 1.0
Lonqkeeper
0
Rosemary Russet 1.0
Lord of the Isles 0 Sam Youna 1.0
Payhembury 0 Saw Pit 1.0
PiQs Nose 0 Scrumetious 1.0
Pineapple Russet of Devon 0 Ben's Red 1.5
Plum Vite 0 Cheddar Cross 1.5
Taunton Cross 0 Earemont Russet 1.5
Tom Putt 0 Forge 1.5
Tommy Knight
0 London Pieein 1.5
Wellinaton 0 Peter Lock 1.5
Wilhelm Ley
0 Ponsford 1.5
Woolbrook Pippin
0 Queen 1.5
Cornish Aromatic 0.5 Winter Peach 1.5
Golden Bittersweet 0.5 Brownlees Russet 2.0
Monarch 0.5 Crimson Beauty of Bath 2.0
Newton Wonder 0.5 Emneth Early 2.0
Northwood 0.5 Golden P i p ~ in 2.0
Red Devil 0.5 Grenadier 2.0
RevW Wilks 0.5 Halstow Natural 2.0
Ross Non areil 0.5 Beauty of 8ath 2.5
Roundway MaQnum Bonum 0.5 HockinQs Green 2.5
Sansgareil 0.5 Rival 2.5
Sidney Strake 0.5 Alfriston 3.0
Sour Bay 0.5 Crawley Beauty 3.0
Sweet Bay 0.5
Crimson Kina (dessert) 3.0
Winston 0.5 Leathercoat Russet 3.5
Annie Elizabeth 1.0 Lucombes Pine 3.5
Bardsey 1.0 Bramleys Seedling 5.0
Conclusions
Overall, results from the trial indicate that the original selection of cultivars was good; most
show that neither scab, canker nor aphid damage is a signi ficant problem. On a very few,
severe problems have quickly shown up. and often the young tree has died as a result, whi ch is
exactly what the trial set out to show. The next stage of the trial is to whittle down the
remaining cultivars to those with fruits of good quality and cropping potentiaL
Using Nitrogen-fixing shrubs in nut orchards
In 1982, Hector Black from Tennessee, USA, planted a mixed orchard consisting of alternate
rows of honey locust vari eties (Calhoun and Millwood) and seedling chestnut trees grown from
Chinese and Japanese chest nut seed obtained from a local orchard. Trees were spaced at 4.5
m (15 ft) within the row, with rows 9 m (30 tt) apart , the idea being that the more successful
trees would be left and the weaker ones removed (however, both thrived so now alternate trees
in each row will have to be removed).
Hector had read about USDA experiments in the 1940's interplanting autumn olive (Efaeagnus
umbel/ala) and black walnuts to determi ne if the nitrogen-fixing capacity of the autumn olive
would help speed the growth of the walnuts. They noted a 25-35% increase in grow of the
interplanted trees compared with rows of walnuts with no autumn olives. The additional
prospect of fragrant flowers, edible fruits and attractive plants persuaded Hector to start working
with these plants himself.
He started planting ' Cardinal' autumn oli ve in 1978 and 'Elsberry' in 1985 (these selections
were made by the USDA for larger and better tasting fruits) . The aut umn olives were placed
about 3 ft (1 m) on either side of the tree in each row. They were planted onl y in the tree row to
make mowing under the orchard easier. They also left one row without autumn olive as a
control.
Differences in the growth of the interplanted trees began to show after about 5 years .
Ultimately, they estimate that the growth increase was similar to the USDA 25-35% increase in
the interplanted rows compared with the control. There were also a couple of unexpected
results:
The interplanted chestnuts had a much straighter, longer bole without branches than
the control trees, and much greater overall height , and will make excellent timber trees
(Chinese chestnuts often have a shrubby form)
There was a delay in nut production from the interplanted trees of sometimes 4-5
years, and thei r productivity has not caught up yet with the shorter more branched
trees.
In a few warm locations in the USA, autumn oli ve has become a weedy pest , but in many
locations (and in the UK) this does not happen. All the temperate Elaeagnaceae are pioneer
nitrogen fixing species, which get shaded out and killed by larger trees in time.
From several hundred plants in their orchard, five clones were selected over time for
productivity, fruit size and flavour, and these have been propagated to sell from their nursery.
Recently, the USDA have become interested again in autumn olive, because they contain high
amounts of Iycopene, the pigment that colours tomatoes red. Lycopene is believed to have a
protective effect against heart disease and vari ous cancers.
Hector and his fami l y eat the fruits fresh and frozen, make a delicious jam, a ketchup and an
especially tasty fruit leather when combined 50:50 wi th cooked apple. The shrubs are attractive
with silvery leaves and small very fragrant flowers in spring, much loved by bumble bees. It is
not often one finds a plant with so many useful characteristics. lt is ornamental , fixes N,
produces lots of healthy fruits and attracts bees: a plant he would certainly encourage others to
experiment with.
Source
Black, H: The Use of Nitrogen Fixing Shrubs in the Nut Orchard. NNGA 93'd Annual Report ,
2002.
56
Book Review
The Earth Care Manual
A Permaculture Handbook for Britain & Other Temperate Climates
Patri.ck Whitefield
Permanent Publications, 2004; 480 pp; 34.95.
ISBN 1-85623-021-X
I am often asked, when I show people around my forest garden, this or even
"what is PermacultureT I answer that no, this is a forest garden and Permaculture is . and
make up a couple of sentences to try and encompass what Permaculture is now. For those
people, and all others interested in the concept, this is by far the clearest and most
comprehensive answer to date which is relevant to temperate climates.
Patrick Whitefield defines permaculture and places it in the context of the green movement. An
overview of permaculture and its principles concludes that, though it started off as mainly about
land use, it is now more about design and organics than as just organic growing. Permaculture
takes a wide view of the picture, looking at all the inputs to a system, all the outputs from it, and
its relationship the whole. It is also an overall framework which brings together many diverse
green ideas in a coherent pattern.
Te rest of the first part of the book looks at the permaculture approach to soil, water, climate,
and microclimate, energy and materials. Each of these chapters looks in great detail at all
aspects of the topic. In 'energy', the author explains that a vast reduction in energy usage is
required if we are to match energy usage with renewable sources. This is true, but it is one of
Permaculture and the Gree", movement's most difficult messages, and it seems to me more
likely that people wedded to high energy usage will do almost anything to keep doing so, f or
example by accepting nuclear power, rather than reduce their usage by 80%. Energy
conservation is also highlighted, though the record in Britain is that even after energy
conservation campaigns, energy usage has never gone down.
The second part of the book looks at how to apply permaculture to buildings, gardens, orchards,
farms, woodlands and biodiversity. Settlement design and low energy building design are
highlighted. Basic and advanced gardening techniques are described, and forest gardens are
briefly but succinctly covered. I was delighted to see in the 'Fruits, Nuts & Poultry' chapter that
first and foremost nuts are highlighted, as we seem to have a cultural prejudice against growing
them much in this country. Agroforestry is also given useful coverage.
The final third of the book focuses on design: the design process, including a case study, and a
valuable chapter on various useful skills and methods including surveying, mapping and
drawing skills. Useful appendices of publications, organisations and suppliers end the book.
Well written, designed, illustrated and accessible, this has to be the definitive book about
permaculture for temperate climates, and is highly recommended to all interested in sustainable
living.
Compendium of edible fruits
(1) trees
This compendium tabulates all known trees for temperate or continental climates which have
edible fleshy fruits . It is undoubtedly not definitive as there are probably many trees with edible
fruits whi ch have never been written about - ego the hawthorn family. Shrubs will be covered in
the next issues. For details of the hardiness zone system see that table of Vaccinium species
in this issue.
IAmelanchier arborea ] ShadbuSh 10 Iyes 1101 4 Jrawor cooked - variable quality 8- 10 mm
Amelanchier asiatica Korean j uneberry 0 yes 8 5 raw or cooked - good quali ty, sweet , juicy,
apple flavour. 10 mm.
Amelanchier interior 0 yes 9 6 raw or cooked - sweet. j uicy. 6-8 mm.
Aphananthe aspera Muku tree 0 20 7 raw or cooked. 6-8 mm.
Arbutus andrachne Grecian strawberry tree E yes 6 8 raw - sweet, insipid. 15 mm.
Arbutus menziesii Madrona E yes 15 7 raw or cooked - bland. 15 mm.
Arbutus unedo Strawberry tree E yes 9 7 raw or cooked - sweet. delicate pleasant
flavour. 15-20 mm.
Aristotelia serrala Wine berry 0 no 7.5 8 cooked (jams,jellies, wine). 7 mm. NB
contains toxic alkaloids.
Broussonetia kazinoki Kozo 0 no 4.5 7 raw - sweet good flavour bullittle flesh. 10
mm.
Broussoneti a papyrifera Paper mulberry 0 no 9 8 raw - sweet good flavour but little flesh. 15
mm.
Bumeria lanuginosa False buckthorn 0 15 6 pickled - may cause stomach upsets. 10-20
mm.
Butia capitata Jelly palm E 6 10 raw or cooked - sweet. fibrous, aromatic,
apricot flavour. 25 x 3S mm .
.
Celtis australi s European nettle 0 20 6 raw - mealy, pleasant. 10-12 mm.
I
ICelti S bungeana
I
10
I
1 15 1
Siraw. 6-7 mm.
Celtis caucasia Caucasian nettle 0 20 6 raw - mealy, pleasant. 8-15 mm.
Celti s jessoensis 0 15 6 raw. 8 mm.
Celti s koraiensis 0 12 5 raw. 10 mm.
Celti s laevigata Southern hackberry 0 18 5 raw - dry, sweetish, thin flesh. 6mm.
Celti s occidentalis Hackberry 0 20 2 raw - dry, mealy, sweet, pleasant date
flavour.
Celti s reticulata Western hackberry 0 12 6 raw - sweet. 8-10 mm.
Celtis sinensis Japanese hackberry 0 10 9 raw. 10 mm.
Celtis tournefortii Koprivic 0 8 7 raw. 6 mm.
Citrofortunella floridana Limequal E 9 raw or cooked - very acid, lime flavour, used
like lemons. 30-SO mm.
!Citrofortunella microcarpa Calamondin E 5
9 raw or cooked - acid, pleasant raw with skin
I
(sweet). B 25-35 mm.
-
--- -
Page 31
Citrofortunella swinglei
Citroncirus webberi
Citrus aurantium
Citrus ichangensis
Citrus pseudolimon
Citrus reticulata
Citrus sinensis
Cordyline indivisa
Comus capitata
IComus controversa
Comus macrophylla
Comus mas
Comus ' Norman Hadden'
Comus officinalis
Corynocarpus laevigala
ICrataegus anomala
Crataegus armena
Crataegus arnoldiana
Crataegus azarolus
c
o.
EE
E.
oc
u
Umequat
Citrange
Bitter orange
Ichang lemon
Galgal
Satsuma
Orange
Palm lily
Bentham's cornel
IWedding cake tree
Large leaved dogwood
Comelian cherry
Japanese cornel
,
New Zealand laurel
I
Arnold thorn
Azarole
ICrataegus calpodendron IBlack thorn
Crataegus canadensis
Crataegus
champlainensis
ICrataegus chrysocarpa
ICrataegus coccinoides IKansas hawthorn
Crataegus columbiana
!Crataegus dilalata
Crataegus douglasii Black haw
Crataegus x durobrivensis
-
Page 32
o
E
E
E yes 9
E yes 5
E yes 6
E yes 4.5
E yes 9
E 8
E yes 12
10
1
1 '51
0 15
0 no 5
0 yes 6
0 10
E 12
10
Iyes
I
51
0 , yes
0 yes 6
0 yes 6

cc
' E ~

<
9 raw or cooked - very acid. lime flavour, used
like lemons. 35 mm.
8 raw or cooked - acid, bitler. used like a
lemon. 50-70 mm.
g cooked in preserves - very bitter raw. Rind in
cakes. 50-70 mm.
8 raw or cooked - pulp is acid. 70-100 mm
long.
8'
raw or cooked - very acid, lemony pulp.
9 raw or cooked - sweet, delicious. Rind in
cakes. 50-80 mm.
9 raw or cooked sweet, delicious. Rind in
cakes, preserves etc. 6090 mm.
8 6-8 mm.
8 raw or cooked - bittersweet, variable. Ripens
NovlDec. 20-30 mm.
5 16-7 mm.
6 raw or cooked. 6 mm.
5 raw or cooked, also dried. Sweet and juicy
when fully ripe. 1520 mm long.
5 raw or cooked - borne abundantly. Hybrid
tree.
6 raw or cooked - sweet when fully ripe. 15
mm long.
8 Raw - sweet, pulpy. NB seed poisonous. 25-
35mm.
5 1raw or cooked - good flavour. 20 mm.
raw or cooked - mealy, slightly sweet. 10
mm.
5 raw or cooked sweet, juicy, mealy,
delicious. 15-20 mm.
6 raw or cooked - mealy, sweet-acid, apple
flavour. 25 mm.
I
I
I
,
I
I
1
,
I
I
I
10 Iyes I 6 1 5 1sweet succulent 10mm
,
0 yes 9
0 yes 6
0 yes 9
0 yes 5
5 cooked. 16mm.
5 raw or cooked sweet, pleasant. 15mm.
5 [raw or cooked - sweet. 10-12 mm.
5 1raw or cooked - firm. 15-17 mm.
5 raw or cooked - mealy, juicy, very pleasant.
11 mm.
5 1raw or cooked sweet 18 20 mm
-
5 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy, pleasant. 8-15
mm.
5 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy. good apple
flavour. 15-18 mm.
-
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,
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!Crataegus f1abellata
I
10
Iyes
I
61
SJraw or cooked - sweet, mealy, good. 15mm.
Crataegus f1ava Summer haw 0 yes B 6 cooked - dry, mealy, used in preserves. 15
mm.
Crataegus heterophyUa 0 yes 5 6 cooked. t5mm.
Crataegus hupehensis Hupeh haw 0 yes 5 6 raw or cooked - fairly insipid. Up to 25 mm.
Crataegus lIIinoensis 0 yes 5 5 raw or cooked juicy, mealy, sweet. 20 mm.
Crataegus kansuensis 0 yes acid. Used for making wines and vinegars.
,
ICrataegus lacmrata 10 Iyes I 6 1 61raw or cooked - very good 15 mm
Crataegus laevigata Midland hawthorn 0 yes 6 5 raw or (best) cooked dry, mealy, poor. 10
I
mm.
Crataegus macrosperma 0 yes B 5 raw or cooked - fair. 15-20 mm.
Crataegus maximowiczi i 0 yes 5 raw or cooked. 10-22 mm.
Cralaegus missouriensis 0 yes 6 raw or cooked - sweel juicy, soft, good
flavour. 15-25 mm.
Crataegus mollis Red haw 0 yes 9 5 raw or (best) cooked sweet, dry, mealy. 12-
25mm.
Crataegus monogyna Hawthorn 0 yes 6 5 raw or (best) cooked poor quality. 10 mm.
Crataegus opaca Mayhaw 0 yes 6 7 cooked add, aromatic, made inlo jams and
ellies. 18-25mm.
Cralaegus pedicellata Scarlet haw 0 yes 7 5 raw or (better) cooked sweet. dry, mealy.
10-20 mm.
Crataegus pensylvanica 0 yes 6 5 raw or cooked sweet-add, good flavour.
20-25 mm.
Crataegus pentagyna Chinese haw 0 yes 6 6 raw or cooked. 10-12mm.
Crataegus pinnatifida Chinese haw 0 yes 7 6 raw or (best) cooked - pleasant fl avour. 15-25
mm.
Cralaegus pruniosa Frosted hawthom 0 yes 6 5 raw or (best) cooked - sweet. 10- 16 mm.
Crataegus pubescens Manzanilla 0 yes 10 7 raw or (best) cooked - mealy. Often used in
preserves. 12-15 mm.
Crataegus punclata Dotted hawthorn 0 yes 10 4 raw or cooked - apple like flavour. 20-25 mm.
Crataegus rotundifol i a 0 yes 6 5 raw or cooked - sweet, mealy, pleasant. 15
mm.
Crataegus rufula Florida mayhaw 0 yes 5 raw or (best) cooked - dry, mealy. 12-15
mm.
Crataegus sanguinea 0 yes 6 4 raw or cooked. 10 mm.
Crataegus scabrifolia 0 yes raw or cooked.
Crataegus schraderiana 0 es 6 6 raw or cooked - soft. juicy, good flavour. 12-
18mm.
Cralaegus submollis 0 yes 8 5 raw or cooked - sweet, quite juicy, good
. flavour. 20 mm.
Crataegus subvillosa 0 yes 5 raw or cooked good flavour.
Crataegus succulenla Succulent haw 0 yes 6
5 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy.
Crataegus tanacetifolia Syrian haw 0 yes 6 6 raw or cooked soft, juicy, good apple
15-20 mm.
I
Cudrania tricuspidata Silkworm thorn 0 no 6
7 raw or cooked - sweet, fragrant , pleasant
flavour. 25 mm.
-

'0

~
Cydonia oblonga Quince
loacrycarpus dacrydioides IWhite pine
Diospyrds kaki Chinese persimmon
Oiospyros lotus Date plum
Oiospyros virginiana Persimmon
Docynia delavayi
IOocynls mdlca
Ehretia acuminata Koda tree
!Ehretia anacua !Sugaroerry
IEhretia dicksonii
Elaeocarpus dentatus New Zealand damson
IElaeocarpus hookerianus !pokaka
IEriObotrya japonica
ILoquat
Ficus carica Fig tree
Halesia tetraplera Snowdr?p tree
IHeteromeles arbutifolia IChristmas berry
IHiPpoPhae saJicifoJia Sea buckthorn
Hovenia dulcis Japanese raisin tree
!Idesia polycarpa ]Igiri tree
Illicium verum IChinese anise
!Jubaea chtlensrs ICoqurtanut
Juglans ailantifolia Heartnut
cordiformis
Juglans cinerea Butternut
Juglans nigra Black walnut
!Juglans regia !Cornmon walnut
IJUniPerus ashei
Ashe juniper
lJuniPerus caJifornica Californian juniper
,
IJun;perus deppeana
Alligator juniper
-
.
-
Page 34
D no 12
D no 9
D no 30
E 10
D yes 6
D 8
IE
I I
61
D no 15
D' 10
ID Ino
112 1
IE I
I
51
4 cooked in jellies, preserves and with other
fruit ; aromatic. 100 x 90 mm.
9 !raw - sweet
8 raw or cooked - rich flavour. Astringent
before full y ripe. 75 mm.
before fully ripe. 15-20 mm.
8 raw or cooked - apple like. Also used in
preserves. 20-40 mm.
8 1raw - eaten when half npe. 2050 mm.
I
I
I
I
7 raw (ripe) or pickled (unripe) - insipidly sweet. II'
4mm.
Blraw - sweet. juicy, thin flesh. 8 mm.
7 !raw. 10-20 mm.
9 cooked after removing stalks, skins & seeds;
or pickled like olives. 12-15 mm.
9 10amson flavour. 8 mm.
7 !raw or cooked - sweet aromatic 25-50 mm
7 raw or cooked - sweet, succulent, excellent
Often dried. Pear shaped, 50 mm long.
5 raw or cooked, picked unripe in July - firm,
pea flavour, excellent. 20-30 mm long.
9 !raw or cooked - mealy, poor. 6 mm ..
8 raw Of cooked or juiced - sharp lemon
flavour. Also for preserves. 10-15 mm long.
6 raw or cooked - sweet, fragrant. raisin-like.
Not a true fruit - in fact a swollen stem. 30
mm long.
5 !puIPY, seedy, poor. 8 mm.
8 1used as a flavouring in curries, pickles etc.
,
!
,
I
I
I
I
I
i
IE I I 12 1 8 1candled as a sweetmeat 50 mm
D no 15 5 unripe fruit pickled like walnuts in July. 40
I
mm,
D no 25 4 unripe fruit pickled like walnuts in July. 60
I
mm,
D no 30 4 unripe fruit pickled like walnuts in July. 40 I
mm,
I
10 1no I 20 I 5 1unnpe frUtt ptckled In July 50 mm
,
E no 6 7 raw or cooked thin skinned, sweet. juicy, i
resinous. 8 mm.
,
E no 12 8 raw or cooked - sweet, non-resinous. Also
I
dried and ground into a flour. 10-20 mm.
E no 18 8 raw or cooked - sweet, dry, mealy. Also dried
and ground into a flour. Takes 2 years to
I
-
ripen. 12-15 mm.
-
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Juniperus drupacea Syrian juniper E no 15 7 raw or cooked -large. sweet. Takes 2 years
I
to ripen. 20-25 mm.
Juniperus excelsa Greek juniper E no 20 6 raw or cooked. Takes 2 years to ripen. 12
mm.
I
Juniperus f1accida Mexican juniper E no 6 8 raw or cooked - sweet, resinous. 10-15mm.
Takes 2 years to mature.
Juniperus monosperma Cherrystone juniper E no 18 4 raw or cooked - soft, juicy. Also dried and
ground into a flour. 5-8 mm.
Juniperus occidentalis Western juniper E no 18 5 raw or cooked dry, resinous, sweet. Also
I
dried and ground into a flour. Takes 2 years
to mature. 6-' 0 mm.
Juniperus osleosperma Utah juniper E no 12 5 raw or cooked - sweet, resinous, mealy. Also
dried and ground into a flour. Take 2 years to
mature. 6-18 mm.
Juniperus recurva Drooping juniper E no 12 7 raw or cooked. Take 2 years to mature. 11 x
Smm.
Juniperus rigida Temple juniper E no 8 5 raw or cooked - used as a spice. Takes 2
years to mature. 6-11 mm.
Juniperus scopulorum Rocky mountain juniper E no 10 3 raw or cooked - sweet. fleshy, resinous, used
as a spice. Also dried and ground as a flour.
Ripen in their 2nd year. 5-S mm.
Juniperus silicicola Southern red cedar E no 8 raw or cooked sweet resinous flesh, thin
skinned. 5 mm.
Juniperus virginiana Eastern red cedar E no 20 4 raw or cooked - sweet, resinous. 5-10 mm.
laurus nobilis Bay E no 12 S dried, used as a flavouring (very strong).
Malus x adstringens 0 5 5 raw or (usually) cooked.
Malus angustifolia Narrow leaved crab 0 7 6 raw or cooked - acid, bitter. Used for cider,
'ellies etc. 25 mm.
Malus baccata Siberian crab 0 yes 15 2 raw or cooked - acid. Also dried. 10-50 mm.
-
Malus bracteata 0 7 6 raw or cooked. 30mm.
Malus brevipes 0 3 5 raw or cooked.
Malus coronaria American crab 0 7 4 raw or cooked - acid, bitter. Used for jell ies
etc. 30-40 mm.
Malus floribunda 0 10 4 raw or cooked - acid, pleasant. 5-10 mm.
Malus fusca Oregon crab 0 12 6 raw or cooked - sub-acid, good. Used for
'ellies, preserves etc. 15 mm.
Malus glabrata 0 5 6 raw or cooked. 30 mm.
IMalus glaucescens
I
10
I I
51
51raw or cooked - aromatic. 30-40 mm.
Malus haiJiana 0 4 5 raw or cooked - acid. 6-8 mm.
Malus hupehensis Hupeh crab 0 yes 7 4 raw or cooked. 10 mm.
Malus ioensis Prairie crab 0 5 2 raw or cooked - acid, astringent. Used for
preserves, jellies, cider. mm.
Malus kansuensis 0 5 5 raw or cooked. 10mm.
Malus lancifolia 0 6 5 raw or cooked. 30 mm.
Malus prunifolia Chinese crab 0 8
3 raw or cooked - sweet, meal y, pleasant. 20
mm.
Page 35
F
IMalus pumila
IMalus x purpurea
IMalus sieboldii
,
IMalus spectabilis
Malus sylvestris
IMalus toringoides
IMalus transiloria
IMalus trilobata
Malus tschonoskii
IMalus yunnanensis
IMelicytus ramiflorus
Mespilus germanica
Morus alba
IMorus australis
[Morus cathayana
IMorus microphylla
!Morus mongolica
Morus nigra
Morus rubra
Morus serrata
Nyssa aQuatica
Nyssa ogeche
Nyssa sylvatica
Olea europaea
IPheliodendron amurense
IPhillyrea latifotia
Pistacia terebinthus
Pistacia vera
-&t e*--..--
o
o.
EE
E.
0 0
()
IWild apple
ITonngo crab apple
IChinese crab
Crab apple
IMahoe
Medlar
White mulberry
jAlno mulberry
I
ITexas mulberry
[Mongolian mulberry
Black mulberry
Red mulberry
Himalayan mulberry
Water tupelo
Ogeche lime
Tupelo
Olive
IAmur cork tree
ITree phillyrea
Chian turpentine tree
Pistacio
10 I
10 I
10 I
10 I
10 I
0 yes
0 yes
10
Iyes
10
I
10
I
10
Iyes
0 yes
0
0
0
0
0
E yes
10 Ino
IE I
0 no
0 no
s
I 71 31raw or cooked - sweet. 20-60 mm.
1 10 I 5 Jraw or (usually) cooked. 15-25 mm.
I 3 1 51raw or cooked - can be astringent. 6-20 mm.
I 71 6 1raw or cooked. 15 mm.
1 91 4 jraw or cooked - astringent
6
18
1
7
.
5
1
1151
I
61
1751
10
15
30
15
15
10
I 12 1
I 81
9
10
4 raw or cooked - for jellies, preserves. juices:
very variable. some sweet abd others
astringent. 20-40 mm.
5 jraw or cooked. Hangs well on tree. 15 mm.
5 !raw or cooked - acid. astringent. 15-25 mm.
6 [raw or cooked - pear flavour. 20 mm.
6 raw or cooked - gritty. Not produced
abundantly. 20-30 mm.
6 lraw or cooked - acid. astringent. 10-15 mm.
9 !RequieS male and female trees 5 mm
6 raw or cooked - may require picking at first
frosts and ripens indoors. Very sweet, date-
like flavour. Makes good jam. 25-50 mm.
4 raw - sweet, pleasant. Can be dried. 25 mm
long.
6 traw - sweet, JUIcy. 10-15 mm long.
s traw or cooked, sweet. 20-30 mm long.
SJraw - dry, sweet or sour. 10-15 mm long.
41raw - sweet 10-25 mm long
5 raw - sweet, juicy. good flavour. Can be
dried. 18-25 mm long.
5 raw or cooked - sweet. juicy, good flavour.
Also made into preserves or dried and
ground. 30-40 mm long.
raw - sweet. To 25 mm long.
7 raw or cooked in preserves. thin flesh. 20-40
mm long.
8 cooked in preserves - has a citrusy flavour.
12-16 mm long.
3 raw or cooked in preserves - pleasantly acid.
8-15 mm across.
8 unripe - preserved in oil; ripe - piCkled with
salt or lye; also dried and eaten without
curing. 15-40 mm long.
3 Jflavour of turpentine. 10 mm.
716mm
9 immature fruits are pi ckled and used as a
relish. 7 x 6 mm.
9 fruits can be cooked and made into a
marmalade.
I
,
,
i
I
,
,
I
I
i
I
!Podocarpus macrophyllus ISouthern IE Ino I 10 ! 7 Jraw 12-15 mm long.
Podocarpus lolara rotara pine
IPrumnoPityS andina IPlum fruited yew
Iprumnopitys ferruginea IRusty podocarpus
Prumnopitys taxifolia Black pine E
Prunus alabamensis 0
Prunus alleghaniensis Alleghany sloe 0
Prunus americana American (red) plum 0
Prunus angustifolia Mountain cherry 0
Prunus armeniaca Apricot 0 yes
Prunus avium Wild cherry 0 no
Prunus bokhariensis Bokhara plum 0
Prunus buergeriana 0
Prunus cerasifera MyroboJan 0
Prunus cerasoides Padam 0
Prunus cerasus Sour cherry 0 yes
Prunus cocomilia Italian plum 0
Prunus consociHora Chinese wild peach 0
Prunus cornuta Himalayan bird cherry 0
Prunus davidiana David peach 0
Prunus dawyckensis Dawyckcherry 0
Prunus dielsiana 0
Prunus domestica Plum 0 no
Prunus x fontanesiana 0
Prunus x gondouinii Duke cherry 0
Prunus grayana Gray's chokeberry 0
Prunus hortulana Hortulana plum 0
Prunus Iyonii Catalina cherry E
Prunus mahaleb SI Lucie cherry 0
Prunus maximowiczii Miyana cherry 0
Prunus mexicana Mexican plum 0
Prunus mira Smoothpit peach 0
-
--
25
10
3.5
6
3
9
18
6
9
9
30
6
5
6
15
9
9
6
12
15
15
9
9
15
12
7.5
12
10

Cc
~ 2

9 raw or cooked sweet juicy, slight turpentine
flavour. 6 mm across.
slraw or cooked - grape flavour. 20 x 15 mm.
glraw or cooked resinous 20 mm across
9 raw- sweet 8-10 mm.
7 raw or cooked thin acid flesh.
5 raw or cooked - juicy, Oleasantly acid. Also
used in jams, preserves. 12-20 mm.
3 raw or cooked - juicy, acid, tough skin. Best
cooked. 25 mm across.
6 raw or cooked - thin skinned, juicy, sweet,
good. 12-18 mm.
5 raw or cooked soft, juicy. rich. Also dried.
30-50mm.
3 raw or cooked - sweet or bitter. 20 mm.
raw or cooked.
5 salted and used as a condiment.
4 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy, thin skinned,
hangs well on tree. 30 mm.
8 raw or cooked - add, astringent, best cooked.
15mm.
3 raw or cooked - acid, usually cooked in pies
etc. 18 mm.
6 raw or cooked - good flavour. 30 mm.
6 Raw or cooked - good flavour, like cherry
plums. 20 mm.
5 raw or cooked - acid. 6 mm.
4 fruit dry. 25-30 mm.
6 raw or cooked sweet. 15 mm.
5 raw or cooked - soft, juicy, sweet to acid
depending on cultivar. 30-SO mm long.
5 raw ~ r (usually) cooked - bitter.
4 raw or (usually) cooked. 15-20 mm long.
6 raw or cooked, or young fruits sal ted. 8 mm.
6 raw or cooked - thin skinned, usually cooked.
10-30 mm.
8 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy, laugh skin. 12-
30mm.
6 raw or (usually) cooked.
6 raw or cooked - juicy, variable qualily. 30
mm.
5 raw or cooked - biller. 30-40 mm.
Page 37
I
F - ~ = - = - - ~
EF3
0
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0.0
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0
0.0
0
EE
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!

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DO
0
Prunus mume Japanese apricot 0
Prunus munsoniana [Wild goose plum 0

Prunus nigra Canadian plum 0
Prunus padus Bird cherry 0
Prunus pensylvanica Pin cherry 0
Prunus persica Peach 0 yes
IPrunus pseudocerasus IChinese sour cherry
10
1
Prunus ruta
Himalayan cherry 0
Prunus salicifolia Tropical cherry 0
Prunus salicina Japanese plum 0
IPrunus sargentil ISargent cherry
Prunus serotina Rum cherry
!Prunus serrula ITibetan cherry
Prunus serrulata Japanese flowering 0
cherry
Prunus simoni! Aprico(plum 0
Prunus ssiori 0
Prunus subcordata Califomia plum 0
IPrunus subhlrtella
/Hlgan cherry
IPrunus x sultana IWickson plum
Prunus umbellata Sloe of the south
lPrunus virens
IPrunus x yedoensis ITokyO cherry
Pseudocydonia sinensis Chinese quince 0
Punica granatum Pomegranate 0
!Pyrocydonla daniel ..
10 Ino.
Ipyrus amygdariformis IAlmOnd leaved pear
10
1
Pyrus bretschneideri 0
Pyrus calleryana Callery pear 0
Pyrus communis Pear 0
. -------
-
--
--
Page 38
E_
00
-a; ~
<-
~ E
E-
9
8
9
15
12
6
I
6 1
7
25
3
6
10
7.5
6
5
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6 raw or cooked - hard, acid. UsuaUy pickled in '
salt and used as a condiment. 20-30 mm.
6 raw or cooked - juicy, aromatic, sweet. thin
skinned. 15-25 mm .
2 raw or cooked - sour, thick skin, better after
frost. 20-30 mm.
3 cooked - bitter, usually made into jams or
t
preserves. 6-8 mm.
I
2 cooked - sour, thin flesh. S mm.
I
5 raw or cooked - sweet, delicious. Also dried. I
50-70 mm.
Slraw or cooked - quite sweet. 15 mm.
8 raw or cooked.
6 raw or cooked - thin skinned, sl ightly
astringent, sweet. 15-25 mm.
6 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy, good. 50-70
mm.
4 /raw or cooked. 11 mm.
3 raw or cooked - sweet or bitter (the latter best
cooked). 8-10 mm.
516-12mm
56-8 mm.
6 raw or cooked - aromatic, sweet, good. 25-60
mm.
5 raw or cooked. 10mm.
7 raw or cooked - pleasantly acid, slightly
astringent. 25-30 mm.
5 1raw or cooked. 9 mm.
61raw or cooked. 40-50 mm.
8 raw or cooked - acid, tough skin. Usuualy
used in preserves. 10-20 mm.
6 1raw or (usually) cooked - bittersweet.
SJraw or (usually) cooked
6 cooked, candied, preserved. 120-170 mm
long.
9 raw - refreshing, sub-acid, rather seedy.
Juice used as flavouring. 80-1 20 mm.
,
J
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
! 5 1 6 /raw or cooked - pear like flavour
1 101
6 lcooked. 20-30 mm.
I
6 5 raw or cooked - jui cy. 30-40 mm.
I
15 5 raw or cooked - sweeter after a frost. 10-25
I
mm.
13 4 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy, aromatic,
J
excellent from named cultivars. 60-160 mm
-
long .
--
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Ipyrus gJabra
I
10
I I I
7 jraw or cooked.
Pyrus nivalis Snow pear 0 10 6 raw or cooked - acid, usually cooked or made
into perry. 20-50 mm long.
pyrus pashia Wild pear 0 9 5 raw or cooked - sweet when fully ripened. 20-
30 mm long.
Pyrus phaeocarpa 0 5 raw or cooked. 15-20 mm long.
!Pyrus pyrifolia IASian pear
10
I
1 10 1
s lraw or cooked - firm, crisp, juicy. 30-50 mm.
Pyrus salicifolia Willow leaved pear 0 7.5 4 raw or cooked - sweet when fully ripe. Also
used for perry. 25-30 mm.
Pyrus serrulata 0 10 6 raw or cooked. 15 mm.
Pyrus syriaca 0 10 7 raw or cooked. 3D-SO mm long.
Pyrus ussuriensis Chinese pear 0 15 4 raw or cooked - very variable, dry. 20-40 mm.
Rhamnus purshianus Cascara sagrada E 10 7 raw or cooked - may be slightly toxic! 6-10
mm.
Rhus chinensis Nutgall tree 0 no 6 8 cooked - acid. Used as a rennet substitute.
Rhus punjabensis 0 no 12 6 raw or cooked - small , little flesh; usually
soaked in water to make a lemon-flavoured
drink.
Sassafras albidum Sassafras 0 no 25 5 dried and used as flavouring (cinnamon-li ke
flavour). Some doubts about safety.
Sorbus alnifolia Korean mountain ash 0 15 6 raw or cooked. 6 mm.
Sorbus americana American mountain ash 0 10 2 raw or cooked - astringent, sweet after a
frost. Can also be dried. 6-8 mm.
Sorbus aria Whitebeam 0 12 5 raw or cooked - sweet and delicious after a
frost or when fully ripe. 8-15 mm.
Sorbus aucuparia Rowan 0 15 2 raw or cooked - bitter. Usually made into
preserves. 6-9 mm.
Sorbus commixta _ rowan 0 10 6 raw or cooked. 7 mm.
Sorbus decora Showy mountain ash 0 10 2 raw or cooked - best after a frost , usually
cooked in preserves. 7-12 mm.
Sorbus devoniensi s Qevon sorb apple 0 ye, 13 7 raw or cooked 12-18 mm.
Serbus domestica Service tree 0 ye, 15 6 raw or cooked - astingent before fully ripe,
then sweet and good. Also used in cider. 25-
30mm.
Sorbus hybrida Fi nnish whitebeam 0 ye,
9 5 cooked in preserves. 10-12 mm.
Sorbus intermedia Swedish whitebeam 0 ye, 12 5 raw or cooked - sweet when ripe. 12 mm.
Sorbus japonica 0 20 6 raw or cooked. 12 mm.
Sorbus lanata 0 10 5 raw or cooked - best after a frost. 12-30 mm.
Sorbus latifolia Service tree of 0 ye,
,.
5 raw or cooked - sweet when fully ripe. 12-15
Fountainbleau mm.
Sorbus mougeotii white beam 0 ye, 18 6 raw or cooked. 8mm.
Sorbus pohuashanensis Chinese mountain ash 0 ye, 10 5 raw or cooked. 6-8 mm.
Sorbus torminalis Wild service tree 0 ye, 20 6 raw or cooked - sweet when fully ripe. 12-18
mm.
-
T axus baccata English yew E no 15 6 raw - sweet and gelatinous. Seed is
poisonous if crushed. 10 mm.
"- --
-
Page 39
i
Taxus brevifoli a Paci fic yew E no 15 6 raw - sweet and gelatinous. Seed is
I
I
Taxus canadensis Canadian yew E no 6 4 raw - sweet and gelatinous. Seed is
I
Taxus chinensis Chinese yew E no 15 6 raw - sweet and gelatinous. Seed is
i poisonous if crushed.
Taxus cuspidata Japanese yew E no 10 6 raw - sweet and gelatinous. Seed is
Taxus x media Hybrid yew E no 15 5 raw - sweet and gelatinous. Seed is
Taxus wallichiana E no 15 8 raw - sweet and gelatinous. Seed is
I
IT oona sinensis
JToon 10
I
1 20 1 51
I
tvaccinium arboreum Farkleberry E 5 7 raw or cooked - dry, astringent, poor. 6 mm.
I
Viburnum lentago Sheepberry 0 no 9 2 raw or cooked - sweet, juicy, pleasant, can
be best after a frost. 12-15 mm long.
Viburnum prunifolium Black haw 0 no 7.5 3 raw or cooked - thin flesh, dry, sweet, best
I
after a frost. 12-18 mm.
iburnum rufidulum Southern black haw 0 no 10 5 raw or cooked sweet. best after a frost. 12- 1
17 mm long.
Washingtonia filifera Desert fan palm E 12 g raw or cooked -hard, sweet, thin pulp, date
flavour. Also dried. 6 x 4 mm.
Weinmannia racemosa Towai E 25 9 raw - sweet, pleasant. 5 mm.
Yucca aloifolia Spanisi1, bayonet E yes 7.5 8 raw or cooked - bittersweet, juicy. To 100 x
4Omm.
Yucca schidigera Mohave yucca E 4.5 8 raw or cooked.
Ziziphus jujube Jujube 0 yes 10 6 raw or cooked - sweet, mealy, sweet-acid
flavour. Also dried for the best flavour. 20-40
mm long.
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Page 40
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Agroforestry News
Edible shrub fruits
Volume 13 Number 2
February 2005
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 13 Number 2 February 2005
Contents
2 News: High-temperature treated wood I Climate
change and wine production I Climate change
indicators in a zone 8-9 location I Uranium
accumulators
4 The pistacio industry in Italy
7 Carob tree production in China
8 Tree engineering
14 Chestnut production in Andalusia, Spain
16 Book reviews: The roots of health I The winelands
of Britain
17 Compendium of edible fruits: (2) shrubs
39 Fodder trees and shrubs
Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format.
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Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. UK Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Cover illustrations: Acca (Feijoa) sellowiana, Passif[ora edulis.
News
High-temperature treated wood
High-temperature treated wood is a preservative-free product that is finding a growing market. It
has an appealing appearance and is resistant to biodegradation. High-temperature treated
wood is also referred to as retified WQod, torrified wood and heaHreated wood. Processes
vary somewhat, but use the same principle: heat treatment ranging from 160 DC to 245 DC.
High-temperature treatment for a given period is known as controlled pyrolysis of the chemical
composition of wood; it modifies the internal structure and properties of the wood.
Wood treated in this manner is more resistant to attacks by pathogenic agents and has
increased dimensional stability, thanks to a moisture content of close to 0%. This makes it an
interesting substitute for chemically treated wood, in some cases. The process does diminish
structural properties, however, thus limiting its uses. High-temperature treatment also hardens
the wood, affecting machinability.
High-temperature treated wood is best used for the manufacture of outdoor products such as
fencing, garden furniture, patios, play structures, panelling, etc. Moreover, because this type of
treatment also modifies the colour, species with low market value can increase their value
through use in components such as kitchen cabinets and flooring, since they more closely
resemble exotic lumber which is gaining popularity in Europe.
Source: Newsletter from Quebec - Forests, January 2005
Climate change and wine production
Observed warming trends in the world climate at the present show greatest warming occurring
during the winter and spring at night. These trends and likely future changes in temperature
exert strong influences on virtually every form of agriculture where production viability may be
altered due to changes in winter hardening, frost occurrence, growing season lengths, and heat
accumulation for ripening potential.
Climate change impacts are likely to have very significant effects on viticulture, where many
years of experience have resulted in the finest wines being made from grapes grown in
geographically distinct regions. Grape vines are often grown in regions and under conditions
considered marginal for agricultural production, ultimately putting them at a greater potential
risk from climate change. Because wines are almost obsessively tasted and rated for quality,
wine grapes should be a particularly good indicator crop of changes that will affecting other
crops in the area.
The warmest wine growing regions, in countries like Argentina, where vines grow in mountain
deserts, Chianti in Italy, and Australia, could become too hot for wine growing. Vines stop
ripening their grapes when temperatures exceed 35C, giving red wines unripe, green-tasting,
astringent flavours. Higher temperatures will mean that vineyards totally reliant on irrigation,
such as in Argentina, Chile, S.Africa, Australia and California, will face severe water shortages.
On the other hand, in the UK in fifty years' time many English vineyards may be switching from
crisp dryish white wines to mainly red wines like those from Bordeaux. The Rhine Valley region
in Germany could benefit from greater ripening potential , but might have to produce different
wines in the changing climate.
Along with the climate and grape-growing changes, there are bound to be some big (and
difficult) shifts in thinking for people of the wine growing regions. There is a huge historical and
cultural identity associated with wine-producing regions. A region known for a superb Merlot ,
for example, might need to shift to another kind of grape, changing the cultural identity that has
developed over centuries. In the next 20-30 years, growers will have to work to replace
varieties and change management strategies to maintain a good quality product.
Source: Jones, G: Climate Change and Global Wine Quality. Geological Society of America, Abstracts with
Programs, Vol 35 No 6.
Climate change indicators in a zone 8-9 location
The A.R.T. is based in south Devon, England, which historically lies in a borderline zone 8/zone
9 location (ie average minimum winter temperatures are no lower than about - 10C). With the
climate in England having warmed significantly over the past 50 years, we now appear to be
firmly in the zone 9 location (over the past 8 years we have had no temperatures below _6C).
Zone 9 locations are likely to be in the forefront of very obviously noticeable changes in plant
behaviour as the climate warms, due to the lack of winter frosts. Many plants only fully defoliate
following several frosts of a certain hardness, while in others flowers may tolerate a couple of
degrees of frost and produce fruit where previously they did not. Longer and milder autumns
will also give borderline fruits more of a chance to ripen.
In Devon, and much of the UK, the autumn of 2004 was exceptionally mild. I was picking
raspberries the week before Christmas, and picked my first lemon (from a Meyer lemon bush)
growing in a container outside in the forest garden on Christmas eve. The mild weather
delayed sending out some plant orders, as most apple and pear trees were still with green
leaves in the middle of December. As I write now, 3 weeks into January, I have some hazels
and apples still with green leaves attached. Some almond trees are evergreen.
The mild winters mean that in time traditional varieties of fruits such as apples and
blackcurrants will flower and fruit much less reliabl y. Collections of local traditional varieties are
likely to be of less use where they originated, though they will be useful further north.
Commercial growers are already reacting to climate change and are beginning to reg raft
varieties such as Cox to a warmer-climate variety such as Braeburn.
A recent study by East Mailing Research has shown that there has already been a 5-12%
decrease in winter chilling in the UK (the lesser figure in Scotland, the greater in Kent), and that
over the next 75 years (under a high carbon emission scenario) a reduction in chilling of 37-
59% is possible. Fruit species needing winter chilling show a defined chill/yield threshold;
beyond this point, with existing cultivars , further reductions in winter chilling retard the plant' sa
physiological processes, leading to a rapid decline in yield. If new adapted low chill cultivars
replace existing cultivars, there is potential for increased yields.
Source: Atkinson, C: Defra Desk Study on Winter Chill in Fruit. EMRA News,S.
Uranium accumulators
Accumulator plants are particular species that are extra good at taking up specific nutrients
from the soil and holding them in the plant itself. Heavy metal accumulators are utilised
commercially by prospectors as indicators where metals might be in higher concentrations.
They can also be used to clean up contaminated ground, ego Mine spoil or an old contaminated
industrial site.
A recent study into Uranium accumulating plants for arid climates has identified several suitable
plants which could be used for soaking up depleted Uranium from contaminated soils where
Uranium-tipped weapons have been used.
Amoung the plants that accumulated a lot of depleted Uranium were Indian mustard (Brassica
juncea) (not well suited to arid climes however), Russian thistle/tumbleweed (Sa/sola tragus),
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and purple amaranth (Amaranthus blitum). Sprinkling the
ground with citric acid enhanced the plants' ability to absorb depleted Uranium.
Most of the Uranium absorption takes prior to flowering , so the plants should be harvested and
removed before flowering. Several crops would be needed to clean up the soil satisfactorily.
Source: Cairns, A: Phytoremediation of Depleted Uranium in an Arid Environment. Geological Society of
America, Abstracts with Programs, Vol 35 No 6.
The Pistacio Industry in Italy
Introduction
Pistachio (Pisiacia vera L.) , is a dioecious and deciduous species native to western Asia and
Asia Minor. It was introduced into Italy from Syria in 30 A.D. by the Roman Governor of that
Provincie, Lucius Vitellio, at approximately the same time it was introduced in Spain. Its
introduction into Sicily, which nowadays accounts for almost the enti re Pistachio industry in
Italy, probably occurred some time later, following an initial period of culti vation in Campania
which at that time represented the roman countryside". Us cultivation in Sicily began to spread
during the Arab domination (827- 1040 A.D.) together with other major fruit and vegetable
species and in parallel with the improvement of the agronomic techniques. As a matter of fact,
the Sicilian dialectal term for Pistachio tree ( Fastuca) is of arab derivation (Fustuq). However,
very little is known until recent times about its distribution over the region. Historic references
onto Pistachio cultivation are documented by the XVllth century, even if first official records of
the economic importance of Pistachio industry are referred to the first decades of the XX
century. Soon after the second world war the enti re structure of the Sicilian Pistachio industry
underwent significant changes. The relative importance of the traditional cultivation areas
(Agrigento, Caltanissetta and Palermo) strongly decreased with the abandonment of large part
of the Pistachio culti vation which was partially compensated by a parallel increase of the
production in the Catania Province.
Currently more than 90% of the total Italian
Pistachio area is concentrated in only few
territories in the eastern Sicily (western slopes
of Mount Etna volcano), mainly located in the
districts of Bronte and Adrano (Catania
Province), onto approximateJy 4.500 hectares.
Few residuals of the past cultivation can still be
found in Caltanissetta and Agrigento Provinces,
in small and scattered surfaces (as a whole,
130 ha in specialized cultivation and 210 ha in
mixed cultivation).
Despite this ancient origin and the long period
of cultivation, only few female varieties of
Pistachio are now grown in Italy (about ten) ::
together with an even more restricted number of
unnamed male selections. Among the
female cultivars, ' Bianca' (synonym: Napoletana) is practically the only cultivar grown, other
varieties, namely ' Femminella', ' Natalora', 'Agostana', ' Silvana', ' Insolia', 'Cerasola',
'Cappuccia' , representing not more than 3% of the total can still be found , mostly in scattered,
abandoned settlements. This genetic pool is probably the result of a two step introduction
process of genetic material coincident with the earliest introduction from Syria of the reddi sh
' Cera sola' by the Romans and the later introduction carried out by the Arabs. The reasons of
this low number of varieties is thought to be the exclusive use by the growers of vegetative
propagation since ancient times due to the long juvenility period of P. vera seedlings, the long
lifespan of the trees and easy hybridizations with other Pistacia species. Nevertheless, within
the Sicilian Pistachio germplasm, some valuable fruit characteristics such as colour, flavour and
nut quality are highly appreciated in trade, specially the greenness of the kernels and the rich
oily nut-like flavour. Most of these appreciated characteristics have been maintained also by
culti vars obtained in the United States from Sicilian seeds imported in the early 1900's such as
' Bronte' and 'Trabonella' .
In spite of these valuable characteristics of the Italian pistachios, the contribution of Italian
production represents nowadays only less than 0.6% of the world production. Nevertheless,
with respect to product destination, it is remarkable that Italian pistachios maintain a dominant
market position for the uses other than direct consumption (snack), since they are almost
entirely used, and highly appreciated, by the confectionery and ice cream industry.
Due to this fact Italian pistachio exports. between 1000 and 2000 tons per year are represented
mainly by shelled and peeled pistachios, whereas imports (about 9000 tons) consist mainly of
in-shell pistachios, consumed as salted and roasted snacks for domestic markets and, partially,
for re-exportation.
The Bronte Area
This area of the eastern Sicilian province of Catania currently represents the main Pistachio
growing area in Italy. From the ecological point of view this area is of great naturalistic
importance due to the proximity to the Etna Volcano and the inclusion in the Regional system of
parks and naturalistic reserves CParco dell'Etna", 59.000 ha, established in 1987).
Pistachio production in Bronte represents one of the main economic resources of the entire
territory. A total of 3,300 ha of specialized Pistachio orchards are located in this area and 1,500
ha in the neighbourhood territories (Adrano, Biancavilla). The altitude varies between 350
(along the Simeto river bank) and 900 m a.s.l.. The climate is typically Mediterranean with
autumn and winter rainfall (annual average: -550 mm). Average monthly temperatures of the
area are between a minimum of 6.0 C (February) and a maximum of 32.6 C (July). Most of
these Pistachio orchards are defined as Unatural Pistachio plantingsH because they have long
been obtained by grafting in situ spontaneous Terebinth ( Pistacia terebinthus) plants spread in
the particular soils of the area, consisting of rocky, volcanic soils derived in the centuries from
the Mount Etna activity, in steep slopes.
This traditional planting system took advantage of the extraordinary characteristics of
environmental adaptation of Terebinth to poor, dry, shallow soils of the area, where no valid
cultural alternatives are available, except for few other fruit species such as Prickly Pear and
Fig. Thus , Pistachio plantings" are characterized by the absence of regular plant
spaci ngs and by a wide range of plant density (50-500 trees per ha). Also the age of the trees
is consequently highly variable. Successive interplanting of nursery terebinth seedlings is a
common practice to replace dead plants and to increase orchard density. A few local small
nurseries are active in the area of Bronte and supply plant material mainly as seedling P.
terebinthus rootstocks to be grafted directly in the orchard. Small quantities of grafted P.
vera/P .terebinthus pot plants are also produced.
In these conditions cultural operations are necessarily carried out by hand, since mechanization
is almost impossible also due to the training system adopted that can be defined as an
vase" with threefour main irregular branches very close to the soil surface. Pollination is
ensured by spontaneous male P. terebinthus plants or by scattered male P. vera pollinizers
and also by natural hybrids between the two above mentioned species. Fruitset problems are
likely to occur, specially when pol lination largely relies onto spontaneous source of pollen, since
male/female ratio generally adopted in the Bronte area is particularly low (1120). Besides
natural orchards, new plantations are also present in the area. In this case rational orchard
design (6m x 8m or 8m x 8m) and common cultural practices are adopted.
'Napoletana' (syn. Bianca) is the only cultivar widely utilized both in the "natural" or in the
regular plantations and Terebinth is the only rootstock. ' Bianca' is of low-intermediate vigour,
spreading; branching habit is intermediate. Peak bloom date occurs in the last week of April.
Nut size is small to medium; average nut length is 21.6 mm, nut wi dth is 11.6 mm, nut thickness
is 9.9 mm, nut shape is generally elongated, split nuts is generally low 25%) and suture
opening is narrow. Blank production is about 5%. Average kernel dry weight is 0.48 g, colour is
deep green; harvest date occurs between the last week of August and the first week of
September.
Page 5
Old individual trees of other relic cultivars can still be found in scattered areas: 'Femminella',
'Agostara' and ' Natalora'. The first one is very simi lar to ' Bianca' and is now accounting for less
than 5% of the total ' Bronte' production; it is characterized by a fruit smaller than ' Bianca' but it
was very appreciated for kernel quality. 'Agostara' is the earliest flowering and ripening cultivar
in the area. It is considered in danger of extinction. Its fruit is smaller than that of ' Bianca'.
'Natalora', the latest ripening cultivar among the local germplasm, is a vigorous and upright
cultivar and is considered the worst by the local growers due to the high blank percentage. This
characteristic is to be related to the flowering period not coincident with the period of pollen
dispersal by the male trees of the area. Its fruit is bigger than ' Bianca' and presents a more
irregular shape. Splitting percentage, in any case, is generally low.
As a whole, nut size of Sicilian Pistachio cultivars, including others such as 'Silvana',
' Ghiandalora', 'Cappuccia', 'Cerasola', ' Inso[ia', is medium to small, nut shape is generally
elliptic (elongated) and sometimes tends to ovoid. All of them have nuts with an attractive
green kernel and similar sizes and weights. Splitting, although variable from year to year, is
generally low and, therefore, unsatisfactory for direct commercialization and consumption.
Nevertheless, the deep green colour of kernels and their excellent quality are world-wide
appreCiated.
The average pistachio farm in the Bronte area is approximately 1-2 hectares, corresponding to
a total of about 3000 farms. As a whole, 3000 to 3800 tons of in shell pistachio is the
productivity of the Bronte area, corresponding to an average yield of about 1-1.2 tons per
hectare. Exceptionally, maximum yield of 4 tons per hectare has been recorded. The average
prices paid to growers for in shell product in the last commercial campaigns ranged between 4
to 5 E/kg. During uoff' years price tends to be higher (aprox. 7.5 E/kg). Pistachios are hand
harvested with the help of tarps. Fruits are normally hulled with small equipment, with an
operating capacity of 400-500 kilos/day, and sold soon after sun drying (3-4 days) at the farm.
They are bought by about ten local industries that proceed to further processing. Three kinds of
end-products are therefore obtained: in shell , shelled (yield 40-45%) and peeled. The prices of
the first two categories of products are of about 7 and 15 Ikg, respectively. Shelled pistachios
are normally commercialized in packages of 25, 12, 1 and 112 kg to domestic and foreign
markets. The average operating potential of this kind of processing plant is of about 500 kifos
of shelled pistachios per day. Some processing plants further process the fruit to obtain
pistachio flour, pesto (condiment), cream and paste for pastry and ice-cream.
Like in other producing countries, the Ita.lian pistachio industry and market are negatively
affected by the alternate bearing problem. A particular cultural practice is generally followed by
the growers to face the alternate bearing pistachio habit. It consists, every second year, of the
total inflorescence bud removal carried out during harvest time, in the Monft year. This traditional
practice is exerted with the aim of obtaining a complete MOW year in order to maximize the yield
of the Uonft year and to minimize the cultural expenses in the biennium. By this way a biological
control of some main pests (bud borer Acrantus (= Chaetoptelius) vestitus, among the others) is
made by interrupting the natural cycle of the insects. This practice requires about 30 hrs/ha
and include also lateral shoots suppression. Other cultural practices carried out by the growers
consist of winter pruning (February and March), fertilization (mostly with Nand P fertilizers),
chemical weed control, orchard floor management (with mechanical hoe) and plant protection.
Total cultural requirements in terms of hand labour (including harvest) range between a
minimum of 150 to a maximum of 400 hrs/ha. Among the diseases in the area Cytospora
terebinthi & Septoria pistaciae are generally considered the most dangerous. Megastigmus
pistaciae, together with Acrantus (= Chaetoptelius) vestitus, can be considered the main pests.
During storage Plodia interpunctella attacks on the fruits have to be controlled generally by
storage room spraying.
This article was adapted from: E barone & F P Marra: The Pistacio Industry in Italy: Current
Situation and Prospects. Nucis-Newsletter Number 12, September 2004.
Carob tree production in China
Introduction
China is the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, peanuts and rapeseed. It ranks second in
com and fourth in soybean production. Subtropical fruits such as citrus, litchi and loquat grow together
with apples, peaches, apricots and pears of cool temperate climates. There has been recent interest in
carob trees as an agroforestry species and for the restoration of degraded dryland areas, mainly, of
three Southern Chinese provinces with warm or subtropical climates: Sichuan (Yibasan and TongAn),
Yunnan (Lufeng and Yuan Jiang) and Guangxi (Shangsi and PingGu)
The project of nursery and cUltivation techniques of Ceratonia siJiqua in China" is funded by
the Chinese government. One of the aims of this project is to find a tree species suitable to dry areas of
southwest of China that will contribute to the ecological rehabilitation. The project was started in 2001
and will be completed by 2005. During 2002 the Chinese Academy of Forestry (CAF) contacted IRTA
Mas Save (Catalonia, Spain) to start a possible collaboration on this species between both institutions.
During two years 2002 and 2004, IRTA sent to CAF more than 100,000 seeds, from important carob
cultivars: five of Spain ('Negra', 'Duraio', 'Rojal' , 'Banya de Cabra' and 'Matalafera') and two of Portugal
('Mulata' and 'Galhosa'), with the purpose of introducing them in the nursery and, later be planted in the
field.
In the new plantations two methods of planting were used: direct sowing in the field and small plants
with containers. The last method would be the most suitable and to be used in the future.
Ecology
The climatic conditions of the Chinese areas where the carob has been introduced, Sichuan, Yunnan
and Guangxi provinces placed in the south, are different from those of the Mediterranean Basin to which
carob is well adapted. It highlights the great climatic variability, with altitudes of 8001000 m above sea
level, minimum temperatures of 0 or 1 DC and maximum of 40
D
C, although there is a big gap of
temperature between day and night (about 10 DC), and rainfall of 700800 mm in the county of Xichang
(Sichuan) and, higher in the other two provinces (Yunnan and Guangxi), about 1000 mm, distributed
between June and September. The carob was planted on hilly lands and the soils in general are not
very deep, clay loam, greybrown colours, with neutral or slightly acid pH (67) and low levels of
phosphorus and calcium.
In the Mediterranean countries (Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Morocco, Tunisia, etc. ), the carob grows
well in warm temperature and subtropical areas, with altitudes below 600 m above sea level, low rainfall
in summer (300-500 mm/year), and tolerates hot and humid coastal zones. It can only withstand light
frost; temperatures below -4
D
C can damage young trees and flowers of mature trees. Carob can adapt
to a wide range of soil types from poor sandy soils and rocky hillsides to deep soils, but they cannot
withstand waterlogging. In the Mediterranean Basin carob generally grows in marginal , calcareous and
basic soils.
Crop development restrictions
In the case of the Sichuan province, the areas where the carob seeds have been planted are hilly, long
away from the coast, with high altitudes above sea level, high rainfall (800-1000 mm and concentrated
on three summer months) and with very poor soils, neutral or slightly acid pH, and these conditions are
quite different from the Mediterranean countries. Temperatures of the Yibasan and TongAn areas are
warm and more similar to carob original areas of Mediterranean Basin.
Page 7
Pests: Severe damage is caused in young trees by rabbits and some native ants that gnaw trunks and
new shoots. Diseases: High rainfall , concentrated on summer months, can cause waterlogging
problems in young carobs and later promote fungus attacks of Phytophtora, in the neck of the tree, and
scab in the leaves of the most sensitive carob seed trees.
Pollination: the carob is a trioecious species with male, female and hermaphrodite flowers borne on
different trees. It blooms in summer-autumn and it seems to be mainly pollinated by insects, but also by
wind. High rainfall and relative humidity in the rainy summer season, could increase poor fruit set
during the pollination time (mainly the period that overlaps with blooming time).
Mechanical harvesting: currently this factor is not very important because there is large manpower and
its cost is low.
The Future
Future work will assess the performance of the seedlings planted in the three Chinese provinces (about
100,000 seedlings) that adapt better to the new environmental conditions, and select seedlings from
more vigorous cultivars, female and hermaphrodite sexes, tolerant to diseases ( Oidium), early bearing
and fruits with good quality. Later it would be necessary to bud the best trees on seedlings and to
introduce them in collections and comparative trials to finish their agronomic and commercial evaluation.
These works should be carried out within the new agroforestry systems framework in which the carob
could solve reforestation problems in degraded areas and its bean production used both for human and
animal feeding (sheep, goats, pigs, cows, horses, etc
This article was adapted from; J . Taus & J. Chunqian: Carob Tree Development in China.
Nucis-Newsletter Number 12, September 2004.
Tree engineering
I ntrod uction
Like all engineering structures, trees combine two elements which enable them to grow into
large impressive structures; good materials, and arrangement of the materials so they are used
to best advantage. Trees have only one main structural material - wood - but this is superbly
engineered. Trees also combine strength and flexibility, and can even respond to their
environment and change their design accordingly. This allows them to support a canopy of
leaves using a bare minimum of wood.
The mechanical design of wood
Wood needs to combine many useful properties to allow it to support the leaves of trees. It has
to be stiff, so that trees do not droop under their own weight; strong, so that the sheer force of
the wind does not snap the trunk and branches; tough, so that when the tree is damaged it does
not shatter; and light , so that it does not buckle under its own weight. No manufactured
material can do all of these things: plastics are not stiff enough; bricks are too weak; glass is
too brittle; steel is too heavy. Weight for weight , wood probably has the best engineering
properties of any material - so it is not surprising that it is still the most widely used material for
making our own structures. Its properties come from the arrangement of the cells and the
microscopic structure of the cell walls.
Arrangement of cells
Over 90%. of the cells in wood are long, thin tubes that are closely packed together, pointing
along the branches and trunk. This helps transport water to the leaves, but it is also ideal for
providing support, because they point in the direclion in which the wood is stressed.
Trees mainly have to resist bending forces. Their branches have to resist being bent down
under their own weight, and both the trunk and branches have to resist being bent sideways by
the wind. These bending forces actually subject the wood inside to forces which are parallel to
the trunk or branch; the concave side is compressed, while the convex side is stretched.
Whichever way the tree is bent, therefore, the internal forces always act parallel to the cells or
'grain' of the wood. The long, thin wood cells are well suited to resist the forces; the cells on
the concave side resist being compressed, rather like pillars, while those on the convex side
resist being stretched, rather like ropes. As a consequence, wood is very strong along the
grain.
The cellular nature of wood is also advantageous to the tree for another reason. Because the
cells are hollow, the tree's trunk and branches can be thicker than if all its wood material was
laid down in a solid mass. (In some trees, such as the elder , not only the cells but also the
branches are hollow.) Weight for weight, tubular structures like these are stronger than solid
structures; this is why tubes are so often used in large engineering structures.
Rays
The arrangement of the cells along the trunk does have one potential disadvantage. It is
relatively easy to split wood parallel to the trunk, what a carpenter would call along the grain.
However, this is not very important to the tree because its wood is hardly ever subjected to
forces in this transverse direction. As an extra precaution, trees prevent the wood splitting
between successive growth rings by incorporating into it blocks of cells called rays , which are
oriented radially in the trunk. As well as storing sugars, these rays act rather like bolts,
effectively pinning the wood together. The result is that when you do see trees that have been
split along their length, for instance after they have been struck by lightning, it breaks radially
from the centre of the trunk out , parallel to the rays. This is also why the easiest way to cut up
wood with an axe is radially, through the centre of the trunk, like cutting pieces of pie.
Structure of the cell walls
The structure of the cell walls also improves the mechanical properties of wood. Cell walls, like
fibreglass, are a composite material. They are made of tiny cellulose microfibrils, which are
embedded in a matrix of hemicellulose and lignin. The cellulose fibres stiffen the material, like
the glass fibres in fibreglass, while the matrix protects the fibres and prevents them from
buckling, like the resin in fibreglass. This gives the composite a combination of high stiffness
and strength.
Embedding fibres within a matrix also improves the toughness of composite materials because
more energy is needed to break them; it is used up pulling the fibres out of the matrix. For this
reason fibreglass is around a thousand times tougher than either resin or fibres on their own.
The arrangement of the fibres within the walls of wood cells helps to make wood even tougher.
Wood cells have walls with several layers, but the thickest layer making up 80% of the wall, is
the so-called 82 layer. Here the microfibrils are arranged at an angle of around 20 degrees to
the long axis of the cell , winding round the cell in a narrow helix. This is not far off being
parallel to the cell wall, so they stiffen it up along the grain quite effectively. But the greatest
effect is to dramatically increase the toughness. As the wood is stretched the cells do not break
straight across; instead, the cell walls buckle parallel to the fibres and the different strips of the
cell wall are then unwound like springs. This process creates very rough fracture surfaces and
absorbs huge amounts of energy, making wood around a hundred times tougher even than
fibreglass. This mechanism only acts when wood is cut across the grain, but it explains why
wooden boats are far sturdier than fibreglass ones and can absorb the energy in minor bumps
without being damaged.
Pre-stressing of wood
Wood has just one problem; because wood cells are long, thin-walled tubes, they are very
prone to buckling, just like drinking straws. This means that wood is only about half as strong
when compressed as when stretched, as the cells tend to fail along a so-called compression
crease. If you bend a wooden rod the compression crease will form on the concave side and it
subsequently greatly weakens the rod. Trees prevent this happening to their trunks and
branches by pre-stressing them.
New wood cells are laid down on the outside of the trunk in a fully hydrated state. As they
mature their cell walls dry out and this tends to make them shorten. However because they are
already attached to the wood inside they cannot shrink and will be held in tension. Because this
happens to each new layer of cells, the result is that the outer part of the trunk is held in
tension, while the inside of the trunk is held in compression. The advantage of this is that when
the trunk is bent over by the wind, the wood cells on the concave surface are not actually
compressed but some of the pretension is released. It is true that on the other convex side the
cells will be subjected to even greater tensile forces, but they can cope very easily with those.
The consequence is that tree trunks can bend a long way without breaking. This fact was
exploited for centuries by shipwrights, who made their masts as far as possible from complete
tree trunks.
Pre-stressing has two unfortunate consequences. Many trees are prone to a condition known
as 'briUleheart'. This occurs because as the wood in the centre of the tree ages it can be
attacked and broken down by fungi. Eventually it becomes so weak that the pre-compression
force makes it crumble, and the tree trunk becomes hollow. Another problem occurs when trees
are harvested. Cutting the trunk frees the cut end and in some species this allows the pre-
stress to be relieved; the centre of the trunk extends and the outside contracts, bending the two
halves of the trunk outwards and causing the trunk to split along its length. These splits are
known to foresters as 'shakes' and render the timber useless. Sweet chestnut is one European
wood probe to this defect.
The mechanical design of the shoot system
There are essentially two parts to the shoot systems of trees: a rigid trunk and a flexible crown
of branches, twigs and leaves. This combination of rigidity and flexibilit y plays a key part in
helping trees stand up. In actual fact, it is usually the wind which is most likely to destroy a
tree, or in some areas the weight of snow. Trees do not collapse under their own weight, unlike
some of the structures made by humans!
Withstanding the wind
Trees use a single trunk rather than many separate stems for the same reason that we use
single poles to hold up flags; weight for weight one thick rod is better at resisti ng bending than
several thin ones. As a result, a single trunk can support a crown of leaves using a minimum of
wood. Like flagpoles, tree trunks are also tapered; they are thickest at their base where the
bending forces are greatest, but progressively thinner towards the tip. This also helps to
minimize the amount of wood they use.
Reconfiguring in the wind
The trunks of mature trees are too rigid to bend far away from the wind. Fortunately, because
the branches and twigs are so much thinner, the whole crown of the tree can. This bending of
Page 10
the crown makes it much more streamlined, reducing the aerodynamic drag force that it
transmits to the trunk. Wind-tunnel tests have shown that this process of ' reconfiguration' can
reduce the force on a 5 m (16 tt) pine tree in high winds to under a third of what it would be if
the tree were rigid. Angiosperm trees can perform even better than conifers in this respect.
Palm trees can bend right over in the wind and so withstand even the strongest hurricanes.
Wind-tunnel tests on deciduous angiosperms have shown that their leaves can reconfigure as
well as their branches; they roll up in the wind to form streamlined tubes which greatly reduces
their drag. The leaves that do this best are lobed leaves, such as those of maples, and pinnate
leaves, like those of ash. However, even in trees like oaks or hollies that have stiff leaves, the
drag is reduced because the rigid leaves are flattened against the branches. Unfortunately,
work has not been done to make it clear just how efficient the reconfiguration of full-sized
angiosperm trees is at reducing their drag. Wind-tunnel tests are difficult and expensive, and
winds are too fickle to get reliable measurements in the field.
The mechanical design of bark
Bark acts as a superb shock-absorber, protecting the delicate phloem tissue from damage. The
key to this ability is that bark is mostly composed of cork, which has a most ingenious structura l
design. Cork is made up of large numbers of closel y packed cells, each of which is dead and
filled with air. Each cell is a hexagonal prism in shape with side walls that are corrugated, like
the walls of an open concertina. Because of the corrugation, a small crushing force can readily
cause the cells to flatten out li ke a closing concertina. Each cell can collapse to only a quarter
of its original thickness, so this process can absorb a great deal of energy. Impacts are
therefore safely dissipated. This is good for the tree but even better for us. The properties
have proved to be ideal to produce a stopper t hat is watertight yet easy to insert and remove.
Real corks are still better in this respect than the artificial corks that have been recently
introduced by winegrowers.
Shedding snow
The conifers that grow at high latitudes or high altitudes have a crown design that allows them
to shed snow. They are conical in shape and both the main branches and side branches of firs
point downwards before curving gently upwards like a ski jump ramp. Snow simply slides off
these branches before its weight can damage the tree.
The mechanical design of the root system
Despite the reconfiguration of their crowns, trees still transmit large wind forces to their trunks
and down to their root system. Fortunately the root systems of most trees are well designed to
anchor them firmly in the soil.
The root systems of young trees are dominated by their tap roots. These anchor the trees
directly, like the point of a stake. The rest of the anchorage is provided by the lateral roots,
which radiate sideways out from the top of the tap root ; they act like the guy ropes of a tent ,
stopping the tap root rotating.
As trees get older, the tap root becomes less important. Instead, the lateral roots, many of
which grow straight out of the trunk start to dominate the root system; they get much longer and
thicker, branching as they grow. They produce a network of superficial roots that ramify through
the topsoil as far out as the edge of the crown. Lateral roots are well placed to take up
nutrients, but not to take up water in times of drought ; neither are they well orientated to anchor
the tree. Trees overcome these deficiencies by developing sinker roots that grow vertically
downwards from the laterals, usually quite close to the trunk.
If a tree is pushed over, a plate of roots and soil is levered upwards, about a hinge on the
leeward side of the trunk. Some anchorage is provided by the bending resistance of the lateral
roots on the leeward side; these roots tend to be elliptical or even figure-of-eight -shaped in
cross-section, ideal at resisting this deformation. However, the vast majority of the anchorage
is provided by the sinker roots on the windward side of the trunk; they strongly resist being
pulled upwards out of the soil. Sinker roots are so important that when waterlogging stops them
developing, trees can be very unstable.
Perhaps the most extraordinary anchorage systems are possessed by trees that have huge
'buttress roots'. In these trees the lateral roots are particularly shallow to help them exploit the
nutrients which are concentrated in just the top few centimetres of soil. Sinker roots are
therefore particularly important to anchor these trees; they are widely placed away from the
trunk to give them longer lever arms. The buttresses act as angle brackets, transferring forces
smoothly down from the trunk to the sinker roots. Without the buttresses the narrow lateral
roots would just break.
Growth responses of trees
The structure of wood and the architecture of trees are mainly genetically determined.
However, trees can fine-tune their mechanical design by detecting their mechanical
environment and responding to it with a range of growth responses.
Flagging
In areas with extremely strong prevailing winds, such as the tops of mountains or sea cliffs,
trees receive forces predominantly from one direction. An involuntary growth response called
flagging results. The leaves on the windward side are killed by wind-borne particles and the
windward branches are bent gradually leeward by the constant force. The result is that the
foliage points mostly downwind of the trunk, which itself leans away from the wind. This makes
the tree much more streamlined, reducing the wind forces to which it is subjected. In the most
exposed areas, the wind also tends to kill off the leading shoot at the top of the tree, so that the
only living shoots are the ones that point downwind. The tree seems to become bent sideways.
Trees exhibiting the prostrate form that results are common near the tree line up mountains and
in the subarctic.
Adaptive growth responses to 'wind
Trees also exhibit adaptive growth responses to the wind in areas where there is no strong
prevail ing wind direction. The most obvious response is that trees exposed to strong winds
grow shorter than those growing in sheltered areas. If you look at the edge of a wood you will
see that the outermost trees are shorter than the rest. Tree height increases further in, so
many copses seem to have something of a streamlined shape.
Closer examination reveals that the exposed trees also have thicker trunks and thicker
structural roots than sheltered ones. The structure of the wood is also altered. Exposed trees
have wood in which the cellulose fibres are wound at a larger angle to the axis of the cell. The
cells themselves tend to wind around the trunk of the tree rather than running parallel to it, a
condition known to foresters as 'spiral grain'. All these changes help make the tree more
stable. The reduction in height reduces the drag on the tree, while the thickening of the trunk
and roots strengthens them. The changes in the wood, meanwhile, tend to make it more
flexible, so the tree can reconfigure more efficiently away from the wind. Trees growing in
windy areas even have smaller leaves and this further reduces drag as well as water loss.
It has been shown that the growth responses of the wood are controlled locally. If a small
length of a trunk is bent it will thicken up more than unstressed areas of the trunk, and if it is
bent in one plane only it will become elliptical in cross-section. In both cases the tree lays down
wood where the mechanical stresses are highest. This response is clever as it ensures that
trees only lay down wood where it is actually needed. This facility bas been shown to be
responsible for many aspects of the shape of trees. It ensures that branches are strongly joined
to the trunk by expanding like the bell of a trumpet at their base; stresses are concentrated
where the branches join the trunk and this causes the branch t o grow thicker there
automatically. It also is the reason why tree wounds heal fastest along their sides - bending
stresses along the trunk are di verted around the sides of the wound, and so growth proceeds
fastest there. The response also causes lateral roots , which are bent only in the vertical plane,
to grow fastest along their tops and bottoms. and so develop into mechanically efficient I-beam
shapes. It is even responsible for the growth of the bizarre buttress roots of rainforest trees.
When these trees are flexed by the wind, mechanical stresses are concentrated along the tops
of the lateral roots; this causes them to grow rapidly upwards, especially at the join with the
trunk, and so form buttresses.
The time delay which is inevitable in these growth responses causes problems for us when we
grow trees. Cutting a road through a forest or thinning a plantation exposes trees to greater
wind forces than they are used to. The result can be catastrophic wind damage before the trees
can grow thicker. In urban areas, young trees have traditionally been staked to help support
them. Unfortunately, this means that the lower trunk and roots are not mechanically stressed,
so they will remain slender and weak. When the stake is eventually removed the trees are
therefore extremely vulnerable to damage. Nowadays, arboriculturalists advise us to stake
trees as near the ground as possible, or bury a wire mesh around the root system to help it
anchor the tree. These precautions minimize the chances of weak areas developing.
Reaction wood
Trees react if their trunks are blown over or deflected away from vertical , with growth responses
that help them grow vertically again towards the light. The tip of the trunk detects the direction
of gravity and automatically bends upwards. The same is also true all the way down the trunk;
reaction wood is laid down on one side of the trunk to bend it upwards.
Conifers produce a sort of reaction wood, called compression wood, in which the cellulose
microfibrils are orientated at around 45 degrees to the long axis of the cells. This stops the
cells from shortening after they are laid down. If a tree is deflected from vertical , conifers
produce compression wood on the underside of the trunk and it tends to push the trunk
upwards.
Angiosperm trees produce a very different sort of reaction wood called tension wood in which
the cellulose microfibrils are almost parallel to the long axis of the cell. Cells of this wood tend
to shorten even more than normal wood after it is laid down. Angiosperms produce tension
wood on the upper side of leaning trunks and it tends to pull the trunk upwards.
Both compression wood and tension wood are very useful to the trees , but Hleir production has
disadvantages for foresters. The two types of wood are both brittle, so planks of wood made
from bent trees will not be very strong. The stresses they set up and differences in the
shri nkage rates will also tend to warp and split the planks. Hence, misshapen trees have very
little commercial value.
References
Ennos, A.R Trees. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, and The Natural History
Museum, London, 2001.
Ennos, A R: How Trees Stand Up. The Overstory, 144, September 2004.
Chestnut production in Andalusia,
Spain
Introduction
Spanish" chestnut production is currently 18,259 tons per year, half of the amount achieved in the
seventies. That production corresponds to approximately 50,000 ha out of the 128,537 ha existing in
Spain. Though chestnut production is located mainly in North Spain, an interesting area for chestnut
production is localised in Andalusia, South Spain. Production in Andalusia is considered to be only
2,000 tons but it could be underestimated according to marketing data and it could reach 6,000 tons
from 6,000 ha.
There are two main areas: i) Sierra de Huelva in Huelva province, and ii) Serranfa de Ronda and Sierra
de Las Nieves, Malaga province. Other chestnut areas are located in Granada, where new orchards
are being established though traditionally chestnut production came from seedlings. Chestnut is an
interesting alternative in Andalusia, mainly in Malaga, because of the precocity of two cultivars,
'Temprana' and 'Pilonga' , harvested at the end of September. Most of the production is commercialised
by cooperatives where big quantities of chestnuts are cleaned and classified. Chestnuts are sold in
Spain and in the international market.
Table 1. Climatic characteristics of Spanish chestnut areas.
Region Province Location Annual av Annual Average Ann.temp
temp(' C) rainfaU(mm) temp - Jan range (' C)
Asturias Asturias Gijon 13.8 971 4.7
Oviedo-EI Cristo 12.9 973 4.2
Aeropuerto Ranon 13.2 1140 5.4
Bierzo LeOn Ponferrada 13.0 675 1.1 17.5
Extremadura Caceres Guadalupe 14.7 755 3.3 17.6
Canarias Tenerife Aeropuerto T enerife
Norte-Los Rodeos 16.5 557 12.8
Andalucia Malaga Gaucin 15.0 1161 6.2 35.0
Huelva Almonaster La Real 16.0 1137 4.9 34.9
Aracena 14.0 1107 3.1 35.8
Galicia Lugo Outeiro de Rei 12.0 1004 2.0 23.3
Vilar do Caurel 7.9 1679 -1 .3 24.5
Ferreira 3.2 1086 2.4 25.7
Fonsagrada 8.8 1754 -1.0 23.3
Ourense Meson de Pentes 10.6 1460 0.8 26.0
Poboa de Trives 8.9 874 0.1 26.6
A Rua-Petin 15.6 763 5.1 26.7
Recently, an important industry for processing chestnuts has been established in Huelva. Both in
Huelva and Malaga, production is based on local cultivars. Growers graft them over seedlings
produced in the same area. In Malaga, due to the high prices of the nuts, trees are planted so close as
5 m x 5 m, though it is necessary to prune severely or remove part of the trees later. In Granada, no
local cultivars have been found and new orchards are based on the excellent cultivars of Malaga.
Weather conditions for chestnut areas in Spain are quite similar (Table 1), with a rainfall around 1.000
mm per year and mild temperatures. Chestnut orchards in Tenerife showed lowest rainfall with 700
mm, followed by Castilla-LeOn and Extremadura, around 700 mm. In Andalusia, orchards are located in
the most humid areas of South Spain. In 1995 a study was started to localise and characterise cultivars
of South Spain.
propagated by grafting: 'CapiJJa', 'Comisaria' , 'Corriente', 'Oieguina', ' Helechal', ' Pelon', 'Pilonga', 'Planta
Alajar' 'Rubia Tardia', 'Temprana', 'Tomasa' and 'Vazquez'.
Cultivars from Andalusia are different from cultivars from other areas of Spain. In comparison with
those from Galicia, the Andalusian cultivars have better nut size, but with higher percentages of
chataignes (poly-embryonic nuts) and split nuts, and more intrusions of the inner coat in cotyledons
what makes it more difficult to peel them. Nuts coming from Andalusian cultivars showed less worms
and diseases what could be related with a drier environment.
The best cultivar in Andalusia is ' Pilonga' due to its early ripening (end of September), big nut size and
less percentage of poly-embryonic nuts (Table 2). The worst feature of 'Pilonga' is the high percentage
of split nuts, over 8 %. 'Temprana' , cultivated in the same area of 'Pilonga' is a tittle worse due to a
higher percentage of poly-embryonic nuts and intrusions of the inner coat in cotyledons. 'Capilla',
'Corriente', 'Rubia Tardia' and 'Tomasa', are three excellent cultivars of Malaga, but they are harvested
later than 'Pilonga' and 'Temprana', at the end of October, when most of the Spanish chestnut
production is concentrated and prices are usually lower. Moreover. 'Capilla' and 'Tomasa' showed the
highest percentages of split nuts and 'Comente' the highest percentage of poly-embryonic nuts.
Table 2. Main characteristics of Andalusian cultivars.
Cultivar Origin Harvest time Use Male Nutsl Lateral chataignes Split
Catkin kg nut(g) % nuts %
Capill a Malaga 20 - 26 Oct Ind. fresh. poll L 66 17.00 11.00 16.00
Comisaria Huelva 20 Oct- 2 Nov Ind. fresh. poll L 80 13.37 6.00 0.50
Comente Malaga 18Sep-40ct Fresh. poll L 65 18.58 15.50 4.50
Dieguina Huelva 20 Oct - 1 Nov Fresh L&M 87 13.61 8.00 2.50
Helechal Huelva 22 - 29 Oct Ind. fresh B&L 80 ~ 4 . 1 4 7.00 1.50
Pelon Huelva 190ct-1 Nov Marmalades, L 113 10.22 3.54 7.81
Purees, poll
Pilonga Malaga 17 Sep - 4 Oct Ind. fresh. poll L 63 18.32 7.61 8.67
Planta Alajar Huelva 20 - 29 Oct Fresh M 71 16.06 10.50 2.25
Rubia Tardia Malaga 25 Oct Ind. fresh. poll L 49 20.76 10.00 2.50
Temprana Malaga 15 Sep -4 Oct Fresh. poll L 61 18.76 11.67 8.53
Tomasa Malaga 20 - 29 Oct Fresh. poll L 44 24.86 14.38 23.13
Vazquez Huelva 20 Oct- 5 Nov Fresh. indo poll L 73 16.05 4.00 1.50
Use: Ind = industry/processing; poll = poJliniser
Male catkin: L = long-staminate (the best for pollination); M = meso-staminate; B = brachy-staminate
Chataignes: ie % of nuts which have multiple embryos.
In Huelva the four main promising cultivars are 'Comisaria', 'Helechal', 'Planta Alajar' and 'Vazquez' due
to their big nut size and low percentage of split nuts. ' Planta Alajar' showed a higher percentage of
poly-embryonic nuts. In comparison with cultivars of Malaga, all cultivars in Huelva are harvested at the
end of October, the main period for chestnut harvesting in Spain, when prices are lower. 'Pelon' is a
very spread cultivar in Huelva that produces the smallest nuts in Andalusia
Most of the cultivars from Andalusia produce pollen, with the most frequent type of male catkin found
being long-staminate and only 'Planta Alajar' and one accession of 'Oieguina' showed mesostaminate
catkins.
This article was adapted from: S Pereira & A M Ramos: Chest nut Production in Andalusia.
Nucis-Newsletter Number 12, September 2004.
Book Reviews
The Roots of Health
John Reeves
Pub. by. the author, 2003; 3.00 inc P & P.
Avai lable from: John Reeves, ' Eastleigh' , Greenfield Close, Joys Green, lydbrook, Gloucs. , Gl17 9RD, UK.
Readers of this journal wifl probably know about mycorrhizal fungi, symbiotic fungi whi ch grow
in associ ation with plant roots in trees and many other plants. All mycorrhiza draw sugar from
the plants, and by acting as root extensions, enable the plants to take up minerals from the soil
which the plant alone could not achieve. The process can increase plant mineral content by as
much as 50%.
John Reeves , after farming in Devon and Canada, has spent the last 16 years researching into
the mineral content of plants grown in many different regimes, and relating the mineral content
of plants to their mycorrhizal status. He also highlights the link between plants with high
mineral content and hearth. To my knowledge nobody else has undertaken this research or
linked mycorrhizas with human health before, and, perhaps not surprisingly, he has found that
plants growing with healthy mycorrhizas usually have significantly higher mineral content.
Most of his booklet gives the results of his analysis of plants grown in many different situations,
with and without mycorrhizal associations.
Interestingly, his research indicates that organically grown foods do not necessarily have a
higher mineral content - the mycorrhizal status of the plants has a greater effect. Cultivation of
the soil greatly reduces mycrorrhizal populations, hence no-tillage agriculture, no-dig gardening
and forest gardens are likely> to produce plants containing more minerals and which promote
improved health compared with normally-cultivated plants. An interesting and important
presentation of many years dedicated work.
The Winelands of Britain: Past, Present & Prospective
Richard C Selley
Petravin, 2004; 10.00; 110 pp.
ISBN 0-9547419-0-0.
Vines have grown wild in Britain for over 50 million years; only in the ice age of the last 2 million
have they been absent during the glacial maxima, returning during warmer phases such as
today.
The ' Wine/ands of Britain' maps the ebb and flow of vineyards across the British Isles over the
last 2 millenia. In Roman and Medieval times, vineyards flourished southeast of a line from the
Humber to the Severn. In the ' Uttle Ice Age' of the 15
th
_19
th
centuries , however, they were
restricted to the southeast. In the present warm phase, vineyards have nearly reclaimed the
former winelands.
Geology is an important factor in viticulture; in conjunction with climate it determines the soil in
which a vineyard grows and the landscape on which it stands. The author, a professor of
geology, brings the subject to bear on all aspects of viticulture, which makes this an unusual
and fascinating book.
(2) shrubs
This compendium tabulates all known shrubs for temperate or continental climates which have
edible fleshy fruits. It is undoubtedly not definitive as there are probably many trees with edible
fruits which have never been written about. Perennials will be covered in the next issue. The
information for this compendium comes from our database of useful plants and previous articles
in Agroforestry News.

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IAmelanchier alnifolia Regent serviceberry 0 V 4 2
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cooked, also dri ed; soft. jui cy,
sweet apple-li ke flavour , few small seeds.
10-15 mm.
Amelanchier Oblong fruited 0 V 3 5
'aw 0'
cooked, also dried; soft , juicy,
bartramiana uneberry sweet, few small seeds. 1015 mm.
Amelanchier basalticola 0 V 3 5 raw or cooked; juivy. 9-12 mm.
Amelanchier Downy shadblow 0 V 6 4 ,aw m cooked, also dried; soft, jui cy,
canadensis sweet apple-like flavour, few small seeds.
10 mm.
Amelanchier confusa 0 V 3 5 raw or cooked. 7-9 mm.
Amelanchier cusickii Cusick' s serviceberry 0 V
,
5 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy. 10 mm.
Amelanchier fernaldii 0 V
,
5 raw or cooked; juicy.
Amelanchier florida Fl ordia june berry 0 V 1.56 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy.
Amelanchier gaspensis 0 V
,
4 8-10 mm.
Amelanchier laevis Alleghany 0 V 9 4 raw or cooked, also dried; succulent,
serviceberry sweet, very nice. 10-16 mm.
Amelanchier lamarckii Apple serviceberry 0 V 6 4 ,aw
0'
cooked , also dried; succulent,
sweet, apple-like flavour, very nice. 7-10
ffiffi .
Amelanchier neglecta 0 V 3 4 raw or cooked ; juicy.
Amelanchier obovalis Quebec berry 0 V 1.54 raw or cooked; sweet, jui cy. 6-8 mm.
Amelanchier ovaHs Snowy mespilus 0 V 5 5 raw or (best) cooked; lacking in flavour. I
10 mm.
IAmelanchler paillda
10 Iv
[4 [5 Iraw or cooked' JUIcy 4-6 mm
Amelanchier sanguinea 0 V 3 4 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy.
Amelanchier spicala 0 V 2 4 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy. 6-8 mm.
Amelanchier ulahensis Utah serviceberry 0 V 5 3 raw or cooked, also dried; rather dry and
tasteless. 6-8 mm.
Amelasorbus jackii 0 2 3 raw or cooked; rather dry and tasteless.
6-8 mm.
Amorpha fruticosa False indigo 0 4.54 crushed and used as a condiment
(caution advised ).
Arctostaphylos alpina Black bearberry 0 V 0.0
,
raw or cooked; juicy, slightly
bitter. 6.10J
5 ffiffi .
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Page 17
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Arctostaphylos Hoary mananita E 2 7 raw or cooked. also dried. 8mm.
canescens

x Del Norte mananita E raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
cmerea
Arctostap'hylos Columbia manzanita E Y 1.5 7 raw or cooked; mealy_ 8 mm.
columbiana
Arctostaphylos Brittleleaf mananita E 2 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried. 6-10
crustacea mm
Arctostaphylos Mouse mound E 1 6 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
cl!shingiana mananila
Arctostaphylos E 1 6 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
densiflora
Arctostaphylos Sur mana nita E 0. 1 8 raw or (usually) cooked, al so dried.
I
edmundsii
Arctostaphylos Eastwood's mana nita E 2 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
glandulosa
Arctostaphylos glauca Manzanita E Y 4 8 raw or cooked, also dried and made into a
cider-like drink; dry, little flavour. 18 mm.
Arctostaphylos hooked Monterey pine E 0.3 9 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
mana nita
Arctostaphylos hooved Hoover' s mananUa E 6 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
Arctostaphylos insularl s Island mana nita E 3 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
Arctostaphylos luciana Santa Lucia E 2 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
mananita
Arctostaphylos Manzanita E Y 2 8 raw or cooked, also dried and ground into
manzanita flour, and made into a drink; acid, dry,
mealy. 8-12 mm.
Arctostaphylos Mariposa mana nita E 3 6 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
marip(lsa
-
Arctostaphylos x media E 0.2 6 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
Si milar to A.uva-ursi.
Arctostaphylos Indian mananita E 2.5 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
mewukka
I
Arctostaphylos Morro mana nita E 2.2 7 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
morroensis
Arctostaphylos Nevada bearberry E Y 0.1 6 dried and ground into a flour. 6 mm.
I
nevadensis
Arctostaphylos Glossyleaf mananita E 2 9 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
nummularia
Arctostaphylos Serpentine mananita E 2 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
obispoensis
Arctostaphylos E 2 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
ophiovirides

Pajaro mana nita E 2 7 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
paJaroensls
Arctostaphylos palula Greenleaf manzanita E Y 2 6 raw or cooked; pleasnlly add, apPlel
flavour, also used for making a cider-l ike
drink. 812 mm.

-..
-_. __ .... _----_ .. __._-,.- --
<

o.
,.
.,.

o.
0 EE
,.
2

E.

0<
Q.
;;

U
.>
Q .

Arctostaphylos Pecha mana nita
IE
pechoensis
Arctostaphylos pilosula Santa Margarita E
mananita
Arctostaphylos pring lei Pringle mananHa E
IArctostaphylos pumlla ISandmat mananlta IE I
Arctostaphylos pungens E
Arctostaphylos Lompoc mana nita E
purissima
Arctostaphylos E
rainbowensis
Arctostaphylos Refugio mananita E
refugioensis
Arctostaphylos rudis Shagbark mananita E
Arctostaphylos silvicola Santa Cruz mana nita E
Arctostaphylos Stanford manzanita E
stanfordiana
Arctostaphylos Shaggy barked E Y
tomentosa manzanita
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Red bearberry E Y
Arctostaphylos McMinn's mananita E
viri dissima
jArctostaphylos visci da Sticky whiteleaf E
mananita
!Anstotella chllenSIS IMacqUi
IAronia arbutifolla IRed chokeberry
10
1
Aronia melanocarpa Black chokeberry 0
Aronia prunifolia Purple chokeberry 0
Iriloba Pawpaw 0
IAzara mlcrophylla
IE I
Berberis aggregata Salmon berberis 0 Y
Berberis amurensis Amur barberry Y
Berberis angulosa 0 Y
Berberis aristata Nepal barberry E Y
IBerberls aSiatica IAslatlc barberry
E_

".

"a;

Cc
.o;;::ro
<-
'60
Ei
x
.E
N

E-
<
2 8 raw or (usually) cooked. also dried.
1
,
2 7 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
2.5 8 raw or (usuall y) cooked, also dried.
6-
12
1
mm
10318 Jraw or (usuall y) cooked also dried
raw or cooked, also dried and ground into I
flour, and made into a drink; acid, dry,
mealy. 8- 12 mm.
1. 5 8 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
1.5 7 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
J
2.57 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
2 6 raw or (usuall y) cooked, also dried.
,
1.56 raw or cooked, also dried. 5-7 mm.
1.58 raw or cooked, also dried; sweet, dry,
mealy, apple-like flavour. 8-10 mm.
0.1 4 raw or cooked - sweet, mealy, insipid.
Made into drinks or preserves. 6-8 mm.
raw or (usually) cooked, also dried.
I
13 18 Iraw or dried bilberry flavour . 6 mm
13 14
Iraw or cooked, also dried. 7mm.
2.5 4 raw or cooked - good flavour, astri ngent
until fully ri pe. Also dried. High in pectin.
6-9 mm.
3 4 raw or cooked - good flavour, astringent
until fully ripe. Also dried. Hi gh in pectin.
6-9 mm.
4.55 raw or cooked; tropical banana custard
flavour. 100-160 mm long.
16 18 13-5 mm
1.5 6 raw or cooked; acid lemony flavour.
71
mm, freely borne.
3.56 Raw or cooked; acid.
I
1 6 raw or cooked; acid flavour. palatable. 12-
15 mm, freely borne.
3.56 raw or cooked, also dried; sweet-acid,
seeds slightly biUer. 10-12 mm x 4-6 mm. I
13. 518 Iraw or cooked, also dried, aCid. 8-10 J
Page 19
II
I

'0

Berberis buxi folia
!Berberis canadensis
x carminea
Berberi s chengii
Berberis chitria
Berberis chinensi s
IBerbens cooper.
Berberis darwinii
!Berberis em petri folia
!Berberis fendleri
Berberi s flexuosa
Berberis gagnepainii
Berberis georgii
Berberis heterophylla
Berberis jaeschkeana
Berberis koreana
Berberis Iycium
IBerbens pOlretll
!Berberi s rariflora
IBerberis x rubrostilla
Berberis ruscifolia
!Berberis sheriffii
IBerberis sibirica
Berberis sieboldii
Berberis x stenophylla
IBerbens thunberg II
IBerberis tomentosa
IBerberis verruculosa
IBerberiS vulgaris
Berberis wilsoniae
Callicarpa americana
Callicarpa mollis
Ceanothus fendleri
Cephalotaxus fortunei
Cephalotaxus
harringtonia
Page 20

!
;;;

Magellan barberry
[American barberry
I
ISE Iy
Y
E Y
0 Y
Darwin's barberry
!Fuegian barberry
Y
E V
0 V
SE V
V
0 V
Indian barberry E V
ISiberian barberry
10 IV
0 V
E V
!Hairy barberry
10 Iv
[Common barberry
10 Iv
E V
French mulberry 0
0
0
Chinese plum yew E N
Harrington plum yew E N
<-

"'.

'Qi

Cc
-
E2 x
. E

11 16
6
8
3 4
2.4 5
2 3
1.5 7
1 6
1.5 4
3 6

35

"
raw or cooked, used in preserves; sweet, I
slightly astringent. 8 mm, freely borne, _
!raw or cooked ' acid 7-9 mm
Iraw or cooked; acid.
I
raw or cooked; acid.
I
raw or cooked.
I
raw or cooked ; aci d.
Iraw or cooked, aCid.
raw or cooked; acid, pleasant, seedy. 71
mm. Freely borne.
Iraw or cooked. 7 mm.
Iraw or cooked' acid 5 mm
raw or cooked. 10 mm.
raw or cooked; acid. 6-7 mm.
raw or cooked; acid. 8mm.
raw or cooked; juicy, slightly acid, 8-12
mm.
11 15 Iraw or cooked; aCid , 10 mm.
I 18-9 1raw or cooked, aCid
11,5 !6 !raw or cooked; acid. To1 Sx 10mm.
raw or cooked; acid. bitter. 6-7 mm.
!raw or cooked acid 6-8 mm
106 13
Jraw or cooked. 7 mm.
1 5 raw or cooked; acid. Smm.
3 7 raw or cooked; sub-acid , good flavour,
seedy.
Iraw or cooked, dry. poor flavour. 8 mm.
I 18
Iraw or cooked.
!raw or cooked; acid, poor. 10-12 mm.
]raw or cooked acid lemony 10-12 mm
1 6 raw or cooked; very acid, lemony. 6-7
mm.
1.8
Raw - juicy, sweet , slightly aromatic. 6
mm.
2.4 8 5 mm.
2 5 Fruit? 5 mm.
6 7 raw or cooked when fully ripe; pine
5 7 raw or cooked when fully ripe: pine
flavour, sweet or astringent. 20-30 mm
long.
)
. J
)
)
Cephalotaxus oliveri E
Cephalolaxus si nensi s Chinese plum yew E
Cephalotaxus wi l soni i E
Chaenomeles x 0
californica
Chaenomeles Chinese quince 0
cathayensis
Chaenomeles x 0
clarkiana
Chaenomeles j aponica Japoni ca 0
Chaenomeles speciosa Japanese quince 0
Chaenomeles x 0
superba
Chaenomeles thibetica Tibetan qui nce 0
Chaenomeles x D
vilmoriana
Chionanthus virginicus Fri nge tree 0
Ci t rus ichangensis Ichang papeda E
Citrus junos Yuzu E
Citr us limon l emon E
Citrus meyeri Meyer lemon E
Citrus pseudolimon Hill lemon E
Comptonia peregrina Sweet fern 0
ICoprosma acerosa iSand coprosma
IE
Coprosma areolata E
Coprosma lueida Karamu E
Coprosma nitida Shining coprosma E
Coprosma propinqua Mingimingi E
Coprosma robusta Karamu E
Coprosma rotundifolia Round leaved E
coprosma
Corema album Portuguese E
crowberry
Corema conradi i Poverty grass E

~ ~

:e
"' -
-
'i ~

!
cc
~ -
'E 2

x
0; .E

-
E-
~
N 3 8
N 5 7
N 10 8
2 5
3 5
1 5
1 5
3 5
1.5 5
3 4?
2.5 5
N 5 4
Y 4.58
Y 4 8
Y 3 9
Y 3 8
Y 4 8
1.5 4
IN 10. 5 18
N 5 9
N 5 8
N 2 8
N 6 7
N 5 9
N 2.4 g
N 0.3 8
N 0.2 3
5
-
.':'1
EO;
~
raw or cooked when fully ripe; pine
ftavour. 20-30 mm long .
raw or cooked when fu ll y npe; pine
raw or cooked when fuliV ripe; pine
Cooked; fragrant. T060 x 60 mm.
I
cooked; lemony- fragrant , makes a good
"ell y. 1 0 0 - ~ 5 0 mm long by 90 mm wide.
Cooked; fragrant.
cooked; fragrant ,adds a strong flavour to
' ams and jellies. 3D-SO mm across. Juice
used _ ~ s lemon juice.
cooked; fragrant. 50-65 mm across.
Cooked; fragrant. To60 x 60 mm.
Cooked; fragrant. To 110 x gO mm.
Cooked; fragrant. To 80 mm long.
pickled like oli ves. 15-20 mm long.
raw or cooked; juicy, very aci d, lemony.
Up to 100 x 50 mm.
cooked or used as a lemon jui ce
substitute. 50-70 mm.
raw or cooked; very acid, lemony. Up 10
150 x 70 mm.
raw or cooked; lemony. 60 mm long.
cooked or used as a lemon j uice
substitute.
young fruits eaten raw; pleasant.
Iraw; sweet, juicy, little fla vour. 8 x 6 mm.
raw; sweet, little flavour. 5 mm across.
raw; sweet, juicy, little flavour. 8-12 mm.
raw - sweet. 68 mm.
raw or cooked; sweet, little ffavour. B mm
across.
raw or cooked; sweet, littl e fla vour.
9 x 51
mm, freely borne.
raw or cooked ; sweet, little fla vour. 3 5
mm.
raw or cooked.
raw or cooked; dry. 2-3 mm!
Page 21
=

'0
~
G
Coria ria nepalensis
Coriaria sarmentosa
Coriaria sinica
Coria ria terminalis
ICornus amomum
Cornus florida
Cornus kousa
jCornus occldentails
Icornus sanguinea
Cotoneaster
microphyllus
ICralaegus aprica
Crataegus baroussana
ICrataegus caesa
Crataegus crus-galli
Crataegus cuneala
Crataegus intricata
ICrataegus jackii
Crataegus jonesiae
ICrataegus lobulala
Cyathodes colensoi
Oecaisnea fargesi i
Decaisnea insignis
Drimys lanceolata
Elaeagnus angustifolia
Elaeagnus commutata
Elaeagnus x ebbingei
IElaeagnus formosana
Page 22
Tanner's tree o
Wine berry o
o
o
ISIIky cornel
10 I
American dogwood 0
Jaoanese dogwood 0
IOogwoOd
0
1 1 1
Cocks pur thorn 0
Nippon hawthorn 0
.
0
1
10
1
0
1
0
I
E
Blue bean 0
0
Mountain pepper E N
Cleaster 0 N
Silver berry 0 N
E N
IE IN

Cc
:e2

c
2.5 8
1 8
5 8
1.2 8
6 5
7 5
; :
raw or used as a beverage; caution
advi sed as many parts toxic. 8 mm.
raw or used as a beverage; caution i
advised as many paris toxic.
raw or used as a beverage; caution
advised as many parts toxic.
raw or used as a beverage: caution l
advised as many parts toxic. 8 mm.
Iraw or cooked 6-8 mm
cooked (very bitter raw). also made into al
drink; mealy, bitter. To 15 mm, thin flesh.
raw or cooked; skin bitter, pulp deliCiOUS. ,
15-20 mm.
16 16 Iraw or cooked; bitter, aCid, poor.
13 15 Iraw or cooked; bitler, poor. 8 mm.
raw; sweet. 7 mm.
jraw or cooked' sweet 12 mm
,
2
8?
raw or cooked; sweet, pleasant.
15-18!
mm.
I
1 1
Isweet, pleasant.
10 5 raw or cooked; dry, poor. 10 mm.
1.56 raw or cooked, also dried; pleasant
flavour. 12-15 mm .
3 5 raw, cooked or dried; downy. 14 mm.
I
13
I_
!raw or cooked, also dried. 12 mm.
I
1.5 5 raw or cooked; sweet , mealy,
good ]
flavour. 15-18 mm. ,
0.3 8 raw; sweet, meal y. rarely seen in Britain.
5 mm.
_
5 pulp inside blue pods is eaten raw; sweet
delicate melon flavour, good. Pods 100-
130 mm long.
I
3.5 8 pulp inside blue pods is eaten raw; sweet,
good. Pods 80 mm long.
4.5 8 fruit ;s
used as a pepper aod allspice
substitute.
7 2 raw or cooked ; dry. sweet, mealy. l
astringent before fully ripe.
10-12 mml
long.
3 2 raw or cooked; dry. sweet, mealY"
astringent before fully ripe. 8 mm long.
5 6 raw or cooked; sweet, mealy, astringent j
before fully ripe. 15-20 mm long. I
Iraw or cooked.
1
Elaeagnus fragrans
Elaeagnus grabra
El aeagnus gonuanthes
c
o.
EE
E.
oc
u
Elaeagnus latifolia Bastard or easi er
Elaeagnus macrophylla
!Elaeagnus x maritima t
Elaeagnus montana
EJaeagnus multiflora
Elaeagnus oldhamii
Elaeagnus pun gens
IElaeagnus pyriformis
Elaeagnus x reflexa
Elaeagnus thunbergi!
Elaeagnus umbellata
Elaeagnus yoshino!
Eleutherococcus
senticosus
Empetrum
atropurpureum
Empetrum eamesli
Empetrum nigrum
Cherry elaeagnus
Thornyelaeagnus
Autumn olive
Siberian ginseng
Purple crowberry
Rockberry
Crowberry
o N
E N
E N
o N
E N
o N
o N
E N
E N
10 IN
E N
E N
o N
o
o
E N
E
E N
Empetrum rubrum South
crowberry
American E N
Ephedra distachya Sea grape
Ephedra gerardiana Pakistani ephedra
Ephedra viridis Mormon tea
Epigaea asiatica
!Epigaea repens !Trailing arbutus
Feijoa sellowiana Pineapple guava
Forest!era acuminata Swamp privet
Forestiera
mexican a
neo- Desert olive
E N
E N
E N
E
IE I
E N
o
o

cc
E2

raw or cooked; dry, sweet , mealy,
6 8 raw or cooked; dry, sweet, mealy,
astringent before fully ripe. 12-20 mm.
raw or cooked.
9 raw or cooked; acid, astringent before
ful ly ripe.
3 7 raw or cooked; dry, sweet, mealy, good
fl avour, astringent before fully ripe. 20-30
mm long, ripens in Apri l-May.
[ I Iraw or cooked.
raw or cooked ; dry, sweet, mealy,
3 6 raw or cooked; pleasantly acid , mealy,
astri ngent before fully ripe. 12-25 mm.
raw or cooked.
7
raw or cooked; sub-acid, mealY' 1
astringent before fully ripe. 12-19 mm.
4
jraw or cooked.
4.5 7 raw or cooked. Ripens in spring.
raw or cooked.
4.5 3 raw or cooked; juicy, sweet , astringent
raw or cooked; dry, sweet , mealy,
2 3 raw; juicy, bittersweet. 7 mm.
0.2 3
0.1 3
5
0.3 3
raw or (usually) cooked, best after a frost;
watery flavour.
raw or cooked, best after a frost; poor,
watery. 5-6 mm. Made into a drink with
milk.
0.3 8 raw ro cooked.
1 6 raw; sweet, juicy, insipid. 6-7 mm.
0.6 7 raw - sweet. 5-7 mm.
1.8 9 raw - sweet.
0. 1 4
10.1 12
3 8
3 5
10 mm.
18 mm.
raw or cooked; delicious,
strawberry-pineapple flavour,
vitamin C. 50-75 mm long.
raw; chewed.
aromatic,
rich in
3 6 a possible ol ive substitute (?pickled). 4-8
mm long.
--
Page 23

c

o.
,.
t

o.
0
EE
,-
!

E.
u'"
.- -

oc
u.
0;
<J)
U
>
o
IFuchsia colensoi
10
I
Fuchsia excorticata Tree fuchsia 0
Fuchsia procumhens Trailing Queen 0 Y
Gaultheria adenothrix E
IGaulthena antarctica
IGaultheria anti pod a ITakapo taupuka
!Gaultheria cuneata
IGaultheria forrestii
Gaultheria Indian wintergreen E
fragrantissima
hispida ITasmanian waxberry
IE
I
Gaultheria hispidula Moxie plum E
Gaultheria humifusa Alpine wintergreen E
Gaultheria lanceolata E
!Gaulthena minima
IE I
Gaultheria miquellana Miquel E
Gaultheria E Y
nummularioides
Gaultheria ovatifolia Mountain E
checkerberry
Gaultheria procumbens Creeping wintergreen E Y
Gaultheria pumila E N
Gaultheria pyroloides E
Iq .C3.ulthena rupestns
Gaultheria shallon Salal
IGaultheria tetramera
IGaultheria trichophylla
IGaultheria wardii
f aY'USSaCia baccata
Black huckleberry 0
Gaylussacia brachycera Box huckleberry E
Gaylussacia dumosa Dwarf huckleberry 0
Page 24
E_

rn.

'v
cc

.fa;
x
.E
u

E-

110 19
jraw or cooked" juicy sweet
10 9 raw or cooked; juicy, sweet. To 25
mm,
long. ,
0.1 9 raw poor. 18 mm.
i
5
I
0.3 9 raw or cooked, al so used for wine; sweet.
6 mm. I
!raw or cooked.
Iraw or cooked; sweet, juicy. 12 mm.
Iraw or cooked.
Jraw or cooked
\
1 9 raw (0 cooked. 8 mm.
I
,
10.9 19
!raw or coooked; slightly bitter. 8-12 mm.
i
0.1 6 raw or cooked, used ;n preserves; sUb- I
acid, pleasant, delicate wintergreen
flavour. 6 mm.
0.1 7 raw or cooked, used in preserves; sUb 1
acid. pleasant. delicate wintergreen 1
flavour. 67 mm.
1.5 7 raw or cooked.
i
11 17 Iraw or cooked
0.2 6
5
0. 1 9
0.1 6
5
0.1 4
5
0.0 7
5
0.1 6
5
1 6
0.4 6
5
0.3 6
raw or cooked; sweet. 10 mm.
J
raw or cooked; good. 8 mm.
I
raw or cooked; spicy, delicious. 6 mm.
raw or cooked, best after frosts;
wintergreen flavour. 1018 mm.
Iraw or cooked.
raw. cooked or dried; sweet, juicy.
flavour. 10 mm.
Iraw or cooked.
Iraw or cooked.
Iraw or cooked
1
strong I
I
I
gOOd !
,
raw or cooked; sweet, spicy, delicious.
81
mm.
raw or cooked; tasteless. 12 mm.
I
raw or cooked; juicy. can be good.
6-
8
1
mm.
[Gaylussacia frondosa IOwarf huckleberry [raw or cooked ; sweet, jui cy. 8-12 mm.
!Gaylussacia ursi na [Bear huckleberry [raw or cooked; sweet, insipid. 8-12 mm.
[bitter [Griselinia littoralis
Hippophae rhamnoides Sea buckthorn 0 N 6 3
,aw
0'
cooked, jui ce widely used
;n
drinks; acid (needs sweetening for most
folk), good flavour. 10-15 mm long.
Holodiscus discolor Ocean spray 0 3 5 raw or cooked; poor, dry, small.
Holodiscus dumosus Rock spiraea 0 4.54 raw or cooked; poor, dry, smalr.
lIex aquifol ium Common holly E N 9 6 roasted as a coffee substitute - caution
advised (may be emetic).
Hex coriacea
Large gallberry E N 3 7 caution advised (may be emetic). 6-10
mm .
.
Illicium anisatum
Japanese star anise E 6 7 used as a flavouring and chewed to
sweeten the breath. 25 mm.
Juniperus communis
Common juniper E N 9 2 raw or cooked . also dried; aromatic. Used
as a flavouring and
fo'
essential oil.
Pregnant/kidney patients should avoid. 4-
8 mm.
uniperus conferta Shore juniper E N 0. 1 5 raw or cooked. 8- 10 mm.
I
5
Juniperus horizontal is Creeping juniper E N 1 4 roasted to make a coffee. Caution
advised.
Lindera benzoin Spice bush 0 N 3 5 dried and powdered as an allspice
substitute.
Lonicera angustifolia Narrow leaved 0 Y 2.7 5 raw; sweet, pleasant. 6 mm.
honeysuckle
Lonicera caerulea Blue honeysuckle 0 N 2 2 raw or cooked; subacid, pleasant. 6-15
mm long.
Lonicera chrysantha 0 4 3 raw. 7 mm.
Lonicera gracilipes 0 1.86 raw. 10 mm. Caution advised - may be
emetic.
Lonicera involucrata Twi n berry 0 1. 24 raw or dried; bitter. 8 mm.
Lonicera morrowi 0 2 3 raw. 7 mm. Caution advised may be
emetic.
Lonicera villosa 0 1.5 2 raw or preserved; mild, biUer.
Lophomyrtus bullata Ramarama E 5 9 raw or cooked ; guava flavour. 8-10 mm
with many seeds.
Luma apiculata Luma E Y 6 9 ,aw
0'
cooked; sweet , july, succulent .
variable. 10 mm.
Lycium andersonii Anderson wolfberry 0 raw or cooked. al so dried.
Lycium barbarum Box thorn 0 2.5 7 ,aw
DC cooked; mild sweet
liqUOrice!
flavour. 20-25 mm.
]LYCiUm berlandieri
1
10
1 1 1
[raw or cooked.
I
Lycium carolinianum Carolina wolfberry E 1.5 8 raw or cooked; pleasant, salty. T012mm 1
Lycium fremontii 0 3 raw or cooked.
I
Lycium pallidum Rabbit thorn 0 1.8 6 raw or cooked. alsop dried. 10 mm.
I
51
ILycium rutheni cum
!Mahonia aquifolium
Mahonia fremont ii

IMahonia ganpinensis
JRussian box thorn
IMountain grape
Mahonia haematocarpa Mexican barberry
IMahonia japonica
Mahonia napaulensis
!Mahonia nervosa
10regon grape
Mahonia nevini!
IMahonia pinnata
IMahonia repens IHolly grape
Mahonia swaseyi Texas mahonia
Margyricarpus pinnatus Pearl berry
jFalse huckleberry
Mitchella repens Squaw vine
Myrica californi ca California.r bayberry
Myrica cerifera Wax myrtle
Myrica gale Sweet gale
Myrica heterophylla Bayberry
Myrica pensylvanica Bayberry
Myrsine africana Cape myrtle
Myrtus communi s Myrtle
lNandina domestica ISacred bamboo
Nemopanthus Mountain holly
mucronatus
Oemleria cerasiformis 050 berry
jOsmanthus fragrans jFragrant olive
10steomeles schwerinae I
Pachysandra terminalis Japanese

Page 26
;;; c

om
o.
,-
2

(j lll

.>
0;
o
[0 [
[E
[y
[E [
E
E
1
0
1
E
E
0
0 N
0
0
E N
E Y
[E [
0
0 N

"'.

. a:;

Cc

'E 2
x
.E

E-

[2
[2
[0.3[6
2.5 8
0.3 9
jraw or cooked; sweet, insipid. 6 mm.
jraw or cooked; aci d, seedy. 7- 10 mm.
raw or (usually) cooked; acid, seedy. 15 :
mm long .
!raw or cooked.
raw or cooked; acid, jui cy, seedy. 6-8 i
mm. 1
Jraw or cooked: aci d, seedy. 9 mm,
raw or cooked, also dried; acid , seedy. 121
mm long.
Iraw or cooked; acid , seedy. 6 8 mm.
raw or cooked; acid lemony flavour, ,I
seedy. 6 mm.
Iraw or cooked acid seedy 6 mm
Iraw or cooked; acid , seedy. 9-10 mm.
raw or (usually) cooked. ; acid , seedy. 15
mm.
raw or cooked; slightly acid , mild flavour, !
white. 47 mm.
,
11 8 16 Jraw or dried 5-7 mm
0.0 3
5
4 7
9 6
2 1
3 6
3 2
0.7 9
5
4.5 8
[2.5 [7
3 5
2.5 6
raw; sweet, insipid, hangs well.
6-1 0 mm. 1
cooked, used for flavouring; aromati c, 6
'
mm in clumps.
cooked, used for flavouring: aromati c, 3
i
mm in clumps.
i
cooked , used for flavouring ; aromatic,
31
mm in clumps.
cooked, used for flavouring ; aromatic, 3
1
mm in clumps.
cooked, used for flavouring; aromati c, 3
1
mm in clumps.
dried and added t o pepper as a spice.
raw or cooked: aromatic flavouring.
8.
12
1
mm.
16.10 mm. Caution advised .
I
6 mm, rarely borne.
I
raw or (usually) cooked; bitter, poor,
10-1
15 mm. Caution advised.
Junrlpe frurts preserved In brine like olives.
Jraw; sweet , white. 8 mm.
raw; sweet , juicy, rarely borne
culti vation.
in l
J

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Peraphyllum Squaw apple 0 1. 8 5 raw or cooked, also dried; sweet, bitter
ramosissimum aftertaste. 8-10 mm.
Photini a grabra Japanese pholini a E 6 7 dried. Smm.
jPhollnla villosa
1
0
I
15 14 18 mm
!Pimelea arenaria ]Autetauranga
IE IN 10.219 13 mm!
Pimelea prost rata Pinataro E 0.1 9 2 mm!
Podocarpus nivalis Alpine totara E N 3 7 raw or cooked; sweet, pleasant. 7 mm
long.
Poncirus tri foliata Japanese bitter 0 Y 3 5 flesh cooked or used for juice. skin
fo'
orange marmalade; acid, bitter raw. 20-30 mm.
Prinsepia sinensis Cherry prinsepi a 0 1.8 4 raw or cooked; juicy, pleasantly sour. 15
mm long. Doesn' t fruit freel y In UK.
Prinsepia uniflora 0 1.8 5 raw or cooked; juicy. 12-15 mm. Doesn't
fruit freely in UK.
Prinsepia utilis 0 3.5 7 raw or cooked; sloe-like. 12-18 mm long.
Prunus apelala 0 5 6 raw or cooked. 8 mm.
Prunus besseyi Rocky mountain 0 1.2 3
'aw 0'
cooked, al so dried; sweetish,
cherry astringent. 18 mm.
Prunus bifrons 0 1.5 5 raw or cooked. 8mm.
Prunus campanulata Taiwan cherry 0 6 8 raw or cooked; astringent. 11 x 15mm.
Prunus canescens Greyleaf cherry 0 3 6 raw or cooked; cherry flavour. 10- 12 mm.
Prunus curdlca 0 0.56 raw or cooked; astringent, aci d.
Prunus x eminens 0 3 4 raw or cooked; sour.
Prunus fasciculata Desert almond 0 3 7 raw or cooked. 12 mm.
Prunus fruticosa Ground cherry 0 1.3 2 Cooked; sour, cherry flavour.
Prunus glandulosa Dwarf flowering 0 1 4 cooked (preserved or pickled). 10 mm.
almond
Prunus gracilis Prairie cherry 0 1.2 6 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried; poor
quality. 15-18 mm.
Prunus gymnodonta 0 5 raw or cooked.
Iprunus humilis !Bunge cherry
10
I
11515
ICooked; acid. 12- 15 mm.
Prunus ili cifolia Holl y leaved cherry E 4 9 raw. cooked
0'
dried. 12-16 mm, thin
flesh.
Prunus incisa Fuji cherry 0 6 6 raw or cooked. 8 mm.
Prunus insititia Bullace. damson 0 N 6 6 raw or cooked. To 20-30 mm.
Prunus japonica Japanese pl um E 1.5 4 raw or cooked; sweet or sour. 12-14mm.
Prunus kansuensis 0 6 4 cooked; poor.
Prunus laurocerasus l aurel E 6 7 raw or cooked; sweet, pleasant. 8 mm.
Caution advised.
Prunus lusi tanica Portuguese laurel E 6 7 fooked if nol biUer. S mm. Caution
cherry advised.
Prunus maritima Beach plum 0 2.5 3 ,aw m cooked; can be sweet and
pleasant. 12-25 mm.
Prunus nipponica Japanese alpine 0 5 6 raw or cooked. 8 mm.
I
cherry
--
, c-.. _
Page 27
i
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IPrunus x orthosepala
I
10
I
16
Iraw or cooked; juicy, pleasant. 25 mm.
Jprunus prostrata IRoCk cherry
10
I
I'
!raw or cooked; poor. 8-12 mm.
Prunus pumila Sand cherry raw or cooked; pleasantly acid, i

sometimes biUer. 8-12 mm.
IPrunus rivularis !Creek plum jraw or cooked excellent flavour 15 mm.
Prunus sibirica Siberian apricot 0 3 5 raw or cooked; sour, poor. 25 mm
diameter.
1
Prunus spinosa Blackthorn 0 3 4 raw or (usually) cooked; astringent, best
after frosts. 10-15 mm.
IPrunus tang utIca
10 1
14 15 jraw or cooked 20 mm
Prunus tenella Dwarf Siberian 0 0.8 2 raw or cooked; pleasant. 25 mm.
,
al mond
I
Prunus tomenta sa Downy cherry 0 2 2 raw or cooked; juicy, sub-acid to sweet.
Unripe fruits can be pickled. 10-12 mm.
JPrunus ursina IBear plum
10
I
[3
15
Iraw or cooked. 2Smm.
Prunus ussuriensis Ussuri plum 0 6 5 raw or co_oked; good.
I
Prunus virgi niana Choke cherry 0 3.6 2 raw or (usually) cooked, also dried; I
astringent raw, juicy, normally sweetened. ,
6-8 mm.
IPyracantha angustlfoha IFlre thorn Ipoor quallty. 6 mm.
JPyracantha coccinea IPyracanth Jcooked caution advised 5-6 mm
Pyracanth a crenulata Nepalese white thorn E 6 7
Pyronia veitchH 0 5 6 raw or cooked; sweet, good flavour when
ripe. Like a small pear to 80 mm long.
Rhamnus croce us Redberry E 4 8 raw; sweet. Caution advised, can cause
skin to tinge red! 6 mm.
Rhus aromatica Fragrant sumach 0 1.2 3 raw or cooked, but usually soaked in l
water to make a lemon-flavoured drink;
small. downy fruit in large heads.
Rhus copallina Mountain sumach 0 2 5 raw or cooked, but usually soaked in '
water to make a lemon-flavoured drink; I
small, downy fruit in large heads.
Rhus glabra Smooth sumach 0 3 2 raw or cooked, but usually soaked in
Rhus integrifolia lemonade berry E 2 9
raw or cooked, but usually soaked i ~ I
Rhus x pulvinata 0 3 3 raw or cooked, but usually soaked in I
water t ~ make a lemon-flavoured drink;
_ small, downy fruit in large heads.
Rhus trilobata Squaw bush 0 1.8 3 raw or cooked, but usually soaked in I
small, downy fruit in large heads. I
Rhus typhina Stag horn sumach 0 6 3 raw or cooked, but usually soaked in
water to make a lemon-flavoured drink; I
small , downy fruit in large heads.
>
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t ibes aciculare
Needle spined 0 1 3 raw or cooked; sweet, tasty.
gooseberry
fRibes alpestris
Hedge gooseberry 0 3 6 ra w or cooked. 16 mm.
I
!Ribes al pinum
!Alpine currant
10 IN 112 12
!raw or cooked; insi pid. 5 mm.
Ribes altissimum Hedge gooseberry 0 3 6 raw or cooked; thick skinned.
Ri bes amarum
Bitler gooseberry 0 raw or cooked; bitter.
Ri bes ambiguum 0 0.6 6 raw or cooked; acid, bristly. 12 mm.
Ribes americanum
American 0 1. 8 2 raw or cooked; variable f lavour. 10 mm.
I
blackcurrant
Ribes aureum
Golden currant 0 2.4 2 caw
0'
cooked; acid, good flavour. 5-6
mm.
Ribes bracteosum
Californian black 0 2.5 7 raw or cooked; poor. 5-8 mm.
curranl
Ribes burejense
0 1 5 raw or cooked; acid, good flavour lale on.
10 mm.
Ribes californicum
0 7 raw or cooked.
Ribes cereum
Wax currant 0 1.8 5 raw, cooked or 6
Ribes cruentum 0 raw or cooked.
--
Ribes curvatum 0 1 7 raw or cooked. 8mm.
Ribes cynosbati Prickly wild 0 1. 5 2 raw or cooked; sub acid, pleasant. 10
4
12
.. _---

mm, bri stly.
Ribes diacanthum 0 N 1.8 2 raw or cooked; sweet
4
acid. 5 mm.
Ri bes distans 0 N 1.8 2 raw or cooked; poor
Ribes diva rica tum Worcesterberry 0 2.7 4 raw or cooked; acid, jui cy. 10
Ribes emodense 0 6 raw or cooked.
Ribes fasciculatum 0 N 1.5 5 raw or cooked; unpalatable:. 5 mm.
Ribes fragrans 0 0.6 3 raw or 8 mm.
-
Ribes gayanum E 1. 5 8 raw or cooked; good flavour. 8 mm, hairy.
Ribes glaciale 0 raw or cooked; acid.
Ribes glandulosum Fetid currant 0 0.4 2 r aw or cooked; jui cy, palatable. 6
4
8 mm,
bristl y.
-
Ribes griffithii 0 raw or cooked; acid.
Ribes hi rtellum Hairy gooseberry 0 1 4 raw or cooked, also dried; pleasant. 8-10
mm.
Ribes horridum 0 raw or cooked; acid, succulent.
Ri bes x houghtonianum 0 2 5 raw or cooked; like redcurrants.
Ri bes hudsonianum Hudson bay currant 0 1 2 raw or cooked. 51 0 mm.
Ribes inebriens 0 2 4 raw or cooked. 5mm.
Ribes inerme 0 2 6 raw or cooked. 8 mm.
Ri bes irriguum 0 3 4 raw or cooked. 7- 13 mm.
Ribes janczewskii 0 raw or cooked; like blackcurrants.
japonicum 0 7 raw or cooked.
Ribes lacustre Swamp gooseberry 0 1.5 4 raw or cooked; acid, juicy, 5mm.
Ribes latifolium 0 raw or cooked.
- -


e
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IRibes laurifolium
IE
I
Ribes laxiflorum
Ribes leptanlhum Trumpet gooseberry 0
!Ribes lobbii [Gummy gooseberry
10
[Ribes longeracemosum
I
10
IRibes luridum
I
10
[Ribes magellanicum
I
10
Ribes malvaceum Chaparral currant
Ribes mandschuricum
IRibes maximowiczii
I
IRibes menziesii ICanyon gooseberry
IRibes mescalerium
1
10
I
Ribes meyeri 0
Ribes missouriense Missouri gooseberry 0
Ribes montigenum Gooseberry currant 0
IRlbes multlflorum
IRi __ nevadense ISierra currant
1
0
IRibes x nidigrolaria !JOstaber ry
10
Ribes nigrum Blackcurrant 0 Y
Ribes niveum Slender branched 0
gooseberry
Ribes odoratum Clove currant 0
Ri bes oxyacanthoides American mountain 0
gooseber ry
IRibes
1
10
I
paucifl orum 0
Ribes petiolare 0
Ribes petraeum Rock red cur rant 0
IR,bes plnetorum
Ribes procumbens
IRibes punctatum
IRibes quercetorum !Rock gooseberry
IRibes x robustum
IRibes roezti-i
ISierra gooseberry
Ribes rotundi f ol i um Eastern wi ld 0
gooseberry
[Ribes rubr um !Redcurrant
IRi bes sachalinense
IWinter currant
Page 30
1'_

"41

.... -=
ee

-
'22
x
.E

E-

l'
Jraw or cooked; like blackcurrants.
raw or cooked, also dried.
1 6 raw or cooked. 6-8 mm.
11.817
Iraw or cooked.
13.5 16
[raw or cooked; good flavour. 10 mm.
11 15
Iraw or c()_()ked ;acid.
14
I
[raw or coo.ked_: pleasant.
raw or cooked.
127 16
jraw or cooked: good. 10 mm.
1,8 17 [raw or cooked
1 I
[raw O! __
,
1 7 raw or cooked; pleasant.
I
2 5 raw or cooked; rich, acid f lavour.
10
0
14!
mm, smooth skin.
0.7 6 raw or cooked . 10 mm.
I
5
12 16 or cooked. 7- 10 mm.
1t .5 17 jraw or cO()ked.
118 J6 Iraw or cooked good 12-1 5 mm
1.8 5 raw or cooked; excellent aromati c fla vour. I
10-15 mm.
2.7 6 raw or cooked. 8 mm.
I
2.5 5 raw or cooked, also dried; sweet. 10-12 1
mm. !
1.5 2 raw or cooked; sweet, pleasant. 10-12\
mm.
!
11.5 1 .. . j
1.5 raw or .cooked; blackcurrants.
1.5 3 raw or cooked. 10 mm.
I
1.8 6 raw .. or cel_oked; acid, good but seedy.
I
!6 or_c()Clk.ed .. , .. To 15 mm.
raw or cooked; excellent.
()r 6 mm. !
/rav.' aCi.(j. i
raw or cooked; very good flavour. 6-8 !
mm. !
Iraw or c()oked; acid, good. 8-10 mm. j
!raw or pleasant.
Ribes setosum
tRibes sinanense
Ribes speciosum
tRibes spicatum
Ribes stenocarpum
tRibes !risle
Ribes ussuriense
Ribes uva-crispa
IRlbes valdrvlanum
tRibes vel utinum
jRibes vi burnifolium
!Ribes viscosissimum
Ribes warszewiczii
Ribes wolfii
Rosa aciculari s
Rosa arkansana
Rosa banksiae
Rosa blanda
Rosa caJifornica
Rosa canina
Rosa carolina
Rosa centi folia
Rosa chinensis
Rosa coriifolia
Rosa corymbifera
IRosa cymosa
Rosa dumalis
Rosa garlica
Rosa gigantea
Rosa gymnocarpa
Rosa hemsleyana
c
oc
o.
00
o.
EE 0'
E.
oc
o.
u
.,
o
Redshoot gooseberry 0
Fuchia-flowered
gooseberry
INordic currant
o
IAmerican red currant 10
0
Gooseberry 0

:e

-'-
..

Y
10 1
1
10
1
E
Sticky currant 0
0
0
Pri ckly rose 0 Y
Low prairie rose 0
Banks' rose 0
Meadow rose 0
0 Y
Dog rose 0 Y
Carolina rose 0
Cabbage rose 0 Y
China rose 0
0
0 Y
1
10
1
0 Y
French rose 0
Manipur wild tea rose 0
Wood rose 0
0

0>.

'Gj e

cc

'E2

E-

5
1.2 5
1 1
2 8
1 7
1. 5 3
3 6
2.5 2
1.2 4
10 7
2 2
2.55
3 3
1.5 4
1.56
6 7
2 5
3 6
112 17
2 4
2 5
15 9
3 6
6

Ei

raw or cooked; sub-acid, pleasant. 10
mm.
Iraw or cooked.
raw or cooked; brislly.
Iraw or cooked.
raw or cooked; acid. hairy. 25 mm.
Iraw or cooked" acid seedy 6 mm
raw or cooked; sweet and delicious when
ripe. 10-30 mm.
Iraw or cooked
]raw or cooked.
raw or cooked; acid, good. 10 mm.
raw or cooked.
raw or cooked, also made into syrups or
dried; rich sweet flavour, best after frosts.
15 mm long, thin flesh.
raw or cooked, also made into syrups or
dried; best after frosts. 15 mm long, thin
flesh.
raw or cooked. 6-7 mm, thin flesh.
Raw or cooked,also dried. 10 mm, thin
flesh.
raw or cooked, also made int o syrups etc.
12-30 mm, thin flesh.
raw or cooked; acid, tasty. B mm,
thin I
flesh.
raw or cooked; best after frosts. 12 mm,
thin flesh.
raw or cooked. 20 mm, thin ffesh.
raw or cooked. 25 mm, thin flesh.
raw or cooked; sweet, delicious. 12-20
mm, thi n flesh.
Iraw or cooked. 7 mm, thin flesh.
raw or cooked. To 30 mm, thin flesh.
raw or cooked; best after frosts. 6-10 mm,
thin flesh.
1
IRosa laevlgata ICherokee rose Iraw or cooked. 18-40 mm long , thin flesh.
Page 31
IRosa macrophylla
10 Iv
IRosa majalis ICinnamon rose
10 Iv
IRosa manca
I
10 I
IRosa micranlha
10 I
JRosa moyesii IMoyes rose
10
I
iRosa moschata IMusk rose
10 1
Rosa multiflora Japanese rose 0
Rosa nutkana Ash leaved rose 0 V
Rosa pimpinellifolia
Scotch rose 0 V
IRosa pisocarpa !Mortar rose
10
I
Rosa roxburghii Burr rose 0
Rosa rugosa Ramanas rose 0 V
IRosa se(lcea
10 IV
Rosa setipoda 0
Rosa sherardii 0
Rosa sweginzowii 0
Rosa tomentosa 0
Rosa villosa Apple rose 0 V
IRosa vlrglnlana
1
0
IRosa webbiana
10
Rosa woodsii Wood's rose 0
IRubus adenophorus
1
10
1
Rubus allegheni ensis Mountain blackberry 0 V
Rubus amabilis 0
IRubus bellobatus [Klttatlnny blackberry
10 IV
IRubus biflorus
10 I
]RUbUS buergeri
10 1
Rubus caesius European dewberry 0 V
Rubus canadensis American dewberry 0
IRubus corchonfollus
10
IRubus corea nus
10
IRubus crataegifolius
10
Rubus cuneifolius Sand blackberry
Page 32
i
Iraw or cooked. 2540 mm long, thin flesh.
Iraw or cooked. 10 16 mm, thin flesh.
1 I
/raw or cooked. Thin flesh .
Iraw or cooked. 12- 18 mm, thin flesh.
Iraw or cooked 10-15 mm thin flesh
l_
Is
Iraw or cooked. 5060 mm long, thin flesh. I
5 5 raw or cooked. 6-7 mm, thin flesh. ,
2.7 4 raw or cooked; juicy, acid,
best after l
frosts. 15-20 mm, thin flesh
1
_
raw or cooked; sweet, pleasant 15 mm' l
thin flesh.
12.5 16
]raw or cooked. 8-13 mm, thin flesh.
I
5 raw or cooked; aromatic, spiny. 30-40 mml
tong, thin flesh.
2 2 raw or cooked; sweet, pleasant. 25 mm' l
flesh thicker than most roses.
125 16 Iraw or cooked 8-15 mm thin flesh
6 raw or cooked. 25-75 mm
long, bristly, I
thin flesh.
5 raw or cooked. 12-20 mm, thin flesh.
I
6 raw or cooked . To 25 mm long., thin flesh.
3 6 raw or cooked. 18-25 mm, thin flesh.
1.8 5 raw or cooked. 25-30 mm diameter, thin
flesh.
[1.5 J3 [raw or cooked. 15 mm, thin flesh.
12 16 Jraw or cooked 15-25 mm thin flesh
2
_
raw or cooked; best after frosts. 10-15
mm, thin flesh.
12.5 16
Iraw or cooked; good. 10-12 mm.
3 3 raw, cooked or dried; sweet, spi cy
2 6 raw or cooked; sweet, good flavour. 15
mm.
1
Iraw or cooked. 30 mm long.
Iraw or cooked; sweet, pleasant. 20 mm.
1 16
]raw or cooked 25 mm
0.2 5 raw or cooked; succul ent, good flavour "
small.
2.5 3 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy, rich flavour. I
To 25 mm long.
12.5 16 [raw or cooked, VinOUS, good.
13 16 ]raw or cooked; poor flavour, small.
12.5 15 Iraw or cooked; sweet, good. A raspberry.
raw or cooked; dry, sweet, good flavour. 9
mm.
'"
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00

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Rubus del iciosus Boulder raspberry 0 3 5 raw or cooked ; dry, seedy, good flavour.
15 mm.
Rubus ellipticus Yellow Himalayan E 4.58 raw or cooked; sweet-acid, good flavour.
raspberry
Rubus flagellaris Northern dewberry 0 0.2 3 raw or cooked; rich flavour. 15 mm.
Rubus frondosus
Brainerd's blackberry 0 Y 0.8 5 raw or cooked.
jRubus fruticosus IBlaCkberry
10
Iy
13
6 raw or cooked; delicious. To 30 mm long.
I
!RubUS geoides
I
10
Iy
10.6 1
Iraw or cooked; juicy, good flavour.
Rubus glaucus !Andes black 0 Y 3 8 raw or cooked ; acid, juicy, good flavour.
raspberry To 30 mm long.
Rubus hirsutus 0 raw or cooked .
Rubus hispidus Swamp dewberry E 0.2 3 raw or cooked; acid, mediocre. 10-12 mm.
Rubus ichangensis 0 0.3 7 raw or cooked; good flavour, smal l.
Rubus idaeus Raspberry 0 Y 2 3 raw or cooked; delicious. To 30 mm long.
Rubus iIIecebrosus S tra wbe rry- rasp berry 0 0.6 5 <ow
0'
cooked; sweet , i nsipid. 30 mm
long.
Rubus kuntzeanus 0 3 6 raw or cooked; good flavour. 15-20 mm.
Rubus laciniatus Fern leaved bramble 0 2.5 5 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy, good flavour.
12-15 mm long.
Rubus lasiostylus 0 1.8 7 raw or cooked; mediocre. 25 mm.
Rubus leucodermis lJII estern raspberry 0 2.5 4 raw or cooked; good flavour.
Rubus loganobaccus Boysenberry 0 Y 2.5 8 raw or cooked; pleasant acid flavour. To
40 mm.
Rubus microphyllus Mayberry 0 9 raw or cooked; acid. 20 mm.
Rubus nepalensis Nepalese raspberry E 0.2 8 raw or cooked; good flavour. Fruits well in
part shade.
Rubus niveus

0 4 9 raw or cooked; juicy, rich flavour, small.
Rubus occidentalis Black raspberry 0 3 3 raw or cooked; variable quality. 15mm.
Rubus odoratus Purple flowering 0 2.5 3 ra w or cooked; acid, dry.
raspberry
Rubus parviflorus Thi mble berry 0 2.5 3 ,aw
0'
cooked, also dried. Sweet ,
pleasant. 20 mm.
Rubus parvifolius Japanese raspberry 0 0.6 6 raw or cooked ; juicy, good flavour, small.
Rubus parvus Creeping lawyer E N 0.2 9 raw or cooked; sweet. 12-25 mm.
Rubus pedatus Trailing wild 0 raw or cooked; j uicy, good flavour.

Rubus peltatus 0 7 raw or cooked.
Rubus phoenicolasius Japanese wineberry 0 3 5
'aw 0'
cooked; sweet, juicy, good. 20
mm.
Rubus rosaefol i us E 1 9 raw or cooked; insipid.
Rubus saxatilis Stone bramble 0 Y 0.3 4 raw or cooked; acid, good. 7mm.
Rubus setchuensis 0 3.5 5 raw or cooked; good flavour.
Rubus spectabilis Salmonberry 0 1.8 5 raw, cooked or dried; juicy, good ffavour.
Rubus tricolor Creeping bramble E 0.3 7 raw or cooked; good flavour. 15 mm.
Rubus trifidus E 2 6 raw or cooked; good flavour.
-
f
Rubus trivialis Southern dewberry
!Rubus ursinus IWestern blackberry to
IRubus villosus IHigh bush blackberry 10
Sambucus caerulea Blue berried elder 0
Sambucus callicarpa Red elderberry 0
Sambucus canadensis American elderberry 0 N
Sambucus melanocarpa Black elder o
Sambucus mexicana Mexican elderberry o
Sambucus microbotrys o
Sambucus nigra Elder
o y
Sambucus pubens Scarlet elderberry o
Sambucus racemosa European red elder o
Sambucus sieboldiana o
Sambucus williamsii o
Schinus polygamus Peruvian pepper tree E N
Shepherdia argentea Buffalo berry 0 N
Shepherdia canadensis Russet buffalo berry 0 N
Solanum aviculare
Solanum laciniatum
ISolanum muncatum
Sorbus gracili s
Sorb us scopulina
Sorbus sitchensls
ISymplocos panlculata
!Vaccinium alaskaense
accinium amoenum
Page 34
Kangaroo apple
Kangaroo apple
/Peplno
Western mountain
ash
Sitka mountain ash
ISapphlre berry
I A I ~ ' s k a blueberry
large
blueberry
E
E
0
0
0
3
3
4

cc
'E2

<
5
6
3
G
raw or cooked; juicy, sweet, good flavour.
10-15 mm.
/raw or cooked, also dried; sweet. 25 mm.
jraw or cooked- good quality 12-25 mm
raw, cooked, used in preserves; ripe fruit l
is pleasant raw. 6 mm in large heads.
Caution advised with raw fruits. I
raw, cooked or dried. 5 mm in large
heads. Caution advi sed with raw fruits.
raw or (usually) cooked or dried. Caution I
advised with raw fruits.
4 6 raw or cooked. 6 mm in large heads.
4
Caution advised with raw fruits.
raw or cooked. 6 mm in large
headS. ,
2 6 raw or cooked. 4 mm in large heads.
6 5 raw or cooked. also made into wine. 8
mm in large heads. Caution advised with
raw fruits.
4 4
3 4
4 6
5
raw or cooked; bitter. 5 mm in large
heads. Caution advised with raw fruits.
raw or cooked; good flavour. 5 mm inl
large heads. Caution advised with raw
fruits.
raw or cooked. Caution advised with .. r .. a.wl
fruits. .
raw or cooked. 5 mm. Caution advised
with raw fruits.
4.5 10 used as a flavouring; peppery.
4 2 raw or cooked. also dried; acid. pieasant' l
sweeter after frosts. 6-9 mm.
2.5 2 raw or cooked. also dried; acid. pleasant,
sweeter after frosts. 5 mm.
1.8 9
3 9
2 6
4 5
1.8 5
raw or cooked; poor quality,
unripe. 15-20 mm.
raw or cooked; poor quality,
unripe. 15-20 mm.
pOisonous l
poisonous I
/raw JUICY sweet aromatiC melon flavour I
I
raw, cooked or dried; bitter, best
afterl
frosts or bletting. 5 mm.
raw or cooked; best after frosts.
6-12 mmj
in clusters.
[cooked. 8 mm.
Iraw or cooked ; sweet.
,
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Vaccinium Low bush blueberry 0 0.2 2 ra w or cooked; sweet, pleasant fl avour. 6-
angustifolium 12 mm.
!VaCCinium arbuscula 0 0.6 raw or cooked.
Vaccinium Caucasian 0 3 7 raw or cooked; sweet, good. 10 mm.
I
arctostaphylos whorUeberry
IVaccini um ashei !Rabbi! eye blueberry
10 IN 15 IB
Iraw or cooked; good fla vour.
10- 20 mm.
I
Vaccinium x attanticum 0 1 raw or cooked ; sweet. To 20 mm.
I
Vaccinium atrococcum Black high bush 0 N 3.5 4 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy, good fl avour. I
blueberry 6-8 mm.
Vacciniurn Bustrale Swamp highbush 0 4 6 raw or cooked; good f lavour. 7-12 mm.
blueberry
Vacciniurn boreale 0 0.2 2 raw or cooked ; sweet. 3 mm.
Vaccinium brachybotrys 0 raw or cooked.
Vaccinium bracteatum E 1 7 raw or cooked. 6 mm.
Vaccinium caesar iense New Jersey D 1.5 raw or cooked. 8 mm.

Vaccini um caespitosum Dwarf huckleberry 0 0.3 2 raw or cooked; sweet, good fl avour. 5-B
mm.
Vaccinium constablaei 0 1 raw or cooked; delici ous. 10 mm.
Vaccinium corymbosum High bush blueberry 0 N 2 2 raw or cooked; sweet, juicy, excellent. 12-
20 mm.
Vaccinium crassifolium Creeping blueberry E 0.1 7 raw or cooked; sweet. 12 mm,
Vaccinium SE 3 8 raw or cooked; pleasant. 25 x 8 mm.
I
cylindraceum
Vacci nium darrowi Darrow blueberry 0 raw or cooked; sweet.
Vaccini um delavayi E 0.9 8 raw or cooked. 4-5 mm.
Vaccini um deliciosum Cascade blueberry 0 0. 3 6 raw or cooked; sweet, rich, armoatic. 5-B
mm.
-
Vaccinium duclouxii 0 3 raw or cooked; sweet, good. 5mm.
Vaccinium dunalianum 0 4 raw or cooked. 5 mm.
accini um elliotti i Elli ott' s blueberry 0 4 6 raw or cooked. 8 mm.
Vacci nium Bearberry 0 1.5 6 raw or cooked; acid, poor. 8- 12mm.
erythrocarpum
jVaccinium floribundum Columbian blueberry E 2 8-9 raw or cooked; j uicy, sub-aci d, good. 5
(V. mortinia) mm.
Vaccinium fragile E 0.4 6 raw or cooked. 6mm.
Vacci ni um glaucoal bum E 1.2 raw or cooked; poor. 6mm.
Vaccinium griffithianum SE 1.2 8 raw or cooked.
Vaccinium hirsutum
Hai ry
0 N 6 raw or cooked; sweet , insipid. 6-7 mm.
Vaccinium x 0 0.3 raw or cooked. 6 mm.
intermedium
Vaccinium iteophyllum 0 raw or cooked.
Vaccinium japonicum E 0.9 raw or cooked; acid. 5-8 mm.
Vaccini um koreanum 0 raw or cooked .
Vaccini um leucanthum 0 raw or cooked. 5 mm.
..... _.- - -.-
..
-... -... -
----
Page 35
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Vaccinium macrocarpon Cranberry E Y 0.2 2 raw or cooked, also dried. Acid.
12-
16
1
mm.
Vacci nium Georgia blueberry 0 1.2 6 raw or cooked. 8-10 mm.
I
melanocarpum
Vaccinium Big huckleberry 0 1 6 raw or cooked; sweet-acid, good flavour. '
membranaceum 5-8 mm
I
!Vacclnlum modes tum
/0 /
10 218 Iraw or cooked good
IVaccinium moupinense
I
IE
I
1061
jraw or cooked. 5-6 mm.
I
Vaccinium myrsinites Evergreen blueberry E 0.5 7 raw or cooked. 12 mm.
/
Vaccinium myrtilJoides Sour top blueberry 0 0.6 2 raw or cooked; acid, good. 6-8 mm.
/
Vaccinium myrtilJus Bilberry 0 Y 0.2 3 raw or cooked, also dried; sweet-acid,
good flavour. 5-12 rnm.
Vaccinium neglectum Oeerberry 0 1.5 raw or cooked. 6 mm.
accinium nummularia E 0.1 7 raw or cooked. 6mm.
/
Vaccinium occidental is Western huckleberry 0 0.8 raw or cooked. Smm.
Vaccinium oldhamii 0 N 3.5 6 raw or cooked. 6-8 mm.
/
Vaccinium ovalifolium Mathers 0 3 3 raw or cooked, also dried; sweet-acid,
poor texture. 8-10 mm.
Vaccinium ova tum Evergreen E 2.5 7 raw, cooked or dried. Sweet, fair flavour.
huckleberry 5-6 mm.
Vaccinium oxycoccus Small cranberry E Y 0.1 2 raw or cooked; acid, pleasant. 5-12 mm.
lVaccinium padifolium Madeiran 0 2.5 raw or cooked: sweet-acid, juicy. 8-12
whortleberry mm.
rvaccinium pallidum Hillside blueberry 0 0.7 raw or cooked. 6-Bmm.
Vaccinium parvifolium Red bilberry 0 1.B S raw, cooked or dried; acid, good, like
cranberries. 10-12 mm.
Vaccinium praestans Kamchatka bilberry 0 0.1 4 raw or cooked; sweet, fragrant, delicious.
5 12 mm.
Vaccinium ' Prince SE 2 raw or cooked. 12x8mm.
Charming'
Vaccinium pubicalyx 0 raw or cooked .
/
Vaccinium retusum E 1 raw or cooked. 5mm.
Vaccinium scoparium Grouseberry 0 0.1 3 raw, cooked or dried. 4-6mm.
5
Vaccinium serratum 0 raw or cooked.
Vaccinium sieboldii E 4 raw or cooked. 5 mm.
IVacclnlum Slkklmense
IE
10.6 18 Iraw or cooked.
Vaccinium simulalum raw or cooked; delicious, 10 mm.
Vacciniurn smallii raw or cooked. 6-7 mm.
!Vaccinium sprengelii Iraw or cooked. 5 mm.
!Vaccinium stramineum IOeerberry Iraw or cooked' poor raw 6-10 mm
lVaccinium tallapausae 0 raw or cooked.
/
Vaccinium tenellum Small-cluster 0 0.2 6 raw or cooked; poor.
6-8m_m. __
blueberry 5
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Vaccinium uliginosum Bog whortleberry 0 0.7 2
5
raw or cooked; juicy, sweet. 51 2 mm.
I
[Vacci nium vacillans !Oryland blueberry
10
I
1121
Jraw or cooked; good. 5 mm.
Vaccinium vitis-idaea Mountain cranberry E Y 0.2 5 raw or cooked; acid, pleasant. best after
5 frosts. 5-12 mm.
Vi burnum acerifolium Oockmackie 0 3 3 raw or cooked; sweet. 8mm.
/
iViburnum
bodnantense
x 0 3 7 raw or cooked; sweet. To 20 mm.
Viburnum cassinoides Sweet viburnum 0 N 2.5 2 raw or cooked: sweet, good flavour, thin
flesh. 8- 10 mm.
Viburnum cordifolium 0 6 9 raw or cooked.
Viburnum corylifo!ium 0 6 6 raw or cooked. 8 mm.
Viburnum cotinifolium Smoketree vi burnum 0 N 3.5 6 ,aw or cooked; sweet, thin flesh. 8-12
mm.
Viburnum dentatum Arrow wood 0 N 4.5 2
,aw
0< cooked; sweet, pleasant, thin
flesh. 10 mm.
Viburnum dilatatum 0 N 3 5 raw or cooked; sweet. 8-9 mm.
Viburnum edule Mooseberry 0 N 2.5 5 raw or cooked; mildy acid, pleasant, best
after frosts. 7-9 mm.
iburnum erosum 0 N 1.86 raw or cooked. 6-8 mm.
iburnum erubescens SE 5 6 raw or cooked; sweet.
Vi burnum farreri 0 N 3 6 raw or cooked; sweet.
Vi burnum foetens 0 3 6 raw or cooked; sweet.
Viburnum foetidum E 3 9 raw or cooked. 6-8 mm.
jvl burnum fordll
/0 /
Iraw or cooked
jviburnum furcat um 0 3.56 raw or cooked.
Viburnum grandiflorum 0 N 2 7 raw or cooked; sweet. 12-20 mm.
Vi burnum japonicum E 1.8 7 raw or cooked. 8mm.
Viburnum lantanoides HobbJeberry 0 N 3 3
'aw 0'
cooked; sweet, palatable,
thin I
flesh. 8- 15 mm.
!Viburnum mongolicum
I
10
I
12 15
Iraw or cooked.
!Viburnum mullaha
I
10 IN
13 1
9 Iraw or cooked; acid. 8 mm.
IViburnum nudum [Withe rod
10 IN 14.516
Iraw or cooked; sweet or bitter. 812 mm.
Viburnum E 5 9 raw or cooked.
odoratissimum
Viburnum opulus Guelder rose 0 Y 5 3 raw or cooked; acid, astringent. best after
frosts. Caution advised .sp with
'aw
fruits.
Viburnum 0 2.56 raw or cooked. 9-10 mm.
phlebotrichum
Vi burnum plicatum 0 3 5 raw or cooked.
.tomentosum
Vi burnum sargentii Sargent cranberry 0 3 3 raw or cooked. 8-10mm.
iburnum setigerum Tea viburnum 0 3.5 5 raw or cooked; sweet, thin fl esh. 12 mm.
/
14 14 Iraw or cooked. 10-12 mm.
_J

u
&
IViburnum suspensum
Viburnum triloburn

IVlburnum veltchll
IViburnum wrighlii
Vitex agnus-c3slus
Yucca angusl issima
Yucca baccata
Ivucca elata
IYucca filamentosa
IYucca filifera
Yucca glauca
!Yucca gloriosa
IYucca harrimaniae
IYucca recurvifolia
IYucca rupicola
IYucca smalliana
IYucca whipplei
Zanthoxylum alal um
Zanthoxylum armatum
amencanum
IzanthOXYl um
Zanthoxylum
bungeanum
Zanthoxylum coreanum
Zanthoxylum piperitum
_.,.,.,
Page 38
V,'merican cranberry 0 Y 3 2 raw or cooked; juicy, acid, astringent, l
bush best after frosts. Made into a cranberry l
jelly substitute. 8-10 mm. Caution advised !
esp with raw fruit. .
Iraw or cooked, sweet. 8 mm.
Jo
Iraw or cooked 8 mm ,
Chaste tree 0 3 7 used as a condiment; peppery.
I
E 0.4 8 immature fruits are cooked and eaten !
without the bi tter skin. 60 x 25 mm.
,
Spanish bayonet E 0.9 9 raw, cooked or dried; large, fleshy, sweet, j
palatable. 170 x 70 mm. 1
!Soap tree yucca
IE
1
12
[9 Iraw or cooked; dry. 50 x 36 mm.
i
ISpoonleaf YtJ_c:: e:a
IE I
I'
.2 4 raw, cooked or dri ed; large, fleshy.
J
Iraw or cooked.
Soapweed
IE
"!raw 'or cooked. To 100 x 26 mm. !
raw or cooked , also dried; dry, bitter skin. 'I '
To 80 x 12 mm.
[
limmature fruit is cooked; skin biUer. I
[raw cooked . !
leaf YlJcca
Iraw or cooked. i
..
/raw or cooked. J
]2 [8 !raw or cooked !
Nepal pepper 0 Y 4 6 used as a condiment; .ragrant. peppery. ,
The papery shell around the seed is the
flavoured part but the seed is ground
with it. 6 mm in
I
O
Y 3 6 used as a condiment; fragrant, peppery. j
The papery shel l around the seed is the!
1
together wi th il . 5 mm i n heads.
i
Prickly ash 0 Y 4 3 used as a condiment; fragrant . peppery. ,
he papery shell around the seed is the
together with it. 5 mm in heads.
0 Y 3 6 used as a condiment; fragrant, peppery. j
The papery shel l around the seed is the!
flavoured part but the seed is groundl
together with it. 5 mm i n heads. f
0 Y 3 6 used as a condiment; fragrant, peppery. I
flavoured part but the seed i s grOund!
together with it. 5 mm in heads. .
Pepper tree 0 Y 2 6 used as a condiment; fragrant, peppery.
.. ,,,"",. -.. .. ... -. . - - -- -
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Zanthoxylum D Y 3 5 used as a condiment; fragrant . peppery.
planispinum The papery shell around the seed is the
flavoured part but the seed
is ground !
anlhoxylum Szechuan pepper D Y 3 6 used as a condiment; fragrant, peppery. l
schinifolium The papery shell around the seed IS the
flavoured part but the seed is ground I
together with it. 5 mm in heads. ,
Zanthoxylum simulans Chinese pepper D Y 3 6 used as a cond;meot; "ag,anl, peppe,Y"
flavoured part bul the seed is ground
together with it. 5 mm in heads. -..J
Fodder trees and shrubs
Cultivated fodder trees and shrubs can grow in dry and marginal areas of the Mediterranean
and other similar climatic areas, and provide valuable feed to livestock during the long dry
summer period and also mid-winter when herbaceous plants are dormant.
Research between 1991 and 1995, financed by the Ee, found some important results, some of
which are applicable to temperate areas too.
Chamaecytisus proliferus is a very productive and palatable
semi-arid environments with mild winters and acid soils.
palmensis (tagasaste) and canariae were found suitable.
fodder shrub suited to
Both the sub-species
GfedUsia triacanthos (honey locust) is an interesting fodder tree for its fruits (pods) .
Good on deep soils with a good water holding capacity arer preferred to sandy soils.
Pod yields vary widely between trees. the best producing 376 kg/ha at 4-5 years old.
Pods are available to animals in the winter months when the need is most. Pod
production is on top of ground production of grasses etc. which themselves provide
significant herbage. Sheep thrive on the pods because of their high percentage of
sugars and good digestibility.
Medicago arborea (tree medic) is a very palatable winter growing shrub. dormant in
the summer, but sensitive to winter frosts.
Morus alba (white mulberry) is a very productive and palatable fodder tree for its
foliage, especially if shrubby varieties such as the Japanese cultivar ' Kosuko 21' is
used. There is already a tradition in Provence (France) of farmers cutting Marus
foliage from ancient trees to feed their animals (sheep or goats) at the end of summer
(August-September) as a 'dessert' at the end of the day.
Page 39
Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust) is a very productive fodder tree for its foliage.
Thornless varieties are more suitable for grazing by sheep, and plants are best kept
shrubby. The forage quality is one of the highest for deciduous fodder trees and
shrubs, and it is the first species to be preferred by goats during the summer period.
Weeds have a significant affect on fodder trees and shrubs. Plants are best
intercropped with herbaceous plants, grasses or legumes - possibly using mostly
annual plants to intercrop to reduce the competitiveness.
The productivity of fodder trees and shrubs depends on environmental conditions and
the ages of the plants. In general, Medicago produces a maximum of 500 gfplant of
edible biomass in optimum locations, but only half that in less favourable situations
after 3 years. Morus and Robinia produce higher quantities of edible biomass than
Medicago on good sites, but on poor sites production is less than 500 gfplant. Other
plants tested included Amorpha fruticosa (false indigo), Atriplex halimus (tree
purslane), Caragana arborescens (Siberian pea tree), Carpinus orienta/is (Oriental
hornbeam), Colutea arborescens (bladder senna), Coronilla emerus (crown vetch),
Fraxinus om us (manna ash), Ostrya carpinifolia (hop hornbeam), Pyrus
amygdaliformis (almond-leaved pear) and Quercus spp. (oaks)' The majority of these
deciduous fodder shrubs tested produced 100 to 200 g/plant; even such low
quantities, however, calculated on an area basis, out yield most other resources while
they have the benefit of being available in critical periods of the year.
Total annual rainfall and its distribution significantly affect fodder production. Spri ng
rainfall is a decisive factor in shrub growth of several species, ego Amorpha, Morus,
Robinia). Mild rainy springs can increase browse production by over 50%.
The majority of deciduous fodder trees and shrubs tested retained relatively high
levels of crude protein and satisfactory levels of fibre in the summer. Thus, used as a
feed supplemen(for sheep and goats, they can maintain or even increase body weight
because they compare favourably with standard feeds such as dried alfalfa.
Reference
Papanastasis, V P; Selection and Utilization of Cultivated Fodder Trees and Shrubs in the
Mediterranean Region. CIHEAM, 1999.
Classified adverts
and videos for permaculture, sustainable systems
design and practical solutions to environmental
to eco-Iogic books (AN), 10-12 Pi cton Street.
Bristol, BS6 5QA.
Page 40
21-22 May and 10-11 September; learn how
to design, implement and maintain a forest
garden. Growing Nut Crops 8-9 October.
More details from A.R.T., 46 Hunters Moon,
Dartington, Tolnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. Tel/fax
(01803) 840776. mail@agroforestry.co.uk
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture! horiiculture to produce a
diverse, oroductive and resilieni system for producing food, materiais, iimber and
shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of
tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected
and productive system.
Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a
request for 3 x 1 st class stamps. Back issues cost 4.00 per copy including
Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
Agroforestry Research Trust 1
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440), with the object to
Agroforestry News
Fibre plants
Volume 13 Number 3 May 2005
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News
5 Lime bast cordage in Northern Europe
8 Fibre sources from bark
16 Pine nuts: present and future prospects
19 Bamboo utilisation in China
22 Processing plant materials into fibres
25 Mulberries in China and Japan
28 A power driven nut cracker
30 Bamboo as a building material in Europe
32 Bamboo fibre
33 Compendium of edible fruits: (3) climber shrubs
37 The nettle: Urlica dioica
Publisher: Agroforestry News is publi shed quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust.
Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington,
Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Email : mail@agroforestry.oo.uk Website: lNWW.agroforestry.co.uk
Page 1
- ---=-:::...----
News
Health benefits of limonoids
In laboratory tests with animals and with human cells, citrus limonoids have been shown to help
fight cancers of the mouth, skin, lung, breast, stomach, and colon. New research has
uncovered details about these compounds and has demonstrated that our bodies can readily
access a limonoid called limonin, and all its health-imparting properties, each time we bite into a
citrus slice or drink a glass of orange juice, for instance. This is the first time this bioavai lability
has been shown in humans.
Limonin is what remains after our bodies cleave a glucose, or sugar molecule, from limon in's
parent compound, limonin glucoside. Limon in glucoside is present in citrus and citrus juices in
about the same amount as vitamin C. In some individuals, limonin remains in the bloodstream
for up to 24 hours - an impressive length of time - and this persistence may help explain some
limonoids' ability to fight cancer celis, which, if not continuously suppressed, may proliferate. In
contrast, some natural compounds are bioavailable for shorter periods and have to be taken
more than just once a day, for example the phenols in green tea last only 4 to 6 hours.
The chemicals can be extracted from peels, seeds, and other processing leftovers, called citrus
molasses, which currently hold little value are have uses such as ingredients in cattle feed.
Source: Manners, G et al: Citrus Compound: Ready To Help Your Body! Agricultural Research, Feb 2005.
Biological control of Varroa mites of bees
The honey bee is critical to maintaining natural vegetation, transferring polJen between flowers
as it collects the pollen and nectar for its hive. And numerous agricultural plants are pollinated
by honey bees.
Parasites known as Varroa mites infest honey bee colonies, sucking blood from the bees and
causing weight loss, deformities, diseases. and reduced lifespan. These mites, which can
nearly destroy an entire colony within a few fTIonths, now infest honey bee colonies across most
of North America and much of Europe including Britain.
Since 2000, scientists in the USA have been looking for a pathogen, that can stop Varroa mites.
The mite has developed resistance to the only approved chemicals-fluval inate and
coumaphos-now used for control in the USA, and coumaphos is on the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's "hit list" for possible removal from the market. So the researchers have
looked at various disease agents, tried different dosages and application methods, and
conducted toxicity tests. Finally, they selected a strain of the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae
that was highly pathogenic to Varroa mites.
This potent fungus, which also kills termites, doesn't harm bees or affect their queen's
production. To test it, the scientists coated plastic strips with dry fungal spores and placed
them inside the hives. Since bees naturally attack anything entering their hives, they tried to
chew up the strips, spreading the spores throughout the colony. In field trials, once the strips
were inside the hives, several bees quickly made contact with the spores. Within 5 to 10
minutes, all the bees in the hive were exposed to the fungus, and most of the mites on them
died within 3 to 5 days. The fungus provided excellent control of Varroa without impeding
colony development or population si ze.
Tests showed that Metarhizium was as effective as fluvalinate pesticide, even 42 days after
application. The scientific team is now finetuning the strategy for transfer to producers.
Source: Flores, A: Saving Bees: Fungus Found To Attack Varma Mites. Agricultural Research, Oct 2004.
Medicinal uses of Cornel ian cherry
Cornelian cherry (Comus mas) is a tall deciduous shrub or small tree which is grown mostly in
Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean area (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece), the Caucasus and
Middle East (Turkey, Iran), Central Asia and South America. Its northern limit in Europe is the
UK, southern Belgium and central Germany.
Cultivation of Cornelian cherry in the Caucasus and central Asia has occurred for centuries,
mainly for food and medicine, but also as an ornamental and honey plant. The wood is hard
and is used for making furniture, jewellery and traditional musical instruments. Most often used
are the fruits; in its native habitat yields of 500 to 1000 kg per hectare occur, though in orchard
plantings yields can reach 5000 kg/ha.
In the traditional medicine system of the Caucasus and Central Asia, carnelian cherry has been
used for more than 1000 years. Products made from the leaves, flowers and fruit are used to
treat sore throats. digestion problems. measles, chickenpox, anaemia, rickets, hepatitis A and
pyelonephritis. The fruit juice is used for diabetes. Products from the leaves, dried and
powdered fruits and dried ground drupes (fruit plus seed) are used for diarrhoea and
haemorrhoids. Products from the bark and evaporated juice are used to treat skin wounds and
furunculosis.
Researchers in the former USSR noted that the flesh of the fruit and seed oil are useful for
recovery and regeneration of damaged skin, and have been used successfully to cure difficult-
to-heal wounds, stomach ulcers and colitis. The fruit, bark and leaves have also demonstrated
antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus and E.coli bacteria.
A study in Azerbaijan of the properties of the fatty oil obtained from the drupes (which contain
34-35% of the oil) showed significant antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus and E.cali
bacteria.
Source: Mamedov, N & Craker, l ' Carnelian Cherry: A Prospecti ve Source for Phytomedicine. Acta Hort.
629, ISHS 2004, pp 8386.
Health benefits of apples
The Apple Cancer Research Project in New Zealand is investigating two lines of research into
apples as a medicinal fruit.
A 36 year study in Finland has reported that components found in apples appear to reduce the
risk of many diseases including cancer, heart disease, strokes and asthma.
The flavonoid quercetin was highlighted as the phytonutrient with the best health-promoting
capabilities. This is found most abundantly in apples (especially the skins) , onions, tea and red
wine; in the study, those that had the highest quercetin intake had the lowest risk of total
mortality (ie the lowest risk of dying of any cause) during the 36 years.
Apples varieties can vary considerably in the levels of quercetin and other flavonoids they
contain, and can also be affected by cfimate and growing conditions. Varieties with high levels
of phenolic compounds. like. often have yell.ow or red flesh , and there is now work
going on to breed varietIes hIgh In these health-promotmg compounds.
A further possible anticancer compound is found in apple pips (and the pips from apricots,
peaches, nectarines, plums, cherries etc.), which is amygdalin. This is the substance which
supposedly makes such pips toxic, as it has cyanide locked within it However, locked within
the amygdal in molecule, the cyanide is chemically inert and harmless to normal Jiving tissue. (In
the same way, salt is safe to eat but it contains the toxic chemical chlorine locked within it). Of
you eat too much salt or amygdalin, you would be ill; however amygdalin is less toxic
than salt or sugar.
If amygdal in is eaten and there are cancer cells in the body, these cells have within them an
enzyme which unlocks the cyanide, which then targets only the cancer cells that have unlocked
it, destroyi ng them. Normal cells have a different enzyme which unlocks the amygdal in in a
different way and releases nutrients and a neutralising agent which would neutralise any
cyanide it came into contact wit h. Any cyanide which escaped into the bloodstream would be
quickl y neutralised by the liver. The concept of the cyanide in apple pips eliminating any cancer
cells in the body, before their presence in the body may even be apparent, is a very attractive
option. Mark Christensen of the ACRP recommends that whenever we eat an apple, we should
always eat the pips.
Source: Christensen. M: Ambitious Plans to Further Apple Research. The Tree Cropper, 40, 19-27.
Soil fertility changes in forest gardens
A recent study examined changes in soil properties of new woodlands established on former
agricultural land. This might be of use in looking at such changes likely to occur in forest
garden systems, which are usually set up in gardens or on former agricultural land with similar
characteristics.
Changes occurred most rapidly in the first 40 years after planting with trees, and more slowly
thereafter . The changes noted were:
Increased soil organic matter
Increased total nitrogen contents
Decreased available phosphorus and potassium in soil
Decreased soil pH (ie more acid over time)
Our own experience in Devon is that over the last 10 years, soil organic matter has increased
and soil pH has not decreased. By the deliberate inclusion of many deep rooting mineral
accumulating plants, decreases in soil nutrients should be minimised; however if the forest
garden contains many fruiting plants, which require good sources of potassium in particular, as
well as phosphorus, it is possible that in time extra sources of these nutrients may be required
to maintain fruiting capability.
Source: Hipps, N et al : Soil fertility and wild plants in new woodlands. EMRA Farm Woodlands report 2004.
Lime bast cordage in Northern Europe
Introduction
Manufacture of lime bast cordage (string and rope made from the bark of lime trees, Tilia spp)
has been an unbroken tradition from the Mesolithic (9000-3000 Be) to the present day.
The cordage was usually manufactured by stripping off the bark in midsummer, submerging it in
water to dissociate the adjacent bast layers, then peeling off the outer bark and separating the
bast (inner bark) layers in narrow bands; these were then spun to make cords, which in turn
were twisted to make cordage.
Ume bast cordage is characterised by pliability, low specific weight, low extensibility and limited
water absorbance.
Cordage was one of the most important tools of stone age man as it was crucial for fishing and
construction of traps ; later it paved the way for ploughing, sailing and artificial irrigation, all
important technical milestones.
Historically, cordage has been produced from a wide variety of plant fibres, but the bast layer of
certain species provides the unique combination of volume, strength and pliability, with lime,
elms, oaks, juniper and willows as the main sources. Due to its superior strength, lime has
been by far the most important of these sources in Europe.
Bast
Anatomically, bast is part of the secondary phloem of trees (the vascular system between the
dead outer bark and the xylem.) The primary function of the phloem is the transport of
assimilates and nutrients; it is composed mostly of sieve tubes (parenchyma and sclerenchyma
cells). The latter of these types form dead strengthening tissue which consists of short sclerids
and long lignified fibres with thick cellulose walls. The bast is composed mostly of these fibres.
In contrast to the other phloem tissue components, the bast does not take part in the process of
conduction.
In lime, the bast grows in 10-12 successive layers, more or less separated by softer layers of
vascular tissue, wi th the most recent and smoothest part of the bast layer near the wood, and
the coarsest part near the outer bark. Bast from trees or branches over 15-20 years old is
generally coarse, stiff and less durable than bast from trees and branches 10 years old or less.
Bast quality is also affected by growing conditions.
History
Lime bast cordage has been found on Viking ships from the 9
th
century and has been a very
important article of trade and use in Norway, Sweden and other northern European countries
until very recently. It was mainly produced in rural areas and sold to city dealers, and was
exported, for example to England, during medieval times.
During the days of sailing ships, demand was high - the cordage was used for mooring ropes
and for the complete rigging of small wooden vessels. In larger vessels it was used in the
standing parts of the rigging. Despite the introducti on of hemp cordage in the 15
t h
century, lime
bast cordage retained its popularity in fishing and agriculture in Norway, Sweden and the Baltic
countries, due to its pliability and limited water absorbance.
In more recent times, the cordage has been made throughout the 20
t h
century in Norway and
the eastern Baltic area and used domestically nets, bags, pots, indoor shoes,
paper, weaving, grafting etc. It was an especIally Important product durmg World War II when
other cordage was unavailable.
Silviculture of lime trees for bast
The bast was usually obtained from young lime trees or from thicker branches of older trees
which ..yere pollarded or coppiced, resulting in new straight shoots. The high stump from
pollarding prevented new shoots being browsed by deer and cattle. Lime trees can tolerate
drastic cutting.
Cultivated trees that yielded the best bast were re-cut every 5- 10 years and produced a bast
layer about 2 mm thick. Over the years and many cycles of cutting and re-growth, the trees
developed a characteristic appearance with a thick stump, comparatively thin branches and
dense crown.
In lime forests cultivated for bast production, trees were carefully spaced to give good
conditions for growth. Trees on moist sites were said to produce the toughest bast.
Bast manufacture
There were 3 principal ways of obtaining the bast:
1. Most commonly, the trees or branches were cut in early summer, around the beginning
of June, when the leaves had just grown to full size. The bark was stripped off the
wood and submerged in fresh water or sea water for 4-6 weeks for retting, a process
during which the pectin and lignin components degraded sue to bacterial decay. This
caused a separation of the individual bast layers, and released the bast from the outer
bark. The relting partly delignified the bast , weakening it, but this was reduced in sea
water, hence this was preferred over fresh water. The speed f relting depended on
the temperature of the water, and warm weather could speed the process to a few
weeks. If whole tree segments were submerged, the relting took longer.
When the relting was finished, the. bast was peeled off the bark in long paper-thin
bands and the outer bast layers were separated from the stronger and more pliable
inner bast to distinguish the different qualities.
2. Trees or branches could be cut in early spring (during the ascent of the sap). The
bark was stripped and the bast layers could be freed from the outer bark without prior
submerging.
3. The trees were cut in winter and were subjected to warm smoke in chimney-l ess
stoves for 24 hours. Again, the bast could be separated from the outer bark without
relting.
The latter two techniques, though not requiring retting, produced strong but stiff bast which
could be spun to form cords without further treatment. It was usually the first technique which
was used though, even though it was more work, because this filted in better with farmers'
schedules, with tree cutting scheduled after hay making.
The next step was spinning the bast to make cords, and in turn the cordage was made by
twisting the cords. The most usual construction was three 3-4 mm thick cords (three plied)
twisted anti-clockwise. However, lime bast cordage was made in all dimensions, from thin and
slender two-lied cordage of 6 mm, to 70 mm thick four-plied cordage. Cordage could also be
supercoiled to make cables; these consisted of two or more strands of cordage (each made up
of 2-8 cords) twisted together to form a much stronger product up to 160 mm thick.
These techniques enabled the production of a wide range of qualities in softness, thickness and
strength, depending on processing and purpose. However, manufacture of bast cordage was
very labour intensive.
Cordage properties
Lime bast cordage is not as strong as hemp, manila or nylon, but is lighter with less elongation
under strain. It is also nearly 50% stronger when wet than when dry, making it by far the
strongest bast fibre from European trees in wet conditions. Dry lime bast cordage has a
specific gravity under 1 - it floats.
Breaking load (N)
Dry
Wet
Elongation (%)
Dry
Wet
Approx weight (kg/220 m)
Specific gravity
Lime bast
1930
2830
10.7
15.4
11.8
<1
Hemp Manila Nylon
8624 10457 29400
15 45
25.0 23.0 20.6
1.48 1.14
Lime bast cordage is resistant to decay. Water absorption is minimal - a crucial factor for
releasing knots. Limited swelling and low weight made the cordage ideal for use in fisheries.
Due to the retting, it was softer to handle and probabl y superi or in this respect than any
contemporary alternatives. This softness would have been appreciated in non-industriali sed
agriculture which included a substantial amount of manual work without gloves.
The low extensibility of lime bast cordage was highly valued during the days of sailing ships.
Low resistance to wear, laborious manufacture, and continued competition from hemp limited its
role as cordage in the 20
th
century. However, the craft is still maintained in parts of Norway,
where cordage is sold for about 14 Euros per metre. The demand is partly due to the increased
interest in traditional wooden vessels where bast cordage is used for mooring. Manufact urers
are not able to meet the current demand and younger people are now learning the craft.
Source:
Myking, T et aJ: History, manufacture and properties of lime bast cordage in northern Europe.
Forestry, Vol 78, No.1 , 2005.
Fibre sources from bark
Many trees and shrubs have been recorded as being a source of fibre from the bark. Usually it
is the inner bark used in the same way as lime (see the previous article for more details). The
table below lists all recorded trees and shrubs from zones 1-9 used in the past or present as a
fibre source.
Latin name Common Decl Height Hardy IBark fibre uses
name Ever (m) zone
Acer glabrum Rock maple D 9 5 ~ fibre obtained from the bark is used!
for making mats, rope etc.
Acer Oregon D 30 6 A fibre obtained from the inner bark is
macrophyllum maple used for rope making.
Asimina triloba Pawpaw D 4.5 5 A fibre from the bark is used for making
string.
Betula papyrifera Paper birch D 20 1 IA fibre is obtained from the inner used in
making paper. The branches of the tree
can be harvested in spring or summer,
the leaves and outer bark are removed,
the branches are steamed and the fibres
stripped off.
Betula pendula Silver birch D 20 2 Cordage can be made from the fibres of
the inner bark. This inner bark can also
be separated into thin layers and used
as a substitute for oiled paper.
Betula pubescens White birch D 20 1 Cordage can be made from the fibres of
the inner bark. This inner bark can also
be separated into thin layers and used
as a substitute for oiled paper.
Broussonetia Kozo D 4.5 7 A fibre from the bark is used in making
kazinoki paper, cloth, rope etc. I
Broussonetia Paper D 9 8 A fibre from the bark is used in making
papyrifera mulberry paper, cloth, rope etc. The fibre can be
produced by beating strips of bark on a
flat surface with a wooden mallet. A very
fine cloth can be made in this way, the
more the bark is beaten the finer the !
cloth becomes. Larger sizes can bel
made by overlapping 2 pieces of bark !
and beating them together. When used
for making paper branches are
harvested after the leaves have fallen in
he autumn, they are steamed and the
fibres stripped off. In humid areas this
can be done without steaming the
branches. The inner and outer bark are
then separated by scraping (or simply
peeling in humid areas) and the fibres
are cooked for 2 hours with lye before
J . ~
being hand pounded with mallets.
I

latin name Common Decl Height Hardy Bark fibre uses
I
name Ever (m) zone
I
Icaragana boisii
0 6 2 A fibre is obtained from the bark, used
,
for cordage.
Caragana 0 2 2 !A fibre is obtained from the bark , used
fruticosa for cordage.
Caragana jubata Shag-spine 0 1 3 1ft. fibre is obtained from the bark, used l
for cordage, gunny bags etc.
I
Castanea sativa Sweet
1
0 30 6
Inner bark used to make a soft flexible ,
chestnut cordage.
Chamaecyparis Nootka E 15 5
The fibre of the inner bark is fine and
nootkatensis cypress soft, it is used for making blankets,
clothing, mats etc.
Clematis Western 0 6 5 String is made from the stems.
I
ligusticifolia white
clematis
Cornus sericea Red osier 0 2.5 2 A fibre obtained from the bark is used as
dogwood cordage.
Corylus avellana Hazel 0 10 5 Inner bark used to make cordage.
Corylus corn uta California 0 8 4 IA fibre is obtained from the inner bark
californica hazel and is used to make paper. The
branches are removed in the autumn,
the leaves removed and the branches
steamed then the fibre is removed. The
fibres are cooked for two hours with lye
and then put through a blender. It makes
a brown paper. The fibre is also used for
cordage.
Cytisus scoparius Broom 0 2.4 5 excellent fibre is obtai ned from the
bark of stems and root s, it is used in the
manufacture of paper, cloth and nets.
The branches are harvested in late
summer or autumn, the leaves removed
and the stems steamed until the fibres
can be stripped. The fibres are cooked
for 3 hours in lye then put in a ball mill
for 3 hours. The paper is pale tan in
colour.
Daphne bholua Nepal paper E 2 8 A very good quality paper is made fromi
plant the inner bark; also used to make rope.
Daphne E 2 8 ft. very good quality paper is made from
papyracea the inner bark.
jDebregaisea
I
IE
I
A fibre is obtained from the bark. It is
hypoleuca used for twine and rope.

J_t
9 A strong fibre is obtained from the bark,
longifolia
-
twine and rope.
- ~
- ~
-.
!Latin name Icommon
Dec! Height Hardy Bark fibre uses ,
name Ever (m) zone
Oebregaisea E !A strong fibre is obtained from the bark,
wallichiana used for twine and rope.
Desmodium D 1.5 6 IA fibre from the bark is used for ropes j
elegans and paper making.
Dirca occidentalis Leather D 1.8 7 iA rope and paper can be made from thei
,

wood bark fibres. The stems are harvested in
summer, the leaves are removed and
the stems steamed until the fibres can
be stripped. The outer and inner barks
are separated by scraping or peeling.
The fibres are cooked for 2 hours or less
with soda ash and then beaten with
mallets or put through a blender. The
I
paper is greenish cream in colour .
Dirca palustris Leather D 1.8 4 A rope and paper can be made from the I
wood bark fibres. The stems are harvested in
summer, the leaves are removed and
the stems steamed until the fibres can
I
be stripped. The outer and inner barks
are separated by scraping or peeling.
The fibres are cooked for 2 hours or less l
with soda ash and then beaten with
mallets or put through a blender. The
paper is greenish cream in colour.
Edgeworthia D 2 8 A high-class paper is made from the
chrysantha bark. The stems are harvested in spring
or early summer, the leaves are
removed and the stems steamed until
the fibres can be stripped. The outer
bark is removed from the inner by
peeling or scraping. The fibres are
cooked for 2 hours with soda ash and
then beaten with mallets or put through
a blender. The paper is off white in
colour.
Edgeworthia E 2 8 A high-class paper is made from the
gardneri bark. The stems are harvested in spring
colour.
-
-
Latin name Common Decl Height Hardy Bark fibre uses
I
name Ever (m) zone
Edgeworthia Paperbush D 2.5 8 A high-class paper is made from the
papyrifera bark. The stems are harvested in spring
the fibres can be stripped. The outer l
colour.
Elaeagnus Silverberry D 3 2 The fibrous bark is used in weaving and
commutata rope making.
Eucalyptus Red E 45 10 A fibre is obtained from the bark. Used
macrorhyncha stri ngybark for rough cordage, matting, packing etc.
Firmiana simplex Chinese D 15 9 A fibre is obtained by retting the bark,
parasol tree used for coarse cordage and cloth.
Fitzroya Alerce E 10 8 A fibre from the inner bark is used for
cupressoides caulking boats.
Fraxinus excelsior Ash D 40 4 Inner bark and wood is used for
cordage. Logs are stripped of outer
bark, then soaked in water for 2 months.
It is taken out and allowed to dry; as it
does so the rings of each years growth
separate and split into strips. These can
be split further until the right width for
binding or weaving.
Fremontodendron California E 7 8 Cordage is made from the bark.
californicum flannelbush
Grewia D 9 !A fibre is obtained from the bark, it is
oppositifolia used in paper and rope making but is not
very durable. The fibres are 1 - 1.6mm
long.
Gynatrix pulchella Hemp bush E 2.5 8 fA. fibre obtained from the bark is soft,
glossy and long. It is used for tying, as a
coarse string etc.
Hibiscus mutabilis Cotton rose E 3 8 fA fibre from the bark is used for making
rope.
Hoheria populnea Lacebark E 5 8 A very strong fibre is obtained from the
inner bark, used for ropes, cord etc. The
fibre is also used as ornamentation in
basket making and for bonnets etc.
Hoheria Ribbonwood E 8 8 A very strong fibre is obtained from the
sexstylosa inner bark, used for ropes, cord etc. The
fibre is also used as ornamentation in
~ " . "
basket making and ..!.or b o n n e ~ etc.

Latin name Common Dec! Height Hardy Bark fibre uses
i
name Ever (m) zone
Juniperus One-seed E 18 4 Thin strips of the fibrous bark are
usedj
monosperma uniper for making sleeping mats etc.
Juniperus Western E 12 5 Bark is made into cordage and cloth.
I
occidentalis uniper
Morus alba White D 18 4 A fibre is obtained from the bark of
11

mulberry year stems, it is used in weaving.
j
Morus alba White D 18 4 A fibre is obtained from the bark of
11
multicaulis mulberry year stems, it is used in weaving.
Morus nigra Black D 10 5 A fibre used in weaving is obtained from I
mulberry the bark.
Pinus sylvestris Scot's pine E 25 2 IA fibre from the inner bark is used tal
make ropes.
Plagianthus D 18 8 !A fibre obtained from the inner bark is '
regius used for making ropes, twine etc.
Populus Balsam D 30 2 The bark is used to make a cloth.
balsamifera poplar
.
Populus Black D 35 5 The bark is used with cedar bark to
trichocarpa cottonwood make cordage.
Populus Quaking D 20 1 The bark is used to make cordage and
tremuloides aspen cloth.
Purshia mexicana Mexican D 3 6 The bark is used to make rope and cloth.
cliffrose
Purshia Stansbury D 3 6 The bark is used to make rope and cloth.
stansburiana cliffrose
Purshia tridentata Antelope D 3 6 The bark is used to make rope and Cloth. ]
bitterbrush
Quercus petraea Sessile oak D 5 45 Inner bark used to make a soft flexible
cordage.
Quercus robur English oak D 30 5 Inner bark used to make a soft flexible
cordage.
Salix alba White willow D 25 2 Inner bark used to make a soft flexible
cordage.
Salix bebbiana Bebb willow D 5 2 The bark is used to make cordage and
bags.
Salix discolor Pussy willow D 7 2 The bark is used to make rope.
Salix exigua Coyote D 9 2 The fibres in the bark have used to make l
willow rope and have been woven to make
clothing, bags and blankets. I
Salix fragalis Crack willow D 25 5 Inner bark used to make a soft flexible

Salix hookeriana D 1 6 Fibres from the inner bark can
be l
twisted into long ropes.
Salix lasiandra Pacific D 15 5 Bark made into cordage.
J
'-----
willow
-----
Latin name
Icommon
Decl Height Hardy Bark fibre uses
name Ever (m) zone
Salix lasiolepis Arroyo 0 12 5 Inner bark is used to make cordage and
willow cloth.
Salix nigra Black willow 0 12 4 A fibre obtained from the stems is used
in making paper. The stems are
harvested in spring or summer, the
l
leaves are removed and the stems
steamed until the fibres can be stripped.
The fibres are cooked for 2 hours with
lye and then beaten with mallets or put
through a blender. The paper is
red/brown in colour.
Salix scouleriana Scouler's 0 10 6 Bark made into cordage.
willow
Salix sitchensis Sitka willow 0 7 4 The bark is used for cordage.
I
Sequoia Coastal E 110 8 The fibrous bark is used for making
sempervirens redwood paper. Branches can be harvested at
any time of the year from logged trees,
the bark is cut into useable pieces and
soaked in clear water prior to cooking for
6 or more hours with lye. The fibres are
beaten for six hours in a ball mill and the
paper is a brown colour.
Taxodium Bald cypress 0 40 6 The bark is used to make cordage.
distichum
Thuja occidentaJis Eastern E 20 2 he tough stringy bark is used to make j
arborvitae fibre bags etc.
Thuja plicata Western red E 60 6 The fibrous inner bark is used for
cedar making blankets, ropes , sanitary towels ,
nappies etc. It is also used in thatching
and as a stuffing material for
mattresses.
A fibre obtained from the bark is used in
making paper. Branches can be
harvested at any time of the year, they
are cut into usable pieces and pre-
soaked in clear water prior to cooking.
They are then cooked for six hours or
more with lye. It is difficult to rinse it to
clear water because it seems to be a
dye material. The fibre is then hand
pounded with mallets, or put through a
blender or a ball mifl for six hours. It is
difficult to hydrate properly. The
resulting paper is a rich deep brownlred.
Tilla americana American 0 25 3 IA tough fibre is obtained from the inner
basswood bark. The bark is soaked in water and
the fibres can then be removed. These
are used for making nets, shoes,
--........ -.. -. _om
-
----
-
mats.

latin name Common Decl Height Hardy Bark fibre uses
!
name Ever (m) zone
Tilia caroliniana Carolina 0 20 7
A fibre is obtained from the tough innerl
basswood bark It can be made into diverse items i
such as mats, shoes and coarse cloth. i
Tilia chinensis 0 5 !A fibre is obtained from the inner bark l
and used for making sandals, nets etc.
,
,
Tilia cordata Small leaved 0 30 3 fA fibre from the inner bark is used to i
lime
make mats, shoes , baskets, ropes, cloth. I
It is harvested from trunks that are 15
30cm in diameter. The fibre can also be ,
used for making paper. The stems arei

The outer bark is removed from the inner
bark by peeling or scraping. The fibres
are cooked for 2 hours with lye and then
beaten in a ball mill. The paper is beige
in colour.
I
Tilia heterophylla White 0 30 5
ill fibre is obtained from the tough innerj
basswood bark It can be made into diverse items
such as mats, shoes and coarse cloth.
Tilia japonica Japanese 0 20 6 IA fibre is obtained from the inner barkj
lime and used for sandals, cordage etc.
Tilia mongolica Mongolian 0 15 3 IA fibre is obtained from the tough inner
lime bark It can be made into diverse items
Tilia oliveri 0 20 6 iA fibre is obtained from the tough inner
bark It can be made into diverse items
,
Tilia platyphyllos Large leaved 0 30 5 A fibre from the inner bark is used to
lime make mats, shoes, baskets, ropes, cloth.
It is harvested from trunks that are 15 -
30cm in diameter. The fibre can also be
used for making paper. The stems are
harvested in spring or summer, the
leaves are removed and the stems
The outer bark is removed from the inner
bark by peeling or scraping. The fibres ,
are cooked for 2 hours with lye and then 1
beaten in a ball mill. The paper is beigel
in colour.
Tilia tomentosa Silver lime 0 25 6 jA fibre is obtained from the tough innerl
bark It can be made into diverse items I
Tilia tuan 0 16 6 A fibre IS obtained from the Inner
barj
and is used in making
sandals __
------
cordage.
-
.-- -

Latin name Common Decl Height Hardy Bark fibre uses
I
name Ever (m) zone
,
Tilia x vulgaris Common 0 35 3
As for T.cordata.
I
lime
Trachycarpus Chusan palm E 12 8 The fibres cloaking the trunk are used to !
fortunei make ropes and cloth. I
Trachycarpus E 12 8 The fibres cloaking the trunk are used to !
latisectus make ropes and cloth.
I
Trachycarpus E 12 8 The fibres cloaking the trunk are used tO
j
martianus make ropes and cloth. !
Ulmus americana American 0 25 3 JA fibre obtained from the stems is used I
elm in making paper. The stems are
harvested in spring, the leaves are
bark is removed from the inner bark by
scraping or peeling. The fibres are
cooked for 2 hours with lye and then
beaten with mallets. The paper is beige
in colour.
The inner bark is very fibrous and iS
I
used in making string and strong ropes. .
Ulmus davidiana Japanese 0 15 5 JA fibre is obtained from the inner bark.
elm The bark is soaked for 7 - 10 days in
water, the inner and outer barks are then
separated and the inner bark is stripped
into strands and made into thread. It is
made into a coarse fabric
Ulmus glabra Wych elm 0 30 5 IA fibre from the inner bark is used for
mats and making ropes.
Ulmus japonica Japanese 0 35 5 IA fibre is obtained from the inner bark. I
elm The bark is soaked for 7 - 10 days in
Iwater, the inner and outer barks are then
separated and the inner bark is stripped
into strands and made into thread. It is
made into a coarse fabric
Ulmus procera English elm 0 35 6 A fibre from the inner bark is very tough
and is used for making mats and ropes.
Ulmus rubra Slippery elm 0 20 3 A fibre obtained from the inner bark is
used to make a twine.
Ulmus wallichiana 0 35 6 II strong fibre is obtained from the innerl
bark. It is used for cordage, slow
matches and sandals.
Viburnum 0 3 5 A fibre obtained from the inner bar:..:!
dilatatum used for making ropes. _
-
---
- - ~ -
Pine nuts: present and future prospects
Introduction
Pine nuts (edible seeds of certain pine species) have been harvested for food for thousands of
years by native American tribes and indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Russian far east.
Pine n,uts continue to be harvested in many northern hemisphere regions today and are
marketed on domestic and international markets as a gourmet product.
All pine (Pinus) trees bear edible kernels but only a selection are large enough to be worth
bothering with for human food , about 20 species in Eurasia and North America. These range
from shrubs (eg. P.pumila) to large trees with straight boles (eg. P.sibirica, P.koraiensis), and
are adapted to a variety of conditions, from the harsh cold climate of East Siberia (P.pumila) to
the hot dry deserts of Nevada and Mexico (P.cembroides).
The pines perform important ecological functions , and many nut pines make good ornamentals
(eg. P.sibirica, P.armandii etc.) and are planted both within and outside their natural range.
Main economic species
The five commercially important nut producing species are:
1. Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica)
2. Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis)
3. Italian stone pine (Pinus pineal
4. Chilgoza pine (Pinus gerardiana)
5. Pinyon pines (Pinus cembroides edulis, P.c.monophylla etc.)
Productivity of these pines varies greatly. Pinyon pines can yield up to 335 kg/ha, Korean pine
to 100 kg/ha, Siberian pine 5q-60 kg/ha.
A number of these pines, in addition to being important nut producers, are valuable timber
species, especially P.sibirica and P.koraiensis, which are valued for their fragrance, durability,
dense grain and rot resistance of the wood, widely used in wood carving, flooring, and
expensive furniture making. ,
Some pines are of exceptional cultural, symbolic and spiritual importance. Pinyon pines appear
in the lore of several North American tribes, while Russian monks planted Siberian pine in
monasteries as sacred trees and distributed seeds to pilgrims for planting (the importance of
Siberian pine as a cultural and spiritual symbol was popularised recently in the series of books
'Ringi ng Cedars of Russia' by Vladimir Megre).
Pine nut products
Pine nuts are used worldwide as a nutritious healthy snack (raw or roasted) and as an
ingredient of many oriental and Mediterranean dishes. They are also added to gourmet
chocolates.
Pine nuts are cholesterol-free, contain 53-68% fat (of which 93% is unsaturated), multiple
mi cronutrients are vitamins.
Nuts of different species vary in size, nutritional & medicinal value and taste, however
consumers are not usually sophisticated enough to distinguish between nuts of different
species, therefore in commerce the nuts are lumped together are referred to as "pine nuts".
-
They are usually marketed shelled, but sometimes in shell (especially the softshelled nuts such
as pinyon pines ).
Species Protein (%)
Fat (%) Carbohydrate (%)
Pinus sibirica 19 51-75 12
Pinus koraiensis 17 65 12
Pinus pinea 34 48 7
Pinus gerardiana 14 51 23
Pinus cembroides edulis 14 62-71 18
Pinus cembroides monophylla 10 23 54
Pine nut oil is obtained by pressing and is available as an expensive gourmet cooking oil or a
medicine (in bottles of capsules). Cold pressing in allwooden presses is preferred to retain the
medicinal properties of nuts and derive high quality oi l. Although little research has been done,
it is thought that Siberian pine nuts yield oil of the highest medicinal value - this has been used
traditionally to cure a wide array of ailments, ingested (decreasing blood pressure, boosting
immune system resistance etc) or applied externally (a range of dermatological disorders). Pine
nut oil contains pinolenic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, and is marketed in the USA as a
means to stimulate cell proliferation, prevent hypertension, decrease blood lipid and blood
sugar, and inhibit allergic reactions.
Apart from cooking and medicine, pine nut oil is also used in cosmetics and as a massage oil ,
and has a number of speciality uses such as a wood finish, paint base for paintings and
treatment of fine skins in the leather industry.
The byproduct of pine nut oil pressing is pine nut flakes, used in granolas, chocolates etc. The
flakes still contain up to 30% oil; when crushed further to extract oil, they turn into pine nut meal
or flour, which has a range of culinary uses. It can be substituted for wheat or rye flour in
pastries, pancakes etc giving them a rich nutty flavour. Mixed with water, the meal becomes a
pine nut milk, a milk-like drink with a rich sweet nutty flavour.
World markets for pine nuts
Total world production of pine nuts is around 20,000 tonnes of kernels annually, though this
fluctuates widely from year to year because most good harvests occur biennially).
Demand is significantly greater than supply, and the world market is often completely out of
stock for months before the new harvest. The consequence is a high price (pine nuts are one of
the most expensive nuts on the market) - retail prices of shelled nuts range from 1018 per
kg ($20$35 per kg). Retail prices for pine nut oil range from 4080 per litre ($70$140 per
litre) and are substantially higher for oil marketed in capsules as a medicine or supplement.
The limi ted supply of pine nuts also means that the market can absorb fluctuations in production
with very little price alterations.
Much of the pine nuts exported from China are originall y harvested in Russia and brought to
China for processing and packaging. Russia's vast Siberian and Korean pine forests are under
heavy logging pressure, with an estimated 20 million cubic metres of timber harvested illegally
annually, most of it shipped to China and Japan. Russian domestic demand has also increased
since Vladimir Megre's books, making it more profitable to sell on the domestic market rather
than export, hence the exports from China are likely to decrease in future years.
U.S. sales of pine nuts are valued at $100 million annually, despite them being considered a
speciality product and marketed through specialised distributors such as health food stores. 80
90% of pine nuts consumed in the USA are currently imported, mainly from China.
~ Average annual
kernel
production
(tonnes)
World pine nut production
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
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Potential for new pine nut production
The growing worldwide demand for pine nuts indicates there is good potential for looking at new
pine nut plantations of both known and the lesser-known species, as well as agroforestry
systems incorporating these species.
It is worth noting that most of the commercially harvested pine nuts are harvested by pickers
from natural forests, hence they are able to harvested the nuts without incurring the expenses
of plantation forestry (although they may well have to pay for a license to harvest). Plantations
of nut pines are generally rare (small stone pine orchards in Italy and France are an exception,
where the growers capitalize on speciality uses).
Another drawback is that most pine species start bearing crops at 30-40 years of age, although
it may then bear economic crops for several hundred years, albeit at irregular interval of 2-5
years.
In the USA, there is also much potential for pinyon pine ranges to be extended. Vast areas of
pinyon-juniper woodlands have been cleared for grazing, even though the value of nuts
produced significantly exceeds the value of cattle.
Where new pine species .are to be tried, it is important to choose species which are well
adapted to the local climate. Siberian and Korean pine, two major nut producers and timber
trees of Eastern Siberia may well be adapted to northern regions (the former does well in
z.
g
Canada, for example) , but they do very poorly in southern Russia with its Mediterranean
climate.
It i s well known that Siberian and Korean pine (and probably other species too) have very high
genetic variability even within a given stand; there are individuals which are prolific seeders and
produce heavy crops, sometimes even annually. There is thus good potential to select good nut
producers and propagate them vegetatively, for example by grafting.
References
Sharashkin, L & Gold, M: Pinenuts: Species, Products, Markets and Potential for U.S.
Production. NNGA 95
th
Annual Report.
www.pinenut.com Pine nut values and Species.
Bamboo utilisation in China
Introduction
Bamboo is an important worldwide non-timber forest product with significant commercial val ue,
leading to over-exploitation in some areas. In contrast, indigenous communities in China highl y
value their bamboo resources and use methods and strategies for their sustainable utilisation
and development.
In Chinese culture, bamboo is referred to as 'gentleman' and together with orchid,
chrysanthemum and plum, referred to as the Four Noble Plants of Chinese garden lore.
Bamboo, plum and the pine together are referred to as the Three Friends of Winter.
The indigenous uses and practices with bamboo in China reflect the experiences and
accumulated body of knowledge that are based on the understanding of the characteristics and
quality of bamboos and their environments.
Building materials and housing tools
Bamboo i s the oldest and most widespread building material because it is cheap, readily
availabl e and easy to work with. Many tradi tional bamboo houses are two-storied constructions,
usuall y square shaped. People live in the upper storey, and the lower storey has only pillars
without walls; the open space is used for the storage of agricultural tools, firewood, or as a shed
for domestic animals and poultry.
Factors affecting the use of bamboo for building include;
(1) Choice of species - different bamboo species are used for different parts of the
building. Bamboo culms (canes) of large diameter, thick-walled and relat ively shorter
internodes (te gaps between nodes on the canes) are often used for pillars,
scaffolding, or other support framework. For roofs and walls, species are used with
durable and smooth culms. Species with smart diameter, thick-walled and more
durable culms are often used for raft ers.
(2) Cutting season. Bamboo is best cut at the end of a wet season so that it can easily
dry out in the air or in airy sheds.

(3) Water leaching and culm curing. The cut bamboo culms are often immersed in muddy
or stagnant water for several months, then in running water for several weeks to allow
the starch content of the culms to leach out - this deters insect infestations.
(4) Stone base. Large stones that protect the culms against decay are often used as a
base to support the pillars.
(5) Fumigation , Many houses feature a fire in the centre of the house. The smoke turns 1
culms above black and destroys starch in them.
Bamboo foods
Young bamboo shoots are high in protein, minerals (eg. Calcium, phosphorus, iron), vitamins
(thiamine, ascorbic acid - vitamin C), 17 kinds of amino acids, and low in fat. They are widely
used as palatable vegetables. A number of products are prepared from bamboo shoots based
on their characteristics.
(1) Fresh bamboo shoots both from sweet or neutral flavoured shoots (eg. Phyllostachys
and from bitter shoots (eg. Phyllostachys violascens). The latter
require more cooking or roasting to remove the bitterness.
(2) Sour bamboo shoots. The bamboo shoots are cut into pieces and cleaned, mixed with
salt, chilli, ginger, water and other flavourings, then put into jars. This product is
sometimes coked with meat, fish and other ingredients as traditional meals in festivals.
(3) Dry bamboo shoots. The bamboo shoots are cut into pieces, leaned and dried.
Before cooking they may be soaked in hot water for several hours.
(4) Pickled bamboo shoots. Some bitter bamboo shoots are immersed in hot water for
days or placed in running water for days before cooking and pickling to remove the
bitterness.
(5) Pressed bamboo shoots. The flakes or pieces of bamboo shoots are pressed into a
bamboo tube and left for 3-4 months before cooking.
(6) Bamboo tube. Glutinous rice is cooked in certain bamboo culms to produce bamboo
tube rice. A species with long internodes is chosen. Certain species have a thin
scented coating inside the culms which gives the rice a unique aroma.
Agricultural tools and handicrafts
Bamboo is used in every aspect of agriculture. It is used for fences , to make crates, baskets
and as a carrying pole. In the field, people put bamboo mats of the ground onto which
harvested rice is laid for drying and cleaning. The people working in the forest drink water from
a bamboo tube.
Bamboo poles are used as props to support heavily laden fruit tree branches and as trellises for
climbers like pumpkins, gourds, cowpea and passion fruit vines.
Bamboo is also indispensable in fishing and hunting. Fishing traps, fishing rods, fish pens,
fishing pots, fishing nets, harpoons, arrows, bird-call snares, crossbows and bird cages are all I
made from bamboo.
Tools made from bamboo include open weave baskets, backpacks, bamboo casks, fish baskets, I
hand baskets, winnowing trays for cleaning grains, bamboo rafts and hanging bridges over
streams and rivers. Bamboo containers are used to keep rice longer and in better condition
than other containers. Bamboo pipes are used for transporting and fetching water . In the field ,
water containers made of bamboo are very common while bamboo culms and strips are used for
fencing .
1#
45
- tt 5
Firewood
In some parts of China, bamboo is widely used as firewood. Where the production of bamboo
shoots is commercially important there are many less mature bamboo culms, hence bamboo is
much less likely to be used for firewood there.
Medicine
Many species are used for medicine; the famous Oai medicine book, ' Oanhaya', documents the
uses of bamboo for curing many diseases including fevers, oedema, irregular menstruation,
food poisoning etc. Some leaves of bamboos (eg. Phylfostachys nigra) are used for curing
malaria.
Musical instruments
A number of instruments are made from bamboo culms including gourd pipes, mouth harps and
'daidi'.
Folk beliefs and religious activities
Parts of bamboos are used in many communities in Buddhist or similar ceremonies; sometimes
a species of bamboo is treated like a sacred tree and never harmed. Bamboos often playa part
in funeral ceremonies too.
Horticulture & environment stabilisation
Bamboo forests have many influences on the ecological and social systems. Certain
ornamental cultivars are used to beautify the landscape and are cultivated in home gardens,
temples and vi llage groves.
Cultivation of bamboo around houses and villages creates a good and healthy environment ,
giving protection from strong winds, conserving moisture, maintaining warmth in winter and
coolness in summer. It also controls soil erosion on slopes.
Economics
In bamboo forest areas, most households own 1-2 hectares (2.5-5 acres) of bamboo
plantations.
In some parts of China, particularly remote rural parts, the production of bamboo shoots is the
main source of income for most people. Many households have to hire extra labour to assist in
harvesting bamboo shoots during peak production. A typical household can produce 1-2 cubic
metres of dried bamboo shoots per year.
Formerly in parts of China, the tax a household paid was determined by the volume of dried
bamboo shoots the household produced; now it tends to be determined by the area of bamboo
plantations that the household owns. The laUer situation leads to beUer management of
plantations which is being encouraged.
References
Li, R S et al: The role of Phyllostachys heterocyc/a var. pubescens in the life of local residents
in Guilin TownShip, Shaowu, P.R.China. J.Bamboo and Rattan, Vol 1 No 4, pp 351-
360 (2002).
Wang, K et al: Diversity and indigenous utilisation of bamboo in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan
Province, Southwest China. J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol 1, No 3, pp263-273 (2002).
;:;
Processing plant materials into fibres
Introduction
Plant fibres are long, hollow cells that provide structural support and/or conduct water and
nutrients through the plant. The cell walls of fibres consist primarily of lignocellulose. To utilise
fibres i n ~ m a k i n g paper and other cellulose-based products they must be liberated from the
remaining plant material.
The disintegration of plant material to recover fibres is known as pulping, a process that can be
accomplished mechanically or chemically.
Mechanical pulping
Mechanical pulping, which physically separates the lignocellulose fibres from one another, has
yields of 91-98%. Mechanical pulp produces smooth printing surfaces of good opacity and has
traditionally been used in the production of newsprint. Mechanical pulp is usuaJty supplemented
with about 5% chemical pulp to provide the strength required to survive modern highspeed
printing presses.
Germany introduced groundwood pulping in 1840, where wood is mechanically ground by
large stones. The pulp is then screened to remove knots and other large pieces of wood
followed by washing and bleaching in preparation for papermaking.
Thermomechanical pulping was developed in the 1930's. In this process, wood chips are
ground under high pressure. producing heat that weakens the lignin in the wood chips and
makes the separation of fibres easier. This yields relatively cheap fibres suitable for newsprint.
Refiner mechanical pulping was developed in the 1960's. Here wood chips are passed
repeatedly through a series of rotating discs to remove fibres.
Although mechanical pulping provides high yields of fibre , it is energy intensive and does not
remove lignin, which degrades paper strength and is responsible for the darkening of newsprint
with time.
Herbaceous plant parts were often pulped in the past and on a small scale using a ball mill .
This is a simple rotating drum, into which are placed the plant parts along with several metal
balls. The action of the falling balls in the drum performs the pulping. Water is added to
improve the process and sometimes lye or sodium hydroxide.
Chemical pulping
Chemical pulping dissolves lignin, an adhesive in cell walls, thus liberating cellulose fibres. An
advantage of chemical pulping in that cellulose fibres are some 10 times stronger than
lignocellulose fibres, however the process only yields 3560%. Chemical pulping is used for the
production of paper for packing, writing, hygienic products etc and accounts for 70% of the
worldwide production of pulp.
The two principal chemical pulping processes are the sulphite process and the sulphate
process (also known as the kraft process). Until recently the sulphite process was preferred
because it produced a much lighter, easier to bleach pulp; however, the environmental impact is
greater than for the kraft process, which has well established methods for recovering processing
chemicals and utilising lignin that would otherwise be discharged to the environment. Despite
-
this, and the fact that the kraft process now accounts for over 80% of chemical pulp, there are
possible valuable uses for the sulphite process by-products.
r am not going to go into the detailed chemistry of what occurs in these processes in this article
but will give a general overview of each process.
Sulphite pulping
The process is itlustrated below. It is used with hardwood or softwood chips, not herbaceous
fibres because of inferior yields and fibre strengths. The sulphite pulping liquor is added to
wood chips in a digester at 160C for about 2 hours. The pulp is then filtered from the spent
liquor and further processed to paper or cellulose-derivatives. As for the by-products, sulphonic
acids can be used as a binder and glue substitute, also as a raw material for the production of
medicinal compounds; ethanol can be used as a fuel (until 1958 it was used from Scandinavian
mills for use as a 25% blend with petrol).
Sulfur
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This was developed in Germany in the late 19
th
century to improve upon an earlier pulping
process known as the soda process or alkaline pulping, which used sodium hydroxide to pulp
wood. The soda process was expensive compared with sulphite pulping. Kraft pulping
produces a strong pulp ('kraft' is the German word for strong). , and was soon adopted in the
USA to pulp southern pines , which do not fare well in the sulphite process due to their high
resin content.
The kraft process is Illustrated below. Biomass is first steamed before being continuously
added to a digester. Pulping is performed with a hot mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium
sulphide known as white liquor. Roughly half the biomass is degraded and dissolved to form a
mixture of lignin, polysaccharides and other compounds. The pulp of cellulose fibres is washed
to remove the spent liquor and screened to remove knots. Additional processing of the pulp
may include bleaching.
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Pulping herbaceous biomass
Herbaceous materials like straw have relatively Jaw lignin content , often only half that of woody
material. and pulping takes a fraction (2533%) of the time it takes for woody material. In fact.
pulping is so rapid that the simpler soda process, using only sodium hydroxide, is often used to
pulp herbaceous biomass. Silica in herbaceous residues can cause severe problems in
recovery operations in the kraft process.
In principal , both woody and herbaceous plant materials can be used for the production of pulp
- indeed, agricultural residues were a major source in Europe and North America until the
1920's when issues of quality and supply began to favour woody biomass. Today over 90% of
pulp and paper is produced from woody biomass.
"
Although the lengths of fibres from herbaceous materials are comparable to those in
hardwoods, they are typically shorter than those from softwoods; thus paper made from
herbaceous plant fibres has relatively low tear strength. Herbaceous materials also contain
about 30% by weight of pith or parenchyma cells and about 5% by weight of dense epidermis
malerials, neither of which is fibrous in nature and which, when left in the pulp, have an adverse
effect on paper quality.
Another factor in the demise of herbaceous biomass pulping was the increased labour costs
associated with securing supplies. These materials (eg. Straw) have very low bulk density,
resulting in a tremendous volume to handle, and they degrade rapidl y when exposed to the
weather and so require special storage.
Oepithing
Depithing processes can substantially overcome many of the fibre quality issues with
herbaceous biomass and it is quite possible that herbaceous biomass materials will become
important again in time.
Prior to depithing the plant parts (usually stalks) are usually crushed.
Dry depithi ng separates the pith from the stalks after they have been dried to 10-25% moisture
content. Although widely used prior to 1960, the method produced a poor quality pulp.
Moist or humid depithing uses fresh crushed stalks whish may have a moisture content of
50%. It is the most economical type of depithing.
Wet depithing employs a slurry of water and stalks to improve depithing. This has the
advantage of removing epidermis cells as well as pith if stalks are well broken up in the milling
process.
Many commercial operations employ a two-stage depithing operation consisting of moist
depithing, economically removing most of the pith, followed by wet depithing, removing the
residual pith and epidermal cells from the fibre. Fresh plant material is fed into a depithing
machine consisting of a rotor to which are attached swinging or rigid hammers. The mechanical
action rubs or breaks loose the pith from the fibre, whi ch is flung radially outwards through
screens or perforated plates.
The fibre and water are then continuously added to a hydrapulper, which thoroughly wets the
mixture and helps break l oose dirt and remaini ng pith. The resul ting slurry is pumped to
agitated chests where rocks and other heavy materials settle out. After draining some of the
liquid off, the slurry is then pumped to the wet depither, again consisting of hammers attached
to a rotor enclosed in a perforated drum. Pith and epidermal cells pass through the
perforations, while the clean fibre slurry flows out at the bottom and is taken for pulping. The
wet pith stream is sometimes used for irrigation.
Reference
Brown, R C: Biorenewable Resources . Iowa State Press, 2003.
Mulberries in China and Japan
I ntrod uction
Mulberries are important trees in China and Japan, for silkworm production, fruit and a number
of other uses. Asian classifications of the Marus genus list 24 mulberry species in total.

Mulberries are distributed in a wide range of tropical. subtropi cal , temperate and sub-arctic
zones.
Most mulberries cultivated in Japan belong to M.bombysis (primarily in cold regions). M.afba
(widespread) and M.latifofia (primarily in warm regions). In addition. M.acidosa grows naturally
and is culti vated in the southwest islands; and M.kagayamae and M.boninensis are indigenous
to remote islands.
Mulberr.y is distributed in all parts of China, and there are more than 1,000 culti vated varieties.
Most of these originate from the four main species: Lu mulberry (M.multicaulis) , white mulberry
(M.a/ba), Mountain mulberry (M.bombyds) and Guandong mulberry (M.atropurpurea) .
Breeding work in Japan has concentrated on developing cultivars for leaf production (f or
silkworm fodder) with the aims of high yield, high nutritional value, and resistance against pests
and diseases. Varieties have been released in recent decades for warm, temperate, cold and
snowy regions.
Leaf production for silkworm fodder
The production of silk from silkworms feeding on mulberry leaves is called sericulture.
Silkworms eat only mulberry leaves (of several species, but not the black mulberry, M.nigra) to
make their cocoons, producing silk. Mulberry leaves are rich in protein and amino acids and
there is a high correlation between l eaf protein level and production efficiency of cocoon shelt.
China is the largest producer of mulberry and sil k in the world, with some 626,000 ha (1.56
million acres) of mulberry resulting in some 432,000 tonnes of fresh cocoon production per year.
In Japan there are approximately 15,000 Ha (38,000 acres) of mulberries for sericulture,
including 1,200 Ha (3,000 acres) of densely planted fields. The normal planting density of trees
is 60-100 plants per Ha (24-40 plants/acre, ie trees at 10-13 m spacing apart). In densely
planted orchards, aimi ng at earl y hi gh yield and mechanical harvesting, over 250 plants/ha (100
plants/acre, ie trees at 6 m or less) are used.
Standard practice of fertiliser application in Japan is to appl y 3 Kg of Nitrogen, 1.4-1.6 Kg of
phosphate and 1.2-2 Kg of potassium per ha per year, in addition to at least 150 kg of compost
per ha.
Mulberry plantings in China are of 4 main types:
(1) Chinese mulberry plantations for leaf production are planted at a much higher density,
10,000-15,000 plants/ha (4000-6000 plants/acre, ie plants at spacings of 0.8 to 1 m),
using F1 hybrid seedli ng stock, and pruning to a trunk height of 50-80 cm.
(2) Scattered planting. Mulberries are also planted at fieldsides, roadsides, around
houses, along irrigation canals etc. In Szechuan, the biggest sericulture province in
China, millions of mul berry trees are scattered in hill y and mountainous areas. In this
way mulberries do not compete with other crops in cultivated land.
(3) Intercropping. Mulberries are intercropped with grains, white chrysanthemums and
winter vegetabl es in vari ous regi ons.
(4) Dyke and pond system. This ecosystem has been developed over several hundred
years . The proportion of pond:dyke is 6:4 or 7:3 according to conditions. Mulberry
trees are planted on the dykes. After feeding the sil kworms, the faeces of the larvae
and the wasted leaf are used to feed fish i n the pond. The pond silt is used to fertilise
the mulberry trees.
Chinese field management includes fertilisation with N:P:K at a ratio of 10:4:6. Generally
speaking 1.5-2 kg of N is needed to produce 100 kg of leaf. In dry regions irrigation is essential
in the dry season.
There are various training forms used. Maintenenace of stump height is one of the typical forms
used, with either a low cut (15-30 em above soil), a medium low cut (30-50 em) or a medium cut
(50-100 em). Another typical form is the fist shape method, where the plant is pollarded back to
the same place each year, forming a fist from where the shoots emerge. The non-fist training
method is similar except that the pruning height is raised each year, allowing a bud above each
previous cut to remain. Finally, there is a lateral branch training method, where branches in line
with the row are tied down to wires, allowing shoots to emerge from the horizontal branch buds.
Mechanical harvesting demands low pruning near to ground level to prevent stump formation.
Harvesti ng methods vary with si lkworm rearing scale and frequency. The two main methods are
spring pruning (for the summerautumn rearing season) and summer pruning (for both spring
rearing and late autumn rearing) . There are also the circle harvesting method (spring pruning
and summer pruning alternately every year) and alternate harvesting method (alternating spring
and summer pruning to half of the same plant). These two methods are adopted to secure
enough yi eld by sustaining the tree vigour.
Annual Chi nese leaf yields from high density plantati ons are in the region of 2550 tonnes/ha
( 10-20 tonnes/acre).
Mulberry contains all the necessary nutrients for the growth and development of the silkworm
(Bombyx mon) , and sericulture has been carried out for more than 5,000 years. In China it
takes 15 to 18 kg of fresh leaves to produce 1 kg of fresh cocoon at the farmer level.
Fruits
Mulberry fruits turn red, white or purplish-black when they ripen , and on average contain 12%
sugars (mainly glucose), through in some varieties in can exceed 20%. They are also rich in
carotene, vitamins 81,82 and C.
Mulberry fruits are eaten fresh, made into jam or mulberry wine. Mulberry fruit juice is made
commercially on a large scale in China where it is very popular; it keeps fresh without
preservatives for several months. The fruit s have recently been found to possess anti-oxidant
properties.
Medicinal uses
Mulberri es have been used medicinally in the region since ancient times. The root bark in
particular has been used as a herbal medicine to reduce high blood pressure. Mulberry leaves
are ri ch in gamma-aminobutylic acid, effective against high blood pressure, and in alanine,
effective against hangovers. The leaves also contain compounds which can l ower the blood
sugar level and thus they are now an important health food, taken as mulberry leaf tea, for
diabetes.
Other uses
Baled or fried dried mulberry leaf powder is rich in protein and carbohydrate, and has a distinct
fragrant smell . It is used in China as a food additive for making buns, bread, cakes and
bi scuits.
The litter of silkworm faeces and wasted leaf i s also used as a supplementary feed for cattle.
Mulberry branches are used as raw material for paper production.
The stems and stem powder are a good media for mushroom production. In China, the edible
Jew's ear (Auricularia auricula judae) and the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum are
produced on mulberry logs or powder.
References
Sanchez, M D: Mulberries for animal production. FAO, 2002.
Page 27
A power driven nut cracker
I ntrod uction
Whereas in most of Europe, nut growers belong to cooperatives, who process their nut crops
with large centralised machines (costing tens of thousands of pounds) , there is very little in the
way of , smaller scale machinery commercially available for individual or small groups of nut
g r o w e r ~ . The A.R.T. decided in 2004 to try and develop a small machine which could be easily
built, rugged, and fairly efficient at cracking many types of nuts.
The machine
OUf starting point was a promising design by Harry Lagerstedt , published in a 1992 issue of
WThe NutsheW magazine in the USA. Martin Crawford took the plans to a local engineering
company in Totnes, Peter Tanner Engineering. Peter and Carl there studied the plans and
made several suggestions to improve the design and make it safer. Over the next 6 months the
machine was built , testing it and altering the design slightly as time went by until completed.
j
The two important parts of the machine are a rotating metal wheel and an ~ a n v i r . The heavier
the wheel the better, since the more mass it has, the less likely it is to slow down as nuts are
fed in. The wheel in our machine is 5 cm (2M) wide and 25 cm (10") in diameter; too small a
diameter will not work well. The wheel has 8 beads, about 2 mm high, welded across its
surface. These were placed not straight across (as in the original design) but were Vshaped,
so that nuts would be funnelled towards the centre of the wheel as they were cracked, and were
less likel y to travel to the edges of the wheel where pieces might conceivably get trapped
between the outer side of the wheel and the casing.
The wheel shaft is mounted in two bearings and fitted with a large pulley. A belt connects this
to the electric motor. The motor itself was second hand, having been salvaged from an
industrial paint mixing machine, and run at about 2000 r.p.m., so the pulley ratios were made so
that the cracking wheel rotates at about 400 r.p.m. which seemed, by trial and error, to be the
most suitable cracking speed.
The anvil is the hard place against which the nut is squeezed. It is hinged so that the space
between the anvil and wheel can be adjusted, via a threaded bolt that can be moved against the
anvil , pushing it towards the rotating wheel. This is the adjustment used for cracking different
sized nuts. The anvil is made from 10 mm thick steel, and is hinged at its top with a 10 mm
steel pin going through two heavy metal plates welded to the frame. Thi s pin can be easily
removed if any nuts get jammed, and the anvil opened to its widest to allow access into the
cracking zone.
The finished machine note 1 m ruler in left hand picture. Right hand picture shows the anvil ,
Lshaped anvil pin and adjusting bolt.
Page 29
The whole mechanism is mounted on an angle iron frame and is enclosed by a sheet metal
housing. The lower part of the wheel and anvil are also enclosed to guide the cracked nuts into
a container . A sheet metal hopper on top of the housing holds the nuts prior to cracking.
Throughput of nuts is impressive. I have measured walnuts being cracked at about 45 kg/ hour
and hazelnuts at 90 kg/hour. The quality of the resulting cracked nuts is dependent on a fairly
uniform size, so much better results are obtained when nuts are graded first. Graded hazels
can be cracked with about 95% of whole kernels; ungraded hazels come though at 85-90%.
Walnuts come through with a good proportion of halves. Dried chestnuts go through the
machine too, with kernels broken into small pieces (small enough to go through an electric grain
mill) and whole or large parts of skins; cracking rate is intermediate between hazels and
walnuts. Once one has a fast nut cracker, the time consuming process becomes separating the
shells from the kernels. Inclined boards, pneumatic (air blown) separators and vibrating grading
tables are all possible answers, but again there seem to be no well tested low cost designs -
that will be a future project.
Building the machine cost about 1500, but this included lots of experimentation. To have it
built from scratch again would cost no more than 10qO. For a grower of a few acres of nuts
who needs to process nuts for adding value to the product, this is a highly promising machine.
Bamboo as a building material in Europe
Introduction
Traditionally in the European building industry, costs and durability have been the main factors
determining the selection of building materials. However, as sustainability becomes a key
issue, the environmental performance of building materials is becoming an important criterion.
Bamboo, as a fast growing renewable material with a simple production process, has been
suggested as a sustainable alternative for more traditional materials like concrete, steel and
timber. This article reports on a study using a Ufe Cycle Assessment (LCA) for bamboo and
comparing this with LeA's for the commonly used building materials.
In Europe and the USA, bamboo is being used more often, either in its natural form (the culm)
or as part of an industrial product (eg. In interior wall panels or flooring tiles like parquet). In
Europe, there have also been some recent building projects based on bamboo construction.
These projects can give useful information about potential problems with using bamboo.
The study
In the study, bamboo was environmentally assessed in its natural form (culm) as in an industrial
form (panel). The culm was assessed in the structural function as a column, transverse and
longitudinal beam and rail in a footbridge in Holland. This was compared with steel , timber
(sustainably produced) and concrete. For example, for the column a single 100 mm diameter
culm sufficed whereas the standard materials required were 140 x 140 mm timber (Robinia) or
120 x 120 x 3 mm steel or 150 x 150 mm prefabricated concrete. The bamboo column lifespan
is 20 years compared with 15 years for the timber, and 50 years for the steel and concrete.
Results
Use of bamboo culms is shown to be the most sustainable alternative by far in all functions . In
some applications a 20-fold ' environmental improvement' is achieved. The good environmental
performance of bamboo culm has two distinct causes:
&
(1 )
(2)
- ~
Us natural holl ow design i s structurally far more efficient than a rectangu lar massive
section, ego In the case of timber. This means that bamboo contains far less material
mass in a certain function compared with steel, concrete and timber.
The simple, short production process (cutting, removal of foliage, preservation,
drying). The culms are of course air dried whereas most timber is dried with extra
heat (and energy usage).
These results are with using bamboo grown in Costa Rica, and about 90% of the environmental
costs are due to the sea transport involved.
Production of bamboo panels are far more complex. The culms need to be sawn, smoothed,
bleached. sandpapered, glued, pressed etc. Hence the environmental costs of 1 kg of bamboo
panel are about 7 times those of 1 kg of culm.
Comparing bamboo panels with other materials, the results show that the environmental
performance is slightly worse than most wood-based panels for internal walls.
These results lead to a dilemma: a problem with using bamboo culms in Western countries is
the irregular, hollow, round form, leading to problems in joints. By laminating a rectangular
section can be created, making joining easier. However, from an environmental point of view,
the bamboo culm should be chosen, accepting possible problems.
Financial costs
In terms of purchasing costs, bamboo is by far the cheapest alternative. In terms of annual
costs, bamboo is similar of slightly below that of sustainable timber. However, because of the
shorter lifespan and higher labour costs of assembling, on an overall cost level steel is the least
expensive material (about a half to two-thirds the price of a bamboo equivalent).
Potential problems with bamboo culms for building
(1) Joining is more labour intensive hence building costs increased
(2) Purchase of the bamboo can cause problems with quality control etc. although the
costs are low.
(3) Testing and bearing capacity. Until now, loading and bearing capacities of
bamboo have had to be tested and calculated for each project.
(4) Building regulations. These may require tests on fire safety etc. as it is an
unknown building material here.
(5) Wet bamboo is quite slippery, making it more demanding to handle the material in
wet weather.
Most problems encountered on recent projects were due to the shape of the material (round,
hollow and tapered) and its irregularity. These cannot be eliminated but good plantation control
and management, in addition to straightening the culms though treatment and good quality
control can reduce problems.
Because bamboo is not a regular material , it is most easily used in projects where exact
measurements are not necessary, eg. In temporary building and small civil projects such as
bridges.
Work is progressing on building codes for bamboos and ISO standards have been set. More
work on classifications for quality and strength for culms and joints is in progress.
Reference
Van de Lugt, P et al: Bamboo as a building material alternative for Western Europe? J. Bamboo
and Rattan, Vol 2 No 3, pp 205-223 (2003).
Bamboo fibre
Bamboo fibre is a regenerated cellulose fibre produced from bamboo pulp.
F i b r ~ production
Bamboo canes of 3-4 years old are cut in Yunnan and Szechuan in China for processing there.
The bamboo pulp is refined from bamboo through a process of hydrolysis-alkalisation and multi-
phase bleaching. The pulp is then processed into fibre, which is sold in bales and appears as a
fluffy mass, white and silky to handle.
The production process claims to be a 'green' process without any pollution.
The fibre dyes easily.
Properties
Bamboo fibre is strong, durable, and stable. The thickness and whiteness of the fibre is similar
to viscose. The fibres are thinner than human hairs and have a round smooth surface, hence
there is little rubbing against skin.
The fibre also has anti-bacterial and deodorisation properties; in tests, after 50 washes the fibre
still shows excellent antibacterial properties. These properties come without the allergic side
effects which often appear when fibres with chemical bactericides added are worn.
The fibre also has a high abrasion-proof capacity and spins nicely wither on its own or blended
with other materials such as ..cotton, hemp, silk etc. It has also been noted that it absorbs uv
radiation extremely well.
Bamboo fibre has an unusual breath ability and coolness when worn. Because the cross section
of the fibre is filled with various micro-gaps and micro-holes, it has excellent moisture
absorption and ventilation properties, and can absorb and evaporate sweat very quickly. Such
garments feel cool and comfortable in hot weather, and don't stick to the skin.
End uses
The raw fibre can be used in masks, mattresses, sanitary products etc where its antibacterial
properties may be particularly valued. Similarly the spun fibre can be used in bandages,
surgical clothes etc.
Clothing uses include sweaters, underwear, t-shirts and socks. Mats, blankets, towels also
utilise its excellent water absorbance properties.
Curtains, wallpaper etc. made from bamboo fibre will not easily go mouldy due to dampness.
Reference
www.bambrotex.com
(3) climber shrubs
This compendium tabulates all known climbing shrubs for temperate or continental climates
which have edible fleshy fruits . It is undoubtedly not definitive as there are probably many
climbers with edible fruits which have never been written about. Perennial s will be covered in
the next issue. The informati on for this compendium comes from our database of useful plants
and previous articles in Agroforestry News.
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!Aclinidia arguta Siberian 0 N 15 4 raw, cooked or dried for later use;
gooseberry contains up to 5 times the vitamin C
content of blackcurrants. Excellent
iActinidia arisanensis 0 N 5 8 raw or cooked. 23-35 mm long.
Actinidia callosa 0 N 9 7 raw or cooked, also dried; good
Actinidia chinensis 0 N 7. 8 raw or cooked - good flavour. To 30
5 mm across.
Actinidia deliciosa Kiwi fruit 0 N 9 7 raw or cooked - good flavour. Fresh
fruits contain 100 - 420mg vitamin C
per 100g and 8 - 14% carbohydrate;
acidity is 1 - 2%, mainly citri c acid.
Actinidia eriantha Velvet vine 0 N 10 7 raw or cooked. To to 35 mm long x
30 mm wide.
I
Actinidia hemsleyana 0 N 9 6 raw or cooked. To 27 mm x 15 mm.
Actinidia holotricha 0 N 5 6 raw or cooked.
Actinidia kolomikta Manchurian 0 N 10 4 raw, cooked or dried for later use -
gooseberry good flavour. To 20 mm diameter.
Actinidia lati folia 0 N 7 8 raw or cooked. 30 - 40 mm long and
20 - 30 mm wide.
jActlOldla melanandra jRed kiWI 10 IN 17 16 Iraw or cooked To 30 mm long
Actinidia polygama Silver vine 0 N 6 4 raw or cooked - good flavour. To 30
mm across.
Actinidia rubricaulis 0 N 10 6 raw or cooked; small and sweet. 16
mm long by 13 mm wide.
Actinidia strigosa 0 N 6 raw or cooked - nice flavour.
I
iActinidia tetramera 0 N 13 5 raw or cooked. To 20 mm long.
I .5
Acti nidia venosa 0 N 9 6 raw or cooked. To 15 mm long.
I
Page 33
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Akebia x pentaphylla 01 N 10 5 Pulp is eaten - raw; sweet , delicate
i
E flavour. Skin bitter. 60-120 mm long
purple pod.
Akebiat quinata
Chocolate vine 01 N 12 5 pulp is eaten - raw; sweet , delicate
purple pod.
Akebia trifoliata Three leaf akebia 01 9 5 pulp is eaten - raw; sweet, delicate !
purple pod.
I
Ampelopsis arborea Pepper vine E 10 7 raw or cooked; poor flavour. 8 mm in I
diameter in small bunches.
Ampelopsis 0 20 4 raw or cooked; poor flavour. 6-8 mm j
brevipedunculata in diameter in small bunches.
Berchemia tineata 0 5 8 raw or cooked; 8 mm.
I
Berchemia racemosa 0 12 6 raw or cooked; 8 mm.
I
Billardiera longiflora Appleberry E 2. 8 raw; mealy. poor. Remove seeds !
4 first. Deep blue, to 25 mm long.
I
Holboelfia coriacea Sausage vine E 7 9 raw; sweet , insipid. The fruit is at
purple pod with white seedy pulp, 50 !
mm long and 25 mm wide.
Holboellia grandiflora
,
E 9 raw; sweet, insipid. The fruit is a !
purple pod with white seedy pulp, 50
mm long and 25 mm wide.
Holboellia latifolia E 9 raw; sweet, insipid. The fruit is al
purple pod with white seedy pulp, 50-
I
100 mm long and 25 mm wide.
Lapageria rosea Chilean bellflower E 5 9 raw or cooked. A sweet white juicy j
pulp, the yellow fruits are 50 mm bYl
35 mm ..
Lardizabala biternata Zabala fruit E N 3. 9 raw or cooked; sweet and pulpy,
5 good flavour. Deep purple pods, 50 - 1
80 mm long.
I
lonicera caprifolium Perfoliate 0 6 5 Eaten in small quantities.
,
honeysuckle
lonicera ciliosa Western trumpet E 10 5 raw or cooked; mediocre. 5 mm
honeysuckle across.
Muehlenbeckia Pohuehue 0 N 5 8 raw or cooked; sweet and juicy.
complexa
;
Parthenocissus 0 18 9 raw or cooked; poor flavour. 6mm in
himalayana diameter in bunches.
Parthenocissus Virginia creeper 0 30 3 raw or cooked; poor flavour.
6mm in l
quinquefolia diameter in bunches.
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Passiflora caerulea Blue passion E 10 7 Fruit pulp - raw or cooked; pleasant
flower flavour. 60 mm tong and 40 mm
wide, contains only a little pulp.
Rubus australis Bush lawyer E 9 Raw or cooked; jui cy.
Schi sandra chinensis Magnolia vine 0 N 9 4 raw or cooked, also dried a
sweet/sour flavour. 6mm diameter in
bunches.
Schisandra
Himalaya magnolia 0 N 6 8 raw or cooked; pleasantly acid
grandiflora vine flavour. 6mm diameter in bunches. I
ISChlsandra henrYI
Schisandra repanda 0 N 6 7 raw or cooked.
,
Sinofranchetia 0 N 15 6 raw; insipid. 20 mm in diameter.
chinensis
Smilax bona-nox Bristly greenbrier 0 N 8 raw; rubbery texture! 5mm in
diameter in heads.
,
Smilax china China root 0 N 4. 6 raw; eaten to quench the thirst. 9mm
5 in diameter.
Stauntonia
Japanese staunton E N 10 9 raw or cooked; sweet, watery,
1
hexaphylla vine honey-like flavour. To 50 mm long.
Viti s acerifolia Bush grape 0 10 6 raw or dried; sweet. 16mm in
diameter.
Vitis aestivalis Summer grape 0 20 3 raw, cooked in jellies, jams, pies etc
or dried for later use; taste is best
after a frost. 8mm in diameter
in !
bunches.
Vitis amurensis Amur grape 0 15 4 raw, cooked or dried; succulent but
usually bitter. About 16 mm long and
10 mm wide.
Vitis arizonica Arizona grape 0 5 6 raw or dried; luscious. 10 mm in
diameter.
Vitis baileyana 0 10 6 raw or dried. 40 - 70 mm in diameter.
Vitis berlandieri Spanish grape 0 10 7 raw or dried; a rich pleasant flavour,
slightly bitter skin. Small , but borne
in very large clusters.
Vitis californica California grape 0 9 7 raw, cooked or dried, also be made
into jellies, pies etc. 8mm in
diameter, but it has a thin flesh.
Vi tis cinerea Downy grape 0 5 raw or dried, also be used in pies ,
. ellies etc. 4 - 6mm in diameter in
fairly large bunches.
Vi tis coignetiae Crimson glory vine 0 20 5 raw or dried; poor. 12mm in
diameter.
-
Page 35
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Vilis cordifolia Chicken grape 0 20 5 raw, cooked or dried; best after a!
frost. 8 - 12mrn in diameter in fairly
large bunches.
Viti s d<1vidii Chinese bramble 0 15 7 raw or dried; variable flavour.
About I
grape 16mm in diameter.
I
,
Vais flexuosa 0 8 6 raw or dried. 7mm in diameter.
Vitis girdiana
0 12 8 raw or dried. 4 - 7mm in diameter. I
Vitis labrusca Fox grape 0 15 7 raw or dried; also be made into pies,
preserves etc. A distinctive musky
aroma and taste, best after a frost.
To 20 mm in diameter in fairly large
bunches.
Vilis labruscana 0 15 5 raw or dried ; musky flavour, often
used to make wine. 25mm in
diameter.
[Vitis monti cola Mountain grape 0 10 6 raw or dried; sweet. 12mm in
diameter.
Vili s munsoniana Scrub grape 0 9 raw or dried; thin-skinned with an
acid flavour, it can be eaten raw
when fully ripe,
Viti s mustangensis Mustang grape 0 10 5 cooked or dried; tough skinned, poor
,
flavour. About 16mm in diameter.
Viti s palmata Cat grape 0 20 5 raw or dried. To 10mm in diameter in l
small bunches.
Vitis parvifolia 0 7 raw or dried. 7mm in diameter,
Vitis riparia Ri verbank grape 0 15 2 raw or dried; juicy and somewhat l
acid, flavour is best after a frost. 6 -
12 mm in diameter.
Vilis romanetii 0 10 6 raw or dried. 8 - 12 mm in diameter.
Vitis rotundifolia Southern fox grape 0 Y 25 5 raw or dried; thick-skinned with al
pleasant musky flavour, excellent in
'ellies, pies etc. To 25 mm in
diameter in small bunches.
Vitis rupestris Sand grape 0 2 5 raw or dried; very sweet , pleasant I
flavour. 6 - 12mm in diameter.
Vilis thunbergii 0 5 6 raw or dried. About 9mm in diameter. I
Vilis vinifera Grape vine 0 15 6 raw or dried for winter use; delicious. I
Widely used in making wine.
Vili s vulpina Chicken grape 0 25 5 raw or dried; sweet and nice after l
frost. 5 - 10 mm in diameter in small
bunches.
- ---
The nettle: Urtica dioica
Introduction
Stingi ng nettles need little in the way of introduction to most folk , as they are widespread in
most parts of the world, though native to Europe and Asia, and are usually regarded as weeds.
'Urtica' derives from the Latin, to burn; ' nettle' is thought to derive from the old Anglo-Saxon or
Dutch word for needle.
The nettle (also known as the bigsting nettle and great neUle) is a perennial and very stubborn
weed growing up to 1.8 m (6 ft) high, preferring soil rich in nitrogen and growing in sun or part
shade. The stems are four-angled. It spreads via both seeds and by creeping branching
rhizomes just beneath the soi l surface. Plants are dioecious (male and female flowers are
borne on separate plants) ; the flowers are green and are wind pollinated.
The stinging hairs on nettles are in fact rough thin hollow silica tubes containing a mixture of
histamine, acetylcholine, serotonin and formic acid. When the plant is touched, the tubes are
broken, releasing this chemical mixture onto the skin, causing at first a strong burning feeling,
followed by swelling, a rash and itching. The concentrat ion of formic acid is especially high in
Edible uses
Fresh nettles have long been used for food in
Britain since early Christian times , often eaten in a
broth made with oats or oatmeal.
The cooked young shoots (or tops/l eaves of older
shoots with the youngest leaves) and a very
healthy and nutritious food , and are rich in vitamins
A, 82, C, E and K1 as well as various minerals
including iron and calcium. The very best shoots to
pick are the very young ones, no higher than 10 cm
(4") . To cook as a vegetable, wash the leaves and
simmer in a pan without water for 10 minutes,
turning all the time. Cooking destroys the stinging
properties. Butter and seasoning improves the
dish.
Used on their own they can be bitter (especially
after June) or dull , so they are best added to other
foods - stews etc. Nettle soup, made with onions,
garlic, potatoes, nettles and stock, is an excellent
di sh; it is very popul ar in Sweden, where for many
people it is the only sure sign that spring has
arrived. Another traditional European dish is a
baked mixture of eggs, breadcrumbs, chopped ham
and chopped nettle at easter time.
Nettle leaves are used as a wrapping for cheese, notably for Cornish Varg.
Nettle tea is now an important commercial product , with more than one UK manufacturer
marketing nettle tea bags in wholefood shops etc.
Page 37
Nettle leaf curd is an interesting food produced on a small
commercial scale in England. Nettle leaves are juiced and the
jui ce coagulated, producing a rich dark green curd with a texture
like cheddar cheese. It is used like a stock cube, adding richness,
flavour and green colour to food, improving its nutritional vale.
The curd itself is rich in minerals and Vitamins.
The u i ~ e of the leaves, or a decoction of the herb, can be used as
a rennet substitute in curdling plant milks.
It is not advisable to eat fresh raw nettles even in small quantities
(though see the BBC article about the nettle eating competition in
the text box).
Older leaves contain crystals of calcium oxalate, which give a
gritty texture, even after cooking.
Medicinal uses
Nettle has long been used medicinall y - the Greek physiCian
Oioscoroides listed a range of uses.
The whole plant, including leaves and roots, can be used. For
medicinal use, whole plants are cut as fl owering begins in summer
and dried for use in infusions, liquid extracts, ointments, powders
and tinctures; roots are harvested in autumn. The key
constit uents are flavonoids (quercitin), amines (histamine, choline,
acetylcholine, serotonin), glucoquinone, minerals (calcium,
potassium, silicic acid, iron), plant sterols (stigmast-4-enzone,
stigmasterol) and phenols.
It is an astringent, diuretic, tonic herb that controls bleeding,
clears toxins, and slightly lowers blood pressure and the blood
sugar level. It increases the haemoglobin in the blood and
improves the ci rculation. The leaves 'increase breast milk
production. Recent research has proven the value of neUle roots
as medicine for benign prostate enlargement.
Nettle beer
This takes only a
week from picking to
drinking and makes
a light , refreshing,
ginger beer-type
drink.
100 nettle stalks
(with leaves)
12 litres water
1 Yz kg sugar
50 g cream of tartar
15 9 yeast
Boil nettles with
water for 15
minutes. Strain, add
sugar and cream of
tartar. Heat and stir
until dissolved.
When tepid add
yeast and stir well.
Cover and leaves for
4 days. Remove
scum and decant,
without disturbing
sediment, into beer
bottles with
closures.
Can be drunk within
a few days, serve
with a sprig of mint
and ice.
Medicinally they are used internally for anaemia (leaves), haemorrhage (especially of the
uterus), heavy menstrual bleeding, haemorrhoids, arthritis, rheumatism, skin complaints
(especially eczema) and allergies. Nettle is anti-allergenic and used to treat hay fever, asthma,
itchy skin conditions and insect bites. Externally for arthri tic pain, gout, sciatica, neuralgia,
haemorrhoids, scalp and hair probl ems, burns, insect bites and nosebleeds.
Recent studies have shown that neUles have a powerful antioxidant activity and contain very
effective scavengers of free radicals. They also show significant antibacterial activity, antiulcer
activity and analgesic effects.
Nettles are a common component of shampoos; traditi onally a decoction of nettles was used to
combat dandruff and hair loss.
A homeopathic remedy is made from the leaves of the closely related U.urens, the annual
nettle, which has the same properties as stinging nettle. It is used in the treatment of bites &
stings, breastfeeding problems. burns, hives and prickly heat.
Fibre uses
NeWe fibre has been used to weave cloth for centuries
- a Danish Bronze Age grave contained nettle fabric.
The fibre is similar to hemp and it served a variety of
purposes in the home from coarse sheets and cloth to
sacking and fishing nets. Nettle fibres are strong and
have sometimes been used commercially to produce a
fibre (notably in World War I in Germany, when some
2,500 tannes of nettles were collected.) Nettle is
cultivated still to produce neWe cloth on a small scale.
Recently fashion designers have been experimenting
with nettle cloth.
The netties are harvested in autumn, reUed in water
(soaked for several weeks to release the fibres), then
the fibres are combed out. For simple cordage and
rope, the fibres can be used straight away, but for
making paper or cloth, they need pounding, rolling or
crushing to pulverize any brittle woody cells that
remain; then they are beaten and scraped (scutching)
to remove the woody bits; and the final step is hackling
(drawi ng the fibres across a series of vertical pins to
separate and align them). The line fibres, as they are
now called, can then be twisted into hanks and stored
ready for spinning. This process is common to all
herbaceous fibres used for cloth.
On a small scale for short-term usage, there is an
easier way to utilise neUies for cordage. Select tall
nettles, best collected in autumn just before they start
to dry and decay. Remove the stingi ng hairs and
leaves by drawing the stem through a clenched gloved
hand. Flatten the stems gently by squeezing or rolling
a small stick over them on a log. Then bend the nettle
in the middle to break the strong fibrous pith inside.
Remove the pith, leaving the fibres attached to the
outer bark, then peel the bark into four equal lengths.
The fibres can be used as they are for tying or can be
twisted together to make a strong cord.
Nettles can also be used to make a fine paper.
For a good quality fibre, nettles should be grown on a
good rich deep soil.
The plant matter left over after the fibres have been
extracted are a good source of biomass and have been
used in the manufacture of sugar, starch, protein and
ethyl alcohol.
Other uses
Chopped neUles are sometimes fed to goslings, while
goats are fond of browsing on the plants, seemingly
BBC News website 16/6/2002
Nettle chomping champ
keeps crown
The reigning champion
stinging nettle eater has
retained his title by munching
hi s way through a record
amount of the fiery plants.
Simon Sleigh, from
Forkchurch, Dorset, took on a
field of a dozen tough-
mouthed competitors at a
country pub and ate his way
through 76ft of the uncooked
stingers.
After his win at the Bottle Inn
in the tiny Dorset village of
Marshwood, population 300,
Sleigh, an organic vegetable
grower in his early forties, said
he felt no pain.
"I made every effort to make
sure it did not hurt, it comes
with experience," he said,
admitting that washing the
leaves down with beer was a
factor which "helped
enormously". There is said to
be a secret method of eating
the leaves which prevents
competitors sustaining injury.
But one false move and the
plucky contestants risk
swollen lips and gums.
"I hate the bloody things,
honest," he added.
Sleigh came second in his
debut year of competition
before his first win last year,
and today beat his nearest
rival by about 20ft of nettles.
He and hi s competitors were
faced with the challenge of
stripping and eating the leaves
of as many 2ft long speciall y
nurtured stinging nettle stalks
as they could in the allotted
time.
Page 39
unaffected by the stings. Hay made from nettles is an excellent addition to the diet of cattle and
rabbit s (dried leaves contain up to 20% protein); dried and powdered they can be mixed in with
chicken and duck food, whife pigs thrive on the boiled plant.
Nettles can be made into a liquid fertiliser feed in the same way as comfrey leaves . Soak
freshly picked nettles in water at the ratio of 1 kg nettles to 10 litres of water (1 Ib per gallon).
After two weeks, strain the (smelly) liquid off. Liquid nettle fertiliser is more or less a complete
fertiliser (the phosphorus content can be a little low) and is best used dituted ten times on
in growth. As well as providing nutrients, nettle fertiliser has a growth stimulating
effect on plants (some 20% increase over standard fertilisers) , perhaps due to specific
hormones present or greater accessibility of the nutrients. Dried nettles can also be used to
the fertili ser. Nettles in spring have a higher content of ammonium-nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium than in summer. They are also an excellent addition to compost heaps, working
as activators.
Nettles are commercially exploited for their large amounts of chlorophyll, used as a colouring in
foods and medicines (code E140).
Nettles are an important food plant for various caterpillars including those of the red admiral,
tortoiseshell and peacock. Other insects supported include hoverflies, lacewings, parasitic
wasps and ladybirds - all very useful garden insect pest controllers .
The juice of the stems and leaves has been used to produce a permanent green dye - in Britain
it was used to colour camouflage nets that were needed in the run up to the D-Day landings in
1944. The leaves give a fast yellow-green dye with an alum mordant and a fast grey-green dye
with an iron mordant on wool. A yellow dye can also be obtained from boiling the roots, used
with an alum mordant, which has been used in Europe for centuries.
The growing plant reportedl y increases the essential oil content of other nearby plants, thus
making them more resistant to insect pests.
References
Bown, D: The RHS New Encyclopedia of Herbs & their uses. Darling Kindersley, 21002.
Chevalier, A; The Encycl opedia of Medicinal Plants. Darling Kindersley, 1996.
Gulcin, I et al: Antioxidant, antomicrobial, antiulcer and analgesic activities of nettie (Urfica
dioica L.). Journal of Ethnopharm<;lcology 90 (2004), 205-215.
Hemenway, R: Fibe Plants for the Permaculture Landscape. Permacuiture Activist, 43 (2000),
pp 45-47.
Lavelle, M: The nettle - friend or foe? Herbs, Vol 28 No 3 (2003), pp 18-19.
Lennartsson, M: Make more use of nettles. HDRA Newsletter 112, 1998, pp 26-27.
Mears, R: Bushcraft. Hodder & Stouhgton, 2002.
Phillips, R: Wild Food. Pan, 1983.
www.leafcycle.co.uk - nettle leaf curd information
Classified adverts
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Page 40
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mail@aqroforestry.co. uk
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Agroforestry News
Physalis
Volume 13 Number 4
August 2005
E
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 13 Number 4 August 2005
Contents
2 News: Origins of domestic apples I Squirrel meat I
More pigs in woodland
3 Food value of annual and perennial vegetables
12 Horse chestnut: Aesculus hippocastaneum
16 Silvopasture in Shropshire
18 Dehesa agroforestry systems
22 Physalis: Ground cherries
28 Lithocarpus: the tanbark oaks
31 Compendium of edible fruits: (4) perennials and
annuals
35 Woolly aphid of apple
37 Pine resin - sources and uses
40 Book review: The Woodland House
Publisher: Agroforestry News is published Quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust.
Totnes. Devon. TOg 6JT. U.K. Fax & tetephone: +44 (0)1803840776
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website:Wo/.NoI.agroforestry.co.uk
News
Origins of domestic apples
The cultivated apple, Malus domestica or more correctly Malus pumi/a, appears to have arisen
from the wild apple Malus sieversii on the northern slopes of the Tien Shan range,
geograpbically spanning Uzbekistan, Khirghistan, Kazakhstan and the Xinjiang Province of "/
China. Amoung the wild apples sti ll remaining in this region are fruits of the size, colour and
sweetness that would merit cultivation. It seems that M.sieversii did not hybridise with related
Middle Eastern or European apple species.
Recent genetic analyses of apple now explains how these fruits reached Western Europe and
beyond. M.sieversii is closely related to the Siberian crab, M.baccata, and it may have
originated from a trapped population of the latter and the Tien Shan range rose upwards. Over
a period of 710 million years the mammals, ego bears, selected the largest and juiciest fruits: a
small, birddistributed cherrysized fruit (Siberian crab) giving way to a large mammal
distributed one.
By the time man began to occupy the area 58,000 years ago, the early evolution of the apple
was almost complete and its migration, assisted by the now domesticated horse, was under
way . In the late Neolithic or early Bronze age, travellers on the great trade routes carried apple
pips west. Grafting was probably discovered in Mesopotamia some 3,800 years ago. From
there, the fruits are necessary technology passed through the Persians and Greeks to the
Romans, who perfected orchard economies. The Romans brought the whole package to
Western Europe. Two thousand years more of conscious and unconscious selection have led to
the varieties in existence today.
Source: B E: The Origin of the Domestic Apple. National Orchard Forum, 6.
Squirrel meat
Squirrel (grey) meat is becoming the health food of choice for waistwatching celebrities after
nutritionists named it among the best sources of protein. At just 173 calories per 100 grammes,
it is said to be preferable to rump steak for taste and healthy as squirrels feed on nuts and
seeds.
It's on the menu at some Conran eateries in London and yesterday the Tapster bistro near
Faversham , Kent , where diners include Sir Bob Geldof, served squirrel sausages and pate
during a local festival.
ft
The Daily Express, June 2005
More pigs in woodland
The Goodwood Estate in Sussex is converting 180 ha (460 acres) of the estate's woodland for
pigs. Trials started 18 months ago using primarily Saddlebacks, a hardy outdoor breed
providing very good tasting meat. Groups of 3 sows and their offspring have a 2.5 - 3 hectare
(6.2-7.5 acre) block of electrically fenced woodland top roam around for 6-8 months, clearing
the floor of ivy and bramble. The pigs live in straw huts, which are warmer in winter and cooler
in summer than traditional tin arks. The boar is moved from pen to pen to serve the sows, and
the offspring are taken away after 12 weeks. When the sites are clean they are moved to
another area and during winter live in stubble fields. The woodland provides a cool , relaxing
and uncrowded envi ronment, while the forest floor is cleared of unwanted vegetation.
Source: Rudman, J: Down to Earth. NFU Countryside Magazine, August 2005.
E5
Food value of annual and
perennial vegetables
Introduction
One would expect that many perennial vegetables, with their permanent and often more
extensive root systems, would contain higher levels of minerals and vitamins than conventional
annual vegetables. And despite the lack of information on more unusual foods, this turns out
generally to be the case. Below are presented graphs showing the mineral , vitamin and protein
levels for a range of annual vegetables and perennial plants. Information is given on the
following perennials:
Bamboo shoots
Cardoon
Chervil
Chickweed
Chives
Coltsfoot
Daisy
Dandelion
Dead nettle
Fat Hen
Garden orach
Garl ic mustard
Phyllostachys spp.
Cynara carduncu/us
Anlhriscus cere folium
Stellaria media
Allium schoenoprasum
Tussi/ago farfara
Bellis perennis
Taraxacum officinale
Lamium album
Chenopodium album
Alrip/ex hortensis
Alliaria petio/ala
Good king Henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus
Greater burnet Sanguisorba officinalis
Ground elder Aegopodium podagraria
Ground i vy Glechoma hederacea
Hogweed Heracleum sphondylium
Lemon balm Melissa officinalis
Lesser celandine Ranunculus ficaria
Red clover Trifolium pratense
Ribwort plantai n Plantago lanceolafa
Rosebay willowherb Epilobium angustifolium
Silverweed Potentilla anserina
Sorrel Rumex acetosa
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica
Wood mallow Malva sylvestris
Each graph below displays annual vegetables in the bottom half and perennials in the top. Of
course, nutrient levels in plants vary during the year, and also vary with climate, cultivation
methods etc. It is common to find analyses for a particular plant differing by as much as 50%
due to such variation, so don't treat these figures as precisely accurate at all times; they
represent average values.
With Potassium, the perennials contain on average nearly twice the amount than conventional
annual s. Note though that the highest levels come from chickweed and fat hen, two annual
weeds! With Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, vitami n C and protei n levels, the difference is even
more pronounced, with perennials containing on average 2-3 times the amounts that
conventional annuals contain. With Phosphorus and vitamin A the differences are less
pronounced, though the perennials still contain signifi cantly more.
References
Weise, V: Cooking Weeds. Prospect Books, 2004.
Lanska, D: The Illustrated Guide to Edible Plants. Chancellor Press, 1992.
USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference at
http://www.nal.usda.gov/fniclfoodcomplindex.html
Stinging nettle
Rosebay willowhb.
Hogweed
Good king Henry
t Dandelion
Daisy
Coltsfoot
Cardoon
Bamboo shoots
Fat Hen
Chickweed
White cabbage
Swiss chard
Spinach
Red cabbage
Lettuce
Leeks
Lambs lettuce
Curly kale
Cress
Chinese cabbage
Chicory
Cauliflower
Carrot
Brussels sprouts
Broccoli
Asparagus
Page 4
o
I
l
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
,
200 400 600 800 1000
milligram/100g Potassium
Stinging netlle
Rosebay willowhh.
Hogweed
Good king Henry
Dandelion
Daisy
Coltsfoot
Cardoon
Bamboo shoots
Fat Hen
Chickweed
White cabbage
Swiss chard
Spi nach
Red cabbage
Lettuce
Leeks
Lambs lettuce
Cur1y kale
Cress
Chinese cabbage
Chicory
Cauliflower
Carrot
Brussels sprouts
Broccoli
Asparagus
o
I I
JI
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II
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50
100
milligram/100g Phosphorus
I
150
Page 5
Stinging nettle
Rosebay willowhb.
Hogweed
Good king Henry
Dandelion
Daisy
Coltsfoot
Cardoon
Bamboo shoots
Fat Hen
Chickweed
White cabbage
Swiss chard
Spinach
Red cabbage
Lettuce
leeks
lambs lettuce
Curly kale
Cress
Chinese cabbage
Chicory
Cauliflower
Carrot
Brussels sprouts
Broccoli
Asparagus
Page 6
JII
o
II
I
II
I
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II
J
II
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II
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20 40 60 80 100
milligram/100g Magnesium
Stinging nettie
Rosebay willowhb.
Hogweed
Good king Henry
Dandelion
Daisy
Coltsfoot
Cardoon
Bamboo shoots
Fat Hen
Chickweed
White cabbage
Swiss chard
Spinach
Red cabbage
Lettuce
Leeks
Lambs lettuce
Cuny kale
Cress
Chinese cabbage
Chicory
Cauliflower
Carrot
Brussels sprouts
Broccoli
Asparagus
=J
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=,
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200 400 600
milligram/100g Calcium
~
800
Page 7
Stinging nettle
Rosebay wi llowhb.
Hogweed
Good king Henry
~ Dandelion
Daisy
Coltsfoot
Cardoon
Bamboo shoots
Fat Hen
Chickweed
White cabbage
Swiss chard
Spinach
Red cabbage
Lettuce
Leeks
Lambs lettuce
Curly kale
Cress
Chinese cabbage
Chicory
Cauliflower
Carrot
Brussels sprouts
Broccoli
Asparagus
PageS
---'-,
5"
tJ
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=:::J
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2 4 6
8 10
milligram/100g Iron
Wood mallow
Stinging nettle
Rosebay willowhb.
Red dover
Lesser celandine
Hogweed
Ground etder
Greater burnet
Good king Henry
Dead nettie
Dandelion
Daisy
Coltsfoot
cardoon
Bamboo shoots
Chickweed
White cabbage
Swiss chard
Spinach
Red cabbage
Lenuce
Leeks
Lambs lettuce
Cuny kale
Cress
Chinese cabbage
Chicory
cauliHower
Carro,
Brussels sprouts
Brn=>I;
Asparagus
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f--'
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In
DI
o 500 1000 1500 2000
microgram/100g Vitamin A
2500
Page 9
Ribwort plantain
Lemon balm
Ground ivy
Garden orach
Chives
Garlic mustard

Stinging nettle
Sorr.'
Silverweed
Rosebay willowhb.
Hog.'"
Ground elder
Greater burnet
Good king Henry
OandeUon
I I
II
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D;,, :11 II
CheMl 1 = ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
I
cardoon I
Bamboo shoots
FalHen ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : : ~ ~ ~ : J I
White cabbage J
Swiss chard 0
Spinach
Red cabbage
Lettuce
leeks
LambS lettuce
r---"-
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CUr1y kale ~ ~ ~ ~ b
cress ]
Chinese cabbage ~ I
Chicory P I I
Gaulinower : b ~ ~ ~ ~
"'"01 JI I I
o 100 200 300 400 500
microgram/100g Vitamin C
Page 10
Wood mallow
Stinging nettle
Sorrel
Rosebay wil1owhb.
Ground elder
Good king Henry
Dead nettle
Dandelion
Daisy
Cardoon
Bamboo shoots
Fat Hen
Chickweed
While cabbage
Swiss chard
Spinach
Red cabbage
lettuce
Leeks
Lambs lettuce
Curly kale
Cress
Chinese cabbage
Chicory
Cauliflower
Carrol
Brussels sprouts
Broccoli
Asparagus
~ I
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gram/100g Protein
Page 11
Horse chestnut
Aesculus hippocastaneum
Introduction and origin
Amoung the Aesculus species, the horse chestnut is important, used widely as an ornamental
and landscape plant in parks and gardens all over the world due to its beauty and hardiness. It
is a majestic tree with a great ornamental presence as a result of its growth habit, the thick
foliage that develops early in spring, the high shading capacity, the abundant showy flowers ,
and the longevity of the plant.
The horse chestnut is becoming increasingly important as a source of medicinal compounds
which have been widely investigated and are used in dermatology and pharmacology.
In the last century, botanists believed that the tree came originally from Asia, hence the Italian
common name for fruit "Castagna d'lndia
6
In reality, this species is native to the mountains of
Albania, Bulgaria and the north of Greece, where it grows wild in mixed woods with alder (Alnus
glutinosa), walnut (Juglans regia), ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and maple (Acer platanoides).
The species was introduced into western Europe in the 16
th
century and in many countries now
it is rare for a town or village to be without a specimen. There a number of named ornamental
forms.
Description
Horse chestnut is a deciduous tree that can live for more than 200 years and grow to a height of
25-30 m (85-100 ft) and width of 15 m (50 ft). Trees grows a large rounded crown and are
densely branched, with the lower branches usually pendulous.
Distinctive buds are ovoid, pointed, 3-5 cm long, dark
reddish-brown and very sticky.
Leaves are palmate with 5-7 leaflets on long stalks, each
up to 20 em (8") long.
White flowers (speckled yellow and red), usually appear on
trees over 14-15 years of age in late April-early June, are
hermaphrodite or male, about 2 cm long and combined in
large erect, terminal racemes. Not all flowers are ferUle.
Pollination is via bees, including honey bees and wild
bees.
The fruit consists of 1-4 seeds enclosed in a dry leathery
husk, green at first, turning brown externally when ripe. It
can reach 6 cm in diameter, and has small spines and a
fine down on the surface. At maturity the husk splits into
three valves to release the seeds.
Seeds are brown, rounded or faceted , with two irregular large fleshy and oily cotyledons that
are often joined. Heavy seed yields are obtained every 2-3 years.
The tree is very hardy, to zone 3 (-35C). The horse chestnut i s a relatively short-lived trees,
with decl ine starting soon after 100 years of age.
Medicinal uses
Horse chestnut is li sted as a medicinal herb in the herba
pharmacopoeias of many countries, with the dried leaves, the oi
extracted from peeled seeds, the fresh and dried seeds, the bark anI
the fresh flowers all being utilised.
Horse chestnut seeds have a sour, bitter taste and are toxic as ;
consequence of a high level of saponins, notably escin. They aisl
contain coumarin glycosides, flavonoid derivatives, starch (23-48%)
tannins, oil (4-6%), cellulose (3%), protein (8-12%), sucrose (8-17%)
glucose (5-6%). The dried seeds are antioxidant,
vasoprotective, decongestant and astringent, notably due to the esc;n content. Gels or
ointments are most often used for the treatment of varicose veins, contusions, haematomas,
haemorrhoids and in dermatology.
The industrial demand for horse chestnut seeds to process for medicinal compounds is rising
and currentfy more than 2000 tonnes of dry seeds are required, mostly supplied from roadside
and garden trees in Hungary and Poland. The ripe seeds are dried at 60C.
The oil extracted from the peeled seeds consists of the following acids: oleic (65%), linoleic
(21%), palma tic (4.5%), stearic (3.7%), linolenic (2.3%) and 2-3% of other compounds.
The bark contains numerous substances including glycosides and coumarins. It is collected in
spring or autumn from two to three year-old branches and dried in ambient air. The bark is
tonic, astringent, detergent, antiseptic, narcotic, febrifuge, anti-haemorrhagic and anti-
haemorrhoidaf. It is used as an infusion to treat diarrhoea, enteritis and haemorrhoids; and
externally for ulcers and chilblains.
The leaves and flowers are collected in spring and dried. They are used in tinctures or
ointments to treat vari cose veins, inflammation, haemorrhoids and cramps.
The buds and flowers are used in Bach flower remedies.
Domestic uses
The ffour obtained from the seeds has been long known as a means for washing fin en and wool.
During WWII, the fl our was mixed with clay (kaolin) to form a soap (known as ' Bolous' soap)
that was effective against spots of fat but not suitable for washing white garments because the
iron in the clay discoloured the cloth. The flour is also a constituent of snuff.
The leaves are sometimes used to adulterate tobacco and the young leaves have been used as
a hop substitute (safety unknown).
Dry seeds are traditionally put in wardrobes to combat moths.
Following leaching of the ground peeled seeds and drying at 40C, a raw flour is obtained that
resembles corn flour. Drying at 100C gives a flour of different character. Both are used for
soup, cakes and confectionary in general. A traditional method of leaching was to mix the bitter
flour with soda water and allow to stand for 12 hours, then filter the flour off and repeat a further
5-7 times; finally, wash the flour with water, filter and dry in the sun or in an oven. The flour
was traditionally made into bread using a 1:1 mixture with corn flour.
The oil extracted from seeds has also been used for human nutrition.
In many countries, particularly ex-Czechoslovakia, the flowers are a useful source of nectar for
bees and a moderate source of pollen in spring. Honey yields of over 380 kg/ha are achieved.
The tree is sometimes used to consolidate erosion-prone slopes and for environmental forestry
plantings in Europe. It is also sometimes used to provide arboreal barriers as defence against
fires.

The fresh seed lather well in fresh water and can be used as a soap; the
can also be chopped into pieces and infused in hot water. The mal
drawback is that they impart a strong odour of horse chestnuts!
Children love to play 'conkers' with the seeds.
The saponins in the seeds are toxic to fish; the seeds have been use<
usually crushed and thrown into dammed-up streams, to kill fish or forc
them to the surface for easy catch.
Cosmetic and industrial uses
Escin and other seed extracts are widely used in cosmetics and are frequent constituents of
bath foams, shampoos, scalp lotions, toothpastes, body lotions, sun creams etc.
The dextrins contained in the seeds are used for the production of liquors and for the
preparation of flues used by bookbinders, by flax weavers and by box manufacturers. The raw
flour, after boiling in water, yields a rot-resistant and solid glue recommended for labels and for
the adhesive boards of herbaria. The powder from the seeds also serves as a foaming agent
for extinguishers and for the perparation of concrete.
The oil from seeds is an emuls1fying agent for whale oil , paraffin oil , drilling oil, detergent cream
and for pastes used in cleaning materials in the galvanizing industry. It is also used in the
manufacture of soap, as a lubricating oil for machinery and for animal feed.
The seeds are also used for the preparation of anti-parasitic and insecticidal agents and in the
textile dyeing industry.
The leaves have been used in the past to dye wool a pale chestnut colour. The bark extract is
used for tanning and for dyeing wool yellow.
The wood from the tree is yellowish-white, soft and fairly light, waxy, with a fine compact and
uniform grain and sometimes with a shiny surface. Considered by many to be one of the worst
timbers for industry and fuel , according to others it is not appreciated only because it is liUle
known. The timber is easily worked, but cannot be cut cleanly because the lumber twists and
warps easily and decays rapidly when exposed to the elements. The yield of timber in the UK is
similar to that of beech.
The wood, which is particularly dry, burns vigorously but only for a short time. Timber from
horse chestnut is well adapted for using in the interior of furniture, trellising, cooking
implements and pianos; but is seldom used except for the production of boxes/crates for
vegetables and fruit and for pyrography. It makes good charcoal and is traditionally used for
shel ving in fruit stores in the UK. The wood takes a good polish and readily absorbs a black
stain, indicating why the wood is used to imitate ebony. In the past, the wood was used for
sculpture because the white paint used as a cover before gilding concealed any defects.
Page 14
iii
Animal food uses
The seeds fe used as fodder for fattening cattle and game animals and especially for pigs,
goats, sheep and fish . In Eastern Europe they are used for feeding horses and cattle. The
cattle become habituated to the fodder, a little at a time, and results in an increase in milk
production. Pigs decisively reject the seeds; chickens grow poorly and ducks die on eating
seeds; deer do not like them.
In preparation for use as feed, seeds are soaked in limewater to remove the bitter flavour,
ground into meal , then mixed with normal rations. Alternatively, seeds can be partially crushed,
soaked in cold water overnight, then boiled up in the mixture for 1 % hours then removing the
water; the residue can be subsequently dried, partially peeled, and reduced to a flour which,
although slightly bitter, has a pleasant taste and appearance.
In central Europe, the tree is sometimes planted in hunting reserves and in wooded avenues to
nourish the game that eat the seed.
Cultivation
Horse chestnut is a very adaptable plant and is spread throughout all the temperate and cold-
temperate regions of the world. For optimum growth they prefer deep, light (but moist) and
fertile soils and shelter from strong winds. It does very well in the UK on deeper soils over
chalk and other alkaline soils. Full sun is preferred (and necessary to good seed production) ,
though part shade is tolerated. The range extends to 1300 m in altitude and to 65N in Norway
and Sweden where the tree still ripens fruit. The tree does not like drought, salinity, or severe
pruning. Young growth in spring can be damaged by late spring frosts. Growth is fairly fast ,
about 5 m in the first 10 years.
Trees in mainland Europe can suffer from leaf blotch (caused by the fungus Guignardi a aescull)
and the insect pest Cameraria ohridella. One tree in SE England has recently been found
infected by ramorum dieback (Phytophthora ramorum) . In 2004, trees were found in several
European cities suffering from a serious and fatal dieback disease which may turn out to be
ramorum dieback or a similar species.
Propagation is normally by seed, and is easy. Ripe seeds should be sown immediately and
allowed to experience winter chilling. Grafting is also fairly easy and cuttings can also be taken
in summer.
Experimental trials of growing plantations of horse chestnut have shown that trees adapt well to
different pruning and training systems. Shaping trees to a modified central leader form fit best
wi th the natural growth habit.
Seed yields from trees vary widely, from 2-3 kg to 25 kg of fresh seeds per tree annually. Seed
quality also varies (in terms of escin content) and there are attempts being made to select high
escin culti vars. Seed production starts at the age of about 20 years.
References
Bellini , E & Nin, S: Horse Chestnut: Cultivation for Ornamental Purposes and Non-Food Crop
Production. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, Vol 11 (112) 2004 ,
pp 93-120.
Crawford, M: A.R.T. Species database, 2005.
Macdonald, J et al: Exotic Forest Trees in Great Britain. Fe Bulletin 30, HMSO. 1964.
Tiffany. N et al: Horse Chestnut: A Multidisciplinary Clinical Review. Journal of Herbal
Pharmacotherapy. Vol 2(1) 2002. pp 71-85.
Silvopasture in Shropshire
Peter Aspin
Introduction
The Holli es is a small farm in North Shropshire which untit the mid-nineties had a dairy herd but
now carries about 35 beef cattle. The nature of the project here is designed to bring together
elements of the open-field system of agriculture common in Britain until the Enclosure Acts, and
the agroforestry practices of especially Asia.
The irregular field patterns of much of Britain today leads to an inefficient use of land with ever
larger tractors wasting time and fuel negotiating unnecessary corners and angles. The previous
field system at The Hollies has been completely redesigned to create a rectilinear landscape,
with long narrow strips of land based on the selions of the open-field of the past ; and in the
process greatly simplifying land management in terms of both livestock and machinery.
Silvopasture at the Hollies
The selions - remnants of which sti ll remain in many counties of England, not least Shropshire
- measured about one furlong (220 yds) by 8 to 11 yards wide - a third to half an acre in area
(200 x 7-10 metres, = 0.14 to 0.2 hal. The redesigned strips here measure 20 metres in width
and up to 400 m in length (ie up to 0.8 ha, 2 acres in area) - actually the length of the farm.
The main difference is that the strips are divided by rows of trees spaced at 5 metres within the
row.
The trees that have been planted are for a wide variety of purposes to see how they can be
managed successfully under the, imposed conditions. The primary purpose is to provide fodder
for the cattle. Bovines are not exclusively grazing animals but also prefer to spend time
browsing the foliage of trees and shrubs. So there are elms (not the English elm though it has
probably been the main grazing tree for much of the last two millennia) , zelkovas, liquidambars,
hazels, gleditsias, mulberries and not least the ash - though some of these have recently
(June-July) been grazed by caterpillars.
Nut trees planted include walnuts (20 varieties), sweet chestnut (15), almonds ( 15), ginkgos (4),
hazels (10) and araucarias. There are fruiting trees such as hackberries, diospyros,
amelanchiers, sorbus and trees for timber and sap production.
Planting has taken place over the last 4 years but as all fields had previously been ploughed
East-West. it has been preceded by ploughing and reseeding on a North-South axis (trees in
rows must be planted as close to the North-South as possible so that sunlight distribution is
equal). A small area was ploughed after planting and the shallow Iynchets formed have proved
very attractive for rabbit excavating.
On a practical level I have found it best to plant trees 1-2 feet (30-60 cm) in height. Taller
transplants require much more attention, especially wateri ng in dry periods which is impossible
in a project like this, and inevitably suffer often severe diehack. They are quickly overtaken by
shorter trees . Visitors often comment how well the trees survive when planted straight into
grass/clover swards without mulching. The answer is twofold - being an organic farm all
swards contain high levels of clover which fixes nitrogen for both the grasses and trees; and
secondly a very strict rotational grazing system is practiced so that immediately after defoliation
the sward is allowed to regenerate for 30 days plus before re-grazing. So the fields never
completely dry out and high pasture cover encourages ground shading and heavy dew fall
during dry weather, especially in humid of high diurnal temperature condit ions. Many parks and
arboreta make the fatal mistake of scalping lawns during dry weather.
The trees are planted in groups of the same species, usually 3 or 4, but occasionally more,
within a row or adjacent rows but never adjacent to one another. This i s to allow for pollination
and the collection of organic tree seed, and also to prevent the spread of pests and diseases.
The recent infestation of ash by caterpillars only affected S trees in one row and one in the next.
The cattle are prevented from grazing the young trees by electric fences alongside the rows and
thus dividing the strips or alleys of forage. Occasionally I have put wires too close to the trees
with the frustratingly early coppicing of specimens. The whole process is very much trial and
error. As mentioned the trees are not mulched at planting, but in summer, deposits
convenientfy left by the cattle nearby are placed close to, but not touching, the trunk. This is
felt to be essential as the land here is light and sandy with low levels of summer rain - a week
without precipitation constitutes a drought. The trees are fertilized in winter by spreading slurry
along the rows , which might sound drastic but is effective and camouflages the tree shelters - it
is also the onl y fertil i zer that the grass al ongside the trees receives.
This is essentially a very long-term project. There will be the effects of the trees on herbage
production in terms of shading at different times of the year, and how the shading affects the
behaviour of the cattle - the Aberdeen Angus cattle here spend most of the hot summer days
inside whereas the continentals such as Brown Swiss, Belgian Blues and Simmentals continue
to graze. The walnut is a very important tree in this regards as the pungent foliage smell will
hopefully reduce the effect of fl y-st ri ke and disturbance during late summer and autumn.
Similarly, under anticyclonic conditions in late autumn/early winter, cattle usuall y congregate
overnight under in-leaf deciduous trees where the air and soil temperatures are higher than in
open-ground.
It is widely accepted that the taste of beef has changed over the last 50 to 100 years as the diet
of cattle has become more and more based on herbage - one aspect of this project is to
redefine the taste and texture of beef by diet manipulation. Further long-term I hope to see the
monkey puzzles fruit. I think I will leave the Ginkgos for a generation or two down the line.
Other interesting trees planted for educational research and seed collection interest include
sassafras (2 species), paulownias (6). liriodendrons (2) , ostryas (2), koelreuterias (2) , idesia,
celtis (3) , macluras, nyssas (2), ailanthus, eucommias and cercidiphyllum (2). A tiny but well-
established forest garden has been rather pillaged for out planting in the fields and a small
October 2004 planted grove of ol i ves has been intermixed with birches and zanthoxylums.
The farm is open to group visits by prior notice throughout the year. The nursery - all trees and
plants are grown from seed and to organic (Soil Association) standards - is open during visits
or at almost any time by appointment. Any information on silvopastoral strategies I tree
browsing observations would be very welcome.
Contact details:
Phone: 01948 840073
Address: The Hollies, Soulton, Wem, Shropshire, SY4 SRT.
E-mail: silvaspinpeter@aol.com

Dehesa agroforestry systems
Introduction
The dehesas of southern Spain and Portugal (where they are call ed montados) are manmade
ecosystems characterised by a savannah-like structure and very high biodiversity, where the
trees (mainly holm oak, Quercus ilex) are viewed as an integrated part of the system, and as a
result ani planted, managed and regularly pruned. They are traditionally grazed by mixed
livestock at low densities, and are probably the oldest agroforestry systems still in existence in
Europe, having been developed some two thousand years ago and changed very little until the
last 30-40 years.
The dehesa system
The dehesa system is characterised by a savannah-like open tree layer, mainly dominated by
Mediterranean evergreen oaks - holm oak (Quercus i/ex) and cork oak (Q.suber) and to a
lesser extent by the deciduous
q.pyrenaica and Q.faginea. Other
trees which may be included are
wild olive (Olea europaea 44-
si/vestris), stone pine (Pinus
pineal and wild pear (pyrus
bourgaeana). Shrubs include the
strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo)
and Quercus coccifera. The holm
oak trees have been selected over
centuries for the production of 40
sweet acorns as a high quality
stock feed. These trees will hSlve
been planted deliberately or may
have self-seeded. Below the tree
layer is a grass layer used for
grazing, or occasionally cultivated
cereals. These systems occupy 36-
over 6 million ha (60,000 square
kilometres) in the west and south
west of Spain and southern
Portugal.
The high biodiversity is due to a
variety of grazed, shrubby and
cultivated types of dehesas and
FRANCE
SPAIN
8 4 0 4
The dehesa region of the Iberian peninsula
from differences in stand composition, density and structure. The mosaic of habitats supports a
rich diversity of plants and animals.
The traditional system was highly diversified in terms of livestock types (sheep, goats, pigs and
cattle). Hardy local breeds were used - merino sheep (for wool), retinta, avilena and morucha
cattle and iberico (iberian) pigs. The pigs and sheep were tended by herders. The herders
and the sheep migrated in summer to northern mountain ranges due to the scarcity of forage
during drought. The average stocking levels were equivalent to 2 suckling ewes/ha in winter
and 0.7-1 suckling ewe/ha in summer. The pigs graze the seasonal acorn production between
October and February, gaining about 60 kg live weight in 75 days (9 kg of Q.ilex acorns
corresponds to the production of 1 kg of pork meat). Today the grazing of the high value
Iberian pig is the most profitable component of the dehesa system.
Page 18
(
The herbaceous layer is usually composed of native annual vegetation (grasses - Lolium,
Bromus, Hordeum etc., legumes - clovers, medicagos, serradela [Ornitophus sp] etc., crucifers)
which are used for grazing. Sometimes cultivated cereals (oats, barley, wheat, rye) are grown
(occupying 9% of the total land area) , traditionally in long rotations and closed nutrient cycles
without external inputs of fodder, fertilisers and chemicals (often using fallows of 3 years or
more between crops). Control of invasion of the dehesa by shrubby species, -matorral
H
(mainly
Cistus /adaniferus, C.salviaefofius and C.monspeliensis) , has traditionally been by (1) manually
uprooting and (2) clearing and horse ploughing by landless peasants. The peasants were
granted rights to grow cereals in exchange. Pasture productivity was traditionally managed by
directing livestock manure to selected places by nocturnal penning (for example, penning sheep
in an area of 2 m
2
per ewe for 2-3 successive nights).
The oak trees are pruned several times during their lives. Cork oak is pruned quite differently to
holm oak; in the former the main product is cork, while in the latter it is acorn production. Holm
oak is formation pruned in the early years to achieve a crown with three main vertical branches:
this favours the horizontal spread of the fruiting branches. Maintenance pruning every 7 to 9
years aUows opening of the crown and sustainability of acorn production. Production pruning
provides firewood and browse during severe droughts, reduci ng the leaf area hence aiding tree
survival. With appropriate pruning, tree cover can extend to 40% of the land area, but still allow
96% of the soil surface to grow grasses. Trees reduce the ambient and ground temperature
beneath them, act as nutri ent pumps, increase soil organic matter and reduce wind speed.
Several other secondary products such as firewood , charcoal and tannin production, hunting
(partridges, wood pigeons, rabbits, wild boar) , fish farming and raising of poultry are still
important in the dehesa economy.
Oehesa stand with 45-50 trees per ha in a 750 mm annual rainfall area (from Joffre)
A typical dehesa farm with the average of about 45 trees per ha produces annually (per
hectare):
Page 19
1500-3000 kg grasses
450-500 kg acorns from holm and cork oaks
150-300 kg tree leaves for fodder
30 kg cork from cork oaks
37 kg charcoal from pruned branches
40-70 kg livestock
The 9% area of cul tivated land produces about 100 kg grains (fed to animals) and 115 kg
as bedding or sold).
The animal component produces some 570 kg manure.
Any land use system in this region has to cope with the high variability of the Mediterranean I
Continental climate, and the density of trees is a critical factor in the system being able to
survive droughts. The density varies depending on the average annual rainfall , rising with the
annual rainfall until annual rainfall levels reached 650-700 mm, when the tree density reached
40-50 per ha. Where annual rainfall is below 600 mm, the tree density is low, under 20 per ha.
Rainfall under SOD mm can only support very scattered trees which don't really form an
integrated system.
The soils in dehesa regions are generally poor, especially in phosphorus and calcium, and low
in organic matter. Soils under the tree canopies are richer in nutrients and organic matter, due
partly to the trees acting as nutrient pumps (mineral accumulators), and partly due to the
attraction of shade for grazing animals who leave their dung there. Moisture retention beneath
trees is better, and in droughts the soi ls under trees are slower to dry than in the open.
Dehesa system with under 10 trees per ha in a 500 mm annual rainfall area (from Joffre)
Changes since the 1950's
Since the mid 1950's there have been big changes in the dehesa areas, more than in the
previous 1700 years. These have been
a) a decrease in agro-pastoral management
b) an increase in deforestation and clearing in order to extend cropping lands
c) reforestation
d} a huge decrease in human population, not least because of inequitable land
ownership, with much of the land still owned by relatively few people.
When grazing pressure is removed, dehesas are invaded by Mediterranean matorral species,
which in turn increase the fire risk.
Modern trends are a specialization towards lamb and beef production and use of techniques
such as free range grazing at high stocking levels or cross-breeding with high-performance
breeds (rather than using hardy regional breeds.) A wider range of livestock is usually found on
public owned lands (about 18% of the total) . Fodder concentrates are used and increasingly
chemical fertilisers, pesticides etc. are being used, with the result that biodiversity is
decreasing, soil degradation is increasing.
Shrubby species are now controlled entirely by mechanical means - ploughing etc.
One major problem for the continuation of the dehesas is the gradual decay of the tree canopy.
With the decline of pig raising, farmers lost the fundamental interest in the acorn crops from the
holm oaks, hence the trees are neglected and ageing; new trees are rarely planted, and the
intensification of grazing makes natural regeneration unlikely.
Climate models for southern Europe show that a doubling of carbon dioxide would increase the
probability of extreme events such as severe drought ; and that in the dehesa regions , a
decrease in total annual rainfall can be expected. A doubling of CO
2
in 70 years might lead to a
reduction in rainfall of 80 mm - enough to cause problems in many of the dehesas with annual
rainfall currently under 700 mm (about 88% of the entire region).
Overall, the dehesas are under severe threat over the next 100 years. Although various
regional , national and EU programmes are being targeted at helping farmers retain the systems,
all thi s may come to little if climate changes make their sustainability impossible.
References
Joffre, R et al: The dehesa system of southern Spain and Portugal as a natural ecosystem
mimic. Agroforestry Systems 45: 57-79, 1999.
Plieninger, T & Wlibrand, C: Land use, biodiversity conservation, and rural development in the
dehesas of Cuatro Lugares, Spain. Agroforestry Systems 51: 23-34, 2001
Garcia Trujillo, R & Mala, C: The Dehesa: an extensive livestock system in the Iberian
Peninsula. Proceedings of the 2
nd
NAHWOA Workshop, Cordoba, 8-11 January 2000.
Physalis: Ground cherries
Introduction
The genus Physalis consists of some 80 annuals and perennials, characterised by their very
distinctive papery sacs (lanterns or calyces) which completely surround the fruils. Originating
from North and South America, Asia and Europe, several species have edible fruit , a few well
known such as the cape gooseberry and tomatillo. Some of the perenni al types are consi dered
weedy in some climates. This article considers the edible species and other species of use.
Warning: Physalis species are part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) , and all foliage and
the unripe fruits of most species is poisonous, containing solanine and other alkaloids (tomato
and potato foliage is toxic too, of course). Only the ripe fruits of the species described as a
edible in this article should be eaten. Do not eat if allergic to potatoes or tomatoes. There are
occasional reports of stock being poisoned from eating the foliage, however animals usually
avoid it and only eat the fruits.
The common names for these species are often a source of confusion, many being shared by
several species. The Latin names, too, are sometimes a nightmare with numerous synonyms!
General description
Plants are often much branched and spreading at the top. Leaves are alternate and simple;
flowers are whitish-yellow or whitish-violet. The fruit is a round yellow, green, red, purple, or
blue-black berry surrounded by a papery sac. The fruit contains numerous seeds. Ripe fruits of
some species are edible, generally considered at their finest when cooked in sauces or
preserves. Several species have been used medicinally in the past but the powerful toxins in all
parts (except ripe fruits) make this inadvisable in terms of herbal medicine. The spreading
perennial s can be used for ground cover.
Cultivation
All species like a well-drained soil and sun or light shade.
The less hardy annuals, grown from seed, should be started under cover and transplanted out
when robust enough; they can be treated like outdoor tomatoes. Hardier annuals can be sown
outside and will self-seed if allowed. The hardier perennials, once established, may require
division every few years, else they will stop flowering.
Flowering and fruiting is best in soils that are not too fertile. Pollination is via wind and insects,
including bees. Fruits can be harvested quickly by shaking plants over a net or cloth; ripe
berries in husks will drop. Fruit picked green may ripen but never with as good a flavour.
Weedy perennial species can be controlled by spading out underground runners in autumn.
Plants are susceptible to many of the same diseases and pests as tomatoes (though not potato
blight). New growth is susceptible to slug damage in spring.
Most species are grown from seed, which germinates easily.
I
The species
Physalis acutifolia - Sharp leaf ground cherry, Wright ground cherry
Annual from the SW of North America.
Uses
The ripe fruits are edible.
Physalis alkekengi - Chinese lantern,
Winter cherry, Bladder cherry,
Strawberry ground cherry
A perennial growing to 60 em (2 ft) high with a
creeping branched rhizome. Bears yellow-cream
flowers and orange sacs (calyces) up to 5 em long.
within which are round edible scarlet fruits, 17-20 mm
across, red to scarlet. ripening in summer. Native to
southern and Central Europe and Asia to Japan.
Hardy to zone 6 (about -18C)
' Bunyardii' - compact, free flowering.
'Franchettii' - vigorous plant. Sacs are huge, to 70
mrn long, with larger fruits.
'Gigantea' ('Monstrosa') - bears large fruit.
Uses
The fruits are edible but lack much flavour.
The plant is valued for floristry. the stems are cut as
the sacs change colour and dried.
Physalis angulata - Cut leaf ground
cherry, Wild tomato, Winter Cherry
A perenni al often grown as an annual, to 90 cm (3 tt)
high. Bears small yelloworange edible fruit.
Native to South America.
Uses
P. alkekengi
The fruits are similar to cape gooseberries, with a sweetish flavour, and are used in the same
ways raw or cooked.
Physalis angustifolia - Coastal ground cherry
Perennial from SE North America. found on sand dunes.
Uses
Physalis arenicola - Cypresshead ground cherry
Perennial from SE North America (Florida).
Uses
Physalis carpenteri - Carpenter's ground cherry
Annual from SE North America.
Uses
Physalis caudella - Southwestern ground cherry
P e r e n n i ~ 1 from southern N.America.
Uses
Physalis crassifo/ia - Thickleaf ground cherry
Perennial from SW North America, growing 30 em high.
Uses
Physalis divaricata
Annual growing to 1 m (3 tt) high from Asia (Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan).
Uses
Physalis foetens - Tropical ground cherry
Annual from southern North America.
Uses
Physalis hederifolia - Ivyleaf ground cherry
Perennial from SW North America. growing 30 em (1 tt) high.
Uses
Physalis heterophylla - Clammy ground cherry
A Rhizomatous perennial to 90 em (3 tt) high, densely hairy and sticky. Yellow flowers are
followed by a greenish-brown sac. The fruit inside ripens yellow in summer-autumn and is
edible. Native to the SE USA; hardy to zone 8 (about -10C).
Uses
The fruits are edible with a sweet distinctive flavour. They are ripe when the sac turns brown
and the berry inside turns yellowish.
Physalis ixocarpa - Tomatilio, Jamberry, Mexican husk tomato
An annual growing to 120 cm (4 ft) high, with spreading branched stems. Yellowish-purple
flowers are followed by greenish sacs, inside which are edible sticky green fruits, 2-6 cm
across, ripening to yellow or violet. Native to Mexico and the southern USA in areas hardy to
zone 8 (about -10C). Sometimes included in P.philadelphica, this may have derived from it
through cultivation.
' Indian' - fast maturing.
' Large green' - large fruit.
Page 24
'Purple' - purple fruit, slightly sharper.
'Purple husk' - has purple husks.
'Rendidora' - large fruits, fast maturing.
'Toma Verde' - fast maturing. large fruits.
'Verde Puebla' - large fruits.
Uses
The fruits are used in their green state (presumably they do not contain toxins) when they have
a tart flavour something like green apples with a hint of tomato. The best flavour is when they
are still deep green and when the husk has changed from green to tan. They are used raw or
cooked and traditionally used in many ways in Mexican cooking in salads, tacos, sandwiches
and sauces, especi ally salsas. The green fruits keep for months in a cool well venti lated
location. For longer preservation they are sometimes canned.
If allowed to ripen the sacs split and fruits turn yellow or purple and develop a sweet bland
taste, when they are sometimes used in pies and preserves.
Physalis latiphysa - Broadleaf ground cherry
Native to S. North America.
Uses
The ripe fruits are edibl e.
Physalis longifolia subglabrata - Smooth ground cherry, Bladder
ground cherry
Perennial to 120 em (4 ft) high. Yellowish-purple flowers are followed by sacs containing
reddish-purple edible fruits in summer & autumn. Native to Eastern North America, hardy to
zone 5 (-23C).
Uses
Physalis minima - Pygmy ground cherry
Annual from Eastern Asia.
Uses
Physalis missouriensis - Missouri ground cherry
Annual from S. North America, growing to 1 m (3 ft) high.
Uses
The ripe fruits (to 20 mm across) are edible.
Physalis mol/is - Field ground cherry
Native to S North America.
Uses
P.alkekengi
Showing sac opened
Physalis peruviana - Cape gooseberry, Purple ground cherry,
Peruvian ground cherry
An erect perennial growing to 1 m (3 ft) high. sometimes grown as an annual. Whitish-yellow
flowers are followed by greenish-brown sacs, inside which are edible purplish or golden fruits to
-ry
i
2 cm across, ripening in summer. Native to tropical south America, hardy to zone 8 (about
7G)
The plant is widely grown throughout the world. In India it is often interplanted with vegetables.
' Giallo Grosso' (, Large Golden Italian' ) - fruits large.
' Giant' - very large fruit, needs a long season.
'Golden Nugget' - small fruits, sweet.
' Goldenbtrry' - fruits large, sweet , golden.
Uses
The fruits are edible with a very nice distinctive sweet grapepineapple-tomato flavour. Used
like tomatoes, raw in salads and desserts or (more commonly) cooked in jams, jellies, pies etc.
They are high in pectin. The fruits can also be dried. A single plant can yield up to 300 fruits.
The food value of the fruits per 1 O g is approximately:
Fat
0.16 9 Calcium 8.0 mg Carotene 1.61 mg
Protein 0.05 9 Phosphorus 55.3 mg Thiamine 0. 1 mg
Fibre 4.9 9 Iron 1.23 mg Riboflavin 0.03 mg
Niacin 1.73 mg
Vitamin C 43.0 mg
Physalis philadelphica - Purple ground cherry, Jamberry, Tomatillo,
Mexican ground cherry, Miltomate
An annual growing to 60 cm (2 tt) high. Yellowish violet flowers are followed by green sacs,
veined violet; inside is an edible yellow to purple fruit. Native to Mexico but naturalised in
eastern N.America in areas hardy to zone 7 (-15C).
'Purple de MHpa' - fruit small , purple tinged, sharp flavoured, keeps well.
'Tepehuan' - Mexican variety.
' Zuni ' - prolific cropper.
Uses
The fruits are edible raw or cooked.
Physalis pubescens - Ground cherry, husk tomato, strawberry tomato,
Downy ground cherry
An annual growing to 90 cm (3 ft) high. Yellowpurple flowers are followed by green sacs
containing yellow edible fruits to 1.5 cm across in summer and autumn. Native to the Americas
in areas hardy to zone 7 (-15C). P.pubescens integrifo/ia has the synonym P.pruinosa and is
known as the dwarf cape gooseberry; it grows only 34 cm ( 1 % tt) high and is native to Eastern
N.America in areas hardy to zone 5 (-23C).
'Aunt Molly's' - very sweet and tangy fruit, tangerine flavour.
'Cossack Pineapple' - fruit small , yellow, pineapple flavour.
'Eden' - fruits small , yellow, sweet.
'Goldie' - fruit medium sized, good flavour, plants prolific.
'Huberschmidt' - heirloom variety from Pennsyl vania.
' New Hanover - fruits small , yellow, good flavour.
' Sweet Amber' - small orange fruits, good flavour.
Page 26
Uses
The ripe fruits (15 mm across) are edible. When ripe, the tight-fitting husk turns brown, peels
back and the fruit drops from the plant. If left in the husk it will keep for several weeks. Yields
are typically 500 g per plant. The flavour is distinctive and pleasant, resembling apples, and
fruits are used raw in cocktails or as a dessert; and cooked in jams, pies and sauces.
Physalis pumila - Dwarf ground cherry
Perennial from SE North America, growing 30 cm (1 ft) high.
Uses
Physalis subulata - Chihuahuan ground cherry.
Uses
Physalis virginian a - Virginia ground cherry
Perennial to 120 cm (4 ft) high with hairy stems. Yellowish-purple flowers are followed by sacs
containing reddish-purple edible fruits in summer & autumn. Native to Eastern North America,
hardy to zone 5 (-23C).
Uses
Physalis viscosa - Grape ground cherry, prairie ground cherry
Perennial growing to 60 em (2 ft) high with creeping roots, forming colonies. Flowers yellowish-
green, fruits (in papery husks) turning purple when mature, sticky. Tolerates drought, shade
and trampling. Native to California.
Uses
Ripe fruits are edible.
Common synonyms
P.edufis = P.peruviana
P.greenei = P. erassifolia
P.fanceo/ata = P.virginiana
P.subglabrata = P./ongifolia subglabrata
P.maerophysa = P./ongifolia subglabrata
P.pruinosa = P.pubescens integrifolia
P. variovestia = P.mollis variovestia
P.virginiana sonorae = P.fongifolia /ongifolia
P.wrightii = P.acutifolia
References
Crawford, M: A.R.T species database, 2005.
Dremann. C: Ground Cherries, Husk Tomatoes and Tomatilloes. Redwood City Seed Co, 1985.
Facciola, S: Cornucopia II. Kampong Publications, 1998.
ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System) at www.itis.usda.gov
Manandhar, N: Plants and People of Nepal. Timber Press, 2002.
Moerman, D: Native American Ethnobotany. Timber Press, 1998.
Morton, J: Fruits of Warm Climates. 1987.
Munier, I: Physalis, adorable amour en cage. Fruits Oublies No.2 - 2002.
University of Minnesota Extension Service, Yard & garden brief: Physalis. 2005.
Page 27
Lithocarpus: the tanbark oaks
Introduction
The tanbark oaks are evergreen trees that botanically form a link between the chestnuts
(Castanea) and the oaks (Quercus); they have flowers similar to chestnut and bear acorns like
oaks. There are some 300 species of Uthocarpus in the world but most are tropical trees and
only a handful are hardy. The common names comes from the high levels of tannins in the
bark. for which many species have long been utilised.
Although only a small number of species are described here, there are almost certainly other
hardy species which will have edible acorns and tanninrich bark.
General description
Leaves are leathery and dark green.
Trees are monoecious, bearing male and female flowers. Male catkins are long and erect,
appearing in summer from the axils of leaves on new shoots. Female flowers are borne at the
base of the catkins.
Although trees bear both male and female flowers,
it is very likely that good crops of acorns will only
occur with cross pollination between trees (as with
chestnuts and oaks).
The seeds, which are similar to oak acorns, ripen in
the second autumn. They sit in fringed cups with
thin scales, and have hard shells. Seeds are
usually borne singly, in twos or in threes. Heavy
crops are often borne every other year. The s.eeds
are attractive to various wildlife including insects
like weevils and worms that also attack oak acorns.
Tanbark oaks develop deep tap roots and intricate
systems of lateral roots which may approach the
soil surface.
The sapwood of trees in extremely thick (up to 66%
of the total wood), which helps trees to live after
the bark has been stripped for tannin production.
Cultivation
L.edulis acorns
Tanbark oaks grow well on a variety of soils, but they prefer deep, well-drained, loamy, sandy of
gravelly soils. They are shade tolerant, but prefer light conditions, at least overhead, and
require good light for good fruiting. Trees are wind firm and relatively free from insect attack
and fungal disease if uninjured. The shoots and leaves contain tannins and are not very
attractive to browsing animals.
Trees coppice and regenerate vigorously.
Like oaks, tanbark oaks are easy to grow from seed. Fresh seed should be sown in autumn or
kept moist and cold over winter before sowing. Germination occurs in spring.
L.cleistocarpus
Grows to 20 m (70 ft) high in its native range of central China. Acorns 20-25 mm across in
dense clusters. Hardy to zone 7 (-15C).
There are no written records of this being used but almost certainly the acorns can be used for
food after leaching, and the bark is rich in tannins.
L.comeus
Grows to 15 m (50 ft) high in its native range of southern China and Taiwan. Probably hardy
only to zone 9 (-5C). Syn. L./sangii.
Acorns are used for food after leaching, in soups, bread etc.
L.densiflorus - Tanoak, tanbark oak
Grows up to 45 m (150 ft) high (more usually 20m, 70 ft) in its native range (California and SW
Oregon, where it is often associated with coast redwood or Douglas fiLl Much smaller in the
UK, to about 10m (33 tt) in height and spread. It grows best on the humid moist slopes of the
coastal ranges, where trees can live 300-350 years. Acorns are 25-50 mm long, bears good
crops in the UK in hot summers. Hardy to zone 7 (-15C).
L.densiflorU5 var. echinoides is a shrubby variety only growing 3 m (10ft) high with smaller
leaves.
The Native American Indians in California obtained one of their principal foods from the tanoak.
The large acorns were ground, leached, and then prepared as a soup, cooked mush, or a kind
of bread. The leached acorns are said to have an agreeable acid taste, and contain large
amounts of oil.
Ground tanoak acorns have also been fed to chickens.
The bark is peeled off logs and used for tanning, containing up to 29% tannins. The tannin from
tanoak has intermediate properties between chestnut tannin and oak tannin, and is considered
the best for tanning heavy leathers (eg. sole or saddle leather). The superiority of tanoak bark
is attributed to the presence of certain other acids, such as gallic and acetic, with the tannic
acid. Tanoak tannin has also been used as a brown dye and medicinally as an astringent.
The wood is hard (though softer than that of true oaks) , strong and fine grained, though not
durable; but it does resemble oak. The sapwood and heartwood are reddish-brown and the
wood has wide rays. It has been used successfully for flooring and furniture, also cross ties,
mine timbers, baseball bats and veneers. It makes a good fuel and is also currently used for
pulp.
L.edulis - Japanese stone oak
Small tree or shrub from Japan, growing to 7 m (24 ft) high in the UK. Acorns 25 mm long x 8
mm wide, rare in the UK (because of lack of pollination?) Hardy to zone 7 (-15C).
Acorns are used for food after leaching (they contain less tannin than L.densiflorus.)
L.e/egans
Grows to 16 m (55 ft) high in its native range of the
Himalayas to southern China. Probably hardy to zone
9 (-7' C).
The acorns are used for food in Nepal, often roasted.
The oil fr.om the seed in used medicinally to treat skin
problemS'.
The plant is lopped for fodder.
L.g/aber
Small tree or shrub from southern China. Taiwan and
Japan, growing to 7 m (24 tt) high in the UK. Acorns
12-25 mm long x 8-15 mm wide, rare in the UK
(because of lack of pollination?) Hardy to zone 7 (-
15' C).
Acorns are used for food after leaching.
L.henryi - Henry tanbark oak
Grows to 20 m (70 tt) high in its native range in central
China. Acorns 20 mm long in shallow cups. Hardy to
zone 6/7 (-16C), probably the hardiest of all the
Lithocarpus. Uthocarpus edulis
There are no written records of this being used but almost certainly the acorns can be used for
food after leaching, and the bark is rich in tannins.
This species is used ornamentally in the USA as a specimen tree.
L.pachyphyl/us
Formerly Quercus pachyphyl/a. Native to The Himalayas and China (Yunnan) where it grows to
25 m (80 tt) high. Acorns are up to 20 mm x 30 mm. Hardy to zone 9 (_7C).
Acorns are used for food after leaching. The roasted acorns are used to make a coffee.
The bark is a source of tannins and has been used medicinally as an astringent.
The branches are lopped for fodder in Nepal.
The wood is moderately hard and durable, used for flooring etc.
References
Dirr, M: Dirr' s Trees and Shrubs for Warm Climates. Timber Press. 2002.
Flora of China at www.eFloras.org
USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 654: Silvics of North America. 1990.
USDA Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory Technical Sheet: Lithocarpus densiflorus.
2005.
(4) perennials and annuals
Thi s compendium tabulates all known perennials and annuals for temperate or continental
climates which have edible fleshy fruits. It is undoubtedly not definitive as there are probably
many species with edible fruits which have never been written about. The information for this
compendium comes from our database of useful plants and previous art icles in Agroforestry
News.
c
.c

l"_

o.
,.
t
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EE
o.
"iji e

r ~
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,-
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cc

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<-
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-.
oc
o.
0; .E
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~
tl
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Q

E- <
Arali a racemosa American spikenard 1.8 4 raw or cooked - pleasant but small (4 I
mm across)
Astelia nervosa E N 0.5 9 raw - sweet, juicy, pleasant.
Astelia solandri E N 2 9 raw - sweet, juicy, pleasant.
Carpobrotus Hottentot fig E 0.1 9 raw (astringent before full ripeness)
acinaciformis
Carpobrotus Pig's face E 0.2 8 raw - strawberry flavour
I
aequilaterus
Carpobrotus deliciosus Sweet Hottentot fig E 0.2 8 raw, dried and made into jams and
preserves
Carpobrotus edulis Hottentot fig 0.1 8 raw, dried and made into jams and
preserves (astringent before fully ripe)
IComandra umbellata ISastard toadnax
I I
10.3 1
lraw- sweet
Comus canadensis Creeping dogwood 0.2 2 raw or cooked - pleasant, sweet but not I
much flavour. High in pectin. 6 mm
across.
Comus suecica Dwarf cornel 0.2 2 raw or cooked - bitter, poor.
Duchesnea filipendula Y 0.1 7 raw or cooked - juicy, has crunchy
seeds on outside, little flavour. Nice in
salads. 10-13 mm across.
Duchesnea indica E Y 0.1 6 raw or cooked juicy, has crunchy
seeds on outside, little flavour. Nice in
salads. 10-13 mm across.
Fragaria x ananassa Garden strawberry 0.3 6 raw or cooked - delicious
Fragaria chiloensis Chilean strawberry N 0.3 4 raw or cooked - sweet, succulent.
delicate flavour.
Fragaria daltoniana Y 0.3 raw - poor flavour. To25x15mm.
I
IFragaria iinumae IStrawberry
I
Iy
10.31
lraw-little flavour. S x 15 mm.
I
Fragaria mandshurica N Raw- acid
I
Fragaria moschata Hautbois strawberry 0.5
6 raw - sweet, succulent, excellent
I
aromatic flavour.
-
------ -
Page 31
e

J
!Fragaria moupinensis
!Fragaria nilgerrensis
Fragaria nubicola

IFragaria orienta lis
IFragaria pentaphylla
Fragaria vesca
Fragaria vesca ssp.
californica
Fragaria virginiana
Fragaria virginiana
ssp. glauca
Fragaria viridis
Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum
jMltchella undulata
Moneses uniflora
Opuntia compressa
Physalis alkekengi
Physalis heterophylla
jPhysalls lanceolata
Physalis peruviana
!Physahs vlrglnlana
Physalis viscosa
Podophyllum
hexandrum
Podophyllum pel tatum
!Rubla cordlfolla
Page 32
Wood strawberry Y
Californian Y
strawberry
Wild Strawberry
Rocky Mountain
strawberry
Wi ld strawberry N
Ice plant
IE I
shin-
E Y
leaf
Prickly pear cactus E
Alkekengi
Wild ground cherry
Cape gooseberry
Sticky ground cherry
Himalayan may
apple
Mayapple
_.L
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.1
IRaw - small. little flavour.
IRaw - small, delicate flavour
Raw or cooked - similar to F. vesca
fruits
Iraw - sweet, succulent, good flavour.
IRaw - little flavour
5 raw, cooked or used in preserves.
Sweet, succulent, good flavour.
raw - aromatic, sweet, succulent. 15
mm across.
3 raw, cooked or used in preserves.
g
I
Sweet, succulent, good flavour. To 20
mm across.
I
raw, cooked or used in preserves.
Good flavour but small.
6 raw or cooked - sweet, succulent,
I
excellent flavour.
9
I
10 11 61poor flavour
0.1 28 mm across
I
0.2 4 raw, cooked or dried. Sweet,
gelatinous. To 40 x 30 mm. Unripe
fruits can be used as a thickener.
J
Beware of spines.
0.3 6 raw or cooked - variable flavour, high in j
vitamin C. Up to 17 mm in diameter.
0.9 8 raw or cooked - pleasant though small.
Also used dried and in preserves etc.
10 41 Iraw or cooked
1.2 8 raw or cooked - delicious bitter-sweet
,
flavour. Also used dried. 20 mm
across.
10.6 1 71raw or cooked
0.6 raw or cooked - pleasant sub-acid
cherry-like flavour
0.5 6 raw; eaten fully ripe but caution
advised. 50 mm long.
0.3 4 raw; eaten fully ripe but caution
advised. 50 mm long.
! . 61 8 mm across. Climber.
Rubus arcticus Arctic blackberry
IRubus chamaemorus !Cloudberry
Rubus xanthocarpus
Sambucus ebulus Dwarf elder Y
Smilax herbacea Carrion flower N
Streptopus Liver berry
amplexifolius
Streptopus roseus Rose mandarin
!Thladiantha dubia IRed hail stone
I
IN
Trichosanthes kiri lowii Mongolian snake
gourd
Annuals
u
0
0
Abelmoschus Okra
esculentus
AbuUlon theophrasti Vel vet leaf
Benincasa hispida Chinese fuzzy gourd Y
Capsicum annuum Mango pepper E
Capsicum frutescens Chiffi pepper
Capsicum pubescens Chilli pepper
Chenopodium Strawberry blite
capitalum
Chenopodium
foliosum
0. 1
1.2
1
0.5
I
2 1
6
-

raw or cooked; very sweet, juicy,
pineapple aroma, delicious.
2 1raw or cooked' sour but good
6 raw or cooked; raspberry flavour.
mm across.
15
5 cooked, used as a flavouring. 6 mm
across in large dusters. Caution
advised
4 raw or cooked and used ;n preserves;
pleasant flavour, 10 mm across
5 raw or cooked in soups, stews etc;
'uicy, cucumber flavour. To 15 mm
long.
3 raw or cooked; sweet watermelon
flavour. 12 mm across
40 x 25 mm.
9 young fruits pickled. Climber.
----
1 10 Young fruits cooked or dried; used as a
thickener for soups, stews etc. High in
pecUn & vitamin A.
0.9 4 young fruit (seed pod) - raw
6 10 raw or cooked as a vegetable. Used
young and mature; juicy, mild flavour.
1 9 raw or cooked - peppery. Perennial
normally grown as an annual.
1 9 raw or cooked - very peppery. Perennial
normally grown as an annual.
3 9 raw or cooked - very peppery.
Perennials normally grown as an annual.
0.6 5 raw or cooked - sweet, not much flavour,
1012 mm across.
0.6 5 raw or cooked - sweet , not much flavour,
to 12 mm across.
,
I
I
I
I
I
Page 33
ii

Cucumis anguria West Indian gherkin Y
Cucumis m!?lo Muskmelon Y
Cucumis metuliferus Horned cucumber Y
Cucumis sativus Cucumber Y
Cucurbita maxima Squash Y
Cucurbita moschata Squash Y
Cucurbita pepo Courgette Y
Cydanthera pedata Climbing cucumber
Lagenaria siceraria Long handled dipper
gourd
Lycopersicon Tomato Y
esculentum
Physalis anguJata Cutleaf ground
cherry
Physalis ixocarpa Tomatillo
Physalis philadelphica Wild tomatiIJo
Physalis pruinosa Dwarf ground cherry
Physalis pubescens Ground cherry
Proboscidea Unicorn plant
louisianica
Solanum americanum Glossy nightshade
Solanum melongena Aubergine
Solanum nigrum Black nightshade
Trachyspermum ammi Ajwain Y
Tri chosanthes ovigera Entire leaf snake
gourd
Page 34
-
2.4
1.5
1.5
2
O.E
0.6
O.
4.5
9
2
0.1
1.2
0.6
O.
O.
1
1
1
O.E
O.E

cc
'22

10 raw, cooked or pickled; cucumber
flavour. To 50 x 40 mm.
10 raw - refreshing delicate flavour.
10 raw - variable flavour, often poor.
10 raw or cooked; watery.
9 cooked - delicious, sweet potato type
flavour. Also dried and made into a flour
for baking.
10 cooked - delicious, sweet potato type
flavour. Also dried and made into a flour
for baking.
10 raw or cooked - mild flavour, watery.
10 Young fruits raw or cooked - cucumber
10 Young fruits cooked; variable quality.
Pulp around the seeds not eaten.
9 raw or cooked, also dried, made into
'uice etc.
raw or cooked - juicy, sub-acid, to 30
mm across.
8 raw or cooked - delicious. Used young
and mature. To 25 mm across.
7 raw or cooked - delicious.
5 raw or cooked - bitter-sweet. delicious.
7 raw or cooked - bitter-sweet, delicious.
To 15 mm across
10 young fruits cooked or pickled, also used
as a thickening agent. 4-6 mm long.
eaten fully ripe; toxic unripe - caution
advised.
9 cooked. Perennial usually cultivated as
an annual
eaten fully ripe cooked in preserves etc;
musky flavour. Toxic unripe - acution
advised.
used cooked as a flavouring (pungently
aromatic); 20 mm long.
10 young fruits pickled
Pest & disease series:
Woolly aphid of apple
Introduction
The apple woolly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum, is one of several species of aphids that can infest
apple trees, but it can be a more serious problem then others. Native to eastern North America,
it is now widespread throughout the world.
Woolly aphid weakens trees by feeding on bark and roots , which reduces tree health, prevents
wounds from healing, and can transmit apple canker.
Symptoms
In spring and summer, breeding colonies of the aphid secrete strands of a white protective wax,
appearing like fluffy white masses on trunks , branches and shoots, where they feed on tender
bark, particularly where it is wounded. If touched, the aphid colony squashes to an unpleasant
sticky mess. In bad infestations, colonies can be found in leafaxi ls on water shoots and
terminal shoots; the foliage can turn yellowish on infested branches. The problem tends to
persist on the same tree from year to year, not spreading far.
Swellings of galls may appear on twigs and branches; if these crack open then they may allow
an entry point for other diseases like apple canker. Galling can cause serious disfigurement on
young trees.
Secondary damage can occur via the development of black sooty mold. As aphids feed, they
excrete sap known as honeydew, and this sap on leaves and fruits provides a medium for
growth of black sooty mold, which can affect photosynthesis and fruit yield and quality.
Occasionally, woolly aphid can infest fruit cores of some cultivars,
particularly those with an open calyx, ego Red Delicious ..
In addition to feeding on small branches and wounds, woolly aphid can
attack roots where they go unnoticed. Mature trees suffer little damage,
but young stock can be severely stunted or killed. Swollen galls also
form on roots. This type of infestation is more serious than the above-
ground form, but very often only the above-ground type takes place.
Life History adult woolly aphid
Nymphs and adult wax less aphids overwinter in cracks and under loose bark, also underground
on roots. They become active and start feeding in late March/early April in the UK and by May,
colonies can be well established. Several generations occur during the season. Only a few
winged aphids are produced, so most spread is by wingless aphids crawling or being blown
from tree to tree.
The wingless adult is small and purple-brown, some 1.8 mm long, densely covered with white
waxy fluff. Wingless females give birth to large number of nymphs through the spring and
summer (on average, 100 to 120 nymphs per female) , and winged adult females are produced
when colonies become crowded. The newly emerged nymphs are called crawlers due to their
mobility and mainly account for the dispersal of woolly aphid; they may crawl over branches or
the ground for up to 3 days before settling at a site to feed. There are several generations per
year.
Page 35
-
;
The young wingless aphids overwinter and carryon the life cycle.
When elms were common, this insect often alternated between elm as a winter host and apple
as a summer host, overwintering in the egg stage on elm; now elms are rare, it lives on apple all
year and the egg stage rarely occurs.
Susceptible plants
As w e l l ~ as apples (including crab apples), Chaenomeles (oriental quince), Cotoneaster
(especially C.horizontalis), Crataegus (hawthorn). Pyracantha, Serbus aucuparia (rowan) and
Ulmus (elm) can be infested.
Little damage is done to mature trees.
Control
Various small parasitic wasps attack aphids, parasitizing them. Other natural enemies of
various aphids (including woolly aphid) include predators such as hoverfly larvae, lacewing
larvae, syrphid larvae, ladybird larvae and adults. Planting a diverse ground cover layer
beneath or nearby to trees will help attract such predators. Cool wet springs favour aphid
development as these conditions slow the build up of predator populations.
A small chalcid wasp (Aphelinus maIJ) is a parasite on woolly aphid and can give effective
complete control. Native to North America, this was introduced to England in the 1920's, is now
naturalised and common in southern England. Parasitized aphids will have a tiny hole in the
back if the wasps are active. Chemical sprays should be avoided to allow populations of this
wasp to build up.
If the problem is only on an isolated tree, hand picking can achieve good control. Scrape off the
white colonies or attack them with a stiff brush.
A soft insecticidal soap can be used but may need to be repeated 2-3 times; use a high
pressure spray to try and penetrate the white waxy fluff. An old gardeners remedy was to rub
over colonies with a rag soaked in methylated spirits.
Severely affected branches can be pruned out. Regular pruning of suckering shoots and water
shoots help discourage the pest.
Resistant apple rootstocks can be used to prevent underground infestations; the MM rootstock
series provides resistance, and some apple varieties are resistant, ego Ben Davis; Crimson
King; Northern Spy and its sports, Winter Majetin, Yarlington Mill. The apple cultivars Allington
pippin, Winter Banana and Yellow Newtown are noted as a being particularly susceptible.
Wide spacing of trees and a thick growing ground cover plant layer inhibit the spread between
trees.
Root infestations are more likely on soils prone to cracking in dry weather; improving soil
organic matter levels, and mulching to maintain moist conditions, can often prevent soil
cracking.
References
Buczacki , S & Harris, K: Pests, Diseases & Disorders of Garden Plants. HarperCollins, 1998
Culpan, G: Pests, Diseases and Common Problems. Hamlyn, 1995.
HDRA: Factsheet PCB - Woolly Aphid. At www.hdra.org.uk
Ohio State University: OSU Extension Fact Sheet HYG-2208-94.
North Carolina State University: NC Integrated Pest Management Information Factsheet.
Pine resin - sources and uses
Introduction
The resin harvested from various species of Pinus is the oldest and most important of the n o n ~
wood products from conifers, dating back at least to biblical times. Resin products from pines
are still referred to as naval stores, dating back to the days when the British Royal Navy used
large quantities of resin products from pines to waterproof ships.
Sources
Three classes of naval stores are defined by their source:
1. Gum naval stores - obtained by tapping the trunks of living pine trees. This is the
traditional source of resin and is a labour intensive process. About 60% of current world
production is via tapping, producing some 720,000 tannes of rosin annually. China is by
far the largest producer. 2005 wholesale prices are around US$900/t (ie 90 cents per kg).
2. Sulphate naval stores - obtained during the conversion of pine wood chips to pulp via
the sulphate or kraft pulping process (see Agroforestry News, Vol 13 No 3). Sulphate
turpentine is condensed from the cooking vapours. A product known as 'tall oil' is
obtained from the alkaline liquors and fractionated into products such as tall oil rosin and
tall oil fatty acids. About 35% of current production is from this source.
3. Wood naval stores - obtained from resin-saturated pine stumps long after a tree has
been felled. About 5% of current world production comes from this source.
Uses
Crude resin is a thick, sticky, fluid material, opaque and milky-grey in colour.
Whole unprocessed resin has a number of traditional uses. Numerous medicinal uses have
been documented, including use as plasters and internall y for coughs, urinary problems etc.
The Indians of SW USA used resin as a non-stick cooking surface, and to repair broken pottery.
In Greece, the addition of pine resin to white wine, to make retsina, is a national tradition.
About 2 parts per thousand of pine resin from Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) is added to the
must at the start of fermentation. Ancient Greeks noted that pine resin used to seal amphorae
also helped preserve the wine. The recent trend is towards very lightly resinated retsinas, since
the bitter-tasting drink is not always appreciated by foreigners.
Pine resin is usually distilled to yield two products: turpentine and rosin, in the ratio one part
turpentine to 4-6 parts rosin. For many years these were used in an unprocessed form in the
manufacture of soaps, paints, papers and varnishes; but nowadays they are the raw materials
used in the production of a wide range of products.
Turpentine
This is a clear liquid with a pungent odour and bitter taste, composed primarily of compounds
called terpenes. The chemical composition varies depending on the Pinus species from which
it is harvested. In some pines, the terpene composition is fairly simple, mainly the two common
terpenes (alpha and beta pinenes). Resin from P.contorta contains a terpene found in the
parsley family and has a grassy fragrance; that of P.pinea has a lemon fragrance; that of
P.ponderosa is sweet smelling. P.jeffreyi and P.sabiniana have no terpene components, but
instead contain aldehydes which are diluted with a petrol-like material heptane which is
explosive.
Turpentine is currently used in many different ways:
Page 37
4
Chemicals and pharmaceuti cals
Gums and synthetic resins
Adhesives and plastics
Paint, varnish and Jacquer
Products for railways and shipyards
Rubber
===
Printing inks
Asphaltic products
Furniture
Insecti cides
Disinfectants
7 u==z
Shoe polish and related materials
-H
A of chemical products are derived from turpentine and rosin. The alpha and beta
pinene cbnstituents of turpentine, isolated via fractional distillation, are the starting materials for
the synthesis of a wi de range of fragrances, flavours , vitamins and other products; the largest
single derivative is synthetic pine oil, used in disinfectants, cleaning agents etc. with a 'pine'
odour.
Rosin
Rosin is the involatile residue that remains after the distillation of turpentine. Rosin is a brittle,
transparent, glassy solid, insoluble in water but soluble in a number of organiC solvents. It is
graded and sold on the basis of colour, the palest shades of yellow-brown being the better
quality. Most rosin is now modifi ed and used in a vari ety of ways:
M;&or uses Minor uses
Paper sizinQ Applied to ballet shoes to prevent sl ippa e
Chemicals and pharmaceuticals Paper production
Adhesives Ester gums and synthetic resins
PrintinQ inks Paint, varnish and lacquer
Rubber compounds Soap
Surface coatings Solders and fluxes
Brewing Chewing gum
Mineral beneficiation Linoleum and floor coverings
Applied to bows of musical instruments Plastics
Applied to beltin to prevent slippaQe Oils and greases
Shoe polish and related materi als
Pine species used
Vi rtually all pines wi ll yield resin if tapped. Key factors that determine the feasibility for tappi ng
are the quality (terpene content) and quantity of resin obtained. Nowadays, only the hard
(diploxylon) pines are commercially tapped, in both plantations and natural stands.
Important hardy commercial species now are:
Main species Countries where important Resin quality Resin quantity
P.brutia Turkey
P.halepensi s Greece
P.massoniana China Quite good Quite good
P .pinaster Portugal Good Quite good
P.radiata Kenya (introduced) Very good Quite. good
P.roxburohii India, Pakistan Quite oood Quite good
P.syl vestri s Lithuania, Poland, Russia Reasonable Reasonable
Minor species
P .tabulaeformis China
P .yunnanensis China
Tapping the trees
In generals, the greater the diameter of the tree and the larger the crown, the greater the resin
yields. Trees are normally only tapped when they are at least 20-25 em (8_10") in diameter and
1520 years old. Considerable tree-la-tree variations exist in terms of yield, but on average
such trees yield 3 to 4 kg of resin per tree, hence for any king of processing plant , a farge
number of pine trees are required.
High resin flow is aided by warm summer temperatures , whereas long periods of high rainfall
slow resin flow. In temperate regions, tapping can take place for 8-9 months of the year.
If done properly, using methods which involve removal of bark only, tapping trees causes little
damage to trees and they may be tapped for up to 20 years or more. Traditional methods which
involve some removal of woody tissue may not affect tree survival much and trees with old
tapping scars often grow healthily.
Tapping scars can attract insect pests (beetles and borers) which can tunnel into the wood and
cause damage, reducing resin yields and ruining timber value of the trees.
The tapping procedure is:
1. Preparation of the tree.
Initially the rough outer bark is first removed from the area at the base of the tree and
slightly up the tree to make collection easier.
A wide or narrow face can be prepared, depending on the intended use of trees.
Plantation pines destined for saw timber of pulpwood often have a wide face cut for
intensive tapping for 4-8 years before felling . Alternatively a narrow face can be cut for
long term (20 years or more) tapping at a lesser rate. A wide face may be up to one third
the circumference of the tree, while a narrow face is typically 10 cm ( 4 ~ ) wide.
2. Installation of the resin collecting system
Traditionally, two iron gutters are nailed to the tree just below where the face is to be cut,
and an iron collecting reservoir held in place beneath by nails to collect the resin. More
modern methods involve tying a specially designed plastic bag to the tree, held flush
beneath the face with wire tied around the tree; this is simpler, cheaper and quicker, and
does not risk contamination of resin with iron; though it is more difficult to remove the
resin from the bags without waste.
3. Wounding of the tree to induce resin flow
A horizontal strip of bark, 20-25 mm high, is removed across the width of the face , just
above the collection system, to cause resin to flow.
4. Application of a chemical formulation
A paste of sulphuric acid with various lubricanUsurficanUadhesive materials is applied to
the top edge of the freshly exposed face (the 'streak') to stimulate and maintain resin flow.
This is optional - without it, flow is less and for a shorter time; in the past , the wood was
wounded instead, which damaged trees much more.
5. Maintaining the tapping
This involves collection of the resin, re-wounding of the tree, and application of the
stimulant at suitable intervals, usually about every 2 weeks. On each visit , a further 20
mm of bark is removed above the existing face, and sulphuric acid paste applied to the top
edge. Thus an 8 month tapping season would necessitate 16 visits to the tree and would
result in a vertical face about 32 cm high, down which the resin would flow into the
container. A shorter tapping interval , ego 10 days instead of 2 weeks, would use a streak
proporti onally less high than 20 mm.
During the tapping, some resin solidifies on the face of the tree before reaching the
collector, which may be scraped off periodically or left until the end of the tapping season.
It yields a slightly lower quality of rosin.
At the end of the season, the collection system is re installed where the last removal of
bark was made, so a second season of tapping can be carried out. This is repeated each
y e ~ r until the height of the face is too great for a person to reach comfortably. Where
narrow faces have been cut, it is then possible to start another face next to the first, thus it
is possible to work a total of 4 or 5 faces, each for 4-5 years, if trees are large enough.
A Single person can attend 200-800 faces per day, hence can tap 2000-8000 trees as a full time
occupation, collecting 6,000-30,000 kg of resin annually.
References
Non-wood forest products from conifers. FAD, 1995.
Gum naval stores: turpentine and rosin from pine resin. FAD, 1995.
Les Derives Resiniques et Terpeniques website: http://www.drt-france.com
Book review
The Woodland House
Ben Law
Permanent Publications, 2005; 96 pp; 14.95.
ISBN 1 85623 031 7
Ben Law' s house was featured on Channel 4's Grand Designs, making it the most watched
programme in the series; and the presenter, Kevin McCloud, has written a glowing introduction
to this great book.
With lots of good quality colour photographs, this is a visual guide to how Ben built his home in
the woods, utilising mainly on site materials in a highly sustainabl e example of self-build.
Details are given of the evolving design process, the identifying of materials, castings,
preparation of the site, project management and the actual building; also reflections on the
process 2 years on. It shows that low cost, low impact and aesthetics can go hand in hand and
that it is possible to build green and build affordably.
The book is well organised, very readable, with beautiful pictures and useful appendices
including organisations, resources and technical drawings.
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture! horticulture to produce a
diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food, m:>terials, timber and
Agroforestry News
The myrtles
Volume 14 Number 1
November 2005
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Hops for food I Lacquer-based agroforestry in China I
Silvopasture in Appalachia I Livestock and aspen in BC I
Nut orchard management in California I Hazels on multiple
stems I ART research site - 2005 season
7 Chestnut variety trial results - 2005
13 Insect control by bats
15 Passiflora: passion flowers and passion fruits
20 Bacterial disease control by plants
29 The myrtles
35 Swamp cypress: Taxodium distichum
37 Storage of organic apples and pears
40 Book review: Nutshell Guide to Growing Blueberries,
Cranberries & Lingonberries
Publisher: Agroforestry News is published Quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust.
Totnes. Devon. TQ9 6JT. UK Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website: WW'vV.agroforestry.co.uk
News
Hops for food
Hop asparagus - the young shoots harvested as they come out of the ground before they grow
into tough bines - are now to be found in spring on sale in northern supermarkets. The tips are
and then served with garlic, butter or lemon. The dish, in season from early
April until late May, resembles asparagus, and contains various anti-cancer compounds, also
phyto-oestrogens which can alleviate symptoms of the menopause. Suppliers are hopi ng the
vegetable can find its way on to the menus of top London restaurants.
Source: Herbs, Vol 30 No 3 (2005)
Lacquer-based agroforestry in China
The lacquer tree (Rhus vernaciflua*) is central in an economically important agroforestry system
in western Yunnan, southwest China. The Lemo people (a branch of the Bai minority
nationality) traditionally grow lacquer trees interplant ed with upland food crops in swidden fields
(fields which are cultivated for several years and then left as fallow for several years to regain
fertility).
During a 10-15 year fallow period, farmers can harvest various products from lacquer trees,
including resin for selling or trading, leafy shoots for a vegetable, pericarps for making wax,
roots and leaves for pesticide, dry resin for medicine, and seeds for vegetable soil extraction.
The Lemo people believe that the lacquer tree is the most important crop in their community,
providing food, cash income and environmental benefits.
Rhus vernaciflua sap is highly toxic and trees should not be tapped or pruned unless
precautions are taken.
Source: Long, C et at: LaCQuer-based agroforestry system in western Yunnan, China. Agroforestry Systems, Vol 57 No 2.
Silvopasture in Appalachia ,
Scientists at the USDA-ARS Appalachian Farming Systems Research Centre in Beaver,
Virginia, USA, have been experimenting with silvopasture systems since 1991. Silvopastures
are normally created by planting trees in open pastures, but at Beaver they are also planting
forages among thinned stands of mature trees to extend grazing into exiting forest.
Initial planting in 1991 involved black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) planted in pastures, and
grazing with sheep and goats. There are now some 80 acres involved in silvopasture
experiments in a patchwork of forest, open pasture and si l vopasture.
Experimenters are in the fourth year of raising lambs on oak silvopastures. They start in April
with 4-month-old lambs that weigh about 25 kg, and their study compares traditional open
pasture to sil vopasture. So far, they have found that the lambs gain weight at about the same
rate and end up at a similar market weight - about 45 kg - on both systems.
The team uses sheep and goats to control existing forest understorey plants and prepare the
land for seedi ng mixes of orchard grass, white clover, tall fescue and other forage plants. Hay
and corn are scattered around the site to keep the animals moving; as they move around, the
animals disturb the forest litter and bury the forage seeds with their hooves, essentially helping
Page 2
plant their own silvopastures. Once the forage seeds sprout the animals are moved to other
areas while the forage establishes.
The silvopastures are designed carefully, with the amount and quality of light allowed to reach
the forest floor manipulated through pruning and thinning trees. Too much shade causes slower
forage growth, too much nitrate and lower sugar content in plants. The researchers have found
that a maximum of about 25% shade is appropriate.
The team have noted that trees appear to help the shallower grass roots grow by drawing up
water and getting it within their reach during drought (a process known as hydraulic lift) . They
have also found that the forage from sitvopastures had more protein than from open pastures
during the heat of July and August, indi cating that the shade may have helped maintain forage
quality. Overall they have found that most silvopastures can only support about half the
numbers of animals on open pastures of the same area.
The silvopastures serve as buffers for seasonal weather extremes. The researchers have found
that the climate in the partially wooded pastures is markedly different from that in open
pastures. Spring comes about 2 weeks earlier in the wooded pastures because the tree canopy
bounces back heat radiated from the land and pasture plants; canopy temperature can be up to
goC (16F) warmer in silvopastures than in open pastures. In addition, hard frosts are delayed
by about 2 weeks in autumn. Hence silvopastures might provide an extra 4 weeks of forage
growth and grazing time over open pasture.
Source: Don Com is: A Sylvan Scene in Appalachia. Agricultural Research Magazine. August 2005.
Livestock and aspen integration in British Columbia
In the Peace Forest District of British Columbia, overlapping forest and range tenures often
result in conflict between livestock and timber interests. Efforts in the past to resolve overlap
issues, including forage accessibil ity in dense aspen stands and livestock damage to
regenerating trees, have not been successful.
Regional stakeholders have been brought together and a new initiative is
li vestock production utilising alley cropping in regenerating aspen stands.
integrate and actively manage both the agriculture and forestry crops in
minimises negative and maximises positive interactions in the system.
being tested -
The goal is to
a manner that
Mulching machines, normally used in the oil and gas industry to clear seismic lines, are being
used to establish 1.7 m wide alleys, 30 m apart , over three sites containing regenerating aspen
stands. These alleys are being seeded with a grassllegume seed mix (25% creeping red
fescue; 23% timothy; 15% birdsfoot trefoil ; 15% alfalfa; 12% red clover; 10% crested
wheatgrass) in order to promote and ensure optimal forage production. The alleys are oriented
such that some will receive near full sun during morning hours while others will receive near full
sun around midday. The corridors will provide livestock with unimpeded access and enhanced
forage production.
At the same time, the system will ensure successful regeneration as the aspen stands. At
maturity, and average aspen stand in this area contains 600-800 stems/ha, equating to an inter-
Otree distance of 3.8 - 4.4 m. Given that the alleys are only 1.7 m wide, there should be no net
loss of merchantable aspen volume at harvest. Keeping livestock production concentrated
wit hin the alleys should also minimise any unintended browsing and trampling damage
elsewhere in the blocks.
Each year, grazing by approximately 100 cows is expected to commence at each site around
June and will continue for 3 months. It is expected that livestock will target pea vine, vetch,
timothy and alfalfa in the forage stand. Vegetation monitoring will assess the species utilised
as well as annual forage production. The density of the tree belts between the alleys is such
that livestock use of these areas is expected to be very limited. Annual sampling will also
determine the level of livestock forage use in the tree belt areas, and tree growth and any
damage will also be recorded.
,
Source: Agroforestry Update, September 2005. British Columbia AIDI.
Nut orchard management changes in California
Hopeton Farms in Snelling, California, includes 2,00 acres of almonds and 65 acres of walnuts.
Up until 1993, the nut orchards were managed with high levels of pesticides and herbicides.
In 1993, one of the owners read about a project (BIOS) to develop more sustainable orchard
systems, funded by the US EPA. A 28 acre block of almonds was entered into the project.
When the BIOS team first visited, they reported that there was "no apparent life in the soil" and
that the soil was badly depleted of nutrients; they recommended applying compost on the 28
acre block.
The owners were so shocked by this alarming diagnosis that they decided to start applying
compost to the whole 2,100 acre almond orchard. They purchased composted cow manure and
applied 2-3 tons per acre.
Traditionally, almond orchards in California have very little plant cover on the soil, and what
there is mowed very close for ease of harvest. The Hopeton owners decided to use cover crops
as a key way to improve the soil. After experimenting, they found that a low-growing mix of
annual clovers and small amounts of low-growing grasses worked best. They now use this, plus
an insectary row every tenth row.
After the original test plot of 28 acres, they have put an additional 300-400 acres of almonds
under cover crops each year. They plant the cover crops in October and November, the mow
them to about 10 cm (4") high in February. ~ y mowing the cover crops before the trees bloom,
they improve air circulation during a critical period for potential frost damage. The orchard floor
is then mowed again in early June before the nut harvest in August and September. If mowing
is delayed long enough, plants self-seed to become a virtual permanent cover and re-seeding is
unnecessary. This 'late' mowing is a paradigm shift for almond growers, because usually if any
low plants are not mown by May, there is no chance of the residues breaking down before
harvest (because the soils are essentially dead, without worms and microorganisms) and they
then interfere with nut harvesting.
Instead of removing and burning tree prunings, they now chip up the prunings and apply back
on the soil.
The 65 acres of walnuts was managed organically from 1993, with fungicides stopped and
herbicides stopped too - the wide spaced trees are easily mown beneath. Walnut husk flies are
managed by mass trapping. The organic walnuts receive a premium price 50-100% higher than
commercial walnuts.
The almonds are not quite organic - disease pressures still force use of occasional fungicides,
and weed-free areas around each tree are maintained with herbicides. Insect and disease
damage is much reduced though.
Page 4
Organic matter levels in the sandy loam soil are improving slowly and life has returned to the
soi l - earthworms are everywhere. Owls and hawks have returned too. New blocks of almonds
are being planted with more open spacing and an orientation to the wind to encourage air
circulation, and the process of reducing harmful chemical use is continuing.
Source: The New American Farmer, 2
nd
Edition. www.sa ve.org
Hazelnuts on multiple stems
In recent decades, most hazelnut growers plating new trees have tended to grow them on single
stems, mainly for ease of harvesting from the ground by machinery. The main drawbacks with
this are slightly delayed cropping and a constant necessity of pruning our sucker growth every
year. Also, any heartwood rot in the single stem can cause whole tree failure.
Phil Walker in Oregon, on the other hand, is firmly in favour of letting trees grow in a more
natural form. with multiple stems. Apart from a reduction in work needed to control sucker
growth, this has other advantages -damage to a single trunk via machinery. wind or disease will
not remove the whole aerial parts of the tree, but just a single stem. In the USA, Eastern Filbert
Blight is a damaging disease, and by having multiple stems, trees can survive attacks of the
fungus for much longer. Cropping starts a year or two earlier by growing in this multi-stemmed
form too.
As for yield comparisons, there is little between the two methods - yields are more dependent
on soil conditions than tree form.
Source: Pacific Nut Producer, January 2005.
A.R.T. Research site - 2005 season
The year has been unusual weather-wise, in that we had an exceptionally cool and wet spring,
which must have been largely responsible for the poor hazel and walnut crops this year.
Overall , however, weather records again show that this year has been well above average in
temperature, and as I now write, on November glh, we are still in an exceptionally mild autumn,
with green leaves still on many trees. A very late variety of sweet chestnut is still ripening its
nuts and I have just harvested the first cones from our 10 year old stone pine (Pinus pinea)
trees for pine nuts. Another first on our research site this year were fruits from the seedling
American persimmon trees (Oiospyros virginiana) . These (and those from date plums,
Oiospyros lotus, which have been fruiting for 3-4 years) were picked at the end of October and
are beginning to ripen indoors. Both these look like miniature oriental persimmons and have a
similar flavour when ripe.
Sweet chestnut crops were again extremely good - they appear more reliable croppers than
other nuts. mainly because they flower in July. Details of the cropping appear later.
The holm oaks in the selection trial again did well , and taste tests of the acorns are still ongoing
- the tannin levels in acorns continue to fall for several weeks after harvest with after-ripening
of the nuts.
A GROFORES TRY NEWS Vol 14 No 1 Page 5
0:_2
Global warming and plants In Britain
The RHS web site (www.rhs.org.uk) indicates which plants the RHS thinks we will see more of,
and less of, over the next decades as global warming continues and Britain has increasingly
hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.
Fruits that will become more commonly grown include:
~ Apricots
Citrus
Figs
Grapes
Loquats (Eriobotrya japonica)
Nectarines
Olives
Pomegranates
Date palms (Phoenix roebe/enii - pygmy date palm, and Phoenix canariensis - Canary
Island date palm)
Jujube I Chinese date (Ziziphus jujuba)
Giant reed (Arundo donax) will become well suited to using for windbreaks.
Acacias and myrtles (see article in this issue) will become more widely used for hedging
screens
Drought tolerant trees which will be grown more widely will include:
Acacia dealbata (silver wattle) - we have just planted 4 of these in our forest garden
Melia azedarach (Neem tree).
Shrubs which will withstand hotter summers and warmer wetter winters include:
Elaeagnus
Fuchsia
Laurus nobilis (bay)
Yucca
Ground covers which are drought tolerant and happy in mild wet winters will become more
common, and include:
Carpobrotus edulis (Hottentot fig)
Coronilla varia (crown vetch)
Hippocrepis comosa (horseshoe vetch)
Juniperus communis (juniper)
Juniperus conferta (shore juniper)
Juniperus horizontalis (creeping juniper)
Some plants which prefer cool summers and are likely to suffer increasingly include:
Alpine plants
Birch
Willow
Ferns
Fescue grasses
Chestnut variety trial results
2005
Background
Our chestnut variety trial in Dartington, Devon was planted in the winter of 1995-6, with at least
two trees of each variety planted (more of some to ensure good pollination). 2005 represents
the tenth year of growth for most of the trees.
Cropping dates
Cropping started relatively earl y and lasted over a longer period than usual due to mainly fine
settled weather. The exceptionally mild autumn meant that the very late ripening vari ety
continued ripening nuts well into November.
Date
Cultivar
Belle Epine
Bouche de Be\izac
Bournette
Ederra
Herria
Laguepie
Maraval
Maridonne
Marigoule
Marki
Marlhac
Marron Comballe
Marron de Lyon
Marron de Redon
Marron Goujounac
Marsol
Numbo
Precoce Migoule
Rousse de Nay
Verdale
Vignols
' Unknown late'
--- September --- ------------- ----------------- -
23Q4 125Q6 7
1
8
1
29 1:3 011 2 134 5 78 910 11
Ilxxxxxxx
Octo b er ----------------- --- --- ---- -----
23 1415167892021 Q2 Q3
1
242S '26 27
I I
I,
, ,
x x x
I
I
I
xxxxxxxxxxxx l x l
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
xxxxxxxx xx xx
xxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x xx i
xxxxxxxxxx
x x x x xx xxxxxxx x xx xx x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x i x x x l
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x x
x ,
, x
x x x x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x xxxxxxxx
x x xxxxx l x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
xxxxxxxxx
x x x x x x X X i X
I "X
x x x x x x
, , , ,
, x
x x x x ix
x x x x x
, x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x
x l XIX
x x x x x x x x x x x x x
T
X x x
x XI
x x
I
x x
x ,
x - total period of harvesting
x - indicates the period of heaviest cropping.
Page 7
Grading for sale
A home made grader, using thin plywood drilled with holes of a specified diameter, was made to
speed up the process of grading nuts. Various hole sizes were experimented with, 30 mm was
too large and 25 mm just too small. 26 mm and 28 mm worked well and we settled on using the
26 mm grading screen. Nuts which easily fell through this were too small to sell and were
separated off to use for dried nuts and some was used as bait for squirrel traps.
The two-varieties which required grading the most were Bournette and Marlhac. The nuts from
these were extremely variable in size and 3035% of them were too small to sell as fresh nuts.
As the yield table shows, they both yielded very highly and even the graded nut yields compare
favourably with other varieties. Larger si zed nut varieties generally required little or no grading.
Cultivar
- Oct ---
Date 28' 930'31
------ November ---------
, 2 3 4 5 6 7 'I' 10 " ' ,,
Maridonne x x x x x x
Marki x
Marron de lyon x
Marron de Redan x
Numbo x
' Unknown late' x x x x x x x x x x x x x I x x x
Yields and nut weights/counts
Yields were in general excellent, but there is great variability between cultivars. Bouche de
Betizac, Bournette, Marigoule, Marlhac and Vignals had the highest yields, but Marron
Corn balle, Marron Goujounac, Maridonne, Rousse de Nay and Verdale all cropped heavily with
good yields. Belle Epine cropped much less than in 2004, possibly indicating a biennial trend.
This and Rousse de Nay were the only major cultivars cropping less than in 2004.
Nut weights were also very good. For selling as fresh chestnuts, average weights of about 8.5-
99 (ie 118 or less nuts per kg) are necessary (achieved with a 26 mm grading screen as
described above) and many varieties achieved this. Most of the graded nuts were sold through
a local farm shop, retailing at 3.95 per kg, while the smaller nuts were dried in a dehydrator (in
batches of about 10 kg) for long term storage and utilisation. Total crop from our one acre of
trees was over 450 kg.
2005 data
Average Average
total yield
~ q ~ t weight
Cultivar per tree (kg) Nuts/kg Nuts/lb
Belle EDine 6.290 11 .17 90 41
Bouche de Betizac 24.560 11.16 90 41
Bournette 34.930 6.22 161 73
Bournette - oraded 22.705 9.55 105 48
Ederra 1.480 10.70 93 42
Herria 2.720 9.60 104 47
Laaueoie 0.690 5.67 176 80
M Comballe 13.325 9.57 104 47
M de Lvon 6.590 10.82 92 42
M de Redan 1.000 12.94 77 35
M Gouiounac 10.330 12.08 83 38
Maraval 9.955 8.04 124 56
Maridonne 12.930 13.14 76 34
MariQoule 19.270 11.80 85 39
Marki 1.470 8.38 119 54
Marlhac 47.010 6.59 152 69
Marlhac - Qraded 32.949 9.05 110 50
Marsol 0.875 6.96 144 65
Numbo 6.220 12.33 81 37
Precoce MiQoule 1.025 6.22 161 73
Rousse de Nav 10.800 10.75 93 42
Verdale 11.500 9.06 110 50
Vianols 27.430 13.53 64 29
Unknown Late 1.060 8.33 120 55
The data above is displayed graphically in the following three bar charts.
A
Unknown Late
Vignals
Verdale
Rotsse de Nay
Precoce Migoufe
Numbo
Marsol
Marlhac graded
Marlhac
Marki
Marigoule
Maridonne
Maraval
Marron Goujounac
Marron de Redon
Marron de Lyon
Marron Combal1e
Laguepie
Herria
Ederra
Bournette graded
Bournette
Bouche de Betizac
Bell e Epine
===
p
.0
274
I I I
I
" 5
I I TTl
o.
] .0 5
622
.8 5
2. 4 ~
I
I I I
I I
I I I I I
7.
:::J
9 7
I I I
I I
2. 3
I IT I
9. 5
I I
, . ' ~
]
I
,
.5
I
332
] 1.6
.7
P
, . 8
2. 0
I II I I I I I
4. 3
I I
I I I
T I I I I I
~ . 6
6 2
o 10 20 30 40 50
Total yield (kg)
Average total yield per tree from chestnut cultivars in 2005
Page 10
Unknown Late
Vignors
Verdale
Rousse de Nay
Precoce Migoule
Numbo
Marso I
Marlhac graded
Marlhac
Mark i
Marigoule
Maridonne
11111111111 " 1I111 I
I I I I I I I I 'I I I 11" 1 1
1 1 1 1 III I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I II I I
II 1111
I I I I I I I 111
II
I I I I II I II I I I I I I I I
I I I I I 11
I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I111 I I I III I I I II
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1111111
I I I I I I I I III I II I
Marava
Marron Goujounac
Marron de Redan
Marron de Lyon
Marron Cornballe
Laguepie
Herria
Ederra
Bournette graded
Boumette
Bouche de Betizac
Belle Epine
o
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I
I I I I I I111111 I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I
II I
II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I II II I I I II I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I II III II I I I I I I I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10
Average nut weight (g)
12 14 16
Average nut weight for chestnut cultivars in 2005
Page 11
Unknown late
Vignols
Verdale

Rousse de Nay
Precoce Migoule
Numbo
Marsol
Marlhac graded
Marlhac
Marki
Marigoule
Maridonne
Maraval
M Goujounac
M de Redon
M de Lyon
M Comballe
Laguepie
Herria
Ederra
BourneUe graded
Bournette
Bouche de Betizac
Belle Epine
o
I I I II I I
I I I I I I
I I ITTT
I I I I I I I II
I I I I
I I
I I
TT
I I I I I I I I I T I
I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I TT I
I I I I I I I I
I I I
I I
I II ITT
I I I I I I II
I I I
I
I' I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
I I I I ITT
I I I I I 1 I I I I
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
1 I I I I I I I II
I I I I I I I I
I I I IT
50 100 150 200
Nut count (nuts I kg)
Average nut count for chestnuts in 2005
Page 12
E-

I nsect control by bats
Insect pests cause costry damage to a wide range of crops, from annuals to tree crops. One
avenue worth pursuing to control insect pests is to utilise insectivorous bats for control.
The best known incidence of bat insect control is in Texas, where some 100 million bats, living
in large cave systems, eat an estimated one thousand tonnes of moths (corn ear-worm and
tobacco budworm moths) each night in spring. Each female bat has to eat at least 70% of her
body weight each night to sustain herself and her single pup to maturity. These massive
quantities of moths would cause tremendou damage on cotton, corn, pumpkin, tomato and other
vegetable crops grown in the area.
Another researched case, in California, found that pear orchard farmers suffered crop losses of
under SO/o due to the corn ear moth when a bat colony was within 2 km of the orchard; when the
colony was over 4 km away, losses of over 60% were reported.
Bats are the major predators of night flying insects. They are nocturnal , hunting in the hours
between sundet and sunrise. A single bat can consume 1200 insects an hour, and 3000-7000
insects in a single night. Leafhoppers, moths (including codling moths), and mosquitoes are
just some of their favoured foods. Most bats have to consume between 60-100% of their
bodyweight in insects every night, because their flight activity and echolocation navigation
system is very energy demanding. Bats hibernate during winter.
Because bats have highly specialised habitat requirements , bats are not adept at adjusting to
environmental change. Populations in countries with industrialised agriculture have declined
due to loss of roosting habitat, loss of wetlands (which serve as insect breeding grounds) and
pesticide poisoning. There are 17 species of bat living in the UK, all of which are voracfious
insect eaters.
There are several ways to aUract bats:
Bats prefer habitats with different types of cover, such a mix of fields and woods. Plant a
variety of perennials, herbs, niagh-blooking flowers to lure insects.
Bats are drawn to aquatic areas where insect populations tend to be greater. Add a pond,
make a bog etc if the site is dry.
Avoid using chemical presticides.
Erect manmade bat houses - see below for instructions on making and siting them. They can
also be purchased - the larger boxes may house up to 10-12 bats. The design below is by
the Suffolk Wildlife Trust.
Bats need a range of roosting sites, including summer daytime roosts, winter hibernation
ones and breeding sites. You will need to make several boxes to provide the range of
conditions bats need. Make the box from rough sawn timber to give a rough interior for
the bats to cling to. Make sure you only use untreated wood - some wood preservatives
can kill bats!
Siting bat boxes
Choosing the right location for your boxes will improve your chances of them being used by bats.
The best place to position a bat box is on a tree. Place them in groups round three sides of a tree -
bats like to move from one box to another during the day and from season to season as
temperatures change.
Put the boxes as high as possible above the ground to avoid predators - some species of bat such
as noctules prefer roosts at least Sm off the ground.
Clear away surrounding branches to give them a clear flight path.
You <?n also put boxes on buildings. A good position is under the eaves to protect them
from bad weather.
Bats can take a while to investigate new premises, but if your box is not occupied within
three years, try moving it.
uwe./,Q in tfmb.,
/orban to
e1itJg :0
. ..! .
'. :
, '
h"
1
'\
f! Sm
i" '
I i\','i
1/ ,:"
References ..
Abell, J A: Bats Solve Insect Problems in the Garden, Arne h
The Bat Conservation Trust. www.bats.org.uk < . 1\\. !.f,,'I. ';t>q::w: .... ,. :,
Sources of bat boxes: www.alanaecology.com, www.noansarKgaroens.co.uk,
www.gardensupplydirect.co.uk.
Page 14
Passiflora:
passion flowers and passion fruits
Introduction
Some 10-12 species of the total (about 500-600) number of Passiflora species have been
exploited for their fruit. although most have edible fruit (not always good quality). In particular
the subgenus Tacsonia contains over 40 species with edible fruit ; these originate from the cool,
mid to high altitude regions of the Andes and are better suited to oceanic-intruenced climates.
Passifloras are woody or herbaceous vines with tendril s in the leaf axi ls, which prefer to climb
over a structure - they do poorl y sprawling on the ground. Leaves can be very variable in size.
The flowers, located in the leafaxils, are extremely colourful and elaborate in most species -
there are hundreds of ornamental varieties. Pollination is by hummingbirds, bats, bees, moths
and other insects.
Passion fruit have been grown in south American for thousands of years as a fruit crop, the
most widely grown there and elsewhere in the worl d today are the hard shell ed P.edulis
varieties.
Cultivation
In Britain, plant Passifloras close to a south facing wall or fence. They need well drained soil -
add sharp sand if necessary to improve drainage, andlor plant on a mound. All Passiflora hate
having wet cold roots. They can also be grown in large pots. There is no prospect of growing
commercial fruit here but they make an interesting and ornamental addition to a home garden.
Tacsonia subgenus members can be planted in warm climes at a spacing of 3 x 1.8 m and
trelli sed. Each vine can be expected to produce 50120 fruits, giving potential yields of 1623
tonnes/ha.
Hand pollination can increase fruit set and fruit si ze. In Britain bees, moths etc. often pollinate
flowers. Some species are selfsteri le so two clones are required.
Heavily fruiting plants should be fed similar to tomatoes (ie high potassium feed) , eg, use a
comfrey f eed or seaweed extract feed. Wi th too much nitrogen they may not flower. Once
established they should not require watering in summer.
Various pests and diseases can attack plants in Britain; slugs and snails are sometimes partial
to nibbling leaves. Ants climbing up plants should be regarded as a healthy sign for they are
attracted by the nectar and have a protective role re disposing of other insects' eggs etc.
Fruits can be harvested underripe and they wi ll continue to ripen off the vine - indeed, even
with ripe fruit, the flavour can improve by keeping for some days after harvest. Normally, let
ripe fruit drop before harvesting. Although most Passiflora fruits are edible some, like
P.caerulea and its hybrids, are bland, some are delicious and a few taste awful.
Species with known edible fruit
(t) indicates part of the tacsonia subgenus.
Species I hybrid Origin or parentage
P.actinia Or9a05 mountains, Brazil
P.ampulfacea (t) Ecuador, high altitude
P. antioquiensis (tJ Columbia, high altitude
P.caerulea Brazif
P.caerufea 'Constance Eliott'
P.x co/villi; P.caerulea x P.incarnata
P.cumbafensis (l) South America, high altitude
P.edulis
P.edulis f. fJavicarpa
P.edulis 'Black Beauty'
P.edulis ' Black Knight'
P.edulis 'Frederick'
P.edulis 'Nancy Garrison'
P. 'Elizabeth' P.phoenicea x P.incarnata
P.x exoniensis P.antiqyuiensis
P.mollissima
P.herbertiana Australia
P.incarnata USA
P.1ncense' P .cincinnata x P .incarnata
P. 'Justine Lyons' P .caerulea & P .amethystina
P.manicata (t) Andes, mid-hiQh altitude
P. membranacea Mexico
P.rnixta (t) Columbia, high altitude
x
P. mol/issima (t) Andes, . high altitude
=P .tripartita var.mollissima
P. 'Pink Panther' P.mollissima
P. 'Paulo' P.edulis f.flavicarpa x
P.caerulea
P.pinnatistipula Andes, high altitude
P.schlimiana Columbia, hiQh altitude
P. 'Smythiana ' P.manicata x P.mollissima
P.trifoliata t Peru, hi h altitude
P.triparlita (t)
P. 'White Queen' P.caerulea x P.eichleri ana
The hardiest species
Cold tolerance
-SoC
( 18F)
?
_2G?
-8C 18F)
_10C
_2e or less
?
-2e
_2e
-4"C
2e?
_2G?
-3 to -SoC (24-2rF)
-4"C
_3G (2rF) or less
-15C WF)
_4C or less
_8C or less
?
_7C (20F)
_7C
(20F)
_4 to -SoC
_4C
_3C
(27F)
?
?
-1C
_5C
_4C
Of the 500 species of Passiflora, only a small number are tolerant of sub-zero conditions. The
following can all tolerate winter temperatures bel ow OC and represent the species best able to
survive in outdoor conditions in the UK.
Of the species described here, those only hardy to between -1 and _4C can usually only
f *t
50ecies I hvbrid Fruit aualitv
P.actinia Small , vellow, sliahtlv acid, araDe flavour, verv fraarant
P.amDulfacea Laroe, thick rind
P.antioquiensis To 12 crrylong, ovoid, yellow, excellent flavour. Tolerates
shade
P.caeru/ea Brlcht oranqe, 60 mm 10nCl , sHqht blackberrv flavour
P.caeru/ea 'Constance Eliott' Briqht orange, 60 mm long, slight blackberry flavour
P.x co/villi; Yellow, 50-60 mm lono
P.cumbalensis Red, banana sha ed, 100 x 35 mm.
P.edulis PurDIe, ovoid or round, 50-60 mm, qood flavour
P.edulis f. flavicarpa Yellow, ovoid or round, 50-60 mm. more acid the P.edulis
P.edulis 'Black Beautv' Deeo curole-black, aood flavour
P. edulis 'Black Knlcht' Dark curole-black. laroe, excellent flavour
P. edu/is ' Frederick' Red, very larqe, (load flavoured
P.edulis 'Nancy Garrison'
P.x exoniensis
Banana shaped, 75-90 mm long, yellow, very good flavour
P. ' Elizabeth' Larqe, very sweet. (load flavoured
P.herbertiana Elliesoidal, oreen with whi te fragrant pulp
P.incarnata Ovoid, yellow or lime green, 60 mm long, slightly acid,
aood
P. 1ncense' Egg shaped, 50 x 40 mm, olive green, lightening
rine. Pule with rose aroma, sweet and Sl-ightly acid.
when
P.'Justine Lvons'
P.manicata Small, 25 x 50 mm, oood flavour
P.membranacea Green, ovoid, 40-90 x 30-40 mm, very sweet. delicious
P.mixta Ovoid, yellow, to 100 x 25 mm, good flavour, raspberry
hint
P.molfissima Yellow, to 150 x 35 mm, very good fl avour, good for juice
P. Paulo '
P----:iiinnatistTiiula EciO shaped, 4-5 em lona, aood flavour.
P.'Pink Panther'
P.sehlimiana Yellow, to 12 em lona, uice blackberrv flavour
P. 'SrTlVthiana' Yellow, to 75 x 35 mm, verY aood flavour
P.trifoliata EOa shaped, 35 x 50 mm.
P.lr;nartita (I) Yellow, to 150 x 35 mm, tart flavour
P.'White Queen'
tolerate light ai r frosts and cannot tolerate frozen soiL In many parts of the UK they can be
grown best by being in containers, and placing outdoors in summer and autumn" but kept in a
cool greenhouse or
simitar conditions over winter and spring. In milder parts they are best against a waiL The most
easy to grow are P .caerulea, P .actinia, P .caerulea 'Constance El iott' and P .'Amethyst' - these
are all free flowering and usually set fruit easily.
All species need well drained condi tions, especially over winter.
4&
Species with probable edible fruit
P. 'Amethyst' ?P .amethystina x P .caerulea 3r:> C (27 F) or less
P.capsularis Vanilla Cream'
2C
P.'Floral Fountain' P.phoenicea x P.actinia
-4C
P.qracilis Americas Annual vine
P.hahnii South America
3C (27 F)
P.jamesonii South America, high altitude ?
P.loefgrenii Brazil -3C (27 F
P.lutea USA -1S C (S F or less
P.parritae Columbia
3C 27"F
P. 'Pretty Ball erina' P .phoeniea x P .actinia _4C
P. ' Purple Rain' P.amethystina x P.caerulea
-10C
P.rosea South America, high altitude ?
P.rubra South America
2C
P.schlimiana Columbia, hiQh altitude ?
P. 'Silvie' P .caerulea x (P .caerulea x -SoC
P.amethvstina)
P. 'Sonia' P.caerulea & others -SoC
P.suberosa Dominica -SoC
(23 F)
P.tarminiana Hawaii
-3C (27 F)
P.tucumanensis Argentina -1S C (SF)
P.umbilicata South America, high altitude
-5C?
Uses
Commercial passion fruit juice is made almost entirely from P.edulis (purple form) and P.edulis
f. flavicarpa (yellow form). The juice and fresh pulp (with or without seeds) are used in tropical
drinks, cordials, liqueurs, chocolates, sauces, ice creams, sorbets etc. Nutritional information is
not available for most species but P.edulis fruit contain, per 1009 portion of pulp:
Protein 2.909 Thiamin 0.03 mg Sodium 28 mg
Fat 0.50 g Riboflavin 0.10 mg Potassium 350 mg
Carbohydrate 7.39 9 Niacin 1.50 mg Magnesium 39 mg
Water 84.70 9 Vitamin C 20.0 mg Calcium 16 mg
Fibre 3.30 9 Vitamin E 3.0 mg Phosphorus 54 mg
Sugars (total) 7.39 g Iron 1.1 mg
Glucose2.90 9
Fructose 2.20 9
Sucrose2.29 9
The maypop (P.incarnata) is a herbaceous vine from North America, and has a long tradition of
medicinal uses. Recently. analysis of the leaves of maypop have revealed various compounds
that act as a sedative (one of its traditional uses), also as an antispasmodic and analgesic.
Other traditional uses include use as an aphrodisiac and as a cough suppressant. Modern
herbalists prescribe it for insomnia, muscle cramps, neuralgia, hyperactivity in children etc.
P.edulis leaves have similar properties and are used similarly in South America.
Species Fruit description
P. 'Amethyst' Ellipsoidal, 50-60 by 20-25 mm, briQht oranQe when ripe
P.capsularis Vanilla Cream' Hexagonal ellipsoidal, dark brown or purple brown, 50-60 x
15-20 mm
P.'Floral Fountain'
P. raci/is Ellipsoidal, ri ening bright scarlet , 25 x 15 mm
P.hahnii Round, deep purple when ripe, 30-35 mm across
PJamesonii Oval, oreen when ripe
P./oeforenii
P.lutea Round, small 8 mm across deep purple when ri e
P.parritae
P. 'Pretty Ballerina'
P.'Purple Rain'
P.rosea
P.rubra Ovoid. pink or red, 20-50 x 15-18 mm
P.schlimiana
P. 'Silvie '
P.'Sonia'
P.suberosa Small. 8 mm across, dark pur Ie-blue when ripe
P.tarminiana
P.tucumanensis
P.umbilicata Ovoid, yellow when ripe. 60-70 x 40 mm.
Propagation
Seed is not dormant and should be sown in spring or fresh in autumn.
Cuttings from young, newly mature wood can be rooted with mist of a humid environment and
heat.
Air layering often succeeds.
References
Fisch, M: Passionfruit The World Over. CRFG Yearbook, 1975.
Lost Crops of the Incas. National Academy of Sciences, 1989.
Taylor, L: The Healing Power of Rainforest Herbs. 2005. http://rain-tree.com/maracuja.htm
The International Passi fl ora Register (2003). Passiflora Society International.
www.passionflow.co.uk
Bacterial disease control by plants
Below is a table of plants with anti-bacterial properties, along with any known bacterial disease
they can at least partially control. Of course, in the UK it is illegal to utilise plants as antifungal,
antibacterial or insecticidal agents unless they have been "approved" - a ridiculous state of
affairs, as there are very few plants dangerous enough to cause problems when utilised as a
decoction or similar preparation. Essential oils are another matter, as they are so concentrated,
and should never be used to control plant bacterial diseases unless highly diluted.
Many of the plants listed below have known antibacterial properties, but to date have been used
medicinally by people rather than as a bactericide against plant diseases, however, they all
have good potential as plant bactericides. A lot more research is needed!
Although the table below li sts only plants with known antibacterial activity, there are bound to
be many more which have not been tested, for example the essential oil from most pine trees is
probably effective.
In the following table,
Habit: An = Annual, Bi = Biennial. P = Perennial, S = Shrub, T = Tree, CP = climbing perennial ,
CA = Climbing annual.
DIE: Deciduous or Evergreen (shrub or tree)
Disease controlled:
'Medicinal' indicates that the plant has been recorded as being used medicinally as an
antibacterial.
Crown gall = Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Fireblight = Erwinia amy/ovora
Potato soft rot = Erwinia carotovora
Bacterial canker (of stone fruit) = Pseudomonas syringae (also causes sotrage rots)
Potato scab = Streptomyces scabies
Bacterial spot (of stone fruit) = Xanthomonas campestris pv. Pruni
The plant parts with antibacterial are noted if known.
latin name Common name Habit DIE Disease controlled
IAchiliea sibirica P Medicinal (whole plant)
Acarus calamus Calamus root P Medicinal (essential oil)
Acarus gramineus P E Medicinal (root)
Adiantum capillus-veneris Maidenhair fern P Potato soft rot (l eaves)
Agastache rugosa Korean mint P Medicinal (leaves & stems)
Agrimoni a pilosa P Medicinal (leaves & stems)
trifoliata Akebia CP D Medicinal (stems)
Aleurites fordii Chinese wood-oil tree T E Medicinal (fruit extracts)
Alisma plantago-aquatica Great water plantain P Medicinal (leaves)
Alkanna tinctoria Alkanet P Medicinal (root)
Allium cepa Onion P E Other plant fungal disease
(leaves)
,l
I
)
,
-

Latin name Common name
Allium cernuum Nodding onion
~ l I i u m fislulosum Welsh onion
Allium sativum Garlic
Allium tricoccum Wild leek
Allium tuberosum Garlic chives
loe vera Aloe vera
Ampelopsis japonica
iAnethum graveolens Dill
IAngelica anomala
[Angelica archangelica Angelica
IAngelica dahurica
[Arctium lappa Great burdock
iArctium minus Burdock
!Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Bearberry
iArisaema consanguineum
IAristolochia debilis
Artemisia annua Sweet wormwood
Artemisi a capillaris
Asarum sieboldii
Asparagus lucid us Chinese asparagus
Aster macrophyllus Bigleaf aster
Aster tataricus
Atractylodes lancea
Atractylodes macrocephala
Atractylodes ovata
Barbarea vulgaris Yellow rocket
Bassia scoparia Summer cypress
Belamcanda chinensis Leopard lily
Berberis spp. (all)
Berberis thunbergii
Berberis vulgaris Barberry
Blechnum spicant Hard fern
Habit
P
P
P
P
P
P
CP
An
P
P
P
Bi
Bi
S
P
P
An
S
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
An
P
S
S
S
P
~
OlE Disease controlled
Crown gall, Potato soft rot
(leaves)
Medicinal (whole plant)
Crown gall . Fireblight,
Potato soft rot
(leaves/bulb)
Crown gall , Potato soft rot
(leaves)
E Medicinal (leaf juice)
0 Medicinal (roots)
Medicinal (essential oil)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal (root)
E Medicinal (leaves)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal
0 Medicinal (leaves & young
shoots)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal (root)
Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant I flowers)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal (root)
Medicinal (root)
Crown gall, Potato soft rot
(whole plant)
Medicinal (leaves & stems)
Medicinal (root)
DI E Medicinal (roots, seed)
D Crown gall , Potato soft rot
(frui t & sap)
0 Fireblight , Medicinal (roots,
seed)
E Other plant fungal disease
(leaves)
Page 21
Latin name Common name Habit DIE Disease controlled
Bupleurum falcatum Thorow-wax P Medicinal (root)
Cannabis sativa Hemp An Medicinal (whole plant)
Cannabis sativa Hemp An Other plant fungal disease
(leaves)
Carpinus tschonoskii
T D Bacterial canker, Potato
soft rot (shoots)
Carthanfnus tinctorius Safflower An Medicinal (flowers)
Celastrus scandens Climbing bittersweet CS D Potato soft rot (fruit & sap)
Chamaemelum nobile Roman chamomile P Medicinal (essential oil)
Chimaphila maculata Spotted wintergreen S E Medicinal (leaves)
Chimaphila umbellata Pipsissewa S E Medicinal (leaves)
Cimicifuga dahurica P Medicinal (root)
Cimicifuga foetida Foetid bugbane P Medicinal (root)
Citrus aurantium Bitter orange S E Medicinal
Citrus limon
Lemon S E Medicinal (essential oil)
Commelina communis Day flower P Medicinal
Convolvulus arvensis Field bindweed CP Crown gall, Potato soft rot
(stems, leaves, sap)
Coptis chinensis
Chinese goldenthread P E Medicinal (root)
Coptis trifolia
Goldthread P E Medicinal (whole plant)
Coriandrum sativum Coriander An Medicinal (essential oil)
Cornus officinalis Japanese cornel S D Medicinal (fruit)
Corydalis solida Fumewort P Medicinal (tubers)
Crataegus pinnatifida Chinese haw T D Medicinal (fruit)
Cuminum cyminum Cumin An Medicinal (essential oil)
Cyperus rotundus Nut grass P Medicinal (roots & tubers)
Cyrtomium fortunei P E Medicinal
Davidia involucrata Handkerchief tree T D Crown gall, Fireblight,
Potato soft rot , Bacterial
canker. Bacterial spot
Dendranthema x grandiflorum Chrysanthemum P Medicinal (flowers)
Dianthus chinensis Chinese pink Sf Medicinal (whole plant)
Drosera rotundifolia Sundew P Medicinal (flowering plant)
Dryopteris crassirhizoma P Medicinal (roots)
Dryopteris cristata Crested wood fern P E Medicinal (roots)
Dryopteris felix-mas
Male fern P E Medicinal, Other plant
fungal disease (roots)
Echinacea angustifolia Cone flower P Medicinal (roots, whole
plant)
Page 22
i-
-
Latin name
Common name Habit DIE Disease controlled
Echinacea pallida Cone flower P Medicinal , Other plant
fungal disease (roots,
whole plant & flowers)
Echinacea purpurea Purple coneflower P Medicinal (roots, whole
planl)
Eleutherococcus gracylistylus S D Medicinal
Elsholtzia ciliata An Medicinal
Epirnedium grandiflorum Horny goatweed P Medicinal (leaves)
Eriobotrya japonica Loquat T E Medicinal (leaves)
Eruca vesica ria sativa Rocket An Medicinal (seeds)
Erythronium americanum Trout lily P Potato soft rol (leaves &
fl owers)
Eucalyptus citriodora Lemon-scented gum T E Medicinal (essential oil)
Eucalyptus globulus Tasmanian blue gum T E Medicinal (essential oil)
Eucalyptus spp. T E Medicinal (essential oil)
Euodia daniellii T D Crown gall, Fireblight ,
Potato soft rot, Bacterial
canker, Bacterial spot
Eupatorium fortunei P Medicinal (leaves)
Eupatorium purpureum Gravel root P Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant & flowers)
Euphorbia pekinensis P Medicinal (root)
Gentiana manschurica P Medicinal (root)
Gentiana triflora
p
Medicinal (root)
Geranium maculatum Spotted cranesbill P Other plant fungal disease
(roots)
Geranium nepalense P Medicinal (whole plant)
Ginkgo biloba Maidenhair tree T D Medicinal (fruit)
Gleditsia sinensis T D Medicinal
Glycine max Soya bean An Potato scab (leaves)
Glycyrrhiza uralensis Chinese liquorice P Medicinal (root)
Hedera helix Ivy CP E Medicinal (leaves)
Helianthus annuus Sunflower An Other plant fungal disease
(whole planl)
Helichrysum angustifolium 1m martelle P Medicinal (essential oil)
Heuchera americana Rock geranium P E Other plant fungal disease
(whole planl)
Hibiscus moscheutos Swamp rose mallow P Other plant fungal disease
(fl owers & aerial parts)
Houttuynia cordata Tsi P Medicinal (whole plant)
Humulus lupulus Hops CP Medicinal (flowers,
essential oil)
Hydrastis canadensis Goldenseal P Medicinal (root)
"'"
Latin name Common name Habit DIE Di sease controlled
Illicium anisatum Star anise S E Medicinal (leaves, seeds)
Imperata cylindrica P Medicinal
Inula britannica P Medicinal (flowers)
I nula helenium Elecampane P Medicinal (essential oil)
Isatis tinctoria Woad Bil P Medicinal (leaves)
Juglans (l igra Black walnut T FirebJight (leaves)
Lauru5 nobilis
Bay tree T E Medicinal (essential oil)
Lavandula angustifolia Lavender P E Bacterial canker (essential
oi l)
Lavandula x intermedia Lavandin P E Medicinal (essential oil)
Lavandula latifalia Spike lavender P E Medicinal (essential oil)
Leonurus heterophyllu5 An/S;
Medicinal
Leonurus sibiricus Chinese motherwort An/Si Medi ci nal (whole plant)
Lepidium apetalum An/S; Medicinal
Leptospermum liversidgei Lemon-scented tea S E Medicinal
tree
Leptospermum petersonli Lemon tea-tree S E Medicinal (leaves,
essential oil)
liatris spicata Gayfeather P Medicinal (leaves, root)
Ugusticum sinense Kao-pau P Medicinal (root)
Ugustrum japonicum S E Medicinal
Ugustrum lucidum Chinese pri vet S E Medicinal (fruit)
Umonium carolinianum Sea lavender P Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant)
Uquidambar orientali s Oriental sweet gum T D Medicinal (resin from
wood, essential oil)
Lonicera japonica CP E Medicinal (stems, flower
buds)
Lycium barbarum Box thorn S D Medicinal (fruit)
Lycium chinense Chinese boxthorn S D Medicinal (fruit)
Magnolia grandiflora T E Crown gall , Fireblight,
Mahoberberis aquisargentii S E Medicinal (root. seed)
Mahonia aquifolium Oregon grape S E Medicinal (root , root bark,
seed)
Mahonia bealei S E Medicinal (root, root bark.
seed)
Mahonia fortunei S E Medicinal (root, root bark.
seed)
Mahonia fremontii S E Medicinal (root, root bark,
seed)
~
Latin name
Mahonia haematocarpa Mexican barberry S E Medicinal (root, root bark ,
seed)
Mahonia japonica S E Medicinal (root , root bark,
seed)
Mahonia lomariifolia S E Medicinal (root, root bark,
seed)
Mahonia napaulensis S E Medicinal (root, root bark,
seed)
Mahonia nervosa Oregon grape S E Medicinal (root, root bark ,
seed)
Mahonia nevinii S E Medicinal (root . root bark,
seed)
Mahonia pinnata S E Medicinal (root , root bark ,
seed)
Mahonia rep ens Creeping Oregon S E Medicinal (root . root bark,
grape seed)
Mahonia swaseyi Texas mahonia S E Medicinal (root , root bark,
seed)
Mahonia trifoliolata Mexican barberry S E Medicinal (root, root bark,
seed)
Mahonia x media S E Medicinal (root , root bark.
seed)
Malus pumila Crab apple T D Medicinal (teaves)
Malus sylvestris Crab apple T D Medicinal (leaves)
Malus sylvestris domestica Apple T D Medicinal (leaves)
Medeola virginica Indian cucumber root P Potato soft rot (whole
ptant)
Medicago lupulina Black medick An/P Medicinal
Medicago sativa Alfalfa P Medicinal (leaves)
Melaleuca linariifolia S E Medicinal
Melissa officinal is Lemon balm P Medicinal (leaves & young
shoots)
Morus alba White mulberry T D Medicinal (leaves)
Morus alba multicauli s White mulberry T D Medicinal (leaves)
Morus nigra Slack mulberry T D Medicinal (leaves)
Myrtus communis Myrtle S E Medicinal (essential oi l )
Nardostachys jatamansi Spikenard P Medicinal (essential oi l)
Nuphar ad vena Common spatterdock P Other plant fungal disease
(roots)
Nuphar lutea Yellow water lily P Other plant fungal disease
Page 25
-
--
=
~ -
-
Latin name
Nymphaea odorata Fragrant water lily P Crown gall, Fireblight ,
Ocimum basilicum Basil An Medicinal (essential oil)
Oldenlandia diffusa
Snakeneedle grass An Medicinal (whole plant)
Origanum majorana. Sweet marjoram P Medicinal (essential oil)
Origanum vulgare Oregano P Medicinal (essential oil)
Oxalis corniculata Yellow sorrel An/P Medicinal (whole plant)
I
Pachysandra t erminali s
S E Crown gall , Fireblight "
Paeonla delavayi
Tree peony S 0 Medicinal (root)
Paeonia japonica
P Medicinal (root)
Paeonia lactiflora
Chinese peony P Medicinal (root)
Paeonia Jutea
Paeonia obovata
P
Medicinal (root)
Paeonia ostii
Tree peony S D Medicinal (root)
Paeonia potaninii
Paeonia suffruticosa
Moutan S D Medicinal (root)
Paeonia szechuanica
Tree peony S D Medicinal (root)
Paeonia veitchii P Medicinal (root)
Panax pseudoginseng P Medicinal (roots, flowers)
Patrinia scabiosaefolia P Medicinal
Patrinia villosa
P Medicinal
Perilla frutescens
Shiso An/P Medicinal (leaves, stems,
seeds)
Perilla frutescens nankinensis
Purple shiso An/P Medicinal (leaves, stems,
seeds)
Peucedanum praeruptorum P Medicinal (root)
Phellodendron amurense Amur cork tree T D Medicinal (bark)
Phellodendron chinense T D Medicinal (bark)
Phyla nOdiflora
Frogfruit P Medicinal
Phytolacca acinosa Indi an poke P Medicinal (root)
Phytolacca esculenta P Medicinal
Pinus palustris
Longleaf pine T E Medicinal (essential oil)
Pinus sylvestris
Scots pine T E
Plantago asiatica
P
Medicinal (leaves, seeds)
Plantago lanceolata
Ribwort plantain P Medicinal
Platycladus orientalis Biota T E Medicinal (leaves)
Polygala tenuifolia
P Medicinal (root)
Polygonatum sibiricum P Medicinal (root)
I
Latin name
Common name Habit OlE Disease controlled
polygonum multiflorum CP Medicinal (roots. stems)
Portulaca oleracea
Green purslane An Medicinal (whole plant)
Portulaca oleracea sativa Golden purslane An Medicinal (whole plant)
Prostanthera rotundifolia Mint bush S E Medicinal (leaves)
Prunella vulgaris Self-heal P Medicinal (whole plant)
Prunus mume Japanese apricot T 0 Medicinal (unripe fruit)
Psoralea corylifoJia P Medicinal (seeds)
Ptelea trifoliata Hop tree T 0 Medicinal (root bark)
Pteridium aquilinum Bracken P Potato soft rot (leaves)
Punica granatum Pomegranate T D Crown gall, Fireblight,
canker, Bacterial spot;
Medicinal (bark, whole
plant )
Pyrola rotundifolia Round-leaved P E Medicinal (leaves)
wintergreen
Quercus glandulifera T D Crown gall , Fireblight ,
Potato soft rot. Bacterial
Raphanus sativus Radish An Medicinal (whole plant)
Rehmannia glutinosa Chinese foxglove P Medicinal (roots)
Rheum officinale P Other plant fungal disease
Rhus glabra Smooth sumach S D Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant)
Rhus typhina Stag's horn sumach S D Fireblight , Other plant
fungal disease (whole
plant)
Rosa carolina Pasture rose S D Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant)
Rosa centifolia Cabbage rose S D Medicinal (essential oil)
Rosa damascena Damask rose S D Medicinal (essential oil)
Rosa gallica French rose S D Medicinal (petals)
Rosa laevigata Cherokee rose S D Medicinal (fruit)
Ruta graveolens Rue S E Crown gall , Fireblight.
(whole plant)
Salsola kali Saltwort An Other plant fungal disease
(flowers)
Salvia sclarea Clary sage Bi/ P Medicinal (essential oil)
Sargentodoxa cuneata CP D Medicinal
Satureja hortensis Summer savory An Medicinal (essential oil)
Satureja montana Winter savory P E Medicinal (essential oil)
Satureia thymbra Thyme-leaved savory S Medicinal (leaves)
a;;
~
~
-
~
Latin name Common name Habit DIE Disease controlled
Saxifraga stolonifera Strawberry saxifrage P E Medicinal (whole plant)
Scirpus americanus P Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant)
Scirpus lacustris BulruSh P Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant)
Scrophularia ningpoensis P Medicinal (root)
ScuteJiaria baicalensis P Medicinal (root)
Sinapis alba White mustard An Medicinal (seed)
Solanum tuberosum Potato P Other plant fungal disease
(whole plant)
Sophora flavescens S E Medicinal (root)
Sophora japonica Japanese pagoda tree T D Medicinal (flowers)
agetes rninuta French marigold An Medicinal (essential oil)
araxacum mongolicum P Medicinal
araxacum sinicum P Medicinal
axus canadensis Canadian yew T E Potato soft rot (whole
plant)
hlaspi arvense Pennycress An Medicinal (whole plant)
hymus capitatus Spanish oregano P E Medicinal (essential oil)
hymus vulgaris Thyme P E Medicinal (essential oil)
Trachelospermum jasminoides Star jasmine CP E Medicinal
Trichosanthes kirilowii CA Medicinal (fruit)
richosanthes kirilo"";i CA Medicinal (fruit)
aponica
ropaeolum majus Nasturtium CA Medicinal (leaves)
Valeriana officinalis Valerian P Medicinal (essential oil)
Verba scum thapsus Great mullein Bi Crown gall, Potato soft rot
(whole plant)
Verbena officinalis Vervain P Potato soft rot , medicinal
(whole plant)
Viola yedoensis P Medicinal (whole plant)
anthium strumarium Cocklebur An Medicinal (fruits)
anthoxylum alatum Winged prickly ash S D Other plant fungal disease
(fruits)
References
Crawford, M: Bacterial canker of plum & cherry. Agroforestry News, Vol 7 No 2.
Crawford, M: Fireblight. Agroforestry News, Vol 6 No 1.
Grainge, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control properties. John Wiley, 1988.
Lawless, J: The Encyclopaedia of Essential Oils. Element , 1992.
Seilar,W: The Dictionary of Essential Oils. Saffron Walden, 1992.
The myrtles
Introduction
The myrtles are a group of related evergreen aromatic plants, covered here as a whole and
once all placed in the genus Myrtus but now split into several genuses;
Amomyrtus (2 species) , Luma (4 species) and Ugni (5-15 species) , from temperate
rainforests of Chile and Argentina
Austromyrtus, from Australia - some 8 species
Lophomyrtus, from New Zealand - 2 species and their hybrid
Myrtea/a, from Chile and the Falkland Islands
Myrtus - the original Eurasian myrtle
The species covered in this article are those of known hardiness to at least -SoC (zone 9). It is
Quite likely there are others which could be added to this list which are yet to be documented.
Cultivation
The evergreen myrtles like most well -drained or dry soils; wet and frozen winter soi ls can kill
plants. They also need sunny condition sin the UK, though in hotter climates they can tolerate
some shade. They are best planted in spring, after the last spring frosts. Any pruning is best
carried out in the spring.
Plants are notably resistant to honey fungus.
Myrtle species
Amomyrtus luma (Syn. Myrtus lechleriana) - Luma
An evergreen shrub from Chile and Argentina growing to 7.5 m high in ins native habitat. Has
strongly aromatic leaves. Fl owers in May (self fertile) are followed by black fruits in autumn, 5-
10 mm in diameter, containing a few hard seeds. Probably hardy to _5C or so (zone 9) - will
grow outdoors in mild maritime areas of Britain.
The fruits are edible, raw or cooked; very aromatic
but rather seedy.
Bee plant.
Austromyrtus dulcis (Syn. Myrtus
dulcis) - Midgen Berry
An evergreen shrub from Eastern Australi a (New
South Wales northwards to Queensland). Grows to
about 2 m tall and wide. Has dark glossy green
aromatic leaves. Flowers in summer are followed by
fruits 10 mm across, white with blue spots. Hardy to
Austromyrtus dulcis
Page 29
The fruits are edible, with an excellent sweet aniseed flavour.
Lophomyrtus bullata (Syns. L.aotearoana, Myrtus bullata) -
Ramarama
large e.vergreen shrub from New Zealand, growing there to 5 m high and 3 m in width. Flowers
in May-tiune are folfowed by fruits in autumn, 10 mm across. Hardy to perhaps -SoC or so (zone
9), succeeding in mild areas of Britain.
' Matai Bay' is one of several ornamental varieties.
The fruits are edible, raw or cooked, with a guava fla vour when ripe.
The plant has been used medicinally (see L.obcordata below).
Bee plant.
Lophomyrtus obcordata (Syn. Myrtus obcordata) - Rohutu
An evergreen large shrub or small tree
from New Zealand, growing there to 5 m
tall. Flowers are followed by red to
black fruits, 6-7 mm across. Hardy to
perhaps -SoC or so (zone 9).
The plant has been used medicinally -
the bark and berries used for
dysmenorrhoea. The essential oil has
been found to have some antibiotic
properties.
Bee plant.
Lophomyrtus X ralphii
Evergreen large shrubs (a naturally occurring hybrid of L.bullata x L.obcorda/a) from New
Zealand growing up to 5 m high and 3 m wide. Flowers in May-June are followed by dark red
fruits 7 mm across in late autumn through to spring. Hardy to perhaps -SoC or so (zone 9).
There are a number of ornamental forms - ' Sundae' fruits well in mild areas of Britain.
The fruits are edible - sweet, aromatic and pleasant.
Bee plant.
The plant probably has the same medicinal uses as its parents.
Luma apiculata (Syns. Myrtus apiculata, Myrtus luma) - Arrayan
A large evergreen shrub from Argentina and Chile, growing there to 6 m high and 4 m wide.
Has cinnamon-like bark. Flowers from July onwards (self fertile) are followed by bluish-black
fruits that ripen in October and November, 10 mm in diameter. Hardy to about -lOoe (zone 9).
Grows in any reasonable soil with shelter and succeeds (fruiting well) in mild parts of Britain.
' Glanleam Gold', 'Variegata' - ornamental variegated forms .
The fruits are edible, raw or cooked - the best are aromatic, sweet and succulent (though there
is much variability).
Bee Plant.
Luma chequen (Syn. Myrtus chequen)- Chequen, Arrayan blanco
A large evergreen shrub or small tree from Chile. Bears numerous bluish-black fruits, 6-10 mm
in diameter. Hardy to -lOoe (zone 9).
The bark and leaves are used medicinally. the bark as an astringent; the leaves are highly
aromatic. containing an essential Oil consisting largely of pinene and cineol.
Recent analyses have shown the essential oil obtained from the leaves to be fungicidal and
antifeedant against certain species.
Myrteola nummularia (Syn. Myrtus nummularia)
A prostrate evergreen shrub from Southern Chile and the Falkland Islands. growing only 10 cm
high and 50 cm or more in spread. Flowers in May-June (self fertile) are followed by fruits in
autumn. Hardy to about -1O
o
e (zone 9) - grows well to the south and west of London in
England.
The fruits are edible, raw or cooked with a sweet and pleasant flavour.
Leaves are used to make a tea.
Ground cover plant in a well drained site. Space plants about 45 cm apart.
Bee plant.
Myrtus communis - myrtle
A very variable evergreen shrub From southern Europe and Asia, typically found in maquis and
scrub communities, growing up to several metres tall and wide, but usually less in Britain.
White flowers in July-August are followed by fruits ripening in October, usually bluish-black, 8-
10 mm in diameter.
Hardy to between -10 and _15C (zone 8) as long as the plant is sheltered from cold drying
winds. It is very tolerant of mild winds and maritime exposure though. Grows well in large
containers.
Fairly fast growing when young, slowing with age.
There are a number of ornamental forms, including:
'Tarentina' - has small narrow leaves and is hardier than the type (to -15C, zone 7) ; fruits
small, white; especially wind-resistant.
Selection and breeding work in Sardinia has now named several forms suitable for fruit and/or
production and these are described below .

'Angela' - heavy fruit production (whitish-green, non pigmented) , fruit moderately large, and
high vigour - suited for biomass production.
' Barbara' - selected for fruiting abi lity. A shrub of low vigour, 50 cm high and 80 cm wide.
Fruit yields are about 800 g , per plant on 3-4 year old plants. The fruits are oval shaped,
medium sized (about 1 cm), wit h a dark blue skin and white flesh. It contains a fairly low
number of seeds (average 8). The fruits contain, on average, 785 mg/1 anthocyanin
pigments, 45g/100g tannins, 0.06% malonic acid. Flowering is early (April-May in Italy) and the
fruits mature early (October) and uniformly. Propagation by cuttings is highly effective.
' Daniella' - selected for fruiting ability and for vegetation production for essential oil extraction.
A shrub of moderate vigour, growing to 130 cm high and 150 cm wide. Fruit yields are about
1000 g per plant on 3-4 year old plants. The fruits are round, medium sized (about 1 cm) with
bluish-black skin and white flesh. They contain many seeds (average 13). The fruits contain,
on average, 583 mg/l of anthocyanin pigments, 121 mg/1 tannins and 0. 11 % malonic
acid. Flowering is late (May-June in Italy), though leaf growth starts early and continues late
into autumn. Fruits mature early (early October) over several weeks. Propagation by cuttings
is moderately effective.
'Giovanna' - heavy fruit production (fruit light purple) , fruits large, and medium high vigour-
also suited for biomass production.
' Grazia' - heavy fruit production (fruits whitish-yellow, non pigmented) , fruits very large, and
high vigour - suited for biomass production.
'Haria' - quite vigorous, medium fruit production (fruits dark bl ue, medium sized); a useful dual
purpose cultivar.
' Maria Antonietta' - quite vigorous, medium fruit production (fruits large, dark blue); a useful
dual purpose cultivar.
' Maria Rita' - heavy fruit production (fruits medium size, dark blue), moderate vigour - suited
for fruit production.
Uses
Myrtle is mainly used for its medicinal and aromatic properties - the foliage is strongly aromatic.
Its essential oil , obtained mainly from the leaves and shoots but also from the fruit , is utilised in
cosmetics (perfumery, soaps) and the pharmaceutical industry (skin care products). Yield is
low, 10 g of oi l from 100 kg of leaves. It is harvested commerciall y mainly in North
The fruit is often used as an aromatic food flavouring, especially in the Middle East , and can
also be made into an acid drink. The leaves are used as a flavouring in cooked savoury
dishes.
The dried fruits and flower buds are used to flavour sauces, syrups, jams etc. An essential oil
from the leaves and twigs is used as a condiment, especially when mixed with other spices
(caution advised). In Italy the flower buds are eaten.
In Sardinia, a commercial myrtle liqueur is made by infusion of the pigmented berries in alcohol.
The success of this industry has been the main spur to efforts to breed heavily fru iting cultivars
wi th dark fruits like 'Barbara' and ' Oaniella'.
Myrtle has an important ecological role in the Mediterranean maquis, and is often used as an
ornamental. The plant is very tolerant of regular clipping(200] and can be grown as a hedge in
the mitder parts of Britain. In the Mediterranean the plant is regarded as a symbol of love and
peace and is much prized for use in wedding bouquets; in the past , it has been held as the
emblem of honour and authority, and was worn by the Athenian judges in the exercise of their
functions, and it constituted the wreaths of the Grecian and Roman victors. in the Olympian and
other festivities.
The leaves are antibiotic, anticatarrhal , antiseptic (urinary. pulmonary). aromatic, astringent,
balsamic, bactericidal, expectorant. haemostatic. regulator, slightly sedative and tonic. Used
internally in the treatment of urinary infections, vaginal discharge, bronchial congestion,
sinusitis and dry coughs; externally, it is used in the treatment of acne (the essential oil is
normally used here), gum i nfections and haemorrhoids. The leaves are harvested from wild
plants from late spring to early autumn and usuall y distilled immediately or dried.
An essential oi l obtained by steam disti llation of the leaves and twigs, which is pale yellow or
orange with a fresh, clear, camphoraceous scent similar to eucalyptus. It is antiseptic. It
contains the substance myrtol this is used as a remedy for gingivitis. The oil is used as a local
application in the treatment of rheumatism. The oil is used in perfumery, soaps and skin-care
products, as a food flavouring in meat sauces and seasonings and in alcoholic drinks. Oil yields
are about 0.5- 1.1 % from fresh leaves and twigs; or 5-11 kg per ha of crop.
The fruit is carminative, and is used in the treatment of dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids,
internal ulceration and rheumatism.
The wood is hard, elastic, very fine grained. Used for walking sticks, tool handles, furniture
etc. and it makes a high quality charcoal.
Bees pollinate the flowers: plants are sel f-fertile.
Ugni molinae (Syn. Myrtus ugni) - Chilean guava, Ugni
An evergreen shrub from Argentina and Chi l e, reaching to 2 m high and 1 m in width, with a
fibrous root system. Leaves are glossy green, 12-25 mm long. Flowers in May-Jul y (self fertile)
are followed by fruits that ripen August-October, 15 mm in diameter, containing small seeds.
Flower and fruits are borne freely on quite young plants. Hardy to about -10"C (zone 9): good
in containers.
Tolerates a wider range of soi l s that many other myrtles, succeeding in any reasonably good
soil. Fairly tolerant of maritime exposure.
' Flambeau' is a variegated form which is hardi er than the type.
- -p-
.-
The fruits are edible, raw or cooked, with a delicious aromatic strawberry/guava flavour and
crisp texture. They are commonly seen in the markets of Chile, where they are mostly used in
pies and jellies. In the past this was cultivated commercially in Cornwall - it was one of Queen
Victoria' s favourite jams.
Leaves are used to make a tea .

The roasted seeds are used to make a coffee-like drink.
Plants are tolerant of trimming and can be used to make a low hedge in mild areas.
Bee plant.
Propagation
Seed - pre-soak 24 hours in warm water and sow in early spring with heat. Grow plants on
under cover for at least their first winter. Plant out in late spring or early summer, after the last
expec;led frosJs.
Semi-ripe cuttings, 7 - 10 cm long with a heel , taken in July/August and given mist or a moist
environment often succeed. Overwinter under cover.
Hardwood cuttings can be taken of the current seasons growth, 7 - 12 cm long with a heel , in
November in a shaded warm environment. Plant out in late spring or early autumn.
Layering can often succeed.
References
Australian National Botanic Gardens website at http://www.anbg.gov.au/
Crawford, M: Medicinal Shrub Crops. Agroforestry News, Vol 8 No 3.
Labbe, C et al: Bioactive flavanones from Luma chequen. Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical
Communications 67(1 ):115-123. 2002.
Mulas, M et al: 'Barbara' and ' Daniella'; Two Cultivars for Myrtle Berries Production. Acta. Hort
576, ISHS 2002.
Mulas, M et al: Myrtle (Myrtus communis L.) as New Aromatic Crop: Cultivars Selection.
Journal of Herbs. Spices & Medicinal Plants, Vol 9 Nos 2/ 3, 2002.
Munier, I: La Myrte. Fruits Oublies, NO.3 - 2002.
Otago University School of Pharmacy: New Zealand Medicinal Plants. At
http: //ou066065.otago.ac.nzledmedia/HxPharmacy/Jibrary.htm
The Chilean guava. Quandong, Vol 21 No 2 (1995).
Swamp cypress: Taxodium distichum
Introduction
There are few trees which will grow permanently in wet swampy conditions, yet be at home in
ordinary soils too. and bear valuable timber and other products. The swamp or bald cypress
from North America is one such tree, related to the American redwoods and sharing many of
their properties.
Native to southeastern USA (Delaware & Indiana to Texas) and fairly hardy (to -20C, zone 6),
it grows well and very healthily in the UK.
Description
The swamp cypress is a large deciduous coniferous tree, growing up to 40 m high and 8-10 m
wide in its native range, though less in the UK; conical growing at first . becoming broad and
irregular with age. The single trunk has thick bark, rusty brown colour, which falls off in strips.
It is a fast growing tree (5 m in the first 10 years), and very long lived - over 1000 years in the
wild, while in Britain there are numerous trees over 250 years old.
Young shoots are green at first, becomi ng rust-brown.
There are two types of leaves (see picture) - on
deciduous shoots they are crowded in 2 rows in a
feather-like arrangement, needle-like, pale green
becoming rust-brown in autumn, to 2 cm long. On
persistent shoots, leaves are spirally arranged, small
and scale-like, pressed against the branches. Buds
often begin to break in March, but trees do not come
properly into leaf until June and growth in height rarely
starts before June.
Flowers are produced from late winter to spring - male
flowers are up to 20 cm long; pOllination is via the
wind. Cones are ovoid to round, 10-25 mm in
diameter, brown when ripe, when they break up.
Seeds are irregular, to 15 mm long, rough, oozing oily
orange resin droplets.
Trees are often buttressed grown beside or in water often produce 'knees' - conical roots or
pneumatophores, domes of spongy tissue which apparently help the aeration of roots
permanently under water.
Cultivation
Swamp cypress is a tree of flooding river valleys and coastal swamps, often with brackish
water. In cultivation. though, it requires neither waterside or flooding soils - any ordinary soil
which doesn't dry out too quickly and is deep will be fine. Once trees are established, it can be
kept in up to 60 cm (2 ft) of permanent water. The branches are brittle and subject to wind
damage, but the tree usually recovers well.
Spread roots well on planting for future stability.
Some frost damage can occur at temperatures below -1QC.
Page 35
i
Uses
Swamp cypress has been used for a long time in England as a tree planted by streams, lakes
and ponds. It is very tolerant of city air pollution and the high pH of chalk streams.
It has been planted as a timber tree in Southern Europe, especially on alluvial soils. Unlike
most conifers , it regenerates well from cutting and can be regularly coppiced.
The wObd is yellowish or reddish, light , soft , not strong, moderately hard, easily worked, straight
and fine grained, extremely durable in damp soil , and takes a good polish. There is little resin
the wood. It not given to excessive warping or shrinking.
Traditionally the wood is used for construction (of building, decks, bridges), water pipes, joinery,
flooring, cooperage, sleepers, ' shingles, water tanks, vats, shipbuilding, pumps etc. The durable
wood makes an excellent fencing and estate timber, trees can be regularly coppiced to supply
suitable sized roundwood. The wood grown in Britain has is of good quality.
In traditional medicine, resin from the cones is used as an analgesic for wounds. More recently,
an essential oil has been extracted from the leaves and cones of swamp cypress; this has been
shown to have strong antifungal properties against various human skin pathogenic fungi (more
effective than common synthetic antifungal drugs.)
Recent research has shown the essential oil to have a strong antitermite effect, and an
antifungal effect against plant fungi including Aspergillus sp., Fusarium sp., Mucor sp. And
Penicillium sp.
Propagation
By seed - easy, not dormant.
Cuttings can be taken in late summer if there has been good summer growth in warm
conditions.
References
Alfazairy, A A: Antimicrobial activity of certain essential oils against hindgut symbionts of the
drywood termite Kalotermes f1avico/lis Fabr. and prevalent fungi on termiteinfested
wood. Journal of Applied Entomology, 128 (8), 2004.
Crawford, M: A.R.T. Useful Plants database, 2005.
Huxley, A: the New RHS Dictionary of Gardening
Pandey, K P et al: Antifungal efficacy of Taxodium and Mentha oils against some human
pathogenic fungi. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 17: 443444, 2002.
Storage of organic apples and pears
I ntrod uction
The majority of organic top fruit growers in the UK either have or hire refrigerated storage - the
high value of the crop combined with the high risk of not being able to sell all the crop at harvest
tend to justify the cost. Some varieties of pear, ego Conference retain a very firm texture in
refrigerated storage and can keep until MarchI/April but others such as Beurre Hardy will only
store until December. Storage for longer periods than this would require controlled atmosphere
storage (ie control of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen levels) which mainstream growers
use routinely.
Storage requirements are often overlooked but ideally they should be considered during orchard
design. Many storage rots which can infect fruit prior to harvest are favoured in the mild wet
climate of the UK and as a result , fungal storage rots are likely to be a problem in organic fruit.
Prior to various fungicides introduced in the early 1970's, fungal storage rots (the most common
of which was due to G/oeosporium spp.) could cause up to 30% losses. Physiological disorders
such as superficial scald and bitter pit were also potential problems. The extent of loss
depends on several factors, one of which is the nutritional status of the fruit which is potentially
harder to manipulate under organic conditions.
The main storage diseases
The most common storage rots in conventional apples and pears are:
Infection in orchard Infection after harvest
Brown rotlMonilinia fruct;oena) Botrvtis rot (Botrvtis cinerea)
Gloeosporium rot G/oeosnorium snn.) Blue mould (Penicillium expansum)
Nectria rot Nectria alii ena Mucor rot Mucor Dvriformis)
Phvtoohthora rotfpiiVtiiiihthora SVrinaaef Fusarium rot (Fusarium SOD.)
BotrVtis rot (Botrvtis cinerea)
Black rot (Botrvosohaeria obtusa)
Diaoorthe rot Dia orthe erniciosa
The profile of storage diseases may differ in organically grown fruit. Prior to the widespread
use of post-harvest fungicides, Gloeosporium rot and brown rot caused most losses. Other
diseases, most noticeably Phytophthora rot (Phytophthora syringae) which is now common in
conventional fruit. were insignificant because there was little bare soi l beneath trees in the past.
Physiological storage disorders
Superficial scald
This can affect apples and pears and is characteri sed by browning of the skin, with russeWng or
pitting in severe cases. The lesions readily become infected with rot-producing fungi. Fruit
picked too early suffers more as do some varieties (eg. Bramleys). Excess nitrogen nutrition
also favours the disorder (not so likely in organic systems.) Hot water dips at 54C inhibit scald
in some varieties, as does pre-storage heat treatment for 4 days at 38C (though the laUer
especially will cause considerable extra cost.)
Bitter bit of apple
This disorder is caused by a calcium deficiency in the fruit, resulting in brown flecks developing.
Again, the disorder is favoured by picking fruit too earl y and excess nitrogen; also by over acid
soil s and very dry seasons.
Orchard design and management to promote storage
Rootstocks
The rootstock determines the overall height , vigour, rooting system, precociousness and the
earliness of the fruit to ripen. For an organic system the tree needs to be vigorous and tall
enough to compete with weeds during establishment , yet provide a tree of a suitable height to
allow access without using ladders, making pruning, picking, spraying and inspection for pests
and d i ~ e a s e s much easier.
,
For apples, the extremely dwarfing rootstock M27 is not very suitable for commercial orchards -
it needs very good soils, and the fruit tends to be near the ground and therefore more prone to
Phytophthora rot which contaminates fruit by rain splash. M9 (dwarfing) is used by some
growers, usually with a permanent polythene mulch along the rows. M26 and MM106 (semi
dwarfing) are both used, the latter sometimes preferred as it is more wind firm. MM111 (semi
vigorous) is also used, and is tolerant of low nitrogen levels in the soil, but it must be pruned
heavily to be kept to a reasonable size. The type of rootstock is known to affect the storage of
varieties, possibly by partition of nutrients in the fruit - for example, apples on MM111 are more
prone to scald than on M26.
Variety choice
Varieties should be chosen which are not too susceptible to the major diseases (scab, canker,
mildew), as well as storage rots and physiological disorders. Apples susceptible to scab can
suffer from fruit cracking which then allows entry of storage rot fungi.
Understorey
Most organic systems either mulch directly around the tree and have a grass/clover strip
between the rows, or grass is grown right up to the tree. Large areas of bare ground should be
avoided as they favour storage diseases dispersed by rain splashing up from the soil. A
permanent understorey encourages earthworm populations which are important for the
decomposition of fallen leaves on which diseases spores may be located. In some areas urine
is used to speed the breakdown of leaves beneath trees.
Nutrient supply
Supplying of nutrients to trees will affect the nutritional composition of fruits. Levels of Calcium
in fruits affect physiological disorders suchas scald but it also affects the resistance of fruit cell
walls to some rot fungi. Correct mineral status of fruits also render them more resistant to
lenticel-invading fungi such as Nectria gal/igena or G/oeosporium spp.
Pruning
All dead, damaged and diseased wood should be pruned out and mummified fruit removed and
burnt . Several of the storage diseases persist over winter in diseased wood, cankers and
mummified fruit, to become the source of infection the following year (notably Monilinia, Nectria
and G/oeosporium.) Dead wood can be chipped and left on the orchard floor to rapidly decay.
Summer pruning, if undertaken, should be undertaken carefully in dry weather because of the
risk of spreading Gloeosporium spp. Etc. Secateurs should be sharp to lessen the risk of
infection.
Prune out low hanging branches to reduce rain splash infection risk.
Spraying to prevent storage diseases
Sprays to control scab and powdery mildew are routinely used in some organic orchards.
Typically, sulphur is used (eg. 4 kg per acre in 227 litres of water every 10-14 days from bud
burst until green cluster stage and then from petal fall until early August) , sometimes with
seaweed solution mixed in. Sulphur is know to reduce G/oeosporium spp and Monilinia
fructigena. Copper fungicides , ego Bordeaux mixture, is effective, but is gradually being
withdrawn from organic use by the certifying bodies. Calcium chloride foliar sprays are also
allowed to control scald and bitter pit.
There is good evidence that sprays of horsetail (Equisetum spp.), as used by biodynamic
growers, enhance the plants natural immunity to a range of fungal diseases. It is likely that
routine horsetail sprays wi ll reduce storage rot problems.
Pest control
Woolly aphids can spread Nectria galligena and can be controlled using MM resistant rootstocks
and soft soap sprays. Other pests such as codling moth can cause damage and encourage rots
such as Monilinia fructigena.
correct maturity
Fruit should be picked at optimum maturity - fruit picked immature is more prone to shrivell ing
in storage; late picked fruit will not store as long and will be more prone to rot fungi. The longer
the fruit is left on the tree, the greater the risk of exposure and infection by rot fungi , especially
those spread by rain. In pears an iodine t est is used by commercial growers to indicate the
ratio of starch to sugar. and thus the correct maturity.
Fruit should not be harvested when wet. Any wet fruit should be dried before being stored.
Postharvest handling
The crop should be handled very carefully at harvesting. Only healthy fruit should be selected
for storage. Many rot fungi, particularly brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) , mucor rot (Mucor
pyriformis) and blue mould (Penicillium expansum) enter fruits through wounds caused either by
rough handling, or through natural cracking and russetting.
Care should be taken to avoid fruit touching soil, which can introduce Phytophthora syringae
and Mucor. Bulk bins contaminated with previous years rotten fruit are also sources of rot fungi
especiall y Penicillium and Botrytis - bins should be steam cleaned then disinfected before use.
Cold stores should be inspected regularly and any rotting fruit removed. Many storage rots
produce spores which are easily blown around the store, so move infected material carefully.
Dormant spores will infect the crop if conditions become favourable, ego any condensation on
the crop or if store temperatures rise.
Refrigerated fruit are best packed for sale at room temperature - cold packed fruit is more liable
to bruise injury damage.
Cold storage
Clamps and ambient air cooled stores cannot be sufficiently controlled to avoid shrivelling of
fruit and loss of firmness. Refrigerated storage of fruit is the norm by commercial growers with
a humidifying system. Costs usually work our about 30-40 per tonne.
Ideally each variety would have its own store, as mixing varieties reduces the storage life of the
later storing varieti es. Practically, though, this won't be possible for smaller growers. Apple
varieties fall into two groups which store best at 1C and 3C respectively, though there is only
information on a small number of varieties:
Store at 1C: Fiesta, Gala, Grenadier, Spartan, Worcester Pearmain.
Store at 3C: Bramleys, Cox, Charles Ross, Discovery, Edward VII , Egremont Russet , Howgate
Wonder, Ingrid Marie, James Grieve, Jonathon, Jupiter, Katy, Kidd's Orange, Laxton's Fortune,
Laxton's Superb, Lord Derby, Sunset, Tydeman's Late Orange, Wi nston.
Pears store best at between _1 C and -O.soC. The crop should be cooled quickly, to 4C within
2-3 days and to the storage temperature within a further 7-10 days. The relative humidity
should be above 90% and as near 96% as possible. After storage, pears should be conditioned
at a higher temperature before distributi on and sale.
As with apples, ideally pears varieties should be stored separately - different varieties release
different levels of ethylene and show differing sensitivities to this ripening-inducing gas .

Biological control of fruit storage diseases
A range of biological control agents have been researched to control blue mould, grey mould,
mucor rot, brown rot and Rhizopus rot. These are micro-organisms, usually yeasts or fungi.
There are potential problems with the use of such organisms, though - some produce
antibiotics (and would not be licensed), they have to be fully (and expensively) tested.
Yeasts which are used in some parts of the world, to control Penicillium spp. and Botrytis
cinerea, are Candida oleophi/a; Cryptococcus infirmno-miniatus and C.laurentii; and
Rhodotorula glulinis. It is not clear, however, if any of these would control the main storage
diseases in the UK.
Reference
Benbow, J & Sugar, D: Fruit Surface Colonization and Biological Control of Postharvest Diseases
of Pear by Preharvest Yeast Applications. Plant Disease, September 1999.
Bevan, J R et al: Storage of Organically Produced Crops. HDRA, 1997.
Crawford, M: Bitter pit of apples. Agroforestry News, Vol 9 No 3.
Kupferman, E: How to Prevent Diseases of Fruit in Storage.
http://www.goodfruit.comllink/Mar1-99/speciaI1.html
Book review
Nutshell Guide to Growing Blueberries, Cranberries &
Lingonberries
Clive Simms
Orchard House Books, 2005; 36 pp; 3.50.
ISBN 0-9544607-3-1
Once again Clive Simms has come up with a guide for the everyday gardener to growing fruits
which many are unsure about, this time in the blueberry family.
Soil conditions are the critical factor when growing these acid-loving plants, and this is
emphasised in initial sections on soil and siting plants. Feeding, pruning, propagation, pests
and diseases, and harvesting are then all covered simply but with enough detail to make a
success of growing these great fruiting plants.
ThiS book is available from the AR. T. for 3.99 (UK price) including postage & packing.
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculturel horticulture to produce a
20 per year in Britain and the E.U. (1!3 unwaged)
Agroforestry News
Hops
Volume 14 Number 2
February 2006
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: A new silva-poultry system / Black walnut in
Britain / Squirrel collars for trees / New plants from the
A.R.T. / Fungal titbits / First pine nut harvest / Forest
garden slide show / Edible Forest Gardens / Walnuts in
south west France / Walnut timber processing in Italy /
A.R.T. courses in 2006
7 Soil Influences on Tree Roots
9 Hops
13 Cultivation
22 Pests & Diseases
27 Varieties
38 Book Reviews: Sil vopastoralism and Sustainable
Land Management / Woodland Management: A
Practical Guide / Edible Forest Gardens
Trust. Contributions are welcomed, anrl should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format.
Many arti cles in Agroforestry News refer to edibl e and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the
reader, should be tested carefull y before major use, and medicinal plants should onl y be administered
Editor: Marti n Crawford.
Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterl y by the Agroforestry Research Trust.
Editori al, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington,
Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT. U.K. Fax & telephone: +44 (0) 1803840776
Email; mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website: WNW.agroforestry.co.uk
Page 1
News
A new silvo-poultry system
An experimental silva-poultry system, combining trees and chickens, is generating much
interes,t from farmers, foresters and policy makers. Aiming to rear broiler (meat) chicken in
newly planted farm woodlands, the system set up in Oxfordshire is both commercial and part of
a joint research project PINE (Poultry in Natural Environments), though this had funding for only
2 years.
Two replicated trials have been set up in Oxfordshire in late 2002 incorporating a randomised
complete block design incorporating the following factors:
Two tree type treatments - (1) broadleaves ash, silver birch, cherry and oak; and (2)
conifers Corsican pine, Douglas fir and western red cedar. Trees were planted at 2 x
2 m in 75 cm treeshelters.
Two poultry density treatments - (1) 1.2 m
2
per bird (similar to free-Orange design
standards) and (2) 2.5
2
per bird (organic density standard). The birds are housed in
mobile poultry arks each containing 600 birds.
Trees: presence and absence.
Poultry: presence and absence
In existing free-range broiler systems, birds are reluctant to range even when provided with
shelter, hedges etc - recent research shows less than 15% of birds observed outside.
However, the number of birds ranging was positively correlated with the amount of tree cover in
a range area - not surprising as our domestic poultry originate from red jungl e fowl (Gallus
gal/us). The trees provide shade, dry areas for dust bathing, act as a windbreak, and provide
shelter from predators.
Potential benefits to trees may include a fertilising effect from chicken manure, and less manual
input in weed control.
At the end of 2004, trees wee on average over 1 m tall, showing 30 cm of growth above the
treeshelters. Birds were observed usi ng the shade even from these small trees in 2004.
1200 free-range birds are distributed every week through a supermarket and the capital
investment costs of the project should be repaid within 5 years. Estimated income per unit area
of land far exceeds that generated by conventional land use.
Source: Hemery, G: A novel silvo-poultry system. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, Vol 99 No 2 (April 2005).
Black walnut in Britain
Black walnut has the potential to produce high quality and valuable timber over a fairly short
rotation, as such it could have e place in the production of home grown timber.
Trials are underway to identify and select good quality black walnut trees (Jug/ans nigra) for
timber production in Britain. Filed trials are under way, managed by East Mailing Research and
others, using seedling trees from several provenances in North America and Europe, to asses
performance, with emphasis on good form, vigour and late flushing. An improvement
programme is planned over the next ten years, with the aim of establ ishing clonal trials and
grafted seed orchards of the best performing trees.
The improvement programme also offers the hope of substantial reductions in rotation length,
from about 90 years at present to 50 or 60 years, and higher proportions of veneer grade and
higher class timber.
Source: Clark, J el at: The Future of Black Walnut in Britain. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, Vol 99 No 3
(July 2005),
Squirrel collars for trees
Smooth collars placed around the trunk of trees to prevent squirrels climbing trees have been
used sometimes in North America to stop squirrels eating nut crops and have been advocated
by Clive Simms (he calls them squirrel baffles) in his booklet 'Nutshell Guide to Growing
Walnuts'. Research is now under way by the Forest Commission to use this technique on trees
to prevent bark stripping damage.
Collars or baffles are only suitable for using on trees with isolated crowns, ie with crowns a
minimum of 3 m (10 ft) apart, because squirrels can jump from tree to tree if the distance is
less. Bear in mind that branches laden with nuts or blowing in the wind may move position, so
give a generous 3 m of space. Trees should obviously be planted or thinned to a wider than
normal spacing and/or pruned appropriately.
As to the baffle itself , Clive Simms
suggests using pieces of thin sheet
metal (used aluminium litho plates
from printers are recommended)
attached around the tree in a
continuous band, starting 1.5 m (5 ft)
above ground level and making the
total collar about 1 m (3 ft) high.
Sheets are overlapped with upper
sheets overlapping lower ones to
prevent toeholds being formed; small
nails are used to attach the collar to
the tree, which is removed after
harvest.
Recently, the Forestry Commission in
England have been experimenting
with using collars made out of
corrugated plastic tree guards and
testing them with grey squirrels.
These are strapped or taped (eg,. using 'Gripastrip', a plastic tape with similar properties to
velcro) around the trunk of the tree.
Squirrels were first attracted to an t'nprotected elevated feeding station, 2 m up on a wooden
platform mounted on two fence stakes. Hoppers were filled with food twice a week for 2-3
weeks to acclimatise the squirrels to feeding there. Following this, collars made from 75 mm
diameter plastic treeshelters, of different lengths, were fixed on the upright supports in an
attempt to prevent the squirrels climbing. The collars were taped tightly to make sure there
were no gaps.
In one trial, 1.2 m long collars were attached to the stakes for 3 weeks, then 0.9 m long collars
for 3 weeks, the 0.6 m long collars for 3 weeks, then 0.15 m long collars for 3 weeks. As soon
as the 1.2 m l ong collars were attached, all feeding ceased from the stations - they were 100%
successful. More surprisingly, feeding remained entirely ceased for all the following shorter
collars too, although the squirrels made 7 attempts to climb the 0.6 m collar and 40 to climb the
0.3 m collar. It appears the squirrels soon became conditioned to the fact that a collar could not
be climbed.
In another trial, the length of the collar was progressively increased from 0.6 m (4 days) to 0.75
m (3 days) to 1 m (7 days to 1.3 m (4 days). The 0.6 m collar reduced squirrel feeding to about
25% of the unprotected level; the 0.75 m collar reduced it to about 12%, the 1 m collar to under
5% and the 1.3 m collar to zero.
Contrary to expectations, squirrels did not gnaw the bottom of the plastic collars. The plastic
collars themselves probably do not have a prolonged life, perhaps only a season or two,
because the plastic degrades in time and roughens I becomes brittle, provi ding squirrels with
enough grip to climb them. The forestry commission has patented this idea for use on forestry
trees and is hoping to develop suitable products in the future.
Sources: Clive Simms: Nutshell Guide to Growing Walnuts
Pepper, H & Kerr, G: Preliminary studies on collars to protect trees from grey squirrel
bark-stripping damage. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, Vol 99 No 2 (April 2005).
New plants from the A.R.T.
Regular customers will know that some of the rarer plants we list for sale in our catalogue sell
out by Christmas time, despite the fact that each year we aim to propagate more! An up to date
stocklist of what is available in on our website and customers can check this before ordering to
make sure we have what you want available. If we have sold out of what you want, please
email us or drop us a line and we are happy to reserve items for the following season.
A few plants became available too late to be listed in out print ed catalogue, though they are
listed on our website. These include:
Eleutherococcus senticosus : Aureomarginata' - Siberian ginseng
Fuchsia magel/anica - three more cuUivars which fruit well in Britain: Gracilis, Phyllis, and
Riccartonii.
Fungal titbits
A poor harvest and soaring demand for white truffles has sparked a turf war in the forests of
Piedmont in northern Italy. Car tyres have been slashed, paths scattered with nail barbs and
poi soned meatballs planted in undergrowth to kill rival hunters' dogs.
Wholesale prices have jumped from 980 Euro to 1640 Euro per kilo in 2 weeks.
One 2.400 year old honey mushroom (Armiffaria ostoyae) is reported to cover over 890 hectares
in the Blue Mountains of Oregon. The fungus, spreading underground through an extensive
network of hyphae, is believed to be the largest single organism on earth.
Source: The Tree Cropper. December 2005.
First pine nut harvest
The first pine nut harvest from the Agroforestry Research Trust's trial grounds in Devon was
made in late November 2005. It came from two stone pine trees (Pinus pinea) . both 10 years
old, grown from seed. Since the average expected age of stone pine starting to fruit is 10
years, these trees were right on time. The trees are about 3 m (10 ft) high.
5 large cones were harvested from each tree. Each cone was typically about 11 em long and
7.5 em in diameter and weighed 250 g. Stone pine cones do not open readily when ripe (they
would rather wait for a fire, though after a year or so they will open when dry) but have to be
physicalJy broken apart to harvest ripe seeds. Each cone yielded on average 130 seeds,
weighing 105 9 (including the shell). The weight of shelled seeds (ie kernels) averaged 35 g
per cone. Now you know why pine nut seeds are so expensive to buy!
Forest Garden slide show
You can now see a series of photos taken of our Dartington Forest Garden this winter online at
http://www.flickr.com/photos/6538 7153@NOO/
Edible Forest Gardens
This important two-volume text is available from the A.R.T. See Book Reviews in this issue for
a review of the seminal work on forest gardens. The volumes are 50 each, post free from the
A.R.T. until July 2006.
Walnuts in south west France
In south west France approximately 3,000 growers produce walnuts on approximately 8,000 ha
(20,000 acres) with a production on 15,000 tonnes of walnuts per year, about half of French
production. Despite many new plantings, French production has reached a plateau due to older
trees dying out.
At the walnut research station at Creysse, trials are taking place with cultivars including the
older Franquette and Marbot, along with the more recent Fernor, Fernette and Lara. Trees of
Franquette and Fernor are planted at 8 x 8 m or 8 x 6 m, with the aim of thinning every second
tree to give an eventual spacing f 16 x 16 m or 16 x 12 m. Franquette and Lara have been
planted in a hedgerow system at 8 x 4 m, and two pruning systems are being tested, vertical
axis pruning and a hedgerow type pruning between the rows with no pruning between the trees.
The hedgerow pruning is being tried one year in three and one year in four; hedging must start
early (3-4 years old maximum) to avoid cutting of large limbs. Yields from the hedgerow trials
have reached 5 t/ha (Lara) and 3.5 t/ha (Franquette).
Self rooted trees of Lara, Fernor and Fernette have also been tested, and they tended to have a
larger trunk circumference but s l o w ~ r production. Two CTIFL cloned rootstocks of J.regia, RG2
and RG6, are also being tested and look promising. Their characteristics include good vigour
and resistance to walnut blight. Currently the hybrid rootstock NG23 (J.nigra x regia) is
considered the best rootstock, despite potential problems with black line disease causing a graft
incompatibility later in life.
Shallow bark canker (Erwinia nigrifluens) and deep bark canker (Erwinia rubrifaciens) affect a
wide range of the walnut family. DBC can cause deep longitudinal cracks in the bark of the trunk
and scaffold limbs, and a black exudate can often be seen. SBC, also causing an exudate, is
becoming a problem in young Fernor trees in France, with symptoms appearing when trees are
stressed due to hot weather or frost damage. Research on walnut blight includes testing copper
formulations, spray frequency, use of bacillus (biological control) and studies of .copper toxicity;
too much nitrogen applied to the soil increase blight severity.
Researchers at Creysse are engaged in extensive field trials on canopy management. Walnut
trees will often grow naturally as a central leader. Limb bending by flexing shoots by hand to
decrease the limb angle is a useful technique to induce early bearing and increase nut set.
Limbs bent beyond their elastic limit will remain at a lower angle, become less vigorous, more
precocious and high yielding. Using string, tying of limbs to a defined angle (slightly below the
horizontciJ) is another way to maintain the optimum limb angle. The best time for limb bending
or tying is August. Any ties are removed in December once the limb angle is fixed.
Source: Adem, H et al: A Study tour of the walnut industry in France. Australian Nutgrower September
2005.
Walnut timber processing in Italy
Traditionally in the south of Italy, walnut trees are grown for both nut and timber production.
Trees are trained for combined production by removing lower limbs for a distance of 2 to 3
metres up the trunk. Nuts are harvested for several decades unti l either production declines or
a decision based on the value of the walnut timber encourages the farmer to fell the tree.
The milling process starts by grading the walnut logs into those best suited to veneer or solid
board production. The maturity, colour, grain, density and flaws in the timber determine the end
use of the product. For board production, a bandsaw is often used to cut the logs into planks
approximately 75 mm thick across the width of the log. The outer bark is removed by hand and
the planks dried for about 40 hours in a kiln heated by steam to stabilise the timber at a
moisture content of 15%. The best quality timber is selected and cut into gunstocks for the
Italian firearms manufacturer Beretta. Historically, walnut timber has been highly prized as the
first choice for gunstocks because of its exceptional qualities in strength, colour, grain and
stability. It is also regarded as the highest class of timber for furniture making and parquet
flooring.
Walnut veneer is produced in a planing machine where a reciprocating blade, approximately 3
metres wide, shaves a 3 mm thick veneer longitudinally at right angles from a walnut log. The
moisture content of. the log is monitored to ensure that the cutting is done at the optimum time.
The pieces of veneer are then kiln dried, cut into pieces measuring 80 x 30 em, graded and tied
into bundles. Walnut veneer is often used to enhance the appearance of furniture as an overlay
on less expensive timber. In inlaid furniture, different species of timber veneer, including
walnut, are used to construct pictures or geometric patterns by a careful mix of timber grain and
colour.
Source: Adem, H et al: A Study tour of the walnut industry in France. Australian Nutgrower September
. 2005.
A.R.T. Courses taught by Martin Crawford in 2006
Forest Gardening - 20'h_21" May
Based at our Darlington forest garden, Jearn to design, implement and maintain a forest garden.
A few places still left!
Forest Gardening - 9'h_10th September
Growing Nut Crops _14'h_1S'h October
Based at Dartington where we have our own nut groves to demonstrate how growing nuts can
be easy and profitable.
Soil influences on tree roots
Introduction
Although there has been pitifully little research on the extent and form of tree root systems in
different species, enough research has been carried out to enable the commonly held idea of
tree root systems to be challenged. Much of the data collected on root dimensions have been
derived from mechanically lifted root plates or windthrown trees.
Root distribution
Many factors are involved in creating the final root structure including soil type, tree species,
age, health, environmental stresses, planting density and silvicultural management.
A common misconception is that the volume and distribution of the roots reflects that of the
trunk and branches as in (1) below. More typically and accurately, trees have shallow but
widespread root systems as in (2) below. It is uncommon for roots to penetrate deeper than 2
m (6Y2 tt), with 80-90% found within the top 60 cm (2 tt) of the soil profile.
(1 )
------ ----.-- - -- - --- - --
2b
M
~ ; : , > r _____________ _
(2)
The initial root systems of all tree sep.dlings start with a taproot, from which lateral roots grow to
form an extensive branched system; but in most species the dominance of the taproot
diminishes very quickly, and is replaced by secondary roots. A few species, notably English
oak, some pine, fir and walnut , have taproots which persist into adulthood. In general, root
systems are one of three types:
Taproot systems - where a strong main root descends vertically from the underside of the
trunk. Examples include English oak, Scots pine and silver fir.
Heart root systems - where both large and smaller roots descend diagonally from the
trunk. Examples include birch, beech, larch, lime and Norway maple.
Page 7

Surface root systems - where large, horizontal lateral roots extend just below the soil
surface, from which small roots branch down vertically. Examples include ash, aspen,
Norway spruce and white pine.
For a given species, most trees will fit into one of these categories but there will always be
exceptions.
Soil ,properties
These effect rooting patterns and especially rooting depth. Factors involved
include:
Mechanical resistance - roots cannot grow through layers of bedrock, excessively
stony soils of fine sands, ironpans or compacted clay.
Aeration - all tree roots need oxygen to respire, though some flood-tolerant species
can cope with lower levels. For most, root growth is inhibited when oxygen levels in soil
fall below 10-15% and stops completely at 3-5%. Such conditions occur when air spaces
in soil are replaced by more soil (compaction), water or other gases.
Fertility - infertile soils produce root systems with long, poorly branched surface
roots, whereas fertile ones produce more vigorous well-branched roots that may descend
deeper into the soil.
Moisture - soils with permanently high water tables cause trees to develop very
shallow, widespread rooting systems. Drought conditions may also cause some trees to
produce shallow root systems to maximise rainfall interception near the soil surface. Soils
which are moisture retentive - ie containing clay - can reduce the need for roots to extend
far in search of water, whereas well drained soils may promote a more extensive and
deeper root system.
Root depth and spread
Very few tree roots occur at depths greater than 2 m (6Y: tt), and 90-99% of all roots occur in
the upper 1 m (3 tt) of soil. Soil properties as-above have the greatest impact on rooting depth.
Lateral growth of tree roots varies between species but it can extend well beyond the canopy
perimeter: in ash and poplar, lateral roots can spread three times as far as crown radius. There
is some evidence that the maximum extend of lateral roots is reached before the crown has
completed expanding, hence the lateral root:crown radius ratio may reduce in time.
Reference
Crow, P: The Influence of Soils and Species on Tree Root Depth. Forestry Commission
Information Note, November 2005.
Page 8
Hops
Introduction and history
The earliest written evidence on hop cultivation dates back to 736 AD in Germany, although
there is a Finnish saga, 3000 years old and passed down orally for 2800 years, mentioning hops
in brewing. From Germany and central Europe the practice of growing and using hops spread
to the rest of Europe and eventually to the rest of the world. Hops were not cultivated
commercially in England until about 1524, when Flemish planters introduced their techniques.
From Europe the cultivated hop was introduced into North America in 1629 (although wild hops
are native to north America and have recently been placed as a sub-species of Humulus
lupulus).
Although grown now almost exclusively for brewing, hops were first cultivated for their herbal
and medicinal properties. Initially their use in brewing was as a preservative to protect against
bacterial spoilage; un hopped beer was known as ale, and hopped beer as beer, though that
distinction is no longer valid as no un hopped ale is made now.
Hops are al so one of the perennial crops still normally grown with the use of numerous
herbicides, insecticides and fungicides. Intensive plantings of hop monocultures, the standard
commercial production method, inevitably leads to the risk of serious disease and pest
problems. There are only a few organic hop growers, and it is possible, though, to grow hops
without recourse to agrochemicals (especially on a smaller scale) and this article emphasises
the methods required, including the use of resistant varieties and other techniques.
Description
The hop, Humulus lupulus, is indigenous throughout much of
the northern hemisphere between latitudes 35 and 700N
and is hardy to zone 5, so will tolerate winter temperatures
down to -20C or more. There are two other hop species,
H.japonicus and H.yunnanensis, but these of little use and
are not described here. The genus Humulus is part of the
Cannabinaceae family, the only other member of which is
hemp (Cannabis sativa), and there are many similarities
between hemp and the cultivated hop.
The hop is a dioecious perennial climbing plant (ie individual
plants are male or female, and the whole plant dies back to
the ground in winter.) It does not have tendrils, instead the
stems (or bines) twine around any available support in a
clockwise direction with the aid of hooked hairs on the
stems. Hops can grow up to 6 m ft) high with suitable
supports.
The below-ground perennial rootstock is in fact part stem
tissue. In a mature plant the root system can extend down
for 1.5 m (5 tt) or more and laterally for 2-3 m (6-10 ft)
although on deeper soils the lateral spread is less. There
are 2 types of roots: horizontal roots are tough, wiry and
branching, producing much fibrous growth in the top 20-30
cm of soil. Vertical roots, arising from the crown or
from horizontal roots, are fleshy, irregularly swollen and
r'
Page 9
easily broken. The roots do not produce buds and regeneration each spring is from buds on the
branched stem tissue below ground forming part of the rootstock. These buds produce a mass
of shoots in spring - many more than are needed to grow a crop - hence some shoots are
usually removed (see below for more details). Some buds can develop into runners which can
spread sideways, just below ground level, usually emerging close to the rootstock.
}
Stem tissue
Horizontal roots
Vertical roots
Hop rootstock 'Fugg!e' cone
Bines usually start growing in early April in England, and are susceptible to damage from sharp
late frosts. Hop growth is stroQgly influenced by the amount of daylight - they require at least
13 hours of daylight for vegetative growth to occur.
The leaves are normally borne in pairs at each node; they have toothed margins and usually
have lobes.
Small male flowers, are produced in branched bunches and produce large
quantities of pollen which is
The female flowers occur in bunches that consist of a condensed central axis, with a pair of
bracts at each node. Each bract and its bracteoles hides a small flower at its base. Flowering
takes place in July. As the bunches of flowers mature, the central axis lengthens and the bracts
enlarge to produce the strobiles (commonly called 'cones') which form the commercial product
of the plant. Flowers which are pollinated develop to form a seed enclosed in a papery shell
and cause the bracteoles to develop differently to those in unpollinated flowers , hence seeded
and seedless cones are easily distinguished. Commercially, un pollinated flowers are usually
required (see later for more details why.) Cones vary in size with different cultivars between 25
50 mm (1-2") long by 12-25 mm (JI,-1") wide.
The commercial value of hops lies in the lupulin glands which contain resins (the most important
being aacid) which give beer its bitterness and essential oils which contribute hop flavour.
While male flowers develop few resin glands, on female flowers they are abundant, mostly on
the bracts and bracteoles (these account for some 90% of aacid content.) There are a few
resin glands on the undersides of leaves, but not enough for commercial use.
Use in brewing
When hops began to be used as a preserving agent in beer, also making it bitter, they were
replacing other traditions of using herbs and other plant parts for preserving and as
bittering/flavouring agents (for example the fruits of bog myrtle (Myrica gale), still used in
Scandinavia).
Modern commercial brewing techniques, though, rely so heavily on hygiene that the original
preservative function of the hops is now of little importance (though for amateur brewers they
may stili be important), and they are used for the bitter taste and hop flavour that they impart.
These are derived from the resins and essential oils that are produced in the lupulin glands of
the hop cone.
Alpha and aroma hops
In beer making, hops are traditionally boiled with wort (the mashed malted grain, usually barley,
and hot water) for 1Y:z-2 hours, during which time some of the resins go into solution to provide
the bittering principles of beer, but the bulk of the essential oils are evaporated. To overcome
this loss of essential oil flavour, many brewers reserve a portion of choice 'aroma' hops and add
them late in the boi l, 15-20 minutes before the end (called late hopping or finish hopping).
British and American brewers may add 'dry' hops to the cooled wort during fermentation, to
introduce more essential oil components into the beer. Dry hopping adds a fresh hops
aromalflavour which cannot be matched by hop additions to the hot wort. Hops added at the
start of the boil, rich in resin but with a poorer aroma, are called alpha, bitter or kettle hops,
although the distinction between these and aroma hops added late is blurred.
Hop resins
Hop resins are not found in any other plant species. The lupulin glands consist largely of a
mixture of soft and hard resins and from the brewing point of view it is the soft resins that are
important, which contain a-acids, J3-acids and other resins . The biUering agents of beer consist
of at least 6 compounds found within these acids.
The ability of hops to give a bitter taste to beer is their principle function and many hops are
used solely for this purpose. Their a-acid content is then of prime importance and this can vary
from as low as 3% in old traditional cultivars to as much as 14% in the newer sorts. It is now
common practice for the contract price for such 'bitter' hops to be based of the weight of a-acid
they contain rather than the weight of the hops themselves. Various analytical methods are
used to measure the a-acid content.
Hops undergo oxidation and degradation in storage, some cultivars more rapidly than others.
The minimise deterioration, many brewers keep their hops in cold store or have them processed
into pellets or extract. Old hops can develop a typical 'cheesy' aroma. The bittering properties
of older cultivars are retained longer in store than in newer cultivars due to differences in the
ratio of a-acids and J3-acids.
Essential oils
The other important hop product is the essential oil , also produced in the lupulin glands, and
normally representing 0.5-1.5% of the weight of the dried cones. Some cultivars contain more
than others while seedless hops have considerably more than seeded cones of the same
cultivar.
Whereas hop resins give beer its bitterness, the essential oil gives it aroma and flavour. The
essential oil is a complex mixture of 200 or more components, not all of which have been
identified. They consist of three classes of compound: (a) hydrocarbons; (b) oxygenated
derivatives; and (c) compounds containing sUlphur. In most cultivars the hydrocarbons
dominate but they are also the most volatile and few survive wort boiling, even with late
addition, though some will dissolve during 'dry' hopping. The oxygenated compounds contribut e
to floral , spicy and astringent flavour characteristics. The sulphur compounds have potent
aromas and can influence the flavour too.
Hop processing
Hops pressed into conventional bales are bulky to store and gradually lose (lacid and aroma
through \l xidation which can be slowed but not stopped by cold storage. To overcome these
drawbacks, hops are sometimes processed for use by commercial brewers. Organic solvents
are sometimes used to extract the brewing materials, giving a green viscous liquid containing as
much as 50% aacid; a lot of essential oils are lost and some solvent residues may be left.
More recently, carbon dioxide has been used as a solvent, giving a much purer product.
Another process, which retains most of the character of the hop cones, is to grind them into a
powder which is then compressed into pellets, often with a standard aacid content. Hop pellets
are also sold by homebrew shops.
Other uses
The young shoots and leaves can be eaten raw, or better, cooked lightly like asparagus, with a
pleasant flavour. The tender underground shoots are the most favoured, and plants are
sometimes cultivated specificall y for the edible shoots by earthing up in spring or to lengthen
the underground part of the shoot, or by blanching shoots like sea kale shoots.
The female hop cones were used in bread making (and still are in some countries) probably
before they were used in brewing. Their role (apart from flavouring) is not entirely clear, but
probably their preservative properties helped keep yeast cultures free from contamination.
Cones are also sometimes used in pickles to add a ~ h o p p y ~ flavour and aroma.
The fleshy rhizomes have been .eaten in the past as a famine food.
Hop compounds are now extracted and used as food-grade antibacterial compounds. These
are very active against the range of bacteria found during alcoholic fermentation and are now
utilised in fuel ethanol production.
Hop cones are reputed to be anodyne, antiseptic, antispasmodic, diuretic, febrifuge, hypnotic,
nervine, sedative, stomachic and tonic. In traditional medicine, hops have been used for:
Antibacterial activity (against Gram-positive bacteria) - this has been confirmed as
below
Sedative action (the soporific effect that hops are reputed to have is in some doubt;
studies on humans have found ~ n o sleep inducing effects")
. Antiinflammatory activity (this has recently been confirmed by cl ini cal trials of hop
extracts which were effective against osteoarthritis pain)
Stimulation of the digestive tract
Activity on the central nervous system (anti-depressive activity)
Relief of migraine
Influence on the skin (diaphoretic activity) - used as a poultice to ulcers, boils, painful
swellings etc .
Anaphrodisiacum
Antituberculosis activity
Anti-obesive effect
Relief of bladder problems
Against hypersensitivity and nervous conditions
Diuretic effect
Remedy against infections
Against symptoms of the menopause
Increases milk flow lupulin contains a hormone that could account for this effect
Hop cones and leaves can be made into a herb tea for self-treatment.
Hop constituents have been found to be highly effective against oral streptococci (more so than
most other plant extracts) and they have been suggested as a mouthwash constituent.
Recent research has found that some of the compounds found in hops have anticancer and
cancer-preventative actions.
The blnes (stems) contain fibres similar to those of hemp, but not quite as strong, which can be
used to make coarse cloth and sacking. The fibre is very durable but it is difficult to separate,
the stems need to be soaked beforehand for a whole winter. A brownish paper can also be
made from the fibre, the stems are harvested in the autumn, the leaves removed and the stems
steamed until the fibres can be removed. The fibre is cooked for 2 hours with lye and then hand
pounded with mallets or ball milled for hours.
An extract of the leaves and bines has been used to dye wool a cinnamon brown colour and for
tanning light skins.
An essential oil from the female cones is used in perfumery. Yields from recent varieties are as
high as 1 to 1.5%.
Although wind-pollinated, honey bees are sometimes attracted to the flowers as a pollen
source.
The dead bines can be used in basketry and wickerwork, they are still very strong when they die
back in autumn but become brittle when dry. Soak before using as with dry willow.
Fresh hop leaves are attractive to livestock - in Australia and New Zealand, sheep are used to
graze and defoliate the lower part of the bines.
Ornamentally, there are variegated and golden forms, and a recent dwarf golden form ('Golden
Tassels').
Hop waste, the residue from beer making, is a good garden fertiliser and mulch, containing
significant amounts of nitrogen.
Cultivation
Hops will thrive on a wide range of soils including light sandy soils (though irrigation may be
required) and heavy clays . Mediunl textured soils (Ioams) are easiest to work with and most
importantly soils should be of a reasonable depth and moisture retentive but not waterlogged.
Hops prefer neutral conditions and liming should be carried out if necessary to raise the soil pH
to between 6 and 7.5. The reason for the localisation of hop production in England is due to the
historical proximity of sufficient labour and is not to do with specific soil requirements.
Before planting, the site should be free of perennial weeds; once the hops are planted it is
better not to have to dig up weeds and disturb the hop root system. The hops will be productive
for 10-20 years or more.
Hop cultivation requires supports of some sort. Originally this was done by providing each plant
with a pole or poles up which it could climb; these were pulled from the ground at harvest time
and stored until the following spring. There is good potential for utilising this technique still on a
small scale, especiall y for dwarf cultivars.
A brief overview of commercial cultivation methods is followed by description of small-scale
cultivation methods (including dwarf culti vars), utilising non-chemical methods.
Comrpercial cUltivation
Bear in mind here that hops are singularly unsuited to monoculture production using massed
rows of plants. Hops are woodland edge plants, which like their roots in moist soil, and which
like to climb into good light conditions. Hop diseases and pests can spread rapidl y from plant to
plant. Hence nearly all commercial production relies heavily on chemical herbicides, defoliants,
insecticides and fungicides.
Since the end of the 19
th
century it has become standard practice to provide a permanent
structure of poles and wires to which each year string or thin wi re is attached to provide support
for the hop bines. The height of such wirework varies: in continental Europe it is usually 7-8 m,
in England 4.5 - 5 m and in the USA about 6 m. If the wires are not high enough, the top of
each hop shoot bends over or breaks off, stimulating lateral branching which leads to tangled
growth and harvesting problems. Between poles either low-tensile wi re is strained tight, or
hi gh-tensil e wire is used over greater spans and strained lightl y so they sag in a catenary as
shown below.
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I
\
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I
I I
\
\
I
\
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I
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5m
I
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I \ I
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V
1""1";1""1"" 1"/",, / / /
,
0 /
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,
Plants 1 m apart in row
Typical English modern wirework system
In England, coir stri ng is used for the hops to climb, attached at the bottom to a ground peg and
at the top to a hook clamped on to the top wires; stringing is carried out from the ground using a
continuous length of string and a long pole. Highest yields are borne on bines which are trained
up supports at angles between 65 and 80 from the horizontal.
Spacing of rows and plants varies in different countries. Traditionally in continental Europe
rows were 1.6 m apart with plants 1.4 m apart in the row, with one wire provided for each plant.
In England a traditional Worcester system used rows 2 m apart , plants 2 m apart in the row, and
4 strings for each plant. These systems have changed to allow for tractor access, typically now
using rows 3 m apart and plants 1-1.5 m in the row, and using 2 strings/wires per plant.
American growers often plant at a square spacing of 2.4 x 2.4 m (8 x 8 ft). Most systems allow
about 1.5 m
2
per bine, but variations between 1 and over 2 m
2
can be found.
The newer dwarf varieties only grow 2 - 2.5 m high and these can be grown using wirework
about 2.5 m high. Commercial growers are exciting by these developments because they allow
for lower harvesting machinery and better coverage for spraying operations.
Traditionally, hops had the ground either side of the rows ploughed, and had side shoots
trimmed, to prevent spread of the hop plants and too many shoots emerging. Most hops in
England are now grown under a non-CUltivation system. Weeds are controlled by herbicides
and a strong root system develops near the surface in soil with a good soil structure. Another
advantage of non-cultivation is that cultivation was an important cause of the spread of wilt
disease.
To control the problem of the spread of runners, plants are now planted out inside a piece of
open-ended polythene tubing, which allows the roots to descend but controls the spread of
horizontal runners.
Usually 2-3 bines (shoots) are trained up each of the supporting string/wires to produce the
optimum density of growth for good yield and quality. The bines are trained when they are
about 50 cm long and with tall varieties it is usually found best not to select the most vigorous of
all. Once training is completed, it is necessary to remove the surplus bines, usually by use of
chemical defoliants. Leaving the excess shoots to form a dense growth around the base of the
plants would create a major disease problem as mildew diseases would develop there.
In addition to removing surplus bines, the lower leaves and laterals are removed, usually using
a chemical defoliant , to increase airflow and reduce disease problems. On young plants this
may not be done so they build up more reserves in the rootstock. Stripping (as it is called)
starts when bines are about 2 m high and is carried out about once a month up to a height of 1-
2 m eventually.
Traditionally in England, hops were fed with enormous amounts of manure and/or chemical
fertilisers, which have now been shown to be extreme. Many English growers now use 100-120
kg of N per ha per year , while in the USA this is about the maximum ever used and on soils with
high organic matter levels much less is used. Too much nitrogen leads to excessive growth,
pest and disease troubles and shading problems.
Phosphorus is important for root development and there should be enough for newly planted
hops. Again, in the past excessive amounts were added such that there are large residual
amounts in English hop gardens and they now need much less. Current recommendations for
new plantings in England are to provide about 225 kg P
2
0
5
per ha per year (which appears
excessive) although in the USA this is way above the maximum and for rich soils little or none is
used.
Potassium is required for healthy growth and cropping. As with phosphorus, excessive amounts
were used in the past. For new plantings the recommendations are to supply 270-450 kg K
2
0
per ha per year but in the USA 150 kg is the maximum and for rich soils little or none is used.
Irrigation is not required in western Europe, though it is used in Eastern Europe and other drier
regions.
Wild hops growing nearby are usually cut down or grubbed up by mid June to prevent
pollination occurring, since most brewers demand seedless hop crops (ie less than 2% seeded).
Seeded hops, although heavier, are prone to shattering on harvest and have other
characteristics most brewers dislike.
Commercial hops are sold wholesale to brewers for about 4+ per kg.
Machine harvesting
Mobile harvesters have proven of little importance for tall varieties, the main drawback being
the enormous height they must achieve to drive over the wirework system, although some
mobile harvesters have been tried for dwarf cultivars on a lower system.
Static harvesting machines are usually used, requiring the bines to be cut and transported to
the machine. Bines are cut at 1-1.Sm high, since there are few hop cones below this height.
The m a c h j ~ e then uses wire loops ('fingers')mounled on rolating drums to remove the hop
cones. The material then has to be cleaned of leaves, stem etc.
Small-scale cultivation
For growers of a few to a few hundred hop plants, totally different cultivation methods are
applicable and the scale makes organic cultivation possible through various techniques. This
section emphasises the growing of dwarf varieties.
Bear in mind that any supports used must bear the weight of the full y grown bines which can be
10 kg (22 Ib) for tall varieties and 5 kg (11 Ib) for dwarf varieties.
Training systems
1. Wirework similar to commercial growing for dwarf varieties.
Parallel wire systems are set up using heavy
duty posts every 7 m or so, and high
tensile wire at a height of 2 to 2.4 m.
Rows of hop plants are typically
planted at 2.4 m wide spacing
(wide enough for small tractor
access), with plants densely
planted in the rows as close
as 45 cm apart.
Two strings or wires are placed
for each hop plant, and two
bines are trained up each of
these in spring.
Using a line of plastic netting
(14 cm squares) instead of
using. strings etc. can be
used, and leads to slightly
higher yields and better self-
training; however, it is almost
impossible to remove the old
bines from the netting at the
end of the season as they
are very tough. Commercial
growers of dwarf varieties
like using netting as it saves
them labour and they don't
need to remove old bines
View down the rows of hops. The hops are
planted on narrow hills or raised beds with a
large access track between.
because they are so highly sprayed that no insects or diseases can overwinter on them.
Page 16
This system is time consuming and expensive to set up but once erected, has a long life span.
There i s little or no room for growing insectary plants in the hop rows, but there may be in the
centre of the access track where they are not driven over.
If a wire system is used but tractor access is not required, the rows could be closer, as close as
1.6 m apart. and the hop raised beds could be wider, ego 1 m, with a narrower track, in this case
0.6 m wide, between. This would give more scope for integrating insectary plants.
Tall vari eti es can also be grown on low wirework but not so successfull y, as their vigour leads to
excessive bushy grown on the upper part of the bine.
2. Pyramid canes/poles
This is a system for small scale production
of hops without requiring machine
access. Bines are trained up pyramids
of bamboo canes or hazel poles in
much the same way as runner beans.
The canes/poles should be between 2
and 2.4 m long (6-8 ft) and are simply
pushed into the ground in spring.
Each pyramid of 4 canes/poles is tied
tightly with twine or wire at a convenient
height (1.5 to 1.8 m, 5-6 It) so that the
tops of the canes/poles are higher than
the ties.
For each bed, the two rows of hop plants
are spaced about 1 m apart, with plants
80 cm apart in the row. Each hop plant
has two canes/poles placed near which
are tied in adjacent pyramids. Two blnes
are trained up each of these canes/poles
in spring.

1.4 m bed
The hop beds themselves are about 1.4 m 1 m path
wide, and pathways of 1 m allow sufficient
light in to the hops and give the same blne density as the wire system above. The hop beds
can be partially utilised for insectary plants and/or nitrogen fixing plants.
In the autumn, dead bines are cut at ground level and the pyramids dissembled. The bines are
easily removed for composting. Canes/poles can be stored in the dry for use the next season,
how'ever using poles runs a greater iisk of insect pests overwintering in cracks etc. It would be
wise to spray canes or poles with a disinfectant before re-use the following spring.
3. Wheel/wigwam planting
Here there is a l arge central pole, with hop plants pl aced in a
circle around it and strings tied from each plant to the top of
the pole. Some gardeners use similar systems for climbing
beans.
The central pole should be sturdy, at least 7.5 cm (3") across,
and 2.5 Ii> 3 m long (8-10 tt ). with 60 em (2 tt) buried in the
ground. A circle of hop plants is placed around the pole at a
specific radius to make sure the angle of the strings is at least
70. With an above-ground pole 2.4 m (8 ft) high, the radius is
87 cm and when 2 m the radius is 73 cm. The two radii give
the number of plants needed for a complete circle as 12 and
10 respectively when planted at 45 cm spacing.
Strings are tied to the top of the pole and can be pegged down
with tent pegs of home made wire pegs near each hop plant.
Two bines are trained from each plant up each string.
Yields are likely to be lower with this system, as the inner edge of the hops becomes very
shaded; also the plants at the northern side of the wigwam will receive much less sun.
However, it is an economical way of training several plants using just one pole.
4. Training up shrubs/trees
The low maintenance version of training hops
is to let them climb by themselves up the
southern edge of a tree or shrub. This may
be suitable for growing hops in a forest
garden.
Plant the hop plant below the southern
canopy edge (drip line) of the tree or shrub.
Tall hop varieties need a tree at least 6 m (20
ft) high and will probably require a pole or
cane to help them climb into the canopy.
Dwarf hops are better trained into shrubs at
l east 2.4 m (8 tt) high and may require a short
pole/cane.
Once the hops have grown into the canopy, they can be left to grow as they wish (this is how
hops grow in the wild after all). The forced low density of planting means that problems of
mildew diseases are much reduced.
The problems with this method come at harvesting and after. With a dwarf hop, harvesting
cones is relatively easy, though some will be hidden behind leaves in the shrub canopy. With a
tall hop variety, harvesting is very difficult - the bines cannot be pulled down, they will be too
intertwined with the tree branches; the only option is to get up high on a ladder and pick there.
In late autumn the problem is removing the old bines - it is near impossible to get them out of
the shrub/tree canopy as they are too intertwined and just pulling them risks damaging the host
shrub/tree. The only practical thing to do is cut out the bines between ground level and where
they enter the canopy, and leave the rest.
5. Chinese training
In China, a totally different method of supporting hops is used. A wirework structure is erected,
with wires only 2 m high, but strung every 30 em apart making, in effect, a horizontal trellis.
The plants are grown in rows 3 m apart with 1 m spacing in the row. Two bines are trained from
each plant up a vertical wire, and on reaching the top they are trained horizontally in opposite
directions so that a complete canopy is created. All side shoots are stripped from the vertical
growth, so that the cones are formed entirely on the horizontal area, mostly on the upper
surface.
,
,
,
,
,
,
"
,
"
"
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
\
,
,
,
,
Chinese trellis system for vigorous cultlvars
Planting, training and feeding
As with commercial cultivation, it may be worth planting young plants within a piece of open-
ended polythene tubing, which allows the roots to descend but controls the spread of horizontal
runners. A polythene bag with the end cut off, of width 15-20 cm, should suffice. Make sure
that the top edge of the bag is about level with the soli surface.
Commercial hop growers keep the ground bare with herbicides but for the small scale and
organic growers this is not desirable. The hop plants themselves should be mulched in late
spring each year to keep competition near them to a minimum (don't mulch earlier as it delays
soli warming and increases the risk of Verticillium wilt). Ina wire system like (1) above, the
whole hop bed can be mulched, but with a larger hop bed as in (2) above, individual plants can
be m u l c ~ e d and the rest of the bed planted with nitrogen fixing plants (eg. white clover) andlor
insectary plants (see under 'pests' below f or more details) to keep the ground covered. Paths
between can be planted too, though it may make access problems; they could be, for example,
white clover which is mown and the mowings placed on the hop bed.
Train bines up the supports when they are 30-50 cm long. For dwarf varieties, select the first
bines to appear - do not remove any as is common wi th tall varieties. Training should only take
a few seconds per support. Once training is completed, remove the surplus bines by hand,
cutting out at ground level every few weeks until late Mayor after, to avoid problems with
mildew diseases. Also check for bines which have blown off their supports and need re-
training.
Removing the lower leaves & laterals, except on young plants, is a good idea because mildew
diseases in particular usually start near to ground level, where airflow is poor and disease
spores may reside, and work upwards through hop plants. Start when bines are about 2 m high,
then once a month remove leaves and laterals by hand stripping up to a height of about 1.5 m
(0.7-1 m for dwarf cultivars). In Australia and New Zealand, sheep are often put into hop
gardens to graze and defoliate the bottoms of the bines and this is another interesting option.
In terms of f eeding, hop plants are similar in their needs to a heavil y fruiting fruit tree in terms of
nutrients per m
2
required. Exact requirements depend on the soil and other conditions but
generall y each hop plant should be fed with 1-2 kg of compost plus cut comfrey mulches (from
1-2 plants cut) and/or wood ash (100 g) to supply extra potash. If phosphate levels in the soil
are very low then an extra source may be required too. Old bines should be cut down in
autumn, removed and composted; this can then be returned as a surface dressing to maintain
organic matter levels. Irrigation should not be required in England, but in drier regions it is
sometimes used.
Hand harvesting
With vigorous full size cultivars, most hop cones are produced out of reach from the ground, so
the bines have to be lowered so the cones can be picked. If the hops are grown up poles, the
poles themselves must be lowered; if grown up wires or strings, these can be lowered, than the
picking is done on the ground. It is labour intensive on a large scale, which lead to its phasing
out in commercial hop gardens except in China.
With dwarf cultivars, though, the crop is within reach and easy to harvest; this is much better for
the small scale grower.
Commercial harvesting of hops is done by machine in one parse, however hop cones ripen over
a period of 5-10 days, thus the single parse effectively wastes unripe cones. With hand
harvesting of small crops, though, the plants can be harvested several times so no cones need
be wasted; this also makes drying much easier because the quantities are more spread out.
Cones are mature and ready to pick when two changes take place. First, immature hops have a
damp, soft feel and when squeezed tend to stay compressed. Mature cones feel more like
paper, the bracts rustle and spring back when squeezed, and feel noticeably lighter. The
,

t
t
second key test is to pick a cone and cut it lengthways down the centre. When ready to pick the
yellow powder (the lupulin sacs containing the essential oils and will be a dark
shade of yellow (as in yellow highway lines) and it witl be pungent. If it light yellow then the
hops are probably not mature. Other changes to show ripeness are the bracts and bracteoles
closing towards the axis of the cone, making it more compact; and the bracteoles (and to a
lesser exlent the bracts) changing colour to yellowish-green. Overripe cones are prone to
shattering on harvest and cones left too long will brown, begin to oxidise, and spoil. Ripe cones
should be picked within 10 days.
When they are mature, individual cones can be cut off the plant (with a knife or scissors to
avoid jarring the cone and knocking lupulin powder out) straight into a sack or other collector.
Touching hops can cause skin irritation in some people, so wear long sleeves and latex gloves
if necessary.
Research has shown that hand harvesting leads to larger yields of a-acid than machine
harvesting, by 8 - 25%, due to loss of lupulin through contact with harvesting machinery.
Another advantage of hand harvesting is that the bines are left in situ to take advantage of a
further 4-6 weeks of photosynthesis, allowing more energy to be transferred to the rootstock
and leading to higher yields of hop cones.
Yields vary between cultivars with older types generally yielding less. A good harvest will yield
about 1500-2500 kg of dry hop cones per ha (hop yields are usually measured, bizarrely, in
Zentners , with 1 Zentner = 50 kg, so a good yield is 30-50 Zentners.) This works out at 0.5-1.5
kg per plant depending on variety and spacing. The yield varies very little with respect to
training method, density of planting or how many bines are trained up each support. The
biggest factor with respect to yield variation is loss of crop through pests or diseases.
Drying the cones
Hop cones at harvest have a moisture content of nearly 80% and this needs to be reduced
quickly to no more than 10% otherwise the hops will not keep in good condition in storage. Not
only can they go mouldy, but the a-acid levels fall significantly if the final moisture content is
over 11%.
Years ago in some Central and Eastern European countries, hops were dried with cold air in
lofts and other such spaces, but in Western Europe the air temperatures are lower and the air is
more humid, so heat is required. The familiar Oast houses in Kent were built to dry hops using
a coal fire beneath a loft where the hop cones were placed in a layer, and originally the hot air
from the fire passed directly through the hops, potentially contaminating them. Nowadays most
commercial growers dry the hops in specially designed oil-fired kilns, using a heat exchanger to
avoid any oil fumes coming into contact with the hops. Dried hops are packed in dense bales in
England by the grower or loosely in sacks in Europe to send to a merchant who will process
them further.
The temperature at which hop cones are dried is important; the higher the temperature, the
greater the loss of a-acid. Commercial kilns use a multi-stage drying schedule, with different
temperatures at different time. On a smaller scale, though, it is most economical to try and dry
hops at temperatures between 40 and 50" C; the drying time at 50" C is roughly half of that at
40" C. As with all efficient drying, as well as warmth a steady air flow is usually required, which
is limited by the fact that the hop cones blow about if air flow is too high.
Since harvesting takes place in September, when weather conditions are often still fine, an
obvious place to dry cones would be in a glasshouse or poly tunnel. Because cones should be
dried out of sunlight (which causes degradation of essential oils) a poly tunnel or glasshouse
should be temporarily covered, ego with a black plastic, or have a permanent dark cover as for a
mushroom tunnel. Such a dark cover will substantially increase temperatures inside. The soil
inside should also be covered to reduce the humidity. An attic may be a good alternati ve for
small quantities. Without any extra heating such a site can easily get to 40-50
o
e on a sunny
day, and in such conditions a thin layer of hops will dry in a few hours. On cloudy or rainy days
an extra source of heat and/or a fan to provide airflow may be needed.
Hops should be laid in a thin layer (only a 2-3 cones deep at most) in such a drier because air is
not being blown through the layer itself (whereas in commercial driers, layers can be up to 1 m
deep). A thin layer of hop cones should dry at sooe within 9-10 hours, and double that at 40
o
e.
Test that the cones have reach a maximum of 10% moisture by weighing a sample throughout
the process: it should be dry enough when it has reached 28% or under of the starting weight.
When the cones are dry enough they should be conditioned, by allowing them to stand for
several days in a cool room: this allows the moisture levels to equalise, because the bracts
('petals') are usually much drier than the strigs (central stems within the cones), and also allows
the aroma and appearance to improve.
It would not be difficult to build a heated drier, which could even be placed inside a poly tunnel
or greenhouse to save energy. Such a drier, probably using gas as a fuel, could be
thermostatically controlled to heat air to the correct temperature and use a fan to force warm air
through one or more layers of hop cones.
Storage
Dried hops should be stored at as Iowa temperature as possible, even in a freezer for small
amounts. Before storing, seal them in airtight packages, removing as much air as possible.
Small vacuum-sealing units may be viable for the small scale specialist grower.
Pests
Because commercial growers have mostly used ,.lowerful insecticides for decades, not only
have pests been controlled but most predators have vanished from hop gardens, so when
spraying stops or is delayed, various pests become problematical, many of which would be
normally controlled by natural predators in a non-spray system of cultivation. The main pest of
note is the damson-hop aphid (see below). Spider mite, a problem for some commercial
growers, will normally be controlled by predator anthrocorid bugs. Slug damage to young
shoots can be significant in wet springs; control by using biological control (nematode) or by
using Ferramol (a new type of slug pellet which is approved for organic use in most of Europe
and available to growers in the UK).
Damson-hop aphid (Phorodon humuli)
This aphid is capable of completely destroying the crop. Aphids feed on the leaves, causing
defoliation and weakening the plants; after cone formation, they can feed within the cone and
cause serious damage to the crop, for the honeydew they produce is a medium for sooty mould,
which colours the cones at harvest. Aphids can also be a vector for virus diseases, especially
where plants are near to commercial or other large numbers of hop plants.
The aphid overwinters on various Prunus, principally sloe (P.spinosa) but also damsons and
plums, by laying eggs in the bud axils in autumn. These hatch in spring and the young feed on
Prunus leaves and reproduce asexually; after one or two generations they produce winged
females which can then migrate to hop when the temperature is over 13e , starting late May
and early June in England and continuing until late July or early August.
Most aphids which reach the hop plants start to feed on the y
the top of the bine. Damage is usually worse on dense grow
one bine per support. In September and October migration
oung rapidly expanding leaves at
th and where there are more than
back to the Prunus winter host
takes place.
lied on a battery of insecticides to For many decades nearly all commercial hop growers have re
control aphids, many of which leave residues in the hop cone
biological control methods and for the smaller scale and org
s. There is now some interest in
anic growers these methods can
effectively control the aphids.
hrocorid bugs, earwigs, hoverflies The main predators of damson-hop aphids are ladybirds, ant
(syrphid flies), lacewings and damsel bugs. With all these
response to aphids, hence there is often a period of pot
predators get the upper hand. Sprays of soft soap, for e
necessary to keep the aphid population on the hops low enoug
, numbers tend to build up as a
ential aphid damage before the
xample, can be used in June if
h for predators to rapidly control.
01 agents, for example lacewings, Some of these predators can be bought in as biological contr
which give excellent control, and trials with lacewings have b
be attracted with suitable flowering plants (se below), which w
hops should there be a lull in the number of aphids for them t
including strips of flowering plants to attract predators interpl
or between individual hops within the row. Try to use mostly
plants will slow air flow around the hops and increase the chan
een successful. Predators should
ill keep them in the vicinity of the
a eat. There is good potential for
anted between rows of hop plants
low plants, as lots of tall flowering
ces of mildew diseases.
In general, most species in the Asteraceae and Umbellifera
predatory insects. Some specific good attractant plants are lis
e families are
ted below.
good at attracting
Predator
Lad birds
Anthrocorid bu s
Hoverflies
Lacewings
Damsel bu s
Diseases
Attractant plants
Nettles, alfalfa, comfre ,coriander.
Diverse nectar and allen bearin flowers.
Chickweed, chico ,tans , nectar and all
Yarrow, bugle, cow parsley, borage, m
comfre , red clover, nettles. Nectar and
Bora e, alfalfa, nectar-bearin flowers.
en bearing flowers.
usk mallow, evening primrose,
011 en all season.
The main hop diseases are the mifdews, which can potentially
of the hop breeding programmes in the last few decades
resistant varieties. Choosing resistant varieties to begin w
grower. Most commercial growers spray extensively.
cause severe loss of crop. Many
have concentrated on producing
ith should be a priority for any
Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora humu Ii)
This fungal disease appeared in Europe in the 1920's and spr
the world. Some resistant cultivars have been developed.
ead to most hop growing areas of
e of the shoots the plants produce The first appearance of the disease is in the spring when sam
develop 'basal spikes' with a characteristic stunted form an
silvery upper surface. The lower leaf surfaces turn black as
formed. The spike will not grow further and if not removed w
are the primary source of infection each year, spreading the s
lateral or terminal buds on bines, in each case causing anothe
d pale down curled leaves with a
dense masses of sporangia are
ill soon die; however, the spikes
porangia to other new shoots or to
r spike to form and growth to
Page 23
,
cease. Leaves can also become infected and they will form black angular spots on their
underside as sporangia form there too. The cones can become infected and turn brown.
The fungus overwinters as mycelium within the rootstock.
Diseased rootstocks will still produce sufficient healthy
bines, as long as any basal spikes are controlled, though
their vigour may be reduced a little. The sporangia require
wet conditions to start growing and infections are worst
after l,flng periods of rain or leaf wetness.
The best control is daily inspections in the spring for any
basal spikes, and their swift removal by pulling or cutting
at ground level. Make sure that tools and gloves (use
plastic ones) are disinfected after removing a spike.
Spores of the disease are released on a daily basis from
leaves on the spike starting at around 09.00 hours, hence
an early morning inspection before this time is best.
Stripping of the lower leaves should be carried out as
described above. Thus the leaves that would be closest
to any basal spikes and most prone to infection are
removed, and air flow is increased, reducing the time that
the foliage is wet.
Healthy
shoot
basal
Hop infected with downy mildew
Bordeaux mixture can be used as a fungicide, though it causes slight damage to young leaves.
Sadly diseased plants can be grubbed up and replaced with new clean stock.
Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca humuli)
This fungal disease is the oldest of the fungal diseases of hops and is commonly called 'mould'
in England. It can be a serious problem in England and Belgium but is less so further east in
Europe. In the USA it was a serious problem on the East coast and was one of the reasons the
American hop industry moved to the west coast, where it is not a significant problem. Recently,
several resistant cultivars have been developed.
The first sign of infection on young leaves is the appearance of raised humps or blisters, on
which the white sporulating mycelium the appears. If the cones are infected their development
is almost completely inhibited, hence late infections are not so serious. Infected cones can
darken and spoil the crop with an unpleasant mushroom-like aroma.
Spores overwinter on old plant material and in the soil and initial infection occurs in spring,
especially during wet weather. Secondary infections are not so dependent on wet conditions as
in downy mildew.
Good hygiene is the best line of defence. Try and collect and burn dead leaf and cone material
from beneath the plants in late autumn, or if growing using removable supports (eg. canes),
take these out and mow over the dead material.
As for downy mildew, stripping the lower leaves off bines removes some of the primary sources
and those leaves most liable to secondary infection.
Sulphur is a good control and is usually acceptable to organic growers, used in mid May and
later if necessary.
Page 24
Verticillium wilt (Vertici/lium albo-atrum)
This fungal disease has been a serious problem at times in the main hop growing areas. It can
cause the death of plants. The fungus is soil-borne and spread via cultivation, hence it was
much worse when hop gardens were traditi onally cultivated.
Dead diseased leaves or bines are all potential sources of infection, so good hygiene, as for the
mildew diseases, is the best control. The disease is favoured by high nitrogen levels, hence
keeping nitrogen input moderate is important. There is some evidence that seaweed solution
can suppress the disease.
Some varieties are more resistant than others.
Virus diseases
Hops can be infected with several virus diseases and the long history of hop cultivation in
specific areas meant that many old traditional vari eties were often infected, and growers spread
the infection by propagating their own infected plants. These days, commercial growers use
certified virus-free plants, and other propagators of hops plants use these as mother plants to
propagate from, hence new plants are not infected.
Once a hop plant in the ground is infected with a virus there is no cure; if yields fall to low levels
then grubbing up the plant and replacing it is the only option. Viruses are spread by aerial-
borne aphids or soil -borne nematodes over distances of up to 100 m or so; if there are no other
hops within this distance, then viruses are unlikely to arri ve.
Viruses which can infect hops include:
Hop mosaic virus, causing
and strongly down-curled.
aphids.
pale vein-banding of leaves, which then become mottled
Plants become stunted and unproductive. Spread by
Arabis mosaic virus, causing Netuehead disease (where bines climb poorly, are
stunted, with small leaves, margins upturned; crops are reduced by up to 75%), Split
leaf blotch (where yellow oily blotches develop on some leaves, causing up to 50%
l oss of crop), and Bare bine or spidery hop (where plants are weak and spindl y, with
few shoots and small retarded leaves, crops reduced by up to 75%). Spread by the
dagger nematode.
Prunus necrotic ringspot virus, usually symptomless but causing a 10-20% loss of
yield. First detected in the 1960's, when most commercial varieties in England were
found to be infected.
Propagation
Hops are nearly always propagated vegetatively because named cultivars are nearly always
much better croppers than seedlings. Several methods are possible:
Bines can be earthed up in late summer, inducing the covered bases to thicken and
develop perennial buds. These bine bases can then be cut off to provide 'strap cuts'
which can be planted out in their final position (usually with 2 or 3 in each position), or
they can be grown on for a further year to produce 'bedded sets'.
Division: underground runners can be removed from the stock during the winter and
early spring and planted out in their final positions.
Page 25
Bines can be lowered in summer, laid on the ground and covered with soil, while the
tip is trained to grow upwards again. The whole of the layered portion thickens up and
in winter can be cut into single node sections to provide several 'layer cuts'.
Similar to the above, bines can be serpentine layered in and out of several pots
successively during the spring. Good rooting occurs in the pots, which are detached
in winter and planted out.
Softwood cuttings can be taken in midsummer. Best success is with mist systems.
Micropropagation is now used for some of the recent cultivars.
Sources
A+ Hops, Inghams Farm, Valley Road, Little Blakenham, Ipswich, Suffolk, IP8 4LR.
Tel: 01473 831523. www.aplus-hops.co.uk Hop plant specialist
A.R.T. Sell four traditional varieties and will have First Gold dwarf available autumn 2006.
References
Alford, D et al: Pest and Disease Control in Fruit and Hops. BCPC Publications, 1980.
Bhattacharya, S et al: Inhibi tion of Streptococcus Mutans and other oral streptococci by hop
constituents. Economic Botany 56 (1) , pp 118-125. 2003.
Blackman, J & Wilson, D: Support Systems and training methods for dwarf hops (Humulus
lupulus l.) Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology (2002) 77 (3) 310-313.
Briggs, D et al : Brewing Science and Practice. CRC Press, 2004.
Byrnes, M S: The Versatile Hop. The Herbarist, 64 (1998).
Carter, P et al: Hop. Alternative Field Crops Manual. Univ of Wis/Minn Extension.
www.hort.purdue.edu/newcropfafcm/hop.htm I
Haunold, A & Nickerson, G: Factors Affecting Hop Production, Quality and Brewer Preference.
Brewing Techniques MayfJune 1993.
Keukeleirer, D et al: Prenylflavonoids Account for Intriguing Biological Activities of Hops. Acta
Hart. 668, 175-187, 2005. .
Neve, R A: Hops. Chapman and Hall , 1991.
Ruckle, L: Hop acids as natural antibacterials in ethanol fermentation. International Sugar
Journal, Vol 107 No. 1275 (2005).
Tripp, M et al: Hop and Modified Hop Extracts Have Potent In Vitro Anti -Infl ammatory
Properties. Acta Hart. 668, 217-224, 2005.
Walton: 8eltring Hop Farm - 150 Years of History. C Swift, 2002.
Wheatley, D: Medicinal plants for insomnia. Journal of Psychopharmacology 19(4) (2005).
www.charlesfaram.co.uk Charles Faram and Co Ltd are hop merchants and their site is a
mine of information. You'll find essential oil breakdown for varieties here.
http://realbeer.com A U.S. home brew site with lots of useful information on hops and
brewing.
www.hops.co.uk The National Hop Association of England site has a good overview of hop
production and common English varieties.
Page 26
Hops: varieties
The geographic region where they are grown, and specific microclimates, affect the quality and
characteristics of hop cones. Some varieties come out very similar in different locations, while
others have markedly different alpha acid and oil contents. Most hop varieties are not well
adapted to be productive in a wide range of environments.
Key to varieties table
Varieties are li sted by country_ Recent dwarf varieties are underlined.
Alpha-acid content: given as a range, as it varies with climate and location.
Storage stability:
All hops lose alpha-acids in storage.
gd (good stability) indicates a loss of 15-20% alpha-acids after 6 months storage at 20C.
md (moderate stability)
pr (poor stability) - will not store very long
Time of ripening: e = early, em = earlymid, m= mid, ml = mid-late, I = late. In England there is
about a 2-3 week gap between early and late ripening varieties, with the earliest ripening at the
start of September and the latest about 3 weeks to the end of September.
Aroma:
vg (very good)
gd (good)
md (moderate)
pr (poor)
Yield: Approximate average yields of dry cones.
vg (very good) = 35+ zr (1750+ kg/hal
gd (good) = 30 zr (1500 kg/hal
md (moderate) = 20-25 zr (1000-1250 kg/hal
pr (poor) = 10 -15 zr (500-750 kg / hal
Downy mildew, powdery mildew, verticiliium wilt:
vs = very susceptible
s = susceptible
sr = some resistance
r = resistant
vr = very resistant
Bitter: ticked if used as a bittering hop
Aroma: ticked if used as a aroma hop
Late: ticked if used as a late or finishing hop in the wort
Dry: ticked if used as a dry hop after the wort has cooled.
~
05
_0
us ...... ~ , g .
o
;,
English
Admi ral 13.5-16.0 gd m gd
Boadicea 8.0-10.0 md
Bramling Cross
5.0 7.0 md e md
Brewers Gold
5.5 - 8.5 pr I pr
Bullion 6.0 - 9.0 pr I pr
First Gold 5.6 - 8.7 md m vg
Fuggle 4.5 - 5.5 gd em gd
Goldings (includes 4.5 - 6.0 gd ml gd
Cobbs, Eastwell. Mathon
Herald 11.0-13.0 e
Northdown (Wye N.) 7.5 -10.0 gd m gd
Northern Brewer 6.5 - 10.0 gd m md
Omega 9.0-11.5 gd I gd
Phoenix 12.0-15.0 e vg
Pilgrim
19.0-13.0
I vg
I
Igd
Pioneer 8.0-10.0 gd ml gd
Pilot 9.0-12.0 md
Page 28
"

'>
gd
md
md
vg
vg
md
md
gd
pr
gd
md
gd
gd
Igd
md
en:
r
s
s
s
s
sr
s
sr
sr
s
r
s
I r
r
"F
s
vs
s
s
s
r
s
s
s
s
vs
s
r
I r
r
vs

E
o

(i5 ;,

0
r ./ ./ ./
./ ./
r ./ ./ ./
s ./
s ./
I
r ./ ./ ./ ./
s ./ ./ ./ ./
s ./ ./ ./ ./
vr ./ ./ ./
s ./ ./ ./
s ./
s
vr ./ ./ ./
Ivr 1./
./
r ./
./ ./
Variety Characteristics & example of use
English
Admiral
Very good high alpha hop, gives a very pleasant happy character.
I
Small compact cones for easy machine harvest. Recent variety.
Boadicea
Dual purpose hop with average aroma. Very recent variety, aphid
resistant.
Bramling Cross
Aroma hop giving strong spicy I blackcurrant flavours. Use: all
styles of beer.
Brewers Gold
Gives a well-balanced bitterness, also spicy and fruity flavour. Use:
often in lagers, with a late aroma hop, ego Pete's Wicked Ale.
Mainly grown in Germany.
Bullion
Gives a strong tomcat I blackcurrant aroma (!) Use: as used for
many years in Guinness Extra Stout.
First Gold
Good dual purpose hop, gives a well-balanced bitterness and a
(Prima Donna) fruity, slightly spicy & orangey/citrus notes. Proving the best dwarf
hop to date. Use: all beers. Eg. in Adnams's bottled Broadside IPA,
YounQ's First Gold.
Fuggle
Old aroma hop gives a clean, refreshing, full-bodied flavour and a
delicate, minty, grassy, floral aroma. Use: often with Goldings, ego
in Samuel Smith's Pale Ale. Also used in Theakston's Old Peculiar
and on its own in McMullen's Gladstone and others.
Goldings (. ) Old aroma hop valued for its smooth (almost sweet), delicate,
(includes Cobbs, earthy, slightly spicy aroma. Use: Samuel Smiths's Pale Ale,
Eastwell, M a t h o ~ ) Fuller's ESB; on its own in Fuller's IPA, Hoq's Back TEA and others.
Herald Dual purpose hop with a good flavour and bittering balance, giving a
well-rounded slight grapefruit/citrus flavour. Recent variety, difficult
to grow.
Northdown (Wye N.) Excellent dual purpose hop with good aroma and alpha properties.
Use: many beers on its own or with another aroma variety. Eg.
Guinness.
Northern Brewer Good dual-purpose variety with excellent dry, clean bittering
properties & pleasant fragrant aroma. Mainly grown in Germany,
Belgium & Spain. Use: ego Theakston's Old Peculiar.
Omega
Phoenix Good bittering or dual purpose hop, producing good sized cones.
Recent variety.
Pilgrim Good bittering or dual purpose hop, like Target but with a 'happier'
aroma. Recent variety.
Pioneer Dual purpose hop giving a mild, well -balanced bitterness, a very
pleasant lemon, citrus aroma and good happy flavour. Recent
variety. Some plants die at 3-4 years old.
Pilot Dual purpose high alpha hop with average aroma. Very recent
variety.
,'""
_0

Progress
5.0 - 7.5
Target (Wye Target) .9.5 - 13.0
WGV 5.5 - 7.0
Wye Challenger 6.5 - 8.5
Yeoman 10.0-12.0
Germany
Hallertauer (Mittlefruh) 3.5 - 5.5
Hersbrucker 3.5 - 6.0
Huller Bitterer 4.5 - 7.5
Magnum 12.0-14.0
Orion 7.0-10.0
Perle 6.0 - 8.5
Spalter (Spart) 4.0 - 5.5
Taurus 12.0-15.0
Tettnanger 3.5 - 5.5
Page 30

E
o
i.f.j ..... ~ . a . d
md m md
pr I md
gd m gd
gd I gd
vg e gd
gd em gd
gd I gd
md m md
gd I md
vg m gd
gd em vd
gd e vg
'>
O ~ a...E ~ a; ~
"

gd s s r ./ ./ ./ ./
gd s r r ./ ./ ./
md s s r ./ ./ ./
gd r s s ./ ./ ./
pr sr
Ivs
r
md s s s ./ ./
gd s s sr ./ ./
md r s sr
gd r s sr
gd r s sr ./
md s s sr ./ ./ ./
md s s s ./
1./
Variety
Characteristics & example of use
Progress
Aroma hop giving similar results to Fuggle, but slightly sweeter with
a slightly softer bitterness. Use: pale ales, light bitters, wheat beers,
porters. Eg. on its own in Hop Sack's Thunderstorm & Wood
Brewery's Hopping Mad.
Target (Wye Target)
Excellent bittering hop, slightly harsh aroma with citrus notes. Use:
ego Young's Special London Ale; on its own in Caledonian's Golden
Promise.
WGV
Aroma hop similar to Geldings but not as delicate, with a happier
more robust aroma, and more alpha-acids. Use: pale ales, light
bitters, wheat beers, ego on its own in McMullen's AK Original.
Wye Challenger
Excellent dual purpose hop, gives a refreshing full-bodied rounded
bitterness. Added late gives crisp fruit characteristics. Use: often
on its own ego in Wychwood's Old Devil , Brakspear's Coniston
Bluebird.
Yeoman
Germany
Hallertauer (MitUefruh) Delicate aroma hop with pleasant, spicy, mild herbal aroma. Use:
lagers & lighter English cask conditioned ales.
Hersbrucker Delicate aroma hop with a floral, slightly fruit y flavour. Use: lagers &
lighter English cask conditioned ales. Eg. Wheathook Wheaten Ale.
Huller Bitterer
Magnum Bittering hop.
Orion
Perle Excellent aroma hop with moderately high alpha-acids. slightl y
spicy, almost minty bittering action. Use: ego Pale Bock.
Spalter (Spalt) Excellent aroma hop similar to Hallertau (Mittlefruh). Also grown in
the USA (WA). Use: lagers, ego Dusseldorf Altbiers.
Taurus High alpha bittering hop.
Tettnanger Very fine traditional aroma hop with spicy aroma. Use: European
lagers & li ghter English cask ales.
0'"
, , ~
Belgium
Record 5.5 8.5
France
Strisselspalt
3.0 5.0
Czech/Slovak Reps
Saazer (Saaz) 3.0 4.5
Slovenia
Styrian Geldings 4.5 -7.0
USA
Ahtanum 5.0 7.0
Amarillo 3.0-7.0
Aquila 5.0 - 8.0
Banner 8.0-12.0
Cascade 4.5 - 7.0
Centennial 6.0-11.5
Page 32
- ~
0.= ~
c oE
Eli
(;)- e
<1
md I md
gd m gd
gd e vd
gd em gd
gd ml gd
md m md
Ipr
mdl m md
pr
pr m md
m md

0;
=
E
o
5'
ci e a:'e :> iii <1

i5
md s s s
md s s s ./ ./
md s s s ./ ./
md sr s s ./ ./ ./ ./
md r s s ./ ./
gd ./
gd ./ ./
vg r s sr ./ ./ ./ ./
sr ./ ./
Belgium
Record
France
StrisselspaJt Aroma hop, similar to Hersbrucker. Grown in Alsace region.
Czech/Slovak Reps
Saazer (Saaz) High quality aroma variety, gives an earthy hop flavour. Use: in
European lagers, ego Czech Budweiser; also in UK beers.
Slovenia
Styrian Goldings Aroma variety which gives a perfumed pine/lemon/citrus happy
character. Use: lagers, less malty golden beers. ego Ind Coope
Burton Ale, Timothy Landlord.
USA
Ahtanum An aroma hop with moderate bittering qualities. Bears small
compact cones.
Amarillo Aroma hop giving unique very floral/spicy powerful aroma and good
bittering quality.
Aquila
Banner
Cascade Good aroma hop with a unique floral, spicy/citrus aroma and
perfumed happy flavour. Good bittering qualities. Susceptible to
aphids. Use: American style ales, ego Sierra Nevada Pale Ale.
Centennial Dual purpose hop with floral aroma qualities similar to Cascade.
Medium size dense compact cones. Use: ego Sierra Nevada
Celebration Ale, Sierra Nevada Bigfoot Ale.
"
,,0
Vi- ,c.
<1 5' o'E en :>
a;
<1 0
Che1an 14.5
Chinook 8.0-14.0 gd m md vg sr s ./ ./
Cluster 4.5 - 9.0 vg m md vg s s s ./ ./
Columbus (Tomahawk) 14.0-17.0 vg r sr ./ ./
Crystal
2.0 - 6.0 ml gd sr ./ ./
Eroica 11.0-13.0 pr I md vg r s r ./ ./
Galena 11.0-15.0 m gd sr sr ./ ./
Horizon 10.0-17.0 gd m gd s ./ ./
Uberty 2.5 - 5.0 em md sr ./ ./
Miltenium 15.5
Mount Hood 4.0 - 8.0 md m gd md sr ./ ./
Nugget 12.0-14.0 gd m gd vg sr r s ./ ./
Olympic 11.5-13.5 md m md gd sr s s ./
Santiam 5.0 - 7.0 em gd r ./
Simcoe 12.0-14.0 ./
Sterling 6.0 - 8.5
Talisman 7.5 10.0 md I md md sr s ./ ./
Ultra ./
Vanguard 4.0 - 6.0 ./
Page 34
I'
Variety
Characterist i cs & exampl e of use
Chelan
Hi gh alpha recent vari ety.
Chinook
Hi gh alpha aci d hop giving unusual aroma with a strong grapefruit
character. Cones are long. Not too aphid susceptible. Use: ego
Sierra Nevada Celebration Ale, Sierra Nevada Stout.
Cluster
Excell ent dual purpose hop with medium well -balanced ,bitteri ng
potential and a deep fruity hop aroma. Cones medium sized. Use:
ego Winterhook Christmas Ale.
Columbus (Tomahawk) Good very high alpha-acid hop. Virtually sterile. Very aromatic as
late hops in cask ales.
Crystal Aroma hop wi th delicate flavour and hints of tangerine. Cones
small. Recent variety.
Eroica Clean bittering hop. Recent variety. Use: ego Ballard Bi tter,
Blackhook Porter.
Galena
Good bittering hop giving a balanced bitterness with strong tomcat I
blackcurrant aroma (!) Aphid susceptible. Recent variety. Use: ego
Catamount Porter, Devil's Mountain Railroad Ale.
Horizon Dual use hop, aromatic with good bitteri ng. Cones small, compact.
Recent variety.
Liberty Aroma hop simi lar to Hallertauer, giving mild, clean aroma and a hint
of lemon/citrus flavour. Susceptible to aphids. Use: finishing for
German style laQers, eQ. Pete' s Wicked LaQer.
Mitlenium High alpha recent variety.
Mount Hood Aroma hop similar to Hall ertauer, gi vi ng a pleasant mild, herbal,
floral aroma. Not so susceptible to aphids. Use: finishing for
German style lagers, ego Anderson Vall ey High Rollers Wheat Beer.
Nugget High alpha acid hop with a good heavy. spicy, herbal aroma. Has a
heavy cone structure. Use: ego Sierra Nevada Porter & Bigfoot Ale.
Olympic Produces excessive male flowers and susceptible to pests. Recent
variety.
Santiam Aroma hop giving a delicate aroma. Recent variety.
Simcoe
Sterling
Talisman Dual purpose hop. Recent variety.
Ultra Fine aroma hop, similar to Hall ertauer (Mittelfruh). Very recent
variety. Use: finishing for German style lagers.
Vanguard Aroma hop bred from Hallertauer.
0$
_0
Iii- ,0 .-
Warrier 14.5-16.5
WiJlamette 3.0 - 7.0 gd em
Australia
Opal 13.0
Pride of Ringwood 9.0-1 1.0 pr ml
Super Pride 13.9
Topaz 11.5
Victoria 11.0-14.0
New Zealand
Green Bullet 12.5-13.5 I
NZ Halietauer Aroma 6.0 B.O e
Pacific Gem 14.0-16.0 em
Pacific Hallertauer 3.0 - 6.0 e
Southern Cross
Sticklebract 13.5-14.5 m
Super Alpha 12.5-13.5 em
Page 36
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Waffler High alpha recent variety.
Willamette Good aroma hop giving a estery I blackcurrant I herbal aroma,
somewhat similar to Fuggle. Not so susceptible to aphids. Use:
Sierra Nevada Porter. Ballard Bitter.
Australia
Opal High alpha hop_
Pride of Ringwood Clean bittering hop with citric aroma. Use: ego Foster's Lager,
Victoria Bitter.
Super Pride High alpha hop, sterile.
Topaz
Victoria High alpha hop.
New Zealand
Green Bullet Excellent dual purpose hop giving a pine/lemon crispness and
excellent aroma. Use: lagers & pilsners.
NZ Hall etauer Aroma Very good aroma hop giving a floral , vanilla flavour. Use: lagers &
lighter coloured beers , ego Coors, Coors Light.
Pacific Gem High alpha hop with a pleasant aroma, gives very fruit flavour with
distinct berry fruit aroma.
Pacific Hallertauer Excellent aroma hop. Use: lagers.
Southern Cross Strong bittering hop with fine aroma qualities.
Sticklebract Similar to Northern Brewer, a strong bittering hop with aroma uses
too.
Super Alpha Dual purpose hop. Use: ego Stein lager, Hahn Premium.
Book Reviews
Silvopastoralism and Sustainable Land Management
M R, Mosquera-Losada, J McAdam & A Riguerio-Rodriguez
CABI Publishing, 2005; 432 pp; 75.00 (US$ 140.00).
ISBN 1 84593 001 0
This book contains over 125 papers presented at an international conference
held in Spain in April 2004, examining the productivity and quality of
silvopastoral systems (ie gl'8zing systems incorporating trees) . and outlining
successful ways of managing forestry and agronomic areas. It also examines
the ecological benefits of silvopastoral systems and their cultural , economic
and social implications. Silvopasture, as a form of agroforestry, is an ancient
yet sustainable way of managing forest land, which increases productivity in
the short, medium and long terms compared with forest, and have a higher biodiversity than
farmland.
Many of the papers deal with European and North American systems. There are overviews of
silvopastoral systems in Northwest Europe, Southeast USA and the Mediterranean regi on, and
more specific examples such as forest grazing in Hungary and Ukraine, tradit ional silvoarable
systems in Greece, dehesa systems in Spain, goat silvopasture in Portugal, French upland
silvopasture. Other papers deal with qualitative issues such as the nutritive value of trees and
shrubs for ruminants, and the effects of tree density and pruning regimes on herbaceous
components.
Ecological implications of silvopastoral systems are discussed in papers covering topics like
carbon storage, soi l ecology and quality, indigenous breeds, stocking rates. In the economic
section is good to see a paper dealing with cultural aspects of silvopastoral systems, as these
are an important factor often overl ooked. A fascinating paper on non-wood products from
Russian forests is also found here. Finally,. the future outlook for silvopasture i s covered.
Silvopasture is an often overlooked agroforestry system, of which there are many living and
ancient examples. This book emphasises the use and value of both ancient and modern
systems and i s a welcome additi on to the li terature.
Woodland Management: A Practical Guide
Chris Storr
The Crowood Press, 2005; 192 pp; 16.99.
ISBN 1 861267894
This practical book, written in an easy-to-read style, is an excellent guide to the
management of woodland in Britain. More readable than Forestry Commission
bulletins, it begins by reviewing the history of Briti sh woodlands and how they have come to be
as they are today. After a chapter about the different forestry systems (high forest, coppice
etc), there are two useful chapters on the broadleaves and the conifers, covering both
and species. with brief notes on each specie.
Page 38
Management objectives are then discussed, followed by useful chapters on getting to know your
woodland (looking at the site, soil, etc) and issues of biodiversity. I would have liked to see
more on the issue of climate change in relation to forestry, but at least it gets a mention.
Following chapters cover woodland management , including regenerating and creating
woodland, seasonal maintenance, si l viculture and stewardship. Finally there are chapters on
generating an income from woodland, and on buying and owning a woodland.
Well illustrated with photos and line drawings, the book, aimed at the non-specialist, will be
valuable for anyone involved in woodland m.anagement or thinking about buying their own piece
of woodland.
Edible Forest Gardens
Dave Jacke with Eric Toensmeier
Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 2005.
Distributed in the UK by Green Books.
Volume one: Vision and Theory
378 pp; 50.00 (US$ 75.00)
ISBN 1-931498-79-2
Volume two: Design and Practice
656 pp; 50.00 (US$ 75.00)
ISBN 1-931498-80-6
Available from the A.R. T. post-free in the UK until July 2006.
I EDIBLE FOREST
GARDENS
When Dave Jacke and Eric Toensmeier visited our Dartington forest garden in 1997, soon after
it was started, their first comment was: The trees have been planted at the right sort of
Their experience of touring around Britain looking at forest gardens, notably Robert
Hart's, had up till then appeared sobering, if not depressing at times, as they saw overcrowded
and unproductive trees making so much shade that little could be grown beneath. It soon
became clear to me as I showed them around that these were not run-of-the-mill
permaculturalists. They already had good knowledge of the theory of forest gardening and of
different species to utilise, and they told me they were planning a book on forest gardening
which might take a year or two to complete.
Dave Jacke soon found it impossible to write a 150-page manual and do justice to the subject
as he wanted. So the book grew and grew, finally becoming two volumes and over 1000 pages
in the 7 years it has taken to complete. Dave asks in the preface, book defies easy
categorization. Is it a gardening book? An ecology text for teachers and students? A visionary
testament? A manual for hard core eco-designers and back-to-the-Ianders? A manifesto for
the next two centuries of agroforestry research and breeding work? It is all these and more. In
fact, these two volumes are to forest gardening what Bill Mollison's classic texts on
PermacuUure are to that movement.
The authors define the purpose of these volumes as -to offer you the inspiration, information
and tools you need to successfully grow your own forest garden-. The scope of the book is
humid temperate regions anywhere, although the emphasis is on eastern North America
between hardiness zones 3 and e, formerly covered by the eastern deciduous forest. The
books aim to be a manual spelling out key concepts of forest ecol ogy and how to apply them to
a North American forest garden.
Volume 1 is divided into two parts, 'Vision' and ' Ecology' . In the first the authors look at the
ecological and cultural context for forest gardening, focussing on eastern North America. They
layout a vision of forest gardening's potential for reintegrating oursel ves into the natural world,
and goals for edible forest garden design arising from that vision.
The; second part of volume 1 explores the ecology of the forest and the forest garden. The
authors build soli d theoretical foundations from which to deri ve guidelines for forest garden
design and management. Th ey discuss the elements of forest architecture, species niches and
relationships, plant communiti es and polycultures, natives and exotics (thankfully, the authors
take a less radical view than many North Americans), soils and the rhizosphere (with a detailed
l ook at plant roots). succession
Throughout the volume there are boxes and feature articles that go into greater depth on
particular topics. There are al so three case studies scattered through the text to provide
concrete examples of forest gardens - these include our forest garden at Darlington.
Volume 1 concludes with 3 appendices. The first describes forest gardening's "Top 100"
species for eastern North Ameri ca, to give a sense of forest gardening's food-production
potential. Plant hardiness maps for North Ameri ca and Europe follow this, as well as a list of
publications and organisations.
Volume 2 is essential ly a forest gardener's ~ t o o l kW, containing 7 chapters explaining how to
design, plant and manage a forest garden. These chapters place all the implications of the
ecological analysis in volume 1 into a gardening and garden-design context. The authors seek
to answer the questions: What do we need to know to design forest gardens? How do we deal
with weeds in this new gardening paradigm? How do we prevent and manage pests and
diseases? What are the key points to consider in designing an overyielding polyculture? What
site preparation problems might we face, and how might we solve them? What are the key
ideas we need t o keep in mind to manage our forest gardens well?
The chapters explai n how to mimic ecosystem structure and function, offer patterns for design,
frameworks and step-by-step guidelines for designing a forest garden, site preparation and
design challenges, planting and maintaining the garden.
Five appendices are also included in vol ume 2, which offer detailed information and resources
to help map a site, select and find over 600 plant species, and create beneficial animal habitat.
Both volumes contai n their own extensive index.
The writing style is friendly, informative and undogmatic, and the layout of the book sis
excellent. One drawback of these volumes' extensive nature is the price - 100 for the pair -
which will unfortunately put some people off. However, these volumes comprise the most
extensive texts published on forest gardening and should be on the bookshelf of every designer
and practitioner of forest gardening in temperate regions.
The authors conclude in their introduction: "We invite you to join in a lifetime of quiet
adventure. We seek t o learn .. the ways in which living things have adapted to our climate and
land. We want to mimic these habitats with productive garden ecosystems. A low-energy, high-
yield agriculture is a possible aim for the temperate humid forest biomes of the world. The goal
is t o create mutually beneficial communiti es of multipurpose plants for our own sustenance, and
thereby to include ourselves in the natural worl d. We seek to recreate the Garden of Eden and,
.. why not? It is a practical prospect for any of us in our lifetimes - if we only appl y our human
energy and intellect
N
Agroforestry News is 'published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a
20 per year in Britain and the E.U. (1'16 unwaged)
Dartington, Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
I
j
Agroforestry News
g
Rose hips
Volume 14 Number 3
May 2006
.- - ---
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 Using mixed species cropping to manage pests
and diseases
4 Sap production from Black walnut
5 Rose hips: properties and culture
10 Apples in agroforestry systems
22 Book reviews: Nutshell Guide to Growing Hazelnuts /
Hedgerow History / The Black Poplar
24 Chestnuts: post-harvest quality
27 World hazelnut culture
32 Plants for windy sites: Trees (1)
39 Oriental persimmon in Europe
Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Page 1
Using mixed species cropping to
manage pests and diseases
Introduction
Mixed species cropping is the growing of two or more plant species in the same field in the
same year and, at least in part. at the same time.
Mixed species cropping allows for an intensification of the farm system, which results in
increased overall productivity and biodiversity in cropped fields . Mixed species cropping is a
promising technique to develop sustainable farming systems because it often has
multifunctional roles and can potentially provide a number of ecoservices within the farm
system. Examples may include the addition and recycling of orgamc material, water
management , protection of soi l from erosion and pest or di sease suppression. This functional
diversity contributes to ecological processes to promote the sustainability of the whole farm
system.
Mixed species cropping systems
Mi xed intercropping systems where two or more species are grown intermingled without distinct
rows are very commonly used in the tropi cs but are not generally used in temperate organic
horticulture. Although productivity can be high they usually require more or less intensive
husbandry regimes.
Row intercropping, growing two or more crops together in rows, and strip cropping, cropping
growing two or more species in strips sufficiently wide to allow separate management regimes
but sufficiently close to influence each other, have been more widely investigated in the EU and
USA in recent years as they have greater potential for mechanisation. These latter two types of
mixed species cropping have also been used to manipulate the system to deliver other eco-
services such as nitrogen (N) supply where for instance a legume is used as an intercrop to
supply N that is used by subsequent food crops. They have also been extensively studied as a
pest management tool and, to a lesser extent, as a disease management option. Other benefits
can also include improved soil structure, improved weed control, microclimate manipulation
(e.g. growing a tall crop to provide a wind barrier), providing habitat for natural enemies and
even as a trap crop.
In general, as the cropping system moves from a random mix of plants to a monoculture the
biodiversity of the system decreases, and the total productivity also tends to decrease. Organic
growers in the UK and northern Europe have not generally adopted mixed species cropping
systems, because increased intensity of production often implies increased use of manual
labour - a significant immediate cost for organic growers. At present it is difficult to directly
offset thi s cost against the benefits provided because they have not been quantified, except in a
few limited cases.
Mixed species cropping and pest attack
Studies on the effect of intercropping on pest attacks are numerous and often contradictory due
to the difficulty of teasing out the ecol ogical factors that can affect insect-plant relations.
However, in order to develop mixed species cropping as a tool it is necessary to understand the
underlying mechanisms involved.
The two mechanisms involved appear to be:
(1) resource concentration - insects are attracted to and concentrated on their food plant
resources which are more easily found or more apparent in simple (monocul ture)
systems. Insect pests settle on plants only when various host plant factors such as
visual stimuli, taste and smelt are satisfied. This is more likely in monocultures than
polycultures where the chance of encountering a 'wrong' stimulus is much increased.
The complexity of the overall picture makes it difficult to specifically design intercrops
for pest control without practical knowledge of pest and crop biology.
(2) natural enemies - these are more effective and numerous in diverse systems.
Examples of intercropping that effectively prevents pests are the use of clover undersowing to
deter cabbage root fly and Medicago litoralis to deter carrot root fly. The use of trap crops,
usually in strip cropping systems, shows variation in effectiveness.
Mixed species cropping and disease attack
Mixed species cropping has been shown to be an effective disease management tool, especially
in cereal s. For example, mixtures of winter-rye/winter-wheat and spring-barley/oats reduce
fungal leaf diseases and a mixture of wheat and Medicago lupulina reduces the incidence of
take-all disease of wheat, a soil borne pathogen.
The underlying epidemiology has also been extensively modelled from the perspective of
varietal mixtures and can simply be explained as the reduced chance of fungal spores
encountering a susceptible plant in a mix. The effect tends to improve with increase in the
number of genotypes in the mix and the randomness of the mix.
Conclusions
Mixed species cropping is often perceived as a viable tool to increase on-farm biodiversity in
organic agriculture and is a potentially important component of any sustainable cropping
system.
Apart from increasing total farm productivity, mixed species cropping can bring many important
benefits such as improvement of soil fertility management and suppression of pests and/or
diseases. In this sense it can be seen as performing different eco-services in the farm system.
Mixed species cropping, particularl y row intercropping and strip intercropping, could be an
important tool for pest and disease management in organic farming systems. However, it is
only likely to be widely adopted by organic growers once the potential benefits and eco-services
have been fully evaluated and can be shown to outweigh the increased management and labour
input that will to be necessary for the more complex cropping system.
Reference
Ramer!, B., Lennartsson, M, and Davies,G. The use of mixed species cropping to manage
pests and diseases theory and practice. In: Powell et a1. (eds), UK Organic Research
2002: Proceedings of the COR Conference, 26-28th March 2002, Aberystwyth, pp.
207-210.
Page 3
Sap production from Black walnut
Introduction
Native Americans enriched their diet of wild game, nuts and berries with sugary products from
the sap of the native maples (Acer spp.) in the Eastern USA. As Europeans settled the land,
t h ~ y too tapped maple trees, eventually improving on the methods of collection. Nowadays,
most commercial maple syrup ' is made from the sap of the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) ,
although most other maples can also be used. The sap of black walnut (Jug/ans nigra) can be
used similarly and this article reports on some recent experiments with that species.
Black walnut tapping
Twenty black walnut trees in Kansas were tapped from the middle of February and the sap
collected for 5 weeks. The trees were approximately 23 years old and 2530 cm (1012-)
diameter at breast height.
Trees were tapped about 1 m (3 ft) above the ground on the east side. A carpenter's brace
with a No.10 bit (approx 4.9 mm diameter) was used to drill the holes, which were drilled deep
enough to fully penetrate the sapwood. Doublemale hose splicing inserts were used to insert
into the hole, and the sap collected in plastic milk jugs with lids to minimise contamination.
Sap was initially collected daily when it flowed freely, but later collection was coordinated with
cold nights and warm days. A standard brewer's hydrometer was used to estimate the sugar
content in percentage by weight. Then the sap was mixed together for refrigerated storage until
processing. When a suffici ent quantity was collected, it was boiled down to 25% of the original
volume. Later a cast iron saucepan was used to concentrate the sap further.
Results
The sap quantity varied by individual trees and days; all trees produced sap but with great
variation. Most trees produced under 2.0 litres, with the highest producer yielding 13.2 litres
and the lowest 0.43 litres. The average sugar content was 2.08% with a 1 :60 sugar:sap ratio.
Sap production was highly correlated with the thickness of the sapwood. The finished walnut
syrup was dark coffee brown in colour, sweet, without any hint of walnut flavour.
Sensory tests
The syrup was evaluated by a panel of over 100 consumers who compared it with maple syrup.
The maple syrup was preferred because it was sweeter and had a greater aftertaste. A diluted
version of the walnut syrup, diluted 50:50 with water, was indicated as more desirable for being
a paler colour and having no woody, nutty of musty/earthy flavours.
Reference
Naughton, G et al: SugarBushing Black Walnut. In: Black Walnut in a New Century, USDA
Forest Service General Technical Report NC243. 2004.
Rose hips: properties and culture
Introduction
Members of the Rosaceae family have long been used for food and medicine. Rose hips, the
fruits of rose species, are used in many European countries, being a rich source of vitamins and
minerals, and can be consumed in many food products including j ams, jellies, marmalades,
teas, powders, baked goods, ice creams, yoghurts, candies, pulps, nectars, juices, wines,
liqueurs etc.
Properties & health benefits
In general, the importance of rose hips in nutrition comes from theif vitamin content since they
contain C, P, 8
1
, B
2
, E, K and U vitamins, and are very rich in calcium, phosphorus and
potassium.
More specifically, they have the highest vitamin C content (417-3062 mgf100g) amount fruits
and vegetables, with light-coloured mature fruit having a higher content than dark-coloured hips.
Rose hip pulp is used for vitamin C enrichment of some fruit and vegetable juices. Vitamin C is
important is collagen synthesis, boosts the immune system, against common cold and flu,
strengthens arteries along with polyphenols, potentially lowers the risk of cancer due to
antioxidant properties, helps dietary iron to function in the body, works in adrenaline synthesis
and lowers blood cholesterol.
Minerals also play an important role in human metabolism and health. Calcium is necessary for
healthy bones and teeth and potassium is needed to maintain the acid-base balance of body
fluids and in metabolism. Rose hip pulp contains 940-1380 ppm calcium, 3370-9340 ppm
phosphorus, 7950 ppm potassium and 560- 1240 ppm magnesium.
Rose hips contain high levels of
nine carotenoids including beta-
carotene, which is red in colour
but is known to produce yell ow
colours in various foods; since it
does not change the flavour or
taste of the food , it has the
potential for being used as a
natural food colourant. Beta-
carotene also have provitamin A
activity and can be used for
vitamin A enrichment of foods.
Because carotenoids have high
antioxidant activity, they are
capable of protecting components
in food including fruits from
oxidation. They exert this
antioxidant activity by stopping
free radical chain r.eactions and by
quenching singlet oxygen.
Relatively high levels of the
carotenoid Iycopene have been reported
in rose hips which could contribute to the
prevention of cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
Rosa canlna
Page 5
The flavonoids in rose hips act as antioxidants on free radicals and prevent lipid peroxidation
(which is implicated in arteriosclerosis, cancer and chronic inflammations). Bioflavonoids
having vitamin P properties have been found in rose hips at levels of 1100-3320 mgf100g fruit.
A recent survey of a variety of dietary plants found that rose hips showed the highest total
antioxidant properties.
Rose hips are a rich source of phenolic compounds, with some varieties having as much as
3200-4900 mgf1 O g total phenolics. Rose hips improve the flavour of wine significantly and
cotltribute with a high level of phenolic compounds.
,
Rose hips are also a good source of pectin. Pectin is an important hydrocolloid in the food
industry and is used to improve consistency since it acts as a thickening agent. Its
haemostatic, antiseptic and cell renewal properties allows for its usage in treatments of cuts
and burns, and it can be safely given to patients with ulcers due to its anli-inflammatory
properties, ability to l ower blood cholesterol, and binding capabi lities in metal poisoning.
Malic, citric and acetic acids impart the characteristic flavour of rose hips, which are also a good
source of easily digestible carbohydrates (7.55-21.29% reducing sugars, 1.08-2.-1% saccharose
and 8.68-22.44% total sugars ).
Rose hips are not a rich source of protein but the pollen of Rosa laxa has been found to contain
a total of 18 amino acids, of which 15 are free and at least 8 are essential amino acids.
Glutamic acid makes up 13-14.6% of the total amino acids, and is known to play an important
role in cerebral tissues during biochemical metabolism, and is involved in the synthesis of
physiologically active substances and acid detoxification.
Seed oils have been proven to be more stable when they conlain natural vitamin A and C,
carotenoids and flavonoids. Seed oil extracted from roses has been found to contain
unsaturated fatty acids, and can be used efficiently against contact dermatitis and in food
products. Rose seed oil contains approximately 50% linoleic, 20% arachodonic and 19% oleic
acids, and thus has a h ~ h e r oxidative stability than other unsaturated oils. This oil could
conceivably be used as a gourmet oil, adding a special flavour to food products.
Two recent clinical studies on rose hips have been reported. In the first , a probiotic drink
containing Lactobacillus planfarum fermented oats and rose hips was fed to volunteers. An
increase in the amount of short-chain fatty acids was observed - these fatty acids lower the
colonic pH and control proliferation of pathogens and colon cancer. The second study involved
patients diagnosed with osteoarthritis. When these patients were fed a standardised rose hip
powder (prepared from the hips and seeds of Rosa canina fruits), inhibition of leukocyte
functions that cause cell injury in osteoarthritis was observed along with a reduction of the pain
level in 64% of patients.
Rose hips are beneficial to the digestive system, causing no irritation; lower cholesterol ; have
an astringency that is considered to strengthen the stomach, are useful for treating diarrhoea
and dysentery, and have pectoral quali ties that make them efficient against coughs and spitting
of blood.
Cultivation
Rose bushes require relatively low levels of maintenance and grow in most regions.
In many areas of the worl d, rose hips are still harvested by hand for commercial trade, for
example in Chile, where about 6800 tons of dried rose hips are exported annually, mainly to
Germany and other European countries. The species harvested in Chile are mainl y Rosa
canina, R.moschata and R.rubiginosa, with most fruits harvested from wild plants, using home
Page 6
made harvesting tools called (literally scratcher). An adult can harvest up to 100 kg
per day. Trucks collect the fruits and take them to processing factories, where the hips are
dried, and then the fruit flesh is separated from the seeds. The seeds are used as energy for
the drying and for the extraction of seed oil.
Recent field trials in Chile have used dog rose (Rosa rubiginosa). The highest yields, both for
irrigated and non-irrigated fields, was obtained with plants set out at 3 m x 0.75 m (10 ft x 2Y2
tt) , ie 4444 plants per ha. For this species , expected yields are: 2
nd
year - 0.1-0.2 kg
fruits/plant ; 3'd year -1-1.5 kg fruits/plant; 4th year - 3 kg fruits/plant.
Work was carried out in Sweden in the 1990's to develop techniques for commercial scale
production, with some 130 ha (325 acres) of plantations established, mainly using selections of
Rosa dumalis and R.rubiginosa.
Swedish research recommends the rose plants being planted 0.7 m apart in the row, with
rows 3-4 m (10-13 tt) apart for mechanical harvesting. The close plants in rows results in them
supporting each other. Early ripening cultivars (in August) are less damaged, since the plants
can grow and recover after harvesting, whereas later ripening cultivars suffer from winter
damage in Sweden. Young plants are vulnerable to browse damage from rabbits and deer, so
plantings must be protected for the first few years. Good weed control , however, is obtained by
grazing cows without damage to plants when they are 2-3 years old.
High labour costs and relatively low prices for the unprocessed rose hips makes it necessary to
use mechanical harvesting for commercial rose hip production in Sweden. Mechanical
harvesters use the ushake and method similar to that used for other small fruits.
Plants start to fruit in the second year after planting. The first mechanical harvest is make 3-4
years after planting. Highest yields are from plants 4-6 years old.
Every second year, the sides and top of the bushes should be pruned with a tractor-mounted
hedge trimmed (or on a smaller scale with a petrol powered hand operated hedge trimmer) to
ensure a suitable plant shape. Plants that have become too large or too old to yield properly
can be rejuvenated by cutting back to 5-10 em (2-4") above the ground. Rose hip plantations
can thus have a good longevity.
With mechanical harvest, the power needed to separate the rose hips from the branches in
much higher than that needed for ego blaekcurrants. Unharvested rose hips can remain on the
branches in the following season and can seriously decrease the quality of the new harvest
Pests and diseases
In Sweden, the most severe pes I is the rose fruit fly (Rhagoletis alternata) , which is a common
tephritid fl y in central Europe, and it damages th e fruits of wild and cultivated Rosa species.
The rose fruit fly can cause serious damage in plantations. Adults emerge from June to August,
femal es then lay an egg under the skin of a nearly ripe rose hip. The egg hatches into a larva
which eats within the rose hip.
In commercial fields, Ihe apple blossom weevil (Anthonomus rubi) may cause damage to
flowers. The larvae nip the flowers which can reduce fruit yields.
Wild and ornamental roses are affected by the same fungal diseases, one of the most serious
being black spot caused by Diplocarpon rosae and characterised by black spots on the leaves.
Infected leaves produce large quantities of ethylene and the plants defoliate. Powdery mildew
(Sphaerotheca pannosa) can reduce flower production and cause a weakening of plants; it can
al so attack the fruits. Leaf spot (Sphaceloma rosarum) causes a serious spotting of leaves,
and attacks the leaves, stems and fruits, but is not usually very serious.
Species
The principal selection criteria for efficient harvesting and processing of fruits are usually
considered to be (1) fresh fruit weight - ie the larger the better; and (2) the percentage of dry
peel or the ratio of peel to seed mass. Although there is plentiful information on the former,
there is rather little on the laUer. All rose hips can be utilised, though of course there are bound
to ,be flavour and vitamin/mineral compositions variations. The following table lists a selection
of1Species, including most with the very largest fruits .
(zn = hardiness zone)
I
Specie _
I
Origin
I
Common name
IMax hI (m>l zn I
Fruit
R.acicularis N.Temp regions Prickly rose
11
2 15 mm long
!Rarkansana lu.s.A. ILow prairie rose
11
14-5115 mm
Rarvensis Europe Field rose 2 6 6-20 mm long
1
Rbanksiae China Banks' rose, Banksia rose 5+ 7 6mm
Rblanda E.N.America Meadow rose, Labrador rose 2 2 10mm
R.bracteata China,Taiwan Macartney rose 3+ 7 35 mm diameter
R.britzensis Kurdistan 3 6 to 30 mm long
IR.callformca ICalJfomla
Rcanina Europe Dog rose, Doghip
Rcarolina E.N.America Carolina rose, Pasture rose
IR.caudata Iw.China
120-25 mm long
!Rcentifolia
IChina
ICabbage rose, Holland rose 112mm
IR chinensis
IR.coriifolia IEurope-Asia
I
11.5
15
I
IChina
IChina rose
R.corymbifera Europe-Asia 3 6 12-20 mm
Rcymosa China 8
R.damascena Asia minor Damask rose 2 4-5 25 mm long
[R.dumahs IEurope-Asla
1 12
IR.eglanteria IEurope,Asia Isweet briar, Eglantine 12 16 110-20 mm
IRfoetida IS.w.Asia !Austrian briar 11 5
14 112mm
IRgalliea IC. Europe IFrench rose, Apothecary rose!1.5 15-6112 mm
IRgigantea Is.w .China !Manipur wild tea rose 110
jR.gymnocarpa IW.N.America IWood rose 13 Is IS-10 mm
R.hardii (Hybrid)
IRhemsleyana IChina I
IRhighdownensis I( Hybrid) I
IR.laevigata IChina,Taiwan ICherokee rose
Rluciae Japan,China,Korea 6mm
IRmaerophylia IHimalaya 125-30 mm long
_'--_---'.-.L
1
1
Specie Origin Common name Max hi (m) zn Fruit
i
Rmanca W.N.America
I
R.micrantha Europe,Asia 3.5 6 12-18 mm
i
R.moschata Asia minor. Musk rose 4 6-7
I
JR moyesll Iw China ]Moyes rose
1
3
15615060 mm longl
-
lR.multifiora IJapan,Korea
I
13 15
16mm
1
lR.nitida IE.N.America 1 13-4 10 mm
1
R.nutkana IW. N.America Ash leaved rose, Nootka rose 2+
14
15-20 mm
1
IRoxyodon IE. Caucasus
I
12 16
135 mm long
Rpaulii (Hybrid) 4
R.pimpinellifolia Europe,Asia Scotch rose, Burnet rose 1 4-5
R.pisocarpa W.N.America Mortar rose 2.5 6 Bmm
R.roxburghii China Burr rose, Chestnut rose 2.5 5-6 30-40 mm
-
R.rugosa N.China,Japan,Korea Ramanas rose, Rugosa rose 2.5 2 25+mm
Rsericea Nepal 2.5 6-7 8-15 mm
R.setipoda
C.China 3 6 25-75 mm
Rsherardii Europe 2 6 12-20 mm
Rspinulifolia (Hybrid) 3 6
R.sweginzowii China
5 6 to 25 mm long
Rtomentosa Europe 3 6 18-25 mm
Rviilosa C.lS.Europe Apple rose, Soft-leaved rose 2 5-6 25mm
!Rvirginiana !E.N.America !Virginia rose
11.5
13-41
R.webbiana Himalayas 2 6 15-25 mm
1
R.wichuriana Japan,Kora,China Memorial rose 5-6 15mm
Rwintoniensis (Hybrid) 2 6
R.woodsii C. & W. N.America Wood's rose 2 4 10mm
Storage of hips
Recent studies have shown that free-drying, also drying at 50C and 75C all preserve the
antioxidant activity in rose hips at a high level. Boiling the hips in water for 2-10 minutes (also
microwaving for 2 minutes ) also preserves the antioxidant activity at a high level.
Vitamin C levels in hips start to fall as soon as the hips are harvested, and they should be
processed for storage or utilisation within a few hours if possible.
References
Cinae, I & Colakoglu, S: Potential Health Benefits of Rose Hip Products. Acta Hort. 690,
pp 253-257. ISHS 2005.
Gao, X et al: Antioxidant activity of Dried and Boiled Rose Hips. Acta Hort. 690, pp 239-241,
ISHS 2005.
Joublan, J & Rios, D: Rose Culture and Industry in Chi le. Acta Hort. 690, pp 65-70, ISHS 2005.
Uggla, M & Martinsson, M: Cultivate the Wild Roses - Experiences from Rose Hip Production in
Sweden. Acta Hort. 690, pp 83-86, ISHS 2005.
Apples in agroforestry systems
Introduction
In temperate climates, apples are one of the most reliable tree crops and as such are likely to form a major
component of many agroforestry systems, whether traditional systems involving grazing livestock beneath
trees, or forest gardens where apples may be found in several of the vertical layers. This article looks at
choice of rootstock and cultivar, general cultivation, and disease resistant cultivars.
Rootstocks
The use of different rootstocks enables apples to be grown as different sized shrubs or trees depending on
the agroforestry system. Rootstock choice is largely governed by the desired final size of the tree (itself
dependent on the vigour of the curtivar). soil type, and other local factors such as microclimate.
For undergrazed systems (silvopasture) or intercropped systems (silvoarable), small trees are often
chosen since they allow good access beneath for animals or machinery. For these trees (height 6-10m,
20-32 ft), rootstocks MM111, M25, Seedling stock or similar are used. These are extremely vigorous
stocks which will tolerate and may even benefit from ground cover competition; they are the normal stocks
used for traditional orchard grazing systems.
Apples can be used in forest gardens in several different vertical layers. For the medium shrub layer
(height 1.2-2.5m, 4-8 ft), Rootstocks M27 or M9 (or similar) are used. These both need good soil, and do
not tolerate competition from ground covers - they must always have a clear mulch around them. They
normally need staking for their entire lives, although in a sheltered forest garden the stakes need not be too
sturdy. Such dwarfing rootstocks are usually quite drought-prone, though this should not be a problem in a
forest garden environment.
The larger shrub layer (height 3-6m, 10-20 ft) needs plants with stocks M26 or MM106 (or similar). These
require staking for several years to begin with, and are vigorous enough to tolerate some ground cover
competition. They are more likely to be the mainstay stocks in a forest garden.
Cultivar choice
Five main factors must be taken into account when choosing apple cultivars for an agroforestry system or
forest garden:
1. Disease resistance: the most important factor. A listing is given later in this article of recommended
cultivars. In a forest garden, cultivars with resistance to or tolerance of apple scab are most important,
as this disease is favoured by moist climates - forest gardens are likely to have moister air than the
norm.
2. Pollination: Most cultivars require cross pollination for fruiting, and even self-fertile cultivars have
fruiting improved when they are cross pollinated. Cultivars should be chosen so Ihat all have at least
one other cultivar in the same pollination group; triploids need two compatible pollinators nearby.
3. Fruit ripening time: a range of ripening times over the year is usually desirable: if storage is available,
fruit can be stored until late spring the following year. Late ripening apples are the best cultivars for
storage late into the eating season. Note that in shaded locations, fruit will ripen later than usual, so
dwarf trees may not be able to fully ripen very late ripening varieties.
4. Tip bearers: because tip bearers require minimal pruning. they may be appropriate cultivars to choose
for vigorous rootstocks, thus reducing the work needed to maintain the larger apple trees. Some
cultivars which are not tip bearers are known however to thrive and crop well with minimal or zero
pruning. Un pruned trees tend to bear as heavy a crop as pruned trees, however the fruits usually
become smaller, hence the most suitable application for tip bearers is for cider and juice production.
The common tip-bearing cultivars and those which crop well with minimal pruning are listed below.
(P) = part tip bearing; (N) = enjoys minimal pruning; synonyms of cultivar names are in italics.
Alford (= Sweet Alford) Hardy Cumberland
Barnack Beauty Herring's Pippin (N)
Barnack Orange Irish Peach
Beauty of Bath Kerry Pippin
Bess Pool (= Norman's Pippin) Kidd's Orange Red (N)
Bismarck Lady Sudeley (P)
Blenheim Orange (P) Laxton's Early Crimson (P)
Bramley's Seedling (P) Laxton's Fortune (= Fortune) (P)
Cheddar Cross (P) Lord Lambourne (P)
Cornish Gilliflower Lyman's Large Summer (= Lyman Large)
Delcon (N) Pearl
Discovery (= Thurston August) (P) Queen (= The Queen) (P)
Ellison's Orange St Edmund's Russet (= St Edmund's Pippin) (P)
Exeter Cross Tompkins King
George Cave (P) Tydeman's Early Worcester (= Tydeman's Early,
Gladstone (P) Tydeman's Red, Tydeman's Early Red) (P)
Golden Noble (P) Tydeman's Michaelmas Red (P)
Golden Russet (= English Golden Russet) Winston (= Winter King)
Grenadier Worcester Pearmain (P)
5. The local climate is another factor to take into account: low-chill cultivars exist for warmer climates,
whereas in colder climates many of the later ripening fruit will not mature. To some extent you can be
guided by local cultivars and knowledge, however climate change means that we should be
increasingly looking to regions to the south of us and using their cultivars.
Cultivation
Planting is best carried out with bare-rooted stock in late autumn; container grown trees may be planted at
any time but will need substantial watering in dry weather. On planting, trees should be staked if
necessary (dwarf and semi-dwarf rootstocks), and mulched for at least a diameter of 1 metre (3 ft),
preferably 2 metres (6 ft) around each tree. The mulch may initially be of black plastic, but after two or
three years this should be replaced with an organic mulch. Mulching materials should not touch the trunks
of trees. as thi s may encourage collar rots.
Apple trees will require some overhead light - they will not tolerate full shade, for instance of another tree
canopy overhead. Dwarf trees can be planted between larger trees and at the edges of any clearings
within the garden. In many gardens, trees on vigorous rootstocks, 6-10m (20-32 ft) high are likely to form
the upper canopy and should all succeed fainy well.
Ground covers should be prevented from competing with tree roots for several years (always with trees on
very dwarfing rootstocks), and should never be allowed to encroach right up to trunks. Trees on vigorous
rootstocks which are allowed a ground cover beneath are likely to have growth slowed and start to bear
fruit at an eanier age than those with bare soil beneath.
Feeding should be in the fonn of an annual mulch of compost, manure or other organic material; tip
bearers require rather less in the way of feeding, as too much growth is not to be encouraged. Irrigation
should not be necessary at present in the UK once trees are established, however with hotter drier
summers predicted as part of climate change, this may become an issue.
In general, pruning is normally carried out to:
1. Form a strong framework of branches for future cropping;
2. Thin out overcrowded growth (as a result of past pruning!);
3. Induce flower and fruit bud formation;
4. Stimulate shoot growth;
5. Remove dead and diseased branches.
Cultivars on the very dwarfing rootstocks (M27, M9) require very little pruning after the first few years
because of their low vigour.
Pests
Most damage from pests can be prevented by maintaining healthy plants and by attracting predators such
as beetles (which thrive in ul)disturbed ground), ladybi rds (which appreciate a nettle patch in the spring to
help build up numbers), birds (should be plenty of these in a forest gardenl), predatory wasps and
hoverflies (which should have sources of nectar provided nearby) etc. With plenty of predators, problems
with aphids, capsid bugs (Lygocoris pabulinis) and red spider mite (Panonychus ulml) will be minor.
In addition, codling moth (Cydia pomonella) can be controlled if necessary with a combination of
pheromone traps in Spring, grease bands in Summer, and pupae traps (corrugated card tied to trunks);
and winter moth (Operophtera brumata) is controlled very well with the use of grease bands from mid
Autumn onwards. Moths are also controlled by bats, so encouraging these with bat boxes high in trees is a
good idea.
Cultivars for organic cul ti vation
A major factor to take into account when growing apples organically is disease resi stance.
There isn't much point in 8Jitain trying to grow, say, Cox's Orange Pippin which is susceptible to
almost everything under the sun. Although Ihe health of apple trees can be improved by good
methods of cultivation, many cultivars are 100 susceptible to the diseases whi ch are most
prevalent in Britain - scab, canker and mildew. Fi reblight may also become a significant
problem in future years. The main diseases differ in high and l ow rainfall areas with scab,
canker and fireblight all worse in the damp' cli mate of western Britain. Mildew is worst in the hot
dry summers experienced more often in the east of Britai n.
The use of sulphurbased fungicides has increased recently, with several being accepted as
' organic' . It should be noted that the following cultivars are 'sulphur-shy' ie will be damaged by
sulphur: Beauty of Bath, Charles Ross, Dabinette, Lane's Prince Albert , Marston Scarlet.
Newton Wonder, Saint Cecilia, Stirling Castle, Sweet Coppin.
Key to cultivar tables
Use: C = Cooker, 0 = Dessert , Ci = Cider, Po = Poll inator (crab)
Season: E = earl y (July-August), M = Mid (September). L = Late (October onwards)
Flower: This number indicates the optimum pollination time. In south east England, 0
corresponds to April 30th, 1 to May 1st. 31 to May 31st . 42 to June 11th. The flower date
should not be regarded as exact dates (even in SE. England). but as relative flowering times.
These numbers can be useful in calculating whether culti vars will be good poll inators for each
other, alt hough this will often be easier using the floweri ng groups (see below) . Two cultivars,
assuming they both have viable pollen (ie aren't triploids). will pollinate each other very well if
their flowering dates are within 3 of each other. [ego If one cultivar has a flowering date of 12,
then any culti var . except parents - with a flowering date of 9 to 15 will pollinate it and be
pollinated.) Where the flowering date is not known, the abbreviations VE = very early, E = early,
M = mid, L= late, VL = very late - are used if known.
The diseases:
Abbreviations used are VR=very resistant, R=resistant , SS=slightly susceptible, S=susceptible,
VS=very susceptible.
Scab - Venturia inequalis, a fungus which thrives in warm, moist climates (like Britain), causing
damage to leaves, shoots and fruits. The fungus overwinters on fallen leaves. Good control is
achieved by removing fallen leaves; alternatively, many cuttivars show good resistance. The
mnois! conditions in forest gardens can favour this disease and canker too, so choosing
resistant cultivars is vital in these systems.
Canker - Nectria gaJligena, another fungus which causes lesions and cankers on stems which
can seriously damage trees. It is much worse on poorly drained, heavy soils in a moist climate.
Affected branches should be cut out. Very susceptible cultivars should be used with caution.
Mildew - (Apple powdery mildew), Podosphaera leucotricha, another fungus but which prefers
warm, dry climates and is worst in hot dry summers. It can cause significant damage to leaves
and shoots, and overwinters in buds so is not easy to eradicate. It is worse where soils are low
in organic matter or nutrients. Many cultivars show resistance.
Flrebllght - Erwinia amy/ovora, a serious bacterial disease of North America which was
brought to the U.K. in 1957 and is now widespread in southern England. It causes dieback of
shoots and branches, but doesn't often kill apple trees as it can do to pears. Warm moist
conditions favour fireblight; whitebeam (Sorbus aria) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) are
susceptible and should not be grown near orchards. Susceptible cultivars should be avoided in
southern England.
High rainfall areas
The main diseases in these areas (the west of Britain) are scab and canker. The following
cultivars are resistant or tolerant to BOTH scab and canker. In addition to their type of use,
season of use and flowering date, any resistance or susceptibility to mildew and fireblight are
listed (VR=very resistant , R=resistant , SS=slightly susceptible, S=susceptibte, VS=very
susceptible.)
Cultivar Us. Season Flower Mildew Firebllght
Alfriston C L 10 R
Annie Elizabeth C L 16 R
Arkansas D L 10 R VR
Bardsey D M
Beauty of Bath D E 9
Ben's Red D E 6
Bramley's Seedling C L 12
Brownlees' Russet CD L 9 R
Bulmer's Foxwhelp 10
Captain Broad
Catshead C L 11
Cheddar Cross D E B VS
Cockle Pippin D L 11 R
Cornish Aromatic D L 15
Cornish Longstem C L
Cultlvar Use Season Flower Mildew Fl reblighl
Court of Wick
D L 15
Crawley Beauty
C L 29 R
Crimson Beauty of Bath
D E 9
Crimson King
D M 14 R
Crimson King
C M 10 R
Crimson Newton Wonder
C L 14 5
Dayton
D E M R R
Egis Bitter
M 20
Emneth Early
C E 10 R
Fair Maid of Devon
Ci M M
Farmers Glory CD L
Forge
CD M 15
Freedom
CD M 55 R
Gladstone D E 13
Golden Bittersweet D E 13
Golden Harvey
D L 13
Golden Noble C M 16 R V5
Golden Nugget
D L 10 R V5
Golden Pippin
CD L 11
Golden Russet CD L 7 R
Graniwinkle
D L R
Grenadier
C E 11 R
Hall's Pink
C
Halstow Natural DCi L
Hoary .Morning CD L 12
Hollow Core CD L
Isle of Wight Pippin D L 4
John Standish D L 9 R
Johnny Andrews DCi L
Katy D M 9
Keswick Codlin CD E 5
Kit trio D R
Lady's Finger CD M
Lane's Prince Albert C L 12 5
London Pippin CD L 15
Longkeeper D L
Lord Derby C M 14 R
Lord Derby Spur Type C M 14 R
Marston Scarlet C L 14 5
May Queen D L 12
Merton Russet D L 9 V5
Newton Wonder C L 14 5
Northwood D L 15
Novamac D M 5 R
Orleans Reinette CD L 16 R 5
Payhembury C L
Pear Apple D M
Perrine Yellow Transparent CD E 6 R
Pig's Nose (III JE) D M
Pine Apple Russet of Devon D M R
Plum Vite D E
Ponsford C L
Powell's Russet D L R
Queen CD M 9
Cultivar Use Season Flower Mildew Flrebllghl
Rebella D VR VR
Red Belle de Boskoop CD L 8
Red Devil DCi L
Red Newton Wonder C L 14 S
Redhill Sops in Wine D M 8
Regine D R VR
Reka D R SS
Releika D SS R
Releta D S SS
Relinda D L R SS
Rene D L S VR
Resi D SS SS
Reverend W.Wilks C E 7 R
Rewena D L VR VR
Rival CD M 11
Rosemary Russet D L 10 R
Ross Nonpareil D L 8
Roundway Magnum Bonum D L 11
Saint Edmund's Pippin D M 8 R
Sam Young D L 9 R
Sanspareil CD L
Saw Pit CCi L
Scruptious D L
Sidney Strake C M 10
Sour Bay CCi L
Spurkoop CD L 8
Sweet Bay DCi M
Taunton Cross D M 14
Tom Putt C M 10
Tommy Knight DCi L 10
Wellington Ci E E
Winston D L 14 VR
Winston Sport D L 14 VR
Wolf River CD M 10 R VS
Wool brook Pippin D M 10 R
In addition, the following cultivars are very resistant to scab and not very susceptible to canker.
Their use, season of use and flowering date. resistance or susceptibility to mildew and fireblight
are listed.
Cultivar Use Season Flower Mildew Flreblighl
All Doer CD L
Antonovka CD M 8 R
Ariwa D R SS
Ashton Bitter E 15
Beaujade D
8edwyn Beauty CD L 21
Breakwell's Seedling M 10
Britegold D 8 R
Brown's Apple C E 18
Buckley Giant CD VS
8urrowhill Early E 15
Centennial CD E M
Cultlvar Use Season Flower Mildew Firebllghl
Charles Ross CD M 11
Chehalis CD M 12 R
Claygate Pearmain D L 12
Crimson Beauty D E 9
Crimson Beauty of Bath D E 9
Crimson Beauty of Bath (LARS) D E 9
Duke of Devonshire D
L 11 S
Ea(lijon CD
L 10 S S
Egremont Russet D M 7 R
Enterprise D
L M SS VR
Fillbarrel
M 15
Florina
D L SS SS
Gavin
D L 13 R
George Neal
CD E 7
Gertinde D
Goldrush D L L SS SS
Goring M
Hangy Down M L
Hudson's Golden Gem D i R VS
Jefferies D M 9 R
Jonafree D VS SS
Judaine D L E R
Judeline D L E R R
King of Tompkin's County CD L 10 SS
Leathercoat Russet D L
Liberty D M 9 S VR
Limberland CD E
Lord of the Isles C L
Lucky Jon CD L 10 S S
Macfree Mcintosh D VS R
Malus floribunda Po E VR VR
McShay D M VR
Moira D L 10 S
Murray D M 7 VR
Nine Square D M
No Pip C L 14
Northcott Superb D
Northfield Beauty D L
Nova Easygrow CD L 12 VR R
Novaspy CD L
Nured Jonathon CD L 10 S S
Paignton Marigold D M
Peter Lock CD L 6
Pig's Snout CD M L
Pilot D L
Prairie Fire C VR
Primicia D M 10 R
Pristine D E R R
Raritan D E 14 R VS
Red Baron CD L R
Red Beauty of Bath D E 9
Red Ruby D M
Redfree D E 14 R R
Richelieu CD M R R
Cultivar Us. Season Flower Mlld.w Flr.bllght
Rouville CD M
Santana D
Scarlet O'Hara D M 19 S VS
Shay D M M R
Sir Prize D L 17 R SS
Stirling Castle C M 11 SS
Stockbearer C M
Stoke Red M 25 S
Tale Sweet M 15
Tan Harvey M
Tim's Early D E 9
Transparente de Croncels C M 7
Trent CD L 10 VR
Yanda D 14 R
Wagener CD L 6 S
Warrier CD E
White Close Pippin M M
Williams' Pride D E 10 R R
Worcester Cross D M 8
Wynooche Early D E
Low rainfall areas
In these areas the main disease problem is mildew during hot dry summer spells.
Many
cultivars have some to mildew (see main table for a complete listing); the following
cultivars are very resistant to mildew. In addition to their type of use, season of use and
flowering date, any resistance or susceptibility to scab, canker and fireb/ight are listed.
Cultlvar Us. Season Flower Scab Canker Flr.blt
Alexis C VR
Barnack Beauty CD L 14 R
Beauty C VR
Belle de Boskoop CD L 8 VR R
Bountiful CD M 3
Calville Blanc d'Hiver CD L 12 R VS
Discovery D E 11 R
Discovery Spur Type D E 11 R
Early Mcintosh D E 9 S
Ellison's Orange D M 13 VR S
Fairy C VR
Gloster CD L 17
Golden Hornet CD M R
Haralson CD L 12 VR
Hibernal C M 6
Hunter Spartan D L 12 R VS VR
Isle of Wight Pippin D L 4 VR
Jamba 69 D M 14 R
Joan C E VR
Lord Lambourne D M 8 S
McShay D M VR
Nova Easygrow CD L 12 VR R
Ozark Gold D L 20 VR
r
Cultlvar
Use Season Flower Scab Canker Flreblt
Rebella
D VR VR VR
Red Delicious; Apex Spur D L 12 VS VR
Red Delicious; Lory Super
D L 12 VS VR
Red Ellison
D M 13 R S
Red Sentinel
C E R VR
Remo
D M VR SS VR
ReVo{ena D L VR VR VR
Spartan D L 12 R VS VR
Spartan 4N No 3
D L 12 R VS VR
Spartan 4N Scotland D L 12 R VS VR
Spartan 4N Sweden
D L 12 R VS VR
Spartan Compact D L 12 R VS VR
Splendour
D L 15
Starkrimson Delicious D L 12 S VR
Tydeman's Early
D E 12 R VS
Tydeman's Early Spur Type D E 12 R VS
Wealthy CD M 11 R S
Winston D L 14 VR VR
Winston Sport D L 14 VR VR
Worcester Pearmain D E 11 S S
Yellow Siberian C E R
Fireblight-prone areas
The following are very resistant to fireblight. In addition to their type of use, season of use and
flowering date, any resistance or susceptibility to scab, canker and mildew are listed.
Cultlvar Use Season Flower Scab Canker Mlldw
Ace Spur Delicious D L 12
Acey Mac D M 7 S S
Adams Apple D L 12
Alexis C VR
Alexis D M 7 S S
Anderson Red Delicious D L 12 VS R
Arkansas D L 10 R R R
Atwood Spur D L 12 VS R
Beauty C VR
8elgolden No 17 CD L 12 R R
Ben Davis CD L 15 S
Bisbee Red Delicious D L 12 VS R
Black Ben CD L 15 S
Black David CD L 15 S
Black Mcintosh D M 7 S S
Black Mickey D M 7 S S
Blackmack D M 7 S S
Blaxtayman CD L 12 VS S
Bovey CD L 12 R R
Captain Kidd D L 12 R VS R
Caravel D E 7
Chelan Red D L 12 S
Chick-A-Dee Mcintosh D M 7 S S
Classic Red Delicious D L 12 S
Courtagold CD L 12 R R
Crown Empire D L 9
Dark Red Staymared CD L 12 VS S
Delbard CD L 12 R R
Delcon CD
Delicious D L 12 VS VS R
Derman Delicious D L 12 VS R
Dermen Mcintosh D M 7 S S
Dermen Winesap CD L 10 VS S
Detroit Red D M
Dianaspur CD L 12 R R
Donald Wyman Po M
Double Red Mcintosh D M 7 S S
Double Red Stayman CD L 12 VS S
Doud Golden Delicious CD L 12 R R
Dugamel D L 10 S S
Earlibrite D L 12
Earlichief D L 12 VS R
Earlistripe D L 12
Ed Gould Golden CD L 12 R R
Elbee
CD L 12 R R
Elliot Spur
CD L 12 R R
Empire
D L 9
Empress Spur
CD L 12 R R
Enterprise D
' L M VR SS
Ervin Red D L 12
S
Evarts Red D L 12
S
Fairy C
VR
Fameuse D L 7 VS R
Frazier's Spur CD L 12 R R
Gardner D L 12 VS R
Gold Spur CD L 12 R R
Golden Auvilspur CD L 12 R R
Golden Delicious CD L 12 R R
Golden Delicious (4E-26-18-N) CD L 12 R R
Golden Delicious (LARS) CD L 12 R R
Golden Delicious Gibson Strain CD L 12 R R
Golden Delicious Russet Form CD L 12 R R
Golden Delicious: Horst No 2 CD L 12 R R
Golden Glory CD L 12 R R
Golden Morspur CD L 12 R R
Goldenir CD L 12 R S
Goldensheen CD L 12 R R
Goldenspur CD L 12 R R
Grimes Golden D L 11 S
Haralred CD L 12
Haralson CD L 12 VR
Hardispur D L 12 S
Harrold Red D L 12 S
Heubner D L 12 S
Hi-Early D L 12 S
Hi-Red
D L 12 S
Hoople's Antique Gold CD L 12 R R
Houser Red D L 12 S
Hunter Spartan D L 12 R VS VR
Idaho Delicious D L 12 VS
It Delicious D L 12 VS R
Joan C E
VR
Johnson Mcintosh D M 7 S S
Jonadel D L 16 R
Kidd's Orange Red
D L 12 VR VS R
Kimttall Mcintosh D M 7 S S
King David
CD L 11
R
Kinnard's Choice
D M
Lalla D L 12 VS R
liberty D M 9 VR S
lindaMac D M 7 S S
Lutz CD L 12 R R
Lysgold CD L 12 R S
Macoun D M 11 S S
Macspur Mcintosh D M 7 S S
Marshall Mcintosh 0 M 7 S S
Marstar 0 L 10 S S
Mcintosh 0 M 7 S S R
Merrigold CO L 12 R R
Midnight Spur Delicious 0 L 12
Miller Sturdyspur 0 L 12 S
Minjon 0 M 13
Morspur CD L 12 R R
Morspur Mcintosh D M 7 S S
Murray 0 M 7 VR
Nured Spur Delicious 0 L 12 VS R
Nured Winesap CD L 10 VS S
Okanoma D L 12 VS R
Oregon Spur Delicious 0 L 12
Ozark Gold D L 20 VR
Pagsup Spur Type 0 L 12 VS R
Penco CD L 12 R R
Perleberg CD L 12 R R
Pioneer Mac 0 M 7 S S
Prairie Fire C VR
Quemoni CD L 12 R R
Razor Golden Delicious CD L 12 R R
Realka 0 VR SS S
Reanda D L VR SS R
Rebella D VR VR VR
Red Delicious; Apex Spur 0 L 12 VS VR
Red Delicious; Lory Super 0 L 12 VS VR
Red Fameuse 0 L 7 S
Red Haralson CD L 12
Red King 0 L 12 S
Red Prince 0 L 12 VS R
Red Queen 0 L 12 S
Red Sentinel C E R VR
Red Spur D L 12 S
Red Stayman CD L 12 VS S
Redchief Delicious D L 12 VS R
Redmax McIntosh D M 7 S S
"
Regine 0 VR R R
Remo 0 M VR SS VR
Rene 0 l VR R S
Rewena 0 l VR VR VR
Richared Delicious 0 l 12 VS R
Rogers Mcintosh 0 M 7 S S
Royal Empire 0 l 9
Royal Red 0 l 12
Ruble Red Winesap CO l 10 VS S
Ruby 0 l R
Ryan Red 0 l 12 S
Sali Delicious 0 l 12 VS VS R
SaJi Spur 0 l 12 S
,
Sandidge 0 l 12 VS R
" Scarlet Spur Delicious 0 l 12 VS VS R
~
Scarlet Staymared CD l 12 VS S
Schlecht Spur Delicious 0 l 12 VS VS R
Scotian Spur Mac 0 M 7 S S R
Shotwell 0 l 12 VS R
Simon's Russet CD l 12 R R
Sky Spur 0 l 12
Skyline Supreme 0 l 12 S
Smokehouse 0 m 7 S
Smoothee CD l 12 R R
Snapp Stayman CD l 12 VS S
Spartan 0 l 12 R VS VR
Spartan 4N No 3 0 l 12 R VS VR
Spartan 4N Scotland 0 l 12 R VS VR
Spartan 4N Sweden 0 l 12 R VS VR
Spartan Compact 0 l 12 R VS VR
Spencer 0 M 12 SS
Starking 0 l 12 S
Starkrimson Delicious 0 l 12 S VR
Starks pur Golden Delicious CD l 12 R R
Starkspur Mcintosh 0 M 7 S S
Starks pur Red 0 l 12 VS R
,
Starkspur UltraRed Delicious 0 l 12 S
Staybrite Stayman CD l 12
D
Stayman's Winesap CD l 12 VS S
Sterling 0 l 12 S
Summer Mac 0 M 7 S S
Summerland Mcintosh 0 M 7 S S
Sundale CD l 12 R R
Super Chief Delicious 0 l 12 VS R
Super Chief Delicious 0 l 12 VS R
Super Starking 0 l 12 S
Sweet Delicious 0 l 15
Testerspur Golden Delicious CD l 12 R R
Tex Red Winesap CD l 10 VS S
Thome Empire 0 l 9
Topred 0 l 12
Topspur Delicious 0 l 12 VS R
Trent CD l 10 VR
Turner 0 l 12 VS R
Vallee Spur Delicious D L 12 VS R
Vance
D L 12 VS R
Virginia Beauty
D L
Washington Spur
D L 12
Wayne Spur
D L 12 S
Wellington (USA)
CD E 1
Wellspur Delicious
D L 12 S

CD L
Wijcik Mcintosh
D M 7 S S R
Williams Favourite
D E 13
Winesap
CD L 10 VS S
Yellow Delicious: Stauffer strain
CD L 12 R R
Yellowspur
CD L 12 R R
References
Crawford, M: Directory of Apple CuUivars. Agroforestry Research Trust, 2001.
Crawford, M: Apple cultivar disease-resisance trial results. Agroforestry News, Vol 13 No 1.
Crawford, M: Apples: use in agroforestry systems. Agroforestry News, Vol1 No 3.
Book Reviews
Nutshell Guide to Growing Hazelnuts
Clive Simms
Orchard House Books, 2006; 36 pp; 3.50. '
ISBN 0-9544607-5-8
(Available from the A.R. T. for 4.50 including P & P. )
For beginners to growing hazels, Clive Simms' new guide is an excellent introduction to all
aspects of hazel cultivation. Clive is an advocate of single stemmed trees and even suggests
growing trees on a high single stem so that they can be protected from squirrels by using
baffles - an interesting idea, but one I have not seen in practice yet.
Pruning (for a single stem tree) is handled nice and succinctly; and the section on propagation
includes the use of (hybrids of the Turkish hazel) as rootstocks, something which
occasionally happens in North America, but which is some way off in Europe, especially as
nobody sells trazels.
A brief guide to suitable varieties, then harvesting and storing nuts finishes this short but
impressive guide.
Page 22
Hedgerow History
Ecology, History & Landscape Character
Gerry Barnes & Tom Williamson
Windgather Press, 2006; 152 pp; 18.99.
ISBN 1-905119-04-6.
From the Scots pine rows of Breckland to the ancient earth and stone banks of the West
Country, hedgerows are an essential component of regional landscape character in Britain.
The authors ask why hedgerows vary across different parts of Britain, and investigate the
ecological, economic and hi storical reasons for these differences. They use" a computerised
analysis of hedges in Norfolk to explore how hedges came into existence and how they have
changed over time.
The myth that a hedge can be dated simply by counting species is firmly rebutted, and the
authors devel op a new more sophisticated account of hedgerow history, pointing out marked
geographic variations in species content and diversity, and explore the reasons for these
differences.
Of interest to all who are involved with hedges, especially in Norfolk as there is a marked
emphasis on this area of the country.
The Black Poplar
Ecology, History & Conservation
Fiona Cooper
Windgather Press, 2006; 152 pp; 18.99.
ISBN 1-905119-05-4
This book is a cultural and ecological biography of the black poplar in Britain. The black poplar
is one of Britain's largest, most charismatic trees, and also one of the rarest.
Fiona Cooper explores the black poplar's historical place in the landscape, and how it has
played a role in folklore and in the work of well known poets. She explains how the tree has
been used through the centuries as timber and in medicine, and then addresses the question of
its conservation.
The decline of the black poplar is investigated, and the author focuses in particular on important
populations in the Vale of Aylesbury and in Manchester, which is in danger of losing completely
trees which for a century have been a distinctive feature of the urban landscape.
The author conctudes that the key to the species' survival in Britain may lie in our applying and
understanding its genetic make-up. Essential reading for all involved in tree conservation.
Chestnuts: post-harvest quality
Introduction
The quality of chestnuts purchased by consumers can sometimes be poor because of the tricky
nature of chestnut storage. Selling fresh chestnuts 1-2 weeks old is not usually a problem; this
article addresses longer term s t o r a g ~ for weeks or a few months.
There are two major components of ' quality' , namely characteristics (primarily genetically
determined by the cultivar) and condition (resulting from pre- and post-harvest treatment).
At harvest time. chestnuts are Hving, respiring seeds, composed of about 50% water, 40%
carbohydrates (mainly starch) and the balance protein, fats and other substances. The kernel is
an embryo consisting of two large cotyledons attached to a small but easily visible embryonic
plant. The kernel is surrounded by a fuzzy, papery cover called the pellicle which is actually the
seed coat (testa). Outside the pellicle is a brown leathery shell, which is actually the fruit. The
chestnut is designed to overwinter at or beneath the soil surface and germinate in the spring,
consequently it has a chilling requirement. In contrast to many seeds, chestnuts lose viability if
they dry much below 35% moisture. Proper storage of fresh chestnuts essentially involves
mimicking the conditions they would encounter in their natural environment, that is, keep them
cool, moist, and eat them before they germinate.
Pre-harvest care
Before harvest, chestnuts are subject to several potential problems, including shell splitting,
fungal attack, insect attack (weevils, moth larvae) and physiological breakdown.
Early season growing conditions affect flower bud formation which translates into next year's
crop load.
Late season grown conditions, especially soil moisture, affect nut size. Half of kernel growth
occurs during the last two weeks before ripening, hence soil moisture is critical during this
period. During this rapid kernel growth period, some shells sometimes split at the stylar end
(pointy end). Chestnuts with split shells usually mould after 1-2 weeks, so must be used rapidly
or culled out of storage. Shell splitting is most influenced by cultivar (and possibly polliniser
too). If there is a severe lack of soil moisture during this critical period, the kernels may stop
growing with resulting wrinkled chestnuts which are difficult to sell.
Because of this rapid period of kernel growth, chestnuts cannot be harvested early, but only
when the burrs begin to split , revealing the brown chestnuts inside.
While they are still on the tree, chestnuts are subject to three types of fungal attack for which
there is no control:
Blossom end rot - shows first as a brown spot on the stylar end of the burr before
ripening. At harvest , the stylar end of the chestnut is dark coloured and the tip of the
kernel is decayed. Damage is related to cultivar and the type of season.
Kernel spotting - some chestnuts, though always a low percentage, can exhibit small
brown spots on the kernel surfaces (only visible after peeling), which are small fungal
infections. They do not necessarify develop into more extensi ve decay, but if not they
can impart slight off-flavours to the kernel.
Soft rot - at or shortly after harvest, some chestnuts exhibit a soft rot which may give
the shell a dark or watersoaked appearance. When squeezed, such nuts are soft or
mushy, not very firm like sound chestnuts. If cut open, it will look like mashed
potatoes, have a fermented smell , and be inedible. This disease seems more common
under conditions of excessive moisture and excessive nitrogen fertilisation.
Chestnut weevi ls (Ba/aninus e/ephas) are serious chestnut pests in most chestnut production
regions of the world. Eggs are laid shortly before harvest in the kernels through tiny holes
dri ll ed in the shells. The eggs hatch into cramcoloured grubs which grow and tunnel through
the chestnut kernels until they emerge. The unexpected discovery of grubs in chestnuts usually
elicits a response ranging from disgust to hysteria. The chestnut codling moth (Cydia
sp/endana) also results in larvae eating the kernels. Most consumers have zero tolerance for
wormy chestnuts. A postharvest hot water dip (50C for 4550 minutes) will kill the larvae. It is
difficult to identify infested chestnuts before emergence, which may take 2 or more weeks'.
Another problem exhibited by chestnuts at harvest time id a 'brown kernel' condition that
appears to be some sort of internal physiological breakdown. When cut open, an affected nut
shows a degree of browning and discolouration, somewhat resembling bitter pit of apples. The
texture is somewhat soft and the fl avour is bitter, making them inedible. Some EuroJapanese
hybrids can suffer from this, with only a proportion of nuts affected on a tree.
Post-harvest care
At time of ripening, chestnuts are about 50% water. The fact that they do not Quickly mould
indicates that living chestnut kernel tissue has some ability to resist fungal invasion, just as
living fruits and vegetables do. This 'live kernel resistance' is lost if chestnuts dry to below 35%
moisture, when seed viability is lost. Once below this level, viability cannot be restored by
rehydration. So if chestnuts are to be stored fresh, they must not be allowed to dry below 35%
moisture (the pint at which the kernel just begins to shrink away from the shell). Storage life
can be enhanced by levels of high humidity, soaking, or even allowing free moisture on the
nuts.
For maximum storage life and seed viability, chestnuts should be harvested promptly after they
fall (or are shaken from trees), at least every 2 days; in Britain, harvest lasts 10-14 days for a
particular cultivar, though this is considerably less in warmer and drier regions.
After harvest, the nuts can be cleaned if necessary. Fresh sound chestnuts are slightly denser
than water - ie they sink. In Europe, the normal procedure is to place the chestnuts in water at
50C for 45-50 minutes, following by quenching in cold water, to kill any larvae inside the nuts;
this also rehydrates the nuts if there has been a fall in moisture during harvest. Next, the
chestnuts are carefully and slowly dried until the shell surfaces are dry. The soaking treatments
can affect the flavour of the nuts, introducing fermented flavours and bitter flavours (from
tannins in the shells) which can take several days or a few weeks to diminish - hence these
treatments are not good for nuts destined for eating immediately.
After water treatment, the chestnuts should be allowed to 'rest' for 3-4 days in a cool shady
building where there is enough ai r ci rculation that they do not heat but not so much that they
dry. A layer of nuts up to 30 cm deep is acceptable. During this period, most of the free
moisture will disappear from the shells and any mouldy or soft rotted chestnuts will becomes
covered with fungal hyphae, making them easy to identify and cull. While it may appear that
some chestnuts become mouldy during this period, what reall y happens is that already mouldy
chestnuts make themselves known. The nuts can be sized now if desired. The chestnuts
should be glossy and firm at this point. If the shells have dulled and the kernels begun to shrink
inside the shells, the chestnuts have begun to cure - they wi ll be difficult to store but are good
to eat, and should be used within 23 weeks.
Fresh chestnuts harvested at Darlington: top row - Bouche de BeUzac, Verda/e, Marron
Comballe, Ederra; bottom row - Vigno/s, Rousse de Nay, Marigou/e
Chestnuts which are glossy and firm - ie fully hydrated - are relatively to store and transport.
For long-term storage (4 weeks or more) they should be kept cool and moist with ample air
circulation through the nuts. Properly stored chestnuts will be begin to germinate in cold
storage in January to February. They should not be stored in deep piles or large bags. this
leads to fungal decay. Although the best storage temperature is lightly below OC. fresh
chestnuts must not be allowed to freeze - this kills them. and after thawing they rapidly decay.
The freezing point of chestnuts is _3C or lower.
Chestnuts should be transported in some breathable container, such as woven poly. burlap or
mesh bags. During transport the chestnuts will of course lose weight which can be an issue
between buyer and seller.
There are numerous spoilage fungi which can attack chestnuts, most commonly Fusarium spp.
and Penicillium spp. These fungi produce mycotoxins (usually only in very mouldy kernels) as
well as off flavours. It is not easy to distinguish mouldy chestnut kernels from good ones white
they are in the shell, unless they are in an advanced stage of decay.
Curing
Up to now this article has concentrated on keeping chestnuts from moulding by keeping them
moist. For best eating. though, chestnuts are better slightly dried, a process called curing.
During drying, the kernel sugar content increases as starch is converted to sugar (mostry
sucrose). When the moisture level reaches about 25% (dry weight basis) , the sugar content
reaches 20% (dry weight basis) . and the kernel achieves a soft, crunchy texture. At this point ,
chestnuts are properly cured and at the ideal stage to eat. Cured chestnuts are very
susceptible to moulding and must be refrigerated if not consumed. Once chestnuts are cured,
do not attempt to rehydrate them at all, this only increases moulding.
Ideally, chestnuts should be cured over a period of weeks in cool temperatures, and then
promptry consumed or processed. Longer curing times often result in increased moulding.
Chestnuts can be cured in days with warm dry air, but the flavour is not as good, and the
drying is uneven in different sized nuts. .
In practice, if the grower ships chestnuts in a fully hydrated, condition, then during the
several days to several weeks which elapses before the consumer buys and consumes them,
curing is likely to have taken place. If already cured chestnuts are shipped, the often mould or
are too dry by the time they are consumed.
Drying
From a practical and quality standpoint, drying is perhaps the best way to preserve chestnuts.
When the moisture is reduced to the kernels become hard, and stable at
room temperature. Prompt harvesting followed by quick drying is the best way to minimise
mould losses; drying also kills any larvae in the nuts.
Dried nuts are easy to peel (shell) and can be stored shelled or unshelled. Once shelled, cull
nuts are easily removed. The nuts can be stored for several years.
Reference
Miller, G: quality of chestnuts, Australian Nutgrower, Vol 19 No 3 (September
2005.)
World hazelnut culture
Introduction
This article looks at the state of hazelnut production in Italy, Spain, Oregon (USA), France and
the Netherlands.
Italy is the world's second hazelnut producer (after Turkey), with 14% of world production.
Spain is the fourth largest with 3%, the USA second with 5%.
Areas of production
Italy: In Italy, there is currently about 69,000 ha dedicated to hazelnut production (from about
74,000 farms). with several thousand ha including hazelnut in mixed production systems. Most
of the production is now concentrated in four areas: Piedmont . Latium, Campania and Sicily.
Total Italian production is about 110,000 t per year. Average production per ha is 1.87 t for
Campania, 1.78 t for Latium, 1.75 t for Piedmont and 0.90 t for Sicily. Overall , Italy is a net
importer of hazelnuts, however around 23,000 t are exported to other European countries, and
cheaper Turkish nuts are imported into Italy. This is due to strong domestic consumption by
chocolate industries.
Spain: Some 22,000 t of nuts are produced annually. The main area is Catalonia, in northeast
Spain, with the province of Tarragona being the main producing region, having 20,000 ha of
hazelnuts. In Catalonia there are about 7,000 small hazelnut farms with orchards of 1 to 5 ha.
Hazelnuts are grown under typical Mediterranean conditions of low rainfall (400-600 mm/year),
high summer temperatures (30-35C), a wide range of soil types (mainly clay loam), basic soil
pHs (7-8) and medium-high calcium levels. Over half of the Spanish crop is exported to other
European countries.
France: Produces over 5000 t per year. Most production takes place in the south west of the
country in Aquitaine and Mid-Pyrenees regions (between Bordeaux and Toulouse) with average
orchards around 14 ha in size. France is a larger importer of nuts from Turkey, Italy and Spain.
Cultivation
Type of cultivation
Italy: In Campania, hazelnut is cultivated mostly on small plots of land with other plants such as
walnut, cherry and grapes' at the edges ; 70% of land is in high hills on sloping soil (not suited to
mechanisation) on part-time managed farms, the other 30% is in plain areas where
mechanisation is used. In Latium, cultivation is concentrated around the Cimini Mountains.
where there are high levels of specialisation; farm sizes and land type allow a high degree of
mechanisation. In Piedmont, hazelnut clllture is on small family farms located in the hilly areas
of Cuneo and Asti provinces; in the last decade there has been a marked expansion here in
areas of low hills due to the increasing demand for quality nuts from Piedmont's confectionary
industry.
Spain: Tarragona' s orchard divide into two types. Firstly, the orchards of the inland mountain
areas which are located on hilly slopes and typically have little
mechanisati on, dry farming (around 400 mm of annual rainfall) and low production (SOD-BOO
kg/hal . Most growers of this type are engaged in part time agriculture. Secondly there are the
flat area orchards of the uCamp de Tarragona " which are located near the coast, have high
levels of mechanisati on, heavy production (2000-25000 kg/hal and modern cultivation
techniques including drip irrigation
Oregon USA: most traditional orchards are grown as low input systems, many by part time
farmers. Production remains steady despite the devastating effects of Eastern filbert blight ,
since infected orchards are quickly replaced using resistant varieties.
France: the hazelnut industry here is fairly recent, with the firs I commercial plantations in the
1970's. Most orchards are owned by cooperatives.
Netherlands: there are few commercial plantings, but the new EMOA varieties are being
recommended for organic growing. One commercial planting made in 19967 used these
varieties successfully interplanted with walnuts and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides);
walnut rows had hazelnut trees included between the walnuts, and the sea buckthorn rows
alternated with the walnut/hazelnut rows. Early cropping and income from the sea buckthorn
fruits and hazelnuts offsets the longer time it takes for the walnuts to reach good cropping
levels. Eventually the hazels and sea buckthorn will be removed.
Varieties
Italy: In Campania, varieties grown are:
'Mortarella' (late ripening with long nuts, good pellicle removal and excellent aroma)
'San Giovanni' (early ripening, long nuts, good pellicle removal)
'Tonda Rossa' (round nuts, good flavour)
'Camponica'(round nuts, good flavour)
'Riccia di Talanico' (round nuts, good flavour)
' Tonda di Giffoni' (adaptable, good pellicle removal, excellent nut qualities) is grown
almost exclusively in the Picentini Mountains
In Latium, fewer varieties are grown:
'Tonda Gentile Romana' (medium vigour, round nuts, good aroma, moderate pellicle
removal) represents about 85% of production
'Nocchione' (low kernel percentage) is used as a polJiniser
'Tonda di Giffon;' (adaptable, good pellicle removal, excellent nut qualities) is used as
polJiniser of main cultivar too.
In Piedmont, one variety dominates (wild trees growing close by in woods are used for
pollination): .
'Tonda Gentile delle Langhe' (very adaptable and excellent nut quality).
Spain: Most production is based on traditional varieties of smallmedium sized nuts for
industrial uses. In the past, most traditional orchards were located in hilly areas and included a
mixture of varieties that ensured good pollination; recent orchards with only 2 varieties suffer
from somewhat irregular production through pollination problems. The following are all
important varieties in Spain:
' Negret' (almost 80%), 'Gironelt', ' Pauetet' , 'Culpla', 'Morell', 'Grifoll', 'Trenet' and
'Ribet'.
'Tonda di Giffoni' has been planted in new orchards recently.
' Ennis' (American) is planted in the north of Spain (Navarra) for large nuts for table
consumption.
Oregon USA: Several varieties planted in the 1990's are no longer
susceptibi lity to Eastern filbert blight (EFB), including 'Casina' (from
'Ennis'. Oregon State University is breeding resistant varieties.
concentrating on resistant varieties:
planted due to their
northern Spain) and
New plantings are
' Barcelona' - for a long time the most important variety, and moderately resistant to
EFB.
'Lewis' - now the most common in new plantings
'Clark'
France: Growers typically plant 812% of their orchards with pollinators. The most common
varieties are:
'Fertile de Coutard' (Syn. 'Barcelona', 'Castanyera') - 308 ha
'Segorbe' - 331 ha and used as a pOllinator
'Ennis' - 613 ha
'Corabel' - 538 ha
'Pauetet' - 584 ha
' Butler' - 79 ha and used as a polJinator
'Daviana' is used as a pollinator
'Merveille de BollwiJjer' (Syn. 'Halls Giant', 'Hallesche Riesen') is used as a pollinator
'Jemtegaard 5' is used as a pollinator
Netherlands: three cultivars selected from wild plants in the 1970's and 1980's are proving very
protmising. 'EMOA 1', 'EMOA 2' and 'EMOA 3' are all heavy yielding with good quality nuts and
good pellicle removal. they have a low susceptibility to disease and are being recommended for
organic cultivation.
Propagation
Italy: In most areas the materials for new plantation are suckers taken from existing orchard
trees.
Training systems & pruning
Italy: In Campania the main training system is the Mceppaia- with 4-5 trunks arising from the
ground and with 300-400 trees per ha. New plantations use a single trunk system and densities
of 300-1000 trees per ha. Pruning is generally applied every 3-4 years, though sucker removal
is annual. Diseased or unproductive trees are replanted or pruned low allowing the growth of 4-
5 suckers.
In Latium, bushes tend to have more diffuse training systems, with 3 or more trunks arising from
the ground very close together. Tree density varies from 150 per ha on old plantations to 600
per ha on new ones. Pruning is generally neglected or is applied with light cuts to eliminate
suckers and remove damaged and crossing branches. Canopies are normally dense. with little
light penetration.
In Piedmont the prevalent training system in old plantations in a bush with 10 trunks arising
from the ground, while on new ones 3-4 trunks are used at 5-6 m by 5 m spacing.
Spain: Traditional training consists of a multistemmed bush with 4 or more stems per tree
according to natural growth habit. In new orchards trees are trained in a single stem vase to
facilitate mechanical harvesting and sucker control. Tree spacing ranges from 6 x 3 m to 7 x 4
m (350-550 trees/hal. Mature trees are usually not pruned in traditional orchards, though
suckers are removed by hand in winter.
Oregon USA: Trees are forced to grow with single trunks to allow for mechanisation. New
orchards are sometimes planted at Mdouble density6 with tree spacing at 3 x 6 m.
France: Hazelnuts are usually planted at 5 x 3 m spacing, sometimes 6 x 3 m or 5 x 4 m
depending on soil fertility. Trees are usually trained to an open centre vase on a single trunk,
with 3-4 scaffold branches per tree. Suckers are usually killed with herbicides or sometimes by
hand.
Fertilisation
Italy; In Campania, nitrogen is used commonly, with mixE'd and organic fertilisers used
increasingly recently. In Latium, soil analyses are often used to determine fertiliser
requirements.
Page 30
AGROFORES.TRY NEWS Vol 14 No 3
Spain: Practices are very diverse. Some orchards apply Nitrogen only while others also apply
potassium and phosphorus. 60 Kg N/ha is considered sufficient to maintain good production
Oregon USA: traditionally hazelnuts are grown as a low input crop.
Irrigation
Italy: In the hills of Campania, irrigation is only used during the first years after planting in order
to increase the initial growth. On the plains its is often applied one or twice to overcome dry
periods in summer. In Latium, irrigation is widespread in both young and old plantations; here
and in Campania, drip systems are often used. In Piedmont there is no irrigation due to scarce
water availability.
Spain: Drip irrigation is used in Tarragona between May and September.
France: Orchards are irrigated using drip systems or micro-sprinklers.
Soil management
Italy: In Campania all plantations are subjected to light soil tillage (10-15 cm deep)and soil
compacting before nut drop, and weeds below the canopy are controlled with strimmers I brush
cutters. In Latium, the natural weed cover is retained to reduce soil erosion, increase soil
fertility, and reduce dust during mechanical harvesting, though sometimes herbicides are used
prior to mechanical harvesting. In Piedmont, to overcome the lack of irrigation, the soils are
regularly tilled, and before harvest herbicides may be applied along rows.
Spain: herbicides are usually used below tree canopies, with tillage (less hilly areas) or green
cover between the rows.
France: Grass is usually grown between rows and herbicides used in the tree rows.
Pest & disease control
Italy: In all regions the most common pests are the hazelnut weevil (Curculio nanum), big bud
mite (Phylopus avellanae), Gonocerus acuteangulatus and Pafomena prasina. Most growers
control these wit h pesticides when infestation rates exceed acceptable levels.
Spain: Important pests include big bud mite, aphids (MyzocaJlis coryli), leopard moth (Zeuzera
pyrina) and nut weevil (Bafaninus nucum). Diseases include "Boro sec
ft
(Cryptosporium corily),
mildew (Labella coryli, Septoria sp.) and Sol cuW (Cytospora corylicofa.) Most growers spray
pesticides 3-4 times a year for control. In Catalonia, most hazelnut trees ate infected by the
apple mosaic virus (ApMV) which reduces tree productivity.
Oregon USA: The main problem is Eastern filbert blight (EFB) which can devastate orchards. It
is continuing to spread southwards in the Willamette Valley. 'Ennis' is highly susceptible and in
unl ikely to be planted much now, as 'Ennis' orchards quickly succumb to the disease. Some
pests are controlled using biological controls, for instance the parasitic wasp Trioxys palJidus is
used to control filbert aphid.
Harvesting arid nut drying
Italy: In Campania, in hilly areas sweeping machines are used to gather nuts and vacuum
machines to collect them - this system is also widely used in Piedmont. In the plains machines
are used to shake nuts from trees and to collect them off the ground. On most farms the nuts
are dried in the open air, though there are a few cooperati ves with drying plants.
In latium, harvesting is highly mechanised using machines with high harvesting capacities.
Nuts are dried by farm drier or at a grower cooperative, only occasionally in the open air.
Spain: Harvest takes place from early September to mid October, with nuts picked from the
ground in one or two operations. The flatter areas use mechanical harvesters, mostly vacuum
harvesters on tractors of at least 40 HP which can collect 300-500 kg/hour of nuts.
Most, growers send their nuts to cooperatives or large private processors. Nuts are then
c l e a ~ e d , graded, and are dried to reduce their moisture content to 7%. Dryers use heated air at
40C blown through nuts for about 18 hours. They can then be stored ate room temperature for
up to 8 months until shelling.
France: Harvesting is carried out mechanically. First a machine blows and sweeps the nuts on
the ground into a windrow, then a second machine picks them up. Husks, twigs and weed
remains are then separated using fans. The nuts are washed and dried either by the grower or
the cooperative.
References
Mehlenbacher, A: The Hazelnut Situation in Oregon. Acta Hart. 686, pp 665-668, ISHS 2005.
Sarraquigne, J: Hazelnut Production in France. Acta Hart. 686, pp 669-673, ISHS 2005.
Shepers, H & Kwanten, E: Selection and Breeding of Hazelnut CulHvars Suitable for Organic
Cultivation in The Netherlands. Acta Hart. 686, pp 87-90, ISHS 2005.
Tombesi, A: World Hazelnut Situation and Perspectives: Italy. Acta Hort. 686, pp 649-657,
ISHS 2005.
Taus, J: Hazelnut Production in Spain. Acta Hart. 686, pp 659-664, ISHS 2005.
Plants for windy sites:
Trees (1)
I ntrod uction
When agroforestry systems, whether they be forest gardens or larger scale systems, are first
established, there are very often exposed and windy conditions where sites are not surrounded
by existing tree cover. In such situations, it makes sense to initially plant mainly those species
which can tolerate windy conditions, even if they are treated as nurse crops to shelter other
more tender crops. This series of articles lists those plants which are tolerant of exposure and
useful in such instances. Most of these trees can be used in windbreaks too.
The table below lists latin and common names, a code for deciduous (0) or evergreen (E) ,
whether or not maritime exposure (salt-laden winds) is tolerated, the maximum height and width
of the tree, whether it is nitrogen-fixing, has edible and medicinal uses, and hardiness zone
number. In most of the UK, trees hardy only to zones 8-9 arc not suitable for windy sites, but
they they will be in milder climes.
Q)
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Abies grandis
Abies pracera
Acacia longifolia
Acacia mucronata
Acer campestre
Acernegundo
Acer platanoides
Acer pseudo platanus
Acer saccharinum
!Aesculus hippocastanum
Albizi a julibrissin
Alnus cordata
Alnus glutinosa
Alnus incana
Alnus japonica
Alnus rhombifol ia
Alnus rubra
Araucaria araucana
Arbutus unedo
Banksia integrifolia
IBanksia marginata
Betula occidentalis
Betula pendula
Betula platyphylla
Betula pubescens
Betula utilis
Bumelia lanuginosa
Castanea sativa
ICasuarina glauca
Casuarina littoral is
Casuarina verticillata
Cedrus deodara
Cedrus libani atlantica
ICeltis occidentalis
]Ceratonia siliqua
Q)
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Grand fir
Noble fir
Sidney golden
wattle
Field maple
Box elder
Norway maple
Sycamore
Silver maple
IHorse chestnut
Mimosa
Italian alder
Alder
Grey alder
White alder
Red alder
Monkey-puzzle tree
Strawberry tree
Coast banksia
ISilver banksia
Water birch
Silver birch
White birch
Indi an paper birch
Chittamwood
Sweet chetsnut
I
Deodar
Atlas cedar
IHackberry
Carob
E 75 8
E 60 5
E 9 6
E 9 6
D 15
D 21 8
D 21 15
D
./
30 15
D 30 15
ID
I
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115
D 12 10
D
./
25 8
D
./
25 10
D
./
18 5
D 22
D 12
D
./
20
E
./
30 15
E
./
9 8
E
./
9
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19
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D 9
D 20 10
D 20
D 20 10
D 20 3
D
./
15
D
./
30 15
IE
I
118
I
E
./
12
E
./
10
E 33 10
E 25 10
ID
I
120 120
E
1
115
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mahogany
Chamaecyparis Lawson cypress E 25 4
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Chamaecyparis Nootka cypress E 15 6 5 I
nootkatensis
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IChamaecypans thyOides IWhlte cypress
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ICordyline australis lCabbage tree
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18 12
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[Corn us capitata !Bentham's cornel
IE
1./ 112 112 1./
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1Corylus americana IAmerican hazel
ID 13
I J.! J.!
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!Corylus avellana IHazel
ID 16 13
J.! J.!
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ICorylus aveJlana pontica
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!Corylus chinensis IChinese hazel
ID 124
I J.! I
16
!Corylus colurna ITurkish hazel
ID 120 17 1./
J.!
15
ICoryrus ferox IHimalayan hazel
ID 110
I
1./
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18
ICoryrus heterophylla lSiberian filbert
ID 17
I J.!
1./ 15
ICoryrus jacquemontii Iindian tree hazel
ID 125
I J.! I
17
ICorylus tibetiea
I
ID 115
I J.! I
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!Corylus x colurnoides IT,azel
ID
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1./
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Corylus x vilmorinii Chinese trazel D 25 5
[Crataegus aprica
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I J.!
1./ 16
[Crataegus armena
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ID
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ICrataegus arnoldiana
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1./ 1./ 15
ICrataegus atrosanguinea
I
ID
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1./ 1./
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!Crataegus azarolus IAzarole
ID 110
I J.!
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ICrataegus calpodendron
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!Crataegus canadensis
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ID 19
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!Crataegus champlai nensis I
ID 16
I J.! J.!
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ICrataegus chrysocarpa
I
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1./ 1./ 15
ICrataegus coccinoides [Kansas hawthorn
ID 16
I J.!
1./
15
ICrataegus columbiana
I
ID 15
I J.! J.!
15
ICrataegus dilatata
I
ID 16
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1./ 1./
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!Crataegus dispessa
I
ID 18
I
1./ 1./
I
!Crataegus douglasii [Black hawthorn
ID 19
I
1./ 1.1 15
!Crataegus ellwangeriana
I
ID 16 16 1./ 1./
15

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ID
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Crataegu5 heterophylJa
Crataegus hupehensis
Crataegus iIIinoensis
Crataegus jonesiae
Crataegus laciniata
Crataegus macrosperma
Crataegus maximowiczii
Crataegus missQuriensis
Crataegus mol l is
Crataegus nigra
Crataegus parvifolia
Crataegus pensylvanica
Crataegus pentagyna
Crataegus phaenopyrum
ICrataegus pinnatifida
Crataegus pinnatifida
major
Crataegus pantiea
Crataegus pringlei
Crataegus pruinosa
ICrataegus pubescens
Crataegus pubescens
stipulacea
Crataegus punctata
ICrataegus ri vularis
Crataegus rotundifolia
ICrataegus sanguinea
Crataegus schraderlana
ICrataegus stlpulosa
ICrataegus submollls
ICrataegus subvlliosa
ICrataegus tanacetifotia
ICryptomeria japonica
ICupressocyparis teylandii
lCupressus macrocarpa
IEhretia anacua
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Red haw
Hungarian
hawthorn
Washington thorn
IChinese haw
Frosted hawthorn
!Manzani lla
Manzanilla
Dotted hawthorn
IRiver hawthorn
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IEriobotrya japonica Iloquat
Eucalyptus coccifera Mt. Wellington
peppermint
IEucalyptus gunnii ICider gum
1Eucalyptus johnstonii IYellow gum
)Eucalyptus pauciflora ICabbage gum
Eucalyptus
niphophi la
pauciflora Snow gum
IFagus sylvatica
IBeech
IFraxinus americana IWhite ash
IFraxinus angustifolia IN arrow-leaved ash
Fraxinus chinensis
rhyncophylla
IFraxinus excelsior
lAsh
lFraxinus floribunda
IFraxinus hookeri
lFraxinus latifolia 10regon ash
IFraxinus longicuspis
IFraxinus nigra IBtack ash
IFraxinus ornus 1M anna ash
Fraxinus pennsylvanica Red ash
!Fraxinus quadrangulata IBlue ash
IFraxinus sieboldiana
IFraxinus sinensis
IFraxinus velutina lArizona ash
!Fraxinus xanthoxyloides
IHippophae goniocarpa
1Hippophae gyantsensis
IHippophae neurocarpa
Hippophae salicifolia Willow-leaved sea
buckthorn
Hippophae sinensis Chinese sea
buckthorn
Hippophae tibetana Tibetan sea
buckthorn
IHohena populnea Ilacebark
Page 36
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Juniperus accidentalis Western juniper E 18
./ ./
5
Juniperus scopulorum Rocky Mountain E 10 4
./ ./
3
juniper
Juniperus silicicola Southern red cedar E 20 8
./ ./
8
Juniperus virginiana Pencil cedar E ,20 8
./ ./
4
.
Koelreuteria paniculata Golden rain tree D 10 10
./ ./
6
Laburnum alpinum Scotch laburnum D 5 6
./ ./
5
Laburnum anagyroides Laburnum D 6 6
./ ./
5
Larix decidua Larch D
./
45 15
./ ./
4
Larix gmelinii D 30 1
Larix laricina Tamarack D 18
./ ./
2
Larix occidental is Western larch D 45
./
4
Larix potaninij Larch D 35 5
Larix x marschlinsii Dunkeld hybrid D 50 4
larch
,
Lauru5 nobilis Bay tree E 12 10
./ ./
8
Maclura pommifera Osage orange D
./
15 12
./ ./ ' 5
Magnolia grandiflora E 10 10
./ ./
' 6
Mespitus germanica Medlar D 6 6
./ ./
1
6
Metrosideros excelsus Pohutukawa E
./
7 15
./ ./
8
.
Metrosideros robustus Northern rata E
./
6 15
./
9
Metrosideros umbellatus Southern rata E
./
15
i 9
Morus alba White mulberry D 18 10
./ ./
' 4
Myrica nagi E 12
./ ./ ./
Phillyrea latifolia E
./
8 8
./ ./
7
Picea abies Norway spruce E
./
30 10
./ ./
4
Picea asperata Chinese spruce E 40
./
6
Picea brachytyla Sargent spruce E 40
./
8
Picea breweriana Weeping spruce E 15 5
./
6
Picea engelmannii Mountain spruce E 20 6
./
3
Picea glauca White spruce E 15 5
./ ./
2
Picea glehnii Sakhalin spruce E 30
./
4
Picea jezoensis Yezo spruce E 35
./ ./
2
Picea mariana Black spruce E 20 4
./ ./
4
Picea omorika Serbian spruce E 25 5
./
5
Picea p u n g e ~
2 1ue... spruce_
E 20 5
./
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Pioea purpurea Purple-coned
spruce
]Picea rubens IRed spruce
IE 130
I
1.1 13
]Picea sitchensis ISitka spruce
IE
.I
150 110 1.1 17
]?icea smithiana ]Morinda spruce
IE 130 16
j.r
17
]?inus albicaulis IWhite-bark pine
IE 120
I
j.r
12
aristata IBristle-cone pine
IE 112
14
j.r
13
]Pinus ba':lksiana ]Jack pine
IE
j12
15
1.1
12
]Pinus cembra jSwiss stone pine
IE 115 16 1.1 14
IPinus contorta IBeach pine
IE 115
Is 1.1 17
IPinus flexilis lUmber pine
IE 125
I
j.r
13
]Pinus halepensis IAleppo pine
IE 115
17
j.r
Is
]Pinus lambertiana jSugar pine
IE 175
I
1.1 17
]Pinus monticola IWestern white pine IE
160
I
1.1 14
Pinus mugo Dwarf mountain E
pine
IPinus muricata IBishop's pine
Pinus nigra ' Austrian pine
IPinus nigra maritima ]Corsican pine
]Pinus pinaster IMaritime pine
IPinus pinea Iitalian stone pine
Pinus ponderosa Ponderosa pine
IPinus radiata IMonterey pine
[Pinus resinosa IRed pine
Pinus strobiformis
S.outhwestern white IE
pine
IPinus sylvestris jScot's pine
IE
Pinus thunbergii Japanese black 6
pine
IPinus veitchii I I 125 Is
[Pinus wallichiana blue IE I j25 1./ [./ 1
8
!Pittosporum tenuifolium ITawhiwhi IE j.r 17 14 I 1.1 I 18
Ip,ttosporum undulatum ICheesewood IE 1.1 112 18 I I I I
- - - - To be '(;onlinued in Volume 14 No 4 -----
References
Crawford, M: A.R.T. species database, 2006.
Plants for a Future: plant database 2006.
Oriental persimmon in Europe
Historical perspective
The deliberate spread of Oriental persimmon, Diospyros kaki, and of the Chinese date plum
(D. lotus) is not well documented, but it is possible that some persimmon trees were introduced
into ancient Rome where there are references to and Mthe nice shade they
produced".
The first known importations of Oriental persimmon occurred in 1860 when trees were brought
to France, after which the cultivation of persimmon developed in Provence and other
Mediterranean regi ons of the country. Persimmon trees were introduced to Italy in 1870 and
from 1884 were widely disseminated around the country; later on, persimmon was cultivated as
a fruit tree in some regions (Campania, Emilia Romagna) and as an ornamental tree in others
(Tuscany, Lazio).
Persimmon appeared in Spain around the end of the 19!h. century but may have been introduced
earlier because of the strong relationship between that kingdom and Oriental countries. The
introduction of persimmon in Balkan countries did not take place until the mid 201h. century.
Most of the material introduced into Europe in the 19!h century came from Japan, often via North
America. Some 40 cultivars were imported and present by the early 201h. century, and in the last
30 years many of these have been reintroduced in Italy mostly from Japan and California.
Development as a fruit crop
Italy, where the first orchards were planted at the beginning of the 20
t
h. century in the Salerno
area (Campania region) is still the main European producer, although production has declined
since the 1950's to about 55,000 tonnes per year form 3000 ha. The decrease in production is
attributed to competition from other fruits, the high cost of marketing due to many manual
operations, and the strong productivity of Spanish orchards. The Italian persimmon industry is
based on the cultivar ' Kaki Tipo', a PVNA variety; its fruits are marketed both as non-pollinated
(sold as soft fruits in northern Italy or exported) and pollinated fruits (sold as hard fruits in
Campania and southern Italy). 'Kaki Tipo' accounts for 90% of production, with the remaining
10% shared by other PVNA local varieties ('Vainiglia', 'Mercatelli', ' Mora') and some PCNA
cultivars (,Hana Fuyu' , ' Jiro', 'Gosha'). In the last few years, new orchards have been planted
with the Spanish cultivar 'Rojo Brillante',
In Greece, the persimmon industry is in its infancy, with fruits obtained mainly from isolated
trees in gardens or in mixed family orchards. Recently 'Hana Fuyu' and 'O'Gosho' orchards
have been planted.
A similar situation is found in Portugal, where persimmon is found scattered allover the country,
but is more abundant in the north. About 224 ha of commercial orchards produce some 5400
tonnes/year. The most important cultivar is 'Coroa de Rei', an astringent type. Other cultivars
grown are 'Triumph', ' Hana Fuyu' , 'O'Gosho' and recently 'Raja Brillante'.
Spain has experienced a fast expansion of persimmon production in recent years, now with over
8000 ha of orchards producing 45-50000 tonnes of fruit per year. The main areas of production
are Valencia, Malaga and Granada, with some production in Castellon, Huevla and
7Barcelona/Tarragona. Much of the fast expansion has been in Valencia, mainly in the Ribera
del Xuquer, an area of long traditional expertise in the growing of stone and citrus fruits, This
expansion is attributed to (1) the high value PVA cultivar 'Raja Brillante', a bud sport from
t he Spanish variet y 'Cristalino', that has replaced the apricot and Japanese plum trees affected
by the sharka virus; and (2) the technological developments for removing the astringency of
fruits without loss of firmness, which allows marketing over long distances.
Persimmon is cultivated in small amounts in other European countries such as Cyprus, Slovenia
(areas of Istrija and Nova Gariea, where 'Kaki Tipe' , 'Lycopersicon' and other cuftivars are
used), Montenegro, and Macedonia (where about 2000 lennes of fruits per year are produced
from the astringent cultivar 'Costata' I 'Kostata',

The origins of the persimmon cultivars used in Europe are mostly uncertain. Ongoing studies
on the relationships between European va rieties and ancestral Japanese cullivars are being
carried out.
Most persimmon breeding work is still carried out in Italy at the University of Florence. The
main objectives are: PCNA type, low vigour trees, early ripening time, high productivity,
resistance to chill injuri es, compatibility on both D.kaki and D./otus rootstocks, tree hardiness.
Desirable traits for fruits include size, round or slightly flattish fruits,
skin colour, hard orange flesh without black spots, good storage and drying properties, low
susceptibility to apex cracking and calyx separation.
Persimmon astringency: the pomological classifications of Japanese Persimmon distinguish
between astringent and not astringent cultivars. Astringent cultivars are those containing
soluble tannins and they can be eaten only after physiological ripening, when fruits are soft.
The non astringent cultivars can be eaten soon after harvesting, since their tannins are
insoluble and the content is low. Each group has been divided into two in relation to
the effect of pollination on tannin content: pollination constant and pollination variant cultivars.
The Pollination Constant cultivars do not show any change in the flesh colour if pollinated, while
the fruits of Pollination Variant cultivars bring a pale flesh colour if the fruit is not pollinated
(seedless fruits) and an orange brown flesh if the fruit was pollinated. When poll ination is not
enough (one or two seeds) the flesh changes its colour only around the seeds, while the other
parts of the flesh remain pale. Hence cultivars can be divided into:
Pollination Constant Non Astringent (PCNA): fruits are edible (not astringent) at harvest time
and the flesh is pale regardless the presence of seeds. Some PCNA cultivars are ' Fuyu', 'Jiro',
' Hana Fuyu', 'O'Gosho'.
Pollination Constant Astringent (PCA): fruits are always astringent, regardless the presence of
seeds. The flesh is pale and fruits are edible only after softening or after artificial astringency
removal. Some peA cullivars are ' Hachiya', 'Atago', 'Yokono'.
Pollination Variant Non Astringent (PVNA): at harvest time the flesh is not astringent only if fruit
contains seeds. In that case the flesh is brown. Seedless (parthenocarpic) fruits can be eaten
only after softening or after astringency removal. Some PVNA cultivars are ' Kaki Tipo' ,
'Amankaki', 'Mikatani Gosha'.
Pollination Variant Astringent (PVA): fruits are always astringent at harvest time, and the flesh
change the colour into brown only around the seeds. Even if the number of seeds is high, flesh
is never completely edible at harvest time. Fruits can be eaten after softening or after
astringency removal. Some PVA cultivars are 'Aizumishirazu', ' Hiratanenashi', 'Tone Wase'.
References
Bellini, E & Giordana, E: Germplasm and Breeding of Persimmon in Europe. Acta Hart. 685,
ISHS 2005.
EC Project GENRES 29: htlp:!!www.unifi.itlprojectlueresgen29rwelcome.hlml
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Contents
2 News: Birch agroforestry in Canada / The ringing
Cedars - trees for self-reliance I Climate change
papers I Forest farming of Alliums
5 Deep pipe irrigation
7 Cloudberries
9 Malva: the mallows
15 Plants for windy sites: trees (2)
20 Trees and aquaculture systems
22 Zanthoxylum: temperate pepper trees
31 New Zealand flax
36 Spice bush: Lindera benzoin
38 Tree pruning in broadscale agroforestry
illness caused by the' use or misuse of such crops.
Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website: 'WWW.agroforestry.co.uk
Page 1
News
Birch agroforestry in Canada
Paper birch, Betula papyrifera, is abundant on both private and public lands within the interi or of
British. Columbia, t ypi cal ly growing on lowlands and lower mountain slopes. It is a shade
intol erant species, thriving on burned or harvested sites where it can form pure stands. As the
forest matures it is usually restricted to clearings.
Commercially, paper birch use is mainly limited to small amounts of wood products including
flooring, lumber, oriented stand board (OS8) and fuelwood. However. there is growing interest
and demand for non-timber products from birch, notably birch syrup obtained by tapping trees.
There are currently two commercial birch syrup businesses. coll ecting approximately 68,000
litres of raw sap and producing about 790 litres of finished syrup. Both sell most of their
product directly to the consumer and through a variety of retail outlets, farmers markets and
fairs throughout British Columbia. Demand currentl y exceeds production.
Work is starting in the area to compile a production manual for prospective birch agroforestry
practitioners. Further products are also being researched including sap drinks (bi rch tonic,
birch wine, birch sap-fruit juice blends), crafts (from wood and bark) and non-traditional wood
products. It is hoped that an expansion in birch agroforestry may offset to some degree the
serious economic damage caused by the move north of the mountain pine beetle and which is
expected to reduce timber harvesting by at least 40% in 10 years.
Source: Agroforestry Update, June 2006.
The ringing cedars: trees for self-reliance
Micro scale farming is widespread in Russia where Mdacha gardens" are responsible for 40% of
the country's agricultural output. One of the leading advocates of micro scale farming is
Russian entrepreneur Vladimir Megre who over the last decade has published eight books in a
series entitled The Ringing Cedars. The books advocate a return to the land and rural living as
consistent with Russia' s traditional millennia-old lifestyle and the economic, social, cultural, and
spiritual needs of human nature. They also promote greater environmental awareness and a
realization of the significance of trees and nontimber tree products t o achieving the goals of
those returning to the land.
The Ringing Cedars present a holistic philosophy of a harmonious relationship between
humanity and nature and propose a model of economic organization based on a decentralized
national economy comprised of sustainable rural settlements that are in turn composed of
indi vidual family-owned homesteads rkin estates/ rodovoe pomest'e). The Ringing Cedars
books have sold more than 10 million copi es in Russia, and have been met with a powerful
societal response and sparked a fast-growing ecoviUage movement by the same name.
The ecoviltage movement, while growing oul of the dacha movement and sharing many of its
traits, is also different in a number of important characteristics. For example, while the typical
size of a dacha plot is 0.06 ha, and the maximum size of a subsidiary plot i s 0.5 ha, in the newly
forming ecovillages each family privately owns at least 1 ha of land. This larger size is
warranted by the participants' aspiration to integrate human habitat with the agroecosystem,
and -by growing a wide variety of crops and trees and tClking advantage of other opportunities
such as agritourism-to create a self-reliant land-based household, approaching self-sufficiency
Page 2
not onl y in food, but also in technical crops (e.g., flax. sunflower), timber, firewood , medicinal
plants, and other products. It is also recognized that maintaining contact with one's own piece
of land and establishing a circular flow of matter, energy, and information between each family
and their kin estate's ecosystem is important for both physical and psychological well-being of
the residents. The shared goals of ecovillages also include stewardship over local natural
resources and a commitment to creating a social organization conducive t o independent ,
economically secure, socially rich, and personally rewarding lifestyles.
Both the Ringing Cedars books and the social movement they have given rise to place a special
emphasis on integrating trees into agroecosystems. It is recognized that trees provide a wide
range of food and non-food products, plus many other benefits, and are imbued with a deep
symbolic meaning. The latter is especially true for the Siberian cedar (Siberian pine, Pinus
sibirica), which has been traditionally valued not only as a multipurpose tree producing high
quality timber and pine nuts, but also as a spiritual symbol. In the vision of Vladimir Megre and
the new ecovillage settlers, each kin estate must be surrounded by a windbreak and represent a
multilayer perennial polyculture system with a wide variety of plants, both herbaceous and
woody. As an example of the potential long-run sustainability and producti vi ty of such a
system, Vladimi r Megre cites 19th century agroforestry practices in central Russia, for example
a 200-year-old system of apple orchards surrounded by windbreaks Pinus sibirica in the
Vladimir region, 250 km east of Moscow. The local residents reported that with no fertilization
or maintenance these orchards, abandoned shortly after 1917, were still produci ng better crops
and better-tasting apples than the carefully tended trees in the nearby villages. The orchards
also provided high-quality hay. The exceptionally cold winter of 1976, which killed most fruit
trees in this regi on, did no damage to the windbreak-protected orchards.
In Megre's vision, a properly designed agroecosystem would be self-sustaining and productive
with minimal inputs of labour and other resources. Megre was also instrumental in popularizing
the economic potential of nontimber forest products, particularly pine nut oil.
Megre has observed that both dachniks and the new ecovillagers can derive their li velihood
from a combination of subsistence growing and taking advantage of niche market opportunities.
In a country traditionally placing very high value on homegrown produce, there are vast
opportunities for direct marketing of these products directly to the consumer. Megre has
described an ever more widespread practice of wealthy urbanites without a garden contracting
with a particular dachnik or rural resident to grow an organic food supply for them (including
canned food for the winter). This practice is all the more important given the absence of
organic food certi fication and labelling in Russia. Apart from growing one's own food supply,
personally knowing the grower may be the best available assurance of the food quality. As an
extension of this practice, Megre suggested branding the products produced by individual
growers. When marketed through stores and other outlets, the branded products allow the
consumers to express their preferences by choosing a product produced by a certain family.
Such family-labelled products-notably family-produced pine nut oil-are al ready available on
the market.
Reference: Sharashkin, L Gold, M & Barham, E: ECOFARMING AND AGROFORESTRY FOR
SELF-RELIANCE: Small-scale, Sustainable Growing Practices in Russia. Presented at the
North American Agroforestry Conference in MN 2005.
Climate change papers
Crop models typically suggest that increased temperature and decreased soil moisture will
reduce global crop yields by 2050, but that the rising carbon dioxide (C0
2
) levels will increase
plant productivity, thereby offsetting these losses. However, Long et al explain that the older
experiments were conducted over 20 years ago, and that technology has improved since then,
enabling major crops (eg. rice, wheat, soybeans and maize) to now be grown under higher CO2
Page 3
concentrations in open-air field conditions. Results from these new trials show that elevated
CO
2
increased yields some 50% less than in previous smaller-scale experiments. This result
casts serious doubt on the projection that rising CO
2
will fully offset yield losses due to future
warmer, drier conditions.
Source: Long, S.P. et al: Food for thought: lower-than-expected crop yield simulation with rising
CO
2
concentrations. Science 312: 1918-1921 (2006).
The 2005 hurricane season was the most active on record by several measures. Trenberth and
Shea investigate the sources of variability influencing the frequency and intensity of hurricanes,
and consider the question of attribution of changes in hurricane behaviour to human-induced
climate change. They conclude that -the global warming influence provides a new background
level that increases the risk of future enhanced activity".
Source: Trenberth, K.E. & Shea, D.J., 2006: Atlantic Hurricanes and natural variability in 2005.
Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L 12704.
The recently published "The Handbook of Climate Trends across Scotland", assesses changes
in Scottish climate over the last 40 years and shows:
Heavy rainfall events have increased significantly in winter, particularl y in northern and
western regions;
The snow season has shortened across the country since 1961, with the season
starting later and finishing earlier in the year. The greatest reductions have occurred in
northern and western Scotland;
Since 1961 there has been more than a 25% reduction in the number of days of frost
(both air and ground frost) across the country. At the same time, the growing season
length has increased significantly, with the greatest change occurring at the beginning
of the season.
Forest farming of A/liums
Marty Travis' cousin, the owner of a 26 acre Illinois woodlot, approached Marty and her
husband Kris to ask them to help reduce the large and expanding area of wild onions or ramps
(Allium tricoccum) to encourage other wildflowers. Today these greens provide almost 70% of
their total farm income.
Ramps are bulbs native to Eastern North America, found in patches of rich, moist , deciduous
forests from Canada to Tennessee and South Carolina. In late winter or very early spring, each
plant sends up 2-3 broad, smooth ovate leaves which grow 20-30 cm tall. Ramps reproduce by
bulb division as well as by seeds, and large colonies can blanket a whole hillside. By late may
or early June, as the shade from the tree canopy maximises, the ramp leaves die back. Ramps
is very similar to the European ram sons (Allium ursinum) in all respects.
Originally, Kris and Marty Travis had no intention of harvesting ramps commercially. In March
2003, they harvested 1590 kg (3500 lb) of ramps from 0.1 acres (about 400 m
2
). They sold then
to a distributor (wholesaler) for $14,000 (twice as much income as generated from the rest of
their farm's 100 acres of corn and soya bean). In 2004 they harvested fewer ramps but
generated a higher price-per-pound by selling them directly to restaurants in addition to
distributors (restaurants paid $8 to $10 per pound, distributors paid $4.25 per pound). In 2005
they harvested 1800 kg (just under 4000 Ib), as well as several pounds of seeds to sell to
interested entrepreneurs.
In recent years, the market for ramps has grown from a local item to a delicacy on the menus of
restaurants in cities such as Atlanta, New York and Chicago. Since 2004, the Travis's have
hosted a "Chefs d a y ~ for nearly 30 chefs; the chefs help dig, wash and package ramps in the
morning, and in the afternoon the prepare recipes. They hope to expand these days, and are
also going to test market ramp flowers.
Digging the ramps is labour intensive and hard work. Harvest takes 4-5 weeks, mostly by the
Travis's themselves, with some part time hired workers. The whole plant, bulb and ali, is dug
and taken to be washed before sale. This harvest method significantly affects regeneration _
studies have shown that a ramp population needs many years to recover from a single harvest
of this nature. Rather than harvest a large block of plants on a long rotation, it may be more
sustainable to harvest narrow alleys of plants, so that regeneration can take place from either
side more quickly.
Source: Inside Agroforestry. Vol 15 Issue 2. USDA NAC. 2006.
Deep pipe irrigation
Introduction
The drought conditions in the south and east of England this spring and summer have focussed
grower's minds there on irrigation. Although established trees in Britain rarely need sustained
irrigation, newly planted trees are vulnerable to drought conditions, and if they are planted in
fields some distance from a water supply, then watering them may not be an easy job. In
addition, water supplies can become very low in some areas during droughts, so there may be
only limited applies available. On site water supplies, ego from streams or springs may also
reduce in quality with water shortages. The task then becomes how to water young trees most
efficiently, and this is where deep pipe irrigation comes in.
What is deep pipe irrigation?
Deep pipe irrigation is a system that uses an open vertical or near vertical pipe to deliver
irrigation water to the deep root zone. It encourages a much larger root volume than other
forms of irrigation and helps develop a plant that is better adapted to survive after watering is
terminated. By delivering irrigati on water through deep pipes rather than on the surface, tree
roots tend to grow down rather than at the surface, which can also benefit any intercropping
annuals which tend to be shallow rooted. Weed competition is reduced by avoiding surface
irrigation. Deep pipe irrigation works just as well on steep slopes as on level ground.
Deep pipe irrigation is commonly done with 2.5-3 cm diameter plastic pipe placed vertically 30-
50 cm deep in the soil near a young tree. A screen cover (1 mm mesh) can be added to keep
animals out. Alternatives to plastic pipe include bamboo with the node partitions drilled or
punched out, or even a bundle of tightly tied straight twigs.

t
)0 _.n
eM
J
The pipe should be fairl y close to the small tree (2.5 - 7.5 em away for seedling trees, up to 12
em away for larger trees) . Several pipes can be used for a larger tree if necessary, arranged
around the tree symmetrically.
A seri es of 1-2 mm holes or slots should be spaced about 5-7.5 em apart down the side of the
pipe nearest the plant to allow water to weep into the soil at alileveJs (not only at the bottom) to
facilitate root growth early on. If shallow-rooted plants from containers are planted next to a
deep pipe without weep holes, the roots may not make contact with the wetted soil. Similarly, a
young seedling can dry out if a drip emitter is used to deliver water into the pipe, even if it has
weep holes. Growing pl ants in deep containers can minimise these problems.
Deep pipes can be filled from, hoses, watering cans or fitted with a drip emitter. If a drip emitter
is used then the deep pipe can be smaller (down to around 1 cm diameter), and in order to
ensure that the water seeps through the pipe at all levels, the drip water rate must be fast
enough 10 fill the pipe - or alternatively, the pipe can be tilted with the weep holes downwards \
so that Ihe water runs over and through them. A battery-powered remote timer combined with a
water tank can be set up at a remote site to irrigate once a week which should lead to good tree
survival. The advantages over buried drip systems include ease of access to the drippers in
case of blockage.
Deep pipe irrigation can be used with low quality water (though not necessarily with drip
emitters if they are likely to block up).
The deep pipes can be collected at the end of the season for re-use.
have demonstrated that deep pipe irrigation systems are very effective and more
effICIent than surface drip or conventional surface irrigation. Much larger effective rooting
volumes are developed and the plants are better adapted to survive future dry spells.
In very dry re.gions, long term survival and growth can be improved by including micro
catchments to Increase effective rainfall, by the use of tree shelters to reduce water demand
and by the use of mulches.
Reference
Bainbridge, 0 A; Deep pipe irrigation. The Overstory #17E, 2006.
Page 6
Cloudberries
Introduction
In the northern parts of Scandinavia, Finland, Alaska and Siberia, the short summers and cold
temperatures severely limit the range of fruits which grow well, and northern berries like
cloud berries (and lingonberries too) have long been an important source of nutrition.
Although cloudberries are produced in large quantities in their native habitat, they have been a
scarce resource because the naturally grow in areas difficult to access. Cloud berries were once
valued so highly in Norway that a special law was passed granting local people in the north of
the country exclusive harvesting rights; and even today cloudberries growing on common land
in Finland are still restricted to the local people to harvest.
Cloud berries are still considered a delicacy and are a highly priced commodity. Over 300,000
Kg are imported annually into Norway from Finland.
Description
The cloud berry, Rubus chamaemorus, is a
small woody perennial species with
circumboreal distribution including Scotland.
Other common names for it are 'baked apple
berry' and 'salmonberry'.
Plants are found mostly in boggy areas and
have long rhizomes that grow at a depth of 20-
30 cm. Several resting buds and vegetative or
flowering shoots appear along the rhizomes
each year. Roots branch off from the rhizomes,
few in wet habitats and more where drier.
Shoots are 10-12 cm in length, bearing five
lobed leaves often covered underneath with
orange glands. Growth is determined by day
length and the plants are well adapted to short
summers, long days and a cold climate.
Surprisingly, the aerial parts of cloudberry are
not particularly cold hardy, but since the
rhizome is well buried, this usually survives low
temperatures. Damage to flowers occurs in
light frosts of only _1C. After fruit set, the
berries can survive and develop in cool
temperatures, and their cold hardiness
increases from light frosts after fertilisation, to -
3 or _4C when n e ~ r l y ripe.
Cloudberry is dioecious, so male and female
respectively. Both male and female flowers are 1-3 cm In diameter, white, with 4-10 petals,
borne in late spring. Pollination i s via insects, usually bumble bees and small flies.
The fruit is a drupe, like a small golden yellow raspberry. The plants and fruits have a
characteristic odour.
Use
Cloud berries are used fresh, in jams, jellies , syrups, desserts, yoghurts, teas and liqueurs. The
texture raw is quite glutinous. The flavour is unique - somewhat appley with a musky aroma.
The fruits contain 50 to 150 mg vitamin C per 100 g (very high), and are rich in benzoic acid
(like and so store for several weeks or more in normal refrigeration. The seeds
are quite large and are usually removed during the processing.
The seeds are a source of oils currently used in cosmetic products for dry or sensitive skin.
The flowers can be ealen is salads and the leaves are sometimes used in teas.
The fruits have been confirmed as having antibacterial properties and contain high levels of
antioxidants.
Cultivation
In contrast to other Rubus species, cloud berry has not been domesticated, but there is now
interest in the commercialisation of the fruit because the increase of interest in the health
benefits of berries, particularly their antioxidant content. They become more difficult to grow the
further south the site - excessive summer heat send the plants dormant. Plants are resi stant to
fungal diseases.
Cloudberries fruit better in a sheltered site. They are not demanding as to soil (tolerating acid
and poor soils) and can respond to fertilisation when placed below the soil surface - fertilising
on top of the soil can increase weed competition considerably.
When planting plants of known sex, it is recommended to use 80% female and 20% male plants.
Fruits ripen between July and September.
Propagation is easiest vegetatively from rhizome cuttings, as plants are naturally spreading via
rhizomes - this way, plants of know sex are produced. Cuttings should be about 12 cm long,
containing at least one bud. In Norway these are taken in the spring and planted out a year
later.
Seedlings take 45 years to flower and the sex cannot be determined until then; also, there are
usually only 40% female plants from seedling populations.
'Apollon' & 'Apolto' - selected mate cultivars with heavy flowering.
'Fjellgull' & 'Fjordgull' - selected female cultivars bearing many flowers and fruits.
References
Naess, K: Cloud berries. Pomona, Vol xxviii No 3, 4748.
Nilsen, G S: Cloud berries - The Northern Gold. International Journal of Fruit Science, Vol 5(2)
2005.
Rapp, K & Martinussen, I: Breeding Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.) for Commercial use.
Acta Hart, 585 (1): 159-160.
Rapp, K. et al: Commercialization of the cloud berry (Rubus chamaemorus L.) in Norway. p. 524
526. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, 1993.
Ramirez, A: Wild Fruits of the North an Far North - A Persona! CHronicle. Fruit Gardener, Vol
29 Na 1, 19-22.
Malva: the mallows
Introduction
The genus Malva consists of some 30 species of annual and perennial herbs and subshrubs
from temperate and tropical regions. Easily grown, and often found in ornamental flower
borders and naturalistic plantings, Ma/vas are some of the finest perennial salad plants for
temperate climates, and several species are amongst the most used in the A.R.T. forest garden
in Dartington, Devon.
General description
Mallows are found in the wild in open sunny habitats, on waste ground, along roadsides and
hedge banks, in woodland clearings and in pasture or grassy meadows.
The alternate leaves of Malva species are very varied, often on the same plant there will almost
round leaves near the base, with leaves becoming more and more finely crenulated higher up
the plant. This can make identification from the leaves only difficult. The hardier perennial
species often retain a rosette of basal leaves well into the winter, or in mild winters all through
the winter.
Flowers are usually white, pink or purple, with 5 petals, often quite showy, lasting for a week or
more.
Seeds are borne in tight heads.
Malva are anchored by long vertical tap roots.
Malva species have been called by the curious names Cheese (or Cheeses), Cheeseflower, or
Cheese-weed, with numerous plays off the same idea, including Cheese-cake, Dutch Cheese,
Doll-cheeses, Fairy-cheeses, Pick-cheese, or Cheese-log. This is due to the wheel-shaped
carpels that remain after the flower petals fall , which is supposed to resemble miniature cheese
wheels, small enough for use by the fairies.
Some species of Malva are considered nuisance weeds, for example in Aust ralia with
M.sylvestris.
Uses
The major use for Malva species is as salad plants. Probably all species can be used in the
same way, though the known ones are listed later. The leaves make an excellent base
ingredient in salads - they are not highly flavoured, but have a pleasant mucilaginous texture.
The texture of the lower rounder leaves is best; as the plants grow and flower the finely cut
leaves higher up become more course. It is best to grow an area of several plants to make
harvesting efficient, something like ten plants would yield 2 daily portions of salad base.
Note: the leaves are normally perfectly safe to eat, however if plants are cultivated with the use
of excess nitrogen, particularl y with soluble nitrogen fertilisers, plants can accumulate excess
nitrates in their leaves (as can lettuces and other plants) which are not wholesome.
The flowers are equally edible, with a mild flavour and slightly mucilaginous texture. The whole
flower can be picked or just the petals - the green base can get a little course. I often sprinkle
the petals over the top of a salad.
The leaves can be cooked in soups, stews etc. although the texture can go somewhat slimy;
they have a thickening effect. Mallow soup is highly prized in the Middle East.
The young immature seeds can be eaten - they have a pleasant nutty flavour - however they
are small (2 mm) and fiddly. An edi ble oil can be extracted from the seeds.
Many mal lows have long been used medicinally as the leaves are demulcent and anti-
inflammatory.
Similarly, the stems of many mall ows can be processed to extract a strong, coarse fibre to make
cordage (string, rope).
Bees are very fond of the flowers.
Cultivation
Malva spp. are undemanding in cultivation, they grow in any reasonably drained and moderatel y
fertile soi l. The do require full sun or dappled shade. The perennials tend to be short lived,
often 3-4 years, though plants often sel f sow if there is clean soil for the seeds to fallon to.
Grow from seed, either sow seed direct in the ground or use Rootrainers or a similar system -
because mallow have long tap roots, they are best not grown in round pots.
Taller species grown in very fertile soil may flop over after heavy rains andlor winds.
There are some named varieties whi ch have been selected for their showy flowers.
Mallows sometimes suffer from a leaf rust during hot dry summers when plants are under
stress. The other common problem is capsid bugs damaging leaves, leaving small holes and
distortions, but in a diverse g ~ r d e n this should not be a serious problem.
Do not fertilise - excess nitrogen fertiliser can cause excessive nitrate levels in the leaves.
Propagation is usually by seed, and is easy. Just sow seed in spri ng in seed trays and keep
warm; seedlings can be potted up and are. large enough to plant out in summer i f requi red.
Annuals can be sown in situ in spring.
Softwood cuttings can be taken in spring but are not really worth the effort.
The speci es
The species listed here are the ones with known and recorded uses. There are several other
species, including 4 Mediterranean annuals (M.aegpytia, M.cretica, M.hispanica, M.stipu/acea),
which may have similar edible and medicinal uses.
Malva alcea - Hollyhock mall ow
Bushy perennial herb to 80 em high and wide. Lower leaves rounded with wavy edges, higher
leaves finely cut. Flowers, 25-40 mm across, are borne singly in leaf axils at ends of branches
from July-October, pink. Native to southern Europe, naturalised in the USA. Hardy to zone 4.
'Fastigiata ' - to 1 m high, narrowly upright , flowers deep pink.
Malva aleea in flower growing with wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca) beneath
Uses
Excellent salad plant.
The seeds are reported to yield 15% oil.
Leaves used medicinally for mouth infections.
A fibre can be obtained from the stems for cordage.
Dyes can be obtained from the plant and seed heads.
Malva excisa
Perennial to 120 em high. Flowers from July-October. Native to Europe, Hardy to zone 4.
Uses
Salad plant.
The seeds are reported t o yield 15% oil.
Leaves used medicinally for mouth infecti ons.
A fibre can be obtained from the stems for cord age.
Page 11
Malva meluca
Annual from southern S.America, growing to 120 em high.
Uses
Salad plant.
The seeds are reported to yield up to 20% oil which has been used in soap making.
A f i b r ~ can be obtained from the stems for cordage.
The plant has been used for fodder.
Malva mohileviensis
Annual growing to 120 em high.
Uses
Salad plant.
A fibre can be obtained from the stems for cordage.
The seeds are reported to yield up to 20% oil which has been used in soap making.
Malva moschata - musk mallow
'Alba' - to 60 em high, flowers white, leaves deeply cut.
'Rosea' - flowers rose tinted purple.
Uses
Excellent salad plant.
A fibre can be obtained from the stems for cordage, textiles and paper making.
Medicinally, all parts of the plant are antiphlogistic, astringent, demulcent, diuretic, emollient,
expectorant, laxative, salve. The leaves and flowers are the main parts used, their demulcent
properties making them valuable as an anti-inflammatory for bruises, inflammations, insect bites
etc, or taken internally in the treatment of respiratory system diseases or inflammation of the
digestive or urinary systems.
Recent screening identified the seeds of Malva moscha/a as having an antibacterial activity
against five bacteri a including E.coli and Staphylococcus aureus.
Caterpillar & butterfly forage.
Malva neglecta - common mallow, dwarf mallow, round leaved
mallow
Annual to 50 cm high. Leaves roundish on long stalks. Flowers in clusters from [eafaxils, pink
or white, July to September. Native to Europe, NW Africa, SW Asi a, naturalised in the USA.
Hardy to zone 5.
Uses
Good salad plant. It is also extensively cultivated on the banks of the Nile in Egypt as a
potherb.
A decoction of the roots has been used as an egg-white substitute for making meringue.
Medicinally the plant is used identically to M. moschata.
Malva nicaeensis - Bull mallow
Erect annual or short-lived perennial to 50 cm high. Leaves roundish, lobed. Flowers single or
in clusters from the leaf axils, July to September. Native to the Mediterranean (Arabia to Iran
and S.Russia), naturalised in Europe and the USA. Hardy to zone 7.
Uses
Salad plant.
Malva parvif/ora - Cheeseweed, Least mallow
Annual growing 50 cm high. Native to SW Europe, naturalised in Britain.
Uses
Salad plant.
The leaves are used to make a soup resembling pea soup.
The seeds are reported to yield up to 18% oil.
Medicinally, The whole plant is emollient and pectoral. The seeds are demulcent and are used
in the treatment of coughs and ulcers.
Page 13
Malva pusilla - Small mallow
Annual growing 30 em high. Flowers July-September. Native to Europe, naturalised in Britain.
Wind tolerant.
Uses
Excellent salad plant, though quite low yielding.
Mediciilally, the leaves are demulcent and have occasionally been used internall y in the
treatment of inflammations of the digestive and urinary systems; and externally as a poultice for
bruises, inflammations, piles etc. The seed is demulcent and is used in the treatment of
coughs, bronchitis, ulceration of the bladder and haemorrhoids; it is applied externally in the
treatment of skin diseases.
Malva sylvestris - Wood mallow, tall mallow, cheeses
Malva sy/vestris in flower
Page 14
Erect annual , biennial or perennial to
1 m high. Leaves broadly heart
shaped, lobed. Flowers borne in
clusters from the upper leaf axils,
pinkishmauve, JuneOctober.
Tolerates slightly more shade than
other mallows. Native to Europe, N
Africa. SW Asia, naturalised in USA.
Hardy to zone 5.
Malva sylvestris var. mauritiana (High
Mallow) is native to Iberia, Italy &
Algeria. It has in the past been
regarded as its own species
(M.mauriHana). The variant has larger
flowers & larger leaves.
'Alba' - to 75 cm high, white fJowers.
'Brave Heart' - upright to 90 cm,
large leaves, large flowers - pale
purple with dark eye.
'Cottenham Blue' - to 75 cm, flowers
pale blue, early flowering.
'Prim ley Blue' - prostrate to 20 cm
high, flowers soft violet.
Uses
Excellent salad plant. M.sylvestris var.mauritania is reputed to have the tastiest leaves, though
it is less hardy
Wood mallow leaves make one of the best soups of all wild greens rquite delicious) according
to Ray Mears.
Medicinal uses identical to M.moschata.
A tincture of the flowers forms a very delicate test for alkalis.
A fibre can be obtained from the stems for cordage, textiles and paper making.
Caterpillar & butterfly forage.
Malva verticil/ata - Chinese mallow, Whorled mallow
Erect annual or biennial to 1.8 m high. Leaves roundish, lobed. Flowers in dense clusters in
leaf axils, white or purple, Native to Europe & Asia, naturalised in Britain and
the USA. Hardy to zone 6.
'Cri spa' (salad mallow, curled mallow, Castillian mallow) - upright habit, to 2 m high, leaves
wavy edged, flowers pale lavender colour, small.
Uses
Excellent salad plant (this one even makes it into semi-mainstream salad books.) It is grown on
a limited commercial scale in China.
Medicinall y, the seed is demulcent, diuretic, emollient, galactogogue and laxati ve. The leaves
and stems are said to be digestive and are given to women in the advanced stages of
pregnancy.
References
Crawford, M: A.R.T. Plant database, 2006.
Kumarasamy, Y et al : Screening seeds of Scottish plants for antibacterial activity. Journal of
Ethnopharmacotogy 83, pp 73-77, 2002.
Mears, R: Bushcraft. Hodder & Stoughton, 2002.
Plants for a Future: Plant database 2006, at www_pfaf.org
Trees (2)
Introduction
This is a continuation table from Agroforestry News, Vol 14 No 3.
The table below lists Latin and common names, a code for deciduous (D) or evergreen (E),
Page 15
of the tree, whether it is nitrogen-fixing, has edible and medicinal uses, and hardiness zone
number. In most of the UK, trees hardy only to zones 8-9 are not suitable for windy sites, but
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[Platanus occidentalis IButtonwood
10
!Platanus orientalis !Oriental plane
10
IPopulus alba IWhite poplar
10
Populus tremula Aspen poplar
!Populus x canadensis ICanadian poplar
!Populus x canescens IGrey poplar
!Prunus angustifolia IChickasaw plum
IPrunus cerasifera ICherry plum
!Prunus cerasus ISour cherry
!Prunus cerasus austera !Morello cherry
Prunus cerasus Kentish red cherry
caproniana
!Prunus cerasus frutescens IBush sour cherry 10
!Prunus cerasus marasca IM<;lraschino cherry 10
]Prunus domestica insititia 10amson 10
IPseudotsuga menziesii [Douglas fir IE
Quercus species
1
0
Quercus acuta .. Japanese
IE
evergreen oak
!Quercus acutlsslma lSawthorn oak
1
0
IQuercus agrifolia !Encina
IE
!Quercus alba IWhite oak
10
[Quercus aliena IOriental white oak
10
IQuercus bicolor [Swamp white oak
10
!Quercus cerris
ITurkeyoak
10
[Quercus chrysolepis
ILive oak
IE
IQuercus coccinea !Scarlet
10
Quercus dentata Japanese e.mperor 0
oak
IQuercus dilatata
I
IE
[Quercus douglasii
IBlue oak
10
[Quercus ellipsoidalis
!Northern pin oak
10

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Page 16
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!Quercus !lgelmannii
Quercus farcata
IQuercus frainetto
Quercus garryana
IQuercus glandulifera
Quercus glauca
IQuercus hispanica
Quercus ilex
Quercus ilex baliota
Quercus imbricaria
Quercus ithaburensis
macrolepis
Quercus kelloggii
Quercus laevis
Quercus lamellosa
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IHungarian oak
10regon white oak 0
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Holm oak E
Shingle oak 0
Valonia oak 0
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Californian black 0
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American turkey 0
oak
E
IQuercus leuGotnchophora I
IQuercus libani jLebanon oak
10
Quercus lineata E
Quercus lobata Californian white 0
oak
IQuercus Iyrata IOvercup oak
10
Quercus macrocarpa Burr oak
10
IQuercus marylandica IBlackjack oak
10
Quercus michauxii Swamp chestnut 0
oak
IQuercus mongollca
Quercus mongolica
grosses errata
IQuercus muehlenbergii IVeliow chestnut oak 10
IQuercus myrsinaefolia
I IE
Quercus nigra Water oak
IQuercus pachyphy-lia
Quercus palustris Pin oak
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IOuerclls pubescens IDownyoak
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IQuercus rabur IPedunculate oak
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IQuercus rubra IRed oak
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IQuercus stellata Ipost oak
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IQuercus velutina IBlack oak
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ISabal mexicana IMexican palmetto
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ISalix alba IWhite willow
ID
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!Salix alba caerulea bat willow
ID
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ISalix alba vi tellina IGolden willow
ID
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ISalix 'Bowles hybrid'
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ISalix caprea ]Goat willow
ID
J.r
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!Salix cinerea 0lel1era ICommon sallow'
ID
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ISalix daphnoides IViol et willow
ID
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ISali x fra9ili5 ICrack willow
ID
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ID
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!Salix purpurea lambertiana !Purpl e osier
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lsorbus alnifolia IKorean mountain
ash
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americana American mountain D 2
lash
!Sorbus aria IWhitebeam
ID 11 2 15
!Sorbus aucuparia !Mountain ash
ID
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ash
Serbus devoniensis French hales
Serbus domestica Service tree
ISorbus hybrida
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Serbus intermedia Swedish whitebeam
Serbus japonica
Serbus lanala
Serbus lalifolia French hales
Sorbus mougeotii
I
ISorbus pohuashanensis
Serbus thibetica
Serbus torminalis Wild service tree
Serbus veslita
T amarix african a
Tamarix aphylla Alhel tamarisk
Tamarix canariensis Tamarisk
!Tamanx Junlpenna
ITaxus baeeata IYew
ITaxus brevifolia IPacific yew
laxus canadensis Canadian yew
Taxus cuspidata Japanese yew
Thuja plleata Western red cedar
Tilia americana American
basswood
Tilla cordata Small leaved lime
Titia mongolica Mongolian lime
Tilia x vulgaris Common lime
Ulmus glabra Wych elm
IUlmus parvlfoha IChmese elm
Ulmus procera English elm
Ulmus pumila Siberian elm
Xylosma japonica
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Page 19
Trees and aquaculture systems
Introduction
Agroforestry systems have long been dominated by the triangular model of trees - arable
agriculture - livestock and their interactions. However, various systems integrating aquaculture
with treels are known and documented, sometimes called silvoaquaculture systems.
Types of silvoaquaculture systems.
Four principal types of system have been identified, classified by the land-use system in which
they are found:
1. Aquaculture under natural forests
Characteristics of these systems are variable water levels. as few trees tolerate permanent
submergence under water. Aquaculture systems can include fishing of unmanaged ('wild' )
stocks, mainly with nets, lines and spears; also some stock-rearing in pens and cages. Most
examples of such systems are tropical, ego fisheries under flooded rainforest in south America
and South east Asia.
2. Aquaculture under plantations
Characteristics of these systems are the addition of aquaculture production to an existing
plantation system, often with significant nutrient exchanges between tree and aquatic
components, leading to a more efficient, diversified and profitable system. Examples include:
Flooded plantation forests, ego fisheries in southern USA under pine plantations.
Ponds in plantation., forestry, ego planting trees in ponds, such as bald cypress
(Taxodium) in crayfish ponds in Louisiana USA or establishing ponds in
plantations in China.
3. Aquaculture in silvoarable systems
Characteristics of these systems are already existing intensive agriculture with the inclusion of
1
,
trees for secondary productive and/or useful functions, and aquaculture introduced as another 1
peripheral activity to increase diversity, nutrient transfers and system efficiency. A livestock
component mayor may not be present. The aquaculture component can be managed
concurrently with the crop or between harvest and land preparation. Examples include: I
Temporary ponds established outside of the cropping period, ego prawn farming in rain
fed systems in South East Asia.
Aquaculture carried out in irrigation channels, canals or water storage ponds.
4. Aquaculture in intensive agricultural systems
Characteristics of these systems are small land holdings with a high diversity of crops and
animals in multilayered and highly integrated systems. Such systems are often the most
productive and resilient landuse systems in the world. Livestock are often integrated, with
ruminants, pigs, poultry and small ruminants such as rabbits often included. Examples include:
Home gardens / forest gardens in Asia
Dyke-pond systems in China with an integrated system invol ving fish ponds, mulberry
dykes and sugar cane d y k e ~ . Components may include rearing of fry, production
ponds and fish cultivation in the ponds, and mulberry, si lkworm, vegetable and
sugarcane subsystems on the dykes. Cut flower and banana production has begun t o
replace mulberries as the world market for silk has decli ned.
Tree products in aquaculture
Some uses of tree products in aquaculture include:
Wood for boat building
Tree products, ego foliage, fruit, processing residues, as an aquaculture feed.
Residues from groundnut and soya are widely used and their value as fish food known
for centuries. A number of trees, mainly legumes, have been introduced as tree
fodders i n tropical areas but not with great success.
Bamboo as a substrate in periphyton-based (the microbes that are attached to
submerged substrata in almost all aquatic ecosystems) aquaculture systems
Reeds for water filtration & purification
Branches for fishing rods/poles, drying racks, cages , floats etc.
Branches and other woody material as structures for spawning or the raising of fry.
The conscious incorporation of woody material into water allows for improved fish
production, probably due to the creation of sheltered/protected areas for fish to spawn
and fry to develop.
Firewood for post harvest treatment (smoking)
Tree fibres for nets and fishing lines
Tree extracts for preserving fishing nets
Tree extracts as piscicides (fish poisons)
Tree extracts for treating fish diseases, for example neem from Azadirachta indica has
been found to be effective for numerous fish ai lments; and clove oi l has been used as
an anaesthetic for eel s and salmon.
Economic & environmental impacts
There are numerous and substantial benefits recorded , both economic and environmental, from
existing integrated systems involving aquaculture and tree-based farming , forestry and
orchards.
Waste water from aquaculture system sis being increasingly employed in tree production, both
as a mans to decrease effluents/pollutants, and to increase tree growth.
Other environmental benefits may involve .more effecti ve nutri ent cycl ing or effects on local
fauna which have economic benefits too. One example in China involves hanging li ghts at night
over ponds established in commercial plantations, which attracted large numbers of insects,
many of which dropped into the water . Fish growth was si gnificantly increased and the forest
pest burden on the plantation trees was significantly reduced.
Reference
Pasiecznik, N: The role of trees in aquaculture systems. The Overstory #174,2006.
Zanthoxylum:
temperate pepper trees
Introduction
Zanthoxylum species are some of the finest spice plants which can be cultivated in temperate
climates. Known by some as the prickly ash family (after an American specie), they are better
known as pepper trees in Asia, where they are widely cultivated as a spice crop, both
commercially and i n home gardens.
General description
Although there are some 250 species of Zanthoxylum, there are a much smaller number of
hardy species. These are deciduous medium to large spreading and spiny shrubs. They all ..
have very aromatic alternate compound leaves, the fragrance varying between species.
The flowers are very small, yellow or green, borne in bunches from leaf axils or at the end of
shoots; though they are hardly noticeable (and could not be called ornamental), bees adore
them and facilitate good pollination. There seems to be some confusion over whether the
flowers are dioecious (ie male and female flowers on different plants) . Our experience in
Dartington is that none of the species we have grown (Z.a/atum, Z.gira/dii, Z.piperitum,
Z.simu/ans, Z.schinifolium) are dioecious.
Following pollination, bunches or heads of fruits form. Each fruit, 4-6 mm across depending on
specie, consists of a single seed surrounded by a very thin flesh, quite rough on the outer
surface. As the fruit ripens the flesh dries out to become papery shell -l ike and changes colour
from green to a reddish or blackish col our . At full ripeness, the fruit 'shell' splits into two and
hinges open, and the black seed inside ingeni ously works its way out of the shell, to be blown
off or washed off by the weather unless harvested. Most speci es ripen their seeds in
September or October.
Species are sometimes seen in ornamental gardens, considered to be handsome fol i age
shrubs. Most of the hardy species are hardy to zone 6 (-15 to -20C).
Cultivation
Zanthoxylum species prefer deep fertile soils that are moisture retentive but well drained,
however they are adaptable and grow in many soils. They like a position in full sun or semi
shade.
Shoot tips sometimes suffer from a little die back during winter, and any dead or damaged wood
should be pruned out in early spring. No other pruning is essential, however to facilitate easier
harvesting of the fruits it can be advantageous to prune bushes to a goblet shape (rather like
gooseberries), keeping the centre open to allow light in and for access.
Propagation is by seed (sowi ng in autumn gives better results) or by semi-hardwood cuttings in
summer (give bottom heat and a humid atmosphere or mist).
Zanthoxylum species are in the same family - the Rutaceae - as Citrus, and they are capable
of carrying citrus canker, a serious and difficult to control bacterial disease. Because of thi s,
the USA has banned the importation of Sichuan peppercorns unless heated to around 70C
(160F), which of course seriously affects the flavour and aroma properties.
Otherwise, the genus is fairly untroubled by pests or diseases. Slugs and snails sometime 5
nibble the bark of Z.piperitum so young plants should be protected, but we haven't had trouble
on other species.
General uses
The main use for the Asiatic species is for the fruits to be used 85 a spice. In Japan, seeds of
Z.piperitum are known as the spice sansho. In China and Korea, several species are used, the
most prized of which is Z.schinifolium, ' known as Szechuan or Sichuan pepper (in Chinese it is
known as huajiao - "flower pepper" or shanjiao - To confuse the
terminology, other species are sometimes sold as Szechuan pepper too, notably Z.simulans. In
Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet, Z.afatum - Nepalese pepper - is used (known as emma in Tibetan),
where it is prized because few spices can be grown in many places there.
Z.a/atum In the forest garden, Dartington, about 3 m high and wide. Underneath it is a
cover of Rubus tricolor.
The main spice part is in fact the papery fruit 'shell', but usually the seeds are harvested too
(though they are often flavourless), and the mixture sun dried for a few days. The mixture is
referred to as 'peppercorns'. Any twiggy parts are separated off and the remaining dry seeds
and fruit shells are stored. Use can be by simply grinding in a pepper mill: or in Chinese
cooking the mi x is often lightly toasted then crushed before adding to the recipe at the last
moment for maximum impact. Star anise and ginger are often used with it, and it considered to
go well with fish, duck and chicken dishes. It has a numbing effect on the lips when eaten in
large doses. In Chinese cuisine, this type of pungency is important enough to get its own name
(ma), and it is often combined with other hot spices such as chillies.
In China, coarse salt and Szechuan pepper are toasted together, cooled and ground - this
'peppered salt' is a common table condiment. Szechuan peppercorns are one of the traditional
ingredients in the Chinese spice mixture spice powderft and also in a Japanese seven-
flavour table condiment called ftShichi mi togarashi- (containing red chillies, Szechuan pepper,
tangerine/orange peer, black and white sesame seed, poppy seed, seaweed) .
The unique flavour and aroma is not pungent like tropical black pepper, but is characterised by
a kind of tingly numbness with slight lemony or citrusy aroma with more or less pronounced
warm and woody overtones. Z.a/atum is more spicy, Z.5chinifo/ium has anise overtones.
The fresh seed/fruit shell mix gradually loses its pungent aromatic flavour over a period of 2-3
years at room temperature.
It is also available in China as an oil (marketed as Sichuan pepper oi l or Hwajiaw oil), though it
is not clear how this is obtained - probably the fruits are steeped in another oil. The oil is
prized for stir fry noodle dishes, again added at the last minute.
The peppercorns are also frequently used to flavour pickles.
The young leaves of Z.piperitum are used fresh and pickled as a flavouring, and no doubt other
species could be used similarl y. Older leaves become prickl y.
Fruits and bark of many species are used to stun fish (presumably with a numbing effect on
them) to enable easy from ponds or dammed streams.
Composition
Most Zanthoxylum species produce pungent atkamides which are stored in the fruit 'shell' but
not in the seeds. The exact nature of these varies from species to species, but common are the
amides known as a., p and "( sanshool. 'Total amide content can be as high as 3% (as in
Z.piperitum). It is these amides that cause the tingly numbness characterising the spice.
Studies on a few species have shown strong antioxidant activity, it is likely that this applies to
most or all species.
Within the genus a huge range of other constituents has been identified (over 50 per species).
The typical flavours of peppercorns are due to essential oils, and the following main
components have been found (note that the composition will vary with climate & agronomic
factors):
Z.a/atum -linaloot (71%), limonene (8%), methyl cinnamate (5%), beta-phellandrene (6%)
Z.a/atum (leaves) -1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) (41%), Sabinene (8%), 1inalool (4.5%), terpinen-4-01
(5%), alpha-terpineol (4%).
Z.nitidum - linalool (72%), sabinen (24%)
Z.piperitum - beta-phellandrene, li monene, beta-pinene
Z.piperitum (leaves) - citronellal, citronellol, Z-3hexenal (grassy odour).
Z.schinifolium - geranoil, Jimonene, geranyl acetate, beta-phell<;lndrene, phellandral, myrcene,
!inaloot, alpha-pinene.
Z.simu/ans - beta-myrcene, limonene, 1 ,a-cineole (eucalyptol), Z-beta-ocimene
The species
Z.acanthopodium
Native to Nepal, China, Bhutan, Eastern India etc. Unknown hardiness, but probably to at least
-10C (zone 8) as it grows up to 2800 m altitude in Nepal.
A shrub with reddish fruits.
Uses:
The fruits are used as a spice and for pickling.
Z. ailanthoides
Native to warmer parts of China and Japan. Hardy to -1 DOC (zone 8) or lower.
A tree or shrub, remaining small in Britain.
Uses:
Fruits are used as a spice.
Leaves are used as a flavouring.
The bark is used medicinally in Chinese medicine. Recent research has shown the plant has
strong antioxidant properties.
Z.a/atum - Nepal pepper, Winged prickly ash
Syn. Z.armatum. Native to the Himalayas - Eastern China, Nepal, Tibet. Not dioecious. Hardy
to -20C (zone 6).
A rounded, spreading shrub growing 3-4 m high and 4-5 m wide, with mid green leaves.
Uses:
The fruits are used on a commercial scale and are sometimes sold as Sichuan pepper. Yields
from our forest garden are about 1 kg of dry peppercorns per bush at 10 years of age. The
fruits are reported to contain 1.5% essential oi l s.
The young aromatic leaves can also be used as a flavouring.
All parts are used in traditional medicine.
The wood is heavy, hard and close grained, and occasionally used to make walking sticks.
A paste of the fruit is mixed with water and sprayed on vegetables. in Nepal as an insecticide.
Z.americanum - Prickly ash, Toothache tree
Native to North America from Virginia, Missouri and Kansas northward to Canada.
A spreading shrub, usually 3-4 m high but occasionally more, with dark green leaves. Fruits are
4-5 mm across. Very hardy , to _35C (zone 3).
Uses:
This plant was traditionally used by native Americans to treat toothache. The anaesthetic effect
is due to the alkamide constituents of the leaves, bark and fruits (especially unripe fruits). As a
medicinal plants it was introduced into the mainstream in the 1800's and widely used for Typhus
and cholera epide'mics in North America during that century. Recent research has shown that
all parts have antifungal effects.
The fruits can be used as a spice.
Z.e/atum fruits
Z.beecheyanum
Native to southern Japan, probably no hardier than to -SoC (zone 9).
A small shrub growing only 80 cm high.
Uses:
The fruits and bark are used as a spice.
The bark, especially from the roots, is used medicinally.
Z.capense - Small knobwood
Native to southern Africa. Only hardy to -SoC (zone 9).
A shrub or small tree; fruits to S mm across, reddish-brown.
Use.:
Used in south African traditional medicine.
Page 26
Z.c/ava-hercu/is - Hercules' club, Pepperwood, Southern prickly
ash, toothache tree
Native to southeastern USA. Hardy to -20C (zone 6).
A tree or shrub to usually 5 m high, sometimes more, with distinctive spined thick corky lumps
on the bark, 2-3 em long. Flowers on this specie are probably dioecious (male and female
flowers on different plants). Fruits are 6 mm across containing several small seeds.
Uses:
Much like Z.americanum, the leaves and fruits were traditionally chewed to induce numbness of
the mouth to relieve toothache symptoms.
The fruits can be used as a spice.
Z.coreanum
Native to Korea, hardy to _20C (zone 6) .
A bushy shrub growing to 3-4 m high and wide. Flowers in the UK in late summer (August) and
does not have time to ripen fruit.
Uses:
Leaves can be used for flavouring.
The bark, especially from the roots, is used medicinally.
Z.faraga - Wild lime
Native to the southeastern USA to South America and the West Indies, often found as an
understorey tree. Hardy to only about _8C (zone 8/9).
An evergreen shrub or tree. Fruits 4 mm across, red, containing a single seed.
Uses:
The bark and leaves are powdered and used as a condiment. The fruits and leaves have a
strong lime flavour/aroma.
Z.gira/dii
A rounded shrub to 3 m high and wide.
A rare specie, it appears identical to Z.schinifolium to us in most respects.
Uses: identical to Z.schinifolium.
Z.nepa/ense
Native to Nepal up to 2800 m altitude. Hardy to -1SoC (zone 7) or lower.
A medium sized shrub. Fruits are pinkish.
Uses:
The fruits are used to relieve toothaches.
Z.nitidum - Shining prickly ash
Native to China ana' southern eastern Asia, probably no hardier than to -SoC (zone 9).
A climber or shrub, possibly dioecious.
Uses:
The fruits are used as a spice, and sometimes sold as 'Sichuan pepper'. They contain about
0.35% essential oils.
Roots are used medicinally.
Recent trials in China with extracts from this species used in toothpaste have resulted in a
decrease in incidence of dental plaque and gingivitis.
Z.oxyphyl/um
Native to Nepal up to 2800 m altitude, Northern India and Myanmar. Hardy to at least
(zone 7).
A shr.ubby species.
Uses:
Fruit are used as a spice and pickled.
The fruits are used medicinally for toothaches.
Z.piperitum - Japanese pepper
Native to China, Japan and Korea, found in thickets and woods in hilts and mountains.
A shrub or small tree, usually m high but occasionally more. Not dioecious. The fru i ts are
mm across with a single black seed within. The variety 'Inerme' is spineless and
sometimes used for seed production.
Z.p/perltum
Uses
An important commercial speci e for spice production in Japan and elsewhere - confusingly, it is
sometimes sold as Sichuan pepper.
In Japan the leaves are used fresh as a flavouring (especially with bamboo shoots) and are also
pickled; their aroma has mint and lime overtones.
Also in Japan, the wood is sometimes used to make mortars and pestles which impart some
flavour to the substances being ground.
The leaves, bark and fruits are used in traditional Asiatic medicine. being anthelmintic,
antifungal, antibacterial and nematocidal.
Recent research has shown that Z.piperitum fruits had antibacterial effects on MRSA strains
(resistant Staphylococcus) andlor suppressive effects on their antibiotic resistance.
Z.p/anispinum - Winged prickly ash
Native to China, Japan and Korea. A bushy shrub 3-4 m high and wide. The fruits are 4-5 mm
across, red and warty. Hardy to -20C (zone 6). Very close botanically to Z.a/atum.
Uses:
The fruits are used on a commercial scale and are sometimes sold as Sichuan pepper.
Leaves are used as a flavouring.
The fruits and root bark are used medicinally for a diverse range of ailments.
Z.schinifolium - Szechuan pepper
Native to China, Japan and Korea. A bushy shrub growing 3-4 m high and wide.
Fruits reddish, ,,1.00--","",'-,
Not dioecious.
6).
Page 29
I'
II
.,
Uses:
The fruits are an important commercial spice and are prized over most of the other species.
Yields from our forest garden are about 1 kg of dry peppercorns per bush at 10 years of age.
The leaves can be used for flavouring.
The fruits and root bark are used medicinally in Chinese medicine. The fruit 'shells' of this
species, appear to have some anti-cancer properties due to their antioxidant components.
Ripe fruits of Z.schinlfolium. Note the seeds starting to emerge from the 'shell',
Z.simulans - Chinese prickly ash
Synonyms Z.bungeanum, Z.bungei. Native to eastern China and Taiwan.
A spreading shrub growing 4 m tall and wide, occasionally more. Not dioecious. Fruits are 34
mm across, with a rough reddish-brown shell.
Uses:
The fruits are used on a commercial scale and are sometimes sold as Sichuan pepper.
Leaves can be used as a flavouring.
Leaves, fruits, seeds and root bark are all used in traditional Chinese medicine.
Sources
The A.R.T. has seeds and plants available of the main species.
CrOg Farm Plants, Griffith's Crossing, Caernarfon, Gwynedd, LL55 1TU.
Tel: (44+) 01248 670232. info@crug-farm.co.uk
Pan Global Plants. The Walled Garden, Frampton Court, Frampton-an-Severn, Gloucestershire
GL2 7EX. Tel : 01452 741641, Fax: 01453 768858. http://www.panglobalplants.com/,
info@panglobalplants.com
References
Bati-Yeboa
t
N et al: Antifungal constituents of Northern prickly ash, Zanthoxylum americanum
Mill. Phytomedicine 12(5), 37-377 (2005).
Cheng. M-J et al: Chemical constituents from the leaves of Zanthoxylum schinifolium. Journal
of the Chinese Chemical Society. 49,125-128 (2002).
Chyau, C et al: Characteristics of the Steam-Distilled Oil and Carbon Dioxide Extract of
Zanthoxylum simulans Fruits. J. Agric. Food Chem. 44(4),1096-1099 (1996).
Crawford, M: A.R.T. plant database, 2006.
Gernot Katzer's spice pages at http://www.uni-graz.aU-katzer/engl/Zantpip.html
Hatano, T: Constituents of Zanthoxylum fruits effective on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA). Aroma-Research 4(4), 384-388 (2003).
Jain, N et al: Essential oil composition of Zanthoxylum alatum seeds from northern India.
Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 16,408-410 (2001).
Medicinal Plants in the Republic of Korea. WHO, 1998.
Ngo, X et al: Chemical composition of the leaf oil of Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. From Vietnam.
Journal of Essential Oi l Bearing Plants 6(3), 179-184 (2003).
Paik, S et al: The essential oils from Zanthoxylum schinifolium pericarp induce apoptosis of
HepG2 human hepatoma cells through increased production of reactive oxygen
species. Boil Pharm 8ull. 28(5), 802-7 (2005).
Plants for a Future: Plant database at http://www.pfaLorg/databasel
New Zealand Flax
Introduction
New Zealand flax, Phormlum tenax, is a large evergreen perennial, usually treated as a shrub although it
is not strictly woody. It is quite unrelated to true flax, being part of the Agave family, but can supply a fibre
of great versatility and value, hence its name and the alternative, New Zealand hemp (the Maori name is
Harakeke). It is native to New Zealand and other nearby islands, but is quite at home in Britain and Ireland,
particularly in coastal areas, where it has naturalised in places. It is winter hardy to at least -11C.
History
The Maori used fibres from the sword shaped leaves to make mats, clothes, baskets and other domestic
items as well as ropes and fishing nets. They has selected strains, including two they knew as 'Taiore' and
'Kohunga' that provided the long supple fibres needed to weave aprons and other clothes. European
settlers in the 19
1h
century send flax samples to Dundee in Scotland (then the centre of the linen industry)
to be processed and woven into shirts; the reports were favourable, clothing was particularly appreciated
Page 31
for its soft flexible wearing qualities and the way it absorbed sweat without becoming clammy and
uncomfortable. Also in the 19
111
century, trials in Portsmouth (England) of sheets and sails made from flax
fibres had been so promising that the British Govemment negotiated a contract for the supply of 800 tons
of flax leaves to produce sails for naval trials.
Flax leaves became one of New Zealand's major exports during the 19
111
century, but unpredictability
continued to be a problem and the fibres failed to achieve the hopes once raised. The main problem
turned out to be Ihe presence in the leaves of a plant gum which formed small hard granules as the leaves
dried (lor it was dried leaves which were exported) that were difficult to dissolve, and these granules
abraded the fibres and led to failure. The Maori wove Iheir cloaks, fishing nets and other items from fibres
extracted from fresh leaves in which these granules had not formed. So it was the use of dried leaves
which caused the decline in commercial interest. Now, in the 21$1 century, there is once again renewed
interest in the commercial possibilities of New Zealand flax.
Description
Phormium lenax is a clump-forming evergreen perennial, slowly spreading by stout fleshy rhizomes.
Mature plants reach 3 m (10 ft) high, with flower stalks rising up to 4.5 m (15 ft) high; spread is 1-2 m (3-6
ft). Each plant consists of 8-12 shoots rising from a central base, each shoot quickly dividing into 5-6
leaves.
Leaves are dark green above (often bluish beneath), hard and stiff, long and narrow, sword-shaped, in
cross section V-shaped in the central portion but flattening out towards the apex. The pOinted end
becomes slit and tattered on old leaves. They grow 1-3 m (3-10 ft) long by 5-12 cm (2-5") wide, and 1-1.5
mm thick. They are keeled beneath, the midrib and margins often with a red or orange line. Longer leaves
often fold over lengthwise.
Flowers are bisexual and numerous, borne in erect panicles on a long leafless reddish-green stem (1.5-4.5
m [5-15 fll high]), tubular in shape, dull red to reddish-brown, 25-50 mm (1-2") long. The flowers open over
a long period in summer (June to August in Britain) and contain large amounts of nectar.
Fruits are brown leathery pods, triangular in cross section and pointed at the ends, 5-10 cm (2-4") long by
12 mm (X") wide. A single flower stalk may produce up to 100 seed pods, each pod containing 60-100
black, shining, f1attish seeds each about 5 mm x 10 mm.
Cultivation
New Zealand flax prefers a rich welldrained loamy soil but will grow on most soils and sites, including
peaty and wet sites, though waterlogged sites in winter can lead to plant death. It is also tolerant of some
exposure (very cold winter winds may scorch leaves). salt winds, drought and industrial pollution. It
tolerates light shade but much prefers full sun. Temperatures as low as -14C are tolerated - if expected
winter minimums are near to this, protect rhizomes with a deep mulch; if the tops are then killed, the
rhizomes will survive and send up new shoots the following spring.
If plants are spaced at 2 m (6 tt) apart, then when fully grown they will fill the space between. Grovvth is
quite fast. 30-60 em per year, with maximum height reached in 5-10 years. Young plants are sometimes
damaged by voles or mice, who are attracted by sugars in the leaf bases in winter - it might be worth
protecting young plants with a short tree or vole guard.
Many omamental varieties (with coloured leaves) have been selected. Many of these are smaller than the
species and are hybrids with Phormium colensoi (Mountain flax), a slightly less hardy and smaller specie.
Some of the coloured leaf forms have noticeably thinned and more flexible leaves. The Maoris selected
many different cultivars for different uses.
Fibre producti on
The Maoris extracted fibre by hand for many centuries. In the 19th century, a commercial industry grew in
New Zealand, which at its peak produced 20,000 tons of fibre per year between 1900 and 1930. The
industry was killed off by problems with dry leaves (see above), increasing labour costs, and the fibres
abaca and sisal replacing it.
Plantations of Phormium tenax for fibre production still exist in many parts of the world
(including South America [Argentina, Brazil, Chile], Africa [South Africa, the Congo, Kenya,
Tanzania). Mexico, California, Japan, Italy and the Azores). It is an important crop on the island
of 5t Helena - 70% of production there is exported to Britain. Attempts were made to grow New
Zealand flax as a commercial crop in Ireland last century, but no industry resulted (however, it is used
extensively in the south & west as a windbreak).
In these plantations, plants are spaced at 2 m ( 6 ~ tt) apart. The first harvest can be made some 4-6 years
after planting, with regular harvests each 3-4 years thereafter. The fibre is not the easiest to extract, the
midrib on leaves being a particular problem.
The suitability of leaves for cutting is judged by the texture and firmness of each leaf. Leaves are cut in late
spring or summer, using a semi-circular tool similar to a reaping hook; the outer 3-4 leaves of each plant
are cut 15-20 cm (6-8") above the ground.
Each harvest yields approx 30-40 tones of green leaf per acre - ie the overall yield is 7.5-10 tons/acre/year
(3-4 tonnes/Ha/year). The yield of fibre is about 10% of leaf matter, ie 0.75-1 ton/acre/year (300-400
Kg/Ha/year).
Various machines have been constructed for cleaning (scutching) the fibres. Leaves are first crushed, then
the pulp is scraped away from the tougher fibre strands. Prior to washing, the fibre strands are cleaned by
revolving brushes which remove any remaining pulp. Then they are thoroughly soaked and hung to dry.
After sorting and grading they can then be twisted into hanks and pressed into bales. The ultimate fibres
are very delicate (12 micron), finer than hemp and longer than wood fibres.
When extracted, the fibre resembles abaca (manila hemp which comes from Musa textiles). It is 1-2 m (3-7
tt) long, white with a reddish-yellow tinge, soft, flexible and highly lustrous. Fibre filaments are of unequal
thickness and are remarkable for their slight adherence; because of this the fibres can be separated into
finer strands by friction. Fibres were traditionally bleached by being hung over long lengths of fences,
although chemical methods were devised in the 1930's.
When hand cleaned, the fibres are so fine that they can be woven into delicate fabrics; machine-cleaned
fibres are coarser and suitable for paper (cream-coloured), towelling and sacking. The fibre is only 60% as
strong as abaca, which limits its use in ropes and cordage - it can be mixed with sisal or abaca for use in
ropes and binder twine. Recent large-scale trials in New Zealand proved that the fibre makes a good
paper, which will become an increasingly economically viable prospect as the strains on wood resources
It is already in demand as a hand-made speciality paper.
NZ flax carpets, mats and underfelt are renowned for their hardwearing qualities and leading
carpet manufacturers are interested in the fibre to develop more sustainable. recyclable
alternatives to nylon. There is also interest in developing flax/wool carpet blends. South Africa
has experimented with flex-blend curtain materials.
In the clothing area, most recent developments have been with mixed fibres (eg. flax with
possum or merino wool), non-woven fabrics, and performance fabrics for sporting and outdoor
markets. Lack of carding/spinning machinery is currently holding up progress in this area.
Research is ongoing in New Zealand on flax fibre reinforced composites as alternatives to
petroleum-based materials, as well as the utilisation of flax fibre as reinforcement in earth-
cement construction.
Edible uses
Several minor edible uses have been noted:
the seeds are edible. They can be roasted and used as a coffee substitute, or can be chopped
and used in bread or other cooked dishes.
New Zealand flax seed oil is rich in linoleic acid and could be a premium vegetabl e oil ,
comparable to sunflower oil and superior to rape seed and soya bean oil. Seeds can yi eld up to
29% oil, with potential yields of 218 kg/ha (87 kg/acre). The seed residue would be very suitabl e
for stock feed.
the sweet nectar from the flowers can be drunk. The flowers produce large amount of nectar
and Maori children used hollow stalks to suck it out as a treat - something which most
people find irresistible once they have tried it.
the gum from the leaf bases was eaten.
Medicinal uses
Several parts of the plant have been used by the Maori in New Zealand, most of whi ch have been
confirmed recently.
Roots have been used to treat abscesses and tumours (they contain well-known anti-tumour
cucurbitacin compounds), and for their antifungal properties (they contain the antifungal
compound Musizin). Root extracts are sold as health products.
The gel/gum from leaf bases has been used as a styptic (ie to stop bleeding) and antiseptic, long
used for burns and skin conditions including eczema.
Leaves have been used as emergency splints.
Other uses
Leaves can also be used fresh (not processed apart from splitting down the length) for thatching, mats,
nets, bags, cloaks, sieves. sandals, straps and garden twine (ties without breaking). The latter may be of
most use to gardeners - simply split leaves into widths (5-25 mm depending on what strength you need)
and use as twine immediately. Dressed and dyed strips of leaf were made into decorative patterned
panels - a craft now flourishing again in NZ.
Page 34
The leaf pulp remaining after the fibre is removed (see above) can be fermented to make alcohol (ethanol)
for industrial uses - in Brazil it is used as a motor fuel, and the residue used as cattle feed.
A gum/gel is found in the leaf butt (the base of leaves discarded in fibre processing) which comprises
mostly sugars with a long polysaccharide structure. Flax gel ('pia harakeke') is an excellent glue, and is
already being used commercially, with the potential to be used in cosmetics.
Flowers are rich in nectar and when open (June to August), are attractive to bees, especially wild bumble
bees etc. Flax honey is being assessed in New Zealand at present.
The seedpods stain fingers when they are picked; they are also highly perfumed.
Both flowers and seedpods can be used for dyeing, being rich in tannins, producing a range of browns:
coffee with no mordant or alum as a mordant; browniSh-grey with copper/ chrome mordants; and greyish-
brown with an iron mordant.
The leaves can also be used for dyeing, producing coffee with no mordant; dark coffee with alum; dar1c:
grey-brown with copper; dar1c: brown with iron; and brown with chromium.
Used as part of Riparian-zoned plantings, flax slows water runoff, helps absorb sediment and nutrients
before they get to waterways (both at surface and subsurface levels) and increase water'quality.
The plant makes an excellent hedging and windbreak plant in mild and coastal areas, although the leaves
are quite noisy in high winds. They do not require pruning. Roadside plantings absorb sound well.
Fodder value - the superior health of cows that graze on flax has been noted, and it has been claimed (but
not substantiated yet) to provide some worm control.
Whole leaves are used in floristry and are made into a decorative woven textile ('hapene').
Flax is a successful nurse crop for other trees/shrubs.
Propagation
Propagation is easy by one of two methods, seed and division.
There are approximately 90,000 seeds/Kg (40,900 seeds/lb). Plants set seed readily in Britain. Seeds are
not dormant and should be sown in the Spring. Germination takes about 6 weeks; plants grow to 30-50 cm
(12-20") in their first year and are then large enough to plant out. Watch out for slug and snail damage
when plants are very small.
Large plants can be divided in spring. Alternatively, parts of rhizomes can be planted - one plants yields 20-
30 rhizomes suitable for transplanting.
References
Clothier, S; Flax ability. Tree Cropper, June 2006.
Crawford, M: New Zealand Flax. Agroforestry News, Vol 3 No 2.
Thompson, P; Flaxen Fibres: The Hidden Assets of Phormiums. The Hardy Plant, Vol. 25 NO.1.
www.maorifood.com - flax seed bread recipe
I AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 14 No 4
Page 35
Spice bush: Lindera benzoin
Introduction
The spice bush, al so know as wild forsythia and fever bush, is native to the Eastern USA, and
sometimes grown for its early spring flowers, aromatic foliage, and autumn colour. However it
is a long used spice plant, noted especially for the allspice flavour of the bark and fruits.
Description
The spice bush is a deciduous, highly aromatic. founded multi-stemmed shrub growing 2-3 m
high (occasionally more) and similar width.
Shoots are smooth and bear leaves 6-15 em long by 2-8 em wide, on short stalks. The leaves
turn a rich yellow colour in autumn.
The flowers are pale yellowish-green, small (to 5 mm in diameter). borne in small clusters on 1-
year old wood in April (well before leaf emergence). The species is dioecious, with male and
female flowers on different plants, hence both sexes of plant are required for fruiting.
Fruits are to 7.5 mm across, ellipsoid, bright red, ripening August to September. They contain a
single seed.
The plant is very hardy, to 25C (zone 5).
Paae 36 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 14 No 4
Uses
The young leaves, shoots and fruits contain aromatic oils and make a fragrant tea. The shoots
are considered to taste best while flowering in spring, as the nectar adds considerably to the
flavour. Pioneer families kept the cut twigs in their kitchens - the 'spice sticks' were used to
flavour soups.
The fresh and dried/powdered fruits (with and without the seed) are used as a good substitute
for allspice.
The crushed leaves have a lemony aroma and make a nice tea. They can also be dried, ground
and used as a spice in their own right.
The young bark is pleasant to chew.
The fruits can be made into a delicious j elly.
A beverage similar to ginger ale can also be made from the fresh berries.
The shoots and leaves were used medicinally for a wide range of ailments by several North
American Indian tribes, including colds, fevers etc. Recent research has shown that extracts
from the bark have strong antimicrobial effects.
Essential oils
Analysis of the essential oils reveals numerous components, but the main ones are:
Fruits - alpha and beta-phellandrene, odour characterised as fresh-citrusy, peppery-
woody/minty. These are also found in some Eucalyptus species and
angelica (alpha) and fennel and Canada balsam (beta).
Crushed leaves - 6-methyl -5-hepten-2-one, odour characterised as pungent-
herbaceous, grassy, diffusive. with fresh and green-fruity notes". This
compound is used in commercial fruit flavourings in small amounts.
Beta-caryophyllene. odour characterised as clove-like. Also found in cloves
and black peppers.
(e)-nerolidol, odour characterised as woody-floral. Also found in neroli.
Crushed stems - 1-8 cineol, odour characterised as camphoraceous-cool. Also the main
constituent of most Eucalyptus oils, also found in Rosemary.
All these essential oils are classified as safe in general usage.
Cultivation
Lindera benzoin has a slender open habit and is very happy in part shade or dappled sunlight.
It prefers a moisture retentive, fertile, acid soil (pH 4.5 to 6.0). Plants are quite vigorous and
suffer little from pests or diseases. Spice bush is notably resistant to honey fungus.
Pruning need consist only of removing dead wood in spring. Branches to be harvested for the
bark or shoots can be cut in spring - do not remove more than about 40% of the top growth in a
single season. Plant regenerate well from cutting back over a period of a few years.
Fruits are easily harvested, usually in September, as they form in bunches.
Propagation
Seed - best sown in autumn if fresh and ripe.
Cuttings: Semi-ripe cuttings taken in July, or cuttings of mature side shoots,
September/October, 12 em long, with a heel.
Layering - bend down low branches and layer as normal.

Source
Seeds, and sometimes plants can be obtained from the A.R.T.
References
Bown, D: The RHS New Encyclopedia of Herbs & their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, 2002.
Duke, J: The Green Pharmacy. Rodale, 1997
Facciola, S: Cornucopia II. Kampong Publications, 1998.
Genders, R: Scented Flora of the World. Robert Hale, 1994.
Hayden. W J: Spicebush. VNSP 2006 Wildflower of the Year Brochure.
Tisserand, R & Balacs, T: Essential Oil Safety. Churchill Livingstone, 1995.
Tucker, A et al: Spicebush (Lindera benzoin L.): A Tea, Spice and Medicine.
Tree pruning in broadscale agroforestry
Introduction
Silvopasture systems integrate forage production and trees production on the same land,
usually by having trees planted at wide spacings in a block pattern; silvoarable systems
integrate arable crops and trees, usually ' by having lines of widely spaced trees with arable
alleys between.
In both cases, trees are planted significantly further apart than in normal forestry to allow
enough light to reach the ground to support forage or arable crops. Widely spaced timber trees
develop differently than a typical closed-canopy planting, notably in that their lower branches do
not get shaded out and readily drop when still small. If left unpruned, widely spaced trees will
have poor timber full of large knots, producing a log worth a tenth or twentieth the pri ce of a
good quality log.
When and what to prune
Four factors determine when and what to prune:
Trunk diameter. The object of pruning is to confine the knots created by the pruned
branches to a small diameter (about 10 em, 4-) of core wood, thus creating high
quality, knot-free wood on the outer portion of the tree trunk. Trees should be pruned
periodically, every two or three years (which gives them a chance to recover after
each operation), cutling branches before the trunk where they are attached is thicker
than 10cm (4").
Branch diameter. Try and prune out branches before they reach 5 em (2ft) diameter.
Pruning wounds larger than this often take longer than one growing season to ciose,
which gives pests and diseases a longer exposure time.
Tree height. Never remove more than 3050% of the crown in a single pruning
operation, and always maintain a live crown of at least a third of the tree height (ie
prune only up two thirds of the height of the tree at most.) Removing too many
branches removes leaves, weakening the tree, reducing growth, and making it more
susceptible to pests and disease attack; try not to take off more than five large
branches in anyone operation. Initiate pruning when trees are 3-4 years old, aiming
to take off side branches in lifts of 1 to 2 metres (3-6 ft) at a time up to a height of
about 6 m (20 ft) in time.
Season of year. The best time to prune living branches of most species in terms of
healing of pruning cuts is in late spring or early summer, however this results is a
greater impact on growth as more of the trees' resources are lost in the form of sap
and leaves. It is often much easier to gain access to trees and assess branches to be
pruned in late winter or very early spring before active growth begins. This timing
gives the tree a full growing season to close the pruning wounds. Cherries and other
Prunus species should only be pruned in summer.
Forked leaders. The early removal of forks , singled to the best leader, is essential.
These tend to occur more in spring frost-sensitive species such as Ash (Fraxinus
excelsior), Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), Norway maple (Acer platanoides) and
Walnut (Jug/ans regia). Species which don't have pairs of opposite buds fare better
from frost, wind, insect and mammal damage because the damaged leading shoot is
replaced by a single bud lower down the bole which sprouts to become the leading
shoot, rather then both the new top buds sprouting to make a fork.
Pruning techniques
Good pruning of agroforestry trees uses the same techniques as for all pruning:
Pruning tools should be sharp and easy to handle
Make a clean cut, not crushing the wood remaining on the tree
Cut the branch wood, not the trunk wood. Most trees produce an obvious branch bark
ridge in the junction between the main stem and branch, which should not be
damaged. The optimum pruning cut just avoids this (see Figs 1 & 2 below)
There is a particular risk when removing heavier branches which, when they fall, can
tear off a strip of bark from the stem below. This problem can be avoided by removing
most of the weight of the branch before making the final cut (see Fig 3 below). Some
good quality high pruning saws feature an upright blade at right angles to the saw
blade which notches underneath the saw cut and minimises bark stripping.
Sharp secateurs are best for small branches up to 12 mm (half inch) diameter. Lopping shears
with a scissor action, or a good quality hand pruning saw are good for lower branches. For
higher ones, a good quality long handled pruning saw is required.
II
II branch
bark
[ ridge
\ II
III
\ \
Final cut
Fig 1 (branch with no collar) Fig 2 (branch with collar)
Sources
Secateurs and lopping shears are easy to locate. The best quality hand and long pole pruning
saws (up to 6 m, 20 ft) are made by the Japanese company Silky, and available from:
A & F Warehouse, Unit 13. Hurstfold Farm, Fernhurst, West Sussex GU27 3JG, UK
Tel: 01428 -661767, Fax: 0 1428-654181,
Web: http://www.afwarehouse.co.uk
Email: info@afwarehouse.co.uk
Abbey Garden Sates, Units 20/22, Crelake
Industrial Estate, Pixon Lane, Tavistock , Devon, UK.
Tel: 0845 124 9410
Web: http://www.abbeygardensales.co.uk
Email: info@abbeygarden.com
The North American distributor
is http://www.silkysaws.com/
References
\ \ [{I II cut
[
branch
t
bark
ridge \ '\
\ First cut
-;( /; (optional)
(,1\ [,If 3' Final cut
I : 1\ I
Fig 3
Kerr, G & Evans, J: Growing Broadleaves for Timber. Forestry Commission Handbook 9,
HMSQ (1993)
Robinson, J & Straight , R: Silvopasture Tree Pruning. Agroforestry Noles, USDA NAC (2006).
Seaman, A & Wall, E: Pruning Young Broadleaves. Reforesting Scotland 27, p30 (2001).
20 per year in Britain and the E.U. (1.6 unwaged)
A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, avai lable on
Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone +44 (0)1803 840776.
Email: mai l@agroforestry.co.uk. Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk.
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440), with the object to
Agroforestry News
f
Forest garden insect diversity
--==------------------------
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Additions to ART plant list / Deer fencing /
Contolled woodland browsing by goats / Biological
Efficiency of two Chinese agroforestry systems /
Walnut blight and its causes / The houses that
matsutake built
6 Traditional and innovative chestnut products
9 Plants for windy sites: Shrubs
20 Walnut agroforestry in the Netherlands
24 Invertebrate diversity research study
35 Walnut wood and its utilisation
Trust. Contributions are welcomed. and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format.
on the advice of a quali fied practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame
Email : mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk
Cover photo courtsey of Justin West
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No 1
Page 1
News
Additions to the ART plant list
Several species and varieties didn't quite make it into our annual catalogue (Which has to be
finaliseD in July). fVJost of these are bare rooted plants and available until late March. See our
on our web site at www.agroforestry.co.uk for the latest stock levels.
Chestnuts (18):
Rousse de Nay Very early season. Large dark brown nuts of good quality. Good pollinator .
Hazelnut (10):
Segorbe - high yielding French variety with large nuts; a good p'ollinator.
Hybrid persimmon (16):
These are hybrids of oriental persimmon (D.kaki) and American persimmon (O.virginiana) made
in Ukraine. Trees are hardy and self-fertile with large fruits .
Nikita's Gift - bears bountiful crops of flattish, 2_1 /2ft diameter, reddish-orange fruit, very sweet
and flavourful. Tree has strikingly beautiful, orange-yellow autumn foliage.
Russian Beauty - bears good crops of 2" diameter, seedless persimmons. The delicious, bright
yellow-orange fruit is very sweet with a date-like flavour and texture. An attractive tree with
unusual drooping foliage and branches.
Deer fencing
Corry Kilroy from County Kerry in Eire has kindly sent a solution to fencing deer off their land.
They are surrounded by scrub and woodland and have fenced off about a third of an acre from
wi l d deer (red deer crossed with seika deer in the wi ld) .. The deer are often around the house
from dusk until early morning and could easily jump this fence, but don't - it has been there for
over 6 years. On the inside of the fence (J re numerous irresistible nibbles - roses, nursery
conifers, grasses, shrubs - which they previously devastated.
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Page 2 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol1S No 1
The fence begins as a standard post and sheep netting fence 90-100 em high. Then twiggy
sticks, about 2 m (7 ft) high are tied on to the posts - Corry uses the tops of felled birch trees,
which last 2-3 years and are then replaced; "cut up old jeans or shirts make good ties".
Next, orange washing line is run in a line through the twigs, about 1.5 m above ground level,
and twisted onto strong twigs (not knotted to much so it is easy to replace the twigs). Finally,
the same material is used to zig zag along the fence.
The deer apparently perceive the fence as higher than it really is because of the tall twiggy
sticks which run along if.
New plants, jf easily propagated, are tested to see if the deer eat them - there are plenty of
plants which deer won't touch - and if then are not touched then Corry plants them outside the
fence, otherwise inside.
Controlled woodland browsing with goats
A project at Cornell University has been running to determine how to enhance meat goat
production while using the goats to control woody interfering plants in mature forests. Goats
were placed in mature hardwood forests, with a well-developed understorey of interfering woody
species (i.e., American beech and striped maple).
For three years, 100 to 180 goats/year were used in herds of about 20, contained within an
electronet fence. Paddocks for the project were Y. acre though 1 to 2 acre paddocks more time
efficient. Goats were fed a daily supplement of 2-2.5% of body weight and provide fresh water.
Fence lines were checked daily to assure integrity and charge and to exclude predators. There
were no cases of predator problems during the three years of the project. Goats were moved to
a new paddock when the overwhelming majority of green foliage was consumed. In an
extremely dense understorey, 20 adult goats would stay in a paddock for 3 to 4 days, while 20
juvenile goats would stay for 7 - 9 days.
Goats were assigned randomly to treatment groups. Year 1 included a comparison of 20 vs. 5
goats per group and daily supplement vs. rotational (woods and pasture) with duplicates of all
four combinations. Year 2 treatments included normal vs. low protein in feed and normal vs.
low fibre in feed , with one replicate group per treatment. Year 3 treatments included total mixed
ration vs. home mixed ration (soy-corn dominated) for adults and juveniles on total mixed ration.
In all cases the experiment response variables for goats was change in weight and for
vegetation was the percent mortality in the sapling and seedling layer.
In addition to the main site, Seven on-farm collaborators participated and were provided with all
materials and supplies and had 2 - 3 visits per month to inspect animals and evaluate activity.
The project demonstrated that goats can be used effectively to control woody understorey that
has developed in the partial shade of mature hardwood forests. Effectiveness is defined by the
maintenance of goat health, goat weight gains that are comparable to animals feed ad libidum,
the mortality of significant numbers (40 - 95% depending on species) of undesirable saplings,
and the lack of damage to stems > 4 inches (0 cm) in diameter of commercially valuable
species.
Stocking rates were evaluated at 5 and 20 goats per Y. acre paddock. Weight gains and sapling
mortality were less at the lower stocking rate than the higher stocking rate. A herd of 20 goats
had good effectiveness (weight gains and sapling mortality) and was logistically manageable.
Higher stocking rates are possible and upper limits should be dictated by the ability of the herd
manager to move goats in a timely fashion to avoid damage to desired tree species.
Page 3
The woody vegetation that develops in the partial shade of a mature, managed forest is usually
dominated by species that remain because they are unpalatable to the large deer herds
common in eastern US forests . Thus, the dominate species are of poor nutritional quality even-
though fresh weight biomass is often abundant. The maintenance of good goat health depends
on a daily high-quality supplemental feed at approximately 2% of body weight for mature
animals and 2.5 ~ 3% of body weight for animals less than 12 months of age.
The mortality of woody understorey, expressed as percent of original number of stems, varied
considerably by species and by the procedures used to manage the herd. What most forest
owners 'would consider as inadequate (less than 30% mortality of sapling numbers) occurred
with low stocking rates of goats (5 per % acre paddock) or with a daily supplement of feed
having crude protein levels below 12%. The optimal sapling mortality occurs with mature goats
receiving a total mixed supplement at 2% of body weight. This combination resulted in 90-100%
mortality for striped maple, hemlock, and red maple and 50-90% mortality for hophornbeam and
all but the smallest beech. Juvenile goats with a total mixed ration at 2.5% body weight
provided the second best control of saplings with mortality levels of 100% for striped maple,
67% for red maple, and 25% for all but the smallest beech. Mature goats fed a simple home
ration of corn and soy beans girdled (killed) 67% of hemlock, 57% of striped maple, and 38% of
all but the smallest beech. In all treatments stems greater than 4 inches in diameter were not
girdled. Also, there was no damage to sugar maple saplings at the two sites where present. All
seedlings, including sugar maple, are consumed by goats.
The economic analysis for this project is b a s ~ d from the perspective of the cost per acre for a
goat producer to provide a service to a woodlot owner. The profit potential for a goat producer
would incorporate the cost per acre against the revenue per acre received for services, sale
price of the animals, and reduction in costs that would be incurred on-farm. The cost per acre
for control of vegetation depends on the number of goats and how they are managed. The cost
for a goat producer to transport and manage goats in an off-farm woodlot, and thus the
minimum fee that might be charged a landowner, are comparable to herbicide treatment.
The project concludes that forest owners with small parcels (less than 10 acres of treatment per
year) or those with a desire or need to minimize the use of herbicides should consider using
goats for vegetation control. The landowner's primary barrier to adoption and use of this
technology will be finding a goat producer willing to provide the service. Goat producers with
inadequate land and adequate time to manC'lge off-site herds, or goat producers with mature
herds and who seek added income, are the most likely prospects for providing goat control of
vegetation. Goat producers can use goats in their own woods, without damaging the long-term
health and sustain ability of the forest by providing a daily supplement if forage quality is poor
and with regular movements of the herd to portions of the forest with adequate forage.
Relative to herbicides, goats have a less effective kilt, greater logistical challenges, and slower
application of treatment for large parcels of land. Goats will find their greatest profit potential
with audiences: (i) who have parcels less than 75 acres and thus too small for a favourable
economy of scale with herbicides or (ii) from woodlot owners, like maple producers or suburban
owners, who wish to avoid herbicides for business or personal reasons.
Source: Smallidge, P: Enhancing Meat Goat Production through Controlled Woodland Browsing.
The Temperate Agroforester, Vol 14 No 3, September 2006.
Page 4
Biological efficiency of two Chinese agroforestry systems
Two typical agroforestry systems in China. the Paulownia (P.efonga) system in the north, and
the tea (Camellia sinensis) system in the south were studied to establish the energy balance (ie
biological efficiency) and economic benefits to farmers, compared with non-intercropped
systems. All the inputs/output data of these two systems were collected and documented.
The biological efficiency (energy outpuUinput ratio) of Paulownia intercropping system was 1.39,
of Non-Paulownia intercropping system (traditional cropping system) was 1.27, an increase of
9.45%. Economic outpuUinput ratios of Paulownia and Non-Paulownia intercropping systems
were 2.42 and 2.25, respectively, an increase of 7.56%.
Ratios under Tea and Non-Tea intercropping systems reflected the same trend. The Tea energy
outpuUinput ratio record was 1.12, compared to 0.06 of the Non-Tea intercropping system, Le.
the former is 18.7 times higher than the latter. Economic outpuUinput ratios under Tea
intercropping system (2.3) was 64.29% higher than that of the Non-Tea intercropping system
<1.4 ).
It was concluded that these two typical agroforestry intercropping systems have a higher
biological (energy) efficiency and also a better financial benefits to farmers.
Source: Jianbo, L: Energy balance and economic benefits of two agroforestry systems in
northern and southern China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 116, 3-4, 255-262.
Walnut blight and its causes
Walnut blight, Xanthomonas campestris pv. jug/andis, is a serious disease of walnut, which can
destroy up to 80 % of the yield of a walnut orchard. The nuts react to a bacterial attack by the
formation of parietal or apical necrosis, then they drop before reaching maturity. These defence
mechanisms of the plant, which utilize phenolic compounds such as juglone and its glucoside,
can be induced even in the presence of very low populations of bacteria. Then necrosis usually
develops starting from the pistillar point of the fruit.
Traditional copper treatments are often ineffective in such cases, and can even worsen the
situation by an accumulation of copper in the soil. An investigation was carried out on about fifty
sites in the south-east of France, using the variety 'Franquette', to try to characterize the factors
which have an influence on the severity of necrosis. The factors taken into account are the
physicochemical composition of the soil, the content of major elements and trace elements in
leaves, the fertilization on the site and the number of copper treatments applied. The nature of
the soil is known to affect the polyphenol content (including juglone) of tissues and therefore
probably the susceptibility to blight and perhaps other fungal diseases.
Soil factors which appear to increase severity of fruit drop due to walnut blight include:
A high percentage of sand in the soil
A low content of silt in the soil
A low soil pH (also indicated by a low calcium content of leaves)
A low manganese content of the soil seems to be a predisposing factor.
A low magnesium content in the soil
An imbalance of phosphorus nutrition, either an excess or a deficiency
Trees most affected by necrosis also bear fruits with a low nitrogen and calcium content,
possibly indicating that lack of fertilisation may also be a factor.
Source: Garcin, A & Duchesne, D: Walnut Blight and Apical necrosis. Acta Hort. ISHS, 2001.
The Houses that matsutake built
The matsutake (Trich%ma matsutake) has traditionally been eaten by Tibetans of the Khampa
region (encompassing eastern Tibet and parts of Yunnan and Sichuan). Shortly after the
opening up of the Chinese economy, Japanese businessmen appeared in the Zhongdian region
to facilitate the export of matsutake to Japan.
It has been an amazing success story. The sale of matsutake and other mushrooms now
contributes more to the income of Zhongdian villagers than any other crop, including timber and
Villagers in this remote' region typically earn 8- to 20 times the average wage of a
worker in industrial China (Shanghai). Villages in the heart of the matsutake harvest areas
have been dramatically transformed: virtually every family has a spacious new house built with
matsutake money, and villagers who were subsistence farmers only a decade ago are now
beginning to open businesses with their earnings.
Their economy, originally dependent almost entirely on mushrooms, is now beginning to
diversify. Some villages have instituted local management programs aimed at maximising the
mushroom yield.
Source: Arora, D: -The Houses that Matsutake built": A case study of Wild Mushroom Harvest in
the Tibetan Area of Khampa. NTFP Victoria, 2005.
Traditional and innovative chestnut products
Introduction
Chestnuts are characterized by a seasonal consumption because of their limited shelf-life. This
is due to the high metabolic activity of the nuts and to the characteristic shell that is porous and
not lignified. During storage chestnuts undergo water loss and fungal infections which
dramatically affect the maintenance of their
Even though in Italy chestnuts are mainly consumed unprocessed and only a small amount of
the production (about 20%) is used in the food industry, several chestnut preserves were
traditionally developed in order to prolong chestnut consumption over the harvesting period.
Most of these traditional products are characterized by a high sugar content or alcohol addition
that permits their long term preservation at room temperature.
Nowadays the trend is towards low calorie food and thus the food industry is looking to put non
traditional products on the market. Non-traditional and innovative preserves with low sugar
content are already available on the market but more work is needed on how the preservation of
chestnuts behaves in such environments.
Chestnut products on the European market
Drying
The air drying process is the oldest method for the conservation of chestnuts. Dried products
stability is achieved by lowering the water activity through water evaporation. In France and
Italy. chestnuts are traditionally dried in -metato" which is a typical square shaped building with
a height of ca. 9 m. Drying in is performed through heating of the air by a fire and the
Page 6
nut layer is positioned about 4.5 m from the ground floor where the heating source is.
Chestnuts are dried in a heat and smoke stream for 10 to 30 days. The air temperature in the
~ m e t a t o n could easily exceed 50C. The high temperatures involved in traditional drying were
proved to increase product porosity and starch modification, moreover the smoke stream could
influence dramatically the dried chestnut flavour.
Nowadays modern drying systems are available on the market which allow to reduce drying
times with minimal effect on product quality. Dried chestnuts are semi-manufactured products
and, if properly rehydrated, they can be used in food preparations; however the most frequent
utilization of dried nuts is the further processing in chestnut flour.
Flour
The processing of chestnuts into flour is a widely diffused practice in Italy especially with small
nuts (or nuts with double embryos) otherwise not accepted by the market. Chestnut flour is
obtained through milling of dried chestnuts, previously cleaned of the pericarp and the
endocarp.
Chestnut flour is used by the confectionery industry to make a paste, which in turn becomes a
basic ingredient of desserts or it can be used in many traditional food preparations. Due to their
low water activity values dried chestnuts and chestnut flour can be easily preserved for several
months but their fat content could limit the storage time due to oxidation processes.
Candying
Another preservation technique based on water activity reduction is the candying process. The
process is applied to boiled chestnuts and during processing the lowering of water content is
obtained by both sugar uptake and water removal due to osmotic phenomena. The candying
process allows water activity values lower than 0.8 to be achieved that ensure product stability
and safety, even if the storage conditions of these products must be optimized in order to avoid
microbial spoilage.
Canning
Canning is a widely used preservation technique for chestnuts; a large variety of canned
preserves, such as chestnuts in sugar syrups or chestnut purees, are available on the Italian
and European market. Canned products stabilization is reached through thermal treatment and
proper use of ingredients that act as stabilizers. The most common ingredients are sugars and
salt, which have a water activity lowering effect, or alcohol and alcoholic beverages which
inhibit microorganism growth. Sugar rich and alcohol added canned products are commonly
subjected to a pasteurisation heat treatment.
A canning process characterized by a sterilization heat treatment is otherwise applied to nuts
without syrup in glass jars or to rehydrated dried nuts in low sugar syrup. In these products the
stability is reach exclusively through thermal processing.
Other preserves
Traditional chestnut preserves in jars are also obtained by immersion of nuts in alcohol or oil.
The formers are stabilized by the alcohol inhibition of microorganism growth, the latter needs
thermal processing such as sterilization or pasteurisation (if nut acidification is performed)
because the low oxygen content in the jars could allow the growth of the spores of anaerobic
bacteria which are resistant to cooking processes and could be harmful to human health.
Freezing
The freezing process CQuid permit the food stabilization by reducing water availability and
products like frozen peeled nuts and frozen roasted nuts, packed in aluminum or plastic bags,
are now available on the market. The freezing process minimizes the nutritional changes during
storage but can negatively affect negatively the product acceptability.
Freezing is also commonly used to preserve chestnut puree, a half-manufactured product
obtained by mashing boiled chestnut and adding sugar or flavours .

New products
Newer chestnut based products, such as vacuum packed cooked nuts, are now available on the
European market. The vacuum packaging applied before cooking can limit the oxidation
reaction during the cooking process and the proliferation of aerobic spoilage microorganisms
during storage. On the other ' hand the low oxygen content in the packages could allow the
growth of the spores of anaerobic bacteria which are resistant to the cooking process and could
be harmful to human health; for this reason the necessity of a sterilization heat treatment
process is of utmost importance. In this product the sternization process has two functions: the
product cooking and sanitization.
Low sugar chestnut preserves
Chestnuts are commonly harvested on the g r o u ~ d , so nut contamination with spores of telluric
microorganisms such as Clostridium spp . . or Bacillus spp., cannot be ruled out. When
chestnuts are used in a complex food formulation, the low acidity of the nuts could further allow
the germination of bacterial spores in the food matrix.
Canned high sugar chestnut products are commonly stabilized by a pasteurisation thermal
treatment, aimed at the reduction of vegetative microbial forms, and by sugar addition, that
inhibits microorganisms growth by reducing water content.
Canned chestnuts preserves under low sugar syrups (called Ml ight syrup") are present on the
market but these products require a sterilization process for their stabilization because the
water activity of the liquid media could allow microorganism growth.
The sterilization of chestnuts is a problematic technological operation since chestnuts can
easily undergo structure breakdown during high temperature-high pressure processes. For this
reason sterilization factors between 4 and 5.5, which are commonly recommended for food
preserves, cannot be used in chestnut processing. In order to avoid the sterilization practice,
some commercial products have added ingredients such as organic acids or salt, but these
compounds could dramatically modify the product taste. Processing processes for canning low
acidity vegetables such as asparagus are probably more appropriate for low sugar chestnut
preserves.
Reference
Sacchetti, G et al: Stabilty and Quality of Traditional and Innovative Chestnut Based Products.
Acta Hart. 693, ISHS 2005.
Shrubs
Introduction
The table below lists Latin and common names, a code for deciduous (0) or evergreen (E),
of the shrub, whether it is nitrogen-fixing, has edible and medicinal uses, and hardiness zone
number. In most of the UK, shrubs hardy only to zones 8-9 are not suitable for windy sites, but
they they witl be in milder climes.
" E
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IAcacia cultriformis IKnife-leaf wattle
IE,(
Acacia paradoxa Kangaroo thorn E
Acacia saligna Blue-leaved wattle E
Acacia sop horae Coastal wattle E
Acacia verticillata Prickly Moses E
Amelanchier canadensis Juneberry 0
IAmorpha canescens ILead plant
10
Amorpha fruticosa False indigo 0
Arctostaphylos manzanita Manzanita E
Arctostaphylos nevadensis Pine-mat manzanita E
Arctostaphylos tomentosa Downy manzanita E
Artemisia capillaris 0
Artemisia maritima Sea wormwood 0
Atriplex canescens Grey sage brush E
jAtriplex halimus ISea orach
IE
jAucuba japonica Is potted laurel E
jBaccharis halimifotia jBush groundsel.
10
Baccharis patagonica E
Baccharis pilularis Dwarf chaparral E
broom
Berberis amurensis 0
Berberis darwini; E
Berberis wilsoniae E
Berberis x lologensis E
IBerberis x stenophylla
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ISetula nana
IOwarf birch
ID
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103 10.45
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12
ISoronia. pinnata
I
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13
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19
Brachyglottis Dunedin 8
Hybrids
!Srachyglottis greyi
I
IE
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12 12.5
I I I
18
!Srachyglottis laxifolia
I
IE
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12 12
I I I
18
!Srachyglottis monroi
I
IE
I-
11.5 11.5
I I I
18
ISrachyglottis rotundifolia
I
IE
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16
I I I I
19
IBuddleia davidii IBuddlia
10
I-
13 13
I I I
15
IBuddleia gtobosa IOrange ball tree
IE
I-
15 15
I I
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17
ISupleurum fruticosum IShrubby hare's ear IE
I-
12.5 12.5
I I I
17
ICalluna vulgaris IHeather
IE
I-
10.6 10.5
I
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14
ICaragana arborescens ISiberian pea tree '
ID
I
16 14
l-
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I
12
ICaragana boisli
I
ID
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16 14
l- I- I
12
ICaragana brevispina
I
ID
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12.4
I l- I- I
16
ICaragana frutfcosa
I
ID
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12 12
I_
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12
ICaragana pygmaea
I
ID
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11.2
I l- I- I
13
ICaragana sinica
I
ID
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11.5
I l- I-
I_
16
ICassinia fulvida
I
IE
I-
12 12
I I I
19
ICeanothus thyrsiflorus IBl ue brush
IE
I_
14.5 14.5
l- I I
17
Cercocarpus montanus Mountain 5
mahogany
ICistus albidus lRock rose
IE
I-
11 11
I
I_
I
17
ICistus incanus creticus IRock rose
IE
I-
11 11
I l- I-
18
!Cistus ladanifer ILabdanum
IE
I_
11.5 11
I l- I-
17
ICistus salviifolius IRoCk rose
IE
I-
10.6 10.75
I l- I
18
ICalletia armata
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Page 10
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Cotoneaster franchetii
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Cotoneaster lacteus
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Crataegus species
Crataegus anomala
Crataegus apiifolia
Crataegus baroussana
ICrataegus caesa
ICrataegus crus-galli
Crataegus cuneata
Crataegus durobrivensis
Crataegus elongata
Crataegus flabellata
Crataegus flava
Crataegus gemosa
Crataegus intricata
Crataegus jackii
Crataegus laevigata
ICrataegus lobulata
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Hakea suaveolens 2 2 9
Halimione portulacoides Sea purslane E
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ILuma apiculata
ILupinus arboreus
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ILycium andersoni;
Lycium arabicum
Lycium australe
ILycium barbarum
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ILyci um carolinianum
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Myrtus communis Myrtle
IMyrtus lechleriana I
IMyrtus nummularia I
IMyrtus u g ~ __ -,-- _ I ~ _
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No 1
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IPotentilla fruticosa lShrubby cinquefoil
IPrinsepia uniflora
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Prunus caroliniana American 7
laurel
IPrunus laurocerasus ICherry laurel
IPrunus maritima IBeach plum
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IRosa multiflora lJapanese rose
ID I 15 I
IRosa pimpineliifolia IBurnet rose
IRosa rugosa lRamanas rose
IRosa virginiana IVirginia rose
IRosa wichuraiana
Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary
Rubus species Hybrid berries
IRUbus fruticosus IBlackberry
Rubus trifidus
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 15 Na 1 Page 17
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ISambucus caerulea ISlue elder
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Walnut agroforestry in the Netherlands
An Agroforestry Project in the East
A project group consisting of representatives of farmers, landowners, a nature resource
organisation, a water management organisation and researchers was set up. Its first step
was to ascertain the financial prospects for an agroforestry system compared with a
subsidised extensive grass ' management system. To do so, the net income from
plantations of three tree species over a period of 40 years was calculated. The three tree
species considered were walnut (Juglans regia or hybrid), cherry (Prunus avium) and sweet
chestnut (Castanea sativa); they were chosen for their ability to produce good quality
timber in The Netherlands and their suitability for multipurpose plantations.
The calculations were done for two tree spacings: 10 and 20 metres. In both cases , an
undergrowth of grass was assumed. The net income calculated by these plantation models
was compared with the net income from subsidised, extensively managed grass
monoculture.
Due to the initial investment required (trees, poles , wire netting to protect against animals) ,
for the first 5 years the net income from the multipurpose plantations is low. Thereafter, the
income from the combination of multipurpose trees (fruits and quality timber) with grass is
reasonable and may exceed the income from subsidised, extensively managed grass.
From 1999 to 2003 a series of 8 multipurpose plantations with a total area of 10 hectares
was established. All the plantations are on arable land, on sandy soils in which the water
table falls below 100 cm during the growing season.
Several types of farm are participating in the project: an organic livestock farm, four
extensi ve farms (two with agritourism) and three estate farms. The tree species planted
are walnut (varieties 'Broadview' and 'Buccaneer' ), cherry and sweet chestnut
(multipurpose trees yielding fruits and timber) . The trees have been planted in existing or
Page 20
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 15 No I
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"
!
newly sown pastures, at a spacing varying between 10 and 20 metres. The grass
management also varies: in some plots, grass has been harvested for fodder or has been
grazed by sheep, cows or horses. On the two farms already involved in agritourism, some
fruiting shrubs (red and black currant, blackberry etc.) have also been planted in otherwise
unprofitable corners to enhance the attractiveness for tourists.
Results
The investigations carried out from 1999 to 2003 focused on grass production and
composition, tree development and growth, fruit production, ways of harvesting the nuts
and the channels for selling them, biodiversity, and the prospects for income from tourism.
In order to predict the development of trees and grass production, data on the young
plantations were combined with data from older plantations on similar soil types in the
eastern part of The Netherlands.
1. Tree Development. In most cases the trees planted were quite large: 2-2.50 m
tall. Most of the trees established well and showed a good vigour after establishment.
Of the three species, walnut grew least in height during the first few years. Chestnut
did better, and cherry did best of all; this species seems to be able to grow very rapidly
on arable land. As the conditions for the crop between or under the trees depend on
the crown cover, crown expansion is an important issue in agroforestry.
Measurements of the crown diameters of the young plantations and of some older
plantations outside the
experimental plots resulted in a model for predicting the crown cover per hectare. In
Figure 3 the predicted crown development of walnuts has been shown in relation to the
distance between the trees. In the first few years after planting, the crowns of walnut
expand relatively slowl y. If the trees are 20 metres apart the canopy will still not have
closed 40-50 years after planting. If the trees are planted 10 metres apart it will take
about 30 years for the canopy to close.
2. Grass Production and Influence of Trees. During the period of investigation,
the botanical composition, production and fodder value of the grass were monitored.
The botanical composition of the grass vegetation was found to vary greatly,
depending on whether the plots had previously been manured and, if so, on the rate of
manuring. Some of the plots consist nearly entirely of highly productive grass species
such as Lolium perenne and Lolium multifJorum. In other plots that have not been
manured or have received very little manure in recent years, the vegetation is less
productive but more diverse and consists of Agrostis spp., Holcus lanatus and
composites. Each year, the grass vegetation was sampled, to ascertain the feed value
of the crop. The latter varied, depending on the plant species composition. It was
lowest for crops with a high percentage of poorly productive grass species like Holcus.
In the 4 years of investigation there was no visible evidence that the presence of the
trees had influenced the composition and production of the grass vegetation.
3. Biodiversity of Multipurpose Plantations. Planting trees in pasture in itself
increases the biodiversity. Walnut trees are less attractive to insects and birds than,
for example, oak, which is associated with several hundred insect and bird species. In
2003 the plantations were surveyed for the presence of butterflies, grasshoppers and
crickets. It was found that compared with flower-rich grasslands, the multipurpose
plantations harboured more grasshoppers.
4. Fruit Production and Opportunities for Income from Tourism. So far, the nut
production from the young plantations has not been profitable. The oldest plantations
have produced several kilograms of nuts per hectare. The participating farmers have
experimented with different harvesting methods (by hand and hand tools) and have
jointly looked for good marketing opportunities.
As in other countries, the widely spaced trees established and grew very well. The
was low. Given the expected yield of the cultivars used and the results of the financial
model, it seems probable that the income from nuts will increase later and that during the
years the yields are small, grass production will hardly be affected by the presence of the
trees. The nuts could be sold in various ways: for example, to tourists (pick-your own) ,
directly to consumers (at the farm gate or in farm shops) or to factories that process nut
kernels. Alternatively, oil or other products could be made on-farm from the nuts. The
fruiting shrubs and bushes will also make the locality more attractive to tourists.
It is to speculate about the age at which the trees will have a significant
influ.ence on the production and composition of the grass vegetation. Assuming that the
conditions for an undergrowth of grass will deteriorate seriously when the crown canopy
intercepts more than 50 % of the light before it reaches the ground (this is assumed to be
when the crown cover exceeds 50 %). grass will grow very well under the trees for 10-20
years.
The investment required in trees, poles and protection materials is high. The Dutch
Ministry of Agriculture introduced grants for nut plantations in 2004/ 2005. This will help the
enterprises through the first few years of deficit. Multipurpose plantations (fruit. timber.
agricultural crop, landscape and biodiversity) will be established of hardwood species like
walnut , cherry and sweet chestnut. The timber component will require formative pruning in
the first few years. The more the crowns are pruned, the more favourable the crown
density will be for good grass production. Advances in the breeding of cultivars could also
contribute to this. Although questions remain about the financial viability of these
multipurpose plantations, such plantations can clearly deliver more diversification, both in
terms of tangible products as in terms of landscape and ecosystem enhancement. It would
be worth investigating in which landscape types and on which farm types the multipurpose
plantations can contribute positively to the environment and to farmers' income and future.
Selection of Cultivars in the North
From 1983 onwards E. ' Kwanten has intensively selected superior types from natural
populations of Jug/ans regia l. in gardens and farmyards in the northern provinces of the
Netherlands. Types with superior characteristics have been singled out. propagated and
planted at his selection orchard in Overschild to evaluate their characteristics in more
detail. Branches were collected, grafted. on rootstock of Jug/ans regia L. , and planted in
the selection orchard. The trees were grown organically. Characteristics of the trees and
nuts were monitored and described. Two of the best selections were named 'Dionym' and
'Amphyon'.
In 1987, a walnut tree was found in a private garden in Tjuchem, a village in the province
Groningen, that produced a lot of nuts of a good quality. This tree, producing up to 50 kg of
nuts per year, was probably planted around 1947 and was a seedling from another tree in
Tjuchem. This selection was named 'Amphyon'. In 1991, a 15 year old seedling was found
on a farm yard in Ten Boer, a village in the province of Groningen. The tree originated from
a tree nursery. This selection was named 'Dionym' .
'Amphyon'. The tree is intermediate to strong in vigour and forms a relatively dense crown
with a larger width than height. The timing of the bud break is intermediate, its winter
hardiness is good. The tree carries many catkins and female flowers, the flowering is
intermediate. In most years, production of ripe catkins and receptive female flowers
overlap, but also apomixis occurs. The tree enters bearing in its third or fourth year, has a
strong spur bearing habit (and some lateral bearing) and the productivity is high. The nuts
are carried in clusters with 2-4 nuts. The nuts shed without husk in the second half of
October. The ridged nuts are large and are clearly longer than wide. Deficient shells
hardly occur. The shell is easily opened by hand. The light yellow coloured kernels
completely fill the shell , are easily taken out and have a very good taste. The kernels can
have a weight of up to 5 gram. The 0(0 kernel in 2004 was 54%.
'Oionym'. The tree is very vigorous and forms a dense crown. The buds break
intermediate to late, its winter hardiness is good. The flowering is intermediate to late with
usually enough overlap for self-fertilisation but apomixity also occurs. The tree enters
bearing in its third or fourth year, has a strong spur bearing habit (and intermediate lateral
bearing) and the productivity is high. The nuts are carried in clusters with 2-5 nuts. The
nuts shed without husk in the first half of October. The ridged nuts are large, and are
somewhat longer than wide. The shell is not easily opened by hand. The light yellow
coloured kernels completel y fill the shell, are easily taken out and have an excell ent taste.
The kernels can have a weight of up to 5 gram. The % kernel was 47% in 2004.
Although no chemical crop protection was carried out, both selections were not seriously
damaged by diseases or pests indicating that the susceptibility for bacterial blight is low.
In 1996 and 1997, ' Oionym' and 'Amphyon' were planted in an organic commercial orchard
together with pollinators and intercropped with hazelnuts (Cory/us avellana L.) and Sea
Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.). The orchard of 1.5 hectare is situated on a sandy
soil in Luttelgeest (province of Flevoland) and is surrounded by a hedge row of 5 m wide.
Rows were alternatively planted with Sea Buckthorn and nuts (wal nuts & hazelnuts) The
distance between the rows was 3.5 m. The walnuts and hazelnuts were planted
alternatively with a distance of 3.5 m. In total , 44 'Am ph yon' trees were planted and 119
'Oionym' trees together with a number of pollinators (also selections from E. Kwanten).
The orchard was managed as an organic farm since 1996 and is officially certified. Plants
were not irrigated and no manuring took place.
In order to generate income before the walnuts would produce a good yield it was decided
to intercrop the walnuts with earli er yielding crops. Sea Buckthorn produces berries that
can be processed in juices, jams, wine etc. and oil can be extracted from it which can be
used in cosmetics. In 1999 the first berries were harvested. Since then berries have been
harvested every year. The Sea Buckthorn plants are now being pruned dramatically to
prevent competition with the nuts.
The hazelnuts started to produce in 2002. The walnuts entered bearing in the third or
fourth year after planting. In 2004 a number of trees produced several dozen of walnuts.
All walnuts are collected by hand and dried.
Although no quantitative data are available to compare the performance of 'Amphyon' and
' Oionym', which were both selected in the North, with for example 'Broadview' and
'Buccaneer' the observations under organic growing conditions were promising enough for
growers to plant these cultivars in their organic orchards. Planting of 'Amphyon' and
' Oionym' in the orchard in Luttelgeest in 1996, was followed by planting 600 'Oionym' trees
on a bio-dynamic farm in 2001. In 2004 again 400 'Oionym' trees were planted in a
commercial orchard.
The promising yield perspectives and the good kernel quality obtained with 'Amphyon' and
'Oionym' under an organic management regime together with a low susceptibility to pests
and diseases and an increasing demand of Outch consumers for locally grown organic
walnuts with a hi gh quality, will certainly lead to a larger acreage grown with 'Oionym' and
'Amphyon' in the near future.
Reference
Oosterbaan, A et al: Walnut as a farm crop in the Netherlands: an agroforestry project in
the east and selection of cultivars for organic cultivation in the north. Acta Hort.
705, ISHS, 2006.
Comparative semi-stratified invertebrate diversity study
of the Agroforestry Research Trust Forest Garden and
Schumacher Native Woodland
Justin West'
Purpose:
First, to compare the effects of converting pasture land into a highly diversified organic edible
forest garden. with the regeneration of farm land into an almost completely unmanaged, planted
native oak/ash woodland. Differences were compared by looking at invertebrate biodiversity as
well as carbon content of soil.
Secondly, to compare differences of invertebrate biodiversity within the forest garden and
between various different patches of plant associations, and determine if anything significant
might be said regarding understory plant composition and invertebrate diversity.
Background:
Much of the debate regarding complexity and diversity in ecosystems has centered on the issue
of stability and resilience. Since the late 1950's and the publication of Elton's (1958) book The
Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants and MacArthur's (1955) paper "Fluctuations of
Animal Populations, and a Measure of Community there has been much debate over
whether or not complexity in ecological communities begets patterns of stability. There has
often been confusion over the meanings and definitions used, as 'stability' in ecological terms
has often been used in reference to conditions near equilibrium. ' This is a convention of
convenience, as dealing with nonlinear, far from equilibrium systems in mathematics was until
recently quite problematic. It does not reflect the real world, however, as many scientists have
come to discover.
Complexity is defined here as the combination of diversity (measured by either the Shannon
index or the Simpson index, in both species richness and equitabitity of population sizes, as
well as connectance, or, the diversity of interactions. Stability, it is proposed by C.S Holling is,
ability of the system to return to an equilibrium state after a temporary disturbance."
Resilience, on the other hand, is, Ka measure of the persistence of systems and of their ability to
absorb change and disturbance and still maintain the same relationships between populations
or state variables."1 As he points out, stability and resilience are not necessarily twinned, arid
one can be strong while the other is weak.
There is a strong argument now, stemming from the work of Kevin McCaan as well as Pimm and
Drake
2
3" which indicates that complexity does indeed increase community stability if there is
likewise a diversity in strengths of interspecific interacti ons, and if stability is more inclusively
defined to include resilience.
Ecology is moving away from the notion of ecosystems as highly balanced loci of equilibrium
and stability, and into the idea of ecosystems as complex sets of non equilibrium relationships
which derive a satisfactory state of health through a diversity of diversities. Not only is a
diversity of species required, but also, it seems, a diversity of interactions and interaction
strengths promote communities which are not just adept at responding to disturbance, but which
are also able to absorb change in ways which maintain populations and relationships. While
this study does not address the question of diversity in interactions and interaction strength, it
does demonstrate that there is a significant difference in ground invertebrate taxa diversity
between the two sites, which mayor may not also be complemented with diversity in interaction
strengths.
Page 24
There is a growing awareness in the UK of the importance of reforestation for carbon emission
sequestration, wildli fe habitat regeneration, and ecosystem services. However, there is also a
well understood need for large proportions of land to be devoted towards food production in
striving to address the needs of a large and growing human population. The theory behind
edible forest gardening says that if food production is approached from the perspective of whole
ecosystem processes - diversity, closed nutrient flows, and inter-taxa relationships - then what
emerges is an ecosystem which is self maintaining, self fertilizing, and over-yields useful crops
for people, as well as retains and perhaps enhances ecosystem health.
ftAny form of nature conservation cannot deny human needs for food. A starting premise is that
natural vegetation has and will continue to give way to agricultural development. The urgent
emphasis today is for managed development, rather than destructive unplanned expansion.
There cannot be total disregard for the natural cornucopia of living material or disregard for the
soil fabric. Land is finite. In fact it is less than that , with South Africa alone losing 300 million
tons of topsoil annually. This brings to mind the aphorism that there is only about 30 cm of soil
between life and death of the planet...the USA is losing topsoil 18 times faster than it's being
replaced (Pimentel et aI., 1989) ... an estimated 17% of the annual fossil energy consumption of
the USA is used to supply the country with its food and fibre needs ... the energy input for
nitrogen fertilizer alone is now greater than the total energy inputs for growing maize in 1945-
about a 20-fold increase in the amount of nitrogen fertilizer versus a threefold increase in maize
yiel d (Pimentel et aI., 1989). These impacts have a major detrimental effect on soil
invertebrates, which are now recognized as being important influences on process-level
dynamics in agroecosystems.
5
-----
This passage reveals two important concepts. The first is that human needs are not separate
from the land, and must be brought into the land conservation equation. Once we recognize
that land devoted to food production cannot exist in isolatiol] , and nor can land set aside for
conservation purposes, indeed that one always influences the other, we will begin to weave the
mentality of respect for other beings with the mentality of respect for our food needs in
designing food systems and conservation ,areas which meet both needs. Respect does not flow
uni-directionally. Reciprocity is inherent in respect. Native Americans are often looked to as
the leaders in land ethic cosmologies of the western world. What is unique in many of these
cosmologies is precisely this perception of our environments as our own care takers. Just as
we care for our homes, our environments, we too have to be able to count on our homes and
environments to satisfy our needs. Often this reciprocity has devolved into an either/or scenario
whereby we are either destroying and demanding of the land, or coveting and conserving.
The second issue thai comes out of the above passage is that our current cheap petrochemical
induced agribusiness practices are destroying or disrupting vital ecosystem processes
associated with invertebrates. Much of the so called native invertebrate diversity contributes
substantially to the health of the whole system. Not only are invertebrates crucial for many
ecosystem functions, but they are also found in larger abundance than we might think possible.
With this in mind a larger question becomes possible. Forest gardening is not dependent on
cheap-oil subsidized fertilizers and is not dependent on homogenization of plant diversity and
complexity. It is, however, an act of intensive food production. If diversity has a correlation
with stability (resistance and resilience) within ecosystems, than it becomes an important
question to ask whether or not forest gardening has any comparable effects on biodiversity and
the soil food web on par with the reestablishment of native woodlands- a popular and
worthwhile task here in the UK, but not one which can directly answer our own food needs.
This study seeks to begin answering that question.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol1S No 1 Page 25
Methods:
For the initial spring sampling of May 28U1 June 4
111
2006 two sites were selected here at
Dartington; the almost twelve year old forest garden started by Martin Crawford of the
Agroforestry Research Trust, and the Schumacher Woodland. The Schumacher Woodland was
chosen for comparison as it is only just slightly older than the forest garden (fifteen years), and
was, like the forest ' garden a field experiencing traditional (intensive) farming practices prior to
the reforestation effort. The Schumacher Woodland is representative of woodland restoration
efforts in tree composition and spacing. They are approximately the same size (two acres) and
both,f3re adjacent to mature secondary growth native woodland. Also, both are adjacent to land
currently in pasture or cultivation.
The sites were sampled in the beginning of June in order to attempt to capture a snapshot of
peak diversity. The sites were visited by Peter Smithers, entomologist of the University of
Plymouth, Department of ~ i o l o g y , and it was determined that the most effective method for
sampling invertebrate diversity would be through a method known conventionally as pitfall
trapping. Twenty traps each were set in the sites labelled (FGforest garden) and (S
Woodland), with four groups of five traps in each site. The sampling sites were stratified based
on vegetation type within the Forest Garden and the Woodland. Once the sites were stratified,
the traps were randomly placed on a transect at least two meters apart. The 'two meter
minimum' rule was used in order to keep trap results independent from each other, as
suggested in Sutherland, 1996
6
Plastic drinking cups, approximately Scm diameter, were set
flush into the soil. A solution of 0.1% Propylene phenoxetol dissolved in propan diol which was
then made up as a 5% solution in tap water was added. Propylene phenoxetol is a bactericide
which slows down decomposition and has the advantage of being non toxic to mammals.
Traps were left for eight days, and samples were collected at the end of the eight days. Twice,
traps were checked over the course of the eight days, and twice small mammals (mice and
shrews) had to be removed from several of the traps in the FG. None, however, were trapped
in the woodland. Samples were then preserved in 70 % alcohol and identified at the University
of Plymouth. Identification,was done to the finest possible resolution, ranging from order (e.g.
Diptera, Hymenoptera) to Family (Carabidae, Staphalynidae) to genus (Lasius, Myrmica ants),
'and even to species in the case of several wood lice taxa.
The carbon content analysis was done by first collecting samples of soil (12 from each of the
two sites, as well as 4 each from two prospective future forest garden sites nearby) Samples
were dried, then weighed before being burned at 400 degrees Celsius for four hours.
Results:
It was determined using Primer 5 multivariate analysis that the two sites had significantly
different invertebrate taxa composition. The following hierarchical agglomerative clustering
dendrogram visually demonstrates this by giving percentages of similarity between each
sample. Notice that the maximum similarity between the two sites is just below 50%. Thi s quite
clearly tells us that the two locations are at the time of sampling, supporting rather different
compositions of invertebrates. The next question to ask is whether or not one is clearly
supporting a higher diversity.
Hierarchical clustering dendrogram
40
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80
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The multivariate analysis was followed up with several two-way statistical analyses of the data.
What resulted is a demonstrable difference in diversity (both raw and indexed) with a p value of
0.000. Six statistical analyses made were between the mean values of all twenty samples from
the forest garden (1) and the woodland (2), five of which displayed with a 95% confidence
interval that the total number of taxa, as well as the Margaret's index, Pielou's evenness index,
the Shannon-Wiener index. and the Simpson index are higher in the forest garden than in the
woodland. A variety of indices were employed in order to broaden the scope of understanding
the two components of species richness, and equitability. The sixth test (for
significance in difference between toral numbers of individuals) failed with a p =0.020. Out of
curiosity, the numbers were run with a 99.9% confidence interval. Results remained
unchanged. Mean sampled species richness was about 33% higher in the forest garden, and
mean indexed diversity was approximately 40% higher than the native woodland.
Page 27
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0.5
0.4
A further statistical analysis of diversity in taxa richness, numbers of individuals, and indexed
diversity demonstrated that the semi-stratified samples within the forest garden, showed no
statistically significant difference. Hence the four predominant understory vegetation types
where the traps were set evergreen Rubus tricolour/Rubus nepalensis, deciduous Mentha
suaveolens, dead and down wood with Vinca major and Mentha suaveolens, and mixed
understory of Origanum vulgare, Symphytum officinalis, Malva sylvestris, etc. showed no clear
difference in supported invertebrate diversity based on this one sampling. Further sampling
might draw out greater resolution in attempts to discern in what ways the diversity of the four
understory t y p e ~ differ. As well, these four vegetation types, while dominant in the forest
garden, are ' not totally representative of the totality of habitat composition and structure.
Further sampling in some of the other microsites of the forest garden, particularly around the
pond, and under some of the denser shrubs, might reveal even greater diversity in the forest
garden.
Soil organic matter content
As a follow up to the invertebrate study, there was an organic content soil analysis conducted in
both the woodland and the forest garden, as well as in neighbouring pasture land and mowed
lawn, which displayed interesting, and statistically significant results as well. A one-way
ANOVA test of the four sites demonstrates that there is a difference in the four sites. A second
test of just the woodland and the forest garden show a difference with a 99.9% confidence
interval. In fact the soils of the woodland were on average, lower in organic content than the
lawn, and the forest garden was just below t ~ e pasture.
Pasture: 15.739% (average of four samples)
Forest Garden: 13.856% (average of 12 samples)
Lawn: 10.926% (average of 4 samples)
Native Woodland: 8.220% (average of 12 samples)
0/0 Organic matter in top soil (Forest Garden vs. Native Woodland)
20
U
EJI
18
[J 4
~ 16
..
t:
~ 14
.Ii
c
..
'"
12

0
,!

10
,
8
fA note on the % organic content. Martin has had professional soil analyses done, and has
found the current organic content to be 8.8% for the forest garden. Why these numbers figure
so much higher is probably due to a different sampling method. It is likely that I took my
samples from the upper layer of the top soil , whereas his samples included more soil from
below. The actual percentages are irrelevant for the purposes of comparison. All of the
samples I took were to the same depth using the same implement. By this method, the forest
garden showed nearly 69% higher organic content than the woodland.]
Conclusions and thoughts for future research:
Both in raw numbers of taxa, and in indexed diversity the forest garden seems to support a
more robust population of invertebrates. While plant diversity has not always been shown in
previous studies to be directly correlated with invertebrate diversity. in the case of this study it
seems plausible. The density of the undergrowth as well , likely leading to consistently higher
t emperatures and humidity, may be contributing factors to a more robust and diversified
invertebrate population. Thirdly, the soil in the forest garden contains a higher organic content
than that of the woodland. Nothing in this small study indi c; ates that a woodland regenerated
via plantings of uniform aged native trees of only a couple species can compete with the forest
gardening process in supporting native invertebrates in south Devon. Both the increased
diversity of invertebrates, as well as a robust and healthy soil profile, significantly more so than
the soi l of the Schumacher woodland, lends credence to the idea that we, as human actors in a
larger play, can indeed affect change in ways which yield positive results for the whole.
However, this study is a mere snapshot of a vastly more complex set of comparisons , and would
need to be followed up with more sampling through the seasons, in order to generate a more
robust data set.
Questions of reliability could be raised regarding the limitations of the study to only one method
of invertebrate trapping. Equally, the difference in certain taxa could be regarded as an effect
of difference in mobility due to difference in temperature, humidity, habitat structure (Le.: taxa
move about more in less nutrient rich salls and/or in grass dominated understories). Also, the
large numbers of spiders and ants in the woodland is quite interesting and could be a result of
unknown processes going on, which are also affecting numbers of other invertebrates sampled.
As well , the site of the native woodland may have been more actively tilled prior to woodland
regeneration than the site where the forest garden now exists. This would contribute to a more
crippled soil profile, and perhaps lower biodiversity. However, the site of the woodland is on
two sides, adjacent to relatively intact mature native woodland, whereas the site of the forest
garden is predominantly adjacent to woodland of introduced conifers. All of the site
contextualization's are important in questioning how much this one study can tell us.
At the very least, what this study intimates is that the often assumed thesis which perpetuates
the nature myth, that whatever we touch in nature we destroy or diminish, seems in this
instance refuted. Indeed, this study is but one tiny view to a much more miraculous and
incomprehensible whole. However, it demonstrated to myself and others at Dartington (against
considerable scepticism) that forest gardening can contribute to human needs while not
diminishing the possibilities for ecosystem health and diversity. In fact, in some cases it may
well increase them. It would be useful if this study was followed up with inquires into the
aforementioned diversities of interactions and interaction strengths. It is still uncertain whether
or not a highly diversified forest garden can be considered stable and resilient, due to
complexity. As there are no mature temperate climate forest gardens, these questions may not
be answerable anytime in the near future, if ever. Holling describes ways of measuring relative
amounts of resilience and stability, but he notes that these measurements require, ~ i m m e n s e
amounts of knowledge of a system, and it is unlikely that we shall often have all that is
necessary.n7
As we are all actors and participants, not there and later, but rather here and now, we can only
continue with our cultivation of knowledge and hope for an inclusive whole wisdom to emerge.
Taxonomic counts cannot provide this alone. Our feelings and intuitions of how we can most
ski lfull y act must be heeded as we go. linking what little bits of knowledge we do have with
wider ecological understandings can help inform these intuitions.
Making meaning of the data
A reductionist of the complexity of interactions between plant species, herbivores
and l:>redatory arthropods soon becomes untenable when dealing with even just a handful of
variables. Calculations of a simple ecosystem of two plant species, six herbivore species, and
six predatory species has 91 potential twoway and 36 potential threeway ecological
interactions.
8
An 'organism' such as Martin's forest garden, with close to 500 plant species, and
close to 80 identified taxa of invertebrates precludes the possibili ty of understandings limited to
reductionist methodologies'. Martin noted to me at one time thaI forest gardening, 'defies
[quantitative] science in its complexity.' I would agree. The question then becomes, in what
...... ays can we understand and make meaning of a vastly complex ecosystem such as the fore$t
garden?
While counting how many mites and how many spiders fell into the small, semi-randomly
distributed plastic cups in the forest garden won't tell us much about the whole health of the
garden, and although the combinations of interspecific interactions are vastly complex, these
reductions and taxonomic identifications do provide an opening of awareness as to general
trends, and processes which mayor may not be going on in the garden. Knowledge of these
overlooked critters also draws the gardener further into relationship with the more-thanhuman
community of life. Some background research on ecological functions of the more abundant
taxa show some interesting trends in comparing the forest garden with the woodland.
Mites (Acari) are important grazers of bacteria and fungi, shred organic matter, and play key
predator roles.
s
Mites were found four times (542:139) more abundantly in the forest garden
than the native woodland.
Beetles (Colyoptera) are variously scavengers and predators, but predominantly herbivores.
Carabids are well known as playing important roles in pest regulation, dissemination of insect
viruses, and as speciali st hunters. Staphalinids (rove beetles) are typically small predators and
scavengers. The Curculionids include some historically well known 'pest' species, and many
other weevil species can be economic problems.
10
With the exception of the Caribidae family (47/96) there were overwhelmingly more beetles
found in the forest garden versus the woodland: Staphyalynidae (250/166), Curculionidae
(48/23), Ptilidae (91/14), Chrysomelidae (17/3). As well, there were several families which were
low in in both locations: Cantharidae (1/ 1) , Elateridae (1/1) Scarabidae (1/1), and
Silphidae (3/5). Nitidulidae (4/ 1). Pslaphidae (0/ 1)
Hymenoptera order is perhaps the most beneficial order of arthropods to humans. The
suborder Apocrita (wasps, ants, and bees) in particular contri bute to the processes of insect
predationfparastism, flower pollination, and in the case of ants (formicidae) can be vital in
nutrient recycling and plant dispersal. 11
Numbers of Hymenoptera individuals trapped in the forest garden nearly doubled those found in
the native woodland (121/68) with the exception of ants, which were identified to genus and
were signi ficantl y more abundant in the woodland (920/106). (II should be noted that
approximately two-thirds of the 920 ants trapped in the woodland came from only three adjacent
traps.) Predator insects need flower nectar as energy source while searching for prey or hosts.
As they only have biting or sucking mouthparts they need easil y accessible nectar ie: Apiaceae,
Asteraceae, and some of the Lamiaceae, and they need them throughout the season'2 The
emphasis made by forest gardeners to 'keep' pest predators in the garden by abundantly
planting these families could account for" the doubling of nonant hymenoptera in the forest
garden.
Dlptera order is enormous and generalizations about the ecology must be taken, as just that.
However, the vast majority of dipterids are 'beneficial to the function of ecosystems as
pollinators, parasites, and predators, and vital to the processes of decomposition and nutrient
recycling.' As with the Hymenoptera, there was nearly a two-fold difference in abundance of
Oiptera individuals between the forest garden and the woodland (56/28).13
Spiders are well known predators of other invertebrates (mostly insects), however their role in
the ecology of pest control and limitation is not yet well understood. Some studies have been
done which have indeed linked the importance of the spider assemblage in agroecosystems.
An experiment conducted with four 70m
2
plots, demonstrated the effect spiders can have on
keepi ng pest insect densities down. By adding mulch and floral diversity (flowering buckwheat)
to two of the plots, and by increasing the complexity of the system (even just marginally) they
showed increases in spider populations with reciprocal decreases in insect densities. Studies
of energy flow and the movement of labelled materials through food webs indicate that spiders
are major components of the predatory fauna, and more that spiders capture a
substantial fraction of the insects in the trophic levels beneath them.
R1
Spiders were trapped in far greater abundance in the woodland than the forest garden. The
relative populations of various families of spiders in the forest garden versus the woodland
include: Linyphiidae (Money Spider) (24/85). Opiliones (Harvestmen) (15/61). Strip Spider (018).
Theriidae (Comb footed spider) (111), Thoricsidae (Crab Spider) (0/1) , Lycosidae (Wolf Spider)
(40/98), and Zoridae (Ghost spider) (0/2). Spiders like grass hay mulch better than leaf and
bark mulch. IS As the understory of the woodland was more dominated by grass species than
was the understory of the forest garden, this could be a possible reason why there was higher
spider abundance in the woodland than in the forest garden.
Collembola (Springtails) are extremely abundant in soil and leaf litter, and can contribute as
much as 33% of total soil fauna respiration in early successional ecosystems.'s Collembolan
faecal pellets number in the millions/m2 and become available to plants slowly as microbes .
break them down. Much of the composition of these pellets comes from collembola grazing of
fungal hyphae, which at certain threshold densities can actually stimulate growth of the
symbiont plants of the fungi 17. By creating faecal pellets, Collembola increase surface area and
avai lability for further decomposition by microbes and fungi. It should be noted that this effect
is more pronounced in systems which are polluted or highly acidic, and whereby other
decomposers such as earthworms are absent 18
As well, springtails contribute to available food supply for other predatory invertebrates such as
generalist Opiliones (harvestman spiders), hunting spiders, pseudoscorpions, and ants (Dejean
1985; Foster 1970; Holldobler and Wilson 1990; Johnson and Wellington 1980a,b; Schlegel and
Bauer 1994 in Hopkin, 1997)'9 Also, several Staphylinid and Carabid beetle species are known
to specialize in hunting springtail, and have evolved highly efficient trap mechanisms.
Springtails in the woodland outnumbered those of the forest garden (845/169). It seems
plausible that the high numbers of the springlails, carabids, and spiders in the woodland may
have a connection .
Schumacher College, Oartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6EA. chuckjwest@hotmail.com
This article is an edited version of Justin's full research paper.
References
1 Jantsch, Erich and Conrad H. Waddington, editors. 1976, Evolution and Consciousness:
Humans Systems in Transition. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading,
Massachusetts,p81.
2 Drake, James A., May 1990, Communities As Assembled Structures: 00 Rules Govern
Pattern?H TREE, vol. 5, no 5.
3 McCann, Kevin Shear, May 2000. MThe diversity - stability debate, Nature, Vol 405, 11 , pp
228-233.
4 McCann, Kevin, Alan Hastings and Gary R. Huxel, October 1998, Weak trophic interactions
and the balance of nature-, Nature. Vol 395, 22, pp 794-798.
5 Crossley, Coleman and Hendrix, 1989 in Samways, Michael J. 1994. Insect Conservation Biology.
London: Chapman and Hal1. '
6 Sutherland, William J. editor. 1996. Ecological Census Techniques' A Handbook, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, p163.
7 Holling, C.S. 1976. 'Resilience and Stability of Ecosystems', in Jantsch, Erich and Conrad H.
Waddington, (eds.) 1976, Evolution and Consciousness: Humans Systems in Transition. ,Addison-
W,esley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, p86.
8 Samways, Michael J. 1994 Insect Conservation Bio!Qgy. London: Chapman and Hall.
9 Jacke, David and Eric Toensmeier. 2005. Edible Forest Gardens Volume 1: Ecological Vision and
Theorv for Temperate Climate Permaculture. White River Junction, Vermont Chelsea Green, p223.
10 McGavin, George C. 2001. Essential Entomoloqy: An order by order introduction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, p189-199.
11 McGavin, George C. 2001. Essential Entomology: An order by order introduction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, p259
Theory for Temperate Climate Permaculture. White Ri.ver Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green, p163.
, 13 McGavin, George C. 2001 Essential Entomology: An order by order introduction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, p219.
,. Wise, D. H. 1993 Spiders in Ecological Webs. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Theory for Temperate Climate Permaculture. White River Junction, Vermont Chelsea Green, p128.
16 Petersen H. 1994 'A review of collembolan ecology in ecosystem context.' Acta Zoologica Fennica,
195,111-11 8.
17 Lussenhop, J. 1996 'Collembola as mediators of microbial symbiont effects to soybeans.' Soil Biology
and Biochemistry, 28. 363-9.
18 Hopkin, Stephen P. 1997 Biology of the Sprinqtails (Insecta: Collembola), Oxford: Oxford University
Press
19 Hopkin, Stephen P. 1997 Biology of the Springtails (Insecta: Collembolat Oxford: Oxford University
Press, p123-126.
Walnut wood and its utilisation
Walnut in myth and history
Walnut trees, the edible nuts and the oil extracted from them have been known since ancient
times. Walnut (Jug/ans regia L.) is regarded to be native in Central and West Asia. Petrified
walnut shells have been found in France dating back 8,000 years or so to the Neolithic period.
There is a belief that the modern European walnut originated in Persia and was introduced to
Rome by the Greeks. Romans spread walnut trees to Great Britain and throughout the Roman
Empire from as early as 100 years B.C. Very lately. at about 1,500 A.C. , it was introduced to
America by Christopher Columbus.
Walnut trees and their products are closel y associated with history and mythology. Around
2.000 B.C. in Mesopotamia, the Chaldeans left inscriptions on clay tablets revealing the
existence of walnut groves within the famed Hanging Gardens of Babylon. At the same time,
the Code of Hammurabi mentions walnuts in the section on laws governing food. In the Old
Testament, King Solomon speaks with delight of visiting his walnut groove. The walnut appears
in Greek mythology in the story of Carya, with whom the god Dionysus fell in love. When she
died, Dionysus transformed her into a walnut tree. The goddess Artemis carried the news to
Carya's father and commanded that a temple be built in her memory with sculpted wooden
columns in the form of young women, called caryatides, or nymphs of the walnut tree.
It is possible that during the last Glacial Period, known as Pleistocene era, walnut trees
disappeared from the frozen earth of the Northern European countries and after that period,
invaders and Greeks and Romans re-introduced the trees from their homelands into Europe.
Characteristics and properties of walnut wood
Walnut is rather a diffuse-porous hardwood with non-uniform distribution of pores throughout a
growth ring. Pores are solitary or in multiples (2-4 vessels) and show a diagonal arrangement
within each annual ring. Their size gradually diminishes from the beginning to the end of the
annual rings with the result that a semi-ring-porous effect is produced. Rays are fine, uni- to 5-
seriate, barely visible with lens. Axial parenchyma is present. Tylosis is fairly abundant.
Sapwood is whitish to light yellow-brown and heartwood has a light chocolate-brown colour,
sometimes with darker streaks.
Physical Characteristics and Properties
Wal nut wood has a medium to heavy density (0,58. 0,75 g/cm2) and is characterized by a
medium shrinkage (total shrinkage: radial 4.8 %, tangential 7.5 %, volumetric 12- 14 %) and
movement (sum of radial and tangential movement for RH changes between 43 and 80 %: 3.71
%). The heartwood appears more stable than sapwood. After proper drying, walnut wood is
characterized by a good dimensional stability.
Walnut wood has a great variety of colours. The colour of sapwood is whitish to yellowish.
Heartwood colour ranges between grey-yellowish to grey-brown in light-coloured walnut species
and varieties and dark-brown with black stripes in dark-coloured walnut species and mature
trees. The central heartwood around the pith usually differs in colour from the surrounding
heartwood. The black stripes are abnormally distributed in the heartwood region and,
sometimes, they are present only in the interior-(central part) of heartwood.
The wood dries rather slowly without problems. In thick sawnwood, honeycombing may appear
during drying. The duration of natural drying ranges between 3 12 months depended on the
thickness of planks and the climatic conditions (temperature, RH, wind). Kiln drying times range
between 35 and 40 days. For green timber thickness 2.5 cm, natural drying times range
between 70 and 200 days to reach final moisture content 20%, while kiln drying times range
between 10 and 16 days to reach final moisture content 6%. In kiln drying, the temperature
begins from and gradually increases up to while the RH starts from 85% and
gradually decreases to 40%.
. .
The .texture is fine. The fine texture and the medium hardness provide an excellent wood for
turnery and carving. The fresh wood has an acid odor.
The sapwood is non-durable while dry heartwood is durable to fungal and insect attack.
Sapwood is permeable and is impregnated with wood preservatives easily. Such impregnation
improves the durability of the' wood.
Walnut wood is steamed relatively easily. Steaming can be applied in sawn timber for 12 to 24
hours depended on the thickness and the steaming unit and results in a homogenous colour of
timber surfaces. Walnut logs for veneer production are also steamed at temperatures
in order to balance the moisture content inside the wood. Bending properties are also good.
After steaming walnut wood may be curved to a radius corresponding to 1110 of the timber
thickness.
Paints and varnishes are easily applied on walnut sapwood and heartwood surfaces resulting in
excellent final faces. Sapwood is often painted to achieve similar colour with the darker
heartwood. If fatty substances are present in walnut wood, then a polyurethane based primer is
applied before the final polishing. Walnut wood has also good gluing properties. It is not
recommended to use alkaline glues in order to avoid disco[ourations.
Mechanical Properties of Wood, Machinability and Deviations
Walnut wood is hard with medium static bending strength, good strength in toughness and
relatively high splitting strength. The timber works well by hand and machine tools and behaves
like other semi-hard woods. When the wood is dry it exhibits a medium resistance during
mechanical processing, it moderately cutter edges and 'causes significant waste.
Normal wood produces smooth surfaces after surface mechanical processes. However in
abnormal wood structure (reaction wood, wood from roots, etc.) the fibers have different
directions and special care is needed to produce smooth surfaces.
Walnut wood can be drilled without problems and has excellent screw and holding capacity.
Discolourations may be appeared when green wood comes into contact with iron items. [t also
has excellent behavior during turnery and carving.
The most common deviations from normal structure that appear in walnut wood due to various
influences throughout the life span of the trees are the fol[owing: taper that usually appears with
of the tree trunks, leaning and crooking, eccentricity, spiral grain, knots , fungi and
insect attaCk, damages from birds, frost cracks, damage from lightning, hail and fire, traumatic
deviations followed by disco[ourations, shakes parallel to annual rings, .local raising of wood.
Discolourations maY.' appear after exposure of walnut wood to sunlight and during contact with
metals.
Page 36 AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No 1
Tree cutting and production of logs
Walnut trees are cut for wood production alter 30-80 years from planting time. The maturity of
trees for cutting depends on the diameter at breast height, the bark appearance and the tree
vitality. Healthy trees with diameter lesser than 25 em and normal growth are left for future
cutting. However, if the annual growth is less than 5 mm for a number of years (at least during
the last 3 years) it is recommended to cut the trees. Another indicator is the depth of fissures in
the outer bark. Depth of bark fissures greater than 20 mm, indicate no good prospects of the
tree growth. Vitality of walnut trees is assessed mainly by the characteristics of leaves.
The most suitable cutting time is October (after leaf fall) to March. When walnut trees are cut
outside this period, the quality of wood may be deteriorated by insect and fungi attack, and
discolourations occur. Tree cutting includes the following steps:
a. Removing the soi l around the base of the trunk.
b. Cutting the tree trunk as low to the ground as it can be in order to utilise the whole
trunk from the upper part of the root to the crown.
c. Careful limbing separating the thick branches with a diameter >20 cm for further
technical use. Also, parts of ramification are collected for further utilisation since they
produce veneers of special figure.
d. Uprooting when roots have those characteristics, properties and dimensions to
produce high value veneers or sawn wood for gun stocks. Uprooting is obligatory in
many European countries.
e. Transportation of walnut logs to roads and to wood industries for further processing as
fast as possible to avoid deterioration of wood.
Walnut logs can have to a varying degree a number of defects. However, no national standards
are applied to walnut logs, and the world market imposes its own regulations that include visits
to walnut plantations, places with individual trees or cut and processed trees for local quality
assessment and making agreements to sell. In the world market of walnut wood the following
characteristics play important role for its quality assessment:
a. straight and cylindrical trunks
b. possibility to produce timber length 2 m (rarely 1 m) dependent on the diameter and
the final product.
c. The diameter of trunk and branch logs is suggested to be equal or greater than:
25 cm for sawn timber production
35 cm for veneer production
20 cm for semi-final parquets and wood profiles
50 cm for gun stocks
d. It is suggested logs are cut with the bark intact (not debarked) and the fissures of
outer bark do not exceed a depth of 20 mm.
e. The number and the intensity of certain defects like knots, crooking, etc.
Technology applied and wood processing
The mechanical processing of walnut logs is not the same as standard techniques and methods
applied to other woods due to the high value of walnut wood. The basic principle is to process
each log of walnut separately in order to achieve the maximum yield. Walnut logs are machined
to produce mainly two semi -final products, a. sawn timber and b. veneers.
Logs of the proper diameter and of wood quality are machined for veneer production that are
high value products.
In wood industries walnut logs are stacked properly in the log yard and if they are stored for a
long time before processing it is necessary to protect them from insect and fungi attack
especially in warm periods.
A general principle is logs for sawing to have diameter at least 25 cm (usually >35 cm) and
length.at least 1 m .. The best logs are used for veneer production.
,
Sawing, Steaming and Drying
Barked logs are usually sawn with bandsaws by continuous sawing and converted to sawnwood
of thickness 3-5-6-8 and 10 em or more, length 1.0-3.5 m (rarely 0,7-5.0 m) and width 14-45 cm
(rarely 12-60 cm).
Steaming is usually applied for achieving homogeneous colour and for protection from insect
and fungal attack. The steaming duration is between 12-24 hours at temperatures 120"C-
140C.
Air or kiln drying is applied for walnut timber. The usual method of drying is a combination of
both air and kiln drying. Grading of sawn timber follows the general rules for hardwoods. There
is no grading system internationally accepted.
Continuous sawing gives best results. During sawing the yield (lumber volume) ranges between
49 % and 55,4 % for diameters 25,4 cm and 34,2 em respectively.
The most important uses of walnut wood are: furniture of high value, interior paneling, musical
instruments, parquet, and furniture profiles, rifle handles, toys, small items and public art,
carvings, sporting goods, turnery, interior ladders, boxes for valuable items and scientific
instruments, laminated wood for furniture, joinery, etc. Walnut wood is not preferred for high
span structures.
Production technology of rifle stocks
Walnut wood is regarded to be the best for production of rifle stocks although many other
species are used for such purposes (Fagus, Acer, Betula, Ulmus, Prunus, Quercus, Koumaria,
Mahogany, Evenos, Palissander, etc.). Most of the rifle handles in the world are produced by
using walnut wood due to its good properties and variety of figures and colours.
The main walnut species used as raw material for rifle stocks are Jugfans nigra l. (American
black walnut), Jugfans regia L. (European walnut), Jug/ans hindsii J. (American black walnut of
N. California), Jugfans nigra l. )( Jug/ans regia L. (Hybrid walnut).
Production Steps
a. Storage of logs in the log yard
b. Sawing with bandsaw or circular saw starting with a central cut to reveal the
interior quality of the log with large diameters and then producing planks from both sides
usually of 7 cm thickness. The presence of ramification produces the best quality for
rifle butts. logs of smaller diameter are cut with the usual method of producing parallel
planks with a bandsaw starting from one of the two sides.
c. Steaming and drying. Steaming is applied to light-coloured walnut species in
order to achieve the darker colour that is preferred. Drying is preferred to be mild and
rather slow to avoid undesirable defects. Kiln drying is combined with air drying under
shelter. The final moisture content of timber is about 8-10%.
d. Cutting and preparation of semi-final wood pieces for gun stocks. The usual
dimensions of these products are:
Forends-shotguns 5.7(6.0) X 6.25(10.2) X 32.0(56.0) em
Shotguns 6.0 X 17.0(+6.25) X 48.0 em
Short rifle guns 51.7(6.4) X 20.3(+7.6) X 86.4(88.0) em
Long rifle guns 6.35 X 20.3(+7.6) X 112.0 em
Quality grading is applied to these products including 5-7 classes. An example of a
seven-class grading system includes:
Class 7 Extra-Royal (with unique special figure)
Class 6 Super Exclusive (Distinctive figure in both sides)
Class 5 Exclusive (AAA Fancy) (100% good figure and colour variations)
Class 4 Super Deluxer (AA Fancy) (75% good figure and colour variation)
Class 3 Deluxe (A Fancy) (50% god figure and colour variation)
Class 2 Half Deluxe (Fancy) (25% good figure and colour vari ation)
Class 1 Standard (Without figure and with sapwood up to 10%)
e. External formation of the above wooden parts and formation of inletting
f. Adaptation of the metal part of the rifle.
g. Smoothing. Finishing, External decoration of gun stocks.
Technol ogy of veneer production
Veneers from Trunk Logs
The prQ(;esses of veneer production from walnut logs includes:
a. Proper storage of logs in the l og yard according to colour, diameter and quality.
b. Cross cutting of trunks by a chain saw and defining the length of logs (2-6 m).
c. Prevention measures to protect the ends and avoid splitting.
d. Steaming in suitable tanks .
e. Debarking
f. Preparation of prisms by a band saw.
g. Mechanical processing (slicing) of prisms and production of high value veneers. Every
natural characteristic or defect (knots, growth abnormalities, figures etc.) is utilized
during this process. A variety of cutting techniques is appJied for veneer production.
The part of prisms that cannot be utilised for veneers is used as sawnwood.
h. Veneer drying is done in veneer kiln dryers until moisture content of 8-12 % is achieved.
Special care is given to avoid defects (discolourations, fungi attack, curving) that may
be created during drying. Kiln drying programmes for walnut, are characterized by
high temperatures (140-1 80 C) in the final stages of drying and high air speeds (15-
20 m/sec) that lead to a short drying time.
1. Veneer packaging. The produced veneers from each log are put one another on pallets
forming veneer packages. The edges of each package are cut, some defects are
removed and each final package includes 24-32 veneer sheets.
ia. Quality grading of walnut veneers. Grading of veneers produced from trunk and root
is done separately. Also, the packages of dark- and light- coloured walnut species are
separately graded. For veneers produced from trunk three qualities (A, B, C) are
distinguished according to the quality of figure and the presence of discolourations,
knots , tension wood, spiral grain, ring shakes, curving etc. The value of veneers
produced from root is up to 5 times more than those produced from the trunk.
ib. Storage. Marketing. All the veneer packages produced from each log are stored up
together on wooden pallets in a conditioned environment with temperature up to 35 C
and relative humidity about 70%.
Veneer yields depend on log quality, growth conditions of the trees, cultivation techniques and
l og dimensions. They usually range between 37 - 65 %.
Veneers from Walnut Root
Veneers of high aesthetic and economical value can be produced from wood of the walnut
roots. Countries producing European walnut roots are France, Iran, Turkey and countries
around the Caspian Sea (Georgia, Azerbaidzhan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tatzhikistan).
Black walnut roots are produced in East States of U.S.A and in the west, mainly, in California.
Veneers are maInly produced by U.S.A, Italy, France and Germany.
The production of veneers from roots is a specific process and needs proper technological
infrastructure in the wood industries. The production steps of veneers from walnut roots
include:
Transportation and storage of roots in the log yard, external cleaning with water, steaming,
debarking, peripheral cutting (veneer production), drying, flattening by press machines, edge-
cutting, storage and marketing.
The thickness of veneers is usually 0.55-0.65 mm. The minimum thickness is 0.5 mm and the
maximum 1.0 mm depended on the quality of the root wood. The shape of root veneers is
orthogonal or polygonal with minimum the one dimension 20 em.
The veneer yiel d from European walnut root ranges between 25-50%. The quality of veneers
depends on the kind of figure and the absence of defects (discolourations, decay, holes, etc.).
The prices ranging today between 8-45 Euros 1m2 in Europe are based on supply and demand ..
The veneers from walnut roots are used as decorative coverings of particleboard and fiberboard
in furniture and doors as well as in musical instruments. Walnut veneers are used to cover
wood panels (particle- and fiber- boards, plywood) for furniture and joinery. These coverings
involve the following steps:
a. assembling the veneers to achieve the dimensions of panel faces
b. gluing the assembled veneers on panel faces by using press 5-8 kg/cm2 and
temperature 100-1 35 C for 35-80 sec.
c. Final processes (edge cuttings, smoothing, quality control, packaging, storage,
conditioning). A variety of assembly types is applied.
The use of walnut wood in furniture and other uses
On a world level walnut wood is regarded as one of the most suitable and valuable for furniture
and joinery. Furniture items based on walnut wood are widely osed both in professional
buildings (museums, theatres , shops, banks, etc.) and private dwellings.
Walnut wood has been used from very early times up to the present for production of classical
furniture and joinery items. Wood veneers from walnut trunk and root have been also utilised
for the decoration of furniture, floor, roof and interior door surfaces, musical instruments
(marketerie), etc. Walnut wood is excellent and very suitable in wood carving especially in
ecclesiastical woodcarving where it has been widely used.
Reference
Voulgaridis, E V & Vassiliou, V G: The walnut wood and its utilisation to high value products.
Acta Hert. 705, ISHS 2006.
Agroforestry News
I
I
Hemerocallis
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Apples from central Asia
3 A.R.T. 2006 trial ground report
12 Using wood for fuel
12 The science of burning wood
15 Notes on specific woods for burning
19 Drying wood
20 Heating systems: log or woodchip?
20 Log heating systems
23 Woodchip heating systems
24 Plants for windy sites: Shrubs
35 Book reviews: Forests and Society / N-Tillage Seeding in
Conservation agriculture / Ecologically-based Integrated
Pest Management
38 Hemerocallis: the daylilies
Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. UK Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VoltS No 2 Page 1
News
Apples from central Asia
Seven expeditions were sponsored by the USDA and the U.S. National Plant Germplasm
System in the 1990's, aimed at expanding the known genetic diversity of apples. These
selectioj1s are now being evaluated at Cornell University, particularly for their disease-resistant
properties.
Central Asia - Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan in particular - is likely the ancestral home of
familiar domestic apples (Malus x domestica). The trips resulted in at least a doubling of the
known genetic diversity of apples. It turns out that this gene pool is much more diverse than
originally thought. And what we've found may help make the trees stand up better to d i s e a s e s . ~
Among all this material, it is the Kazak samples that have become most studied: especially
noteworthy are accessions collected there of M. sievers;;, an important forerunner of the
domestic apple. In all, the scientists returned from central Asia with 949 apple tree accessions.
Most of the specimens were brought here as seed, but 50 were catalogued as "elite clones"-
grafts of the original trees.
Silk Road traders and their predecessors started the spread of apples from there to other parts
of the world, but the seeds they carried likely represented a narrow genetic sampling. That's
probably why t oday's American (and English) domestic apples have a fairly narrow genetic base
that makes them susceptible to many diseases.
Many of the Kazak apples lack the size and flavour needed for commercial success, but it' s the
trees' ability to resist diseases that sets them apart. Breeders will be able to cross them with
palatable varieties.
The Kazak trees showed significant resistance to apple scab. the most important fungal disease
of apples, whose outbreaks blemish fruit and defoliate trees . 27% of the Kazak accessions were
resistant to it , because the tree co-evolved with the disease. through natural selection. Also,
about 30% of samples inoculated with fire blight resisted that disease. Researchers have found
genes in these apples that allow them to adapt to mountainous, near-desert, and cold and dry
regions.
Samples from species collected in other expedition sites have provided promising news in the
fight against fire blight. Seedlings from different populations of M. orientalis from the Russian
Caucasus and Sichuan regions effectively resisted the disease, with Russian accessions
scoring 50- to 93-percent resistance. Russian M. orientalis may convey resistance to fire blight
and less sensitivity to latent viruses than small-fruited Malus species, which would be especially
useful for breeding fire blight-resistant rootstocks.
Natural selection that occurs in the central Asian forests seems to have helped the Kazak trees
develop resistance to soil pathogens that can otherwise stunt young apple orchards and lead to
poor growth and lost production. The material is a treasure trove of new genetic variants for
resistance to Phytophthora cactorum, which causes collar rot, and Rhizoctonia solani, an agent
of apple replant disease. Seedlings have already become part of the rootstock-breeding
program.
Source: "Remarkable Kazak Apples". Agricultural Research magazine, January 2006.
Page 2
A.R.T. 2006 trial ground report
Chestnuts
The chestnuts continue to do tremendously well. The cropping dates for 2006 are very similar
to those of 2005; nut sizes were slightly smaller for the earlier varieties due to the very dry soil
conditions during September and the first half of October; the later varieties were of similar size
to 2005.
A number of varieties yielded over 40 kg per tree and two - Marigoule and Vignals - over 50 kg
per tree, which is a stunning performance for 10-11 year old trees. The total yield from our
roughly one acre trial plot was over 700 kg, and once again most nuts were sold locally, the
marginal size reduction having no effect on demand and prices.
Cultlvar
--- Se tember --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ October ~ - - ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ ~ - - ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ - - - ~ ~
Date 23 425 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a 1 2 ~ 3 4 516 7 8 9 a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Belle Epine
Bouche de Betizac
Bournette
Ederra
Herria
Laguepie
Maraval
Maridonne
Marigoule
Marki
Marlhac
Marron Comballe
Marron de Lyon
Marron de Redon
Marron Goujounac
Numbo
Precoce Migoule
Rousse de Nay
Verdale
Vignols
'Unknown late'
xx xx xxxxxxxxxxxx x x x x xx
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x xxxxxxxxxxxxx x xx x xxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xx x x x x x x xxxx
x x
x ~ indicates the period of heaviest cropping.
Unknown Late
II
1111
1111
Vignols
-.
p,2
1 1 1 I. I I I
Verdal e -
-
4.
I I I I
Rousse de Nay
-
.4
Precoce Migoule
i-) ,3
Numbo 1 .4
I I
Marlhac
. 2 .
1 1
Marki .5
Marigoule
-
-
.
8 .4
1 1 1 1 1
Maridonne 1
Maraval
F*5
Marron Goujounac 1 .
Marron de Redon
7 . ~ S
Marron de Lyon
1 1' 1 1
Marron Comball e
,
2 .
Laguepie .4
Herria
-
.
6
Ederra
Bournette 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bouche de Betizac
,
1 2
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Belle Epine . - ~ ! . 4
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Total yield (kg)
Average total yield per tree from chestnut cultivars in 2006
Page 4
Vignals
I I I I I I I I I I I I I 11111111
Verdale
IJ11 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Rousse de Nay
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Precoce Migoule
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Numbo
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Mar1hac
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Marki .. ,
. _.
-
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Marigoule
I I I I I I ILl I I I LLUII I I I I I I I
Maridonne
-
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Maraval
LII I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Marron Goujounac
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Marron de Redon
I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I II ILLLIL1J
Marron de Lyon
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Marron Cornballe
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Laguepie
I I I I I I II I I I I LLLl I I IL
Herria
Ederra
.
I I I I I I III I I I IJJllll I I I
Bournette
I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I
Bouche de Betizac
I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Belle Epine
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Average nut weight (g)
Average nut count for chestnuts in 2006
Page 5
Hazelnuts
2006 was a superb year for the hazelnuts in the variety trial. Ripening took place in the last 3
weeks of September and trees were manually shaken over a tarp to collect the nuts.
------ --------- --- S eptem be r --------------------------
Date 8 9 1 1 1 1 14 1 16 7 8 9 0 2 222 4 25 2 272 9
Cultlvar
Butler
Corabel
Cosford
Enni s
E7
Grima 190A
Grima 188
Gunslebert
Hall's Giant
Kent Cob
Pearsons Prolific
Webbs Prize Cob
White Filbert
xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX
xxxx xxxxxxxxxxx x
XXXXXXXx
XXX XXXXXXXXXXX X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX
White Filbert
.;:.- -
"
II I I I I I't III
1111111111111 I
Webbs Prize Cob
, ,...
I I I I I I
Pearsons Prolific
- - . ~ .. ,
,
I I I I II II I I I II II I I I
Kent Cob
,
~
.'
::>
,
Halls Giant .-
. "
11111111111111111 11111111
Gunslebert
',.
,
-'
,
I I I I I I I I I I I
Grimo 188 "
..
,
1111111111111111111
Grima 190A . , ,
, , ,
I I 11111111111111111
E7 '.
I I 111111111111111111 111111111
Ennis
,
lUI II I I I I I I
I I
Casfard
-
,
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Corabel
, ~ .-... " , ,
,
,
,
,
Butler
I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I , ~ III
o 0.5 \,5 2 2.5 3 3,5
Dry whole nut weight (g)
,
,
Once again, the largest nuts were from the more recent varieties Butler, Cora bel and Ennis;
however, the largest crop yields were from older varieties - Halls Giant, Pearsons Prolific
(Nottingham), Webbs Prize Cob and White-Filbert.
Our own selection (E7), a seedling of the hybrid hazel Petoka, performed well with good nut
size and reasonable cropping. This tree is under more competition than the other nuts in the
trial so a direct comparison of crop yield may be unfair.
White Filbert
Webb, Prize Cob 11$ 11$_ , II
1111 II
Pearsons Prolific
Kent Cob 1# ' " "
Halls Giant
1111111
Gunslebert .. ,
Grimo188
Grima 190A WO
E7 ... ---
-
,
Ennis

Cosford
...
111111
Corabel
Butler

...
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Total dry nut yield (g)
Yields of over 3 kg a tree are impressive for hazels, so that Halls Giant, yielding over 8 kg,
performed superbly.
Heartnuts
Our heartnut selection trial consists of seedlings of the American variety Brock which are being
selected out for quick fruiting and cropping potential. From the original 28 trees there are now 7
left, of which one is a very good timber form tree (though not a good fruiter). The other 6 trees
are still being assessed: some are good pollinators and produce abundant catkins in May,
others are fruiting well. The nut form varies between the classic heartnut shape, and a fatter
heavier nut rather like a buartnut but not so pointed. Some trees bore several kilos of nuts in
2006, ripening them between 20
th
September and the middle of october.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol1S No 2
Page 7
Walnuts . .
2006 was the best cropping year to date, with the fine summer and total control of squirrels
leading to good harvests.
Harvest dates are not so spread as for chestnuts. the main periods being the second week of
October for early varieties (Ronde, Soleze) and the last week of October for later varieties
(Corne, Fernette, Fernor, Franquette, Mayette).
The n ~ t weight varies widely between varieties from 7.7 9 (Ferjean and Ronde) to 10-12 9 for
most varieties, and 21.5 9 for the double-sized Cobles #2 (the kernel however is not twice the
weight too).
The total crop weight of good nuts clearly indicates that, at least in the moister west of the UK,
the traditional French varieties are doing best - Corne du Perigord, Franquette, Mayette, Ronde
de Montignac and Soleze. The newer French varieties Fernor and Fernette are doing quite
well, and may well outperform the older French varieties in time. Oespite having the healthiest
looking foliage, the German varieties (26, 139, 120) and Eastern European varieties
(Broadview, Buccaneer, Plovdivski, Proslavski) did poorly in terms of yield and Broadview again
was badly attacked by walnut blight.
Date 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 16 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number 01 good nuts
Cultlvar
120
x
139 X X X X X X X X X X x 14
26 xxxxxxxxxxxxx 16
Broadview x x x X x X x x X x x x x x x x x x x x x 129
Buccaneer x X x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 101
Chandler x x x X x x X x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 175
Cobles #2 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 38
Corne du Perigord x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 694
F e ~ e a n x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 26
Fernette x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 217
Ferner x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 276
Franquette x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 416
Hartley x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 85
Marbot x x x x 2
Mayette x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 303
Meylannaise x x x x x x x X x x x x x x x x x x x x X x 180
Parisienne x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x X X X X X x 174
Plevdivski x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 45
Proslavski x x x x x x x x x x x 34
Ronde de Montigna x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Soleze
xx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx x x x x x
461
569
Page 8
Soleze 3
I I I I
Ronde de tvbntignac
I I I
A"oslavski
1 .1
I I I
I I I
Aovdivski 1 .1
I I I I I I
Parisienne 1.
I I I I
tv1eylannaise
3
I I I I
Mayette

-. -. . .
o.
I I I I
Marbot

~ . I
I I I I
Hartley 1 .
Franquette
I I I
I I
1,6

I I I I
Fernor o.
I I I I
Fernette
- .
2
I I I
Ferjean
I I I
Corne du Perigord
0
I I I I I
Cobles #2
o
~ .
1.
I I I I
O1andler
o.
Buccaneer
I I I I
o.
I I I I I
Broadview
1 B
I I I I I
26 9
I I I I I
139
91
I I I I I
120
,0 ,.
-.
O.
o 5 10 15 20 25
Whole fresh nut weight (g)
Page 9
Soleze -.-.:oil:
~ ~ 7 " Z '".;.
e-"':J"'\'< . .= ~ " ~ : ~ ~
2
IIII III
IIIII IIII
Ronde de Montignac
.
- T 'c
Proslavski
Plovdivski
tt
11
m
Parisienne
-
-
IIII JJ
Meylannaise -
Mayette
IIII
I
-'
1
Marbot
Hartley --"b
IIII
Franquette
, -
r II I I I I I I I I I
Femor
. -
-
."
IIII II IIIII
Femette
-,
2
Ferjean
Corne du Perigord
~ '. : - ~ - : . . . . ~ .-. -r -'(,"!'
-
Cobles #2
h#
1
Chandler
IIII
Buccaneer 4
IIII
Broadview
26 1
139 1
120 1
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Total fresh crop weight (g)
Pears
We have a trial plot of 24 varieties of pears, now 8-9 years old, to assess disease resistance
and cropping. The varieties have all been chosen for their reported resistance to pear scab.
Most trees are remaining healthy although not all of them are cropping heavily yet and it is often
the stress of heavy fruiting that shows any susceptibility to diseases. The best croppers in 2006
were Nouveau Poiteau and Ovid.
Plums
We also have a trial plot of 25 varieties of plums, now 9-10 years old, to assess disease
resistance and cropping. The varieties have all been chosen for their reported resistance to
bacterial canker, which can be very damaging in the wetter west of the UK. Several of the
varieties originate from the Westcauntry (Devon and
To date no signs of canker have been observed on any of the trees, this despite heavy cropping
for some years now. 2006 was an excellent year for plums, with most trees cropping well.
Heaviest crops were from: Czar, Farleigh Damson, Merryweather Damson, Purple Pershore.
The finest flavoured plums, as usual, were Denniston's Superb and Jefferson.
The best westcountry plum variety, Manaccan (from Cornwall), cropped lightry (a heavy crop
was borne in 2005). This yellow plum is more like an apricot in texture, freestone, with an
exelJent flavour. The tree is narrow and upright.
Holm oak
A stand of holm oak (Quercus ifex) is being cultivated to assess cropping and crop quality.
Initially 40 trees, these are being gradually thinned leaving the trees which are consistent good
croppers, and which have acorns with low tannin. The last thinning in winter 2005/6 left 22
trees, and more thinning is planned over the next few years. The trees, 9 years old now, vary in
size and form.
The crop in 2006 was good, and the assessment of acorn quality as usual was done by a taste
test (accurate tests for tannin levels are expensive!) Eight out of the 22 trees were assessed to
be low or low-to-medium tannin level and three of these eight also produced a heavy crop.
American persimmons
2006 was the second year of cropping from one of our improved persimmon seedlings with the
small tree (2 m high) producing a good crop of fruits. These, along with the first crop from one
of our forest garden tree, hung on the trees into December, though most were picked during
November and ripened in a cool dry store. By December the fruits on the trees were ripe and
edible straight off the tree.
Martin Crawford
A.RT.
Page 11
Using wood for fuel
The science of burning wood
Using toad as a fuel can have both environmental and social benefits. Wood can almost be
carbon tneutral to burn (depending on whether it has been grown in a 5ustainably managed
forest where trees are replaced, and on harvesting methods), and produces li ttle in the way of
sulphur dioxide emissions (a problem with fossil fuels), though it does produce some oxides of
nitrogen. Growing and harvesting wood also has the potential to create rural employment.
As a fuel, dry wood has a high energy content. One tonne of wood chips at 20% moisture will
give 13 GJ of useful heat or 1 MWh of electricity (based on a 25% conversion efficiency); weight
for weight , dry wood contains almost as much energy as coal.
Energy output from wood and fossil fuels.
1 tonne fuel Energy (GJ) MWh Tonnes all
eQuivalent
Fuel oil 42.5 11.8 1
Natural (las 20
5.5 0.46
Coal 25.2 7.0 0.60
Coal anthracite 30
8.3 0.71

(20% 13
1.0 0.31
moisture
Oven-dry solid wood 19.6 5.4 0.46
(0% moisture
content)
The main factors affecting the burning of wood and heat output from a wood burning stove or
boiler are:
The calorific value of the wood
The particle size
Moisture content
Burning conditions
As a rule of thumb, one cubic metre of freshly cut (ie wet) wood weighs about 1 tonne (1000
kg). The amount of dry matter varies widely between species, with conifers containing about
400 kg (ie 60% water) and hardwoods 550 kg (ie 45% water). Fresh wood also contains
carbohydrates (simple sugars to complex polymers like lignin) and minerals. Most of the
mineral content of wood is found in the active part of the tree - the leaves or needles, and bark;
calcium is an exception, found mainly in the stem.
Calorific value
Hardwood species generally have slightly higher calorific values, at around 20 GJ per oven-
dried tonne, with conifer values around 19 GJ per oven-dried tonne. The greater the calorific
value, the greater the amount of heat released when the wood is burned. However, there is a
big range in wood density between species, so to get the same heat output requires a smaller
volume of a denser wood.
Page 12
Wood density of different species (kg dry matter per cubic metra at 15% moisture)
I name
Ii
, red cedar
Noble fir
Sitka spruce
Poplar
Coast
Grand fir
Wi llow
Norwav spruce
I, pine
Hybrid larch
I pine
Western
i , pine
Scots pine
.iQer
I ; fir
lazel
i lawsoniana
sativa
Ime
larch
beech
Cherry
Norwav maple
Birch
Walnut
Vew
Field maple
Wych elm
Ash
_Beech
Oak
Black locust
Red oak
Hollv
Particle size
Seql i
Thuja plicata
Abies nobilis
Picea i i
Populus spp.
Abies grandis
Salix spp.
Picea abies
Pinus
Larix x
Pinus radiata
, cvpress
Tsuga
Pinus nigra i i
Pinus i
Alnus SDP .
C orylus I
Sweet
filia SDD.
_ari x
Acer
, spp.
Prunus avium
Acer
Acer
Ulmus glabra
i I
Fagus
petraea I robur
Robinia i
( i ; betulus
, rubra
Ilex aQuifolium
340
390
420
10
10
10
450
450
470
470
480
480
500
500
5'0
510
530
i
560
590
600
630
630
660
690
690
710
720
720
740
770
790
80C
Particle size is a factor in burning efficiency because the greater the surface area to volume
ratio, the faster the combustion rate. Thus fine wood powder burns faster than chips and chips
burn faster than logs. Wood is a poor conductor of heat, thus having a log diameter of less than
10 em helps to increase the burning rate.
Moisture content
As well as having a negative effect on burning efficiency, water content has other implications.
First, as an indirect effect, an increased water content increases energy use andlor transport
costs. More directly, any energy produced in the first stage of combustion is subsequently used
to evaporate the water within wet timber, The evaporated water may also increase the risk of
tar deposits in chimneys by carrying and depositing various solutes.
Effect of moisture content on the calorific value of wood
1200 12
1600

10 C3'
I-
i.- ,iWATER
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"'"'' DRY
TIMIlER COGS WOOOCHIPS
So for typical freshly cut timber the calorific content can double when oven-dry compared with
when fresh and wet.
Burning conditi ons
Of course, fuel requirements must match the requirements of the systems both for handling and
burning the wood. These will include the moisture content with which the equipment can cope
and the particle size, which may be essential in order to prevent blockages forming in the feed
system.
In burning, what you see as flames in the combustion of gases, whereas the burning of solid
particles produces a glow. There are three stages in full combustion: drying, gasification and
combustion, and charcoal burnout. During burning, about 80% of the energy is released as gas
and about 20% comes from the remaining charcoal. If the hydrocarbon gases that are produced
and burned in the second stage are not fully combusted, they may set as tars in the chimney.
The high proportion of volatile gases release from burning wood means that air should also be
introduced from above the fuel (secondary air) rather than all from below (primary air).
The temperature in the burning process varies. In open wood fires, temperatures are between
200 and sooGe and hydrocarbon gases and charcoal are left as by-products. With the addition
of hot secondary air, gases burn at 600-700 GC to give carbon dioxide and water, while burning
with just primary air gives lower temperatures of 300S0Q
a
e and leaves ash and carbon dioxide.
So the higher the burning temperature, the less remains unburned and the more efficient the
burning process.
Page 14
Efficiency of stoves and boilers
Open fire - 15 to 25% even with air-dried wood
Wood stove - 25-30%
Double-fire box stoves - 40 to 50%
Built in stoves - 60%
Free standing stoves - 70%
Central heating woodchip boilers - 85 to 90%
There are two main efficient stove types now available:
Catalytic stoves use a ceramic catalyst inside the firebox to assist with the burning of
waste-gases (smoke). In general, catalytic stoves are a little more efficient initially
than non-catalytic stoves, but catalysts deteriorate over time, and need to be replaced
every 2-4 years to ensure good performance.
Clean burn technology stoves use a combination of sophisticated baffles and air
supply designs to burn waste gasses efficiently. And since waste gasses are what we
popularly call flsmoke", there should virtually be no smoke left to come out of the
chimneys, just CO
2
and water.
Notes on specific woods for burning in stoves / fires
Alder
When fully seasoned, it may burn Quickly, but gives off relatively little heat. It is a firewood with
a sluggish feel to it. Nevertheless it makes an excellent, steady burning charcoal.
Apple
Apple wood is really too good to burn, as it is not so commonly available and can be made into
many beautiful objects. It's a good wood for cooking fires, because it tends to glow without
giving off too much flame. The smoke from an apple wood fire gives a most excellent flavour to
smoked foods. Chop the logs whilst still green, as they become incredibly hard and tough on
seasoning.
Ash
Even unseasoned Ash will give a good fire. Ash wood produces excellent heat, a nice flame
and it lasts reasonably well. The branches are good for kindling.
Beech
A very good firewood which produces both heat and flame. Beech can sometimes give off a few
sparks. It is easy to chop.
Birch
Produces a lovely fire with good heat, but it burns up Quickly, so it may be a good idea to mix it
with longer lasting firewoods. The bark of Birch was traditionally known as "the campers
friend". Patches of the thin skin can often be peeled from the tree without damaging it. They
contain an oil, which makes it a wonderful aid in kindling a fire, especially when all other wood
is damp. Can be burned unseasoned if nothing else is available.
Blackthorn
Like the wood of its sisters in the Rose family, Blackthorn wood burns steady and slow with an
excellent heat and little smoke. Of course the logs tend to be small , but it is worth even using
the smallest branches.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Val 15 Na 2
Page 15
Cedar
Has a lovely smell. A good Cedar fire will glow with a steady heat without too much flame, so it
is a fine source of wood for a cooking fire. Thinner logs and branches may be burned without to
much seasoning if nothing else is available. Occasional spit, but not too bad.
Cherry
Burns like Apple, Blackthorn and Hawthorn slowly and with lots of heat.
Oougla.s Fir
Burns reasonably slowly and with lots of heat.
Elder
Traditionally Elder wood is not used for firewood, as people had too much respect for the
ancient Hag Goddess living in this tree. Burning the wood is said to invite death. Gypsies were
known for their habit of looking carefully through a bundle of firewood to make sure there were
no Elder sticks amongst it. Like all woods, it will no doubt burn when well seasoned.
Elm
Elm is one of the woods with the highest water contents. When dry it makes a very decent fuel.
On open fires, it may smoke a little. If you have any Elm, season it extremely well. Large logs
of Elm are notoriously difficult to split, so this is best done as early as possible.
Eucalyptus
Not very common as a firewood in this country, but has good potential as a firewood coppice. It
need proper seasoning due to high water content and may be difficult to split due to its stringy
fibres. It gives a fresh medicinal smell on burning. Burns quite fast, but does not spit.
Hawthorn
One of the very best and hottest firewoods. A bunch of hawthorn branches from trimming the
many hawthorn hedges we are lucky to have in the UK, makes a classical faggot bundle good
enough to heat Old-fashioned bread ovens. Like the other woods in the Rose family, Hawthorn
burns hot and slow. The smaller twigs are also well worth using. A firewood of choice for a
frosty day.
Hazel
Hazel is a good all-round fire wood for different purposes, but burns up a bit faster than most
other hard woods.
Holly
Holly logs make a lovely warm fire.
Hornbeam
This is a very hard wood and so it may be sensible to prepare it before seasoning. Makes a hot
slow burning fire.
Horse Chestnut
Produces both heat and flame, but tends to spit a lot.
Larch
Makes a good fuel when well seasoned. Best to use in a woodstove, as it is liable to spit. Can
leave an oil y soot in the chimney.
Laurel
Laurel wood is said to give a lovely flame.
Lime
A poor fuel, which is just as well, because it is one of the finest woods for carving.
Maple
A good fuel.
Oak
A great firewood, but one that needs serious seasoning, ideally for 2 years. It then becomes a
good slow burning fuel, which gives of lots of heat, but produces little flame. Oak which has not
been fully seasoned may give off an acrid smoke. The fire may also need the addition of a few
faster burning logs to liven it up.
Pear
Like Apple, Pear wood produces a most excellent heat and is a firewood to treasure.
Pine
Burns well when seasoned, but tends to spit. so it's best in a stove. All resinous woods makes
good kindling. The smell of a pine fire can be a feast for the olfactory senses.
Plane
Makes a reasonable firewood .
Poplar
Like Willow, Poplar needs patient seasoning to
become a good firewood.
Rowan
Like all its sister and cousins in the Rose tree
family, Rowan makes a good hot fire, which burns
slowly.
Spruce
Burns very quickly and sparks badly, so again: for
indoor use it is best in a stove.
Sycamore
The thinner branches make great kindling wood,
which are easy to break by hand once they've
dried for a few months. The logs burn well, but
do not give quite as much heat as some other
woods like Ash. All in all this still makes a very
good firewood.
Sweet Chestnut
A reasonably good firewood after lengthy
seasoning (2-3 years), otherwise it spits a lot.
Willow
Beechwood fires burn bright and clear
If the logs are kept a year
Store your beech for Christmastide
With new holly laid beside
Chestnuts only good they say
If for years tis stayed away
Birch and firwood burn too fast
Blaze too bright and do not last
Flames from larch will shoot up high
Dangerously the sparks will fly
But Ashwood green and Ashwood
brown
Are fit for a Queen with a golden crown
Oaken logs, if dry and old
Keep away the winters cold
Poplar gives a bitter smoke
Fills your eyes and makes you choke
Elmwood burns like churchyard mould
Even the very flames burn cold
Hawthorn bakes the sweetest bread
So it is in Ireland said
Applewood will scent the room
Pears wood smells like a flower in
bloom
But Ashwood wet and Ashwood dry
A King may warm his slippers by.
Trying to burn willow when still green is a waste of time, because of its high water content.
After sufficient seasoning it is quite good.
Yew
Yew wood burns slowly with a fierce heat.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VaIlS No 2 Page 17
Smoke
Smoke is particles of unburned fuel which form as a result of incomplete combustion. It contains
harmful pollutants that can trigger coughs, runny noses, headaches and eye and throat
irritation. Unburned fuel can also be deposited as creosote in the chimney. providing the
potential for a chimney fire.
Smoke can also contribute to smog which is carcinogenic, harmful to lung tissue and can
worsen respiratory and cardiovascular problems especially if their size is smaller than 10
microris (PM10s).
Dark or smelly smoke drifting from a chimney means the wood is not burning completely. The
best fire is a hot one with very little visible smoke and no smell of smoke indoors. If you smell
smoke indoors, it means the wood stove or fireplace isn't venting properly - it may be a block in
the chimney, a faulty damper or competition with a range hood. These are fire hazards and
could lead to carbon monoxide poisoning.
Wood-smoke emissions can be reduced, indoors and out , by using efficient (and well
maintained) appliances and well seasoned (Le. dry) wood. However, even with perfect wood, a
chimney may not work under certain conditions or not at all and spillage may occur. 'Spillage' is
where the smoke comes back into the room instead of going up the flue and is dangerous to
occupants, but there may also be problems with poor dispersal of the smoke at the top of the
chimney and hence around the building.
The most common causes of poor chimney draught are: relining (which reduces the internal
size); reduction in the stack height for safety reasons (crumbling brickwork); modification to the
fireplace for aesthetic reasons; reduction of the inlet (ventilation) air due to home improvements
reducing leakage; growth of surrounding trees creating a barrier; prevailing winds causing down
draught. All these problems can be solved by the installation of a good quality chimney fan onto
the chimney top. An electrically driven chimney fan, will provide controllable updraught where
the natural buoyancy is insuffi cient or erratic. Installation of a chimney fan does not negate the
need for adequate combustion air to the appliance. Chimney fans with adjustable speed control
have the added advantage of improving the efficiency of the appliance by creating exactly the
right amount of draught at all times. Excessive draught causes the wood to burn faster and can
cool the flame which leads to more smoke.
Carbon Monoxide
The poisonous gas carbon monoxide (CO) is generated wherever combustion of a carbon based
fuel occurs so that all gas, oil, coal and wood boilers as well as wood burning stoves have the
potential to produce dangerous levels of CO gas if installed or operated incorrectly.
To avoid the ri sk of carbon monoxide poisoning stoves should be fitted professionally and be
inspected and cleaned every year. In addition, chimneys should be swept at least once a year.
It is also a good idea to fit a carbon monoxide detector and a smoke alarm in any room where
wood or any other fuel is burned.
The following are recommended to improve the efficiency of appliances and reduce any
potential pollution:-
Burn small, hot fires - they produce much less smoke than ones that are left to
smoulder.
Burn seasoned wood. This is wood which has been allowed to try over at least one
summer season. Green wood is a major culprit in the creation of creosote.
Burn logs that are 10 -15 cm (4-6 inches) in diameter. Fires burn better with more
surface area exposed to the flame.
Never burn rubbish, plastics, cardboard, glossy paper or polystyrene.
Never burn wood that has b e ~ n taken from salt water. Chlorine combines with the
smoke to produce dioxins and furans, which are dangerous carcinogens.
Never burn treated or painted wood, particulate-board or plywood.
Store wood outside, off the ground and covered. Bringing green wood indoors to dry
can promote the growth of allergy-causing mould spores circulating indoors.
Use a high-efficiency wood stove, fireplace or insert that is certified to produce low
emissions.
Have the systems installed by a professional and have it inspected and cleaned every
year.
Make sure the fire is getting enough air - check that the air inlet is open wide enough
to keep the fire burning briskly, resulting in complete combustion and less smoke.
The leftovers
The composition of the remaining material after burning will depend on the purity of the fuel.
Pure ash, containing no unburnt wood, will be about 0.2 to 0.5% of the oven-dried weight of the
original fuel. The ash will contain nutrients taken up by the growing trees (except nitrogen) and
any contaminants from the soil where the trees grew (eg. heavy metals like lead or cadmium,
though the quantities are usually tiny). Crude ash from woodchip boilers is likely to form about
5% of the combusted whole-tree chips. Ash contains useful amounts of potassium, phosphorus
and calcium and can be recycled back to the forest floor or used as a fertiliser and/or liming
material.
Drying wood
Wood can be burnt to produce energy directly as heat, or be used indirectly via a secondary
system to generate electricity. For small-scale applications, the overall efficiency of wood to
electricity production struggles to reach 20% and even at a larger scale it is unlikely to achieve
35%. These figures are comparable to fossil fuel power plants, but the most efficient use of
wood is clearly to convert it to heat energy, which can be done at high efficiencies using modern
wood burning systems.
The need for drying
To achieve reliable, high-efficiency combustion of wood, the fuel needs to be dry. Freshly cut
timber has a moisture content of about 50% (varying between 40-65% depending on season of
harvesting and species). To achieve efficient combustion in a modern boiler, the wood fuel
should have less than 25% moisture content.
Logs
Traditionally, wood fuel has been in the form of logs and these have been dried naturally by
seasoning - ie. Stacking them in a well ventilated, covered pile for one or more years. Studies
have shown that in the UK it takes two seasons to achieve a moisture content approaching
30%. Therefore anyone burning logs which have only been seasoned for a year is losing
efficiency by burning wood with a moisture content of 35-40%. In open fires and log stoves,
wood with a 40% moisture burns well enough - in fact drier fuel is often rejected because it
"burns too fastn.
Conversion from a 30% efficient wood stove to a modern wood-fuelled boiler system will require
about one third as much wood fuel for the same benefit, but to achieve this the wood moisture
content needs to be reduced to around 25%.
Page 19
Woodchips
In the case of wood chips, there are additional reasons for drying apart from combustion
efficiency: storage and transport. Fresh woodchips tend to start composting if stored in a heap
for more than a few days (or less sometimes) - in extreme cases, the chip pile may catch fire or
smoulder gently due to the heat generating by the compesting process. This leads to a
reduction in particle size and calorific value, and the creation of potentially harmful spores. The
rate of chip decomposition depends on many factors. including the moisture content, the
proportion of green matter and bark in the chips and the chip size itself.

The moisture in the wood chips is simply water and each tonne of water will add to the cost of
transport and handling the fuel. Although there are woodchip boiler systems which claim to be
able to burn wet chips, they require about twice the volume of wet woodchips, compared with
chips at 25% moisture, to produce the same heat output.
Heating value of wood chips at different moisture levels
Moisture content % Calorific value Bulk density Heating value
MJ/kg Kg/m' kWh/tonne
0 19.0 185 3906
5 18.0 194 3872
20 14.7 222 3628
25 13.4 233 3478
30 12.3 242 3325
35 11.4 251 3164
40 10.2 261 2824
50 8.3 278 2299
60 6.1 296 1703
Drying science
Water is trapped within the cellular structure of wood and is removed by evaporation, however
the cell and fibre structures are such that the water cannot escape easi l y.
1
1
Air is able to carry a certain amount of water vapour, depending on its temperature and
pressure. Air containing the maximum am'ount of water for the given conditions is known as
saturated air. If air is not saturated, then the proportion of water it carries compared with its 1
saturated capacity is known as its relati ve humidity.
The temperature and relative humidity of the drying air affects the amount of water vapour that
can be removed per cubic metre of drying air applied. So in order to dry a product, a given
amount of heat has to be encountered or applied to cause the water to evaporate and a
sufficient volume of air must be avai lable to absorb the evaporated water and carry it away.
Logs need to be harvested, then cut to the appropriate length, split and stacked to allow for
seasoning. Although splitting helps the drying process, it is cutting the wood into shorter
lengths that is of primary importance, as the moisture nearly escapes from the cut ends of logs.
A large under cover area may be required for seasoning a supply for 2 years before use - one
cubic metre of wood will occupy around 1.5 - 1.8 m
3
when carefull y stacked. One alternative is
to use a poly tunnel as a solar wood seasoning store, where logs will dry sufficiently in a single
season in the UK. A small scale commercial alternative for drying logs is a Sirocco dryer which
uses a steam process and can generate dy batches (1 -10 tonnes) of logs in around 12 hours.
Woodchips can be dried in the same way as logs - ie by seasoning the wood until it is dry and
then chipping it. Bear in mind that chipping dry wood requires more energy to chip it than fresh
timber. causing more wear on the chipper.
Commercially though, woodchips are usually produced from fresh timber and are transported to
a drying plant, where they have to be dried. Low temperature drying is common, using a ~ g r a j n
floor
M
through which air at ambient temperatures is circulated by a high capacity fan (usually
diesel powered). The floor is filled with woodchips to a depth of up to 3 metres. The drying
takes up to a month and is difficult to control , often with parts of the stack dry and others (where
chips mat have been compacted for instance) may remain wet. A medium temperature system
has been developed which uses waste heat from a power station project (or it can be use heat
via biomass sources) to dry with air at 70 to 150C, the air passing through a bed of chips, with
drying completed in 6-10 hours. Any drying system will of course reduce the efficiency of the
final fuel.
Heating systems: log or woodchip?
Log Woodchip
Advantages
Well suited to houses and larger
Suited
to house and larger
buildings requiring up to 50kW buildings
peak load, then only needs
Systems are automatically stocked
fuellingllighting once or twice daily
Very little attention required
Ready supply available
Easily
produced and dried on
home-scale
Produces
little ash - typically
empty once a month
Di sadvantages
Not
so well suited to larger
Potential problems with supply,
buildings requiring over 50 kW dryness and quality of the
peak load, as will require manually wood chips
refuelling several times daily
Chips need to be fed into hopper
Cannot be automatically stoked - at intervals of 1-7 days
logs have to be manually loaded
Requires storage for loads of chips
into the firebox
Not easy to produce or dry on a
Requires dry
logs - storage for
small scale
seasoninQ
Log heating systems
A new generation of log fuelled boilers and heating systems (eg. Kob & Kunzel boilers made by
Veto and Tiesen) are highly efficient (90%) and vastly reduce the cost of wood as a fuel and/or
the work involved in cutting enough logs for heating a building.
These systems work on the principle of a heat store. An advanced design of highly efficient log
bolter is connected to a large accumulator tank, typically 1500-2000 litres. A micro-controller
ensures that the bolter urns at maximum efficiency until the accumulator is full of very hot
(typically 95C) water, whereupon the boiler goes into slumber mode, topping up the
accumulator as heat is used until the load of logs is burnt away.
The hot water in the accumulator is distributed around the house using a compensating
system" which is unusual in UK domestic properties but is commonly found in commercial
buildings. The compensating works as follows: the building is divided up into two or more zones
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No 2 Page 21
r
(one for domestic hot water and others for groups of rooms). Each zone is separately controlled
by a pump and thermostat. The zone controller takes account of the outside temperature, the
desired room temperature, and the actual room temperature, with which it sets a temperature
for the water circulating the radiators or under-floor heating. To control this temperature
(typically 70C) it takes a little of the very hot water from the accumulator and mixes it with
return water from the heating circuit. As the room gets hotter the circulating water gets cooler.
Similarly the domestic hot water tank is kept at 55C.
1.Pyromat burner
2. Heat accumulator
3. Domestic hot water tank
4. Expansion tank
5. Radiators
6. Boiler compensating control valve
7. Heating compensating control valve
8. Domestic hot water control valve
9.Heat store regulator
10. Boiler return sensor
11. Accumulator sensors
12. Hot water temp sensor
13. Boiler return sensor
14. Electronic controller
By operating this way, the temperature gradient in the accumulator tank is maintained, so 24
hours after first lighting the boiler, there are still a few litres of hot water at 90
0
e and the
radiators are still warm. However, the boiler controller will tell you that it is time to relight the
boiler to recharge the accumulator.
If you away for a week, you set the control to "frost protection" and the accumulator will then
keep the chill off the house and still leave enough heat to warm the radiators and run a bath
when you return before you have to relight the boiler.
These systems are not cheap - typically 6,000 to 10,000 for a typical house. But if you have
your own wood supply (and logs are also quite cheap to buy in, at 35-50 per tonne) it should
soon pay for itself.
Logs are in fact usually sold by volume, not weight, so make sure you know whether you are
paying for a dense of light wood as there may be half the energy value you are expecting!
"Softwoods
W
, meaning conifer woods, are not always tess dense than "hardwoods", Conifer
woods like pine and larch contain a lot of resins and pitch and it not true that burning these
creates more creosote than a hardwood like oak - it is water in wet wood that causes chimney
creosote problems.
Woodchip heating systems
Woodchip heating systems will require a dedicated shed or outbuilding to house the boiler and
hopper, and also storage facilities for chips along with sufficient access for delivery vehicles.
Woodchips can be delivered by tipper truck or in 1 m
3
or 2 m
l
bulk bags - either way they need
to be stored under cover. From there the hopper of the boiler will need to be filled manually or
by tractor front loader (or moved with an auger or blower system) either daily or several times a
week, depending on size. Alternatively. suppliers can make more frequent deliveries directly to
the hopper.
Pellets
Wood chips are divided into three quality grades according to chip
Wood pellets are made
size distribution:
up from sawdust and
ground up waste wood
Chip size <2mm 2-25 mm 2550 mm 50100 mm 100200 mm
which has been dried,
Description Dust Small Medium Oversize Sliver.
crushed and highly
Super grade <15% Any 0% 0% 0%
Fine grade <15% Any 10% 2% 0%
compressed so that the
Coarse grade <15% Any Any <30% <2%
energy density is
greater than logs or
Woodchip burning appliances work best when chip size is 2 to 25
wood chips. In mainland
mm, and smaller scale equipment for domestic use tends to
Europe, pellets can be
operate best on the super and fine grades of wood chip.
delivered by tanker and
are pumped or blown
As a rough guide to required outputs, a community centre might
into storage hoppers
need a 120 kW wood chip boiler. a medium sized school might
which automatically
need a 350 kW boiler, and a large school an 800 kW boiler.
feed the boiler.
Hopper capacity needs ideally to be at least a day's supply of
Pellet boilers are highly
chips . for a 20kW boiler this would be 0.6 m
3
, for a 100 kW boiler
efficient and automated.
about 3 m
3
A typical delivery of 10 m
3
of woodchips would last 2
and cause fewer
weeks for a 20kW system and 3 days for a 100kW system.
blockages than
woodchips in the boiler
In mainland Europe. wood residues are widely used for heating on
feed mechanism. Less
both domestic and large scales, with whole towns using district
storage space is
heating schemes fuelled with wood. The problem in the UK is that
needed for pellets than
is no district heating network - in other parts of Europe these
woodchips because of
were often built 50 years ago as a response to meagre national
their energy density.
supplies of fossil fuels and the realisation that district heating
Peilet manufacture is,
schemes are much more efficient then the alternative of every
building have its own boiler system. It is inconceivable that such
however, a large scale
systems will make much headway in the UK without heavy
industrial process and
Government investment which is unlikely.
has transport
implications (they are
Own grown woodchips
produced in Devon,
Durham and south
1 m
3
of fresh felled green timber will produce around 3 m
3
of wet
Wales at present),
woodchips (around 50% moisture content). Chipping machinery is
making them a less
expensive, and some is designed to produce only mulch quality
sustainable fuel source.
chips and not fuel-quality chips. Hiring a machine would make
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Volt5 No 2 Page 23
more sense as a few days of use could produce a years' domestic supply.
About 4.5 ha (11 .3 acres ) of short-rotation coppice could provide enough fuel for a 20 kW
woodchip boiler annually. Two or three times that area of broadleaf coppice would be required.
Drying and storage are significant hurdles to overcome (a 20 kW system might need 50-60 m
3
storage for a year's supply of woodchips where they can be dried).
References and sources
De la }iaye, P: Choosing your fuel : logs or chips? Reforesting Scotland, 28 (2002) .
Dyke, A: The Science of Wood as a fuel. Reforesting Scotland, 28 (2002).
Gooday, 0: Fuelwood for Communities. Reforesting Scotland, Information sheet 11 b, 2004.
Gulliver-Goodall , G: From wet wood to dry fuel. Reforesting Scotland, 28 (2002).
Gulliver-Goodall , G: Real central heating with logs. Reforesting Scotland, 28 (2002).
Henderson, R: Fuel wood success in Sweden. Reforesting Scotland, 28 (2002).
Savill , P; The Sil viculture of Trees used in British Forestry. CABI, 1991.
www.logpile.co.uk - National Energy Foundation, includes a log suppliers directory
http://www.3genergi.co.uk/ - suppliers of log and woodchip burning equipment
http://www.woodenergyJtd.co.uk - suppliers of log and woodchip burning equipment
http://www.talbotts.co.uk - suppliers of log and woodchip burning equipment
http://www.farm2000.co.uk - suppliers of log and woodchip burning equipment
http://www.econergy.ltd.uk/ - design and installation of wood fuel heating systems
http://www.the-tree.org.uk/ - all sorts of interesting things about trees
Shrubs
Introduction
The table below lists Latin and common names, a code for deciduous (D) or evergreen (E) ,
of the shrub, whether it is nitrogen-fixing, has edible and medicinal uses, and hardiness zone
number. In most of the UK, trees hardy only to zones 8-9 are not suitable for windy sites, but
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Artemisia capillaris D
Artemisia maritima Sea wormwood D
Atriplex Grey sage E
Atriplex halimus Sea orach E
Aucuba japonica Spotted laurel E
Baccharis halimifolia Bush groundsel D
Baccharis patagonica E
8accharis pilularis Dwarf chaparral E
broom
Berberis amurensis D
Berberis darwinii E
Berberis wilsoniae E
Berberis x 1010gen5i5 E
Berberis x stenophylla E
Betula nana Dwarf birch D
80ronia E
Brachyglottis Dunedin E
Hybrids
Brachyglottis spp. E
ISrachyglottis rotundifolia
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Buddleia davidii Buddtia D
Buddleia globosa Orange ball tree E
Bupleurum fruticosum Shrubby hare's ear E
Calluna vulgaris Heather E
Caragana arborescens Siberian pea tree D
Caragana boisii D
Caragana brevispina D
Caragana fruticosa D
Caragana pygmaea D
ICaragana sinica
I
ID
Cassinia fulvida E
Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Blue brush E
Cercocarpus montanus Mountain E
mahogany
-
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol IS No 2
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Cistus albidus Rock rose E
Cistus ,incanus Rock: rose E
Cistus ladanifer Labdanum E
Cistus salviifolius Rock rose E
Colletia armata D
Colutea arborescens B,Iadder senna D
Colutea istria D
Colutea x media D
ICoprosma aeeresa ISand coprosma
IE
Cornus mas Cornel ian cherry D
Corokia x virgata E
Correa alba Cape Barren tea E
ICorylus ,?ornuta IBeaked hazel
ID
Corylus carnuta _californ!ca California hazel D
Corylus fargesii D
Corylus maxima Filbert D
Corylus sieboldiana Japanese hazel D
Corylus sieboldiana D
mandschurica
Cotoneaster conspicuus E
Cotoneaster franchetii E
Cotoneaster glaucophyJlus E
Cotoneaster lacteus E
Cotoneaster microphyllus E
Cotoneaster racemiflorus Black-wood D
ICotoneaster serotmus
ICotoneaster x watereri
Crataegus species D
Crataegus anomala D
Crataegus apiifolia Parsley-leaved D
hawthorn
Crataegus baroussana D
jCrataegus caesa
ICrataegus crus-galli ICockspur thorn
Crataegus cuneata
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Page 26
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Cytisus scoparius Broom 0
Dodonea viscosa Native hops E
Drimys lanceolata Mountain pepper E
Drimys winteri Winter's bark E
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Elaeagnus commutata Silverberry 0
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Page 32
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Sustainability and Life Cycles of Forests in Human Landscapes
K A Vogt et al (Eds)
CABI Publishing, 2006; 384 pp; 35.00 (US$65.00) paperback.
ISBN 1 845930983
This book provides a broad-ranging study of the relationships between forests and society, and
discusses the ways in which society can interact with forest landscapes without adversely
affecting their sustainability.
Topics covered include attitudes to and uses of forests, the creation of today's forest
landscapes, the impact of humans on forests, and forest sustainability and human health. Other
issues tackled include possible solutions to balancing societies' needs with forest sustainability,
and managing forests in the urban-wildland interface. Numerous real-world case studies fill the
book and make it more accessible.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol1S No 2 Page 35
'Historical Perceptions and uses of forests' looks at the history of reverence and fear of forests,
and the history of forest exploitation from early civilisations through to the present day, and the
parallel rise in conservation and regulation of forest use.
How today's forests have come to be and how they are exploited on a global scale is then
discussed, with several case studies illustrating the impact of people on forests, ego community
forests in Nepal and the forest history of Iceland.
The forces of democratisation and globalisation, and how they are impacting on forest
management and u;:;e is then covered, with case studies including forest communities in China,
and forbst management and indigenous peoples in western Canada.
Human and natural disturbances impacting forests are then discussed, including the impact of
introduced plants, insects and pathogens. The effects on human health of forest disturbances
are also covered.
'Emerging issues in forests' includes discussions on indicators of sustainable forestry, the use
of biomass wastes, and has several case studies on recent initiatives which strive for a more
sustainable forestry outlook.
A final chapter, 'It' s a small world after all', highlights the way forward for societies and the
world and forests: MAt this point in history, we should realise how important forests are to our
survival. We need to recognise that science and society have to work together to guarantee
that all our resource uses are sustainable. Knowledgeable science without informed societies
willing to listen to its advice and act on its recommendations is like trying to ride a bicycle with
no wheels. You can't get very far and the journey will be very uncomfortable, perhaps even
painful." .... ~ W e also need to recognise that science does not have all the answers today .. . our
use of science has to be 'adapti ve' and incorporate new information as it becomes available."
A thought-provoking fascinating book, which will be a good read for anybody interested in trees.
It effectively argues that we are all connected in the world and that we must solve our problems
together, as the following fable from the final chapter illustrates:
MA mouse looked through the crack in the wall to see the framer and his wife opening a
package.
The mouse wondered, 'what kind of food could the package contain'?
He was devastated to find that the package contained a mousetrap. Retreating to the farmyard,
the mouse approached the barnyard animals, where he proclaimed the warning 'There's a
mousetrap in the house; there's a mousetrap in the house!'
The chicken clucked and scratched, raised her head and said, ' Mr Mouse, I can see this a grave
concern to you, but it is of no consequence to me. I cannot be bothered by it.'
The mouse turned to the pig and told him, 'There's a mousetrap in the house.' The pig
sympathised but said, 'I am so very sorry Mr Mouse, but there is nothing that I can do about it
bit pray. Be assured you are in my prayers.'
The mouse turned to the cow. She said, 'Wow, Mr Mouse, I'm sorry for you. But it's no skin off
my nose.' So the mouse returned to the house, shoulders slumped, head lowered with worry
and depression dragging him further down. 1t saddened him to realise that he would have to
confront the framer's mousetrap without the hep of any friends. That very nigh a sound was
heard throughout the house. The sound was an indication that the mousetrap had caught its
prey.
The farmer's wife rushed to see what had been caught. In the darkness she did not see that it
was a venomous snake whose tail had got caught in the trap. The snake bit the farmer's wife.
The farmer rushed her to the hospital and she returned home with a fever.
Now everyone knows that you treat a fever with fresh chicken soup, so the farmer took his
hatchet to the farmyard for the soup's main ingredient. Unfortunately the wife's sickness
continued, so family, friends and neighbours came to sit with her around the clock. To feed
them, the farmer had to butcher his pig.
Still, the farmer's wife did not get better. ' Ina few weeks she died; and so many people came to
her funeral that the farmer had to slaughter the cow to proyide meat for all that attended.
The only animal left was the mouse.
The Moral
The next time you hear or read about the loss of tropical forests being burned for grazing cattle
or growing marijuana, think of the mousetrap having snapped shut. Do not think that the
problem is in another part of the world and has no consequences for you. At the same time
realise that whatever you and your neighbours do can affect other people as well.
No-Tillage Seeding in Conservation Agriculture
C J Baker et al
CABI Publi shing, 2006; 352 pp; 75.00 (US$150.00)
ISBN 1 84593 1165
This book is a much-expanded and updated edition of a previous volume published in 1996. Its
objective is to describe, in lay terms, a range of international experiments designed to examine
the causes of successes and failures in no-tillage. The book summarises the advantages and
disadvantages of no tillage and highlights the" pros and cons of a range of features and options.
In addition to detailed information on tractor mounted machinery designed for no-tillage
operations such as seeding openers, seed and fertiliser placement, residue handling and forage
production, the book includes chapters on soil carbon - how its retention or sequestration
interacts with tillage and no-tillage; the economics of no-tillage; small-scale equipment - such
as an excellent piece on hand-jab planters (dibblers); and controlled traffic farming - where
permanent tractor tracks alternate with permanent no tillage beds.
This is a valuable resource, of most use to forward looking farmers wanting to know more about
no tillage methods and how to achieve them.
Ecologically-Based Integrated Pest Management
o Koul & G W Cuperus
CABI Publishing, 2007; 462 pp; 85.00 (US$160.00)
ISBN 1 84593 064 6
IPM is a 'sustainable' approach to manage pests through biological, cultural, physical and
chemical means, and comprehensive IPM programmes require an understanding of the
ecological relationships between crops, pests. natural enemies and the environment.
This book review several cases in which ecologically-based [PM was used and analyses the
effectiveness of numerous methods. A critical issue with many biocontrol tools is reducing
barriers to their commercialisation, and this is addressed. The book covers ecological theory
(emphasising the role of cover crops and intercropping). objectives of [PM programmes,
economic aspects, tactics and examples of programme delivery. Topics covered range from the
ecological effects of chemical control practices to the ecology of predator-prey and parasitoid-
host systems.
The book will be of significant interest to those involved in crop protection and pest
management.
Hemerocallis: the daylilies
Introduction
The daylilles comprise the small genus Hemerocallls which, despite the name, are not true lilies. The
name Hemerocallis is based on the Greek words for day and beauty, which reflects the fact that the
individual flowers last for only one day. The flowers of most species open for a single day, to be
replaced by another bne (sometimes two or none) on the same stem the next day; some species are
night-blooming.
Originally native from Europe to China, Korea and Japan, their large showy flowers have made them
popular worldwide; Hemerocallis is one of the most hybridized of all garden plants, and there are over
60,000 registered named cultivars!
Description
The daylilies are pererrial plants, either
deciduous, semi -evergreen or evergreen.
The alternating lanceolate leaves are grouped
into fans (a clump also containing the
rootsand the crown). The crown of a dayfily is
the small white portion of the stem, between
the leaves and the roots. This crown is an
essential part of the fan.
The flower consists of three petals and three
sepals, each with a midrib in the same or in a
contrasting colour. The centratsection ofthe
flower, called the throat. has usually a
different and contrasting color. There are six
stamens, each with a two-lobed anther. After
pollination (by insects), the flower forms a
pod. Only a few cultivars are scented.
Flowers on some cultivars will rebloom later in
the season, particularly if their developing
seed pods are removed.
Cultivation
H.'Tom Collins'
Hemerocallis is extremely accommodating and will perform satisfactorily under diverse
conditions. Preferring well drained and sunny positions, some species and cultivars will tolerate
damp conditions and many, once established, are resistant to occasional droughts.
Hemerocallis fulva 'Europa' and its hybrids will thrive even in dry sandy soil.
In most of the U.K. it is important that daylilies be planted in full sun. Daylilies appreciate ample
amounts of water, but are not confined to a damp growing niche. They prefer well dug soil, rich with a
pH of neutral or slightly above average. The older trumpet-formed yellow, brown-red, rust-orange and
orange hybrids are extremely tolerant of harsh conditions, but most
of the modern daylilies need better treatment. Plants may take a year or two to establish after
planting.
Daylilies appreciate the added moisture retentiveness of a low nitrogen mulch in spring. Over
feeding is to be avoided as this is conducive to large quantities of foliage and less flower. If the
foliage turns yellow this can be an indication that too much nitrogen has been applied.
Some species & cultivars spread readily to form large clumps.
Only very few pests and diseases trouble the Hemerocallis, slugs and snails being a minor
problem even though they can damage stalks and buds in longer periods of rainy weather. The
major pest know to Europe and England is the Hemerocallis Gall Midge which seems to effect
only the early-flowering buds of some Daylilies. Sometimes aphids can cause failure of the
flower buds to open. Thrips are also know to bother the thin upper pigment layers of certain
colours in some areas.
Rabbits will not touch the daylilies so no protection is needed in susceptible locations.
Uses
The flowers of many, perhaps all, daylily
species are edible and are sold (fresh or dried)
in Asian markets as golden needles. They are
used in various cooked dishes and as a
thickener in soups. The flowers are also
excellent in salads, and contain carotene. For
dryinh, they are picked after they have closed
and slightly withered the day after flowering.
The flower buds can also be eaten, with a pea-
like flavour. They are high in vitamins C and A
(containing about 43 mg vitamin C and 983 IU
vitamin A per 100g), also iron, and contain
about 3% protein.
Dried flowers
The young green leaves and flowering shoots of some (most) species are also edible, cooked as a
vegetable. They become fibrous when older; eating too many leaves is reputed to be hallucenogenic.
The roots I young tubers (which can be small) of some species are also edible cooked - probably only
worth trying if the plants are being lifted anyway.
Hemerocallis has also been used for medicinal purposes in Chinese medicine:
The juice of the roots of all species was used as an effective antidote in cases of arsenic
poisoning (one for Hercule Poirot there).
A tea made from the boiled roots of all aspecies was used as a diuretic.
The flowers of H.fulva are also used medicinally, being anodyne, antiemetic, antispasmodic,
depurative, febrifuge and sedative; in China they are used as an anodyne for women in
childbirth, and an extract of the flowers is used as a blood purifier.
Roots of H.fulva, H.liliosphodelus and H.minor have a folk history of use in the treatment of
cancer - extracts from the roots have shown antitumour activity.
Although individual flowers are short-lived, they make good cut flowers as new flowers will continue to
open on cut stems over several days.
See species descriptions for more use details.
The species
Most of the named cultivars available have been bred from the speci es below, and wi ll have
simi lar uses - in particular all cultivars probably have edible flowers.
Latin name
Flowers edible Leaves
edible
H. altissima .I 5 x 7.5 em
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H. aurantiaca .I 7.5 x13cm
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H. bulbiferum
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H. cit rina .I x 12 17 em
,
H. coreana .I xto12cm
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H. darrowiana .I 6 x 6 em
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H. dumortieri .I crisp, juicy,
.I
sweet
H. exaltata
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,
H. forrestii
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H. ful va ./ thick, crunchy, ./ sweet
sweet
H. graminea
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H. hakunensis
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H.lilioasohodelus
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H. micrantha
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H. middendorffii
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H. middendorffii ./ crisp, sweet,
,
esculenta
succulent
H. minor
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H.multiflora .I crisp, sweet
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H.pedicellata
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H.plicata
, ,
H.thunbergii
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,
H. yezoensis
J .I
References
www.wikipedia.org
Crawford, M: ART Useful plants database, 2007.
PFAF: Plants for a Future database, 2007.
Page 40

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Agroforestry News
I

Sedurns
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 13 Number 3
May 2007
Contents
2 News: Alley cropping in Quebec I Appalachian
Silvopaslure researeh
5 Silvoarable systems in Europe
9 Rumex: the docks and sorrels
13 Edible mushrooms from wood
16 Lupinus: the lupins
26 Plants for windy sites: Perennials
33 Sedum: the stonecrops
40 Book review: Growing Green
on the advice of a qualified practitioner: somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame
EditOrial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington,
Totnes. Devon. TQ9 6JT. U.K. Tetephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Page 1
r
News
Alley cropping in Quebec
In 2004, Universite Laval established alley cropping systems on two pilot study sites (81. Paulin
and ~ t . Edouard) in the Mauricie region, in Quebec, with the support and invol vement of two
landowners. These sites allowed test ing and demonstrations of the effects of two alley
treatments (annual crop rotation vs bare soil). two different clones of hybrid poplar, four species
of high-valued hardwoods (black cherry, red ash, white ash and red oak) and two alley crop
managements (organic at St. Paulin vs conventional at 81. Edouard) on tree growth and crop
productivity_ Weeds were controll ed by the use of plastic mulch along the tree row. At the 8t.
Edouard site, the alley crops were a succession of winter cereals (rye-wheat-wheat) whereas I
the ones at St. Paulin were oats-buckwheat-buckwheat.
I
The hybrid poplar-hardwood I
intercropping system at St.
Edouard site (Quebec, Canada) in
2006 during the third season of
growth, showing the winter whear
sowing. (Photo courtesy of D.
Rivest)
The disposition of poplar and hardwood species in alternate rows (10 or 12 m spacing, for St.
Paulin and St. Edouard, respectively) should allow for two harvests of poplar for every harvest
of hardwood species. Poplar harvest should contribute to maintaining an open site, thus
reducing period of high shading effects, In addition to creating a favourable environment for
hardwood species establishment, the poplar could generate mid-term incomes from poplar
veneer. Furthermore, because of the poplar's rapid growth, it is interesting to note that the
landowners perceive this system as being more attractive than conventional plantations or alley
cropping systems with hardwoods only.
After the third year, the growth of poplar planted in alley cropping systems increased by 4 to
14% in height and by 9 to 29% in diameter, as compared to the control treatment, for St. Paulin
and SI. Edouard, respectively. Although the poplar were at an initial stage of development,
these results illustrate that poplar growing in alley cropping systems may produce a similar or
higher amount of timber when compared to conventional mechanical weed control treatment.
Page 2
The hybrid poplarhardwood
intercropping system at S1. Paulin
site (Quebec, Canada) in 2005
during the second season of
growth, showing the buckwheat
flowering. (Photo courtesy of D.
Rivest)
On farm trial at St. Paulin site
(Quebec, Canada) in 2006 during
the third season of growth. The
effects of two alley treatments
(annual crop rotation vs bare soil),
two clones of HP and two
hardwood species on tree growth
and crop producti vity is tested.
(Photo courtesy of D. Rivest).
Since no fertilization was used at St. Paulin, contrary to St. Edouard, the better poplar response
t o intercrops at the StEdouard site could be attributed to the assimilation of a portion of
nitrogen coming from the alley crop fertilization and its availability through leaching. In spite of
a high rate of tree survival (more than 95%), the growth of the hardwood species was more
heterogeneous than that of poplar.
Source: The Temperate Agroforester, December 2006.
Appalachian Silvopasture Research
The Appalachian Region of the USA is characterized by steep, complex terrain and high
average annual precipitation (> 1.1 m yr .1). Most of the region is geologically old and soils are
highly leached resulting in low pH and nutrient deficiencies for most agricultural production
systems. The indigenous vegetation is dominated by species diverse forests. Within the soil a
web of tree roots and fungi are very efficient at capturing nutrients from decaying vegetation
and on many sites most of the nutrients in the system are contained in the vegetation itself.
Due to the hilly topography, agricultural acreage requiring tillage is restricted to a small percent
of the total with forage-based animal production systems dominating. With the conversion of
forest to pasture, additions of lime and fertilizer are required on a regular basis to maintain a
high level of productivity. The microbiological populations in soils that evolve after conversion
to pasture are more strongly dominated by bacteria and are much more nutrient-leaky than the
forest soils they replace.
. ,
The most prominent difference between traditional pasture forage production and silvopastures
is the presence of trees which decrease solar radiation at the forage level and also modify
microclimate. Understanding how forages respond to tree shading is critical in Appalachia since
solar radiation is already cloud-attenuated roughly by half. Silvopasture research at the USDA,
ARS, Appalachian Farming Systems Research Center initially focused on how system design
and age influenced solar radiation partitioning and microclimate modification. It is now moving
beyond that to the study of impacts on grazing animals, litter decomposition, and soil
processes.
Experimental Sites
There are several experimental sites that have been developed since Appalachian silva pasture
research was started in 1992. Most sites are located near Beaver, WV on a ridge top with
shallow soils weathered from sandstone and shale. Two adjacent sites are located near
Blacksburg, VA, in cooperation with VA Tech, on a deep alluvial soil. Sites studied so far
include:
1. A randomly variable density stand of conifers, mostly white pine and red spruce, about
40 years old with an understory of perennial ryegrass and white clover grazed by
sheep.
2. Thinned second growth hardwood stands, mostly oak and over 50 years old, with an
established understory of orchardgrass, perennial ryegrass, and white clover grazed
by sheep.
3. Gaps created within second growth -hardwood stands for studying spatial edge effects
on pasture bordering forest. one is 100 ft wide and about 1300 feet long oriented east-
west and two are 50 feet wide and 150 feet long. one of the 150 ft gaps was cut into a
forest bordering a pasture on the east side and one on the west with both gaps
oriented east-west.
4. Black locust planted in 30 ft wide rows within a steep pasture watershed dominated by
tall fescue. Rows were oriented northeast to southwest.
5. Black walnut and honey locust. each planted in a tree density gradient on a hill side
pasture dominated by tall fescue. Rows were oriented northeast to southwest.
(Blacksburg, VA).
6. Black walnut and honey locust planted in 40 wide rows on a hill side pasture
dominated by tall fescue and grazed by sheep. Rows were oriented north to south
(Blacksburg, VA).
Forages were clipped at all sites for analysis and animal performance was evaluated at sites 1,
2, and 6. Various soil and microclimate parameters were measured depending on the project
objectives.
Page 4
Microclimate Research
They found that under tree rows, forages received sun early and late in the day in addition to
mottled sun during midday. This gave forages directly under rows an effectively longer day for
photosynthesis than in mid alley where forages were shaded early and late in the day. There
was very little spatial variation in forage yield in row silvopastures although there was less
clover but more grass under trees. Under tree rows, during midday, the highest light levels
were measured when the sky contained about 30% cloud cover. At this level the radiation from
cloud reflection from the betweenrow direction exceeded ~ e sporadic attenuation of sun fleck
radiation by overhead clouds. .
Under mature trees from silvopastures produced from existing forest, yield decreased with daily
total photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) although less on a percentage basis. Under
thinned forest, day length is decreased in addition to daily totals compared to open pasture
since trees cast more shadow early and late in the day.
Agriculture's primary purpose is to harvest PAR for food and fiber so increasing this harvest is
potentially valuable. The PAR use efficiency (PARUE), which is calculated as leaf mass
production relative to PAR, is much higher for shaded grass than unshaded. Grass leaf mass
production is very low in open fields relative to incident PAR so that total system harvesting of
PAR is potentially higher in silvopastures than pastures.
Surface soil temperature and forage canopy temperature was lower in silvopastures compared
to open sites, particularly during drought. This is useful during Appalachian summers as well as
in other regions which rely on cool season forages for the majority of forage prgduction. The
lower temperatures in shade on hot sunny days can also reduce animal stress which improves
livestock health and performance. Soil moisture, however, showed no significant trend of being
different in silvopastures compared to open pasture at any site.
Silvopastures can also facilitate an extended grazing season during some years. Under
northern conifers, forage canopy temperatures were up to 10C warmer under night time
radiation frost conditions due to tree foliage blocking thermal radiation loss to the cold clear sky.
Source: The Temperate Agroforester, December 2006.
Silvoarable systems in Europe
Introduction
Silvoarable systems are a type of agroforestry which consists of widely spaced trees
intercropped with annual or occasionally perennial crops. Traditionally, such systems were
important parts of the European landscape, the trees producing fruits, fodder and wood for fuel,
litter or timber; and providing shade and shelter
Historical perspective
As the original forests of Europe were cleared, oaks and beech were retained for their
production of acorns and mast as animal forage, and ash was retained for branched to be
lopped for fodder: these formed elements of early agroforestry systems.
Page 5
The earliest evidence for planned agroforestry dates back to c. 2500 BC in Southwestern Spain,
when mixed oak and pine forests were replaced by scattered oaks and herbaceous vegetation -
the beginning of the 'dehesas' system.
As stable patterns of agriculture emerged, woodland grazing and silvopastoral (tree-pasture)
systems were abundant , and there was a continuous transfer of fertility from woods to cultivated
land via manure. Branches of ash, elm, poplar and other trees were collected and stored to
provide livestock fodder. Up to about 1500, 75% of the nitrogen and 90% of the phosphorus
required for arable fertil isation in Germany came from woodlands in the form of residues of
foddt:Jr and leaf litter or ash from domestic fires. In classical times, charcoal was used as a
potassium fertiliser on fields.
Fruit trees were also important for the fruit itself and for the production of alcohol.
In the Middle ages, with the introduction of crop rotations, soil fertil ity became less dependent
upon the transfer of nutrients from woods, a process which accelerated during the 19
th
century.
In more recent times the disastrous Common Agricultural Policy of the EC I EU for many years
favoured removal of trees from former agroforestry systems. and is only just beginning to
redress the balance by favouring tree-based systems, albeit in a very small way.
Silvoarable systems still practised in Europe
1. Olive tree systems
Olives form a continuous landscape element in many parts of southern Europe, with diverse
crops sown between the trees, a practice dating back to pre-Roman times, when wheat was
cultivated between rows of olive trees on alternate years.
In Greece, most of the 6 ~ O , O O O ha of olives are intercropped with cereals, vegetables and
fodder crops. Olives trees are typically planted in rows, although they are sometimes in
irregular scattered groves. Oaks, carob, walnut, almond and other fruit trees often form a mixed
tree component.
In central Italy (Umbria, Lazio) about 20,000 ha of olive trees are intercropped with cereals or
fodder legumes. Grape vines are sometimes grown along the tree rows as part of a formerly
widespread system know as piantata.
Smaller areas of olive in France and Spain are also intercropped with cereals.
2. Fruit tree systems
Only a century ago, systems based on fruit or nut trees were widespread in central Europe. In
France (especially the north east), the pre-vergers are areas of low-density fruit tree plantations
also used for grazing. The fruit trees are often dual purpose for timber too (eg. walnut , pear).
Some of these systems are intercropped during the early years, especially walnut systems.
Intercrops include maize and other cereals, sorghum, soybean, oi lseed rape, sunflower,
tobacco, alfalfa, lavender and Ribes bush fruits.
The German system of Steuobst is a less regimented system of intercropped orcharding. The
system is characterised by tall trees of various ages and various fruits. The sitvoarable form
usually consisted of paired rows of fruit trees, intercropped close up to the trunks, with relatively
low branches for easy fruit harvesting; apple, pear, plum and mazzard cherry were planted at
densities of 20-100 stems per ha. The area under this system declined last century to around
400,000 ha, due to replacement with intensive orchards using narrow grassed alleys and dwarf
fruit trees to permit mechanisation; most of what remains is the silvopasture form of the system,
where fodder grasses are grown and harvested to feed sheltered livestock.
A comparable system, the pomaradas, was widespread in the humid parts of northern Spain,
where apple trees were planted either in lines or scattered through meadows and arable
croplands containing. maize .or vegetables.
A similar orchard system was introduced and subsequently lost in the UK. In the early 20
th
century, it was common practice to grow crops early in the development of standard fruit trees
in orchards, particularly of apple and cherry. Soft fruits (blackcurrant, gooseberry, raspberry,
strawberry) or vegetables (eg. asparagus) were common intercrops.
Further south in Europe, grape vines tend to dominate as the economic crop. In flat fertile
areas of Italy, poplars and fruit trees were used as vine supports, organised in rows and
intercropped (piantata), a very ancient system. Sometimes the rows of vines could reach a
height of 10 m (33 ft)! In hilly regions, vines tended to be supported by smaller trees including
ash, maple and mulberry. Crops least likely to compete for water during the dry season were
intercropped, such as wheat, clover and vetches. Fragments of these systems remain in many
marginal areas today.
In southern France, the system called Joualle comprised rows of grape vines with peach, walnut
and olive trees inserted; sometimes the trees were used to support the vines (hautain) . The
gaps between the rows would often be sown with cereals. Though this has vanished from
France, a similar system continues to operate in Greece, with olive, walnut, oaks and wild pear
incorporated amongst vines. There is also still a large area of intercropped vineyards in Sicily.
In northern Spain, intercropped small orchards (under 0.5 hal with fruit trees and vegetables
remain very common, and throughout the Mediterranean, small orchards of walnut, almond,
peach, apricot and olive are intercropped with vegetables and cereals, often for household use
rather than being commercial. Small scale plots still exist in eastern Germany from the cold war
years, particularly cherry trees underpfanted with potatoes, turnip, alfalfa, oats and asparagus.
A modern agroforestry system practised in southern France combines peach trees with
intercropped overwintered vegetables.
The greatest area and diversity of fruit tree silvoarable systems are found in Greece. In
northern and central areas, pear dominates, interplanted with cereals, vegetables or tobacco.
In montane areas, walnut is preferred, while mulberry is used in Thrace. Figs are used in Crete
and the Aegean Islands. Wheat and barley are the most common intercrops in all systems.
Walnut is the main component of silvoarable systems in Italy, used as a dual purpose tree for
timber and nuts. In Campania it is often intercropped with vegetables, and often mixed with
hazel grown for wood and nuts and to improve walnut tree form.
3. Timber tree systems
Silvoarable systems combining hybrid poplars grown for timber with cereal crops have been
adopted throughout northern Europe. In northern Italy poplars are grown with maize, soybean
and cereals for a few years at the start of each short rotation cycle (10 years or so). In northern
Greece, cereals, vegetables and fodder crops are intercropped with poplars, a system requiring
high levels of irrigation. Similar systems in the UK, intercropping poplar with cereals for 8 years
and then undergrazing after, declined because of the poor economics of the system in the
1970s.
Page 7
Other tree-crop combinations exist but none so widely adopted as these poplar systems.
Various experimental trials exist, for example in France (Aude) where the leguminous timber
tree black locust is intercropped with cereals on 20 ha; and in the Netherlands where tree-flower
intercropping is being tried using cherry, honey locust, alder and Catalpa cropped with
hyacinths for flowers and bulbs.
4. Oak tree systems
The Spanish dehesas (called montados in Portugal) is the largest agroforestry system in
Europe, characterised by scattered evergreen oaks intercropped with cereals etc. Similar
systems occur in northern Greece and cover much of Crete and Sardinia. The trees have been
selected over time for sweet acorn production, consisting mainly of holm oak, but also contain
cork oak and Pyrenean oak. The ground beneath the trees is managed flexibly, periodically
sown with cereals, fodder crops or sunflowers, or is used as wood-pasture. Pigs, sheep, cattle,
cereals, acorns, fuel wood and cork are the main products. Lopped branches from the trees are
used for firewood or charcoal production and as fodder in winter.
Silvoarable oak systems are widespread in Greece with cereals grown commercially between
scattered trees at densities of 10 to 100 stems/ha. In northern areas, downy oak, sessile oak,
turkey oak and Macedonian oak are intercropped with cereals, tobacco, sunflower and fodder
crops. In southern and western areas, Valonia oak is most abundant, usually intercropped with
cereals.
Similar systems persist in marginal areas of central and southern Italy and Sardinia, with
scattered oaks at 7-250 slems/ha. Down oak and turkey oak are most common, with cork oak
found in Sardinia; wild pear is sometimes included. The trees were used for fuel wood
production but are mainly unmanaged now. A rotation of wheat and clover (sometimes oats) is
grown beneath trees.
In Northern Europe, the Siegerlander Hauberg, was an ancient agroforestry system practised
for about 2500 years. Trees coppiced for fuel wood were combined with crop production and
grazing on a long rotation. Oak and birch were mainly used, cut for firewood and charcoal at
16-20 year intervals with the stumps left to re-grow. After tree felling, any remaining ground
vegetation was removed or burnt, and crops grown for the following 1-2 years. The system was l
then left fallow for 5-07 years until the trees were large enough (6-7 m)to tolerate grazing sheep
and cattle. Grazing continued until the next coppicing. This system was a collective system of ,
land management, farmed by the entire village community. Some 7000 ha remain today but are
not commercial due to the lack of markets for wood products and the labour-intensiveness of
the intercropping.
5. Fodder tree systems
Many of the examples above supplied fodder, but there are other systems with trees managed
exclusively for their leaves as a valuable food source for livestock during seasons when ground
vegetation for grazing is sparse, especially in arid Mediterranean areas. In Greece, the leaves
of deciduous oaks are shredded and dried for sheep food throughout the rest of the year.
In Crete and the Aegean Islands, fig is sometimes used as a coppiced fodder crop, and in
Crete, Sicily and the Balearic Islands, carob if is grown on large areas, with the carob pods
used as a stored fodder crop and also as a raw materials in the food processing industry;
intercrops include cereals, fodder legumes and strawberries.
The future
Agroforestry mixtures of tree and other crops are more complicated and take more work to
design and usually more work to maintain than the monocrops usually found today in
agriculture, horticulture and forestry. In the current economic conditions, with the high cost of
labour in Europe, they will only work economically where they is one or more high value product
in the system. On-farm processing can add tremendous value to raw crops and lead to good
profitability but it appears that silvoarable systems {,are likely to continue to exist largely as
numerous small scale ventures, often at the family farm or household level. At this scale there
is less dependence on the grants system which unfortunately underpins and drives most of
European Agriculture today.
Reference
Eichhorn, M Pet al: Silvoarable systems in Europe - past, present and future prospects.
Agroforestry Systems (2006) 67: 29-50.
Rumex: the docks and sorrels
Introduction
The Rumex family consists of some 200 species of annual, biennial and perennial plants
(occasionally shrubs), usually with stout and deep roots or rhizomes. They originate from most
regions or the world and the weedy dock members are well known to most people. Several
species have edible leaves, the sorrels being acid and lemony.
Description
leaves are usually produced all from the base of the plant. In docks they are mostly long and
painted but some sorrels have almost round or heart shaped leaves.
Flowers are small and wind pollinated, fruits are 3-angled surrounded by papery wings.
General uses
Most Rumex species have deep tap roots and are excellent at improving the soil structure by
breaking up hard pan layers. They also excel at being mineral accumulators, bringing minerals
up from the subsoil into the topsoil layers where other plants can access them easily:
potassium, phosphorus and calcium are all accumulated. In perennial agricultural systems,
docks are best treated as useful dynamic accumulators, with occasional cutting to prevent
flowering and improve the nutrient flow up to the topsoil.
Green-brawn-greyish dyes are obtained from the roots which do not need a mordant as the
roots are high in tannins.
Occasional reports of roots being eaten are most likely inaccurate, as the tannic roots are highly
inedible: in many species they have been used medicinally, taking advantage of the astringent
qualities of the tannins.
Several species are noted as having edible seeds. These are small and difficult to remove from
the papery surrounding wings, and even then are also often high in tannins. They are not
recommended and were probably only ever eaten as a last resort famine food.
Note on eating leaves of docks and sorrels: these can contain Quite high levels of oxalic acid,
which is what gives the leaves an acid-lemon flavour. Perfectly safe in small Quantities, the
leaves should not be eaten in large amounts since the oxalic acid can tack-up other nutrients in
Page 9
the food, thus causing mineral deficiencies. They should be avoided by people with
rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones and hyperacidity.
Cultivation
Rumex are very easy to grow, they are not fussy as to soil type or pH, though they prefer deep
humus-rich soils. Most tolerate partial shade and many tolerate full shade.
The species
The species of recorded use are listed below; the main edible species are treated in some detail
after the table.
A/P - Annual, Biennial or Perennial
Edible leaves - two ticks indicates recommended eating, one tick indicates edible but may be of
dubious quality.
Med rts - indicates whether roots are used medicinally.
~ e c l e s Common name Orlaln AlP Edible leaves Med rls
R.abyssinicus Spinach rhubarb Ethiopia P ./ cooked
R.acetosa Garden sorrel N.temp rgns P ./ raw/cooked
R.acetosella Sheep's sorrel Europe P ././ raw/cooked
./
R.a/pinus Monk's rhubarb Eurooe P ././ cooked
./
R.anqiocarous S.Europe P ./ raw/cooked
R.aquaticus Red dock Europe P ./ cooked-poor
./
R.arcticus Arctic dock N.Europe P ./ raw/cooked
R.arifolius Maiden sorrel S.Eurooe P ./ raw/cooked
R.ber/andieri SE USA P ./ cooked
R.brownii Swamp dock Australia P ./ cooked
R.con lomeralus Shar dock Europe P ./ cooked
./
R.crispus Curled dock Europe P ./ poor
./
R.daiwoo Jaoan P ./ cooked
./
R.dentatus Toothed dock Eurooe, Asia AlB
./
R.gmelini Japan,Siberia P ./ cooked
R.graminifolius Grasleaf sorrel Arctic P
./
R.hastatus Himalavas P ./ raw/cooked
R.hvdrolaoathum Great water dock Eurooe P ./ oor
./
R.hymenoseoalus Tanner's dock WUSA P ./ cooked- oor Tannina
R.japonicus E Asia P ./ cooked
R.longifolius Dooryard dock Europe P ./ cooked-poor
./
R.maritimus Seashore sock Eurooe P ./ cooked-Door
R.mexicanus W N.America P ./ cooked
R.ne alensis Europe,Asia P
./
R.obtusifolius Round leaved dk Europe P ./ cooked-poor
./
R.occidentalis W N.America P ./ cooked
R.oatienta Herb Patience Eurooe P ././ cooked
R.OBucifolius Meadow dock W.N.America P ./ cooked
R.pulcher Fiddle dock Europe P ./ rawlcooked
R.salicifolius Willow dock W. N.America P ./ cooked
R.sanauineus Blood dock Eurooe P ./ rawfcooked
./
R.scutatus French sorrel Europe P ././ rawfcooked
R.simplicif/orus S.Europe P ./ raw
R.tenuifolius Europe P ./ raw
Species Common name Orlliln AlP Edible leaves Med rts
R.tingiianus S.Europe P ./ raw/cooked
R.venosus Sour areens NW N.America P
./ ./
R. vesicarius Bladder dock S.Eurooe A ./ raw/cooked
R.acetosa - Garden sorrel, sour dock
A somewhat succulent, perennial herb to 60 cm high with long pointed leaves. Originates from
Northern temperate and arctic regions. Hardy to zone 3.
Uses
Leaves are edible raw in salads or cooked as a potherb or in soups. They have an acid flavour.
The harvesting season is long.
The leaf juice has been used
to curdle milk.
The leaves and roots are used
medicinally and a homeopathic
remedy is made from the plant.
Greyish dyes are obtained
from the leaves and stems.
An infusion of the stems is
used as a polish for bamboo
and wicker furniture and for
si l ver.
The juice of the plant removes
stains from linen and some ink
stains from white material.
'Blonde de Lyon' - leaves
large, only slightty acidic.
'Schavel' - stays more reliably
evergreen in winter; originates
in Eastern Europe.
R.acetosella - Sheep's sorrel
Rumex JSchavel'
A European perennial herb growing 30 cm high with small leaves. Hardy to zone 5.
Uses
Leaves are edible raw or cooked with a lemony flavour.
The whole plant has been used medicinally.
R.a/pinus - Alpine dock, Monk's rhubarb, Mountain rhubarb
A creeping rhizomatous perennial with flower stems to 1.5 m high and large leaves. Originating
from the mountains of Europe. Hardy to zone 5.
Uses
The leaves are edible raw or (best) cooked like spinach. Formerly much cultivated for its edible
leaves which are produced over a long season.
The roots have been used medicinally.
R.patienta - Herb patience, Patience dock, Spinach dock
perennial growing to 2 m high. Hardy to zone 6.
Uses
Leaves are edible best cooked and used like spinach. Formerly cultivated, the leaves start
growing very early in spring.
,
R.scutatus - French sorrel, Buckler-leaved sorrel
European perennial growing to 45 cm high with trailing stems and small rounded
leaves. Hardy to zone 6.
Rumex scutatus
Uses
The leaves are edible raw or cooked with a delicious mild lemony flavour and tender texture.
'Silver Shield' - sometimes recommended for ground cover: dense, low habit with silver leaves.
References
A.R.T.: Useful Plants database, 2007.
Huxley, A: The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan, 1999.
j
I
1
-
-
Edible mushrooms from wood
Introduction
The
Humans have used mushrooms collected from the wild for food for thousands of years.
earliest records of mushroom cultivation date from. about 1400 .years ago, when the woo
(Auricularia auricula) and the Velvet shank (Flammulina ve/utipes) were first cultivated in C
dear
hina;
around 1000 AD the shi itake (Lentinula edodes) was cultivated.
n of
roon,
Only in the 20
th
century did th use of mechanised techniques lead to the cultivatio
mushrooms in great quantities for food, using Agaricus bisporus, the white or button mush
which remains the most widely grown mushroom today. However there are now som
species of mushroom commercially cultivated, although many of these are on a small scale
well as the technical problems about cultivation techniques to be solved, methods of proce
fresh mushrooms, for which there is a limited shelf life, were developed.
The length of time that a fresh mushroom will remain in good condition varies from spec
species. Low temperatures usually prol ong shelf life, but some species can undergo
pshysiological and nutritional changes after harvest. Canning i s the most common method
to preserve mushrooms (especially Agaricus) but not all species can well.
e 40
As
ssing
ies to
rapid
used
with
to be
Drying is also improtant, and is particularly good for shiitake, which is readily preserved
maintenance of fine flavour, Pickling in brine is al so common for preserving 'mushrooms
shipped in bulk, but requires some pre-treatment of the mushrooms. Freeze drying may
preserve better flavour but is more costly.
Commercial edible species
Species in bold are major commercial species.
5 aclas Common name Growln substrata
A ar/cus bls orus Button mushroom Com ost, manure
A arlcus bltor uls S rin a aric Com ost, manure
A aricus blazei Com ost, manure
A roc be c lindracea Brown sword bel t Po lar & willow 10 s
A roc be chaxin u Cashu u La s, wood chi s, straw
Auricularia auricula Wood ear Deciduous 10 s, sawdus t
Auricularia delicata Deciduous 10 s, sawdus t
Auricularia fuscosuccinea Deciduous 10 s, sawdus t
Auricularia 01 tr/cha Cloud ears Deciduous 10 s, sawdus t
Co rinus coma/us Sha ink ca
Diet ahara du licata Veiled stinkhorn Wood 'chi s, straw
Diet ohara indusiata Lon net stinkhorn Wood chi s, straw
F/ammulina va/uti es Velvet shank, Enokitake La s, conifer sawdust
Grifa/a frondosa Hen of the woods, Maitake Deciduous 10 s
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 13 No 3 Pag e 13
Species Common name Growing substrate
Hericium erinaceus Lions mane Deciduous logs
HYlJsJzYflUS marmoreus Jade mushroom Logs, sawdust
LentJnula edodes Shiitake Logs
LentinuJa giganleus Logs

Lepista nuda Wood blewit Leafmold
Lyophyl/um ulmarium White mushroom Sawdust
Macro/epiota Drocera Parasol mushroom Wood chios
Oudemansiella radicala Rooting shank Wood chips
Phollota nameko Nameko Dedicuous logs, sawdust
Pleurotus citrinopi/eatus Cit rine pleurotus Lo s, straw, wood chips
Pleurotus conrucopiae Golden oyster mushroom Logs, straw, wood chips
Pleurotus cystidiosus Ohritake Logs, straw, wood chips
P/eurotus d'amor Pink oyster Loos, straw. wood chips
P/eurotus erynQii King oyster LOQs, straw, wood chips
P/eurotus feru/ae Ferulae mushroon Logs, straw, wood chips
P/eurotus florida Logs, straw, wood chips
P/eurotus nebrodensis Bailin oy_ster mushroom Logs, straw, wood chips
Pleurotus ostreatus Oyster mushroom LOQs, straw, wood chips
Pleurotus sa 'or-caju Indian oyster Logs, straw, wood chi s
StroDharia rugoso-annulata King strop haria Straw, wood chips
Tremella aurantialba Golden ear Logs. sawdust
Tremella fuclformls White jelly fungus Logs. sawdust
Tricho/oma qiganteum Niohshime'i Mvcorrhizal
Tricholoma lobayense Mycorrhizal
Tricholoma matsutake Matsutake Myrorrhizal on pine
Tuber aestivum Summer truffle Mycorrhizal
Tuber maQnatum Piedmont white truffle Mvcorrhizal
Tuber melanosporum Perigord truffle Mycorrhizal
Volvariella dip/asia Banana mushroom
Vo/variella esculenta
Volvariella volvacea Chinese I straw mushroom Straw
The majority of the commercial mushrooms are cultivated on logs, wood chips, sawdust or
straw and the first three substrates are obvious potential products from almost all tree-based
agricultural or forest systems. The most important commercial species grown on logs or wood
chips are:
Auricularia spp. - wood ear
Long popular in China for food and for its medicinal prC1lerties, species of this jelly fungus have
a worldwide distribution. A.auricula, also called Jew's ear, is a temperate species and
A.pofytricha is tropical and subtropical. Very easily produced on a sawdust substrate of a
variety of woods, also on logs (oak family preferred but many others will succeed). Typical
composition of the mushrooms (% of dry weight) is 4% protein, 8% fat, 20% fibre.
Flammulina velutipes - velvet shank, winter mushroom, enokitake
A mushroom of great popularity in Asia. A low temperature mushroom (requires low
temperatures for fruiting) well suited to remperate regions. Typical composition of the
mushrooms (% of dry weight) is 18% protein, 2% fat, 4% fibre.
j' Hypsizygus marmoreus - Jade mushroom, Bunashimeji
Mainly produced and consumed in Japan. Increasingly regarded as also val!Jable medicinally.
Lenitula edodes - shiitake
Huge worldwide production, similar to that of the button mushroon. Grown on logs from almost
any type of tree, shiitake is one of the easiest species to manipulate into fruiting. Typical
composition of the mushrooms (% of dry weight) is 16% protein, 6% fat, 8% fibre.
Pho/iota nameko - Nameko
A wood-rotting fungus highly popular in Japan, with a low temperature fruiting requirement.
Pleurotus ostreatus - Oyster mushroom
Oyster mushroom species are found the world over and are highly regarded. These wood
rotting fungi are versatile in that they secrete a wide range of enzymes which can degrade all
three types of polysaccharides found in forests and agricultural residues: lignin, cellulose and
hemicellulose. They can therefore be grown on a wide range of substrates. Some are low
temperature and other high temperature mushrooms. Typical composition of the mushrooms (%
of dry weight) is 20% protein, 2% fat, % fibre.
Tremella fuciformis - white jelly mushroom, silver ear mushroom
Popular in China, for food (consumed as a special dessert) and medicine (the dried fruiting
bodies are found in most Chinese medicine pharmacies). Grown on logs much like shiitake or
on sawdust substrates.
Volvariella volvacea - straw mushroom
A high temperature mushroom hugely popular in Asia, grown in subtropical and tropical parts.
Typical composition of the mushrooms (% of dry weight) is 26% protein, 2% fat , 9% fibre.
Amino acid composition of most edible mushrooms is comparable to that of chicken's eggs.
They are aso good sources of several vitamins, notably thiamine (vitamin 81), riboflavin
(vitamin 82), niacin, biotin and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Many minerals are also present,
notably potassium, phosphorus, sodium, calcium and magnesium.
References
Chang, S & Miles, P: Mushrooms - Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect and
Environmental Impact. CRC Press, 2004.
Royse, D.J.: Specialty mushrooms. p. 464-475. In: J. Janick (ed.) , Progress in new crops.
ASHS Press, 1996.
Lupinus: the lupins
Introduction
Lupinus is a genus of about 150 herbaceous annuals and herbaceous to shrubby perennials,
from many parts of the world, with greatest species diversity in western North
America, Mexico and South America. They are part of the legume family.
Wild lupins (spelt with an 'e' as lupines in North America) cover a wide climatic range from the
sub-arctic climate of Alaska, through Mediterranean and semi-desert climates. to subtropical
lowlands. Growing seasons are typically cool to mild.
One universal characteristic of lupins is that they are plants of open and sunny habitats,
intolerant of much shading. In wooded areas they grow in clearings and on open banks,
especially as pioneer plants on recently disturbed soils. Soil preferences are also fairly
common: typical soils are light to medium textured and acid to neutral, well drained and fairly
deep. These soil characteristics accord with the deep-penetrating and sparse root systems of
lupins, which enable them to scavenge deeply and widely in soils of low water and nutrient-
holding capacity.
Note on lupin alkaloid content: Apart from 'sweet' varieties, alilupins contain toxic alkaloids. All
edible uses referred to in the article assume the use of sweet seed which is very low in
alkaloids and therefore safe for consumption.
The history of lupin use
L.a/bus, L.angustifolius and L.mutabilis (amongst others) have long documented histories of use
for human consumption, although in recent times mainly by poorer people or in times of famine.
Use of the rough-seeded lupins as food is very ancient and has probably been central to their
eVolution as large-seeded species. The plants of these species are bitter and resist
predators, but whether naturally of from long selection, the seeds contain only moderate
amounts of alkaloids. Technology to crack the seed and leach out much the alkaloid is simple,
while the natural tendency of lupins to grow in dense patches, which ripen synchronously,
makes seed collection easy for observant hunter-gatherers despite seed pod shattering.
The readiness with which wi ld lupins self seed on disturbed sites means that they commonly
establish around human encampments, there to grow protected by their bitterness when green.
Sources favoured for their seed size or lack of bitterness would thus be favoured for
reproduction: it is a short step to deliberate seed scattering and the beginnings of agriculture.
However, as agriculture developed, attempts to domesticate lupins mostly failed. The higher
soil fertility of the new agriculture held no advantage for lupins, while their continuing ability to
grow in wild places maintained a selective advantage for characteristics such as bitterness,
shattering pods and hard seeds.
Lupinus a/bus was widely used in both Greek and Roman agriculture. It is mentioned in Greek
literature from 400 Be as being used for nutrition, medicine and cosmetics. Roman agriculture
depended greatly on legume and green manure crops to maintain soil fertility, and L.a/bus was
prominent among them, favoured for both green manuring ad seed harvest. Uses for the seeds
included both animal and human consumption. The seeds, then as now around the
T
Mediterranean, were boiled and then leached for long periods to remove most of their bitter but
water-soluble alkaloids. The various cooked, salted or seasoned seeds were commonly sold in
the streets and markets as a snack food.
The parallel history of Lmutabifis in the Andean highlands of South America is less well
documented, nut there is evidence of its cultivation in the Btt! century Be and it subsequently
became a regular part of crop rotations.
The agricultural history of lupins in northern Europe began in the late 1700's. Attempts to
introduce L.a/bus largely failed then due to inappropriate genotypes being tried. L.luteus was
much more successful and by the 1860's had become an essential part of agriculture right
across the acid, sandy soils of the Baltic coastal plain, used mainly for forage and green
manuring. L.angustifolius also became widely used around the same time, used for cattle and
sheep fodder and green manuring in Britain and mainland Europe e astwards to Russia and
Ukraine.
II. Cheap nitrogen fertilisers led to a decline of lupin cultivation (as well as all the other green
manuring crops) around 1900, but World War I brought a renewed interest in lupins as a needed
protein source. Much effort went into industrial processes for de-bittering the seeds, but
although successful. these could not compete commercially once the war was over. However
the feasibility of using lupins for many foods and other purposes was demonstrated: gThere on a
tablecloth made of lupin fibres, a lupin soup was served followed by a lupin steak fried in lupin
oil and spiced with lupin extract. In addition, lupin margarine containing 20% of lupin
constituents, cheese from lupin proteins, lupin spirits and lupin coffee were offered. Moreover,
lupin soap for washing hands, paper and envelopes supplied with lupin adhesives were
(lupin dinner for the Association of Applied Botany in Germany, 1918.) During that
war, roasted L.angustifolius seeds (along with chicory) were used in Germany for making ersatz
coffee, a use which had been traditional in France for some time. One writer notes darkly gOne
the qualities of the resulting beverage, the literature remains silent".
Further research in the 1920's led to new bitter varieties of L.angustifolius with advances in
maturity and soft-seeded ness (improving germination reliability). Remaining problems from an
agricultural perspective were pod-shattering at ripeness (only L.a/bus and L.mutabilis did not
have pods that shattered), reliable germination (only achieved in these three species), and of
course medium to high seed alkaloid content, requiring processing before useable as food.
From the 1930's breeding programmes starting attempting to produce low alkaloid varieties, but
it took until the 1960's for the first 'sweet' L.angustifolius varieties with non-shattering pods and
soft seeds to be released. Other breeding objectives include reducing the thickness of pod
walls and seed coats, which are thicker than in many other legumes; and disease resistance.
Since the 1980's work has taken place in the USSR and Finland to breed sweet varieties of the
perennial L.p'Jfyphyl/us.
There are now of 1 million Ha of sweet lupins grown in Australia for seed. One problem about
growing sweet lupins is that they cannot be grown in proximity to forage lupins or wild
populations of bitter lupins, because cross pollination wilt contaminate the seed crop and lead to
unexpected alkaloid levels.
Description
Lupins are easily distinguished by their leaves, which consist of several separate leaflets
radiating from the top of a common l ong stalk. In many species the leaves are hairy with dense
silvery hairs.
Flowers are produced on erect spikes. Each flower is 12 cm long, with a typical legume or pea
flower shape. The fruit is a pod containing several seeds.
Lupins have tap roots and are very deep rooted, with roots of L.anguslifofius measured at 2.2 m
depth, with 60% of roots below 20 cm in the soil.
Lupin alkaloids
The alkaloids in lupins developed as a defence against diseases and pests, insect and
herbivorous. The 'chemicals involved are several, including lupanine, sparteine, angustifoline
and 13-hydroxylupanine. Recent work indicates that some of these compounds used carefully
in medicinal doses may have beneficial effects on humans, including anticancer effects.
Lupin poisoning from the alkaloids present only occurs when a large quantity are consumed in a
short period of time, because the alkaloids are excreted rapidly. Normally, the bitterness
associated with the alkaloids repels insects, grazing animals and humans. In animals,
poisoning occurs most often in sheep, where symptoms include trembling, staggering, wild
galloping, frothing at the mouth, convulsions and coma. In humans poisoning has occurred
most often in times of famine when seeds are eaten as a last resort: symptoms of poisoning
include nausea, respiratory and visual disturbances, ataxia, progressive weakness and coma.
The bitter alkaloids in lupin seeds must be removed before they are safe for human
consumption. The alkaloids are watersoluble so leaching in water is the usual method. An
upper limit of 0.02% alkaloids is considered very safe for seed destined for human consumption,
and breeding work uses this an upper limit for alkaloid content in 'sweet' varieties, which
therefore need no leaching. De-bittering is generally considered to reduce the alkaloid content
to around 0.05%, at which levels consumption has historically been safe.
One method used in Roman times was to boil seeds, then hang them in net loose-weaved bags
in running streams. Many farms also had a special basin in the farmyard for leaching lupins
called a labrum lupinarium. Leach water was used on the soil around fruit trees, presumably
because of some insecticidal effect. The seeds of L.mutabilis in the Andes were also leached in
running streams, although poisoning sometimes still occurred. Taste is a very clear indicator of
edibility, there should be no bitterness left at all if the seeds are to be safe for consumption.
Lupinosis is a disease involving the ingestion of toxins produced by a fungus (Diaporthe loxica)
which inhabits lupin plants. It is most commonly found in sheep; it is not usually a problem in
humans because infected seed is dark whereas healthy seed i s light coloured, so seed in easily
sorted. Lupinosis is characterised by severe liver damage which results in lethargy, jaundice
and often death. Recent varieties of L.angustifolius are resistant to the causative fungus and
should help overcome lupinosis problems in livestock.
Cultivation
Lupins tolerate acid soils and prefer acid to neutral soils (pH 5.0 to 7.0) - most do not grow well
in alkaline soils (an exception is L.a/bus which tolerates to pH 8.0). They also prefer well
drained conditions. Otherwise they are unfussy as to soil types - sand to heavy clays are all
suitable. Lupins are sun demanding and will not grow well in shade.
In Britain, blue lupins are hardier and well suited to all regions, whereas white lupins are best in
the south for seed production. For silage the white lupins are fine in most regions.
Most lupin seed germinates much better after scarification - the easiest seed treatment is to
soak seed in near boiling water and leaves for 24 hours before sowing. Seed should be sown
Page 18
it
no deeper than 3 em. Seed is best sown in its final position, or else grown in small containers
and transplanted early on, as lupins are intolerant of root disturbance.
Commercially, lupins are grown in many countries, most commonly it is sweet varieties of blue
lupin (L.angustifoJia) which are grown. In Australia, in areas of Mediterranean climate, it used
in rotation with wheat. Seeding rates are variable depending on the density of plants required,
usually 60100 Kg per ha of seed produces 35-40 plants per m
2
which is considered optimum in
Australia; in Britain- larger quantities are used, typically 100-200 kg/ha in organic crops. In
Britain seed is sown in March or April. using a standard cereal drill. The crop is harvested by a
standard combine. In terms of crop rotation, as with many crops [upins should not be grown in
the same location more often than one year in every 3-4 years, otherwise there will be a build
up of disease problems.
In the last few years a lupin-triticale mixture has been a very successful forage crop in wet and
northern areas of the UK.
Uses
Lupins contain more protein and oil, and less starch than many other legumes. Typical
composition of the fresh seed of the main species (% or g/kg) is:
L.albus L.angustifolius L.luteus L.mutabilis
(sweet)
Moisture 86% 84% 94% . 62%
Protein 36.1% 32.2% 41.3% 44.7%
Crude fat 9.8% 5.8% 5.7% 14. 1%
Crude fibre 10.3% 14.9% 12.7% 7.0%
Calcium 2.09 2.29 2. 19 1.89
Phosphorus 3.60 3.00 6.10 8.80
Food uses, present and possible, are numerous and include (these all use sweet lupin seed
from L.a/bus, L.angustifolius, L.futeus & L.po/yphyl/us unless indicated):
Tempe (a twice-fermented solid product which traditional uses soya beans)
Miso (a fermented paste made with rice using lupins instead of soya beans)
Lupin sauce (a lupin version of soya sauce)
Breads. Up to 10-15% lupin flour can be mixed in with wheat flours to make a more
nutritious bread. lupin lacks the strength and elasticity of wheat gluten so higher
levels lead to smaller dense loaves.
Pastas. Again, adding up tolO% lupin flours to wheat flours gives a similar but more
nutntious product. Wheat-lupin pastas are sold commercially in Australia.
Milk. A similar product to soya milk can be produced.
Tofu. This can be made with 30% lupin milk and 70% soy milk to give a similar
product as a pure soya Tofu.
Fermented milks. A yoghurt-like product can be made from lupin milk.
Fresh sprouted seeds. These have a beany taste and crunchy texture.
Roasted seeds can be made into a coffee-like beverage.
Page 19
r
Snacks. In the Middle East, the seed of L.a/bus is used to make snack foods
especially around Ramadan. The seeds are usually boiled whole and spiced, with the
hull being removed before eating. Another use is to make a paste similar to the
traditional falafel from faba beans.
In Europe, seed of bitter types of L.a/bus (known as lupini beans) is substantially de-
bittered before being pickled and bottled or canned for use as a snack food.
Seed of Langustifolius is used by various ethnic groups in the UK as a low-cost
alternative to chickpeas.
The oil from low alkaloid varieties is an excellent dietary oil, being high in oleic acid.

Possible future uses include the use of immature seeds as a vegetable (they taste like
green peas and have similar nutritional value); whole seeds deep fried or made into
spreads similar to hummus; and malted lupins as a health drink base. Parts of the
seed obtained by processing may also have uses such as the fibre to enrich jellies and
desserts and for use by diabetics as it appears to reduce blood glucose levels;
proteins used to increase protein levels in other foods; and blending with cereals to
produce high protein flours.
Over 1.2 million tonnes of sweet lupin seed are cultivated annually, most in Australia, Poland
and former USSR states.
Lupins are also widely used as a source of protein and energy in livestock feeds. The seeds
are widely used in feeds in Australia, Korea, Japan (cattle) and the EU (Benelux, Germany,
Spain, Portugal). There is also a good potential for lupin use in aquaculture systems, it is
already much used in Korea for this. The entire plant from sweet varieties can be used as
fodder for ruminants, horses and pigs: plants are usually cut when flowering begins and fed at
rates of 25 kg/day per cow, 11 kg/day for pigs and 4 kg/day for piglets. Green fodder can also
be fed to rabbits, goats and chickens. In the past the fresh green plants were used with
alkaloids still present but this is rather risky; sheep were folded on lupins sometimes, but care
was taken that a limited amdunt was allowed to be ingested daily.
Lupins are also widely used as green manure plants. Yields of green matter can reach 35 Uha
(L.albus), 24 t/ha (yellow lupin) and 5 tlha (blue lupin). Most lupins are good mineral
accumulators, particularly of Phosphorus.
Nitrogen fixation (green manure): Lupins, like other legumes, form an association with bacteria
who live in nodules on the roots, forming the nitrogen-fixing association. Lupins are very
efficient at nitrogen fixation, more so than peas and bean for example. With lupins the bacteria
is Bradyrhizobium sp. (shared with other legumes such as Acacia, Chamaecytisus, Lotus, and
Onthinopus). The bacterium exists in most soils in Europe although a single inoculation of seed
is beneficial on sites where lupins have never been grown. Annual lupins can thus fix 145-208
kg of N per ha.
Several species are known to accumulate heavy metals if they are present in the soil (eg from
contamination): L.albus accumulates manganese, lead and mercury; L.angustifolius
accumulates cadmium and lead; Lluteus accumulates cadmium L.mutabilis accumulates lead
and mercury. There is potential for utilising lupins to clean and restore such contaminated soils.
Numerous medicinal uses for lupins (usually the foliage) are listed in ethnobotanical directories
of plants, notably in North America. These should be treated with great caution: although the
alkaloids present in lupins undoubtedly have physiological effects, serious poisoning can occur
very easily and there is no way at present to evaluate which, if any, of the old medicinal uses
are valid. There are also reports of the tap roots of some species being eaten but this is again
1
,
1
l
,.
very dangerous. In the list of species below I have not included old and unverified reports of
this kind but more information can be found in the references listed at the end of this article.
The oil obtained from the seeds can be used in soap making.
All lupins are highly ornamental and many are sold in seed form in ornamental flowers
catalogues etc.
Lupins are excellent bee plants, valued especially by wild and bumble bees.
Pests and Diseases
One problem with the socalled sweet varieties is that although they have lower alkaloid levels,
especially in seeds but also in other parts of the plant, they are thus more susceptible to pests
and diseases, including herbivore damage. Pest and disease problems also tend to be worse in
Mediterranean type climates and there are few problems in the British climate.
Anthracnose and Fusarium diseases can be serious, especially in large stands or at a field
scale. The disease is seed borne so that selecting healthy seed and using crop rotations
usually controls it well.
Pigeons are sometimes a problem on field scale fresh sown crops in Britain.
L.a/bus - White lupin, Field lupin .
A large annual plants, reach 1.8 m (6 ft) high and 25 cm (10") spread in favourable conditions.
Thick, unbranched stems bear leaves on strong hairy stalks. There are 79 leaflets per leaf.
Flowers white, often tinged blue when young. Seeds are large, flat, creamy white in colour, up
to 1215 mm diameter, 46 per pod.
L.a/bus spp. termis (formerly L.termis), is the Egyptian lupin, whose debittered seed has long
been used for food in North Africa and southern Europe
Uses
Edible, fodder and green manure uses for sweet varieties are as above in 'uses'.
A fibre can be obtained from the stems to make a cloth.
'Kiev Mutant' - sweet variety resistant to the lupinosis causative fungus.
'Ult ra' resistant to the lupinosis causative fungus.
L.angustifo/ius - Blue lupin, Bitter blue lupin, Narrow-leaved lupin
An annual reaching 1 m (3 ft) high, branching at the base. Leaves small, leaflets long and
narrow. Flowers are blue. Seeds are peasized, plump, slightly kidney shaped, buff grey
colour.
Widely grown in Northern Europe as a green manure (UK) and for seed. Seed yields of the
sweetseeded varieties are in the order of 7001200 kg/ha, with more recent releases being
higher yielding.
Uses
Edible, fodder and green manure uses for sweet varieties are as above in 'uses'.
'Gungurru' - resistant to the lupinosis causative fungus.
'Warrah' - resistant to the lupinosis causative fungus.
Sweet varieties with very low alkaloid levels:
'Chittick'
'Danja' - use as the upper limit of alkaloid content in breeding as it contains 0.02%.
'Illyarrie' (1982)
'Kalya' (1997) - soft seeded, very good pod non-shattering, very high yield
'Merrit' (1991) - soft seeded, very good pod non-shattering, very high yield
'Myallie' - very high protein content
- resistant to anthracnose. Bred in Georgia
'tallerack (1997) - upright variety
'Uniwhite' (1967) - soft seeded, quite good non-shattering pod performance, medium high yield.
'Uniharvest' (1970) - soft seeded, very good non-shattering pod performance.
'Yorrell' - extremely low alkaloid content; resistant to the lupinosis causative fungus.
L.arboreus - tree lupi'n, bush lupin
An evergreen shrub, fairly short-lived, from
Southwestern North America, naturalised in England.
Grows to a height and spread typically of 1-1.5 m (3-
5 tt), occasionally more, and hardy to about _12C.
Has 5-12 leaflets per leaf and usually yellow flowers.
Seeds 4-5 mm across, 5-12 per pod. Needs a well
drained site to survive wet winters. Considered a
noxious 'invasive' in Australia.
Uses
A bright yellow dye can be obtained from the flowers.
Used in land reclamation schemes to stabilise sandy
soils and dunes - tolerant of maritime exposure, fast
growing.
Root fibres were used as string and made into nets
for carrying items and catching rabbits, fish etc. by
North American Indians.
L. cosentinii
L.arboreus flowers (source: Wikepedia*)
A vigorous, much branched Mediterranean annual plant. Has 9-11 leaflets; flowers light blue
and yellowish.
Sweet varieties:
'Erregulla' (1977) - sort seeded
L.luteus - Yellow lupin,
A Mediterranean annual, very branched at the base and reaching a height of 60-90 em (2-3 tt)
and spread of 25 em (10"), slower growing when young than L.angustifolia. Seeds are slightly
smaller than peas, flatter and less plump, usually white, 4-6 per pod. L.luteus is the most deep
rooted and drought tolerant lupin used in Europe. Seedlings are tolerant to frosts down to _7C.
Seeds contain higher protein levels than most other lupins.
Until recently all L.luteus seeds required early spring sowing as they normally need a period of
cold before they can germinate; but recently varieties have been released which are
thermoneutral and can be sown at any time.
L.luleus (source: Wikepedia")
Uses
Edible, fodder and green manure uses for sweet varieties are as above in ' uses'.
'Aga' - early flowering variety from Poland
' Borsaja' - thermoneutral variety from Germany.
'Juno' - thermoneutral variety from Poland.
' Rega' - early flowering variety from Poland.
' Tea' - thermoneutral variety from Poland.
L./yallii - Dwarf mountain lupin
Perennial to 12 cm ( 5 ~ ) high, requires a well drained site. Blue flowers. Hardy to 10C.
Uses
Flowers were used by native North Americans for dyeing blue and green.
L.mutabilis - Pearl lupin
Annual from South America (perennial in the subtropics), growing to 1.5 m (5 tt) high and 25 em
spread. Day-length neutral, flowering and setting seed easily in most latitudes. Plants
flower and set seed continuously from summer to autumn making this better as a home-scale
food plant than a commercial specie.
Uses
There is a long history of the de-bittered seed being used for food in South America.
A used green manure and fodder plant in its native range.
Sweet varieties:
Some were found in the 1930's but apparently lost thereafter. As yet there are no sweet
varieties suitable for commercial cultivation.
' Inti' (1988) results from a Chi lean breeding programme.
L.nootkatensis - Nootka lupin
Perennial from Northwestern North America and Northern Asia; naturalised in Britain. Grows to
70 cm (28-) high, hardy to zone 4. Tolerates cool wet summers - many garden hybrids used in
NW Europe derive from this specie. Young plants rather susceptible to slug damage.
Uses
The de-bittered seed has been used for food in North America.
Leaves and flowering stalks used for dyeing.
Lperennis - Wild lupin
A perennial from Eastern
North America, growing to 60
cm (2 ft) high. Leaves have
7-11 leaflets; flowers purple
or white. Hardy to zone 4.
Young plants somewhat
susceptible to slug damage.
Uses
The de-bittered seed has
been used for food in North
America.
Leaves and flowering stalks
used for dyeing yellowish-
green and gold.
Page 24
Lperennis
L.pilosus (Syns. L.hirsutus, L.varius) - Narrow-leaved lupin
A Mediterranean annual, sometimes a short-lived perennial. Grows to 80 em (32") high; flowers
white, blue, pink or red.
Uses
Has been used as a fodder crop, mixed with L.a/bus & L.luleus.
Seeds have been eaten after being de-bittered.
L.polyphyl/us - Garden lupin, Washington lupin
A long-lived perennial from Western North
America, growing to 1.5 m (5 tt) high with a
strongly branched root system. leaves have
9-17 leaflets; flowers usually blue. Flowering
begins in second year plants. Seeds 4 mm
across, 4-9 per pod. Hardy to zone 3.
Numerous ornamental cultivars have been
selected for garden use of this species, also
of the hybrid between this and L.arboreus
(rainbow hybrids).
Work in the last few decades has taken place,
especially in the USSR (and its successors)
and Finland, in breeding sweet varieties of
this specie, and these varieties are now
grown commercially in former Russian
republics. These varieties are valued for
forage and sweet seed for edible uses and
livestock feed.
Uses
Edible, fodder and green manure uses for
sweet varieties are as above in ' uses'.
Sweet varieties:
'Truvor' - sweet forage variety bred in
Ukraine
'Pervenee' - the first sweet variety bred in Russia. Lpo/yphyflus (source: Wikepedia*) .
References
Crawford, M: Nitrogen-Fixing Plants for Temperate Climates. A.R.T., 1998.
Gladstones, J S et al: Lupins as Crop Plants. CABI,1998.
Kurlovich B.S: Lupins. Geography, classification, genetic resources and breeding. -Intan",
2002.
McNaughton, D: Promising Protein. Organic Farming, No 85, pp 24-25.
Robinson, D H: Leguminous Forage Plants. Edward Arnold, 1937.
Todorov, N A et al: Lupin (Lupinus spp.). In Legumes and Oilseeds in Nutrition (Eds E Nwokolo
& J Smartt). Chapman & Hall , 1996.
Photos reproduced from Wikepedia are published under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License.
Perennials
Intrqduction
The table below lists Latin and common names, a code for deciduous - ie herbaceous (0) or
evergreen (E), whether or not maritime exposure (salt-laden winds) is tolerated, the maximum
height and width of the perennial, whether it is nitrogen-fi xing, has edible and medicinal uses,
and hardiness zone number. In most of the UK, plants hardy only to zones 8-9 are not suitable
for windy sites, but they they wilt be in milder climes.
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!Abronia latifalia
Acaenia anserinifolia
Achillea ageratum
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IPirri-pirri bur
IMace
IAChillea erba-raUa moschata IMUSk milfail
Achillea miliefolJum IYarrow
[Achillea ptarmtca ISr-eeze-wort
IAchillea santolina
I
Achillea sibirica
IAdesmia
IAgapanthus africanus
IAgapanthus campanulatus
Agapanthus praecox
minim us
IAlkanna tinctoria IAlkanet
Allium ampeloprasum Wild leek
Allium ampeloprasum Babbington's leek
babbingtonii
[Alhum cernuum INoddlng onion
IAlstroemeria aurea
I
Alstroemeria haemantha
Alstroemeria ligtu
Aistroemeria pelegrina
IAlstroemena revoluta
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1
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Ammophila breviligulata Beach grass ,/ 1.3 5
Anemarrhena asphodeloides E 0.5 1 ,/
Anemone canadensis ,/
0.6 0.3 ,/
3
Angelica japonica ,/
1
,/
Angelica keiskei ,/
1.2 ,/
Anthemis tinctoria Yellow camomile E ,/
1 1 ,/
6
~
Anthyllis vulneraria Kidney vetch ,/
0.15 0.6
,/ ,/ ,/ 7
A ~ o n a patagonica Macachi ,/ 0.2 ,/
Armeria maritima Thrift E ,/
0.1 0.15 ,/
4
Artemisia stelleriana Beach wormwood E
,/
0.5 0.6 ,/
3
Arthrocnemum fruticosum Glasswort ,/
0.6 ,/
Arundo donax Giant reed 6 1 ,/ ,/
6
Asparagus acutifolius E
,/
1.5 ,/
8
~
Asparagus lucidus Chinese asparagus ,/
1.5 1 ,/ ,/
7
~
Asparagus maritimus ,/
0.6 ,/
Asparagus officinalis Asparagus ,/
1.5 0.75 ,/ ,/ 4
Asphodeline lutea King's spear ,/
1 1 ,/
7
Atriplex californica ,/ 0.1 ,/
8
Azorella caespitosa E ,/ 0.15 0.6 ,/ ,/
Azorella trifurcata
I
E ,/
0.1 0.45 ,/ 7
Bolax gummifera E 0.02 1.2 ,/ ,/ 7
. ~
Boopsis australis ,/
I . ~
Brassica oleracea botrytis Nine star perennial ,/
0.75 ,/
aparagoides broccoli
I
Carex arena ria Sand sedge ,/
0.5 2 ,/ ,/
7
Carex kobomugi ,/
0.2 ,/
Carex macrocephala ,/
0.2 ,/
Carpobrotus acinaciformis Hottentot fig E
,/
0.1 1 ,/ 9
Carpobrotus aequilaterus Sea fig E ,/
0.2 2 ,/ 8
Carpobrotus edulis Hottentot fig ,/
0.1 1 ,/ 8
Centra nth us rubra Red valerian ,/ 0.9 0.6 ,/ ,/ 5
Cirsium maritimum ,/
0.6
,/
Cirsium nipponicum ,/ ,/ ,/
--
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ICirsium spinosum
lucidum
Icoreopsis 9igantea
Icoronilla varia
ICortaderia selloana
Crambe cordifolia
Crambe maritima
Crithmum maritimum
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Page 28
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Sedum: the stonecrops
Introduction
The Sedums comprise over 300 species of usually succulent. to perennial herbs and
from Northern temperate and tropical mountain regions. They all feature fleshy
leaves, many of which have a long history of use, medicinal or edible.
Sedum anacampseros, S.spectabile (ice plant) and S.telephium (orpine) are sometimes given
their own genus (Hylolelephium) as they are distinctively different from the other Sedums; they
also have the nicest edible leaves. These species have robust, somewhat woody stems and
thick fleshy roots. Hylote/ephium contains other species not noted as directly useful hence not
mentioned here. .
Cultivation
The Sedums are easily grown plants, preferring full sun and a well-drained fertile soil, often
growing in walls. They are drought tolerant.
Sedums never seem to be touched by rabbits but can sometimes be attacked by slugs and
aphids.
Propagate by cuttings in summer (softwood or stem), or by division in spring and early summer,
or by seed: seed is very small and should be sown onto the surface of a moist compost and
kept moist from below.
General uses
Many Sed urns have edible leaves, often of very good quality, being succulent and juicy.
However, some (for example S.acre) are not edible, containing caustic substances, so always
try a new species first by nibbling. If bitter or acrid then do not eat!
All the Sedums have flowers in summer and/or autumn which are very attractive to bees, and
many are attractive to hoverflies and butterflies.
The smaller leaved sedums (not S.spectabile and S.te/ephium) are frequently used on green
roofs.
Sedum acre - Common stonecrop, Wall pepper, Biting stonecrop
Evergreen mat-forming perennial from Europe and North Africa, long naturalised in Britain. Grows 5-12
em high and 30 cm wide; hardy to zone 5. Flowers yellow.
Uses
Some sources list the leaves as edible, but they are acrid and not recommended - probably dangerous
- to consume. They contain piperidine alkaloids (sedridine, sedamine, sedinone and isopelletierine)
which make it somewhat toxic: it can cause irritation of mucous membranes, cramps and paralysis.
Medicinally the plant is astringent, hypotensive, laxative, rubefacient, vermifuge and vulnerary; most
safely used externally as a com-remover, it can also be used to bring boils to a head, though this can
also cause some local irritation. The bruised fresh plant is applied as a poultice to wounds and minor
burns. The herb is difficult to dry and so is best used when fresh, it can be gathered at any time during
Page 33
the spring and summer. A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant, used in the treatment of piles
and anal irritations.
The plant spreads aggressively and can be used for a low ground cover in a sunny position, though
other plants and weeds can easily grow through it.
Sedum aizoon
E v e r g r e ~ n perennial from Eastern Asia, growing 40 em high and wide; hardy to zone 7. Flowers yellow .

Uses
Edible leaves and young stems - raw or cooked: bitter, poor Quality.
Butterfly plant.
Sedum album - Small house leek, White stonecrop
Eurasian mat-forming evergreen perennial growing 10-15 em high and 50 em wide; hardy to zone 6.
Flowers white.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked, often pickled.
Medicinally, the leaves and stems are applied externally to inflammations and are especially
recommended for treating painful haemorrhoids.
The plant spreads aggressively and can be used for a low ground cover in a sunny position, though
other plants and weeds can easily grow through it.
Sedum anacampseros (Hylotelephium anacampseros)
- Love restorer
Perennial from central Europe (Northern Spain to the Alps), growing 10 em high and 50 cm wide with
tuberous roots; hardy to zone 6. Laves to 2 cm long. fleshy; flowers mauve-purple. Shade tolerant,
dislikes lime.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked in soups etc: somewhat bitter.
Plants can be used for ground cover.
Sedum arboroseum
Perennial from China and Japan, growing 50 cm high; hardy to zone 6.
Uses
Medicinally. the leaves are used in the treatment of fevers, inflammations and wounds; the leaf juice is
applied to bums and eruptions. Flowers are also used, and the whole plant is crushed and used as a
poultice on inflammations etc.
Sedum divergens
Creeping evergreen perennial from western North America, growing 15 cm high; hardy to zone 6.
Flowers yellow.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked: unknown palatability.
Sedum forsteranum - Stonecrop
Evergreen perennial from western E u r o p e ~ growing 20 em high; hardy to zone 7. Closely related to
S.reflexum.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked: unknown palatability but S.reflexum is good, so probably good.
Sedum japonicum
Creeping evergreen perennial from Japan and western China. growing 15 em high. Flowers yellow.
Uses
Edible leaves and stems - raw or cooked: poor.
Sedum kamtschaticum
Evergreen perennial from Eastern Asia, growing 8 em high and 30 em wide; hardy to zone 7. Very
drought tolerant, grows in crevices in walls and concrete. Yellow flowers.
Uses
The leaves are edible raw or cooked: excellent, no bitterness, good in salads.
Sedum kamtschatlcum
Medicinally, the plant is anodyne and antiphlogistic: used to stimulate the circulation. The fresh plant is
crushed and applied externally to cuts, bums, traumatic injuries etc.
Plants can be grown as a ground cover (albeit low and subject to weeds) in sun.
Sedum /anceo/atum
Evergreen perennial from NW N.America, growing 15 cm high; hardy to zone 6. Flowers yellow.
Uses ~
Edible eaves - raw or cooked: unknown palatability.
Sedum lineare
Straggling evergreen perennial from Eastern Asia, growing 25 cm high and 50 cm wide; hardy to zone
7. Flowers yellow. .
Uses
The leaves have been eaten but are not recommended.
Medicinally, the fresh plant is crushed and applied externally to bums and scalds.
E. Asia - S.E. China, C. and S. Japan.
Sedum makinoi
Mat-forming evergreen perennial from Eastern Asia, growing 20 cm high and 30 cm wide; hardy to zone
7.
Uses
The leaves have been eaten raw or cooked - caution advised.
Medicinally, the plant is antipl)logistic, depurative, febrifuge, haemostatic, styptic; the fresh plant is
crushed and applied externally to cuts, bums, traumatic injuries etc.
Sedum oreganum
Creeping evergreen perennial from western Norih America, growing 15 cm high and 30 cm wide; hardy
to zone 6. Flowers yellow.
Uses
Edible leaves and young shoots - raw or cooked: unknown palatability.
Plants can be grown as a ground cover, albeit low and weed prone.
Sedum reflexum (S.rupestre) - Crooked yellow stonecrop,
Stone orpine
Mat-forming evergreen European perennial, naturalised in Britain. Grows to 10 cm high and 30 cm
wide, mat forming; hardy to zone 7. Flowers yellow. Very drought tolerant, will grow in cracks in walls
and concrete.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked: good, sometimes slightly astringent.
A good ground cover plant for a sunny position, albeit low.
Page 36
Sedum sarmentosum
Spreading evergreen perennial from Eastern Asia, growing 10 cm high: hardy to zone 7. Flowers
yellow.
Uses
Edible young leaves and stems raw or cooked: unknown palatability.
Sedum sedifoime
Evergreen perennial from the Mediterranean, growing 50 cm high; hardy to zone B. Flowers yellow.
Uses
Edible leaves - cooked: unknown palatability.
Sedum spathulifolium
Dense, clumpforming evergreen perennial from western North America, growing 515 cm high and 50
cm wide; hardy to zone 7. Flowers yellow. Succeeds on poor soils.
Uses
Can be used as a ground cover plant, albeit low, in a sunny position.
Sedum spectablle
Page 37
Sedum spectabile (Hylotelephium spectabi/e) - Ice plant
Perennial from Eastern Asia growing 40 em high and wide with large leaves and tuberous roots; hardy
to zone 6. Many ornamental cultivars bred with white to red flowers.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked: succulent, mucilaginous, mild flavour, excellent in salads,
the plant is antiphlogistic, depurative, sialagogue.
,
Plants can be grown as a fairly good ground cover in sun planted 30cm apart.
Sedum spurium
Evergreen mat-forming perennial from the Caucasus, growing 15 em high and 50 em wide; hardy to
zone 7. Mat forming. Flowers white to pink.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked: thick, juicy with a slight bitterness.
Can be used as a ground cover plant in sun.
Sedum stenopetalum
Evergreen perennial from western North America, growing 15 cm high and 30 cm wide; hardy to zone 6.
Flowers yellow.
Uses
Sedum stoloniferum
Evergreen mat-fonning perennial from the Caucasus to Iran, growing 20 cm high and 50 cm wide; hardy
to zone 7. Flowers pink. Very drought tolerant. will grow in cracks in walls and concrete.
Uses
Sedum telephium - Orpine, Live-forever
European perennial growing 45 cm high and 30 cm wide with tuberous roots; hardy to zone 4. Fairly
shade tolerant. Flowers pinkish-red. Some ornamental cultivars bred including hybrids of this with
S.spectabile.
Uses
Edible leaves - raw or cooked: excellent in salads, succulent, mucilaginous and mild.
The roots have been eaten - cooked in soups, stews etc.
Medicinally, the whole plant is astringent and cytostatic: used to treat diarrhoea, stimulates the kidneys
and may be anti-cancer.
Sedum telephlum
References
A.R.T.: Useful Plants database, 2007.
Fern, K: Plants for a Future. Permanent Publications, 1997.
Huxley, A: The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan, 1999.
Crops for Climate Change - 29-30 September 2007
This weekend course from the A.R.T. looks in details about how the climate changes which are
expected to occur in Britain over the next few decades will affect the crops we can grow. The
emphasis is on tree and shrub crops and the course includes looking at irrigation systems,
methods to strengthen and give resilience to cropping systems, and includes field trips both to
the A.R.T. research sites and to Mark Diacono's climate change farm in east Devon.
Course fee: 140.
Booking forms from: A.R.T., 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, TQ9 6JT, UK.
Email: mail@agroforestrv.co.uk
Book online at www.agroforestry.co.uk
Book review
Growing Green
Orgqnic Techniques for a Sustainable Future
Jenny Hall and lain Tolhurst
Vegan Organic Network. 2006; 328 pp; 18.99.
ISBN 0-9552255-0-8
This book is a ' how to' guide on growing vegetables commercially but without using livestock or
manures to maintain fertilit y, written by someone who does just that, and very successfully. It
comes at an important time, when questions are rightly being asked about livestock and its
contribution to climate change (ruminants emit sufficient methane t o cause about 4% of current
climate change, far more than aviation for example.)
Not only do the authors not use livestock, but they are determined to show that it is possible to
supply most or all of the fertility needed from on-site sources: one of the big indicators of the
sustai nability of any agro-ecosystem.
Perhaps the most important chapters of this book, relevant to all growers whether of vegetables,
fruit bushes or trees, are those on soil protection and soil fertility. They include the best
overview and detail ed treatment I have come across of using green manures, mineral
accumul ating plants and sources of organic matter to improve and maintain soil fertility,
something which all sustainable agro-ecosystems need to do.
Other chapters are more directly relevant to commercial vegetable growers, such as those on
propagation, rotations and weed control.
The chapter of pests and diseases, though, has an excellent coverage of attracting beneficial
insects and other creatures, and indirect mE;!thods of limiting pest and disease problems, such
as dividing fields into smaller areas.
Although there is little in the book about perennial cropping systems, including fruit bushes and
trees, many of the principles espoused apply equally to such systems as to annual-based
vegetable systems - and can make perennial systems about as sustainable as any production
system can be. Most growing systems require fertility to be moved around within the system, if
not brought in, and this book can help hugely in the planning and implementation of sustainable
techniques to do it.
Forest Gardening - 28-29 July 18-9 September 2007
This weekend course from the A.R.T. aims to five you the knowledge to design, implement and
maintain a forest garden, and is based in Dartington with half the time spent in the A.R.T. forest
garden looking at the reality of forest gardening in a temperate climate.
Course fee: 130.
Booking forms from: A.R.T., 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, TQ9 6JT, UK.
Emai l : mail@agroforestry.co.uk Book online at www.agroforestry.co.uk
Agroforestry News is' published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a
request for 4 x 1st class stamps. Back issues cost 4.00 per copy including
Agroforestry News
I
Red bayberry
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Walnut Products in France / Estates in
Transition / British forests and climate change
3 Forest gardens: how they develop, persist
and decline
8 Mentha: mint species
26 Red bayberry (Myrica rubra) : A promising
fruit and forest tree
34 Apples which hang well on the tree
reader, should be tested carefull y before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered
on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere. may be fatally allergic to even tame
Editorial , Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington,
Page 1
News
Walnut products in France
Walnut oil has been made for centuries in south west France, traditionall y with old water-driven
stone grinding wheels. To satisfy recent EU regulations, millers have converted their kernel
crushing stone grinders to stainless steel machines .

Incredibly, walnut cracking is an entrenched cottage industry and walnuts are still often hand
cracked - the best crackers tend to be older folk who crack walnyts with boxwood mallets on a
heavy board or slate. It is quite common for a family to hand crack a few lonnes of nuts
annually. Once cracked, the kernels are packed into plastic-lined cartons and transported to
the mill for cracki ng.
Kernel s are machine crushed, usuall y in 30 kg batches. Cold pressed oil results from pressing
unheated meal or meal only slightly warmed to under 60C. Pressing unheated meal takes
much longer and less oil is extracted, but the oil has a subtle nutty flavour.
Walnut meal (kernel parts) that is heated before pressing is heated over a gas flame with
constant stirring until the required temperature is reached. Some millers heat to 40C, others to
60C. Oil made from heated meal has a more roasted walnut flavour.
The heated or unheated meal is scopped into woven mats or into filter bags in a hydraulic
press; there may be many layers of meal in each pressing. Using 150 tonne pressure, pressing
heated meal takes about 25 minutes per batch, while pressing unheated meal may take 4 hours.
The oil runs out of the press into a drum and is left to settle for 14 days, and is then bottled,
with the sediment saved for salad oil use. The remaining crushed meal in the fil ter bags forms
solid cakes and this is later ground and soil as walnut flour for use in baking and confectionary.
The oil quality varieties with cultivar, with 'Corne du Perigord' regarded very highly.
Other products which have been developed include pickeld walnuts, walnuts in syrup, walnut
mustard, walnut pesta, walnut honey spread and walnut chocolate spread. A grinding machine
can be used to grind kernels before their use in some of these products.
Liqueurs are also made from walnut hulls, obtained at harvest. These fleshy-leathery pieces are
crushed to extract the juice, which is then filtered and mixed with sugar and alcohol before
bottling.
Source: Australian Nutgrower, March 2007
Estates in transion: land management in the light of
climate change and peak oil
This one day conference took place at Dartington Hall on 11 th June 2007. Very interesting
presentations were made on the issue of peak oil, climate change and the effect they wi ll have
on all aspects of modern life. There is not space to go into this in detai l here but I highly
recommend you read the presentations at:
hit p :lIwww.dartin9ton.org/ ecology/ estates-in-fransition
Page 2
British forests and climate change
A new Forestry Commission Information Note* looks at possible strategies which will help
forests in Britain cope with the rapid climate change which is going to occur at least over the
next 50 years. It does not deal with alternative species to use - a valid strategy in itself - but
rather with how current species can be aided by either encouraging species adaptability or by
using genetic stock sourced from locations further south. Three potential strategies are
identified:
(1) Maintain genetic variation and promote natural regeneration. Good natural
regeneration leads to high stocking levels of trees and allows for high levels of
mortality (ie high selection pressure), maximising the chances of adaption to new
climate. The problem with this is that regeneration needs to be frequent and tree
crops are long-lived.
(2) Use trees from a mixture of provenances further south alongside the current
population. Standard tree planting at 2500 stems/ha means that between 1 in 6 and 1
in 8 trees will go on to be a final crop tree (compared with under 1 in 20 for natural
regeneration). Therefore the lower selection intensity is offset by higher initial genetic
diversity. This is identified as the least risky strategy.
(3) Use trees from a more southerly provenance. It is tricky to match climate predictions
with genetic resources from more southerly regions , but if a good match could be
made, this strategy might reap higher rewards ; however, the risks are high.
Source: The Role of Genetic Responses in Helping British Forests Respond to Climate
Change. Forestry Commission Information Note, June 2007.
Forest gardens:
How they develop, persist and decline
Introduction
Forest garden systems in the tropics range from modified wild forests to designed forest
systems with a high density of valuable species in a diverse and complex structure. These
systems are often able to meet economic, ecological and social objectives better than either
extractive systems or specialised intensive systems, and in particular provide a good
compromise of biodiversity and productivity.
This article summarises the common elements of forest garden systems and examines thei r
important economic, social and ecological attributes. The driving forces and evolution of such
systems over time is examined along with their stability and sustainability. It is worth asking
how and why these systems emerge, persist and decline in the tropics because many of the
same issues have a bearing on their likely evolution in temperate zones.
Forest garden systems
These can be classified into four groups, based on the degree and type of intervention.
Modified wild forests
A wild forest environment is modified to favour the production of a valuable product. This might
involve weeding around valued species, opening the canopy for light-demanding species, or
encouraging shade plants for shade-demanding species. The fostered plants might be self
sown, or be deliberately planted as seeds, or wild seedlings moved to preferred locations. This
type of system is often called forest farming in agroforestry terminology.
Examples of these systems involve palms and brazil nuts in the Amazon region, and the 'miang'
tea !\ystem found in southern China where farmers clear vegetation from around wild tea
bushes, developing tea gardens that may be maintained for over a century.
Forest gardens within a forest matrix
More intenSive systems involve greater long-term interaction between human production efforts
and natural forest cycles, and can be purposefully integrated and maintained between existing
forest stands.
An example of this is the benzoin cultivation system in Sumatra, to produce a fragrant resin
used as an ingredient in incense and perfumes. Benzoin trees are planted in the undergrowth
of montane forest ; canopy trees and undergrowth are selectively removed as the benzoin trees
develop, to maintain an appropriate micro-environment. The resulting benzoin garden begins
with a low diversity of mature trees but a diverse understorey; while the trees are tapped for
resin - from year 10 to perhaps year 65 - the garden is maintained with an open structure; but
as productivity declines, the garden is gradually abandoned to 'recover' as forest.
Permanent forest gardens following agriculture
These are man-made forests with diverse economic and productive functions maintained over
long periods, with structural and species diversity similar to that of late-successional or old
growth forests.
Numerous examples abound of these systems. In Sumatra, farmers integrate the production of
cinnamon or nutmeg below a high canopy of large trees cultivated for timber and fruit
production; the cinnamon stand is completely harvested after 8-12 years and replanted, and the
main plant biodiversity is in epiphytes on canopy trees , small vines and undergrowth herbs.
Many types of fruit-based forest gardens are found throughout the tropics, many being highly
diverse with over 200 species of herbs, shrubs, vines , trees and other perennials utilised.
Permanent forest gardens are the most diverse type of agroforestry practice and can be viewed
as a carefully designed collection of species to mimic a particular stage of succession; but they
are managed to stop natural succession from carrying the community to a so-called uclimax
H
community. The assumptions that natural systems are more diverse than agricultural systems
have to be questioned when looking at forest gardens. In terms of sustainability, the complexity
and species diversity of forest gardens is a major factor, one which ecologists are only just
starting to understand.
Rotational forest gardens
Many existing examples of forest gardens are closely integrated with agricultural systems. Very
otten, the original forest is cleared, used for agriculture for 1-3 seasons, then the subsequent
fallow forest is enriched through planting or favouring of valuable species. As productivity of
fruits etc. , declines after 30-50 years, the entire system may be cut and the cycle begin again.
Examples of this system include rattan gardens and rubber gardens of Indonesia.
Page4
Common elements of forest garden systems
Commercially valuable main crop
Nearly all forest garden systems are designed to produce at least one commercially valuable
product, often representing a substantial part of the producers income.
Main crop has mediumterm maturity and regular harvesting
Typically. forest garden systems feature products with short to medium maturation (often 4-10
years). Most products can be harvested recurrently, sometimes annually or biennially,
sometimes with multiple harvests per year.
Use of exotic (ie non-native) crops
Virtually all forest garden systems throughout the world utilise non-native crops, be they timber
trees, fruit crops or other speci es. Indigenous peoples nearly always will choose to include
non-natives, especially if they crop well andlor have good commercial possibilities. They have
done so for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years and rarely with any problems or negative
effects on native species.
Diversification of income sources
In most cases , people who manage forest garden systems also manage several other crops and
economic activities. They are typically smallholder farmers with systems that include one or
more field crops, and the forest garden may also produce other valuable plants, fungi and
animals that are used for self-consumption or sale.
Gender issues
It is important to recognise the fact that in the tropics, most permanent forest garden
practitioners are either solely women or women working equaJly with men. Species diversity
may be a consequence of the interplay of inspiration (from experience and innovative instinct)
and desperation (lack of other sources of food for the family) , and leads to a confluence of
human ingenuity and ecological ambience.
Integration with farming systems
Forest garden systems do not usually exist in isolation, but are integral components of broader
land use systems.
Intermediate levels of inputs
Forest garden systems are characterised by intermediate levels of energy, capital or labour
inputs, and the use of simple and relatively low-cost local technologies. Their technical
simplicity is complemented by a high utilisation of natural processes , implying a strong
environmental knowledge base, especially of forest dynamics. Fertility is maintained by natural
nutrient cycling processes, shade often controls weeds, and regeneration relies on natural
processes. Forest garden systems represent good examples of smaJl-scale, labour and energy
efficient , biologically-based systems championed by the "permaculture
n
movement and others
working ion agricultural designs that stress ecological connections and closed energy and
material loops.
Risk spreading and reduction
The diversification of income sources and products produced in forest garden systems helps
spread risk.
Diverse structure and high ecological function
The forest cover in forest garden systems resembles secondary forest , with a diverse structure.
It performs many forest functions, both in terms of supply of forest products and ecological
function, including biodiversity conservation, soil protection, watershed management and
carbon sequestration. Even in cyclic systems, practices that utilise natural regeneration lead to
good recovery of forest biodiversity.
There is a trade-off between biodiversity and economic productivity, where forest garden
systems achieve a compromise. Some of the factors which impact the structure and
composition for forest gardens include:
Factor Impact
Geo!:i aphic location Urban forest gardens are often smaller and more aestheticallv oriented
Soil conditions
With decreasing soil fertility, crop diversity tends to decrease and the
effect of tree competition on understorey becomes greater.
Dense tree
I qardens tend to occur on fertile soils
Climate
At higher latitudes, tree spacing has to be greater to allow enough solar
radiation to reach lower plants
Role in farming If forest gardens are the only land asset then there is more inclusion of
systems
staple food crops
Wealth status
With increased wealth, increased
importance
of commercial and
aesthetic plants
Food preferences Cultural and personal preferences in
respect of consumption of fruits,
veaetables and soices
locally defined access and control systems
Property regimes associated with forest garden systems are usually defined by customary rules,
even if they are not enshrined in national laws. Planting of perennial species is commonly
acknowledged to confer long-term rights or ownership to individuals, which may be inheritable.
This is perhaps the element which translates least well to conditions in temperate gdeveloped"
countries, where national laws about property and land ownership are strictly defined.
Evolution of forest garden systems
The key drivers in the emergence, intensification and decline of forest garden systems are
summarised below:
Drivers
Land scarcity (population density)
Market access - price
Labour costs
Availability of risk spreading systems
Infrastructure
Tenure - resource control
Political recognition of forest
Garden systems
local perceptions of forest
Garden systems
Suitability for monocultures
Access to appropriate technologies
Emergence
Importance: * - low, ** medium, **'* - high
Intensification
Decline
population densities. (often equated with increased land scarcity) usually lead to more
intensive of does not necessarily mean that forest garden systems will be
replaced With more intenSive systems, though, as it is possible to improve the profitability of
Page 6
forest garden systems without substantially changing their structure, for example by adding
fruits to the system.
Some level of tenure security is a minimum condition for investing in any resource management,
certainl y one involving long-term woody crops. However, legally watertight tenure security,
coupled wi th high land values, does tend to drive intensified land use.
Forest and agricultural policies also drive the evolution of forest garden systems, and policies
can certainly sometimes speed up their abandonment and decline.
Changing labour costs are also a critical factor. While forest garden systems have relatively
high returns to labour, they do not normally offer opportunities for full-time employment and can
easily be out-competed by alternative wage employment.
Perceptions of development and modernity also playa role. Indigenous practices of forest
resource and agricultural development are commonly regarded as "primitive" and the multiple
values of such systems often go unrecognised. Crop improvement research (as in ' developed'
countries) has focussed on producing light-demanding varieties of crops best suited to
cultivation in open fields , without shade trees. Thus forest garden systems have not benefited
from the kind of technological improvements developed for agriculture or forestry. The
perceptions of owners/managers themselves also have an influence. Intensive agriculture
systems are often regarded as more modern and local systems as work". On the other
hand, with recent attention for the need for ecologically sound practices, forest garden systems
appear very and are now being promoted for their technical value; and perceptions by
managers are changing to pride in their environmental stewardship.
Conclusions
Forest garden systems offer a range of benefits and perform different functions from the more
intensive models of forest management usually promoted by research and extension agencies.
They provide diversified income-earning opportunities, spread risk, and serve as sources of
capital accumulation. The labour requirements are low, with flexible timing, and the returns to
labour tend to be high. They have important ecological functions too.
In the tropics, these systems exist where there is a degree of tenure security, where the local
economy is a mixture of subsidence and cash-based activities with limited opportunities for cash
income, where labour is the limiting factor of production (and land is relatively abundant), and
where formal mechanisms for ri sk management (cash savings, insurance) are not available or
not affordable.
In more wealthy temperate regions , where land tenure is secure and land prices high, forest
garden systems are likely to be started not from a mainl y economic standpoint, but rather from
an ecological standpoint. They may certainly provide some income but in all likelihood only a
portion of income, with the rest obtained from relatively well-paid jobs in other sectors - much
like the fast-expanding farmer sector. However, in the next 50 years, as modern
agriculture, and indeed modern civilization, faces up to peak oil, ever-increasing oil and energy
prices, and climate change, agricultural systems will in all likelihood have to become more
locally-based, self-sustaining and ecologically based and in this light the prospects for forest
gardens are bright indeed.
References
Belcher, B et al: The Socioeconomic Conditions Determining the Development , Persistence ,
and Decline of Forest Garden Systems. Economic Botany 59 (3) pp. 245-253. 2005.
Kumar, B & Nair, P (Eds): Tropical Homegardens: A Time-Tested Example of Sustainable
Agriculture. Springer, 2006.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 15 No 4 Page?
Mentha: mint species
Introduction
The true mints comprise a well known family of about 25 species of mostly perennials, several
with major commercial uses and most with a long history of home uses - culinary, medicinal
(usually and aromatic. They were also long used as strewing herbs to cover up
unpleasant odours. Their medicinal uses date back at least 5000 years to ancient Egyptian
civilisation.
Description and cultivation
Nearly all mints are deciduous creeping perennial plants with fleshy rhizomes and erect,
branching, four-angled stems. They tolerate a wide range of soil types, preferring soils with
good moisture levels, but tolerating all sorts of neglect, drought, wet soH etc. The best
fragrance develops in full sun and a well drained, slightly acid to neutral soil (pH 6 to 7).
The running fleshy rhizomes of some species - notably horsemint (M./ongifolia), spearmint
(M,spicata) and apple mint (M.suaveo/ens) can sometimes spread a couple of metres
underground, so are both excellent for large areas and inappropriate for small areas unless
contained with barriers. Peppermint (M.X piperita) can also spread widely but is not good for
ground cover as it is late to start into growth in spring.
The flowers are purple, pink or white, usually borne in spikes; they are attractive to beneficial
insects.
Most mints are happy in the same spot for many years, one exception being peppermint, which
tends to decline if confined.
Many mints, especially clone stands, are susceptible to mildew in dry weather and from
mint rust fungus (Puccinia Menthae). Mildew symptoms are grey patches on leaves; mint rust
symptoms are small rusty spots covering the leaf, starting on the underside.
Propagation
Many of the hybrid mints are sterile, so do not produce seed. These, and named cultivars of
other mints, should be propagated by rhizome cuttings to come true.
Most of the species mints do produce fertile seed. However, mints hybridize very easily. and if
there are other species nearby then the seed produced will often produce plants of variable and
hybrid nature spanning the range between the parent species. While this can be a
disadvantage if true-to-name species seed is required, it can also be advantageous in that the
resulting plants will have good genetic variability and thus not be nearly so susceptible to
diseases. For large areas of mint, therefore, seed propagated plants are recommended.
Mint seed is tiny and should be sown thinly onto the surface of an already moist compost.
Germination is usually within 14 days. 0.5 litre sized plants are easily obtained in one season.
General uses and essential oils
For hundreds of years, mints have been considered a symbol of hospitality - leaves were
strewn about homes to freshen the air, and of course mint tea is still served in Arab countries as
a sign of hospitality.
PageS
The edible species are widely utilised as a flavouring in salads or cooked dishes, or in herb
teas.
Mint flavours and fragrances have been used in endless ways in the past and can be found in
numerous modern products. Essential oils from mints are used in flavouring chewing gum,
cigarettes, sweets, ice cream, toothpaste, chocolate, tea, liqueurs, dental creams,
mouthwashes etc. as well as being widely used in the pharmaceutical industry.
The most important economic species are M.arvensis, M-X piperita and M.spicata. Commercial
aspects of these are described below. Mint essential oils are antifungal , antiseptic and
sometimes febrifuge (useful for reducing fever ). Traditionally the leaves (usually made into a
tea) of many mint species has been used in the treatment of fevers , headaches, digestive
disorders and other minor ailments. Native Americans used mints to prepare mouth rinses.
Note that some mints (notably Corsican mint - Mrequienii, Japanese mint - M.arvensis var.
piperascens, and the pennyroyals - M.cervina, M.pu/egium) contain an essential oil considered
to be toxic. These mints should only be consumed in food or teas in very small quantities if at
all.
The main currentday medicinal uses are relieving intestinal gas and as an ingredient in
ointments for sore muscles. Menthol increases the secreti on of bile to the stomach and acts as
an antispasmodic in muscles of the digestive system: thus peppermint tea or after meal mints
are beneficial to the digestion.
Due to their spreading nature, mints can be used to stabilise slopes. Mint roots are not very
deep, but can form a dense layer 510 cm beneath the soil.
In terms of ground cover , horsemint (M.fongifoJia) and apple mint (M.suaveo/ens ) are the most
efficient , remaining thick for many years and tolerating some foot traffic. Spearmint (M.spicata)
tolerates less foot traffic. Another unproven but likely effect when growing mint en masse
beneath larger plants is a protective effect , as the antibacterial and antifungal oils in mints
which are liberated into the air should reduce bacterial and fungal disease generally.
Mints are very good attractors of beneficial insects including hoverflies and lacewings. This
makes one old traditional use - as an insect repellent - somewhat 'suspect! They also attract
bees and butterflies. They rarely suffer browsing damage from rabbits or deer.
Commercial mint cultivation
The main commercial mints are:
Peppermint (M.X piperita) - yields 0.2 to 0.3% oil (fresh weight) of characteristic minty odour,
containing 5055% menthol. Black peppermint is hardy with a higher oil content; white
peppermint is less hardy with a lower oil content, however the oil is of superior aroma.
Japanese mint (M.arvensis var. piperascens) - a hardy robust plant, yielding 0.5% oi l containing
6489% menthol.
Spearmint (M.spicata) - yields oil rich in carvone (5969%).
All these species come into profuse flowering when the crop is exposed to 14 hours or more of
daylight. The volatile oil occurs in numerous minute glands distributed all over the surface of
the leaves; the stem contains less oil.
Page 9
Plantations are almost always established through fresh stolons (underground stems) to ensure
uniformity - different cultivars adapted to specific conditions are used in different regions. In
temperate regions, the crop is maintained for at least 2 years: the first year's crop remains in
distinct rows and is called row mint, but in the second year it covers the field and is known as
meadow mint. In subtropical climates plants cover the entire area much faster and crops are
sometimes treated as annuals.
Propagation of varieties is by rhizomes , which are harvested from nursery beds of field plants
when , they are young and healthy, and planted out end-to-end continuously in furrows then
covemd with 1-12 cm (}'2-5") of soil (in cold winter areas use the deeper measurement which
protects rhizomes from cold damage). An area cropped for planting rhizomes should provide
enough good stock to plant out 4-8 times the original area. Approximately 250-400 kg/ha of
fresh stolons are required for planting. The stolons are broken into 10-12 cm pieces before
planting. Early spring is the optimum planting time. Planting is either:
in continuous rows, 90-120 cm (3-4 ft) apart; by the end of the first season, the peppermint
will have spread to form a solid crop which can be maintained for a few years.
In rows closer together, 50-60 cm (20-24") apart; this gives higher initial yields and a solid
crop covering the ground if formed sooner, although weed control can be more labour
intensive.
By using rooted layers which can be detached without damage after rain and be planted by
a vegetable-planting machine: 60-85,000 layers per ha are needed when planting at 60 x
20-30 em (24 x 8-12").
For commercial growing, deep, moist, fertile loam or clay-loam soils are preferred, rich in humus
and organic matter, with a pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Soils are well-worked before planting and additions
of 20-40 tonnes/ha of farmyard manure or compost added.
Mint is a challenging crop to grow on a large scale, especially organically. Good weed control
is the main requirement; weeds of high vigour and large mass grow well with mints, which is
why most crops are grown with numerous herbicides. Weeds in amongst the harvested material
negatively effect the quality of leaf or oil crop. Because mint plants spread via rhizomes, if
weeds are not under control in the ground it is spreading into, they will be a continuous
problem. Most organic growers ensure clean planting ground by establishing a summer bare
fallow prior to planting, and by choosing s i t ~ s which do not have a big reservoir of weed seeds
in the soil. Its open spreading growth allows weeds to quickly become established. If mature
weed seed-free compost can be applied as a light mulch, this can aid weed control. Because
peppermint doesn't come into growth until mid Spring, and grows slowly for the first few weeks,
there is in theory time before emergence when weeds can be hoed off using mechanical tickle-
weeders (if the ground is dry enough) or flame-weeded. Alternatively, a black plastic mulch can
be laid over the bed in winter and removed as growth starts in the spring.
Mints are heavy feeders and requi re an application of 50 tfha of mature compost or similar per
year unless the soil is already exceptionally fertile. Any compost or other fertiliser should be
applied in mid spring before or as growth starts.
In dry summer regions, irrigation is required at least once a week. The leaves do not scorch if
watered in the sun. Some 25-50 mm (1-2") of water is required per week.
Peppermint is susceptible to more pest and disease problems than other mints. The most
serious disease is mint rust , a fungus which forms rust-coloured colonies on the underside of
leaves. The fungus moves up the plant and leaves die and fall off. Attacks are worse in dry
climates and weather. Susceptibility can be reduced by fostering vigorous growth, harvesting
early (easier for leaf production than essential oil production), and mowing the stubble as short
as possible after each harvest. If rust is still a problem then Biodynamic sprays of Equisetum
have been effective, as have flaming after the first leaf harvest (or in spring when growth is 5-10
em (2-4") high for essential oil production.)
Because mint crops are usually clonal, they are very susceptible to damaging attacks of disease
and fungicides are very commonly used against stolon rot (Macrophomina phasioli) . mint
anthracnose (Sphaceloma menthae) and leaf spot (Alternaria spp.)
A pest problem is moist climates in from slugs and snails. Although they don't do very much
damage to the crop, they can get picked up with the crop when harvested and slugs, when
dried, can't easily be separated by screening!
If weed and disease control is maintained, then the crop will start to decline after 2-3 seasons
as it becomes root bound. The crop can be rejuvenated for a further 2-3 years by cultivation
which leaves narrow strips of mint with bare areas between - ego by continuous cultivation
between rows to establish bare strips.
For leaf production, 2-3 crops per season can be expected (up to 4 in warmer regions) . The
first growth will be fairly tall - 60 cm (2 ft) or more when cut at the start of flowering in August;
the second growth is shorter with thinner stems , but is quite thick and bushy; the third growth is
shorter again and has even greater proportion of leaf. Harvesting is usually by scythe or sickle,
or mechanically in larger fields. Plants are cut just above the layer of yellow or discoloured
leaves, about 10 cm (4") above soil level. If harvesting large amounts, take care that the
harvested material does not build up too much heat before placed on drying s c ~ e e n s ; harvesting
in the morning while still cool delays the composting process. Large harvests should be
undertaken in manageable portions so that the harvested material doesn't sit around for more
than 2-3 hours. After harvest, the stubble should be mown down to ground level.
Peppermint is fairly easy to dry, but it wilts quite quickly and should not be handled in the wilted
state otherwise it bruises and turns dark. Load promptly onto drying screens and don't disturb
during drying, which should be completed in 7-10 days. A good quality dry leaf crop should be
an attractive deep green colour, perhaps wi th some purple coming through. Drying
temperatures should not exceed 35C (95F). The drying ratio is 6:1.
For use as tea, the dried herb is rubbed and screened to a tea grade free of stem; this is
easiest if the peppermint drying is caught at the point where the leaves are brittle but the stems
are still moist and pliable.
For manufacturing and medicinal use, the aerial parts are cut and dried whole; the thickest
stems are checked during drying as these take longest to dry.
Fresh yields are 12-20 t/ha of green material. Drl peppermint yields are 1.5-2.5 Uha (0.15-0.25
kg/m
2
) tea grade leaf or 2.5-3 Uha (0.25-0.3 kg/m ) aerial parts per year.
For essential oil production, plants are cut at full flower and again in September, during sunny
weather. The oil from crops harvested on sunny days is better quality (higher in menthol and
lower in menthone, the latter having a bitter and harsh odour which is undesirable in high-
quality oils) than from crops harvested on cloudy days. Mechanised plantations can harvest
straight into containers via a chaff cutter (or sometimes the cut herb is allowed to wilt in the field
for 2-4 hours first), and the containers can be directly attached to steam-generating equipment
and act as a distillation vessel. Expected peppermint yields are 12-20 tlha of fresh plant
material and 30-60 kg! ha of essential oil; first cutting 8-14 Uha of green matter and 2-4 kg!t yield
of oil, second cutting 6-8 Uha of material and 1-2 kg/t oil yield. The leaves contain 2-2.7%
essential oil, the stems much less. The most important constituent of the oil is menthol.
Page 11
Peppermint essential oil is a pale yellow liquid, slightly acidic in reaction. It is stored in airtight,
galvanised or stainless steel drums and stored in a cool dry place.
Spearmint is more robust than peppermint and not quite so prone to disease problems, although
mint rust can still be a problem on leaves and stems. Drying spearmint is more difficult than
peppermint: the leaf dries easily enough, but bruises easily and will discolour if drying is too
slow or if there is any re-moistening. It should dry to an attractive green colour. It should be
processed when the leaf is dry and the stems still brittle. Annual yields are about 2.5-5 tlha
(0.25-0.5 kg/m2) of tea or culinary grade leaf.
Japanese mint and Sakhalin mint (M.arvensis var. sachafinensis) are cultivated entirely for
essential oil production, and are more tolerant of drier soils than peppermint. Oil yields are
high, 100-150 kg/ha/year, being 80-86% menthol, and the oil is mainly used in medicines.
Species and cultivars
In addition to the 25 or so true species, there are dozens of subspecies, cultivars and variations
since the plants are variable and also hybridize freely both naturally and in cultivation. This
makes them a complex group to identify, made worse by the synonymous names applied to
mints and occasional mislabelling on nursery plants. Also, mints in different environments may
result in different characteristics.
Maquatica L. - Marsh mint, Water mint
A variable perennial, freely hybridising with other mints. Grows to 15-90 cm high, often in shallow water
and marshes. Native to Europe and Asia - the most common wild mint of temperate zones. Hardy to
zone 6.
Uses
The leaves are edible with a strong peppermint aroma.
Water mint was traditionally used as an internal medicine to improve digestion, treat painful
menstruation, and relieve spasms.
Fresh plants essential oil yields just before flowering are about 0.8%.
Marvensis L. - Corn mint, Field mint, Wild mint
A variable perennial, growing 10-60 cm high. with hairy erect stems. Native to Europe and Asia. Hardy
to zone 4. Prefers drier situations than most mints.
Uses
The leaves are edible with a peppermint aroma.
Grown commercially in several countries for its essential oils for flavouring and fragrance, and as a
source of menthol.
Leaves used medicinally.
Mentha arvensis var. piperascens
- American corn mint, Canadian mint, Chinese mint, Japanese mint
As above, but leaves are dotted with glands and more highly aromatic. Native to North America and
eastern Asia. Hardy to zone 4.
Uses
The leaves are edible with a strong peppermint aroma.
Grown commercially, especially as a source of menthol, Japanese mint was for many centuries the
major mint in Asian usage both for flavouring and medicine. M.arvensis var. sakhafinensis (Sakhalin
mint) is similar and also cultivated commercially.
Cultivars include
'Banana' - banana mint, scented of banana skin
'Coconut' - coconut mint, used in pot pourris, does not resemble coconuts much.
Masiatica Boriss. - Asian mint
Perennial from Eastern Asia growing to 1 m high.
Uses
Edible leaves.
LeaveS used medicinally.
Maustralis R. Br.
Perennial from Australia (New South Wales, Victoria) growing to 50 cm high.
Uses
Leaves used medicinally. Probably not very safe to eat.
Mcervina L. - Hart's pennyroyal
A low perennial growing 10-40 cm high with procumbent rooting stems. Native to Southwestern
Europe, hardy to zone 7.
Uses
Leaves used medicinally. Not very safe to eat - contains the toxic oil pulegone.
Mcunninghamii Benth.
Perennial from New Zealand (North and South Islands).
Uses
Leaves used medicinally. Unknown edibility.
M.dahurica Fisch. ex Benth.
Perennial from China and eastern Siberia.
M xdalmatica Tausch (M. arvensis x M. longifolia)
A naturally occurring hybrid perennial from Europe.
Uses
Edible leaves.
Mdiemenica Spreng.
Prostrate perennial growing to 10 cm high from Australia (New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria).
Probably hardy to at least zone 8.
Uses
Edible leaves.
M xdumetorum Schult. (M. aquatica x M. longifolia)
A naturally occurring hybrid perennial from Europe.
Uses
Edible leaves.
Page 14
M.gattefossei Maire
Perennial species from Morocco.
M. xgracilis Sole (M. arvensis x M. spicata)
- Ginger mint, Austrian mint, Bushy mint, Red mint, Scotch spearmint
A variable perennial growing to 30-90 em high with erect stems often tinged red. Sterile. Hardy to zone
6.
Uses
Edible leaves - spearmint flavour.
Cultivars include:
'Aurea' -low (to 30 em) and spreading, leaves gold, strongly fragrant.
'Variegata' - vigorous, with leaves flecked gold; scent fruity, flavour ginger.
M.grandiflora Benth.
Australian specie native to Queensland.
M.haplocalyx Briq. - Chinese corn mint
Perennial mint from China, very closely related to M.arvensis and with similar uses.
Uses
Edible leaves - strong minty flavour.
Leaves and essential oil used medicinally. Widely cultivated in China.
M.japonica (Miq.) Makino - Japanese field mint
Japanese perennial.
M. kopetdaghensis Boriss.
Perennial from Turkmenistan, closely related to M.asiatica and probably with the same uses:
Uses
Edible leaves.
M.laxiflora Benth. - Forest mint
Procumbent perennial growing 60 cm high from Australia (New South Wales, Victoria).
M.longifolia (L.) Huds. - Horse mint, downy mint
A creeping perennial growing 40-120 cm high, strongly scented, with downy stems. Native to Europe,
Asia and Africa. Hardy to zone 6.
Uses
Edible leaves.
Leaves used medicinally. Fresh leaves contain about 0.6% essential oil.
Cultivars include:
'Silver leaved' - silver mint
M xmaximilianea F. W. Schultz (M. aquatica x M. suaveolens)
Naturally occurring perennial hybrid from Europe.
Uses
Edible leaves.
Mmicrantha (Benth.) Des.-Shost.
Perennial from Russia and Kazakhstan.
M xmuelleriana F. W. Schultz (M. arvensis x M. suaveolens) - Hairy mint
Uses
Edible leaves.
M xpiperita L. (M. aquatica x M. spicata) - Peppermint
A variable perennial growing 30-90 em high, usually without hairs, a hybrid of water mint and spearmint.
Native to Europe, hardy to zone 3. See commercial cultivation above for more details.
Uses
Edible leaves - they have a distinctive clear, cool menthol flavour and fragrance.
Leaves and essential oil used medicinally.
Cultivars include:
'Candymint' - Stems tinted red; leaves sweetly flavoured.
'Crispa' - curled peppermint, with crinkled leaves; to 50 cm high.
'Swiss' - Swiss mint
'Variegata' -leaved deep green, mottled cream; peppermint flavour.
Mentha X piperita f.citrata - Eau-de-Cologne mint, Geranium mint, Lemon mint
Has smoother, rounded leaves, often dark, tinged purple. Has a strong citrusy aroma and flavour
Uses
As above for peppermint. Very strong fragrance - too strong for many people.
Cultivars include:
'Basil' - Basil mint
'Bergamot' - Bergamot mint
'Chocolate' - Chocolate mint, some people detect a chocolate fragrance from this.
'Grapefruit' - Grapefruit mint (one of two mints known by this name)
'Lime' - Lime mint
'Orange' - Orange mint
'Swiss Ricola' - Swiss Ricola mint
Mentha X piperita var. officinalis - White peppermint
Has paler green stems and a milder flavour and fragrance
Uses
As above for peppermint.
Page 18
Mentha X piperita var. piperita - Black peppermint
Has purpli sh stems and a strong f ragrance.
Uses
As above for peppermint.
'Bl ack Mitcham' is the best known variety of black peppermint and is widely grown commercially.
Mpulegium L. - Pennyroyal
A low creeping perennial growing 10-40 em high. Native to Southwestern central and western Europe;
hardy to zone 7. Likes a shady position
Uses
Long known as an effective insect repell ent, pennyroyal is a strongly scented mint with a rather bitter
taste: ingestion can cause genito-urinary tract irritation and it is a known abortifacient.
Leaves and essential oil are used medicinally with great care. Yields of 14kg/ha of oil can be obtained.
'Cunningham Mint' -low, leaves oval, light green.
Mrequienii Benth. - Corsican mint, Creme de menthe mint
A sparsely hairy procumbent perennial, growing only 3-10 cm high, creeping and rooting at the nodes
forming cushions or mats. Native to Italy, Corsica and Sardinia; hardy to zone 7. Likes a moist, shady
position.
Uses
Corsican mint has a strong, pungent peppermint fragrance and has been used to flavour liqueurs. It is
not recommended for culinary use as it contains the toxic oil pulegone.
Leaves have been used medicinally.
M xrotundifolia (L.) Huds. (M. longifolia x M. suaveolens)
- Bigleaf mint, Egyptian mint, False apple mint
Uses
Edible leaves.
Msatureioides R. Br.
Perennial from Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria) growing 30 cm high. Hardy to zone
6.
Uses
Edible leaves.
M xsmithiana R. A. Graham (M. aquatica x M. arvensis x M. spicata)
- raripil a mint, Smith's mint
A robust perennial growing 50-150 cm high, conspicuously red-tinged, sweet scented. Found in
northern and central Europe; hardy to zone 6. Usually steril e.
Uses
Edible leaves - excellent, with a sweet spearmint flavour.
Leaves used medicinall y.
Page 19
Mspicala L. - Garden mint, green mint, Spearmint, German spearmint
A variable creeping perennial growing 3 0 ~ 1 00 em high. Native to southern and central Europe; hardy to
zone 3.
Has an instantly recognisable flavour and fragrance. Widely grown commercially, with many culinary
and medicinal uses; has long been used to flavour lemonades, iced teas, chewing gum, mint sauces
etc.
Uses ;
Many edible uses for the leaves and essential oil.
Cultivars include:
'Chewing Gum' -leaves deep lTlahogany; bubble gum scent.
'Kentucky Colonel' - Kentucky colonial mint. Leaves large, ruffled, richly scented.
'Mexican' - Mexican mint
'Russian' - Russian mint
Mspicala var. crispa - curly spearmint
Leaves are strongly curled around the margins.
Cultivars include:
'Moroccan' - Moroccan mint
'Persian' - Persian mint
Msuaveolens Ehrh. - Apple mint, Round-leaved mint, Woolly mint
Variable perennial growing 40-100 cm high, stems often with white down, leaves rounded and apple
scented. Native to southern and western Europe; hardy to zone 6. This species can remain evergreen
in mild winter areas and sometimes does so in Devon now.
Uses
Edible leaves - good quality.
Cultivars include:
'Grapefruit' - grapefruit mint (one of two mints going by this name)
'Variegata' - pineapple mint; leaves streaked, sweet and fruity fragrance.
M x verticil/ala L. (M. arvensis x M. aquatica) - Whorted mint
Uses
Edible leaves.
M xvil/osa Huds. (M. spicata x M. suaveolens) - Hairy mint
A variable naturally occurring hybrid perennial from Europe. Hardy to zone 5.
Uses
Edible leaves.
Page 20
M xvillosa var. a/opecuroides (Hull) Briq. - Bowles mint
Perennial growing 6 0 ~ 8 0 em high. Leaves softly hairy. Much cultivated for its excellent flavour and
fragrance. Sterile. Rather prone to mildew, though less so in a shady site; resistant to mint rust.
Uses
Edible leaves - excellent quality_
Mx villosonervata (M. longifolia x M. spicata) - Sharp-toothed Mint
Another sterile hybrid with narrow leaves and few hairs; much cultivated.
Mint common name index
Common name Latin name
American corn mint Mentha arvensis var. piperascens
Apple mint Mentha suaveolens
Austrian Mint Mentha X racilis
Banana mint Mentha arvensis 'Banana'
Basil mint Mentha X piperita f. citrata 'Basil'
Bergamot mint Mentha X ,jperita f. citrata 'Bergamot'
Bigleaf mint Mentha x rotundifolia
Black peppermint
Mentha X oioerita var. oioerita
Bowles mint Mentha X villosa vaL alo ecuroides
Bushy mint Mentha X gracilis
Canadian mint Mentha arvensis var. piperascens
Candy mint Mentha X ,iperita 'Candymi nt'
Chinese mint Mentha arvensis var. piperascens
Chocolate Mint Mentha X piperita f. citrata 'Chocolate'
Coconut mint Mentha arvensis 'Coconut'
Corn mint Mentha arvensis
Corsican mint Mentha reQuienii
Creme de men the mint Mentha reQuienii
Curled peppermint Mentha X piperita 'Crispa'
Curlv Soearmint Mentha soicata var. crisoa
Downy mint Mentha lonQifolia
Dwarf pennyroyal Mentha pulegium 'Cunningham Mint'
Eau De Coloane mint Mentha X oioerita f.citrata
EQyptian mint Mentha X rotundifolia
False apple mint Mentha X rotundifolia
Field mint Mentha arvensis
Garden mint Mentha soicata
Geranium mint Mentha X pil erita f.citrata
German soearmint Mentha spicata
GinQer mint Mentha X Qracilis
Grapefruit mint Mentha X piperita f. citrata 'Gra efruit'
Graoefruit mint Mentha suaveolens 'Graoefruit'
Green mint Mentha spicata
Hairy mint Mentha X muelleriana
Hairv mint Mentha X villosa
Horse mint Mentha lonQifolia
Japanese field mint Mentha japonica
Jaoanese mint Mentha arvensis var. oioerascens
Kentucky Colonial Mint Mentha spicata 'Kentucky Colonel'
Lemon mint Mentha X piperita f.citrata
Lime mint Mentha X piperita f. citrata 'Lime'
Marsh mint Mentha aquatica
Mexican mint Mentha spicata 'Mexican'
Moroccan mint Mentha spicata var.crispa 'Moroccan'
OranQe mint Mentha X oiperita f. citrata 'Oranqe'
Pennyroyal Mentha cervina
Pennyroyal, Eurooean Mentha pulegium
Peppermint Mentha X piperita
Common name Latin name
Pineapple mint Mentha suaveolens Variegata'
Raripila mint Mentha X smithiana
Red mint Mentha x gracilis
mint Mentha suaveolens
Russian mint Mentha spicata 'Russian'
Scotch spearmint Mentha X gracilis var. cardiaca
mint
Mentha X villosonervata
Silver tv1int Mentha longifolia 'Silver leaved'
Smith's mint Mentha X smithiana
Spearmint
Mentha
Swiss mint Mentha X piperita 'Swiss'
Swiss Ricola Mint Mentha X piperita f. citrata 'Swiss Ricola'
Water mint Mentha aauatica
White peppermint Mentha X piperita var. officinal is
Whorled mint Mentha X verticillata
Wi ld mint Mentha arvensis
Woolly mint Mentha suaveolens
Mint synonyms
Due to the complexity of mint names, the full Latin names including author are given here:
(G & B = Greuter & Burdel)
Synonym Correct name
M.atopecuroides Hull M.xvillosa nothovar. alopecuroides (Hull) Briq.
M.aquatica var. crispa (L.) Benth. M.spicata L.
M.arvensis f. glabrata (Fernald) S. R. Stewart M.canadensis L.
M.arvensis var. gtabrata Fernald M.canadensis L.
M.arvensis f. piperascens Malirw. ex Holmes M.canadensis L.
M.arvensis var. piperascens Matinv. ex L. H. Bailey M.canadensis L.
M.austriaca Jacq. M.arvensis L.
M.cablin Blanco Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.
M.canadensis L. M.arvensis var. villosa (Benth.) Stewart
M.candicans Mill. M.longifolia subsp. longifolia
M.capensis Thunb. M.longifolia subsp. capensis (Thunb.) Briq.
M.xcardiaca J. Gerard ex Baker M.xgracilis Sole
M.carinthiaca auct. M.xmuelleriana F. W. Schultz
M.citrata Ehrh. M.xpiperita f. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq.
M.cordifolia Opiz ex Fresen. M.spicata L.
M.crispa L. M.spicata L.
M.gentilis L. M.arvensis L.
M.xgentilis auct. M.xgracilis Sole
M.insularis Req. M.suaveolens subsp. insularis (Req.) Greuter
M.lavanduliodora ined. M.xpiperita L.
M.longifolia var. asiatica (Boriss.) Rech. f. M.asiatica Boriss.
M.microphylla K. Koch M.spicata subsp. condensata (Briq.) G & B
M.nemorosa WiUd. M.xvillosa Huds.
M.niliaca Juss. ex Jacq. M.xrotundifolia (L.) Huds.
M.niliaca auct. nonn. M.xvillosa Huds.
M.palustris Mill. M.aquatica L.
M.xpiperita var. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq. M.xpiperita nothosubsp. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq.
M.X piperita var. nigra M.X piperita var. piperita
Synonym
M.pulegium var. micrantha Benth.
M.pyramidalis Ten.
M.rotundifolia auct.
M.royleana Benth.
M.spicata var. ciliata Druce
M.spicata var. crispa (Benth.) Danert
M.spicata var. longifolia L.
M.spicata var. rotundifolia L.
M.spicata subsp. tomentosa (Briq.) Harley
M.spicata var. viridis L.
M.suavis Guss.
M.sylvestris L.
M.sylvestris subsp. polyadenia Briq.
M.sylvestris subsp. typhoides Briq.
M.timija Briq.
M.tomentosa subsp. condensata Briq.
M.tomentosa d'Urv.
M.tomentosa subsp. tomentosa Briq., nom. illeg.
M.velutina Lej.
M.xvillosa var. cordifolia (Opiz ex Fresen.) Lebeau
Mentha viridis (L.) L.
Sources
Correct name
M.micrantha (Benth.) Des.Shost.
M.xpiperita nothosubsp. pyramidalis (Ten.) Harley
M.suaveolens Ehrh.
M.longifolia subsp. hymalaiensis Briq.
M.spicata L.
M.spicata L.
M.longifolia subsp. longifolia
M.xrotundifolia (L.) Huds.
M.spicata subsp. condensata (Briq.) G & B
M.spicata L.
M.xmaximilianea F. W. Schultz
M.longifolia (L.) Huds.
M.longifolia subsp. polyadenia (Briq.) Briq.
M.longifolia subsp. typhoides (Briq.) Harley
M.suaveolens subsp. timija (Briq.) Harley
M.xvillosa nothovar. alopecuroides (Hull) Briq.
M.spicata L.
Mentha spicata L.
Bear in mind that mints hybridise freely, so that plants grown from seed are likely to be quite variable.
As mentioned above, this can be advantageous for creating a more resilient ground cover area, but the
disadvantage can be that not all plants will have equally good flavour and fragrance.
Seeds are available from the A.R.T.
Mint plants are available from good herb nurseries including:
Arne Herbs, Limeburn Nurseries, Limeburn Hill, Chew Magna, Bristol, B840 80W. Tel: 01275 333399.
Web: WoNW.arneherbs.co.uk Email: lyman@lymandixonJreeserve.co.uk
Jekka's Herb Farm, Rose Cottage, Shellards Lane, Alveston, Bristol, 8S35 38Y. Tel: 01454 418878.
Web: WoNW.jekkasherbfarm.com. Email: farm@jekkasherbfarm.com
References
Crawford, M: Medicinal Perennial Crops (2). Agroforestry News, Vol 9 No 1 (2000).
GRIN database at http://www.arsgrin.gov
Huxley, A: The New RH8 Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan Reference, 1999.
Lawton, 8: Mints. Timber Press, 2002.
MacKenzie, 0: Perennial Ground Covers. Timber Press, 1997.
McVicar, J: In mint condition. The Garden, June 2003.
Plants for a Future: Plant database at www.pfaf.org
Wijesekera, R: The Medicinal Plant Industry. CRC Press, 1991.
Page 25
Red bayberry (Myrica rubra)
A promising fruit and forest tree
Introduction
Red. bayberry, also called Chinese tree berry. Yangmei , Chinese strawberry tree, Chinese
Bayberry, Japanese Bayberry, Zhuhong, Zhuroing, Shanyangmei, Shumei (in Taiwan) or
yamamomo (in Japan). It is an important fruit and forest tree in China, with large and
increasing areas cultivated (over 230,000 ha in 2003) to supply a large demand for the fruits.
As well as an important economic tree there, it has great ecological and social value too.
Myrica rubra (Syn. M.nagi) is a stone fruit with a berry-like edible portion comprising fleshy
segments. The rich red colours and appealing flavour make this juicy fruit very popular with
Chinese consumers.
Commercial cultivation of red bayberry has so far been mainly restricted to China, where most
of the literature about it has been published. Nevertheless there is great potential for growing it
in other mild temperate and subtropical regions.
Archaeological records show that red bayberry has been used as a foodstuff for at least 7,000
years, and its cultivation has been recorded during the Han Dynasty, some 2,000 years ago. By
the Song Dynasty some 1,000 years ago, its cultivation was widespread in southern China.
Description
Red bayberry is a cold tolerant evergreen fruit tree which can tolerate minimum winter
temperatures of _goG and grows and fruits well in temperate and subtropical zones with average
annual temperatures of 14,.C or more. The species prefers a warm and humid climate with
moderate to high rainfall (1000 mm annually).
It grows as a small to medium sized tree, often 5-10 m
high in the wild in China and Japan, with smooth bark
(yellowish-green in young trees to grey-brown in
mature trees) and a symmetrical rounded crown.
Branches are brittle and easily broken.
Leaves are leathery, long and pointed, 5-14 cm long by
1-4 cm wide. Leaves usually remain on the tree for 12-
14 months, being shed in spring as new ones grow.
Plants are normally dioecious - ie. they are male or
female, both sexes of plant are required for fruiting to
occur. Male flowers are yellowish-red catkins, 1-3 cm
long; female flowers are short thin bright red catkins.
Flowers are formed in the leaf axils, mainly on one year
old wood; flowering lasts about a month.
Pollination is via the wind; the pollen grains are very
small and can be carried 1000 m by the wind. In
China, flowering takes place in early spring (February-
April) and fruits ripen between May and July.
Fruits are usually deep reddish to dark purple (occasionall y white, pink or black), flattish round,
in cultivated varieties about 2530 mm wide_and little Jess l ong (or high). with a waxy coat. They
have a knobbly surface and look similar (though a little larger) to the fruits of the strawberry tree
(Arbutus unedo). At the centre of the fruit is a single seed, about 8 mm in diameter (similar in
size to a cherry stone).
Trees have a shallow, fibrous root system, mainly occupying the top 5-40 em of soil, and
typically extending to 100-200% of the canopy diameter. Plants f orm an association with
Actinomyces frankia, a nitrogen-fixing bacterium (similar bacteria to those used by EJaeagnus
and Hippophae). Mature trees can each fix 0.85 kg of Nitrogen per year.
Distribution
Red bayberry originated in southern China, and the geographical distribution is similar to that of
citrus, loquat , tea and bamboo, but it is more resistant to cold than citrus and loquat. It is
probably also native to Japan and other parts of south east Asia.
Natural distribution of Myr;ca rubra in China (south of solid line)
Page 27
Red bayberry is subdivided into eight natural varieties, vars. sylvestris, typica, rosea, alba, nana
(Syn. M.nana), atropurpurea, praemafurus and conservatus. There a number of related species
in China
Cultivation
Red bayberry is a long-lived tree and can remain productive for over 30 years.
A p ~ r t l y shady and moist environment is ideal, light is not so critical as with most other fruits. In
China, fruit flavour and tree vigour is better on northern slopes than on southern slopes.
However, sun exposure in late summer and early autumn improves the formation of flower buds.
Shelter is important because of the brittle branches.
Ideal soils are acid sandy loams or medium loams, with a pH of between 5.5 - 6.5. In China,
red bayberry grows well in mountainous regions where rhododendron, pine and Chinese fir
grow. Myrica rubra also grows well on infertile sites and prefers shallow soils to deep fertile
soils. Fertile clay soils lead to excessive vegetative growth and reduced fruiting.
Warm and humid conditions lead to healthy long lived trees with good vigour; high humidity
during fruit ripening also improves fruit quality. However, cropping is significantly reduced
following winter periods of sub-zero temperatures for more than 3 consecutive days. Flowering
is later than peach and apricot so spring frost damage is less common. Red bayberry should
grow satisfactorily in many parts of southern Britain, however cropping is at present likely to be
erratic, although as the climate warms from global warming, this aspect should improve.
Yields from different cultivars vary from 40 kg to over 100 kg/tree per year.
Eighteen cultivars have been approved for commercial cultivation, with Ihe four most popular
(planted throughout the region) being Biji, Dongkui, Ding-ao and Wandao. These cultivars start
fruiting after 4-5 years, and average yields from mature trees are 12-14 lonnes/ha, with trees
planted at a density of between 200 and 600 per ha (ie 16 - 48 m
2
per tree). Older orchards of
seedling trees yield rather less, in the order of 7 t/ha. Biennial bearing tendencies are common.
Dwarfing rootstocks are being investigated (eg. the small species Myrica nana) and may lead to
higher planting densities in the future.
Since the tree is dioecious, it is necessary to interplant male trees, at a frequency of about 1-
2%.
Since nitrogen is largely supplied by the nodulating bacteria, potassium is the most important
nutrient required to sustain good cropping, and mature trees should have regular applications
made, for example of wood ash, comfrey leaves or other K-rich nutrient source. Manure (15 kg
per tree) and cereal ash is often applied in China in spring and again after harvest.
Traditional orchards were unpruned, leading to tall and eventually unproductive trees. Trees
become too tall if untrained, so the standard practice is to create a tree with a low canopy
(height 2.5 - 3 m) with an open centre. 3-4 primary scaffold branches are established with
large crotch angles, and groups of fruiting branches allowed to develop on these, replaced by
new groups every 4 years. Pruning is conducted mainly in winter.
There are only a few pests and diseases of note in China, and the trees are easy to grow in an
organic system. The main disease of note is a close relative of plum bacterial canker,
Pseudomonas syringae pv. Myricae, which is known as red bayberry ulcer, causing tumour-like
growths.
Fresh fruits are highly perishable and will
store for only a week or so in refrigeration.
They cannot be harvested prior to full
ripeness as they will not ripen properl y if
picked early. Individual fruit on a tree ripen at
different times , and fruit often have to be
picked every day or two, with careful handling
as it is very easily damaged. Harvest of wet
fruit after rain is avoided as they deteriorate
very quickly. Fruits for fresh eating are
picked with stalk attached into bamboo or
plastic baskets lined with fresh fern leaves.
One person can pick about 60 kg per day.
Cultivars
In China, there are over 300 cultivars, most
derived from chance seedlings, and most of
which have been evaluated on agronomic
characteristics and quality. A classification
into four cuitivar groups is as follows:
Wild. Also called wild black - found growing
wild and used as rootst ocks. Fruit are red
and acid with small flesh segments and ripen
earlier than other types.
Red. Fruit red when ripe, usually larger and
good quality.
Black. Best quality fruit, with large flesh
segments and freestone. Fruit turn from red
to redblack during ripening.
White. Yield and fruit quality less than red or black
types .
Fruit characteristics vary widely among these cultivars:
Yangmei harvesting baskets
Ripening date: Most ripen between early and late June in China, with a few cultivars ripening in
May and a few in July.
Fruit colour: varies from white - pink - red - deep red - purple - deep purple - purple black -
jet black. The flesh colour is similar to that of the skin, sometimes a little paler. Most cultivars
have red or purple flesh.
Fruit size: length and width vary a few mm only, although volume (and thus fruit weight) is
greatly affected.
Fruit weight: varies from under 6 g to over 15 g, with most cultivars bearing fruit of 913 g. The
edible portion is typically 92-95% of fruit weight.
Fruit quality also varies, with 80% of cultivars classed as mid to excellent quality fruit.
Data on the leading Chinese culti vars is tabulated below (in ripening order).
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol IS No 4
Page 29
Cultivar colour size (I x w) Weight TSS Acidity Quality Ripening time
(cm)
(9) (%) (%)
Wusuhe purple-black 2.3 x 2.6 11.5 13.4 0.80 Good E June
Zaojimimei deep purple 2.5 x 2.6 9.0 12.4 1.26 V.good E & M June
Daiyemei purple 14.6 14.6 Exc
M June
Shangchongyangmei purple-black 9.2 12.0 Exc
M June
Xiechongmei purple-black 9.2 10.0 V.good
M June
purple 2.9 x 3.2 15.7 11.0 1.06 Good M June
Zaose purple 2.6 x 2.8 12.6 12.5 1.25 V.good M June
Guangyemei purple 2.4 x 2.6 12.5 12.5 0.56
M June
Beimei white 11.2 10.5 Good M & L June"
Ding-aomei purple 2.7 x 2.9 11.3 11.1 0.83 Exc M & L June
Niuyemei deep red 8.7 11.0 Exc L June'"
Chise red 15.0 12.5 Exc L June
Ersemei purp-black+red 2.7 x 2.9 13-15 9.5 0.16 L June
Biji jet black 2.6 x 2.7 10.0 13.0 0.90 V.good M June - E July
Dayexidi deep purple 14.7 12.3 Good L June - E July
Dongfemmingzu purple 25.5 13.4 Good L June - E July
Dongkui deep purple 3.7 x 3.4 25.0 13.4 1.10 V.good L June - E July
Shuijingyangmei white 11.4 Good L June - E July
Xidiwumei purple 2.9 x 3.0 14.7 12.3 0.60 L June-E July
Wanjimimei purple-black 2.7 x 2.8 13.0 13.0 1.00 Exc E July
Wandao jet black 2.6 x 2.7 11.7 12.6
M2
Exc E & M
TSS = Total soluble solids (Brix)
The majority of the cultivars above are cultivated mainly in the most south easterly provinces
(mainly Zhejiang); those marked are cultivated further north, eg in Hunan.
Citric acid accounts for some 97% of the fruit organic acids, with malic, succinic, isocitrate,
fumaric and other acids making up the remaining 3%.
Fruit uses
The fruits of red bayberry are nutritious, succulent and aromatic, the flesh being juicy with a rich
colour and an agreeable sub-acid (sweet-tart) taste resembling strawberry and cranberry. Ripe
fruits contain:
Sugars
Sucrose
Glucose
Fructose
9.8-11.7%
46.6 mg/g
13.5 mg/g
13.8 mg/g
Soluble solids 11.6-13.4%
Organic acids 0.42-1.28%
Potassium 1.41 mg/g
Protein 0.33%
Vitamin C 0.11-1.14 mg/g
Vitamin B1 0.054 mg/g
In China, many fruits are pressed to make juice
which can be stored for longer or fermented. If
making juice, be aware that it stains!
Due to its long lifespan, great economic value, low
production costs and nitrogenfixing ability, red
bayberry is regarded as a "money making tree
n
and
has been an important economic source for people
living in mountainous regions of China. There,
people prefer red bayberry to citrus , and beautiful
packages of fresh fruits are used as precious gifts.
It has a strong social value in the life of Chinese
people.
Apart from use as a fresh fruit, various products
are made including juice (like a sweeter cranberry
juice; available commercially outside of China
where it is being marketed as bayberry juice and
'yumberry' juice), jam, fermented alcoholic
beverages, brandy (soaked in the Chinese liquor
' baijiu' ), wine, candies, canned fruit , salted fruit and
dried fruit. It has an edible seed with 40% oil
content of the kernel; the seed can be roasted or
used for extraction of oils.
A watersoluble red pigment is extracted from the
fruits and used as a food colouring.
Other uses
Medicine
Fruits being dried after salting
The fruit, seed, bark, leaf and root of red bayberry are important components of traditional
Chinese herbal medicine. The fruit and leaf are used for treating congesti on, coughs, digesti ve
problems and diarrhoea; the bark is used for skin diseases, wounds and ulcers. The seed
kernels contain vitamin 817 which can apparently inhibit or kill cancer cells. In recent years , a
number of pharmaceutically active compounds (flavonoids and polyphenols) have been
identified from different parts of the plants.
Soil conservation and regeneration
Red bayberry has extensive adaptability along with a nitrogenfixing ability. It is regarded as a
"fertiliser generating tree" and widely used on poor soils and for soil conservation and
reclamation projects, and to improve the organic matter content of soils. It also has good fire
resistance and is tolerant of heavy metal soil contamination. It is often interplanted with forestry
trees such as pines as a beneficial interplant; also as firebreak strips as the they are resistant
to burning. Up to 460 kg/ha of nitrogen can be fixed.
Amenity
Red bayberry is a tall shapely tree which is resistant to pests and disease damage and tolerant
of air pollution. It is used as an ornamental tree in parks and along roadsides. However, trees
can make a mess of public streets when they drop fruit!
Page 31
Red bayberry fruits (Photo courtesy of Zeping Yang http://www.flickr.com/photos/zeoing/)
Other uses
Leaves and branches are used in floristry, especially in winter .
The bark contains abundant tannin (10-27%) which is used as a dyeing material for dyeing c l o t ~
yellow and brown.
Propagation
Propagation from seed has been the tradit ional practice in China, especially for rootstocks.
Fresh seeds are cleaned well and stored in damp sand until sowing. Seeds require stratification
and are usually sown in late autumn. The germination rate is about 50%. One year old
seedlings with a stem diameter over 6 mm can be grafted with scionwood from good cultivars
(taken from young shoots which have been well exposed to sunlight; scions about 10 cm long
with 10 buds are best); cleft grafts are usually used in spring, onto rootstocks in leaf.
Top working is used to replace low yielding and poor quality trees with good quality cultivars.
Layering in late winter is often successful and leads to trees which fruit more quickly, but they
often have very shallow roots and weak growth.
Cuttings are also occasionally used.
Red bayberry tree trained as a multistemmed bush
Source
Red bayberry plants are currently unavailable in Britain. Seeds are available from the A.R.T.
and we hope to have plants in the next few years.
References
Chen, K et al: Red bayberry: Botany and Horticulture. Horticultural Reviews, Vol 30; John
Wiley, 2004.
He, X et al: Red Bayberry (Myrica rubra), a Promising Fruit and Forest Tree in China. Journal
of the American Pomological Society 58 (3): 163-168. 2004.
Liu, S: Red Bayberry - a new and exciting crop for Australia? Pub W05/174, DPI-Tatura. 2004.
Page 33
Apples which hang well on the tree
Certain varieties of apple bear fruits which, when ripe, do not drop straight away but which hang
well on the tree for several weeks after ripening; some even continue to hang well after autumn
frosts and the leaves have fallen. Though this phenomenon is well known with some crab
apples, it also occurs with many excellent eating and cooking varieties.
Fruif which hangs well allows the extension of the harvesting season (assuming the fruit isn't
being attacked by pests or diseases) and is very useful in enabling more flexible harvest .. fitting
it in with other jobs.
Extremely persistent cultivars (fruit staying on trees well into winter) include Bonnet Carre,
Dougherty, Giant Geniton, Nonpareil, Pigeonette and Red Dougherty.
The f ollowi ng table lists the cultivars in which fruit has been noted to hang well. After
indications of usage (cooker , dessert, crab), information is given on:
Season: E = Early (late July to August) M = Mid (September) L = Late (October onwards)
indicates season of fruit use.
Pollination: psf = partially self fertile, sf = self fertile
Scab: Indicates any resistance or susceptibility to apple scab. VR = very resistant, R
resistant, SS = slightly susceptible, S = Susceptible, VS = very susceptible.
Canker: Indicates any resistance or susceptibility to apple canker. Codes as for scab.
Tip bearer: I indicates a tip bearer , I partial indicates a partial tip bearer .
Cultivar Cooker Dessert Crab Season Pollination Scab Canker Tig: bearer
Akane
,(
IE
R
Alaska
,(
M
Api
,(
, L
S
Api Nai r
,(
L
Arthur Turner
,(
j E psf
jR
Autumn Gala
,(
! L
psf S S
Auvil Earl y Fuji
,(
L R
Backwell Red
,(
Ben Davis
,( ,(
L S
Cultivar Cooker Dessert Crab Season Pollination. 5cab anker 'i o.bearer
Big Red Gala I L pst 5 5
Bismarck I L pst 55 5
I
Black Gilliflower
I I
M
Bonnet Carre
I
L
Bottle Greening I M
Brighton
I
L
Bullock
I
L
I
Burgundy
I
M 5
Cagarlaou
I
L
Charlot
I
L
Chestnut
I I
M
Cortland
I I
L pst V5 I
Court Pendu Plat
I
L R
Crawley Beauty I L R R
Crimson Gala I
L 5 5
Crittenden I I I
David
Dayton I
E VR R
Dolgo I I I
R
Doubloons
Dougherty I
I
L
I
Page 35
Cultivar Cooker Dessert Crab Season Pollination Scab Canker Tip- bearer
Esopus Spitzenburg
I I
L S S
Fairy Fire
Fameuse I
L VS
Fiesta I
M psI
Fiesta
Fire Mountain
I
Fireband
I
Firebelle
Fireburst
Firecloud
. -
Firecracker
II
I
Fireglow
I
,
Foster's Seedling I
L
Francis
Fuji I
L R
Fuji-Spike I
L R
Gala I
L psI
S S
Gala Must I L psI S S
Galaxy I
L psI S S
Galaxy I
L psI S S
Gale Gala I
L S S
Page 36
ultivar Cooker e s
Q.rM
S as e io ca
~ ~
Golden Galaxy
Golden Hornet I I I
I
Golden Reinette
I
L R
Golden Spire
I M sf SS
Grande Gala
I
L psf S S
Grosse Saulette
I L
Gypsy Dancer
I
Harvest Gold
Hauer Pippin
I
M
Henry Kohankie
Henry Ross
Hoe
I
L
Honeycri sp
I
L
Honor Guard
Hudson's Golden Gem
I
I VR
Humboldt
I I
M
Hyde King
I I
L
Hyslop
I I I
E
Indian Summer
Joan
,(
Jonamac
,(
M
Page 37
Cultivar Cooker Dessert Crab Season Pollination Scab Canker TiQ bearer
Lenore
Little Troll
I
Lydia's Red Gala
.;
L psi S S
Macrocarpa
.;
Magic Flute
Maruba
.;
L
McGhee's Seedling
.; .;
L
Minjon
.;
M
Molton Lava
Moonglow
Myra Red Fuji
.;
L R
Nero
,
.;
L R
Newtown Pippin
.; .;
L S S .; partial
Nonpareil
.;
L R
Northfield Beauty
.;
L VR
Orange
.;
Ormiston Roy
Pacific Gala
.;
L S S
Paulared
.;
M R
Pauline
Peace Garden
.;
L
Page 38
~
~ I d
TiD
IRed Dougherty
IL
II
IRed Gala No 42
1/
Ipsf
IS IS
IRed Peacock
IRed Sentinel
I'
IR
IRed Swan
'"
II
I"
Ivs
IRegal Gala II
IL
Ipsf
IS IS
IRegent
II
II
Is
IRome Beauty II Isf IS IS
IRoyal Court
II
IVS
IRoyal Gala II
IS IS
IRoyal Splendour
IRyan
ISaint Johnsbury II
IL IR
II
IR
ISansa
II
IE IR
ISatin Cloud
IScarlet O'Hara
1/ 1M IVR
II partial
IScott Winter II
1M IS
i
Page 39
~
i
F ~
Stark GrandGala L
Stark U ItraRed Gala I'! pst
IS
S
,"","u, Cortland
,!
j,!
L
IVS
.
Steilar j,!
I"
" .. a, Pippin j,! L pst
IR
Summerdel
1M IS
Sun Fuji
,!
IL IR
.. ,
,(
,(
IL
Swaar
,(
I"
IS
'U"'U"" Y
,(
1M IS
Tift Spur Rome
I"
st IS
IS
riny Tim
,u""." Sweet 1M
ITreeo Red Fuji
,(
IL
R
ITrelage
IL
f win Bee Gala
,(
IL
Ipst
S
IS
Ultrared Gala
IL
S
IS
""a'
I"
Ipst
VR
,(
IL
""'
Strawberry
1M
."u,i, "

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