Art 16-18

Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture!
horticulture to produce a
diverse, productive and resilient system for producing food, materials, timber and
other products. It can range from planting trees in pastures providing shelter,
shade and emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of
tall and small trees, shrubs and ground layers in a self-sustaining, interconnected
and productive system.
Agroforestry News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a
year in November, February, May and August. Subscription rates are:
20 per year in Britain and the E;.U. (16 unwaged)
24 per year overseas (please remit in Sterling)
34 per year for institutions.
A list of back issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on
request for 4 x 1 st class stamps. Back issues cost 4.00 per copy including
postage (5.00 outside the E.U.) Please make cheques payable to 'Agroforestry
Research Trust', and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon,
Dartington, Tolnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk. Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk.
Agroforestry Research Trust
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to
research into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and
to disseminate the results through booklets, Agroforestry News, and other
publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and
plants to fund its work, which includes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
Tapping birch
Volume 16 Number 1 November 2007
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Bog myrtle beers / UK summer truffl es /
Maple sugar & climate change / Red squirrels
forecast the future
3 Paper mulberry: Broussonetia papyrifera
9 Nitrogen fi xation in plants
24 Hardy nitrogen-fixing plant list
33 Birch: wood, sap and bark uses
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily Ihose of the Editor or officials of the
Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format.
Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the
reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered
on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergi c to even tame
species. The edilor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsi ble for any
ill ness caused by the use or misuse of such crops.
Editor: Marti n Crawford.
Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust.
Editorial, Advertising & Subscripti ons: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington,
Totnes, Devon, Tag 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website: w.vw.agroforestry.co.uk
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No 1 Page 1
News
Myrica gale: bog myrtle in beers
One of the world's leading brewers is to create a new beer using bog myrtle, a plant that was
once used to flavour medieval beverages. Vikings and native Scots once drank a brew made
from bog myrtle (Myrica gale), a shrub which grows on boggy ground in the north of western
Europe, long before the Romans brought hops to Britain.
Now the Danish brewing giant Carlsberg is planning to use bog myrtle to flavour a new version
of one its range of strong 'bock' lagers. The firm has signed a supply deal with Scottish
company Highland Natural Products, which has already been instrumental in bringing several
bog myrtle lines to the market.
Richard Constanduros, HNP's managing director, said it was a "landmark deal
ft
between a small
Highland company and a giant in the world of beverage production. "This clearly demonstrates
that small companies can provide the innovation that big companies need to stay ahead of the
market, and I foresee huge benefits for the Highland rural community in Scotland," he said.
Some micro-breweries in Scotland already use bog myrtle as a chief ingredient in specialist
beers. But beer experts said the interest being shown by Carlsberg, which is Britain's fourth-
largest brewer, would give it a major boost.
The use of bog myrtle as a major beer ingredient died out more than 500 years ago. Although
used extensively as flavouring in Britain during the Middle Ages, it was gradually replaced by
hops, which could be more easily grown on agricultural land closer to centres of population.
Bog myrtle is a distinctive shrubby plant which grows on wet , acidic heathland, bogs and moors.
Beer-making aside, it has had many uses in the past, including as a medicinal product lor
wounds, stress and coughs, as well as a midge repellent .
Earlier t his year, high street chemist Boots launched a new Botanies Sensitive Skin product
incorporating bog myrtle after five years of research and development. It has sourced its raw
material from bog myrtle plantations in the Highlands.
Source: The Scotsman, 2217/2007. http://news.scotsman.com/scotiand.cfm?i d-11 43222007
Truffles: Summer rain boosts UK truffle harvest
Hunters and farmers of truffles have reported a huge increase in the number and quality of the
fungi growing on roots of trees and the trend will continue as the main harvest gets under way
throughout August.
Nigel Haddon-Paton, the owner. of Britain's first. commercial truffle-growing company, recently
.from a secret he farms With a friend and found the sought-after fungi
growing .In lfr(e ,a pretty last y.ear but this time there's a huge
amount In eVidence, he sal.d. W? fe not gOI.ng to pick them Just yet but , like any crop, truffles
need water and thanks to thiS year s heavy ram they can be found right on the surface. ft
Although and .ltaly generally regarded to be the world leaders in the truffle market,
some speCies found m Brltam can be eaten and can fetch a high price on the international
market.
Page 2
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No 1
The heavy rainfall during June and July has particularly benefited the summer truffle, a caramel-
coloured fungi which is the main British species that is farmed and eaten in restaurants.
One entrepreneur set to benefit is the biologist Dr Paul Thomas whose business, Plantation
Systems, has pioneered a way of cultivating summer truffles in the UK. Dr Thomas used his
expertise as a biologist to find a way of impregnating the roots of trees with truffle fungus in the
laboratory and then transferring the saplings onto one of four plantations across the UK.
According to Dr Brian Spooner , head of mycology at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
thousands of species of fungi in Britain will have benefited from the increased rainfall. "Recently
we've had a number of drought years and, on the whole, fungi won't do much in dry weather,"
he said. "This year has been quite different. We've had some quite nice collections brought into
Kew already and some of the truffles seem to be coming up early, although they will grow
throughout the year."
The expected bumper harvest will be particularly welcome to the UK's small number of truffle
farmers who are hoping that chefs and the wider public will be interested in buying local truffles
rather than more expensive foreign variants.
Dr Thomas believes truffles are undergoing something of a renaissance in Britain. "A few years
ago the main problem in the UK was that most people simply hadn't heard of truffles or didn't
know what to use them for," he said. "But truffles were once a very popular part of our culture."
(* Britain's summer truffle, Tuber aestivum, is a caramel-coloured species with white veins that
has a nutty and sometimes gritty consistency and can fetch up to 300/Ib. )
Source: The Independent, 6 August 2007
For full story, please see: htt p://news. independent .co. uk/uk/this britain/article2838660.ece
Maple sugar and creeping fears about climate change
Maple sugar maker Arthur Berndt has 16,000 maple trees on his Maverick Farm in Sharon,
Vermont, but he worries about their future. He says branches are dying, trees aren't
regenerating as well as they once did and yield less syrup than he given his equipment
and technology. He believes climate change may be to blame. "The long-term effects are that
sugar making in Vermont will become a thing of the past if left unchecked," said Berndt.
He sees a grim scenario for the future of the nation's No.1 producer of maple syrup. The
which has an estimated 500 million sugar maples, has about 2,000 sugar makers who produce
about 500,000 gallons of syrup a year. It's a key part of Vermont's economy -- and its image.
"When you think about all the other sugar makers in Vermont who depend on maple syrup for
some of their income," Berndt said. "That's not going to be available to them in 20, 30, 50 years
if we don', change things. And Vermont will not have the cache it once had, with people visiting
sugar houses, so it will have an effect on tourism as wei!'''
In the 20 years since Berndt and his wife bought Maverick Farm, they've noticed a change. The
maple trees, some already stressed by acid rain, have new challenges, such as pests he
believes are linked to warming climate. He fears the maple will move north and other trees,
such as hickory, oak and ash will prosper.
Many sugar makers who rely on freezing nights and thawing days have noticed a shift in the
weather. Mild winters have prompted sap to flow in February and sometimes as early as
January. "Traditionally, in the old days, you wouldn' t ever get a February run, " said Blaine
Moore, who works for Berndt and grew up on the land. "You look at the old sugar maker records
and April was when you made the syrup. Now, the last three years, we hardly made any in
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No I
Page 3
April."
A study by the University of Vermont Proctor Maple Research Center has found that the
sugaring season is three days shorter than it was in the 1940s. That doesn't sound like much,
but for a product with a season, it's a 10 percent reduction. And the season is starting
about a week early in many places.
This year was different. After an unusually warm January, cold delayed sugaring until mid-
March, which is later than usual in Vermont.

"That's nol at alJ inconsistent with global change," said Timothy Perkins, director of the research
centre. "We expect to have higher variability than we've had in the past." In an ongoing study,
the centre is assessing the impact of climate change on the maple indust ry. "Now we've lost 10
percent of the season, but people don't really notice it much. But at some point there will be
reductions in Perkins said.
Source: Associated Press, 1 April 2007 (in Boston Globe, USA)
Red squirrels forecast the future?
A coll aborative project between researchers in Canada, the USA, Ital y and Belgium has taken
place to study squi rrel population and seed masting.
Three squirrel populations were studied: An American red population in Yukon Canada and two
Eurasian red populations - one in Italy and one in Belgium.
There are two main themes underlying the project. The first concerns seed masting, the
intermittent production of large seed crops by plants, which is an adapllve reproductive strategy
in which one or more years of light seed production prior to a bumper crop (a masting year)
prevents seed predators from building population until the year following the bumper crop, when
it is too late for seed predation.
The second theme concerns the reproductive responses of seed predators to these boom or
bust cycles. The normal r.eproductive response expected from seed predators in a boom or bust
load cycle is a lagged response in which reproduction increases in the year following a mast
event and is reduced in years following low seed production.
Clearly, a seed predator population that is able to produce more offspring during a masting year
in advance of that year's mature seed crop would have a distinct evolutionary advantage. This
is exactly what was observed for the red squirrel populations studied in this project. The
Eurasian and American red squirrel populations differed slightly in the means by which this
reproductive increase was achieved, but the net result was the same. The authors found that:
"American reds gave birth to larger liUers in advance of high food production and were more
likely to breed as yearlings. The most striking effect was that females produced a second litter
aUer a fi rst litter (the equivalent of summer litters in Eurasian reds) in advance of
high f?od producllOn. In most females were still with the first litter when they
conceIved the second, suggestmg that the normal phYSIological inhibition of ovulation
characteristics of mammals has been circumvented."
These results give rise to an intriguing question: what cues to red squirrels use to anticipate a
crop? studi es suggest thai visual or chemical clues may be involved, possibly
to structures on the seed-bearing plants. Another question is whether
Amenca grey squtrrels do the same thi ng?
Source: Boutin, S et al: Anticipatory Reproduction and Population Growth in Seed Predators. Science,
2006, 314, 1928-1930.
Page 4
Paper mulberry:
Broussonetia papyrifera
Introduction
The paper mulberry has long been used as a fibre plant both in its native range and also widely
across the Pacific Islands, and it sometimes surprising to find that this wel l known plant of
Polynesia is in fact hardy in mild temperate climates. As well as being a fibre plant it has edible
mulberry-like fruit and numerous other uses. It is naturalised in parts of South Eastern Europe.
Although the tree is fertile in its native range, the plants carried into the Pacific were all male
clones, transported and planted as rootstock or stems. Thus, the female plants with flowers and
fruit are absent there.
The tree was very important in traditional Polynesian culture, as its bark supplied one of the
most important materials in ancient Polynesia, tapa cloth. Today, the tree has disappeared
from most of its traditional range and is cultivated to any extent only in Tonga, Fiji and Samoa.
It is important in these places because it is a major source of handicraft income in the form of
finished tapa cloth.
Although it is no longer used in Polynesia for clothing, in Tonga and Samoa tapa cloth is still
worn during ceremonial occasions such as festivals or dances. It does not last very long when
worn as everyday clothing. The tree is grown in plantations and home gardens on islands
where tapa cloth is still made. It can tolerate a wide range of environmental extremes and even
does well in temperate climates (its native habitat).
Description and cultivation
Paper mulberry is native to Japan and Taiwan and is an ancient introduction across the Pacific
as far east as Hawai'i, It is a member of the Moreaceae family, and hardy to about -10C (zone
8 hardiness).
A deciduous tree, it reaches a height of 12 m or more if allowed to grow, but in practice It is
usually harvested by coppicing at a much shorter height when the stems are about 2.5 cm in
diameter and 3-4 m tall.
Leaves are very variable in shape, even on the same branch, they can be cordate or deeply
lobed (especially on young plants). They are downy underneath, 7-20 cm long and leak a milky
sap when torn.
Paper mulberry is dioecious - ie male and female flowers are borne on separate trees, in May-
June in the UK. Male flowers are pendulous catkins, and bear a lot of pollen and dense
plantings can cause allergy problems in spri ng. Female flowers develop i nto orange-red, round,
sweet juicy fruits, usually 1.5 to 2 cm but sometimes up to 3-4 cm in diameter.
The root system is shallow and relatively water-demanding. Larger trees are prone to windblow
in exposed locations.
Paper mulberries are easy to grow, tolerating most dr.ained soils and
It is quite drought tolerant and also tolerant of atmospheric pollutIOn (IS has been used as a city
street tree).
In the tropics trees and often coppiced annually for a bark harvest, whereas in the UK,
coppicing every 2 or 3 years is more appropriate.
Uses and products . .
The most significant part of the paper mulberry is its strong, fibrous bark used In making the
native bark cloth known as tapa.
The bark is also widely used to make fine quality papers.
The long, strong fibres of paper mulberry produce very
strong, dimensionally stable papers. In Japan it is the
most well known fibre used for making Japanese tissue
of varying thicknesses (mainly used in the conservation
of books and manuscripts) and Japanese paper or
Washi. Washi is used in many arts, clothing and other
objects.
The plant also has other uses:
The sweetish fruils are edible, sweet and fine to eat,
although where only male clones are present, such as in
the Pacific Basin, no fruit is formed. The fruits are fragile
and do not transport well.
Leaf vegetable. In Indonesia, the steamed young leaves
are eaten.
Medicinal. In Hawai'i , the slimy sap was used as a
laxative and the ash of burnt tapa was used for treating
thrush. In Samoa, an infusion of the crushed leaves is
sometimes taken as a potion for treating stomach pains
and lIIdefined abdominal pains. The leaf. bark and fruit
are used medicinally in Viet Nam, the Lao People's
Democratic Republic and Cambodia.
Animal fodder. The leaves are fed to pigs in Viet Nam,
the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Cambodia
and to silkworms in China. The leaves and shoots are
sometimes used to feed deer (and deer predation could
be a potential problem) .
Fuelwood. After removing the bark for tapa, the stems
can be used for kindling.
Fibre/clothing. The inner bark has been used for
centuries in Southeast Asia for paper and textifes. The
bark is traditionally used in Polynesia to make tapa. The
finest and most delicate tapa in Polynesia was made in
The making of tapa cloth
The bark is stripped from the
cut stems by making a
lengthwise incision across
the stem and pulling it off
intact to obtain a single long
strip.
The inner bark, or bast , is
then separated from the
outer bark, and any green
matter remaining on the bast
is removed using scrapers;
the bast is then washed to
remove the slimy sap.
The strips are pounded on a
wooden anvil using a square
beater made of a hard wood.
Two or three of the strips
are then felted together by
the pounding, helped by the
stickiness of the bark.
Several of the resulting
sheets are often pounded
together in layers to
increase the thickness or to
cover over thin spots or
holes in the individual
sheets. A bit of paste in the
sprinkling water is usually
used at this point.
These white tapas are then
painted or, as in Hawai'i,
printed with decorative
designs.
Hawai 'i. Nowadays, however, tapa making in the Pacific is limited to Tonga and Fiji and, to a
lesser extent, Samoa, and the tree and the art are nearly forgan en everywhere else.
Page 6
Paper mulberry - female flower and young fruits (source: Wikipedia)
Tannin/dye. Charcoal from the wood makes one of the best permanent black inks for tapa
designs.
Rope/cordage/ string. The bark fibre can be used to make rough cordage, as can the roots.
Ceremonial/religious importance. The bark cloth is used ceremonially in Tonga, Fiji and
Samoa. In Hawai 'i, tapa was important in burial wrapping and other funerary customs.
The making of Japanese tissue and paper
The inner bark of paper mulberries is harvested in the autumn and spring, with material from the
autumn harvest being considered better quality. Bundles of paper mulberry sticks are steamed
in a cauldron, then stripped of their bark and hung in the sun to dry. At this stage in the
process, it is known as kuro-kawa, or black bark.
To make paper, the black bark must be converted into white bark. The stored black bark is
soaked and then scraped by hand with a knife to remove the black outer coat. At this point , it is
washed in water and again placed in the sun to dry.
White bark is boiled with lye for about an hour, then left to steam for several more hours. At
this point, it is rinsed with clear water to remove the lye. Then, it is stream bleached (kawa-
zarashi). The fibres are placed in a stream bed around which a dam is built. Clean water is let
in periodically to wash the fibres. Alternatively, the fibres may be bleached using a process
called small bleaching (ko-arai). In this case, it is first placed on boards and beaten with rods
before being placed in a cloth bag and rinsed in clear running water.
Impurities are removed after bleaching though a process known as chiri-tori. Any remaining
Rieces of bark, hard fibers or other impurities are picked out by hand or , in the case of very
small pieces, by the use of pins. The remaining material is rolled into little balls and the balls
are then beaten to crush the fibers.
After being beaten, it is common for the fibres to be mixed with neri, which is a mucilaginous
material made from the roots (tubers) of Chinese yam (Dioscorea opposita). This addition
makes the fibres float uniformly on water and also helps to slow the speed of drainage so that a
better-formed sheet of paper will result.
A solution of 30 percent pulp and 70 percent water is then mixed together in a vat. Neri may
also be added to the vat. Nagashi-zuki, the most common technique for making sheets of
paper, is then employed. The mixture is scooped on a screen and allowed to flow back and
forth across the screen to interlock the fibers. This process is ideal for forming thin sheets of
paper. The other technique for making paper, tame-zuki, does not use neri and forms thicker
sheets of paper.
The sheet of paper is placed on a wooden board and dried overnight, then pressed the next day
to remove water. After pressing, the sheets are put on a drying board and brushed to smooth
them. They are dried in the sun, then removed from the drying board and trimmed.
This process is usually undertaken in the cold weather of winter, as pure, cold running water is
essential. Cold also inhibits bacteria, preventing the decomposition of the fibres. Cold also
makes the fibres contract, producing a crisp feel to the paper. It is traditionally the winter work
of farmers, a task that supplemented a farmer's income.
Propagation
Seed is easy - no pre-treatment is required. Sow in autumn or spring in a greenhouse. Seed
germinates in 1 - 3 months.
Cuttings of half-ripe wood, 8 12cm long with a heel can be taken in July-August in a frame.
Cuttings of mature wood of the current season's growth can be taken in November in a frame.
Root cuttings in winter can sometimes lake.
Layering in spring.
References
Crawford, M: ART Useful Plants database, 2007.
Elevitch, C (Ed): Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. 2006.
PFAF: PFAF Useful Plants database, 2007.
Paper mulberry seeds, and sometimes plants, can be obtained from the A. R. T. at 46 Hunters
Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. www.aqroforestrv.co.uk
Page 8
Nitrogen-fixation in plants
Introduction
Nitrogen gas (N2) constitutes four fifths of the world's atmosphere - a virtually inexhaustible
supply, yet very few plants and no ani mals can assimilate nitrogen in its free form. Nitrogen is,
though, the essential constituent of the proteins necessary for cell protoplasm, and all
organisms are dependent on having it available in a form which they can uti lize.
Most plants obtain their nitrogen from the mineralisation of soi l organic matter and plant
residues, and living organisms and ecosystems are organised to obtain and preserve usable
nitrogen. The modern use of synthetic nitrogen fertilisers is fraught with long-term dangers
(depleting soil nitrogen reserves, pollution of groundwater, rivers and lakes), and the fertilisers
themselves will become increasingly expensive through increasing energy costs.
Biological nitrogen fixation, particularly of the symbiotic type, plays a crucial ecological role in
maintaining adequate nitrogen reserves in the plant world. Two groups of plants in particular,
the l egumes (Rhi zobi al plants) and Actinorhizal plants, can thrive without any fixed nitrogen
or with a minimal supply in the soil. These plants, through the agency of specific bacteria
(mostly Frankia and Rhizobium species) which invade the root hai rs and establish a mutually
beneficial association inside their root swellings (nodules) , can convert free air ni trogen into
fixed nitrogen for eventual plant protein assimilation and storage. These select groups of plants
have thus obtained an evolutionary advantage over most other living organisms. Root infection
and nodule development of both actinorhizal and legume symbioses are similar: the infection
occurs via the penetration of deformed root hairs by bacteria, or by the bacteria gaining entry to
the root through intercellular spaces.
Ecologically, most legumes and actinorhizal plants are pioneer species on open, ni trogen-poor
si t es. They improve the soil and enable the succession towards scrub or forest to begin. As
shading of them increases, they decline. Since they are pioneers, there is scope for them to
easily become naturalised and become somewhat weedy in the agricultural landscape - for
example, Elaeagnus angustifolia is regarded as a weed by some in western north America.
Several actinorhizal plants persist as understorey plants in open forest stands, and these plants
are generall y more shade-tolerant than the legumes.
Forest ecosystems are seldom at equilibrium, usually slowly accumulating Nitrogen during their
life cycle and suffering periodic large losses when vegetation is naturally or artificially removed.
Apart from the legumes and actinorhizal plants, there are a number of other systems involving
nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, notably 01 the bacterial genera Azotobacter, Anabaena, and
Nostoc. These systems involve the following:
Gunnera-Nostoc. Probably all Gunnera species display a localised infection of the
stem by Nostoc bacteria.
Azalia-Anabaena. The aquatic plants of the Azolla family form a symbiosis with
Anabaena bacteria.
Liverwort-Nostoc. The liverwort genera Anthoceros, Blasia and Cavirularia all form
associ ations with Nostoc bacteria.
Lichen associations. About 7% of lichen species are not of the traditional fungi-algae
symbiosis , but are instead formed of a fungi-cyanobacteria symbiosis. Nostoc is the
bacteria genus usually involved. The lichen genera Col/ema, Lobaria, Peltigera,
Leptogium and Stereocaufon form this type of symbiosis . They are particul arly
important as nitrogen-sources in Arctic and desert ecosystems, where fixation rates
may reach 10-20 Kg/ hafyear.
Leaf surfaces (the phyllosphere) . There is increasing evidence that free-living N-fixing
species of bacteria are abundant on wet and damp leaves in predominantly moist
climates.
Root zone (Rhizosphere). Free-living bacteria, for example Azotobacter species, may
be more abundant in the areas immediately adjacent to plant roots and aid plant
nitrogen nutrition.
Free-living. N-fixing bacteria thrive where the Carbon:Nitrogen ratio is high and there
is sufficient moisture, for example on rotting wood, in leaf litter, the lower parts of
straw and chipping mulches etc.
Nitrogen contri butions from N-fixing pl ants
There is a long history of utilising leguminous species for their nitrogen-fixing ability in agriculture and
horticulture - for example with clovers in leys, and with vetches or lupins in green manures. With careful
planning, the use of these annual or perennial legumes can provide all the nitrogen needed by the following
crop(s) - ego white clover in a ley can fix 100-200 Kg N fHa/year, alfalfa 150 Kg N fHa/year.
Average inputs in forest systems are listed below:
N Input from Kg/ha/year - average
Lichens/epiphytes
Heterotroughs in soiV
rhizosphere titter 'NOod
Understorey nodulated plants
Interplanted nodulated trees
Dense nodulated trees
0.9 to 6.0
1.0to 11.0
5.0 to 100
2010200
50 to 300
Kg/halyear - maximum
20
40
150
300
500
Factors affecting nodule devel opment in legumes and
actinorhi zal pl ants
Page 10
Temperature. Depends on the bacteria species and the host plants, for example 4-6"C is
adequate in Vida faba, whereas 18"C or more is necessary for most sub-tropical and tropical
species.
Seasonality. For most species, fixation rates rise rapidly in Spring from zero, to a maximum by
late spring/early summer which is sustained until late summer, then decline back back down to
zero by late autumn. In evergreen species, N-fixation occurs throughout the winter provided the
soil temperatures do not fall too low.
Soil pH. The legumes are generally less tolerant of soil acidity than actinorhizal plants, which is
reflected by Rhizobium species being less acid-Iolerant than Frankia species. Of the actinorhizaJ
plants, Alders (Alnus spp) and Bayberries (Myrica spp) are most acid tolerant. Of Rhizobium
species, acid-tolerance declines in the following order: CO'Npea group (most acid tolerant) - Soya
bean group - Bean & Pea groups - Clover group - Alfalfa group (least acid tolerant). In poor soils
which are low in Nitrogen, the introduction of N-fixing plants usually leads to considerable
acidification (eg. a fall in pH of up to 2.0 in 20 years for a solid stand), which ilself will in time start
to affect nodulation efficiency.
Availability of Nitrogen in the soil. If Nitrogen is abundant and freely-available, N-fixation is usually
much reduced, sometimes 10 only 10% of the total which the N-fixing plants use. In trials wilh
Alders, at low soil N levels (under 0.1% tolal soil nitrogen), the majority of N used by the alder
comes from N fixed from the air; when total soil nitrogen is as high as 0.5%, only 20% of the N
used came from fixed N from the air.
Moisture stress. In droughts, bacterial numbers decline; they generally recover quickly, though,
when moisture becomes available again. Some species (usually actinorhizal), for example Alnus
glutinosa and Myrica gale, are adapted to perform well in waterlogged conditions.
Light availability. Nitrogen-fixation is powered via sunlight and thus will be reduced in shady
conditions. For most N-fixing plants, which are shade sensitive, N-fixation rates decline in direct
proportion to shading, ie 50% shading leads to 50% of the N-fixed. The relationship for N-fixing
species which are not so shade-sensitive is not so clear: they may well continue to fix significant
amounts of nitrogen in shade.
Nitrogen availability and contributions
Nitrogen from N-fixers is made available to other plants by three main natural methoos:
Littertall, which is high in nitrogen
Root tumover (and leaching from roots), which is now believed to be a significant contributor to
Nitrogen flow, returning at least as much as litteriall does. Rne roots are grown annually on most
plant and these die off each year.
Mycorrhizal fungi. These are symbiotic fungi that form an association with plant roots - nearly all
plants form such associations. Where there is an established mycorrhizal mat (typically ulider
trees with the soil not cultivation and not heavily fertilised), the fungi can move nutrients around,
and will move nitrogen from areas of the soil where it is in high amounts (eg. under I around
nitrogen-fixing plants) to areas where it is lacking (ie demanding plants), sometimves moving it
several tens oif metres.
In addition to these, there may be interventions which aid the liberation of nitrogen, for example by regular
coppicing or pruning, with the prunings left to decompose on the soil floor or shredded and used as a mulch.
All the evidence now indicates that Nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs (both Actinorhizal and
leguminous) can fix comparable amounts of nitrogen to the common horticultural crops
mentioned above. Pure stands of Alders, Elaeagnus, Hippophae rhamnoides and others have
all been recorded as making an extra 150 Kg N per Ha per year (or more) available in Ihe soil.
Fixing rates obviously start off much lower than this for young plan Is, but maximum N-
production is reached within about 10 years.
Nitrogen accumulation rates can vary considerably, depending on the species-bacteria
combi nati on, age, growth conditions, time of year etc. They are also quite difficult to measure.
Overall, rates for legumes and actinorhizal plants are similar. Some recorded N-accumulation
rates (ie made available to other plants) for various genera are given below:
Alders (Alnus spp)
Ceanothus spp
Elaeagnus spp
Sea buckthorn
.(Hippophae rhamnoides)
L'espedeza spp
60-360 Kg/Ha/year
30-100 Kg/Ha/year
240 Kg/Ha/year
180 Kg/ Ha/year
100+ Kg/Ha/year
Lupinus arboreus
Myrica cerifera
17 Kg/Ha in 10 weeks in summer
120 Kg/Ha/year
Ulex europaeus 200 Kg/Ha/year
Taking 1 00 as a conservative average of the overall accumulation of N, gives a rate
of 10 g per m canopy of Nitrogen per year made available to other plants. This will be in good
light situations, the amount reducing in shady locations.
Assuming that the correct symbiotic bacteria are present in the soil, then in good light
conditions, 10-20 g of Nitrogen is fixed per m
2
of canopy area 01 these trees and shrubs. If they
are used beneath the forest garden canopy, but in the gaps between canopy trees so that they
still receive substantial (50%) light, then the amount fixed will be reduced by perhaps 50%.
Thus the following are conservative estimates 01 the amounts of Nitrogen which can be
expected to be fixed annually in low forests and forest gardens:
Full light (Canopy/hedges) 109 1m
2
of canopy
Part shade (Understorey) 5 g 1m2 of canopy
Uses of nitrogen-fixing plants
The use of N-fixers to supply essential nitrogen to enable other plant growth has several
advantages over the use Of ordinary fertilisers:
The supply of N is more regular and continues over a longer time.
There is less leaching and volatilization of the Nitrogen.
N-fixers also increase soil organfc matter.
The disadvantages are:
Page 12
Slower in producing fertility increases.
May be a source of competition.
Produces a managerially more complex ecosystem.
The use of N-fixers may be more expensive than using chemical fertilisers on a per-
unit N basis; however if the N-fixers themselves have uses, or long-term use of them
is envisaged, or wider environmental benefits are taken into account, this short-term
economic gain may be irrelevant.

Aquaculture
Nitrogen fixing plants by lakes, ponds and rivers can be a major source of Nitrogen to the aquatic
ecosystem, one result being increased photosynthe:tic activity by phytoplankton which are at the start of the
food chain for many fish.
Agriculture and horticulture
Inlerplanting Nfixers with other crops is perhaps the most important role these plants can play in agricultural
and horticultural systems. The N they supply can allow for lower stocking rates of animals (overstocking is a
major problem in many countries including Britain), and reduce or remove the need for external sources of
Nitrogen. In agriculture the use of N-fixing annuals and perennials is common in green manures and
pastures, with species likes clovers fixing up to 200 kg/ha/year.
II is important to realise that the use of N-fixing trees and shrubs can only achieve an N-supply equivalent to
that which intensive agriculture or horticulture needs by utilising a large proportion of the total area.
Forest and fruiting gardens
The use of nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs to provide nitrogen for a cropping system has been rare to date,
mostly because of a simple lack of knowledge of what they can contribute. Some use as nurse crops in
forestry systems has been tried, and some species are known as soil improvers.
Using the figures above for Nitrogen fixation rates for oommon N-fixing shrubs and trees, ie 10 glm'l. of
canopy in full sun, 5 g/m'l. in part shade, recommendations can be made for exactly how many N-fixers
should be planted in an understorey to provide the nitrogen for (say) fruit crops. The major and minor
temperate tree and shrub crops fall into four categories of nitrogen requirements:
Very demanding
Demanding
Slightly demanding
Undemanding
N per m
2
canopy req'd
10 g
6g
2g
Zero
N per acre required
40 Kg (88 Ib)
24 Kg (53 Ib)
8 Kg (18 Ib)
Zero
N per Ha required
100 Kg (220 Ib)
60 Kg (132 Ib)
20 Kg (44 Ib)
Zero
Therefore, using the above figures, for each of these categories, 1 m'l. canopy of tree/shrub crop requires the
following canopy area of N-fixing treeS/shrubs to supply nitrogen (assuming there are no other understorey
plants utilising the N fixed):
Very demanding
Demanding
Slightly demanding
N-fixers in full sun
1 m'
0.6m2
O.2m2
The tree and shrub crops fall into the following groups:
Very demanding
Chestnuts
Citrus sp
Damsons
Plums
Walnuts
Blackberries
Demanding
Apples
Apricots
Bamboos
Filberts
Hazelnuts
Medlars
Mulberries
Peaches
Pears
Slightly demanding
Cherries
Serviceberries
(Arne/anchier sp)
Strawberry tree
Berben's sp
Plum yews
(Cephafotaxus sp)
Carnelian cherry
(Comus mas)
N-fixers in part shade
2 m'
1.2m2
0.1 m
2
Undemanding
Figs
Angelica tree (Aralia e/ata)
Paper mulberry
(Broussonetia papyrifera)
Redbuds (Gereis sp)
Yellowwood
(Cladrastis lutea)
Hazels - for poles
Winter's bark (Drimys sp)
Page 13
Very demanding Demanding Slightly demanding
Dogwoods (Comus sp)
Azarole (Crataegus sp)
Blue bean
Undemanding
Eucalypts Persimmons
(Oiospyros sp)
Quinces
Blackcurrants
Gooseberries
(Decaisnea fargesil)
Date plum
(Diospyros lotus)
Honey locust
Snowdrop tree
(Halesia carolina)
Bayberries (Myrica sp)
Sumachs (Rhus sp)
Elderberries
Sorbus sp
Vibumumsp
Yellowhorn
(Xanthoceras sorbifofium)
Zanthoxylum sp
Redcurrants
Raspberries
Beech - for leaves
Witch hazel (Hamamelis sp)
lIexsp
Junipers
Golden rain
(Koe/reuteria paniculata)
Bay (Laurus nobifis)
Spice bush
(Lindera benzoin)
Magnoliasp
Sour.o.ood
(Oxydendrum arboreum)
Pines ' or nuts
Hop tree (Pte/ea trifoliata)
Umes for leaves (Tilia sp)
Thus, for example, a walnut or chestnut orchard should be sel'-sufficient in nitrogen if an equal area is given
to the nut trees and to N-fixing trees/shrubs in sun; an apple or pear orchard should require 37% N-fixefS in
sun INith 63% apple trees to be self-sufficient (% by area, that is. Equates to 6:10 N-fixers:apples).
In practice, forest gardens (as opposed to orchards) may have ground cover layers and other shrubs to feed,
so the proportion of N-fixers required may be somewhat higher. Nitrogen fixers in the understorey shoutd be
located both throughout the garden, and also concentrated near demanding species.
Forestry ,
N-fixers are used in forestry as nurse trees, soil improvers and for erosion control: for example, Alnus
glutinosa and Elaeagnus umbel/ata dramatically improve the growth of Juglans nigra (black walnut) in North
America The benefits of interplanting N-fi xers increase where soils are deficient of Nitrogen.
The two main areas for introducing N-fixers into forests are as crop trees and as ecosystem improvers:
Crop trees
These can be introduced in three ways:
Continuous cropping - for example on 25-30 year rotations for fibre and Vv'OOd (eg. Alnus
glutinosa, A.rubra) ; or using 515 year short rotations for biomass production (Eg. Alnus
glutinosa. A.rubra, Elaeagnus umbellata, Robinia pseudoacacia).
Intercropping, using large N-fixing trees like the alders above between other species.
Alternate cropping INith other tree species, eg a 3D-year crop of A/nus spp followed by a non-N-
fixer, followed by another N-fixer etc.
Ecosystem improvers
These can also utilised in three ways:
Page 14
As a green manure crop before the non-N-fixing ~ r o p tree. For example, herbaceous legumes,
Dryas spp, Myrica spp.
As an N-lixing understorey beneath the crop trees (see also about forest gardens above). The
most promisi ng species are shrubby Alnus spp, Comptonia spp, Dryas spp, Elaeagnus spp,
Hippophae spp, Myrica spp, Purshia spp, Shepherdia spp and herbaceous legumes.
Most N-fi xers are shade-intolerant and are shaded out as the main tree crop grows, provided the
N-fixer does not grow faster than the main crop. II this is likely, then the N-fixing nurse can be cut
back or coppiced. Alternatively, the main crop can be planted before the N-fixing nurse so that
gets a head start: in one mixed planting of red alder and Douglas fir, a delay in alder
establishment of 4-8 years was needed to prevent overtopping of the fir. Use 01 N-lixing shrubs
avoids this problem of overtopping.
The tre'e lupin (Lupinus arboreus) is much used in New Zealand, interplanted with Pinus radiata
on sandy soils; the lupins rapidly establish and supply to the pines, which are planted 3
years after the lupins have been sown, after the lupins have been crushed to set them back.
Various annuals and perennials have been interplanted with trees to improve their groYJth and
establishment, including clover (Trifolium repens) via seed sown in the compost 01
containerised trees; Crown vetch (Coronilla varia) , Blue lupin (Lupinus angustifolius), Bokhara
clover (MeINotus alba) and Birdsfoot treloil (Lotus corniculatus) with poplars; Alaskan lupin
(Lupinus ardicus) with larch in Iceland; Lespedeza cuneata with pines; and Subterranean clover
(Trifolium subterraneum) with Pinus radiata in Australia. Interplanting Lupinus po/yphyllus with
spruce and Scots pine resulted in improved nitrogen, calcium and potassium nutrition of the trees,
faster litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Most of these N-lixing species are shade-
sensitive, thus the N fixed by them falls as the tree canopy closes, and is near zero at canopy
closure; however, most of them leave long-lived seeds in the soil and when trees are thinned or
halVested, the N-fixing fayer regenerates.
Alone or mixed for soil stabilisation and amelioration. Useful species here include Ceanothus spp,
Myrica spp, Purshia spp and herbaceous legumes.
Mineral accumulators
Many N-fixers are excellent mineral accumulators, as befits their role as pioneer plants which improve soil
conditions for future successions of plants. They achieve this by finding mineral sources in the subsoil with
their deep taproots, and raising the minerals SO gained to their upper parts, which may be eaten or die off in
winter, releasing their minerals into the sailor fauna.
There is also increasing evidence that accumulated minerals may leach out of the roots into the surrouooing
soil, wtlere the root systems of other plants may be able to utilise them. A second method of accumulation is
via mycorrhizal associations, wtlere phosphorus is made available to the plants via these symbiotic fungi.
Windbreaks
Several N-fixers are excellent windbreak trees, ego Caragana arborescens (Siberian pea shrub), Elaeagnus
spp. and Hippophae rhamnoides (Sea buckthorn). Maritime exposure (salt spray) is tolerated by several
species as well.
Bee (honey) plants
A large number of legumes are excellent bee (honey) plants, from perennials like clovers and vetches to
trees like the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia).
Soil improvement
Using N-fixing plants increases soil organic matter by up to 20%. Soil organic matter is the primary storage
medium for soil Nitrogen, and an increase in it improves soil tilth, mineral levels, water retention, soil porosity
and aeration, and soil structure. There is now evidence that N-fixing understorey plants can recycle greater
amounts of phosphorus in litter and thus influence phosphorus cycling on sites where this mineral is in
limited supply.
Another effect often found is the suppression of fungal diseases, notably with alders. The reasons are not
clear, but the alders may release substances from their roots which suppress these fungi, and the increased
flitrification of soils may encourage pests of the fungi.
Edible uses
Many of the legumes and actinorhizal plants, because they are pioneer plants, synthesise various toxins
which are held in the aerial parts of the plant to deter animals from brO'NSing on them. However, others are
nor poisonous and many have edible seeds and leaves, for example in the pea (Pisum) and bean
(Phaseolus) species, while others have edible fruits, for example seas buckthorn and Elaeagnus.
Artificial inoculation
When utilising non-native N-fixing species, there may be a possibility that compatible strains of N-fixing
bacteria are not present in the soil. If this is the case, then no N-fixing will take place. One option when
sowing or planting such species is to artifidally inoculate with compatible bacteria.
Some inoculants (ie Rhizobium or Frankia spp) are available as dry powders to mix with seeds and ensure
that nodulation takes place; these are most commonly used with agricultural crops like soya beans. Strains
which nodulate tree and shrub species are less easily obtained (not at all in Europe). Soil populations of
bacteria often interfere with attempts to introduce new strains by inoculation and it cannot be wholeheartedly
recommended. There is also a lack of evidence of persistence of introduced bacterial strains in the soil.
The richest and most infective source of an inoculum is from root nodule material itself. This can be freshly
collected from plant roots (eg. grown in pots or from established plants), from species likely to cross-infect
with the desired plant. When nodules are collected, they are washed, pulverised in a mortar and pestle, then
diluted and the mixed used "either to drench seed beds or to dip seedling roots into. Such solutions must be
used within a few hours and will not keep.
This method is now quite commonly used in forest nurseries to inoculate alders; although these readily form
nodules naturally, when they afe used in mine reclamation projects the Frankia bacteria are not usually
present in the mine spoil. Note that excess 'nitrogen supplied to young plants will inhibit nodulation. For
most species, a pH near neutral is optimum for nodulation to occur.
When handling bare-rooted plants, care should be taken (as usual) to keep the rools moist, as nodules can
become desiccated and die if the rools are 100 dry.
A further method, more useful when planting Irees and shrubs or where they are already planted, is to add a
few handfuls of soil to the planting hole or around the base; the soil is taken from beneath established trees
of a similar kind or from mixed forests.
Recommended Nitrogen fixing plants for shady locations
Most N-fixing plants are pioneer species which are quite sun-demanding; they are at home in
Ihe canopy of a forest but often disappear from the understorey when shaded. The most shade-
tolerant (some even tolerating deep shade) are listed below. Trees larger than the general
canopy can be coppiced at intervals to ensure that other trees are not shaded. Similarly, large
N-fixing shrubs in the understorey can be kept under control by trimming when they get too
large. Such trimmings etc should be left on the soil floor or chipped and used as a mulch if
possible to ensure return of nutrients. The following are recommended for use in the UK. And
Page 16
us. where they are known to nodulate successfully (ie form working symbioses) unless noted
otherwise:
The definitions used below for part and full shade are as follows (PAR = Photosynthetically
Active Radiation, which is the part of the spectrum plants utilise. An open location in full sun
equates to 100% PAR):
Part shade species receives 25-60% of full PAR (ie 2-6 hrs of exposure to sun per day in
summer)
Full shade species receives 5-25% of full PAR (ie 0-2 hrs of exposure to sun per day in
summer)
Please note that many more species tolerate light shade than listed below - ie 60-80% of full
PAR, or 6-8 hours of summer sun per day.
All of the species below tolerate part shade (some actually prefer part shade). Those that also
tolerate full shade are underlined; those species which are tender or marginal in Britain are in
italics. Species in bold are particularly recommended for use in Britain.
Large/medium trees
(coppiced in understorey)
Alnus cordata
Alnus glutinosa
Alnus hirsula
Alnus lanata
Alnus matsumurae
Alnus mayrii
Alnus rhombifolia
Alnus rubra
Alnus subcordata
Alnus cremastagoyne
Alnus firma
Alnus jorulfensis
Alnus nepalensis
Alnus nitida
Perennials
Amphicaroaea bracteata
Amphicaroaea edgeworthii
Amphicaroaea pitcheri
Apios ameri cana
Apios fortunei
Apios price ana
Glycyrrhiza aspera
Glycyrrhiza echinata
Small treesll arge shrubs
(may be coppiced)
Alnus maritima
Alnus maximowiczii
Alnus oblongifotia
Alnus orientalis
Alnus rugosa
Alnus serrulata
Alnus sinuala
Alnus tenuifolia
Elaeagnus angustifolia
EJaeagnus x ebbingei
Elaeagnus pungens
Elaeagnus x reflexa
Elaeagnus umbellata
Myrica cerifera
Alnus fruticosa
Coriaria sinica
Elaeaqnus glabra
Myrica californica
Rubus el/ipticus
Medium & small shrubs
Alnus viridis
Comptonla peregrina
Elaeagnus commutata
Elaeagnus fragrans
Elaeagnus gonuanthes
Elaeagnus montana
Elaeagnus multiflora
Elaeagnus yoshinoi
Robinia neomexicana
Coriaria terminalis
Elaeaqnus formosana
Elaeaqnus macroDhvlfa
Elaeaqnus maritima
Elaeagnus oldhami;
Elaeagnus thunbergii
Perennials (cont) Annuals
Lathyrus atatus Lathyrus odoratus
Lathyrus davidii
Lathyrus latifol ius
Lathyrus [inifolius montanus
Lathyrus sylvestris
Lathyrus tuberosus
Lotus major
Trifolium repens
Page 17
Perennials Perennials (cont)
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Glycyrrhiza lepidota
Glycyrrhiza malensis
Glycyrrhiza uralensis
Gunnera magellanica
tinctoria
Vicia sylvatica
Gunnera perpensa
The Legumes
The Leguminosae is a huge plant family of worldwide distribution and YJith an estimated
species in about 750 genera. The vast majority are of tropical origin. The family has been divided
taxonomically into three clear distinct subfamilies:
Mimosoideae: Mostly trees, shrubs and Vv'OOdy vines, with a few perennials. MosUy tropical in
origin.
Caesalplnioideaea: Mostly trees and shrubs, rarely herbs. Mostly tropical in origin, many lacking
in nodulation so not fixing nitrogen.
Papilionoideae: Trees, shrubs, perennials and annuals. The majority of the temperate legumes
belong here. Numerous members are economically important as edible nutritious crops fO(
human and animal consumption; also for ground cover, green manures, erosion control, and
honey sources. As pioneer plants in arctic regions they fonn the hub of an efficient nitrogen
source for the entire ecosystem.
Over 3,000 legume species have been examined for evidence of nodulation. Of these, a total of 91% did
nodulate and fix nitrogen, most in the subgroups Mimosioideae and Papitionoideae. In general, all species
in a genus either do or do not nodulate (the main exception being Cassia ....mich is erratic). Nodulation is
least prevalent amoung the CaesaJpinioideaea. The genera ....mich do not appear to nodulate are
Caesalpina, Ceratonia, Cereis (most or all), Cladrastis, Gleditsia, Gymnocladus, Hoffmanseggia and Senna
(most).
The reasons ....my some legume species do not nodulate are varied, but the common causes are wiry, thick-
walled root hairs (....mich the rhizobium cannot penetrate), and the presence of anti-bacterial compounds
inside the root cens. There is some evidence that Gfeditsia can fix nitrogen without forming nodules via a
different method.
Rhizobium species and strains
Rhizobia, in a free-living state, are very common soil inhabitants which can fix small amounts of nitrogen on
their own, though tiny amounts compared with those fixed in symbiotic relationships. Nodulation, and thus
nitrogen fixation, can only take place if compatible rhizobium species are present in the soil.
Some species of legume will nodulate with many different strains, while others only with specifIC strains of
Rhizobium. Individual Rhizobium strains are usually cross-infective, ie they win usually nodulate some other
species other than the host to which they are normally associated.
Most rhizobia fall into one or more of the cross-inoculation groups (CRG) below. These are groups of plants,
known to fix nitrogen, within which the root nodule organisms are mutually interchangeable. If rhizobia exist
in the soil for any of the species within a group, then most of the species within the group will also fix nitrogen
when planted in that soil. The exception to this rute of thumb is the cowpea group. Here, rhizobia from
species in the group all nodulate the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), whereas reciprocal crosses are not always
effective.
Page 18
Within a CRG, there may be many different strains of the rhizobium species, which will vary in their
effectiveness in achievi ng N-fixation. Thus just because a legume nodulates successfully doesn't mean that
the amount of Nitrogen fixed is always the same or at an optimum level.
Therefore, just because a species is not native does not imply that it cannot fix nitrogen. If it is in a CRG
(apart from the cowpea group) which includes native species than it is likely to nodulate successfully. If not,
it may still nodulate - populations of most rhizobium strains exist in many places, notably because of the past
practice of using soil as ballast on shi ps, which was off-loaded in ports.
Cross inoculation groups
Tree and shrub genera which are nodulated are listed in bold.
Group
Alfalfa
Bean
Black locust
Chickpea
Clover
Cowpea
Crown vetch
Lupin
Mealybean
Pea
Peanut
Prairie clover
Sesbania
Soya bean
Rhizobium
species
R.meliloti
R.phaseoli
R.trifolii
Legume genera nodulated
Medicago, Melilotus, Trigonella
Phaseolus, Psoralea
Robinia
Cicer
Caragana, Colutea, Trifolium
Acacia, Albizia, Amorpha, Amphicarpaea, Apios, Baptisia,
Canavalia, Caragana, Cassia, Chamaecytisus, Clitoria,
Colutea, Crotalaria, Cytisus, Desmodium, Genista (prob),
Indigofera, Lablab, Laburnum, Lespedeza, Platyloblum,
Psophocarpus, Psoralea, Psoralidium, Pueraria, Sophora,
Spartium, Tephrosia, Thermopsis, Ulex (?), Vigna
Coronilia, Onobrychis
R.lupini Caragana, Hosackia, Lotus, Lupinus, Ornithopus,
T etragonolobus
Strophostyles
R.leguminosarum Colutea, Galega, Lathyrus, Lens, Pisum, Vicia
Arachis
Dalea
Sesbania
R.japonicum Caragana, Glycine
The followi ng table indicates, for each temperate leguminous genus, which rhizobium group(s) nodulate it,
and its status of nodulation in the U.K. and North America. General lack of knowledge about nodulation
status means that this cannot always be answered definitively.
Possible entries in the nodulation status columns are 'yes', 'no', '1' '" unknown, 'prob' = probably, 'some' =
some nodulate, others do not, 'inoc' = usually needs inoculation of compatible Rhizobium bacteria if the
species hasn't been grown before.
Genus
Rhizobium group
Nodulates in UK?Nodulates in N.America?
Acacia
Cowpea
yes
yes
Adenocarpus
yes
?
Albizia
Cowpea
prob
yes
Amorpha
Cowpea
yes
yes
Amphicarpaea
Cowpea
? yes

yes
?
Anthyllis
several inel Lupin
yes
yes
Apios
Cowpea
? yes
Arachis
Peanut
Inoc
yes
Asphalthium
yes
yes
Astragalus
Alfalfa/Bean/Clover
yes
yes
Baptisia
Cowpea
prob
yes
Caesalpina
Do Not Nodulate
no
no
Calliandra
?
yes
Calophaca
prob
?
Canavalia
Cowpea
?
yes
Caragana
Clover/CowpealLupin/Soya yes
yes
Carmichaelia
yes
?
Cassia
Cowpea
? some
CeTatonia
Do not nodulate
no
no
Cereis
Most do not nodulate
no
no
Chamaecytisus
Cowpea
yes
yes
Chordospartium
?
?
Cicer
Chickpea
Inoc
Inac
Cladrastis
Do not nodulate
no
no
Clitoria
Cowpea
?
prob
Colutea
Clover/Cowpea/Pea
yes
yes
Coronilla
Crown vetch
yes
yes
Crotalaria
Cowpea
prob
yes
Cytisus
Cowpea
yes
yes
Dalea
Prairie clover
Inoc
yes
Desmanthus
Cowpea?
?
yes
Desmodium
Cowpea
prob
yes
Dorycnium
several
yes
prob
Galega
Pea
yes
yes
Genista
Cowpea (prob)
yes
yes
Gleditsia
? no
no
Glycine
Soya bean
Inoc
Inoc
Glycyrrhiza
severa
yes
yes
Gymnocladus
Do not nodulate
no
no
Halimodendron
?
?
Hedysarum
yes
yes
Hippocrepis
yes
?
Hoffmanseggia
Do not nodulate
no
no
Hosackia
Lupin?
? yes
Indigofera
Cowpea
? yes
Lablab
Cowpea
prob
yes
Laburnum
Cowpea
yes
?
Lathyrus
Pea
yes
yes
Lens
Pea
prob
yes
Lespedeza
Cowpea
prob
yes
Lotus
Lupin
yes
yes
Lupinus
Lupin
yes
yes
Page 20
1
}
Genus Rhizobium group Nodulates in UK?Nodulates in N.America?
Maackia ? ?
Medicago Alfalfa yes yes
Melilotus Alfalfa yes yes
Onobrychis Crown vetch yes prob
Ononis several yes yes
Ornithopus Lupin yes prob
Oxylropis yes yes
Petleria yes
?
Phaseolus Bean yes yes
Piptanthus several yes yes
Pisum Pea yes yes
Platylobium Cowpea prob prob
Psophocarpus Cowpea+ prob prob
Psoralea Cowpea+others yes yes
Psoralidium Cowpea? prob
yes
Psorolhamnus Cowpea? ? yes
Pueraria Cowpea prob prob
Rafnia
? ?
Retama Cowpea (prob) yes prob
Robinia Black locust yes yes
Salweenia
prob prob
Scorpiurus
yes
?
Sesbania Sesbania ? yes
Sophora Cowpea prob yes
Spartium Cowpea
yes yes
Sphaerophysa ? ?
Strophostyles Mealybean ? yes
Tephrosia Cowpea prob yes
Tetragonolobus Lupin yes yes
Thermopsis Cowpea+others yes yes
Trifolium Clover yes yes
Trigonella Alfalfa yes yes
Ulex Cowpea? yes prob
Vicia Pea yes yes
Vigna Cowpea yes yes
Wisteria yes yes
Actinorhizal plants
These plants rival legumes in the amount of Nitrogen they fix on a global basis, but knowledge 01 their
characteristics and uses is mostly very recent. Root nodules on these plants involve symbioses with Frankia
species. Frankia can grow in soil independently of a host plant, but then fix only quite small amounts of
Nitrogen. When a symbiosis is formed, nitrogen fixation rates are comparable to those found in legumes.
ActinorhizaJ plants are found primarily in the temperate zone, on every continent except Antarctica. They are
especially important in high-latitude countries (eg. Britain, Canada, Scandinavia, New Zealand) where
conditions are not too favourable for legumes, but where actinorhizal plants are abundant and capable of
vigorous gro'Nth.
Root nodules on actinorhizal plants are perennial structures consisting of multiple nodule lobes, often 3-5
mm in diameter. They may be discrete (eg. in Ceanothus & Myrica) or densely packed (eg. in Alnus), and
usually comprise 1-10% of the total biomass of the host tree/shrub. They become dormant in the winter (ie
no Nitrogen is fixed in the winter). A single plant usually associates with several Frankia strains at the same
time - up to 20 strains is quite common.
Temperate actinorhizal plants
All species in the genera Alnus, Ceanothus, Coriaria, Elaeagnus, Hippophae, Myrica, Shepherdia
nodulate successfully and fix nitrogen. In addition, the following species are known to nodulate successfully:

Genus
Cercocarpus
Chamaebatia
Comptonia
Cowania
Datisca
Dryas
Purshia
Rubus
Species known to nodulate
C.betuloides, C.ledifolius, C.montanus, C.paucidentatus.
C.foliolosa
C.peregrina.
C.mexicana.
D.cannabina, D.glomerata.
D.drummondii, D.integrifolia, D.octopetala.
P .glandulosa, P .tridentata.
R.ellipticus, R.ferdinandi-muelleri
Several of these actinorhizal species can tolerate more shade than most legumes, and in the wild sUlVive in
the understorey of open forests, ego Alnus and Shepherdia with spruce and aspen in Canada. Alnus,
Elaeagnus and Myrica in particular have great potential as green manure trees/shrubs in semi-shaded
areas. Because alders drop thei r leaves very late in the autumn, they can take advantage of prolonged
autumnal photosynthesis and their leaves fall with high levels of N (higher than most woody species).
Frankia species and strains
In general, actinorhizal plants are promiscuous in the species/strains of Frankia with which they will
associate, and suitable Frankia are present in adequate amounts in most ecosystems for natural nodulation
to occur. Species in the Elaeagnaceae (Elaeagnus, Hippophae and Shepherdia) are particularly
promiscuous and cross-infect readily. Other cross-infective groups include the Elaeagnaceae and Myrica;
and Alnus and Myrica.
The following table lists the nodulation status of actinorhizal plants in the U.K. and North America. 'prob' =:
probably does nodulate, '?' = unknown.
Genus
Nodulates in UK? ,
Nodulates in N.America?
Alnus
yes
yes
Ceanothus
prob
yes
Cercocarpus
prob
yes
Chamaebatia
?
yes
Comptonia
prob
yes
Coriaria
prob
prob
Cowania
? yes
Datisca
?
yes
Dryas
yes
yes
Elaeagnus
yes
yes
Hippophae
yes
yes
Myrica
yes
yes
Purshia
?
yes
Rubus
?
?
Shepherdi a
yes
yes
Page 22
Key to hardy nitrogen-fixing species table
Ever: evergreen species, ~ = evergreen
Thorn: thorny or spiny species
Sucker: suckering species
Soil moisture:
Dry: species likes a well-drained soil, bordering on the dry
Moist: species likes a moist soil (this does not mean wet)
Wet: species likes or tolerates wet soils
Water: species is an aquatic plant
Soil pH:
V.ac : species tolerates very acid soil (ie pH under 5.5)
Acid: species tolerates acid soil (ie pH 5.5 to 6.5)
Neut : species tolerates neutral soil (ie. pH 6.5 to 7.0)
Ark: species tolerates alkaline soil (ie pH 7.0 to 8.0)
V.ark : species tolerates very alkaline soil (ie pH over 8.0)
Soil type:
Light: species tolerates light (sandy) soils
Med : species tolerates medium (loamy) soils
Heavy: species tolerates heavy soils
H.cly : species tolerates heavy clay soils
Light requirements:
Sun: species tolerates full sun
L.shd : species tolerates light shade (60-80% of full PAR, ie 6-10 hrs of exposure to sun per day
in summer)
P .shd : species tolerates part/semi-shade (25-60% of full PAR, ie 2-6 hrs of exposure to sun per
day in summer)
F.shd : species tolerates full/ deep shade (5-25% of full PAR, ie 0-2 hrs of exposure to sun per
day in summer)
Wind: Indicates if the species tolerates strong winds
Marit : indicates if the species tolerates maritime exposure
Poll : Indicates if the species tolerates atmospheric pollution
Large & medium trees (over 10m high)
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOL TYPE LIGHT REOS
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid AIk Light Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Pol
U Thorn U
""
U
w"'
U V.ac U NeuI U v.aII U
"'" U
H. U Lshd U F.shcl U Marit U
Alnus cordata

Alnus olutinosa

Alnus hirsuta

"t Alnus incana

Alnus japonica

Alnus lanata

Alnus malsumurae

Alnus mayrii

Alnus rhombifolia

Alnus rubra

Alnus subcordata

Cercis chinensis

Hippophae salicifolia

Maackia amurensis

Robinia x ambiQua

Robini a fertiUs

Robinia Ilava

Robinia pseudoacacia

Robinia viscosa

Sophora iaponica

Small trees & large shrubs (over 3 m high)
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOIL TYPE LIGHT REOS
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid A/k Light Heavy Sun P.shd Wro Pol
U Thorn U
""
U
w"
U V.ac U Neut U v.aD<. U Med U He! U l.shcl U F.shd U Marit U
Alnus maritima

Alnus maximowiczij

Alnus oblonQifolia

Alnus orientalis

Alnus ru osa

Alnus serrulata

Alnus sinuata

Alnus lenuifofia

Amo ha fruticosa

Caragana arborescens

Caragana decorticans

Ceanolhus inleQerrimus

Ceanolhus megacarp!-,s

Ceanolhus Ihyrsiflorus

Cercocarous ledifolius

Cercocarpus monl anus

Colutea arborescens

Elaeagnus angustifolia

Elaeagnus anQ. oriental is

Page 24 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No 1
Small trees & large shrubs (over 3 m high) cont
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOIL TYPE UGHT REOS
Eller Sucker Moist Water Acid ASk Ugh! Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Pol
UThom U On U U 1I.at:. U Neut U v.aII. U Mod U H. U Lshd U F.shd U Marit U
Elaeaanus x ebbinaei

Elaeaanus un ens

El aeaanus x reflexa

Elaeaanus umbellata

Hioooohae rhamnoides

Laburnum aTDlnum

Laburnum anaovroides

Laburnum x watereri

Lesoedeza maximowicvii

MYrica cenfera

Robinia luxurians

SheDherdia arnentea

Medium & small shrubs (1 - 3 m high)
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOIL TYPE UGHT REOS
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid Alk Light Heavy Sun P.shd Wind PoH
U Thorn U On U U V.ac U Neut U v.aJk U Mad U H.eI U LsM U F.shd U Marit U
Alnus viridis

Alnus viridis crisoa

Amomha canescens

Cara ana brevisoina

Caraaana fruticosa

.

Cara ana erardiana

Caraaana 'ubata

Caraoana sinica

Ceanothu5 americanus

Ceanothus cuneatus

Ceanothus fendleri

Ceanothus sannuineus

Ceanothus velutinus

Colutea x media

Com tonia peree !ina

Comotonia oere. asolenifolia

Coronilla emerus

Cvtisus x oraecox

CVtisus scc;;:;;lrius

Desmodium caudatum

Desmodium dunn;i

Desmodium elee ans

Elaeaanus commutata

.

Elaea nus fra rans

Elaeaanus aonuanthes

Elaea nus montana

Elaeaanus multiflora

AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No I Page 25
Medium & small shrubs (1 - 3 m high) cont
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid Ak light Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Pol
UThom U
""
U Wet U V.ac U NeuI U v.aII U Med U Hot U L.shd U F.shd U Mam U
Elaea nus yoshinoi

.

Halimodendron halodendron

Indigofera heterantha

Indigofera kirilowii

Lespedeza bicolor

Lespedeza cyrtobotrya

Lesoedeza floribunda

Lespedeza japonica

Lespedeza iuncea

Lespedeza thunbergii

Mvrica gale
.

.

Myrica hetero hylla

Myrica pensylvanica

Purshia tridentata

Robinia neomexicana

.
Shepherdia canadensis

Sophora davidii

Sophora flavescens

SOphora sub rostrala

urex europaeus

Ulex parviflorus

Dwarf & prostrat,e shrubs (under 1 m high)
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOIL TYPE LIGHT REDS
Ever Sucker PY'oist Water Acid AIk Ught Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Poll
UThom U Il<v U Wet U V.ac U Neut U v.aJk U Mod U Hd U L.shd U F.shd U Marit U
Amorpha nana

Astragalus massiliensis

Ceanothus ovatus

Ceanothus prostratus

,

Cytisus x beanii

Cytisus decumbens

Cvtisus hirsutus

Cytisus x kewensis

Dryas inteorifolia

Dryas octo etala

Genista Qermanica

Genista hispanica

Genista lydia

Genista oilosa

Genista sa ittalis

Genista tinctoria

Genista villarsii

IndiQofera decora

Indi of era seudo-tinctoria

Dwarf & prostrate shrubs (under 1 m high) cant
Lespedeza buergeri
Lespedeza capitata
Lespedeza pilosa
Lespec!eza sericea
Ulex gaJlH
Ulex minor
Climbing shrubs
Wisteria floribunda
Wisteria x formosa
Wisteria frutescens
Wisteria sinensis
Wisteria venusta
Wisteria villosa
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOIL TYPE LIGHT AEOS
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid AIk Light Heavy SUIl P.shd Wind PoH
U Thorn II D U
W"'
U V.ac U Neul U v.elk U Med U H.d

.

.

SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH
Ever SUcker Moist Water Acid Alk
U U U U h ~ o DO
W"'
V . ~ U U No",

SOIL TYPE
Light Heavy
v.alk U U
"'"
H.d

U l.shd U F.shd U Marit

LIGHT AEOS
Sun P.shd Wind
U U U Lshd F.shd
"""

U
p"
U
Perennials and climbing perennials
EVBf Sucker Moist Water Acid AJk Light Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Pol
UThorn U Dry U
W"' U
V.ac U NeuI U v.aD!. U Mad U H.d U Lshd U F.shd U Marit U
Amphicarpaea bracteata

Amohicaroaea edqeworthii

Amphicarpaea itcheri

Anthyllis vulneraria

.

A ios americana

Apios fortunei

.

A ios priceana

.

Astra alus aboriginorum

Astraaalus canadensis

Astra alus chinensis

Astraoatus complanatus

Astra alus crassicarpus

Astraoalus diphysus

Astra alus exsca us

Astra alus Olycyphyllos

.

Astra.9illUS henryi

Astra alus hoantchy

Astraaalus membranaceus

Astra alus mongho!icus

Astraoalus multiceps

Astra alus pamassi cylleneus

Aslraoalus pictus-filifolius

Perennials and climbing perennials cont
SOil MOISTURE SOIL pH SOIL TYPE liGHT REOS
EVSf Sucker Moisl Water Acid A1k light Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Pol
U Thom U
""
U W ~ U V.ac U Neut U v.alk U .... U H.<t U l.shd U F .shd U Marit U
Astragalus reflexistipulus

Astragalus shinanensis

. Baotisia australis

t Sa !isia bracteala

Baptisia pendula

Baptisia tinctoria

Coronilla varia

Dalea candida

Dalea gattinQeri

Dalea urpurea

Desmanthus illinoensis

Oesmodium oldhami

Desmodium oxyphyllum

Desmodium styracifolium

Gale a officinalis

Glycyrrhiza aspera

Glycyrrhiza echinata

Glycyrrhiza labra

Glycyrrhiza lepidola

Glycyrrhiza malensis

Glycyrrhiza uralensis

Gunnera magellanica

Gunnera tinctoria

Hedysarum alpinum

Hedvsarum arcticum

Hedysarum boreale

Hedysarum boreale mackenzii

Hedysarum coronarium

Hedysarum hedvsaroides

Hedysarum occidentale

Hedysarum sachalinense

Hedysarum vicioides

lathyrus alatus

lathyrus davidii

lathyrus hirsutus

Lathyrus aponicus

lathyrus aoonicus maritimus

lathyrus latifolius

lathyrus linifolius monlanus

Lathyrus ochroleucas

Lathyrus ornalus

Lathyrus oalustris

Lathyrus polymorphus

Lathyrus oralensis

Lathyrus uinquenervius

Lathyrus sylvestris

Page 28 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No I
Perennials and climbing perennials cont .
SOil MOISTURE SOil pH SOIL TYPE LIGHT REOS
Ever Sucker Moist Waler Acid All<. light Heavy Sun P -She:! Wn::I Pol
UThom U U Wet U U l.shd U F.shd U Marit U
n.-
V.w:. U Neut U v.alk U Mad U H.d
Lathvrus tuberosus

.
Lesoedeza tomentosa

Lotus comiculatus

Lotus haloohilus

Lotusmamr

.

Lotus tenuis

.
Lotus uilmnosus

.

Luoinus littoral is
.

Luninus nootkatensis

Luoinus oerennis

Lupinus nilosus

Medica 0 falcata

Medicaao olatvcarna

Medicaao ruthenica

Medicaao sativa

Melilotus altissima

Onobrvchis vicifolia

.

Ononis renP.ns
.

Ononis 50inosa

.

PachvlThizus ahina

Pachvrrhizus tuberosus

Phaseolus coccineus

Phaseolus helvola

Psoohocarnus tetraaonolobus

Psoralea a ~ l a

Psoralea californica

Psoralea canescens

Psora lea castorea

Psora lea corvlifolia

Psora lea cusoidata

Psoralea esculenta

Psora lea hvooaaea

Psoralea lanceolata

PsoraJea macroslachVa

Psoralea meohilica

Psora lea ono"brVchis

Psoralea orbicularis

Psoralea nedunculala

Psoralea subacaulis

Psoralea tenuiflora

Pueraria lobata
.

Soohora sericea

Teohrosia vfrQiniana

Thennoosis lanceolala

Trifoliumaorarium

Trifolium aloinum

Perennials and climbing perennials cont
SOL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOL TYP!: LIGHT REOS
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid AIk Light Heavy Sun P.shd WIOd Pol
OThom U
""
u
w"
U V.ae U Neut U v.all U ..... U H.d U Lshd U F.shd U Marit U
Trifolium amabile

Trifolium ambiguum

T rifolium a r v ~ n s e

Trifolium fimbrialum

Trifolium fraQiferum

Trifolium hybridum

.

Trifolium lupinaster

Trifolium macrocephalum

Trifolium montanum

Trifolium ornithopodioides

.

. .
Trifolium pratense

.
Trifolium repens

.

Vicia americana

Vida amoena

Vida amurensis

Vicia cracca

Vida. gigantea

Vicia heptaju
a

Vicia hirticalvcina

Vicia "aponica

Vida monantha

Vicia nipponica

Vida pisiformis

Vicia pseudo-oro bus

Vicia sepium

Vida sylvatica

.
Vicia tenuifolia

Vicia tridentata

Vicia uni'u a

Vida venosa

Vicia villosa

Annuals & biennials
SOil. MOISTURE SOil pH SOL TYPE UGHT REOS
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid All. light Heavy Sun P.shd Wrd Pol
UThom U Dry U Wet
U V.ac U Neu! U v.all U Me<:! U H.d U L.shd U F .shd U Marit U
ASlraqalus boelicus

Astra alus hamosus

AstraQalus sinicus

Glycine max

Lathyrus aphaca

Lathvrus cicera

Lathyrus ochrus

Lathvrus odoratus

.
Lathyrus sativus

Annuals & biennials cont
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOil TYPE LIGHT REOS
Ever Sod<8f Moist Walef Acid AIk light Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Pol
UThom U
""
U w. U V.ac U Neut U v.alk U Me(! U H.d U Lshd U F.shd U Marit U
Lens culinaris

Lesoedeza stlDulacea

.

Lesoedeza striata

Lotus edulis

Lotus hirsutus

Lotus tetranonolubus

Luoinus albus

Lunlnus anaustifolius

Lu rnus hirsutus

Luntnus luleus

Lu
inus mutabilis

LUDinus termis

Lu inus varius

Medicaao arabica

Medicaqo laciniata

Medicaao li ttoral is

Medicano iunulina

Medicaao orbicularis

Medicaao oolvmoroha

Medicaao scutella

Melilotus alba

Meljlotus eleqans

Melilotus indica

Melilotus officinalis

.

Melilotus suaveolens

Meljlotus wolniea

.

Omithoous com ressus

Ornithonus micranthus

OrnithoDUS oerousillus

OrnithODUS sativus

Phaseolus vUlOaris

Pisum sativum

Pisum sativum arvense

Scoroiurus muricatus

Scamiurus vermiculatus

Trifolium alexandrinum

Trifolium bifidum

Trifolium ciliatum

Trifolium cvathiferum

Trifolium dichotomum

Trifolium dubium

.
Trifolium fucatum

Trifolium fucatum lIirescens

Trifoliu"nnracilentum

Trifolium incarnatum

Trifolium microceohalum

Annuals & biennials cont
Trifolium obtusifolium
Trifolium pannonicum
Trifolium parviflorum
Trifolium reslIpinatum
Trifolium subterraneum
Trifolium tridentatum
Trifolium varieaatum
Trigonelia caerulea
T riqonella corniculata
T rigonelia foenum-graecum
TriQonelia suavissima
Vicia articulata
Vieia benghalensis
Vida ervilia
Vida faba eQuinalminor
Vida hirsuta
Vicia narbonensis
Vieia noeana
Vida annonica
Vicia saliva
Vieia tetras erma
Vigna unQuiculata & 55
Lichens
Lobaria pulmonaria
Lobaria scrobiculata
PeltiQera aphthosa
Peltigera canina
Stereocaulon alpinum
References
SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH SOIL TYPE UGHT REQS
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid Alk Light Heavy Sun P.shd Wind Poll
Jj Thom U D D Wei U V.ac U Neut U v.a1k U

.

.

SOIL MOISTURE SOIL pH
Ever Sucker Moist Water Acid A1k
U U U U U U Thom D
W"'
V.ac No", v.alk
"""
H.cl

.

"'"
H.el
U L.shd.u F.shd U Man!

LlGHTREOS
Sun P.shd Wind
D D D L.shd F.shd Man!

D
Poll
D
Allen, 0 N & Allen E K: The Leguminosae, A Source Book of Characteristics, Uses and Nodulation.
Macmillan, 1981.
Crawford, M: Nitrogen-fixing Plants for Temperate Climates. A.R.T., 1998.
Gordon, JC & Wheeer, C T (Eds): Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Forest Ecosystems. Nijhoff, 1983.
Schwintzer, C R & ljepkema, J D (Eds):The Biology of Frankia and Actinorhizal Plants. Academic Press,
1990.
Birch wood, sap and bark uses
Introduction
The birch genus (Betula) includes about 50 species of trees and shrubs. Although there is
variability between species, it is clear that all species, especially the trees, can be used
similarly in terms of sap products, bark products and wood products. In this arti cle particular
species are only referenced when a specific use is only known for that specie.
Birch trees are fast growing, often with peeling bark, and can reach a diameter at breast height
(DBH) of 20 em (the minimum required for tapping) in 20-30 years. They usually mature in 60-
70 years and rarely live more than 100 years.
Birches are shade intolerant, and in mature forests are usually restricted to opening and edges.
Birch bark is thin and flammable (due to the presence of oils), and trees are susceptible to fire.
Fire damaged trees often regenerate by developing new sprouts around the base of the original
stem.
Cultural/historical uses
To the Celts, birch trees signified a new awakening with the return of spring and fertility, whilst
in Norse mythology, the birch is dedicated to Thor, god of thunder.
In Britain a besom wedding was considered legal. A besom, or broom, made of birch twigs was
placed in the doorway of a house with the head of the broom on the door stone and the handle
resting on the doorpost. The man would jump over the broom into the house, followed by the
woman. By jumping they would be married. The marriage could be broken by jumping
backwards over the broom within the fi rst year.
On May 1$1 , May day or Beltane, fires were kindled with birch twigs. May day was a ferti li ty
festival for people, crops and animals. Fertility dances to ensure health and abundant crops
were performed around the ,maypole of birch, often a living tree. In parts of Britain, May day
trees were decorated and propped against stable doors to ward away evil spiri ts. On
midsummer's' eve birch boughs were hung over doors for good luck.
The use of birch for punitive purposes is another ancient practice.
Sap uses
Birch trees have been tapped since ancient times as a source of sweetness. Birch sap is less
sweet than maple sap and is produced about a month later.
Birch sap tonic
People throughout the world have long used birch sap, also known as ubirch juice
ft
Birch sap is a traditional and refreshing spring tonic, and has been consumed for centuries in
the Nordic countries, central Europe, Canada, Japan and Korea. It is sold commercially in
some of these countries and its uses are varied. Birch sap has a hi nt of sweetness, sometimes
with a slight minty, wintergreen flavour. In some countries it is pasteurized, bottled and sold as
a health drink.
Finland is one of the largest
producers of birch sap, with some
97% of production exported to
Japan, Korea and Central Europe. It
is sold raw, not heaHreated, with no
additives or preservatives, in half
litre bottles. Unopened, it will stay
fresh for two and a half years. Once
'opened it will keep for 3-5 days in a
fridge.
Although many believe that
consuming birch sap has health
benefits, these benefits are
anecdotal and have not been
confirmed by research. Birch sap is
believed to have positive effects on
the body, aiding in weight control ,
general wellbeing and digestion.
Considering that is contains sugars,
vitamin C and many minerals, some
health benefits would not be
surprising.
Birch sap can also cause mild
allergic reactions (apparently most
common in people also allergic to
apples).
Birch sap wine, beer,
spirits
There is a long tradition, both on a
home scale and commercially (small
scale), of making birch sap wine.
Wine can be made from raw sap,
though the sugar content is fairly low
and producing a good wine without
using additional sugar is difficult.
Wine can also be made from
concentrated sap. It does not need
to be concentrated to the level of
birch syrup (see below) but coul d be
concentrated to 5% or 10% sugar
content.
Sap flow physiology
Sap flow is the process of transporting (mainly)
water through a tree. Water is drawn up from the
soil through roots and transported through the stem
to the leaves. Once in the leaves, the water
evaporates into the atmosphere through the
stomata (transpiration).
Water can either be pushed up from the bottom by
osmotic pressure at the roots (normally only in
spring before leaf development) or is pulled up by
transpiration. During transpiration sap flow,
enzymatic changes occur in the sap that make il
unsuitable for human consumption. Therefore
tapping only takes place when the sap is flowing
because of root pressure.
Birch is tapped when the buds are beginning to
expand. The sap is primarity (over 99%) produced
from the flow in the sapwood xylem tissue (ie from
beneath the layers of outer and inner bark).
Sap flow in birches can slart at anytime, day or
night, when soil and wood average day-night
temperatures are above zero in spring. This differs
from maples, where sap flow is better in a freeze-
thaw cycle with a large temperature fluctuation.
The collection period is 3 to 5 weeks, with sap
starting to flow between mid March and mid April,
depending on location and weather conditions.
Trees at lower elevations or on slopes with a
southerl y aspect will usually begin the sap flow
earlier.
Tapping continues until the sap become buddy, or
milky-white, as microorganisms begin reducing the
sugars. The sap may also have a fermented smell
or bitter taste due to yeasts in the sap. Buddy sap
is unacceptable to syrup production as it has poorer
taste and quality.
Birch beer is made from the sap of Betula lenta (cherry birch, sweet birch, black birch) in the
Eastern USA.
Birch vodka is made in Byelorussia using birch sap and high quality grain alcohol.
Page 34
Cosmetics etc
Numerous cosmetics contain or are based on birch sap in several parts of the world. These
include massage scrub lotions, facial creams, healing creams, after shave and hair conditioner.
Birch syrup
Birch syrup is more challenging to make than maple syrup, primarily because making maple
syrup entails concentrating the sap by a factor of 40, while birch syrup requires concentration
by a factor of 80 to 120. There is also less volume of sap flow than from maple trees.
Birch syrup colour ranges from amber to dark reddish-brown. The colour partially depends on
the time of harvest and exposure to heat during processing; lighter syrups are usually obtained
in the beginning of the season and are more subtle in flavour. Early season syrups are often
used on pancakes, waffles of crepes and are generally of higher value. Darker syrups are more
full-bodied with a stronger flavour. They are often used with both savoury and sweet foods.
The carbohydrates in birch sap are different from those in sugar maple sap. Carbohydrates in
sugar maple sap are primarily sucrose, whilst in birch sap fructose is the main sugar, though
there is a mix of others:
Type of carbohydrate I Approx % of total Concentration range Concentration
SUQar (orams I l i t r ~ 1 throuah season
Fructose 49 0.7 2.2 Increases
Glucose 33 0.8 2.3 Constant
Sucrose 18 0.0 - 0.9 Decreases
Galactose <1 0.01 - 0.02 Constant
(this is typical composition values for sap from the Yukon birch (Betula neoalaskana))
In terms of minerals, significant amounts of calcium , magnesium and potassium are present,
along with smaller quantities of zinc, magnesium, iron and sodium. Mineral contents increase
as the sap season progresses.
An understanding of how the carbohydrate content of birch sap varies through the sap flow is
critical when producing syrup because carbohydrates have different melting points. As birch
sap contains primarily glucose and fructose at the end of the season, both of which have lower
melting points than sucrose, this latter sap is much more susceptible to scorching than sap ftom
earlier in the season.
Sap yields are highly variable between individual trees and in different seasons. 25-80 litres of
sap per tree is common. Larger diameter trees and healthy trees have higher sap yields.
Tapping
Begin tapping when enough sap is available to process quickly. Avoid prolonged sap
storage whi le waiting for sufficient volumes to accumulate. Sap may start flowing
sooner on the southern side of the tree, however the north side is a better position for
the spile and bucket as it is cooler and not so prone to bacterial or yeast
contamination.
Select vigorous , healthy trees with a minimum dbh of 15-20 cm.
Install only one tap per tree.
The drill bit and spile (a spout) should be sterile before using on the tree. The spile
has three functions: to transfer sap from the tree to a collection container or into
tubing; to hold a collection container or connect to tubing; and to seal around the
tap hole. Spiles are available from maple equipment suppliers in North America.
The tree bark adjacent to the tap hole site should be cleaned.
The taphole depth should be 3 to 5 cm, angled upward at about tOo, at a convenient
height from the ground, and at least 5 - 10 cm to the side and 15 cm above or below
previous tap holes or wounds.
The drill bit should be an appropriate size for the spile, and be sharp; avoid oval holes
by maintaining a steady hand and drilling angle. American spiles are usually 7/ 16
H
or
5/ 16". Hand drills with auger bits are fine for small-scale operations.
If the wood in the hole appears dark or decayed, abandon the hole and plug it. Locate
a new taphole at least 5-10 cm from the abandoned hole.
Inspect the new hole - sap flow will probably begin immediately. Tapholes should be
free of wood shavings, dirt and bark fragments - clean with a squirt of water or clean
tool if necessary.
Due to the acidic nature of birch sap, plastic or stainless steel spiles are best.
Drive the spile gently into the tap hole (with
a mallet) deep enough for the spile to hold
securely (with a full sap bucket resting on it
if this is the system used).
Address any apparent infections around the
spile by washing with clean water and
replacing with a sterile spiJe.
Remove spiles gently at the end of the sap-
flow season. Wash tap holes and plug with
corks to reduce likelihood of infection. As
the tree heals, it will gradually force the plug
out of the tree - this takes a few years.
The same tree can be tapped for 4 or 5
years in succession, then, it should be
rested for 8-10 years
Insertion of spile into birch tree
Sap collection
Page 36
The traditional way of collecting the sap, still used by most small-scale operations
today, is to use a bucket or plastic bag. Larger scale operations use plastic tubing
leading downhill directly to the processing building (sugaring hut).
Use food-grade equipment for all items that come into contact with sap: spiles,
buckets, tubing, collection tanks, storage.
The Tap and pail system uses a bucket or bag suspended on the spile.
Ensure that buckets have lids to avoid contamination from rain, insects etc. Buckets
can hang on spiles or sit on the ground, either way with tubing directing the sap
through a suitable close-fitting hole in the side at the top of the bucket.
Collect sap daily, sometimes twice ' daily during high sap flow. Although sap flow
averages 4 litres/day, it can vary from zero to 20 litres/day.
Avoid collecting sap that is off-colour and has an odour.
Clean tubing etc. used to transfer sap daily. Also check spiles frequently in case they
come dislodged or loose for any reason.
Stop collection when the sap turns buddy.
Sap storage
Store sap in food grade containers that are easy to clean.
Process sap as soon as possible. While in the tree, sap is sterile, but it begins to
degrade as soon as it is exposed to microorganisms in the air.
Store sap at temperatures below SoC.
Store out of direct sunlight.
Filter all sap through course, medium and finally a 5 micron filter to remove suspended
solids.
Processing birch sap to syrup
The transformation of sap to syrup involves the concentration of soluble solids, primarily sugar,
through the removal of water. This is achieved through evaporation or by reverse osmosis.
It requires 80 to 120 litres of birch sap to produce one litre of birch syrup. With evapo'ration this
takes considerable time (and energy). With all the boiling, the fructose in the sap caramelizes
as it comes in contact with the hot bottoms of the evaporation pans. Some caramelisation is
necessary for flavour, but too much results in an undesirable taste. Caramelisation begins at
about 93C. The longer the sp is cooked once it attains a density of 5Brix. the darker the final
product will be.
For best results on a commercial scale, exposure to heat should be limited and the majority of
the water can be removed by low temperature vacuum evaporation (where sap boils at 40 to
50C) or by reverse osmosis.
Evaporation can be undertaken in any flat-bottomed pan on a woodstove or hotplate. Most
commercial syrup producers use purpose-built evaporators with a virtually continuous sap flow.
Reverse osmosis machines force the raw sap through membranes at high pressure to filter out
the suspended solids, mainly sugar, allowing the pure water to pass through and out of the
system. Sap can be rapidly reduced in this way resulting in a concentrate with 5% sugar
content. This concentrate is further processed by evaporation to produce the finished product.
Total energy use is in the order of a half compared with evaporation only, which compares
favourably with sugar produced from sugar beet:
Product Total energy required in
production
Birch syru via evaporation 16 MJ per litre
Birch syrup via reverse osmosis + evaporation -8 MJ per litre
Granulated suqar from suqar beet 11.7 MJ Der ka
Granulated su ar from sugar cane 5.1 MJ ef kg
A minimum sugar concentration of 60% is desirable, with 66% considered ideal. Most birch
syrup in North America is sold in 250 ml bollied for between $10 and $30 (Canadian dollars) -
ie 20 to 60 per litre.
Birch syrup food products
Birch syrup is used in many food products, mainly in North America. These include:
Birch syrup jelly
Birch caramel products
Birch lollipops
Birch topping (like a thick sauce) for toast, ice cream etc.
Birch sap ice cream is made commercially in Denmark
Birch syrup blends either with honey or maple syrup
Table syrup - syrup concentrated to around 40% sugar and then stabilised by adding
fructose to a 66% sugar concentration.
Birch orange mustard
Bark uses
Medicinal uses
Research into the medicinal effects of birch bark has been increasing over the last decade,
however uptake of results has been slow from pharmaceutical companies because birch bark
and betulin from it are natural and cannot be patented. Also, betulin is very hard to produce
synthetically because it contains about 1,000 compounds . Products with betulin as their base
are non-toxic.
Betulin can be converted to betulinic acid, which is more biologically active than betulin itself.
Betulinic acid exhibits anti-malarial , anti-inflammatory and anti-HIV activity in addition to having
potential as a cancer treatment. Research has shown than betulin and betulinic acid inhibit the
growth of melanoma cells and can provide therapeutic benefits to the skin. It has also been
shown to help wounds heal laster and to reduce inflammation.
Preliminary tests show that betulinic acid, made from betulinol from the bark 01 Betula
papyrifera, contains a compound that might help fight prostate cancer by discouraging prostate
cancer cells from dividing, and spur those cetls to die.
A factory in the USA started making bulk, processed birch bark pellets that laboratories can
reline into betulin, in April 2006. NaturNorth uses the bark from trees already cut down to make
paper.
It appeared betulin's lirst success would be a herpes vi rus medicine. Lab and animal research
showed betulin was incredibly effective at treating herpes. But because it wasn't synthetic,
pharmaceutical companies balked. So possibly the best medicine for herpes remains
unavailable a decade after it was discovered.
Russia has a long folk history of birch bark uses. Recent products available there include an
"antimycotic birch bark insole" for shoes, "health-improving" bed pillows of milled birch bark,
betulin for the food and pharmacological industries, and mosquito repellent made of birch bark
tar. Also in Russia, you can buy betulin-packed tablets as a defence against liver damage.
Alcoholics are encouraged to drop a couple of birch tablets before their vodka binges, with
betulin purportedly blocking the damage alcohol can cause. Birch World, a company in Russia,
markets several products derived from birch bark extract which it describes as having various
tonic and beneficial effects. Weleda in Europe. markets We/eda birch juice with similar claimed
effects.
Birch distillate helps in pest and weed control
MTT Agrifood Research Finland is studying the possibilities
of distillate made of birch in controlling agricultural weeds
and pests. Originally birch distillate (or birch tar oil) was a
by product in charcoal production. The first idea of using
the distillate in controlling pests, for example, was found in
national traditions. Farmers who have trouble with elks
have found it useful to moisten wood pellets with birch
distillate and hang them from the branches of trees.
However, it is not possible to claim in public that you can
control elks, moles or any other animals with birch
distillate, because its actual composition is not known.
The amount of birch distillate produced in connection with
charcoal production is not negligible. Processing 20 cubic
meters of birch gives one thousand lit res of distillate. It
does not contain polyaromatic hydrocarbons which cause
cancer or genetic changes. Tests show that birch distillate
has a wide scope of use. It destroys the weeds found with
carrot without any detriment to the carrot. It also repels
pests, such as molluscs, gastropods and snails.
One of the most harmful species introduced to Finland, the
snail Arianta arbustorum, cannot stand birch distillate. The
distillate doest not kill it , but it may retreat into its shell for
several months' time. According to researchers, a good
way to control snails is to build a low fence and treat it with
birch distillate. The same method could be used to control
another introduced land snail species, Arion Jusitanicus,
which is spreading very effectively all over Scandinavia.
One way of using the distillate is to mix it with rapeseed oil
in order to make it stick more effectively to plant leaves,
and to slow down the evaporation of the effective
substance. Mixed with petroleum jelly, the disti llate will
stand weather conditions much beUer. If this mixture is
used to paint snail fences, the snails will stay away the
whole summer.
There are almost no negative effects found in birch
distillate. Living organisms in the soi l are not harmed by it,
but instead, they may benefit in one way or another. The
chemical alternatives of birch distillate are much more
harmful to, for example, water insects and plants, as well
as for fishes. It is also harmless to humans.
However, there is one problem, though this might be called
a matter of taste - or smell or odour, depending on your
viewpoint. If you do not like the smell of tar, you will not
like the smell of birch distillate, either.
Other bark uses
In Russia there are commercial
floor and wall coverings made
of pressed milled birch bark.
Birch tar oil is distilled from the
bark, being a thick, brownish-black
liquid with a pungent, balsamic
odour and an astringent and
counterirritant action. It is very
similar in composition to
wintergreen oil. It is used in
unctions for eczema and other
skin ailments.
Birch tar oil can be used as a
dressing for leather, imparting
durability; 'Russia leather' has
been treated in this way. The oil
can also be used as a
preservative, especially for nets
and ropes, and it also acts as an
insect and gnat-repellent.
Birch bark, containing about 3% of
tannins, is used extensively for
tanning throughout northern
Europe & Asia where birch forests
are abundant.
Wood uses
Xylitol, also called 'wood
sugar' or 'birch sugar' is a
sugar substitute. It is a
naturally occurring sweetener
found in the fibres of many
forest and agricultural
materials including vegetables,
grain, straw, nutshells, corn
cobs and stalks, mushrooms,
and birch and beech trees.
Xylitol first derived from birch
trees in Finland in the 19
th
century and was popularised in
Europe as a safe sweetener for
diabetics. Today, the majority
of the world's xylitol is
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' produced in China using corn.
It is about as sweet
as sucrose but contains about 40% less calories. Many claims have been made that xylitol
reduces tooth decay, and sugar-free chewing gums made with xylitol have received official
endorsement from several national dental associations.
Birch is a versatile hardwood tree. The wood is used for veneer (IKEA uses hundreds of tons of
it), plywood, OSB (Oriented strand board) , pulp, tool handles, broom heads as well as furniture
making cabinets, hardwood furniture and ' rustic' furniture. The wood is also excellent firewood,
and is used for toy making, flooring, shipbuilding, utensils, wheels, boxes, \Woden shoes, charcoal, pipes,
i wooden nails, turnery, clothes pegs (a traditional wood for this) and fencing (if preserved). In the past it has
been used for bobbins, herring-barrel staves and gunpowder.
Silver birch wood is a uniform off while-pale pinky brown colour, and is straight and fine grained, lustrous,
dense (average density at 15% moisture is 670 kg/m
3
) , hard, quite strong and porous. There is no obvious
difference between the heartwood and softwood, and annual rings are only apparent as faint bands. It
works, glues and stains well. It is not resistant to decay, but takes preservatives well. It has high bending
and crushing strength and has good steam bending properties. Because it is liable to fungal attack, it must
be dried very rapidly.
Native North Americans traditionally use birch for making baskets, mats, canoes, spears and
bows, snowshoes and sleds.
The inner bark of many species has been eaten in times of famine; and in north America was a regular
dietary item of the native Indians. It is removed in the spring, ground up and used as flour to make a
bread.
Reishi , or the chaga mushroom, is the fruiting body of the sterile conk trunk rot of birch
(lnonotus ob/iquus), native from Eastern Europe through to Siberia, China and Japan, and
throughout these regions it has been long used medicinally, notably as a remedy for various
cancers and other ailments. Chaga tea is the traditional way to prepare the mushroom, which is
known as the ' mushroom of immortality' .
References
Dixon-Warren, H: The Birch Syrup production Manual. QDEDC, 2007.
Hannes Mantyranta: Birch distillate helps in controlling agricultural weeds and pests. foresUi,
10 January 2007
WebMD: Birch bark: Prostate cancer treatment? USA, 26 Jul y 2006
h tlp:/ Iwww.leaderevaporator.com/i ndex. p hp
Classified adverts
Wanted. 1-4 acres (south ish facing) in Decon, to create forest garden. Please contact Nicky on
07986 620088. nhackney@wildmail.com
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture/ horticulture to produce a
20 per year in Britain and the E.U. ( ~ 1 6 unwaged)
Darlington, Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440), with the object to
Agroforestry News
J
Shingles and shakes
Volume 16 Number 2
February 2008
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 16 Number 2 February 2008
Contents
2 News: Bamboo-based particleboard / Bamboo leaf
Extract / Bamboo plastic / Bamboo paper / Bamboo
bridge / Medicinal mushroom / Pine medici,nal uses /
Feverfew modern uses / Sea buckthorn in Canada /
Bamboo propagation / Tapping bigleaf maple / Codling
moth control/Goats in the forest
8 Wooden shingles and shakes for roofing
20 Book reviews: Ultimate Fruit & Nuts / Fruit and Nut
Production
21 Sea Buckthorn - the new 'superfruit'
24 Attracting beneficial insects
The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the
on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame
species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any
illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops.
Editor: Martin Crawford.
Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington,
Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk
Page 1
News
Bamboo chip-based particleboard developed
Pressed particleboard created from a blend of plastic chips and bamboo has been invented by
the Kagawa Prefecture Sangyo Gijutsu Industrial Technology Centre in Japan. Suitable for
application in construction, a particleboard that is made of 70% bamboo chip material according
to weigllt has the same strength attributes as typical wood-based products. The release date of
the product has stili not been announced and study is in progress to find out if the chips' size
and shape has any reaction on strength.
Source: Friday Offcuts, 21 /9/07, Malaysian Timber Industry Board.
Bamboo leaf extract reduces stop acrylamide formation?
Using an antioxidant-rich bamboo leaf extract could reduce the formation of acrylamide in
potato chips and French fries by about 75 per cent , according to a new study.
"This study could be regarded as a pioneer contribution on the reduction of acrylamide in
various foods by natural antioxidants," wrote lead author Yu Zhang in the Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry.
Acrylamide is a carcinogen that is created when starchy foods are baked, roasted, fried or
toasted. Since its Swedish discovery in 2002, a global effort has been underway to amass data
about this chemical. More than 200 research projects have been initiated around the world and
their findings co-ordinated by national governments, the EU and the United Nations.
The researchers , from Zhejiang University' s Department of Food Science and Nutrition, report
that by immersing the potato crisps and French fries in bamboo leaf extract so that the extract
penetrated into the potato matrix prior to the frying process, could reduce the formation of this
cancer-causing compound.
The extract, with the main components characterised as flavonoids, lactones and phenolic
acids, is listed as a food ingredient in China, and permitted as an additive in a range of food
products, including fish and meat products, edible oils, and puffed food.
Source: FoodProductionDaily-USA. 4 January 2007
For full story, see: http://www.foodproductiondaily-usa.com/news/ ng.asp?id 73069
Bamboo plastic
Mitsubishi Motors Corp. announced that it is has developed, with the Aichi Industrial Technology
Institute, a new material to be used in the interior of its future vehicles. The material, which
uses a plant-based resin and bamboo fibre, is called "Green Plastic". Because of these
components, the material produces less CO
2
emissions and "volatile organic compounds" or
VaGs.
Mitsubishi also points out that bamboo, which grows much faster than timber, will lessen
chances for depleting raw resources when mass-producing Green Plastic.
Source: Autoblog, 28 February 2006
For full story, please see: http://audio.autoblog.com/2006/ 02/28/mitsubishis-plastic-goes-greenl
Bamboo paper
A centuries-old tradition of making delicate rice paper for use in imperial courts is seeking state
support amid climbing costs and declining production. "Unless the situation is remedied, our
descendants will only be able to recall the past glory in museums," said Zhou Jiehua, head of
the Cultural Heritage Bureau in Jiajiang County, southwest China's Sichuan Province. The
"glory" he refers to is a 1 ODO-year-old tradition of making handmade paper native to his county.
Bamboo is used as the raw material to make fine grain paper that was once used during
imperial examinations and is now used by 60 percent of China's painters and calligraphers.
Zhou said that the traditional technique involves a 72-step process. "Only five of the 1 000
paper mills in the county are still strictly following these manual procedures - all the others
have simplified the production process to cut costs and time." Today, the industry employs
some 7 500 people in Jiajiang County, about 60 percent of the local population, but a sharp
decline compared with the 40 000 workers employed in the 1930s, said Zhou. The county has
applied to include the technology in China's first group of intangible cultural heritage.
Source: People' s Daily Online [China], 6 June 2007
China builds world's first bamboo road bridge
An eight-ton truck passed over a bamboo bridge in south China in December 2007, marking the
completion of the world's first bamboo road bridge, claimed the designers.
The bridge, 3.4 meters wide and nine meters long, looks like a concrete bridge from the top and
side, but its nine bamboo girders can be seen from beneath and it is covered by bamboo
boards. It allows a maximum load of 90 tons with a service life of 20 to 30 years.
Fibreglass-reinforced plastics were also used in construction to ensure safety, said Xiao Van,
dean of the college of civil engineering of Hunan University, where the bridge was designed.
Villagers in Daozi town, Leiyang city, Hunan Province, were amazed by the bamboo bridge that
workers took less than 10 days to assemble. Parts of the bridge were made in a workshop
before being transported to the town, said Dr. Shan Bo, a member of the design group.
Xiao Van said bamboo could cut the cost of footbridges in cities and bridges in the countryside
by half.
Source: China Daily, China, 13 December 2007
Wild mushroom can fight prostate cancer
Israeli scientists at the University of Haifa claim that a wild mushroom, used in traditional
Chinese medicine for a century, could treat prostate cancer,
Researchers at the university in northern Israel said they found molecules in the Ganoderma
lucidum mushroom, commonly known as the reishi, which help suppress some mechanisms
involved in the progression of prostate cancer.
"We already knew the mushroom could impede the development of cancer by affecting the
immune system. The in-vitro trials we have done show that it attacks the cancer cells directly,"
chief researcher Ben Zion Zaidman told AFP. "These results give rise to hope about developing
medication to treat prostate cancer," he said of research carried out to date only in Petri dishes.
The reishi is usually found only in remote, wild areas, preferri ng a habitat of rotting plum tree
trunks, sometimes oak trees, in heavily forested areas. The Chinese have tried to
grow reishi mushrooms for centuries, but it was only In the early 1970s that Japanese experts
managed to cultivate them.
Source: AFP, 15 December 2007
Pines: medicinal uses multiply
A scientist has backed a small Melbourne-based biotech company which has produced
a treatment for stomach ulcers using pine needles.
The scientist _ Professor Anatoly Zhebrun, who is director of the Pasteur Institute in S1
Petersburg _ recently supervised trials on the use of a product known as Conifer Green Needle
Complex. CGNC can be used in the prevention and treatment of stomach ulcers caused by the
Helicobacter pylori bacterium.
CGNC is made by Solagran and is produced from the green needles of two conifer species,
Scotch pine and Norwegian spruce.
Two Australian scientists - Barry Marshall and Robin Warren - were awarded the Nobel Prize
for Science in 2005 after proving that stomach ulcers were caused by H. pylori, not stress. Dr
Marshall infected himself by swallowing H. pylori to make their point.
Professor Zhebrun, who is in Melbourne to discuss the trial results, said there was "no doubt
CGNC was an exciting product with great capability and a great future". The professor, a world
authority on infectious diseases and responsible for Russia's disease control regime, describes
the bacterium H. pylori as one of the most important infectious disease challenges confronting
health authorities. Professor Zhebrun said he believed CGNC could do what a combination of
synthetic antibiotics had failed to do - actively prevent H. pylori spreading.
CGNC has a relatively long history of therapeutic use in the former USSR, and more recently in
Russia and Latvia. It was developed in the late 1930s in Russia and used in World War II as a
treatment by soldiers for burns, wounds and frostbite. It was also used as an ingredient in
medicated tampons and cosmetics and products such as toothpastes, soaps and shaving
creams.
Solagran has also been granted Russian approval to register a version of CGNC for the
treatment for chronic liver disease. The stomach ulcer remedy is in the early stages of the
approval process.
Separate research has shown that extracts from French maritime pine bark may inhibit an
enzyme linked to glucose absorption 190 times more than a synthetic medication, offering
significant benefits for diabetics if the results can be translated from the lab to humans.
The results of the new study, published on-line in the Elsevier journal Diabetes Research anG
Clinical Practice, add to a growing body of research reporting anti-diabetic effects of the pine
bark extract, Pycnogenol.
"Diabetes mellitus type II is a serious disease with rising prevalence," said lead researcher Dr.
Petra Hogger. "This study is crucial for those suffering with the disease because it affirms that
Pycnogenol is more effective than prescription medication and supports the abundance of other
research done on Pycnogenol and diabetes."
A recent Italian-German study published in the July journal of Cfinical and Applied
ThrombosislHaemostasis shows that Pycnogenol also heals leg ulcers in patients who suffer
from diabetic leg ulcerations.
A study published in the June 2006 issue of Angiology shows that supplementation with
Pycnogenol improves blood flow to the muscles, which speeds recovery after physical exercise.
The study of 113 participants demonstrated that Pycnogenol significantly reduces muscular pain
and cramps in athletes and healthy normal individuals. Researchers at L'Aquila University in
Italy and at the University of WOrzburg in Germany studied the effects of Pycnogenol on venous
disorders and cramping in two separate studies.
The product is extracted from the bark of the Maritime pine that grows on the southern coast of
France, and is currently used in over 400 dietary supplements, multi-vitamins and health
products.
Sources: Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 'Oligomeric procyanidins of French maritime
pine bark extract (Pycnogenol) effectively inhibit alpha-glucosidase". Authors: A. Schafer, P.
Hogger
Sources: The Age, Australia, 26 August 2007.
www.theage.com.au/articles/2007108/25/1187462581359.html
For full story, see:
Ancient medicinal plant yields modern leukemia drug
A compound derived from feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), a common medicinal plant that
has been used for centuries to reduce fever, will soon be tested on humans for its ability to
attack the roots of the blood cancer leukemia. Under development is dimethylamino-
parthenolide, DMAPT, which is derived from the daisy-like plant.
New research by University of Rochester investigators published in a recent issue of the journal
"Blood' shows that the water-soluble DMAPT selectively targets leukemia at the stem-cell level,
where the malignancy is born. Standard chemotherapy does not strike deep enough to kill
cancer at the roots , resulting in relapses.
Source: Environment News Service, 2 October 2007
Sea buckthorn in Saskatchewan Canada
Sea buckthorn bushes, which some Saskatchewan producers have been using as shelterbelt
plants for years, also yield bark, leaves and fruit that are packed full of things that are good for
us: omega fatty acids 3, 6, and 9 are found in the seeds, and the fruit is rich in vitamins A, C, E,
K, B1 , B2 and Niacinamide. Medicinally, it has uses as a soothing oil for cuts or burns, and it is
one of the fruits that has a perfect one-to-one ratio between omega-3 and omega-6. Of all the
fruits, it has the highest content of Vitamin E. It is very high in Vitamin C.
Betty Forbes, President and CEO of Northern Vigor Berries, grows and markets sea buckthorn
bushes and their products. Forbes' father and brother have a 15-acre sea buckthorn orchard,
which she estimates is probably the largest in Canada at present.
On top of the health benefits, sea buckthorn actually makes a pretty tasty pie, juice, or even a
liqueur. As far as markets go, Forbes says Canada is now in the process of learning where sea
buckthorn is needed, at home and around the world. Currently, foreign markets like Japan,
Russia and China are the strongest, but she believes interest is growing in Canada and the
United States.
According to Forbes, Saskatchewan has a distinct advantage when it comes to growing sea
buckthorn bushes. The plant is very winter- and drought-tolerant, and it grows well in high pH
soil. It even tolerates saline soil.
Source: Discover Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Canada, 12 October 2007

New technology for mass multiplication of bamboo
The developed world is taking an increased interest in bamboo as new uses emerge. Bamboo
shows promise as a fuel: it produces an excellent charcoal that can be made in a greenhouse-
friendly way with controlled C0
2
emissions. Among other uses, charcoal and spent charcoal are
superb soil amendments. Mass propagation of bamboo has been difficult: seeds are often rare
and of low viability. A simple propagation technique developed in India can be easily followed
by farmers and growers
The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University has come out with effective technology for rooting of
bamboo with a high success rate without the need for costly and advanced infrastructure like
mist chambers, making it the simplest technology available to multiply bamboo on a commercial
scale. The technique uses the entire culm without rooting hormone treatment and achieving 90
per cent rooting, it is claimed.
A one year old culm is removed from a matured mother culm at 5-10 years growth stage,
without damaging culm and mother culm. The removed culm should be de-limbed carefully by
leaving growing buds in the nodes.
The culm should then be placed horizontally in the raised nursery bed and covered with a loose
soil and sand mixture for half an inch thickness. Some shading may be required. Regular
watering is undertaken and sh'oot emergence is observed after one month from all buds in all
nodes of the entire culm. With continuous watering up to 3 months, root emergence could be
observed in 2-3 months.
After rooting, the rooted culm should be removed entirely from the soil without damage. Each
rooted node with shoots should be separated with a small hand saw and potted up.
Bamboos are versatile plants, which often flower only once in its life cycle (40-60 years) and the
death is popularly known as parthenogenesis. Hence seed availability is poor. At the same
time the seeds are not viable for long.
Source: The Hindu, 25/6/2007 (via Quandong, Vol 33 No 3).
Tapping bigleaf maple
Following the article on tapping birch in Agroforestry News, Vol 16 No 1, a Canadian
agroforestry extension note describes the tapping of bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyl/um) in
British Columbia. The conditions there are more akin to those found in western Europe and
bigleaf maple is happier in British conditions than sugar maple (Acer saccharum).
Sap flows in mild winter climates are not dependent on spring thaws, thus a much longer
tapping season is possible, with tapping beginning in January and continuing through to March.
Peak sugar content is generally early in the tapping season.
On average, a healthy big leaf maple tree will produce 60 litres of sap per season - open grown
trees, of diameter 3545 em, with vigorous growth produce the most sap.
Raw bigleaf maple sap contains 1.75 to 2% sugar, and it takes 50 to 60 litres of sap to make 1
litre of syrup at 66% sugar content. 8igleaf syrup has a rich taste and is demand on the west
coast of Canada, sell ing at 30 - 40 per litre. Maple wine and beer are also being produced
on a limited basis.
Source: Tapping 8igleaf Maple. 8C AIDI Extension Note 01 , 2007.
Codling moth control
As the UK climate warms up, better conditions are provided for the codling moth, with a greater
survival rate over winter. Mating disruption systems, based on codling moth pheromones, have
been used for a whi le and are parti ally effective, but finally organic approval of the virus against
codl ing moths, which other European growers have been using for years, has been given.
The codling moth granulovirus infects larvae of codling moth without harming beneficial insects.
The larvae die quickly, but the application of the virus (by spraying) must take place just before
the larvae hatch, usually in June in the UK. The application can take place in addition to using
a mating disruption system to reduce chances of resistance.
Source: Cercis Cropsafe News, Winter 2007.
Goats in the forest
Allen Edwards forest farms 520 acres in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains near
Colfax, California. He and his family have created what he calls a enterprise" in which
their goat silvopasture is a part.
In 1946 Allen's father purchased a 520-acre farm intending to manage it as a tree farm, and
growing trees for lumber is still a primary enterprise. In 2001 , a wildfire destroyed over 100
acres which was replanted with Ponderosa pine, but there was also vigorous regrowth of brush
and trees which proved good browse for sheep and goats. The goats produce additional
income and also reduce the risk of future fire; the annual goat browse also keeps the deer
range i n good condition.
In economic terms, sawlog production may net $150 per acre per year, while the stacked
enterprise approach may yield up to $500 per acre per year. The main components of the
enterprise include:
Overstory trees -long-term sawlogs.
Intermediate tree thinning - firewood, posts and poles.
Small trees - 'free range' Christmas trees, bundles of greenery from Douglas fir &
western cedar.
Understorey - Goat browsing. Eg. sweet birch has >20% protein resulting in goats
with a high grade meat with freshness and taste, which are sold to local restaurants
along with a variety of garden greens produced in fields near the house.
Source: Inside Agroforestry, Vol 16 Issue 3
Wooden shingles and shakes for roofing
Shingles or shakes?
Shingles are sawn from wood blocks ; they are tapered
and generally have a relatively smooth
surface.
split from wood blocks; are less uniform
in thickness than shingles, are sometimes grooved, and
frequently have little taper. Shakes may be split and then
sawn (from top-edge corner to opposite bottom-edge
corner) to provide taper as well as a relatively flat side,
which is turned away from the weather during installation.
Shakes have a rustic appearance. Shingles and shakes
can be used on side walls as well as roofs.
Shakes in America are made in 24-inch lengths - the most
common, 18-inch barn shake, or even 48-inch shakes,
which are typically used for siding. Likewise wooden
shingles are manufactured in differing lengths, 15-inch, 18-
inch - common, and 24" which are known as heavy.
Shake roof in Romania (Source: Wikepedia)
Shakes are a kind of shingle and in this article, the term shingles includes shingles and shakes.
Woods suitable for shingles
The most important wood property for shingles is durability, its resistance to decay (rot). Some
woods, such as western redcedar, have natural durability. The heartwood of old-growth
western
redcedar is rated as extremely durable because of its extractives. However, the generally small
amount of sapwood associated with this species is not durable.
There is general consensus that some second-growth timber, even from a decay-resistant
species, is not as durable as the old-growth timber. Nevertheless, the durability of any wood
decreases as rain or other sources of moisture leach extractives from the wood.
Today, in North America, the most commonly used wood for shingles is western red cedar.
Eastern White Pine and White Oak are also readily available. Preservative-treated southern
yellow pine taper-sawn shingles are also used. In Britain, cedar, oak and chestnut are mainly
used, though compared with North American they are still rare.
A list of all the woods which have been used for shingles in different parts of the world is below:
Europe
Castanea sativa - Sweet chestnut
Juniperus excelsa - Greek juniper
Juniperus foetidissima
Juniperus oxycedrus - Prickly juniper
Larix decidua - Larch
Picea abies - Norway spruce
Page 8
Quercus petraea - Sessile oak
Quercus robur - English oak
Quercus rosacea
N. America & Mexico
Calocedrus decurrens - incense cedar
Castanea dentata - American chestnut
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana - Lawson cypress
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis - Alaskan yellow cedar
Chamaecyparis thyoides - white cedar. southern white cedar
Gleditsia triacanthos - Honey locust
Juniperus deppeana - Alligator juniper
Juniperus monosperma - Cherrystone juniper
Juniperus occidentalis - Western juniper
Juniperus osteosperma - Utah juniper
Juniperus scopulorum - Rocky mountain juniper
Juniperus virginiana - Pencil cedar
Liriodendron tulipifera - Tulip tree
Pinus lambertiana - Sugar pine
Pinus strobus - Eastern white pine, American yellow pine
Quercus alba - White oak
Quercus imbricaria - Shingle oak
Quercus palustris - pin oak
Quercus rubra - Red oak
Sequoia sempervirens - Coast redwood
Sequoiadendron giganteum - Giant sequoia
Taxodium ascendens - Pond cypress
Taxodium distichum - Swamp cypress
Thuja occidentalis - White cedar
Thuja plicata - Western red cedar
Asia minor
Juniperus drupacea - Syrian juniper
Picea orientalis - Caucasian spruce
Japan
Abies veitchii - Veitch' s silver fir
Abies veitchii var. Sikokiana
Juniperus rigida - Temple juniper
Picea jezoensis - Hono spruce
Pinus parviflora - Japanese white pine
China & Himalayas
Juniperus chinensis - Chinese juniper
Juniperus recurva - Drooping juniper
Liriodendron chinense - Chinese tulip tree
Metasequioa glyptostroboides - Dawn redwood
Tsuga chinensis - Chinese hemlock
Australia, Tasmania & New Zealand
Allocasuarina verticillata - Shingle oak
Athrotaxis cupressoides - Pencil pine
Athrotaxis laxifolia - Summit cedar
Athrotaxis selaginoides - King William pine
Eucalyptus amygdalina - Black peppermint
Eucalyptus delegatensis - Alpine ash
Eucalyptus macarthuri - Camden woolybutt
Eucalyptus obliqua - Stringy bark
Eucalyptus viminalis - Mann agum
Ubocedrus bidwillii - Pahautea
South America
Gevuina avellana - Chilean hazel
Manl;Jfacture of shakes and shingles
Shake blocks are split into 1 inch thick slats called blanks, using either a hydraulic press with a
blade attached, called a cuber, or split by hand using a froe and mallet. These blanks are
uniform in thickness throughout if split from the same edge without flipping the block.
Alternatively, the splitter may flip the block after a blank is taken off each edge, which results in
a tapered split from end to end, called tapers or hand-split. The blanks which are not tapered
require further processing before application to create this taper, and are run through a large
band saw, pushed by hand to cut them from corner to corner forming a tapered shake, sawn on
one face.
Shingles are cut from the blocks using a circular saw, typically 42-48" in diameter. The blocks
are clamped in a carriage which slides back and forth across the blade, tilting and moving the
block closer to the blade with each pass to automatically form a tapered cut of the correct
thickness. The edges of the shingle are then cut with another circular saw called a "t rim saw",
to remove irregular edges. The result is a tapered shingle sawn on all six sides. The thickness
of the butt, or thicker end of the tapered cut, is usually 3/8" thick, but is also commonly made to
be 5/8", and can be made to any custom specifications.
History of shingles in Europe
The is a long history of using shingles in Europe. They were used in ancient Rome, and all over
southern and central Europe, u.sually using chestnut.
In Britain, thatched roofs of straw, rushes and reed were the most popular before about 1200,
although some shingles were certainly used in Viking and Saxon times. In 1213, these
materials were forbidden in London due to fire risk, in favour of tiles and shingles.
There is along history of shingle covered spires on churches, probably dating from Viking times.
Many remain, usually using oak or chestnut shingles.
In Scandinavia wooden shingle roofs used to be the most common roofing material and in use
up to the 1950s in the countryside.
Photos overleaf:
Top left: Brookland Church Spire, Romney Marsh
Top right: South Nutf ield Church spire, repai rs 2006
Below: South Nutfield Church spire close up
History of shingles in America
Because trees were plentiful from the earliest settlement days, the use of wood for all aspects
of construction is not surprising. Wooden shingles were lightweight, made with simple tools,
and easily installed. Wooden shingle roofs were prevalent in the Colonies, while in Europe at
the same time, thatch, slate and We were the prevalent roofing materials.
Distinctive roofing patterns exist in various regions of the country that were settled by the
English, Dutch, Germans, and Scandinavians. These patterns and features include the size,
shape anp exposure length of shingles, special treatments such as swept valleys, combed
ridges , anct decorative butt end or long side-lapped bevelled hand splil shingles.
Shingle Fabrication. Historically wooden shingles were usually thin (3/8" to 314" ), relatively
narrow (3" to 8
R
) , of varying length (14" to 36") , and almost always smooth. The traditional
method for making wooden shingles in the 17th and 18th centuries was to hand split them from
log sections known as bolts. These bolts were quartered or split into wedges. A mallet and froe
(or axe) were used to split or rive out thin planks of wood along the grain. If a tapered shingle
was desired, the bolt was flipped after each successive strike with the froe and mallet.
The wood species varied according to available local woods, but only the heartwood, or inner
section, of the log was usually used. The softer sapwood generally was not used because it
deteriorated quickly. The most popular woods used were White oak, Cypress, Alaskan yellow
cedar, shingle oak, American chestnut , Eastern white pine, Redwood and Western red cedar.
Because hand split shingles were somewhat irregular along the split surface, it was necessary
to dress or plane the shingles on a shaving horse with a draw-knife or draw-shave to make them
fit evenly on the roof. This reworking was necessary to provide a tight-fitting roof over typically
open shingle lath or sheathing boards. Dressing, or smoothing of shingles, was almost
universal , no matter what wood was used or in what part of the country the building was
located, except in those cases where a temporary or very utilitarian roof was needed.
Shingle fabrication was revolutionized in the early 19th century by steam-powered saw mills.
Shingle mills made possible the production of uniform shingles in mass quantities. The sawn
shingle of uniform taper and smooth surface eliminated the need to hand dress. The supply of
wooden shingles was therefore no longer limited by local factors. These changes coincided
with (and in turn increased) the popularity of architectural styles such as Carpenter Gothic and
Queen Anne that used shingles to great effect.
Modern commercially available shakes are generally thicker than the historic hand split
counterpart and are usually left "undressed" with a rough, corrugated surface. The rough
surface shake, furthermore, is often promoted as suitable for historic preservation projects
because of its rustic appearance. It is an erroneous assumption that the more irregular the
shingle, the more authentic or "historic" it will appear.
Historic Detailing and Install ation Techniques. While the size, shape and finish of the
shingle determine the roof's texture and scale, the installation patterns and detai ls give the roof
its unique character. Many details reflect the craft practices of the builders and the architectural
style prevalent at the time of construction. Other details had specific purposes for reducing
moisture penetration to the structure. In addition to the most visible aspects of a shingle roof ,
the details at the rake boards, eaves, ridges, hips, dormers, cupolas, gables, and chimneys
were all important.
The way the shingles were laid was often based on functional and practical needs. Because a
roof is the most vulnerable element of a building, many of the roofing details that have become
distinctive features were first developed simply to keep water out. Roof combs on the windward
side of a roof protect the ridge line. Wedges, or cant strips, at dormer cheeks roll the water
away from the vertical wall. Swept valley's and fanned hips keep the grain of the wood in the
shingle parallel to the angle of the building joint to aid water runoff. The slight projection of the
shingles at the eaves directs the water runoff either into a gutter or off the roof away from the
exterior wall. These details varied from region to region and from style to style. They can be
duplicated even with the added protection of modern flashing.
In order to have a weather tight roof , it was important to have adequate coverage, proper
spacing of shingles, and straight grain shi ngles. Many roofs were laid on open shingle lath or
open sheathing boards. Roofers typically laid three layers of shingles with approximately 1/3 of
each shingle exposed to the weather. Spaces between shingles (1/8" to 1/2" depending on
wood type) allowed the shingles to expand when wet. It was important to stagger each
overlapping shingle by a minimum of 1 1/2" to avoid a direct path for moisture to penetrate a
joint. Doubling or tripling the starter course at the eave gave added protecti on to this exposed
surface.
In order for the roof to lay as flat as possible, the thickness, taper and surface of the shingles
was relatively uniform; any unevenness on hand split shingles had already been smoothed
away with a draw-knife. To keep shi ngles from curling or cupping, the shingle width was
generally limited to less than 10".
Not all shingles were laid in evenly spaced, overlapping, horizontal rows. In various regions of
the country, there were distinct installation patterns; for example, the biaxiall y-tapered long
shingles occasionall y found in areas settled by the Germans. These lot;lg shingles were
overlapped on the side as well as on top. This formed a ventilation channel under the shi ngles
that aided drying. Because ventilation of the
attention to these details.
Eighteenth-century coati ngs sometimes appl ied
included a pine pitch coating not unlike
turpentine, and boiled linseed oil or fish oil mixed
with oxides, red lead, brick dust , or other
minerals to produce colours such as yellow,
Venetian red, Spanish brown, and slate grey. In
the 19th century, in addition to the earlier
colours, shingles were stai ned or pai nted to
complement the bui lding colours: Indian red,
chocolate brown, or brown-green. During the
Greek Revival and later in the 20th cent ury with
other revival styles, green was also used.
biaxiaUy-tapered long shi ngles overl apped
on the side as well as on top
Page 13
The relevance of shingles and shakes today
Despite leday's advanced technology and building methods, using wood shingles and shakes
for roofing (or cladding) is increasing in popularity. A principle reason is that they are all
recyclable and alJ use renewable materials so their use helps designers achieve sustainable or
'green' architecture.
In addition, buildings constructed of wood benefit from
wood' s superior insulating properties. They are more
efficient h a n concrete or steel, which translates into long-
term energy savings and a reduced load on the
environment.
The texture and colour of the wood shingles and shakes
has the ability to create an individual building and enhance
unusual properties. They are also light in weight, have a
low rate of expansion and contraction, and have the added
benefit of being easy to install and maintain.
Wood shingles and shakes can have high natural
durability. Resistance to rot is one of the most important
properties to consider when using wood shingles and
shakes. However, erosion may occur due to weathering,
and therefore it is necessary to maintain them for
effectiveness and longevity. But using good quality wood
shingles and shakes, and installing them correctly, should
result in a roof covering that will last for 20-40 years.
Rounded butt-sawn shingles
Wood roofs are more flammable than composition roofs. Wood roofs may be unsuitable in arid
regions , in high density neighb9rhoods, or where appreciable amounts of flammable vegetation
grow close to the structure. Application of fire retardants may be required by local planning
regulations.
Preservative treatment
In the past, shingles were always made from a durable timber that did not require any extra
treatment. More recently, however, a combination of using less durable woods, along with
applying building codes which do not recognise the particular conditions which shingle roofs
require, have led to some shingles and shakes being pressure-treated with a preservative to
provide improved durability. This negates many of the environmental benefits of using wood
roofs.
Construction
How shingles are installed influences the moisture condition of the roof. With the inherent water
exposure of roofs, moisture buildup greatly affects service life.
Before and during the 19th century, wood shingles were commonly used for roofs. The shingles
were fastened to widely spaced nailing strips without the use of tarred or asphalted felts as a
secondary barrier. Thus wet shingles dried quickly because of air access underneath. It was
not uncommon for such roofs to last twice as long as shingle roofs laid straight on top of roofing
felt , which building regulations have demanded for some.
When asp halted felt is used as a secondary barrier over laths, with shingles st raight on top, the
shingles typically dry much less quickly. Providing an airspace between the shingles and the
felt vastly improves drying. The airspace can be created by using an extra layer of laths over
the felt. Alternatively, the use of modern breathable membranes will also aid shingle drying.
The roof pitch is an important part of the rain-proofing of a shingle roof. In warm areas will low
rainfall a pitch of 1 in 4 (22) is acceptable, whereas in a wet country like Britain a pitch of 1 in 2
(45) is advisable to shed water that much more quickly.
Avoid skimpy shingle coverage. It has become a common modern practice to lay impregnated
roofing felts under new wooden shingle roofs. The practice is especially prevalent in roofs that
do not achieve a full triple layering of shingles. Historically, approximately one third of each
single was exposed, thus making a three-ply or three-layered roof. This assured adequate
coverage. Due to the expense of wooden shingles today, some roofers expose more of the
shingle if the pitch of the roof allows, and compensate for less than three layers of shingles by
using building felts interwoven at the top of each row of shingles. This absorptive material can
hold moisture on the underside of the shingles and accelerate deterioration. If a shingle roof
has proper coverage and proper flashing, such felts are unnecessary as a general rule.
However, the selective use of such felts or other reinforcements at ridges, hips and valleys does
appear to be beneficial.
Beware of heavily insulated attic rafters. Historically, the longest lasting shingle roofs were
generally the ones with the best roof ventilation. Roofs with shingling set directly on solid
sheathing and where there is insulation packed tightly between the wooden rafters without
adequate ventilation run the risk of condensation-related moisture damage to wooden roofing
components. For that reason, it is best to provide ventilation channels between the rafters and
the roof decking, to avoid heavy felt building papers, to consider the use of v'apour barriers, and
perhaps to raise the shingles slightly by using ~ s l e e p e r s " over the roof deck.
Avoid staples and inferior flashing. The common practice of using pneumatic staple guns to
affix shingles can result in shooting staples through the shingles, in crushing the wood fibres, or
in cracking the shingle. Instead, corrosion resistant nails, generally with barked or deformed
shanks long enough to extend about 3/4" into the roof decking, should be used. If red cedar is
used, copper nails should not be specified because a chemical reaction between the wood and
the copper will reduce the life of the roof. Hot-dipped, zinc-coated, aluminium, or stainless steel
nails should be used. Copper flashing and gutters used with red cedar shingles may lead to as
staining occurring.
Weathering
Weathering is erosion from sun, wind, debris, and precipitation. Even wood that does not decay
is still subject to weathering. The weathering process removes about 114 inch (6 mm) of
unprotected wood per century for softwoods (e.g., cedar) on vertical exposures, but more wood
is removed from roofs.
Shingles are often left to weather naturally and, depending on exposure and climatic conditions,
the wood will turn silver, dark gray, or dark brown. Proper selection of materials will appreciably
influence the service tife of wood shingles. For roofs, which have the most direct
and extreme exposure to rain and sunlight, use only the top grade of shingles manufactured
with edge-grained heartwood. A lower grade of shingles can be used on sidewalls or areas that
require an undercourse.
The following construction diagrams come from Tino Rawnsley's excellent online guide.
Walls & vertical surfaces
IJOPll(:lftJrAI. eOG-fC; W/ TIl IM
TO ..... .;.I"' ... CC"'"
4111l.1GoLE- r ...... UIG-J..I
l. A .. r GOJr:1'C."
';IlIlJGLK
B .. nr TO

TI"II.1
I/ ..
&E'TWf"f1J
"ClJACe-l.!f
t;uIIJGtK '0
F'CL.O (I.;cr
o
all
C'llfoe;IOf-
I'r'OVW
IO-Or(;f" OF
fObE' K f-Lt.:t;1l w/ .AOJ4Cf:1,JT
';UIUGLf" aLI OPPO<;ITf" f".ACE' Ol'o 'CUlJfQ
COIHJt:l<'eoAI?D5 (AU Al.c:b !of:
.
\
wore-
;4o,..:zo.,.rA, Ali "' '''''Or..!'; to1A'f!);
c.oV&I:'(.-o WI Til ... ;"f:Ct U'I'" fo
4UPF-.cC of'" nil; FOI? :;>"'''E TVIII Ccc
COI(I L. f:ll'S AoE:'
"''OVE'<l
&U:"T ,46AIU,r
aU r"p'iI-IIJ6lf: ALTl: SUJArK
r:u>w To POW 'AU AL';O IH; tJ.;E't>
W. TQIM 5 I1.IGIO[; coP\!r: no.!
Shingles rapidly absorb moisture because their lower edges are end grain, where wood is
similar to a bundle of straws. The swelling and shrinking of the wood results in cracks, which
can increase the entry of moisture. Decay when nondurable wood remains wet for
sufficiently long periods.
In warm, humid climates and on heavily shaded roofs, mildew, moss, algae, and lichens can
grow; because these organisms retain moisture, the wood will decay with time.
Maintenance
For increased longevity it is important to limit the amount of debris that falls on it. Organic
matter, such as moss and lichens that develop on the roof, will retain water and dust which will
promote fungi and eventually rot the shingles or shakes.
The best way to prevent the growth of moss and lichens is to use zinc, galvanized or copper
flashings at the top of the roof pitch. The normal corrosion from these metals provides some
control of moss, lichens, mold and mildew, for some 15 ft (5 m) or more down slope from the
metal. Additional strips may be necessary farther down the roof , such strips can be placed
under a course of singles with at least 1 inch (25 mm) exposed.
Roofs
t;..JIU(oLE>
f?6E- ,,,,!)OUT t 1\.1
lll.le
I I!.!
OV(:QLJAjJ6

(MII.! :,

__ ' -
1<; 40.1 To1liJ.
t:epelJt)IIJ6 o L.l
PI1CI-I. ';! !.I!" ,
GI1AOf-
'\

ILl { .... IU} Fe"
TuaEe
COlJPI;e-;

e-"""Vi'
AUlWT fIe
--- Pou8LE- F- I "4T COUI?4: 'II/
l; IOe-; LAPPE;D ,11a 11.1 ( 1A1.! )
--F-At;' IA
FLMutuG 'W4 l!.o8,...-;'-.-
"--. __ u fC1!' VAI..Lt-Y Ll IP
cu oi; CA. [J!ID4;
fORI " '06f DErAIL
....
Leaves and other debris that accumulate on roofs, particularly in the valleys and gutters, trap
moisture in shingles, increasing the likelihood of decay. Therefore, clean loose debris from
roofs and gutters routinely. Overhanging tree limbs and vines that provide excessive shade
keep the shingles wet for longer periods, encourage moss growth, and may encourage decay.
Periodically check the roof for moss or lichen growth. If necessary you can apply a solution of 1
quart (1 liter) household bleach, 1 ounce (30 g) detergent, and 3 quarts (3 liters) warm water to
clean the roof. Power washers are not recommended - while they may make the roof look
relatively new, they can put a lot of water under shingles, and the high pressure may crack or
otherwise damage them.
An occasional cracked or damaged shingle can be replaced on its own: the old shingle is
removed and a new shingle can be inserted and held in place with a thin metal tab, or "babbie"
hooked over the shingle beneath. This reduces disturbance to the sound shingles above.
Hips & valleys
MAIIJTAIIoJ {MJ/.l)
lu .. r Wf1J
- _
Io1f" Al V4llf'Y
F!.. A1.!:lli&
"uL I7'O '-
Ttl lll t;UtlJGlK
PAI?,6, LLfi.. TO
VALLf'V
LAP
V .... F1..A4Utu6
,,'1..1 ( Ytl.l)
WIDE:c;r l;IJUJGLE-C
-
Ridges
Page 18
.. D
4lJIJ.,U;lK To
Of
",<
AlTf'QUATE'LAP
DI:2;C;ICIJ Cf-
\,lA,IJLFAC-:-U;oe-Q
;liP
" :;'1 111
COUM!:Of !J ,p
jb Llue
Of> CO\ .... e
DIPE"CTlOiJ OF FIE-LD
PJ<!f:"VAILUJG To
RIDGE"
;-l tJ E-){P04Uk'E- foP
ri' IDGE- t;UIIJGLK ,
DOue.L& )
.
t;Ul IJGLE- ..
\
ALTE-OI-JATE- LAP
DH"OCTlolJ Of
I<? I DGE"
O::;UIIJGLE'4
Gables
t;f-(OIJD Ptf"C!:"
OVt:.!lAPI;
4r,..."r" 50rr0l.1
QF PAI'E- wI
:2 tPPED To

e-... of
tJOL.K. Top
1'3 cur If;v!:'L
j '"IT!>
';WlU<olr;.(-.
Ar

Mln:p -OF'
f;/I'-'I Piece
LJe'UODCI'- Hlll<:I.JrlIG rop QFA WALL
)/; T.(:I LAP f'..If"-!:UIUI;U: WIW ;"'101 ti'IPPe!)
HlO"1 A Cf'OA, p I F- C0t1%'U6 I.; !:"QU .... t.. , ALL. rJ..!E- 1;1111.
E-Y!l<Pf foG.:;> nl& Mlr-::n-o ToP WILL AL/lo.Q

-:;>-p c,l!tlJet.t<.
'OOf!4lltW
.... IOrU t AI'PL'I'
f
COLJ>?:;:i./OAA
&(>;:1'( Of WALt..
L
E":'U .... L (IZe;.D
P: f;:CK
fPOM
2" Ce-V"'" l A,P
e.orrOM
H!: bA'Sf;: LAYf'1<' Ie l!OT
... T'.IK' EFt:>IlE:
u.JJ 'E" A
C,UI LlGLe-.
L'ofe
Pl?r:PAnrE-O OP

lE-AVe- 1-10 o;PACE
&t-nlJ{o(;1.!
t..AYK'
DOU!>LE:- ALieEl'IJAnve- ?OUP<;tlJG
I.!H\.lOD. CALL':; rwo APPI.If;O '2>
C1<\l.It A P:>E-PAllJtI!:O 01: ';Utl6u"
t.; C"I ..
References
Crawford, M: Timber Trees for Temperate Climates. A.R.T.,2000.
The finish line. Forest Products Laboratory, USDA. 1998.
Niemiec, 8.S. and T.D. Brown: Care and Maintenance of Wood Shingle and Shake Roofs.
Oregon
State ,University Extension Service, September 1988. Publication #EC 1271.
,
Park, 8: The Repair and Replacement of Historic Shingle Roofs. US National Park Service
Preservation Brief 19.
Rawnsley Woodland Products http://www.comishwoodland.co.uklindex.htm
Book Reviews
Ultimate Fruit & Nuts
Susanna Lyle
Frances Lincoln, 2006; 480 pp; 40.00
ISBN 978-0-7112-2593-0
The first of two chunky, encyclopaedic books on fruit and nut plants reviewed here covers both
temperate and tropical species in an A to ,Z format. For each plant (or often group of plants
under a family name) there is a description and information about harvesting, yields, cultivation,
a cultivar list , related species of interest, and other uses. Photos accompany most of the
crops.
It is clear that this book is primarily an academic construct , rather than being written by
someone who knows and/or grows many of the crops described. For the uses section, the
author relies heavily on the Plants for a Future database. For most of the crops described there
are only a small number of cultivars described, despite there being plenty of information easily
accessible about many others. I suspect the author just didn't have the time to research into
each crop i n any detail but has simply reproduced the information from a handful of sources,
which leads to curious gaps. How did she decide to include just four cultivars of apricot when
there are hundreds worldwide and dozens of better known and more widely used than those?
Despite these faults, it is sti ll a useful book, especially if one needs to get a quick overview of a
new fruit or nut crop.
1
Fruit and Nut Production
Brenda Olcott-Reid & William Reid
Stipes Publishing, 2007; 597 pp; $56.80 (direct from Stipes)
ISBN 978-1-58874-575-0
Less of a coffee-table book, with no colour photos, this is a much more authoritative reference
book on growing temperate zone fruit and nut crops.
Rather than being an A-Z encyclopedia, this is more like an extended extension manual
produced by people who know what they are talking about.
The first 125 pages of the book cover all the basics of fruit and nut production - including site
selection and preparation, planting, training and pruning, ground covers and mulches, nutrition,
irrigation, pests and diseases, pollination, harvesting and marketing.
The remainder of the book is split into sections for small fruit , tree fruit, tree nut, and minor fruit
crops. Within these, individual fruit or nut species are explained thoroughly, right from
rootstocks through to pest and disease management. Black and white photos and drawings
illustrate the text. An extensive cultivar list is given for each crop but - and this is the only
drawback to European readers - it is a list aimed at American growers, and this does not
always coincide with the varieties available and grown this side of the Atlantic. However, that
niggle apart, this is a great book and a bargain at the price.
Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.)
the new 'superfruit'.
Paul Cawsey
In a recent article (FAO 2007) Sea buckthorn has been described as a ' super-fruit' due to its
superb nutritional properties. One of the most important natural resources of China and Russia
it is nati ve to Eurasia. There are thought to be 8 subspecies of Hippophae rhamnoides L but
current taxonomic debate suggests that some should be promoted to the rank of species (Small
et al. undated).
Description
Hippophae rhamnoides is a medium sized thorny deciduous shrub, hardy to USDA zone 3. Its
silvery stems are capable of reaching 3 metres high and make thickets by suckering. The leaves
are narrow, untoothed and silvery when young. The undersides of the leaves are brown. The
flowers are tiny, green and without petals and produced between April and June prior to the
leaves developing. The orange berries produced by the female plants can persist through the
winter and have a fragrance akin to that of a pineapple. Predominantly found in coastal areas it
may be planted inland. In the UK there are worries about the invasiveness of this species and
its domination of sand dune communities, though this dominance may be linked to the reduction
in rabbit numbers through mixymatosis , as rabbits eat the young plants (Small et. at. undated).
Page 21
Uses
Virtually the whole plant may be used for consumption, topical applications and a host of other
uses.
(a) Food uses.
The pulp from the berries is rich in antioxidants such as vitamin C and E, beta-carotene,
flavaQoids, enzymes and palmitoleic acid. Though the berries may be too acidic to eat fresh
they csan be used to make juice, jellies, marmalade and various sauces and can even be frozen
I freeze dried. The leaves contain an average of 15% protein and may be used feed for
livestock and pets (Small et. al. undated). Current research is investigating its use as a
treatment for cancer (PFAF undated).
Constituents of Sea buckthorn fruit (per 100 grams fresh berries)
(Dharmananda undated)
Vitamin C 200 - 1,500 mg
Vitamen E up to 180 mg
Folic Acid up to 80 mcg
Carotenoids 30 -40 mg
Fatty Acids (Oils) 6 - 11%
Organic acids (except ascorbic) Juice has pH of 2.7 to 3.3
Flal.Onoids 100-1,000mg
(b) Medicinal uses.
Sea Buckthorn has been used in Chinese medicine for over 12 centuries (Small et. al. undated)
and oil made from the pulp and seeds is used clinically in China and Russia. Sea buckthorn oil
made from the berries is rich in fatty acids that are essential for skin maintenance and is widely
used in the west in skin care products. Oil from the leaves can be used in ointments for treating
a wide range of skin conditions such as e c ~ e m a , bed sores, radiation damage and burns. The
oil from the leaves is also used internally to treat stomach and intestine disorders. Russian
cosmonauts have used Sea buckt horn cream for protection against cosmic radiation (Todd
2006).
(c) Ecological uses.
Sea buckthorn is used widely in land reclamation projects due to its ability to stabilise soil, due
to its extensive root system and is also capable of fixing nitrogen in the soil. It is tolerant of
maritime conditions and may be used as a shelter hedge. Sea buckthorn can be used as a
pioneer species to help in the reestablishment of woodlands, but as it requires high levels of
light it will soon become shaded out by other species (PFAF undated).
(d) Other uses
A yellow dye may be obtained from the leaves, roots, fruits and stems and a blackish dye can
be obtained from young leaves and shoots (PFAF undated). The wood can be used as a source
of firewood as well as for carpentry and wood turning. In Nepal utilization of Sea buckthorn for
Page 22
fuel is helping to relieve the pressure on native woody plants that have been harvested
destructively for fuel.
Cultivation
Sea buckthorn tolerates a wide range of soil types including poor ones as long as they are not
to dry and this plant is ideal for maritime positions with sandy soils. It requires a sunny position
and mature plants are relatively drought resistant. This species has symbiotic relationships with
a number of soil bacteria which fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. Both male and female plants
need to be grown together to ensure that the berries are produced. Male plants produce conical
conspicuous buds in winter whereas the temale produces buds which are smaller and rounded
(PFAF undated). Commercial orchids typically use 1 male for every 7 females (Todd 2006)
Propagation
Sea buckthorn can be propagated by seed which requires stratification for approximately 90
days at 3 to 5 degrees C. Fresh seed can be sown direct and covered with a thin layer of soil.
Germination can be within 3 to 10 days after stratification has broken dormancy (Todd 2006) .
Sea buckthorn can also be propagated by cuttings from half ripe wood in June and July -
though this can be difficult it is the most successful method of vegetative propagation. Cuttings
of mature wood may be taken in autumn but are difficult to root. These cuttings should be
stored in sand I peat until April and then rooted using bottom heat (PFAF undated). Suckers
may be divided in winter and directly planted out. '
References
Dharmananda S. (undated) Sea buckthorn. Institute for Traditional Medicine.
FAO (2007) Synergistic superfruit: Sea Buckthorn. Non-Wood News No. t 5 July 2007. FAO.
PFAF (undated) Hippophae rhamnoides L. Sea Buckthorn. Plants for a Future Database.
Accessed September 2007 on http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Hippophae+rhamnoides
Small E. , Catling P.M. , Li T.S.C. (undated) Blossoming treasures of biodiversity. 5: Sea
Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) - an ancient crop with modern virtues. Accessed
September 2007 on www.seabuckthorn.comlfiles/sample-buckthorn.pdf
Todd J. (2006) Introduction to Sea buckthorn. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs.
Ontario, Canada.
Page 23
Attracting beneficial insects
A healthy population of beneficial insects is a vitally important part of any resilient a9ro
ecosystem. Beneficial insect predator and parasite numbers can be boosted by planting
species of plants attractive for part of their their feeding stages. Bees too, especially wild bees,
are extremely important for pollination and their numbers should also be encouraged, especially
as the. gregarious nature of hive bees makes the latter susceptible to disease and parasite
problems.
Beneficial insect predators
Earwigs
Important predators of fruit and hop insects, including aphids, mites and insect eggs. Feeding
is usually at night and during the day earwigs hide under loose bark, leaves etc.
Oamsel bugs
A group of agile and ferocious carnivores.
Anthocorid bugs
The adults and nyphs are general predators of small invertebrates including caterpillars, weevil
larvae and pupae, red spider mites and eggs. Adults hibernate overwinter and lay their eggs on
the fruit tree in spring.
Capsid or Mirid bugs
Most are important predators, with both adults and nymphs very active voracious carnivores.
Adults either hibernate over the winter and lay their eggs in the young wood in spring, or lay
eggs in summer-autumn which overwinter to hatch in spring.
Lacewings
Several species are important predators of fruit pests. There are three groups, green, brown
and powdery lacewings - all are useful. Some species overwinter as adults, others as
prepupae. The adults devour their prey, but feed mainly on nectar; the larvae are voracious
predators which suck the contents out of their prey, leaving a 'shell', Prey includes aphids red
spider mites, scale insects and small caterpillars.
Beetles
Ground and rove beetles are generally dark, shiny black, living under stones and decaying
vegetation. They vary widely in size from 1.5 - 25 mm, and feed mainly at night. Prey includes
slugs, vine weevil , moth pupae and red spider mite,
Ground beetles
Many species of ground beetles are useful predators of soil pests, and also feed on the pupae
of winter moth and other pests which spend part of their life cycle in or on the ground. Adults
may climb plants in search of prey but few species of ground beetle occur regularly on trees or
shrubs, Prey includes slugs, vine weevil, moth pupae and red spider mite.
Rove beetles
These are a large group of active, often predatory beetles which are most abundant in moss
and decaying vegetation, Prey includes slugs, vine weevil, moth pupae and red spider mite,
Page 24
Ladybirds
Larvae feed voraciously on aphids, spider mites, small caterpillars, scale insects etc; a single
larva can eat several hundred aphids during its development. Adults usually hibernate over the
winter in suitable locations, ego beneath loose bark.
Midges
Midges are common predators and their larvae are often present amongst aphid and mite
colonies.
Hoverflies (syrphids)
Adults visit fruit blossom and many other flowers, especially Compositae, Rosaceae and
Umbelliferae, in large numbers, feeding on nectar and pollen. Larvae are predators of aphids
and other insects. One larva can eat up to 50 aphids a day (1000 in a lifetime).
Beneficial insect parasites
Parasitic flies (tachinids)
Larvae are internal parasites of other insects, particularly moth caterpillars.
Parasitic wasps
These tiny wasps generally lay their eggs in the eggs of bodies of other insects which then
become the food source for the developing wasp larvae. The adults are rarely noticed except
on a sunny day when they can be found feeding on umbelliferous flowers.
Ichneumon flies
Attack fruit pests, especially moth caterpillars.
Braconid wasps
Important enemies of moth caterpillars.
Chalcid wasps
Small or minute insects (most under 3 mm long), parasitise
many insect pests, particularly aphids, moth larvae and
scale insects.
Social wasps
Social wasps (eg. Vespula germanica & V.vulgaris) are of value as predators of harmful insects,
including aphids and caterpillars; this prey is fed to the wasp larvae which require a diet of
animal protein. Predatory activity is maintained through brood-rearing but then in late summer
and autumn the workers can be a nuisance.
Mites
Several mites are predators of other mites, aphids and small insects. Some overwinter on dead
leaves on the ground.
Spiders
Many species are found on fruit trees and shrubs. Prey includes aphids, codling moth adults
and larvae etc.
Money spiders
These are very small (usually under 2.5 mm long) with shiny black abdomens; they are
abundant , partucularly in the autumn, on fruit crops as predators of spider mites, small aphids
and other small insects. Money spiders like shady, damp sites.
Harvestmen
These look very similar to spiders, consiting of a small round body balanced on very long, thin,
delicate legs. They are common on fruit crops as predators of aphids, caterpillars and other
small insects .

Useful perennials for attracting beneficial insects
These include:
the Compositae (attracts hoverflies)
the Umbeliiferae (attracts hoverflies and parasitic wasps.)
Achillea spp (yarrow)
Aaastache SOD. (anise
Alcea rosea hollyhock)
Angelica spp.
Antennaria spp.
Anthemis tinctoria (colden mar uerite
Apios americana
Arctium spp. (burdock)
Artemesia spp.
Aster scc.
Astragalus SPl-. (milk vetch
Baptisia spp.
Bellis Derennis (daisy)
Bora 0 officinalis (bora.oe)
Brachy{,lottis spp.
Brassica spp.
Bunium bulbocastanum (cic nut
Centaurea . knapweed)
Chamaemelum nobile chamomile)
Cichorium intybus (chicory)
Conooodium maus (cia nut
Convolvulus spp.
Coreopsis spp.
Cryptotaenia japonica (mitsuba)
Cytisus SOD broom
Echinacea sp(:.
Eryngium spp.
EUDatorium SOD.
Ferula sp(:.
Foeniculum vulgaris fennel)
Fragaria vesca (wi ld strawberry)
Genista SOD.
Glycyrrhiza soo licorice
Hedysarum spp.
Helianthus spp. (sunflower)
Heracleum spp.
Indi otera soP.
Lathvrus 500. sweet peas
Levisticum officinale (lovage)
Ligus!icum spp.
Luoinus 500.
lupin
Malva moschata musk mallow
Medicao sativa (lucerne)
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm)
Mentha SOD. (mints)
Monarda spp. bee balm
Myrrhis odorata (sweet cicily)
Olearia spp.
Oriaanum vulaare oreaano)
Osmorhiza spp.
Petasites spp. (butterbur)
Phaseo/us spp. (beans)
Pimoinella saxifraae burnet saxifrage)
Psoralea spp.
Pycnanthemum spp {mountain mint
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)
Salvia SOD. sace
San uisorba sP/J.
Satureja spp.
Scorzonera hisoanica
Silohium SOO.
Siumspp.
Solidago spp (goldenrod)
Stachvs soo.
Stel/aria media chickweed
Symphytum spp. (comfrey)
Tanacetum spp. (feverfew, tansy)
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion .
Thaspium spp.
Thermopsis spp.
ThLmus soo. thvme)
Trifolium spp. clover)
Urtica dioica (nettl e)
Vicia spp. (vetch)
Wild / bumble bee nectar & pollen plants
Aim to plant to cover the whole season, especiall y late winter/earl y spring.
nec indicates a particularly good nectar source for wild bees.
pol indicates a particularly good pollen source for wild bees.
Il1ee

1M.', I
Apr
m

.. "OO
mollis 1./

Artist's
,mill ./
Miltoil,
seal,
b. y, Nose-bleed
Aleea 'osea China 1./
I-I I
I

"-I
I;;: A.' blanda
1./
ve I
'Ou, A i
1./
1-

anemone,
is
f7
1-,
..
c,
-i"
majus
f7
11-1
ISl1apd'ragon, Loose
spp. Europe 1./
'.t
burdock, Burdock,
burdock
I-\fllltHli:I maritima 1./
1./
1--
Thrift ,

officinalis
f7
17
i
I , Med 1./
1
vulgaris
f7
17
IWinter- cress, Yellow
Rocket, Rocket
,
I
spp:
f7
17
II
I
Page 28
Species
nee pol Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Berberis vulgari s
./ ./
I .........
Europe
Common barberry,
Jaundice berry,
Pipperi dge bush
Ber beri s wilsoni ae
./ ./
I"
China
Borago offi cinalis
./ ./
.. .. .. ..
C. Europe
Borage, Talewort, Cool
tankard, Tailwort
Brachyglottis greyi
./
-
..
New Zealand
Buddleja spp.
./
1-
..
Calendula officinalls
./ ./
---
Europe
Marigold, Pot marigol d,
Call una vulgaris
./ ./
--
Europe
Li ng, Heather.
Caltha palustris
./
./ I-I"
.. .. .. ..
----
- 1-1
N.America
I
Marsh mari gol d.
American cowsl ip, King
cup, Meadow- bri ght ,
I
,
Campanula carpatica
./ ./
-
E.Europe
Tussock bellfl ower,
Carpathian harebell ,
Centaurea cyanus
./ ./
..
---
Europe
I
Cornfl ower, Bluebottl e,
Bachelor' s button
I
Centaurea spp.
./ ./
1II1II
-
..
Centaurea montana
./
I-I
MIs Europe
Mountain cornfl ower,
Mountain bluet,
I
Perennial cornflower
I
Chaenomeles speclosa
./ ./
--
Chi na
Japanese quince,
Flowering quince,
II
Page 29
- -

IShasta daisy
I'''"''"'""
. '0::: Wild succory,
0 Witloo!
Page 30

r:1
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No,
Species
nee po I Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Cotoneaster
./ ./
-
salicifolius 'gnom'
W.China
Cotoneaster simonsii
./ ./
IWlI
Himalayas
Cucurbita spp.
./ ./
1-
Figleaf gourd,
Chilacayote, Malabar
gourd
Cynara carduncuJus
./
Med
Cardoon, Artichoke
thistle,
Cynoglossum
./ ./
-
officinale Europe
Hound's tongue,
Chinese forget-rne-not ,
Cytisus scoparius
./ ./
1-
-
Europe
Broom, Common broom,
,
Scotch broom
Dahlia pinnata Mexico
./ ./
1
101
1_
--
Garden dahlia, Common
dahlia,
Di anthus barbatus
./
Europe
Sweet william
Digitalis purpurea
./
----
Europe
Foxglove
Dipsacus fullonum
./
S. Europe
..
- 1- 1
Fuller's teasel , Wild
teasel ,
Doronicum
./ ./
- 1-
plantaglneum Europe
Eccremocarpus seaber
./
1" 1--
Chile
,
,
Glory flower
,
,
Echlnops ritro
./
-
Europe,Asia
Small globe thistle
Echlum vulgare Europe
./ ./
----
Viper's bugloss,
Blueweed, Blue devil
Page 31
!F.
iJUf

, ./
ISpp.
' ./

"I
I
,
!./
Europe
,
Great willow
I
, Rosebay willow
herb I
d.I ,
1./
./
h'airy
I
IErica carnea European
1./
./
heath, Spring
,
Iheath,
IErlc.
V
I
[Irish
h
,atho
i heather
: Eur.o.!'e
!./
I
IMoor
W,Europe
./
1./
I
L
'0
, ./
,
Sea holm,
Sea eryngo
'!

I J I
'[""UI
./
1./
I
I S,I U,S,
;
i poppy
I
i
;

i
I-I
I
,
Crown i i
[./ i
. '.u a.
1(, "',,. Konin;

./
I-I
,
I

ni. broom, Spanish
gorse,
Species nec pol Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Genista lydia Balkans
./
IL-I I .........
Genista tinctoria
./

Europe
Dyer's greenweed,
Woodwaxen
Glechoma hederacea
./ ./
.. ..
Europe
Ground ivy, Aleroot
Hebe pinguifolia
./
.. ..
' pagei' New Zealand
Hedera helix Europe
./ ./
.. .. ...
-
English ivy, Ivy,
Helenium spp.
./ ./
-
..
Bitter sneezewort ,
BiHerweed,
Helianthemum ./
nummularium Europe
Rock rose, Common
rock rose,
Helianthus annuus S.
./
U.S.
./
1-1-1=
Sunflower, Common
sunflower, Prairie
sunflower, Mirasel
,
Heracleum
./ ./
I
1
II1II
1" 1-
sphondylium N.temp
rgns
,
Hogweed, Cow parsnip,
Keck
,
Hippophae rhamnoides
./
-
Europe
Sea buckthorn, Sea
berry, Sallow thorn
Hyacinthoides non-
./ ./
,
.. .. ..
scripta Europe
Bluebell, Wild hyacinth,
Hypericum spp.
./
-
..
-
Rose of Sharon, Aaron's
I
beard, Creeping St
John's wort, Goldflower
Impatiens noli-tangere
./ ./
-
..
Europe
Touch-me-not, Yellow
balsam,
Page 33

IApr
rm
lOcI
I-
Blue
I album Europe
nettle,
I Dead nettle
I"

I-
IPurple'
I
Med
-
bay' Bay laurel ,
spp.
-
I-
True
" English
,,',
I sp".
-
I-
I I I

I-
I I
ii
-
I-
w'"
'"a
egg plant,
foam
Europe
-
I-
and
,ri , Yellow
'ril" Wild I
' .N.
... a ...
'al I , Red
oh,;; Indian pink
LOlus '0; '
I-
i-
foot trefoil, Baby's
I I Bacon and
eggs
Ei., '0;'
....
I-
i
!
I-
I-
'1- 1

Spiked I i
Page 34 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No <
Species
nee po t Jan Feb Mar
It!: a
y
Jun
Jut Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Mahonia aquifolium
./ ./
W.N.Ameri ca
Mountain grape, Oregon
grape, Holly mahonia,
Mahonia japonica
./ ./
1-
-
Japan
Mahonia nervosa
./ ./
W.N.America
Oregon grape
Malus sylvestris var.
./ ./
1-
-
domestica (hybrids)
Orchard apple, Apple,
Malva spp.
./ ./
- 1-
-
Musk mallow
Melilotus spp.
./
White sweet clover,
./
- 10 1
Hubam sweet clover,
Bokhara clover, White
melilot, Bukhara clover
Mespilus germanica
./ ./
--
S.E. Europe
Medlar
Monarda dldyma
./
1-1- - I-
E.N.America
Sweet bergamot , Bee
balm, Oswego tea,
Oswego bee balm
Myosotis spp.
./ ./
--
Field
Nicotiana tabacum
./ ./
-1
0
1-
1
-
Trap America
Common tobacco,
,
II
Tobacco,
Olearia haastii New
./ ./
I- I-
I
Zealand
Origanum vulgare
./ ./
1- 1-
-
Europe
Wild marjoram,
Marjoram, Pot marjoram,
Oregano, Organy
Papaver orientale
./
I-
-
S.W.Asia
Oriental poppy
Page 35
if!b

Api:
r-m
Oct
, rho.".s Europe
' ./
1./
'R;d-POIP,Y, Corn poppy,
,g, '0'0 poppy,
I ' poppy
1./
1--1

I
: ",'

I
,
, ivy
,
spp.
I
seal
'1'
IOxlip
I elatior Europe
1./
,
I 1 I
,
1
,.,
1./
Engl ish
I
,.viurn Europe
1./
./
I-I
Gean,
Icherry,
cerasifera !./
, Cherry plum :
dulcis W. Asia
./
1./
I
l
Peach persica China
./
1./
var.
(
1./
China
,
,
officinalis
./
I I
"""""g,,g sacch.r.t ./

1
I sage
Mi
Europe ./ 1./ i
:1
Europe
./
1./
I ".' European
I
black
Species nee pol Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Ribes sangulneum
./ ./
..
~
,
W.N.Ameri ca
Winter currant,
Flowering currant, Red
flowered currant
Ribes speciosum
./ ./
,-,-
California
Robinia pseudoacacia
./ ./
-
E. & c. U.S.
Black locust , False
acacia, Locust , Robinia,
Golden oak
Rosa rugosa
./
I
N.Chi na,Japan,Korea
Ramanas rose, Rugosa
rose, Turkestan rose,
Japanese rose
Rosmarinus officinalis
./
S.Europe
./
-
-,-,-
Rosemary
Rubus deliclosus W.
./ ./
--
,
U.S.
Boulder raspberry I
Rocky Mountain
flowering raspberry,
Rubus fruticosus
./
-'-I
Europe
Blackberry, Bramble,
Salix aegyptiaca
./ ./
Armenia, lran
Musk wi ll ow
Salix alba Europe,Asia
; ./ ./
White willow
I
Salix alba var. caerulea ./
./
- IU
Europe,Asia
Cricket bat willow
Salix caprea Europe
./ ./
'- 1-
-
Goat willow, Sallow,
Pussy willow, Florist's
willow
Salix fragalis Europe
./ ./
--
Crack wi llow, Brittle
willow,
Salix purpurea Europe
./ ./
-
I
Purple will ow, Purple
osier, Basket willow
Page 37
Species nee pol Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Dei INov Dec
Salix repens . ./ ./
-
,
Europe,Asia
Creeping willow
Salix smithiana
./ ./
-1-1
(Hybrid)
Salvia horminum
./
--
- I-
Satureja spp.
./
-
-1-
-
Summer
Scrophularla aurlculata
./ ./
----
Europe
Water figwort, Water
betony,
Scrophularia nodosa
./ ./
---
Europe
Knotted figworl , Figwort ,
Rosenoble, Throatwort
,
Sedum pulchellum U.S.
./ ../
,
Sinapis arvenis Europe
./
1./
---
Field Charlock,
,
Solidago spp.
./ ./
----
goldenrod
Sorbus aucuparia
./ ./
--
Europe
Rowan, Mountain ash,
Quickbeam
J
Stachys annua Europe
' ./
---
Annual woundwort,
Annual yellow
woundwort
Stachys germanica
./
-
-1-1
Europe
Downy woundwort
-
Stachys recta Europe
./
-'-1-
Yellow woundwort
Symphytum
./ ./
-
-1--'-
caucasicum Caucasus
Prickly comfrey, Blue
comfrey,
,
Symphytum
./ ./
-----
grandiflorum Europe
Dwarf comfrey
,
Page 38 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No ;
Species nee po I Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Symphytum officinale
./ ./
Europe
Common comfrey,
Knitbone, Boneset
Symphytum tuberosum
./ ./
Scotland
Tuberous comf rey
Symphytum
./
uplandleum (hybrid)
./
I- I-

Quaker comfrey,
Russian comfrey
Tanacetum parthenium
./ ./
..
-1-
Europe
Feverfew, Feverfew
chrysanthemum.
Tanacetum vulgare ./ ./
IWlI- I-
Europe
Tansy, Goldenbuttons
Taraxacum officinale ./ ./
-
Temp rgns
-
I .....
-1-
..
Dandilion
Thymus spp. ./
-
Headed savory,
Cone head thyme,
Persian hyssop
Tilia euehlora (hybrid)
./ ./
.. _ I_
Common lime,
Caucasian li me,
Crimean lime, Crimean
li nden
Trifolium pratense
./ ./
--
..
Europe
Red clover
Trifolium repens
./ ./
--
... -
--
Europe
White clover, Dutch
cl over, White Dutch
clover
Tulipa kaufmanniana
./
-
Turkestan
Water lily tulip
I
Tussilago tarfara
./ ./
" I
-
,
Europe
Coltsfoot, Bacey plant ,
~ o o r mar:!:s baccy
I
Ulex europaeus Europe
./ ./
-------
,-
-
-I-
..
Gorse, Furze, Whin
Page 39
--
Vicia cracca N.temp 1.1
vetch, Tufted
Ivetch
l
Bird vetch, Cow
[vetCh: Canada pea
[Vicia laba Med 1.1
IBroad bean, Field bean,
bean, Fava
Ibean,
saUva Me<l. I.f
,vetches, Spring
Iv;t:h,' Winter tare, Lentil
[of (" ,rl,
sativa ssp. nigra !"
lei, ", vetch
Vicia villosa Med '
Hairy vetch, Winter
Large Russian
.. ". i
China.l 1.1

I S.E. . I"
yucca,
0 needle, Needle
Classified advert
I I
I I
I J
I
I
Wanted. 1-4 acres (aouthish facing) in Devon, to create forest garden. Please contact Nicky,
07986620088. nhackney@wildmail.com.
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculturel horticulture to produce a
20 per year in Britain and the E.U. (16 unwaged)
Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
Agroforestry News
Ostrich fern
Volume 16 Number 3
May 2008
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 16 Number 3 May 2008
Contents
2 News
15 Stone pine for nut production
18 Walnut breeding in California
20 Almond: breeding for fruit quality
21 Hazelnut breeding in Oregon
23 Pest series: Deer and Rabbits
29 Ostrich fern: Matteuccia struthiopteris
33 A low cost nut sorting machine
36 Roots of fruit & nut trees
39 Book reviews: Perennial Vegetables / The
Encyclopedia of Fruit & Nuts
Totnes, Devon, TOg 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Page 1
News
Anti-cancer drug to be produced from Greater Celandine
A Ukrainian scientist who invented a revolutionary cancer treatment medicine plans to
manufacture the drug in Dubai. Dr Wassil Nowicky - who was nominated for the Nobel Prize for
chemistry in 2005 - is setting up a factory to produce Ukrain, a plant-based
mEidicine.
Currently the product is made in Austria through a licensing arrangement and it is approved in
23 countries including the UAE, where the new factory will produce it.
The raw material is from Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus) , a medicinal plant that grows in
Southern and Western Europe. The plant will be grown commercially in Europe where it will be
processed, then shipped to Dubai to produce the drug.
The drug is used to treat a variety of forms of cancer. Dr Nowicky, who lives in Austria and is in
his eighties, said Ukrain selectively destroyed cancer ceils without damaging healt hy ones. It
has been recognised as the first and only drug to do this by the US National Cancer institute, an
internationally recognised research institute. It is free of side-effects such as hair loss or
extreme nausea, so no additional drugs are needed. The Pharmacological Institute of the
University of Vienna established that Ukrain is non-toxic.
The effectiveness of the drug has been proved in 56 universities and research institutes by 192
scientists from 21 countries. The results have been presented at more than 150 international
medical congresses and published in around 100 scientific articles.
Source: Emirates Business 24/7, United Arab Emirates, 6 February 2008
Burning wood: issues for the future
Many environmental groups are championing wood and biomass-burning as a sustainable
carbon-neutral source of energy - both for heating and electricity production - for the future.
However, there are several problems wit h' moving more towards a wood-burning economy which
are not really being addressed. These are:
1. Wood burning is not carbon neutral.
2. There are serious health implications from the smoke produced from wood burning,
even from 'clean' burners.
3. Basing home heating requirements on wood burning requires a large area of dedicated
woodland managed as a fuel wood.
In terms of carbon neutrality, the burning of wood often ignores the fossil fuel used in the
harvesting, preparation and transporting of wood.
The carbon dioxide released when burning wood (about 1900g CO
2
for each 1000g of wood
burnt) is balanced by the fact that this carbon was taken up by the tree from the air when it
grew. So this part of the emissions is carbon-neutral. However, many other chemicals are
produced when wood is burnt , including one of the most potent greenhouse gases, nitrogen
dioxide; although the amounts may be small (200 g of CO
2
equi valent per kg of wood burnt), the
gas is 300 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and lasts 120 years in
the atmosphere. Methane is also produced (70 9 of CO .. equivalent per kg of wood) - 21 times
more potent than C02. Carbon monoxide is also produced in large amounts which has an
Page 2
indirect positive effect on global warming. Recent research suggests that particulates too have
a positive effect many times greater than the combined gases although they are short lived.
Overall, although figures vary depending on a multitude of factors, there is no doubt that wood
burning is contributing to global warming.
The health implications of wood burning derive from the emissions which contain carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulates, as well as other noxious gases. In a rural
situation, where the burning inside a building is clean and with a flue, the health effects will be
minimal. In a situation in a village, town of city it is not so: ambient levels can rise severely (for
example, in Christchurch, New Zealand, where wood burning is common, wintertime levels of
particulates can become very high, causing an estimated 100 deaths a year and an increase in
hospital admissions from respiritory complaints by 8%). An estimated 1.5 to 2 million people
die per year worldwide from indoor smoke, mostly produced from open and unflued fires in the
'developing' world. Smoke particles in the EU (from wood and fossil fuel burning) reduce
average life expectancy by 8.6 months.
As to the area of woodland required, this is a less contentious issue. It depends, of course, on
the type of building being heated - a newly built ultra efficient house will require much less than
an older house. And if heating and hot water are both being generated by wood burning this
will increase the requirement. A recent case study of a new build with heating and hot water
from wood burning estimates a requirement of 12 tonnes/year of dry Douglas fir, equivalent to
about 9 tonnes/year of a denser wood like ash. Forestry Commission figures estimate 8
tonnes/year of air dry wood to heat a three bed roomed house. A 10 year fuelwood coppice
rotation of mixed deciduous trees produces about 1 tonne/acre/year (or 2.3 topnes/ha/year), so
8 acres of coppice would be requires to produce 8 tonnes of wood per year. Even the fastest
growing trees - alder, willow, poplar, eucalyptus - would require 6 acres to produce 8 tonnes of
wood per year. For the 30 mi llion households in Britain this would require about 4 times the
total agricultural+forestry land area available! Nobody is suggesting the entire population of
Britain use wood fuel, however, it is clear that in an era when food will need to be grown more
intensively, more locally and more sustainably, there will only be enough land for a small
minority to use wood for fuel.
References
httpJ/www.smfrancis.demon.co.uk/airwolvs/index.htm
http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/444255J446867/255244/substances/645/ ?
The quantification of the effects of air pollution on health in the United Kingdom: COMEAP,
Department of Health, UK, 1998
UK national emissions inventory www.naei.org.uk
Domestic Woodfuellnstallations - A Case Study. Scottish Woodfuel News No 3, Nov 2007.
Papers from the 10th North American Agroforestry
Conference
A number of interesting papers appear in the conference proceedings from this 2007
conference (Olivier, A. and S. Campeau, eds. 2007. When Trees and Crops Get Together.
Proceedings of the 10th North American Agroforestry Conference, Quebec City, Canada, June
10-13, 2007.) Summaries of some of the most interesting appear below.
Page 3
Soil structure fauna in tree-based cropping systems
(1) A neglected aspect of soil quality is the ' diversity and spatial heterogeneity of microbial
communities and their effects on the stability of microbial functions. Sampling of agroforestry
plots in Quebec and Ontario suggest that tree-based intercropping systems enhance soil
microbial diversity compared to conventional cropping systems.
Source: Lacombe, S et af: Tree-based intercropping systems increase spatial Heterogeneity of
soil microbial communities.
(2} The proportion of water-stable aggregates (WSA) in soil influences soil quality, crop growth,
nu'rient retention, water infiltration, and surface runoff. Roots, fungi , and bacteria as well as
numerous chemical substances secreted by these agents play important roles in soil aggregate
formation, persistence, and turnover.
The results of this American study show that establishment of buffers with trees and grass as
well as grass waterways increased WSA, soil carbon, soil nitrogen, microbial diversity, and
enzyme activity. It could be speculated that improved soil physical properties and increased
microbial diversity may help to reduce non point source pollution from row crop agriculture
watersheds thus improving environmental quality.
Source: Udawatta, R et al: Soil aggregate stability and enzyme activity In agroforestry and row-
crop systems
Alley cropping and insects
This American research involves examining the effects of alley cropping on insect biodiversity,
crop yields, and small farm economics. Scientists investigated arthropod dynamics in a black
walnut-alfalfa practice and a heartnut-canola-wheat practice compared to conventionally grown
crops.
Results found that alfalfa weevil mortality was significantly higher in alley cropped alfalfa
compared to alfalfa, and that arthropod diversity was greater in alley cropped
crops compared to conventionally grown crops. Alfalfa yield from wider alleyways was not
significantly different from monocropped alfalfa. Economic models indicated alfalfa in wider
alleyways would be a profitable option for walnut growers. Alley cropping winter crops such as
canola and wheat provide less competition with trees for water , nutrients and light while
providing many of the same benefits found in the alfalfa-walnut system.
Source: Terrel Stamps, W et al: The ecology and economics of insect pest management And
biodiversity in nut tree alley cropping systems in The Midwestern U.S.
Blueberries in the forest
A novel system of intercropping trees and
blueberries has been developed in Quebec,
Canada. SO-metre blueberry field strips alternate
with intensively managed 42-metre forest strips.
Intensive management of the forest strips
compensates for the lost timber production in the
blueberry strips, thereby ensuring that the
preViously-granted forestry rights are respected.
The foresUblueberry approach might offer a number
of environmental , social and economic advantages:
Page 4
It releases land suitable for blueberry production but currently under forest
management ;
Among other things, the forest strips protect the soil from wind erosion, shelter the
blueberry flowers and fruit from froSl , and foster pollination of the fl owers.
Source and photo: Berard, L: L'amemagement de bleuetieres en milieu fcrestier : Une approche
agroforestiere novatrice.
Agroforestry in Northern China
Agroforestry in the northern plains of China has witnessed tremendous expansion over the last
quarter of century. Shelterbelts, intercropped trees, small woodlots, and home gardens are
found everywhere. In particular, more and more trees are planted abound and inside of farm
fields in the forms of shelterbelts and intercropping. As a result, forest cover in the region has
increased from less than 5% in the late 70s to over 15% now.
liangshan, a rural county in southwest Shandong, has a high population density - from more
than 300 people per square kilometer by the end of 1970s to over 500 in the mid 1990s. Thus,
land has been very limited - for a rural labour force of 147,800 in 1978, the total farmland was
only 55,880 ha. And this limited resource further declined to 54,980 ha in 2001, while the
labour force swelled to 322,600. So farmland per rural worker was 0.38 ha in 1978, and it
reduced to 0.17 ha in 2001.
The scarcity of land has severely constrained the growth of the local economy, which remains
agriculture based. To increase yields, the limited land has been utilized more than once a year,
improved seeds have been widely adopted, and irrigation has remained widespread. Further,
fertilizer application has intensified from about 50 kg/ha to around 700 kg/ha. However, these
technologies have their limitations; farmland has been subject to acute problems such as the
decline of upper layers of groundwater, the decrease in soil organic content, crop susceptibility
to pests and diseases, and desiccating early summer hot winds.
Furthermore, the combination of high input costs and low grain prices meant that once people's
subsistence needs are met, heavy dependency on cropping is not conducive to income growth
and livelihood improvement. Local farmers have thus made aggressive efforts to diversify their
economy by expanding their production activities into animal husbandry, forestry, and other
enterprises. It is against this backdrop that agroforestry has been adopted as a major way of
adapting to the fundamental constraints of regional biophysical , socioeconomic, and
demographical conditions. The ratio of farmland put under the protection of tree shelterbelts
has gone up from less than 30% in 1978 to more than 90%, and forest cover, over three
quarters of which is made up of intercropped trees, rose from 6.4% in 1978 to 15.3% in 2001.
The production of annual crops was the dominant means of livelihood in 1978, accounting for
83% of their total agricultural production value; in 2001 , it declined to 54%.
Situated in southwest Shandong, Heze is a municipality of twelve rural counties. There,
shelterbelts are established in blocks of 13-30 ha to create a network of trees that reduces the
impacts of wind. These grid-like barriers are normally planted 2-4 rows deep
In intercropping, two year-old tree seedlings are planted in farmland, with a spacing of either 3m
x 6m or 3m x 8m. Sometimes, two rows of trees are planted side by side at a spc"'ir'lQ of 3m x
x3m followed by a 10 metre gap for growing annual crops. Poplar has become the .... qlar
species of choice. Poplar seedlings come from genetically improved clonal variet;
Annual crops are planted in-between the rows of trees. Winter wheat is the fi
during the first a few years of the trees' growth. Corn, cotton, and peanuts are
f4
Page 7
second crops. After 3-4 years of intercropping, the shading effect of tree crowns inhibits the
growth of annual these crops. They are then replaced by more shade-tolerant crops like alfalfa,
which has the added benefits of fixing nitrogen in the soil and providing food for livestock.
Farmers then continue to manage the standing poplar trees, including fertilizer application,
pruning, and tilling. After 5-8 years the poplar trees are harvested and logs are transported to
nearby processing centres in villages.
Local governments provide farmers interested in planting trees with seedlings free-ot-charge.
FiQancial support is also offered to people entering wood products processing in the forms of
lowered electricity costs and low interest loans.
In addition, the success of agroforestry can be attributed to technical assistance by local
governments. A technical extension service has been created for farmers , whose agents hold
demonstrations that are geared toward proper planting techniques and intermediate treatments
such as application of fertil izer. The governments have also emphasized the role of research
and development of the agroforestry systems and the individual trees that are used in these
systems, with a focus on the silvicultural characteristics and biological performance of the fast
growing and hardy hybrid poplars.
Farmers' income obtained from their land has increased by 30-70% as a result of interplanting
hybrid popl ar into their fields
The expansion of agroforestry systems has also led to the development of small-scale wood
products mills making wood panels, fibreboard, veneers, and plywood. Currently 28,000 mills
have been established within Heze, with a total employment of 500,000 villagers . The total
wood utilization amounts to approximately six million cubic metres per year, with an annual
processing value of $ 850 million. The economic success of agroforestry is also helped by
national timber shortages and thus very high timber prices.
Source: Yin, A & Sun, 0: Agroforestry boom in the northern plains of china: Drivers and impacts
Growing and marketing forest botanicals
Many of the plants used in the natural products industry are collected from wild populations
from forests. As the demand for herbal products rises, the potential for damaging wi ld
populations by over harvesting increases. The industry also has concerns over raw ingredient
quality, consistency of supply, and species identification of wild harvested materials. The result
is a rising demand for cultivated forest botanicals. This presents a new income opportunity for
farmers and forest landowners, but entering the market can be challenging, and reliable and
practical cultivation information is difficult to find and often not appropriate for a wide range of
situations and locations.
The author of this paper has spent many years studying the production and marketing of a large
number of North American forest botanicals and has devised a step-by-step recommended
approach for new producers:
Step 1: Learn about the medicinal herb industry
Spend time reading about the industry, attending conferences and trade shows, and visiting
growers and buyers. You can't be a successful in this market if you don't take the time to learn
about it.
Step 2: Evaluate your resources and personal attributes
Take a serious, objective look at what resources you have already. For example, how much
land do you have and what is it like? Do you have woods or open fields? Is the soil healthy
"d well drained or rocky and thin? What have you successfully produced on your land or what
Page 4
grows there naturally? Can you protect your crops from theft? What kind of equipment do you
own?
Also consider personal attributes, such as how much time, energy, and money do you have to
put into this endeavor? And now is the time to start thinking about how you want to market your
crop. Producing for the wholesale market versus producing for a direct market require very
different approaches, personal strengths and personality, time, and volumes of product.
Step 3: Create a business plan
This is the least popular step in the process, but it is probably the most important. This is
where you put it all down on paper and make sure that that your idea makes sense! This is also
the time to make the decision about whether you want to sell wholesale, retail , or make a value
added product.
Step 4: Decide If you are going to produce organically or not
Before you even disturb the soil or plant a seed, you should decide if you are going to produce
a certified organic crop or not. Certified organic herbs often command premium prices, but
demand for volume is much less. Certified organic production requires extensive
recordkeeping, annual inspections, and a higher level of management than a conventional
production system does.
Step 5: Learn how to grow and market your herbs
Learn everything you can about how to grow and market native botanicals by reading books and
websites, attending conferences, visiting growers and buyers, and c0'l1municating with
agricultural specialists. I recommend that potential growers spend six months to a year on this
step. During this time you will finalize what you are going to grow and how you intend to sell it.
Most people think only about selling their herbs wholesale to a ~ b i g buyerft . This may be
appropriate for you, especially if you plan to grow large acreages of herbs. But you should also
consider ~ a d d i n g value
n
to your herbs. This can be as Simple as offering a variety of package
sizes to your customers or you might want to go so far as to create your own tinctures, body
care products, or tea blends. Whatever you choose to do, focus on producing a quality product.
Step 6: Grow your success
A major key to success is staying on top of the industry. Do this by continually networking with
others, subscribing to major industry publications, and attending at least one annual trades how.
Making your product stand out and getting it in front of buyers should be of utmost importance.
Consider working with other growers to increase your market presence and ability to meet
demand.
Growing forest botanicals
Site selection
Proper site selection is critical for successful cultivation of forest botanicals. All of the plants
mentioned in this article grow well under 75% to 80% shade provided by a deciduous forest , or
mixed deciduous and pine forest. Most of these herbs require a moist , well-drained soil.
Soils
Many woodland botanicals will tolerate a variet y of soil types, although in general , heavy clays
and very sandy soils should be avoided. An ideal soil is usually a silty loam with high organic
matter. Most of these plants prefer a sl ightl y acid soil pH of 5.5 to 6.0.
Shade
The most economical way to provide shade is to use the natural forest canopy. Deeply rooted
deciduous trees such as walnut, oak, poplar, and lime are good. Soli d stands of conifers or
other shallow rooted trees compete too much for water and nutrients. Remove undergrowth,
which will also compete with the herbs and reduce air circulation.
Different production systems
Decide what intensity of cultivation you want to use, wild-simulated or woods cultivated.
In a wild simulated production system, your goal is to mimic what happens naturally as much as
possible. This is a low-input system that produces plants that are very similar to wild harvested
plants. A wild simulated system usually produces the lowest yields, but in the case of ginseng,
prottuces plants of the highest value. For wild-simulated production, rake the leaf litter and top
layer of soil aside, scatter the seed or plant the rootstock, and redistribute the soil and leaves
over the planted area. Ginseng growers will often sprinkle a little gypsum on the soil , too.
Expect a fairly large percentage of seed to be lost to rodents, disease, and desiccation. To
make management easier, plant in defined areas so you aren't always walking through your
planted areas.
A woods cultivated system requires more inputs than a wild simulated system, but as a result,
usually produces higher yields. In the case of ginseng, however, the roots will be worth less on
a weight basis. For woods cultivation remove all obstructions such as stumps, rocks, and big
roots. Till the soil , incorporate soi l amendments, and if possible, build raised beds. Sow seed
or plant rootstock, and cover with a good layer of mulch. Regular fertilizer and pest control
programs are usually implemented in woods cultivated and artificial shade systems.
Seed and rootstock
Obtain the highest quality seed or planting stock that you can find. Learn about the
stratification requirements for seeds and chilling requirements for roots for each kind of plant
you want to produce.
Diseases and pests
Many of these botanicals are rarely bothered by disease when grown in a garden setting. As
plant populations and infensity of production increase, disease pressure often rises, too.
Ginseng, however, tends to get all kinds of diseases whenever more than just a few plants are
cultivated together. With the exception of ginseng, there is little information on diseases,
disease control , or products to apply to prevent or control disease. Prevention is usually the
best method: select a site with good air and soil drainage; establish small plantings in several
locations and avoid overcrowding of plants. Insects are rarely a problem, but rodents, deer, etc
might also enjoy your botanicals and fencing and other deterrents might be required to prevent
damage. Traps, baits, and cats are frequently used to keep down populations of rates, mice,
and voles.
Seed collection
All of the forest botanicals must grow for several years before they reach harvestable size.
During these growing years, seeds can often be collected and sown in another area or sold.
Many of these seeds have exacting germination requirements and may require a stratification
period.
Harvest and post-harvest handling
When it is time to harvest , carefully dig the roots to minimize root injury. Spades or forks can
be used for small plantings and large tractor mounted diggers, similar to potato diggers, can be
used for large plantings. Roots must be carefully washed and dried and properly packaged and
stored.
Consider having your herbs tested for bioactive constituents, heavy metals, pesticides, and
microbial contaminants. For some buyers, this will add value to your product.
Page 8
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 16 No :J
Some North American forest botanicals that can be culti vated
Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is the most well -known and valuable of all the 'native forest
botanicals. It is an herbaceous perennial with a fleshy root that sets a cluster of large red
berries in late summer. Ginseng is indigenous to the forests of much of eastern Canada and
the northeastern and mid-Atlantic United States and was once prevalent i n some areas. The
market demand is primari ly for the dried root, although there is a small market for the fresh root
and an even smaller market for the dried leaves. The active chemical constituents in ginseng
are the ginsenosides, the amount and type of which varies between species of ginseng and
depending on where and how the plants are grown. Ginseng is unusual because price is
determined by how it is grown. High yields of ginseng root can be produced in three to four
years under artificial shade, but the price per pound wi ll be low. Gi nseng grown in the woods,
either in beds or in a wild simulated system, will be more valuable, but it will take seven years
or more to mature and the yields wi ll be less. Ginseng is not an easy crop to grow. It is
vul nerable to a number of diseases, wildli fe, and poaching.
Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is also now is great demand. It is an herbaceous perennial
which grows i n ri ch woods in the eastern United States and Canada. Goldenseal has an
underground rhizome covered with fibrous roots, by which it readi ly spreads and is easil y
propagated. Both rhizome and roots have bright yellow interiors. The medicinal propert ies of
goldenseal are attri buted to alkaloids found throughout the plant, the major ones being
hydrasti ne and berberi ne. The market is most ly for t he rh izome and roots although there is a
small market for leaves. Goldenseal has tradi tionall y been used as a mouth and
eye wash and is well known for its antiseptic properties.
Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) is one of the first plants to emerge in the spring and has a
thick underground rhizome with bright red sap. The rhizome has traditionally been used as a
dye, to treat skin lesions, and to prevent tooth decay. The demand for bloodroot was low but
steady for decades, and as a result, it has been almost excl usively wil d harvested. Demand for
bloodroot spiked suddenly in 2000 when a German company began using it as an appetite
stimulant in cattle feed. Bloodroot is also being studied for the treatment of cancer. This
demand resulted i n some commercial cul tivation, although it is sti ll quite limited. The major
alkaloid believed to be responsible for bloodroot's medicinal and anti-microbial properties is
sanquinarine. Bloodroot is commonty propagated by rhizome cuttings and seed.
Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) is an attractive plant with feathery foliage, tall spikes of white
flowers , and a thick, knotty rhizome. The rhizome is commonly used as an alternative to
hormone replacement therapy to treat unpleasant menopausal symptoms. It is in high demand,
which is putting pressure on wide populations. There is some cultivation underway, particularly
in Canada and Germany, but prices remain too low to interest many growers in North America.
Black cohosh is most commonly propagated by rhizome cuttings, but may also be propagated
by seed.
There are a large number of other woodland botanicals that are currently collected from the wild
that can be cultivated. Examples incl ude blue cohosh (Cau!ophyllum thalictroides), false
unicorn (Chamaelirium !uleum), mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), and wild ginger (Asarum
canadense). There is very limited information available on cultivation of these other botanicals.
Source: Davis, N: Growi ng and marketing native forest botanicals
Pecan-garlic agroforestry
The owners of 8ellbowra organic pecan orchard in New South Wales, Australia, are
successfully intercropping their establishing pecan orchard with a high-value garlic crop.
400 pecan trees were planted in 2003 and another 200 in 2007, with more to follow in the
future. Trees were planted in rows 12 or 14 m apart, with trees at 6 or 7 m apart respectively in
the row. With the wide spacing between pecan rows there is a lot of 'unproductive' space whilst
the trees are young. An intercrop of Russian garlic was chosen for several reasons including
relatively low start-up costs, ease of growing organically and a good projected financial return.
Russian garlic has been grown for 5 years now. Each pecan interrow is ripped and rotary hoed
in late summer to kill weeds and create raised beds. The garlic is planted in autumn (between
Feb and April there) and is irrigated by ' T-Tape' which is connected to the pecan irrigation
system ( a gravity fed system using header tanks fi ll ed from a bore). Once planted, the garlic is
covered in mulch hay which is cut and baled on the property.
Harvesting commences in summer (November), the crop is died, packed and sent to markets.
All the garlic 'waste' (tops and roots) are returned to the pecan interrow to minimise nutrient
removal.
Garlic must be grown on a long rotation, so each year a new area of the pecan orchard is used.
With production in 2007 of 3.5 lonnes of organically certified premium quality Russian garlic, the
interrow crop makes a very substantial contribution to the farm orchard.
Substantial quantities of mulch are placed over the entire pecan interrow which has had a
measurable effect on the soil. Organic matter and carbon levels in the soil are greater where
garlic has been grown. Foliage analysis also indicates greater nitrogen in leaves of pecan trees
in these areas compared with non-mulched trees. US research has shown the benefit of
organic mulches for pecan tree growth, with taller trees and larger crowns in mulched versus
unmulched trees, with leaf mineral nutrition also much improved.
Source: Thornton, 0 & Bates, T: Inter-row cropping in an organic pecan orchard. Australian
Nutgrower, March 2008.
Hazelnuts - conventional vs organic orchards
A two year study in Italy compared conventional and organic hazelnut production, examining
yields and nut quality. The researchers found that conventional orchards outperformed organic
orchards in most measured outcomes:
Yields: organic yields were 20-60% those of conventional.
The lower productivity of the organic orchard is more striking in the 'off' year of
cropping.
Average nut weight and kernel weight was higher in the conventional orchard.
Kernel percentage was also higher in conventional orchard.
Rates of mouldy, rancid and shrivelled kernels was higher in the organic orchard.
Rates of insect damage to nuts is higher in the organic orchard.
There were no significant differences between the two systems in the number of Curculio
(weevil) holes, or in the rate of empty nuts.
The authors conclude that organic management of hazel orchards is a problem rather than an
opportunity for Italian growers.
Source: Roversi, A & Castellino, L: Further investigations on hazelnut yielding in conventional
and organic management. NUCIS-Newsletter, 14.
Grape hyacinth as a vegetable
Many folk will know of grape hyacinth (Muscari comosum or Leopoldia comosa) as a spring
flowering bulb common in gardens, but fewer know that this is a traditional vegetable still widely
used in Sicily.
The plant , a member of the lily family, is found on sandy soils from the plains to the mountains
in Sicily. The bulbs are characterised by bitterness, which is removed partially by boiling. The
bulbs are then preserved in olive oil and/or vinegar and used as a starter or as a condiment.
Bulbs are rarely cultivated there, but are harvested from the wild.
Source: Branca, F & La Malfa, G: Traditional Vegetables of Sicily. Chronica Horticulturae, Vol
48 No 1.
Chestnut drinks: beer and coffee
Lee and Lynda Williams of Trails End Chestnuts, Washington, USA, have found a way to use
chestnuts not high enough quality for fresh sales, dried whole chestnut products or their fine-
grade flour - by grinding them into material for chestnut beer. The dark colored, slightly sweet
beer is gaining popularity among the gluten-free category of beers, and chestnut beers from
producers like the Williams are available from a growing handful of microbreweries across the
country.
Situated in the desert region of Washington state on sandy loam soil on the "basic or neutral
side" says Williams, people told them chestnuts wouldn't grow there. "We do i! anyway," says
Lee. Lee and Lynda have five acres of chestnuts with approximately 500 trees; the oldest tree
in their orchard is 13 years old. Lee started all their chestnuts from seed, using
Japanese/ European crosses. There is no shortage of sunshine, but irrigation is required for
production. In 2007, they harvested around 5,000 pounds of chestnuts, but a heat wave in June
of 2006 -followed by a rare hail storm with high winds -brought their 2006 crop to 1400
pounds of fresh market quality chestnuts (which the Williams sold out) .
The Williams also became inspired from a trip to New Zealand last year for a chestnut council
meeting, where they observed a fresh peeler (not allowed out of New Zealand!) , after which Lee
chose to create his own equipment. He applies his mechanical know-how to improving upon his
processing and shelling equipment. Whole, dried chestnuts are a good seller for the Williams,
especially to Oriental markets in the USA. The Williams bulk process up to 1 gallons at a time
of whole, dried chestnuts, packaging and labeling as Trails End Chestnuts. They drop ship for
a large discount food business in New Hampshire, using the buyer' s label. Wholesale grocers
and loyal customers are another business outlet , and the Williams have shipped from Florida to
Seattle, and from Los Angeles to Maine. Their fresh chestnuts have been shipped as far as
Alaska and Hawaii.
~ W e call our dried chestnuts 'gourmet ,' because they're very good quality, pellicle free and
reconstitute nicely," says Lee. YThe chestnuts the pellicle adheres to are used for the beer,
because the pellicle gives the dried nuts a tangy taste. But this tanginess is great for beer and
it adds to the dark colour also. "
"The market for coeliacs (gluten intolerant) is bigger than you might think, " says Lee,
mentioning a government statistic that one out of every 133 persons in the U.S. is gluten
intolerant. Chestnut beer made in Corsica and France, such as Pietra brand, are made with 15
to 20 percent chestnuts. Lee explains that barley, which is typically used for beer production,
has the same nutritional content as chestnuts - though the chemistry of chestnuts is a little
different than barley.
To make chestnut chips of cracked barley size for microbrew production, Lee and Lynda start
with cleaned, shelled and dried chestnuts, which are "rock hard. " They go into a pre-cracker
and then a stone flour mill produces a "cracked-corn" product. The spacing of the stones in this
type of flour mill determine the coarseness and size of the flour, so the Williams space the
stones farther to produce the consistency needed for beer. Some of the chips are roasted on a
large electric range with a circulation fan Lee made from a convection oven, to impart a richer,
bolder flavor. Approximately 7 pounds of chestnut chips are needed to produce 5 gallons of the
Williams ~ D a r k Chestnut Brew. "
"Wet keep working on the beer and improving the recipe we offer to people for chestnut beer,
though we don't produce chestnut beer to sell ourselves. My goal is to provide the chestnut
chips for home brewers," says Lee. Home brewers and microbreweries find Trails End
Chestnuts through news articles or from their web site. Web sites featuring gluten-free beers
and Google articles also help achieve business. The gluten-free beer market is really starting
to click, and gaining momentum now," says Lee. "There are ten or 15 types of grains out there
suitable for gluten-free beers, but the chestnuts give it a unique, delicious flavor."
"If I could get all chestnut growers to understand that there's a market for dried nuts, and for
chestnut chips, then the general public might also become more aware of these products. There
are growers out there with hundreds of pounds of nut chips, or nuts with pellicles adhered,
wondering what to do with them," says Lee. "Chestnut growers have to create their own
markets, but the gluten-free market is big and getting bigger. "
Lee's newest chestnut-related product for this "retired" farmer is chestnut coffee.
Williams' coffee, which he has named Castagno Cafe, is made from roasting left-over chestnut
meal in the oven. He does big batches of it - about 8 Ibs. at a time. "When it comes out it
looks just like fine-ground coffee," he said. "I took some of this roasted chestnut stuff and used
it in a pot of coffee." After a bit of trial-and-error, Williams determined the best way to make the
drink is to use four level tablespoons in 12 cups of water. Williams' chestnut coffee can be
made in a regular drip coffee maker. "It's very good iced too," he said.
Williams, of Trails End Chestnuts, Moses Lake, Wash. , compares it with other coffee substitutes
made with roasted grains. It 's great for people who prefer not to drink so much caffeine or who
have a gluten allergy. Williams sells the ,Castagno Cafe through a natural foods company in
New Hampshire. (httc:llwww.simply-natural.biz/chestnut-coffee.php)
Williams said although the chestnut coffee substitute is tasty, the demand for his new hot
beverage hasn't been high yet - but that's okay with him. He said all of his unique chestnut
products are just really a way for him to keep busy experimenting while retired. "I was looking
for something to do, " he said. "It started out as a hobby 16 years ago - now it's turning into
some work. "
The editor of the Chestnut Grower commented: "I prepared a pot of Castagno Cafe for some
friends and relatives and the response was pretty positive. The smell of the roasted chestnuts
was different from coffee, but just as fragrant - sweet and nutty, almost chocolaty. The coffee
drinkers of the bunch thought it was very smooth with no aftertaste, slightly sweet - they didn't
add milk or cream. The tea drinkers enjoyed it with a little cream since they felt it was a little
strong alone. All agreed it was a good coffee alternative. "
Sources: The Chestnut Grower, Vol 9 No 3 (Summer 2007) and Vol 9 No 1 (Winter 2007);
www.chestnuttrai ls.com
Page 12
Non-brewing uses of hops
Hops are an essential beer ingredient because they contain two types of bittering acids: alpha
and beta. Bitter alpha acids complement beer's malty sweetness to give the beverage its
distinct flavour . They also promote the yeastbrewing process and hinder bacterial growth.
Beta acids, which have a greater effect on inhibiting microbial growth, also influence bitterness
but to a much lesser extent than alpha acids.
ARS scientists in ths USA are working with brewers and growers to breed new varieties of hops
to improve their current uses and expand into new markets. Over the past few decades, they
have developed and released several hop cultivars with traits like disease resistance, climate
tolerance, and aesthetic appeal. They've also bred them for high concentrations of alpha and
beta acids.
Different alpha-to-beta ratios affect the physical characteristics of hops and their uses. While
alpha acids are essential for brewing, their acrid flavor limits their use in other products. Low-
alpha cultivars have many of the same beneficial qualities, but more diverse uses, such as in
herbal teas or as nutritious feed supplements.
Hops have been used in folk remedies for everything from coughs to cancer. So what kind of
hops would work best in an herbal tea? The answer is Teamaker, a variety released in 2006 by
the ARS Forage Seed and Cereal Research Unit (FSCRU) at Corvallis, Oregon. Teamaker has
the lowest alpha acid content (0.6 to 1.8 percent) of any commercially available hop variety.
And its beta acid levels (5.4 to 13.2 percent) are significantly higher than those found in most
varieties.
This extremely high beta-to-alpha ratio gives Teamaker all the health benefits of traditional hops
cultivars but not their characteristic bitterness. This creates opportunities for nontraditional
uses besides tea. One such use is in sugar processing, where beta acids from hops can
substitute for an antibacterial called "formalin. "
Another potential use is in livestock production, where the animals can benefit from the
antimicrobial properties of hops. Since low-alpha varieties are more palatable, they could be
mixed into animal feed to reduce microbial and fungal illnesses. In fact , researchers elsewhere
have found positive effects of using hops in poultry feed as an alternative to antibiotics.
Source: Agricultural Research Magazine, January 2008.
Tree heartwood extracts halt Sudden Oak Death
In the mid-1990s, a new plant disease surfaced on the West Coast of America and quickly
spread through several counties in California and Oregon. Sudden oak death (SOD) is, as the
name implies, a rapidly spreading disease that can kill or injure several oak species and more
than 100 other plant species.
Scientists from the ARS, USDA Forest Service, and Oregon State University have found that
extracts from tree heartwood can limit the growth and sporulation of the agent that causes SOD.
The extracts can't cure infected trees, but they could be used to halt the disease' s spread.
The source of SOD is a funguslike microorganism, Phytophthora ramorum. Unknown before the
1990s, P. ramorum has since been discovered in several European countries including the UK.
Though it has cropped up in nurseries in more than 20 U.S. states, in the wild it has not been
observed outside of California and one county in Oregon.
P. ramorum causes the typical SOD symptoms in more than 30 plant species, including
rhododendron, maple, honeysuckle, and California bay laurel. P. ramorum can also infect more
than 100 other plant species, giving rise to a milder foliar disease called ~ r a m o r u m blight. "
P. ramorum is related to other Phytophthora species that seriously affect other trees, like ink
disease of sweet chestnut. To date, there is no known cure for SOD, so management strategies
focus on preventing it from moving to new hosts. Scientists tested the effectiveness of
heartwood from a variety of trees in destroying fungal spores-the main means of dispersal for
P. ramorum .

For years, scientists have known that tree heartwood-the older, nonliving wood-contains
protective antimicrobial compounds. The compounds found in the heartwood of Alaska yellow
cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), for example, are known to prevent decay for up to a
century after the tree has died. Compounds from the heartwood of several other conifer
species are known to have similar antimicrobial properties.
The scientists exposed P. ramorum spores to various compounds, wood chips, and essential
oils extracted from heartwood. They found that extracts from incense cedar (Cafocedrus
decurrens) , western red cedar (Thuja pficata) , Alaska yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis), western juniper (Juniperus occidentafis), and Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis
lawsoniana) exhibited antimicrobial activity against P. ramorum--destroying the spores and
inhibiting the growth of fungal cells.
Extracts from western red cedar and incense cedar damaged twice as many spores as those
taken from Alaska yellow cedar, western juniper, and Port Orford cedar. Douglas fir and
redwood extracts, which were also examined in the study, showed little to no antimicrobial
activity against the pathogen.
The potential application of these heartwood compounds is not limited to P. ramorum. Similar
levels of activity have been observed in trials using P. sojae and P. erythroseptica, two
Phytophthora species that c1ttack agricultural crops.
The chemical composition of heartwood varies among individual trees, and further studies are
needed to confirm which compounds offer the best protection against SOD. Individual
heartwood compounds might be develope,d i nto environmentally friendly fungicides that could
protect plants against P. ramorum infection.
Using tree heartwood extracts has the potential to be an easy-to-implement, environmentally
friendly, and effective method of SOD control. Western red cedar is considrered the best
candidate, because it is extremely effective and the trees grow naturally in the continental
United States (and also in western Britain) . Yellow cedar, though somewhat less effective, is
abundant in Alaska and can also be processed into shavings, sawdust, or wood chips.
Lightweight and easily transportable, these antimicrobial materials could be distributed without
further processing in areas with high human activities-such as footpaths and and bike paths-
to reduce spore movement and prevent spread of the disease.
Source: Agricultural Research Magazine, April 2008.
Summer tree forage
Scientists in the USA have been researching alternative livestock feeds
when herbaceous forages become limiting in summer. Species examined were black locust
(Robinia pseudoacacia) and mimosa (Albizia julibrissin), respectively, pollarded at 50 em, in
Arkansas, USA.
Black locust exceeded mimosa in total leaf mass per tree, shoots per tree, shoot mass per tree,
stem basal area, and biomass per tree. Projected yields were 1,900 kg/ ha for black locust and
1,600 kg leaves/ ha for mimosa, respectively, assuming a population of 12,300 trees/ ha.
Mimosa leaves had greater in vitro dry matter digestibility, total nonstructural carbohydrate, and
nitrogen digestibility than black locust. Mimosa leaves exceeded the nutritional N requirements
of growing cattle and goats, but protein supplementation would be needed for growing goats
grazing black locust leaves. Tissue concentrations of secondary metabolites robinin and
mimosine were below detectable limits in black locust and mimosa, respectively. The
conclusion was that either black locust or mimosa could provide moderate quantities of high
quality, rotationally grazed forage during summer months when herbaceous forage may in short
supply.
Source: Burner, D et al: Yield components and nutritive value of Robinia pseudoacacia and
Albizia julibrissin in Arkansas, USA. Agroforestry Systems, Vol 72 No 1 (2007).
Hedgerow intercropping in China
Hedgerow intercropping systems were introduced in China in early 1990s. A review of the
achievements in during the past 15 years shows that hedgerow intercropping contributes to soil
and water conservation, soil fertility amelioration, land productivity improvement, bio-terrace
formation, and gives more options for income generation based on local resources in mountain
areas.
To date, hedgerow intercropping has been demonstrated and applied practically on sloping land
in more than six provinces of China, particularly Sichuan, Guizhou, Shanxi , Shaanxi , as well as
in the Three Gorges region of Chongqing and Hubei Province. The intercropping system has
also been used for conserving farming on sloping lands, improving cash income, and reducing
agricultural risks in depressed mountainous regions in southwest and northern China over
recent years.
Source: Sun H et al: Contour hedgerow intercropping in the mountains of China: a review.
Agroforestry Systems, Vol 73 No 1 (2008).
Stone pine for nut production
Introduction
The Mediterranean stone pine, Pinus pinea, produces the well known pine nuts traditi onally
used in Mediterranean and Arabic cuisine. Due to their high quality, they achieve higher prices
than alternatives such as the Chinese Pinus koraiensis. In Spain and Portugal , the main nut-
producing countries, a total of over 550,000 ha of stone pine exists, yet hardly any effort has
been made for its domestication as a nut crop - there are no defined cultivars, but nearly the
Page 15
whole current production is still harvested from forest stands where no cultivation techniques
are applied except seeding or planting of new stands, thinnings for stand density regulation, and
some pruning in the lower or inner crown to ease manual harvesting or (historically) for fuel
wood.
In recent years, though, the crisis of traditional rain-fed crops in the Mediterranean has
focussed interest in stone pine as an alternative woody crop on farmland. Since 1992, much
afforestation has used stone pine with the expectation of future cone crops, and cone gathering
has started to be machine harvested in a few places, overcoming the shortage of skilled labour
for the dangerous job of pine climbing for cone picking.
Stone pine improvement
In Italy, Portugal and Spain, research on grafting techniques and improved selections has been
undertaken, aiming for the improvement of pine nut production in plantations or specific
agroforestry systems. In Spain, several grafted clonal trials
has been established and arte being evaluated. Whilst most
genuine stone pine forests grow mainly on sandy or rocky
soils without much agronomic value (which is the reason
these woodlands have not been ploughed up since the
Middle Ages) , grafted plantations on farmland are expected
to produce higher yields.
Cones on stone pine are produced on the vigorous upright
growing shoots at the top of the crown. Growing stone pine
in a dense stand, with trees too close together , leads to
conical shaped canopies (much like other pines when grown
densely) with few vertical shoots apart from the leader, and
thus few cones. Only vigorously growing, widely spaced
stone pine trees with the characteristic umbrella-shaped
canopy will render high yieJds. In Spain, with tree spacings
of at least 6 m x 6 m (278 trees/hal, the best/most vigorous
trees have reached mean annual cone yields of 4-6 kg and
maximum yields of 12-15 kg (2-2.5 kg pine nuts) in less than
10 years from grafting.
Propagation and rootstocks
Female P.pinea flower
The most used propagation technique is tip grafting in spring, substituting the terminal bud of
the stock's leading shoot by a bud of the selected clone, using container-raised rootstocks in a
greenhouse.
Because in stone pine woody grating is not feasible, scions are obtained from long shoot
terminal buds (still green soft tissue), ideally at the moment the spring flush is starting. For fast
callusing and a quick sap supply between tissues, the stock should be slight ly more advanced-
after bud burst though before complete shoot elongation.. Timing can vary depending on the
locality and season, but in Spain it is between March (southern Andalusia) and May (inner
highlands).
The grafting point is tied up with Parafilm tape and protected for several weeks from water and
drying out by a transparent perforated plastiC bag. At grafting, stock branches are partially cut
back to avoid competition with the scion; the are cut off completely in the autumn.
For rootstocks, any good seedling of stone pine or Aleppo pine (the latter for calcareous soils)
are used. There is no prospect of dwarf rootstocks because of the importance of crown
diameter and growth for cone production.
Orchard establishment and management
Tree spacing should be wide enough to avoid lateral shading and to encourage large crown
development; also, in the Mediterranean, to avoid too much competition for water. Spacing of
at least 6 m is advisable.
Stone pine prefers loose sandy soi ls, though it produces well on stony sites or gravels.
Compact layers of clay or silt will
restrict roots and crown development.
Flowering is late, normally avoiding
frost damage. Annual rainfall of over
600 mm is best , if well grown cones
(250-350 9 each) are wanted.
No pruning is required in the upper
crown, where female flowering mainly
occurs. Pruning lower in the tree does
not greatly influence the upper shoots
in widely spaced trees, so although
weak or lower branches may be
removed for access etc. , it does not
make sense to prune more than this.
Although chemical fertilisers have
increased crop yields, in the
Mediterranean nutrient uptake
depends mainly on water availability
and irrigation is not really
economically viable for stone pines,
thus fertilisers have little value.
Animal manures must be used
carefully as they can easily burn the
sensitive conifer roots or mycorrhiza.
An improved Pinus pinea selection in Spain
In the future, cones might be gathered in commercial grafted plantations by harvesting
machines (special vibrating jaws coupled on the jib of a farm tractor). In this case, the lower
tiers of tree branches should be pruned during the first years after grafting, to form a robust ,
straight cylindrical stem of at least 2 m beneath the crown base to allow the shaking of the
crown. Currently, strips with a few spaced lines of trees like this, with bare soil maintained
beneath, are being successfully tried as fire defence areas along roads or forest tracks. Stone
pines pruned thus will survive fires that are a recurrent element in Mediterranean forests and
farmlands.
Reference
Mutke, S et al: Stone pine orchards for nut production: which, where, how? NUCIS-Newsletter
14 (2007).
Walnut breeding in California
California is one of the world's largest walnut producers, with Chandler the main variety used.
Ongoing research at the University of California is aiming to breed new varieties and also to
develop reliable walnut rootstocks.
The ideal walnut variety for California would

be at least moderately resistant to pests and diseases
be relat ively late leafing to escape frosts and the rains that spread walnut blight
be precocious (yielding over 500 kg/ ha in the fourth year)
be vigorous with bearing on both terminal and lateral shoots
have a low incidence fl ower drop
would not be alternate bearing
have high production capacity (over 6 tonnes/ ha at maturity) with low chemical input
required
finish harvest in early October in California
have nut shells which are fairly smooth, well sealed and no more than 50% of the nut
weight
have large nuts
have plump, light coloured kernels weighing 7-8 g which come out easil y in halves
The probability of breeding the ideal walnut is good because most of the traits above have high
heritabilities. and there are already varieties with most (but not all ) of the traits present.
The breeding program in California includes germplasm collection and evaluation, controlled
crossing and half-sib mati l]9, progeny evaluation, field trials and release.
Controlled populations
In contrOlled populations, both the male and female parent are selected. Pollen from the male
parent is collected from the catkins and dried. Female flowers are bagged prior to receptivity
and when the flowers are recept ive, pollen from the selected parent is injected into the bag,
which is left in place until floweri ng as over and the small nutlets are visible. At harvest time the
nuts are collected, dried and planted in a greenhouse or nursery row, prior to transplanting into
a 'seedling block'.
these controlled populations are very labour intensive and produce only about 30-50
seedlings per 100 bags, supplemental pollination is often also used in isolated orchards. Here,
from selected male parents is mixed and blown into a young isolated orchard (with no
?atkrns) of the. selected female variety. Alternatively, open pollinated seed is collected from an
Isolated block which includes a mi xture of the parents whi ch are wanted. These latter
methods result In thousands of seedli ngs.
Evaluation
Seedlings from the pollinations are planted in a seedling block for evaluation. These seedlings
ar.e grown cl ose together and training is aimed at having the nuts within reach. Beginning in the
thrrd to fourth year from seed, extensive data is collected:
Page 18
Field traits
Leafing date
Female bloom
Male bloom
Dichogamy
% overlap: male & female
Catkin abundance
Female flower abundance
% fruitful laterals
Yield
Walnut blight incidence
Codling moth incidence
Sunburn
Harvest date
Nut traits
Shell texture
Shell colour
Shell seal
Shell strength
Shell integrity
Shell thickness
Packing tissue thickness
Nut weight
Kernel weight
% kernel
Fill
Plumpness
Ease of kernel removal
Kernel colour
Shrivel
Veins
Each year researchers, farm advisers, growers and nurserymen review the evaluations and
make selections. Priorities vary: participants from the north most want low blight scores, while
those from the south want early harvest dates. Since this translates into late leafing for the
north and early leafing for the south, this means that varieties are likely to be released for
specific areas.
Selection
Selections are made on at least two years complete data. Seedlings that are selected are
repropagated into three 'Selection blocks' and evaluations continue. At any time, growers may
establish grower trials under test agreement. These trials range from one or two trees of a few
selections to acres of highly promising selections planted in randomised complete block designs
for effective evaluation of traits especially yield. Grower trials are essential for evaluating field
performance under standard cultural practices.
Release
Superior selections are patented and released. They are available to Californian growers only
for the first 5 years, after which they are available internationally. Tulare, a very high yielding
variety with satisfactory quality kernels, was released 11 years ago, 27 years from seed. New
releases which are just beginning the 5 year restricted sales period are Li vermore (red seed
coat for niche markets), Sexton, Gillet and Forde (these latter 3 are high yielding, precocious,
with excellent quality large nuts and a harvest date prior to Chandler),
Rootstocks
Rootstock research is developing slowly, partly because they are difficult to study (being mostly
underground), and because clonal propagation (tissue culture) has only just become
commercialised. The Californian approach is aimed at developing a rootstock combing
tolerance to blackline disease (which causes a delayed graft failure after some years) with
vigour and disease resistance. Hybrids of many species are being screened including many
Paradox (a J.hindsii x J.regia cross) seedlings.
Reference
McGranaham, G: California walnut production and genetic improvement of walnut varieties and
rootstocks. NUCIS-Newsleller 14 (2007).
Almond: breeding for fruit quality
In almond, the physical traits of the shell and kernel have a special i nportance in the almond
industry because of the different steps usually involved in almond processing. Until recentl y the
qualiti es of the almond shell in particular were not really considered - but the shell plays an
important role in the harvesting and industrial processes.
Shell traits
Shell hardness is inversely related to shelling percentage and does not in itself have an
influence of the kernel quality. However, soft shelled cultivars (eg the main Californian cultivar ,
Nonpareil) possess such a soft shell that sometimes it is not sealed along the suture line,
leaving an entry point for dust, insects and fungi. The proiblem worsens when nuts are
harvested from the ground and can be easily contaminated. Soft shelled almonds are more
susceptible top i nsect damage, because larvae are able to get through a soft shell but not a
hard shel l. Soft shell ed almonds are also more susceptible to bird damage beore harvest.
Hard shelled cultivars are better at maintaining kernel quality, because the nuts store well in-
shell without going rancid. Most Mediterranean cultivars have hard shells, and generally use
different shelling equipment than the soft shelled types grown in California, Australia, Chi le and
South Africa.
Shell hardness is controll ed by one or two genes, the heritabil ity of the trait appears to be about
0.56 (ie 56% of offspring inherit the trait).
Another shell aspect not often considered is its structure. The shell is not completely solid, but
has holes and empty spaces inside (typically like the nut below on the right). The shells of
some cultivars appear like two concentric layers united by very fragile internal connections -
characterised in the French variety Ferragnes (as in the nut on the left below) . It is considered
a negative trait because it ' causes problems with commercial nut cracking. The heritability of
this trait is low - 0.37 - so it is easily selected out during breeding trials.
)
)
Kernel traits
Kernel size is imprtnat, since large sizes are especially valued. Of course, it varies from year to
year, but in almond the variation is less than in most other fruit species'. Heritability is
estimated at 0.64.
The linear dimensions of the kernel - length, weight and thickness are also important traits.
Their heritabi lities are estimated at 0.77, 0.62 and 0.71 respectively - ie quite high. Largeness
is not always what is wanted - for some specific uses, such as sugar-coated almonds, a small
and specifically sized kernel is preferred.
Kernel shape is maintained as a cultivar trait, and is mainly determined by the length to width
ratio (LlW) but also by length/thickness (LIT) and width/thickness (W/T) ratios. LfW and LIT
show higher heritabiltiy than WIT. Kernel shape, as well as size, is related to the easiness of
blanching.
The pellicle (seed coat) is preferred to be light coloured ans smooth, but especially thin, so that
weight losses at blanching are minimised. Sometimes, though, a thick pellicle is preferred
because of the ease of peeli ng after roasting. Seed coat colour shows a medium heritability
(0.42) but is highly inconsistent, showing strong environmental effects.
Other traits include the presence of double kernels (not clear how much this is under genetic
control), and a smooth kernel surface (preferred as it makes blanching easier).
Reference
Anson, J et al: Physical aspects of almond fruit quality. NUGIS-newsleUer, 14 (2007).
Hazelnut breeding in Oregon
Introduction
The world's largest hazelnut breeding program begin in 1969 at Oregon State University, and
continues to be supported by state and government funding, as well as Oregon's hazelnut
Ii growers. Recent releases include Lewis, Clark, Sacajawea and Santiam and the pollinisers
Gamma, Delta, Epsilon and Zeta. More than 80 advanced selections are currently in yield trials,
and several new cultivar releases are anticipated in the next few years.
Ten cult ivars form the bulk of the breeding population, from Spain (Barcelona, Negret , Casina) ,
England (Daviana) , Italy (Gentile delle Langhe, Tonda Romana, Tonda di Giffoni, Montebello)
and Turkey (Extra Ghiaghli, Tombul Ghiaghli). Another 40 cultivars have been used as parents
to a lesser extent. Most crosses are now between numbered selections rather then between
cultivars, and an 8 year cycle (seed to seed) allows for continuing improvement.
Objectives
The two main objectives of the breeding program are
(1) Suitability for the blanched kernel market, reflecting a growing demand. Suitability
includes resistance to bud mite, round nut shape, high kernel percentage, precocity,
high yield, easy pellicle removal (blanching), few defects, early nut maturity, and free-
falling nuts. Good progress has been made on most of these.
(2) Resistance to eastern filbert blight (EFB), caused by the fungus Anisogramma
anomala, which is firmly established in the main growing area in Oregon, the
Willamette Valley. Several sources of resistance have been identified and used in
breeding. The cultivar Santiam and many advanced selections carry complete
resistance obtained from the cultivar Gasaway. Several other sources of complete
resistance have been identified from Spain and the Republic of Georgia. Resistance
from Russian and Serbian cultivars is being investigated. Quantification of EFB
susceptibility has allowed ranking of cultivars and the identification of moderate
resistance. Moderately high levels of resistance have been identified in cultivars from
Italy (Tonda di Giffoni, Mortella, Camponica), Spain (Segorbe, Closca Malia) and
Turkey.
It has been a challenge to combine excellent blanching with EFB resistance, as Gasaway (the
first cultivar used to breed in resistance) has kernels which do not blanch and pellicle removal
ratings of seedlings tend to be worse than the average of their parents.
OSU releases Lewis, Clark and Sacajawea have moderate EFB resistance, which is adequate
for continued nut production in the presence of EFB if combined with pruning and fungicide
applications. Oregon growers, though, are eager for the release of cultivars with complete
resistance.
New cultivars
Lewis - released in 1997 and has been widely planted. It is precocious, productive and an
easy to grow vigorous tree. ,Kernel cracks out at 47%, with good blanching. Drawbacks are the
extended harvesting period, and an apparent susceptibility to kernel mold.
Clark - released in 1999. Trees are precocious,
productive, low in vigour. Kernels crack out at 51 %
with very good blanching and kernel quality:
Sacajawea - released in 2006. Trees are
moderately vigorous and productive but less
precocious than Lewis or Clark. Kernels crack out
at 52%, excellent blanching and quality. High
resistance to EFB.
Santiam - released in 2005. The first cultivar that
carries the Gasaway gene for complete resistance
to EFB. Kernels crack out at 51%, but kernel mold
susceptibility can reduce the quality. Santiam is
viewed as a transition cultivar, as advanced
selections now in trials have higher kernel quality.
Ongoing trials
Hazel ' Lewis'
More than 80 selections are in replicated yield trials, with grower interest focussed on two
selections than combine complete EFB resistance with large nuts suitable to the in-shell market.
Page 22
Micropropagation is now routinely used to propagate new cultivar and advanced selections.
Demand for the new releases has been high.
The European hazelnut is a tremendously diverse species, and traditional breeding methods
can meet all of the current objectives. Most important traits are highly heritable, so the
progress made with each generation of selection is dramatic.
References
Azerenko, A et al: Hazelnut culUvar 'Lewis' . OSU extension service note EM 8640, 2002.
Mehlenbacher, A: Hazelnut breeding, an update from Oregon. NUC1S-Newsletter, 14 (20D7).
Deer and Rabbits
Introduction
As spring unfolds, this is the time when damage from the two most common browsing pests,
deer and rabbits, starts to be noticed, especially when fences are getting old and gappy or
when protection of winter plantings has not been 100%.
Six species of deer live wild in the UK now, with numbers and ranges increasing along with
damage to trees and other plants.
Red deer are one of the largest , standing over 1.2 m at the shoulder. They have a reddish-
brown coat and are native to the UK.
Fallow deer were introduced into the UK by the Normans. These traditional park deer are
smaller than red deer, at 1 m. They usually have a bright chestnut coat with white spots in the
summer, but it can also be creamy white or black.
Sika deer were introduced from Japan in the 1860's. Up to 85 cm high, they have bright brown
coats. They are currently proliferating in Scotland.
Roe deer, also native, are around 75 cm high, with a foxy-red summer coat , large ears and a
thick neck.
Muntjac deer, introduced from China in the early 1900's, are bright brown and up to 50 cm high
with short , incurved antlers. They are found mainly in the south of England.
Chinese water deer, also introduced, are about 60 cm high with a brown coat and no antlers.
Only found in small pockets so far, but is spreading in eastern England.
Damage caused
Rabbits can cause a lot of damage, killing trees and shrubs by gnawing at the bark and
browsing on germinating seeds and newly planted perennials. The are a big problem both in
rural areas and in the outskirts of towns. Rabbits are formidable breeders, and females can
give birth at 4-6 months of age and may have up to five litters per year, each of four or more
young. Breeding takes place from January to August.
Deer live mainly in woodland, where they naturally feed on fOliage and shoots of shrubs and
trees. Planted woodland trees are immediately at risk. Increasingly deer are venturing into
gardens where they may damage vegetables, soft fruit and other plants. Late winter to spring is
the peak period for deer browsing damage, when food in woodlands is scarce. Damage to a
tree or shrub is typified by a ragged end to a shoot 90-180 cm high (depending on the deer
species.)

Red, sika and fallow deer also peel and eat bark, favouring (among trees) Norway spruce,
lodgepole pine, larch, ash, willow and beech. Muntjac damage coppice shoots by nipping
through the stem about a metre from the ground.
Deer also rub their antlers against woody stems - typically 1 to 3 cm in diameter - to remove
the velvet from newly grown antlers and to mark out their territory. This is known as fraying. It
may continue until late summer and causes strips of bark to peel off and side shoots to break
off. When deer strip bark, because they have no upper incisor teeth, they leave broad teeth
marks running up the peeled stem, with torn or broken bark hanging at the top.
Population
The rabbit population goes up and down according to the season, weather and disease, with
numbers peaking after the breeding season ion late summer. Rabbits don't like wet and cold as
they originate from Spain and North Africa (they were introduced to Britain about 800 years
ago), and in winter their numbers can fall dramatically.
Myxamatosis wiped out 99% of rabbits when it was first introduced about 50 years ago in
Britain, but now the most deadly strains are extinct. They have been followed by lesser strains
that spare about 30% of rabbits. Also, rabbits seem to have become more resistant.
Myxamatosis is spread by -rabbit fleas and with warmer temperatures caused by greenhouse
gases, rabbits are spending more time above ground, so there are fewer opportunities for fleas
to spread in underground burrows. Another disease, rabbit calcivirus, is said to be present in
Britain but its effect on the wild population is unclear as yet.
Deer populations of all species are increasing, as are their ranges. In the absence of natural
controls, the obvious answer to unsustainable numbers is controlled culling.
Feeding traits
Rabbits prefer to feed at night , though in summer they can often be seen at dusk and dawn.
Favourite spots include the fringes of natural cover - a hedge or shrubbery. Deer (and hares)
nibble and gnaw higher up the plant than rabbits do. When rabbits are about , there will be little
scuffle marks in the soil and piles of round, pea-sized droppings.
Whilst deer are thought of as shy animals, they are becoming bolder and browse in daylight
hours quite happily. Deer are unpredictable and opportunistic feeders. They can feed on a
wide vari ety of plants, including thorny ones, and are especially fond of runner beans, beetroot ,
Ceanothus, Geraniums, grape hyacinth, ivy, hybrid roses, Sedum, strawberries, Viburnum tinus
and yew.
Deer droppings are short , cylindri cal to spherical and often have a small point at one end. They
have a smooth surface compared with rabbit droppings and are black when fresh.
Deterrents
Deterrents against rabbits do not seem very effective. Protecting plants w i t ~ prickly twigs and
leaves has some effect.
Deer repellents both commercially available and homespun (eg. human hair) do have some
effectiveness, but this is greatly reduced by rain, so must be applied around or on plants often.
Trapping & shooting
Rabbits inside a fenced area can be trapped fairly easily. Use a live capture trap - baits to try
include fresh leaf vegetables (but they wilt so need replacing often) or sliced carrots - organic
ones seem more effective than non-organic. Site traps in hedges or under shrubs where
damage has been observed. Check traps at least once a day. If a rabbit is caught , you should
not release it on someone else's land. The easiest method of dispatch is by air rifle. If you are
a meat eater you can then skin and butcher the animal. Rabbit skins are quite easily tanned
using alum.
Ferrets can also be used to get rid of many rabbits.
Deer can be controlled by shooting but you' ll need a high velocity rifle and a licence.
Fencing
Individual trees and shrubs can easily be protected from rabbits by usin,9 60 cm tree guards,
either spiral guards, net guards or tubes. Fencing trees from deer requires 1.2 to 1.5 m high
guards, either net guards or tubes.
The ideal way to keep rabbits out of a garden or field is by fencing. Use 25 or 31 mm mesh
netting, ideally use a roll 1.2 m wide. Fencing stakes should be about 3 m apart. Fold the
lower 20-25 cm outwards and weigh down with stones or peg down with wooden pegs or metal
staples; grass etc will soon grow over this horizontal piece and make it invisible. A single
strand of fencing wire above the top of the fence can be used to keep the netting taut, as
inevitably it starts to sag in time. Rabbits which encounter a fence usually try and dig under it
right next to it , in which case they will soon hit wire and give up.
Electric netting can be used to keep out rabbits but entails quite a lot of maintenance. The
lowest electrified strand is usually 10 cm from the ground and it only needs a weed to grow this
high and touch the netting to short it out.
Traditional permanent deer fencing is an expensive option: the fence needs to be at least 2 m
high (2.4 m for red deer). As reported in Agroforestry News, Vol 15 No 1, a cheaper option is to
use a metre high netting and then make an ad hoc top section of fence using twiggy sticks and
highly visible line zig zagging ebtween. Electric fencing is another option. Either way, regular
inspections are needed in case deer have broken through. Digging a ditch on the far side of the
fence will help to deter them.
Resistant plants
No plants are 100% resistant to a high population density of rabbits or deer. However, at
' normal' densities, many plants are more or less untouched. These include most strongly
aromatic herbs, and most prickly or spiny plants, for example. The following list (compiled from
several sources) details plants which are usually left unbrowsed:
Species Deer resistant Rabbit resistant
Acanthus
./ ./
Achillea ./
Aconitum
./

./ ./
AjuQa
./
Alchemi ll a ./ ./
Allium ./ ./
Althaea
./
Anemone ./
Angelica ./ ./
Apium ./
AQuileaia ./
Artemesia ./
Asclepias ./ ./
Aucuba japonica ./
Bamboos ./ ./
Begonia ./
Berberi s ./ ./
Borago
./
Buddle'a ./
Bunias oriental is
./ ./
Buxus
./
Camellia
./
Campanula
./
./ il tall
Centranthus
./ ./
Cephalotaxus ./ ./
Chaenomeles
./
Chenopodium ./ ./
Choisya ternata ./ ./
Cistus
./
Clavtonia sibirica
./ ./
Clemati s
./
Colchi cum
./
Columbine
./
Convall aria
./
Cornus
./ ./
Cortaderia
./
Cotoneaster
./ ./
Crarnbe
.{
Cryptomeria japonica
./
Cynara
./ ./
Cytisus
./
Daphne ./ ./
Del hinium ./
Deutzia ./
D19}talis
./ ./
Duchesnea ./ ./
Echinacea ./
Elaeagnus
./ ./
Page 26
Epimedium
,f
Erica
,f
Eryngium
,f
Ervthronium
,f
Escallonia
,f
Euphorbia
,f ,f
FHipendula
,f
Forsvthia
,f
Fra aria
,f
Fuchsia
,f ,f
Galanthu5
,f
Galega
,f
Gaultheria
,f ,f
Geranium
,f
Gunnera
,f ,f
Hebe
,f
Helleborus
,f
./ not H.ni er
Hemerocallis
,f ,f
Heuchera
,f
Hippophae
,f
Hosta
,f
Hydrangea
,f
Hypericum
,f ,f
Iris
,f ,f
lI ex
,f
Jasminum
,f
Lamium
,f ,f
Lavandula
,f
Levisticum
,f ,f
Liaularia
,f
Lilium
,f
Lonicera
,f
Lupinus
,f ,f
LYcopersicon
,f
Mahonia
,f
Malva
,f ,f
Melissa
,f ,f
Mentha
,f ,f
Monarda
,f
Myosotis
,f
Narcissus
,f ,f
Olearia
,f
Origanum
,f ,f
Osteospermum
,f
Papaver
,f ,f
Pastinaca
Paeonia
,f ,f
Pelargonium
,f
Philadel hus
,f
Phormium
,f ,f
Physalis
./
Phvtolacca
./
Pieris
./
Polygonatum
./
Potentilla
./
Primula
./ ./
Pulmt!lnaria
./ ./
Rheum
./ ./
Rhododendron
./ ./
Rhus
./
Ribes
./
Rosa
./
Rosmarinus
./ ./
Rubus roundcover
./ ./
Rubus fruti cosus
./ ./
Rubus idaeus
./ ./
Rumex
./ ./
Ruscus
./
Salvia
./
Sambucus
./
Santolina ./
Sedum
./
Senecio
./
Skimmia
./
Smyrnium ./ ./
Solanum
./
Solidago
./ ./
Spiraea
./
Stachys
./
Symphoricarpus
./
Symphytum
./ ./
Tanacetum partheniuml
./ ./
vulgare
laxus
./
Tiarella
./
Viburnum
./
Vicia taba
Vinca
./ ./
Viola
./ ./
Weigela
./
Yucca
./
Ostrich fern: Matteuccia struthiopteris
Introduction
Of the few fern species that are edible, the fiddlehead of the ostrich fern is one of the most
widely consumed, particularly in North America and Japan. The curled fiddlehead fronds that
emerge in April and May in many areas are the first fresh spring vegetable. The annual
commercial harvest is essentially still a cottage industry, and labour intensive.
Fiddleheads emerging (from Dragland & Odland)
Page 29
Distribution
Matteuccia struthiopteris is found worldwide as native or naturalised flora throughout the north
temperate sub-boreal zone of the northern hemisphere is particular - including North America,
northern and central Europe, Russia, China and Japan. Though not considered native to
Britain, it grows well here too.
The fern produces larger, sterile fronds in the early season, with smaller, fertile fronds
appeating later on ~ h i c h will produce spores. The curled fiddleheads begin to swell in late April
in Eastern Canada, and harvest commences soon after. By mid June, the sterile frond is fully
grown, and fertile fronds appear from late June until the autumn. Fronds are killed by the first
fronts and become brown but do readily fall off and stay attached to the crown all winter.
Distribution of Matteuccia struthiopteris (from Odland)
Historical use
In North America, many eastern native peoples have historically consumed the ostrich fern.
The Malecite Indians of the St John valley used fiddle head greens as a spring tonic, while the
Abenaki of New England roasted the entire crown over a bed of hot stones, covering it with
branches; The Passamoquoddy and Penoboscot Indians of Maine also harvested, consumed
and sold ostrich fern greens.
Although the ostrich fern is native to Europe and Asia, the first records of Europeans consuming
fiddle heads was in the 1780's following emigration to North America. Coloni sts in Eastern
Canada were unprepared for winter conditions and relished fiddle heads as a spring green.
Nowadays, fiddle heads greens are consumed as a spri ng vegetable especially in eastern
Canada and New England.
Growth and cultivation
Matteuccia naturally thrives on alluvial floodplains, where recedir
river waters deposit nutrient-rich sediments each spring. In t h e ~
regions, with high water tables and high moisture availability, tt
ostrich fern flourishes, and plants are usually found close to It
water's edge near rivers and streams. These areas also tend
moderate extremes of air movement , temperature, wind ar
humidity.
Ostrich fern can tolerate full sun, as long as soil moisture
abundant; but it is more often found in shade and tolerates qui
deep shade. Soil pH is not a limiting factor. Plants can spread t
rhizomes, and propagation is usually by division or by spa
propagation; plant at 60- t 20 em (2-4 tt) apart
Although the harvest season is short, for the rest of the year t ~
ostrich fern is a magnificent ornamental plant, which is usually 71
150 em 2 - 5 tt) tall but can reach 1.8 m (6 ft) high where it
happy. For moist shady places they are a very good candidate f'
edible landscaping.
There have been a few attempts to establish the ostrich fern as
horticultural crop, however these have not been pursued,
since access to wild populations at no costs to the harvesters remains more economical than
incurring the expense of establishing new plantations and waiting 4-5 years for the first harvest.
However, one company in Ontario has recently established a levee-type flood system for
cultivating ostrich fern and has planted 160,000 fern
crowns in 2006-7. They have propagated ostrich ferns
by tissue culture techniques - the small plants
resulting need 4-5 years of growth before they can
sustain annual harvests.
The total crop annual crop in North America is in the
order of 1000 tonnes of fiddleheads, most of which are
sold fresh through grocery stores. A smaller quantity is
canned and frozen.
In Japan, the fiddleheads are known as komogi, and
are a popular wild harvest crop.
Pick fiddleheads when they are still tightly curled in the
crown of the fern, and up to about 5-6 cm (2.5 inches)
tall - nigger than this and they rapidly become tough
and unpalatable.
Culinary use
The popularity of the fiddlehead lies with its delicate
unique taste, which has been likened to the quality of
asparagus and artichoke, with some of broccoli's brute
strength. It does not have the asparagus tendency
towards a mushy texture after cooking. Rub off any dry
brown coat that some fiddleheads have, rinse and then
cook. The basic rule-at-thumb in preparation is
Page 31
to ensure the greens are boiled or steamed for the correct length of time until tender with a fork
- about 15 minutes.
Many recipes abound, but many enthusiasts would agree that the best way to enjoy the
fiddleheads is to slather boiled fiddlehead greens in butter (or equivalent) with trout or salmon.
In general, fiddle heads can be used in recipes as one would use asparagus or broccoli.
The published data on nutritional composition of fiddleheads indicates that the greens are
nutritious, being particularly good sources of vitamins A and C, niacin, riboflavin, minerals and
fibre. They are comparable to spinach and other vegetables. Content per 1 DOg portion is:
Vitamin A
Vitamin C
Niacin
Riboflavin
2175-2709 mg
19.0-32.7 mg
4.07-5.57 mg
0.15 - 0.24 mg
Potassium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Calcium
361 mg
105 mg
34 mg
33 mg
Recent data has shown that the curled fronds are comparable to blueberries in phenolic
compounds and contain good levels of omega-3 fatty acids.
Toxicity
Although some ferns can be toxic (ego bracken fronds) , ostrich fern is regarded as safe. They
have long been eaten raw and cooked. Occasional gastrointestinal illness has been reported
following short lengths of cooking - though to be due to a heat-sensitive toxin not inactivated.
To be sure of safety, boil the fiddleheads for 10-15 minutes.
Other uses
In Norway, fiddleheads were used for making beer, while in Russia it was used as a tonic for
intestinal worms.
Ostrich fern is thought to be a silicon accumulator (rather like horsetail , Equisetum).
Source
The A.R.T. should have ostrich fern plants available in autumn 2008. Many plant nurseries
which sell ornamental ferns will also have ostrich fern.
References
Delong, J & Prange, P: Fiddlehead Fronds: Nutrient Rich Delicacy. Chronica Horticulturae, Vol
48 No 1 (2008).
Odland, A: Sregnen strutseving, en lite nyttet grennsak i Norge. Naturen nr. 6:330-338. 1999.
Dragland, S & Odland, A (Bioforsk): Strutseving (Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod.). Tema, Vol
2 No 3 (2007).
Toensmeier, E: Perennial Vegetables. Chelsea Green, 2007.
http://www.wild-harvesLcom/pageslfiddlehead.htm
A low cost nut sorting machine
Introduction
A few years ago, Martin Crawford of the ART worked with a small engineering company in
Totnes to produce a low cost, power driven nut cracking machine, described previously in
Agroforestry News, Vol 13 No 3. This has been working well since, but the next obvious stage
of small scale nut processing equipment was a sorter which can sort the shells from the kernels.
The same engineering company helped build a nut sorting machine in 2007which this article
describes.
An air blown sorter is the type most often used commercially and looked fairly simple to build.
Although there were a few designs of nut sorters in the public domain, none really give vital
information in terms of what air flow is necessary to be able to blow shells away but not kernels.
So there was quite a lot of experimenting in terms of chamber dimensions, both cross sectional
area (which determines the air velocity) and height.
The design
The basic design is quite
simple. A fan blows air
through a chamber of
specific dimensions. The fan
must be centrifugal, not axial
- ie it does not have a
propeller, but instead has
straight blades that throw air
away from the blade tips.
This type of fan produces an
even airflow across the
whole width of the fan outlet ,
whereas an axial fan does
not and would lead to
problems of vortices etc. in
the separating chamber.
Our centrifugal fan is in fact
sold as a carpet drier and
can be found quite easily for
sale under that description.
It has three speed settings
and requires between 680
and 900 watts of power to
operate.
A mesh near the bottom of
the chamber is used to stop
nut parts falling into the fan.
The chamber itself has a
width of 240 mm and depth
of 125 mm. It has a curved
1l\ .... ""H> FIJIf' .r
c..t..e.RJV'
1-1 ttl!
-:v FI.ll P
f"\ ... )C"
I...R-Oe-Q IN k6(L(:
Page 33
The nut sorter in action. Note large piece of
walnut shell just ejected. The lower flap is
visible as is the adjustable vent.
top part to eject shells. The distance from
mesh to the lowest part of the exit mouth is
880 mm. It is all made out of steel.
Cracked nuts - kernels and shell parts - are
loaded into the sorter through a hinged flap
midway up the back of the machine. These
immediately fall down onto the mesh to
await sorting. If too much material is loaded
then air will not flow past it properly and lift
it - the limit is about a kilo of material at a
time.
The machine is switched on and if
necessary set to the correct speed. Shells
are steadily ejected from the top - our
machine is usually placed in a shed
doorway to eject straight outside. Sorting is
completed in about 20 seconds.
The machine is switched off and clear
kernels are then removed via the lower
hinged flap which is level with the mesh
inside the separating chamber.
An adjustable vent was added on the front
of the machine in case of nuts being sorted
which needed a lower chamber height , but
in fact this seems superfluous and has not
been used.
Efficiency of sorting is about 90-95%, ie 5-
10% of kernel parts are likely to be ejected
from a mixture. Hazelnuts, which tend to
crack more uniformly, are at the higher end
of the scale. Walnuts sort best if they are
double cracked - once on a normal cracking
setting for walnuts, then a second time on a
hazelnut setting. This second cracking is to
crack half walnut shells into smaller pieces
- it doesn't really break the kernels any out
smaller - because half shells do not separate
well.
Hazelnuts get well sorted at the medium and high settings on our machine (fan air delivery of
130 m
3
/min and 150 m
3
/min respectively.) Walnuts only sort well on the higher setting. A fan
with higher air delivery will require a smaller cross sectional area of separation chamber and
vice versa.
Estimated total cost for a new built machine is about 1000. The fan it self is around 200 of
this. Costs of metal and labour account for the rest. Ours cost somewhat more because of all
the experimenting! Too much for a grower of one or two trees, but it could be well worth it for a
small commercial nut grower processing their own nuts
View into the lower part of the
separation chamber, through the
opened lower flap. The mesh is clearly
visible. The dimensions inside are 125
x 240 mm.
The centrifugal fan which powers the machine
Page 35
Roots of fruit & nut trees
Of the four major parts of a fruit tree - leaves, branches, fruit and roots - roots are the least
understood, mainly because they are difficult to study. Although we can't see them, roots
regulate growth and performance of fruit trees.
Rootsi af fruit and nut trees have five important functions:
(a) Uptake of water and nutrients from the soil
Roots take up water and nutrients from the soil in two main ways: (a) transpiration and (b)
pressure in the root due to osmosis.
The path that water and nutrients make from the soil to leaves and fruit starts in the roots with a
process called osmosis. The concentration of nutrients in the soil solution is higher than that in
the root cells. The high concentrated solution dilutes the cell 's low concentrated solution. Cell
membranes are selective in their permeability and let water with nutrients in, but not out ,
making osmosis work for the tree.
Transpiration
Soon after dawn each day, the stomata (tiny pores on the underside of green leaves) open, and
the leaves start to lose water to the atmosphere - transpiration. Transpiration gradually
increases during the day, reaches a peak in mid-afternoon, and then gradually decreases, then
stops at dusk when the stomata are fully closed. During transpiration, the leaves lose water
faster than the roots can take up water, so the water in the plant is under tension. This causes
water to move from the soi l, to the root, and up the tree in a continuous column. In a tree that is
rapidly transpiring, nutrients are taken up into the roots and up the tree by mass flow.
Root pressure
When soluble nutrients (salts or solutes) accumulate in roots , a positive pressure develops in
the roots , which then take up water by osmosis. However, root pressure disappears during the
day, as the water taken up by transpiration dilutes the soluble nutrients in the roots. So trees
take up more of their water by transpiration than by osmosis.
Every day in the growing season, most of the water taken up by roots is lost from green leaves
to the atmosphere by transpiration. This not only helps to cool the leaves, but also sets up a
potential gradient between soil and atmosphere. This potential gradient causes the water to be
sucked up from the soil and to move through the tree to the leaves. Most nutrients move
passively from the soil to the leaves in the transpiration stream, but some nutrients are actively
taken up by the roots.
An adequate source of nutrients in the soil is not enough to ensure that the tree has enough
nutrients for growth - the nutrients have to be available and to be taken up by the roots, ie they
need to be soluble and near to the roots. While there may be many nutrients in the soil , the
tree actually takes up little. Many of the pool of nutrients in the soil are not immediately
accessible to the tree because they are not in a readily available form.
Nutrients are found at three sources within the soil:
1 Cation exchange sites - that quantity of cations (eg. potassium, calcium, magnesium,
hydrogen) which can be held by the soil against leaching with water but which are still
available.
2. In the soil organic matter - most not immediately available, but released over a long
period.
3. In the soil solution - the most readily available nutrients. This is why a moist soil in
summer is important in the role of tree nutrition.
Mycorrhizae
All tree roots form symbiotic relationships with certain fungi, called mycrorrhizal fungi. The
fungus grows with the fine tree roots - usually surrounding each fine root hair, sometimes even
entering into it , and extending away into the soil space with fungal strands called hyphae.
These hyphae are about one tenth the diameter of the smallest tree roots, hence they can
exploit the soil space much more effectively for nutrients. Nutrients are passed to the tree roots
and in return the tree furnishes the fungus with sugars. Mycorrhizae can extend much further
from a tree than the tree roots and thus make the effective area for tree nutrition much wider.
b) Roots store carbohydrates and nutrients for spring growth
During the growing season, fruit trees need carbohydrates for energy and to make new laves,
shoots and roots. Mature trees also need to make a lot of carbohydrates for fruit to grow. Even
a dormant tree needs carbohydrates to keep alive and to prepare for the next growing season.
Before bud burst , there are no green leaves to produce new carbohydrates, and the roots are
not taking up nutrients or water. So during dormancy, the tree must rely on carbohydrates and
nutrients that were produced or taken up during the previous growing season and stored mainly
in the roots , but also in the trunk and shoots.
In autumn, when the fruit has been harvested and the shoots have stopped growing (but the
leaves are still green), the tree prepares itself for the winter rest by first pumping up its roots
with a new lot of carbohydrates and nutrients. The tree needs sufficient of these to last through
to spring.
During budburst, the stored carbohydrates are changed from starch to soluble sugars and move
mainly to the part of the tree that is growing rapidl y. Even when the young leaves are producing
some carbohydrates from photosynthesis, the leaves continue to rely on some stored
carbohydrates. Leaves need to reach about 1/3 of their final size before they start to export
carbohydrates to other parts of the tree, but continue to import stored carbohydrates until the
leaves are bout V2 their fi nal size.
So about 80% of new growth in spring is due to stored carbohydrates and nutrients. For about
8 weeks after bud burst , the tree relies on these stores. After this, the tree starts to use
carbohydrates produced by the new fully grown leaves. As the soil temperature increases, the
roots become active and start to take up water with nutrients and so the cycle starts again.
During the growing season, if the leaves were damaged in any way (frost , wind, water stress,
heat stress, pests, diseases etc. ), again the tree would have to rely on stored carbohydrates for
continued growth.
In autumn, about 60% of the nitrogen in the leaves moves back into the roots, trunk and shoots.
The dropped leaves release the other 40% into the soil , where the nitrogen is mineralised and
becomes available to the tree (or other plants) in later years.
The role of roots as a nutrient store means that maintaining leaves i n a healthy green condition
in late autumn, for as long as possible, will maximise carbohydrates stored and thus also
maximi se tree resilience during the winter and the following year.
c) Roots can alter growth and cropping habits
In the wild, fruit trees grow from seed, but seedlings are never true to type - ie they are never
an exact copy of the tree the seed came from. The only way to keep a variety true to type is to
propagate in vegetatively , ie by cuttings, or more commonly, by grafting. So most fruit trees
consist of two parts: the scion grafted onto the rootstock.
The scion is most of the tree you see above ground and is the variety of fruit , ego Bramley' s
Seedli.ng apple or Victoria plum ..

Most of the rootstock is below ground with a small part above ground, so it provides all the roots
and a short part of the trunk below the graft. Some rootstocks modify the scion, ego by
decreasing the vigour (size) and increase precocity and yield efficiency - these are called
dwarfing or semi-drawing rootstocks. Others do not reduce vigour and are used to keep the
variety true to type, and perhaps to tolerate unfavourable soil conditions.
Through t heir effect on shoot growth and canopy density, rootstocks can also change the light
distribution within the canopy of trees, and so change the development of skin colour and sugar
content of the fruit. Rootstocks can also affect the requirements of the tree for winter chill. This
may be because the rootstock changes the time of bud break and flowering, which in turn affect
the size and ripening of fruit at harvest.
d) Roots produce plant hormones to regulate growth
Roots produce plant hormones and move them around the tree. Plant hormones are chemical
messengers that regulate growth of roots, shoots, fruit and leaves.
In spring, new root tips produce cytokini ns, which move upwards from the root tips through the
xylem to the tips of shoots and so break dormancy. When dormancy is broken and trees start to
grow, The new shoots and young leaves produce other plant hormones called auxins and
gibberell ins that cause cells !o enlarge and new cell s to grow.
Auxins move downwards by gravity from the shoot tips and young leaves through the phloem to
the roots and stimulate root growth. The tree conti nues top produce these three types of plant
hormones (cytokinins, auxins, gibberellins) and to move them around the plant when the roots,
shoots and leaves are active.
When the roots are under physical, heat or water stress, the mature leaves produce abscisic
acid. This plant hormone not only slows down or stops the production of cytokinins in the roots,
and auxins and gibberellins, but also controls the opening and closing of stomata in the leaves,
which in turn controls photosynthesis and production of carbohydrates. Altogether, abscisic
acid slows down or stops growth of roots and shoots, and triggers leaves to drop off in autumn,
and buds to go dormant over winter .
e) Roots provide anchorage
Feeder roots are weak structures with little or no capaci ty for helping anchorage. If these
feeding roots are to function efficiently, they must be allowed to develop undisturbed in the soi l.
TO enable this, larger roots with more strength are developed, whose main function are to
anchor the tree. They may also playa small part in the uptake of water and nutrients.
When allowed to sway or rock in the wind, a tree grows a thick trunk at the base to strengthen
itself, at the expense of extension growth. The movement and vibrati on caused by wind create
minute stress or damage to cells walls and trunk I shank tissue. Thi s triggers the wound and
healing process in the tree by producing ethylene. Cell wall s in the trunk are strengthened and
additional cell s develop, which result s in a thicker trunk at the base.
The formation of a large root system must come before cropping, because the tree must
eventually carry crops unsupported. Free standing trees are thus often grown on semi-vigorous
or vigorous rootstocks and do not reach full cropping until they are 7-12 years old.
Recent research has shown that the major users of carbohydrates are structural wood, large
roots and fruit. In dwarf and semi-dwarf trees, the need for structural wood has been minimised
so that more carbohydrates can be used for fruit growth - this is usually achieved by supporting
trees with stakes.
Supported trees grow with thinner trunks, and yield more than free-standing trees, hence the
present day popularity of commercial dwarf fruit tree orchards.
Reference
Ende, B: Why you should know more about the roots of your deciduous nut trees. Australian
Nutgrower, Vol 22 No 1 (March 2008. )
Book reviews
Perennial Vegetables
Eric Toensmeier
Chelsea Green, 2007; 24 t pp; 22.50.
ISBN 978-t -93t 498-40-1
Available from the A.R.T. for 27.00 including P & P.
Most gardeners or growers who are thinking about more
sustainable ways of growing crops think at some point "yes,
perennial vegetables are good idea, but what can I actually
grow?" Well , this book will give at least some of the answers.
Ranging from the usual suspects (asparagus, rhubarb and
artichoke) to lesser known plants such as ground cherry, air
potatoes, the fragrant spring tree, and wolfberry (goji berry),
Toensmeier explains how to raise, tend, harvest and cook with
perennial plants to their best effect.
PERE:-.ir--.:I.\L \ EGL IAULES
The first part of the book deals with design ideas, selecting species and techniques, notably
mulching and deali ng with pests. The main part of the book consists of species profiles for the
100 or so plants described; each is given a page or more and includes climate, preferences for
soil , pest disease and weed problems, propagation and planting, harvest , storage and uses.
Perennial vegetables includes dozens of colour photos and illustrations. Many of the
illustrations are distribution maps of where the plants can be grown in North America, and for
European gardeners this is an indication that the book is very much aimed at the North
Ameri can gardener. Perhaps half of the plants described are subtropical or tropical and could
not be grown outside in most of Britain. Nevertheless, this is a useful addition to the bookshelf
of all forest gardeners, edible landscapers and growers wishing to know more about growing
more sustainable perennial crops.
Th,e Encyclopedia of Fruit & Nuts
Jutes Janick & Robert Paull (Eds)
CABI Publishing, 2008; 900 pp; 195.00.
ISBN 978-0-85199-638-7.
This encyclopedia is an authoritative compendium of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate fruit
and nut science, combining the knowledge of over 100 international experts, providing an
excellent resource on fruit and nuts. Incorporating both botanical and horticultural expertise, it
includes palms, cacti and vegetable fruit.
For each species details are given on history and origins, botany, breeding and genetics,
cultivars, ecology, distribution, nutritional and compositional information, and uses. Entries are
grouped alphabetically by genus, then by species. 83 Colour plates illustrate a selection of
species, and good quality drawings many of the others.
Some of the entries for the lesser known species are not as complete as they could be - for
example under Elaeagnus umbellata (autumn olive) it is stated that there are 2 cultivars
whereas even in 2003 (when much of the book was compiled) there were several more in the
USA. It appears that the authors have consulted scientific papers but have often missed
horticultural references with respect to minor crops.
This is a major reference work of great use to those engaged in botany, horticulture and plant
ecology - I shall certainly Keep it handy on my bookshelf.
2008 Summer & autumn courses with Martin Crawford of the ART
Forest Gardening, August 16_17th. Learn how to design, implement and maintain your own
forest garden. Includes lots of time in the ART forest garden.
Forest Gardening, September 6-7.
Crops for Climate Change, 27-28 September. Find out how tree and shrub crops in particular
are already responding to climate change and how they will change over the next few decades.
Vital information if you are planning or planting tree crops!
Growing Nut Crops, 11-12 October. Covers all aspects of growing and processing both
common nuts - chestnuts, hazelnuts, walnuts - and many uncommon nuts too, including
almonds, heartnuts, oaks with edible nuts and pine nuts. Nuts of many different varieties will be
available to taste.
For more details of any of these please check our website, www.aqroforestry.co. uk, or
write/phone for more details.
A.R.T. , 46 Hun1ers Moon, Darling1on, To1nes, Devon, T09 6JT, UK. Tel: 01803 840776.
, '0
'- . tFfJl -0: ' trk' integl ation ot trees i:l i'l(J agfl( .. rlorti -,tI: tl ll"e tv .;:.
'11/.': ;;--', J,-,rr .. ,d>lctive and resilient system for pfcduGing fo(}rJ , (j r,-.ller ,.r.l
l
t,ihGi 1)(odlJds It can t811ge from planting tree5 in pastures
r:; mp.rgenGY forage. to forest garde;1 sy'Stems incorpOf zlling layer'3 ;",
::.:nti smull trues. shru:,s and ground :ayers in 3
;jod pr0(jqcti'.. .. e sYstem.
"'g",forestry News is puolished by the Agrofofestry Research Trllst four times a
ye"r in November, February, May and August. Slibscriptinn rates are.
f20 vear in Britain and the EU. (1.6 unwagu(!)
24 per year overseas (please remit ;n Sterling)
:;4 per year for institutions.
A list of back Issue contents is included in our current catalogue, available on
Darlington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
The Trust is a charity registered in Engiand (Reg. No. 1007440), with the object to
re3earch into temperate tree, shrub and other crops, and agroforestry systems, and
publications. Tne Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and
l
Agroforestry News
Q)
f/I
';:
e
~
-
4
3.5
3
f! (J 2.5
Q)
Co CI 2
E Q)
.$.!"t;l 1.5
~ 1
CIS
Qj 0.5
>
<t
l..-
V
V
""
L.,.
1.1
.I
v
-UK(SE)
I ....
I
1.1
-UK(NW)
/
- ' Global
1.1
~

l-I-
~
I-
/
L.,.
10'
'"
....
Date
Climate change and
agroecosystems
Volume 16 Number 4
August 2008
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 16 Number 4 August 2008
Contents
2 News: Bamboo Bridge / MRSA and honey / Malaria
and Artemisia
3 Climate change: agricultural dimensions
6 Likely climate changes in Britain
11 Plant and soil responses to climate change
17 Climate impacts on pests
18 Climate impacts on diseases
19 Farming methods and gas emissions
22 Suggested responses to climate change
35 Irrigation methods
39 Book reviews: Hedgerow Medicine / Natural
Beekeeping / Agroforesterie
Totnes. Devon. Tag 6JT. U.K. Fax & telephone: +44 (0)1803840776
Email: mail@agroforestry.oo.uk Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk
News
Bamboo bridge spans the River Tyne
The Tyne has another bridge, this time made out of bamboo. The 100m span structure
has been built by Australian firm Bambuca to mark the beginning of the Summer Tyne festival.
It is supported on 25m towers and was being hand built by riggers who manually pieced the
structure together using 20 lennes of bamboo.
Engineering consultant Faber Maunsell used 3D analytical software to develop the design and
ensure that it is compliant with UK standards. John Longthorne, director at Faber Maunsell,
said: River Tyne is famous for its bridges, each a feat of engineering in its own right.
Bambuca's bamboo bridge carries on that tradition, being the first suspension bridge across the
lower reaches of the Tyne and an interesting counterpoint to the parabolic arches of the
adjacent Millennium and Tyne bridges."
When the bridge is dismantled the bamboo will be reused.
Source: Building.co.uk, UK, 16 July 2008
www.building.co. uk/story.asp?sectioncode=284&storycode=3118413&c=0
Honey: Battling MRSA with Manuka Honey
With predictions of MRSA killing more people in the future than AIDS, medical professionals
turn to the use of an old remedy: honey.
MRSA (methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus) is an antibiotic-resistant bacterium that
causes life-threatening infections. A MRSA, infection can become fatal if entered into the
bloodstream which is why it is imperative to treat this condition immediately. MRSA treatment
doesn't have to be as difficult as some people think. Even though antibiotics have become
ineffective in treating these types of Staph infections, a particular type of honey, known as
Manuka Honey is extremely effective.
MRSA Staph infections can be healed efficiently and quickly with the use of bio-active Manuka
honey-based dressings. Studies have shown that the MRSA superbug cannot develop a
resistance to this honey because Manuka Honey has an osmotic effect that draws moisture out
of the bacterial cells, making it impossible for the MRSA bacteria to survive.
Manuka honey-based MRSA treatments are becoming available to hospitals and individuals
worldwide as word of its effectiveness becomes mainstreamed. With reports of Manuka Honey
acting as a natural cure for MRSA, antibiotics will most definitely be used less, especially since
MRSA drugs usually prove to be useless. To date, there have been no reports of any bacteria
being able to develop a resistance to Manuka Honey which is bringing new hope in the area of
infection control.
Source: PR-Inside.com (Pressemitteilung). Austria, 30 June 2008
http://www. pr-inside.com/battling-lhe-mrsa-superbug-with-manuka-r67S788.htm
Page 2
Medicinal plants: Scientists in malaria battle
Scientists at the University of York are working to make vital malaria drugs cheaper and more
accessible to patients in developing countries by improving yields of one of the world' s most
important medicinal plants, the aromatic herb Artemisia.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) now recommends artemisinin combination therapies
(ACTS) as the most effective malaria treatment. However, artemisinin is extracted from the
aromatic herb Artemisia and the plant only produces tiny amounts, making ACTs too expensive
for many in need.
The Centre for Novel Agricultural Products at the University of York is using the latest molecular
and genetic technologies to fast-track the plant breeding of Artemisia and increase yields.
Professor Dianna Bowles, one of the project leaders, said: "Our aim is to rapidly develop high-
yielding, non-GM varieties of Artemisia that will help reduce costs and secure supplies of this
anti-malarial medicine.
Source: York Press, UK. 1 July 2008
www.thepress.co.uk/newsf3187631.Scientists in malaria battlel
Climate change: agricultural dimensions
The main greenhouse gases caused by humans are:
Carbon dioxide (CO,,) - from the burning of fossil fuels etc. 100 yr lifetime in atmosphere.
Nitrous oxide - from wood burning, ammonia based fertilisers, industry, motor transport. 300
times more powerful greenhouse gas than CO
2
. 120 year lifetime in atmosphere.
Methane - from agriculture, natural gas pipe leaks, landfill sites, coal mining. 21 times more
powerful greenhouse gas than CO
2
. 12 yr lifetime in atmosphere.
CFC's - production now mainly phased out due to hole in ozone layer, but long lived in
atmosphere.
Agriculture worldwide is directly responsible for about 13% of greenhouse gas emissions.
The sources of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture divide almost evenly into three:
1. Rice cultivation causes methane release in anaerobic conditions when fields are flooded (as
wil l traditional cranberry and basket willow flood-cultivation methods) About a third of the
world's population depend on rice as a staple crop. Changing this will be very difficult.
A full listing of references for these climate change articles will appear next issue
o.t ....... toU'.n I lord ... c,,"_
''''
Sources of emission by type. Source: Dow & Dowding (2006)
2. Chemical fertilisers are responsible for a substantial release of nitrogen dioxide; organic
manures also contribute to a smaller degree. Organic farms usually have a lower carbon
footprint in total but lower yields may mean there is sometimes little difference in greenhouse
gas emissions per ton of crop.
3. Ruminant digestion causes large amounts of methane to be ' burped' (7 kg per year by a
sheep, 70 kg a year by a cow).
There are enormous numbers of ruminant s worldwide - around 1.4 billion cattle, the total body
mass of which exceeds that of the human race. The carbon dioxide from respiration is roughly
balanced out by the accumulation of carbon in the animal body (until it is eaten etc.) The real
problem is methane.
The methane 'burbed' during ruminant digestion in cattle (70 kgfyear per animal) is equivalent
to 1.5 tonnes CO
2
- a similar amount to driving a car 4000 miles.
Fertilisers
Ruminants
Rice
cultivation
Agricultural sources of greenhouse gases
Although technical 'fixes' are being mooted to
reduce the methane production from
ruminants, the reductions would most likely
be 10-20%.
Ruminants are not bad per 58, it is just that
the planet cannot cope with the sheer
numbers. They have to be accounted for at
some level, whether it be farm, region or
country. On a farm scale in the UK, to
carbon-neutral ise the emisisons from cattie,
about :x of an acre of actively growing
woodland would be needed per animal.
Interestingly. mowing by machine once a
month produces 10-20% of the greenhouse
gas emissions of using ruminants to graze the
same area. Of course, there is no yield when
mowing as opposed to grazing; and mowing
uses oil-based fuels; nevertheless from a
greenhouse gas emissions perspective,
mowing is less polluting.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/16 No 4
Ruminant emissions vs mowing
1 acre requires approx. 3.75 litres diesel per
mowing, emitting 10 kg CO, (2.68 kg/litre)
ego 8 mowings in a year - 80 kg CO
2
produced.
Plus 10 kg per mowing contribution from CO
2
emitted during production of mower (assumes
350 kg total emissions = 50% that of an
average car, and a 5 year life)
Gives a total emissions per mowing of 90 kg
CO,.
1 acre requires around 3 sheep or 0.5 cows to
graze down.
3 sheep - emit equivalent of 450 kg CO
2
/year
0.5 cows - emit equivalent of 750 kg C0
2
fyear
Page 37
Likely climate changes in Britain
Introduction
There is an overload of informati on in the media about what might happen to the climate in the
future, with lots of conflicting information. Ultimately. all this achieves is confusion and inaction.
Part of the problem is that the climate scenarios produced by bodies such as the IPee are
based on various different scenarios of economic growth, energy use etc. Much more useful , I
think, is a climate change scenario of what is most likel y to happen, and that is what is
produced below.
In the UK we have already experienced significant temperature warming over the last 50 years.
The following map shows how mean temperatures have increased from 1961 to 2006. It shows
most of England has increases of around 1.5C, with Wales , Scotland and Northern Ireland a
little less.
,.
Annual
1961 to 2006
change (deg C)
D 0.4-0.6
0.6 -1 .0
_ 1.0-1.4
_1.4-1.8
_ 1.8-2.1
Met Office. Taken
from: UKCIP08: The
climate of the UK and
1.5 recent trends. With
1.4 permission.
L-__ ________________ ~ = = = - __
Page 66
The temperature increases in Britain are well above average global rises because of our proximity to the
pole (they are even higher in Scandinavia, for example).
1C or 2C may sound a small amount - I'm sure thi s is one reason many people pay scant attention to
warnings about global yo'arming - but it equates to a southwards shift of 100-250 km. The climate of
southern England now is that of mid west France 40 years ago.
Li kely temperature changes to 2050
Below is an optimistic scenario of how temperatures will change up to 2050. It assumes that
there will not be global emissions reductions until after 2020, but there are serious reductions
thereafter; the 30-40 years delay (lag) of greenhouse gas ri ses unt il observed warming means
that little slowing of temperature rise will be noticeable until after 2050.
A doubting of the CO
2
-equivalent concentrati on from pre-industrial is expected around 2050 or
just after, wi th CO
2
-equivalent levels of 560 ppm.
CII
4
III
3.5
'L:
CII
...
3
::::I
-
n:s
2.5
Qiu
Q.Cl
2
E CII
CII"C
1.5
-
CII
Cl
1
n:s
...
CII
0.5
>

0
i--"
./

V
~
,
~
~
~
""
......
-UK (SE)
~
-UK(NW)
~
,I
IJ
-Global
~
V
~
,I
,

-
......
...
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Date
Sources: IPCC (2007). UKCIP (2008). Hadley Centre
NB temperature ri se is measured as compared with pre-industrial
Temperature rises are greater the nearer to the pol es, hence the expected UK rise is greater
than the global average.
These graphs rise more steeply than recent UKCIP and IPec scenarios , as these scenarios do
not take account of feedbacks from the carbon cycle and atmospheri c chemistry (which will be
used in the IPCC 2012 report but are not completed yet). These add approaching 1 C of
warming by 2050 in addition to the older models.
This climate scenario would equate to climate shifts which are approximately equivalent to the
following geographic shift of the UK by 2050:
Approximate current climate shift in 2050
i
As can be seen, by 2050 the cl imate of southern England will be similar that that of
southwestern France; mid UK to mid west France, northern England to Northwestern France;
and Scotland to the southern half of England and Wales. '
The UK climate is currently shifting southwards by 68 km per year (the higher in the south of
England) - equivalent to a shift in altitude upwards of about 10-14 metres per year.
July 2006 was the hottest on record in the UK (the hottest for over 300 years) . In fact , average
UK temperatures were about 3C warmer than on average - very similar to the average
expected by 2050. A hot summer then would be 3C warmer still!
Other likely climate changes in the UK
Rainfall
Overall little change in annual totals.
Drier in summer (30% less in southeast). wetter in winter.
More intense rain events and flooding.
Diurnal effects
Nights will warm more then days in winter.
Days will warm more than nights in summer.
Relative humidity
Decreases throughout the year, more in summer than winter.
Cloud cover
Decreases significantly in summer (thus solar radiation increases).
Slight increase in winter.
Wind
Overall little change in average wind speeds.
Stronger winds in southern and central Britain in winter.
More severe storms & extreme events.
Soil moisture
Soi l moisture levels are related to rainfall , temperatures, evaporation , wind s p ~ e d s and solar
radiation.
All areas show a decrease in summer and autumn. up to 30-40% decrease in southeast
England.
Winter soi l moisture levels likely to be similar to present (higher winter rainfall offset by higher
temperatures and evaporation etc.)
Sea levels
Continue to rise, by 20-60 cm by 2050.
Coastal flood risk increases significantly.
The gulf stream
Consensus is that this is unlikely to fail this century.
Some weakening expected - included in climate models.
By the time that failure is likel y, global warming will outweigh a drop in NW Europe
temperatures.

Thermal growing season length
Extends by 50-80 days by 2050.
The thermal growing season is the period of time each year during which plants can grow. The I
length of the thermal growing season is defined as the longest period within a year that satisfies T
the two requirements of: I
- beginning at the start of a period when dally-average temperature is greater than 5.5
D
C for five I
consecutive days, and
- ending on the day prior to the first subsequent period when daily-average temperature is less
than 5.S
o
C for five consecutive days.
The thermal definition of growing season length does not consider the impact of other climatic
variables (e.g. wind, precipitation, day length).
Global dimming & brightening
Solar radiation at ground level decreased in many world regions from 1950-1990 due to
pollution (total decrease about 4%).
Since 1990 this has reversed in most regions.
At Rothampstead in the UK there has been a slow rise in solar radiation since 1960:
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
"-
r\
50000
o
'- .....
, , ,
.......... N ..... V

.......
.-
, , , ,
fb"v fb" fb'b !?I" !?Ib<
"ClS "ClS "ClS "OJ "OJ "OJ "OJ "OJ ,,0.; ,,0.; "ClS "ClS "ClS
Total solar radiation (J/cm
2
) measured at Rothampstead, Herts, UK

,
Risks and thresholds
As temperatures increase rapidly, links in ecosystems start to break. Plants, animals etc all
respond at different rates to the warming.
KDecoupJing- occurs when, for example, an expected vital food source is unavailable at the
critical time. These problems will gradually increase and are expected to become severe as
warming passes 2e (2015 to 2030 in UK).
As global temperature rise passes 2e (around 2040) there is an increasing but unknown risk of
sudden sharp increases in climate change as climate feedback mechanisms kick in.
At a global rise of 2.6 - 2.7 DC the Greenland ice sheet is committed to irreversible melting,
causing 6-7 m sea level rise over many centuries.
At a global rise of 3C the Amazon forests may die.
Positive feedbacks from these and other changes in the regulation system of the earth will
increase rates of change.
Peak oi l (the peaking of 011 production worldwide) will not necessarily have much effect on
greenhouse gas emissions as there are huge coal and coal tar deposits; if the price is right
(which it currently is), it is economic to make these into liquid fuels.
Plant and soil responses to climate
change
The fundamental process driving plant growth is photosynthesis, where the green tissues of
plants, mostly leaves, combine carbon dioxide from air & water from soil taken up by roots to
produce carbohydrates (sugars, starch, cell ulose), the basic buil ding materials of plants. The
process can be summarised as:
6 CO
2
+ 6 H
2
0 +energy from sunlight -Jo C
6
H
12
0
6
(glucose) + 6 O
2
Plants then combine the products of photosynthesis with nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium etc
taken up from the soil in solution, to make proteins & other complex materials.
Plant growth is mainly controlled by:
Ught levels
Availability of carbon dioxide
Availability of water
Avai lability of nutrients in soil
Temperature
Plant responses to increased carbon dioxide
If other factors (especially water availability) remain favourable, then increased CO
2
leads to
greater rates of photosynthesis and faster growth.
Initially plants can grow up to 40-50% faster, however, benefits at these rates are short term. "' I
Plants soon become acclimated, leading to accumulation of carbohydrates in leaves, resulting
in reduced photosynthetic rates. For woody plants and perennials, a 10-20% increase in the
long ter{" is more realistic.
Plant types which respond most include legumes and potentially naturally fast-growing
plants.
Flowering and fruiting is likely to be hastened, and fruit yields are likely to increase.
Increased CO
2
leads to less stomata open and thus less (and more efficient) water use
by the plant.
There is also a positive interaction between increased CO
2
and increased temperature
on plant growth.
However, benefits of increased CO
2
may largely be offset by dry/drought conditions
expected in UK summers.
Plant responses to increased temperature
Growth
Every plant species has its own characteristic response to temperature.
Above about SoC growth increases exponentially towards an optimum which varies widely from
plant to plant (usually reflecting the natural climate where it evolved).
Higher summer temperatures up to this optimum will favour plant growth if other factors are not
limiting.
For the UK up to 2050, for most cultivated plants the optimum will not be surpassed.
Development
Developmental rates (eg. the development of flowers, or from an active to dormant state)
increase fairly linearly with temperatures above a base level (about 5C for many species) .
The linear increase reaches an optimum at 20-25C, above which there is a linear decrease.
For perennial plants, onset of growth is usually advanced and cessation usually delayed.
Plant phenology
In the UK, tree flowering times have changed as a result of a PC rise by varying amounts:
Days advanced
Bird cherry Prunus adus 9.1
Almond (Prunus dulcis) 8.9
Lilac (Syringa vulaaris) 8.8
Hawthorn (Crataequs monoqyna 8.6
Laburnum (Lanagyroides) 7.9
Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastaneum) 7.7

-
Davs advanced
Elder (Sambucus nigra) 6.5
Redcurrant (Ribes rubrum) 4.9
Horse chestnut Jeafinq Aesculus hiDlJocastaneum) 4.9
Hazel (Cory/us avellana) 4.1
The thermal growing season has al ready lengthened by about 20 days over the past 40 years.
It i s likely to continue increasi ng by 10-18 days per decade (higher in the southeast. lower in the
northwest).
Dormancy
Most perennials (including trees) in the UK have annual growth CYCle,s wi th three phases:
1. A rest period: active growth has ceased, the plant appears inacti ve but in fact there is
high internal activity, with the plant producing flower and leaf initials in readiness for
rapid spring growth.
2. A period of quiescence: the plant now waits until temperatures are warm enough to
start acti ve growth.
3. An active growth period, eventually halted by a combination of shortening day lengths,
l ower light levels and cooler temperatures in autumn.
The rest and quiescent periods constitute the dormant period.
A peri od of low temperatures (most effective at OSOC) is required during the dormant
period before a plant can resume normal active growth. Chilling also reduces the response time
for bud burst in spring when temperatures warm.
If chilling is inadequate, the development andlor expansion of leaf and flower buds (and thus
fruiting) may be impaired.
Chilling requirements are usuall y measured as an accumulation of temperature below a
threshold (usually 7.2C) in "chilling Temperatures over 1SoC during this period can
negati vely affect the cumulative total of chi ll ing hours.
The number of chilling hours requi red varies widely between species and also between
cultivars:
Lowest chill req Highest chill req
Almond 50 100
Apple 800 1750
Apricot 300 1D00
BlackberrY., 350 600
Blackcurrant 1200 2500
Blueberry (hi hbush) 800 1250
Blueberry (southern) 200 400
Cherry (sour) 600 1500
Cherry (sweet
500 1450
Chestnut 300 100
Citrus 0 0
Fig 50 500
Hazelnut 850 1700
Gooseberry 800
1500
Page 13
1-
- Crop Lowest chill req chill reo
I __________________ __________ ___________
r-Kiwi fruit 600 c-
)Ii ve
Pear
Pear IAsian1
Pecan
Plum
Plum
Quince
Walnut
300 500
20( 700
10( 1800

600 1500
;0
10
600
200
50
,00
'00
400
750
1750
1600
30e
450
1800
1500
30e
1550
The number of chilling hours in the UK has already reduced by 10-20% (250-500 hours) since
1960.
Chilling hours are reducing as the climate warms up by about:
15 hours/year (150 hours/decade) in the south
11 hours/year (110 hours/decade) in the midlands
10 hours/year (100 hours/decade) in Scotland
So by 2050 the likely reduction of chilling hours (from 2007 levels) is 400-650 hours in total.
Already in mild winters there are signs of problems, eg in 2006/ 7:
Location Av chilling 1996-<006 Chilling 2006/7
St Mawgan, Cornwall 933 hrs 411 hrs
Greenwich 1065 hrs 500 hrs
Eastbourne 1143hrs 452 hrs
Oxford 1534 hrs 1149 hrs
Armagh 1623 hrs 1479 hrs
Cambridge 1637 hrs 812 hrs
Paisley 1716 hrs 881 hrs
Sheffield 1863 hrs 1374 hrs
Durham 2003 hrs 1669 hrs
Newton Rigg, Cumbria 2123hrs 1115 hrs
Braemar 2743 hrs 1018hrs
Winter of 2006/7, the warmest for many years, is likely to be near average by 2050.
Tree phenological responses to warming temperatures will very much depend on their chilling
requirement , eg:
Beech (Fagus sylvatica) has a large chilling requirement, and will accumulate less chilling (and
so less of a reduction in the response time for bud burst in spring) thus will leaf out even later.
Page 14
T
Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) has a smaller chilling requirement, which will easily be met
during winter in future decades, hence it will leaf out earlier.
Fruit & nut tree species I cuJtivars with unmet chilling requirements are likely to become less
productive, ego already commercial blackcurrant growers are experiencing poor crops after mild
winters, caused by abnormal flower development.
CuJlivars selected I bred in parts of the UK over the past centuries tend to have chill
requirements near to the maximum chill available (to avoid early growthlflowering and
subsequent frost damage). (And similarly for other regions)
Likely chilling in 2050 is:
350-800 hours in southern England
900-1500 hours in mid England I Wales
1500-1800 hours in northern England
1800-2300 hours in Scotland
So in southern England, mid England and Wales especially, and warmer microclimates, we will
need to gradually switch to cultivars needing less chi lling. usually from a more southerly region
(notably western 'France) for many species , including: Apple. Blackcurrant , Blueberry, Cherry
(sweet and sour), Hazelnut , Gooseberry, Grape, Peach, Pear, Plum, Raspberry, Redcurrant,
Walnut.
Even so, some fruit crops, such as blackcurrants, in the south of the country may become
unviable, certainly on a commercial scale.
Frost susceptibility
There has been a steady decline in the number of damaging spring frosts over the last 30 years
in all parts of the UK. This decline is expected to continue.
Earlier leafing I flowering of plants should not lead to any increase in spring frost damage, and
a probable decease.
Clearer skies in autumn and delayed dormancy may lead to increased autumn frost damage in
some species.
Extremes
It is likely to be the extreme climate conditions, rather than rising averages, that have the
biggest impacts on cultivated plants, ego drought conditions. temperatures in the 40Cs.
hurricane winds etc.
Day length issues
Day lengths will of course not change in the future.
In many annuals and herbaceous perennial plants, the onset of flowering is triggered by a
change in day length:
Some plants do not flower until the day length is shorter than a certain period, usually 12 hours
(short day plants). ego strawberry.
Others flower only when the day length exceeds a certain limit, usually 12 hours (l ong day
plants) - ego spinach. beetroot. radish.
Many vegetables are day neutral plants, with flowering not affected by day length, ego tomatoes.
Flowering in trees is not controlled by day length.
Some trees cease shoot growth (and bud set) when exposed to under 8 hours of daylight , which
can limit the north-south movement of species if they have not had enough summer heat by
then.
Effec'ts of climate change on soils
Increasing soil temperatures will increase the rate of biological activity, leading to increased
breakdown of soil organic matter (humus) and loss of soil carbon, also increased release of
nitrogen for plant growth.
Soi l moisture content wi ll reduce significantly in summer, slowing the above processes
somewhat.
There is greater potential for nitrogen leaching losses from soils in autumn as growth slows.
Loss of organic matter results in loss of soil structure - more susceptible to wind and water
erosion, more vulnerable to climate change impacts.
Soil carbon content in England and Wales fell by 14% between 1978 & 2003 across all types of
land use.
The increased rate of humus oxidation and nitrogen availability can only continue if they are
replaced by natural or cultivation processes.
Ught , freely drained soils will become increasingly difficult to manage due to organic matter
losses.
Soils under arable agriculture contain only 15-20% of the humus levels of soils under grass or
forest.
Action to safeguard soils
Maintain or improve soil organic matter content
Mulch with organic matter
Add I incorporate organic material
Maintain plant cover over soil in all seasons
Retain fallen leaf litter
On slopes consider contour planting, mounding, mole ploughing
Tree-based systems are more resilient and stable
Climate change impacts on water
Soils will become increasingly drier in summer and autumn, and irrigation will often become
necessary, especially in the southern half of the country. Young trees are especially vulnerable
- in 2006, many young trees died in the drought in the south east of the UK.
Mains water is likely to be unavailable in drought periods. Plan to store your own irrigation
water if possible, utilising winter rainfall to refill. Plan efficient irrigation methods.
Page 16
More intense rainfall will lead to higher rates of flash floods etc. Plan carefully near streams and
rivers
Fire hazards, especially in coniferous woodlands & windbreaks, will increase sharply.
Climate impacts on pests
Insects can respond to cl imate change more rapidly than plants.
Climate zones are moving north by about 70 km per decade (or upwards by 70-100 m per
decade.)
Plant ranges are moving north by 6 km per decade (or upwards by 6 m per decade) with big
variations.
Insect ranges are moving north by 15-70 km per decade (large variation) and insect pests from
mainland Europe are moving north into Britain.
Bird ranges are moving north by 10 km per decade (with large variations.)
In a similar way, insect life cycles are beginning earlier in the season, with birds hatching only
slightly earlier.
This of timings between pests and predators will become an serious
problem both in ' natural ' ecosystems and in cultivated agro-ecosystems.
Eg. If the normal food source for a predator (be it a bird, ladybird, etc) is not present because it
hatched earlier and has already become a moth, for example, then the predator may find other
food, or experience a population crash. The knock-on effects of either could be serious.
We are heading for the situation where insects which have not been pests before could
suddenly and unpredictably become pests because of a predator population crash.
Other insect problems which will intensify are:
Some glasshouse pests, ego red spider mite, will become a serious problem outside (although
the biological controls used will also be used outside)
Pests which produce many generations in a season, ego aphids, spider mites, thrips, wi ll
become a bigger problem due to warmer winters (allowing adults to overwinter and advance the
appearance of adults by a month by 2030) and warmer growing seasons (allowing shorter
intervals between generations - a single extra generation increases the population by 10 to 14-
fol d)
Aphids in particular carry virus diseases and an increase in virus infections is expected
Increased sap cell concentration due to l ower soil moisture will aid sucking insects and mites
Pests controlled by winter col d may suddenl y flouri sh
Leaf eating pests may be slightly disadvantaged by the lower protein content of plants growing
in higher concentrations of CO
2

Examples
Mountain pine beetle
Example of an insect controlled by winter cold. In British Columbia in Canada, average winter
temperatures have increased by 2.5C. The mountain pine beetle, previously naturally
controlled by long cold winter spells, has become a serious problem in just 10-15 years due to
warming, and has killed 21 million acres (33,000 sq miles or about two thirds of England's area)
of lodgepole pine forest: damage continues at about 3000 sq miles per year (slightly more than
area of nevon).
Siberian moth
Siberia has experienced a 2e rise in the last 30 years. Two consecutive dry hot summers
trigger large outbreaks of tree-defoliating Siberian moths, and these are occurring more and
more frequently. They eat the needles of entire forest regions in one summer, killing the trees ,
which then succumb to forest fires.
Oak processionary moth
This moth of central and southern Europe defoliates oak trees (and other spp), sometimes
damaging forests significantly. It is also a health hazard via tiny irritating and toxic hairs via
touching or via inhaled wind*blown shed hairs (making infected oak woods no*go areas at some
times of the year). It has been steadity moving north as a result of cl imate change - now firmly
established in N.France & the Netherlands , has been found in Southern Sweden and since 2006
in the London area in England. Eradication efforts are under way but are unlikely to succeed for
long.
Climate impacts on diseases
Warmer wetter winters witl:
Favour the spread of. diseases that need water to spread, such as the Phytophthora
species of mostly root-attacking fungi.
Favour a wide range of bark and wood invading fungi which are able to overcome tree
defences during dormancy
Atlow greater survival of overwintering diseased material and disease inoculum
(spores or fungi), thus allowing a more rapid onset and spread of disease as the
growing season begins in spring.
Drier warmer summers witl:
Favour diseases such as powdery mildew and rusts which spread in dry conditions
Reduce the incidence of diseases which need moist conditions during the growing
season, such as apple scab and apple canker
Possibly stress trees and leave them more susceptible to diseases
Diseases too are moving their ranges northwards but rates of change are currentty unknown.
Perhaps the most serious threat is the outbreak of new diseases which have evolved through
hybridisation of diseases which have previously been isolated from one another.
Page 18
I'
1
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = I
Examples
Alder phytophthora
This is a hybrid which is believed to have arisen as a hybrid of two phytophthora species which
came into contact as a result of climate changerelated flooding . The parent species did not 1'1
attack alder (one is a pathogen of strawberry), Discovered in England in 1993, in one decade it
killed 15% of alder trees in the southern half of England and has spread across much of
Europe.
Bleeding canker of horse chestnut
This now appears to be a bacterial disease which seems to be a hybrid caused by disease
range changes. It has killed 80% of Dutch horse chestnuts in a few years and has spread to
Britain and other countries.
These examples do not involve trees of economic importance. If new diseases did (eg. a new
disease of oak). they would be hard or impossible to control.
Summary
The most serious impacts of climate change on cultivated plants will be:
Lack of winter chilling for perennials
Drought & water shortages in summers
I nsect pests moving north
Previous naturaJly controJled insects becoming pests in an unpredictable manner
Di seases moving north
New virulent and unpredictable diseases
Most of the problems of pests and diseases will be more difficult to manage by organic methods
than conventional.
Farming methods and gas emissions
The following graphs show the greenhouse gas emissions caused per kg of food type in
conventional and organic farming. Source: www.manicore.com
kg car-bon equivalent per- kg of food. conventional fa,-ming
OC02 .H20 OCH4
10,0
-
8,0
-
6,0
l-
4,0
i-
-
f- f-
2,0
i- r- -
-
i- i-
0,0
n _ 0 n Iii !OJ 0
n
n
~
.. n ...
"
~
'" "
...
=
... .. .. ~
.... ...
"
;;
..

=
=
'"
~
..
n ~ u
"
..
e :;
n
~
e
~
= Q ~
Q
'"
...
=
;;::
...
= =
..
~
~ ~
u
~
'"
"'
1: u
'"
u
0 I- 0..
~
~
""
= ;;
>-
=
):
..
=
'"
-'
"

...
'"
,
'"
Q ,'"
Q
'"
""
u
1:
...
Q.
u
>-
=
u
'"
~
e
e
~
:;
=
..
'"
...
..
Q
"
..
0
~
"
=
""
0
"
,
..
=
~
~
~
"
..
...
Greenhouse gases emission estimates linked to the production of a kg (roughly 2 pounds) of
food. Meat is with bones (the proper term would be "carcass equivalent") but without
processing, packaging, or transportation. To give a comparison unit, the far right bar
represents the emissions linked to driving 100 km in an average European car.
Source: IFEN, 2004
I.

9,0
.. -------- - --.---,.-.. ---
k:g car bon equivalent per kg of food, organic farming
8,0
---1

7,0
I-

6,0
+--- -----jIOC02 .,l20 OCH4ff-----------------i
L-____ ---'
5,0
l- f-,
4,0
r-
J
,
3,0
-
- r- ei
2,0
I- r- I- -
-
r-
I,D
r- r- r- r- l- I- -
0,0

$
=
0
0.
..
c
1:
c

':; .
c
.. ,

c

u
c

e

e
$

0

;:

,

, ,
0

u

.::
w
u

"
....
"- '::
"

,
..

'"
0
,

0

..

"
u
e
c 0
"

'"

,

=
e
"
.:;

c
'0

A
"

"
,
....

c

....
'"
Greenhouse gases emissions li nked to the production of a kg (roughl y 2 pounds) of food with
organic farming. C02 and N20 emissions decrease, and overall emissions by kg decrease by
30% on average.
Source: IFEN, 2004
A life cycle analysis for meat production in these graphs includes:
Emissions linked to the heating of housing
Fossil fuels used to manufacture the fertitizers used to grow the grain eaten
Fossil fuels burnt by the tractor used to grow the grain eaten
Nitrous oxide (N20) emissions that occur when the fertilizers are spread on the field
Fossil fuels required to manufacture food from the cereal s,
Emissions linked to the manufacturing of tractors, to the drying of grain, and even to
the refinery of the diesel oil used by the tractoL ...
Emission from the ruminant digestive process etc.
The scientist who calculated these figures is quoted as saying: organic is definitely a
good thing, but to preserve the climat e we must also eat less meat. "
I
I
Suggested responses to climate change
Avoid bare ground, especially in winter, and raise or maintain high
humus levels in the soil by
. Mulching, and I or
i Keeping th'e ground covered with plant growth, be it perennials or a succession of
annuals/biennials
Not digging as much as possible
Reduce wind damage and evaporation losses by
Planting windbreaks
Plan responses to severe summer droughts by
Planning irrigation systems
Encourage maximum plant health by
Inoculating plants I soils with mycorrhizal fungi
Maximise pest and disease resistance by
Designing systems for diversity
Utilising known resistant cultivars
Including attractant plants for predators of pests
Sustain good pollination by
Including plants for bees (especially' wild) as sources of nectar and pollen
Alter crop type by
Changing cultivars of high chill-requirement crops
Changing crops to warmer-season species
Minimise greenhouse gas emissions from agro-ecosystems by
Avoiding keeping ruminant animal s unless you have enough trees growing
Avoid chemical fertilisers - organic systems relying on nitrogen fixing and mineral
accumulating plants are far preferable
Safeguard the agro-ecosystem by
Page 22
Avoiding low l ying land near to sea level and flooding sites near rivers and streams
Avoiding sandy, very well drained soils
Creating permanent plant cover over soil
If annuals (eg. annual vegetables) are grown then annual green manures should be used as
much as possible - you can undersow beneath the crop before it is harvested.
Underplanting of trees etc. is best done with perennials:
1. First sheet mulch out existing grass/weeds
2. Then either sow a cover (typically legume) or transplant your plants and mulch
Legumes, which can be sown as single species covers:
Lucerne (alfalfa) - persists for 2 years, needs innoculant , droughUalkaline
tolerant
Red clover - persists 2 years
Sainfoin - persists 2-3 years, good for alkaline soils
White clover - persists 3-4 years, excellent
Birdsfoot trefoif - persists 2 years, alkaline tolerant
Using perennial plants
Aim to plant in drifts/patches of 1-3 species. Most plants do better in groups than as
scattered isolated individuals.
Usually need 5-10 plants per m
2
of ground for a quick cover
Aim to mix different types of plants (clumping and running or moving) to maximise
soil/space usage
Use species which tolerate shade and, if growing them yourself, are easily propagated
Don' t plant too near young trees & shrubs to avoid competition
Plant in a staggered pattern (not a square grid) for better coverage
Spreading plants can be planted along an 'expanding' edge for succession planting
Recommended perennial cover species
Species Clump! Good Good Plants Propagation
runner on mixed? per m
2
own?
Ramsons Allium ursinum C X
3
10 Seed tricky;
self seeds
Good king Chenopodium C
3mod 3
10
Seed - easy
henry bonus-henricus
Claytonia Claytonia sibirica C
3 3
10 Seed - easy;
self seeds
False Duchesnea R X
J
10 Seed - easy
strawberry indica
Strawberry Fragaria spp. R
3mod 3
10 Layers - easy
Daylilies Hemerocallis C X
3
6 Slow
spp.

Species Clumpl Good Good Plants Propagation
runner on mixed? per m
2
own?
Sweet peas Lathyrus C
3 3
4 Seed - easy
maritimus/
sylvestris
Mallo"Ys Malva spp. C X
3
10 Seed - easy
Lemon balm Melissa C
3 3
5 Seed - easy;
officina/is self seeds
Horsemint Mentha longifolia R
3
X 5 Seed/runners -
easy
Apple mint Mentha R )
3
5 Seed/runners -
suaveo/ens easy
Sweet cicily Myrrhis odorata C 3 3 6 Seed - tricky
Oregano Origanum C
3 3
5 Seed - easy
vulgare
Lungwort Pulmonaria C
3 3
6 Seed - easy
officinalis
Rubus Rubus 'Belly R
3 3
3 Layers - easy
Ashbumer'
Nepal Rubus R )
3
5 Layers - easy
raspberry nepa/ensis
Japanese Rubus tricolor R )
3
3 Layers - easy
bramble
Dwarf Symphylum C
3 3
5 Root cuttings -
comfrey orientale easy
Comfrey Symphylum C
3
X 4 Root cuttings -
officina/s I easy
uplandicum
White clover Trifolium repens C
3mod 3
6 Seed - easy
Periwinkle Vinca spp. R ) X 5-6 Layers - easy
Windbreak principles
For a hedge/windbreak of height H, the wind speed is reduced for a distance of some
20 x H on the sheltered side of winds, on flat ground.
The most significant reductions are in the quiet zone (about 8 x H in distance from the
hedge) - where there is around 50% reduction
The denser the windbreak, the greater the protection - porous windbreaks are Jess
effective
Dense windbreaks lead to more turbulence in the wake zone (from 8H to 20H from the
hedge)
The best protection is with windbreaks forming a rectangular cross section to the wind
(not always achievable)
Windbreak design guidelines
Height: should be at least one eighth of the size of the area to be protected. A 'rough' top edge
is better than a smooth topped hedge at reducing wind.
Length: longer than the area it protects or should surround it completely
Gaps: avoid jf possible, as windspeed increases by 20% through gaps. For access, stagger or
angle gaps, or use baffle (island) windbreak
Density: plan very dense hedges for small areas and where winter protection vi tal ; otherwise
aim for moderate to high density hedges
Distribution of density: ensure dense all the way down to the ground (bare trunks can
increase windspeed) - interplant small shrubs if necessary
Multi-row hedges s h o u l ~ have smaller plants to the leeward side (ie inside sheltered area) as
this reduces the aerofoil effect.
Planting: plant smaller shrubs at about 0.5-1 m apart; larger shrubs/small trees at about 1 m
apart. (Further apart in dry regions)
To reduce work, ideally aim for an informal hedge which does not need trimming
Mulch entire planted hedge while it establishes
On slopes, avoid creating frost pockets by sloping hedge downhill or providing staggered gaps
Recommended species for windbreaks
Species West East Max Evergreen
windbrk windbrk height
Italian alder Alnus cordata
J J
15 m
Red alder Alnus rubra
J J
20 m
Barberries Berberis spp.
J J
2-4 m
3some
Autumn olive Elaeagnus
J J
5m
umbel/ala
Elaeagnus x
J
ebbingei
J
3.5 m
J
Sea buckthorn Hippophae
J J 3m
rhamnoides
New Zealand Phormium tenax
J J
2.5 m
J
flax
Pines Pinus radiata
J J
20 m
J
P.nigra maritima
J J
25 m
J
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera
J J
12 m
Apple rose Rosa rugosa
J J
1.8 m
Japanese Rubus tricolor
J J
2 m
J
bramble scramble
Willow Salix Bowles Hybrid
J
12 m
Page 25
Windbreaks can also:
Be a source of bee fodder
Be a source of wildlife food and shelter
Be a source of logs and poles from coppicing
Be a source of fibres for tying
Be a minor source of edible products. Fruiting windbreaks are possible, but yields will
. be often be low because of the exposure.
~ Help accumulate minerals in leaf litter and nearby soil
Irrigation
The main principles with regard to irrigation are:
1. Know your soil and the water requirements I stress points for your crop
2. Collect rain water if possible
3. Measuring when to apply irrigation
4. Apply irrigation water efficiently
Soil types
100
90
g.
10
~
60
<C
C>..
w..J
so
Vl
:5
,.
u
~
!O
'"
10
0
10
,.

,.
so
e", 7. 8.
'"
100
% SAND SEPARATE
You can determine your soi l type by a soil analysis or by and feel ":
(
"
Is the soil mostli rough Does stai n the
I NO
I
and gri tty? j I fingers
Sand
L
-' J ___
Is jj di fficult to roll ]1 YES>
Loamy sand
NO
the sOil 1I1to a ball ?

Sandy loam
Does soil feel

smoo'l h and si lky
G0
V
as '.vei l as 9ri tty?
Sanj y silt loam
( . -
>.
li Does sOi l Aloula to torm
an easily deformed ball YES
Silt loam
and feel smooth and sil ky?

/
Clay l oam
<
' Does soil mould to f orm a
I st rong ball which smears
YES
Al so rough and
cl ay l oam
gritty?
/
but ' .... hi ch does not take a
l polish?
<
e
Also smooth and
Silty' clWI loam
Sil ky?
Clay

! Soil moulds and feels like
plast i cine, pol ishes and
YES
Al so rough and
:(
Sandy cl ay
; feel s veri sticky when
gri tty?
l
wetter
Also smooth and
sil ky?
v/
Sil t y clay
F
Different soil types have capacities for holding water:
50
' 45
..,
40
~
~
35
Q)
30
E
::::J
25
0
>
~
"
20
15
'"

I ......
k
'\

'\
I ~
.,
1\
v ~
r-
r.
~
'z:..
"A.,
'II"
't."

"-
">
~
~
~

x...
'x,
10
~
5
o
Page 28
1\
~
'l\
'\
\
~
,\
h
r'x
--Vol field
capacity
---50%
depletion
--(r- 65%
depletion
----*- Topsoi I
wilting
point
Field capacity is the moisture content of a saturated soil which does not drain any more, and
varies from 15% 45% by volume depending on the soil type.
The wilting point i s the moisture content at which crops are unable to extract any more water
from the soil.
The water deficit is the amount of irrigation water or rainfall that has to be added to a soil
profile to bring it back to field capacity.
The available water is the amount of water in the soH above the wilting point
All crops, including trees, can tolerate some drying of soils, but beyond a certain point the
stress becomes damaging to growth or cropping.
For most tree crops, the maximum soil water depletion before damage occurs is 5065% of
available soil water content (the lesser at critical times, ego fruit swelling). In the UK most tree
roots (4050%) are found in the 0300 mm depth with another 25% at 300600 mm. Measuring
the top 300 mm for water content is usually sufficient.
Collecting water
One moderate sized fruit tree may require 500-1000 litres water per month in a severe drought
(well drained soils the higher).
1 m
2
of roof, reservoir area or collector will collect 700-1000 litres of water per year.
Water butts useful in a small garden situation but only for a few trees.
Other options are:
Above ground water tanks. Either buy (approx prices - 20,000 litre = 800; 70,000
litre = 1800) or make from ferrocement etc.
Construct a below-ground reservoir. Much cheaper (eg 50,000 litre = 100 for digger
+ 400 for liner). Avoid siting where winter waterlogging occurs.
A sloping site also allows for easy extra collection by laying a collector on the slope above the
tank.
If the tank/reservoir if not covered then filter systems will be required before the water can be
used for irrigation.
Taking water from streams f rivers may require an abstraction licence and may not be reliable in
droughts anyway.
Exits from field drains can also be a concentrated water source.
",.
a

Reservoir on level ground
Reservoir on slope
--
Making a reservoir
For moderate volumes (50-100 m
3
) aim to dig 60-90 em deep - there are often large
rocks deeper
Page 30
A mini digger can dig about 50 m
l
per day
The sides can be mounded up to give extra effective depth
Levels are best checked with a hose filled with water
Use an under-liner to protect main liner from rocks & stones. Old plastic sacks/mulch
are ideal. You can also use turfs to line very rough areas.
Liners (plastic or rubber) can be made to any size, though they are cheaper in rolls of
fixed widths ego 6 m
Any cover used should be water permeable to allow rain in
Water outlet via siphon is easiest. else pump
Measuring soil moisture prior to irrigation
You especially need to know when trees are approaching the 50% soi l moisture deficit level
when irrigation is important.
One way of roughly determining mositure levels is by the ~ L o o k and feel " (ball and ribbon) test:
Take a sample from 30 em deep (by auger or spade)
Form a ball by squeezing the soil hard in your fist.
Form a ribbon by rolling the soil between your thumb and forefinger.
Compare with the table below:
Smd indicates the approximate soil moisture deficit.
Available water sand, loamy sandy loam, other loams silt loam. clay
deficit sand fine sandy loam, silty clay,
loam clay
Field capacity Leaves wet Appears very Appears very Appears very
outline on hand dark, leaves dark; leaves dark, leaves
when squeezed wet outline on wet outline on slight moisture
hand; makes a hand; will on hand when
short ribbon ribbon out squeezed; will
about 25 mm ribbon out about
50 mm
20-30% deficit Appears moist; Dark; makes a Quite dark; Quite dark;
makes a weak hard ball (smd makes tight ribbons and
ball (smd 6 mm) 10 mm) plastic ball; slicks easily;
ribbons out 12 makes plastic
mm (smd 12 ball (smd 15
mm) mm)
35-40 % deficit Appears slightly Fairly dark; Fairly dark; Fairly dark;
moist; forms makes a good forms firm ball; forms firm ball;
weak brittle ball ball (smd 20 barely ribbons ribbons 10 mm
(smd 10 mm) mm) (smd 20 mm) (smd 22 mm)
50% deficit Appears dry; Slightly dark; Fairly dark; will Balls easily;
forms very weak forms weak ball form ball; small clods
ball or will not (smd 20 mm) slightly crumbly flatten rather
ball (smd 12 (smd 25 mm) than crumble;
mm) ribbons slightly
(smd 28 mmj
60-65% deficit Dry; will not ball Light colour; Slightly dark; Slightly dark;
(smd 16 mm) will not ball or forms weak forms weak
forms brittle ball; crumbly balls; clods
balls (smd 24 (smd 31 mm) crumble (smd 37
mm) mm)
Over 80% deficit Very dry; loose; Dry; loose, Light colour; Hard, baked,
flowers through flowers through powdery, dry cracked, light
fingers (smd 24 fingers (smd 36 (smd 45 mm) colour (smd 50
mm) mm) mm)
Page 31
Other methods of measuring soil moisture
Weighing and drying
Sample soil , measure volume. weigh, dry and weigh again.
A slow but accurate method; dry in oven at just over 100C for 24 hours.
Vol ume blo of water =
so x 100 x (wet weight-dry weight)/dry weight
Soil probes
so = bulk density of soil, about 1.4 for sandy soils,
1.6 for clay soils
Moderately expensive (circa 150). very accurate, gives measure of % soil water content.
Tensiometer
Quite accurate. less expensiove (circa 50)
This gives a reading of soil tension - a measure of the energy needed for plant roots to extract
water from the soiL
Translate the soil tension (measured in bars, centibars, Pascals [PaJ or hectopascals [hPa]: 1
bar = 100 centibars = 100,000 Pa = 1000 hPa) to avail able soil water depletion using the
following table:
I
Available water depletion, percent
10 20 SO ." 50 00 70 90 00 100
0.1 10
, \

\

f\
,
" ..
\ '\

0.'
"'-. ..
.0
\
.. "-.
\ \
..
"'-.-",

\
,
,
0.3
,

an
,
\
,
"
..
0.'
..
.. ,
40
\
,

'<
,.

0.5
\
-"
50
"
..
\0\
0.6
...... 60
II> 0,1
-
\
I-
......
\
70
'"
..
eli
0.8
\ =
",
'- \
eo
en ,
2:
0.9
",
\ '
90
i
0 1,0 :
'\;
" .. 101)

g
..
"
" ..
'. \
w
,
tJ
U>
..
0;;1

"
\ '
g
..
"
.. \
..
\
2.0

"-
,
\
..
.. \
"-
..
..
..
..
\ '
"-
,
3,0 '
,
,
, \
"
..
\
, ,
'.0

"
\ \'
\, \
6.0
"
\ 1
6.0
"
\ \\
1.0
"
' ,
. 0
\ '11 .
,
'.0
,
'0.0
140
135
130
125
120
I'.
115
""
110
105
0
100
!II
!,
...
I'...
E
95
"\ "'\
E
90
0
85
0 80
M
75
C.
0
70
-
65
c::
\,
..
I'.
)(
'"
I'w.
z...
i ><.
n...
60
...
Q) 55
-
III
50
"-
hi
:: 45
E
40
E
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Page 34
....
\

r.
t'.
~
~
..
'\
'"\
'"
x..
~
\.
\
..
~
\
1\

~ ~
}:
X
--Vol field
capacity
---50%
depletion
-tr-65%
depletion
--Topsoil
wilting point
r-w.
Irrigation methods
It is only worth irrigating trees when the available water deficit has reached 50% (however, if
there are understorey crops it may be desirable to start irrigating earlier.)
How much water to supply?
The aim is not to supply water up to field capacity (which may cause lots of problems with mud,
compaction etc) but to suppl y water to reduce the available water deficit to 15-20% each
watering. For most soils (except very sandy) this translates to about 20 mm of irrigation for the
top 30 em of soil.
After a watering, the water deficit can be allowed to reduce to 50% agai n before the next
irrigati on (thi s cycle i s healthy for the soil).
20 mm of irrigation i s 20 litres per m
2
or about 500 litres for a fully grown large fruit tree.
Sprinkler irrigation is NOT recommended - wasteful of water and bad for the soil.
The best forms of irrigation are sl ow - trickle and drip systems.
Drip irrigation
Uses plastic pipework (usually 16 mm) with drip emitters at fixed intervals (usually 30-
60 cm spacing), sometimes connected via their own small diameter (5 mm) pipe up to
1 m long
Eg. Techline, T -tape, Woodpecker system
Good for meandering lines/rows
Fairly easy to lay and move
Needs a reasonable water pressure
Some drippers are pressure-compensated so that flow is uniform - useful on long runs
and on slopes
Typical dripper rat es are 2 litres/hour
Lateral spread from drippers is 60-100 cm total
For trees aim to meander drip lines just inside canopy line either side of tree.
At 31m
2
and 2 Htres/hour, a 3 hour irrigation will provide 20 mm water
Do not bury - li able to get blocked
Trickle irrigation
Uses a plastic 'tape' with small perforations or a leaky pipe
Eg. Access seephose; Evaflow
Best for crops laid in rows - doesn't bend around corners well
Easy to lay and move
Low pressure systems available, ego Evaflow tape
Lateral spread from tapes is 60-90 cm total
For trees aim to meander drip lines just inside canopy line either side of tree.
Do not bury - li able to damage
;-
Drawbacks of these systems are
The cost - up to 1 per m
2
plus delivery pipework
Physical obstruction of the system on the ground
tm7#
Management to avoid leaks or blockages (drip emitters are easily blocked by silt or
algae) - filter is usually needed
Reducing evaporation losses
In hot weather (most likely) irrigate at night or early in the morning - cheap electronic timers
may help
Evaporation losses can also be reduced by using the deep pipe irrigation method with drip
emitters.
On a small scale, a small hole could be
beneath each dripper and some sort of
placed over the top
Mycorrhizae
Most trees & shrubs form mycorrhizal relationships
Many only grow healthily then
The fungi improves plant mineral nutrient uptake
The plant supplies sugars in return
The association:
reduces drought I temperature stress
improves nitrogen fixation
protects from soil pathogens
can transfer nitrogen & phosphorus from plant to plant
is damaged by soil cultivation and excess fertilisation
Most woodland fungi are mycorrhizal, ego boletus, chanterelle, russula, truffle.
Page 4 A GROFORES TRY NEWS Vol 16 No 4
=
How to encourage mycorrhizal associations
For fruiting and forest trees:
At planting time, dip exposed roots of tree into water enriched with the spore mass of a
mycorrhizal species.
To make an inoculating liquid, either:
Collect mycorrhizal fungi when fully ripe, and whizz them in water to make a 'soup',
dilute in a bucket; or
Buy dried spores of suitable species from a commercial supplier and mix up with water
Or, after planting:
Spores can be broadcast onto the root zones around trees (make an inoculating liquid
as above). Success rates may be low, but little effort is required
Place soil from root zone of proven mushroom-producing trees around trees soon after
planting
Maximising diversity in agro-ecosystems
Aim to avoid mono crops and increase diversity via:
Intercropping - alternating lines of orchard crops for example (NB take care with
pollination), and planting mixed forestry crops '
Underplanting - include plants to encourage natural predators and pollinators
Polycultures - mixing crops more than just alternating lines. Takes more planning and
careful management
Forest gardens take the ideas of underplanting and polycultures further to try and plan
an integrated self-maintaining system, resistant to changes and extremes
Diversity in commercial systems leads to many small crops instead of a few large
ones: may require more marketing, and more suited to local distribution
Nitrogen fixing plants
Two ways of utilising nitrogen fixing plants to feed other trees are:
Use other trees or shrubs interplanted with the tree crop
Nitrogen enters the system via root turnover and leaf litter, also mycorrhizae
The n-fixer can also be pruned, coppiced etc. and these allowed to decompose
beneath crop trees
In the UK, actinorhizal plants are usually beUer than tree legumes
Crop trees must be planted more widely apart to allow for n-fixing plants beneath
Use perennials on the ground beneath I between the tree crop
Nitrogen enters the system via root turnover and foliage which dies back in autumn
As shading increases, n-fixation decreases and the number of shade-tolerant species
decreases
Use legumes
Crop trees can be planted at the usual spacing or slightly greater
Recommended tree / shrub nitrogen-fixers
Trees over 10 m high:
Alnus cordata - Italian alder
Alnus rubra - red alder
Hippophae salicifolia - Himalayan sea buckthorn (suckers)
Robinia pseudoacacia - black locust (suckers)

Small trees 1 large shrubs:
Alnus sinuata - Sitka alder Elaeagnus x ebbingei
Alnus viridis - green alder
Elaeagnus angustifolia - oleaster
Elaeagnus umbellata - autumn olive
Hippophae rhamnoides - sea buckthorn (suckers)
Medium shrubs (1-3 m high):
Cytisus scoparius - broom
Lespedeza bieolar - bush clover
Myrica cerifera - wax myrtle
Recommended perennial nitrogen-fixers
The following all tolerate degrees of shade:
Apios americana - ground nut
Astragalus glycyphyllos - milk vetch
Baptisia tinctoria - wild indigo
Galega officinalis - goats rue
Glycyrrhiza spp. - liquorice
Gunnera spp.
Vicia spp. - vetches
Lathyrus spp. (L.latifolius, L.sylvestris, L.tuberosus) - sweet pea
Trifolium spp. - clover (T.repens - white clover - most shade tolerant)
Mineral accumulatiJ'lg perennial plants
These plants have very deep and/or extensive root systems and tap into mineral sources which
other plants cannot reach.
The minerals are made available to other plants from decaying foliage / roots.
These plants should be included in understorey layers, especially near to or under heavily
fruiting trees.
R d d I ecommen e plan s:
Species Potassium Phosphorus
Galium aparine goosegrass
3
Glycyrrhiza spp. - liquorice
3 3
Melissa officinalis -lemon balm
3
Plantago spp. - plantains
3
Potentilla anserina silverweed
3
Ranunculus spp. buttercups
3 3
Rumex spp. docks and sorrels
3 3
Sanicula europaea - sanicle
3
Symphytum spp. - comfrey
3 3
Taraxacum officinale - dandelion
3 3
Trifolium spp. clovers
3
Tussi/ago farfara coltsfoot
3
Verbascum spp. - mulleins
3
VJcia.sD..O.......=.'i
I
Book reviews
Hedgerow Medicine
Harvest and Make your Own Herbal Remedies
Julie Bruton-Seal & Matthew Seal
Merlin Unwin, 2008; 206 pp; 16.99.
ISBN 978-1-873674-99-4.
As a response to the growing interest. in Britain and worldwide, in herbal medicine, the authors
(one of whom is a practising medicinal herbalist) have aimed this book at folk wanting to
improve their health by using some of the British wild plants and herbs.
Opening sections deal with harvesting in general , and then processing plant parts to make teas,
tinctures, vinegars, honeys, infused oils. ointments etc.
The main part of the book consists of details of 50 native British plants. For each one there are
good quality photographs, a description of the plant and its habitat, historical and current
medicinal uses, and detai ls of the medicinal parts. They include instruction an how, what and
when to harvest and process to obtain medicinal products. There is no discussion of the
evidence of efficacy of the plants, and some of the historical uses should certainly be treated
with caution, although the references used are all included in notes at the end of the book.
I like the practical aspects of the book. So, for example, many people know that ramsons
(Allium ursinum) has excellent garlic-flavoured leaves, but do not know how to preserve them or
know of their medicinal properties. In answer there are recipes for ramsons pesta and ramsons
sauce, as well as a description from Julie Bruton Seal of the ailments she has found it most
useful for. This practical combination makes the book more accessible and useful to ordinary
folk than many other recent medicinal herb books.
Natural Beekeeping
Organic Approaches to Modern Apiculture
Ross Conrad
Chelsea Green, 2007; 246 pp; 22.50 (US$35.00).
ISBN 978-1-933392-08-0
Beekeepers face unprecedented challenges, a fact that is now front page news with the spread
of "colony collapse disorder
ft
Newly introduced pests like the Varroa mite have made chemical
treatment of hives standard practice, but pest resistance is building, which in turn creates
demand for new and even more toxic chemicals. There is evidence that chemical treatments
are now making matters worse.
This book offers a holistic, sensible alternative to conventional chemical practices with a
program of natural hive management. Ross Conrad brings together the best strategies for
j-
_ =='%4
keeping honey bees healthy and productive with non-toxic methods of controlling mites,
eliminating foul-brood disease, selective breeding for naturally resistant bees, and many other
tips and techniques. Detailed management techniques are covered in a thoughtful, matter-of
fact way by this American beekeeper of many years experience.
At a time when honey bees in Britain are in severe trouble, this book is essential reading for all
beekeepers, whether novice or experienced, who are looking to develop an integrated pest
m a n a ~ e m e n t approach using the minimum or no chemicals.
Agroforesterie
Christian Dupraz & Fabien Liagre
Editions France Agricole, 2008; 416 pp; 40.76
ISBN 978 2 855571508
This fine book, written by two French agroforesters, is an excellent manual on the history, types
and practicalities of agroforestry systems, with a strong emphasis on western European
conditions. It is written in French, though well illustrated (see below) and if you can even
partially read French then you' ll get a great deal out of the book.
The book starts by discussing agroforestry types are their history, from undergrazed orchards to
complex systems of olives, vines and cereals. The main agroforestry systems used in other
parts of the world are also covered.
The science of agroforestry is well described, including effects on soil, animals, and other crops
of tree crops. The environmental benefits are emphasised.
How to go about designing your own agroforestry project is given its own section, followed by
descriptions of the main trees likely to be useful - from honey locust (GfedUsia) to lime (TiJia) ,
most of which would be suitable for British and North American conditions . Soil preparation,
planting, pruning of trees, and financial aspects of projects are all given good treatment.
What to interplant with trees is also discussed, and how the choices made may affect the trees
themselves. Annual and perennial crops are covered.
Over 270 colour photos illustrate the book and (especially to a not very good French reader)
illustrate the text wonderfully well.
Probably the best book ever written on the practicalities of agroforestry in Europe. Highly
recommended (even just for the photos!)
' . .. , . ". . . ' . . .' . .
Agroforestry' News is published by the Agroforestry Research Trust four times a
year in November, Febr0ary, May and August. Subscription rates are:
21 per year in Britain and the E.U. (.17 unwaged). 39/2 years . .
36 per year for institutions. '
request for 4 x 1 st class Back issues cost 4.00 per copy including
Agroforestry Resear<;h Trust
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440),. with the object to
research into temperate tree, shrub and other and agroforestry systems, and
Agroforestry News
Crops for a warming climate
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: A good summer for truffles / Cider from ash
Trees / Pne bark / Threatened plants
4 The RISC rooftop forest garden
17 Climate change and agroecosystems:
17 Forestry trees to 2050
20 Forestry management adaption strategies
21 Tree and shrub crops for a warmer climate
31 Paulownia
34 Inks and paints
37 Hemp
40 Book reviews: The Woodland Year / The Peach
Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Page 1
News
A good summer for truffles
The wet summer may not have suited everyone but Britain's truffle hunters are delighted. Tney
are predicting a bumper crop of the fungi known as "black diamonds", over which gourmets go
into
A chilly spring followed by sunshine and then summer rain has created perfect growing
conditions for the pungent delicacy. The British summer truffle may not be as highly regarded
by epicures as the French and Italian varieties, but it is still worth about 180/kg.
One couple from Plymouth were celebrating yesterday after their gardener discovered truffles
worth hundreds of pounds growing between the roots of beech trees in their garden. However,
a plantation at a secret location in Wiltshire has become one of the world's most productive
sources of British summer truffles. The three-hectare (7-acre) site produced 200kg (440Ib) of
the delicacy last year , and an even bigger harvest is expected this summer.
The truffle expert Nigel Hadden-Paton, the first Briton to be invited to join the Confrerie de la
Truffe de Bourgogne, France's leading truffle "brotherhood", said: "No one has seen anything
like it. The quantity of truffles is simply astonishing. We have found them up to 500g [170z]
each, which means they are bigger than cricket balls. "
Truffle spores were imported to Wiltshire in the roots of beech, oak and hazel trees planted 12
years ago. The slightly acidic soil proved the perfect growing medium - last year's harvest
was worth about 27,000.
Traditionally pigs were used to root out truffles in the Perigord region of France, although dogs
are increasingly used. But the Wiltshire farmer, who does not want to be identified for fear of
attracting hordes of uninvited truffle hunters, has his own unorthodox method, according to Mr
Hadden-Paton. "He finds them by taking off his shoes and socks and feeling around with his
feet. " This year' s truffle season is likely to ' be relatively short because the damp conditions
which helped them grow will also rot them unless they are harvested quickly.
Source: Times Online, UK, 6 August 2008
www.timesonl ine.co. uk/tol/news/ uklsci ence/article4466760.ece
Cider from ash trees?
Stuart Anderson 0 recenlly sent me this interesting item.
' In the leaves a.nd keys of ash (in French, Ie frene) are fermented with sugar,
tartaric aCId and yeast Into a sparkling, refreshing and only slightly alcoholic drink called
"Fren'!'tte" (see t.he photo below of the front label of a bottle bought recently). On the bottle it's
as "cldre. des of the harvesters / reapers) but my
refers !O It as po.or man seIder; If one has enough money then one has an orchard
of elder app'les, not Wine, being the local drink made here in Brittany. It's extremely fizzy
and almost ImpossIble to open the bottle without it spraying everywhere.'
Page 2

SERVI
A B ToNIQUE ET RAFRAI
ASE DE FEUILLES ET FRUITS DE
:"41>\,1",., D,\\'ID, Les Places, 44450 Saint-Juliell,de.ConceIles Tel
bioiogique contrOl. ECOCERT, 32600 L'isl'. Jounla
in
' " ' : ' : : I
Pine bark reduces knee osteoarthritis
A third clinical trial in Slovakia confirms evidence that the antioxidant pycnogenol lowers joint
pain, researchers said. A study, published in the August Journal of Phytotherapy Research,
said Pycnogenol - a bark extract from the French maritime pine tree - reduced overall knee
osteoarthritis symptoms by 20.9 percent and lowered pain by 40.3 percent.
Researchers in Comenius University School of Medicine in Bratislava said 100 patients with
stage I or II osteoarthritis were included in the study and were randomly allocated to either a
Pycnogenol or a placebo. Patients were supplemented with 150 mg Pycnogenol or placebo per
day for three months. They were allowed to continue taking pain medication prescribed before
the study but had to record every pill taken.
Source: UPI , USA, 4 fl.n','m',.r
plants emit 'aspirin'
Forest plants subjected to stresses such as drought emit an aspiri n-like chemical that can be
detected in the air above them, American scientists have discovered.
Thomas Karl , the lead researcher at the US National Centre for Atmospheric Research, believes
that the chemical, methyl salicylate, may be a sort of immune system response. "Plants can
produce their own mix of aspirin-like chemicals, triggering the formation of proteins that boost
their biochemical defences and reduce injury," he says in the journal Biogeosciences.
The chemical can be sensed by other plants and may be a means of communication. Previous
studies have shown that plants being eaten by animals produce chemicals that are sensed by
other plants nearby_ (AP)
Source: Times Online, UK, 19 September 2008
http: //www.timesonline.co.uk/tol /news/world/us and americasl
article4783497.ece
The RiSe rooftop forest garden
Dave Richards
This article was first presented as a paper at the World Green Roof Congress, London, 2008
Introduction
When the idea of a roof garden at Reading International Solidarity Centre (RISC) began to take shape
in 2001 , it was a practical response to the problem of a leaking roof and how to provide sound and heat
insulation for a conference han which doubled as a venue for noisy events. Little did we imagine that
our solution to a domestic crisis would create such interest ; and a steady stream of journalists and
thesis-writing students. It's only with the benefit of hindsight , that we realise that the story of our edible
forest roof garden has a wider significance in a world of rapidly rising oil prices and the need to reduce
our carbon footprint.
RISC is an educational charity which aims to raise awareness of global issues through working with
schools and the general public. In 1995 we bought and refurbished a complex of buildings close to the
town centre which dated back to the18th century. This gave us the opportunity to reach new audiences
through a Global Cafe and fair trade World Shop, as well as broadening our funding base by offering
office space and conference facilities to community organisations. Unfortunately, the shoestring budget
could not stretch to replacing a large expanse of flat roof which was well past its sell-by date. Armed
with a tar brush and bucket of bitumen, we fought a losing battle with the elements, and in 2001 began
to look for funding to renew the whole roof. The idea of a green roof slowly gained momentum as
Page 4
over on an area space,
providing a relaxing spot to eat lunch, hold an informal meeting or learn about plants and
sustainable development'
S S' r pllhmldoh ..... $I .. 'U'l'''!I'I' ........ _
+ 8\:.,
L-________ ...,.. ____ "
internet research revealed its advantages. It soon became obvious that a garden would not only extend
the scope of RiSe's educational work but also appeal to funders. The Big Lottery took the bait and
provided us with 34K topped up with a grant of 13K from SEED.
The design
The design brief for the 200m2 site(32x6m) emerged from brain-storming sessions among the workers'
collective that run the organisation: a garden which could be a tool for making connections between the
local and global, including sustainable development, as well as the economic, cultural and historical
importance of plants. We collaborated with Paul Barney, a local permaculture designer, who adapted
the forest garden idea, championed by Robert Hart in the1970s, to our site and needs. Permaculture is
about Udesigning sustainable human settlements through ecology and design. It is a philosophy and an
in the1970s, to our site and needs. Permaculture is about sustainable human settlements
through ecology and design. It is a philosophy and an approach to land use which weaves together
micro-climates, annual and perennial plants, animals, soils, water management and human needs into
intricately connected productive communities"l.
Our design takes into account every aspect of the site, surrounding buildings and makes full use of the
local resources. For example, the Centre produces large amounts of organic waste which are
composted and help feed hungry plants, while minimising landfill waste. Shredded paper from offices is
high in carbon, vegetable peelings from the Cafe and tea bags from the meeting rooms are high in
the perfect combination for rapid decomposition. In exchange, herbs and cut flowers are used
in the cafe. Water from surrounding roofs is harvested for the drip-feed irrigation system which is
powered by a small wind turbine and photo-voltaic array. The hard landscaping uses a combination of
reused, renewable and recycled materials - old bricks destined for landfill , paths made from woodchip
and edged with cordwood (tree surgeons' waste which would otherwise be burnt), fencing and raised
beds made from locally coppiced hazel and willow.
The forest garden is a variation of the permaculture approach - using a carefully selected combination
of perennial herbaceous plants, shrubs, trees and climbers in a planting scheme which mimics a multi-
layered woodland ecosystem. This creates the conditions which support great diversity. Once
established, forest gardens require a little pruning and lots of harvesting from early spring to late
autumn. Conventional vegetable plots can also be included. The use of a 75mm layer of mulch and
ground cover plants, such as herbs and strawberries, helps to conserve moisture and suppress weeds.
Our design features two winding interconnecting paths which create ecological niches for forest-edge
plants, but also provides enticing access for vi sitors, especially children. It had to accommodate
assorted skylights and ventilation ducts and shade cast by a building on the south side of the plot.
Areas at either end of the site receive full sun for most of the day. One is planted with sun-loving herbs
in a raised bed which surrounds a small area of decking made from local wind-blown oak. The
greenhouse lives at the other end, as well as raised beds used to grow annual herbs and flowers for the
Cafe. Cordoned fruit trees line a hurdle fence on the south facing side of the garden which also gets a
lot of sun. In total , about 100m
2
, half the plot, consists of beds.
The structure
Victorian maps show that our site had been a courtyard garden, covered over in the 19S0s. Luckily for
us the flat roof structure was substantial - a series of18cm deep RSJs, resting on reinforced concrete
piers, spanned the Sm wide space. The engineer calculated that this could support the combined
weight of 30cm of rain-sodden peat-based soil, hard landscaping, our intensive planting and visitors.
This meant we could proceed with the forest garden design without the need for additional
strengthening, which would probably have been prohibitively expensive for a cash-strapped charity.
Our limited budget dictated that we had to opt for a cut-price version of the Bauder system offered by a
former employee. Fortunately, the existing drainage system was easily adapted to harvest rainwater, so
the new system could be laid on top of the existing decking.
Plants for every purpose
The contractors, RAM-RGC, began stripping off the perished felt in October 2001 and completed the
waterproofing in two weeks. They also supplied the lightweight soil (reclaimed potato washings we
were told). RISC took responsibility for project managing construction of the main hard landscaping
features - path paved with simulated York stone slabs made from reconstituted building waste (high
embedded energy from cement, but lower carbon footprint than imported Indian and Chinese stone
found in most garden centres). raised beds, staircase, fencing to secure the plot.
Planting by a team of volunteers was completed by early June 2002. The initial plant list had about 120
different species - mainly perennial plants from around the world, most with multiple uses: food,
photos, from top: reached its sell-by
date; work raising the surrounds to the and installing the water and root proofing
system began in October 2001; hard landscaping and planting was finished by June 2002
medicine, fuel, fibre, construction, dye, scent - chosen to generate maximum interest for visitors, from
school children through to garden experts. They include the full range of layers, from roots (oca Oxalis
luberosa, American ground nut Apios americana) and ground cover (strawberries Fragaria, herbs)
through to climbers (hop Humulus lupulus, kiwi Actinidia arguta, grape vms vinifera), small shrubs
(lemon verbena Aloysia Iriphylla, blue sausage tree Decaisnea fargesii, Chilean guava Ugni molinae)
and taller trees (cherry Prunus avium, Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis). Most of our fruit trees are
heritage varieties dating back to Victorian breeders and beyond. Notable for their taste (though not for
the uniformity required by supermarkets), they will also enrich the gene pool which will create new
which can cope with the weather brought about by global climate change. The list has now
grown to over 185 species. As far as we knew, this was the first attempt to create a temperate
permaculture forest garden on a roof, and so the project was something of an experiment. The biggest
question was whether our intensive planting scheme could flourish on only 30cm of soil. There was
particular concern that large trees would blow over.
The past six years have clearly demonstrated that the leap into the unknown has paid off. The garden
has matured into a truly beautiful , inspirational oasis that has won awards, astonished the hundreds of
people who visit every year and attracted great media interest . However, there are important lessons
we have learnt which will make it easier for others to follow in our footsteps.
Costs
As with most voluntary sector organisations, minimising costs was imperative for the success of the
project whi ch was grant funded. The total budget finally worked out at SOK, the majority consisting of
34K for repair and adapting the roof and installation of Root-Stop waterproofing system, insulation,
drainage board, filter fleece and soil. Hard landscaping accounted for a further 6000, design and
planting for 5000 and the irrigation system, including renewable energy components, cost 3000. Use
of renewable and reused materials (most notably Oxfords hire limestone originally used in the 121h
century to build Reading Abbey, used a second time in an 18th century make-over of our building, and a
third incarnation on our roof garden) helped to reduce the cost of hard landscaping, while our crew of
dedicated volunteers helped t9 minimise labour costs during construction. Ongoing maintenance costs
are minimal- small amounts of organic soil improvers, a new pump for the irrigation system - and
covered by donations from visitors.
Water
The biggest problem is water, both because we aspire to being a zero-carbon garden and the rising cost
of being part of Thames Waters' revenue stream. Despite our water conserving methods, the garden is
like a huge hanging basket and does not hold water very effectively. The intensive planting has high
water requirements during the summer which cannot be met by our meagre 2000 litre storage capacity.
With global climate change predicted to produce drought conditions every three years on average and
huge water demand in the South-East, we need to be completely independent of mains water to
guarantee the garden's survival.
During the dry summer of 2006, when it did not rain for six weeks, the garden was severely stressed
and survived only because, as a business, we were able to use hose-pipes. Unfortunately, the garden
is not metered separately so we do not have accurate data for water consumption during dry periods,
but we estimate 500-750 Htres/day when our storage tank runs dry. On the plus side, water which
percolates through the soil is recycled through the irrigation system. When allows, our solution
is to bury a large cistern in the car park. The footprint of the whole Centre is 420m which would yield
about 13m
3
of water in July, Reading's driest month, averaged between 1971-2000. For most of the
year this will be used to flush toilets but can be used on the garden during dry periods. This will ensure
that we do not have to turn our temperate forest into a Mediterranean garden.
Page 8
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/17 No I
Organic waste from the garden and Centre is composted
Soil fertility is maintained with an annual dressing of organic horse manure (note the Green
Cone waste food digester which breaks down all kitchen waste, including cooked food, into
nutrients which feed the surrounding beds)
Maintenance
One of the vi rtues of a forest garden is that it is low maintenance because it uses predominantly
perennial plants, which look after themselves, and there is permanent ground cover, which reduces
weeding. The first year after planting is the most time consuming. We created a biodegradable
membrane from old copies of the Reading Evening Post, topped with a layer of woodchip. This kept
watering and weeding to a minimum while plants became established. The garden is maintained by
one volunteer, a skilled horticulturist, who occasionally mobilises a larger group of volunteers for two
Sundays a year to apply a spring dressing of organic horse manure and harvest willow to repair raised
beds. During the winter months Mary spends2-3 hours/week on general maintenance, including pruning
of the large number of fruit tree, shrubs and climbers. Spring is the busiest time of year taking 7-8
hours/week propagating plants for sale to visitors, thinning unwanted self-seeded plants and planting
gaps. Routine summer maintenance falls to 3-6 hours/week, watering when necessary, harvesting and
clearing rampant growth from skylights.
Fertility and plant health
Like any allotment, our garden demands large amounts of nutrients. Despite annual dressings of
compost and manure which increase the moisture retaining organic content of the soil, nutrients are
quickly leached from the relatively light soil , although they are recirculated via the irrigation system. We
monitor the health of plants which provides the surest indication of deficiencies. Although the shallow
soil depth has had a bonsai effect on larger shrubs and trees, most are extremely healthy and display
vigorous growth. Our tallest tree, a self-fertile cherry, Prunus avium 'Stella', has grown from a scrawny
two-year old, 1.5m sapling into a robust 6m specimen, which has had to be cut back to reduce its wind
resistance. Our experience is confirmed by research which shows that although trees and shrubs have
root systems which extend many metres in all directions, 90% of roots are found in the top 45cm around
them.(2) Michael Guerra has also shown how limited soil depth is no barrier to highly productive fruit
and vegetable growing (3). Every year or so, we apply a spring dressing of powdered seaweed, a slow
release source of nutrients. We have also added ground Scottish granite which replaces minerals and
trace elements which have been shown to promote plant health. A few plants, notably currants and
hardy kiwis on the edge of the garden, have not thrived in the conditions, but this is probably due to
stress caused by unreliable watering.
Pests
Pests have not been a serious problem. There are many plants which attract beneficial insects which
not only aid pollination, but also help control aphids and other unwanted insects. The garden attracts
birds such as blue tits which consume large volumes of caterpillars, though not enough of the rose
chafer beetle and sawfly larvae which find some of our plants especially tasty. Thankfully, slugs and
snails appear to suffer from vertigo because we rarely see them. Another observation is that fungal
disease is minimal. For example, interplanting seems to benefit commercial varieties of strawberry
which have spread and prospered, even though it is recommended that they are replaced every year to
prevent infection.
Use of the garden
From the outset, the garden was intended as a tool to communicate RISC's local global message to a
wider public. It has been an overwhelming success from this paint of view. We have about 750 visitors
a year, mainly in summer. For a time, we left the gate open so people could just drop by, but
discovered that junkies also found it an agreeable place to begin their voyages of discovery. So now it
is open by appointment for school and gardening groups, and to the general public for four weekends
during the summer as part of the National Gardens Scheme which raises money for cancer care and
research. In addition, groups using the RISC's conference facilities and meeting rooms often use the
garden as a break-out room or respite from intense work-shop activities.
Performance artists have also used the garden in their productions. Visitors can have a guided tour
which explains the principles behind the garden and the stories behind some of our favourite plants.
The ultimate must be Emmer wheat , Triticum dicoccum, first domesticated in the Fertile' Crescent
10,000 years ago, and the foundation of several civilisations. Our interpretation materials have
improved - all-weather UV resistant information panels, detailed labels listing uses and leaflets. We
have added new elements to the garden which demonstrate sustainable gardening techniques -
siphons to empty bathwater, low cost rain-fed irrigation systems using 200 litre containers used to
import pickled onions and porous pipe made from recycled car tyres. In 2006 our water conservation
methods featured on the BBC's Gardeners' World. Our website has become a mine of information
though, like the garden, many of its treasures are found in hidden corners.
Education
The garden has been incorporated into RISC's formal education work, how the 'outdoor
classroom' is an ideal resource for helping to deliver all areas of the curriculum. Participants in Initial
Teacher Training and Continuing Professional Development courses run by RISC visit the garden as a
demonstration of how school grounds can be used to meet the government's strategy for sustainable
schools. We have developed activities for children which encourage them to explore the garden and
discover the importance of plants. Being asked to be on the lookout for the plant which could kill them
is a foolproof way of focusing young minds. The leaves of American pokeweed, Phytofacca americana,
undermine the immune system, but in the USA the toxins are neutralised by cooking and the spinach-
like leaves canned and marketed as poke salad, inspiring Tony Joe White's1969 hit, Polk Salad Annie,
which was part of Elvis Presley's 1970s repertoire). One spin-off from our education work has been the
construction of school forest gardens inspired by the RISC model , nine to date, though all on terra firma
(4).
The industry
Another category of visitor are professionals who are interested in green roofs. We open during the
Royal Institute of British Architects' (RIBA) Architecture Week and receive a steady stream of students,
facilities managers and other people interested in the growing field of sustainable landscapes -
particularly green walls and roofs and Sustainable Urban Drainage (SUDs). More recently, there has
been increased interest in the food growing aspect of the roof garden, as part of a strategy to promote
healthy lifestyles and reduce food miles by encouraging urban agriculture (5,6.)
Lessons
In 2001 , a roof garden was an inlriguing idea. The journey of the past seven years has been an
unexpected revelation and opened up new worlds which enri ch the lives of so many people, from those
of us who are intimately invol ved in its continuing evoluti on, to the children who have eaten day lily
flowers and adults who have gone on to grow their own forest gardens. Feedback from visitors
describes a space that feeds the soul and all the senses. It is a valuable oasis in a concrete, tarmac
and block-paved jungle, a means for people to re-connect with Mother Earth. We become slightly
different people when sat in a garden, more relaxed and less formal- it creates a well -documented,
health-enhancing sense of well being.
So, the main message is: where land is available it is probably preferable to reduce costs and use low
maintenance sedum or other extensive planting to gain the benefits of green roofs. In an urban context
where land is often at a premium, green roofs have a part to play in urban agriculture. City Farmer,
Canada's Office of Urban Agriculture, has produced an extensive list of successful aerial allotment
projects from around the world (7). However, like conventional allotments, this form of productive
green roof is relatively labour intensive. Our experience has shown that an intensi vely planted forest
garden is a viable low maintenance option for owners ,architects and developers to add to their palette.
Such a garden scores highly on the habitat creation, amenity and food production levels, but requires
higher capital spending, especially on structural strengthening and sustainable irrigation systems.
I
A balance between keeping these costs to a minimum while creating the conditions best suited to a
demanding planting scheme such as ours, would be to have 30cm of soil over the majority of a site,
Page 12 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/17 No I
increasing to 50cm or more in areas devoted to trees, ideally on the south-facing edge which could take
the additional loading and provide full sun for fruit trees. In towns and cities, the additional cost of
incorporating an element of a forest garden on a new-build project or a complete refurbishment of an
existing building, is marginal, especially when compared to the value-added. Just imagine if forest
gardens rather than sedum mats had been planted in Canary Wharf. Edible boardrooms might put city
folk back in touch with the real world, prevented the credit crunch and give the human race a realistic
chance of juggling the challenges of global climate change and Peak Oil in a way which gives the planet
and all its peoples the possibility of a sustainable future.
References
1 Bill Mollison and Reny Mia Slay, Introduction to Permaculture, Tagari Publishers, 1991
2 Robert Kourik, Roots Oemystified, Chelsea Green, 2008
3 Michael Guerra, The Edible ContainerGarden: fresh food from tiny spaces, Gaia Books 2005
4 Dave Richards, The Outdoor Permaculture Classroom, Permaculture Magazine, Number 54, 2007
www.permaculture.co.uk
5 Edible Cities - A report of a visit to urban agriculture projects in the U5A,London Food Link 2008
6 Andre Viljoen, Continuous ProductiveUrban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable
Cities, Architectural Press, 2005
7 www.citvfarmer.orq/subrooftoPs.html#rpof
Dave Richards has been involved in the development of the RISC roof garden from concept to reality,
and is the present garden coordinator. Building on this experience he has set up Eco garden swhich
provides sustainable landscape design and construction services for forest gardens on roofs and terra
firma. dave@eco-garden.co.uk;08450702716. www.eco-qarden.co.uk '
Further information about the RISC roofgarden.: www.risc.org.uklgarden
t: 0118 958 6692 e: dave@risc.org.uk
Rise forest garden species list
Achillea millefolium Yarrow
Actinidia arguta ' Issai' Hardy kiwi, Tara vine
Actinidia chinensis 'Hayward' Kiwi, Chinese gooseberry
Actinidia chinensis 'Tomuri' Kiwi, Chinese gooseberry
Aegopodium podagraria 'Variegatum' Ground elder, Goutweed
Agastache rugosa Korean mint
Akebia quinata Chocolate vine
Alliaria petiolata Garlic mustard
Allium ampeJoprasum var. babbingtonii Babbington's leek
Allium cepa 'Perutile' Everlasting onion
Allium fistulosum Welsh onion
Allium sativum ophioscorodon Serpent garlic
Allium schoenoprasum Common chives
Allium triquetrum Three cornered leek
Allium tuberosum GARLIC CHIVES
Allium ursinum Wild garlic, Ramsons
Aloe vera Aloe vera
Aloysia triphylla Lemon verbena
Althaea officinalis Marsh mallow
Amelanchier canadensis June berry
Amygdalus persica Peach
Angelica archangelica Angelica
Apios americana Ground nut, Indian potato
Aralia cordata Udo
Aralia racemosa
Arbutus andrachne
Arnica montana
Aronia melanocarpa
Artemisia annua
Artemisia dracunculus
Asparagus officinalis "Purple Jumbo'
Beta \!ulgaris cicla
B o r a ~ officinalis
Bunias oriental is
Bunium bulbocastanum
Calendula officianalis
Caltha paJustris
Camassia quam ash
Camellia sinesis
Capiscum fructescens
Centaurea cynanus
Centuarea nigra
Chamaemelum nobile
Chenopodium bonus-henricus
Cichorium intybus
Cirsium oJeraceum
Citrus x limon
Coreopsis tinctoria
Coriandrum sativum
Corylus 'Webbs Prize'
Crambe maritima
Crataegus monogyna
Cryptotaenia japonica f. atropurpurea
Curcubita pepo
Cyclamen hederifolium
Cydonia oblonga 'Vranja'
Cynara scolymus
Decaisnea fargesii
Digitalis purpurea
Dioscorea batatus
Dipsacus full onum
Echinacea purpurea
Eriobotrya japonica
Eryngium maritimum
Eupatorium cannabinum
Ficus carica 'Brunswick'
Foeniculum vulgare
Fragaria vesca
Fragaria vesca 'Muricata'
Fragaria x ananassa ' Hapil'
Fuchsia magellanica
Galium oderatum
Galium verum
Genista tinctoria
Gillenia trifoliata
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Helianthus annuus
Helleborus oriental is
Hemerocallis 'Bonanza'
Page 14
American spikenard
Strawberry tree
Arnica
Black chokeberry
Sweet wormwood
French Tarragon
asparagus
Ruby Chard
Borage
Turkish rocket
Pig nut
Pot marigold
Marsh marigold
Quamash
Tea plant
Chilli Pepper
Cornflower
Black knapweed
Chamomile
Good King Henry, Fat hen
Chicory
Cabbage thistle
Lemon
Coreopsis
Coriander
Cob nut I hazel
Seakale
Hawthorn
Japanese parsley, Mitsuba
Pumpkin
Cyclamen
Quince 'Vranja'
Globe artichoke
Blue sausage fruit
Foxglove
Chinese yam
Teasel
Cone flower
Loquat
Sea holly
Hemp agrimony
Fig
Fennel
Wild strawberry
Plymouth strawberry
Strawberry ' Hapii'
Fuchsia
Sweet woodruff
Lady's bedstraw
Dyer's greenweed
Indian physic
Liquorice
Sunflower
Lenten rose
Day lily
Hemerocallis 'Stafford'
Hovenia dulcis
Humulus lupulus aureum
Hypericum perforatum
Inula helenium
Iris pseudacorus
Juniperus communis
Lamium album
Lathyrus latifolius
Lavandula angustifoli a
Lentinula edodes
Levisticum officinale
Lonicera coerulea edulis
Mallow sylvestris
Malus domestica
Malus domestica ' Ellison's Orange'
Malus domestica 'Spartan'
Malus domestica 'Superb'
Malus sylvestris ' John Downie'
Melissa officinal is
Melissa officinal is 'All Gold'
Mentha spicata var crispa 'Moroccan'
Mentha x piperata
Mespilus germanica
Monarda didyma
Marus ' Illinois Everbearing'
Marus nigra
Musa basjoo
Myrica cerifera
Myrrhus odorata
Myrtus communis
Nepeta calamintha
Ocimum basilicum
Oenothera biennis
Olea europeae
Origanum vulgare I v.aureum I v.hirtum
Oxalis tuberosa
Peltaria alliacea
Petroselinum crispum
Phyllostachys nigra
Phytolacca americana
Plantago lanceolata
Podophyllum peltatum
Polygonatum biflorum
Polygonatum x hybridum
Potentilla anserina
Primula veris
Primula vulgaris
Prunus avium 'Stella'
Prunus domestica 'Czar'
Prunus domestica 'Victoria'
Pulmonaria officinal is
Pyrus communis sativa 'Com ice'
Pyrus communis sativa ' Hessle'
Pyrus nivalis
Day lily
Japanese raisin tree
Hop
St John' s wort
Elf wort, Elecampane
Yellow flag
Juniper
White dead nettle
Perennial Sweet Pea
English lavender
Shiitake Mushroom
Lovage
Edible honeysuckle
Mallow
Cox's Orange Pippin Apple
Apple 'ellison's Orange'
Apple 'Spartan'
Apple 'superb'
Crab apple
Lemon balm
Golden lemon balm
Moroccan Mint
Chocolate mint
Medlar
Bergamot, Bees' Balm
Mulberry
Black mulberry
Japanese fibre banana
Wax myrtle
Sweet cicely
Myrtle
Calamint
Sweet basil
Evening primrose
Olive
Wild Marjoram / Golden, Greek oregano
Oca
Garlic cress
Parsley
Black bamboo
Pokeweed
Ribwort plantain
American mandrake
Small Solomon's seal
Solomon's seal
Silverweed
Cowslip
Primrose
Sweet cherry
Plum
Victoria Plum
Lungwort
Pear 'Cornice'
Pear 'Hessle'
Snow pear
Page 15
Rheum australe
Ribes divaricatum
Ribes nigrum 'Ben Sarek'
Ribes odoratum 'Crandall'
Ribes sativum ' Red Lake'
Ribes uvacrispa 'Early Sulphur'
Ribes x culverwellii
Rosa canina
Rosmcirinus officinalis
Rubus idaeas 'Autumn Bliss'
Rubus idaeus 'Mailing Jewell'
Rubus nepalensis
Rubus phoenicolasius
Rubus tricolor
Rumex acetosa
Rumex acetosella
Salvia elegans 'Scarlet Pineapple'
Salvia officinal is 'Purpurascens'
Satureja montana
Sedum acre
Sempervivum tectorum
Smilacina racemosa
Smilax rotundifolia
Solanum tuberosum
Sorbus aucuparia
Stachys affinis
Stauntonia hexaphylla
Stellaria media
Stevia rebaudiana
Symphytum upJandicum
Tanacetum balsam ita
Tanacetum parthenium
T anacetum vulgare
Taraxacum officianale
Thymus vulgaris
Thymus vulgaris 'Argenteus'
Ti gridia pavonia
Trifolium pratense
Trigonotis icumae
Triticum dicoccon
Tropaeolum majus
Ugni molinae
Ugni molinae 'Flambeau'
Urtica dioica
Valeriana officinalis
Verbascum thapsus
Vi bemum opulus
Viola odorata
Vitis vinifera
Wasabia japonica
Zanthoxylum alatum planispinum
Zanthoxylum simulans
Zingiber officinale
Page 16
Himalayan rhubarb
Coastal black gooseberry
Blackcurrant
Buffalo currant
redcurrant
gooseberry
Jestaberry
Dog rose
Rosemary
Autumn Raspberry
raspberry
Nepalese raspberry
Japanese wineberry
Creeping bramble
French sorrel
Sheep's sorrel
Pineapple sage
Purple sage
Winter Savory
Common stonecrop
House leek
False spikenard
Horsebrier
Potato
Mountain ash
Chinese artichoke
Japanese stautonia
Chickweed
Stevia
Comfrey
Alecost, Costmary
Feverfew
Tansy
Dandelion
Common thyme
Silver thyme
Tiger flower
Red clover
Trigonitis icumae
Emmer wheat
Nasturtium
Chilean guava
Variegated Chilean guava
Stinging nettle
Valerian
Greater Mullein
GueJder rose
Sweet violet
Grape vine
Japanese horseradish
Toothache tree
Szechwan pepper
Ginger
r
f
Climate change and agroecosystems
Forestry trees to 2050
The climate is changing so rapidly that it is not possible to plant longterm forestry trees in
Britain (ie 80 -150+ years to cropping) with any certainty that they will reach maturity due to
the climate becoming unsuitable.
If long-term crops are planted, ego oak, then it would be wise to use seed sourced from
southerly locations (eg. southern England source for Scotland, French source for England) for
some entire compartments (areas). Some local seed can be used for entire areas too, but be
aware that local seed-grown trees are not likel y to be as adaptable in the decades to come and
may well die out of stress-induced pest or disease problems.
Do not mix seeds / trees from southerl y & local sources in areas because the wrong trees may
get thinned out in the early years.
Don't get distracted by the ' natives only' lobby - the trees that will do better I best in the next 50
years are a mixture of native and non-native, and tree ranges are changing like those of other
plants.
In commercial forestry terms, concentrate on high value, short rotation crops (30-50 years) ,
which are more likely to definitely succeed.
Quercus robur
r

Thll mop "":IS by memben 01 III, EUFORGEN Oaks anc! 8tfth and pubhhed in:
Du<Oullo, A..,d S. Botdacs .:2OO' . EUfORGEN TlKI\nIc;al Gndeln ... lDrllMelieeonsffYlll .... ,nd tnfI lDrpe<iullOlJiale and 51!'Sm oM (01 ....... robIIrand C.
h\emltion,1 PLI"I Genetic 1m!lIu1 Romt. e l)aiHo
Page 17
Note that the grey squirrel problem is likely to get worse as the climate warms.
Distribution maps of existing ranges can sometimes be useful for predicting how trees will do in
the future but need interpreting.
Eg. For oak (Quercus robur) , although the distribution in southern Europe (see above map)
looks widespread, and would appear to suggest that oak should be able to cope with a
substantial amount of warming temperatures, in fact the trees in southern Europe are at high
a l t i t i d e ~ and on north slopes. A temperature rise of more than about 3e (of which southern
England has already had 2) is likely to leave oak trees increaingly stressed and unable to
resist current or new pests and diseases.
For maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), the distribution in southern Europe is mostly at low altitude
and this specie is likely to do increasingl y well in Britain.
Pinus pinaster

~ .. ,-,
"
.'
- ~ .. "
--
'-
q
'0'"
-'
... '

This distribution map wa, compiled by members of \he EUFORGEN Conifers NeIwOfk
and was publis.hecl in:
Alia. R. afld S. Martin. 2003 EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines fO( genetic consarvalion and use for Maritime pine (pinus pina$terj.
International Plant Geoetie Resou-ces Iostil..-e, Rome. Italy 6 PIIge$.
Page 18

(.
If we want to grow wood for timber, crafts or fuel in the future then we have to be looking at
growing increasing numbers of trees from other parts of the world. Growing for long-term timber
(eg. on rotations of 80, 100 or more years) has always been an optimistic occupation, and today
it is even more so. We simpl y do not know what the climate is going to be that far ahead. The
trees with naturally durable timber, in particular, hold great promise. Coppice crops too are a
fair bet. Some of the species which are good contenders for British conditi ons are listed below.
Species Common name Grown in Coppice Comment
France
Acer pseudoplatanus sycamore
.I
Acer saccharinum silver maple
Castanea sativa sweet chestnut .I .I Naturally durable
wood
Cladrastis /utea yellow wood
Cory/us colurna Turkish hazel
Cupressus Italian cypress Naturally durable
sempervirens wood
Fagus grandifolia American beech
Fraxinus excelsior ash
.I .I Best in north I west
long term (high
chill)'
Juglans ailantifol/a Japanese walnut
Juglans nigra black walnut .I
Juglans nigra x regia hybrid walnut .I
Liriodendron tulipifera tulip tree
Pau/own;a tomentosa foxglove tree
Pinus nigra Austrian pine .I Needle blight a
problem
Pinus pinaster maritime pine
.I
Platanus acerifolia plane
Prunus avium wild cherry
Prunus serotina black cherry
Quercus ilex holm oak .I .I
Quercus pubescens downy oak .I .I
Quercus rubra red oak .I
Robinia pseudoacacia black locust
.I .I
E European
selections
Sequioa sempervirens Coast redwood
.I
Naturally durable
wood
Thuja plicata western red Naturally durable
cedar wood
Rather than allowing the unknowns about climate change paralyse us, it is imperative that we
take a sensible view of what is likely to happen and act accordingly: acting in a positive sense
rather than battening down the hatches in a negative sense. In the case of tree planting,
diversity is the essential strategy, using tree species from anywhere that will fit the bill.
Certainl y keep some native trees growing too to hedge your bets and give wildlif e a chance at
least of adapting or moving with the changing conditions.
Forestry management adaption strategies
Increase resistance to change
High risk, high value and/or extremely urgent situations, such as critically endangered species,
eXlr,eme fire risk situations, or volatile invasive species epidemics, are the most appropriate
subJ.ects lor resistance management. In such cases, using great force to armour resources
agalQsl change may be the best option.
This OPtion can be extremely expensive, consume a lot of time, resources, and staff effort , and
may be only short term. Resisting change can be risky; in many situations, conditions will
eventually become so different that a resource threshold passes and resistance becomes futile.
Promote resilience to change
When a species, habitat , watershed or other natural resource returns to its former condition or
function after disturbance, it has "resiled". A widely held, but mostly untested assumption in
that forests , species or ecosystems are more resilient to change. Strategies to
promote resilience are also likely to be successful only for the relatively short term, in that
eventually changed climates will force new environmental conditions such that ecological re-
setting rather than resilience will be the "healthiest " path toward adaption.
Enable ecosystems and resources to respond to change
ThIS strategy assumes that a decision-maker acknowledges the inevitability of change and
adopts the humility that we have limited capacity to understand what change will happen at the
scales need by land managers. Many types of actions can assist species, ecosystems, or
resources to move to new and adapted conditions and processes:
Assist species and resources to follow changing environments
AntiCipate and ptaJl for associated risks
Experiment creatively
Use redundancy
Relax genetic-management guidelines (ie use of local material only)
Experiment with refuges
Increase diversity
Promote connected landscapes
Realign conditions to current and future dynamics
For systems that have been pushed (manipulated or disturbed) beyond their natural variability
range, actions that promote alignment with current conditions and processes may be the best
approaches for restoration rather than returning to historic conditions. Returning habitats to
pre-disturbance conditions is a widely used model for ecosystem restoration, but is often
Inappropriate because so much change has happened since pre-disturbance times.
Reduce greenhouse gases and non-renewable energy use
Management actions can be designed to enhance sequestration so that carbon stored in natural
reSOurces is retained longer, emissions are lowered, and non fossil fuel energy is favoured. By
contract , poor management , a lack of management , or inadequate management can accelerate
negative effects - an example is the increasing number of large catastrophic forest fires in the
USA.
Page 20
)
J
Tree and shrub crops for a warmer climate
Existing tree crops, for example apples, can be helped to adapt to a warmer climate by
regrafting with lower-chill varieties. But there are a number of crops which, though most may be
borderline in productivity now, will all improve as the climate warms.
The following table lists a number of the better known possibilities for future home scale and
commercial tree and shrub crops for Britain. Each crop has been given a risk rating on a scale
of most viable (so chestnuts are viable commercially now) to most risky (it will be a long time
until we can safely grow commercial Citrus here!)
most viable most risk
Trees
A ricot
./
Citrus
./
Fig
./
Ju'ube
./
Loquat
./
Olive
./
Peach
./
Persimmon
./
Shrubs
Pineapple guava
./
,
Porne ranate
./
Climbers
Grape
./
Kiwi fruit
./
Passion fruit ./
Nuts
Almond
./
Chestnut
./
Chilean hazel
./
Heartnut
./
Pecan (southern)
./
Pine nut
./
Walnut
./
Apricot
Tree 5 m high and wide on St Julien rootstock; flowers early (mid March onwards); brittle
branches; self fertile but better crops with cross pollination; crops at 4 years old, full bearing at
10 years
Needs a site free of late spring frosts and shelter to avoid branch breakage and for pollination -
mainly. by wild bees
. .
Only serious disease is bacterial canker, many of the newer varieti es are resistant
Varieties recommended:
Oelieat
Early Moorpark (in east)
Flavoreot
Goldeol
Golden Glow
Hargrand
Harogem
Moorpark (in east)
Tomcot
Citrus
Shrubby evergreen trees, not very cold tol erant , needing a long summer to ripen fruit; borderline
in UK.
Require mild winters with few frosts and a long hot growing season; likes lime-free soil.
Pests include aphids and scale insects but are not serious outside.
Species I varieties to try include:
C.ichangensis - Ichang papeda
C.l imon (lemon) - vari eties Eureka, Snow
C.madurensis - Calamondin
C.meyeri - Meyers lemon
C.pseudolimon (9aI9al)
C.reticulata (mandarin) - varieties Chinotto, Cleopatra, Guangiju, Satsuma, Silver Hill
Fig
Spreading trees 5 m high and wide in Britain; wind tolerant; tolerant of alkaline soils; fruits in a
few years.
Prefers a well drained soil, fruiting best in a poor sandy soil - in good soils wi ll need root
rest ricting by lining of planting pit ; needs feeding with potash but little nitrogen.
No major pests or diseases.
Recommended varieties:
Brown Turkey
Brunswick
White Marseilles
Jujube - Chinese date
Ziziphus jujube is a tree to 3-5 m high and wide in Britain; likes a hot dry summe"r to ripen wood
and fruit ; very drought tolerant.
Prefers a well drained! dry soil all year round.
No major pests or diseases.
Recommended selections:
Seedl ings can be productive
Li
Lang
Loquat
Eriobotrya japonica is an evergreen shrub or small tree growing to about 3 m high and wide in
Britain - smaller on quince rootstock; easy to grow; drought tolerant ; fruit in 2-3 years.
Tolerates most soils and situati ons; little feeding required; flowers in winter, the flowers tolerate
minimum temperatures of -SoC.
Diseases include apple scab and fireblight.
BaffieD
BB
Ottaviani
SI Michel
Tanaka
Olive
Evergreen shrub or small tree growing 3-4 m high and wide in Britain; hardy cultivars tolerate -
10 to -12DC; flowers in late spri ng I early summer ; processing needed to make fruit edible.
Requires a long hot summer to ripen fruit, even more so to ensure a good oil content; prefers a
well drained soil and dislikes waterlogging in winter.
Olive leaf spot disease may become a problem as it is already present in the UK.
Aglandau (oi l)
Bouleilian (oil)
Cailletier (oil & table oilve)
Frantoio (oil & table olive)
Leccio (oil)
Peach
Tree about Sm high and wide on St Julien rootstock ; flowers early, in March, selffertile,
pollination mainly by wild bees; bears crops after 2-3 years; branches tolerant of wind.
Nectarines are not so viable due to peach leaf curl problems.
Some ~ h e l t e r desirable at flowering time.
Serious diseases: peach leaf curl (plant resistant I tolerant varieties, especially as open trees),
bacterial canker.
Recommended varieties (resistance to peach leaf curl noted):
Avalon Pride (resistant)
Dixired (some resistance)
Hylands Peach (some resistance)
Redhaven (tolerant)
Redwing (some resistance)
Robin Red Breast (some resistance)
Rochester (some resistance)
Persimmon (Sharon fruit)
The oriental persimmon, Diospyros kaki is a large shrub or small tree in Britain, growing to 6 m
high by 4 m wide; flowers in July; hardy to -18C; light feeder.
Requires a long warm summer to ripen fruits, good shelter and drainage; irrigation rarely
needed.
No particular pests or diseases in Britain.
Recommended varieties are mostly of the 'astringent' type (ie cannot be eaten f r e ~ h off the tree,
must allow to ripen first):
Fuyu (non-astringent)
Great Wall
Hiratanenashi
Kostata
Kyungsun Bansi
Mazelli
Natale (non-astringent)
Saijo
Pineapple guava
A bushy evergreen shrub growing 2-4 m high and wide in Britain; hardy to about -15C; flower in
July in Britain.
Prefers a sheltered position - branches are brittle; prefers acid, well drained soi l with a good
organic matter content; needs a long warm summer to ripen fruit in November; require potash
but little nitrogen.
No pests or diseases of note.
Coolidge
Mammouth
Triumph
Unique
Pomegranate
The dwarf pomegranate nana is likely to be more viable in the next few decades than the tree
crop as it is hardier (to -1 DOC) : a deciduous shrub 1 - 1.2 m high and wide, with smaller fruit.
Requires long hot summers to ripen fruit, likely to be best in the east of England; drought
tolerant.
No particular pests or diseases.
Varieties of the tree form are only hardy to about -5"C and are not likely to be viable here some
a long time.
Grape
Climbing shrubs which are usually trained on strong supports; needs summer heat to properly
ripen; drought tolerant.
Varieties from mid and south western France will become increasingly viable, especially for
wine; French regional specialities will vanish.
The vine phylloxera pest will probably move north from France into Britain, forcing vine growers
to use grafted plants on resistant rootstocks.
Cultivars likely to be planted here soon include:
Chen in, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay, Sau,mur, Touraine Sauvignon, Pinot Nair, Grolleau, Pinot
Meunier, Pineau d'Aunis and Romorantin (Loire region grapes)
Colombard, Folie Blanche (Picpoule) , Ugni Blanc, (Cognac region grapes)
Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Petit Verdot , Malbec, Carmenere, Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon,
Muscadelle (Bordeaux, Medoc, St Emilion & Sauternes region grapes)
Blanquette, Baco Blanc 22A (Piquepouls de Pays) (Armagnac region grapes)
Kiwi fruit
Deciduous strong climbing vines, hardy to about -12C; require support / framework; early to
leaf out, susceptible to spring frost damage (leaves killed by - 1.6C).
Usually require male and female vines (1 male per 8 females) , though some self-ferti le
varieties; likes any well-drained soil ; tolerates humid conditions; heavy feeders.
No major pests or diseases; grey mold can be a problem, cats can destroy young vines.
Recommended cultivars:
Atlas (male)
Boskoop (self fertile)
Bruno (female)
Hayward (female)
Jenny (female, self-fertile)
Solo (female, self-fertile)
Tomuri (male)
Passion fruit
The Passiflora are woody or herbaceous vines with tendrils - need a structure I frame; best
edible species not very hardy - to -4 to-SOC; need a sunny site and hot summer - only suitable
for southern England.
Passifloras require very well drained soil and do not like frozen soil; feed with potash.
Slugs and snails can damage plants in Britain.
Recommended species I cultivars:
P.actinia
P.edulis - 'Black Beauty', 'Nancy Garrison'
P. x exoniensis
P. membranacea
P.mixta
P.mollissima
Almond
Small trees growing to 5 m high and wide; early flowering, susceptible to spring frost damage
Myran and SI Julien rootstocks tolerate most soil conditions; prune in summer; feed lightly;
cross pollination helpful.
Only grow selctions resistant to peach leaf curl ; other diseases include bacterial canker (as on
plums) especially from winter cuts, blossom blight , shothole.
Recommended cultivars are later flowering (similar to plums) :
Ai
Ardechoise
Ferreduel
Ferragnes
Ferrastar
Ingrid (peach - almond cross)
Lauranne
Mandaline
Phoebe
Robijn (peach - almond cross)
Chestnut
Sweet chestnuts are arge trees, hardy, fairly wind tolerant, late flowering, not generally self
fertile; hybrids of European & Japanese chestnuts are more disease resistant.
Page 27
Orchards should be planted at 8-12 m tree spacing; like a well drained acid soil. Coppiced
orchards may be a possibility.
Grey squirrels are the major pest - must be controlled; few diseases here (though in France
chestnut blight and ink disease are serious); a little chestnut codling moth damage to early
varieties.
Belle Epine
Bouche de Betizac (hybrid)
Bournette (hybrid)
Maridonne (hybrid)
Marigoule (hybrid)
Marron de Goujounac
Vignols (hybrid)
Chilean hazel
Gevuina avellana are evergreen small trees growing about 4-5 m high in Britain; mature trees
frost tolerant to -8C (young trees less hardy); not self fertile; flowers and fruits at the same
time, fruitrets must overwinter.
Requires well drained acid-neutral soils, especially in winter; prefers shelter; feed lightly.
Young plants are susceptible to root diseases and losses are common.
No recommended cultivars available in Europe at present
Heartnut or Japanese walnut
Juglans ailantifolia cordiformis is a medium to large vigorous tree, tolerant of most soils, similar
timber to black walnut; not self fertile.
Prefers a sheltered site; earlier flowering than European walnut but more tolerant of spring
frosts on flowers & leaves; needs cross pollination; feed lightly.
Main pest is the grey squirrel; no major diseases.
Brock
Campbell CW3
Fodermaier
Imshu
Locket
Rhodes
Stealth
Pecan (southern)
Small to medium sized trees in Britain, restricted by hardening off of growth - prefers hot
summers; not self fertile.
Require a fertile, well drained soi l and shelter - brtille branches; light feeder; ensure cross
pollination.
Grey squirrels are likely to be the major pest; no major diseases in Britain.
In a few decades' time some of the earlier 'southern' varieties should succeed such as:
Colby
Major
Pawnee
Peruque
Posie
The so-called 'northern' varieties (much smaller nuts, the size of large acorns) are
recommended now and for the next few decades:
Campbell NC-4
Carlson #3
Lucas
Pine nut
The most viable species for Britain is the stone pine, Pinus pinea - a medium to large
evergreen tree, hardy to about -12QC; wind and drought tolerant. In future decades some of the
Mexican pines, ego P.cembroides, may be viable in the drier east of the country.
Ensure cross pollination; cones ripen in their 3
rd
year; harvesting from large trees is labour
intensive.
No major pests or diseases in Britain.
Thin shelled varieties may exist in some regions of Spain & Italy but are not commercially
available
Walnut
European walnut is a medium to large tree; hardy; not generally self-fertile; some varieties are
susceptible to spring frost damage.
Requires shelter for good pollination; orchard trees should be spaced at 8-12 m apart; tolerate
most soils; slow to build up to full cropping.
Diseases of note include walnut blight and leaf spot - French varieties tend to be more resistant
than eastern European or American; main pest is the grey squirrel.
Recommended cultivars are late leafing and resistant to diseases:
Corne du Perigord
Ferjean
Fernette
Fernor
Franquette
Meylanaise
Ronde de Montignac
References
These references are the main ones used for the climate change articles in Agroforestry News
Vol 16 No 4 as well as the article here.
Bisgrove, R & Hadley, P: Gardening in the global greenhouse: the impacts of climate
change on gardens in the UK. University of Reading, 2002.
British Columbia MAL 577: Irrigation Scheduling with Tensiometers. 2006.
Clim<jte Change Scenarios tor the United Kingdom - The UKCIP02 Scientific Report.
Tyndall Centre, 2002.
Devon County Council: A warm response - our climate change challenge. DCC, 2005.
Dow, K & Downing, T: The Atlas of Climate Change. Earthscan, 2006.
Gordo, 0 & Sanz, J : Phenology and climate change: a long-term study in a
Mediterranean locality. Oecalogia, 2005.
Hickling, Ret al: paper in Global Change Biology, reported by BBC on 7/9/06 ' British
Species migrate northward' .
Ley, T et al: Soil water monitoring & measurement (PNW0475). Washington State
University, 2006
Millar, C: Reframing Strategies for climate change. Inside Agroforestry, Vol 17 No 2.
Penuel as, J & Filella, I: Responses to a warming world. Science, Oct 26 2001 .
Pridmore, A et al: Climate Change, Impacts, Future Scenarios and the Role of
Transport. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, 2003.
Steinfeld, H et al: Livestock's Long Shadow. FAO, 2006.
Stern, N: Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change. HMSO, 2006.
Visser, M et al : Shifts in caterpillar biomass phenology due to cl imate change and its
impact on the breeding biology of an insectivorous bird. Oecologia, 2006.
Visser, M & Both, C: Shifts i ~ Phenology due to global climate change: the need for a
yardstick. Proc. Royal Soc. Biological Sciences, Vol 272 No 1581.
Walther, G et al: Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature (2003)
Wild, M et al: From Dimming to Brightening .. Science 6 May 2005.
www.biaversityinternatianal.org/ networks/euforge n/euf distribution maps. asp
www.realclimate.org
www.met-office.gov.uk - Met office: temperature records and online maps
www.stabilisation2005.com - proc of the avoiding dangerous climate change
conference, Exeter
www.ukcip.org.ukJresources/publicati ons/pub dets.asp?ID=26 - MONARCH project
modelling natural resource responses to climate change.
Papers from 'Avoidi ng dangerous climate change' conference, Exeter, 2005, pub Cambridge University
Press 2006.
Leemans, R & van Vliet, A: Responses of species to changes in climate determine
climate protection targets.
Schneider, S & Lane, J: An overview of " dangerous" climate change.
Wood, R et al: Towards a risk assessment for shutdown of the Atlantic thermohaline
circulation.
Paulownia
Introduction and description
Pau/ownia is a tree with a genus of between 6-17 species (depending on the taxonomic
authority) from the monogeneric family Paulowniaceae, related to and sometimes included in
the Scrophufariaceae. Paulownia is a genus of Asian hardwood trees native of China and which
have been cultivated there for the past 3000 years.
Commonly known as kiri , at least six species of Paulownia are currently recognised, including
P. elongata, P. fargesii, P. fortunei, P. glabrata, P. taiwaniana and P. tomentosa.
Paulownia is a tree with the C4 photosynthetic pathway that increases the rate of leaf sugar
production in warm conditions. Most species of plant use the C3 photosynthetic pathway, which
fixes C02 from the atmosphere using the Rubisco enzyme. The C3 cycle uses the fixed C02
and energy from sunlight to make sugars but the is inefficient because the enzyme
Rubisco is not saturated and not very it also fixes atmospheric oxygen.
This inefficiency increases at high
temperatures and low C02
concentrations. Conversely, C4 plants
can overcome the inefficiency of C3
photosynthesis and C4 plants
therefore have the photosynthetic
edge over their C3 counterparts when
atmospheric C02 is low and light and
temperature are high. (thus the
advantages in a cool climate like the
UK are not great.)
Paulownia was introduced into the
USA in the 1800's where it flourished
after the accidental release of
Paulownia seeds into the wild from
packaging material for Chinese dinner
wear. Due to its relatively rapid rate
of growth Paulownia has been
described as ~ t h e tree of the future"
but it is still relatively undeveloped as
a crop species. However, over the
late 1980's and 1990's Paulownia has
been attracting more interest.
Paulownia and can be propagated by
seed, root or stem cuttings and under
normal conditions, a 10 year old
Paulownia tree can reach 30-40 cm in
diameter, 10-12 m in height and with a
limber volume of 0.2-0.6 m
3
. Such
growth rates can be exceeded in a
good habitat.
Paulownia tomentosa
Page 31
Paulownia wood, leaves and flowers
Pau/ownia wood is used in house construction, for paper pulp, furniture making, farm
implements and musical instruments. The wood is about 40'% lighter than ordinary wood and is
very promising for pulp and paper. Pau/ownia timber air dries readily and has excellent thermal
and electrical insulation characteristics. Japanese researchers described some of the
properties of particle board made from low quality P. tomentosa and concluded that low quality
Paulownia trees offer potential as a raw material for particle board manufacture.
The tlranches of t'he tree can be used for household energy and a 10 year old tree has been
reported to produce 350-400 kg branches for fuel. Pau/ownia is said to require minimal
management and little investment and has been receiving greater attention as a short-rotation
woody crop in recent years. Pau/ownia also has a range of medicinal properties, and the leaves
can be used for animal fodder.
In China, leaves are used as fodder for pigs and sheep. Paulownia leaves are reported to have
a similar feeding value to lucerne and are suitable for combining with wheat straw or hay for
feeding to cattle, sheep or goats. Trees planted at 540 trees/ha are reported tal produce 1220
kg DM/ha with 20% protein and 60% digestibility.
A Paulownia tree that is 8-10 years old is reported to have 100 kg fresh leaves, with 2.8-3%
Nitrogen (N) and 0.4% potash. Data detailing the chemical composition of the Paufownia leaf
are 7.8% ash, 22.6% protein, 91.4% organic matter, 0.6% phosphorus, 2.1 % calcium, 0.6% iron,
0.9% zinc, 15-18 MJ/kg metabolisable energy.
There is potential for the leaves to be used as an ensiled fodder crop. When the leaves fall,
they can be a valuable source of organic matter and nutrients for the soil.
Research to examine the ability of Paulownia to take up nitrates, heavy metals and land
contaminants has been conducted over the past two decades and shown that the tree has good
potential for mopping up excess nutrients in many situations.
Growing conditions & planting
Paulownia trees are very hardy and can tolerate a range of temperatures. Coppiced Paulownia
trees can grow 5-6 m tall during the first growing season and adds 3 to 4 cm in diameter
annually if optimal growing conditions are present. Likely yields of 25-40 tonne DM/ha/annum
are possible in UK conditions.
The main conditions to be taken into consideration are that Pau/ownia will not tolerate wet sites,
land with a high water table, or tolerate frost conditions below -20
0
C. Ideally, the water table
should be at least 1.5 metres or more below the surface. The site should be well drained and
slightly sloping. Soil type should be clay loam to sandy loam, ideally with a near neutral pH
although Paulownia can grow quite satisfactorily in soils as low as pH 5.0. For heavier soils,
gently rolling hills of at least 10 degrees are preferable to ensure adequate drainage. For
lighter soils, the ground can be flat but the water table must be at least 1.5 metres deep during
the wet season to ensure adequate aeration of roots.
Shelter is desirable for young Paulownia due to their extremely large leaves which are
susceptible to wind damage. Leaves are very palatable to both domestic stock and wi ldlife so
trees must be well protected.
The root system of Paulownia tree is unique, in that the roots grow deep in the well drained
soils it likes and its crown develops a loose structure. Roots have been reported to reach 0.8-
1.5 m or even 2 m in length and in sandy and other well drained soils, 76% of the absorbing
roots reach a depth of 40-100 em, with only 12% of the roots within 0-40 em. In comparison,
almost 80% of wheat roots and 95% of maize roots are generally distributed 40 em into the soil.
Root development is dependant on soi l structure, where Paulownia thrives in a loose, well
drained sandy soil.
Trees for timber should be planted at 750 per ha (300/acre) and for biomass 1960 per ha
(BOO/ac re ).
Intercropping I agroforestry
The Chinese are presently intercropping with Pau/ownia on some 1.3 million ha of land
throughout the country. If a field will be planted with another crop, for example wheat, it is
recommended that the planting density should be no more than 500 trees/ha, perhaps being as
low as 300 trees/ha at 3 m x 6 m.
Recent research examining Paulownia-crops intercropping over the past 20 years concluded
that the intercropping system increased the quality and yield of crops and increased the
Paufownia volume and economic benefit. These authors suggested that a number of areas
require further research, including the mechanism of production variation with the intercropping
system, intercepting of sunlight by Paulownia and its effect on crop production, the development
of indexes to estimate the economic and social benefits of the crop-Paulownia system, the
impact of secretions from the Paulownia roots on crop production and the effect of intercropping
on the agro-ecological system. Other Pau/ownia intercropping studies in Eastern China with
maize or beans or ginger demonstrated that maize and beans suffered whilst growing as
intercrops, with a reduction in yield of 63% and 68% respectively, compared with sale crops
while ginger yields increased by 134% when intercropped with Pau/ownia. If agricultural
production from the land is the main objective in a crop-Paulownia system, the optimum
intercropping pattern is given as trees to be spaced no closer than 5 X 20 m for the first 6-7
years, after which trees should be thinned to a spacing of 5 X 40 m, with new rows of trees
being planted to replace those in thinned rows. After the new trees reach 4-5 years, the
remaining trees aged 10-11 years could be harvested.
Biofuel/Biomass production
A Paulownia plantation can be harvested on a number of occasions, giving a continuous source
of wood. Paulownia trees need to be coppiced, pruned and thinned, with trees that have had
the first years growth being cut to encourage coppicing giving better formed stems. The trees
are pruned in the second and third year to a height of 4-6 m to provide a butt log that is free of
knots. Thinning of the trees may also be required but is dependant on the initial planting
density. Trees established for short rotation biomass production are cut down to the stump after
the first year to encourage sprouting; fi ve or more stems are then allowed to develop, which can
be harvested annually with the tree being allowed to grow back each year .
Paulownia can be used as an energy source in a number of ways including:
Burning directly for heat for an individual home or a community heating scheme
Burning to generate steam for the production of electri city
A feedstock for pyrolysis to generate gas
A feedstock for ethanol producti on using the Brelsford acid hydrolysis process
In comparison with cereal crops, the use of Paulownia for ethanol production has a higher
efficiency in terms of energy in :energy out. Paulownia can be used as a "cellulosic ethanol
generator", where cellulosic ethanol is a blend of ethanol produced from biomass including
waste from urban, agricultural and forestry sources. Cellulosic et hanol is said to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 85% over reformulated petrol. For comparati ve purposes,
sugar-fermented ethanol reduces GHG emissions by 18-29% over petrol.
Page 33
Paulownia is a very durable and light wood, almost one third the weight of oak and half the
weight of pine. The specific gravity of Paulownia ranges between 0.23-0.30 (23-30% of water
density). Air-drying of Paulownia is reported to take as little as 30 days and boards can be kiln
dried to 10-12% moisture at high temperatures in 24 hours without warping. Shrinkage of the
wood from green to oven-dry is reported as 2.2% radial and 4% tangential. During changes in
humidity, Paufownia remains stable and has little shrinkage or expansion in comparison to the
majority of other woods.
Diseases
Paulownia grown in China was attacked by many diseases and insects, the most serious being
witches broom (characterised by a clustering of branches) which impairs tree growth and vigour
and can lead to premature death. The disease affects the branches of the tree, trunk, flowers
and roots.
Other diseases reported to have occurred in China are Anthracnose (also known as leaf blight,
which is a fungal disease) and Sphaceloma paulowniae and mistletoe (Loranthus sp.) can also
cause some considerable damage.
Reference
Woods, V B: Paulownia as a novel biomass crop for Northern Ireland? AFBI, 2008
Inks and paints
History ,
Writing inks were first used in about 2600 BC by the Chinese and Egyptians. They probabl y
consisted of carbonaceous materials like lamp black or soot mixed with animal glue or
vegetable oil. Carbon black is still a major pigment and vegetable oils are used widely in
printing inks. Inks, paints and varnishes are generally referred to as types of surface coatings.
The pigments in modern inks are currently almost all synthetic. The two exceptions are
Dragon's blood (a mixture of dracorhodin and dracorubin obtained from Doemonorops
propinqus grown in Sumatra and Borneo) and chlorophyll. The former can be used for
preparing halftone plates for multicolour printing. Chlorophyll is obtained from green plant
material , often stinging nettle, spinach, alfalfa or corn. Natural indigo prepared in a powder
form was formerly used as a paint.
Types of inks and paints
Paints and printing inks both consist of a thin layer of a curable liquid applied to a substrate. In
the case of inks, the substrate is usually metal foils, paper and plastic films, and textiles, which
are serviced by a very specific part of the industry. Paints are applied to a wide range of
surfaces, including metal , wood, stone, brick, etc.
A printing ink consists of colouring material i n a carrier which forms a fluid or paste that can be
printed on a substrate and dried. The colourant is usually a pigment , dye, toner or combination
of these. The composition of a printing ink is usually highly specific to its use and its properties
dependent on the substrate and application method involved. It needs to have the correct
characteristics of flow, adhesion, stickiness, drying time, penetration, colour intensity and so on.
The increasing use of non-petroleum carrier oils, usually a vegetable oil substitute such as
soybean oil or oilseed rape oil, has been driven by the need to reduce the emission of volatile
organic solvents (VOCs), the desirabi lity of rapid, safe biodegradation, and the . advantages of
using inks that can be safely and effectively removed (de-inked) from waste paper for re-
cycling.
The most important properties are:
Drying - the process that transforms the fluid ink into a rigid form. This is achieved by
absorption ,solvent evaporation, oxidation, resin precipitation, drying with other
various forms of energy, etc.
Rheology (printability) - concerns the viscosity, yield value (the point at which the ink
starts to flow under pressure) and thixotrophy*. Flexographic and rotogravure inks
need to have a low viscosity, yield value and thixotrophy, whereas letterpress and litho
inks can be more viscous. Printing with low press speeds needs inks of high viscosity,
and vice versa. The degree of pigmentation can affect yield value and thixotrophy.
(*Thixotrophy - the property of becoming temporarily liquid when shaken or stirred,
etc, and returning to a gel on standing)
Colour - Inks currently use dyes, usually made insoluble in some way, and inorganic
pigments to produce the required colour. The most commonly used pigments are
black pigments, principally carbon black, used in very large quantities in newsprint and
publication, and white pigments, the most popular of which is titanium oxide. The
major types of dyes used are anthaquinone, azo, phthalocyanine, triphenylmethane
and vat dyes. All are synthetic and mostly coal or oil-derived, however there must be
potential for plant dyes to be used in some cases.
These properties are obtained by different mixes of various oils, driers, solvents, resins,
pigments, dyes and waxes. Linseed oil is the major oil used as a binder in printing inks,
although soya and rape seed oil are used increasingly.
There are four classes of inks;
1) letterpress inks,
2) lithographic inks,
3) flexographic inks,
4) rotogravure inks.
The first two types are usually oil inks or paste inks, and the latter two, solvent or liquid inks.
Letterpress inks are usually based on a mineral oil, although vegetable oils are increasingly
used. Litho newsprint inks are based on rosin (derived from tapped pine trees) or other resins
dissolved in petroleum fractions.
Page 35
Types of inks currently used in printing
Ink Type comments
Rotary heat-set publ ication and Based on natural or semi -natural resi ns
commercial inks
Sheet-fed commercial inks Resins dissolved in vegetable drying oils (li nseed,
soya, chinawood, lall oils) and dilut ed with

hydrocarbon solvents; commonly used in
commercial printing
Document -reproduction and business Jet-dot method pri nting inks based on glycols, water
form inks and dyes
Folding-carton inks Simi lar to document inks ; need to be qui ck drying
Corrugated and KrafHiner contai ner Resins dissolved in ethylene, dipropylene or
inks triethyleneglycols
Metal container inks Oleo- resinous and heat-set varnishes in drying oil s
Plastics inks Oleo-resinous varnishes
Stamp pad Dyes (usually indul ine black) used as the total ink
has to soak into the pad
Ball -point ink Strong dye solutions and pigment dispersions in
vehicles containi ng oleic acid and castor oil or a
plasticiser; need to be slow dryi ng, free of part icles,
hi ah tinctorial st rength
Steel-die i nks Need to contain a dryinq oil
Electrostatic inks Powder pigment dispersed in a resin; particles need
the proper electrical properties, size range and be
free flowing
Ink jet inks Solubl e dye colourant in a suitable resin-sol vent
vehicle; need to be stable, fluid and free of particles
Ink manufacture
Inks are usually made by:
1) mixing the pre-dispersed pigments with the vehicles, solvents, oils and other
ingredients, or
2) mixing the dry pigments or resin-coated pigments with the other ingredients and then
grinding them in an ink mill.
Printing processes
The printing process being used dictates the specifi cation of the ink, as shown in the table
above. The surface and type of substrate and its end use are also important in determining the
type of ink. They are so specialised that each use needs to be considered separately. The
biggest requirement for ink would appear to be carbon black for newsprint.
Reference
Hancock, M: Potential for col ourants from plant species in England & Wales. ADAS report
ST0106.
Hemp
Introduction
Hemp (Cannabis sativa), native to western Asia, is widely grown as a fibre crop in Europe and
is established as a minor crop in the UK. The crop can be grown both for its fibre and oil and is
being investigated as a renewable energy feedstock.
Hemp is an annual plants which is naturalised in Britain and occasionally found on waste
ground.
Cultivation
Hemp likes a deep humus-rich soil but can be grown successfully on a wide range of soil types.
It does not like wet soil conditions for long and needs full sun.
Hemp production in Europe is supported by an aid payment to primary processors (known as
the Fibre Processing Aid Scheme). Hemp is a relatively low input crop - conventional farmers
apply 80-120 kg N/ha to the seed bed, often with potassium and phosphorus too - and as such
is fairly easily grown organically following a nitrogen-fixing ley or similar crop.
Hemp provides a good break crop and is free of major pests and diseases in' the UK. The crop
is fast growing and quickly forms a dense canopy which suppresses weeds. Some weed control
is needed after sowing - conventional growers use a broad spectrum herbicide before
emergence - organic growers could use brush weeders for example.
Sowing takes place once the risk of hard frosts has passed -
late April onwards. A population of about 150 stems/m
2
is
desirable for fibre production, achieved by sowing about 180
seedslm' (35-45 kg/ ha).
Hemp straw is delivered to processing facilities in large
round or heston bales. Haulage costs are likely to dictate
that productions remains fairly close to processors.
Hemp grown in the UK can be used to produce both fibre
and seed. Fibre varieties may reach 3 m high in UK
conditions and are selected to produce large quantities of
high quality fibre.
More recently, dwarf or dual purpose varieties have been
introduced; primarily grown for the seed oil , with small
quantities of fibre also produced. Sowing rates for these
varieties are reduced compared with those used for fibre
production - .25 kg/ ha. Yields of 1.25 Vha of seed are
possible, with a straw yield of 5 Vha. Plants are wind
pollinated.
The legalities
Only cultivars with less than
0.2% .6.-9-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THe),
the narcotic component of
cannabis, may be grown in
the EU.
A Home Office licence is
required to grow hemp in the
UK, which is normally held
by the contractor, and
growers must have some of
their crop sampled at
harvest.
Hemp flea beetle, Phyllatreta nemorum, may appear but the fast growing nature of the crop
means that it rarely becomes a problem. Potential fungal infections include grey mold (Batrytis
Cinerea) and Scferatina sc/erotiarum.
Harvesting
To facilitate extraction of the fibre from the woody core, after mowing in early to mid August the
crop may be left in the field for 2 ~ 3 weeks to rett. This allows fungal and bacterial breakdown of
bonds between the fibre and the surrounding tissue. The crop is then rowed and baled. The
crop must be stored under cover while waiting to be processed.
Average fibre yields of 7.5 t/ ha of straw are achieved in the UK although up to 10 tlha is
pas,sible.
Seed crops are harvested using a conventional combine and dried to 9% moisture.
Hemp fibre
During processing, long fibres from the outside of the stem (bast fibres) are separated from the
woody core; both have a number of uses.
The long bast fibres are already used by some major car manufacturers to produce composites
for parcel shelves and door linings; other uses include insulation materials and horticultural
matting.
More traditional uses include the manufacture of cordage, clothing, and nutritional products.
The bast fibres can be used in 100% hemp products, but are commonly blended with fibres
such as flax, cotton or silk, for apparel and furnishings, most commonly at a 55%/45%
hemp/cotton blend.
The woody core, or shiv as it is commonly known, was previously a low value by-product used
as horse bedding. It is now combined with lime to make a valuable buil ding materi al which can
substitute for concrete blocks or conventional render with good insulative and environmental
properties.
Hemp seed and oil
The seeds can be eaten raw, ground into a meal, sprouted, made into "hemp milk" (akin to soya
mi lk), prepared as tea, and used in baking. The fresh leaves can also be eaten in salads.
Products range from cereals to frozen waffles, hemp tofu to nut butters. A few companies
produce value added hemp seed items that include the seed oils, whole hemp grain, hull ed
hemp seed (the whole seed wi thout the mineral rich outer shell), hemp fl our, hemp cake (a by-
product of pressing the seed for oil) and hemp protein powder. Hemp is also used in some
organic cereals, for non-dairy "mi lk" somewhat similar to soya and nut mi lks, and for non-dairy
hemp "ice cream." The seeds contan 20% highly digestible protein and 30-35% oil.
Hemp oil has both industrial uses and application in the health supplement and personal care
markets. It contains many essential fatty acids beneficial to human nutrition. Hemp oil has
similar industrial uses to that of linseed oil in paints and varnishes and may also be used in
printing inks and solvents.
Hemp oil contains 80% essential fatty acids (EFAs), linoleic acid (LA, 50-70%), alpha-linolenic
acid (ALA, 15-25%) and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, 1-6%) . The proportions of linoleic acid
and alpha-linolenic acid in hempseed oil meet human requirements for EFAs. Unlike flax oi l
and others, hempseed oil can be used continuously without developing a aeficiency or other
imbalance of EFAs. Unfortunately the unsaturated fat makes the oil rancid quickly, unless it is
stored in dark coloured bottles or mixed with chemical preservatives. This makes hemp oil
difficult to transport or store. The high unsaturated fat content also makes the oil unsuitable for
frying.
Hemp-lime composites
The shiv from hemp is chopped and mixed with lime to produce a number of composite
materials now used in building. Hemp and lime construction can be built on site quickly and
efficiently or prefabricated off-site, allowing conventional builders to incorporate the materials
into their normal practices with little adjustment.
Hemp and lime masonry construction is unique because it provides a method of building with is
struct urally sound, can provide thermal and acoustic insulation,. Thermal mass and storage but
can also be used as the external skin of a building. Hemp-like composite materials absorb
moisture vapour and allow it to pass through the fabric of the building. Breathabil ity helps to
protect the fabric of the building, particularly against decay in timbers.
References
www.hemplime. ora.uk
www.hemcore.co.uk
Hemp and Lime Construction. NNFCC Factsheet 07-001. NNFCC,2008.
Hemp. NNFCC Crop Fact Sheet. NNFCC, 2008.
Book reviews
The Woodland Year
Ber:1 Law . .
Permanent Publications, 2008; 176 pp; 19.95 (hardback)
ISBN 978- 1-85623-033-9
Building on the fame achieved by wThe Woodland House" and Grand Designs, the publishers
have produced a visually fantastic book, full of colour photos, often two or more per page. They
show, month by month, how Ben works in his woodland, and he gives us a description of his
tasks and more - what feeds his soul. It is not a how to do it manual, and doesn't try to be,
rather it is a celebration of how a working woodsman can live and sustain himself with
meaningful work.
At the outset Ben Law states in this book that he doesn't want to romanticise the life of a
woodsman, and that it involves a lot of hard physical work, although the rewards are well worth
it. However I'm a littl e unsure of whether the book actually achieves this aim.
About a third of the book is not written by Ben Law, but instead for each month there is a
"guest" woodsman describing his or her work at that time of year. These pieces are welcome
and broaden the interest with other types of woodland and management.
The Peach
Botany, Production and Uses
D R Layne & D Bassi (Eds)
CABI, 2008; 848 pp; 135 / $270 (hardback)
ISBN 978-1-84593-386-9
This comprehensive book involving scientists from eight countries summarises the current state
of knowledge of peach in topics ranging from botany and taxonomy to breeding and genetics of
cultivars and rootstocks, propagation, physiology and planting systems, crops and pest
management and postharvest physiology.
The book also includes details of the history of cultivation in China (for Prunus persica
origi nates from China, not Persia, where it was taken along the silk route a few centuries B.C.)
and includes historical references dating back to 100 B.C.
An essential text for scientists, students, professional fruit growers and others.
AgrofOfe5try is the integratIon of trees and agriculture! horticultL:re t) proc:;ce <:!
diverse, productive ar.d resilient system for producing food, materials, timber and
products. It car. range from planting trees in pastures providing shelter,
shade arid emergency forage, to forest garden systems incorporating layers of
tail and sm811 trees, shrubs &nd ground layers in a self-sustaining, intercGnnected
and productive systern.

Rese

q".O

1..>-
8
.....
0') c.
<:(
(/l
.--
year ill November, February, May and August. Subscription rates are:
21 per year in Brit"lin and the E.U. (17 unwaged). 3912 years.
Darlington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
plants to fund its work, which ir.cludes various practical research projects.
Agroforestry News
)
Forest garden abundance
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Cork forests in danger I Oregano essential oil
against MRSA I UK recent climate changes ,
4 Indicators and guidelines for landscape
assessment and planning for agroforestry
8 The ART forest garden in 2008
28 Woad as an indigo crop
30 Traditional Andean cultivation systems:
implications for sustainable land use.
35 Viola: the violets
Email: mail@agroforestry.ro.uk Website: WWIN.agroforestry.co.uk
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo11? No 2 Page 1
--
News
Cork forests in danger
It has .recently emerged that falling demand for authentic cork stoppers is gradually forcing
farmers to replace cork trees with alternative crops, such as eucalyptus trees.
At present , according to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) website, Portugal is the world's largest
cork producer. followed by Spain, Algeria. Morocco, Italy, Tunisia and France.
The majority of cork harvested in Iberia is used to produce bottle stoppers, which represents an
estimated 70 percent of the income from harvest. However, traditional cork stoppers are being
replaced with synthetic closures C;>r screw caps, which now account for around 20 per cent of the
market.
It is said that problems with bottles of wine becoming 'corked' (in layman terms, where the wine
develops a musty smell and becomes undrinkable due to contamination with a chemical known
as Trichloroanisol) , have led many wine connoisseurs to opt for bottles with synthetic cork or
screw tops instead. This shift in traditional bottle stopping to using modern-day products is
threatening to wipe out cork forests, along with the species that reside therein.
Cork oak forests in Portugal cover an estimated 33 per cent of land mass and are home to a
number of rare and endangered species, particularly in Southern Portugal. These include black
storks and booted eagles, which are already disappearing in some areas, and the Iberian Lynx,
which over the past few years has been the subject of extensive reporting and campaigning.
A study by WWF, which was recently reported in The Telegraph newspaper, estimated that up
to three Quarters of the Mediterranean's cork forests could be lost within 10 years. Over the
past ten years in the Algarve, cork forests have declined by 28 percent.
In an attempt to boost productivity, Portuguese cork producers have introduced new sterilisation
and purification methods to ensure corks are not contaminated with Trichloroanisol.
Source: http://www.the-news.net/cgi-bin/google.pl?id=988-33
Essential oils from Himalayan oregano effective against MRSA
A team comprising resean;:hers from a UK university and members of local businesses and an
NGO in India has discovered that the essential oil of Himalayan oregano has strong
antibacterial properties and even kills the hospital superbug MRSA. They hope these findings
will lead to the development of hand soaps and surface disinfectants in hospitals and other
healthcare settings.
The UK researchers are from the University of the West of England, Bristol, who teamed up
with. among others. India-based Biolaya Organics, a company that develops projects aimed at
conserving endangered medicinal herbs, for example by cultivating them using sustainable
methods and providing alternatives such as more common species.
Page 2 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vall? No 2
The team is working on a project to give rural communities the means to generate income from
sustainable collection of non-timber forest products in the Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh.
Earlier this year, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) gave the project the SEED
award. SEED is an international programme with UN backing that supports entrepreneurial
partnerships that develop creative, locally led solutions to the global challenges of sustainable
development.
The creative and innovative part of the project is that it potentiall y gives a sustainable source of
income to the people of the Himalayas while at the same time providing UK hospitals with an
environmentally friendly way of preventing the spread of MRSA. The Himalayan Oregano
project was one of five SEED 2008 winners who this year were selected from over 400 entries
worldwide.
Himalayan oregano is just common Origanum vulgare that grows in the Himalayas. In fact the
local people in Kullu don't regard it as having any culinary or medicinal value and treat it as a
weed: they call it "bekaar gahaas" or "useless grass" because even the cows and goats don't
eat it.
Ben Heron from Biolaya Organics said they started working with oregano because it is a plant
that can be gathered year after year without depleting the population in the wild. He said the
project aims to pay local herb collectors the same amount they would get if they collected
endangered herbs so they become less dependent on the latter.
Scientists already knew that Mediterranean oregano oil was a powerful because
of an essential compound called carvacol. But nobody had tested the Himalayan oregano oil
before, said Heron, so they teamed up with SGS who run a lab in Delhi and found it contained
as much carvacol as the Mediterranean one.
At SGS they ran further tests and found that the Himalayan oregano oil was more effective at
killing MRSA than 18 antibiotics. The microbiologists at UWE are now carrying out further tests,
and hope to publish the results in a scientific journal.
Professor Vyv Salisbury, who leads the UWE arm of the project, and co-investigator Dr Shona
Nelson, also from UWE, said they were very excited to have this opportunity to help the
community. Salisbury said: "We have done a few preliminary tests and have found that the
essential oil from the oregano kills MRSA at a dilution 1 to 1,000. The tests show that the oil
kills MRSA both as a liquid and as a vapour and its antimicrobial activity is not diminished by
heating in boiling water," she added.
Salisbury said the oi l could perhaps be used to develop disinfectant washing powders because
it's so strong. The next stage, she said, which has already begun, is to set up an academic
study in partnership with the SGS labs in Delhi to give the project the academic credibility
needed to market the oil.
we are able to start providing a sustainable income for villages in Kullu, the scope for up-
scali ng and replication in other parts of the Himalayan region is enormous," said Salisbury.
50urce: Medical News Today, UK, 24 November 2008
lttp:/Iwww.medicalnewstoday.com/a rticles/130620. phD
\GROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 17 No 2
Page 3
UK climate changes in the last 45 years
UKCIP has just published uThe climate of the UK and recent trends which uses Met Office data
to produce maps and charts of how the climate has changed over the last 45 years.
This is essential reading and will probably shock most people. For example, since 1961 , mean
annual temperatures have increased by between 0.6 and 2C (the lesser figure in NW Scotland,
the greater in SE England). These are huge increases, far higher in most cases than the figure
for global warmi'ng over the 'same period. They are also a warning that major disruptive
changes in ecosystems, both natural and man-made, may not be far off in the UK.
You can view and download the pdf of this publication at www.ukcip.org.uk
Indicators and guidelines for landscape
assessment and planning for agroforestry
by Mike Dosskey. Gary Bentrup. and Gary Wells
Assessments And Plans
Agroforestry practices can produce numerous environmental benefits that become signifi cant
only through multiple installations over a large area, including greater diversity of wildlife,
healthier aquatic ecosystems, and cleaner stream water. Through landscape-level assessment
and planning, a limited number of agroforestry installations can deliver significant improvements
if designed and placed in 9ritical locations.
Indicators And Guidelines
Agroforestry produces environmental benefits by altering landscape structure and modifying the
flow of resources across the landscape,. Since you normally can't see these processes, you
need to look fOf indicators of them in the patterns of land cover and land form that comprise
landscape structure. An assessment of existing patterns can reveal potential resource
problems. Guidelines, then, can be used to select locations and designs for agroforestry that
will modify existing patterns and produce desired environmental benefits. The following sections
provide some useful indicators and guidelines.
Terrestrial Wildlife
Indicators: Look at the pattern of permanent vegetat ion and water sources among agricultural
and other developed areas. Large patches of permanent vegetation that include water sources
are viable habitat for many species and can produce more wildlife for migrating to other
patches. Forest patches favour forest species and grassland patches favour grassland species.
Edges of patches and corridors favour edge species and habitat generalists. Small ,
unconnected fragments of permanent vegetation may lack sufficient water, food , or cover for
maintaining wildlife populations.
Look for corridors that enable wildlife to move among patches of suitable habitat. Corridors that
connect small patches to large patches provide conduits for wildlife to recolonize unpopulated
patches and provide access to habitat needs that may be lacking in the small patches. Wide
breaks in the continuity of vegetative cover. including tilled or mowed areas, roads. and other
developments, create gaps that can act as barriers and hazards for wildlife movement.
Guidelines for enhancing terrestrial wildlife
Locate agroforestry practices close to streams, ponds, and wetlands .
.. Locate agroforestry practices next to existing forest patches or other suitable habitat , including
field borders and riparian buffers, to enlarge existing habitat areas and to connect patches .
.. Locate and shape agroforestry areas so that when combined with adjacent habitat it creates
block-shaped patches for promoting interior forest species, elongated patches for promoting
edge species, or corridors for connecting habitat patches across the landscape .
.. Select the agroforestry type and tree species that can create the appropriate forest structure
for enhancing desired species of wildlife .
.. Locate agroforestry away from important grassland habitat.
Water Quality
Indicators: Look at the pattern of areas disturbed by cu ltivati on, li vestock, and urban
development, natural and man-made waterways , and permanent vegetation among the
di sturbed areas and waterways. More pollutants are generated from areas disturbed by tillage
and fertilization , livestock confinement, and urban construction, particularly where they occur on
steeper land and in frequently-flooded areas. Water runoff from disturbed land flows downslope
into natural channels, but constructed waterways such as ditches, terraces , subsurface
drainage tiles, and culverts, concentrate runoff flow and often divert it across natural slopes.
Infiltration moves soluble nutrients and pesticides into soil and shallow aquifers.
Large patches of permanent vegetation that cover entire watersheds can protect stream
networks and underlying aquifers by stabilizing soil and minimizing chemical and manure inputs.
Smaller patches of permanent vegetation that lay in the path of runoff flow before it enters a
stream channel or drainage way can filter some pollutants from runoff water. Groundwater that
flows within a few feet of the ground surface can be filtered among roots of vegetation.
Groundwater is often shallowest in riparian areas and floodplains. Patches on low floodplains
can also trap pollutants in floodwater. Greater impact is produced where runoff flow is slow and
dispersed throughout a patch of permanent vegetation. Larger patches can filter larger runoff
loads.
Guidelines for reducing water pollution
.. Locate agroforestry practices in disturbed areas that generate greater pollutant runoff loads,
such as cultivated areas and livestock confinements on steeper slopes and in floodplains .
Locate agroforestry practices immediately downhill from major source areas and in other
areas where runoff water tends to concentrate prior to entering a channel or drainage way .
.. Orient row or strip-type agroforestry plantings along topographic contours .
Locate agroforestry practices in floodplains and riparian areas to filter shallow groundwater.
* Size agroforestry practices to be larger/wider on sites that intercept greater runoff load.

Aquatic Wildlife
Indicators: Look at the pattern of stream channels and land cover along them. A long straight
channel through agricultural land can indicate that the stream has been intentionally
straightened, cleared, and cleaned of debris. Extensi ve agricultural and urban development can
increase storm flows that erode banks and scour debris from channels. Lack of riparian forest
exposes the channel to sunlight and high summer air temperatures which increase water
temperature. Dams and drop structures can block fish migration to and from reaches that have
suitalle habitat.
Large patches of permanent vegetation that cover entire watersheds protect aquatic systems
and maintain natural flow regimes. Riparian forest provides temperature-moderating shade
during summer and contributes debris to channels that provide habitat structure and food for
aquatic organisms. Meandering channels are more resistant to channel scour and have more-
diverse pool and riffle structure. Free-flowing streams enable fish to migrate between suitable
habitats.
Guidelines for enhancing aquatic wildlife
.. Locate agroforestry practices along streams and shores (riparian zones), especially where
they maximize shade to streams during summer months .
.. Riparian corridors should be wide enough to provide adequate debris and shade to the
stream .
.. Locate agroforestry practices where they connect to existing riparian forest and fill gaps that
will create longer reaches of continuous forest vegetation .
.. Select fast-growing , tall tree species that will quickly produce dense shade.
+= Select flood-tolerant trees along streams where frequent flooding is expected.
Stream Bank Stability
Indicators: Look at the pattern of stream channels, land cover along them, and the extent of
land development around them. Channel incision and bank erosion may stem from runoff-
increasing land development and drainage improvements, removal of riparian forest. and
channel straightening at and upstream of the site. Channel dredging and straightening can
cause channel incision that propagates upstream (headcutting) and accelerates bank erosion.
Extensive and rapid bank erosion indicates a very unstable stream. Large patches of permanent
vegetation produce smaller storm flows. Channels that are lined with riparian forest are more
resistant to bank erosion.
Guidelines for reducing stream bank erosion
.. Bank erosion is easier to control with vegetation along small er and relatively stable streams .
.. Locate agroforestry practices on both sides of a stream. Stabilizing the bank on one side of a
stream can accelerate erosion on the opposite side .
Locate and size agroforestry practices to allow for continued bank erosion until the planting
matures enough to provide stability to the bank.
Select a mixture of deep-rooted shrubs and trees that will protect the bank from
surface scour and strengthen it against bank sloughing.
* Select shrub and tree species that can resist toppling by flood flows, and can resprout after
breakage caused by floods, ice flows. and bank sloughing.
* Locall y-severe bank erosion may need to be stabilized using soil bioengineering, a specialty
agroforestry practice.
Landscape Aesthetics And Safety
Indicators: Look at the pattern of landscape elements. Uniform land cover can be monotonous.
Views of industrial or urban sites may be undesirable. Noises from roads and railways and
odours from livestock and waste treatment facilities diminish enjoyment of other aspects of the
landscape. Blowing dust and snow create safety and health problems along roads and in
resi dential areas.
Forested patches and corridors create visual diversity and pleasing mosaic of land covers in
cultivated landscapes. Forest strips can help to bl ock noise and undesirable views and to
reduce blowing dust and snow. However, improper placement of trees can block desirable
viewpoints along roads and cause snow and dust to accumulate on roadways and in urban
areas.
,
Guidelines for enhancing landscape aesthetics and safety
" Locate agroforestry practices where they will add visual diversity to the landscape. Design
plantings to mimic lines and shapes of other elements in the landscape.
" Locate agroforestry practices as close as possible to noise, odour, or other air pollutant
sources, and to screen undesirable views from roadways and urban areas.
" Locate agroforestry practices away from places where they will block desirable views from
roadways and nearby urban developments. Avoid creating bl ind spots at road intersections.
" Locate and/or orient agroforestry plantings so that they do not cause snow accumulation or
blowing dust problems on roadways and in urban areas.
" Select species that will add visual appeal, such as colourful foliage, to the surrounding
landscape. Create visual diversity by adding clumps of visually interesting species at the edges
of each planting.
This article appeared in The Overstory #214 and was excerpted from:
Dosskey, M. G. Bentrup, and G. Wells. 2008. Indicators and guidelines for landscape
assessment and planning for agroforestry. Agroforestry Note 40. USDA National Agroforestry
Center (NAC), Lincoln, Nebraska. <http://www.unl .edu/nac>.
The ART forest garden In 2008
I started planting the forest garden at Darlington in autumn 1994, 50 the oldest trees are now 14
years old, and most of the underplanting is complete. This does not mean there is no planting
to be done, however: some of the ground covers & perennial mixtures are experimental, and
thus some succeed and some fail. The failures get mulched out and replanted with something
else .

The Alliums with long thin leaves make a very poor cover over the ground and are generally not
very shade tolerant; in sun they have plenty of weed competition. Ideally they should be grown
with a companion cover which is low so they can grow through it. One mixture which works
quite well for me is green strawberry (Fragaria viridis) and Allium moly. I also have a number of
Alliums growing happily through the very low groundcover raspberry Rubus pentalobus
'Emerald Carpet' .
Allium moly with Fragaria viridis
Staying with the Alliums, one of my favourites in the forest garden is the European ramsons
(A.ursinum). which starts into growth here in February and is finished by July, dying down to a
bulb for the rest of the year. Like all All iums, its leaves and flowers can be used in salads and
cooked. It forms a lush, thick cover when in growth, and combines well with ground ivy
(Glechoma hederacea) . I don' t bother digging the bulbs, they are pretty small.
Page 8 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo11? No 2
Allium ursinum
The other main Allium in the forest garden in the
Babington leek, Aampe/oprasum babingtonii, which is
a perennial version of the familiar cultivated leek. This
produces a head of bulbUs (likes small cloves of garlic)
in early autumn, which I broadcast around where I
want more of it. After producing these, plants dies
down to a bulb (like a good sized garlic bulb but not
subdivided, with an onion-garlic flavour), only to start
growing again a month later. They grow all over
winter, when they can be dug up (and thus killed) or
cut (and allowed to regrow). finally going to flower in
late spring.
I have a dozen or so bamboos in the forest garden.
Bamboos are great, keeping the garden looking alive in
winter and supplying a good quantity of both bamboo
shoots to eat and bamboo canes (a lot of which are
used when sending out trees orders). They vary in
size, the largest I have is Phyllostachys vivax which
now puts up canes 5-6 cm in diameter and 6 m
long - one or two shoots from that make a good portion
of vegetables, My favourite for canes is P,viridi-
gfaucesscens which produces canes 1-2,5 em in
diameter.
In 2007 and again in 2008, though, one of my bamboos
flowered and produced seed, I have a line of about 30
Pleiob!astus simonii (Medake) which I grew from seed,
and though only 'about 1.5 m' high, many of these
flowered in 2007 and a few in 2008, The seed of
bamboos, like all grass seeds, is edible, but is also a
good size and flavour - rather like a sweet rice,
It is a bit fiddly to dehusk, no doubt the Chinese do this
mechanically - they often harvest bamboo grain
whenever a bamboo flowers,
Bamboo grain - Pleioblastus simonii
Page 10
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vall? No 2
Sea beet - Beta vulgaris
Claytonia sibirica
I am gradually increasingly the area of perennial vegetables in the ground cover I perennial
layer. Many of these are best combined with a low ground cover to reduce the weeding and
maintenance necessary. A very nice vegetable is the native perennial sea beet (Beta vulgaris
maritima), which is of course a parent of beetroot and chard. The leaves are fleshier than those
of beetroot and are best cooked liked chard. It likes a well drained soil and can die out where
conditions are too wet over winter, but it easily propagated by seed.
One at my favourite perennial salad plants is Siberian purslane (Claytonia sibirica) , which has
delicious beetroot-flavoured leaves. It is very shade tolerant, self-seeding in the darkest areas,
making green carpets . It will stay green all year round except in very dry weather , when it dies
down to a tuber, only to reappear as soon as the soil is moist again. There are a number of
related species, known as spring beauty, from North America which apparently taste quite
similar. They are hard to get hold of in Europe.
Another great salad plant is orpine (Sedum telephium). This and iceplant (S.spectabi/e) are
different in character from other Sedums and are sometimes placed in a separate genus. The
moist fleshy leaves make a lovely succulent addition to salads, although in hot dry weather they
can sometimes be a little bitter.
Orpine - Sedum te/ephium
Page 12
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo11? No 2
The mallows (Malva spp.) also form a frequent base ingredient in my salads. Wood mallow
(Malva sy/vestris) is very good, though it disappears completely in winter and has a habit of
being quite short lived for a perennial. Musk mallow (M.moschata) is more useful in that it
retains a rosette of leaves through most winters and so is avaitable all year round. Mallows are
often hard to identify from the leaves. which for each specie come in almost infinite number of
forms (as you can see in the photo beneath.) The flowers too are great in salads.
Musk mallow - Malva moschata
Another fantastic perennial vegetable, which needs cooking, is good kipg Henry (Chenopodium
bonus-henricus). This does very well as an entire area of plants spaced at about 30 cm apart.
It isn' t the fastest to grow in the spring, so needs a little weeding then, but soon covers the soil
entirely. The leaves and shoots are not pleasant raw - they contain oxalic acid - but steamed
for a few minutes they are delicious, not too dissimilar to ordinary annual spinach. To harvest, I
prefer to pick a few leaves off each plant , rather than cut whole plants, because this keeps the
soil covered better and doesn't set the plants back at all.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Volll No 2 Page 13
Chenopodium bonus-henricus
2008 was in a pretty poor fruit year in general. We had some very late and quite hard spring
frosts at the end of April which damaged flowers of apricots, pears, plums, almonds etc. so that
they produced few. if any, fruits later in the season. The summer was cool and very wet which
didn't help with fruit development either. However, it was interesting to see what did do well,
and plenty in the forest garden did. Apples were the one 'common' tree crop which did well and
there were plenty of uncommon crops too.
One interesting fruit which folk always remark on is the plum yew (Cepha/otaxus). J have three
forms in the forest garden, C.fortunei, C.harringtonia and c.h.drupacea. They are reliable and
regular croppers, producing their cherry-sized fruit (plum is a bit optimistic!) in early winter -
ripening early November here. The fruits are like nothing else I've tasted - sweet, with a
butterscotch - pine nut flavour. The skins are a bit tough and they have a single large seed, so
it is one of those fruits best enjoyed either ' in the field' where you can spit freely, or processed
(though I haven't made anything from the fruits myself - yet). The foliage of the bushes looks I'
similar to that of yew trees, and has recently been found to contain some entirely new anti-
cancer compounds - it is probably poisonous to livestock.
Plum yews are one of the most shade tolerant reliable fruiting plants I have come across - I
have seen them fruiting right beneath other trees - and in my forest garden I have them all in
fairly shady spots.
Cepha/otaxus harringtonia
r am often asked which are my top ten forest garden plants, and the answer slowly changes
over time as r discover some and reject others. However, consistently on that list would be the
autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata). This is a fantastic multipurpose large shrub, growing in
this country to about 5 metres high and wide. It is fast growing and wind tolerant, making a
great hedging of shelterbelt shrub; it comes into leaf in February and loses leaves in December,
so is almost evergreen. It is also a very good nitrogen-fixing plant , increasing fertility for nearby
plants. It flowers quite early in spring (March and April ) and wild bumble and other bees avidly
forage and pollinate it. Individual plants appear to be self-steri le, so two different selections are
needed for fruit to form.
The fruits are often borne abundantly (though not in 2008, the frosts reduced the crop
significantly). Fruits are like speckled redcurrants, 7-10 mm across, with a tart flavour (and
astringent too if picked before full ripeness). The birds don't go for them too much. I have
found the quickest way to harvest is to lay a tarp or sheet out beneath the bush, then pick fruits ,
dropping them as you go (and trying not to tread on them). Finally pour the fruits into a
container. I like making autumn olive jam, and I use the pulp in mixtures to dry into fruit
leathers. The seeds are just large enough to be a nuisance in processed products, so I put the
fruits through a Moulinex to remove the seeds.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/17 No 2 Page 15
Elaeagnus umbel/ata
Another reliable fruiter is the salal or shallan: Gaultheria shallon. Thi s member of the Ericaceae
is related to the blueberries and likes similar soit conditions - ie acid. It is an evergreen
spreading shrub, making a clump 1.5 m high or so, tolerating quite a lot of shade. It only
spreads slowly but needs to be contained within limits by pruning or mowing.
Salal flowers in late spring with typical bell-shaped white flowers which the bees adore. These
are followed by bluish-black fruits, the size of currants, but with the flavour of blueberries, which
ripen over a long period in summer. They are a delicious fruit to snack on in the garden, and I
sometimes make them into a jam etc. though they are not the fastest fruit to harvest.
The plant is pretty bomb-proof and indeed considered a nuisance in some regions.
Page 16 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vall? No 2
I
I

I
Salal - Gaultheria shallon
A very ornamental large shrub, which produces a nice fruit, is the Chinese dogwood (Comus
kousa chinensis). You can often see this in neat ordered ornamental gardens, where nobody
knows the fruits are edible. A large shrub, reaching 5 m high or so and less wide, this produces
amazing flowers in summer consisti ng of four large creamy white bracts. In the middle already
is what will become the fruit.
The fruits swell and colour red, looking like knobbly red Iychees, but you need to wait and wait
until they soften - October here - then the flesh has a delicious tropical pawpaw type flavour.
The skins are a little bitter and are spat out by most people. All C.kousa can be used similarl y
but the subspecies chinensis usually has larger fruit. Like many plants, selections have been
made of this based on profuse flowering (eg. 'Mil ky Way') but this is great from the fruit eaters
point of view as they should fruit more prolifically too.
The evergreen Comus capitata has larger but similarly shaped fruits with a similar flavour, but
they ripen very late - usually into November here - and are not so rel iable in a poor summer
here.
Chinese dogwood - Comus kousa chinensis
The hawthorns (Crataegus spp.) are a wonderful source of reliably fruiting plants. Those folks
who only know the European hawthorn C.monogyna and its small fruits with little flesh or poor
flavour don't know what they are missing. There are some fantastic fruiting trees in the family,
giving fruits 15 to 30 mm in diameter, some of which are great to eat raw, others are better
cooked. The flavour of the better haws is distinctively unique, though you can detect some
apple flavours in there.
One of the best American haws is C.ellwangeriana and like the others this flowers and fru its
every year for me. Th e tree is covered in white bloom in April - clearly not susceptible to frost
damage. The fruits ripen ' in late September and early October over a few weeks. If you can
wait long enough until the fruits shake off (this may depend on the birds not taking them too
soon - I have no problems in this respect) then the easiest way to harvest is to lay a tarp or
sheet below the tree and shake the branches.
Although the fruits are nice to nibble raw, I use most of them to make fruit leathers or hawthorn
jam. The fruits of many (maybe all) haws is reput ed to be good for the heart and certainly the
Chinese have used them medicinally for many centuries.
Page 18
Crataegus ellwangeriana
At the end of April we had some Easterly gales of unusual strength, and the top half of one of
my Monterey pines (Pinus radiata) snapped off. The two pines are positioned near the pond,
and have two main functions: shade trees in summer to sit. beneath, and as sources of pine
resin, which has been tapped for the last 3 years from one of the trees .
Tapping pines for resin is a big worldwide business, mainly carried out now where labour is still
cheap. A rectangle of bark (i nner plus outer) is stripped off, allowing the resin to ooze out of
the wood beneath. This is directed onto a spout and into a collecting vessel. Resin runs better
in warm weather and my yield last summer was poor compared with previous years.
Commercially, resin is distilled to produce rosin and turpentine - some two-thirds of the worlds
turpentine still originates from pine trees. I have used resin directly as a sealant, and a
neighbouring bronze forging workshop uses my rosin (which is apparently essential in bronze
forging.)
Anyway, a 6 metre section of pine tree landed on the ground after the gale, with a diameter of
about 30 cm at largest. I decided to inoculate this with a type of oyster mushroom which grows
on confers called Indian oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus). After sourcing some dowel spawn from
Ann Miller (www.annforfungi.co.uk/) I duly used several hundred in the main trunk, drilling and
inoculating where it dropped. The remaining dowels were used in the smaller side branches
which were trimmed oH. After waxing over the inoculating holes, I just have to wait now. The
fungus will take at least a year to full y colonise the log, so perhaps in autumn 2009 when
conditions are right , delicious mushrooms will start appearing. The large log should produce
mushrooms for many years.
Monterey pine trunk showing inoculation holes
One of the more unusual small trees in the forest garden is the snowbell tree, Ha/esia carolina,
which is another plant from the USA. This is rarely seen in this country, even though it is very
ornamental in spring when covered in the white bell-like flowers. These flowers are an
ornamental addition to a spring salad, though not highly flavoured.
I mainly grow this plant for the fruits, though. These are unlike most other tree fruits and
consist of a single seed surrounded by a fleshy four-winged structure which dries out and
hardens as the seeds ripen in autumn. The time to eat this is the first three weeks of July,
when the whole fruit, seed and all, is crisp and juicy, with a pea I cucumber flavour. Great in
salads or stir fried like mange tout peas. You can 't eat them after this period - they are too
tough.
The tree is slow growing - mine is only 2.5 metres high after 12 years - which is a great
advantage for hand harvesting the fruits. I haven't had to prune mine at all but it should be
easy to do so when necessary.
i
I.
Halesia carolina - flowers and fruits
A GROFORES TRY NEWS Vol 17 No 2 Page 21
~ = m ~ ~ S 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
One of my very top salad plants in the forest garden is the small leaved lime tree (TiNa cordata).
The young leaves from this find there way into most of the salads I make, as a base ingredient
instead of something more conventional like lettuce. More flavourful ingredients - herbs etc. -
get added to make a fully flavoured salad. These trees get coppiced (every 4-5 years) so t treat
them as shrubs in the design . They produce young leaves all through the growing season at
the tips of branches; leaves from shady parts of the canopy are often also tender enough to
use.
Tilia cordata, 1 year after coppicing
Page 22
I
I have also started planting climbers near to lime trees when they are coppiced. The idea is
that the climber - for example a hardy kiwi vine - climbs and clambers through the tree as it
grows, and makes for the outer edge of the canopy where light conditions are good and it will
fruit. When the tree is coppi ced in another 4-5 years, the kiwi vine will be coppiced too (the
coppicing is more like pollarding in fact, at a height of about 1.2 m.) Thi s keeps the kiwi vine
manageable and the crop within reach. If you were to train a k.iwi vine into a large tree and just
let is go, it will climb 30 m high, and fruit at the top - not very useful!
Coppiced lime tree with male and female hardy kiwi vines
Polygonatum odoratum
Another perennial edible I have got more enthusiastic about in the least few years is Solomon' s
seal (Polygonatum spp.) The young shoots of this are harvested rather like asparagus and
eaten lightly steamed - fantastic. All Polygonatum can be used, the one I am harvesting at the
moment in P.odoratum, which grows about 75 em high, but I have recently planted a whole area
of the larger P.biflofum which grows to 1.5 or 2 m high and should be able to hold its own better

against all comers.
The ground cover raspberries - various evergreen trailing members of the Rubus family - are
an essential part of my forest garden perennial layer, making a weedproof layer especially in
shade. The Nepalese raspberry, R.nepalensis, is my favourite as it stays low and interferes
little with other plants or foot traffic. The Japanese R.trico/or, though larger and requiring some
maintenance to keep it low (mainly being walked on), seems to be a better fruiter and is a
regular nibble as I walk through the garden in late summer and early autumn. I sometimes
process the fruits but they don't handle well and need to be processed Quickly.
Rubus tricolor
I always propagate a few annuals from seed each year to plant out in the forest garden, which
do not selfseed reliably. One of these is nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus), of which I prefer the
scrambling forms which can clamber up shrubs, fences etc to a height of 2 m or so. Once these
scrambling plants are away they need no tending, merely harvesting. The peppery leaves and
flowers go into salads, and the young seeds used in pickles and chutneys like capers. This
year I put some plants beneath my shed south wall where I have a peach tree being fantrained ,
and they did spectacularly well, intertwining with the peach branches. The peach remained free
of peach leaf curl despite it being a bad year for the disease, and by coincidence I recently read
a comment by a grower in New Zealand stating that he found that Nasturtium grown with
peaches regularly kept away this disease. I might try it again in 2009 then!
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/17 No 2 Page 25
Nasturtium majus underplanted with trefoil (Medicago lupulina)
The temperate pepper trees - Zanthoxylum species - are highly reliable croppers which I am
increasingly impressed by. They flower in summer, so escape any frost problems, and
absolutely buzz with honey bees when in bloom even though the flowers to us humans look
Quite insignificant.
My own favourite is one of the Szechuan peppers, Z.schinifolium. although the chef at the next-
door Schumacher College prefers using the Nepalese pepper (Z.a/alum) which is less citrus-ey
and more black peppery in fragrance.
This last point reminds me t hat people have very different palettes, and when I show folk
around the forest garden and we try something, there is usually a spectrum of opinions from
'great ' to ' hmmm' or even ' yuk' on occasion. You can't please all of the palettes all of the time,
clearly. Likewise with acidity of fruits, I know of one or two people who will chomp into fruits of
northern lemon (Chaenomeles japonica) with relish, whilst they are too acid for me to enjoy
fresh from the bush.
The forest garden will never be ' finished' or ' complete' because all plants die sometime of
course. One or two also get removed deliberately. This year I lost my blue bean (Decaisnea
fargesi/) which gave up in an increasingly shady location. So at least I now know it's shade
tolerance fairly exactly! I like the pulp from the blue pods so will replant a new one where it will
Zanthoxylum alatum
get enough light.
Martin Crawford, February 2009.
Stop Press!
The Dartington forest garden and the ART nut trials are featured on:
A Farm tor the Future - Natural World
Friday February 20th BBC 2 at 8pm, and repeated on Sunday the 22nd of February.
You should be able to watch the program on the BBC website (www.bbc.co.uk) for several
weeks after the transmission date.
r
#
&P
:s-&
Woad as an indigo crop
Introduction
In the middle ages, woad {lsatis tinctorial crops were grown in many parts of England as a
source.of indigo. ~ h e importation of tropical indigo, which began in the 1 ih century, and the
commelcialisation of synthetic i'ndigo at the end of the 19
th
century, put an end to woad
cultivation here. In recent years increased interest in sustainability and traceability in the textile
industry is stimulating a return to woad cultivation in the UK. Currently crops of woad for indigo
production are grown on a commercial scale in France. Italy and Norfolk, UK.
Woad does not contain indigo itself, but indoxyl compounds that yield indigo when the freshly
harvested leaves are extracted. Indigo is usually extracted on-farm or at an extraction centre
near the source of the leaves. Indigo always has the same chemical structure, whatever the
source, and woad indigo has to compete economically with synthetically=produced indigo which
is purer but is increasing in price. Woad indigo can vary in purity from 5 to 60%; even a sample
that is 5% pure looks blue because the impurities (chalk, soil samples and leaf material) are
coated by the indigo itself. Increased purity comes from effective leaf washing and high
concentrations of indoxyl in the leaves. Natural indigo from tropical crops usually has a higher
purity than woad indigo but there appears to be a purity ceiling of 60% which is rarely
surpassed. Dyers have been accustomed over the last century to the high purity (over 95%) of
synthetic indigo so using naturally-sourced indigo requires a change in attitude and dyeing
technique.
Annual usage of indigo is some 7,000 tonnes, nearly all of which is used to dye denim blue
(about one billion pairs of jeans are produced annually.)
Agronomy
Woad is a biennial member of the 8rassicaceae and has the same problems to face in terms of
pests, diseases etc. as other brassicas. It prefers an open-structured, well-drained, deep soil
with good humus and mineral levels. Once established it has a deep taproot system which
enables it to withstand a period of drought. .
Germination can occur when temperatures are over 2 to 4C and growth requires temperatures
over 5C. Temperatures of 20 to 25C are optimal for leaf development and expansion. In
natural conditions, woad seeds would germinate in late summer, pass the winter in a rosette
form, and flower in the following spring, with new seed produced in the summer. It is especially
frost resistant in the rosette stage.
For indigo production, though, leaves from the rosette form are harvested, so to obtain
maximum yield it is nece'ssary to maximise the rosette stage by sowing as early as possible
without allowing the plants to flower in the first year. The plant is able to re-grow after leaf
harvesting (as long as it has sufficient water and nutrients) so more than one harvest is possible
from a single crop. Rolling after sowing provides a level soil surface which aids the eventual
leaf harvest - leaves are cut a short distance from the soil surface.
Emergence occurs 2-3 weeks after sowing and complete cover establishes 6-8 weeks later. A
wet spring can reduce germination and crop establishment. Woad is a poor competitor when
young so that effective weed control in the early stages is essential.
Many of the major pests that affect brassica crops also affect woad including flea beetle, large
white butterfly. and pigeons. Diseases include powdery mildew.
Page 28
Harvesting
Crops require good levels of the major nutrients and reasonably good harvests ' should produce
about 90 tonnes/ha of fresh leaf in a season.
To maximise the indigo yield, the rosette of leaves is harvested repeatedly after allowing for a
period of regrowth. Modified spinach or bean harvesters are used, depending on what is
around locally.
Woad in the rosette form (source: Wikipedia)
The final yield of indigo depends on two factors: the indoxyl content of the leaves and the yield
of leaves, and both are affected by the weather. Row distance is important - crops grown in
narrow rows (15 em apart) are more upright which makes harvesting more effecti ve.
Indigo extraction
Special equipment has been produced for a high throughput extraction, but indigo can be
extracted using equipment readily avai labl y on farm. Freshl y harvested leaves are washed in
cold water, the steeped in water at 7075C for 10 minutes (using 2 litres water per 1 kg of leaf).
The steep water is cooled, filtered , and slurried lime added to pH 11 . Air is then pumped
through the alkaline liquid for at least 20 minutes, and the deep blue precipitate of indigo is
allowed to settle. The crude indigo is washed in acid and then clean water, and dried to a deep
blue cake. The spent leaves are composted, and the waste water returned to the land.
Recent research
Recent trials have grown indigo yielding crops in Spain, Italy, Germany, UK and Finland. The
crops have been woad (lsatis tinctorial, Chinese woad (Isatis indigotica) , and polygonum
(Polygonum tinctorium). Researchers found that woad grows well in all the climatic zones
examined, with yields of indigo up to 100 kgfha; Chinese woad gives higher yields, but is less
reliable because of bolting and disease susceptibility; while polygonum yields well , and is more
suited to Central Europe and the Mediterranean, but tolerates neither drought nor very high
temperatures.
References
John, P: Woad as an indigo crop. EMRA Novel Crops Members day report - October 2008.
www.spindigo.net
5fd
Traditional Andean cultivation systems:
implications for sustainable land use
Overview
High A ~ d e a n cultures constitute one of the best examples of Jongterm. large scale
experimentation in sustainable land use. The Central Andes have a temperate to cool climate
and tubers are the crops grown at the highest altitudes, e.g. potato (possibly the highest
altitude crop in the world) . ulluCQ, eca and mashua. Yields are lower than maximum yields
obtained with intensive agriculture as there is a trade-off between productivity, risk
management. external subsidies and degradation.
Key elements of Andean experimentation are: distributed research and development for
hundreds to thousands of years, during which climates and cultures have changed dramatically;
high native biodiversity; a culture of careful observation, selection, breeding, conservation and
exchange of genetic varieties; and a knowledge intensive management strategy taking
advantage of biodiversity and three-dimensional landscape and cultural heterogeneity,
maintaining high diversity.
These elements have led to the development of land use management strategies resilient to
environmental variability. However, this knowledge is rapidly deteriorating with the synergistic
effects of population and consumption growth, poverty and free-market economies as they
steam roll further and further into remote Andean valleys.
Environmental context
Climate. Ranging from tropical sea level to permanent glaciated peaks, the environment of the
Central Andes is hugely helerogeneous. This article refers to the highland environments
characteristically occupied by the Huari , Tiahuanaco and Inca civilizations who inherited most of
the high altitude tuber growing techniques (these civilizations controlled or developed close
contacts and exchanges with lower areas as well). This gives a range of altitudes from around
2500 to 4500 m, mean annual temperatures from 19 to 5C and rainfall from 250 to 1000 mm.
From an agricultural point of view, critical factors are steepness of the terrain in most areas, low
and/or highly variable rainfall, low soil fertility, and low temperatures (frosts) at the highest
altitudes. Seas'onal temperature variations are moderate and within ranges similar to potato
growing areas of New Zealand or Ireland, but rainfall is concentrated in summer while winter
months are dry.
Frosts. The number of ground frosts per year in the Central Andes rises from around 30 at
3500 m to 100 at 3900 m and 150-300 at 4200 m. By 4500 m, frosts occur almost daily
throughout the year. Cyrrent climatic warming may mean that frost frequency is rapidly
diminishing, part of the reason for a rising cultivation line. It is interesting to note that
cultivation of potato reaches 4500 m in the Andes, while in lowland areas such as New Zealand
it is limited to areas with less than 100 frost days.
Variability. In addition to mean value of climate parameters, the everyday survival of crops
depends most importantly on variability.
Pressure. At the highest levels of cultivation, Andean cultures are approaching the half-way
point of atmospheric mass. Total pressure, and the partial pressure of essential life- giving
gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are reduced to -60% of their sea level values, possibly
approaching physiol ogical limits to carbon accumulation.
Page 30
History
Andean systems and techniques were developed through millennia of major environmental and
cultural changes, mostly well before the Inca empire (ca. A.D.). The time of entry of
the first inhabitants of South Ameri ca and the Andes is debated, but early human occupation in
South America is evidenced by 11500 B.P. By the Middle Pre-ceramic (8000-5000 B.P .),
peppers (Capsicum spp.) , beans (Phaseo/us spp.) , lucuma (Pouleria lucuma = Lucuma bifera),
quinoa (Chenopodium quinua), canihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule), potato (Solanum
tuberosum and other species), ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus) and Dca (Oxalis tuberosa) were
domesticated. Maize was first domesticated in Central America and appeared early on the
Peruvian coast (by 6000 8.P.), it arrived later in the Central Andes during the Early Horizon
(2900-2000 B.P.).
By the time of the Inca empire. dozens of species and of cultivars of crops were
cultivated within the empire although allegedly terraces were only used for maize cultivation.
The botanist O.F. Cook, a member of the scientific expedition that discovered the ruins of
Machu Picchu, mentions that, in the sixteenth century, more domesticated species existed in
the Andes than in Asia or Africa. Several of the worlds most important crops originated in the
Andes (e.g. potato) or were further developed there (e.g. maize). The estimated population at
the beginning of the 1500s was similar to what it is today for the same region (10 to 12 million
for the Inca empire as a whole). Yet in spite of this population density, early Spanish
chroniclers of the central Andes report on a high quality of life, well fed, healthy, long-lived and
well clothed population. The paradox of a well fed, large population, at the extremes of climatic
conditions requires more than an understanding of what is happening at a particular site (the
farm scale). It seems part of the explanation of the paradox was the regional scale integration
of the agro-economic system across 35 altitudinal levels from sea level to the highest cultivation
and back down to Amazonian lowlands.
The Andean system of the 1530s suffered the cataclysmic disruptions caused by the Spanish
invasion (1532), accompanying diseases (a smallpox epidemic started in advance of the
physical arrival of the Spanish. circa 1525) and introduced plants and animals. Almost
contemporaneously (around 1550) the climate entered a cooler and wetter phase of the Little
Ice Age. After 1532, both native populations and landscapes experienced rapid decline and
degradation. Estimates of mortality suggest that 50 - 80% of the Indian population of the Andes
died of a mix of diseases (possibly the major reason), massacres and slavery within 50 years of
European contact.
After the decimation of the indigenous people, the majority of the rural landscape was
abandoned. The increasing population during the 20th century, coupled with increasing
demand for commercial exploitation from foreign sources and improved technological access
into the mountains, led to increasing deforestation, de-vegetation and soil erosion in the last
decades. After these upheavals it is somewhat surprising that any tradition would have
survived from five centuries ago and more.
Elements of agricultural management systems
Cultivation Techniques and Tools
The following brief descriptions use common local names which may vary in meaning between
regions. Some of these techniques are still widely used, whereas others are only known
through chronicles and archaeological remains (e.g. mahamaes).
Modification of Terrain
As recently as 1972. 48% of all agricultural land in the Peruvian mountains was on andenes
(terraces, 1 million hal, camellones (mounds-troughs, 78000 hal and cochas (53 000 hal
Page 31
fS 73
Chuki. Planting (especially of tubers) in fallow ground by simply digging a small individual hole
for each tuber. This provides minimal soil disturbance and retains the greatest possible amount
of moisture, organiC matter, and soil biota.
Chacmay or chajmay. Soil preparation involving the use of the chaquitacllas, a ubiquitous wood
and metal manual plough. Two turves are cut out and turned over completely to form the
mound and furrow. This work is usually done by teams of men and women. Performed
particulally when the year is e x p ~ c t e d to be rainy and when the soil has poor drainage. The
same process can be used after planting with the Chuki technique as a form of mounding.
Andenes or terrazas. Terraces cover large areas of the steep slopes of the Central Andes and
have resulted in the movement of millions of tons of earth and stone. In pre-Columbian times,
terraces in key areas were built as part of a highly organised state enterprise. Terraces were
also built, and are still built today, in a more haphazard and progressive fashion to slow
downward soil creep and facilitate water infiltration and irrigation.
Camel/ones or huaro-huaro. Large scale mounds and troughs allowed the cultivation of tubers
and other crops on flat land subject to flooding. Troughs Were fill ed with water, allowing not
only irrigation but also fertilisation (through the growth of nitrogen fixing algae) and secondary
production of fish . In addition, the water captured solar heat during the day and reduced the
risk of frost at night. Large extensions of camellones can still be seen around lake Titicaca, but
the system was also used at lower altitudes (Moxos).
Mahamaes or chacras ahondadas. In coastal deserts, sand was excavated to levels close to
phreatic water. Spanish chronicles described the luxuriant crops produced in these conditions.
Cochas. These were used in the highlands, excavations were made to produce a small lake
that was surrounded by well irrigated potato fields.
Canchas. Small stone corrars where stock is held at night. After some time of accumulating
fertility, the area is planted in tubers, which benefit both from the increased soil fertility and heat
radiated from the stones at night.
Irrigation. Extensive aqueducts and canals for irrigation in highlands as well as western desert
areas.
Soil Fertility. Maintenance and Enhancement
In pre-Columbian times the large scale transport 9f fertile top soil from valley bottoms to
terraces and of guano from coast to highland were organised by the state. Today grazing stock
are placed on future cultivation sites and canchas, and dung is collected from other sites and
from overnighting corrals to be dispersed on culti vation plots. Fallow, combined with grazing
rotation to better use and restore soil fertility, and low impact tillage are combined to maintain
and improve soils.
Pests and Diseases
Pests and diseases are controlled by a variety of integrated approaches: timing of planting,
selecting of healthy seed tubers , from time to time replanting with true seed, bio-repellent or
biocide plants (e.g. muiia, Satureja or Minthostachys). Dung is burnt and the ashes dispersed
at the time of sowing, which has the double benefit of controlling fungal diseases of some
potato types and providing nutrients. The distribution of small parcel-sizes together with multi-
cropping lead to reduced pests and diseases.
Page 32
Organisation of time
Indicators
Andean farmers determine when and where to plant each crop, how much and by what method,
through a complex decision making process. This involves communal discussions in which a
variety of elements are considered: cropping history of each site and its performance, distance
and ease of access, crop seed availability and the need to either change or keep seed from the
previous year, environmental indicators that suggest weather patterns in the next months,
people available for work, etc. Natural indicators (e.g. timing of flowering , winter solstice) lead
to specific actions. Decision making in agriculture is linked to deeper perceived universal forces
through oral tradition, rituals and religion. Spirits of the mountains ~ m d gods of the earth are
invoked throughout with requests for good crops.
Rotation
Modern agriculture recognises the beneficial effects of rotation, but is often compelled by
market forces to disregard these benefits. Preferred crop rotations in the Ecuadorian Andes, in
terms of best yields and minimum weed loads, include planting potato followed by non-fertilised
quinoa, and ulluco followed by quinoa with or without fertilisation. In Chajaya, Bolivia, rotations
vary from the lower sections (-3200-3800 m, oca, barley/wheat, beans, 4 years fallow) to the
higher sections (-3600-4200 m, potato, oca, oats, 4 years fallow). In nearby Chullina (3250-
3550 m) the rotation includes more native tubers, e.g. potato then oca, mashua and ulluco,
then barley and wheat, then four years fallow (with grazing). Around Titicaca, rotation may be
potato, quinua, barley, oats, 4-5 years fallow, or potato, oca, barley, beans, fal!ow.
Storage
Long-term storage of food was developed to a high degree of sophistication by Andean cultures.
Complex procedures finely attuned to each product and environmental condition aJlow storing of
tubers for several years (up to 30 years) after freeze-drying or drying. Freeze-drying of tubers
(chuno, moraya, ckaya) and drying of meat (charki ) are important elements contributing to
sustainability, ensuring buffering of supply fluctuations, transport and redistribution, and
consequently facilitating the development of large cities and civilizations.
Spatial Organisation
Cultivation of Multiple Plots in Different Conditions
In anyone season a farmer or community will typically cultivate several different plots with the
same species of crop, choosing contrasting soils and environmental conditions. For example,
potato will be cultivated on terraces on a high slope, on a gentler mid-altitude slope and on the
flat vaHey bottom. In this way the farmer ensures some production in almost any climatic
situation. If the year is frosty, the valley and high altitude crop may suffer but the mid-altitude
crop will prosper. If the year is dry, the middle site may suffer more than the other. Within a
single plot, risk is reduced by polyculture and by multiple cultivation methods. For example, half
of the plot may be cultivated with rows going along the 39 contours, the other half going across
them. This practice can still be observed in several areas of the Cusco Department, although it
is not widespread.
This strategy epitomises the difference between orthodox and Andean cultivation concepts.
Orthodox agriculture and economic systems conceive only of optimisation: there must be a
single. best way to cultivate. In Western philosophy, an experimental station would tryout both
row orientations, see which one produced the most and/or lost less soil, then recommend that
one. The Andean farmer seeks security of a minimum production. In a wet year or cold year,
the vertical rows will allow better drainage of water and cold air. Horizontal rows will have
excess water ponding, root rotting and potential heavy losses from frost. In a dry or less frosty
year, the horizontal rows will capture the little available water and produce better. Following the
rf
-riF
=
4A4L!
orthodox philosophy of a single system may produce a bumper crop one year, followed by
famine the next. The Andean system ensures at least half of the plot will produce reasonably
well regardless of conditions. At a large scale, villages and regions make the most of the high
ecological heterogeneity by developing a permeable network of land uses. Through communal
control of a vertical gradient , expanded even more by trade and reciprocal interactions between
communities,. Andean people have at their disposal a diverse source of crops and foods that
grow best in coof to tropical climates.
Size of land. In the 17 higher districts of the Cusco Department , Peru, (>3000 m,
more highly populated) 93% of properties are less than 5 ha, the mean parcel size is 0.37 ha
and the average cultivated area per person in the overall population is 0. 14 ha. In comparison,
in the two lower, more market oriented, districts (-650 m) only 22% of properties are less than 5
ha, the mean property size is 1.3 ha and the cultivated area per person is 0.74 ha. For
comparison, the mean size of farms for the 13 larger crops in the USA is 32.4 ha.
Diversity
It is common sense that spreading eggs into many baskets is a strategy of risk avoidance.
Spatial and temporal data show the stabilising effect of diversity on crop production, even in a
catastrophic year. As theory predicts, empirical data show that this risk avoidance comes at a
cost of foregoing maximum possible productivity.
Cultivation of many different crops within small areas (polyculture), as well as temporal rotation ,
was developed to manage risk as well as better utilise soil nutrients at various depths. Farmers
constantly ensure they have a di verse genetic stock of material, both within species and of
different species. Different species and varieties are planted in separate plots or in rows side
by side and occasionally mixed within rows . Considerable labour is used to control weeds by
manual methods. However, weeds and weed control are not in the "debit- of accounts because
weeds are at least partially transformed into a forage crop. Weeds are carried home to feed
stock during the summer, becoming a useful element of the multicropping system. Weeds are
also used as food , aromatic herbs and medicine.
Results of traditional management systems
Soil Fertility
Is maintained in areas with more traditional cultivation systems.
Yields
Most measured yields in Andean systems are low in conventional yield terms (typically 40-70%
of yields from high input chemical-based agriculture). However, such yields are achieved under
organic management with soil fertility and structure being maintained over time and on addition
are more consistent over time and are not subsidised by fossil fuels, producing toxic pollutants
or mortgaging soils of future generations.
Ecological theory explains the trade offs between productivity and sustain ability: reaching
higher productivity means higher risk of slumps and less resilience. Andean cultivation puts
into practice a management system with yields that may be the maximum possible yields that
can be maintained over the longterm with minimal negative impacts. This is potentially lower
than the ' maximum yield' as conceived by orthodox agriculture, which only considers the short
term.
Andean people use a complex system of linked mechanisms to even out f ood supply and buffer
against risk: temporal (long-term storage) , spatial and diversity (numerous plots in different
conditions, numerous varieties and species, long distance exchanges) and social reciprocity
(barter and exchange for services allowing a buffering effect of equalisation).
Resilience
The resilience of Central Andean traditions has several concurrent explanations. The high
mountain conditions have not proved suitable for the large-scale advance of Western society
and methods, at least until recent times. With some notable exceptions (e.g. barley) , above
3800 m most crops and methods are still ancient, not just because the culture may want it so,
but because there is no choice: Western crops and methods do not easily survive. Another
explanation (not mutually exclusive) for the survival of the Andean knowledge is that it functions
as a distributed network. Unlike orthodox systems, which rely on centralised research and
knowledge repositories (fragile to disruptions), distributed networks are virtually indestructible
even after large portions have been eliminated (as happened in the XVI and XVII centuries).
Such networks are, however, susceptible to changes affecting all the nodes in the same way,
such as happens with cultural disruptions produced by Western education, military service,
media and markets.
Discussion
There are clearly elements of Andean cultivation which can individually or together lead to
sustainabiJity: Soi l fertility - maintained; yields - moderate and sustained by averaging through
space and time; democratic control structures (communal decision making); capability for
adaptation (resilience through centuries of change) . Unfortunately, these elements are rapidly
retreating under the advance of orthodox cultivation systems pushed by international market
forces.
Many elements of Andean cultivation systems have survived with little c h a n g ~ over centuries of
massive disruptions. These elements show high resilience and adaptation to external climate
change (Le. through changing and adapting vertical distribution of land use and consequent
fluidity of exchange networks). They have shown less resilience to socia-economic change
affecting the matrix of the control system, leading to unequal distribution of resources, wealth,
soil degradation, poverty and hunger.
Reference
Halloy, S R P, Ortega, R, Yager, K & Seimon, A: Traditional Andean Cultivation Systems and
Implications for Sustainable Land Use. Acta Hart. 670, ISHS 2005. pp 31-55.
Viola: the violets
Introduction
The violets comprise a large number of annual or perennial herbs and small shrubs from
temperate regions of the world. They have neem cultivated commercially for their uses in
perfumery and confectionary for ay least 2,500 years
Cultivation
Most Viola members prefer a cool, moist, well-drained, humus-ri ch soil in partial or dappled
shade and protection from scorching winds - ie woodland or woodland edge conditions. They
tolerate alkaline (limestone) soils but becomes chlorotic if the pH is too high; ideal pH is 6 to
6.5, but usually pH 5.5 to 7 is fine. Most are quite hardy (see hardiness zone number in above
table where known) .
Some species are prone to damage from slugs, snai ls and wood lice, which eat the leaves.
Page 35
"'"
Propagate by seed (easy with some species such as pansies and sweet violet ), from rooted
runners, or by di vision (in autumn or immedi ately after flowering) , or by cuttings of young growth
in late summer or early autumn.
Useful species
All these are perennial except the annual V.arvensis, although V.frico/or can be an annual or
short li yed.
Latin name Common name
Viola acuminata
!Vio/a adunca IWestern dog violet I IApril-May
IViola arvensis IField pansy
I I
IViola alba
I I
IApril-May
IViola biffora
I I
IMay-June
Viola brevistipulata
lViola canadensis ICanada violet IApril-July
!Viuola canescens
I I
]Viola canina IDog violet IJuly-August
IViola Gollina
I I
IViola cornuta IHorned violet
IE
10.2 10.2 15
IJuly-August
Viola diffusa
Viola epipsela 0.13 5
Viola glabella Stream violet 0.1 0.2 5 April-May
Viola gracilis
,
E 0.3 9?
Viola grypoceras 0.3
IV,ola hederacea IAustrallan violet
101 I 18
IViola japonica
I I
10.2
I I
IApril
Viola keiskei 0.15
Viola labradorica Labrador violet E 0.1 0.3 2 April-May
Viola langsdorffii Alaska violet 0.1 April -May
Viola mandschurica Manchurian violet 0.2 8
I
IV,ola mira bills IJune-July
!Viola ob/iqua IMarsh blue violet IMay-July
Viola obtusa
Viola odorata Sweet violet Feb-April
]Viola palmata !Palmate violet [April -May
Viola patrini
IViola pedata IBird's foot violet
10.05 10.0814
IMay-June
IViola pedunculata [Grass pansy
I I 18
IMay
IViola pinnala I
10.1 I 15
IViola prionanlha I
I I I [
!Vio/a ..::eichanbachianal 10.15 1 18 ...1
Mar
<:.h-May
[ &
flatin name
ICommon name IEvergreen IHI IWlh IHdy IFlowers
IViola riviniana IWood violel I 1
0
2 I 15 IApril-June
IRedwood violel
IE 10.08 1 I I [Viola sempervirens
Viola septentrionalis Northern blue May-July
violet
IViola sororaria IWooly blue violet IMarch-June
Viola tokubuchiana
Viola tricolor Heartsease
April-September
lViola vaginata
lViola variegata
Viola verecunda
Viola violacea
IViola x wittrockiana [Pansy
IJune-September
IViola ______ -,-__ _ IApril-M=ay'-__ _
General uses
All members of Viola have more or less pleasant edible leaves. flower buds and flowers - all
raw or cooked. The leaves The leaves have a mucilaginous texture and thicken stews and
soups. Note that eating flower buds or flowers of species with yellow flo,+,ers can apparently
cause diarrhoea if eaten in large quantities. Reports of the roots being eaten should be treated
with scepticism as many are know to be emetic.
A tea can be made from the leaves, which are usually dried first.
The flowers of most if not all species are attractive to bees.
Some species are used medicinally while others make a good ground cover in shady places
beneath other plants, though they make take a year or two to establish (see below for details.)
Viola alba
This can be used as a ground cover plant - space at 30 cm apart.
Viola arvensis
This is used medicinally is Russia, the stems, leaves and flowers used as a galenical.
Viola biflora
This has been used medicinally: the flowers are antispasmodic. diaphoretic. emollient and
pectoral; the leaves are emollient and laxative.
Viola canadensis
This has been used medicinally: a tea made from the roots has been used in the treatment of
pain in the bladder region.
Viola canescens
This Himalayan species is widely used medicinally - a decoction of the fresh leaves is used to
treat coughs and colds.
Viola corn uta
This is a useful ground cover plant for a cool open situation - space at 60 cm apart
Viola diffusa
This has been used medicinally: the whole plant is used in the treatment of abscesses. aplastic
anaemia. boils. cough. fever . gas. leukaemia, mastitis and mumps.
Viola glabella
This can be used as a ground cover plant - space at 30 cm apart
Viola gracilis
Viola hederacea
Viola japonica
This has been used medicinally, being anodyne, antiphlogistic, depurative; the whole plant is
used in the treatment of abscesses, boils, conjunctivitis, hepatitis, jaundice, laryngitis and
ulcers. The root is reportedly cooked and eaten - used to thicken soups.
Viola labradorica
This is a good ground cover plant, fast spreading but slow to thicken up - space at 30 cm apart
Viola mandschurica
The root of this is reportedly cooked and eaten.
Viola mirabilis
This has been used medicinally as a cardiac
Viola ob/iqua
This is a good ground cover plant but it is slow to thicken up - space at 30 cm apart. Self-sows
freely.
Viola odorata
Sweet violet has a long and proven history of folk use, especially in the treatment of cancer and
whooping cough. The whole plant is antiinflammatory, diaphoretic, diuretic, emoliient,
expectorant, and laxative. It is taken internally in the treatment of bronchitis, respiratory
catarrh, coughs, asthma, and cancer of the breast , lungs or digestive tract. Externally, it is
used to treat mouth and throat infections. It can either be used fresh, or harvested when it
comes into flower and then be' dried for later use.
The flowers are demulcent and emollient. They are used in the treatment of biliousness and
lung troubles. The petals are made into a syrup and used in the treatment of infantile disorders.
The seeds are diuretic and purgative. Tt)ey have been used in the treatment of urinary
complaints.
Recent research has confirmed the value of Viola odorata as an antiinflammatory and its
possible use as an alternative and safer medicinal agent than corticosteroids in treatment of
inflammatory conditions of the lung. The anti-inflammatory effects may be due to the salicylate
contents but these must be working in combination with other compounds.
A homeopathic remedy is made from the whole fresh plant. It is considered useful in the
treatment of spasmodic coughs and rheumatism of the wrist.
The essential oil from the flowers and leaves is used in perfumery and as a flavouring in
confectionary (sweets, baked goods, ice cream) , liqueurs and breath fresheners. 1000kg (1
tonne) of leaves produces about 300 - 400kg absolute. The essential oil from the flowers is
also used in aromatherapy in the treatment of bronchial complaints, exhaustion and skin
complaints.
A pigment extracted from the flowers is used as a litmus to test for acids and alkalines.
Plants can be grown as a ground cover - space at 20 cm apart
A good butterfly plant
Viola palmata
This has been used medicinally as an emoilient.
Page 38 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo11? No 2
- - -
Viola patrin;
This species has a long history of folk use in the treatment of cancer and other diseases. The
fresh roots are mashed and used as a poultice for abscesses. The plant is suppurative for
abscesses, cancer, inflammations and ulcers.
Viola pinnata
This has been used medicinally as an anodyne, antiseptic, blood tonic.
Viola reichanbachiana
This has been used medicinally: the plant is used as a pectoral in the treatment of chest
complaints including tubercular problems. It has also been used to treat cholera. The stems,
leaves and flowers are bruised and applied to foul sores, wounds, bites and stings.
Viola riviniana
Plants can be grown as a ground cover - space at 30 em apart. A good butterfly plant.
Viola septentrionalis
Plants can be grown as a ground cover - space at 30 cm apart.
Viola sororaria
Plants can be grown as a ground cover - space at 30 em apart.
Viola tricolor
Heartsease has a long history of herbal use and was at one time in high repute as a treatment
for epilepsy, asthma, skin diseases and a wide range of other complaints. The herb is anodyne,
anti-asthmatic, antiinflammatory, cardiac, demulcent, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, emollient,
expectorant, laxative and vulnerary. It is still in use as an ointment for treating eczema and
other skin complaints. The plant is harvested from June to August and dried for later use.
A homeopathic remedy is made from the entire plant , used in the treatment of cutaneous
eruptions.
Yellow, green and blue-green dyes are obtained from the flowers.
The leaves can be used in pJace of litmus in testing for acids and alkalis.
Plants can be grown as a ground cover - space at 30 cm apart.
Viola vaginata
The root is reportedly eaten when cooked - used to thicken soups.
Viola verecunda
This has been used medicinally: the leaves are crushed and applied to cuts , swellings, ulcers
and wounds.
Viola yedoensis
This has been used medicinally: the whole plant is antibacterial, antiinflammatory, antipyretic
and depurative. It is used internally in the treatment of boils, carbuncles, snakebite, skin
disorders, mumps etc. The plant is harvested when in flower and dried for later use.
References
Crawford, M: Ground Cover Plants. A.R.T. , 1997.
Huxley, A: The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan Reference, 1999.
Koochek, M H et aJ: The Effectiveness of Viola odorata.. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal
Plants . Vol 10(2) 2002. 95103.
Mamedov, N et al: Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Bronchial Asthma in Russia and
Central Asia. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, Vol 8(2/ 3) 2001 , 91 - 117.
NautiyaJ, S et al: Medicinal Plant Resources in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the Central
Himalayas. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, Vol 8(4) 2001, 47-64.
Plants for a future database, 2009.
Page 40
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 17 No 2 J
21 per year in Britain and the E.U. (17 unwaged). 39 I 2 years.
Research Trust' , and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon,
Dartington, Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776.
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1 007440) , with the object to
. publications. The Trust depends on donations and sales of publications, seeds and
Agroforestry News
The Campanulas
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News
5 Forest gardens and carbon sequestration
7 Native plants: Restoring to an idea
11 Greek agroforestry systems
20 Ecosystem services and environmental
Benefits of agroforestry
24 Black truffles and agroforestry
30 Autumn olive in forestry
34 Agroforestry in Portugal
37 Agroforestry in the Netherlands
38 Book review: The Living Landscape
39 Courses in 2010
Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a Gommon format.
Tolnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. UK Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
WehF;ile:
Page 1
News
Prairie Fruit
is one of the cqldest provinces in Canada. At times temperatures can plummet
below -40C, not a place where you would expect tasty cherries and honeysuckles to grow
vigorously. Nonetheless, through the hard work of breeding programs and growers groups, the
production of fruit is sprouting up across the province like never before.
The Saskatchewan Dwarf Sour Cherry Prunus cerasus
was developed at the University a
f Saskatchewan in the mid-1990s. The first Dwarf
Cherry to come out the U of S was called Carmine
Jewel. In 2006 the "Romance Serres" was released
complete with Romeo, Juliet, Crimson Passion and, of
course, Cupid.
Unlike sweet cherries that you usually find in the store,
the sour cherry is primarily used for baking or cooking.
But don't be fooled, they taste pretty good right off the
bush too and there are always the specialty products
such as wines, sauces, and even chocolate-covered
cherries. What makes these cherries so special is the
winter and drought hardiness that is bred into them.
The bush only grows 6-8 feet tall , so it is easy to
harvest , and the fruit has extremely high Brix levels.
Another advantage the Saskatchewan cherries have
over sour cherries grown e1sewhere is that they can
easily be grown organically because the winters are so
harsh, insects and disease cannot survive.
dwarf sour cherries
Another fruit that is hot on the Saskatchewan radar is Lon;cera caerulea known as haskap. blue
honeysuckle or honeyberry. Haskap is undergoing
extensive breeding at the University of Saskatchewan
Plant Sciences Department. The University possesses
over 85 clones from Russia, Japan, the Kuril Islands,
and wild plants from across Canada. These clones are
cross bred to make new varieties that are being tested
for their ability to stand up to mechanical harvest and
sorting as well as taste. The results of this breeding
are new and improved cultivars referred to as Haskap.
Haskap is be the first fruit of the season, ripening in
early June. Plants begin producing within the first
couple years of planting and should reach peak
production at 4-5 years. This is unique for a fruit and
very appealing to someone wanting to get into the fruit-
growing market as quickly as possible. The flavour
of the fruit has been described as a mix between a
blueberry and a raspberry. Like the cherry, there Haskap
have been few to no diseases found that affect the plant, possibly because it does
Page 2
AGROFORESTRYNEWS Vol 17No4
produce fruit so early, leaving it open to organic production. Products made from these berries
include jams, juice, pies, wine and ice cream.
Haskap bush
Many keen producers have already found ways to incorporate these fruiting snrubs into their
farming systems. A quote from the Saskatchewan Fruit Growers Association notes that "there
are over 70,000 sour cherry trees planted in the Prairie Provinces, most of them in
Saskatchewan, within a year there could be two million pounds of cherries being produced."
Producers have worked together to form both the Haskap Canada Association and the
Canadian Cherry Growers Incorporated who promote the production and marketing of their
products.
Cherry harvester
These fruit trees have the potential to find their way out of the orchard setting and into more
traditional agroforestry systems such as riparian buffers and alley cropping.
Source: Shannon Poppy, The Temperate Agroforester, Vol 17 No 2 (June 2009)
Page 3
Bamboo computer keyboards manufactured in China
Jiangqiao Bamboo and Wood hails from China's Jiangxi province, where bamboo resources are
plentiful. Though the company began as a flooring company, they are now diversifying their
production to include the latest in green design: bamboo keyboards.
In rec.ent years, bamboo - a rapidly regenerating material - has gained popularity as a sturdy,
sustarnable alternative to wood flooring. Currently, China produces 200,000 cubic metres
annually of bamboo plywood.
Jiangqiao began manufacturing the green keyboards last October. The company says the
product is as strong as its plastic equivalent. They faced the same difficulties typical for
adapting bamboo for industrial use, including keeping the bamboo keyboard frame from
cracking, preventing the bamboo bottom plate from distorting and firmly fastening the buttons
with the main board. However, the company has successfully developed (and patented) its
formula, and also developed a bamboo mouse and USB expected to go on the market this
spring.
Though Jiangqiao is not the first company to use natural resources in computer accessories, it
may be the most eco-friendly. Much of the bamboo used in the keyboards is leftover scrap from
bamboo floorboard manufacturing.
Source; Sustainablog.com, USA, 7 May 2009
Ostrich fern: Fiddleheads big business
Being a fiddle head farmer was the "last thing in the world" Nick Secord ever wanted to do. All
he really wanted was to gcf fishing. Walking through his 40-acre fiddlehead farm at the west
end of Barrick Road, Secord recalled his start growing the vegetable that is become
increasingly popular amongst health-conscious people all over the world.
About 30 years ago, he said a friend who ran a Dominion grocery store in New Brunswick asked
him to collect fiddle heads to sell at the store. In exchange, his friend said he'd take Secord
fishing.
A year later, Secord said he got a call from another grocery-store chain - Atlantic Wholesalers.
"Are you the guy who got the fiddle heads for the Dominion stores?" Secord was asked. ~ Y e a h ,
but I don't do that. I just did it to go fishing," Secord replied. "That was the humble beginning."
The experience showed Secord the business potential fiddle heads held, and he got to work.
But success wasn't easy. He recalled his first experience selling the product. A grocery store
placed an order for 50 cases of the plants - to be sold on consignment. He'd only get paid for
the cases that were actually sold. Anything that wasn't sold would be sent back. "Anyway we
got 49 cases back," he said. Undaunted, Secord pressed on. And slowly, his business grew.
Over the years, NorCliff Farms has become the largest grower, packer and distributor of
Fiddlehead Greens in the world. His company owns or leases fields in Ontario, Quebec, New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Maine. In total, NorCliff Farms has about 1,000 acres of land
dedicated to the production of fiddleheads. His company employs more than 400 people.
Page 4
AGROFORESTRYNEWS Vol 17No4
It's also a substantial investment. "To plant fiddleheads like this it costs slightly more than
$12,000 an acre, " he said.
But a fiddle head farm is very different type of agriculture compared to what most people would
think of. Instead of the wide-open cultivated fields that comprise most farms, a fiddlehead farm
is essentially a swampy+wooded area.
Fiddleheads are the sprouts of the ostrich fern (Matteuccia Struthiopteris), a plant that grows in
damp wooded areas. They're harvested for a few short weeks in the early spring, when they' re
still tightly curled in a spiral, before any leaves start to appear.
And the fields that make up NorCliff farms are actually wooded areas, cleared of the low+lying
underbrush to allow the ostrich ferns to get established.
There's little big equipment required, and no pesticides, herbicides, or other chemicals. The
ferns, he said, contain their own natural herbicide making manmade additions unnecessary. A
number of smaller ponds were added amongst the ferns to ensure they have plenty of water.
He said pumps are used to ensure that the land floods every spring, just in case it's dry year.
The popularity of the product continues to grow, as a health conscious people look for delicious
alternative greens to add to their plates. Fiddleheads have an abundance of protein, iron,
magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and zinc. They are also high in vitamins A, C, B, along
with niacin, copper and manganese. They are also extremely low in sodium and cholesterol.
Secord said the business is also reaching out to young culinary arts students, in the hope of
finding new ways to enjoy the vegetable.
Source: The Tribune, Canada, 27 May 2009
Forest gardens and carbon sequestration
Introduction
Homegardens is the name used for the popular agroforestry systems in the tropics that we in
temperate climates call forest gardens. Such systems, amongst other things, offer the
potential of sequestering carbon and at the same time conserving high biodiversity (especially
01 plants. )
This article reports on a study of homegardens and carbon sequestration in Kerala, India.
Homegardens of Kerala
Kerala has a humid tropical climate with two monsoon seasons. Homegardens constitute the
most important agroforestry system there, with some 4.3 million homegardens covering 1.4
million ha of land.
Homegardens are systems that consist of intimate multistory combinations of various trees and
crops, sometimes in association with domestic animals, usually around the homestead. They
are distributed throughout the tropics and are regarded as 'the epitome of sustainability'. They
are considered to have high carbon sequestering potential due to their forest-like structure and
composition, and also due to specific management practices that tend to enhance nutrient
cycling and increase soil organic matter. .
In KeraJa, homegardens are diverse in terms of species composition, size and age. Indeed,
evelY homegarden is unique in terms of plant diversity, age and management practices
Results
The soil organic matter content varied with overall plant species density (ie number of species
per 100m
2
): homegardens with high species density had the highest organic matter levels in the
soil The organic matter content also varied with tree density: homegardens with high tree
density had the highest levels of soil organic matter. As might be expected, older homegardens
had higher organic matter content than younger ones.
Soil organic content was higher in the upper 50 cm of soil compared with the 50-100 cm depth
layer. This can be explained by the plant composition of homegardens: they are composed of
trees, shrubs and herbs, the latter two of which have most of their root activity in the upper
50cm of soil.
Compared with moist deciduous forest in the same region, the total soil carbon content of
homegardens was 60-70% of that in the forest soil. As a contrast, the soil carbon content in
nearby rice paddy fields was 31 % that of the forest soil.
Small homegardens (under 1 acre I 0.4 ha) had higher plant density, a higher number of plant
species, higher tree density, and more tree srecies than larger homegardens. Smaller
had on average 7.5 trees per 100m while larger homegardens had 5.8 trees per
100m. Smaller homegardens also had higher soil organic matter contents.
Homegarden age varied from 35 to 100 years.
Measures of species richness confirm prElvious results which rank homegardens as the highest
in biodiversity of all human-Omade agroecosystems, next only to natural forest.
Conclusion
Overall the study showed that the carbon stock in soil increased with the increase in number of
plant species in the tropical homegarden system. It is logical to infer that increases in plant
species increased the carbon sequestering potential of homegardens. Where the system is
widespread, such as in Kerala (where homegardens cover 36% of the total area), homegardens
can be Significant carbon sequestrators.
Reference
Saha, S et al: Soil carbon stock in relation to plant diversity of homegardens in Kerala, India.
Agroforestry Systems (2009) 76:53-65.
Page 6
Native Plants: Restoring to an Idea
Toby Hemenway
Let me tell you about the invasive plant that scares me more than all the others. It's one that
has infested over 80 million acres in the US, usually in virtual monocultures. It is a heavy
feeder, depleting soil of nutrients. Everywhere it grows, the soil is badly eroded. The plant
offers almost no wildlife habitat , and since it is wind pollinated, does not provide nectar to
insects. It's a plant that is often overlooked on blacklists, yet it is responsible for the
destruction of perhaps more native habitat than any other species. Research shows that when
land is lost to this species, native plants rarely return; they can't compete with it. It should go at
the top of every native-plant lover's list of enemies. This plant's name: Zea mays, or corn.
Corn is non-native. It's from Central America. Next on my list is the soybean, with 70 million
acres of native habitat lost to this invasive exotic. Following those two scourges on this roll call
of devastating plants is the European invader called wheat.
Wait , you say: these plants are deliberately spread by people; that's different! But to an
ecologist, it is irrelevant that the dispersion vector of these plants is a primate. After all , we
don't excuse holly or Autumn olive, even though without bird dispersal , they could not spread.
Why are corn, soy, and wheat not on any blacklists? Because we think of them differently than
plants spread by non-humans. This suggests that an invasive species is an idea, a product of
our thinking, not an objective phenomenon. When we restore land, we restore to an idea, not to
objective criteria. '
Let me give another example of how our ideas dictate which species we'll tolerate and which we
won't. The wooded hillside on rural Oregon where lance lived was thick with 40- to 120-year-
old Douglas fir and hemlock. But as I walked these forests, I noticed that scattered every few
acres were occasional ancient oak trees, four to six feet in diameter, much older than the
conifers and now being overtopped by them. I realized that in these ancient oaks I was seeing
the remnants of the oak savanna that had been maintained for millennia by fire set by the
original inhabitants, the Calapuya people. The fir forest moved in when the whites arrived and
drove off the Calapuya, and suppressed fire. So what I was seeing was a conifer forest created
by human-induced fire-suppression, and it had replaced the oak savanna that had been
preserved by fire setting. Which was the native landscape? Both were made by humans. If we
say, let's restore to what existed before humans altered it , we'd need to go back to birches and
willows, since humans arrived as the glaciers retreated. But clearly that 's not appropriate.
Prairies - natural or human made?
In a similar vein, one of the rarest and most valued ecosystems in the Northwest are the native
prairies, such as those found in the Willamette and other valleys. Yet these prairies are also
the product of human manipulation. Prairies occurred naturally in the Willamette over 5000
years ago, but began to disappear after that. Ecologist Mark Wilson has written ~ A s climate
turned cooler and moister 4,000 years ago, oak savanna and prairie ecosystems were
maintained only by frequent fires set by native people to stimulate food plants and help in
hunting. " The local people used fire technology to maintain an environment that supported them
even when the climate no longer supported that ecosystem.
So I applaud and encourage efforts to preserve native prairie in the region-they are valuable
as endangered species habitat, examples of cultural heritage, and a way of preserving
pl anetary biological wisdom. But we should restore these prairies with the strict recognition that
we are creating-not recreating or restoring--a state that can not be supported by current
climate and other conditions. Prairies are artificial in the Willamette Valley. The preservation of
prairies there isn't a matter of Simply repairing and replanting a degraded landscape and then
watching the prairie thrive, but constructing a species community and an environment for it that
must remain on intensive life support, with constant intervention, for it to survive at all, as long
as the climate remains unsuitable to it. The Willamette prairie remnants can't be considered
native; the only criteria they meet is that they were here in small patches when botanists first
catalogued them. But so were dandelions. Botanists knew dandelions weren't native, but the
didn't know that the prairies were human created, so the prairies were catalogued as native.
Prairies in the Northwest haven't been indigenous for 4000 years .

We love the local prairies and I firmly believe in the efforts to preserve them. But I want us to
be clear that we are restoring to an idea. We are restoring because we want these things here,
and not because there is a master blueprint that says they are the right ecosystem for the place.
Ecosystems exist because current conditions favor those particular assemblages. Change the
conditions, and the ecosystems will, absolutely, change. Both the climate and humans have
changed the conditions plenty. Environmental change is the driving force behind shifting
species makeup. With plants and most animal species, no evil species showed up and through
sheer cussedness, killed off the locals. Instead, the conditions changed.
The very concept of wild land, for most Americans, is founded on a misunderstanding: a very
brief ecological moment during which a once-managed ecosystem was at the height of its
degradation due to loss of its keystone species. The dark and tangled primeval forests, written
about by Thoreau and Emerson, are simply the declining remnants of open and spacious
Eastern food forests , turned to thicket after a century or two of neglect. But this idea of
wilderness is deep in our mythology, national imagery, and consciousness.
Disturbance causing change
Let's look at some of the causes of species change. First: terminology. The word "invasive
H
is
loaded. We hate invaders. The term also places focus solely on the incoming species, yet the
ability of a species to survive is due to interactions with the biological and physical environment.
So I prefer a more and I think, ecological more correct and descriptive term, such as
opportunistic. Kudzu is not much of a problem in its native habitat , but it will take advantage of
opportunities.
What creates those opportunities for species shifts? Intact ecosystems are notoriously hard to
invade. We know this because, for example, seed dispersal rates are truly astounding. Birds
are a major dispersal agent. They can carry seeds from multiple plant species in their gut,
stuck to their feathers, and in mud on their feet. So picture billions and billions of birds, for 60
million years or so, traveling tens to thousands of miles, seeds dropping off of them every wing-
beat of the way. Add to that bats, which are actually more effective at seed dispersal , per bat,
than birds. Plus land-animal dispersals, not as far-ranging as birds but bringing much larger
seed loads via droppings and fur. Include water-rafted trees and other plants, wind-dispersed
species, and more.
This gives a picture of the whole planet crisscrossed with billions of birds and animals for
millions of years, seeds and spores going everywhere, eggs being carried to new environments,
dispersal, dispersal, dispersal! So why isn't the whole planet a weedy thicket? Because the
mere arrival of a new species, even in large numbers, is not what causes a successful
colonization. Ecosystems are very hard to invade, and several conditions must be present for
that to happen.
A major reason for ecosystems being tough to invade is that nearly all the resources in
undisturbed ecosystems are being exploited. Nearly every niche is filled, every nutrient flow is
being consumed, almost every opportunity is taken. Two major changes make ecosystems
invasible: disturbance, and the appearance of new resources. Take disturbance. Perennially
disturbed places, like riparian zones, are sensitive to opportunistic species. So is farmland, or
Page 8
developed areas, or anywhere than humans or nature cause disturbance. It drives me nuts
when I read that wspecies X" has destroyed 50,000 acres of habitat. When you do a little
digging you find that, no, that area was farmed, or new roads cut, or logged, or ' polluted, or
otherwise disturbed, and then the new species moved in.
For example, the poster child of invasion biologists is the brown tree snake, blamed for invading
Guam and killing off several species of birds. The untold story is that for decades the US Navy
used over half of the island as a bombing range, leaving most of it unfit for life. Much of what
remained was crowded by displaced people, and developed by the military, and thus turned into
poor and disturbed habitat. The tree snake just cleaned up the struggling remnants that were
already in serious decline.
Stop the disturbance, and you'll almost always eliminate or reduce the effect of the new
species. Land I lived on was clear-cut in the early 1970s and not replanted with fir until the
1980s, and was covered with patches of Himalayan blackberry and Scot's broom when I arrived
in the early 1990s. By the late 1990s, both species were gone from most places and nearly
dead everywhere else, because the trees had grown back and shaded them out. The problem
is disturbance, not that a species pushes out others because it's tough or mean.
This suggests that we need to take care of naturally disturbed areas like riverbanks, since most
of the species we've labeled as problematical thrive on disturbance. Even in these riparian
zones, thou9.,h, conditions are altered from what they once were because of the loss of the
beaver and from damming. Thus nature is just trying to deal with our changes as best as she
can, and she' ll use whatever re:sources she can find. A return to a natural distyrbance regime
will allow the once-present vegetation to return, if that is our choice for that land.
New resources causing change
The second cause of successful invasion is the appearance of new resources. Often the new
resources that that allow an otherwise intact ecosystem to be colonized are pollution and
fertilizer runoff. For example, a number of aquatic opportunists, such as purple loosestrife,
thrive in more polluted and higher-nutrient environments than the plants they replace. Many
species that evolved in clean water are harmed by pollutants. Loosestrife, though, has high
rates of nutrient uptake, and this trait allows it to out-compete many other species in polluted
water. But in permaculture, we say that that every problem carries within it the seeds of its own
solution. And so loosestrife can be used in const ructed wetlands and in natural environments to
clean nutrient-rich water. They are an indicator of a problem, a response to it, and nature's way
of solving a problem, not the problem itself. If you really hate loosestrife and want it to go
away, clean up the water. Without doing that, you'll be flailing away at the problem forever.
Spraying and yanking is not an effective strategy to remove unwanted species. Nature is far
more patient and persistent, and has a bigger budget, than we do. To remove an unwanted
species, change the conditions that made it more favored than the desired vegetation.
Unwanted species generally arrive because humans have changed the environment to make
conditions more favorable for the new species. And when we "restore" landscapes, or more
often, i ntroduce a set of species that we have decided are the ones we want to see there, we
are altering the landscape to suit our idea of what should be there, not to match some divine
plan. These two understandings burden us with a huge responsibility to make intell igent
choices, but more importantly, to recognize that we are often arbitrarily making a choice based
on our own preferences, not because there is only one right choice for a landscape, When we
put resources into landscape management, however, we direct the shape of that landscape
toward only one choice. That's the best we can do. Thus I'd like to see us be less dogmatic in
the way we cling to those choices.
Unfortunately, dogma is present on all sides. Friends of mine approached the Portland city
government with a plan to create some edible plant corridors along Springwater Trail , a 40-mile
bicycle and pedestrian loop around the city. Their idea was for bikers and pedestrians to be
able to snack on berries and fruit. The city official in charge said, ~ N o p e , we have a natives-
only policy on the traiL" The trail is a paved pathway that .goes through industrial areas and
along backyards, road right-at-ways, and scrubby vacant lots. It probably goes through a dozen
or more different environments, based on soil , water, sunlight, and all the other factors that
determine what plant communities will grow there. But the policy is natives only. Wouldn't it
make' sense for the primary species that will be using that trail to have a habitat that suits that
species' needs for food and comfort , particularly since it 's in a busy urban area? But instead the
landscaping is to be driven by an idea, by dogma. I totally support the idea of having natives-
only areas on the trail. But let 's allow the new landscaping to serve those that it 's being built
for, too.
I began this with corn and soybeans. One of my favorite snarky questions for natives-only
people is: "What did you eat for breakfast?" I ask that because it is our choi ces that determine
how much of our landscape is going to be consumed by non-native species. I didn't eat camas
cakes with pink-flowering currant syrup this morning, and I'll bet you didn't eat any local plants
either. Of course, I'd rather see someone growing indigenous species in their yard rather than
having a sterile, resource gobbling lawn. But my Portland yard is not , in my or several other
lifetimes, going to be part of a natural ecosystem. I might be able to cultivate some endangered
native species in an attempt to pull a rare plant back from extinction. That 's one good reason I
can see for growing indigenous plants in my yard. But the most frequent native plants I see
grown in yards are salal , Oregon grape, and others that are in no danger of extinction and don't,
to our knowledge, support specialist species dependent only upon them. And since much of my
yard is watered, it is inappropriate for me to grow natives that are adapted to our dry summers.
It' s always stuck me as bizarre to see Northwest natives being irrigated.
But even more than indigenous plants, I'd rather see someone providing for some of their own
needs from their yard. When we eat a bowl of cornflakes for breakfast , or oatmeal , or store-
bought eggs, we are commissioning with our dollars the conversion of wild land into
monoculture farms. I'll bet that a large percentage people reading this buy local food, shop
organic, and so forth. But the farms growing that food are almost all moncultures, and out of
the urban matri x. In other words, it is farmland that , if consumption decreased, has a far better
chance of being restored to a functioning ecosystem than a home lot. If I grow some of my own
food, that means that somewhere out in the country, a farmer won't have to plOW so close to the
riverbank, or could let some of that back field go wild. That land has a far better chance of
functioning as an ecosystem than my yard will. Oh, I have visions of how city and suburban
landscapes could be functional ecosystems, but that' s another subject. My point is, we need to
be putting money and energy into growing indigenous species where they will do the most good,
where they can truly contribute to ecosystems and their functions. Much of our efforts in
eliminating exotics is a complete waste of resources at best , and at worst is a terrible use of
poisons to destroy a hybrid habitat whose function we don't yet grasp. Let' s be honest at what
we are restoring to: an idea of what belongs in a place. If we want to get rid of an invasive
exotic, let's get rid of some monocultured corn, and let a bit of farmland return to being a real
ecosystem.
Copyright 2007 by Toby Hemenway
Reprinted from http: //patternliteracy.com with permission.
Greek agroforestry systems
Introduction
Agroforestry systems are a traditional land use practice in Greece, being widely distributed all
over the country and covering some 23% of the total land area.
Types of system include silvoarable (trees and crops grown on arable land), silvopasture (trees
and pasture/animals grown on forest and arable land) and agrosilvopastoral (trees, crops and
animals grown on arable land.)
Trees may be forest species or cultivated fruit trees, sometimes 'planted, sometimes from
natural regeneration, evergreen or deciduous. Crops are annual or perennial. Animals may be
sheep, goats, cattle, pigs or chickens.
All types of system deliver a great variety of goods and services while the role of trees is crucial
in sustaining production and improving the environment.
History
Greek agroforestry dates back to Neolithic times when forests were opened up by cutting or
burning to enable grazing for domesticated livestock, resulting in silvopastoral systems.
The deliberate incorporation of trees into farming systems started much later when olive and
other fruit trees such as sweet chestnut and walnut were introduced. The intercropping of olive
trees and cereals or legumes was widespread in Greece during the first millennium Be because
it was more productive then monocultures. This practice has continued ever since with olive
and other forest species.
Types of agroforestry systems
Greek agroforestry systems can be separated into two groups. Those found on private
agricultural land, and those found on forest land owned by government or other organisations.
In the first group, agroforestry systems usually consist of two components , trees and crops.
Trees may be found or planted isolated, in groups or lines (also making windbreaks) within the
arable fields or in their borders, while crops are usually cereals. Occasionally forage crops are
dir4exctly grazed by animals, although many of these systems are grazed after the harvest of
the cereal crop.
The second group on forest land involve trees and animals grazing on the understorey which is
a natural pasture with herbaceous or shrubby species. These systems include open forests as
well as denser ones that can be grazed without significantly impairing wood production or other
forest values. These silvopastoral systems are important grazing lands - most of Greece's 5.4
million goats graze in them, as well as some 9 million sheep and 600,000 cattle.
The most common agroforestry systems are listed below based on the dominant tree of the
overstory (note, though, that very often the dominant tree is grown together with other tree
species in mixed agroforestry systems). The main products/uses refer to both overstory and
understory crops.
Page 11
Natural coniferous trees
Dominant Latin name Main understory Main products/uses
tree species
Greek fir Abies ce hafonica Herbaceous Timber , fora e
Bulgarian fir Abies barisii-regis Herbaceous Timber, fora e
italian Cupressus sempervirens Evergreen shrubs Forage, timber
cypress
Calabrian Pinus brutia Evergreen shrubs Resin, fuelwQod, timber,
pine forage, honey
Aleppo pine Pinus halepenis Evergreen shrubs Resin, fuelwood, timber,
forage, honey
Heildri ch Pinus leucodermis Herbaceous Timber, barrel wood,
pine fOraQ8
Austrian pine Pinus nigra Herbaceous Timber, electricity poles,
forage
Stone pine Pinus pinea Herbaceous, Forage, timber, pine nuts
evergreen shrubs
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris Herbaceous Timber, electricity poles,
forage
Cultivated coniferous trees
tree species
Itali an Cupressus sempervirens Arable crops, Windbreaks, agricultural
cypress herbaceous products, timber
Natural broad leaved evergreen trees
Dominant latin name Main understory Main products/ uses
tree species
Kermes oak Ouercus coccifera Evergreen shrubs, Forage, acorns, fuel wood
phrygana
Holm oak Ouercus ilex Evergreen shrubs Charcoal, fuelwood, forage
Cultivated broad leaved evergreen trees
Dominant latin name Main understory Main products/ uses
tree species
Carob Ceratonia si/iqua Herbaceous, Fruits, forage, cereals,
arable crops qrapes, fuelwood
Olive Olea europaea Arable crops, Olives, forage, fodder,
herbaceous cereals, grapes, fuelwood,
wood
Page 12
Natural broadleaved deciduous trees
tree species
Field maple Acer campestre Herbaceous, Fuelwood, forage
deciduous shrubs
Sweet Castanea sativa Herbaceous, Poles, fuelwQod, nuts,
chestnut arable crops fodder, honey
European Celtis australis Herbaceous, FuelwQod, forage, timber,
nettle tree arable crops fruits
Beech Fagus sy/vatica Herbaceous, Timber, forage, potatoes
potatoes
Almond Pyrus amygda/iformis Herbaceous, Forage, fuelwood. cereals,
leaved pear deciduous shrubs, fruits
arable crops
Turkey oak Quercus cerris Herbaceous, FuelwQod, fodder I cereals,
deciduous shrubs, forage, acorns
arable croos
Italian oak Quercus {rainetto Herbaceous, Timber, fuelwQod, fodder,
deciduous shrubs, cereals, forage, acorns
arable crops
Valonia oak Quercus ithaburensis Phrygana, Forage, fuelwood, acorns,
ssp. Macrofepis herbaceous, arabl e cereals
,
crops
Sessile oak Quercus petraea Herbaceous, Timber, fuelwood, fodder,
arable crops
Downy oak Quercus pubescens Herbaceous, Timber, fuelwood, fodder,
arable crops
Macedonian Quercus trojana Herbaceous, Fuelwood, cereals, forage,
oak deciduous shrubs, timber, fodder, acorns
arable crops
Cultivated broadleaved deciduous trees
Dominant Latin name Main understory Mai n products/uses
tree species
Sweet Castanea sativa Herbaceous Timber, nuts, forage
chestnut
Quince Cydonia oblonga Arable crops Fruits, cereals , vegetables,
grapes, forage, fuelwood
Fig Ficus carica Arable crops, Frui ts, grapes, cereals,
phrygana forage
Walnut Juglans regia Arable crops, Timber, nuts, cereals,
herbaceous grapes, forage
Apple Malus communis Arable crops Fruits, cereals, vegetables,
grapes, forage, fuelwood
White Morus alba Arable crops, Foliage for silkworms,
mulberry herbaceous fodder, fuelwood, cereals,
forage, fruits
Page 13
Poplar Populus spp. Herbaceous, Timber, vegetables, forage
arable crops
Theves Populus thevestina Arable crops Timber, vegetables
poplar
Almond Prunus amygdalus Arable crops, Almonds, grapes, cereals,
herbaceous fuelwood, forage
Aprico,t Prunus armeniaca Arable crops Fruits, cereals, vegetables,

grapes, foraoe, fuelwood
Sweet cherry Prunus avium Arable crops Fruits, cereals, vegetables,
crapes forace, fuelwood
Plum Prunus domestica Arable crops Fruits, cereals, vegetables,
orapes, foraoe, fuel wood
Peach Prunus persica Arable crops Fruits, cereals, vegetables,
orapes, foraoe, fuelwood
Pear Pyrus communis Arable crops Fruits, cereals, vegetables,
orapes, foraoe, fuelwood
Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia Arable crops, Timber, honey, forage,
herbaceous fodder
An important element of traditional agroforestry systems is tree management, with two
techniques used: shredding and pollarding. Both are used to provide fodder for animals and
sometimes fuelwood.
Shredding consists of cutting the lower branches of the tree for fodder, while pollarding involves
cutting off the branches of a tree at a height of 1.5 to 2m ( or even up to 3m) so that new shoots
are out of reach of animals. Pollarded trees are first cut when 10-15 years old or when stem
diameter exceeds 15cm (6") .
Leaf and twig fodder cut from trees played a major role in animal husbandry. A Greek village
owning 2,000 sheep and goats would have to shred between 3,000 and 10,000 mature oaks.
The most important agroforestry systems
Aleppo pine forests
Aleppo pine is a Mediterranean species, a light demanding tree and as a result Aleppo pine
forests have open crowns, allowing a rich understory to develop mainly of evergreen shrubs.
Aleppo pine is also well adapted to wildfires and its forests are the most commonly burned
forest areas in Greece.
Trees are used for timber and fuelwood production but mainly for resin and honey. Resin is
used for glue as a flavouring in retsina, a popular Greek white wine. Honey is produced by
bees fed on honeydew secretions from an endemic insect.
Understory vegetation is used for fuelwood production but mainly for grazing - the vegetation is
not of high feed value but is often indispensable especially for goats.
Calabrian pine forests
Another Mediterranean conifer, found In Eastern Greece, The Aegean Islands and in Crete. It
is also a light-demanding species and its natural stands are open; as a result forests support a
lush understory of herbaceous and shrubby plants. Brutia pine silvopastures can extend the
grazing period into summer when herbaceous species without tree cover go dormant.
Page 14
4-
Traditional Tree management types:
( 1) Non managed tree
10
(2) Managed walnut tree for high quality timber
(3) Pruned Aleppo pine for ship building timber
(4) Pallarded tree for fodder
(5) Pallarded oak for fodder
(6) Pallarded oak for fodder
(7) Pollarded mulberry for fodder
(8) PoJfarded tree for storage of fodder
(9) Shredded oak tree for fodder
(l 0) Grafted tree for fruit production
(1 1) Lopped olive tree for olives and fodder production
II
Page 15
The timber is of better quality than Aleppo but resin production is less. Goats are wi dely
grazed, controlli ng the understory vegetation and reducing the fire risk.
Cypress systems
Italian cypress is di stributed in the southern Aegean Islands and Crete, but has been planted
throughout Greece.
Bothtnatural and planted forests are used for timber production and grazing, and cypress is also
planted in field lines to form windbreaks.
Kermes oak forests
Kermes oak is an evergreen species, often found as a shrub on its own of with other trees sue
to repeated cutting, burning and browsing. These shrublands are mainly used for grazing
goats.
Valoni a oak systems
This is a deciduous oak which is found growing either in pure stands or with other oaks, with an
understory consisting of both woody and herbaceous species. Valonia oak trees are usually
cultivated at 20 to 50 trees per hectare so that forests are open and support a rich understory.
Page 16
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Volt7 No 4
Valonia oak forests are the Greek equivalent to the dehesas and montados of Spain and
Portugal. Sheep are used to graze the understorey forage and also the fallen acorns. In
several places Valonia oak is grown within arable fields or in borders of terraces cultivated with
cereals. ~ .
Oak trees are also used for fuelwood of which there is a big demand. In the past, the acorn
cups were extensively used for extraction of tannins used in the leather industry.
Macedonian oak forests
Another deciduous oak found in forests wither pure of mixed with other oaks. Most natural
stands are open, supporting considerable understorey vegetation, woody or herbaceous.
Woody understorey may consist of shrubby oaks (downy, Turkey, Italian) as well as other trees
kept shrubby like hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis) and manna ash (Fraxinus omus).
Most Macedonian oak forests are undergrazed by sheep and goats who eat both vegetation and
acorns. Trees are also cut for fuelwood. Macedonian oak is also found within or in the
boundaries of arable fields, grown with arable crops especially cereals.
Other deciduous oak systems
These include downy, Italian and Turkey oaks, grown as high or coppice forests and mainly
used for timber or firewood production. Most are grazed by livestock but much less intensively
as they are dense with limited understory vegetation. Trees are sometimes found within or on
the boundaries of arable fields cultivated with cereals, and used for fuelwood, fodder (by
shredding or pollarding), providing shade for stock or as property markers. The arable fields
are grazed after harvest. In some areas barley and wheat are cultivated not for grain
production but as temporary pastures grazed in winter or early spring.
Olive tree systems
Olive trees are grown in pure orchards but more commonly in mixtures with other fruit or forest
trees on flat or terraced land. Most often the understory is planted with vineyards, cereals or
forages. Olive trees themsel ves are mainly grown for the fruit but the pruned branches are also
used as a fuel and for feeding animals either in situ on in the barn.
Page 17
Deciduous oak - cereal silvoarable (GAN)
Poplar systems
Poplars contribute significantly to the timber production of Greece. Poplars are grown or
planted in arable lands with good soils, irrigated or with good water conditions (eg. rivers or
canals). Beneath is usually an understory used for livestock grazing, or an arable area used for
vegetables or other summer crops. The trees also act as windbreaks.
Walnut tree systems
Walnut is common and is planted in arable lands either in pure orchards or more commonly
within arable fields or on their boundaries, alone or in mixtures. Walnut is usually combined
with several crops, especially vineyards and cereals but also vegetables, beans and lucerne
(the latter for grazing). The walnut trees yield nuts, high quality timber and fuelwood.
Almond tree systems
Almond is another commonly cultivated fruit tree, planted on its own or in mixtures with olives,
figs, walnuts and pistachios, but most commonly with vineyards or herbaceous crops (cereals,
tobacco, forages, legumes)
Page 18
I
t
I
Page 19
Current status of agroforestry
Traditional agroforestry systems have been considerably degraded in the last 60 years, which
can be attributed to the decline in agriculture in the Greek countryside. A rural exodus stripped
the countryside of a large part of its population. Since Greek agroforestry systems are labour-
intensive, their function was significantly affected. Many forest lands have been abandoned. In
arable areas, monocultures of trees or arable crops have reduced traditional activities.
In Ilia last few years some new systems have been trialled. These include silvopastoral
systems based on fodder trees such as black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and white
mulberry, and on timber trees such as sycamore and Scots pine. New silvoarable systems
combine timber trees (eg. walnut, wild cherry) and various crops (eg. wheat , maize). Lack of
financial incentives for farmers has delayed their widespread adoption but since agroforestry
has been recently incorporated in the EU agricultural policy, farmers in Greece will soon be
financially assisted to set up agroforestry systems.
Reference
Papanastasis, V P et al: Traditional Agroforestry Systems and their evolution in Greece. In
Rigueiro Rodriguez et al: Agroforestry in Europe: Current Status and Future Prospects.
Springer, 2009.
http://www.agroforestry.gr/index. php : the Greek agroforestry network (GAN).
Ecosystem services and environmental
benefits of agroforestry
Introduction
Recent research over the last decade has confirmed that agroforestry systems provide
ecosystem benefits, environmental benefits, as well as economic commodities as part of a
mutifunctional working landscape.
The integration of trees, agricultural crops and/or animals into an agroforestry system has the
potential to enhance soil fertility, reduce erosion, improve water quality, enhance biodiversity,
increase aesthetics and sequester carbon. These services and benefits occur over a range of
spatial and temporal scales:
Ecosystem service Spatial scale
Farmllocal Landscape/reQlonal Global
Net rimary production
* " ".
Pest control
.........
Pollination / seed dispersal
...........
Soil enrichment
..........
Soil stabilisation I erosion
".*
control
Clean water
*
*.***.*
D'.
}

)-
Ecosystem service Spatial scale
Farm/local Landsca e/reglonal Global
Flood mitigation
......... . ........
Clean air
, .........
...... "."
Carbon se uestration
.""",, ....
......... . ........
Biodiversity
......... ......... . ..... " ..
Aesthetics / Cultural
......... . ........ ...... " ..
Carbon sequestration
This involves the removal and storage of carbon from the atmosphere, here into vegetation or
soils, through physical or biological processed. The incorporation of trees or shrubs in
agroforestry systems can increase the amount of carbon sequestered compared with a
monoculture field of crop plants or pasture.
In addition to the amount of carbon stored in biomass, agroforestry systems can
also store carbon below ground. The largest amount and most permanent form of carbon may
be sequestered by increasing the rotation age of trees and/or shrubs and by manufacturing
durable products from them after harvesting.
The amount of carbon sequestered varies depending on many factors - species composition,
age, location, environmental factors and management practices. Agroforests on arid,
or degraded site have a lower carbon sequestration potential than those on fertile humid sites;
and temperate agroforestry systems have a slightly lower rate compared with ,tropical systems.
The current area of agroforestry in the world is about 1,023 million ha, and this area has the
potential to sequester about 1.9 Pg carbon over 50 years. Considering the potential to vastly
extend agroforestry practices, there is enormous potential to sequester much more than this.
Perennial plant systems such as those in agroforestry also lead to large communities of soil-
borne mycorrhizal fungi. These not only improve the health of the system itself , but play an
important role in the sequestration of carbon.
Soil enrichment
The role of agroforestry in enhancing and maintaining soil productivity and
sustainability is well known. The incorporation of trees and crops to fix nitrogen is fairly
common in agroforestry systems. Non N-fixing trees can also enhance soil physical. chemical
and biological properties by adding significant organic matter and by releasing and recycling
nutrients.
Biodiversity conservation
Agroforestry plays five major roles in conserving biodiversity:
(1) It provides habitat for species that can tolerate a certain level of disturbance
(2) It helps preserve germplasm of sensitive species
(3) It helps reduce the rates of conversion of natural habitat by providing a more
productive, sustainable alternative to traditional agricultural systems that may involve
clearing natural habitats
(4) It provides connectivity by creating corridors between habitat remnants which can
support the integrity of those remnants and the conservation of sensitive species
(5) It helps conserve biological diversity by providing other ecosystem services such as
erosion control and water recharge, preventing the degradation and loss of habitat.
Page 21
An agroforestry system with conservation goals needs to be designed with certain
characteristics;
Type of activity
Design of agroforestry
system
Management of system
Spatial configuration
Variable
Species composition
Tree/shrub density
Type of system
Duration of system
Management regime
Desirable characteristics
Diverse species, mixture of early, mid,
late successional species, preferably
native
Higher tree/shrub density
Any diverse system structurally and
florally
Long rotation for stability
Minimal management
Maximise diverse resources
Soil management Minimal
Harvesting Minimal, or harvesting that emulates
natural disturbance
Fire management Follow natural fire regimes if possible
Management of snags & Maintain as habitat
woody debris
Location in landscape
Type of fand
Locate to
connectivity
habitats
enhance
by linking
landscape
fragmented
Locate adjacent to protected areas,
rivers and remnant native habitat to act
as buffer
Degraded sites where Revegetation will
improve biodiversity
Tropical homegardens are particularly well known for their high diversity of species - a recent
review found between 27 and 602 species in different homegardens. Where agriculture has
decimated forest cover, these systems can serve as refuges of species diversity.
Improved air and water quality
Agroforestry windbreaks and shelterbelts have numerous documented benefits, including
protecting buildings and roads from drifting snow, reducing wind chill and improving livestock
production, protecting crops, limiting wind erosion and particulate matter in the air, reducing
noise pollution and mitigating odours.
Page 22
Riparian buffer in Iowa
Agroforestry practices are also a proven strategy to provide clean water. In conventional
agricultural systems (including organic systems) over halt of the applied nitrogen and
phosphorus fertilisers are washed out of the soil via surface runoff or leaching, contaminating
water sources. Riparian buffers help to clean runoff by reducing the velocity of the water,
allowing sediment deposition, infiltration and nutrient retention . Buffers also reduce nutrient
movement into ground water by taking up excess nutrients. (It is arguable, though, that it would
be better to have sustainable agricultural systems in the first place rather then using
agroforestry buffers to clean up the mess.)
Trees with deep rooting systems in agroforestry systems can also improve ground water quality
by serving as a 'safety net' whereby excess nutrients that have leached below the rooting zone
of agronomic crops are taken up by the tree roots, to be then recycled back into the system
through root turnover and litterfall.
Conclusion
In an era of environmental consciousness and ecological sustainability, the role of agroforestry
as an environmentally benign and ecologically sustainable alternative to traditional farming that
also offers a number of ecosystem services has huge potential not just for landowners and
farmers but for society at large in landscapes the world over.
Reference
Jose, S: Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits: an overview.
Agroforestry Systems (2009) 76: 1-tO.
Page 23
Black truffles and agroforestry
Introduction
The European black truffle or Perigord truffle (Tuber melanosporum) is an ectomycorrhizal*
fungus with fruiting bodies found underground which are high valued in international haute
cuisine, because of their refined and pervasive flavour and aroma (fresh earth and mushrooms).
black truffle production comes almost entirely from France, Spain and Italy, which
compri se most of the natural distribution area.
(*Mycorrhi zas are specialised structures which develop where certain fungi colonise the tissues
of fine roots. The fungi help in the mineral nut ri tion of the plant in return for carbohydrates and
other substances such as vi tamins. This mutually beneficial relationship is called symbiotic or a
symbiosis. In the symbiosis, the fungal threads (hyphae) permeate the soil more intimately
than plants roots and take up nutrients and water which they then transfer to the plant; their
main action is to improve mineral nutrient uptake, particularly of phosphorus but also of boron,
copper, nitrogen, potassium, selenium, sulphur and zinc. Ectomycorrhizas are one of the most
common types.)
History
The rise in truffle use in French and Italian cooking began in the 16
th
century and was driven by
kings, princes and other aristocrats. Increased culinary use led to advances in the management
of naturally occuring truffieres (nonplanted truffleproducing stands) and expanded truffle
production in France and Italy during the 19
th
century. The dreaded Phylloxera disease of
grapes also played a role, since truffle cultivation was an alternative to vineyards.
Reforestation laws contri buted to the expansion of truftl eproducing trees like the evergreen
holm oak (Quercus ilex) in calcareous mountains such as the Luberon and Mont Ventoux.
In the 20
th
Century, French truffle production declined spectacularly as a result of rural
depopulation. Resulting in the practical disappearance of firewood cutting, charcoal production,
lands dedicated to marginal agricultural activities, and forest grazing by flocks of sheep. As a
resul t , forest stand density increased greatly, suppressing truffle formation. In addition,
farmers' knowledge on truffle managemer.lt was lost.
In Italy the decline in production was smaller and due to deforestation during war years when
truffle trees were cut for firewood.
In contrast to France and Italy, Spain has only recently incorporated truffles into popular
gastronomy. It was not until the 1950's that the systematic collection from Spanish truffieres
began. Here too, however, there was a big reduction in truffle production in the 1970s, due to
rural depopulation, the collapse of many forest uses, and reforestation using conifers. A large
increase in wild boar population also contributed to the decline.
In the 1970's, mycorrhizal seedling production (ie of young trees inoculated with black truffle
mycorrhizas) was developed and plantations began to be planted out specifically for truffle
production. In France there are now about 10,000 ha of plantations of age 1030 and another
8,000 ha under 10 years old. The main tree species used in these plantations are downy oak
(Quercus pubescens) , holm oak, and hazel (Cory/us avellana). The majority of plantations and
production are located in the southeast (Vaucluse, Drome, Gard) and the southwest (Lot,
Dordogne).
In Italy there are about 5,000 of plantations, mostly in the centre of the country (Marche,
Umbria, Abruzzo), most of which use black truffle but some have used other truffle species
(T.magnatum, T.aestivum, T.borchii, T.brumale). The black truffle plantations usE;! mainly downy
oak, also hazel , hop-hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) and holm oak.
,
Black truffles (Source: Wikepedia)
In Spain, some 4,000 ha of plantations exist, including the largest single plantation of 600 ha in
Soria (Northeastern Spain). Holm oak, hazel , downy oak and Portuguese oak (Quercus
faginea) are the main trees used.
These plantations of inoculated seedlings have halted the decline in truffle production in France
and Spain, although overall production has hardly risen. In France, 90% of production is now
from plantations; in Spain 30% and in Italy 50%, the remainder coming from natural truffieres.
Ecology
Life cycle
Because it is a symbiotic fungus, the black truffle depends mainly on living host trees as a
carbohydrate source. Nevertheless, T.melanosporum mycelium can exhibit some pathogenic
and saprophytic capabilities: it can infect the roots of some weeds and grasses and damage
them. This capability seems to be responsible for the formation of the brule, an area where
most of the fruiting bodies occur, characterised by scarce vegetation. Perhaps the fungi is
Page 25
trying to make it easier for animals to find the fruiting bodies.
There is still little knowledge of the environmental and biological requirements for fruiting. The
fruiting bodies grow without attachment to the host tree and mature between December and
March, producing their particular smell which attracts various mammals and insects which
disperse their spores.
Symbiont plants
Black truffle has a relatively wide range of host species. The most common are holm oak,
do'wny oak and hazel. Other species can sustain good truffle production (depending on the
climate and soil) including English oak (Quercus robur), kermes oak (Q.coccifera), Portuguese
oak, Hop-hornbeam, hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and Oriental hornbeam (C.orientalis).
Stand vegetation
Most of the best naturally occuring truffieres are found in areas of open woodland, with canopy
cover under 30%, scarce shrub cover and the average spacing between trees greater than 1.5
times their
top height. In terms of plant
succession, black truffle is found at the open young forest stage, later than the scrubby phase
but before dense forest forms.
Competitor mycorrhizal fungi
Soils contain a high diversity of mycorrhizal fungi, and where ectomycorrhizal plants have been
growing (ie many trees as in the table below) there will be a strong potential for infection of
newly planted trees by a fungi already resident in the soil. Tuber melanosporum competes
poorly with many soil-resident fungi and thus new plantations of inoculated trees are most
successful when planted on agricultural soils where trees have not been growing recently.
Ectomycorrhizal plant hosts:
Family
Aceraceae
Betulaceae
Fagaceae
Juglanaceae
Pinaceae
Page 26
Genus
Acer
Alnus
Betula
Carpinus
Cory/us
Castanea
Fagus
Quercus
Carya
Jug/ans
Abies
Cedrus
Larix
Picea
Pinus
Pseudotsuga
Tsuga
Common name
Maples
Alders
Birches
Hornbeams
Hazels
Chestnuts
Beeches
Oaks
Hickories, Pecan
Walnuts
Firs
Cedars
Larches
Spruces
Pines
Douglas fir
Hemlocks
Salicaceae
Populus Poplars
Salix Willows
Tiliaceae
Tilia
,
Limes
Ericaceae Arbutus Strawberry trees
Arctostaphylos Manzanitas
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Eucalyptus
The most important competitor in many truffle orchards (especially in France) is T.brumafe,
which has similar ecological requirements to black truffle.
Climate
Most regions are located in transition zones between Mediterranean type
climate and temperate ones. They usually experience a dry summer period but not as marked
in a true Mediterranean climate. Average conditions include:
Mean annual temperature: 8.6 to 14.SDC
Mean temperature of warmest month: 16.5 to 23C
Mean temperature of coldest month: 1 to 8C
Mean annual rainfall: 450-900mm (although in France there are areas with up to
1500mm)
Rainfall in July and August is unpredictable in most of the area of natural distribution, and this is
the factor which has the greatest influence on truffle production. Very dry spells during this
period reduce production significantly.
Soil
Black truffle is typically found on calcareous (ie alkaline) soils, with pH 7.5-8.5, with an organic
matter content of 1-8%, which are well-aerated and well -drained with a good soil structure.
Most lruffieres are found on low south-facing slopes (5-30% of slope).
Truffle silviculture in truffieres
In many black truffle-producing forests and old truffle orchards in France, Italy and Spain, the
stand density is higher then optimum. Management in these cases consists of opening the
vegetation and eliminating competitor trees. Non black truffle trees are clear-cut , whereas as
trees from black truffle-producing species are pruned until a cover lower than 30% is achieved
around the brufes. Weeding, soi l tillage, liming etc. may also be appropriate.
In Spain and France, truffles belong to the landowner by right , however in Italy truffles are
considered u res nullius" or ownerless property if the soil is not culti vated; over-harvesting is
common, and because the spores of the truffle are completely encased in the fruiting bodies,
systemic and intensive harvesti ng prevents reinoculation of the exploited truffieres and
colonisation of new ones.
Black truffle cultivation
Truffle cultivation consists of 3 stages:
The planting and colonisation period (the first 4-7 years) in which the trees adapt to
field conditions and the fungus spreads;
The consol idati on period until the 10
th
_15
th
years, as the brule develops and the first
truffles appear;
The production phase, as the orchard attains full production, which can last a further
25-30 years or more.
The establi shment of the trees is critical - plants with quicker growth are the first to form the
brule and to produce fruiting bodies. Oaks, hazel and hop-hornbeam are planted at distances
ranging from 4 x 5m to 8 x 8m. Fertilisers are often used but excess use can be damaging to
the .fungus. Good qual ity seedlings and the use of tree shelters is also important.
' ..
Young plantation trees showing the brute - likely to fruit soon
Soil management influences soil moisture organic matter levels and soi l biology. Choices must
be made between Chemical control of weeds, mechanical soil tilling and grassing (maintaining a
grass cover between trees). Herbicides are not generally recommended.
In the production phase, SGii tilling is sometimes used to increase truffle production - it appears
to sometimes increase size, depth and yields of fruiting bodies.
Summer irrigation is often used during dry periods, but excessive irrigation (and excessive soil
water levels) are detrimental to truffle prod.uction.
Mulching of trees is common, usually with calcareous stones but also with shrub branches or
cereal straw. The aim is to retain soil moisture but using alkaline stones does appear to
maintain alkaline soil conditions and improve fruiting.
Trees are pruned from years 3-5 onwards, after trees are over 1 m high, with an inverted cone-
shape (ie a cone standing on its point) sought.
Yields
Searching for truffles is almost always carried out with specially trained domestic female pigs
(truffle hogs) or trained dogs. Truffle hogs have an innate ability to sniff out truffles (due to a
compound within the truffle similar to androstenol , the sex pheromone of boar saliva, to which
the sow is keenl y attracted) but they will eat the truffles too if they can so need careful control.
Truffle dogs must be trained to sniff out truffles.
Truffles are far more difficult to cultivate than saprophytic fungi like shiitake and oyster
mushrooms on logs. Some black truffle plantations produce more than 20 kg per ha per year at
he age of 15 while others of the same age have not produced anything. At full production,
Page 28
irrigated orchards have been known to produce up to 60 kg per ha per year but this is rare.
Individual fruiting bodies can be up to 7cm in diameter and weight 1 O g .
Mature cut fruiting body
The price obtained for black truffles varies greatly from year to year which makes an economic
evaluation very difficult. World production is likely to increase, not only from Europe but also
from Australia and New Zealand. The prices paid by wholesale dealers to truffle growers
depends on the annual production that year, the quality, size and degree of impurities of the
truffles (with truffles from plantations more highly valued) and the country where sold. In recent
years wholesale prices of 400-600 Euros per kg have been common, though retail prices can be
much higher.
Other benefits
Trufficulture has a number of other benefits, not least in helping stem rural depopulation in
marginal agricultural areas. Environmental benefits include controlling soil erosion and
increasing water infiltration rates.
Truffle production is largely compatible with wildlife and game (except for excessive population
of wild boar), extensive livestock production (ie undergrazlng by sheep or goats) and wildfire
hazard reduction (truffle orchards constitute excellent fuelbreaks, due to both brOles and
tillage).
Reference
Reyna-Domenech, A & Garcia-Barreda, S: European Black Truffle: Its Potential Role in
Agroforestry Development in the Marginal Lands of Mediterranean Calcareous Mountains. In
Rigueiro-Rodriguez et al: Agroforestry in Europe: Current Status and Future Prospects.
Springer, 2009.
Autumn olive in forestry
Introduction
Autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbel/ala) is known by agroforestry practitioners as a very useful
winlbreak shrubs, nitrogen-fixer, bee plant and fruiting plant. Its use in forestry as a nurse has
huge potential.
Description
The genus Elaeagnus contains some 45 species of flowering plants, the vast majority of which
are native to temperate and subtropical regions of Asia.
Autumn olive is a large multi-stemmed shrub native to China, Korea and Japan that was
introduced to the UK in 1830.
A rounded bush in appearance with a fast growth rate, it can reach a height and spread of 5m
(its normal maximum) in 7-9 years, sometimes less. Drooping branches in time touch the
ground and can self layer. However plants do not spread via suckering.
Elaeagnus umbellata at Dartington, Devon
Leaves and shoots are covered with silvery-brownish scales, giving the plant ' a whitish-grey
brown colour from a distance. The leaves are alternate, simple, 3-1 Oem long and 3-4cm wide.
The flowers are small, silvery white, without petals, which appear in April and May. They are
fragrant and pollinated by bees, especially wild and bumble bees, and sometimes other insects.
The Fruits ripen to a mid red in September and October. The fruit is a fleshy drupe, 6-12mm
across, containing a single seed about 3 x 1 mm which accounts for about 10% of the fruit
weight. The fruits ' are sometimes eaten by birds - though they are astringent before full
ripeness.
In some southern states of the USA, autumn olive is classified as invasive and planting is
prohibited, although it was planted until recently to provide cover and wildlife food. In Britain it
has shown no invasive tendencies.
Propagation
Autumn olive can be grown from seed or cuttings. Each shrub can produce several thousand
seed. Fresh seed should be sown immediately or mi xed with sand, and allowed to stratify over
winter for 3-4 months. Seeds germinate well but seedlings are quite prone to damping off
diseases.
The easiest cuttings to take are hardwood cuttings in winter of the recent season's growth, 7-
12mm in diameter. This is the best way to propagate better fruiting selections.
Silviculture
Autumn olive is a hardy shrub (tolerating -40C) , tolerant of a wide range of soil types and
conditions. It thrives on all but the most alkaline shallow soils, tolerating pH 4.8 to 6.5. It also
tolerates saline soils. It grows best in full sun or light shade, though its seedlings are shade
intolerant. It is very resistant to honey fungus and seems to have no particular pests or
diseases in Britain.
It provides excellent shelter both in summer and winter. It remains in leaf for a long season in
Britain - late February or early March through to late November or even December. Even in
winter it's thick bushy growth gives protection. Once established it is very drought resistant.
It grows well on infertile soils because it is a nitrogen-fixer, so it has root nodules housing
bacteria which can take nitrogen from the air and feed it to the plant. Some of the nitrogen
fi xed is used by the plant but some can be used by other nearby plants too.
Reclamation and environmental protection
Autumn olive has long been planted in North America, as windbreaks (it was widely planted
after the 1930' s dustbowl) but also in reclamation projects on opencast coal mines because it is
tolerant of the low pH found on such sites. It can also be used to stabilise eroded soils in
coastal areas due to its salt spray tolerance.
Fruit production
Fruits are borne on second-year and older wood, and have a unique sweet-tart flavour.
As well as some ornamental varieties being selected which fruit well , a number of fruiting
varieties have been selected both in the USA and in the UK by Martin Crawford of the ART.
American varieties include Brilliant Rose, Delightful , Garnet , Jazbo, Hidden Springs, Jewel ,
Ruby, Sweet-N-Tart. UK varieties include Big Red, Newgate and Red Cascade.
Fruits on E.umbellata 'Big Red'
The fruit are a rich source of vitamins and minerals (especially vitamins A, C and E), flavonoids
and other bioactive compounds. It is also a good source of essential fatty acids, which is
unusual for a fruit. Elaeagnus umbellata fruits contain high levels of Iycopene, an antioxidant
that has been shown to decrease the likelihood of prostrate and other cancers and may even
reverse their growth. Lycopene is a bright red pigment, also found in tomatoes (but there is 15
times the amount in autumn olives) and other red fruit and is the most common carotenoid
pigment in the human body.
Three years after panting, yields of fruits are in the range 2.7 to 6.2 kg per plant. Five year old
plants yield up to 8 kg per plant and six year old plants up to 16 kg per plant from the best
fruiting selections. Individual fruits weight 0.4 to 0.5g.
The plants are being propagated as Yautumnberry" in the USA to try and make the fruits sound
more palatable!
Use in forestry
Many hardwood trees, including black walnut (Juglans nigra) have shown improved growth
when grown with Elaeagnus umbellata and other nitrogen fixing species. Autumn olive
enhances growth of the companion tree by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and by decreasing
herbaceous competition.
Trials in North America have shown that interplanting autumn olive with black walnut can
i ncrease soil nitrogen mineralisation rates, increase black walnut leaf nitrogen levels, and
substantially improve black walnut growth and yield compared with growing black walnut alone.
The autumn olive may also in<;lirectly enhance black walnut growth and yields by reducing
incidence of leaf fungal diseases through interactions with microorganisms in the litter layer.
Trials in the UK started in 2000, and recent results show that although tree nurses did not
significantly affect growth of walnut (Jug/ans regia), walnut height growth with autumn olive was
significantly greater. Walnut trees grown with E.umbellata also had fewer multiple stems and
finer branches, fewer multiple stems at the tree bases, and higher nitrogen nutrition, indicating
that there are significant early benefits from interplanting walnut with autumn olive, which aided
the walnut interplant by (1) improving the microclimate; (2) a forcing effect , or 'drawing up' due
to reduced side light ; (3) increased nitrogen availability and (4) excellent weed control. The
autumn olive in such a system will eventually be killed off by a combination of shading and (with
walnut) the allelopathic nature of juglone in the walnut leaves.
Conclusions
The British climate is changing rapidly and there will be significant impacts on trees and forests.
Growing hardwood trees with compatible nurse species will provide clear benefits, particularly
where the nurse is tolerant of dry soils, as is E/aeagnus umbel/ata.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/17 No 4
Page 33
As well as preserving soil moisture, improving microclimate, and soil conservation; saleable
foliage and a fruit crop offer opportunities for diversification and income generation while the
crop trees grow and mature. .
References
Black, Bet al: Autumnberry (Elaeagnus umbel/ata): A Potential Cash Crop. Journal of the
American Pomological Society 59(3):125-134, 2005.
Clark, J & Hemery, G: The use of the autumn olive in British forestry. Quarterly Journal of
Forestry 2006, Vol .100: 4, 285-288.
Clark, J, Hemery, G & Savill , P: Early growth and form of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) in
mixture with tree and shrub nurse species in southern England. Forestry, Vol 81 , No.
5, 2008.
Crawford, M: pers. comm. 2009.
Agroforestry in Portugal
Introduction
Like other Mediterranean countries, Portugal has a high diversity of agroforestry systems. Four
major silvopastoral systems still exist despite the decline, as elsewhere, of multiple land-use
systems.
Pyrenean oak system
Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) is one of the most abundant and characteristic oaks in the
Iberian peninsula. It is deciduous and occurs in the transition zone between Mediterranean and
temperate deciduous forests.
This oak is mainly found in the form of coppices or young forests, and there are some 62,000 ha
in Portugal (mainly in the northeast) as well as a similar area in West/Northwest Spain. The
Portuguese area has a sub humid Mediterranean climate with average annual temperatures of
11.9C and rainfall of 740-1380 mm per year according to altitude. There is a dry period in July
and August.
This oak silvopastoral system produces firewood, fodder and welfare for traditionally managed
flocks of small ruminants. The coppices are not used by flocks under private control , but are
held and managed communally.
Pyrenean oak coppices are characterised by the presence of a tree layer, planted at densities
between 400 and 100 stems per hectare depending on the land use and age. The understory is
dominated by oak regeneration and to a lesser extent by shrubs such as Cytisus spp. , Erica
spp. , and Genista (alcatB. The herbaceous layer is scarce due to leaf fall and tree shading.
In the past , the traditional coppice cycle was 10-20 years but they are now over 20-25 years.
The wood felled is mainly used as firewood. The woods provide forage and shade for small
ruminants , including acorns. The trees benefit from the fertility left by manure.
Unlike the oaks found in the Montado system (see below), Pyrenean oak regenerates easil y
when felled. Traditionally the most common animals grazed were indigenous goat and sheep
breeds. Currently, some shepherds cut tree branches to feed to the kids in winter. During the
period when trees are in leaf (May-October). sheep flocks move through Pyrenean oak
woodlands, mainly searching for shelter and to rest in the middle of the day. Oak leaves are
eaten mainly by goats.
Acorn production spans late September to earl y November. Acorns are eaten by both sheep
and goat flocks. In winter, goats spend some time in the woodlands (eating understory grass
and shrubs) but sheep very li ttle.
Chestnut tree systems
Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) is a mUltipurpose species cultivated for timber, nut production
(or both) , tannin production and other associated products, the mO$t important of which is
mushrooms.
In Portugal , chestnut forests cover 35,000 ha. Coppices for timber occupy 10% of the area and
high forest stands are unusual ; the largest area is that of chest nut orchards for nut production.
High mortality rates from the diseases chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitical and ink
disease (Phytophthora spp.) affect the main areas of chestnut production.
Chestnut orchards are frequentl y intercropped with cereal crops for direct consumption by
sheep. Low planting densities of 70-100 stems per hectare, using a spacing of 10 x 10m or 12
x 12m allow for several years of intercropping. Goats are excluded since they can damage the
bark of the trees.
Traditionally, sheep in flocks eat the chestnuts left over on the ground after ' harvest. In the
orchards intercropped with cereals for direct consumption, sheep grazing takes place in winter
and part of spring. Where there is no intercropping some grazing at these times is sti ll
common, with the coarse understory species being eaten.
Trees are pruned every 3 years in February-March to maintain fruiting. Regular ploughing, 3-5
times a year, is traditional for weed control and to ease harvesting, however this has damaged
soil structure and caused the spread of ink disease.
Olive tree systems
As in most other southern European regions, olive orchards intercropped with annual crops or
vines is an ancient type of land use in Portugal. The intercrops are usuall y cereals , grape vines
or forage crops (eg. rye, oats.)
Olives are cultivated for the fruits, with old and unproductive trees used for firewood. As a by
product, olive leaves are used as a fodder crop at pruning time in February-March. After
harvest, sheep and goats feed on the remaining fruit left on the ground. The understory species
are mainly grazed in spring. Ploughing 2-3 times a year is common but damages the soil
structure and subsidies are now in place to persuade farmers not to plough.
Traditionally, olive tree density is 100-125 trees per hectare (9 x 9m or 10 x 10m spacing).
Recent intensive olive plantings are much denser but do not have mUltipurpose uses.
Montado systems
The montado is the most extensive agroforestry system in the Iberian peninsula. It is
characterised by the presence of an open tree layer, mainly dominated by Mediterranean
evergreen oaks - holm oak (Quercus Hex) or cork oak (Q.suber) - and to a lesser extent by
deciduous oaks (Q.pyrenaica and Q.faginea). The understory herbaceous vegetation is
dominated by winter annuals and to a lesser extent by small evergreen shrubs.

Portuguese montado
The montado system occurs under the Mediterranean climate with long very dry summers. Cork
oak dominates in the coastal areas where the oceanic influence is stronger, while holm oak
dominates in the driest areas.
Cork oak in Portugal after bark harvest (source: Wikepedia)
Traditionally, the herbaceous layer has been maintained by cereal cultivation over long
rotations, and regular ploughing is used to prevent shrub colonisation - however this practice is
now though to be spreading cork oak diseases.
,
Tree density varies widely from 20 to 80 trees per hectare, with higher densities in cork
montados where the main product is cork from cork oak, and lower densities in holm montado,
where the aim is to maximise acorn production for feeding livestock.
Cork and holm oak have direct fodder use, providing acorns and leafy branches, and indirect
value as shelter for cold in winter and heat in summer. Acorns are eaten when they fall in
autumn and winter.
The traditional system was highly diversified in terms of livestock types, with sheep, goats, pigs
and cattle all used. Pigs are now mainly used to graze on acorns between October-February,
gaining about 60 kg live weight over 75 days. 9 Kg of holm oal< acorns corresponds to the
production of about 1 kg pork.
In ancient times, holm oak was also valued for charcoal production. Nowadays, only cork
production from cork oak is highly valued as a forest product , and Portugal is the worlds major
cork producer. Cork bark can be harvested in cycles of 9 years. The scare stories about plastic
wine stoppers threatening cork oak forests appear to be exaggerated.
Reference
Castro, M: Silva pastoral Systems in Portugal: Current Status and Future Prospects. In
Rigueiro-Rodriguez et al: Agroforestry in Europe: Current Status and Future Prospects.
Springer, 2009.
Agroforestry in the Netherlands
Introduction
Despite Medieval practices which led to almost complete disappearance of Dutch forests, an
agroforestry system later developed and existed for a long time: high -growing fruit trees
(boguards) with an understory of grass, which was mowed or grazed by cows and sheep. More
recently, a number of systems, mainly involving walnut , have been triafled.
'Boguard' system
Last century, a large area of fruit orchards were situated on clay soils between the rivers Rhine
and Meuse, with mature fruit trees (apple, pear, cherry) spaced at 50-150 trees per hectare.
The grassy vegetation beneath was largely 'boguard' species, like Dactylis glomerata, Holcus
mollis and H.lanatus which were usually mowed or grazed by cows and sheep (and sometimes
pigs, for example under plum trees). It was a system which developed with multiple products,
without subsidies.
Poplar system
In the south of the country there 'is along history of growing poplar for industrial purposes
(veneer for matchsticks) over a large area. The grass cover has been used for hay making or
cattle grazing. Poplars are established at 100-200 trees per hectare in lines. Recent trials
have shown thai the growth of arable crops (eg. maize, sugar beet) is economically feasible for
at least 6 years in such systems, before shading reduces crop yields significantly.
A lllor9 recent system includes poplars, elder (Sambucus nigra) and hyacinth bulbs.
Alder systems
At the borders of the wetlands of the northern part of the country, a system using rows of alder
(Alnus glutinosa) has developed. A dense network of alder rows is established, between which
farmers kept cows or harvested grass. During summer, cows grazed the meadows between the
trees. In winter, the alders were pruned vertically (which branches used as firewood) or felled
(for firewood or construction timber) in a 24 year rotation. Grass growth woul d be increased by
the nitrogen fixation of the alders.
A more recent system uses Italian alder (Alnus cordata) intercropped with various horticultural
species.
Walnut systems
A number of different systems have been set up in the last few decades, mostly with a grass
understory to either cut or graze directly. Others understory crops include hazelnuts and a
mixture of hazelnuts and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides).
Two walnut varieties were selected from the north of the country for their characteristics of good
timber form, low susceptibi lity to diseases, and high nut yields, named ' Di onym' and ' Amphyon' .
They are particularly for organic cultivation.
Black locust system
Thi s is a recent system intercropping black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) with potatoes.
Reference
Oosterbaan, A & Kuiters , A T: Agroforestry in the Netherl ands. In et al:
Agroforestry in Europe: Current Status and Future Prospects. Springer, 2009.
Book review
The Living Landscape
How To Read And Understand It
Patrick Whitefield
Permanent Publications, 2009; 360pp; 19.95.
ISBN 978-1-85623-043-8
Most people reading this review in Agroforestry News
will probably be involved in sustainable gardening or
sustainable agriculture in some way , and will have found
themselves asking: now just what has happened to this
piece of land here? Whether it is your own land you
have just bought , land you have owned for a while, land
you are looking at for someone else, or just land you are
seeing as you travel through the British landscape, this
book is for you. Even if you think you can read a piece
of land pretty well , this book will surprise and fascinate
you by del ving into the complexity of land in this country
and how it has come to be as it is.
rt ..
, .i 1
The layers of history and evolution are uncovered bit by i
geology, the author explains how the rocks beneath the soil came to be, and how they explain
the soil properties in a particular place. Soil itself and the plants in it come next , followed by
climate and microclimate, how they affect a site and what will grow there. The human history of
the landscape is an important part too, for in Britain there is a long history of human
modification of the land virtually everywhere.
The effects of wild animals - and how to recognise which are around - are discussed followed
by niches - how plants and animals find their own place to survive. Succession in the
landscape changes everything and this leads to chapters on trees, woods and how woods work.
Grassland, heaths and moors are also discussed. Water, hedges, roads and paths have also
affected the landscape over time and have their own chapters.
Each chapter is interspersed with diagrams, sketches and notes that the author has taken over
two decades of living and working in the countryside.
What began as a Permaculture design aid has ended up as an impressive piece of work, itself
filling a niche where few books exist. Much has been written about landscape history in the last
decade or two, but very litUe about landscape reading. Here, Patrick Whitefield shares a
lifetime's knowledge about the complex interactions that go to make up the fascinating and
varied landscapes we see around us.
Although obviously of interest and great use to anybody with a connection to the land, this book
should also interest all with an interest in ecology, geography and the natural world.
Courses in 2010 with Martin Crawford
- Director of the Agroforestry Research Trust
Forest Gardening
2010 dates: 22-23 May, 12-13 June, 3-4 July, with more to be announced .

The overall aim of this two day course is to give you an overview of how to design, implement
and maintain a temperate forest garden. Teaching sessions will be interspersed with frequent
visits into our 14-year-old established forest garden.
Practical information on tree crops, shrub crops, perennials and ground covers will be
complemented with visits to our forest garden to look at our successes and failures, as well as
to taste unusual leaf and fruit crops.
Course fee: 150 (non-residential ) includes lunches (vegetarian) + teas/coffees etc.
Advanced Forest Gardening 25-26 September 2010
For the first time we are running a course for those already under way with their own forest
gardens.
Unlike the taught forest gardening course, this course will be based very much around the
participants, inviting them to talk about their own gardens and discussing their successes and
failures. It should be a good way of troubleshooting problems you are having and getting good
ideas for trying new things. Will include visits into the Dartington forest garden.
Course fee: 120 (nonresi dential ) includes lunches (vegetarian) + teas/coffees etc.
Growing Nut Crops 9-10 October 2010
This weekend course will cover all aspects of growing common and uncommon nut crops in
Britain. .
Teaching sessions will be interspersed with visits to forest garden and trials site where several
nut crops are grown. Several unusual nut crops will also be available to taste. .,.
Common nuts covered are Chestnuts, Hazelnuts and Walnuts. Less common species include
Almonds, Butternuts, Heartnuts, Hickory nuts, Monkey puzzle, Oaks with edible acorns, Pine
nuts.
Course fee: 150 (non-residential) includes lunches (vegetarian) + teas/coffees etc.
For more details and a booking form for any of these courses please contact:
A.A.T. , 46 HUnters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, Tag 6JT. Fax/Tel: 01803840776.
Email: mail@agroforestry.co.uk. Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk
..
and productive system. .
21 per year in Britain and the E.U. (17 unwaged). 39/2 years.
Research Trust' , and ,send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon,
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440) , with the object to
Agroforestry News
Black truffle
VOlume 17 Number 4 August 2009
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Forest Management / Cones as a crop / Surge
of interest in wild foods
4 Food exploration in the Caucasus
9 Soil organisms
21 The Campanulas
31 Coast redwood for timber
35 American gooseberry mildew
37 Biochar: an unknown quantity
40 Book reviews: Proper Pruning of Grapevines / A year
in a Forest Garden / Asian Vegetables
Tolnes, Devon, Tag 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
News
New interactive database on indicators of sustainable
forest management in Europe
Thet Timber and Forestry programme of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
(UNECE) and FAO has released a new web-based resource tool designed by the international
community to enable researchers, policymakers, practitioners and the general public to access
data on Europe's forests. The database is a comprehensive research toot based on the report
State of Europe's Forests 2007, and includes data which have so far not been published.
This is the first time that such a comprehensive set of information pertinent to sustainable forest
management and forest assessment in Europe is being published via an online data
management system. It provides an unprecedented scope of information, collected by
hundreds of individuals and dozens of agencies, and is accessible through a user-friendly
interface which enables users to extract all the data for a single country, or to compare
indicators across several countries.
This new database offers a tremendous resource for anyone interested in learning more about
Europe's forest data and activities pertaining to sustainable forest management in Europe. In
addition to characteristics of European forests and forestry data in general , the user also has
access to information on the balance of carbon in forest ecosystems, forest health condition and
status of forest biodiversity.
Aspects of production, including wood and non-wood products and services, are presented
along with information on protected forest areas. The database also provides information on
social and economic aspeets of the forestry sector. In line with the structure of criteria and
indicators for sustainable forest management , the data are presented in a way that illustrates
trends of chosen variables for the years 1990, 2000 and 2005. It is expected that this series
will be continued (reporting for 2010 has started). The interface enables online review and
simple analysis, but also allows selective of the requested data in different formats.
These data are presented alongside other statistical data from different parts of the UNECE
work programme. The UNECE/ FAO Timber Section encourages the international community to
take advantage of this resource, and to make suggestions for further improvement.
For further information, please contact:
Mr. Roman Michalak
Forest Resources Officer
UNECE/ FAO Timber Section
UNECE Trade and Timber Division
Palais des Nations CH 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland
Phone: +41 (0) 22 917 2879
Fax: +41 (0) 22 917 0041
E-mail: fra.timber@unece.org
www.unece.org/timber
Database: hUp:/Iw3.unece.org/pxweb/ Dialogl
Page 2
Cones as a crop .
The Big Pine Cone Company, in North Otago (New Zealand). collects, processes and markets
the magnificent cones from Pinus cQulteri (Coulter' s pine) that can grow to 400 mm long. The
largest cones have given the tree its other name, the widow maker, as they can be lethal if they
fall on somebody.
The cones are picked from trees planted in the high country where summers are hot and winters
cold, where P.cou/teri seems to grow best. The trees which are harvested are about 35 years
old, grown from seed imported from Colorado. The cones can take 4-5 years to grow to size
and must be picked before the core rots and the cone drops of its own accord.
University students are hired to climb trees and harvest cones twice yearly for four days. The
cones are opened and dried, then some are sliced into layers and . made into useful items.
Coaster slices show off their beautiful grain which contracts with the wicked spines they have at
the ends of the 'petals'.
Source: Tree Cropper, 57, pp 26-27.
Surge of interest in wild foods
In woods across Britain, wi ld garlic is being harvested for soup makers, wood sorrel gathered
for Michelin-starred chefs, and spruce needles picked to infuse hand-made chocolates.
Harvesting "wild food", the seasonal salad leaves, nuts, fruit and fungi that grow abundantly
across the UK, has led to a new industry in professional foraging for restaurants and a sharp
surge in public interest .
They are harvesting - for free - nearly 200 ingredients throughout the year: from common crops
such as hazelnuts, brambles and wild strawberries, to dozens of different fungi, through to
specialist crops such as elm and lime leaves, or sweet clcely. Chefs are now paying up to 50
a kilo for wood sorrel, with its sharp lemony tang, and 40 a kilo for elusive morel mushrooms,
handpicked from the forest floor.
In Scotland, the Forestry Commission estimates that wild harvesting, including harvesting
lichens and mosses for natural remedies and horticulture, is worth as much as 21 m a year. Its
rapid growth - by as much as 38% since 2001 - has led the commission to launch a campaign
this month to promote wild foods wi th a code of good practice, to ensure the increaSing number
of foragers harvest carefully and, where needed, with the landowner's permission.
It is no longer a niche, cottage industry. The fruit and vegetables wholesaler Fresh Direct,
which supplies Harrods, high street cafes, and Michelin-starred chefs, has begun extending its
wild harvesting operations from Scotland into England.
The search for wild food mirrors the surge in popularity for home-grown produce, all otments and
"guerrilla gardening" - where patches of vacant and under-used inner-city land are converted
into al fresco fruit and vegetable patches - championed by chefs such as Hugh Fearnley-
Whittingstall .
The Dorset-based food writer has promoted the marine equivalent of foraging in forests in his
latest River Cottage handbook, Edible Seashore, harvesting wild foods such as cockles, sea
beet and marsh samphire from the seaside and coastline. The survival expert Ray Mears has
devoted television series to wild foods on land, and the small Kent-based firm Forager is about
to publish a dedicated guide and recipe book on edible plants, The Forager Handbook.
To cope with the surge in demand, the charity Reforesting Scotland has set up a "wild
harvesting" trade association by the commission and the Scottish government.
Roger Coppock, the Forestry Commission's head of business policy development, said one
recent survey suggested that well over a million people in Scotland alone had foraged at least
once in the past two years. "That started to reveal that it wasn't just a case of cranks and
back-to-the-earth type people collecting. It went right across the spectrum from the unemployed
to lords: he said. There have been suggestions that the Forestry Commission could increase
the -availability of wild foods by actively sowing its plantations with mushrooms, berry bushes
and wild salads.
Coppock believes that much more could be taken sustainably from the commission's land. "It is
nowhere near being over-harvested," he said. "There's an awful lot of potential
Source: The Guardian, 27/4/2009
Food exploration in the Caucasus:
An encounter with wild Hablitzia
Justin West
During a five week plant exploration and seed collection expedition last summer I
had the good fortune df meeting many of the wild ancestors of our common (and
less common) fruit and perennial vegetables. One lucky encounter in particular
was with Hablitzia tamnoides in the wilds of an Armenian canyon. This meeting
encapsulated so well the journey, the land, and the possibilities that arise when
one stays attentive and open to dynamic unfolding of one's local environment.
For years I have been exploring the world of edible plants, and for years 'The Caucasus' have been
synonymous with wild edible plant origins. As I came to find out this past summer, species of almonds,
chestnuts, walnuts, hazel , pomegranate, grape, hawthorns, plum, apples and pears to name a few of
the more common ones, aU can be found growing wild in the Caucasus. Three of the four wild
ancestors to wheat originate in the Caucasus. Along with these there is a wide range of herbaceous
species found there, and there is one in particular with which readers of both The Permaculture Activist
as well as Permaculture Magazine, would be familiar. It was this little known but much talked about
Hablitzia tamnoides, or Caucasian Spinach, which had peaked my curiosity. In August 2008 and earl y
September I had the great fortune to travel through Russia, Armenia, and Georgia to explore the homes
of some of these wild edible ancestors, and with luck to finally meet Hablitzia in the wild. To my
pleasant surprise the journey of discovery revealed much to me about the plant, and the plant, equally,
drew forth from me a clarity of perception about the land.
The Caucasus are roughly the same size as the state of Washington (200,000 sq kilometres), and at
about the same latitude. However, with 6350 vascular plant species this is close to twice the botanical
diversity of Washington. As well, an abundance of wildlife inhabit this area (130 species of mammals)
including brown bear, lynx, wild cat (ancestor to the modern house cat), European bison, boar, striped
hyena, antelope, wild goat , wild sheep (ancestor to domestic sheep), deer, jackal , tiny populations of
Caucasian panther, and of course, humans. (The Caucasus are, it is supposed, the land bridge through
which our ancestors walked out of Africa.)
The diversity so inherent to this place is an authentic embodiment of t ~ e wide range of ecosystems
found in the Caucasus, and a prime example of the permaculture principle of diversity at the edges.
The Caucasus are bordered at the west by the Black Sea, to the east by the Caspian Sea, in the north
is the Greater Caucasus mountain range, and to the south the semi- arid and arid deserts of Turkey and
Iran. Here at the confluence of these geological features subtropical and temperate climates meet. The
Black Sea provides warm humid air, which is buffered from the cold northern winds by the Greater
Caucasus range. Many species took refuge here during the last ice age and some from the Tertiary
and early Quaternary periods still exist to this day.
All of this biodiversi ty is astounding to contemplate when one considers how long people have lived in
this part of the world, and to consider that these people, and this land, have been conquered by virtually
every passing empire known through the history books. It is a land which has known armed conflict as
a way of life for millennia, and yet somehow, an abundance of biological diversity remains. ' Equally
miraculous is that despite the coming and passing of these many empires (or perhaps because of it)
there is a wellspring of cultural, religious. and linguistic diversity which rivals any other part of the world
of comparable size. It should be noted, however, that the past twenty years have seen remarkable
changes in the Caucasus and consequential pressures on the other-than-human biodiversity not
previously felt. Many species are rapidly showing up in the ' Red Book' of endangered species.
I wondered, amongst this almost overwhelming diversity of landscapes and plants, if I might stumble
upon Hablitzia, but I knew very little about where to look. I kept my eyes open at every opportunity; in
every market, and along the many kilometres of trails my partner, Li An, and I walked. However, I was
not so much hunting the Hablitzia as I was allowing the landscape to unfold around me and reveal
herself in the way that she so chose. Through this mode of open and exploratory travelling we
experienced Russian mountainsides covered in ancient Old-growth chestnut. Kilometres from the
Iranian border in southern Armenia we cracked nuts at the base of a walnut five feet wide, and walked
into a hollow ancient Sycamore (Platanus orientalis) over 12 feet wide. In the steppe of Armenia we
s h ~ r e d bread, cheese, and smi'les with semi-nomadic Kurdish herders. In Georgia, near the border to
Chechnya, we drank homemade vodka out of sheep horns with animist herders, and later followed fresh
bear tracks along a glacier fed stream to the headwater valley. Later, in a small village market we
marvelled at jars packed full of pickled Smilax shoots and Staphylea flowers.
Throughout it all we were continually inspired by the sheer diversity of landscapes, and the equal
diversity of fresh organic
2
fruit and nuts in the markets of the cities and in the villages, wherein peoples'
private gardens the pears, apples, plums, persimmons, apricots, peaches, and Cornelian cherries were
seemingly woven together with streamers of grape vines, underplanted in patches with corn, beans,
and other vegetables, and lined with rows of walnuts and chestnuts along the streets. It often felt as
though we had stepped not into the past, but rather into a future realm. a post cheap oil era, where the
relative lack of cheap consumerist goods were all but forgotten amongst the daily rituals of food
production and celebration. Wine, as one park botanist in Georgia told me, is the petrol of the
Georgian. Every glass of homebrew had a distinct flavour, a murmur, and, at times a flagrant yeasty
bellOwing of the small garden in which the grapes were grown.
Page 6
When we did end up coming across
Hablitzia the whole experience of
discovery; the land, the topography and
the climate, seemed such a concrete
reflection of the actual qualities of the
plant herself. There were no giant, jaw-
dropping, primeval trees around. The
landscape was beautiful but modest in
scale. The weather was hot , and
provoked in us an overarching desire to
seek shade. Finally, like Hablitzia's
creeping shade loving tendrils, the trail ,
the river, and the canyon itself wound its
way through the highland steppe, a
meandrous crevice of dark green growth
within an otherwise brown and rocky land.
We had only been in Armenia a couple of
days and were still getting our bearings
on the extensive views of dusty browns,
and red ochre's after two weeks in the
lush greens of subtropical and montane
Russia. Soviet era Russian tapa maps in
hand, we set out on a four day trek to
follow this particular river to its source.
From a 1
5t
century Roman sun goddess
temple and a 9
th
century Orthodox
Christian cave monastery carved out of
the volcanic 'tufa' rock, we entered into
the narrow river valley in spectacularly
poor fashion. We soon learned from the intensity of sunshine that any climbing, up or down, would
have to be done in the cool morning hours. Though steep, rocky, and, at times, nearly impossible to
pass through the thick brush, we enjoyed happing upon wild almonds, pears, the ever-present cherry
plum (Prunus cerasifera var. divaricala), and at least two species of hawthorn (Crataegus spp.).
That same morning we arrived in a tiny village perched on a slope whicr would eventually take us into
the canyon. Through the persistent care of some simple irrigation ditches the people of the
village have, over countless generations, created an oasis of green, visible from miles away. Meter
diameter walnut trees (Jug/ans regia) surrounded the turf roofed stone huts built into the side of the hill.
They had gardens of corn and beans planted in the north side shade of these giant trees, a testament to
the solar intensity of this place. A woman and her daughter picking apples in their orchard reached over
the fence and handed me some. Before I could say thank you she was already walking back to her
trees to get us some more. A brief, choppy conversation of mostly smiles and hand gesticulations led to
us being ushered into their home and sat down at their table for 'coffee'. Goffee, in the Armenian and
Georgian way, roughly translates into 'everything in the cupboard being laid out onto the table and
made available to share'. From this one small corner cupboard emerged a banquet of apples, pears,
peaches, grapes, watermelon, butter, cheese, jam, bread, honey, dried apples and apricots, walnuts,
tomatoes, cucumbers, sweets, and, bizarrely, even the eldest son's university diploma in computer
engineering.
Any chance of beating the noon-day heat
was happily thwarted by our gracious
hosts. We set out eventually in the
baking sun, our packs fully laden with
juicy apples and walnuts one can crack
with two fingers. We stopped a couple of
times to cool off in the river, and when we
eventually set camp that evening we
were well within the shady overgrowth of
the riparian oak and ash of the canyon
bottom. The next morning I discovered in
the light of day that we had luckily set up
camp at literally the very confluence of
the two forks of the river. With that good
omen and knowing therefore exactly
where we were on the map, we headed
up the northern of the two along the river,
following, when available, a rough game
trail.
We had just taken a long break, and
began walking again when I noticed the
Hablitzia growing very inconspicuously
amongst some currant bushes, and up a
rocky north facing cliff wall. It looks a bit
like bind weed, but instead of binding
steadily up it followed more of a lazy
crawl up or down, or along whatever
seems to be available. It was, however,
the flowers which clued me in to the fact
that I had actually stumbled upon
Hablitzia. I recognized them from
having seen the same tiny green The author finds Hablitzia
flowers on Stephen Barstow's Hablitzia
in Norway. Upon closer inspection I found small green tissue-paper thin caps, almost like moss
operculum's, falling away from the centre of the flower and revealing shiny black
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Va/17 Na 3 Page 7
seeds. just like the ones Barstow had given me last summer. What luck. There were several plants
along this dank canyon wall , each with only a couple of gangly 6-10 foot long shoots on them.
While harvesting some of the abundant seed available, I wondered if this would be the first of many
more encounters with Hablitzia over the course of the next f ~ w weeks. As it turned out it was not. We
saw it twice more that day and never again afterwards in the wild, nor the markets.
Later that same day, after a run in with a litter of young boars and a disinterested sow, we arrived at a
wider part of the canyon. The river had already narrowed substantially, and the landscape was
beginning to soften into less profound cliff faces. Here we found a series of caves each with a large
welcoming opening, providing ample headroom and plenty of flat space to layout our bedrolls. The first
cave had a ceiling with too many loose rocks, so we moved on to the second wherein we found a lush
Hablitzia inhabiting the better part of half the cave floor. The shoots on this giant were about 15-17 feet
long and the leaves were in some cases as much as a foot long and wider than my hand; again with
abundant seed available. We harvested some while lamenting that the cave fl oor was a bit too slanted
for a comfortable night sleep.
We moved on and discovered a third cave, practically hidden by the thick foliage of an apple tree whose
trunk was actually growing from within the cave and arching it's way out into the light, thereby partially
concealing the entrance. A fine dusty ground and a solid ceiling made it an easy decision to stay.
That evening we built a fire and in the orange glow of the flames, our shadows danced on the cave wall
as we steamed Hablitzia leaves. I pondered the odds. While preparing for this trip, the prospect of
discovering wild Hablitzia had grown to mythic proportions. I had read about it, and seen it in Stephen
Barstow's garden in Norway, Martin Crawford's forest garden in Dartington, England, as well as in Eric
Toensmeier and Jon Bates forest garden in Massachusetts. The fact that my partner and I had, without
really knowing where in a region of several countries we might look, left me feeling a bit stunned; that
the Hablitzia happened to be just at the point of setting seed really felt a bit miraculous.
I sat by the fire that night and in the wake of an incredibly satisfying day, wondered about the signs
constantly surrounding us. The growth forms of plants are forever providing snapshots of their
environments and the events that have led up to the present moment. I considered the apple tree,
branches swaying above me. Likely a feral sprout from a core tossed aside decades ago, the form the
tree has taken speaks volumes about the shape of the cave, the wind in the valley, moisture availability,
and the daily path of sunshine overhead. The seedling germinated, perhaps with a tiny bit of
composted apple core, perhaps a few mOLlse droppings, a fair trade for the food which the other apple
seeds in the core likely provided. Why didn't the mouse eat all of the seeds? Had a raptor passed at
just the right moment startling the mouse into hiding? Being on the inside lip of the cave that apple
seedling must have had a tough first few years, seeking light, and more, searching deep in the rocky
ground for moisture. Each slightest bend in a branch unfolds a whole history lesson to the patient and
attentive observer. Plants embody so perfectly their environments through their own unique and
creative process of interpretation. So do we.
1 It should be noted that although this has been a land of near perpetual confl ict, it is also a place in
which I have never felt a stronger sense of community and cooperation.
2 Chemical horticul ture is largely uneconomical, and besides, Armenians in particular revel in their fresh
fruit.
Justin West is the resident applied ecologist at Schumacher College in Devon, UK where he teaches on
the MSc in Holistic Science, as well as short courses. He is currently regenerating the lawnscapes
around the 14th century buildings into productive forest garden polycultures. Ensuring a healthy and
participative relationship exists between the students and the soil is his primary role.
chuckjwest@hotmail.com
This article was originally published in Permaculture Activist May 2009 - reprinted with permission.
Soil organisms
Soil organisms range from bacteria (0.000001 mm) to earthworms (30 em in the UK). They all
play an essential role in decomposing organic matter, cycling nutrients and fertilising the soil.
Soil organisms and the conditions they need
There are four levels of organisms:
Microflora: bacteria and fungi, making up 75-90% of the soil living biomass and are the
primary decomposers of organic matter. They transform organic molecules into
mineral nutrients (e9 nitrate, ammonium, phosphate) that ar,e then available for uptake
by plants.
Microfauna: single cell animals such as protozoa and nematodes (simple worms),
preying on the microbes.
Mesafauna: collembola (springtails) and mites also prey on bacteria and fungi.
Macrofauna: larger organisms including earthworms, beetles, ants and termites.
Almost all soil organisms (except some bacteria) need the same things we need to li ve - food,
water and oxygen. They eat a carbon-based food source which provides all their nutrients,
including nitrogen and phosphorus. They require a moist habitat, with access to oxygen in the
air spaces in soil. These reasons explain why 75% of the soil organisms are .found in the top
5cm of soil. There are other factors that determine whether species can survive and grow,
including pH, temperature, salt content, type of carbon and heavy metals.
How to encourage soil organisms
Maintain ground cover
Bare ground is prone to moisture loss, high temperatures and lacks a supply of organic material
to feed soil organisms. Keeping the soil covered with living plants, mulch, straw or leaf litter is
the first step in promoting soil biota. A living ground cover of plants is best. Plants devote
considerable energy to encouraging soil organisms by secreting sugars, vitamins and other
organic compounds into the soil.
Minimise physical disturbance
Use reduced tillage or no-tillage to minimise destruction of soil organisms and habitat, and
reduce the rate of organic matter breakdown. Reduce compaction by machinery and animals so
that there is space in the soil for air and water to move. Minimise bare surface abrasion by
animals and machinery as this leads to microbial damage and possible removal by soil erosion.
Build soil organic matter with green manure crops, mulch or pasture
A diversity of carbon sources will provide food for a wide range of soil organisms. A diverse soil
biota has been linked to disease-suppressive soils. Adding mulch or compost is particularly
useful when these materials can be concentrated rather than spread thinly. The
carbon:nitrogen ratio determines the rate of breakdown and therefore the release of nutrients
into the soil. Include grazing animals if appropriate.
Maintain adequate moisture
Windbreaks I shelterbelts, ground cover and soil organic matter all help to retain soil moisture.
Rotate crops or have mixed species planting
Soil organisms need different root types to maintain a diverse community. They are then better
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vall? No 3
Page 9
able to resist disease organisms, decompose residues , cyc e nutnents and malntam their
activity throughout the seasons. Consider introducing a legume or actinorhizal species with its
associated rhizobia bacteria in the root nodules to convert atmospheric nitrogen to soil bound
nitrogen.
I
Plant roots & I
plant rasldues
I
I
Beneficial mycrohrrhizal I
& pathogenic fungi
MicrOfauna.-t
II Protozoa
Mesofauna
\
Mycophagous \
amoebae
Bacteriovorus
Nematodes
\
I
\
Fungal feeding I
nematodes . I
,/
Predatory
Nematodes
\
Microarthopods (collembola, mites)
Macrofauna
\ MacroarthroPods\ \
Earthworms
\ \ Enchytraelds \
Plant growth
t
Disease
transmission
& control
Nutrient cycling
Organic matter
turnover
Agrochemical
degradation
Leaching of nutrients
and pollutants
Organisms in the soil , what they feed on, and their impact on plant growth.
Reduce the use of chemicals
Insecticides and fungicides applied to plants also affect insects and microbes in the soil. Some
species may be eliminated with frequent use. Some chemicals leave long term residues.
Copper from some fungicides can accumulate in soil and affect other organisms such as
earthworms.
Use organic fertilisers (eg manures)
Organic fertilisers provide microorganisms with a stable food source which then provides long
term slow release nutrients to the plants. Organic fertilisers have less adverse impact on soil
populations but they should not be considered a substitute for mulching or ground cover.
Page 10 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 17 No J
Check the pH and modify It if necessary
The ideal range for most organisms is pH (water) of 5-8. Strongly acidic soil djscourages
important organisms such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria and earthworms.
Improve poor drainage by building good soil structure
Waterlogging encourages anaerobic bacteria that can damage plant roots.
Consider your soli as part of a complete agro-ecological system
A healthy. diverse soil food web actively decomposes organic matter and cycles nutrients.
ensuring soil and plant health.
Soil Bacteria
Bacteria are some of the smallest and most abundant microbes in the soil. In a single gram of
soil, there can be billions of bacteria. There are an estimated 60,000 different bacteria species,
most which have yet to be even named, and each has its own particular roles and capabilities.
Most live in the top 10cm of soil where organi c matter is present.
Characteristics of bacteria
Some bacteria species are very fragile and can be killed by slight changes in the soil
environment. Other species are extremely tough, able to withstand severe heat, cold or drying.
Some can lie dormant for decades waiting for favourable conditions. Others can extract
nitrogen di rectly from the air or break down some toxic substances. Populations of microbes
can boom or bust in the space of a few days in response to changes in soil 1Tloisture, soil
temperature or carbon substrate. To gain advantage in this process, many microbes release
antibiotic substances to suppress particular competitors. In this way some species can
suppress other disease-causing microorganisms.
Types of bacteria
Decomposers
Bacteria play an important role in decomposition of organic materials, especially in the early
stages of decomposition when moisture levels are high. In the later stages of decomposition,
fungi tend to dominate. Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas ffuorescens are examples of
decomposer bacteria. Additions of these bacteria have not been proved to accelerate formation
of compost or humus in soil.
Nitrogen fixers
Rhizobium bacteria can be inoculated onto legume seeds to fix nitrogen in the soil. These
nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in special root nodules on legumes such as clover, beans, medic,
wattles etc. They extract nitrogen gas from the ai r and convert it into forms that plants can use.
This form of nitrogen fixation can add the equivalent of more than 100kg of nitrogen per hectare
per year. Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Agrobacterium. Gluconobacter, Flavobacterium and
Herbaspirillum are all examples of free-living, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, often associated wi th
non-legumes.
Disease suppressors
Bacillus megaterium is an example of a bacterium that has been used on some crops to
suppress the disease-causing fungus Rhizoctonia solani. Pseudomonas ffuorescens may also
be useful against this disease. Bacillus subtilis has been used to suppress seedl ing blight of
sunflowers, caused by Alternaria helianthi. A number of bacteri a have been commerciali sed
worldwide for disease suppression. However, suppression is often specific to particular
diseases of particular crops and may onl y be effective in certain circumstances.
Aerobes and anaerobes
Aerobic bacteria are those that need oxygen, so where soil is well drained aerobes tend to
dominate. Anaerobes are bacteria that do not need oxygen and may find it toxic. This group
includes very ancient types of bacteria that live inside soil aggregates. Anaerobic bacteria
favour wet, poorly drained soils and can produce toxic compounds that can limit root growth and
predispose plants to root diseases.
Actinobacteria
These soil bacteria help to slowly break down humales and humic acids in soi ls. Actinobacteria
prefer non-acidic soils with pH higher than 5.
Sulphur oxidisers
Many soil minerals contain sulphides but thi s form of sulphur is largely unavailable to plants.
Thiobaciffus bacteria can covert sulphides into sulphates, a form of sulphur which plants can
use.
Management of bacteria
Though largely unaffected by cultivation, bacteria populations are depressed by dry conditions,
acidity, salinit y, soil compaction and lack of organic matter. Except in the case of certain seed
inoculations, it is very difficult to build desirable populations of bacteria just by adding them to
the soil. If populations of soil bacteria are low, it is probably because conditions are
unfavourable, so any new additions are likely to suffer the same fate.
A more effective approach to bacteria management is:
address soil health problems such as acidity and compaction.
ensure that there is a good ground cover of grass or mulch.
build organic matter through practices such as green manure crops, mulching,
strategic grazing and minimum tillage.
Each of these measures has multiple benefits and will also support healthy populations of soil
bacteria. Poor drainage encourages undesirable anaerobic bacteria. Reducing compaction and
building soil organic matter will improve water infiltration without compromising moisture storage
and will discourage anaerobic bacteria.
Soil fungi
Soil fungi are microscopic plant-like cells that grow in long threadlike structures or hyphae that
make a mass called mycelium. The mycelium absorbs nutrients from the roots it has colonised,
surface organic matter or the soil. It produces special hyphae that create the reproductive
spores. Some fungi are single celled (eg yeast). Fungi have many different structures but they
can act in similar ways and thus are not as plant specific in their needs as some soil bacteria
such as Rhizobia
Fungi groups
There are three functional groups of fungi:
Decomposers
Decomposers or saprophytic fungi convert dead organic matter into fungal biomass (ie their own
bodies), carbon dioxide and organic acids. They are essential for the decomposition of hard
woody organic matter. By consuming the nutrients in the organic matter they play an important
role in immobilising and retaining nutrients in the soil. The organic acids they produce as by
products help create organic matter that is resistant to degradation. Fungi are capable of
degrading cellulose, proteins and lignin, some of which are highly resistant to breakdown.
Mutualists
These fungi develop mutually beneficial relationships with plants. They colonise plant roots
where they help the plant to obtain nutrients such as phosphorus from the soil. Their mass
hides roots from pests and pathogens, and provides a greater root area through which the plant
can obtain nutrients.
Mycorrhizal fungi are perhaps the best known of the mutualists. Mycorrhiza means fungus
root , and mycorrhizal fungi grow inside plant roots. Up to 5m of Jiving hyphae of mycorrhizal
fungi can be extracted from 19 of soil. The four groups of mycorrhizal fungi are arbuscular,
ectomycorrhizal, ericoid and orchid. Arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) are the most common form
of mycorrhiza, especially in agricultural plant associations. This fungi has arbuscles which are
growths formed inside the plant root that have many small projections going into the cells.
About 150 arbuscular mycorrhiza species are known. Most plants (90%) have some sort of
association with these fungi except for groups such as the Cruciferae family (eg mustard,
canola, broccoli), Chenopodiaceae (eg spinach, beets, saltbush) and Proteaceae (banksia,
macadamia).
Pathogens
This group includes the well known fungi such as Verticillium, Phytophthora, Ffhizoclonia and
Pythium. These organisms penetrate the plant and decompose the living tissue, creating a
weakened, nutrient deficient plant , or death. The pathogenic fungi is usually the dominant
organism in the soil. Soils with high biodiversity have been shown to suppress soi l-borne fungal
diseases. Suppression mechanisms include the suite of native organisms out-competing the
pathogenic organisms, physically protecting roots and providing better nutrition to the plant.
The role of fungi in the soil
Fungi perform important functions within the soil in relation to nutrient cycling, disease
suppression and water dynamics, all of which help plants become healthier and more vigorous.
Decompose woody organic matter
Along with bacteria, fungi are important decomposers of hard to digest organic matter. They
use nitrogen in the soil to decompose woody carbon rich residues low in nitrogen and convert
the nutrients in the residues to forms that are more accessible for other organisms.
Increase nutrient uptake
Mycorrhizal fungi are well known for their role in assisting plants in the uptake of phosphorus.
Ectomycorrhizal fungi can benefit plants by promoting root branching and increasing nitrogen,
phosphorus and water uptake due to their large surface area and internal cellular mechanisms.
Improve plant resilience
The sheer size and mass of fungal hyphae help decrease plant susceptibility to pests, diseases
and drought.
Improve soil structure
Fungal hyphae bind the soil particles together to create water stable aggregates which in turn
create the pore spaces in the soil that enhance water retention and drainage.
Where fungi are found
Fungi are found wherever there is hard, carbonrich woody organic matter. This could be dead
rotting trees in a forest , leaf litter on the surface of orchard soils, or plant roots. Mycorrhizal
fungi are found naturally in all soi ls. Techniques to determine their presence usually focus on
indirect methods or look at the colonisation of plant roots and are therefore not that reliable. It
is difficult to get mycorrhizal fungi to grow outside their natural state, but staining techniques
and microscopy have been useful in identifying mycorrhiza from soil and plant samples. Fungi
tenet to dominate over bacteria and actinomycetes in acid soils as they can tolerate a wide pH
range. Fungi can survive in the soil for long periods even through periods of water deficit by
living in dead plant roots and/or as spores or fragments of hyphae.
Management of soil fungi
There are several things you can do to encourage fungi in your soil:
Provide a hospitable environment
To ensure fungi remain in the earth the soil environment must be kept as hospitable as
possible. Thi s means there must be enough food (organic matter), suitable host plants (if
necessary). water and minimal disturbance of the soil.
Reduce tillage
Tillage has a disastrous effect on fungi as it physically severs the hyphae and breaks up the
mycelium.
Reduce fungicide use
Broad-spectrum fungicides are toxic to a range of fungi. Their use will result in a decline in the
numbers of beneficial types. Herbicides are not generally thought to affect fungi directly,
though the removal of some plant types may affect the distribution of different fungi types.
Grow plants that encourage mycorrhizal fungi
There are certain plant groups that do not form associations wi th mycorrhizal fungi. When
these plants are included in a rotation, fungi numbers drop due to the lack of host plants and
this reduces fungi colonisation in the following crop. A bare fallow has the same effect.
Mycorrhiza increase under pasture because pasture includes highly mycorrhizal plants such as
grasses and legumes. VAM numbers reduce under wheat, canola, the brassicas and lupin. A
low level of mycorrhizal colonisation in plants is also associated with high available phosphorus
levels in the soil.
Nematodes
Nematodes or eel worms are small, non-segmented worms. They are only 50 microns in
diameter and about 1 mm long or less. They have a resistant cuticle (ski n) and an ability to
adapt well to environmental change which has enabled them to become the most abundant
multicellular animals on earth. Most nematode species have a beneficial role in the soil, but we
tend to know more about the pest species because of their impact on agricultural production.
Nematodes live mainly in soil where they feed on fungi , bacteria and other soil organisms and in
some cases plant roots.
Types of nematodes
There are three functional groups of nematodes:
Saprophytic nematodes
Saprophytic nematodes are also known as decomposers because they break down organic
matter in the soil, release nutrients for plant use, and improve soil structure, water holding
capacity and drainage. They are usually the most abundant type of nematode in the soil.
Predaceous nematodes
These nematodes feed on other nematodes, so can be useful in controlling pest species. They
eat larger nematodes by attaching themselves to their cuticle and scraping away until the prey's
internal body parts can be extracted. They also eat bacteria, fungi, and small single celled
organisms (protozoa). The digested pests are then added to the soil organic matter reserves.
Some have become specialised predators of insects, known as entomopathogenic nematodes
Parasitic nematodes
Parasitic nematodes cause problems in agricultural production because they feed on plant roots
and slow plant growth. In some cases they also all ow the entry of fungal rots that destroy the
roots. Agricultural cultivation tends to encourage an increase in parasitic nematodes over other
species
Mouthparts
Nematodes are described by their different feeding type or mouthparts. Bacterial feeding
nematodes have a tube like structure to suck up bacteria. Fungal feeding nematodes have a
piercing needle (stylet) which penetrates fungal cells and enables the nematode to suck up cell
contents. Root feeding nematodes also have a stylet to pierce root cells. Predators feed on
other nematodes and small soil organisms.
The role of nematodes in the soil
Nematodes are thought to play three main roles in the soil:
Nutrient cycling
Nutrients such as ammonium (NH4 +), stored in the bodies of bacteria and fungi , are released
when nematodes eat them. The bacteria and fungi contain more nitrogen than the nematodes
need so the excess is released into the soil in a more stable form where it can be used by
plants or other soil organisms. Nematodes also physically break down organic matter which
increases its surface area, making it easier for other organisms to break it down further.
Dispersal of microbes
Bacteria and fungi cannot move around in the soil without ' hitching a ride' inside or on the back
of nematodes. Nematodes are parasitised by some bacteria and fungi, which helps their
dispersal through the soil.
Disease and pest control
Beneficial nematodes attack and kill a range of pests such as borers, grubs, thrips and beetles
with negligible effects on non-target species. The life cycle of beneficial nematodes includes
four juvenile stages plus adult and egg. It is during one of these juvenile stages that the
nematode is able to live freely in the soil and find a host to infect.
Beneficial nematodes use two strategies to find their prey. Some species wait for their prey to
move past them in the soil and locate them by direct contact: this is called ' ambushing'. The
ambushers function at the soil surface where they attack highly mobile pests such as cutworms.
Others actively search out their prey using a 'cruising' strategy. They function at various depths
in the soil and prey on slow moving targets such as grubs and weevil larvae. When the
nematode catches its prey, it penetrates the prey's body through a body cavity; one nematode
genus even has a special hook to break in through soft cuticle. Once inside the body, the
nematode releases bacteria from its gut. Each nematode species hosts a different bacteria
species. Within 24-48 hours the bacteria cause the death of the prey. However the nematode
will continue to feed on the multiplying bacteria while maturing and producing a new generation
of nematodes. The life cycle of most nematodes is betweel;l 3-7 days so several cycles may be
completed before a new host is needed. Once the prey has been consumed the nematode
leaves to search for new prey.
WHere are nematodes found?
As with most of the organisms that live in the soil nematodes are found in the top few
centimetres of the soil. They live in the thin films of water surrounding soil particles, as they
require water to move. They are generally found in well-structured soi ls with large pore spaces,
or coarser soils, where food is easily available
Management effects on nematodes
To ensure nematodes remain in the earth, the soil environment must be kept as hospitable as
possible. This means there must be enough food (organic matter), suitable hosts, water, and
minimal disturbance of the soil. The use of pesticides that enter the soil can also affect
nematode numbers in the soil. There may well be direct detrimental effects from some
pesticides such as nematicides whi le other agricultural chemicals produce non-target effects
that damage nematode populations. The loss of a specific host species from the soil when
species-specific soil applied pesticides are used can also reduce food sources and thus
nematode numbers.
Nematodes as indicators
Analysis of the diversity and complexity of nematode communities in the soil is a valuable tool
which indicates soil biological fertility, or soil health. The different ratios of bacterial, fungal
feeders and other types indicate the type of soil functions are occurring. Varying ratios can
indicate if the food web is disturbed, maturing, structured or degraded.
Soil organisms and nutrient supply
Plants require many elements from the soi l and largely depend on microbes to extract these
nutrients and incorporate them into organic molecules. As organic matter breaks down, the
nutrients dissolve into the soil water where they can be accessed by plant roots. This means
that at anyone time the nutrients in the soil can be in one of three places; bound to soil
particles, incorporated in organic matter or dissolved in the soil water.
C.
~ P O O I
~ . - . . . - (
The relative sizes of these nutrient pools vary widely for different elements and different soils.
Metal nutrients
In most soils there is a relatively large mineral pool or reserve of metal nutrients such as iron,
calcium and magnesium. Microbes tend to only playa minor role in the extraction of these
nutrients, and deficiencies are usually corrected easily by the use of lime, gypsum or trace
fertilisers, all of which are permitted in organic farming. There are large reserves of. potassium
in most clay soils but it only becomes available to plants when it is released into soil water,
where it is readily leached away by rainfall.
Non-metal nutrients
Sulphur
Soil minerals in the form of sulphides are common but sulphur is not available to plants in this
form. Thiobacillus bacteria can covert sulphides into sulphates, a form which plants can use.
These bacteria occur naturally in healthy soils. Some sulphides can be slowly oxidised to
sulphate by exposure to air. Sulphate can also be added to the soil in the form of gypsum.
Phosphorus .
Many soils are phosphorus fixing. This means that phosphorus in the soil is tightly bound to the
soil particles and relatively unavailable to plants. Thus the mineral pool of phosphorus in the
soil can be relatively large but little of it available to plants. Phosphorus is exported from the
farm every time a product is sent to market. This loss has to be replaced either as fertiliser or
by releasing some of the remaining soil phosphorus.
Certain fungi can assist plants to extract phosphorus from the mineral pool. Penicillium radicum
and Penicillium bi/aiae can be inoculated to seeds of wheat, lentils or medic to help the young
roots obtain phosphorus from the soil. Other plants rely on mycorrhizal fungi, in particular
vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (VAM). VAM fungi can be encouraged by such
as minimum tillage, short fallows, winter cover crops and crop rotations that avoid brassicas and
lupins.
Rock phosphorus contains about 15% phosphorus in an insoluble form. Only when it is applied
to acidic soil is the rate of release likely to approach that needed by most plants. Phosphorus
can be added in an organic form. Poultry manure is up to 2% phosphorus and in this form the
phosphorus is not fixed by the soil. Another approach is to add rock phosphorus to a compost
pile. The composting action helps release the phosphorus in an organic form.
Liming will help reduce phosphorus fixation in acid soils but the amount needed may be
considerable. Heavy additions of animal or poultry manure can also reduce phosphorus
fixation. In both cases the decrease in fixation is a long-term process. Practices that build soil
organic matter will help to build the organic pool of phosphorus. Fertiliser additions may still be
necessary but at rates low enough that rock phosphorus or manures may suffice.
Nitrogen
Over three quarters of the air we breathe is nitrogen. Unfortunately plants cannot use this form
of nitrogen and instead require it as nitrate or ammonia. Plants generally depend on microbes
to fix nitrogen into useable forms. From the point of view of a plant , phosphorus fixation is bad
news because the phosphorus becomes unavailable, but nitrogen fixation is good because it
makes more nitrogen available. Legumes such as clover and beans have root nodules of
Rhizobium bacteria which fix nitrogen. The Actinorhizal plants have similar nodules with
Frankia bacteria. Such bacteria can fix 100kg or more of nitrogen per hectare per year.
Some free living soil microbes can also fix nitrogen but their contribution is relatively small.
Examples of these microbes include Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum brasilense,
Agrobacter radiobacter, Gluconobacter diazotrophicus, Bacillus polymyxa, Flavobacterium and
Herbaspirmum. Attempts to inoculate soil with these microbes to improve nitrogen fixation have
not proven very effective.
Nitrogen cycle
product
III
removed

, o oro
0
atmospheric
nitrogen
fixation
leaching loss
The best way to maintain nitrogen is to encourage nitrogen fixation with legumes, actinorhizal
plants or legume rotations. Acid soils discourage fixation so acidity may need to be remedied
by liming. Organic fertilisers contain only small amounts of nitrogen. To match nitrogen fixation
from legumes these fertilisers would have to be added at rates measured in tons per hectare.
As a result the transport and spreading costs are considerable. As well, spreading manure in
large quantities can lead to soil and water pollution. Nitrate is readily leached from the soil by
rainfall, and ammonia is lost by volatil isation back into the air. Building soil organic matter
helps reduce these losses by encouraging nitrogen storage in the organic pool.
The rhizosphere
The rhizosphere is the zone of soil surrounding a plant root where the biology and chemistry of
the soil are influenced by the root. This zone is about 1 mm wide, but has no distinct edge.
Rather, it is an area of intense biological and chemical activity infl uenced by compounds
exuded by the root, and by microorganisms feeding on the compounds.
As plant roots grow through soil they release water soluble compounds such as amino acids,
sugars and organic acids that supply food for the microorganisms. The food supply means
microbiological activity in the rhizosphere is much greater than in soil away from plant roots. In
return, the microorganisms provide nutrients for the plants. All this activity makes the
rhizosphere the most dynamic environment in the soil. Because roots are underground,
rhizosphere activity has been largely overlooked, and it is only now that we are starting to
unravel the complex interactions that occur.
Roots in the rhizosphere
The roots exude water and compounds broadly known as exudates. Root exudates include
amino acids, organic acids, carbohydrates, sugars, vitamins, mucilage and proteins. The
exudates act as messengers that stimulate biological and physical interactions between roots
and soil organisms. They modify the biochemical and physical properties of the rhizosphere
and contribute to root growth and plant survival. However, the fate of the exudates in the
rhizosphere and the nature of their reacti ons in the soil remain poorly understood. The
exudates have several functions:
Page 18
Defend the rhizosphere and root against pathogenic microorganisms
Root cells are under continual attack from microorganisms and survive by secretihg defence
proteins and other as yet unknown antimicrobial chemicals. Research has found that exudates
in the rhizosphere vary according to the stages of plant growth. For instance, there are more
carboxylates and root mucilage at the six leaf stage than earlier.
Attract and repel particular microbe species and populations
High levels of moisture and nutrients in the rhizosphere attract much greater numbers of
microorganisms than elsewhere in the soil. The composition and pattern of root exudates affect
microbial activity and population numbers which, in turn, affect other soil organisms that share
this environment.
Keep the soil around the roots moist
Research has found that rhizosphere soil is significantly wetter than bulk soil, which protects
roots from drying out. Exudates released from roots at night allow expansion of roots into the
soil. When transpiration resumes with daylight , the exudates begin to dry out and adhere to the
soil particles in the rhizosphere. As the soil dries and its hydraulic potential decreases,
exudates lose water to soil.
Obtain nutrients
The exudates help roots adsorb and slore ions for plant use. For instance, flavonoids in legume
roots activate Rhizobium meli/oti genes responsible for root nodulation that enable the plant
roots to obtain nitrogen from the air. Exudates enable the transfer of up to 20% of all
photosynthetically fixed carbon to the rhizosphere. Exudates may also be responsible for
encouraging vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae that colonise roots and send out miles of t h r e a d ~
like hyphae into the soil , increasing the surface area and distance covered by the roots and
taking up nutrients for the plant.
Change the chemical properties of the soil around the roots
The rhizosphere environment generally has a lower pH, lower oxygen and higher carbon dioxide
concentrations. However, exudates can make the soi l in the rhizosphere more acid or alkaline,
depending on nutrients roots are taking from the soil. For example, when a plant takes up
nitrogen as ammonium it releases hydrogen ions which will make the rhizosphere more acid.
When a plant takes up nitrogen as nitrate, it releases hydroxyl ions which make the rhizosphere
more alkaline. This action doesn't usually affect the bulk pH of the soil but is important for the
small organisms that live in the rhizosphere because many soil organisms do not move far in
the soil.
Stabilise soil aggregates around the roots
Sticky mucilage secreted from continuously growing root cap cells is believed to alter
surrounding soil.
Inhibit the growth of competing plant species
Plant roots are in continual communication with surrounding root systems and quickly recognise
and prevent the presence of invading roots through chemical messengers. This process is
known as allelopathy. In agriculture it can be beneficial when crop plants prevent weeds from
growing nearby; or detrimental when the weed plants prevent crops growing.
Living organisms in the rhizosphere
The rhizosphere is a centre of intense biological activity due to the food supply provided by the
root exudates. Bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa, slime moulds, algae, nematodes,
enchytraeid worms, earthworms, millipedes, centipedes, insects, mites, snails, small animals
and soil viruses compete constantly for water, food and space. Soil chemistry and pH can
influence the species mix and functions of microbes in the rhizosphere. The living organisms
can:
Interact with plant roots
Most soil microorganisms do not interact with plant roots, possibly due to the constant and
diverse secretion of antimicrobial root exudates. However, there are some microorganisms that
do interact with specific plants" These interactions can be pathogenic (invade and kill roots and
plants), symbiotic (benefit plant growth), harmful (reduce plant growth) , saprophytic (live on
dead roots and plants) or neutral (no effect on plants). Interactions that are beneficial to
agriculture include mycorrhizae, legume nodulation, and production of antimicrobial compounds
that inhibit the growth of pathogens.
Mineralise nutrients
Microorganisms convert organic forms of nutrients into inorganic forms that plants roots can
take up. In legumes and actinorhizal plants, microbial root nodulations enable plants to fix
nitrogen from the air.
Encourage plant growth
Rhizosphere microorganisms produce vitamins , antibiotics, plant hormones and communication
molecules that all encourage plant growth.
Stabilise soil aggregates
Waste products and secretions from microorganisms help combine soil particles into stable
aggregates around plant roots. These aggregates hold moisture within, but allow drainage
between aggregates, so that root hairs do not get waterlogged.
References
Cox, J & Reid, G: How to Encourage Soil Organisms. NSW DPI Faclsheet , 2005.
Jenkins, A: Nematodes; Soil Fungi. NSW DPI Factsheets, 2005.
Lines-Kelly, R: The Rhizosphere. NSW DPI Factsheet, 2005.
Reid, G: Microbes and Minerals. NSW DPI Factsheet , 2005.
Reid, G & Wong, P: Soil Bacteria. NSW DPI Faclsheet, 2005.
Classified advert
We are looking for a gardener for our house on the Fowey estuary in Cornwall , to help us fulfil
this land's potential. Ken Fern of Plants for a future is helping us formulate some ideas. We
need an experienced gardener who understands vegan-organic woodland gardening. We could
offer temporary accommodation. Contact Juan d'Ornelias at juan. dornellas@bli nternet.com
Cottage plus field I orchard to rent to use for agroforestry type project. Great neighbours.
South West Wales. 0123982095t
Page 20
The Campanulas
Introduction
The bellflowers or harebells consist of some 300 species of annual, biennial or perennial herbs,
from small dwarfs only a few em high to large plants of 2m high, originating from the Northern
hemisphere.
Within this huge range, there are a group from Alpine regions which are not as easy to cultivate
as the hardier perennials; some are happy growing on walls in Britain. Most are hardy to -15 or
-20"C, though the Alpine species dislike a combination of winter cold and wet , and are hardy to
-15C or so.
The leaves are alternate and often vary in shape on a single plant, with larger, broader leaves
at the base of the stem and smaller, narrower leaves higher up; the leat margin may be either
entire or serrated (sometimes both on the same plant). Many species contain white latex in the
leaves and stems. The flowers are produced in panicles (sometimes solitary), and are bell-
shaped, t ypically large (2-5 cm or more long), mostly blue to purple, sometimes white or pink.
The fruit is a capsule containing numerous small seeds.
Most species need only a moderately fertile soil in sun or partial shade, and are easy to fit in to
a forest garden.
Deer seem to leave most Campanula species well alone.
General uses
As well as having beautiful flowers, the leaves of many (perhaps all) are edible, though the
quality varies from specie to specie. The flowers of all are also edible with a slight sweetness.
Flowers of all species are valuable to bees. Beetles, flies and butterflies are also attracted to
the flowers. Cut flowers can be harvested from the taller species. From most species a
number of garden forms have been selected with different coloured or larger flowers.
Known useful species are listed below. In addition there are a number which were reputedly
used in native North American medicine but the reports are generally vague so these have not
been listed.
Campanula alliariifolia
Perennial from western Europe and Eastern Asia, growing to 70cm high and SOcm wide. In leaf
April-November, flowers July-September. Easily naturalised in light shade beneath trees where
it will self seed.
The leaves, rather hairy, are eaten raw or cooked, and the flowers in salads.
Can be used as a ground cover planted about 45 cm apart.
C.carpatica (source: Wikipedia commons)

Campanula carpatica - Tussock bellflower, Carpathian harebell
Alpine perennial from the Carpathian mountains in southeastern Europe, growing to 3Qcm high
and wide. Flowers Jul y-August. The subspecies turbinata is slightly smaller and has slightly
hairy leaves.
Like a well drained site and can be grown on a wall as long as there is soil for it.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked - they are slightl y chewy raw, and the flowers in salads.
Plants form a dense clump and be used as a ground cover planted about 30 em apart.
Campanula cochleariifolia - Fairies thimbles
Alpine perennial from the mountains of most of temperate Europe, where it grows in cracks in
rocks to 15cm high. Flowers July-August. '
Like a well drained site and can be grown on a wall in cracks, where it might well spread widely
via creeping rhizomes.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, with a pleasant mild flavour; and the flowers in salads.
C.garganica (source: Wikipedia commons)
Page 23
Campanula garganica
Evergreen perennial. Often short lived, from Italy, growing 15 em high, hardy to -20C. Flowers
June-September.
Likes a well drained site and can be grown on a wall as long as there is soil for it.
The le,aves are eaten raw or cooked, with a pleasant mild flavour ; and the flowers in salads.
. .
Campanula glomerata - Clustered bellflower
C.g/omerata (source: Wikipedia commons)
Robust perennial from Europe and Western Asia growing 1 m high and 60 em wide. Extremely
hardy. Flowers June to July.
A very vigorous upright species which can spread widely if happy.
Page 24
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 17 No J
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, with a pleasant mild slightly sweet flavour, suitable as a
major ingredient in salads. The flowers are also used in salads.
Campanula lactiflora
A robust perennial from the Caucasus growing 1.5m high and 75cm wide. Flowers JulyAugust.
A tough plant which copes well with competition, with a branching fleshy rootstock. When
flowering they can often flop over.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, with a pleasant mi ld slightly sweet flavour; and the flowers
in salads.
Campanula lasiocarpa
Alpine perennial from the mountains of Western North America and Eastern Asia, growing 18
em high. Flowers in July.
Not easy to grow, it needs a very gritty soil and excellent drainage. Slugs are very fond of the
plant too.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, and the flowers in salads.
Campanula latifalia
European and Asian perennial growing to 1 m high and 30 cm wide, flowering July-August.
Robust, upright and shade tolerant, growing well in many soi ls.
The; leaves are eaten raw or cooked, and the flowers in salads.
Campanula lati/aba
A robust Siberian perennial growing to 90 cm high and 50 cm wide, flowering July-September.
Closely related to C.persicifofia.
Can be used as a ground cover planted about 45 cm apart.
Campanula medium - Canterbury bells
Biennial from southern Europe, evergreen over winter, growing to 1.2m high and 30cm wide.
Flowers in July. Hardy over winter to -12C or so.
Page 26
Likes a well drained soil.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked (somewhat hairy), and the flowers in salads. The one year
old roots can be eaten much like those of rampion (C.rapunculus),
Green and pale blue dyes are obtained from the flowers.
Campanula persicifolia - Willow bell, Peach-bell
A European, Asian and North African evergreen perennial growing to 1 m high and 45 cm wide
with narrow shiny leaves. Flowers June-August.
Easily grown in most soi ls and beneath trees, though slugs can sometimes be a problem.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked - it was at one time use as a culinary vegetable. They can
be slightly bitter raw. There are leaves available over winter from the basal rosette. The
flowers are very good in salads.
Campanula portenschlagiana
Evergreen perennial from southern Europe, growing 25 em high and spreading widely where
happy. Flowers July-September.
Likes a well drained site and very happy on walls where it can become rampant.
Can be used as a ground cover for well drained sites in sun;
Ca.mpanula poscharskyana
Evergreen perennial from SloVenia to Serbia, growing 25 cm high and spreading widely where
happy. Flowers July-September.
Likes a well drained site and very happy on walls where it can become rampant.
The leaves are eaten raw (slightly tough) or cooked, and the flowers in salads.
Can be used as a ground cover for well drained sites in sun.
Campanula punctata - Chinese rampion
Perennial from Japan and Siberia, growing to 35cm high and 75cm wide, flowers in July.
Likes a well drained site, where it can spread freely.
Page 28
The leaves are eaten raw (sl ightly hairy, but have a pleasant sweetness) or cooked, and the
flowers in salads.
Campanula pyramidalis - Chimney bellflower
European perennial, often short-lived, growing to 1.5m high and 50cm wide, hardy to -1O
o
e or
so. Flowers July-August.
Likes a well drained soil and sun or light shade.
The leaves are eaten raw (slightly sweet) or cooked, and the flowers in salads.
Campanula rapunculoides - Creeping bellflower
A robust European perennial growing to 1.2m high and 1 m wide. Flowers July-September.
Can spread aggressively via thick branching roots, and very tolerant of competition. Slugs can
be fond of this plant.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, and the flowers in salads. Young roots can also be eaten
raw or cooked, with a sweet, nutty flavour.
Campanula rapunculus - Rampion
Mediterranean biennial growing to 90 cm tall (in its second year when it flowers), often grown as
an annual. Flowers July-August.
ForlT!erly much cultivated for its. edible roots , which are like a cluster of finger-thickness roots.
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, and the flowers in salads. The one year old roots are
eaten raw or cooked with a sweet nutty flavour.
Campanula takesimana
Robust perennial from Korea growing 50cm high and wide, flowers June-July. Closely related
to C.punctata.
Can spread freely via roots when happy.
Page 30
I C,mp'nu/, V",';CO/O'
Evergreen perennial from Greece and the Balkans, growing to 60em high and 45cm wide,
flowers July-September.
Requires a very well drained soil , hates winter wet, hardy to 10C or so. Unfortunately also
very attractive to slugs! .
The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, and can be harvested all winter from the basal rosette.
They have a pea-like flavour with a slight sweetness. The flowers are used in salads.
Propagation
Propagate by seed, division, and basal cuttings. Campanula seeds are small, some are dust-
like, and are best sown on the surface of a moist compost. Because hybridisation between
species is rare, seeds come true.
Basal cuttings should be taken in spring; divide in spring or autumn.
References
Crawford, M: ART Useful Plants Database, 2009.
Huxley, A: The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. MacMillan reference, 1999.
Plants for a Future: Database of useful plants, 2009.
All photos from Wikipedia commons are used under the GNU Free Documentation license.
Coast redwood for timber
Britain imports ever increasing amounts of timber from abroad, especially durable and specialist
woods. Considering that chemical treatments to increase wood durability are steadi ly becoming
both safer and less effective, why is that we are not growing more durable timber?
In Britain the name redwood sometimes causes confusion - the Coast redwood is Sequoia
sempervirens whilst the giant sequoia or wellingtonia is Sequioadendron giganteum. Although
there are some similarities in the timbers, there are considerable differences in the trees. This
article is concentrating on the coast redwood.
Recent American experience
Over the past 25 years, radical changes have occurred within the redwood industry in the USA.
Prior to this time much of the timber harvested was old growth redwood, which produced vast
quantities of large section clear heartwood of often very high durability (and produced with
much opposition at times. ) Only small quantities of old growth timber now reaches the market
and speciali st millers. Very littl e old growth remains on the commercial timberlands. The old
growth of any significance than remains is in national parks and other private property. Thus
the industry has had to change from old growth utilisation to 2
nd
and 3
rd
growth utilisation.
The 2
nd
growth is easier to harvest, has less breakage on felling and draws less adverse
publicity - it has become another farmed crop. In many regions trees have attained fine forest
form, with 30m+ (100 ft+) clear stems. The main problem with 2
nd
growth wood is that it often
Page 31
contains far greater amounts of knots and not as much clear heartwood. Yet the industry has
adapted, and introduced new grades of timber which include a percentage of knots and other
oddities. In effect, what was considered a defect in the past has changed into a feature!
The bottom line is that much of the 2
nd
and 3'd growth trees are coarser grained and not as
durable as the old growth, but the new timber grades have been accepted by a receptive market
in the USA. Much of the timber grown in the UK is of simi lar quality to the 3rd and 3
rd
growth
timber in the USA, thus potentially UK grown timber could be used for similar uses .

In its native habitat the species grows in an irregular strip about 450 miles long in a variety of
ecological settings, and can occur in pure stands or with a variable number of other tree
species, including conifers such as Douglas fir, Western Hemlock, Grand Fir, Monterey Pine,
Lawson Cypress, Sitka Spruce and Western Red Cedar; and variety of Pacific coast hardwood
trees.
Redwood trees are highly adaptable and suitable for a wide range of planting possibilities. The
climate of the region is mild with annual rainfall between 0.6 and 3m, falling mostly as winter
rain.
Flowering in its home region occurs between November and March, and weather conditions
have a big effect on seed quality. In general the seed viability is quite low. Seeds germinate in
duff , on logs, in debris and under plants as long as adequate soil and water are available.
Seedlings are very susceptible to damping off fungi in leaf litter. Self seeding also occurs in
Britain, having been observed from southern England up to the Midlands.
Redwoods can be propagated by cuttings especiall y from the upward shoots of fast growing
young trees. Basal sprouts or sprouts from cut stumps root fairly easily too. Increasingl y tissue
culture techniques are being used to grow nursery stock.
The ability of redwoods to coppice is an unusual characteristic for a conifer. Old growth sites it
often seems than more ' of the smaller stumps res prout. Sprouts grow more rapidl y than
seedlings and the initial fast growth lasts for several years.
Redwoods have no taproot, but lateral roots are large and wide spreading. Small trees have
better than average wind firmness, and larger redwoods are wind firm under most conditions.
Provenance of seed is important as there are distinct differences in seed zones. The more
northerly seed zones are more cold hardy, grow taller as seedlings more easily, and do better
on better sites. The middle band seems to be better adapted to warmer conditions and grow a
bit stouter as seedlings. The southern end seems to produce seedlings with thicker leaves and
require a bit more fertili sation to grow to an equal tree size.
A prominent special feature of redwoods is the production or burls, which when cut have
figuring inside, sometimes called redwood lace burl , or redwood birdseye burl. The burls are
found in any part of the trunk, in sizes ranging from, a few inches to many feet in diameter.
Some redwoods have a large burl around the root collar and under the soil surface
American usage
The redwoods of California were used for just about everything. They were used for railway
cars, sleepers, casks, water pipes, fencing stakes, shingles, vats, water tanks, flood gates,
trestles, wharf pilings, bridges, furniture, coffins, and insulation amongst other things. Few
other building materials could match redwood's versatility, popularity or abundance.
Before the development of wood preservatives, redwood was used whenever wood came into
contact with the ground. Since the heartwood imparts no flavour to liquids it was particularly
valuable in early water systems.
Redwood has little or no volatile resins and oils. As a result it burns slowly and does not ignite
easily - it is more fire resistant than any other softwood such as Douglas fir or Pine. The wood
developed a reputation for being almost fireproof , after so many redwood buildings were left
standing in the wake of fires that ravaged San Francisco following the 1906 earthquake.
Rest of the world
Redwoods grow in many parts of western Europe, in the Crimea, Turkey, Japan, New Zealand,
Chi le, South Africa, Tasmani a and in the tropics at high enough altitude to provide a temperate
climate.
The UK
In the UK there appear to be a whole series of misconceptions with regards to growing
redwoods here such as 'It needs fog to survive' I ' It doesn't produce timber of any use' I ' It
doesn't grow on the eastern side of the country' I 'The are no markets for it' .
During Arwyn Morgan' s visits to many redwood groves, it is clear that redwoods have been
planted or a whole variety of sites, with varying success. They grow as well as any other
species on poor upland bolder soils, but it is on the more sheltered deeper soils that the species
excels. They can grow fine in the east of the UK as long as there is adequate' soil moisture.
Redwoods do not like exposure, and in places the foliage is browned by cold dry winds in all but
the mildest winters, though this does not affect the health of the tree which will continue to grow
naturally.
Redwoods can be planted with a nurse such as larch, or regrowth of old coppice, but it is
important to make sure redwood plantings are thoroughly weeded until the trees start to grow
rapidly. Most of the redwoods in the UK tend to be planted as single age stands, although there
is one estate which plants redwoods and other conifers in clumps throughout existing forest.
Generally redwoods tolerate considerable shade, but need plenty of light to grow.
Processing logs - Alwyn Morgan's experience
Overall some 300 m
3
of logs have been purchased, with a large percentage milled and
processed into value added products.
The logs varied from 0.25 - 1.8m in diameter, sourced from five different woodlands. Despite
using a whole range of log types, from butt lengths, 2
nd
and 3'd lengths, some fast grown, others
slow grown, some with even growth patterns, there was very little tension present in any of the
logs during milling.
Some of the logs were debarked, while most had the bark left on prior to milling. Various types
of sawmill were used but the bark easily built up on roller saw guides of band saws - therefore
it is essential to de-bark all logs prior to milling to avoid stoppages further down the line.
One feature of redwoods is that they don't shed dead branches very well , with the end result
that the dead branch stubs will remain in the stem for many years, and hence form a dead knot
which will probably fall out when the timber is seasoned and machined.
The logs divide into two distinct types:
The pink/ red/purple coloured heartwood
The white/yellow coloured sapwood
Both types can be used, but it is only the heartwood which can be durable. The sapwood has
similar working qualities as the heartwood, so although not durable, it is ideal for interior
woodwork, especially if it is to be painted, due to its non-resinous nature and its high stability.
The central core of the log contains solid live knots which form sound lumber, yet as the trees
grow and their lower branches die off, they rarely fall off, the trees expand in girth, and instead
of producing clear wood we can get sapwood of poor quality full of dead/loose knots, and not of
good quality for interior use. The answer to this is in the silviculture: either high prune (thus
reducing knots and produce higher value clear wood suitable for interior joinery), grow in dense
stands (thus limiting branch size, and knocking off dead branches during thinning), or plant at
wide spacings (eg. silvopasture, thus encouraging branches to remain alive and accept the
sound knotty timber.)
Many of the logs milled were in the region of 45 years old and produced:
33% sapwood
33% heartwood with loose/dead knots
33% clear heartwood with sound knots.
Initial air drying tends to be slow, especially in thicker sections. Redwood logs contain
considerable water and are thus heavy even after 2 years. The sawn boards are heavy, but
after air drying they become considerably lighter. The fresh sawn lumber is easily bruised but
hardens and strengthens as it dries.
Some trials were set up to look at weathering and stability comparing tangential sawn and
quarter sawn redwood, western red cedar, oak ,grand fir and Japanese larch. Overall redwood
and western red cedar pmved best, with slight checking on tangential boards but the quarter
sawn boards maintaining full integrity.
Decay tests showed considerable variation in the durability of redwood, with some being far
more durable than the oak samples tested.
Many of the possible markets for redwood and those currently utilising oak. The price of
redwood logs at mill in the USA is similar to that for oak in the UK, however there is not yet a
well established market for redwood timber in the UK, hence currently prices for redwood are
considerably less than for oak.
Conclusions
Red can have a bright future in the UK, as long as careful consideration is given to provenance,
site selection, its early growth and long term management. The fact that is easily coppices
means that its root structure has a permanent soil stabilising effect and re-establishment costs
are minimal.
Redwood's quality of stability and durability when grown in sufficient quality can far exceed any
other species grown in the UK.
Reference
Morgan, A: The Growth and Use of Redwoods. Woodland Heritage 2009, pp56-62
Page 34
American gooseberry mildew
Introduction
American gooseberry mildew, Sphaerotheca mors-uvae, is a North American fungal disease,
which appeared in Europe about 1900 and spread very rapidly. It is now widespread and can
be very damaging not only on gooseberries but also on blackcurrants at times. It is a much
more serious disease in Europe than European gooseberry mildew.
Symptoms
A powdery white coating appears on young shoots from mid spring onwards, spreading rapidly
to all new growth i n moist, sti ll conditions but the leaves are often lej3.st affected. The symptoms
later intensify and stems and fruits develop a brown felty covering containing black dot-like
bodies. The shoots are malformed and stunted, and the fruit small and tasteless.
On gooseberries, fruits are attacked more severely than leaves. On red and blackcurrants, the
symptoms are similar but the leaves are more severely affected than the fruits.
Conditions for infection and spread
The mildew spreads during the season by conidia. The black dot-like bodies that develop later
produce spores; some fall to the ground and discharge their spores in autumn; others remain
over winter and discharge in spring.
Mycelial threads surviving in buds are probably the most important means of persistence.
On blackcurrants, spores on fallen leaves are known to initiate new attacks from May onwards.
The intensity of attacks vary considerably from year to year.
Hosts
Most traditional older gooseberry varieties are very susceptible. Older blackcurrants are slightly
susceptible. Most recent varieties of both fruits have been bred for resistance.
The disease occasionally occurs on other Ribes spp.
Control
Cut out infected shoot tips in early autumn and prune in winter to increase air flow.
For blackcurrants, collect and burn fallen leaves in winter to try and break the disease cycle.
Don't bother with gooseberries as the fungus overwinters in their buds.
Sulphur is sometimes used (and is acceptable organically) as a fungicide, used at 14 day
intervals starting just before flowering. Spray at dusk when bees are not active. Note, though
that several traditional varieties of gooseberry (eg. 'Careless' and ' Leveller') are sulphur-shy
and will be damaged by applications of sulphur.
More traditionally, sprays made from washing soda (sodium carbonate) or baking soda (sodium
bicarbonate) have been used to control mildew. For baking soda, use one tablespoon per
gallon (4.5 litres) of water, adding a tablespoon of vegetable oil. Repeat applications after rain.
Resistance
There are a good number of resistant gooseberry cultivars, including:
400OC. Essentially, a higher temperature biochar will have a greater potential for adsorption of
toxic substances and rehabilitation of contaminated environments.
Biochar as a soil conditioner
The addition of biochar to agricultural soils is receiving much attention due to the apparent
benefits to soil quality and enhanced crop yields, as well as the potential to gain carbon credits
by active carbon sequestration.
Same studies have shown that biochar can aid in:
nutrient retention and cation exchange capacity
decreasing soil acidity
decreased uptake of soil toxins
improving soil structure
nutrient use efficiency
water-holdi ng capacity
decreased release of non-C02 greenhouse gases (CH4, N20)
However, even though these functions may lead directly or indirectly to increased production in
some soils, the benefit of biochar is not universal. In fact, some biochars may have adverse
effects on plant growth, and not all soils respond to biochar additions in the same way.
Studies that have reported positive effects with regard to crop production often involved highly
degraded and nutrient-poor soils, whereas application of biochar to fertile and healthy soils
does not always yield a positive change.
Based on the limited information available, biochars are very variable in nutrient composition
because of the variable feedstocks used and the varying pyrolysis conditions under which they
were produced. Therefore, biochars are variable materials and given the very large variabilities
of nutrient content , we would expect very different plant and soil responses and therefore very
different, currently unpredictable agronomic values of these products as soil amendments. For
example, all the biochars are very low in mineral N 2 mg/kg ) and CI N of the biochars varies
widely, between 7-400 with a mean of 61.
Furthermore, researchers in this area do not seem to have realised that soil organic matter,
produced from decomposed biomass by the soil fauna, is critically important in sustainable
agriculture. And in sustainable agriculture there is no such thing as waste".
Replacing biomass materials applied to fields (eg. straw and manures) with biochar is an
unknown technique of which the outcome nobody knows.
There are some who claim that agronomic use of biochar in subsistence agriculture could have
great benefits. However, appropriate technology and policy needs to be implemented to deal
with environmental issues such as methane and particulate emissions, that could contribute to
climate change and human health risks. Socio-economic constraints and benefits are not
adequately researched. Higher crop yields resulting from biochar applications would be
expected to mitigate pressures on land and would also have relevance to land restoration and
remediation.
Nobody really knows how the 'terra preta' carbon-rich soils of south America were formed, but
in all likelihood it was not by using charcoal as a replacement for soil organic matter, rather it
was probably a combination of the use of both charcoal and organic mulch material.
Biochar and greenhouse gas emissions
Producing biochar and bioenergy via pyrolysis is a carbon-negative process. The organic
materials being burnt are naturally part of the photosynthesis cycle, so taking the carbon out of
the cycle and locking it in blochar and bio-gases means that there is a net decrease of carbon in
the atmosphere (see diagram below). Due to its high chemical stability, high carbon content
and its potential to reside in soil over decades, centuries, and even up to millennia, biochar
applications have the potential to turn into a long-term carbon sink. Thus in theory, biochar
could play an important role in helping to sequester carbon from the atmospher.e and partially
offset greenhouse gas emissions produced by the burning of fossil fuels.
If the aim is to primarily to sequester carbon, then applying biochar to fields may not be the
most appropriate thing to do. Biochar will remain stable for much longer if it is not exposed to
the range of fauna in the soi l who will try to reintegrate the carbon into the normal cycle. So
storing it down mines or somewhere similar would make much more sense in this case.
Some of the proponents of biochar are trying to get biochar accepted as a form to earn carbon
credits. Personally I am sceptical about the large scale adoption of biochar production under
the carbon credits aegis, as it likely to have unexpected consequences which may not improve
the planet's chances of avoiding dangerous climate change. .
Biochar production as a carbon negative process
Conclusions
There are too many unknowns about biochar at the moment to be able to make judgements
about its benefits in agriculture. Much more research needs doi ng, and much is under way.
Undoubtedly biochar can store carbon in a stable state for periods of decades or more. The
need for atmospheric carbon reduction is acute and biochar could playa part, along with other
techniques, to achieve some reductions. But the effect on soi ls of reducing organic matter
content if biomass is made into biochar instead of returned to the soi l, may be to reduce soil
fertility and thus productivity, and may have knock-on effects in terms of other soil carbon
storage (apart from the biochar) which at the moment are simply unknown.
References
Krull, E: Biochar. CSIRO information sheet, 2009.
Australia New Zealand biochar researchers network (ANZBRN)
Page 39
DVD & Book Reviews
Proper Pruning of Grapevines
Lon Rombough
DVD, $33 inc delivery to the UK.
Available from: http://www.bunchqrapes.com/dvd.html
Lon 'Rombough is well known in North America as a writer and grower 01 unusual fruits and particularly of
grapes. This DVD follows on from his successfully book, The Grape Grower, and gives step-by-step hand-
on instructions as to how to prune dormant grape vines.
Several different methods are shown so that any vines can be pruned the best way to ensure top quality fruil
harvests. Includes Jots of tips that only an experienced grower would knowl
A second DVD is included and this ones covers propagation by layering - the fastest way to increase stocks
- frost protection, and the results (in terms of fantastic fruit) of good pruning.
Pruning grapes is a mystery to many folk and I can certainly recommended this OVO to make it quite clear
what you should do and why.
A Year in a Forest Garden
Martin Crawford & Iota Producti ons
OVO, Green Books, 2009; 50 mins; 14.95.
ISBN 9781900322614
Available from the ART for 17.94 including P & P to Britain. www.agroforestry. co.uk
This new DVD successfully manages to convey what a forest garden is all about by following the ART forest
garden at Dartington through a year. This enables the viewer to see what a 15-year-old forest garden really
looks like and consists of .
Not only are the principles explained succinctly, but you can see how they have been applied in a real
situation. Martin shows you how to plan your planting to make the most of the space, taking layers, denSity,
patterning and diversi ty into account. Many unusual (as well as some usual) edible plants are featured.
How to apply the principles -of forest gardening to both small and larger areas is discussed. Some plants
are more appl icable to larger areas but the principles remain the same.
Many forest garden tasks are featured including pruning, coppicing, planting, maintenance, harvesting and
utilising the harvest.
Asian Vegetables
Sall y Cunningham
Eco-Iogic Books, 2009; 132 pp; 14.99.
ISBN 978 1 899233 16 8
Subtitled "A Guide to Growing Fruit, Vegetables and Spices from the Indian Subcontinent " which pretty much
explains what this book aims to do. It is basically a directory of interesting edible plants, subdivided into
leaves, beans, roots, frui ts, spices and ornamentals. The last category, ornamentals, are plants, mostly fruit
trees, which cannot real istically be grown in Britain for their crop, but can be grown as an indoor ornamental .
There is a fascinating selection of over 30 plants featured in the other sections. While most will be well
known to the Asian community in Britain, and some no doubt are grown here, to most UK growers these are
mainly unknown crops. Qui te a few, as you would expect , are annuals, and others can still only be expected
to crop with protection, but I found most interesting those which can be grown outside and the perennials.
One perennial which appears to be surviving increasingly well in the south of Britain are bananas, and they
feature here not for the fruits - there is still little prospect of fruiting bananas outside in Britain! - but for the
leaves. These are not edible in themselves but are used to add flavour as well as being a biodegradable
alternati ve to aluminium foil. A review of different species here indicates the hardiest sorts worth trying .
Other crops may have an interesting future here. Green chick peas, for example, of the right varieties, grew
and cropped well in the hot summer of 2006.
For each plant there is a description of the plant itself , edible and other uses, nutritional value, and
cultivation details for British conditions. Several colour photos accompany each plant. The book is a nice
addi tion for the grower of unusual edibles.
21 per year in Britain and the E.U. (17 unwaged). 39 I 2 years.
Agroforestry News
The future for chestnut
Volume 18 Number 1
November 2009
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Limits to nitrogen / Milkweeds
6 Plumcots
9 Mulberries
19 The future for chestnut
23 Juneberries: Amelanchier species
34 Blue honeysuckle - Lonicera caerulea
40 Book review: Nature's Matrix
Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearl y or sent on disk in a common format.
reader, should be tested carefull y before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered
species, The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any
Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterl y by the Agroforestry Research Trust.
Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT. UK Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
Page 1
News
L
imits to nitrogen: Tipping towards the unknown
up of 28 internationally renowned scientists have proposed that global biophysical boundaries,
on the basis of the scientific understanding of the earth system, can define a 'safe planetary
Ide
n
.. ;;ng space' that will allow humanity to continue to develop and thrive for generations to come.
opera
'entists first identified the Earth System processes and potential biophysical thresholds, which, if
TI19 could generate unacceptable environmental change for humanity. They then proposed the
;ies that should be respected in order to reduce the risk of crossing these thresholds. Nine
bOundaries were identified: climate change, stratospheric ozone, land use change, freshwater use,
diversity, ocean acidification, nitrogen and phosphorus inputs to the biosphere and oceans,
bla OQlllaading and chemical pollution. . ,
aerosa
studY suggests that three of these boundaries (climate change, and nitrogen
!he t to the biosphere) may already have been transgressed. In addition, It emphaSizes that the
are strongly connected - crossing one boundary may seriously threaten the ability to stay
Wllhin safe levels of the others.
TMir approach was outlined in Nature in September and an abstract of their paper is as follows:
AbSTriCi
Anthropogenic pressures on the Earth System have reached a scale where abrupt global environmental
change can no longer be excluded. We propose a new approach to global sustainability in which we
define planetary boundaries within which we expect that humanity can operate safely. Transgressing
one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing
thresholds that will trigger non-linear, abrupt environmental change within continental- to planetary-scale
Systems.
We have identified nine planetary boundaries .and, drawing upon current scientific understanding, we
propose quantifications for seven of them. These seven are:

climate change (C02 concentration in the atmosphere < 350 ppm and/or a maximum change
of + 1 W m-2 in radiative forcing);
ocean acidification (mean suriace seawater saturation state with respect to aragonite! 80% of
pre-industrial levels) ;
stratospheric ozone 5 % reduction in 03 concentration from pre-industrial level of 290
Dobson Units);
biogeochemical nitrogen (N) cycle (limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N2 to 35 Tg N yr-
1) and phosphorus (P) cycle (annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 1 times the natural
background weathering of P) ;
global freshwater use 4,000 km3 yr-l of consumptive use of runoff resources);
land system change 15 % of the ice-free land suriace under cropland);
loss of biological diversity (annual rate of < 10 extinctions per million species).
The two additional planetary boundaries for which we have not yet been able to determine a boundary
level are chemical pollution and atmospheric aerosol loading.
Page 2
We estimate that humanity has already transgressed three planetary boundaries; for c,limate change,
biodiversity loss and changes to the global nitrogen cycle. Planetary boundaries are interdependent,
because transgressing one may both shift the position of, or result in transgressing, o t h ~ r boundaries.
The social impacts of transgressing boundaries will be a function of the social-ecological resilience of
the affected societies. Our proposed boundari es are rough, first estimates only, surrounded by large
uncertainties and knowledge gaps. Filling these gaps will require major advancements in Earth System
and resilience science.
The proposed concept of 'planetary boundaries' lays the groundwork for shifting our approach to
governance and management, away from the essentially sectoral analyses of limits to growth aimed at
minimizing negative externalities, towards the estimation of the safe space for human development.
Planetary boundaries define, as it were, the boundaries of the 'planetary playing field' for humanity if we
want to be sure of avoiding major human-induced environmental change on a global scale.
Concentrating on agricultural systems, the potential limits to nitrogen use are likely to have enormous
impacts.
In 1908, the German chemist Fritz Haber discovered how to make ammonia by capturing nitrogen gas
from the air. In the process he invented a cheap new source of nitrogen fertilizer, ending our
dependence on natural sources, whether biological or geological. Chemical fertilizer today feeds about
three billion people.
But the environmental consequences of the massive amounts of nitrogen sent coursing through the
planet's ecosystems are growing fast. We have learned to fear carbon and the changes it can cause to
our climate. But one day soon we may learn to fear the nitrogen fix even more.
Nitrogen affects more parts of the planet's life-support systems than almost any other element, says
James Galloway of the University of Virginia, who predicts: "In the worst-case scenario, we will move
towards a nitrogen-saturated planet, with polluted and reduced biodiversity, increased human health
risks and an even more perturbed greenhouse gas balance."
The problem is that we waste most of Haber's fertilizer. Of 80 million tons spread onto fields in fertilizer
each year, only 17 million tons gets into food. The rest goes missing, washing into ecosystems. This is
partly because the fertilizer is wastefully applied, and partly because the new green-revolution crops
developed to grow fat on nitrogen fertilizer are also wasteful of the nutrient. The nitrogen efficiency of
the world's cereals has fallen from 80 percent in 1960 to just 30 percent today.
Artificial nitrogen washes in drainage water from almost every field in the world. It is as ubiquitous in
water as man-made carbon dioxide is in the air. Most of the man-made nitrogen fertilizer ever produced
has been applied to fields in the last quarter-century. Nature has some ability to reverse man-made
fixing of nitrogen, converting it back into an inert gas - a process called denitrification. But last year,
Patrick Mulholland of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee reported that the system is being
overwhelmed. Many rivers in the U.S. are now so nitrogen-saturated that they are losing their ability to
denitrify pollution.
Most of this excess nitrogen ends up in the oceans, where it is killing whole ecosystems. Excess
nitrogen is the cause of the growing number of oxygen-depleted "dead zones" in the oceans, says
Mulholland.
Soils recycle nitrogen in organic waste, including animal dung. But before Haber's discovery, the only
way of adding more atmospheric nitrogen to soils was through capture by the bacteria that live in a
small number of nitrogen-fixing plants, including legumes like clover and beans.
In the 19th century, densely-packed countries like Germany and Britain began to improve the fertility of
their soils by importing nitrogen in the form of guano from the P@.cific islands of Peru, and saltpetre
mined in Chile. Geological nitrogen was a geopolitical res9urce as vital as oil today.
Outside Europe, few initially took up chemical fertilizers to intensify their farming. 1t was usually cheaper
and easier to expand farming - draining marshes, ploughing prairies and clearing forests. But by the
1960s, as world population soared, fertilizer manufacture took off, and plant breeders developed new
lines of crops that responded best to the nitrogen fix. During this "green there
was an eight-fold increase in global production of nitrogen fertilizer from the 1960s to the 1980s .

Today, of 175 million tons of nitrogen applied to the world's croplands in a year, almost 50 percent is
from chemical fertilizer. It has raised the "carrying capacity" of the world's soils from 1.9 people per
hectare of farmland to 4.3 - and 10 in China, where applications reach twice anything seen in Europe.
This is a profound change to the biochemistry of life on Earth - and to our own bodies. Today, much of
the nitrogen in our bodies comes not from biological sources but from giant chemical factories. We are,
in a real sense, as much chemistry as biology. Vaciav Smil, the distinguished Canadian researcher into
food and the environment at the University of Manitoba, calls the nitrogen fix "an immense and
dangerous experiment."
Besides fertilizer, we are also making biologically available nitrogen by burning fossil fuels. Nitrogen
oxides in the air are also potent greenhouse gases, adding to global warming, and even reach the
stratosphere, where they join chlorine and bromine compounds in eating up the protective ozone layer.
The prognosis is not good. The scientists who wrote the Nature paper on planetary boundaries argued
that human nitrogen releases to the natural environment should be cut by three quarters, to around 35
million tons. But on current trends, global nitrogen use on farmland is set to double to 220 million tons a
year by 2050 - more than six times the safe threshold.
The danger is that nature's ability to process this excess nitrogen and return it to the atmosphere will be
overwhelmed. and we will end up inhabiting a nitrogen-saturated planet, with nitrogen driving global
warming. '
What can be done? To meet the target cited in the Nature study requires a transformation of the world's
agriculture as profound as the transformation of energy industries needed to meet targets for cutting
greenhouse gases. There is an urgent need f.or developing farming systems that manage nitrogen far
belter .. This must include much less use of chemical fertilisers, using organic systems and naturally-
fixed mtrogen instead - but even these sources must be used carefully and not wasted.
says the .flow of. nitrogen through the environment can also be reduced by decreased
emiSSions from burning fossil fuels - perhaps as a by-product of efforts against climate change And
belter sewage in cities could convert nitrates thaI have passed through the human gu'l into
sale gaseous nitrogen.
If anything h.umanity's growing the p.lanet's life-support systems, it is the way we
are the nitrogen cycle. As Smll put It "In Just one lifetime, humanity has developed a
profound chemical dependence."
References
httpJlwww.stockholmresilience .org/research/researchnews/tippingtowardstheunknown 5 7c19c5aa 121 e
17bab42800021543.htmi ..
Pearce, F: The Nitrogen Fix: Breaking a Costly Addiction.
httpJlwww.e360.yale.edu/contentlfeature.msp?id 2207
New uses for Milkweed
Milkweed is cultivated commercially in the USA for the floss from the seed pods, which is' used as a
hypoallergenic filler in high-end pillow? and jacket linings. In studies at ARS's New Crops and
Processing Technology Research Unit in Peoria, Illinois, chemist Rogers E. Harry-O'kuru is
experimenting with new, value-added uses derived from unsaturated oil in the seed of common
milkweed, Asclepias syriaca.
Harry-O'kuru's analysis of the waxes and different fatty acids in the oil shows it has potential use as a
base material in sunscreen, cosmetics, and skin- and hair-care products, including moisturizers and
conditioners.
Many of teday's sunscreens use chemical filters or blocks to protect skin from two types of ultraviolet
radiation, UV-A and UV-B, at wavelengths of 290 to 400 nanometres (nm). The effects of UV-B
exposure are usually temporary-an example being the sunburn a careless beachgoer must endure for
a few days. Repeated or prolonged exposure to UV-A radiation-such as that experienced by
lifeguards or road crews-can cause premature aging and skin cancer. The filters and blocks work by
absorbing or scattering such radiation before it penetrates and damages skin.
Recently, interest has grown in sunscreen and cosmetic products that not only protect skin, but nourish
it. Harry-O'kuru's milkweed-oil-based sunscreen aims to fill the bill on both counts. It contains natural
antioxidants, such as tocopherols, and cinnamic acid derivatives like ferulic acid, which occurs naturally
in many plants and is highly absorbent of UV rays.
,
A key step in the process, is using zinc chloride to catalyze the conversion of milkweed oil 's triglycerides
into the UV-absorbing cinnamic acid derivatives.
In laboratory tests, the derivatives strongly absorbed UV rays in the range of 260 to 360 nm,
wavelengths that can damage skin. The milkweed-oil product accomplished this at very low
concentrations (1 to 5 percent by weight)-a range far below that approved for today's topical skin
formulations, says Harry-O'kuru.
Hany-O'kuru says his current sunscreen compounds are clear liquids, but gels, creams, sticks, and
aerosol sprays are also possible. The sunscreen's unique combination of fats and waxes may qualify it
as biodegradable and may keep it from washing off during a swim.
Besides skin- and hair-care products, the UV-absorbent formulation could also be tailored for use in
epoxies, paints, or other industrial applications.
Reference: Milkweed: From Floss to Fun in the Sun. Agricultural Research magazine, Feb 2009.
Biochar update
Some really interesting papers and presentations from the North American Biochar Conference 2009
are available at http://cees.colorado.edu/northamericanbiochar.html
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No I
Page 5
Plumcots
Hybrids between plums (Prunus cerasifera and P.salicina) and apricots (P.armeniaca) are
referred to as plumcots.
Natura, plumcots have a long history in regions of the world where both apricots and myrobalan
or cherry plums (Prunus cerasifera) are traditionally grown, such as southwest Asia. Most of
these plumcots have red or purple fruit with light fuzz, although some are smooth and glabrous.
The fruits tend to be small and acidic. They were first described by Europeans in 1755, being
called the 'violet apricot'. These plumeots were common enough to be assigned their own
species name, P. X dasycarpa in 1791. Red skinned cultivars 'Grossa Precoce' and ' Pruna
Cresammola' are still grown in Italy, whilst several cultivars made it to the USA, including ' Irani
Olju', 'Tl or Csiran', 'Mesch Mesch Amrah' and ' Mirocais' .
From China, the natural hybrids ' Rikyo' ('Sumumo Anzu'), ' Rikoukyo' ('Li Guangxing') and
'Jinkyo' ('Nianzu') were introduced into Japan over a century ago. The first two have pubescent
plum-like fruit , the third is more apricot-like but with white flowers like a plum. 'Jin Huanghou' is
another natural hybrid from Northern China, whilst ' Long Yuan Huang Xing' is an intentional
hybrid from the same region.
In Japan, 'Sumomoume' is a natural hybrid of plum and Japanese apricot (P.mume), with
attractive red pubescent skin and large fruit size, but it only grown by amateurs as it does not
crop reliably. Breeders ate the Tsukuba Fruit Tree Research Station developed several plum-
mume hybrids but these are little grown due to low productivity and proneness of fruit cracking.
Another hybrid, P. X blireiana was found in 1895 as an apparent hybrid of the purple leaf plum,
Prunus cerasifera with a form of P.mume. This is still grown commercially as an
ornamental for its red leaves and double pink flowers. Fruits are rare and very acidi c.
Luther Burbank introduced several plumcots in the early 1900's but mainly as novelties, few
being very good fruiting trees. ' Rutland', 'Stanford', Red Bud' and ' Poe Royal Cotplum' are true
Burbank hybrids, but some of his cultivars have been found in fact to be true plum or true
apricot. Burbank may also have been the originator of the term 'plumcot'.
Apricots and Asian plums are not closely related, their native ranges do not overlap, though
they do have the same chromosome number. After hand pollination to make a cross, only 2-3%
of crosses set seed, and of these seeds over 95% die during germination or at the seedling
stage.
Recent US work
Breeders at Rutgers University in New Jersey found that plumcots were easy to produce if one
Use ' Methley' plum rather than an apricot as the female parent. Fl esh colour ranged from white
to yellow to red, while skin colour ranged from red to yellow. They produced little pollen and
cropped poorly.
In the last 25 years, private breeders in California (mainly Zaiger) have released and patented
many plumcot cultivars. Most of the initial wave of plumcots were not very productive, although
some had excellent eating quality.
Page 6
Recent patented plumcot and related hybrid cultlvars
Plum parfait
Flavor
Red Velvet
Flavor Deliaht
Flavor Queen
Royal Velvet
Flavor King
Tri-Lite'
I
I i
Dapple Dandy
FI
aney Rich
eo Pride
avor Heart
avor Ann
avor Gem
iwang
I
Flavor Gold
Flavor
)apple .ire-
Tasty Ri ch
Flavor Treat
Heart
Black Kat
Flavor Jewel
i
loval treat
'uba Gold
Early Dapple
Sierra Rose
Spring Flavor
Marcia's Flavor
lavar Wynne
'Iavor Finale
Flavor Rauae
IIV
V
Amigo II
Candy Stripe
* peach x plum
** nectarine x plum
1978 Laiger
1989 Zaiger
1989 Bradford
Zaiaer

1991
1992 Zaiger
1995 ger
1998 ger
Zaiaer
Zaiger
1999 Zaiger
1999 Zaiger
2000 Korea
2000 Laiger
2001 Zaiger
2001 Zaiger
200 Zaiaer
2002 Zaiger
2002 Zaiger
2002 Zaiger
21 -;c.:c-_---/-'Z"-""aig':':-er_..,
21 Zaiaer
2( Zaiger
2C Zaiger
2003 Zaiger
2003 Zaiger
2003 Zaiger
Zaiger

2004 Z iger
Z iger
2006
2006
2006
2006
2007
2007
Zaiger
Zaiaer
B
Zaiger
Zaiaer
After backcrossing and intercrossing these plumcots, it has become difficult to distinguish
hybrids from plums. In 1991, Zaiger Genetics trademarked the terms 'pluot' and ' aprium' ,
presumably to label their hybrids that resembled the plum parent or the cot parent respectively.
In California, the term ' interspecific'; is now sometimes used to describe these plumeot
derivatives (although this overl ooks the fact that most Japanese plums are already just that.) A
recent DNA study of 6 pluots, a pl umcot, 14 plums and 7. apricots indicates that some of the
hybrids might be descended from plums only!
The Zaiger fami ly have been working for about 50 years to hybridise apples, almonds, peaches,
nectarines, plums and roots,ocks. Among the many techniques used is the practice of growing
the breeding stock in containers so t hat the parent trees can be kept in cold storage. Lath
houses or greenhouses - this allows the flowering times of the parents to be delayed or
speeded up and enables crossing of parents that would ordinarily be impossible. Crosses can
be made in spring regardless of the weather outside. Test-tube embryo culture is used to grow
seedl ings for immature seeds and heat treatments used to eliminate viruses. Each year 50,000
seedl ings are grown from which several hundred are selected for evaluation. Many of the
recent genetic dwarf peaches and nectarines are Zaiger introductions. Zaiger's pluots and
apriums have fruit of generall y better quality than the earlier plumcots.
USDA Stone fruit breeding
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) stone fruit breeding i n Georgia began in
1937. Plum breeding began in earnest and has led to several cultivar releases over the years.
Apricot breeding work has also taken place but with less success.
A new plumcot , named ' Spring Satin', originated as an open pollinated seedl ing of a high quality
plum ('8Y8111 ') being eval uated. '8y8111' is a cross of ('Queen Ann' x 'Santa Rosa') x
' Frontier'.
' Spring Satin' flowers with ' Methley' plum and with peaches having a chilling requirement of
about 750 hours below 5C. Its flowers are whit e like plums and they shed moderate quantities
of pollen. 'Spri ng Satin' shoul d be planted adjacent to other plums or cherry plums flowering at
the same time to facilitate insect pollination.
The fruits ripen before those of 'Santa Rosa' plums. The fruits are flattish-round; the skin colour
is reddish-black, with very short fuzz. The flesh is yell ow or yellow-orange, darkeni ng to
orange-red as the fruit matures. The flesh is firm with very good flavour when it softens (firm
ripe fruit tends to be quite tart). Scm (2") diameter fruits are achievable, usually after fruit
thinning. The medium-sized pit is clingstone.
Trees of 'Spring Satin' appear compatible with common peach rootstocks, making a moderately
vigorous tree with upright growth. There seems to be moderate resistance to bacterial canker.
' Spring Satin' is the first recent unpatented plumcot that can be freely propagated and is being
used extensively as a parent to develop additional plumcot cultivars.
References
Clark, J R & Finn, C F: Register of New Fruit and Nut Cultivars, Ust 43. HortScience Vol 41 (5)
August 2006.
Clark, J R & Finn, C F: Register of New Fruit and Nut Cult ivars, Ust 44. HortScience Vol 43(5)
August 2008.
Kennedy, C T: About Plumcots and Poll ination. Fruit Gardener, Vol 26 No 6 (1994).
Okie, W R: 'Spring Satin' Plumcot. Journal of the American Pomological Society 59(3): 119-
124 2005.
Sanders, G: Zaiger Genetics. Fruit Gardener, Vol 27 No 3 (1995).
Page 8
Mulberries
Introduction
The mulberries ( Morus species ) are a group of temperate and subtropical trees and shrubs,
best known for their sweet edible fruit. They have many other uses, though, including silkworm
fodder , sources of rubber and fibres, medicinal uses, and the valuable timber.
Description
They are generally small, irregular, bushy-headed trees, often with leaning trunks, with a rough
scaly pink-brown bark.
Leaves are alternate, heart-shaped or lobed, with toothed edges, pOinted tips and rough
surfaces.
The flowers are green catkins, wind pollinated; male and female flowers are found on the same
tree. Mulberries are monoacious and self-fertile.
The fruits, like raspberries, are built up of many fruitlets, each pulpy and holding one seed.
They have a sharp acid taste until fully ripe, when they become sweet and delicious.
Black mulberries (Source: Wikimedia)
Cultivation
Mulberries are usually disease-free and thrive in any reasonably good, well -drained soil.
Cultivars are self-fertile.
All species need full sun in cooler climates but tolerate partial shade in hot sunny climes.
Russian mulberry (M.alba tatarica) is sometimes used in 'edible windbreaks' , the bl ossoms not
being damaged by high winds. However many other mulberries have brittle branches and
branqh breakages in exposed sites are common.
Mulberries prefer moist soil but are drought tolerant once established. They do not need
fert ilising. The only pest we have ever had trouble with is snails, which graze on the bark of
your trees and can kill them if they ring bark the tree.
Mulberries come into leaf late in the spring, are tolerant of ground cover competition and grow
well with grass beneath; this makes them a highly promising agroforestry crop in systems where
they form the higher storey.
Named varieties of mulberry start fruiting at a young age, often the first year they are planted.
Most varieties ripen their crop over a long period of 6 weeks or more, making this an ideal home
garden tree (also also one reason why mulberries are rarely grown commercially). Illinois
Everbearing ripens it s fruit s from mid August to mid October for us in Devon.
Harvesting mulberries is best undertaken by putting a sheet or tarp on the ground and lightly
shaking the branches. All the ripe fruits will readily fall and can be easily sorted. Mulberries do
not store well and should be eaten or processed within 24 hours. Dark mulberry fruits will stain
fingers and clothing.
Birds are sometimes a problem taking the fruits, although on many varieties the fruits are well
hidden underneath leaves. If birds are a problem then using plastic owls or snakes is quite
effective. Birds will also rarely go for white fruits so you can choose a white fruited variety from
the outset if you know birds are likely to be troublesome.
Propagation can be either by seed (requiring 16 weeks of stratification), hardwood cuttings in
winter, grafting/budding, layering or air layering. In addition, some species can be propagated
from softwood cuttings in summer. The use of mycorrhizal fungi spores as a cuttings dip is
reported to increase the success rate.
For orchard cultivation and systems usi ng understorey crops , young trees should be planted at
8-10 m (25-30 ft) apart. Planting in the spring is preferable. Some formative pruning may be
desirable in the first few years to establish a strong framework of 4-5 branches; otherwise only
prune to remove crossing or dead branches. Pruning should be undertaken in winter to avoid
excess bleeding of sap.
For windbreaks, plant at 2.5-7 m (8-20 ft) apart. Mulberries stand clipping well if plants need it.
White mulberries (Morus alba) and its hybrids are sometimes cultivated as a vegetable crop. In
this case the trees are planted densely in rows and coppiced annually at a height of 60-90cm.
The fresh leaves are then picked by hand throughout the growing season.
Many cultivars have been bred of the varieties Malba, M.nigra and M.rubra, and hybrids
between these. A table of cultivars appears later in this article.
Page 10
Uses
The fruit of most species is sweet and edible raw or cooked; it can be made into wine, used as a
food colouring, and used medici nally as it is slightly laxative and contains many vitamins and
minerals. The fruits dry easily in a,.. dehydrator (or solar drier in a sunny climate).
Mulberry fruits turn red, white or purplish-black when they ripen, and on average contain 12%
sugars (mai nly glucose) , through in some varieties in can exceed 20"/". They are also rich in
carotene, vitamins 81, 82 and C.
Mulberry fruits are eaten fresh, made into jam or mulberry wine. Mulberry fruit juice is made
commercially on a large scale in China where it is very popular; it keeps . fresh without
preservat ives for several months. The fruits have recently been found to possess anti-oxidant
properties.
Birds are highl y att racted to the fruit and wi ll start eating it before it is fully ripe; because of this,
mulberries are sometimes used as sacri ficial crops (for example, by cherry growers).
Fruits are also suitable for poultry and pig fodder; as they fall when ripe, animals beneath have
access to them.
The cooked leaves of several species, notably white mulberry and its hybrids, can be eaten as a
vegetable - very palatable. The fresh leaves can be picked throughout the growing season and
are steamed for a few minutes or can be placed in layers in pies, lasagnas etc. Baled or fri ed
dried mulberry leaf powder is rich in protein and carbohydrate, and has a distinct fragrant smell.
lt is used in China as a food addi tive for making buns, bread, cakes and biscuit s.
The stems and stem powder are a good media for mushroom production. In China, the edible
Jew' s ear (Auricularia auricula judae) and the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum are
produced on mulberry logs or powder.
Mulberr ies have been used medicinally in the region since ancient times. The root bark in
particular has been used as a herbal medicine to reduce high blood pressure. Mulberry leaves
are rich in gamma-aminobutylic acid, effective against high blood pressure, and in alanine,
effective against hangovers. The leaves also contain compounds which can lower the blood
sugar level and thus they are now an important health food, taken as mulberry leaf tea, for
diabetes.
All parts of the plants contai n a milky sap which coagulates into a type of rubber - a possible
temperate rubber crop.
Several species have fibrous bast fibres beneath the bark which can be made into rope and
paper. Mulberry branches are also used in Chi na as raw material for paper product ion.
The timber is generall y deep yellow, and is hard, strong, durable, flexible and coarse-grained; it
is valued for carving, inlays in cabinet work and musical instruments.
For sil k production from the leaves see below. The litter of silkworm faeces and wasted leaf is
also used as a supplementary feed for cattle.
Page 11
Silk production
The production of silk from silkworms feeding on mulberry leaves is caUed sericulture. It takes
place mainly in China and Japan. Silkworms eat only mulberry leaves (of several species, but
not the black mulberry, M.nigra) to make their cocoons, producing silk. Mulberry leaves are rich
in protein and amino acids and there is a high correlati.on between leaf protein level and
production efficiency of cocoon shell.
Most mulberries cultivated in Japan belong to M.australis and M.alba. Minor species include
M.kagayamae and M.boninffnsis to remote islands.) The main species used in
China are Lu mulberry (M.alba var multicaulis). white mulberry (M.alba), Mountain mulberry
(M.australis) and Guandong mulberry (M.atropurpurea).
Breeding work in Japan has concentrated on developing cultivars for leaf producti on (for
silkworm fodder) with the aims of high yield, high nutritional value, and resistance against pests
and diseases. Varieti es have been released in recent decades for warm, temperate, cold and
snowy regions.
China is the largest producer of mulberry and silk in the world, with some 626,000 ha (1.56
million acres) of mulberry resulting in some 432,000 tonnes of fresh cocoon production per year.
In Japan there are approximately 15,000 Ha (38,000 acres) of mulberries for sericulture,
including 1,200 Ha (3,000 acres) of densely planted fields . The normal planting density of trees
is 60-100 plants per Ha (24-40 plants/acre, ie trees at 10-13 m spacing apart). In densely
planted orchards, aiming at early high yield and mechanical harvesting, over 250 plants/ha (100
plants/acre, ie trees at 6 m spacing or less) are used.
Standard practice of ferti liser application in Japan is to appl y 3 Kg of Nitrogen, 1.4-1.6 Kg of
phosphate and 1.2-2 Kg of potassium per ha per year, in addition to at least 150 kg of compost
per ha.
Mulberry plantings in China are of 4 mai n types:
(1) Chinese mulberry plantations for leaf production are planted at a much higher density,
10,000-15,000 planlstha (4000-6000 plantstacre, ie plants at spacings of 0.8 to 1 m),
using F1 hybrid seedling stock, and pruning to a trunk height of 50-80 cm.
(2) Scattered planting. Mulberries are also planted at fieldsides , roadsides , around
houses, along irrigation canals etc. In Szechuan, the biggest sericulture province in
China, millions of mulberry trees are scattered in hilly and mountainous areas. In this
way mulberries do not compete with other crops in cultivated land.
(3) Intercropping. Mulberri es are intercropped with grains, white chrysanthemums and
winter vegetables in various regions.
(4) Dyke and pond system. This ecosystem has been developed over several hundred
years. The proportion of pond:dyke is 6:4 or 7:3 according to conditions. Mulberry
trees are planted on the dykes. After feeding the silkworms, the faeces of the larvae
and the wasted leaf are used to feed fish in the pond. The pond silt is used to fertilise
the mulberry trees.
Chinese field management incl udes fertilisation with N:P:K at a ratio of 10:4:6. Generally
speaking 1.5-2 kg of N is needed to produce 100 kg of leaf. In dry regions irrigation is essential
in the dry season.
Page 12
There are various training forms used. Maintenenace of stump height is one of the typical forms
used, with either a low cut (15-30 em above soil), a medium low cut (30-50 em) or a medium cut
(50-100 em). Another typical form is the fist shape method, where the plant is pollarded back to
the same place each year, forming a fist from where the shoots emerge. The non-fist training
method is similar except that the ,pruning height is raised each year, allowing a bud above each
previous cut to remain. Finally, there is a lateral branch training method, where branches in line
with the row are tied down to wires, allowing shoots to emerge from the horizontal branch buds.
Mechanical harvesting demands low pruning near to ground level to prevent stump formation.
Harvesting methods vary with silkworm rearing scale and frequency. The two main methods are
spring pruning (for the summer-autumn rearing season) and summer pruning (for both spring
rearing and late autumn rearing) . There are also the circle harvesting method (spring pruning
and summer pruning alternately every year) and alternate harvesting' method (a'iternating spring
and summer pruning to half of the same plant). These two methods are adopted to secure
enough yield by sustaining the tree vigour.
Annual Chinese leaf yields from high density plantations are in the region of 25-50 tonnes/ha
(10-20 tonnes/acre).
Mulberry contains all the necessary nutrients for the growth and development of the silkworm
(Bombyx man), and sericulture has been carried out for more than 5,000 years. In China it
takes 15 to 18 kg of fresh leaves to produce 1 kg of fresh cocoon at the farmer level.
,
alba ' Pakistan' (source: Wikimedia)
Index of mulberry species described
Mulberry species have been renamed by botanists s'everal times, leading to some confusion.
Asian botanists in particular have differentiated several different species which western
botanists tends to lump together. We've used the western nomenclature. Here, synonyms of
the true name are given in italics.
Morus acidosa '" M.australis
Moru&, alba
Morfls alba var indica = M.australis
Morus alba var mongolica =' M.mongolica
Morus alba var Multicaulis
Morus alba var sty/asa = M.australis
Morus alba var Tatarica
Morus bombysis '" M.australis
Morus atropurpurea
Morus australis
Morus boninensis
Morus cathayana
Morus celtidifolia = M.microphylla
Morus indica = M.australis
Morus japonica = M.australis
Morus kagayamae
Morus microphylla
Morus mongolica
Morus multicaulis = M.alba var multicaulis
Morus nigra
Morus nigra x rubra
Morus rubra
Morus serrata
Morus sty/osa = M.australis
Morus tatarica = M.alba var tatarica
Marus alba - White mulberry .
Aino mulberry", M.australis
American mulberry = M.rubra
Black mulberry = M.nigra
Common mulberry = M.nigra
Guandong mulberry = M.atropurpurea
Hybrid mulberry = M.nigra x rubra
Indian mulberry = M.australis
Korean mulberry = M.austral is
Lu mulberry ", M.alba var multicaulis
Mongolian mulberry = M.mongolica
Mountain mulberry = M.australis
Red mulberry", M.rubra
Russian mulberry = M.alba var tatarica
Si lkworm mulberry = M.alba var multicaulis
Tatarian mulberry = M.alba var tatarica
White mulberry = M.alba
Origin: China. Hardy to zone 5. Long cultivated, a sparsely branched tree to 15 m (50 tt) high.
Leaves are 8-20 cm (38") long by up to 15 cm (6") wide; young leaves are edible; leaves also
have medicinal uses and are excell ent fodder for si lkworms.
Fruits are white, pink or red to red-black, 15-25 mm (Vz-l") long on a 10-25 mm stalk; they are
sweet, without a strong flavour, and much loved by birds. The fruit can be dried and stored for
long periods, when it can be used as a sugar-substitute. Fruit ripens from July-September and
contains up to 22% sugars. It has been used to make a cider. The juice from the fruit can also
be used medicinally as an expectorant and for sore throats. Leaves and young shoots are also
edible, cooked. An edible manna can be obtained from the trunk.
The bast fibres can be made into rope and paper. The timber is very durable in soil and water.
M.alba is now used in reforestation projects.
Marus alba var multicaulis - Lu mulberry, Silkworm mulberry
Origin: China. Hardy to zone 8, a multistemmed tree with well-ffavoured fruit which turn from
white through red to nearly black when ripe. This is the most favoured variety planted for
si lkworm fodder. Has the same uses as M.a/ba otherwise.
Page 14
Morus alba var tatarica - Russian mulberry
Hardier than the type, to zone 4, and drought resistant. Has smaller leaves and fruits than
M.alba; the fruits are also of poorer quality. Most suitable for windbreaks etc: The timber is
durable in water and often used fm pump parts. Has the same uses as M.alba otherwise.
Morus atropurpurea - Guandong mulberry
Origin: China. Hardy to zone 8. Widely grown in parts of china for its edible fruits and the
leaves used for silkworm fodder.
Morus australis - Aino mulberry, Korean mulberry, Indian
mulberry, Mountain mulberry
Origin: China, Japan, Korea. Hardy to zone 5. A small tree to 6 m (20 tt ) high. Leaves very
variable in size and shape. Bears numerous dark red, sweet juicy fruits 10-15 mm (W' ) long.
Leaves are also edible, cooked.
Morus boninensis
Origin: Japan (remote islands). Hardy to zone 6. A slow-growing tree to 15 m (50 tt ) high.
Fruits are black, edibility unknown. Leaves used for silkworm fodder.
Morus cathayana
Origin: Central and Eastern China. Hardy to zone SIS, a small tree to 8 m ( ~ 5 tt) or a shrub to
3-5 m (10-15 ft) high, densely branched. Leaves are 7-15 cm (3-S") long; fruits are white, red or
black, sweet, 20-30 mm (0.8-1.2") long by 7 mm (0.3") wide.
Morus kagayamae
Origin: Japan (remote islands). Hardy to zone S. A slow-growing tree to 15 m (50 ft) high.
Fruits are black, edibility unknown. Leaves used for silkworm fodder .
Morus microphyl/a
Origin: Southwestern North America. Hardy to zone 8/9, a small tree or shrub to 7 m (24 tt)
high with small leaves. Fruits are deep red-black, sweet, 10-15 mm (%") long.
Morus mongolica - Mongolian mulberry
Origin: China, Korea. Hardy to zone 5, a small tree or shrub to 8 m (26 tt) high forming thickets.
Fruits are red or black, sweet, 10-12 mm (W' ) long by 5 mm (0.4") wide.
Morus nigra - Black mulberry, common mulberry
Origin: Western Asia. Hardy to zone 5, and long cultivated in Europe and Asia for its fruit,
which ripens as far north as southern Sweden. A slow growing, small tree or shrub to 10m (32
tt) high, densely branched. Late to come into leaf; flowers in May. Slow to fruit (takes 15
years+) except for cultivars.
Fruits are dark red, sweet-acid, juicy and aromatic; they ripen over a long period from July to
September, and are attractive to birds. Fruits are better flavoured than M.alba and contain 14-
1S% sugars; they have been used to colour wine, may be dried and stored, and may be used
medicinally as a mild purgative (a syrup being made for children), for sore throats and coughs.
Page 15
Leaves are used medicinally - they are astringent and reduce blood sugar levels; they are used
in homeopathy to treat diabetes and I?ancreas disorders.
The bark is reputedly medicinally anthelmintic and a vermifuge.
Bast fibres can be used to make rope and paper.
Timber, yellow-brown, is valued for veneer.
May be propagated by softwood cuttings in summer. Many cultivars and hybrids have been
bred.
Morus nigra x rubra - Hybrid mulberry
Hardy to zone 5, a medium tree to 15 m (50 ft) high. Several cultivars exist. Similar in most
respects to M.nigra.
Morus rubra - Red mulberry, American mulberry
Origin: Eastern USA. Hardy to zone 5, a tree up to 20 m (66 ft) high preferring rich soils. Fruits
are 2-3 cm (0.8-1.2") long, ripening dark purple, sweet and juicy. Fruits may be dried and
stored. Young shoots and leaves may also be eaten raw or cooked. Doesn't crop well in
Britain.
The timber is red-brown, flexible and very durable. It is used for fencing, cooperage,
shipbuilding and wooden nails.
Many cultivars and hybrids have been bred.
Morus serrata
Origin: Northwestern Hima'iayas. Similar in most respects to M.alba, but fruits, edible, are
purple and less juicy.
Cultivars
M.alba and its hybrids with M.rubra tend to have smaller and sweeter fruits than the true black
mulberry (M.nigra), with the latter having a more complex sweet-acid flavour.
The following table lists the characteristics of all known mulberry cultivars. For each cultivar,
the following information is listed, if known:
Tree vig/chars - vigour & general characteristics
Spec - which species the cultivar has been bred from: A '" M.alba, N '" M.nigra, R = M.rubra,
AxR = M.alba x rubra,
Hardy - hardiness, zone if known
Leaves - any particular leaf characteristics
Product'y - Productivity
Fruit size - sm = small, med '" medium, Ige '" large
Fruit flavour - exc = excellent
Fruit sweetness - swt '" sweet, sw-ac = sweet-acid
Fruit colour
Page 16
Cultivar Tree vig/chars Spec Hardy Leaves Product'y
Amy Carter Low vi gour N Z6 Very prod
Bachuus Noir Z7
Beaman AxR
Beautiful Day Med size,spreading A Very prod
Black English Small N Hvy bearing
Black Giant = Giant
Black Persian N Z6 Productive
BlackTabor N Z6 Productive
Boysenberry Black Z 6/7
Productive
Capsrum Vigorous AxR? Z6 V.producti ve
Carman
~ i g o r o u s AxR? Z6
V.productive
Chelsea N
Collier Med size,spreading AxR Fairly
Very prod
Cooke R yes
Downing Med size,spreading A?
very Productive
Eakins
Fegyvernekiana Dwarf to 1 m high A
Florida Giant
Tall ,vigorous large
Giant Fast growing
Giant White = Tehama
R very Very prod
Hicks
R Prolific
Hunza Black Seedless
N
Hunza seedless
A
Hybrid black Dwarf ,shrubby AxR
Hvy bearing
Illinois Everbeari ng Sm tree, fast grwg AxR Z 3/4 Very prod
Italian Vigorous AxR? Z6
V.productive
Ivory Vigorous AxR? Z6 V.productive
Kaester N
Hvy bearing
Large Black Spreading
Lavender A very
Middleton A
Productive
Nana Dwarf tree R
Noir de Spain N Z6 Productive
Oscar AxR
Pakistan Spreading A Z8 large
Paradise Dwarf to 2m high R
Pendula Vig, Weeping tree A
Riviera AxR
Rupp's Large tree R Z4
Rupp's Romanian := Rupp's
Scott's Jumbo Med size,spreading Hvy bearing
Shangri La Small tree A V Large
Stearns
Sullivan Vigorous AxR Z5 Productive
Superberry V Vigorous AxR Very Prod
Sweet Lavender = Lavender
Tehama A Large Low productivity
Thompson Vigorous N Z5
.
Very prod
Tice AxR Very prod
Tiger Red
Weeping Semi-dwarf to 4m R Very prod
Wellington AxR Z4 Hvy bearing
White med size,spreading A Productive
White Ivory A
F R U T
Cultivar Size Flavour 'Sweet Colour Comments
Amy Carter good good sw-ac black
Bachhus Nair good v swt black Best fresh. Warmer regions
Beaman large fair sw! pink Resistant to popcorn disease
Beautiful Day Med-Ige good sw! White Excellent dried
Black Engli sh large V swt Purple-black May be M.nigra (not a cult)
Blackt persian large exc sw-ac Black
Black Tabor med good sw-ac black
Boysenberry B. large exc sw! Black Fruit is seedless. Warmer rgns
Capsrum Med exc sw! Black Originates in Canada
Carman Med exc V.swt White Originates in Canada
Chelsea large exc dark red Fruits in 2-3 years
Collier good red-black
Cooke large exc sw-ac red-black Susc to fungal dieback
Downing large fair sw! pink
Eakins good black
Fegyvernekiana Genetic dwarf
Florida Giant large good purple-black
Giant
~ a r g e
exc sw-ac black Can grow 2 m per year
Hicks dark purple Fruits over long peri od
Hunza B.S.
.
Seedless fruit.
Hunza Seedless med white Seedless fruit. Good dried
Hybrid black large good sw! black Bears after 2 years
Illinois Ev. large exc sw-ac black Almost seedless. Frt hang well
Ital ian med exc sw-ac black Originates in Canada
Ivory med exc V.swt whi te Originates in Canada
Kaester large exc sw-ac purple-black Easily prop fr cuttings
Large Black
~ o o d Late ripening
Lavender sm-med fair v swt lavender Bears after 2 years.Exc dried
Middleton med good sw!
Nana med dark purple Genetic dwarf
Noir de Spain large exc sw-aG Black
Oscar exc black
Pakistan V Ige exc sw-ac ruby red Best in warmer rgns
Paradise med V swt grey-white Good dried. Few seeds.G'tc dwf
Pendula fair sw! pink = M alba 'pendula'. Ornamental
Riviera med exc v swt purple-black Best in warmer regions
Rupp's V.lge fair sw! Frui!s 45 mm (1. 75") long
Scott's Jumbo Med-Ige fair-gd sw! purple-black
Shangri La Large black Early bearing. Warmer rgns
Stearns sm-med good black Ripens over V long period.
Sullivan Med-Ige exc purple-black Double crops in warmer rgns
Superberry
Tehama V Ige V swt Best in warmer regions
Thompson Med fair ligh! purple
Tice v swt
Tiger Red large exc raspberry red Fruits are seedless
Weeping med fair sw! black Umbrella-shaped tree
Well ington med-Ige good red-black May = 'New American'
White
sm-med v swt white Good dried
White Ivory
good white
Page 18
References
Crawford, M: Mulberries. Agroforestry News, Vol1 No 2 (1993)
HUQ, Y: Mulberry cultivation and utilization in China. In: Sanchez, M 0 :
Mulberries for animal production. FAD, 2002.
Machii, H et al: Mulberry breeding, cultivation and utilization in Japan. In: Sanchez, M 0:
Mulberries for animal production. FAO, 2002.
The future for chestnut:
Sustainable management for quality
Introduction
Over the last two decades there has been
an increasing interest in sweet chestnut
cultivation, not only in its traditional
European range but also in new regions.
European chestnut (Castanea sativa)
distribution extends from Turkey, through
the Balkans and around the Mediterranean
sea to PortugaL Europe produces 17% of
the worldwide chestnut production and Italy, .
Turkey, Spain and France have the largest
chestnut acreage.
Nut and timber production are integrated '
with many activities related to a multitude of '
~ values. Nuts, with new and traditional
methods of storage and processing, are
sold fresh and dried, as chestnut flour,
marrons glaces, chestnut creams , peeled
and frozen, flaked in beers or liquors. The
chestnut ecosystem also provides
agroforestry by-products (honey, choice ~
edible mushrooms, pasture, game, forage .
and litter).
Plantation management
To preserve the chestnut heritage, in
several countries old groves have been
renovated and coppices have been
converted into orchards. The main aim of .
new orchards are fast growth of trees (to
ensure the shortest unproductive time), and the reduction in size of trees (by using dwarfing
rootstocks resistant to ink disease) to obtain high quality nuts.
The renovation of old traditional groves starts with a more or less severe pruning of the plants
according to the level of decline of the trees. Old and cankered branches are removed in order
to stimulate the growth of a new and vigorous canopy. At the same time, ferns , bushes and
other weeds are removed from the groves.
Chestnut wood has long been valued for its ease or working, nice colour and durability. The
main wood products nowadays in the Mediterranean are related to viticulture (posts of various
sizes) but also furniture and flooring. Chestnut has good eco-credentials because of its natural
durability. and as dangerous preservative chemicals are gradually phased out the demand for
c h e ~ t n u t can only increase.
Traditional forest management was most often on a coppice cycle of 8-25 years and
one or two thinnings in the first 15 years. The number of coppice stools was over 600 per
hectare and the number of shoots at the end of the coppice cycle usually over 3000 per hectare.
The demand is increasing too for large dimension chestnut timber. One seri ous problem with
the chestnut timber from larger trees is the risk of ring shake. This is minimised by growing
trees fast and in steady conditions which do not change dramatically. thus giving even tree
rings. To maintain constant growth and maximise radial growth, no more than 300-400 trees
per hectare should be stocked. Chestnut likes light and in natural forests it tends to be a
sporadic species.
New plantations
Climate & soil
New plantations are sited carefully. Low and mid-mountain hilly areas are preferred, with good
sun conditions and not susceptible to spring frosts. The best soils are VOlcanic, deep or
shallow, but light and fertil e, acidic (pH 5.0 to 6.5) and well drained. Chestnut avoids heavy
clay and lime soils where drainage is poor, because these conditions favour the spread of ink
disease (Phytophthora spg.) Minimum annual rainfall of 800-900 mm is ideal , a little more for
the Euro-Japanese hybrids.
Propagation
Traditional orchards were grown from seed but this is now rarely done due to high variability.
Clonal propagation (grafting, stooling, cuttings and tissue culture) is used to produce true-to-
type plants.
Most nurseries graft using whip and tongue, cleft and bark grafts; or bud using chip budding.
Chip budding takes place in August-September and any failures reg rafted the following spring.
Stooling is used for some Euro hybrids and produces trees on their own roots. Taking cuttings
is difficult but again some of the hybrids are oropagated this way in Spain, France and Portugal.
Rootstocks
The rootstock used has considerable effects on the performance including tree growth,
flowering and nut size. Traditi onall y seedl ing rootstocks have been used and lead to some
variability.
Several of the Euro-Japanese hybrids selected in France are increasingly used as rootstocks as
well as being good fruiti ng cultivars themselves. They are easier to propagate by stooling or
softwood cuttings, are tolerant or resistant to ink disease and have good genetic compatibility
with the best cultivars. Used for rootstocks are:
' Marsol ' (CA 07) - moderate resistance to ink disease
Page 20
)
1
'Maraval' (CA 74) - resistant to ink disease, low vigour
'Marlhac' (CA 188) - moderate resistance to ink disease
'Ferosacre' (CA 90) - resistant to ink disease
Cultivars
The processing industry increasingly demands nuts which are regular in shape, with good
flavour and te4xture, sweet, easy to peel, without intrusion of the pellicle (inner skin) into the
nut , of large size for fresh use and small or medium size for drying or flour.
Hundreds of named cultivars have been selected for candying, roasting, drying, flour and fresh
use. Marrons are in big demand for both fresh use and processing, including the French
varieties Montagne, Sardonne and M.Comballe. Euro-Japanese hybrids selected in France and
highly valued include Bouche de Betizac, Bournette, Maraval, Maridonne, Marigoule, Marlhac,
Marsol, Precoce Migoule and Vignols. The hybrids are precocious trees with good sized and
qual ity nuts well suited to fresh use or processing; they prefer lower altitudes and deeper soil ,
:tnd are more susceptible to late spring frost damage.
Orchard management
Density and spacing: Planting distance depends on the vigour of the cultivar and rootstock.
For European cultivars, 10 x 12m to 12 x 12m is used; less vigorous Euro hybrids are planted at
8 x 8m or 10 x 10m.
Fertilisation: Most growers apply fertilisers, mainly as a source of nitrogen, to sustain the
growth of new shoots. It is applied in several small does over spring. Hbwever there is good
potential for interplanting of chestnut with a nitrogen-fixing tree or shrub (2:1 ratio of chestnut
area: N-fixing area).
Irrigation: Most growers of new orchards in the Mediterranean use irrigation. New trees are
especially drought prone.
Weed control : Essential for the first 3-4 years, mulches are best used with a diameter of 1-2 m
around each tree.
Pollination: Most chestnuts are self-sterile and for pollination, more than one variety must be
planted. The varieties must be genetically compatible and flower at the same time. Chestnut is
mainly wind pollinated, though insects (especially bees) also playa role in pollination.
Pruning: Many newer orchards are pruned to open centre trees over the first 3 years. This
improves fruit size, speed of fruiting and helps reduce biennial bearing. Later, pruning is just
undertaken to remove dead, broken or damaged branches, or to stimulate growth.
Pests: The main pests are the chestnut weevil (Curculio elephas) and various moths (Pommene
fasciana, Cydia fagigfandana, C.splendana).
The weevils Jay eggs in holes made into the developing nuts. The larvae feed on the nuts
during the larval stage and, after emerging from the nuts, overwinter in the soil at depths of 5-
15cm. In the spring some adults emerge and move into the canopies of trees, whilst others can
remain dormant in the soil for several years.
The moth larvae cause dessication and early fall of the infested husks. Pheromone traps are
sometimes used in the same way as for codling moth of apple.
Diseases: The two most important diseases are chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitical and
ink disease (Phytophthora cambivora and P.cinnamoml).
Page 21
Chestnut blight had severely damaged chestnut stands in Europe during the first 30 years of its
appearance (1940-1970), causing high levels of mortality. After this epidemic, the severity of
the disease decreased and it has b'een not anywhere as near as destructive as it was on the
American chestnut (Castanea dentata) in the early 1900's. The main factor has been a natural
biological control due to the presence of less virulent fungal strains (calted hypo virulence) and
this has allowed the regrowth of many stands.
Ink disease causes important losses in chestnut groves and limits the establishment of new
orchiuds. The fungus infects roots, the disease progressing over several years and leading to
the progressive death of branches from the top of the tree downwards.
Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata) is more resistant to ink disease than European chestnut
and many of the Euro-Japanese hybrids have some resistance. In healthy orchards the
pathogen may exist but produce little or no disease. Mycrorrhizal fungi give some protection so
inoculating trees before planting gives additional protection. Some fungi can be used as
biological controls for ink disease, including several Trichoderma species.
Harvest: Chestnuts are both hand harvested and mechanically harvested (using vacuum and
sweeper harvesters). Hand harvest is slower and more expensive (about 10-15 kg/ hour/person
although with Nut Wizard harvesters this could be increased). Roll-out nets are sometimes
used to gather the dropped nuts and burrs.
Uses of chestnuts
Most chestnuts are destined for use fresh for roasting or boiling. The nuts are graded by size
and also into 'Marron' and 'Chataigne' types. 'Marrons' have under 12% of nuts with multiple
embryos (ie with peJlicles that subdivide the nut , making peeling much harder). ' Chataignes', or
'ordinary' chestnuts have over 12% of nuts subdivided.
Some 15-20% of nuts are processed to make other products. Whole peeled chestnuts may be
canned in water , packed in glass jars, vacuum packed or frozen. The largest marrons are used
to prepare candied marroni , marrons glaces, marrons in syrup or in alcohol. There is an
increasing demand for chestnut puree as the base for creams to use in dairy desserts. Dried
chestnuts and flour are packed and sold all year around.
Conclusions
In many agroforestry systems the chestnut is an important resource enable the sustainable use
of marginal and other areas. \
Reference
Bounous, G: Sustainable Management of the Chestnut Plantations to Obtain Quality Produce.
Acta Hort. 815, 19-24, ISHS 2009.
Pividoro, M: Chestnut Silviculture in Mediterranean Countries: Problems and Prospects. Acta
Hort. 815,143-145, ISHS 2009.
Page 22
Juneberries: Amelanchier species
Introduction
The Amelanchier family (order Rosaceae) is a group of some 25 deciduous shrubs or small
trees, most originating from North America. They are known by a large number of common
names, including Serviceberry, Juneberry, Snowy mespilus, Shadblow, Sarvis, Sarvisberry,
Maycherry, Shadbush, Shadberry, Shadblossom, Shadflower, Sugar Pear, Wild Pear,
Lancewood, Boxwood, Canadian Medlar and Saskatoon.
Description
Amelanchier species are in general very hardy and adaptable plants, found in the wild at
woodland edges, stream banks and in hedges. They are m o ~ t l y slender plants, often scaly
barked, wi th unarmed branches and slender branchlets.
Leaves are simple, alternate, and either serrate or entire: foliage turns bright to bright yellow
and reds in the autumn.
Showy white flowers, perfect, in racemes on
the previous years' growth, open around the
same time as the leaves unfold in April and
May. Pollination is via bees and other
insects; plants are self fertile.
Fruits are round, 6-18 mm (0.25-0.75")
across , dark red-purple and usually ripen in
June (USA) and July (UK).
Synonyms for the various species described
are of more use than usual because of the
confused state of Amelanchier
nomenclature!
Cultivation
Amelanchiers tolerate slight part shade and
thrive in al most any soil, preferring a moist
ferti le soil. Fruiting is best in full sun.
Pruning is usually unnecessary.
Species which are particularl y drought-
hardy and alkaline soi l-tolerant include
A.alnifolia, A.basalticola, A.fernaldii,
A.gaspensis , A.obovalis, A.pallida,
A.sanguinea and A.spicata. Those
particularly adapted to damp conditions
include A.bartramiana, A.canadensis,
A.fernaldii , A.interior and A.neglecta. Flowers of A.lamarckii (source: Wikimedia)
Uses
Fruits of all species are edible: in most they are sweet and juicy but in a few they are dry and
tasteless. Fruiting is always better with 2 or more plants. Fruits of Aalnifolia contain some
10% sugars and are good sources of potassium, magnesium, manganese, iron and calcium.
Fruit of some species is good raw; otherwise it is generally excellent cooked, used in jams or for
making wine.
The fruit was used by the native North Americans for various medicinal purposes such as
treating sore eyes and diarrhoea.
Amelanchiers are widely used in hedges for erosion control, provide good bee forage in the
early spring, and the fruits are attractive to birds and other wildlife .

Propagation
Seed: Seed should be removed from the fruits by maceration, and should not be allowed to dry
out. Seed requires a 3-5 month period of cold stratification, and germination may improve by
preceeding this with a scarification or 4 week warm stratification.
Cuttings: Softwood cuttings, 7-12 cm (3-5") long, taken in late Mayor June under mist with
hormone rooting powder work well with several species, including A.alnifolia. Root cuttings,
using 50mm (2M) sections of root , may work for some stoloniferous species.
Division: Suckers may be removed from plants in the autumn.
Layers: Layering in late autumn is successful with many species.
Grafting: Consistent good results from grafting have not yet been achieved. The best chances
of successful grafts will probably be by using seedling stock of the same species. In the
nursery trade, some ornamental varieties of Amelanchier are grafted onto rowan (Sorbus
aucuparia) rootstock. In North America, Cotoneaster acutifolia is reportedly the best rootstock
for saskataons (A.alnifolia).
Index of Amelanchier species described
Alder leaved Serviceberry = A.alnifolia
Page 24
Allegheny Serviceberry = A.laevis
Allegheny Shadbush = A.laevis
Bartram Shad blow :: A.bartramiana
Cusick's Serviceberry", A.cusickii'
Downy Serviceberry:: A.arborea
Downy Shadblow = A.canadensis
Dwarf Juneberry = A.obovalis
European Serviceberry = A.ovalis
Florida Juneberry :: A.florida
Korean Juneberry :: A.asiatica
Oblong-fruited Serviceberry:: A.baltramiana
North Western Serviceberry = A.florida
Pacific Serviceberry:: A.florida
Quebec Berry = A.obovalis
Regent Serviceberry:: A.alnifalia
Saskatoon = A.alnifolia
Shadbush = A.arborea
Smooth Northern Shadbush = A.laevis
Snowy Mespilus = A.ovalis
Southern Juneberry = A.obovalis
Utah Serviceberry:: A.Utahensis
Western Serviceberry = A.alnifolia
In the following Latin name index, synonyms are in italics:
Arne/anchier alnitera = A.alnifolia
Amelanchier alnifolia
Ame/anchier amabilis "" A.sanguinea
Amelanchier arborea
Amelanchier asiatica
Amelanchier bartramiana
Amelanchier basalticola
Arne/anchier botryapium = A. lamarckii & A.canadensis
Amelanchier canadensis
Amelanchier confusa
Arne/anchier crenata = A.utahensis
Amelanchier cusickii
Amelanchier fernaldii
Amelanchier florida
Amelanchier gaspensis
Arne/anchier x grandiflora=A.lamarckii
Ame/anchier humilis = A.spicata
Arne/anchier intermedia = A.canadensis
Amelanchier laevis
Amelanchier lamarckii
Arne/anchier mormonica = A.utahensis
Amelanchier neglecta
Amelanchier ob/ongifolia "" A.canadensis
Amelanchier obovalis
Amelanchier oligocarpa '" A.bartramiana
Amelanchier oreophila '" A.utahensis
Amelanchier ovaHs
Amelanchier oxyodon "" A.alnifolia v fl.
Amelanchier pallida
Amelanchier prunifofia = A. utahensis
Amelanchier purpusii "" A. utahensis
AmeJanchier rotundifofia = A.ovalis & A.sanguinea
Amelanchier sanguinea
AmeJanchier siskiyouensis = A.pallida
Amelanchier spicata
AmeJanchier sto{onifera "" A.obovalis
AmeJanchier subintegra = A.pallida
Amelanchier utahensis
AmeJanchier vulgaris"" A.ovalis
Amelanchier alnifolia
(A.alnifera; Aronia alnifo/ia.) Regent Serviceberry, Western Serviceberry, Alder leaved
Serviceberry, Saskatoon.
Native to North West N.America; hardy to Zones 1-3 (depending on variety).
The most useful of the Amelanchier species, much-loved by the native Americans (t he name
Saskatoon deriving from the Blackfoot name 'mis-sask-quah-too- min' ), with several excellent
cultivars bred for fine fruit.
A shrub or multi -stemmed small tree, height 2-5m (6-1 6 tt), occasionally lower on dry exposed
sites. Widely adaptable and extremely tolerant of environmental stresses. Tough, oval or
rounded leaves; masses of small flowers in May. Spreading, forming thickets. Suitable for
Page 25
windbreaks & erosion control. Responds well to culti vation; commercial orchards sustain yields
of 4 Tons/acre (10 Tonnes/ Ha) .
Fruit: Blueberry-like, 10-15 mm wide, rounded, purple-black, sweet and juicy with low acidity,
borne in clusters of 6-12. The seed size is relatively large (larger than
A.laevis/bartramiana/arborea). In warm climates may dry on the plant into 'raisins'. Fruit tends
to ripen evenly and the crop can usually be picked all at once. Eaten fresh, cooked, in jams &
made into wine.
The nutrient content of the fresh fruits is:
Nutrient
Energy
Fibre
Sugars, total
Calcium, Ca
Magnesium, Mg
Iron, Fe
Manganese, Mn
Potassium, K
Sodium, Na
Page 26
Value per 100 grams
85 kcal
5.9g
11.4 9
42mg
24mg
1 mg
1.4 mg
162 mg
0.5 mg
Nutrient
Vitamin C
Vitamin A, I U
Vitamin E
Folate, mcg
Riboflavin
Value per 100 grams
3.6mg
" IU
,., mg
4.6mcg
3.5mg
Several cultivars available, which start fruiting within 3-4 years, reaching full production after 8
years. Most commercial orchards at present use seedlings from named cultivars of A.alnifolia
due to cheaper propagation costs - but seedl ings come relatively true to type. Orchards are
planted with 4m rows and plants at 1 m in the rows; after 8 years, light pruning consisting of
removal of older and weaker branches is beneficial.
Amelanchier arborea
(Mespifus arborea.) Shadbush, Downy Serviceberry.
Native to Eastern N.America; hardy to Zone 4.
A small tree, 520 m (1666 ft) high, or an irregularly branched shrub. Planted for erosion
control in windbreaks. Timber is very hard, strong, close grained and heavy, reddish; used for
fishing rods, tool handles.
Fruit: Dry and tasteless.
Amelanchier asiatica
(Aronia asiatica.) Korean Juneberry.
Native to Japan, China, Korea; hardy to Zone 5.
A shrub or tree to 12m (40 tt) with glabrous dark green leaves.
Fruit: Blueblack, 10 mm (0.6") wide, sweet and juicy.
Amelanchier bartramiana
(A.oligocarpa, Pyrus bartramiana.) Oblong-fruited Juneberry, Bartram Shadblow.
Native to Eastern North America; hardy to Zone 5.
A multi-stemmed shrub 0.6-3m (210 ft) high, often found wild in cold and wet sites.
Fruit: Black, oval , 10-15 mm (0.40.6") wide, juicy with a good flavour.
Amelanchier basalticola
Native to North West U.S.; hardy to Zone 5.
Shrub, 1-3m (3-10 ft) high with bluish green leaves.
Fruit: Dark purple, 912 mm (0.4-0.6") wide, juicy.
Amelanchier canadensis
(A.intermedia, A.oblongifolia, Mespilus canadensis.) Downy shadblow, Sugar Pear,
Serviceberry.
Page 27
Suckering shrub 28m (626 tt) high with glabrous leaves, woolly when young. Flowers open in
AprilMay. Timber can be used as for A.arborea.
Fruit: 710 mm (0.30.4") wide, red turning purpleblack when ripe, sweet and juicy with an
excellent flavour; ripen in June. Seeds impart almond flavour when cooked.
Amelanchier confusa
Native to N.America; hardy to Zone.
shrub growing 0.3-2m (1-6 It) high.
Fruit: 79 mm (0.3"), ripen in July.
Amelanchier cusickii
Cusick's Serviceberry.
Native to North West U.S.; hardy to Zone 5.
Shrub, 1-3m (310 ft) high with many rodlike, bowed stems and reddish young branches; very
large flowers.
Fruit: 10 mm (0.4"), red turning blue-black when ripe, sweet and juicy.
Amelanchier fernaldii
Native to South East Canada; hardy to Zone 5.
Low, spreading shrub, 0.31 m (13 ft) high growing in open clumps on moist ground.
Fruit: juicy, red becoming purpleblack when ripe.
Amelanchier florida
(A.oxyodon, A.alnifolia var florida.) Florida Juneberry, Northwestern Serviceberry, Pacific
Serviceberry.
Native to North West U.S.; hardy to zone 6:
A slender, 1.5 m (5 tt) high shrub with upright branches; forms thickets.
Fruit: black, sweet and juicy.
Amelanchier gaspensis
Native to Canada; hardy to Zone 4.
A low branched shrub, 30-90 cm (1-3 tt) high, growing in dense thickets.
Fruit: blue-black, 8-10 mm (0.4") wide.
Amelanchier interior
Native to central U.S.; hardy to zone 3.
A low shrub or small tree.
Page 28
Fruits: purple-black, 6-8mm (0.25"), sweet and juicy.
Amelanchier laevis
Allegheny Serviceberry, Smooth Northern Shadbush, Allegheny Shadbush.
Native to North America; hardy to Zone 4.
A tree, 10-13 m (32-40 ft) high, or a broadly branched shrub, upright with smooth grey bark.
Prefers slightly acid, moist soil and part shade. Often confused with A.lamarckii.
Fruit: Purpl e-black, 16-18mm (0.75") wide, sweet and juicy.
Amelanchier lamarckii
(Amelanchier x grandiflora)
Native to Eastern Canada; naturalised in Europe; hardy to Zone 4.
A large shrub or small bushy tree to 10m (32 tt) high, flowering in April -May.
Fruit: Sweet, juicy, purple-black.
Amelanchier neglecta
Native to Eastern U.S.; hardy to Zone 4.
A shrub to 3m (10 It ) hi gh with thin stems.
Fruit: 8-10 mm (OA") wide, purple-black, juicy.
Amelanchier obovalis
(A st%nifera.) Quebec berry, Southern Juneberry, Dwarf Juneberry.
Native to Eastern U.S.; hardy to Zone 4.
A spreading shrub, O.21.5m (0.7-5 tt) high with an open columnar habit , forming dense thickets.
Fruit: 6-Smm (O.2S") wide, black, sweet and jui cy.
Amelanchier ovalis
(A vulgaris, Crataegu5 rol undifolia, Mespilus amelanchier.j Snowy Mespilus, European
Juneberry.
Native to the mountains of Central and Southern Europe; hardy to Zone 4.
A multi-stemmed shrub, 1.S-3m (5-1 0 ttl high. The only native European species.
Fruit: blue-black, 10 mm (0.4"), tasteless: best cooked in jams etc.
Amelanchier pallid a
(A,siskiyouensis, A.5ubintegra.)
Native to Western U.S.; hardy to Zone 5.
An upright shrub, 1-3m (3-10 It) high.
Fruit: purple-black, 4-6mm (0.2") wide, juicy.
Page 29
Amelanchier sanguinea
(Pyrus sanguinea.j
A loose, upright shrub 1-3m (3-10 tt) high forming dense
Fruit: rounded, blue-black, sweet and juicy.
Arrielanchier spicata
(A.humilis, Crataegus spicata.)
Native to Eastern U.S.; hardy to zone 4.
A low columnar shrub O.3-2m (1-6 It) high, forming dense thickets. Flowers in April.
Fruit: round, purple-black, 6-8mm (0.25") wide, sweet and juicy.
Amelanchier utahensis
(A.purpusii, A.mormonica, A.prunifolia, A.crenata, A.oreophi/a. ) Utah Serviceberry.
Native to dry parts of Western North America; hardy to Zone 3.
A shrub or small tree, O.5-5m (1- 16 ttl high, much branched and growing in clumps.
Fruit: 6-10 (0.3-0.4") wide, purple-black, dry and tasteless.
Fruiting cultivars
Beaverlodge (A.alnifolia) : Large, juicy fruit , good flavour.
Bluff (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to 5m high, moderately suckering. Fruits medium sized, good flavour.
Buffalo (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to 4m high, suckering. Fruits large, excellent flavour.
Elizabeth (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to 4m high, few suckers. Fruit very large, good flavour.
Forestburg (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to 3-3.Sm (10- 12 ft) high, tolerates drought , with few suckers.
Fruit very large, good flavour , very heavy yielding. Mid-late season ripening.
Gypsy (A.alnifolia) : Large, juicy fruit; good flavour.
Honeywood (A.al nifolia)
bearing at an early age.
season ripening.
Multi-stemmed shrubs to 3-4m (10-14 ft) high, with few suckers,
Large dark purple fruit in heavy clusters; excellent flavour. Late
JB30 (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to 3.5m high, few suckers. Fruit large, good flavour, ripens over a
long period. High yielding.
Killarney (A.alnifolia) : Shrub 4-5m high. Fruit medium size, high yielding.
Lee #3 (A.alnifolia) Compact shrub growing 1.S-3m high, few suckers. Fruits very large,
intense flavour, very fleshy with few seeds.
Martin (A.alnifolia) : Medium ~ i z e .bus.h to 2.5-3m (8- 10 It) high, moderately suckering. Fruits
very large, excellent flavour, high Yielding. Early season ripening.
Moonlake (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to ,,3m high. Large fruits, good flavour; sporadic bearer. Late
flowering.
Nelson (A.alnifolia) : Bush to 1.5m (5 tt) high, moderately suckering. Fruit large, very good
flavour, high yielding. Midlate season ripening. Late flowering.
Northline (A.alnifolia) : Upright shrub to 2m (6 ft) high, freely suckering. Fruits slightly pear-
shaped, medium sized and with an excellent flavour. Very heavy yielding. Late season
ripening.
Paleface (A.alnifolia) : Very productive shrub to 2m (6 ft) high. Large, white, mild-flavoured
fruits. Doesn't sucker.
Parkhill (A.alnifoli. & A.stolonifera hybrid) : Productive, upright bush to 1.5m (5 tt) high, with
few suckers. Fruit large, fair quali ty, moderate yielding. Mid season ripening.
Pearson II (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to 3m high, many suckers. Fruit medium sized, good flavour.
High yielding.
Pembina (A.alnifolia) : Upright bush, 2.5-3m (8-10 tt) high, suckering only a little. Large, oval,
sweet fruit with an excellent flavour borne in long clusters. Very vigorous and high yielding.
Mid season ripening. '
Purple: Shrub to 2.5m (8 tt) tall , often fruiting in first year. Sweet, dark purple fruits. Heavy
bearer, hardy to zone 3.
Regent (A.alnifolia & A.stolonifera hybrid) : Hardy, bushy shrub 1.2-2m (4-6 tt) high; suckering
a little, moderately productive with sweet medium-sized fruit of fair flavour (somewhat seedy).
Bears after 2 years. Mid-late season ripening.
Shannon: Large numerous fruits.
Smoky (A.alnifotia) : Spreading bush, 2-2.5m (6-8 ft) high, suckers widely, bearing large, red-
purple, round fruit (to 18 mm, 0.75") 2-3 years after planting. Fruit well flavoured; ripens mid
season. Single bushes may yield up to 45 kg (90Ib) of fruit. Very cold and drought resistant.
Sturgeon (A.alnifolia) : Shrub to 3m (10 tt) high; good-flavoured, large fruits in large clusters.
Productive.
Success (A.oblongifolia) Bushy shrub, 2-2.5m (6-8 ft) high, moderately suckering. Large
black fruit of good quality. Mid-late season ripening.
Thiessen (A.alnifolia) Small roundish tree or open bush to 5m (16 It) high, moderately
suckering. Very large fruits, excellent flavour, high yield. Early season ripening.
Timm (A.alnifolia) : Medium sized tree, fruits in its second year. Large fruit are sweet with a
good flavour.
Page 31
Ornamental cultivars
Many of these bear good quantities of edible fruit too.
Altaglow (A.alnifolia) : Pyramidal shrub to Sm ( 16 It) high, with white fruits. Self-sterile.
Autumn Brilliance (A. lamarckii) Multi-stemmed shrub to 6m (20 tt) high; productive and
vigorous; hardy to zone 2.
Autumn Sunset (A.arborea or A.lamarckii)

Ballerina (A.lamarckii) : Large shrub or small tree to 5m (15 ft ) high. Large flowers followed by
large crops of red fruits with good flavour.
Carletan(A.laevis) : Small tree to 6m high.
Cole's Select (A.lamarckii) : Shrub to 5m high with thick glossy leaves.
Cumulus (A.laevis) : Small tree 6-9m high with abundant flowers and fruits, the latter 12 x 9
mm, dark reddish-purple.
Fergi (A.stalonifera) : Small shrub 1.22m (46 tt) high.
Flambeau (A.laevi s) : Selected for intense bronze-purple spring foliage.
Forest Prince (A.lamarckii ) Small tree 6-7.5m high with leathery green leaves, abundant
fl owers and red fruit s.
Helvetia (A.oval is) : shrub to 10 5m (5 tt) high from Switzerland.
Hollandia (A.spicata) : shrub to 2m (6 fl) high.
Indian: both ornamental and product ive wit h good edibl e fruits.
Jennybelle (A.obovalis) : Small bush to 3m (10 tt) high; very prol ific, productive and reliable.
Large purple fruit s i n May and June: sweet even when underripe. Early bearing, drought and
frost resistant.
Lustre (A. laevis) : Small tree 6-9m high, few suckers.
Majestic (A.laevis) : Medium tree 6-9m high, abundant flowers and fruits 12 x 10 mm in size.
Prince Charles (A.laevis): Upright tree to 3 m (10 tt) high; hardy to zone 3. Fruit bl ue, 10 mm
(0.4").
Pr ince Wi ll iam (A.canadensis, possibly a hybrid) Multi-stemmed shrub to 2.5m (8 tt) high.
Heavy bearer of 12mm (0.5") purple-blue fruit with a very good flavour.
Princess Diana (A.lamarckii) : Spreading upright tree to 6m (20 tt) high, hardy to zone 3.
Heavy bearer of purple-blue fruit, 9 mm (0.35") across. Often bear in first year after planting.
Rai nbow Pillar (A canadensis) : Large shrub or small tree, 4.5-6m high. Abundant flowers but
frui t sparse.
Page 32
Reflection (A.canadensis or A.lamarckii) ; Small tree 6-7.5m high with numer.ous flowers and
blue-black fruits.
R J Hilton (A.laevis) : Small tree to Sm high, abundant flowers and very sweet fruits, 10mm
across.
Robin Hill (A. lamarckii) ; Small tree to 6-9m hi gh with large flowers.
Rubescens (A.lamarckii) ; Small tree 6-7.5m high with pinkish flowers and few fruits.
Shanty Rapids (A.bartramiana) : Large fl owers.
Silver Fountain (A.canadensis) ; Shrub 2.4-3.6m high, weeping.
Spring Glory (A.canadensis or A.lamarckii) : Shrub to 4m high, compact, good autumn colours.
Strata (A.lamarckii) : Tree to 7.5m high.
Tradition (A. canadensis or A.l amarckii) : Tree 7.S-10m high, fruits abundant, blue-black.
White Pillar (A.canadensis) : Tree to 6m high, abundant flowers, few fruits.
References
Crawford, M: Juneberries. Agroforestry News, Vall No 3 (1993).
Mazza G: Compositional and funct ional properties of saskatoon berry and blueberry. Int. J. Fruit
Sci. 5 (3):99-118 (2005) .
Olcott-Reid, B & Reid, W: Fruit and Nut Production. Stipes Publishing, 2007.
Zatylny, A & St-Pierre, R: Revised International Registry of Cultivars and Germplasm of the
Genus Amelanchier. Small Fruits Review, Vol 2(1) 2003.
Courses at the ART Forest Garden in 2010
The popular 2-day forest gardening course is running several times during 2010. At the date
of publication, the May 22-23 course has already full y booked. Further courses are running on:
June 12-13
July 10-11
July 24-25
Further dates to be announced - check at www.aaroforestry.co.uk for up to date detail s.
Also in 2010 for the first time we are runni ng an advanced forest gardening weekend course,
for those who have thei r forest garden started and who have either been on our forest
gardening course or who have substaint ial experience elsewhere. This course will be focussed
around the participants, asking them about their experi ences to share and problems
encountered. Currently we have one course planned on 25-26 September. Please see the
websi te for more details and booking.
Blue Honeysuckle - Lonicera caerulea
Introduction and history
This article is an updated version of the one that appeared in Agroforestry News Vol 12 No 4.
Blue honeysuckle, also known as ' mayberry' (' Maibeere' ) in German, and more recently
' Honeyberry' in North America, is a poplar fruit crop in regions of the world where the edible-
fruited subspecies are native: Siberia (mainl y ssp. edulis, kamtschatica, boczkarnikovae, altai) ,
northern China (spp. edulis) and Hokkaido, the northern island of Japan (ssp. emphyllocalyx)
where the fruits are known as ' Haskap' . The subspecies are sometimes given their own species
name, notably those of kamtschatica.
Traditionally, and into present times, large amounts of fruits have been collected from wild
plants. Research into selection and cultivation began in Russia around 1914. More extensive
breeding work started at the N.I.Vavilov Research Institute in St Petersburg and at the Siberian
Horticultural Institute in the 1950's. Now over 70 cultivars have been released for home and
commercial production in Russia. About 25 years ago, the Japanese began a research program
to identify superior forms of their local subspecies, and several selections have since been
released. Poor economic conditions in Russia and Japan have severel y curtailed research
there in the past few years.
Almost any garden in the Russian north contains some of these hard berried plants, and
commercial plantations each of 1025 hectares (25 62 acres) are concentrated in western
Siberia. It is noted especially for its early fruit ripening - usually in Mayor June in Russia.
Description
Blue honeysuckle species are long lived dense multi branched shrubs that reach 1 to 2 m (3 6
ft) tall and rather more in width, with a rounded crown. It is usually found growing wild in forest
glades and hedgerows.
Flowers are bright yellow, borne in early spring (March and April in Britain) . The Japanese
subspecies is reported to flower 2-3 weeks later than the Chinese and Russian forms.
Pollination is by bees, mainly wild / bumble bees. Cross pollination is essential for a good fruit
size.
The fruits (berries) are dark blue, with a white waxy bloom. Fruit shape is very variable, from
round, oval , ovate, pear-shaped, jugshaped, to long and thin. The fruits ripen in late spring -
usually May.
Leaves are elliptical, 4 10 cm long. They turn yellow in autumn, making the shrub quite
ornamental.
Shrubs are extremely cold hardy - to 45C. They have a short chilling requirement and in a
cool maritime climate start to bud out in late winter (February or March). The young growth is
also very hardy (to 18C) and undamaged by frosts. The flowers too are hardy, tolerating BoC
to -1 DoC without damage.
Fruits of blue honeysuckle (Source: Wikimedia commons)
Most of the cultivars originating from Russia require very cold winters and do not perform well in
more mild climates - in milder areas haskaps (the subspecies from Japan) do better. Haskaps
flower a month or so later than the hardier blue honeysuckles and crop better in milder climates;
breeding work on these is ongoing i n Oregon.
Uses
The fresh fruits are much appreciated by people in their native habitat , particularly as they ripen
very early - 2 weeks earl ier than the first strawberr ies. The colour and taste is similar to that of
blueberries. The fruits contain 6-8% sugars, 2-3% acids, 0.3-0.7% pectin, exceptionall y high
amounts of vitamin C (40- 170 mg per 100g fresh weight ); they are also high in anthocyanins
and phenolic compounds which provide healt h benefits due to antioxidant properties. Due to
the high stability of the dark red pigments on processing, the fruits are very suitable for making
juice as well as providing a source of food colouring for other products.
Fruits are eaten fresh and are processed i n a number of ways. The Japanese have developed
products such as assorted sweets, jam, jelly, gelatine, ice cream, yoghurt , fruit cake, tarts,
juice, juice concentrate, sparkli ng drinks, wine, berry bars, baby foods, canned fruit, frozen fruit ,
chewing gum, tea and even berry-flavoured noodles. The dark red pigment colouring is used in
caramel and marmalade production.
Page 35
Medicinally, the fruits are known for their therapeutic effect on cardiovascular diseases - they
are known to reduce blood pressure and there are claims of curative effects for malaria and
gastrointestinal diseases. .
Cultivation
Plants are not demanding and will grow well in sandy soils, loams and clay soils; they are
adapted to acid to neutral soils (pH 5 to 7) with high humus levels and require good soil
moisture throughout the growing season for optimum growth. Highest yields are in full sun,
although partial shade is
Pruning is not required on young plants. AHer 8-10 years of fruiting, branches can be thinned
out. Good fruit yields require an annual supply of new wood, and if growth is poor then
applications of nitrogen and potassium should be made. The soil around plants is best mulched
with organic matter.
For fully sized, seeded fruits, cross pollination between two different forms is essential. Single
plants are partially self-fertile, but the resulting fruits will be small and few in number.
Unpollinated, seedless fruits are typically 11 x 6 mm and weigh 0.2g; cross pollinated, fully
sized fruits with seeds are often 16 x 16 mm (sometimes up to 3-4 cm long) and weigh 1.9 g.
The seeds are very small and quite acceptable to eat. The flavour from different selections
varies, with the best pleasantly sweet-acid.
Fruits ripen around the same time as strawberries -late May to late June usually, depending on
variety.
Shrubs are precocious in bearing, with many plants producing some fruits in their first year, and
most in their second. Growth of plants during the first few years is slow, but yields of 300-500g
of berries per bush can be obtained 2-3 years from planting. Maximum yields of 2-5 kg per
bush are obtained from plants 7-15 years old. The bushes can remain productive for 25-30
years. Ripe berries detach easily and are easy to harvest manually or by machine.
Birds can sometimes be a pest on the fruits, but bushes are easy to net if necessary. Aphids
and the 80tfytis fungus and two problems sometimes encountered in Russia and Japan.
Cultivars
In the descriptions below:
Fruit size: Small- 0.7g, medium 0.9g, large 1.2g (per fruit)
Bush yield: low 1 kg, medium 1-2 kg, heavy 3kg+ (per bush)
Season: Varies over several weeks (ie late is 2-3 weeks later than early season)
Cultivar Selected Released Oescri.ption
Amflora Russia 1997 Mid season. Fruits medium-large, contain 59 mg
Ascorbic acid/100g. Plants medium yielding
Amur Switzerland Laroe fruits.
Berry Blue Czech Fruit large. Bush medium yielding, vigorous,
Republic upright to 2.4m tall.
Blue Belle Russia 1987 Early-mid season. Fruit medium sized, 46 mg
Ascorbic acid/100g. Bush medium to high
yieldinQ, Qrows to 1.5m high.
Blue Bird Russia 1980 Early season. Fruits small-medium sized, 72 mg
Ascorbic acid/1 OOa. Bush medium yieldina.
Cultivar Selected Released Description
Blue Forest Russia 1968 Mid season. Fruit medium sized, soft, 74 mg
Ascorbic acid/1 ~ O g . Bush medium yielding, grows
90 cm hiah.
Blue Russia 2000 Earl y season. Fruit medium sized, 49-79 mg
Lightning Ascorbic acid/1 ~ O g . Bush spreading, to 1.5 m
high, medium-hiQh -yielding.
Blue Moon Ukraine Late season. Fruit large, very acid. Plant flowers
late, medium yieldinQ.
Blue Nova Russia 1975 Mid season. Fruit medium sized, 58 mg Ascorbic
aCid!100g. Bush heavy yielding, compact , to 1. 2m
high.
Blue Pacific Russia Late season. Fruit large. Bush grows 90cm high,
a heavy cropper.
Blue Sky Russia Mid season. A compact shrub to 90cm high,
medium yielding.
Blue Velvet Ukraine Late season. Fruit large, sweet+acid flavour.
Bush late floweri ng, compact , spreading, 90-
120cm high and 120cm wide. Good in maritime
cl imates.
Czech No.17 See Berry Blue
Desertnaya Russia Mid-late season. Fruit medium sized, 94 mg
Ascorbic acid/1 ~ O g . Bush upright, densely
branched, medium vieldina. ,
Dimka
See Smokey Blue
F-1-9-58 See Blue Pacific
Fialka Russia 1992 Late season. Fruit medium sized, 45 mg Ascorbic
acid!100a. Bush medium vieldinQ.
George Canada 1920's Ornamental variety. Fruit small, bitter, poor
Buanet I auality.
Goluboye Russia 1980 Early season. Fruit medium sized, 61 mg
Verenteno Ascorbic acid/1 000. Bush medium vieldino.
Ivushka Russia 1975 Early season. Fruit medium sized, 77 mg
Ascorbic acid/1 ~ O g , slightly bitter. Bush medium
to heavy yielding.
Julia Bugnet Canada 1920's Ornamental variety. Fruit small, bitter, poor
auality.
Kapel Russia 1978 Early season. Fruit small, 55 mg Ascorbic
acid!100a. Bush heavY yieldina.
Kiev NO.8 See Blue Velvet
Magadan See Blue Forest
Mailon Switzerland Mid season. Lar e frui ts.
Maistar Switzerland Early-mid season. Lar e fruits.
Morena Russia 1992 Mid season. Fruit medium to large, 54 mg
Ascorbic acid/1000. Bush medium vieldino.
Novinka See Blue Nova
Nyfma Russia 1993 Mid-late season. Fruit large, 52 mg Ascorbi c
acid!100a. Bush medium yield ina.
Pavlovskaya Russia 1987 Mid season. Fruit large, 69 mg Ascorbi c
acid!100a. Bush medium yield ina.
Rassvet Russia 2000 Early-mid season. Fruit medium sized, 78 mg
I Ascorbic acid!l 000. Bush heavY yieldina.
Page 37
Cultivar
Selected Released Description
Sinyaya
See Blue Bird
Pititsa
Smokey Blue
Russia 1988 Mid season. Fruits have a white waxy bloom and
drop readilv when ripe. Bush grows 90cm high.
Start
Russia 1980 Early season. Fruits medium sized, aromatic, 56-
70 mg Ascorbic acid/100g. Bush low to moderate
yieldino.
Tomjchkya
See Blue Belle
Valety No.2
See Blue Sky
Viola
Russia 1995 Early season. Fruit medium sized, sweet-acid
with some bitterness, 61 mg Ascorbic acid/ 100g.
Bush medium to heavy yieldinQ.
Zarnitsa
See Blue Li htening
Zolushka
Russia 1991 Earl y season. Fruit small, 51 mg Ascorbic
acid!1000. Bush low 10 medium vieldino.
Blue honeysuckle flowers (Source: Wikimedia)
Page 38
Propagation
Seeds, cuttings and layers are all possible.
Seeds are soft and mechanical extraction methods from berries not suitable. The seeds are not
dormant and can be sown immediately.
Softwood cuttings are relatively easy to take; hardwood cuttings are also fairly easy.
Layering is easy, as is the division of established plants.
Sources of plants
A.R.T. , 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Tel/ Fax: 01803 840776.
www.agroforestry. co.uk mail@agrotorestry.co.uk - source of spp. edufis and ssp. Kamtschatica
'Blue Velvet'.
Haberli SA, Imm, Le Central , M.Bornet Barthelemy, 1997 Haute-Nencaz, Switzerland.
www.haeberli-beeren.ch-sourceofAmur.Mai lon and Maistar varieties.
References
Burmistrov, L: Underexploited Fruits and Nuts of Russia. WANATCA Yearbook 1994.
Clark, J R & Finn, C F: Register of New Fruit and Nut Cultivars, List 43. HortScience Vol 41 (5) _
August 2006. I
Hummer, K E: Blue Honeysuckle - A New Berry Crop for North America. Journal of the
American Pomological Society 60(1): 3-8 2006.
Plekanova, M: A New Berry Plants: Blue Honeysuckle. Fruit Gardener, Vol 28 No 5.
Plekanova, M: Blue honeysuckle (Lonicera caeru/ea L. ) - a new commercial berry crop 'for
temperate climate: genetic resources and breeding. Acta Horticulturae 538, pp 159-
163, 2000.
Rombough, L: Haskap - A New Berry with Ancient Roots. Fruit gardener, Vol 37 No 4.
Thompson, M: Blue Honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea L.) - a potential new berry crop.
ACOTANC paper, 2002.
Book Review
Nature's Matrix
Linking Agriculture, Conservation and Food Sovereignty
Ivette Perfecto, Joh,n Vandermeer and Angus Wright
Earthscan, 2009; 242 pp.
ISBN 978-1-84407 -782-3.
The tropics is the location of the overwhelming majority of the world's biodiversity, and most of
the tropics is a patchwork of fragments of forest in a matrix of agriculture. Yet the vast majority
of conservation work concentrates on the fragments and ignores the matrix in which they exist.
This book argues, amongst other things, that the matrix itself is very important in any
conservation efforts.
Recent ecological research has underlined their point. Many (perhaps most) natural biological
populations do not exist as randomly located individuals in a landscape; rather, there are
smaller clusters of individuals that may occur in habitat islands or form their own clusters.
These clusters are 'subpopulations' and the collection of all the clusters is a'metapopulation'.
The evidence is that extinctions are ubiquitous at the subpopulation level; what stops the
metapopulation from going extinct is the migration of individuals from one cluster via the
agricultural matrix to another. So isolating fragments of natural vegetation in a landscape of
low-quality matrix, like a pesticide-drenched banana plantation (or field of non-organic wheat),
is a recipe for disaster from the point of view of preserving biodiversity.
The authors make some excellent points from the agro-ecological perspective. They argue that
the question "How can wf! maximise production
n
is a relatively new question of the last 1-200
years and ask why should it be a goal? There are other goals at least as important including
environmental sustainability, social cohesion, cultural survival etc. Agronomists ask YWhat are
the problems the farmer faces and how can I help solve them?" whereas many traditional
farmers and agro-ecologists ask "How car;! we manage the agro-ecosystem to prevent problems
from arising in the first place?"
A review of industrial agriculture concludes that it is a fundamentally unsustainable system for
which concern for the future is a minor irritant. Agro-ecosystems should reflect the natural
vegetation in which they are practised (to maximise biodiversity conservation) - hence forest
based systems in moist temperate climates and perennials grassland systems in prairie
landscapes etc. High migration rates of species only occur through ' high quali ty' agricultural
matrices.
The argument of the wider book is that a biodiversity-friendly agroecosystem is constructed
mainly by small farmers, who need support in their efforts and so there is an urgent need for
social and environmental justice. The only way to encourage high quality matrices is to work
with rural social movements.
The book will challenge the ideas of some of the large conservation organisations that
emphasise targeted land purchases of protected areas. The authors argue that recent
advances in ecology make such a general approach anachronistic.
An excellent book, highly recommended.
Propagation
Seeds, cuttings and layers are all possible.
Seeds are soft and mechanical ex-traction methods from berries not suitable. The seeds are not
dormant and can be sown immediately.
Softwood cuttings are relati vely easy to take; hardwood cuttings are also fairly easy.
Layering is easy, as is the division of established plants.
Sources of plants
A.R.T. , 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes. Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Tel f Fax: 01803 840776.
www.agroforestry.co.uk mail@agroforestry.co.uk - source of spp. edulis and ssp. Kamtschatica
'Blue Velvet'.
Haberli SA, Imm, Le Central , M.Bornet Barthelemy, 1997 Haute-Nencaz, Swit zerland.
www.haeberli-beeren.ch-sourceofAmur.Mailon and Maistar varieties.
References
Burmistrov, L: Underexploited Fruits and Nuts of Russia. WANATCA Yearbook 1994.
Clark, J R & Finn, C F: Register of New Fruit and Nut Cultivars, List 43. HortSpience Vol 41 (5)
August 2006.
Hummer, K E: Blue Honeysuckle - A New Berry Crop for No'rth America. Journal of the
American Pomologi cal Society 60(1): 3-8 2006.
Plekanova, M: A New Berry Plants: Blue Honeysuckle. Fruit Gardener, Vol 28 No 5.
Plekanova, M: Blue honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea L.) - a new commercial berry crop for
temperate cl imate: genetic resources and breeding. Acta Horticulturae 538, pp 159-
163, 2000.
Rombough, L: Haskap - A New Berry with Ancient Roots. Fruit gardener, Vol 31' No 4.
Thompson, M: Blue Honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea L.) - a potential new berry crop.
ACOTANC paper, 2002.
Book Review
Nature's Matrix
Linking Agriculture, Conservation and Food Sovereignty
Ivette Perfecto, John Vandermeer and Angus Wright
Earthscan, 2009; 242 pp. '
ISBN 978-1 -84407 -782-3.
The tropics is the location of the overwhelming majority of the world's biodiversity, and most of
the tropics is a patchwork of fragments of forest in a matrix of agriculture. Yet the vast majority
of conservation work concentrates on the fragments and ignores the matrix in which they exist.
This book argues, amongst other things, that the matri x itself is very important in any
conservation efforts.
Recent ecological research has underlined their point. Many (perhaps most) natural biological
populations do not exist as randomly located individuals in a landscape; rather, there are
smaller clusters of individuals that may occur in habitat islands or form their own clusters.
These clusters are 'subpopulations' and the collection of all the clusters is a ' metapopulation' .
The evidence is that extinctions are ubiquitous at the subpopulation level; what stops the
metapopulation from going extinct is the migration of individuals from one cluster via the
agricultural matrix to another. So isolating fragments of natural vegetation in a landscape of
low-quality matrix, like a pesticide-drenched banana plantation (or field of non-organic wheat) ,
is a recipe for disaster from the point of view of preserving biodiversity.
The authors make some excellent pOints from the agro-ecological perspective. They argue that
the question "How can we, maximise production" is a relatively new question of the last 1-200
years and ask why should it be a goal? There are other goals at least as important including
environmental sustainability, social cohesion, cultural survival etc. Agronomists ask "What are
the problems the farmer faces and how can I help solve them?" whereas many traditional
farmers and agro-ecologists ask ~ H o w can we manage the agro-ecosystem to prevent problems
from arising in the first place?" .
A review of industrial agriculture concludes that it is a fundamentally unsustainable system for
which concern for the future is a minor irritant. Agro-ecosystems should reflect the natural
vegetation in whi ch they are practised (to maximise biodiversity conservation) - hence forest
based systems in moist temperate climates and perennials grassland systems in prairie
landscapes etc. High migration rates of species ohly occur through ' h ~ g h quality' agricultural
matrices.
The argument of the wider book is that a biodiversity-friendly agroecosystem is constructed
mainly by small farmers, who need support in their efforts and so there is an urgent need for
social and environmental justice. The only way to encourage high quality matrices is to work
with rural social movements.
The book will challenge the ideas of some of the large conservation organisations that
emphasise targeted land purchases of protected areas. The authors argue that recent
advances in ecology make such a general approach anachronistic.
An excellent book, highl y recommended.
Agroforestry News
Plant resins
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967 -649X)
Contents
2 News: Woody plants and climate change
adaption / Uses of plant oils / Echium as an oil
crop / Myrica gale as a beer ingredient
5 Plant resins
18 A simple Chestnut Peeling Process
25 Future impacts of climate change on UK forests
35 Alternative rubber plants
38 American gooseberry mildew
40 Book review: The Forager Handbook
Cover photo: Wikepedia (Released under the GNU Free Documentation License)
News
Woody plants and climate change adaption
A new study analysing more than 5000 plant species reveals that woody plants adapted to past
climate change much more slowly than herbaceous plants did. If the past is any indicator of the
futute, woody plants may have a harder time than other plants keeping pace with global warming .

In a new study, biologists at the National Evolutionary Synthesis Center and Yale University
studied how flowering plants adapted to new climates over the course of their evolution. By
integrating previously published genealogies for several plant groups with temperature and rainfall
data for each species, they were able to measure how fast each lineage filled new climate niches
over time.
When they compared woody and herbaceous groups, they' lound that woody plants adapted to
new climates 2 to 10 times slower than herbs. "Woody plants eventually evolved to occupy about
the same range of climates that herbaceous plants did, but woody plants took a lot longer to get
there," said lead author Stephen Smith.
The researchers trace the disparity to differences in generation time between the two groups.
Longer-lived plants like trees and shrubs typically take longer to reach reproductive age than fast-
growing herbaceous plants, they explained. "Some woody plants take many years to produce
their first flower, whereas for herbs it could take just a couple months," said co-author Jeremy
Beaulieu.
Because woody plants have longer reproductive cycles, they also tend to accumulate genetic
changes at slower rates, prior research shows. "If genetic mutations build up every generation,
then in 1000 years you would expect plants with longer generation times to accumulate fewer
mutations per unit time," said Smith. This could explain why woody plants were slower to adapt to
new environments. If genetic mutations provide the raw material for evolution, then woody plants
simply didn't accumulate mutations fast enough to keep up. "If woody and herbaceous plants
were running a race, the herbs would be the hares and the woody plants would be the tortoises,"
said Beaulieu.
By understanding how plants responded to climate change in the past , scientists may be better
able to predict which groups will be hardest hit by global warming in the luture. Unlike the tortoise
and the hare, however, in this case slow and steady may not win the race. "Woody groups are
obviously at a disadvantage as the climate changes," Beaulieu explained.
Does this mean that ecosystems dominated by trees - such as rainforests - will be more likely
to disappear? Possibly. "If we look to the past for our clues, chances are trees will continue to
respond much slower than herbs - as much as 10 times slower," Smith said. "But if the rate of
climate change is 100 times faster, then they could all be in trouble. The kind of change we're
experiencing now is so unprecedented," he added. While this study focused on long-term change
over the last 1 00 million years, most climate models predict significant warming in the (lext
century. "That time frame may be too quick for any plant ," Beaulieu said.
Source: Stephen A. Smith and Jeremy M. Beaulieu: Life history influences rates of climatic niche
evolution in flowering plants. Proc. R. Soc. B 2009 276, 4345-4352
Page 2
Uses of plant oils
Plant oi ls have been used to produce a huge range of chemicals for hundreds, of years. Just
under 18 mi llion tannes of vegetable oils are used by the oleochemicals industry each year, which
is about 14% of total vegetable 611 production. We are increasingly turning to plants which are
renewable, to replace petrochemicals.
There are many different types of fats and oils, but they all have the same basic structure. The
backbone is glycerol, and joined to this are three long molecules called fatty acids. The properties
of the fat , such as whether it is solid or liquid at room temperature, depend on the types of fatty
acid.
Soaps are an ancient use of plant and animal oils. Oils are reacted with sodium or potassium
hydroxide in a process called saponification, giving soap and glYf:erol as a by-product. Many
different oils are used; olive, coconut, palm, cocoa butter, hemp oil and shea for example.
Detergents derived from plants are also found in toothpastes, shampoo and household cleaning
products.
There are some types of fatty acid that are vital for our physical and mental health, but our bodies
can't make them so we have to get them through our diet. These are the essential fatty acids
(EFAs). The two types of EFAs are called omega-3 and omega-S. Crops grown for their oils
include borage (widely marketed as Starflower
oi l), calendula and echi um (see below).
Paints and varnishes can be made from plant oils including linseed oils and castor oil. They can
be used as you would a non-renewable paint, but they have low vac content and particular
advantages where a breathable finish is required. Linoleum, made from linseed oil, was first
manufactured in the 19
1h
century and makes an extremely durable floor covering.
Plant oils can replace petrochemicals in a class of polymers called polyurethanes. Polyurethanes
can be turned into foam, so you may find plant oils as part of mattresses, car seats, carpet and
insulation. Castor and soybean oils are particularly suitable for this application.
Spray foam insulation can now be made from soy. Bio-based insulation is sustainable, does not
biodegrade (an important point - just because it's made from plants doesn't mean it will
biodegrade!), and is completely inert so rodents and insects won't eat it.
Industry is totally dependent on lubricants. Without them machinery would literally grind to a halt.
Hundreds of thousands of tonnes of lubricants are released into the environment each year and
they can pollute the environment for a long time. Synthetic lubricants can be replaced by plant oil.
Plant-based lubricants have the advantages of biodegradabi lity and low toxicity. Their
disadvantages like oxidising at high temperatures can be overcome with additives. Plant-based
lubricants are already commonly used in some applications like chainsaws, agricultural greases
and marine engines.
Vegetable oils are of course also being used increasingly (t.hough not without criticism) in biofuels.
Source: NNFCC Factsheet: What plant oils are used for. 2009.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No 2
Page 3
Echium as an oil crop
Echium plantagineum (purple viper's bugloss) is a spring sown speciality oil crop containing high
levels of alpha linolenic acid (ALA), gamma linolenic acid (GLA) and stearidonic acid (SDA),
making it valuable in cosmetic and skin care applications, with further potential as a functional
food, as an alternative to fish oils. The plant, an annual or biennial, is native to western and
southern Europe, including southern England.
Echium is a stout bristly flowering herb which grows to a height of 50 - aDem, and is cultivated as
a spring-sown oilseed crop. The plant produces a very small black oilseed. Echium is related to
Borage so its growth habits and husbandry requirements are broadly very similar.
Echium can be grown on a wide range of soil types and at varying pH levels, although it prefers
light to medium land under UK conditions. The crop is also very tolerant of a range of climatic
conditions, making it very versatile. Currently only a small area is grown in the UK, but there is
reasonable potential for expansion in the future. Echium is a good break crop option in arable
rotations, with low inputs and generally attractive returns. The crop is able to make use of
conventional machinery, so additional capital outlay is unnecessary. The area of Echium grown in
the UK totals no more than a few hundred hectares.
Echium is sown in mid to late-April into a fine, clean seedbed. As a member of the borage family,
with similar characteristics, it grows quickly and competes with weeds well in the establishment
phase. Echium seeds are small, generally 1 - 2mm and hence need to be handled with care.
The crop is sown with a conventional seed drill, using settings appropriate for grass seeds or
other small oilseeds. Echium is a very low input crop; similar to borage.
Echium is harvested in August using a conventional combine harvester with draper header. Prior
to harvest the crop will be swathed to encourage uniform ripening, however seed loss can be a
risk so the timing of h a r v ~ s t is crucial. The crop will usually be harvested when it is below 15%
moisture, generally 7 - 10 days after swathing. Seed must be dried down to 10% moisture shortly
after harvest to prevent deterioration in oil quality. This will allow for the crop to be stored safely
for several months.
Yields can be variable, depending on 'soil and climatic conditions at seed fill and harvest.
Generally yields range from 0.2 - 0.3 tonnes per hectare, accounting for seed loss due to the
small nature of the seeds.
Source: NNFCC Crop Factsheet - Echium. 2009.
Myrica gale as a beer ingredient
Bog myrtle (Myrica gale) is a distinctive shrubby plant that grows on wet, acidic heath land, bogs
and moors in the north of western Europe. One of the world's leading brewers is to create a new
beer using this obscure Scottish moorland plant that was once used to flavour medieval
beverages.
In fact , Vikings and native Scots once drank a brew made from this shrub, long before the
Romans brought hops to Britain. Now the Danish brewing giant Carlsberg is planning to use bog
myrtle to flavour a new version of one its range of strong "bock" lagers. The firm has signed a
supply deal with Scottish company Highland Natural Products (HNP) in the United Kingdom,
which has already been instrumental in bringing several bog myrtle lines to the market. HNP's
managing director said it was a "landmark deal" between a small Highland company and a giant in
the world of beverage production, and foresees huge benefits for the Highland.rural community in
Scotland. He added that the contract could lead to repeat orders and possible interest by
Carlsberg in some of the other flavours the company is producing.
Some microbreweries in Scotland already use bog myrtle as a chief ingredient in specialist beers.
But beer experts said the interest being shown by Carlsberg, which is the United Kingdom's
fourthlargest brewer, would give it a major boost. The use of bog myrtle as a major beer
ingredient died out more than 500 years ago. Although used extensively as flavouring in Britain
during the Middle Ages, it was gradually replaced by hops, which could be more easily grown on
agri cultural land closer to population centres. Beer-making aside, it has had many uses in the
past, including as a medicinal product for wounds, stress and coughs, as well as a midge
repellent. In 2007, the high-street chemist Boots launched a new Botanics Sensitive Skin product
incorporating bog myrtle after five years of research and development. It sourced its raw material
from bog myrtle plantations in the Highlands.
Source: Non-Wood News, Jan 2008.
Plant resins
Introduction
Plants resins are substances which are usually secreted in specialised structures located either
internall y or on the surface of a plant , and have potential significance in ecological interactions.
They consist of a mixture of volatile and nonvolatile terpenoid and/or phenolic compounds.
Amber is fossilised resin.
Throughout written history there has been a tendency to describe any st icky plant exudate as
resin, however now such exudates are separated into resins , gums, mucilages, oils, waxes and
latex. This article concentrates on resins from hardy plants (ie not tropical).
Resins occur mostly in woody plants, and most commercially important resins consist mainly of
terpenoids. Some phenolic resins have been used as medicines, but their main role is
protection of vulnerable plant surfaces.
Resins have played useful , economic and aesthetic roles in cultural around the world for
thousands of years.
The European amber trade has been documented back to the stone age, whilst use of cannabis
resin (hashish) can be traced back to the bronze age.
An extensive and lucrative incense trade by Arabians was in progress by at least 1000 B.C. and
was used by the Mayan civisiation by 600 B.C. The Mayans used various trees for incense
resin including Pinus and Uquidambar.
Naval stores - coni fer resins
Resins from the Pinaceae family remain the basis of the naval stores industry. 'Naval stores'
was originally applied to all the stores on ships, but later referred to resins, which were
essential for waterproofing wooden ships and nautical gear such as sails and ropes.
Naval stores resins were important to the commercial and military success of seafaring nations
back to at least the bronze age. Britain needed naval stores for wooden ships and looked to the
forests of the American coloni es to supply these resins. Pi nes, mostl y P.palustris and P.e/liotii
w e r E ~ extensively tapped for resi n, usually uti lising cheap labour at the ti me provided by African
slaves.
Various terms have been used for the crude resin from conifer (mostly pines) and the naval
stores products. The word pitch denotes crude resin (but it has sometimes been used for resin
that has been cooked and thereby darkened). Pitch has a long history of use, from early
shi pbuil ders and seafarers such as the Minoans and Phoenicians, who used it to seal their
ships.
Pine tar is a darkened product of destructive distillation, a practice used by the ancient
Macedonians; it is a by-product of charcoal made from conifers. Tar was used to caulk ships as
late as the 19!h century. Tar has also been used to mean rosin (see below).
Mar itime pine (P.pinaster)
Page 6
Turpent ine and rosin are the most important
naval stores products. Turpentine refers to
the volatile fraction of the resin, and rosin to
the nonvolatile fraction of the resin.
All pines produce resin, but only about a
third (30) of the worl ds species have been
tapped for their resin in various parts of the
world. The bulk of the worlds supplies of
naval stores is produced from 8 warmer-
region species of Pinus.
Tar making based on Pinus sylvestris
(Scots pine) has a long history in
Scandinavia, although the yields of resin
are low. A destructive method of stripping
trees was used to supply local demand.
In France, maritime pine (Pinus pinaster)
has been the species mainly cultivated for
resin, although the Aleppo pine
(P.halepensis) has also been used. The
resin product from maritime pine was
referred to as Bordeaux turpentine. The
French managed trees to achieve sustained
resin yield while maintaining tree vigour:
seedling trees were established, and after
20 years undesirable trees were severely
turpentined (gemmage a mort) , cut out and
sold for timber. The remaining trees were
tapped conservatively for 60-70 years, only
I
l
Pinus radiata being tapped for resin at Dartington
making a few cuts per tree, thus maintaining health and vigour.
In Spain, maritime pine and Aleppo pine have been tapped, as well as Corsican pine (P.nigra
subsp. laricio). However, Portugal is the leading European producer of gum rosin, mainly
tapping maritime pine and stone pine (P.pinea).
Limited amounts of resin have been produced from Norway spruce \Picea abies) . The Germans
produced ' Burgundy pitch' and 'Jura turpentine' from trees in the 18 h century.
Eurvpean larch (Larix decidua) was the source of resin from which Venice turpentine was
distilled. Venice turpentine used to be very important and was mainly collected in the Tyrol of
Austria. Unlike most conifers, the more fluid larch resin was obtained by boring holes into the
trunk rather than cutting into the cambial area. This was done in spring, the hole was then
closed until autumn, when the resin was collected. Venice turpentine has a very characteristic
composition.
Turpentine workers in the USA, c1912
(They are tapping the trees quite destructively - the trees will be harvested afterwards)
Tapping the tree trunks and collecting the resin is call ed turpentining. The crude resin
(someti mes called gum resin) is distilled to produce gum turpentine and gum rosin (so called to
distinguish them from wood turpentine and wood resin, which are produced by disti lli ng chipped
trunks and stumps.) Since tapping is a controlled wounding of the tree, the type of wounding is
important for sustained yields and the health of the tree. Deep cuts made with axes are the
most destructive, whereas just removing the cambium down to the wood beneath is least
destructive and best for the tree.
Page 8
Only a few conifers produce balsams. One of the best known is Canada balsam, obtained from
balsam fir (Abies ba/samea) which is widely dlslributed in North America. It is called Canada
balsam because the area of greatest commercial collection is in Quebec. When the resin is
particularly fluid it may be called Canadian turpentine. The resin is coll ected from bl isters in the
bark, often by puncturing them with the pointed spout of a can into which the balsam flows. The
resin contains about 20% volatile and 80% nonvolatile terpenes, which forma hard transparent
film when dried. The film's high refracti ve index (simi lar to that of glass) makes it useful for
microscopic work and as a cement for lenses. The medicinal value of Canada balsam has long
been recognised, with northern tribes of Native Americans using it as an antiseptic salve for
sores, cuts and burns as well as internally for colds, TB and other ills.
Several other conifers produce resin similar to Canada balsam - similar resins are obtained
from Douglas fi r (Pseudotsuga menziesil) and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). The European firs
Abies alba and A.pectinata yield Alsatian or Strasbourg turpentine, which has a similar
nonvolati le composition as A.ba/samea.
Storax is the name used for resin/balsam from Liquidambar. L.orientalis, L.styraciflua and
L.formosana are well known for their balsamic exudations. Levant storax is obtained from
L.orientalis in Turkey. Since the resin is only produced as a result of wounding, the usual
method of collection has been to severely bruise the' cambial area in early summer; the
yellowish fragrant resin that diffuses through the inner bark is removed in autumn.
American storax, or sweet gum, comes from L.styraciflua. The resin is simil ar to that from
L.orientalis, but it develops more spontaneously, often exuding into internal cavities between
wood and bark, which can be found as large excrescences on the outside of the bark, which are
tapped. Native Americans chewed Uquidambar resin as a tooth preservative as well as to cure
fevers and dysentery; it was also used as a salve for wounds, sores and ulcers.
Uquidambar branch buds also secrete resin from late autumn through to spring, which can be
obtained by boiling the branches in water.
Varnish and lacquer resins
Varnish resins contain fragrant volatile terpenoids, as in the balsams, but have been used for
their nonvolatile components, which form hard finishes.
Mastic is a resin produced mainly from the genus Pistacia in the Mediterranean region.
P./entiscus is the most important producer, a widely distributed dioecious tree or shrub occuring
around the Mediterranean coast from Portugal to Syria to Tunisia. The main source has been
the island of Chios in the Aegean Sea since the middle ages. Male plants of P./entiscus var.
chia are used (the male apparently producing a better quality mastic than the female) . The
resin is collected between July and October, by tapping - making numerous small vertical
incisions in the bark of the stem and main branches; hardened resin is collected some 3 weeks
later.
Mastic from P.lentiscus has been extensively used in the manufacture of high-grade varnishes
of pale colour to protect oil and watercolour paintings (it has the advantages of being easily
removed, by solvents or fri ction, wit hout damagi ng the painting.) The gelati nous material
'megalip' I used in mixing oil colours, consists of a mixture of mastic, turpentine, and linseed oil.
Mastic has also been used in lithography for retouching negatives and in cements for precious
Pistacea lentiscusis
The age-old use of mastic is as a masticatory to sweeten the breath, and children in the
Mediterranean still buy mastic for chewing gum. It has been used in dentistry and to flavour
alcoholic beverages. The volatile fraction is known to have antimicrobial effects. Mastic has
long been used as a wound adhesive and on surgical tapes after dermatological and plastic
surgery.
P.atfantica and P.terebinthu5 are both sources of Chian-type turpentine.
Chi nese and Japanese lacquers are derived from Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Syn. Rhus
vernicitlua) , a deciduous tree native to central and western China and widely cultivated by the
Chinese. Tapping usuall y commences when a tree is about 30cm (12") in diameter and is
carri ed out until the tree is 50-60 years old. Midsummer is considered the best time for tapping,
and after tapping for several years the tree is rested for some years. The resin contains a
complex of phenolics called urushiol which can cause severe dermatitis and lung damage if
breathed in.
lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum)
Chinese lacquer has been ' found on objects 6,000 years old. Lacquering is a complex and
secretive process, with many different coats sometimes applied.
Propoiis
In temperate regions, honeybees collect resin from a variety of plant sources and bring it back
to the hove where it is masticated with salivary secretions and mixed with beeswax, to make
propolis. Poplar (Popul us) bud resins are among the most common used to make propolis, but
only from certain species, notably black poplar (P.nigra). There are also reports of resin
collection from Aescufus, Alnus, Betula, Prunus and Salix.
Propolis has a long history of use in folk medicine, for example to treat internal and external
sores and ulcers. Many studies have shown propolis to be strongly antimicrobial , and it is noted
for producing suriace anaesthesia.
Labdanum
Labdanum is the name given to the resin that is obtained from the leaf surfaces of all species of
Cistus (rock rose), a genus of evergreen shrubs from the Mediterranean region. Resin is
particularly copious from L.ladanifer from the western Mediterranean. Resin is collected by
dragging a kind of rake through the plants; the resin sticks to the tines. In Spain, labdanum is
obtained by boiling twigs collected in spring and early summer, and skimming off the resin that
comes to the surface.
Labdanum is used as a fixative in perfumery and far perfuming soaps etc. ILhas a history of
use in folk medicine.
Miscellaneous resins
Podophylloresin is extracted from the
root and rhizomes of Podophyllum
peltatum (mayapple, American
mandrake), a perennial woodland herb
of North America. P.emodi from the
Himalayas is used similarly. The resin
is the starting material for the
synthesis of certain anticancer
compounds.
Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera)
bears winter buds that contain fragrant
resins which coat the young leaves as
they unfurl. Native North Americans
used balsam poplar resin medicinally,
boiling the buds to make
a wound salve. Resin is still Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatumj
collected and extracted as a flavouring
ingredient called populus, which has a sweet balsamic odour with a slight cinnamon undertone,
and is used to flavour alcoholic beverages.
Resin-producing plants
Anacardiaceae
A family of mainly tropical plants, but including:
Pistacea. Pistachio family, especially P.lentiscus is used to produce mastic.
Toxicodendron. Resins from some members of this genus such as T.vernicifluum are used for
lacquers (see above).
Araucariaceae
Aaraucaria (monkey puzzle tree), like other members of this family. produces resin.
Berberidaceae
Podophyllum species yield a resin used to synthesise medicines (see above).
Betulaceae
Includes the mainly temperate and northern zone trees:
Alnus (alders)
Be/ula (birches)
Alders and birches produce resins that coat buds, developing leaves and young stems. The
resin structures are particularly conspicuous on the young stems and leaf buds of some species
such as B.pendufa. These resins provide defence against herbivores and perhaps dessicati on.
Cannabaceae
A family composed of only two genera:
Cannabis
Humulus (hops)
Page 15
I
Most resin is produced in female flowers of both species.
Cannabis is one of the oldest domesticated plants, used both for its fibre (hemp) and its
psychoactive resin (mari juana, hashish etc.)
The resin of Humulus is used primarily to provide flavour and aroma to beer.
Cistaceae
The roCkroses (Cistus) originate from the Mediterranean and Caucasus regions in dry scrub and
open woodlands. Leaf-coating resins from several species has been used throughout history in
various ways, particularly for their antimicrobial properties.
Cupressaceae
A large family of woody coniferous plants.
Ca/ocedrus decurrens (incense cedar)
Chamaecyparis
Cupressus (cypresses)
Juniperus (junipers)
Thuja
This family is now considered to include the Taxodiaceae, all of which have abundant leaf
resins, but they only produce resin in the trunk after injury, and then in small amounts. They
include:
Metasequoia (dawn redwood)
Sequoia (coast redwood)
Sequoiadendron (Sierra redwood)
Taxodium (swamp cypress)
Hamamelldaceae
Uquidambar (sweet gum) is a genus of deciduous trees. Three species are important producers
of a phenolic resin from the trunk called storax which has been used for various purposes (see
above.)
Pinaeae
A large family of woody coniferous plants. Leaves of all members of this family contain
terpenoid resin. The following also naturally produce resin in the wood:
Larix (larches)
Picea (spruces)
Pinus (pines)
However the following members of the Pinaceae only produce resin in the wood following injury
(natural or human induced):
Abies (true firs)
Cedrus (true cedars)
Pseudo/arix (golden larches)
Pseudotsuga (Douglas fir)
Tsuga (hemlocks)
See Naval stores above for more details of uses.
Salicaceae
These include the primarily northern temperate zone deciduous trees:
Populus (poplars)
Salix (willows)
Page 16 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 18 No ~
poplars produce copious bud resins in specialised secretory structures, which differ chemically
in the three sections of the genus.
Section Aigeiros (eg. P.nigra): Bud resin from this section is collected by honeybees for used in
nest construction by being made (nto propolis. Propolis has a long history of pharmaceutical
uses.
Section Tacamahaca (eg. P.bafsamifera): Species have bud resins not collected by honeybees
which have a role in defence against herbivores.
Willows are a minor resin producer compared with poplars.
Simaroubaceae
Ailanthus is a resin-producing genus of Asiatic and Australian deciduous trees. Best known is
A.altissima, the tree of heaven, whose resin is used for incense in Hindu temples. It is
frequently used for soil conservation in temperate zone regions and has the ability to become
weedy in urban areas.
Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima)
Reference
Langenheim, J: Plant Resins. Timber Press, 2003.
Page 17
,!
A Simple Chestnut Peeling Process
Abstract
The Empire Chestnut Company in the USA has developed a simple, fan-driven process to
peel chestnuts that utilizes impact to remove shells and pellicle. A working prototype has
p e e l ~ d over 10 tons of Chi nese chestnuts at a maximum peeling rate of 150 kg/ h output.
Capital costs and operating costs of the process are a fraction of the cost of steam or
flame peeling technologies.
The device peels partially dried, fresh chestnuts or completely dried chest nuts, removing
both the shell and pellicle. The peeled chestnut kernels emerge in a fresh, uncooked
condi ti on. Fresh peeled kernels are perishable, but have a minimum 3-week shelf life
under refrigeration. Alternatively, dried kernels and chestnut flour are shelf-stable
products that can be derived from this process.
Introduction
Although many of the world's chestnuts are transported and sold in-shell, peeled chestnut
kernels are a valuable product which can add substantial value to the crop. Chestnuts are
laborious to peel by hand. Thi s is the main reason for the price premium often paid for
larger chestnuts - it is less work to peel a ki logram of large chest nuts compared to smaller
ones. Removal of chestnut shell s often reveals unpleasant surprises such as mouldy or
insect-infested kernels. Thus, machine peeling of chestnuts not only saves hand labour,
but it also provides the opportunity to separate bad chestnut kernels from good ones.
It is well- known that heated or cooked chestnuts peel much easier than fresh chestnuts.
This principle is employed in essentially all current commercial peeling processes, such as
the "Brulage" and steam peelers. However, the peeled kernels emerging from these
machines are cooked to some degree and must be subjected to further heat processing,
such as canning, or else they must be frozen. Canned and frozen chestnut kernels do not
retain the texture, colour , and flavour' of fresh kernels. Also, the processes of heat
peeling, canning, and freezing are very energy intensive. It is reasonable, then, to ask the
question Mis there a better or cheaper way to peel chestnuts?"
The goal of this research was not only to develop a simple way to remove chestnut shells
and pelli cle, but also to produce chestnut kernels that were of equal or better quality than
their hand-peeled counterparts. Furthermore, the peeled kernels had to have a minimum
2-week shelf life to allow for distribution. It turns out that bringing chestnuts to the
optimum conditi on for peeling and culinary use and then sustai ning that opti mum condition
in the peeled product was much more of a challenge than developing a process to remove
the shells. Consequently, most of the research was aimed at postharvest changes in
chestnut kernels. Such postharvest understanding is useful for handling and market ing i n-
shell chestnuts as well as a prerequisite for any peeling process. Nevertheless, after 15
years of research and prototype development, it appears t hat impact peeling is much
simpler and cheaper than heat peeling, and si nce the resultant product is not cooked, it
retains the qualities of fresh chestnuts.
Characteristics of chestnut kernels
Quality of chestnut kernels has two maj or components: characteristics and condition.
Characteristics are mainly determined by the tree from which the chestnuts came; i.e. ,
characteristics are to a large extent genetically determined. Examples of characteristics
are kernel size, kernel shape, kernel smoothness, pellicle thickness, number-of kernels per
fruit, and most flavour and texture components.
Condition is mainly determined by environmental factors , especially postharvest handling,
and the time interval after harvest. Condition is comprised of attributes like moisture
content , insect infestation, fungal decay (mould) , and sugar content.
Of course, there are interactions between genetic characteristics and response to
postharvest handting. Susceptibility to mould, sugar content , and ease of pellicle removal
are attributes that depend both on genetic characteristics and postharvest handling
conditions. It is important to recognize and understand the contributors to chestnut quality
because the success of any peeling process depends heavily on the quality of the
chestnuts entering the process.
There is tremendous genetic variation among chestnut species and even within species
with respect to kernel characteristics. Chestnut cultivars have been specially selected for
different end uses such as roasting, cooking, processing (e.g. , marrons glaces), and
drying. Chestnut cultivars can be evaluated and selected for their ease of peeling and for
qualities of their peeled kernels. The chestnuts used in the peeling research were all
derived from seedling Chinese chestnuts (Castanea mollissima) grown in ECC orchards in
eastern Ohio, USA. Postharvest handling and storage conditions greatly affect the
changes that occur in chestnuts over time. The most important environmental factors are
temperature and humidity. These factors directly affect the moisture and sugar content of
chestnut kernels. Moisture and sugar, in turn, affect peeling success as well as shelf life
and culinary attributes of peeled kernels.
Effects of time, temperature, and humidity
At the time when chestnuts ripen, indicated by the shells turning brown and burrs or fruits
falling from the tree, the kernels of Chinese chestnuts have the following attributes:
50-60% water, fresh weight basis
ca. 35% starch, fresh weight basis
ca. 3% sucrose, fresh weight basis
hard, crispy texture
bland flavour
resistance to fungal decay
ali ve and respiring.
Immediately after ripening, and continuing for weeks or months until they reach some
terminal condition, the attributes of chestnut kernels change. In other words, the condition
of fresh chestnut kernels does not remain constant, even when the appearance of the
fruits remains constant.
The rate of change and the nature of the changes are greatly influenced by environmental
conditions, especially temperature and relative humidity. Under low humidity conditions,
especially at higher temperatures, moisture is rapidly lost from chestnut kernels (Fig 1):
Page 19
20
2310
IS
10
o 10 20 30 40 SO 60
Oays in Storage
Fig 1. Effect of time in storage and storage conditions on % moisture of chestnuts (fresh
weight basis). Labels on curves indicate storage temperature (OC) and humidity level ("hi "
= in plastic bag; "10" = in paper bag).
Under essentially all environmental conditions, there is some conversion of starch to
sucrose, i.e. , sugar content increases over time (Fig 2).
The conversion of starch to sucrose occurs most rapidly in response to dryi ng conditions,
but temperatures near OC also cause an increase in sugar. After about 3 weeks in
storage under constant conditions, sugar levels reach plateaus and change very little over
subsequent weeks. It is noteworthy that the plateau levels vary greatly over different
environments, with highest sugar levels reached under warm, dry conditions, and the
lowest sugar levels reached under warm, moist condit ions.
In experiments subsequent to the one presented in Figure 2, it was verified that chestnut
kernels are more responsive to environmental conditions immediately after harvest than
they are to changed environmental conditions after some weeks in storage. Specifically, if
chestnuts are stored in high humidity (99-100% RH) cold storage (0-2"C) lor several
weeks, and then dried with forced ai r at higher temperatures, the sugar level does
increase i n response to drying, but ultimate sugar levels do not reach the 30% level that is
achieved if the chestnuts are dried immediately after harvest. In other words, the longer
chestnuts remain in cold storage, the less responsive they become to subsequent drying
conditions.
Changes in flavour and texture of chestnut kernels are related to changes in moisture and sugar
contents. As the kernels dry they shrink, roughly in proportion to the moisture lost.
Sulphate naval stores are produced as by-products from the kraft pulping process of making
paper from wood pulp. As pine chips are cooked to render pulp for paper, the volatised gases
are condensed to yield sulphate turpentine. Pulping by-products now suppl.y most of the
turpentine and rosin produced in countries.
Rosin is now used in many ways in industry, especially as tackifiers, emulsifiers and paper-
sizing. They are also used in adhesives, surface coatings, printing inks, and chewing gums.
Although rosin solidifies, it becomes sticky when warmed, which makes it useful for example on
bows of musical instruments, The stickiness increases friction between the bow and strings, the
increased contact enhancing musical notes. Baseball pitchers often use a rosin bag which is
handled to enable them to grip the ball better. Rosin is also used in soldering fluxes and in
bronze forging.
The major use for turpentine was once as a solvent for paints, but this had declined a lot since
the advent of cheaper white spirits derived from petroleum. Turpentine is now important in
chemical indust ries around the world as a basic feedstock for the manufacture of a wide range
of products. One of the main use is in making pine oils used in mineral floatation, textile
processing, solvents, deodorants and bactericides. Dry cleaning and paper sizing are other
uses. A large number of synthetic flavour chemicals are now made from turpentine, including
lemon, lime, peppermint, spearmint and nutmeg flavourings.
The production of pine needle oil , distilled from young needles and terminal shoots, has long
been an industry in Europe, particularly Sweden, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Switzerland and
Russia. Despite the many kinds of conifer used (cedar, fir, spruce, hemlock, juniper etc.) the
product is sti ll called pine needle oil commercially. Present production of true' pine needle oil
(called Swedish pine oil) is now mainly from Swiss mountain pine (P.mugo) and black or
Austrian pine (P.nigra) in Austria, Bulgaria, Albania, and former Yugoslav republics.
Siberian fir (Abies sibirica) is a valued source of needle oil for the fragrance industry, used for
scenti and bath deodorants etc.
Pure heptane, distilled from resin of
Pinus jeffreyi, was used to develop
the octane scale for rating petroleum
as motor fuel. Turpentines from
pines such as P.halepensis and
P.elliotii have been used medicinally
for various ailments, as has the rosin
from pines such as P.strobus and
P.rigida.
Pinus jeffrey; in California
Spruce resin exudes naturall y from various species of Picea in the USA and Canada, with
P.rubens the main source, used as a chewing gum. The resin is thin, clear and bitter,
produced in blisters in the bark and fissures in the sapwood. When exposed to air it hardens; it
is collected semi-soft of hard. Before the advent of chewing gum made from the latex of the
tropical chicle tree, some 225 tonnes of spruce resin gum were chewed annually. The resin
Page 9
softens in the mouth, takes of a reddish colour and has a pleasant resinous taste. Spruce resin
was also used medicinally as a wound salve.
Hemlock pitch from Tsuga canadensis and resins from Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Iibam), Italian
cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) , western white cedar
(Thuja occidentalis) and Japanese cedar (Cryplomeria japonica) have also been used in folk
medicine.
Cedarwood oil
The botanical source of cedarwood oil is somewhat confusing because ' cedar' is used for
various different trees including some true cedars (Cedrus) , some cypresses (Cupressus) and
some junipers (Juniperus). Most are now produced from junipers (J.ashei and J.virginiana) in
the USA, and cypresses (J.funebris) in China, with some made from the true cedars.
Cedarwood oil (which does not contain true oils) is produced by chipping wood and distilling the
chips. Cedarwood oil is an important product used directly in scenting soaps, deodorants etc.
As well as indirectly in the production of other fragrances.
Balsams
Balsams are not as fluid as the conifer resins described above, but are relatively soft and
initially malleable. Because of the latter, they have often been used as salves for wounds, and
because of their aroma they have been used in perfumery and cosmetics, and burned as
incense.
Diplodia blight (Diplodia pineal is one of the most common and widely distributed pathogens of
conifers worldwide. Although considered a southern fungus, its impact becomes visible in the
north during drought periods as it is released from its quiescent stage in hosts under water stress.
Severe drought in 2003 encouraged D. pinea to become epidemic in central Europe, and reports
of damage caused by this pathogen have become much more frequent in Britain over the past 10
years.
Foliar pathogens
The most immediate and visible changes in tree health in response to climate change could result
from increased activity of foliar pathogens. In fungi , sporulation and infection are strongly linked
to changes in temperature and precipitation and, by their nature, foliar pathogens are directly
exposed to fluctuations in air temperatures and moisture. Consequently, these agents which
often require free moisture for host infection, sporulation and spore dissemination are likely to
become more damaging, particularly in western parts of the UK where increased spring rainfall is
indicated in climate projections.
Typical examples expected to worsen on broadleaved tree species include Marssonina and
Melamspora species, while some of the warm temperature Melamspora species which are
currently damaging in central Europe are predicted to become problematic in southern Britain as
they extend their range. Warmer weather will probably also favour attacks of powdery mi ldew on
foliage (e.g. oak mildew, Erysiphe alphitoides), making outbreaks more intense and longer
lasting. Moreover, if heavy infestations occur over successive years the vigour and productivity of
affected trees is likely to be reduced. Conifer needles and shoots are also susceptible to various
foliar pathogens. The most striking example is Dothistroma needle blight, which has escalated in
incidence markedly over the past decade in Britain, thought to be related to climate change. The
shift towards an increased frequency of prolonged periods of rainfall in eastern England combined
with temperatures greater than 18-20'C in spring and early summer since the mid- to late-1990s
appears to have favoured the spread and intensification of D.septosporum and this could be
replicated elsewhere.
Root pathogens
Climate change is likely to lead to an increased predisposition to infection by root attacking
pathogens such as Heterobasidion, Armillaria and Collybia on drought-affected sites. The most
important root rot pathogen of conifer forestry, Heterobasidion annosum, has become increasingly
common and damaging on drier sites and this trend is likely to continue. Another root rotter,
Armillaria (honey fungus), affects both conifer and broadleaved tree species and is ubiquitous
throughout the British Isles. Although some Armillaria species are only weakly pathogenic, they
are opportunists and attack and kill trees already weakened by other biotic agents or abiotic
factors such as drought. Consequently their potential to cause damage is expected to increase
as trees suffer more frequent episodes of elevated temperatures and drought stress. Long term
(chronic) declines of mature trees such as beech, oak and ash are often another visible sign of
root rot pathogen activity aggravated by climatic extremes. As some Armillaria species as well as
H. annosum have an optimum temperature for growth of around 25'C, increased ambient
temperatures could well enhance the process of infection and spread.
Climate models suggest that the impact of Phytophthora species is likely to be significantly
enhanced under future climate scenarios. Many Phytophthora pathogens already have the
capacity to be fast acting aggressive pathogens, often with a wide host range, and this behaviour
makes them a formidable threat under conditions of climate change. Phytophthoras are a mainly
introduced group of pathogens and around 10 species are now widespread in Britain with the
potential to be highly damaging to tree species. Some attack aerial plant parts with activity
Page 31
favoured by mild moist springs, but the majority infect and kill the roots of susceptible tree
species. The latter require moist soil conditions, even periods of flooding, for infection and
spread. The damage they cause tends to be most visible in the summer, especially if water
availability is limited. A build up of soil-inhabiting Phytophthoras can result in the death of fine
feeder roots, even root and stem girdl ing, so trees may die suddenly or show signs of marked
decline. In addition, many species of Phytophthora can overwinter in soil providing winters are
mild but also persist in dry soils for decades in the form of resistant spores, becoming active again
under. more favourable conditions
Bacterial pathogens
Until recently, the number of bacterial pathogens known to be damaging to woodland and forest
trees in Britain was considered to be relatively modest and the most significant pathogens mainly
affected fruit and ornamental trees. However, over the past 5-8 years, bacterial diseases on
trees appear to be more common. For example, both horse chestnut and native oak species now
suffer from bacteria-related disorders; symptoms on both include stem bleeding, and mortality is
by no means uncommon. The extent to which these disorders have been exacerbated by
changing weather regimes is uncertain. However, if more extreme rainfall and wind storms occur,
there may be increased opportunities for dispersal and infection.
Adaption of forests to climate change
Adaptation results first from the biological and ecological response of trees and woods to changes
in their environment. However, biological and ecological adaptation to climate change alone
may not produce the kinds of woods and forests that sOciety wants. In the UK, our needs and
demands are likely to include the provision of:
carbon sequestration
conservation of biodiversity
environmental services-such as soil and water protection, improvement of air quality
forest products such as timber, fuel
employment in forestry and forest-related industries
recreation, attractive landscapes, cultural and historic features , and other contributions to
people's quality of life.
Promoting resilience to change.
We should seek to adapt the current tree and woodland extent, location, structure and
composition towards those that will be more suitable for future conditi ons. For example, because
of disease risks, alternatives to Corsican pine should be encouraged, where previously it was the
favoured productive species. Measures that have been suggested to increase resilience include:
contingency planning for outbreaks of new pests or major new disturbance regimes (e.g.
increased fire risk)
encouraging a variety of species that can occupy the same functional space within the forest
ecosystem
increasing regeneration rate to allow more potential for selective pressures to work on
seedlings
greater diversity of planting material, both at the species and population genetic level.
Accepting new cultural landscapes
The forests that develop over the next century will not be simple transpositions of those that
currently occur further south in Europe (or at lower elevations), nor will they necessarily be like
Page 32 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol1S No 2
As the kernels dry and shrink from 50% moisture (fresh weight basis) down to 30%
moisture, they become increasingly softer and more pliable in texture. As the kernels
continue to dry below 30% moisture they become harder and grain-like. Air-dry chestnut
kernels have a moisture conte!)t of 10-12% moisture, just like grain.
'1\ Soluble Solids
40
23 10
o hi
23 hi : _ _________
_ ~ 7 hi ___ .----AA
15=-______ - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - ~ ~ ~ - - ~
o 10 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Days In Storage
Fig 2. Effect of time in storage and storage conditions on % soluble solids in chestnuts
(dry weight basis). Percent soluble solids can be converted to approximate % sucrose by
subtracting 13 percentage points from % soluble solids. Labels on curves indicate storage
temperature (OC) and humidity level ("hi" = in plastic bag; "10" = in paper bag).
Most people prefer to eat chestnuts after their sugar content has increased. Based on
informal taste tests, it was concluded that the optimum condition for eating chestnut
kernels is when the moisture has reached about 30% (fresh weight basis) and sugar has
simultaneously reached 20-30% (dry weight basis). This condition is commonly called
"cured" . However, chestnut kernels in this condition are highly susceptible to fungal decay
(mol d).
Storage andlor drying at high temperatures generally have adverse effects on flavour.
Specifically, fresh chestnuts at high moisture content that are stored or dried at
temperatures above 300C develop adverse flavours over a period of days. At
temperatures above 400C chestnut kernels darken in colour as well as developing adverse
flavours. The adverse flavours developed at high temperatures are, to some extent,
reversible if the chestnuts are subsequently stored in a cooler environment. Because of
adverse high temperature effects, chestnuts should be dried at 0-2SOC. Of course, drying
rate is much faster at higher temperatures. As chestnut kernels get drier, they become
more tolerant of high temperatures. Once chestnut kernels dry down to about 20%
moisture, it is feasible to finish off their drying at 35-40C without any adverse effect on
flavour. And after chestnut kernels are air-dry, their flavour can be enhanced by "roasting"
them for 1-2 h at 70OC. Such roasting is especially beneficial to chestnut kernels destined
to be ground to flour.
Page 21
One of the most interesting phenomena, but also one of the most problems, is
the fact that individual chestnuts do not dry at the same rate. At harvest tIme all chestnuts
are water, and when all chestnuts are 1 water. But during the drying
process individual chestnuts are quiet variable in their moisture contents. For example,
when the average moisture content has reached a target of 30%, individual chestnuts may
vary from 15 to 45%. The variation among individual chestnuts is related to nut size and
to the presence or absence of cracks in the shells, but most of the variation is due to
neither of these. Apparently, there is variation in the internal moisture migration rate. It
was l ound that fast drying environments lead to greater variation in drying rates.
Conversely, the variation in drying rate is minimized when chestnuts are dried slowly, i.e.,
at cooler temperatures. The variation in drying rate is a major problem in commercial
peeling.
Fungal decay (mould)
The most common and most devastating malady that affects chestnuts is fungal decay,
commonly known as mould or rot. It 's a problem for both in-shell chestnuts and peeled
kernels. Many species of food spoilage fungi are involved. Prevention of mould has been
the subject of considerable research, and mould is the most common complaint of
consumers. Consequently, mould prevention is a primary consideration in storing and
handling in-shell chestnuts and chestnut kernels.
Storage conditions and concomitant changes that occur in chestnut kernels have a
profound effect on susceptibility to mould. At harvest time, chestnuts have high moisture
content (50-60%), are alive and respiring, and demonstrate a relatively high resistance to
fungal attack, although a low percentage does succumb. If freshly harvested chestnuts
are immediately stored under high humidity (non-drying) conditions, especially at low
temperatures (OC), they maintain their resistance to fungal attack. Under such cool,
moist conditions, can be successfully stored for several months. On the other
hand, if chestnuts are allowed to dry to a moisture content below (fresh weight
basis), they simultaneously lose viability and become much more susceptible to mould.
Chestnuts can easily dry down to this "viabili ty moisture" threshold within a few days after
ripening under hot, sunny conditions. The loss of viability due to drying is irreversible;
once chestnut kernels drop below this threshold, they cannot be stored successfully under
cool, moist conditions, even if they are rehydrated.
In order to be shelf-stable, chestnut kernels should be dried to a moisture content of 10-
15%. To prevent mould during the drying process, chestnuts need to be steadily dried,
preferably with air flowing constantly through and around them. It is much easier to dry in-
shell chestnuts than peeled chestnut kernels, but in-shell chestnuts dry slower.
Considering high temperature constraints mentioned previously, and internal barriers to
moisture migration chestnuts, in-shell chestnut drying is a process that requires weeks or
months. Chemical treatments to prevent or delay mould in chestnuts have not been
successful.
Impact peeling
During the studies on postharvest changes, >50,000 chestnuts were freeze-dried and hand
peeled. While peeling these chestnuts, it became obvious that very dry chestnut shells
were brittle and weak, and that hand shelling the chestnuts was about as easy as shelling
roasted peanuts. The realization that dry chestnut shells were brittle and weak eventually
led to the development of the impact peeling process. As it now used, the process exploits
Page 22
the following principles and practices:
When the shell and pellicle are dried to a brittle condition, both c ~ n be removed
by a single impact on a hard surface
By forcing warm air ar6und the chestnuts for minutes to hours immediately before
peeling, the shells and pellicles can be dried, while the kernel remains moist
Partially dried (cured) chestnut kernels are strong and resilient enough to tolerate
shelling impact without breaking
Chestnuts dried to 25-30% moisture (slightly drier than optimum for eating) retain
their yellow colour and have sufficient shelf life to be marketed as "fresh-peeled"
chestnut kernels. Such kernels are soft enough to eat raw and qui ckly rehydrate
when cooked.
Our peeling device is driven by suction that is generated by a centrifugal blower.
Chestnuts to be peeled are sucked into the device through a long stainless steel tube.
While in the tube, the chestnuts are accelerated to a precise, controllable velocity. At the
exit end of the tube the chestnuts strike an angled impact surface made of hardwood. The
impact removes 80-95% of shells and pellicle from chestnut kernels.
Peeled kernels, shells, and other debris immediately move to a vertical separation column
(ie a vertical column with air flow within). Shells, pellicle, and other light debris move up
and out of the column along with the air stream. Chestnut kernels drop out of the air
stream and into an air-lock release mechanism. The velocity of the airstream in the
separation column is controllable to allow precise discrimination betweel'l debris and good
kernels.
The kernels are then dropped onto a roller inspection table, shown below.
Maximum peeling rate for our prototype device is about 200 kg/h input or 150 kg/h output
(C!:25% of input is lost as shells, pellicle, and culls). We do not achieve this maximum rate in
practice because the cull removal step is much slower and depends on the number of
Page 23
workers at the inspection table. The whole peeling process involves the following
sequence of steps
1. Fresh, in-shell chestnuts are dried with forced air at ambient temperatures for a
period of 3 weeks or more unti l kernel moisture content reaches the target of 25-
30%
2. Chestnuts are transferred to a conditioning hopper where warm air is forced
through the chestnuts to dry the shells
3. Chestnuts are fed with a controllable vibratory feeder from the hopper into the
peeli ng device
4. Shells, pellicle and other light debris exit wit h the air stream through the blower,
whi le the peeled chestnut kernels drop onto a roller inspection table
5. Cull chestnut kernels are removed by hand; unpeeled chestnuts are removed and
later passed through the peeling device again
6. Peeled chestnut kernels are cooled in well -ventilated containers before packaging
to prevent condensation
7. Broken kernels or those not delivered within 2 weeks are dried with forced air at
30
0
C. Shelf-stable dried kernels are sold as whole, dried kernels or they are
ground to chestnut flour
The primary product that emerges from this process is fresh peeled kernels, or perhaps
more precisely described as cured peeled kernels. Fresh peeled kernels are perishable
and must be refrigerated and used within three weeks after peeling.
Two other products emerge from this process (in No.7 above): dried, peeled kernels, and
chestnut flour. Both of these products are shelf stable and can be stored (preferably
refrigerated) for many months. Dried kernels can be rehydrated and used in cooking like
dried beans. The rehydrated kernels retain most of the colour, flavour, and texture of
fresh chestnuts. They are much better than their canned or frozen counterparts. Chestnut
flour is milled from dried ~ e r n e l s . Broken kernels and kernels with small amounts of
pellicle adhering are what we divert to flour milling. Chestnut flour is used in baking, for
pancakes, or with water added, as chestnut puree.
Conclusion
As a result of the work on postharvest handling and impact peeling the ECC has peeled
and marketed over 10 tons of Chinese chestnut kernels. The peeling device is simple and
highly efficient, producing up to t 50 kg/h peeled kernels. The fresh-peeled kernels
derived from this process are soft enough to eat fresh and hard enough to resist bruising
and breaking when peeled. They are dry enough to delay mold. Fresh-peeled kernels can
also be converted into dried products, either whole kernels or chestnut flour. Impact
peeling offers several advantages over currently employed heat peeling processes. The
impact peeler has very few moving parts. It is si mple and safe to use, clean, and adjust.
Capital costs and operating costs are a fraction of the cost of heat peeling devices.
Compared with heat peeling and subsequent heat processing or freezing, impact peeling
and handling of resultant products consumes much less energy. Because the peeling
occurs on a single surface, the impact device is not sensitive to size and shape of
individual chestnuts. Any mixture of chestnut sizes and shapes can be peeled together
with the same efficiency as sized chestnuts.
Reference
Miller, G: A Simple Chestnut Peeling Process and Properties of the Peeled Kernels. Acta
Hart 844 (pp 33-40), ISHS, 2009.
Page 24
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No ~
Future impacts of climate change
on UK forests
Introduction
An important new assessment of UK forests and climate change has been published,
which is important for anyone involved with woodlands, or indeed trees at all , in the UK.
Future impacts
The key findings i n terms of future impacts are:
An increased frequency and severity of summer drought is likely to represent the
greatest threat to woodlands from climate change. There is a very high likelihood that
there will be serious impacts on drought-sensitive tree species on shall ow freely-
draining soils, particularly in southern and eastern Britain. These impacts will be
widespread in plantations already established. They will necessitate a reassessment
of the suitability of species for use in commercial forestry in all regions. The species
currently available for use, assuming that appropriate provenances are selected, will
remain suitable across much of the UK. However , by the end of the century, impacts
in the south and east of England may be sufficiently severe to necessitate t he
introduction of new species. Planning of which species and species mi xtures to plant
where, will be the challenge for forest managers.
Models suggest that widespread impacts of climate change on the suitability of most
major species currently planted in the UK only become apparent by the middle of the
century under the UKCIP02 ' High emissions scenario' and towards the end of the
century under the UKCIP02 ' Low emissions scenario' . Typical coni fer rotations
currently in the ground are therefore likely to reach maturity before serious impacts
are apparent. However, this means that appropriate modification of species choice
must be undertaken from now on when restocking and creating new woodlands.
Pests and diseases of forest trees, both those that are currently present in the UK and
those that may be introduced, themselves represent a major threat to woodlands.
These threats may be increased by interactions with the direct effects of climate
change on tree function.
By the end of the century, some native tree species are likely to lose ' climate space' ,
particularly in southern England. The southern limit of the range of many species that
retain climate space will have moved close to the UK suggesting that they will struggle
on many sites, their regeneration and successful establishment will decli ne and they
could be out-competed by introduced species. The distribution of tree species will
inevitably change in response to climate warming. However, if the trees are to stay
within appropriate climatic envelopes there will be a requirement for species migration
rates to be more than 10 times faster than the natural rate (achieved in reaching
present distributions after the last ice age.)
AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No 2
Page 25
Increased winter waterlogging may render increased areas of upland plantation forest
liable to possibly catastrophic wind disturbar)Ce, whether or not climate change leads
to a change in the wind climate of the UK.
The impacts of climate change are likel y to be first seen on establishment , but
widespread mortal it y is i nitially, unlikel y. However, as climate change progresses, the
levels of mortalit y of mature trees will increase as a result of di rect and indirect
impacts; street , hedgerow and free-standi ng/isolated trees will show higher levels of
because of their higher water demand.
There are likel y to be significant changes to the composition , structure and character
of woodland ground flora; current species descriptions of native woodland
communities are unlikely to remain valid. The range, and ability of the majority of
priority woodland species (both flora and fauna) to persist will change as a result of
climate change; some will decline further, others will benefit. The current species-
based approach to nature conservation will be difficult to maintain in the long term
because of the likely degree of change.
Impacts on forest productivity
Direct impacts of riSing carbon dioxide levels
Rising concentrations of CO
2
will have a 'growth stimulating 'effect (for which there is a large body
of supporting experimental evidence) although some of the potential increase will be offset by
other unfavourable environmental conditions such as increased frequency of droughts.
Impacts of ground-level ozone pollution
Models of climate change and atmospheric chemistry suggest that levels of ozone pollution are
likely to increase significantly during this century. Unlike most other pollutants, ozone affects
foliage directly, and its harmful effects are primarily caused by ozone molecules entering the leaf
through the stomata. There is some evidence that ozone can degrade leaf surface waxes
increasing water loss. However, ozone principally affects the internal components of leaves
through an acceleration of cell senescence and local cell necrosis in the photosynthetically active
tissues. The physical disruption of the photosynthetic apparatus often results in reduced levels of
chlorophyll , a lower photosynthetic capacity and advanced leaf senescence. The degradation of
chlorophyll can be seen as generalised, diffuse 'chlorosis', i.e. yel lowing of the foliage. The lower
photosynthetic capacity and the continuing costs (in energy terms) of repairing cellular damage
often results in reduced growth, even at current ambient exposure levels in the UK. In conifer
species, advanced leaf senescence appears as reduced needle retention, with fewer age classes
of needles retained in areas experiencing ozone pollution. Changes in carbon allocation resulting
from diversion to ozone damage repair also leads to reduced root biomass with the result that
ozone exposure can increase the vulnerability to drought. Furthermore, ozone impairs the
functioning of the stomata with the result that stomatal closure in response to drought is
compromised, thus compounding any effects of water shortage.
Model predictions are for this trend to continue, with background concentrations rising to
approximately double the current value by the end of this century. This increase should be
viewed in the context of the impacts on tree health and productivity that current ozone
concentrations already have, which may be reducing the productivity of sensitive tree species in
some parts of the UK, and in some years, by up to 10%. Ozone pollution may also make trees
more susceptible to biotic and abiotic damage, thus compounding the direct effects on growth.
Direct impacts of rising temperature
Rising temperatures would be expected to lead to a decline in spring frost risk. However, late
spring frosts are unpredictable and there is little evidence that the date of the last spring frost has
changed in recent decades. In contrast, the advance in leafing is well documented. If the trend in
leafing date was to continue, as seems likely on the basis of models of budburst available, but
with no or little corresponding change in the date of the last frost, the risk of late spring frost could
increase. Spring frost damage is an area of concern because of 'its effect on form and resulting
timber quality. Furttiermore, repeated frost damage can reduce productivity significantly and, in
extreme circumstances, result in mortality, particularly of young trees.
Some growth stages of some tree species have a requirement for chilling. These processes
include bud set and the breaking of seed dormancy. .
The majority of tree seeds in the UK exhibit one of two sorts of dormancy. A few (alder, birch and
Scots pine) have seeds that exhibit 'shallow dormancy'. In this type of dormancy a varying
proportion of seeds germinate at different temperatures and all seeds respond to a relatively short
pre-chill which stimulates faster germination at all temperatures and improves the maximum
germination percentage at most temperatures. If climate change brings warmer autumn
temperatures, there is a risk that the seeds of these shallow-dormancy species may germinate too
soon in autumn and be vulnerable to frost that winter.
However, the native tree species that are most likely to be affected by climate change are those
with 'deeply dormant' seeds, including juniper, yew, and nearly all broadleaves (e.g. ash, beech,
cherry). Freshly shed seeds of these species have a complete metabolic block to germination at
any temperature and there is an absolute requirement for a relatively lengthy and unbroken period
of cold moist conditions to bring about any germination at all. If climate change brings about
winters that are warmer or shorter or both, and these are succeeded by faster rising spring and
summer temperatures, then many of these species may not be as well suited to natural
regeneration in the projected climate of the future. Variability exists within populations and natural
selection will favour those individuals that obtain sufficient chilling. However, variation between
populations is likely to mean that more southerly provenances that require less winter chilling may
be better adapted to the climate of the future than local/native populations. This potentially has
very serious implications for native woodlands.
Assessing impacts using Ecological Site Classification
The Forestry Commission has developed a knowledge-based model, the Ecological Site
Classification (ESq, to map the suitability of tree species to a site. Suitability in this context is
defined in terms of growth relative to maximum growth rates achieved in the UK. ESC also has
the capability to model the suitability of native woodland ecosystems on the basis of climatic and
edaphic conditions. It is important to note in this and subsequent sections the differences
between suitability for commercial timber production, the ability to persist in the medium to long
term and other ecological functions. The ESC approach uses six biophysical factors to describe
tree species suitabi lity and yield potential for application at individual site level. Two are soil
factors - fertility and moisture availability; the remaining four are climatic factors including
accumulated temperature (a measure of the total warmth available during the growing season),
moisture deficit (a measure of droughtiness), wind exposure, and continentality. The ESC
system has also been developed as a spatial tool for selecting tree species in design plans at the
operational scale and for assessing regional suitability of species for different forest types. The
regional scale spatial tool has also provided a framework to evaluate the likely impacts of cli mate
change on tree species suitability.
Page 27
Note that ESC evaluations are based on mean climate, and extreme climatic events such as
windstorms and unseasonal frost; Climatic and, in some cases, edaphic factors are represented
at coarse resolution (5 km grid), which does not fully represent the variability in site and micro
climate that can be exploited by trees; The impacts of pests and diseases are not considered;
The beneficial effects of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are not considered; Competition
between tree species is not considered; ESC is an empirical model based on tree performance
under British conditions - climate change prOjections, particularly the more extreme scenarios, are
beyond the knowledge-base of the model and extrapolation has therefore been necessary.
USi hg this model , by the 2080s cl imate change is projected to have a profound effect on
accumulated temperature and moisture deficit in Britain (Figure 5.2). UKCIP02 high emissions
projections show accumulated temperature could increase by as much as 40-50% in south Wales
and central Scotland, and by as much as 60% in south east England. For a relati vely cool
climate, such as the baseline climate of Britain, large increases in accumulated temperature occur
due to small increases in the mean daily temperature above 5 OC. There are two reasons for this,
warmer seasonal temperatures and a longer growing season. Moisture deficits are also likely to
increase by up to 40% in eastern and southern Wales and central Scotland, and increases of up
to 50% are likely in southeast England. This would cause forest soils in affected areas of Britain
to become depleted of moisture for tree growth and, on freely draining and shallow soils, would be
serious for species that are sensitive to drought conditions in excess of 180-200 mm (e.g. Sitka
spruce, beech, ash). Indeed, on such sites, the High emissions scenario projections of frequent
and extreme moisture deficit would seriously reduce the growth and suitability for most tree
species currently grown in Britain. Evapotranspiration at forest edges is much higher than from
the middle of the forest ; where the impacts of climate change are primarily related to water
availability, it would be expected that small fragmented woodlands would be more susceptible
than large, continuous forest areas.
Wetter winters throughout Britain, and particularly in the uplands on imperfectly- and poorly-
draining soil types, will cause increased areas, and longer periods, of anaerobiosis. This is very
likely to reduce the rooting depth for many shallow-rooting tree species, as well as tree species
that are intolerant of a fluctuating water table. The impact of a reduced rooting depth is a
reduction in tree stability in forest stands. Whether or not the winter wind climate becomes
increaSingly stormy, with higher magnitude. and/or more frequent damaging events, the reduction
in stability through increased water-logging will lead to greater areas of endemic and occasionally
catastrophic wind disturbance. Forest management systems must be adapted to reduce the
potential for increased damage through using self thinning mixtures, short rotations and perhaps a
reversion to native woodland or open habitat on the most affected forest sites.
On a regional basis, the model suggests that in most regions all five of the tree species
considered (beech, Douglas fir, pedunculate oak, sitka spruce, Scots pine) - whether grown for
commercial timber production or as productive components of semi-natural woodland - will be
challenged by climate change. However, the broader picture suggests that for many species in
some regions, particularly ' minor' or less commonly planted species, the consequences of climate
change may be less extreme. Furthermore, for both North Wales and Perth and Argyll (Scotland),
the analysis suggests that an increase in productivity for many species - both conifers and
broadleaves - is likely as a result of climate change. Indeed, in Perth and Argyll, the suitability of
20 out of the 28 species assessed is predicted to increase under the 20805 High emissions
scenario relative to the baseline. In contrast , the implications for southern England are of real
concern and suggest that a different approach to silviculture will be required, including the use of
alternative species. Here, the suitability of all but two species (Norway maple and sweet
chestnut) is predicted to decline under the 2080s High emissions scenario and of the conifer
Page 28
species, Corsican pine is the only one predicted not to be unsuitable under this more extreme
scenario.
Projected changes in tree species distribution
The availability of species distribution maps and climate and soil data across Europe has allowed
the development of models of potential species distribution (modelled on suitable 'climate space'
- the geographical area that a given species could occupy on the basis of its climatic
requirements alone) that can be used to examine the effects of projected climate change. Soil
water availabitity, growing degree-day and temperature indices are used to define current climate
space for individual species, with statistical comparison with distribution data enabling model
performance to be assessed. The result is a map for each species, representing a projection of
where future climate space may be located - ie where a species new 'natural range will be. The
map does not attempt to simulate the future distribution of species in response to climate change,
and they do not take account of a species' capacity to disperse, ' or the presence of suitable
habitat.
The model shows a significant contraction in the range of beech, oaks, birches, willows and wych
elm in south eastern England. However, for most other species the range still covers southern
England and expands northwards over much of the rest of Britain (with the possible exception of
coastal areas where moisture deficits are exacerbated by high wind speeds). One potential
timber species to gain climate space is European lime (Tilia platyphy/los) .
An additional consideration for nature conservation policy and the development of adaptation
strategies is whether species will be able to disperse and move through the landscape as their
cl imate space moves - assuming that suitable habitat is available. For tree species, this is highly
unlikely as the typical change in climate space depicted will require that species move at a rate of
2-5 km per annum. This rate of migration is well in excess of the 500-1000 m per year that tree
species moved after the last ice age to reach present distributions (a rate that is now considered
an over-estim3:te). For this reason, there are suggestions that some tree species, particularly
those with fragmented ranges, small populations, low fecundity or suffering decline, should be
candidates for facilitated migration. Most native species in southern England will be at the edge
of their climate space by the end of the century and will therefore be challenged.
Impacts of pests and diseases
Predicting changes to the impact of specific insect pests and tree diseases on woodlands is
difficult because of the fine balance between pest/pathogen, host tree and natural enemies.
However, it is possible to make two generalisations - stressed trees are more susceptible to
insect pests and diseases, and the majority of insect pests that currently affect UK forestry are
likely to benefit from climate change as a result of increased activity and reduced winter mortality.
Some insect pests that are present at low levels, or currently not considered important, may
become more prevalent. Examples of the latter include defoliating moths and bark beetles. In
addition, the 'effective' range of existing pests or pathogens may change, including a northwards
expansion of those with a southern distribution and the likely appearance of some from
continental Europe.
Aphids, scale insects and adelgids
Insects in these groups can reduce growth and lead to cosmetic damage to high value trees
through gall production. They typically have a close and sometimes highly specialised
relationship with the host tree which can, in turn, significantly influence the timing of the life cycle
and population dynamics. Many are relatively small, sedentary, insects that are often exposed on
the surface of the plant. As a result, they are vulnerable to the effects of heavy rainfall ,
unseasonal cold temperatures and to natural predators. Projected climate change would
therefore be expected to have both direct and indirect impacts on populations resulting in a
general increase in the damage caused by aphids and related insect pests. More specifically:
Higher temperatures will increase the reproductive rate and those species that have multiple
generations or can remain active throughout the winter will benefit the most
Drought stress of host trees through changes in rainfall patterns and increases in
evapotranspiration will favour many species of insect.
Bark beetles, weevils and related species
Bark beetles are among the most important forest insect pests because they attack mature trees
and can introduce harmful pathogens. The abundance of species and their population dynamics
is primarily determined by environmental influences on the availability of suitable breeding
substrate. As a consequence, climate change would generally be expected to lead to an increase
in the level of damage caused by bark beetles and related insects through:
more widespread and frequent forest fires
increased summer drought stress leading to greater tree mortality and a larger proportion of
stressed or compromised living trees that would be vulnerable to attack
changes to the wind climate, although projections are highly uncertain; if there is more
frequent and widespread windblow this will increase the prevalence of bark beetles.
Defoliators
Defoliators are a highly diverse group of insects for which the population dynamics and
abundance are driven by complex interactions between climate, site factors, host tree suitability
and predators. Most have a single generation a year, but sawflies have the potential for two or
more a year. The most damaging defoliators have 'eruptive' population dynamics. Broadleaved
tree species are generaHy affected early in the growing season and are able to re-flush.
Significant damage and reductions in productivity generally only occur as a result of repeated
outbreaks in successive years ( Tortrix and winter moth, Operophtera brumata). Conifers are
particularly vulnerable to defoliators that can feed on more than one age-class of needle and
those that feed late in the growing season and affect flushing the following year. Again, as a
general rule, projected climate change is likely to lead to an increase in the prevalence and
severity of defoliation by insect pests through:
an increase in the number of generations per year for sawflies and other multi-voltine insects
drought-stress increasing susceptibility to defoliating pests
range extensions of some species, particularly those with a southerly distribution.
Latent pathogens
As a particular group of organisms that include significant tree pathogens, latent pathogens or
'endophytes' have long been predicted to pose a heightened threat under conditions of climate
change. These organisms are highly specialised, able to infect trees and remain asymptomatic
for years until environmental factors - often drought stress - trigger the development of disease.
Examples include Biscogniauxia species which cause damaging strip cankers on beech and oak;
these are already observed to be more common on beech in areas of low rainfall and high
temperatures. Sooty bark disease of sycamore (Cryptostroma corticale) is another temperature
dependent latent pathogen which only becomes active after hot dry summers, particularly when
the mean monthly temperature of more than one summer month equals or exceeds 23C.
However, latent pathogens are not just limited to broad leaved trees. The disease known as
those that have occurred under similar climates in the past. Non-analogous assemblages will
form because:
the new climates are not the ,same as those currently in southern Europe, for example there
may be changes in storm frequency or severity
the 'starting point' (including the impact of landscape history on the composition and
distribution of our forests) is different to that which led to the evolution of the southern
European landscape
species respond individually to climate change, not as assemblages or communities
species distributions are affected by other factors (rates of spread, competition between
species, herbivory, predation and facilitation) that interact with the direct climate impact.
Future forest types
Much of the country is likely to remain within the broad temperate forest zone, although
opportunities for Mediterranean-type species will increase and boreal species may come under
more stress. Temperate broadleaved woodland may change its detailed composition and
structure but retain a similar overall appearance.
In Spain, holm oak (Quercus ilex) is spreading to higher elevations, replacing heather and beech
woodland. By analogy, on south-facing slopes in southern England, the vegetation may develop
a 'Mediterranean' character. Possible adaptation responses might be:
pines become more important for conifer production than firs and spruces'
walnut and sweet chestnut are favoured for broadleaved production
more need to plan for fire because of hotter conditions but also more open grassy woods
increased value placed on shade trees in rural and urban settings
maintenance of shade and internal woodland humidity becomes more important
acceptance of southern tree species, e.g. holm oak, that are already established locally as
part of our future wildlife
In terms of temperate broadleaved woodland, minor trees typical of southern and more
continental woods may increase, for example lime and field maple; there may be an increased
mixed deciduous component in woods formerly dominated by beech in the south, whereas beech
may continue to spread into oakwoods in the north and west. In the uplands, oak and birch may
grow and regenerate more vigorously at higher altitudes, as at Wistman's Wood on Dartmoor over
the last century. In floodplains and other wet situations, changes in the water regime may favour
or act against alders and willows. Shifts in the distribution and abundance of associated flora and
fauna will occur, in part directly from climate change, but also influenced by management in and
around the woods.
Adaption measures at site level
Individual owners and managers can reduce the impact of climate change on the ability of their
woods to deliver their desired range of objectives through altering the silvicultural system, the
structure of the forest within a system and the main crop species used.
Whereas clearfeU systems have predominated in the past , continuous cover forestry approaches
are increasingly promoted because they maintain a more even carbon storage, show lower soil
carbon losses during harvesting, and maintain more even humidity levels. Mixed-age structured
woods may be more resilient in the longer term.
Page 33
Moving from even-aged to uneven-aged structures often involves short- to medium-term costs in
production, biodiversity or social acceptance duriog the transition. Where the balance of
advantage lies will often involve a range of site-specific factors. For example, woods might be
made more structurally diverse by reducing coupe size and encouraging continuous cover
forestry. This may make the woods less susceptible to extreme windthrow, but increase
harvesting costs and make the wood look more uniform in distant views. Shade-bearing
woodland plants might benefit but the habitat available for species associated with open woodland
might decline. Other examples of the trade-offs that have to be considered are that coppice and
pollard systems maintain cultural continuity and past genetic variation by prolonging the life span
of individual trees, involve very little soil disturbance to achieve regeneration, but reduce the
potential for genetic change between generations. Dense natural regeneration provides more
potential for natural selection to operate, but may require more intervention to achieve (such as
fencing to remove grazing and scarification to improve establishment). Reducing rotation lengths
will result in loss of potential old growth development, but permits more rapid testing of genetic
material and thus may increase adaptation to the emerging new conditions
Adaption in tree species choice
Where species are at the boundaries of acceptable growth (e.g. Norway spruce in eastern
England), alternatives need to be sought; and even where the species remains within its
tolerances, different provenances may be required. From a biodiversity perspective, species
currently native only in southern Britain (e.g. beech), should become accepted in northern Britain;
species from the near continent (e.g. sycamore) accepted in southern Britain, as part of the
resorting of species that is likely to follow climate change.
As the progress of climate change becomes clearer, an even wider range of forestry species may
need to be considered, including the following:
Broadleaf species
Acer monspessulanum
Aceropalus
Alnus cordata
Castanea sativa
Celtis australis
Fagus orienta/is
Fraxinus angustifolia
Juglans regia
Ostrya carpinifolia
Platanus orientalis
, Populus alba
Quercus faginea
Quercus i/ex
Quercus pyrenaica
Quercus pubescens
Conifer species
Abies alba
Abies barisH-regis
Abies cephalonica
Abies cilicica
Abies pinsapo
Picea omorika
Pinus brutia
Pinus pinaster
Pinus pinea
Pinus peuee
Uncertainties over future growth and potential threats to particular species has led to favouring the
use of mixtures of species and provenances at a variety of scales as an 'insurance mechanism' .
One approach may be to introduce to woods relatively small amounts of novel species and
provenances that may prove useful in the future. A general insistence on local provenance in
native species planting may no longer be tenable.
Reference
National Assessment of UK Forestry and Climate Change Steering Group: Combating climate
change - a role for UK forests. TSO, 2009.
The full report is available to download free from www.tsoshop.co.uk
Page 34
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol IS No 2
Alternative rubber plants
Introduction
Natural rubber is unique in that for many applications it has no synthetic equivalent. Aeroplanes
cannot safely land with tyres made from synthetic rubber; only 'truck tyres made from natural
rubber are resilient 'enough to withstand heavy shear and loads; car tyres containing natural
rubber are safer than synthetic rubber tyres because of the unique heat dispersion abilities of
natural rubber. Rubber is used in over 40,000 consumer products, including more than 400
medical devices, due to its unique properties, which include resilience, elasticity, abrasion- and
impact-resistance, efficient heat dispersion, and malleability at cold temperatures. Many decades
of industrial research have not produced synthetic rubbers with similar qualities.
As a biological liquid, latex coagulates within a few hours of tapping at the instance of naturally
occurring agents ("field coagulum"). Coagulation may be prevented by the addition of
preservatives, which offset enzymatic and bacterial influences.
Natural rubber is either exported as "latex concentrates" or processed into "dry/solid rubber" (in
sheet, crepe or block forms). Latex concentrate is made from freshly tapped field latex,
uncoagulated; dry rubber is prepared from coagulated field latex (sheet rubbers and pale crepes)
or remilled rubber sheets (estate brown, thin brown, thick blanket, and fiat bark crepes).
Alternative plants
Although almost all natural rubber is produced from the tropical rubber tree, eight botanical
families, 300 genera, and 1,800 species have been identified that produce natural rubber in their
latex, but only a few of these are known to produce large amounts of high molecular weight
rubber which is comparable to that from rubber trees.
Guayule, a shrub growing in semi-arid regions in Mexico and the Southern US, is the only non-
tropical plant that has been used as a commercial alternative source of natural rubber.
Alternative sources of rubber compared with rubber tree
Source Content (%) Molecular Production Yield (kg/ha/yr)
weight (t/yr)
(Dalton)
Rubber tree (Hevea nla 1310000 9,000,000 500-3000
brasiliensis)
Guayule (Parthenium 3-12 1 280000 10,000 300-1000
araentatum) formerly
Russian dandelion 0-15 2180000 3000 150-500
(Taraxacum kok-saahvil
formerly
Rubber rabbitbrush <7 585000
-
( C.nauseosus)
Goldenrod (Solidago 5-12 160000- 110-155
vir:qaurea) 240000
Sunflower (Helianthus spp.) 0.4-1.6 70000- - -
280000
Lettuce (Lacluca serriola) 1.6-2.2 of 1 380000
- -
latex
Page 35
Several other potential sources at natural rubber were investigated as well, some of them
promising enough to justify large research prograr:nmes, especially during WWI I, while others
have not yet been studied in sufficient detail to establish their utility.
Guayule
Just as Hevea and related trees served as a source of rubber balls for the Indians of the Americas
at least as far back as the Mayan civilization, guayule (Parthenium argentatum) also served as a
source of rubber for the local population in present Mexico and the Southern US. It was obtained
by "chewing the plant material, separating the fibrous material, thus accumulating a mass of
rubber . Commercial exploitation of guayule started in the early 20th century when rubber
production in Amazonia became a significant enterprise, demand for rubber increased rapidly,
and import prices in the USA were high. In 1910, 10,000 TIY of rubber was produced from natural
stands of the guayule shrub. The intermittent breeding efforts during the 20th century have made
guayule a partially domesticated crop.
While guayule rubber has the same molecular weight and general properties as Hevea rubber, it
does not contain the proteins present in Hevea rubber that can cause severe allergic reaction.
Guayule is the dominant perennial shrub found on the semi-arid limestone bajadas (mild slopes at
the feet of mountains) and hillsides of the Big Bend region of Texas and the Chihuahuan desert of
north central Mexico. Preferred soils are mainly welldrained calcareous soils with relatively low
concentrations of nutrients. Weather conditions may vary. Guayule has been grown so far in
desert-like environments, humid warm conditions, hot dry semi-arid conditions, and regions with
moderate temperature and rainfall. Such environments and conditions can be found in many
regions of the world; in Europe these regions include large areas in the Mediterranean countries
and their is increasing interest (and EU funding) in the crop.
One of the few problems encountered in guayule cultivation is root disease, especially in standing
water. Thus, sandy-loam soils are most suitable. Guayu[e occurs naturally in areas with a
temperature range between -18 and 49.5 "C. High temperature does not appear to affect growth,
but temperatures below 4"C induce semi-dormancy and extended freezing temperatures can
cause plant death. It doe snot appear well suited to UK conditions.
In most cases, transplanting seedlings is the most reliable method of crop establishment.
Guayule seeds are very small (about 1000-1500 seeds/g) and have both an inner seed coat
dormancy and embryo dormancy, so the seed requires pretteatment before sowing. A good
seedbed is essential for guayule cultivation - it is a poor competitor against annual and perennial
broadleaf and grass weeds.
Guayule prefers areas with annual precipitation between 280 and 640 mm, but for maximum
rubber yields, irrigation is used. Dry matter production and resin and rubber yields have been
shown to increase proportionally with increased water availability. Guayule is quite resistant to
drought conditions, but these will slow rubber accumulation. Guayule is a low user of nutrients.
Several procedures for harvesting are possible. The plant may be clipped above the crown and
have only the branches and stem removed, or it may be undercut 15 to 20 cm below the soil
surtace (digging), leaving the top of the taproot intact. Typically, the plants are clipped aher two
years, and harvested by digging on the fourth years. Harvesting in early spring or late autumn is
prefererable. Guayule can be baled in the field and transported for processing. Reducing the
vol ume of the shrub by chopping is possible for short transport distances and immediate
processing, however, with longer transport distances and increased storage time degradation
problems occur because guayul e does not contain the natural antioxidants that protect Hevea
rubber from being degraded.
Page 36 AGROFORESTRY NEWS VailS No 2
To date, the average biomass yield is around 6 tonslhalyr and a rubber yield 01.320 kg/halyr is
obtained. However, in the various studies biomass yields reach up to 15 tons, and rubber yields
approach 1000 kg/halyr.
Because guayule stores its rubber-within the cells of its bark and woody tissue, the latex cannot
be tapped like the rubber tree. To gain access to the rubber, the plant cells must be ruptured.
This can be accomplished by subjecting coarsely ground material to compressive and shear
forces in differential roll mills or extruders. Various processes are then required to filter and
separate the latex particles.
Russian dandelion
The Russian dandelion (Taraxacum kok-saghyz) was identified in Kazakhstan in the course of a
strategic program in 1931-32 to develop a native source of natural rubber in the USSR. The
dandelion root was found to be a source of high quality latex, used in making rubber during WWII,
with yields of 150 - 500 kg/kg/ha , and 45 kg of rubber per ton 'of roots. Tyres made from
Taraxacum rubber were as resilient as those made from Hevea, and better than guayule-based
tyres. Unfortunately, the agronomic properties are unfavourable (low yield per hectare, labour
intensive cultivation, crosses and seed contamination with other dandelions, and weed-potential ).
Nevertheless, Russian dandelion could be developed for rubber production.
An attractive feature of the Russian dandelion is that it could be developed as an annual rubber
crop for the temperate regions, and grown in a similar way as chicory. This would require an
increase of vigour and agronomic properties, for example by hybridisation of the Russian
dandelion with the common dandelion. This is easy and was already recomm,ended in the 1947
USDA report.
Goldenrod
When the price of rubber soared in the late 1920s, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and Harvey
Firestone combined their efforts, talents and finances in search of a natural source for rubber.
Together they established the Edison Botanic Research Company, which screened over 17,000
plants for quality and quantity of rubber they produced. Extensive research proved Goldenrod, a
common weed growing to an average height of 3-4 feet, produced 5% yield of latex. Through
hybridisation, Edison produced Goldenrod in excess of 12 feet, yielding 12% latex. The resulting
rubber apparently was of inferior quality. Several Goldenrod species were later shown to contain
rubber of an average molecular weight not higher than 200,000 Dalton, explaining the inferior
quality of the tyres. Although Goldenrod is referred to as a crop with good horticultural properties,
rubber yields were far too low at 110-155 kg/halyr.
Rubber rabbitbrush
A desert shrub, Rubber Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseous), was also investigated in the
WWII Emergency Rubber Project, but like guayule, interest waned affer 1945. This plant is much
more cold tolerant and grows in most arid regions in the US. However, its rubber has a molecular
weight of around 500,000 Dalton, which is low compared to the 1,500,000 Dalton of Hevea and
guayule rubber.
Sunflower and lettuce
Production of rubber in transgenic (GM) sunflower or lettuce is being considered in the USA and
Canada. Helianthus spp. And Lactuca spp. Contain rubber in their leaves but at low
concentrations.
References
Beilen, J: Alternative Sources of Natural Rubber. CPL Press, 2006.
Page 37
Pest & disease seri es:
American gooseberry mildew
Int roduction
American gooseberry mi ldew (Spherotheca mors-uvae) is a North American disease which
appe;ared in Europe around 1900 and spread rapidly, now being widespread in Europe.
Symptoms
A powdery white coat ing appears on young shoots from mid spring onwards, spreading rapidly
in moist, still conditions to all new growth - often worst on stems and frui ts. The symptoms later
intensify and stems and fruit develop a brown felty covering containing black dot-like bodies.
The shoots are malformed and stunted and the fruit small and tasteless.
Although most common on gooseberries, blackcurrants and redcurrants can sometimes also be
affected, though the leaves are more severely affected on these and other Ribes species.
Biology
The mildew spreads during the season by conidia (spores) , which develop inside the bodies
produced in the felt-like mycelium. Some of these bodies fall to the ground and release spores
in autumn; others remain overwinter and release spores in spring. Mycelium threads may also
survive in the buds of gooseberries over winter and re-infect in the spring.
Reducing susceptibil ity
Avoid planting gooseberries on shallow dry soils prone to drought as this can exacerbate the
disease.
Attacks are worse in damp shady conditions so if planting (for example) in a forest garden it is
essential to use resistant cuJtivars.
Avoid excessive use of nitrogen fertilisers as the soft growth they encourage is more
susceptible to the disease. A deficiency of potassium can also exacerbate the disease.
Potassium deficiency in gooseberries shows as a brownish edge around the leaf. If bushes are
growing and cropping well then do not feed.
Cordon-trained bushes are less affected because of better air flow.
Mildew-resistant cultivars exist and are an obvious first choice. Of course, resistance may not
last - ego the 'Greenfinch' lost its resistance quite suddenly a few years ago.
The following tables list gooseberry and currant cultivars with known resistance to American
gooseberry mildew. VR = Very Resistant , A "'" Aesistant , SA = Slightly Resistant
Gooseberry cult ivar
Abundance
Annelii
Black Velvet
Canada 0-273
Captivator
Chatatuqua
Clark
Colossal
Page 38
Rating
R
R
VR
R
R
SR
SR
R
Gooseberry cultivar
Malahit
Manzherok
Marttett
Matkakoski
Mountain
Oregon Champion
Oroktoi
Pax
Rating
R
R
SR
R
R
SR
R
R
Como R PelJervo R
Crown Bob SR Perle von Muncheberg R
Downing
R Pixwell R
Fredonia R Poorman R
Glendale R Red Champagne R
Gold Ball R Reflamba R
Green Hansa R Remarka R
Hamamekii R Resistenta R
Hankkijan Herkku R Reverta R
Hankkijas Oelikatess R Ristula R
Hinnonmaki Gold SR Risulfa R
Hinnonmaki Red R Rixanda R
Houghton R Robustenta R
Invicta VR Rokula R
Josselyn R Rolanda R
Jubilee R Russkij R
Lancashire Lad SR Spinefree R
Langley Gage SR Sunderbyn II VR
Lepaa Red
VR Whitesmith SR
Blackcurrant cultivar Rating Blackcurrant cultivar Rating
Ben Alder
R Brodtorp VR
Ben Connan R Gulubka R
Ben Lomond
SR Jet R
,
Ben More R Martti R
Ben Nevis
SR Ojebyn VR
Ben Sarek
R Risager VR
Ben TiTren R Roodknop SR
Blackdown VR Willoughby VR
Blacksmith VR
Redcurrant cultivar Rating Redcurrant cultivar Rating
Cherry R Rondom R
Jonkheer Van Tets R
Jostaberry and Worcesterberry are both very resistant.
Control
Cut out infected shoot tips in early autumn and maintain air flow around bushes by winter
pruning.
Fallen leaves can be picked up and burnt in winter.
Sulphur is the only organic fungicide that is effective, used three times at 14-day intervals
starting just before flowering. Note however that some cultivars are 'sulphur-shy' and damaged
by sulphur (including ' Careless', 'Leveller' and blackcurrant 'Wellington xxx').
A di lute washing soda/soft soap mix is reputed to help control the disease.
References
Buczacki, S & Harris, K: Pests, Diseases & Disorders of Garden Plants. HarperCollins, 1998.
Crawford, M: Fruit Varieties resistant to Pests and Diseases. ART,1997.
Culpan, G: Pests, Diseases and common problems. Hamlyn, 1995.
Page 39
Book review
The Forager Handbook
Miles Irving
30.00
At last someone has produced a definitive book to the edible plants found growing wild in
Britain - not just nati ve plants, but introduced plants that have naturalised too. Definitively
not a field guide - it is a hardback of over 400 pages - it extends and surpasses the
classic 'Food for Free' by Richard Mabey.
The focus of the book is very much on the culinary side - how to get the most out of wild
ingredients. The author runs a company which supplies wild food ingredients to top chefs
throughout the counlry, and his close links have enabled him to include many of the chefs
recipes and hints as how to best prepare the diHerent foods. So don' t always expect
simple ways to use wild foods - some of the recipes are complex and require lots of other
ingredients.
After an introductory sections which covers the basics of how and when to forage, the vast
bulk of the book deals with plants and seaweeds which are found wild in Britain. For each
species, the distribution in the country is noted (on a county-by-county basis) as well as its
habitat.
A briel description of the, species highlands perhaps the only failing in the book - it is not
so good on plant identification. Most descriptions of plants are accompanied by a black
and white photograph of a stem or leaf and while some are of use others are of little use in
identification.
The uses/recipes section for each species is the largest section for most species, and is
very good. The author starts by reviewing historical edible uses in this country, and if it is
a non-native the edible uses in its native lands. Very often he will then go on to give
recipes from some of the chefs involved.
Medicinal uses are listed, though it is not always clear whether these are historical uses in
folk medicine or uses in modern herbal medicine. Under hazards, any know problems with
eating the plant is discussed.
Finally, for many species Harvesting notes gives really useful information about
harvesting, with useful tips about locating plants, the best time to harvest and so on.
The book is of great relevance to anybody growing their own forest garden, since many of
the wild species mentioned are likely to be deliberatel y introduced into a forest garden.
Indeed, the book should give you lots of new ideas of species to introduce and how to
utilise them.
Highly recommended.
diverse, productive and resilient system for producmg food, matenals, timber and
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No.1 007440) , with the object to
Agrof9restry News
Autumn olive
Volume 18 Number 3
May 2010
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Cork for padding / Maple syrup / Feverfew /
Sea buckthorn leaves / Chestnut wood / Mulberries /
Medieval and organic apples / Nuts and health
7 Toona sinensis - the Chinese toon
10 Land use options for sustainable farming
18 Autumn olive - Elaeagnus umbellata
22 Mycorrhizae
30 Sea buckthorns
36 Myoga - a hardy ginger
40 'Nut wizard' harvesters
Totnes, Devon, T09 6JT. U.K. Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
News
Cork may be better than polymer foam
Crash-test dummies could soon be facing vehicle collision tests in cars padded with cork rather
than traditional materials such as polymer foams or porous aluminium metal , according to
Portuguese engineers writing in the International Journal of Materials Engineering.
Synthetic cellular materials, polymeric and metallic foams, have been extensively used in energy-
absorbing systems for decades. They are commonly lightweight, stiff, and can absorb energy
well. However, they suffer from some drawbacks when compared to natural materials, namely
cost and unsustainability.
Cork, the bark of Quercus suber, is one such cellular natural material. It can be compacted to
form a micro-agglomerated material that ri vals aluminium foam for its ability to absorb the energy
of an impact. Now, Mariana Paulino of the University of Aveiro (Portugal), and colleagues there
and at the University of Coimbra, have pitted cork against metal foams, polymer padding and a
novel pol ymer foam material to see which might make the optimal vehicle safety material.
The results obtained in energy-absorption tests indicate that polyurethane foam performs the
worst of all the materials tested, despite its widespread use as an impact safety material in
vehicles. Aluminium foam can absorb the most energy, marginally beating cork.
As an impact protection material for car bumpers, doors, headliners, knee bolsters and door
pillars, cork even outperforms the novel material IMPAXX 300 in terms of the value of impact
acceleration peak. Indeed, at higher energies, which would equate to a high-speed collision, cork
has the best acceleration .peak value.
Aside from its well-known application as a bottle stopper material , cork is already widely used as a
thermal and sound insulator and in various energy-absorbing applications including packaging
and footwear. It is often used as damping pads under the keys in wind instruments such as
cl arinets and saxophones. However, its potential as a safety material for vehicles is only now
emerging.
The researchers conclude that while aluminium foam marginally performs better than micro-
agglomerated cork, cork could be a much better choice for future vehicle design as it is less costly
and much easier to process than metal foam.
Source: Paulino et al. Hyperelastic and dynamical behaviour of cork and its performance in
energy absorption devices and crashworthiness applications. International Journal of Materials
Engineering Innovation, 2009; 1 (2): 197.
Health benefits of pure maple syrup
Researcher Navindra Seeram from the University of Rhode Island (United States), who
specializes in research of medicinal plants, has discovered that there are over 20 compounds in
Canadian maple syrup which can be directly linked to human health, with 13 of these compounds
Page 2
being discovered for the first time ever. Also, eight of the said compounds have been discovered
in the Acer (commonly maple) family for the first time.
Many of these antioxidant compounds that have been discovered in maple syrup reportedly
contain anti-cancer, anti-bacterial and anti-diabetic properties as well.
"We are proud that our producers are generously supporting this research, bringing to light a
greater understanding of the gastronomic and health benefits of maple products. It is not just for
Canada, but for the welfare of consumers around the world", said President of the Federation of
Quebec Maple Syrup Producers, Serge Beaulieu, while stressing that Mr. Seeram's laboratory is
just one of the sources which is now working towards expansion of a multi -national network of
research facilities contributing to the study of Canada's maple products.
Sou rce: http://topnews . u s/cont e ntl213963-sc ientists-h i9 h I i9 ht -heal t h-benefits-pu re-m aple-syru p
Medicinal benefits of Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium)
Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) is a strongl y aromatic perennial herb, originally from the
mountainous regions of the Balkan Peninsula but now spread throughout temperate climates
worldwide. Feverfew has a multitude of small, daisy-like flowers with white petals around a yellow
centre and is often confused with Chamomile. The leaves have been used in' traditional medicine
throughout history for various ailments, reducing fever and treating headaches, toothache, arthritic
pain, digestive problems, insect bites, infertility, and problems with menstruation and with labour
during childbirth.
Feverfew is probably best known for its therapeutic effect on migraines. Studies done in Great
Britain in the 1980s suggested that Feverfew taken daily as dried leaf capsules may reduce the
incidence of attacks in patients who experience long-term migraine headaches.
The active compound in Feverfew called parthenolide occurs in a variety of medicinal plants used
in traditional medicine. It seems to block substances in the body that widen and constrict blood
vessels and cause inflammation leading to migraines. Not all studies on Feverfew and migraines
have had positive results and it would appear that the effectiveness of Feverfew and migrai ne
relief depends upon the timing of laking the treatment (ie. as you feel the headache coming on),
as well as the quality of the supplement. Feverfew tablets and capsules must be standardized to
contain a minimum of 0.2 % parthenolide.
Feverfew has also been used for centuries for arthritis. It is thought to hinder the production of
prostaglandins, which are hormone-like substances that cause pain and inflammation. This anti-
inflammatory action has led to Feverfew being used to treat the inflamed, sore joints that occur
with rheumatoid arthritis. Some studies have found that the anti-inflammatory effects of this herb
are greater than those achieved by Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Feverfew may also
inhibit the growth of cancer cells.
Source: www.naturalnews.com/028426 Feverfew herbs.html
Page 3
Sea buckthorn leaves May help treat liver disease
Indian scientists have found that leaves of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) can help
protect against liver disease.
Sea buckthorn is well known for its capacity to combat cholesterol , but an Indian research team
suggests that its leaves are also rich in antioxidants and may help ward off liver disease.
Indigenous to the mountainous regions of China and Russia, sea buckthorn has been shown to
be rich in vitamin C, vitamin E, flavonoids and essential fatty acids. The leaves are also used to
make a tea.
In a clinically controlled study on rats, the leaf extract appeared to confer a protective mechanism
on the liver. The study is due to be publ ished in the Society of Chemical Industry's (SCI) Journal
of the Science of Food and Agriculture.
So u ree : http://l i vi n9 0 ne i nd i a. i n/health/well bel n9/20081 sea bu ckthorn-leaves-cu re- I iverd i sease-
260508.html
Chestnut wood for fodder
An Italian company is manufacturing animal feed from sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa)
bark and wood. The chestnut extract ("Silvafeed") is reportedly beneficial to poultry,
ruminants and pigs In numerous ways when Included In feed at rates of up to 6%.
The company, Silvamicha, has a history of using bark and wood with high tanni n content
for tanning hides. In the feed it is the hydrolysable tannin content that is apparently so
beneficial.
Tannins are present to some degree in most plants and fall into two categories -
condensed and hydrolysable. Compared with condensed tannins, hydrolysable tannins
(HT) are more astringent, are stronger aptioxidants, are more bacteriostatic and they bind
proteins in a more favourable way.
The digestive system of animals relies on tannins to some extent for normal functioning.
Firstly, tannins slow the passage of food through the gut. HT binds proteins with other
molecules and the rise of pH through the intestine causes the progressive, controlled
degradation and assimilation of nutrients.
Trials on dairy cows showed an increased protein and fat content, and a longer lactation
peak period. Trials showed that the addition of 0.6% chestnut extract increased mi lk
volume by 1.2%.
Secondly, the antibacterial properties of HT regulate the pathogenic bacteria and
microorganisms in the gut flora, decreasing gastrointestinal parasites and disease. In
poultry this leads to drier litter, which can reduce footpad lesions. In ruminants this
reduces the risk of bloat.
Source: Feed Tech Vol10 No 8, 1/1 0/2006.
Page 4
Tajikistan: Mulberries on the roof of the world
There still exist pristine places without industry and pollution where people live i'1 harmony with
their environment. One of them is the autonomous province of Gorno-8adakhshan in Tajikistan.
Though its area (about 65000km extends over half the country, only 3 percent is habitable.
Most of it is covered by the Pamir mountains, sometimes called the "Roof of the World". The few
villages are sited in valleys beside rivers and the population tries to cultivate every piece of
available land.
The mulberry is an important food for these valleys. Introduced from China via the Silk Route, it is
perfectly adapted to the difficult mountain environment, where it grows between 1100 and 2400
metres (replacing crops such as wheat and barley which cannot be grown at these altitudes).
There are now more than 60 varieties of mulberry in the Pamir regipn, the result of centuries of
selection and adaptation. They can be eaten raw or transformed into jams, syrups or pikht-a
flour- which is usually mixed with other seeds and cereals.
The local inhabitants mainly grow mulberry for family consumption: in summer families put as
much as 20-30 sacks of dried mulberry aside as a reserve for the winter. In the local culture the
mulberry tree and fruit are associated with beauty: the berries are traditionally given to a couple to
make their life sweeter, and before starting to build a new house, a mulberry tree is planted.
During some crisis periods, such as the Second World War or the extended civil war which
afflicted the country until 1997, mulberry played a crucial roJe in providing the main nutrition for the
local population. The community of mulberry producers from Khorog has been part of the Terra
Madre network (Slow Food) since 2004 and is working to defend the traditional Pamir customs of
eating mulberry, which have significantly decreased in recent years with the spread of industrial
products.
The Presidium was set up in collaboration with "Bioversity International", a prominent international
organization for the conservation of agricultural biodiversity. It currently includes 23 producers
from the four districts of the autonomous province of Gorno-Badakhshan: Shugnan, Rushan,
Yazgulyam and Vanch.
Source: Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research: 5th newsletter, 24 March 2010
(also see: WNW.sJowfood.com/sJoweb/eng/dettagJio.Jasso?cod_C2744B881 dd612711 ExmJo9E04AF)
Health benefits of Medieval and organic apples
A 12th century organically grown apple called Pendragon has higher levels of health- giving plant
compounds than modern non organically grown rivals, such as Golden Delicious, Royal Gala and
Cox. From peel to core, the mighty Pendragon outperformed 14 other pipsqueak competitors,
pharmacist Michael Wakeman told delegates at the Royal Pharmaceutical Society's annual event ,
the British Pharmaceutical Conference, in Manchester.
"Of all the organic varieties, Pendragon was the best apple variety and contained 7 of the 8 kinds
of healthy components at the highest levels. In contrast , the non-organic apples consistently had
low levels and less major healthy components in both the flesh and the peel ," said Wakeman.
Twelve organically grown and three non organically grown varieties of apple were tested for a
range of plant compounds with beneficial properties that have been linked to health-giving
actions, including cholesterol and blood sugar reduction, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer,
antioxidant and anti-ageing effects.
Higher levels of healthy substances were found in all of the organically grown varieties compared
to non-organically grown apples, especially in the peel. Runners up to Pendragon were an
organically grown variety of Golden Delicious, a cider apple called Collogett Pippin, and old
Cornish and Devon apple varieties, Ben's Red and Devonshire Quarrenden.
,
Mr Wakeman explained that in the absence of pesticides, organically grown apples produce larger
amounts of many plant compounds to protect themselves from fungal and other infections, and
some of these also have health-giving properties for humans.
"This research confirms that whilst some measures of organic versus non-organic food benefits
might appear equivocal, more sophisticated analysis of compounds which are newly recognised
as being of importance to good health do show a significant difference.
"Moreover, it demonstrates that these compounds, which are only available from plants,
are disappearing from our diet as a result of modern day farmi ng and food production
techniques combined with the need to develop produce which meets our desire for perfect
shapes and sweeter tastes" he said.
Sources: Press release, Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 8 September 2009;
http://www.yout ube.com/watch?v-vNI oj F-aSA
Nuts improve heart health and lower risk of diabetes
The Human Nutrition Department at the Reus Faculty of Medicine and Health Science in
Spain has undertaken a study on a group of non-diabetic volunteers with metabolic
syndrome. (This is a combination of metabolic disorders associated with abdominal obesity
and which can lead to diabetes and ,cardiovascular disease. The disorders include
increased blood glucose levels, increased fat in the bloodstream, a reduction in HDL
cholesterol and increased blood pressure.)
The study involved recommending a low-fat healthy diet for 12 weeks to a group of
volunteers with metabolic syndrome. Half of the volunteers were also given 30 grams of
mixed nuts per day to add to their diet.
The first published results show that the volunteers who had the extra nuts showed
improvement in various parameters associated with the risk of developing cardiovascular
disease (inflammation and oxidation parameters) and also significantly reduced their
insulin resistance, compared with the non-nut volunteers. The results suggest that eating
nuts regularly can reduce the risk of developing coronary disease and diabetes.
Source: P. Casas-Agustench et al : Effects of one serving of mixed nuts on serum lipids,
i nsuli n resistance and inflammatory markers in patients with the metabolic syndrome.
Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases 23 December 2009
(10.1016/j.numecd.2009.08.005)
Toona sinensis - the Chinese teen
Introduction
The Chinese toon is a well known and highly valued perennial vegetable in many parts of
southern and south eastern Asia, yet its edible qualities are hardly known elsewhere,
where this tree is usually only grown as an ornamental.
Tecna sinensis (formerly Cedre/a sinensis) has several common names including Chinese
cedar, Chinese mahogany, red toon and of course the Chinese toon. The vegetable itself
is usually just called toon.
[t is by far the most cold-tolerant species in the Meliaceae and the only member of the
family that can be cultivated successfully in northern Europe and many parts of north
America.
Description
Chinese toon is a deciduous tree, which normally grows to 8m (27 tt) tall and 30cm (12")
trunk diameter, but occasionally larger. It has brown bark, smooth on young trees,
becoming scaly or shaggy on older trees. It is hardy to zone 5 (about -25'C).
,
The leaves are pinnate, 20-40cm (8-16") long and 20-30cm (8-12") wide, with 10-20
leaflets, usually without a terminal leaflet. Individual leaflets are 9-15cm (3.5-6") long and
2.5-4cm (1-2.6") wide, sometimes with a marginally serrated margin, and hairy beneath.
Source:
Lin
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol IS No 3 Page 7
Flowers are produced in summer in panicles, 20-30cm (8-12") long a1 the branch tips.
Each flower is 4-5mm (0.2") in diameter, with 5 white or pale pink petals.
The fruit is a capsule, 2-3.5cm (0.8- 1.4") long, containing several winged seeds.
Thought to be originally native to eastern, central and southwestern China, it is now found
growing wild in Nepal , Korea: Japan, Taiwan, northeastern India, Myanmar, Thailand,
Malaysia and Western Indonesia.
Culinary uses
The young leaves of Chi nese toon are used extensively as a vegetable in China, ad are
one of the most popular seasonal vegetables. Toon is very aromatic, combining a pungent
roasted garlic aroma with raw onion flavour. The vegetable is used in four forms:
1. Fresh young leaves and shoots up to 20cm (8") from trees which are usually kept
low and shrubby by harvesting; these have a robust flavour.
2. Dried leaves and shoots. Used more as a spice.
3. Shoots of young seedlings grown densel y in punnets or trays under protection
and harvested wholly; these have a more del icate flavour .
4. Sprouted seeds, used like other sprouts like mung beans.
In China, plants with red young leaves
are considered of better flavour than
those with green young leaves. 80th
types of plant have green leaves after a
few weeks in spring.
The fresh young leaves contain 84%
water , 6.3-9.8% protein, vitamins 81 , 82
and high in vitamins C and E. They are
medium to high in beta-carotene, and
high in calcium and iron. They are very
aromatic and are valued for stir fries
(especially with eggs), salads, frying,
pickling, seasoning etc. Classic dishes
include fried egg with toon, and a tofu
and blanched toon salad. Toon shoot
and walnut salads are also popular.
In a scientific evaluation of the
antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid
Fresh shoot tips for consumption (source: Lin)
(vi tami n cJ. content and total phenolic content of twenty tested vegetables, Chinese toon
came top 10 antioxidant activity, top in total phenolics, and above average in vitamin c
content.
An increasing volume of Chinese toon products (pickled, canned and dried) are exported
overseas.
Page 8
Other uses
The fruit, bark and roots of are used in traditional Chinese medicine for a wide variety of
conditions. J
The timber is hard and reddish. It is highly valued for furniture making.
Outside of Asia the tree is more often valued as an ornamental tree.
Cultivation
Seeds of Chinese toon are tricky to germinate. Seeds should be either cold stratified for
2-3 months, andl or soaked in warm water (25'C or so) for 24 hours prior to sowing. Keep
seems warm at 25C after sowing for best germination. Pot up 'as they grow and plant out
when large enough.
Commercially, Chinese toon is also propagated by root cuttings. Take 3cm (1.2") long root
cuttings in spring, pot up and keep warm. Grow on the young plants until planting out.
An ornamental variety, 'Flamingo' is widely grown in Europe and North America, which
has pinkish-purple young foliage. This can also be used as a vegetable.
Toona sinensis prefers well drained fertile soils, and tolerates a wide range of pH (5.5 to
8.0). It is tolerant of humid climates and requires minimum annual average temperatures
of 8-t O' C. Full sun is required.
Keeping trees shrubby is easy, and mostl y achieved by harvesting young shoots, and
plants can be maintained at a height of 1.5m or so. In parts of Asia, Toona sinensis is
often intercropped with lower growing herbs or vegetables.
Yie(d from shrubby trees is about 0.5kg per plant per year.
Fresh leaves and shoots can be dried quite easily either in warm ambient temperatures or
with extra heat. The dried materials is usually crumbled to a powder and then used as a
spice.
Protected cultivation of Chinese toon (in poly tunnels or greenhouses) is now widely
practised in China to allow for fresh toon to be harvested in the winter, especially during
Chinese new year holidays.
Sources
'Flamingo' is easily available from many sources. Other plants are available from the ART.
Seeds are available from the ART (www.agroforestry.co. uk) in Europe, and from F W
Schumacher (www.treeshrubseed.com) in North America.
References
Lin L J, et al: Discovering indigenous treasures: Promising indigenous vegetables from around the
world. AVRDC Taiwan, 2009
Loh, P: In toon with spring. China Daily, 3 April 20tO.
Sato, T et aJ: Evaluation of antioxidant activity of indigenous vegetables from south and
southeast Asia. JIRCAS Research Highlights, 2002.
Land use options for sustainable
farming
Chris Smaje+
Introduction
Modern farming faces the threefold challenge of producing enough food to feed humanity
whi le trimming its use of dwindling fossil fuel reserves and avoiding contributing to climate
change. Of the various possible ways of tackling these problems, one that is widely
touted (albeit rarely within rich countries) is diverse, small-scale, labour-intensive, fuel-lean
farming. As a small-scale farmer myself (running a local veg box scheme from 7 hectares
in Somerset), this article arose from an attempt to answer for myself what mix of land
uses I should adopt in order to help address these agricultural challenges. Inasmuch as
some of my answers can be generalised, it seemed to me that they might be of interest
to other small-scale farmers, and perhaps to the wider policy community.
Page to
Four criteria for sustainable agriculture
As a starting point, I propose four 'technical ' criteria for sustainable agriculture (as
opposed to social/economic criteria, which I don't consider here). Thus, 'the sustainable
farm should aim to: I
(1) Maximise food productivity (per unit area and per unit labour), because it's better to
produce the food- we need with less rather than more land so that other land can be put
to other uses (or leff alone). likewise, the less labour that's needed for farming, the
more it's possible for people to do other (useful and/or important) things.
(2) Minimise greenhouse gas emissions, because farming is a significant source of these
emissions through the burning of fossil fuel , the oxidation of soil carbon during cultivation,
the keeping of methane-producing livestock, and the production of nitrous oxide through
soil fertilisation and animal husbandry, when it could be a net carbon sink through careful
soil , plant and stock management.
(3) Minimise fossil fuel use, not only because of its contribution to climate change but
also, being non-renewable, because we can't rely upon its long-term availabi lity.
(4) Maximise cultivated and wild biodiversity, because ecological health is generally
improved when we avoid monocultures, and the greater the genetic diversity of the
agricultural landscape the more resources are available for countering the threats posed
by pests, diseases and climatic change. In practice, there are trade-6ffs between these
four goals. Modern arable farming, for example, maximises labour productivity - perhaps
even to a degree that is socially undesirable - but certainly doesn't minimise fossil fuel
use or carbon emissions. There are also hidden trade-ofts within specific goals. For
example, a stock-free organic agriculture based upon green manure leys may decrease
the carbon emissions associated with livestock, but increase the emissions associated with
tillage and fuel use.
Assessing land use options
To steer a course through these difficulties, I've attempted to assess different forms of
land use against three main quantitati ve indicators:
Food energy produced (Megajoules per hectare per year) , which addresses criterion (1)
above. The calorific content of our food is not the only worthwhile productivity measure,
but it does address the 'bottom-line' function of keepi ng us alive and makes for an easy
comparative baseline. I should point out, though, that the figures I present below for
organic vegetable production refer to the cultivation of around 30 different kinds of
vegetables for a box scheme, many of which are low in calorific content - the analysis is
not primarily concerned with maximising energy returns above all else (if it were, I'd just
grow potatoes). Also, the energy productivity of different land use options can look very
different depending upon whether gross or net energy is considered - here I mostly look
at gross energy, because net energy is implicitly considered in the third indicator.
Carbon emissions produced (Tonnes of C02 equivalent per hectare per year), which
addresses criterion (2) above. This figure is based on emi ssions from soil cultivation,
fossil fuel use and livestock methane emissions. I haven't considered nitrous oxide
emissions, because there doesn't appear to be a consensus in the literature over the
Page 11
effect of various fundamental agricultural decisions (tillage or no tillage, organic or non
organic) on emission levels. This means that my calculations understate the true level of
agricultural emissions - probably by a considerable margin, since nitrous oxide
account for around half of all agricultural emissions. But while it remains unclear what, if
any, strategies can be taken to reduce these emissions, it seems best to exclude them
from consideration here. My calculations also possibly overstate sequestration gains if read
as a long term analysis, since the carbon accumulation capacities of soils and other
agricultural sinks can level off after time. However, this scarcely justifies options with
shorHerm sequestration gains.
Fossif fuel used (Litres of diesel per hectare), which addresses criterion (3) above. The
figure is based principally on tractor/vehicle use.
Assessing biodiversity is more complex and less easily quantified - I restrict myself to a
few general comments below where appropriate.
The indicators are based on on farm production, not processing beyond the farmgate,
and focus on recurrent annual activity rather than embodied or capital items such as farm
buildings or vehicles.
The land use options considered are as follows:
1. Conventional vegetables, 'chemical' tillage: involving annual tillage and the application
of manufactured fertilisers and pesticides.
2. Organic vegetables, no till (off site fertility): involving zero tillage organic
growing, with the fertility bought in from off site in the form of municipal green waste
compost.
3. Organic vegetables, stockfree no till (onsite fertility): involvi ng zero tillage organic
growing, with the fertility grown onsite in the form of a permanent green manure sward
which is cut mechanically and composted for application to the vegetable crops.
4. Organic vegetables, stock and tillage (onsite fertility): involving organic growing, with the
ferti lity grown onsite in the form of temporary green manure leys which are grazed and
then tilled in for vegetable production.
5. Pasture: low input/low output permanent pasturage for grass-fed sheep or beef cattle
(a fertility-producing system which can be combined with Option 4).
6. Nut orchard: chestnuts, walnuts and hazelnuts, with the grass in between cut
mechanically.
7. Nut agroforestry: nut orchard with ruminants grazing between the trees.
B. Woodland: natural woodland lightly stocked with pigs (which can also be combined with
Option 4, using the pigs for fertilising and ploughing in the vegetable rotation).
The Results
In order to compute figures for the chosen variables it's necessary to make a whole host
of (potentially questionable) assumptions, which would hopelessly encumber the text if
they were all spelled out here. Below I mention a few of my key assumptions - the full
Page 12
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol lB No 3
underlying data and references are available at:
http://www.vallisveg.co.uk/landuseoptions. html. I make no claim to have produced a
definitive or comprehensive analysis - rather, the research is intendep as a first
approximation which can hopefuljy be refined in the future.
Energy Productivity
Table 1 shows the energy productivity of the different options. The figures for the organic
vegetable production options are based on the actual productivity measured on my
holding over the last growing season, whereas the other figures are based on average
productivity figures from the literature. Gross energy productivity refers to the total food
energy produced by the option in question, while net energy productivity refers to total
food energy produced less fossil fuel energy used in production.
Table 1: Annual Energy productivity (MJ/ha)
Conventional Veg
Organic Veg (no till, off site)
Agroforestry (nut + stock)
Nut Orchard
Organic Veg (stock + tillage)
Organic Veg (no till , onsite)
Pasture
Woodland
Gross
38,200
34,300
31,000
29,000
28,500
17,100
2,000
700
Net
30,500
15,100
30,100
28,000
27,200
15,600
2,000
700
Despite the common claim that organic methods are less productive per unit area than
conventional methods, the first two figures in the lefthand column show that this is only
barely the case (in fact I've computed various different models, some of which suggest
that my system is more productive than the conventional one - the model used here,
though, is amongst the more cautious. However, I suspect that it is eminently possible for
smallscale organic growers to achieve equal or better returns per unit area than
conventional growers, and indeed this finding is not uncommon in research on smallscale
growing).
The organic options requiring fertility to be produced onsite are less productive because
part of the cultivable space has to be devoted to non-food fertility-building crops (this cost
is exported offsite in the case of chemical fertiliser or boughHn compost , but manifests
itself in the higher energy costs that are shown in the righthand column; see also Table
3). Even so, the stock + tillage option still performs reasonably well , at around 75% of
conventional gross productivity (and 89% of net productivity - remembering, of course,
that this is a conservative estimate of organic productivity). This is considerably better
than the onsile zero ti llage option, largely because it uses the fertility of the green
manure crop more efficiently. The nut orchard and agroforestry options perform well ,
although at present these are quite experimental .so the figures should be treated
cautiously (highyielding nut crops remain quite marginal in the west country Climate).
Stock on permanent pasture produce much less food energy per unit area (an 'efficiency'
argument against livestock commonly used by advocates of veganism), though there are
economic and ecological arguments in their favour. The woodland option is even less
energetically productive in terms of food energy, though of course the timber it can
produce is another valuable product both energetically and for other uses.
Carbon emissions
Table 2 shows the net greenhouse gas emissions associated with the options. These
figures are based upon carbon dioxide emitted through the onsite combustion of fossil
fuels and through ploughing andl or tillage (assuming emissions of 715kg of C02 per
hectare annually through tillage). They also include methane emissions from ruminant
(expressed in terms of carbon dioxide equivalence). 'Upstream emissions'
associated with the importation of fertility are included for the conventional veg and
organic no till offsite options - the latter figure is based upon my particular Situation,
which would require me to import compost from a landfill site about 25km from my
holding (here, I've disregarded the countervailing carbon-saving potential of green waste
when it's composted rather than sent to landfill. This is arguably a harsh assumption -
it's based upon the view that in an energy-scarce future the choice will not be between +
transporting green waste to landfill and transporting it to compost, but will have to involve
using it at or near the point of genesis).
The sequestration of carbon in undisturbed soils and plant biomass (trees, permanent
pasture, green manure leys) is also considered; pasturage figures include 10% woody
forage. Where sequestration outweighs emisSion, the resulting net figure is negative.
Table 2: Annual net carbon dioxide emissions (t/ha)
Woodland -12.9
Nut orchard -5.7
Agroforestry (nut + stock) -3.7
Pasture -2.4
Organic Veg (no till , onsite) , -0.6
OrganiC Veg (stock + tillage) -0.3
Organic Veg (no till , offsite) 0.6
Conventional Veg 1.3
The options involving the undisturbed growth of trees, pasture or green manure leys do
the best here and, as the table shows, act as potentially significant carbon sinks. The
negative pasture figure suggests that the methane emissions of ruminants are more than
offset by the sequestration of carbon in permanent pasture and woody forage. It should
be noted that this figure applies only to ruminants fed a pure forage diet without
concentrates; even so, it suggests the common view that ruminants are inevitably an evil
when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions is not necessarily the whole story when
livestock are considered in the context of the larger ecological system of which they form
a part.
The onsite vegetable options are also carbon-negative, because they involve either no
tillage or tillage limited to only part of the rotation, which is more than offset by
sequestration accrued in other parts of the rotation. The two worst options are the ones
that were the most productive in Table 1 - exporting the responsibility to produce fertility
offsite comes at the expense of heavy fossil fuel costs, with associated emissions. The
tillage associated with conventional growing further adds to its emission burden.
Fuel use
Table 3 shows the fossil fuel use associated with the different options - principally diesel
used onsile, but including the costs of manufacture or transport for fertility generated
offsite where relevant. This is t?ffectively a measure for the resilience of the different
options to peak oil and/or energy scarcity.
Table 3: Annual fuel use (1/ha)
Woodland 0
Agroforestry (nuts + stock) 0
Pasture a
Nut orchard 25
Organic Veg (stock + tillage) 37
Organic Veg (no till, onsite) 41
Conventional Veg 213
Organic Veg (no till , offsite) 525
Again, the ensile fertility options indicate a far lesser use of tossil fuels (though to some
extent they rely upon the substitution of human for mechanical work). The pasture option
assumes no mechanical hay or silage-making, which seems reasonable for meat animals
at low stocking densities on permanent pasture in a f099age/ extended grazing system -
provision for some mechanical haymaking wouldn't change the overall picture much. The
organic offsite option comes off particularly badly because of the fossil fuel costs
associated with collecting and transporting bulky composts and feedstocks over significant
distances.
Some Conclusions
To begin putting these results together into a more useful overall picture, Tables 4 and 5
provide composite figures of the preceding data in the form of food energy per carbon
emissions and food energy per fuel used respectively. It should be noted that in Table 4
there are two methods for calculating the relevant values. In the options involving net
carbon sequestration food energy is multiplied by carbon sequestration to give an energy
x sequestration figure since our aim is to maximise both quantities. In the options
involving net carbon emission food energy is divided by carbon emission to give an
energy / emission figure since our aim is to maximise the former and minimise the latter.
The interpretation is that the larger the negative number is the better in the sequestration
options, and the larger the positi ve number is the better in the emitting options, but the
positive and negative figures can't be compared directly because they're not on the same
scale.
Table 4: Food energy in relation to carbon emissions
Nut orchard
Agroforestry (nuts + stock)
Woodland
Organic Veg (stock + tillage)
Pasture
Organic Veg (no till, offsite)
Conventional Veg
-165,000 MJ.t
-115,000 MJ.t
-10,000 MJ.t
-9,000 MJ.t
-8,000 MJ.t
-5,000 MJ.t
54,000 MJ/t
29,000 MJ/t
Table 5: Food energy in relalion 10 fuel use (MJ/I)
Agroforeslry (nuts + stock)
Pasture
Woodland
Nut orchard
Organic Veg (slack + lillage)
Conventional Veg
Organic Veg (no till, offsite)
1,160
780
420
180
70
Of the various options, the ones that produce reasonable food returns while still
sequestering carbon by minimising tillage and fuel use obviously come out best.
On the face of it, the rather experimental options of a nut orchard or nut orchard
plus ruminant pasture are favoured. The traditional organic system of grazed leys
rotating with arable/vegetable crops (stock + tillage) also performs well in relation to
fuel usage. Although this option requires tillage it can be kept to a minimum with
good rotation planning, and fossil energy requirements can further be reduced by
the use of pigs to root up the ley. The onsite (stockfree) zero tillage option of
cutting and composting green manure slightly outperforms the stock + tillage option
in terms of emissions, but is less fuel-efficient. Again, the offsite fertility options of
imported synthetic or green waste fertiliser do not perform so well in terms of
either carbon emissions or fuel use.
Rather than adopting single forms of land use as may have been implied i n the
preceding analysis, real world farming situations demand a mixture of uses. The
analysis here is useful , though, in highlighting the kind of options that could be
combined to create a pr-oductive, resilient and non-polluting farm.
On my own holding, I'm in the process of establishing a system comprising the
following elements:
woodland as a carbon sink, source of non-food products, reservoir for wild
biodiversity, source of compost and 'home range' for pigs, the latter also
providing fertility, pest control and cultivation elsewhere in the system as
well as a modest supply of meat
nut orchard as an 'enhanced' or more food-productive form of woodland
pasture and wood pasture as a carbon sink and home range for
ruminants, the latter also providing fertility elsewhere in the system and a
modest supply of meat
organic vegetable production, with fertility generated onsite through green
manure leys and through pigs, cattle and poultry (which also provide pest
control and cultivation)
On the basis of the preceding analysis, I estimate that the system I'm creating
will produce at least 21 ,000 MJ of food energy per hectare annually (of which
around 5% would be from meat or eggs), while sequestering more than four
tonnes of carbon dioxide per hectare and using as little as 18 litres of diesel per
hectare (which is only around 8% of fuel usage associated with conventional
cultivation). If this were to be scaled up over the 12 million hectares of existing
UK farmland (with a lesser figure applied to the 5 million hectares of rough
grazing and woodland) it would provide more than enough food to feed the current
UK population, albeit on a diet to which it is not presentl y accustomed and
without taking account of the of geographical! distributional issues facing us in
a fossil-energy constrained future that could make food scarcity a real possibility in
certain areas.
But these figures at least provide some grounds for doubting two common
objections to small-scale, low-impact organic growing - namely that it will not be
productive enough to feed the country, and that it will require us to expand the
margins of agricultural cultivation. In this sense, my findings complement those of
Simon Fairlie in his article 'Can Britain feed itself?' (The Land, No.4 2007-8,
pp. 18-26).
The system I'm proposing could easily be intensified to produce an even higher
productivity per unit area. However, doing so would inevitably invol ve intensifying
the fertility-making part of the system, probably by growing more green manures at
the expense of woodland, grassland and livestock. This would reduce the
biodiversity of the system in terms of both wild and cultivated plant and animal
species, and probably compromise its overall resilience. The benefit of the
productivity gain would have to be judged carefully against this loss.
Since small -scale, low-impact organic agriculture is more intensive than
modern conventional farming, a remaining question is how big the agricultural
workforce would need to be if the kind of farming I've been suggesting here were
generalised across the UK. Assuming the need for three full-time workers on a 7
hectare farm of the kind I operate (and one full-time worker per 25 hectares of
rough grazing or woodland), this equates to a need for around 15% of the current
UK working-age population to be employed directly as farmers.
Given the enormity of the challenges we face in relation to climate change and
peak oil, this figure seems to me encouragingly achievable, although it 's probably
too high to command serious attention from current policy makers (its implications
could be sweetened a little in various ways, such as through substituting volunteer
labour or instituting national community service in agriculture).
Still , in a world lurching between everescalating fiscal and environmental crises in
which the longterm sustainabi lity of jobs in other sectors can no longer be
assumed, the high labour demands of smallscale organic farming may turn out to
be one of 'its more attracti ve features for enlightened policymakers in the longer
run. This method of farming may in any case be the least worst option if we are
to weather the impendi ng shocks of climate change and energy scarcity, whether
we like its labour implications or not.
Acknowledgements: my thanks to Tara Garnett, Paul Hillman, Cordelia Rowlatt
and Laurence Smaje for their comments on earlier versions of this paper.
'Vallis Veg, 30 Broadway, Frome, Somerset BAll 3HA
Email: info@vaUisvea.co.uk
Autumn olive - Elaeagnus umbel/ata
Introducti on
The genus Elaeagnus consists of 30-40 deciduous and evergreen shrubs and small trees, often with
prickly branches, from S.Europe, Asia and N.America.
Autu,,)n olive, native to China, Japan and Korea, is one of the better known of the Elaeagnus
species, and is certainly one of the most useful. It is also regarded in some parts of the USA as a
noxious weed, however it does not exhibit any invasive behaviour in Britain or northern Europe.
Other common names used for Elaeagnus umbelfata include autumn elaeagnus, Asiatic oleaster,
umbellate oleaster, aki-gumi and Japanese silverberry.
Descri ption
Elaeagnus umbel/ala is a fast growing, large deciduous shrub, growing 4.5 (13 ft) m high and in spread
in Britain, sometimes larger in warmer climes. It is very hardy, to zone 3 (-35"C). It does not spread by
root suckering.
Branches are sparsely thorny, alternate leaves are bright green, silvery beneath.
The young leaves (alternate) and branches are covered with silvery or brownish scales.
Page 18
The small, tubular white flowers are very fragrant, borne in dusters from the leafaxils jn April and May.
They are pollinated by bees and the plant is a val uable one for wild (eg. bumble) bees. Plants do not
appear to be self-fertile, and two different selections are required for fruits to form.
The fruits are 7-12mm across (the larger in the better fruiting forms), mid to dark red, ripening between
early September and mid October, individual selections ripening their fruits over about a 3 week period.
Each fruit contains a single seed a few mm long.
E/aeagnus form a symbiotic relationship with Frankia bacteria in root nodules, much in the same way as
legumes do with Rhizobium bacteria. Species which do this with Frankia bacteria are called actinorhiza/;
they are found primarily in the temperate zone (whereas most legumes are tropical) and are especially
important in high-latitude countries like Britain where conditions are generally unfavourable for most
legumes. The strains of Frankia which infect Elaeagnus are generally also compatible with other
members of the Elaeagnaceae family (Hippophae and Shepherdia) as well as Myrica species.
Uses
Autumn olive is fast growing - 60cm per year and is an excellent windbreak and hedging plant,
tolerating maritime exposure. [t makes great hedges and windbreaks, either on its own of mixed with
other species. It is very tolerant of pruning. The US Soil Conservation service aided many farmers in
planting this for windbreaks, particular[y on sandy, low-fertility soils where it thrives.
The flowers are small but produced in abundance, and are very valuable to bees in early and mid
spri ng. The nectar comprises 28% sugars.
The fruits are juicy and edible, a rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially in vitamins A, C and E,
flavanoids and other bioactive compounds. They are also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids,
which is fairly unusual for a fruit. The fruits are astringent before complete ripeness, but the astringency
goes completely when the fruits are lightly cooked, so even slightly underripe fruit are excellent for
making jams and fruit leathers.
During ripening, tannins and acids decrease and the sugar content increases. The best method
for determining fruit ripeness is taste testing, or watching for bird feeding in the upper branches.
Ripe fruit can be processed into a number of products including salsa, steak sauce, meat glaze,
pie ti lling, ice cream topping, jams and preserves. Each fruit contains a single seed that
constitutes about 10% of the total weight of the fruit. The seed is best removed from the pulp
during processing. Lycopene is soluble in oil, but not water or alcohol and therefore stays
in the pulp and does not come out in juice or wine.
The fruit contains about 8.3% sugars, 4.5% protein, 12mg per 1 O g Vitamin C. In Japan, whole
branches are cut off with their ripe fruits and sold in markets as such.
It was recently discovered that the fruit contain high amounts of Iycopene, a carotenoid pigment
most commonly associated with tomato. Lycopene content of autumn olive frui t averages about
40 to 50 mgt 100g, compared with 3 mgt1 OOg for fresh raw tomato and 10 mgt1 OOg for canned
whole tomato. Lycopene is considered an important phytonutrient, and is thought to prevent or
fight cancer of the prostate, mouth, throat and skin, and to reduce the risk of cardiovascular
Page 20
I
,
disease. Because of the high Iycopene levels in autumn olive fruit, and the potential health
benefits of this phytonutrient, there has been increased interest in commercial fruit production.
Medicinally, the plant is astringent, cardiac, pectoral .
,
Elaeagnus umbel/ala fixes large amounts of nitrogen, with Nitrogen accumulation rates (ie amounts
made available to other plants via leaf fall, root and nodule turnover) recorded of up to 240 Kg/Halyear
(100 Kg/acre/year, or 24g/m
2
/year). For this reason, autumn olive is an excellent companion plant;
when grown in orchards at normal spaci ng, it can increase yields significantly. Plants can also be used
as the major source of Nitrogen for other crops, by interplanting a proportion of the crop area. Orchard
crops like apples and pears require similar-height Elaeagnus species at a proportion of about 3:1
Crops:Elaeagnus for their Nitrogen supply, while more demanding tree crops require about 2:1
Crop:Elaeagnus.
As well as being of great use in fruiting and forest gardens, autumn aii've is widely used in forestry as an
ecosystem improver (eg. as an N-fixing understorey beneath crop trees, to reclaim degraded soils and
as soil-improving nurse trees). They are often planted in alternate rows with a tree species, and don't
usually compete for light due to their shrubby form. Interplanting of Eumbel/ata with black walnut
(Juglans nigra) has been shown to significantly increase the height, diameter and nutrient content of the
walnut trees.
The wood is a good fuel.
Can be grown as a biomass crop on a 3-year rotation.
Cultivation
Autumn oli ve likes full sun but tolerates part shade. It grows well in any soil (include saline, acid and
alkaline) apart from waterlogged soils. It is drought tolerant. It is resistant to honey fungus.
Plants appear to establish quite well in pasture grasses with no additional mulching.
There are several named varieties:
'Amber' bears large yellow fruits.
'Big Red' bears large crops of very large fruits (a UK selection).
'Brilliant Rose' has large fruit of good flavour.
'Cardinal' is a hardy plant which fruits prolifically.
'Charlie's Golden' bears sweet yellow frui ts.
'Dart Late' bears good crops of large fruits in October (a UK selection).
' Delightful' has large fruit with a mild flavour.
'Ellagood' retains its fruits well into winter.
'Elsberry' is a large plant with large fruits about 12 mm (%" ) across.
'Garnet' bears very dark, large sweet fruits and is reportedly self ferti le.
' Hidden Springs' bears good crops of medium-large fruits (a UK selection).
'Jazbo' is early ripening with good flavoured fruit.
'Jewel' has medium sized fruits of good flavour.
' Newgate' bears heavy crops of large fruits (a UK selection).
' Red Cascade' produces heavy crops of medium sized fruits.
'Red Wing' bears large fruits which are especially sweet.
'Ruby' bears large sweet fruits and is reportedly self fertile.
'Sparkling Blush'
'Sweetntart' has sweeUtart fruit.
Plants start to fruit 2-3 years from planting, very quickly building up to large crops.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Volt8 No 3 Page 21
Fruits ripen in September and October, often turning dark red before fully ripe. If possible, fruits should
be allowed to hang until completely ripe until picking, but if. birds start to take a lot then pick immediately.
Although the fruits are not large, they are abundant and the quickest way to pick is to put a sheet or tarp
on the ground and either hand pick (allowing the fruit to drop to the ground - they are firm enough not to
burst), or beat the branches with a bat or stick.
Commercial machine harvesters, similar to those used for blueberries, are sometimes used on
commercial operations, with plants spaced 3m (10ft) apart in the row, with rows 3.6m (12ft) apart .

Mature bushes in the wild yield about 650g (lib 7 oz) of fruit over 2-3 pickings, whereas yields from
improved fruiting cultivars can be 10kg (22Ib) per bush or more. The harvested fruit stores for about 15
days at room temperature.
The seeds are marginally too large to be comfortable to eat by many people. To make jams or fruit
leather it is easiest to lightly cook the fruits for a few minutes with just a little water (to stop them
catching on the bottom of the pan and burni ng), then put the fruits through a Moulinex sieve to remove r
the seeds. The remaining pulp can be used to make jams, leathers etc.
Propagation
Autumn olive can be propagated from seed, by cuttings, and by layering.
Seed requires about 16 weeks of cold stratification before it will germinate. Seedlings grow 20-30cm (8-
12") in their first year.
Hardwood cuttings are easy to take. In October-November (or later in winter in cold climates) take
cuttings of 20-30cm (8-12") long terminal shoots, placing directly into the ground. New growth appears
in March, and first year growth can be as much as SOcm (2S").
Layering also works. Layer , low branches in September-October and leave for 12 months before
transplanting.
References
Black, B.L. and I. Fordham: Autumn olive: \oVeed or new cash crop? Journal of the American
Pomological Society Vol. 59(3): 125-134. 2005.
Crawford, M: Elaeagnus. Agroforestry News, Vol4 No 3, pp 7-14.
Mycorrhizae
Introduction
Mycorrhiza refers to an association or symbiosis between plants and fungi that colonize the
cortical tissue of roots during periods of active plant growth. The association is characterized by
the movement of plant-produced carbon to the fungus and fungal -acquired nutrients to the plant.
The term mycorrhiza, which literally means fungus-root, was fi rst applied to fungus-tree
associations described in 1885 by the German forest pathologist A.B. Frank. Since then we have
learned that the vast majority of land plants form symbiotic associations with fungi: an estimated
95% of all plant species belong to genera that characteristically form mycorrhizae.
I
The mycorrhizal condition is the rule among plants, not the exception. The benefits afforded
plants from mycorrhizal symbioses can be characterized either agronomically by increased growth
and yield or ecologically by improved fitness (i.e., reproductive ability). In either case, the benefit
ac?rues primarily because myc9rrhizal fungi form a critical linkage between plant roots and the
SOIl.
Mycorrhizal fungi usually proliferate both in the root and in the soil. The soil borne or
extramatrical hyphae take up nutrients from the soil solution and transport them to the root. By
this mechanism, mycorrhizae increase the effective absorptive surface area of the plant.
Nutrients taken up by the extramatrical hyphae can lead to improved plant growth and
reproduction. As a result, mycorrhizal plants are often more competitive and better able to
tolerate environmental stresses than are non mycorrhizal plants.
Global perspective
Mycorrhizal associations vary widely in structure and function. Oespite the many exceptions, it is
possible to state broad generalizations about latitude (or altitude). soil properties, and structure
and function of the different mycorrhizal types that colonize the dominant vegetation in a gradient
of climatic zones.
Ericaceous plants, which dominate the acidic, high-organic heath land soils of subarctic and
subalpine regions, are colonized by a group of ascomycetous fungi, giving rise to the ericoid type
of mycorrhiza. This mycorrhizal type is characterized by extensive growth within (i.e.,
intracellular) cortical cells, but little extension into the ~ o i l . The fungi produce extracellular
enzymes that break down organic matter, enabling the plant to assimilate nutrients mineralized
from organic compounds present in the colloidal material surrounding roots.
Moving along the environmental gradient, coniferous trees replace ericaceous shrubs as the
dominant vegetation. These trees are colonized by a wide range of mostly basidiomycetous fungi
that grow between (Le., intercellular) root cortical cells forming the ectomycorrhizal type of
mycorrhiza. Ectomycorrhi zal fungi may produce large quantities of hyphae on the root and in soil.
These hyphae function in the absorption and translocation of inorganic nutrients and water, but
also release nutrients from litter layers by production of enzymes involved in mineralization of
organic matter.
At the warmer and drier end of the environmental gradient, grasslands often form the dominant
vegetation. In these ecosystems nutrient use is high and phosphorus is frequently a limiting
element for growth. Grasses and a wide variety of other plants are colonized by fungi belonging
to the order Glomales. These fungi form arbuscules or highly branched structures (the term
literally means little trees) within (intracellular) root cortical cells, giving rise to the arbuscular type
of mycorrhiza. The Glomalean fungi may produce extensive extramatrical hyphae (Le., hyphae
outside the root) and can significantly increase phosphorusinflow rates of the plants they
coloni ze.
The diversity of these rootfungal associations provides plants with a range of strategies for
efficient functioning in an array of plantsoil systems.
Types of mycorrhizae
Ectomycorrhizae
The diagnostic feature of ectomycorrhizae (EM) is the presence of hyphae between root cortical
cells producing a netlike structure called the Hartig net, after Robert Hartig who is considered the
Page 23
father of forest biology.
Many EM also have a sheath, or mantle, of fungal tissue that may completely cover the absorbing
root (usually the fine feeder roots). The mantle can vary widely in thickness, colour, and texture
depending on the particular plant-fungus combination. The mantle increases the surface area of
absorbing roots and often affects tine-root morphology, resulting in root bifurcation and clustering.
ContiQuous with the mantie are hyphal strands that extend into the soil. Often the hyphal strands
will aggregate to form rhizomorphs that may be visible to the unaided eye. The internal portion of
rhizomorphs can differentiate into tube-like structures specialized for long-distance transport of
nutrients and water.
Ectomycorrhizae are found on woody plants ranging from shrubs to forest trees. Many of the host
plants belong to the families Pinaceae, Fagaceae, Betulaceae and Myrtaceae. Over 4,000 fungal
species, belonging primarily to the Basidiomycotina, and fewer to the Ascomycotina, are known to
form ectomycorrhizae. Many of these fungi produce mushrooms and puffballs on the forest floor.
Some fungi have a narrow host range, such as Boletus betulico/a on Betula spp. , while others
have very broad host range, such as Pisolithu5 arhizus (also called P. tinctorius) which forms
ectomycorrhiza with more than 46 tree species belonging to at least eight genera.
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
The diagnostic feature of arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) is the development of a highly branched
arbuscule within root cortical cells. The fungus initially grows between cortical cells, but soon
penetrates the host cell wall and grows within the cell. The general term for all mycorrhizal types
where the fungus grows within cortical cells is endomycorrhiz3. In this association neither the
fungal cell wall nor the host cell membrane are breached. As the fungus grows, the host cell
membrane invaginates and envelops the fungus, creating a new compartment where material of
high molecular complexity i ~ deposited. This apoplastic space prevents direct contact between
the plant and fungus cytoplasm and allows for efficient transfer of nutrients between the
symbionts. The arbuscules are relatively short lived, less than 15 days, and are often difficult to
see in field-collected samples.
Other structures produced by some AM fungi include vesicles, auxiliary cells, and asexual spores.
Vesicles are thin-walled, lipid-filled structures that usually form in intercellular spaces. Their
primary function is thought to be for storage; however, vesicles can also serve as reproducti ve
propagules for the fungus. Auxiliary cells are formed in the soil and can be coiled or knobby. The
function of these structures is unknown. Reproductive spores can be formed either in the root or
more commonly in the soil. Spores produced by fungi forming AM associations are asexual,
forming by the differentiation of vegetative hyphae. For some fungi (e.g., Glomus intraradices),
vesicles in the root undergo secondary thickening, and a septum (cross wall) is laid down across
the hyphal attachment leading to spore formation, but more otten spores develop in the soil from
hyphal swellings. The fungi that form AM are currently all classified in the order Glomales.
The term vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) was originally appl ied to symbiotic
associations formed by all fungi in the Glomales, but because a major suborder lacks the ability to
form vesicles in roots, AM is now the preferred acronym. The order Glomales is further divided
into families and genera according to the method of spore formation. The AM type of symbiosis is
very common as the fungi involved can colonize a vast taxonomic range of both herbaceous and
woody plants, indicating a general lack of host specificity among this type. However, it is
important to distinguish between specificity, innate ability to colonize, infectiveness, amount of
colonization, and effectiveness, plant response to colonization. AM fungi differ widely in the level
Page 24
V.A.M. '
Ectomycorrhizae
ENDODERM I S ENDODERM I S
OLD
point of en
YOUNG
CHLAMYDOISP(JR
FUNGAL MANTLE
[]I AliAAMMATI C AEPRESENTATI ON
OF THE TWO TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAE
of colonization they produce in a root system and in their impact on nutrient uptake and plant
growth.
Ericaceous Mycorrhizae
The term ericaceous is applied to mycorrhizal associations found on plants in the order Ericales.
The hyphae in the root can penetrate cortical cells (endomycorrhizal habil); however, no
arbuscules are formed. Three major forms of ericaceous mycorrhiza have been described:
(1) Ericoid -- cells of the inner cortex become packed with fungal hyphae. A loose welt of
hyphae grows over the root surface, but a true mantle is not formed. The ericoid
mycorrhizae are found on plants such as Gal/una (heather), Rhododendron (azaleas and
rhododendrons) and Vaccinium (blueberries) that have very fine root systems and typically
grow in acid, peaty soils. The fungi involved are ascomycetes of the genus
Hymenoscyphus.
(i) Arbutoid -- characteristics of both EM and endomycorrhizae are found. Intracellular
penetration can occur, a mantle forms, and a Hartig net is present. These
associations are found on Arbutus (e.g., Pacific madrone), Arctostaphylos (e.g.,
bearberry), and several species of the Pyrolaceae. The fungi involved in the
association are basidiomycetes and may be the same fungi that colonize EM tree
.. hosts in the same region.
(ii) Monotropoid -- the fungi colonize achlorophyllous (lacking chlorophyll) plants in
Monotropaceae (e.g., Indian pipe), producing the Hartig net and mantle. The same
fungi also form EM associations with trees and thereby form a link through which
carbon and other nutrients can flow from the autotrophic host plant to the
heterotrophic, parasitic plant.
Orchidaceous Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhizal fungi have a unique role in the life cycle of plants in the Orchidaceae. Orchids
typically have very small seeds with little nutrient reserve. The plant becomes colonized shortly
after germination, and the mycorrhizal fungus supplies carbon and vitamins to the developing
embryo. For achlorophyllous species, the plant depends on the fungal partner to supply carbon
throughout its life. The fungus grows into the plant cell , invaginating the cell membrane and
forming hyphal coils within the cell. These coils are active for only a few days, after which they
lose turgor and degenerate and the nutrient contents are absorbed by the developing orchid. The
fungi participating in the symbiosis are basidiomycetes similar to those involved in decaying wood
(e.g., Corio/us, Fames, Marasmius) and pathogenesis (e.g., Armillaria and Rhizoctonia). In
mature orchids, mycorrhizae also have roles in nutrient uptake and translocation.
Mixed Infections
Several1ungi can colonize the roots of a single plant, but the type of mycorrhiza formed is usually
uniform for a host. In some cases, however, a host can support more than one type of
mycorrhizal association. Alnus (alders), Salix (willows) , Populus (poplars), and Eucalyptus can
have both AM and EM associations on the same plant. Some ericoid plants have occasional EM
and AM colonization.
Uptake and transfer of soil nutrients
When a nutrient is deficient in soil solution, the critical root parameter controlling its uptake is
surface area. Hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi have the potential to greatly increase the absorbing
surface area of the root. For example, mycelia can account for nearly 80% of the absorbing
surface area of pine seedlings.
It is also important to consider the distribution and function of the extramatrical hyphae. If the
mycorrhiza is to be effective in nutrient uptake, the hyphae must be distributed beyond the
nutrient depletion zone that develops around the root. A nutrient depletion zone develops when
nutrients are removed from the soil solution more rapidly than they can be replaced by diffusion.
For a poorly-mobile ion such as phosphate, a sharp and narrow depletion zone develops close to
the root. Hyphae can readily bridge this depletion zone and grow into soil with an adequate
supply of phosphorus.
Uptake of micronutrients such as zinc and copper is also improved by mycorrhizae because these
elements are also diffusion-limited in many soils. F or more mobile nutrients such as nitrate, the
depletion zone is wide and it is less likely that hyphae grow extensively into the zone that is not
influenced by the root alone.
Page 26
Another factor contributing to the effective absorption of nutrients by mycorrhizae is their narrow
diameter relative to roots. The steepness of the diffusion gradient for a nutrient is inversely
related to the radius of the absorbing unit; therefore, the soil solution should be .less depleted at
the surface of a narrow absorbing unit such as a hypha. Furthermore, narrow hyphae can grow
into small soil pores inaccessible to roots or even root hairs.
Another advantage attributed to mycorrhizal fungi is access to pools of phosphorus not readily
available to the plant. One mechanism for this access is the physiochemical release of inorganic
and organic phosphorus by organic acids through the action of low-molecular-weight organic
anions such as oxalate which can: (i) replace phosphorus sorbed at metal-hydroxide surfaces
through ligand-exchange reactions, (ii) dissolve metal-oxide surfaces that sorb phosphorus, and
(iii) complex metals in solution and thus prevent precipitation of metal phosphates.
Some EM fungi produce large quantities of oxal ic acid, and this may partially explain enhanced
nutrient uptake by EM roots. Another mechanism by which mycorrhizal fungi release inorganic
phosphorus is through mineralization of organic matter.
Ericoid and EM have a special role in the mineralization of nitrogen. Most plant Jitter entering the
soi l has a high C:N ratio and is rich in lignin and tannins. Only a few mycorrhizal fungi can
mobilize nutrients from these primary sources. However, a wide range of ericoid and EM fungi
can obtain nitrogen and other nutrients from secondary sources of organic matter such as dead
microbial biomass. A wide range of hydrolytic and oxidative enzymes capable of depoJymerizing
organic nitrogen have been demonstrated. These types of mycorrhizae may have an important
role in nitrogen cycling in the acidic and highly organic soils where they predominate.
Carbon
Mycorrhizal fungi range from obligate symbionts, which can only obtain carbon from the plant
host as in the case of AM fungi to facultative symbionts, which can also mineralize organic
carbon from nonliving sources as in the case of some EM species.
In nature the heterotrophic mycorrhizal fungi obtain all or most of their carbon from the autotrophic
host plant. Ectomycorrhizae and ericoid mycorrhizae transform host carbohydrates into fungal-
specific storage carbohydrates, such as mannitol and trehalose, which may produce a sink for
photosynthate that favours transport of carbohydrate to the fungal partner. In AM, lipids
accumulate in vesicles and other fungal structures and provide an analogous sink for host
photosynthate.
As much as 20% of the total carbon assimilated by plants may be transferred to the fungal
partner. This transfer of carbon to the fungus has sometimes been considered a drain on the
host. However, the host plant may increase photosynthetic activity following mycorrhizal
colonization, thereby compensating for carbon "lost" to the soil.
In an ecosystem, the flow of carbon to the soil mediated by mycorrhizae serves several important
functions. For some mycorrhizae, the extramatrical hyphae produce hydrolytic enzymes, such as
proteases and phosphatases, that can have an important impact on organic matter mineralization
and nutrient avai lability. Extramatrical hyphae of mycorrhizae also bind soil particles together and
thereby improve soil aggregation. Typically there are between 1 to 20m of AM hyphae per gram
of soil.
Another important consequence of carbon flow to the fungal partner is the development of a
unique rhizosphere microbial community called the mycorrhizosphere. Soil scientists now
Page 27
realize that carbon flow to the soil is critical for the development of soil aggregation and the
maintenance of a healthy plant-soil system. It is also' critically important in carbon sequestration
in soil.
Interactions with other organisms
Mycorrhizal fungi interact with a wide assortment of organisms in the rhizosphere. For example,
specific bacteria stimulate EM formation in conifer nurseries and are called mycorrhization
helper bacteria.
The interaction between rhizobia and AM fungi has received considerable attention because of
the relatively high phosphorus demand of N2 fixation. The two symbioses typically act
synergistically, resulting in greater nitrogen and phosphorus content in combination than when
each ;s inoculated onto the legume alone. Legumes are typically coarse-rooted and therefore
inefficient in extracting phosphorus from the soil. The AM fungi associated with legumes are an
essential link for adequate phosphorus nutrition, leading to enhanced nitrogenase activity that in
turn promotes root and mycorrhizal growth.
Mycorrhizal fungi colonize feeder roots and thereby interact with root pathogens that parasitize
this same tissue. In a natural ecosystem where the uptake of phosphorus is low, a major role of
mycorrhizal fungi may be protection of the root system from endemic pathogens such as
Fusarium spp. Mycorrhizae may stimulate root colonization by selected biocontrol agents, but
current understanding of these interactions is meagre.
Much more research has been conducted on the potential effects of mycorrhizal colonization on
root pathogens. Mycorrhizal fungi may reduce the incidence and severity of root diseases. The
mechanisms proposed to explain this protective effect include: (i) development of a mechanical
barrier-especially the mantle of the EM-to infection by pathogens, (ii) production of antibiotic
compounds that suppress the pathogen, (iii) competition for nutrients with the pathogen, including
production of siderophores, and (iv) induction of generalized host defence mechanisms.
Management of mycorrhizae
Factors that should be considered when assessing the potential role of mycorrhizae in an
agroecosystem include:
Mycorrhizal dependency (MO) of the host crop. This is usually defined as the growth response
of mycorrhizal (M) versus non-mycorrhizal (NM) plants at a given phosphorus level; MD = M -
NM) I NM) x 100. Although most agricultural crops have mycorrhizae, not all benefit equally from
the symbiosis. Generally, coarse-rooted plants benefit more than fine-rooted plants.
Nutrient status of the soil. Assuming that the major benefit of the mycorrhizal symbiosis is
improved phosphorus uptake, the management of mycorrhizal fungi will be most critical when soil
phosphorus is limiting. In temperate zones, phosphorus is sometimes applied in excess of crop
demand. However, with increased concerns about environmental quality, phosphorus use in
developed countries may be reduced, resulting in increased dependence on native mycorrhizae
for nutrient uptake. Another factor to consider is the interaction of water stress with nutrient
availability. As soils dry, phosphorus may become limiting even in soils that test high in available
phosphorus.
Inoculum potential of the indigenous mycorrhizal fungi. Inoculum potential is a product of the
abundance and vigour of the propagules in the soil. Inoculum potential can be adversely affected
Page 28
1
by management practices such as fertilizer and lime application, pesticide use, crop rotation,
fallowing and tillage (which can dramatically reduce the functioning of mycorrhizae), and topsoil
removal.
Summary
Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations that form between the roots of most plant species and
fungi. These symbioses are characterized by bi wdirectional movement of nutrients where carbon
flows to the fungus and inorganic nutrients move to the plant, thereby providing a critical linkage
between the plant root and soil.
When the mycorrhizae encounter limited resources, like water, phosphorus or micronutrients, they
can pass them on to their associated plant. Mycorrhizae can increase phosphorus uptake, and
plant access to other soil nutrients such as ammonium, potassium, calcium, iron, copper,
manganese, zinc and nickel. Nutrients taken up by the mycorrhiial fungi can lead to improved
plant growth and reproduction. As a result , mycorrhizal plants are often more competitive and
better able to tolerate environmental stresses than are non-mycorrhizal plants.
Drought resistance and heat tolerance are other benefits attributed to mycorrhizae. Some of this
effect may be due to hormonal changes that the mycorrhizae cause in the plant. These allow the
plant to maintain a better water balance under drought conditions.
Mycorrhizal associations may change a plant's relationships with its community. Other
microbes in the soil may be more beneficial to plants with mycorrhizal associations9.
Mycorrhizae may reduce infection by bacteria and fungi that cause plant diseases. There is
evidence for some trees, that association with mycorrhizae helps them resist insect attacks.
Other trees are able to gain nitrogen from mycorrhizae that infected living soil insects.
Plant to plant relationships can also be altered Mycorrhizae can act as a bridge between two
plants that allows phosphorus and other nutrients to move from a "donor" plant through
mycorrhizae to a "receiver" plant.
Mycorrhizal associations vary widely in form and function. Ectomycorrhizal fungi are mostly
basidiomycetes that grow between root cortical cells of many tree species, forming a Hartig net.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi belong to the order Glomales and form highly branched structures
called arbuscules, within root cortical cells of many herbaceous and woody plant species.
Plant responses to colonization by mycorrhizal fungi can range from dramatic growth promotion to
growth depression. Factors affecting this response include the mycorrhizal dependency of the
host crop, the nutrient status of the soil, and the inoculum potential of the mycorrhizal fungi.
Management practices such as tillage, crop rotation, and fallowing may adversely affect
populations of mycorrhizal fungi in the field.
References
Frick, B: Marvels and mysteries of mycorrhizae. Information sheet , University of Saskatchewan.
Overview of mycorrhizal symbioses. Crop and Soil Sciences information sheet, Penn State
University.
Ecology lecture notes, University of Miami (diagram of mycorrhizae).
Page 29
Sea buckthorns
Introduction
The common sea buckthorn (sea berry, sallow thorn, sand horn), Hippophae rhamnoides, is often
growf1 as a garden shrub but rarely as a culinary or medicinal plant, the fruits often described in
Britain as 'sour and inedible'; however, in many parts of Europe and Asia it is highly valued for its
fruit which is very high in nutrients and is processed into foods much in the same way as sloes are
in Britain.
A related species, H.salicifolia (the Himalayan sea buckthorn) is a larger, more tree-like plant but
also with the fruits that are highly valued in its native range.
The sea buckthorns belong 10 the family Elaeagnaceae (like Elaeagnus and Myrica) and like all
members of that famify are nitrogen fixing. Both sea buckthorns here are dioecious - ie plants are male
or female, and both sexes are needed for fruiting. It is not possible to sex seedlings before they are 3-4
years old.
A legend tells how the ancient Greeks used sea buckthorn leaf in a diet for race horses, hence its
botanical name "hippophae" - shiny horse. According to another legend, sea buckthorn leaves
were the preferred food of Pegasus - the flying horse - and were allegedly helpful in getting him
airborne!
H.rhamnoides
This is a deciduous shrub native to Europe (including Britain) and Asia, found growing in the wild
in open and exposed places on well-drained soils from sea level on coastlines to high mountains.
It is extremely hardy, to zone 3 (-37'C, -35'F).
Plants usually grow as a medium shrub to 2m (6 tt) in very exposed locations or as a large shrub
to 6m (20 ft) high, and rarely more tree-like and up to 9m (30 ft) or even 12m (40 ft) high. (The
more vigorous natural variety Procera grows to 18m (60 ft) in China). Young plants are covered
with silvery grey scales. Branches are numerous, stiff and thorny, becoming black where the
silvery scales have fallen. Fruiting begins at an age of 3-5 years.
Leaves are distinctively willow-like. They are alternate and short-stalked, long and narrow (15-
75mm x 3-10 mm; y,.3" x 0.12-0.4"), tapering at both ends and glossy silvery on both sides.
Flowers are very small (3 mm) and inconspicuous, yellow-green, appearing in March-April (before
the leaves) in the leaf-IDcils of the previous years' shoots, in short spikes or racemes; the species
is dioecious, so male and female flowers are borne on different plants. Female flowers are
stalked, and where attached to the shoots, a thorny short shoot often forms. Pollination is by
wind.
Fruits, produced in abundant dense clusters, are bright orange-yellow on short stalks, rounded or
oval , 6-10 mm long (though up to 15 mm in cultivars), juicy with an acid yellow juice. Fruits ripen
in September onwards to November. Fruits often hang on the bushes all through winter until
February or March; sometimes they are left by birds but they are relished by migrating fieldfares,
waxwings and starlings upon their arrival in autumn. The fruits contain one hard, black seed.
Being a nitrogen fixer enables it to thrive and colonise very poor and sandy soils.
Page 30
H. salicifolia
The Himalayan sea buckthorn is also deciduous, but grows tailer, more upright and less
spreading than the European sea buckthorn, reaching 1012m (3340 ft) high and a few metres
wide. It suckers much less too.
Leaves are similar to those of H.rhamnoides, but the fruits, yellow-orange, are round, 6-8mm
across (the size of redcurrants) and borne densely along the branches in autumn.
Culinary uses
One hundred grams of fruit pulp contains in the order of 10 mg provitamin A (this represents 100
200 daily does for an adult), 40300 mg Vitamin C , 160 mg Vitamin E, Vitamins 61 and 62, 1528
mg carotenoids, flavonoids (especially rutin), 3-8% oils, fatty acids, 3-9% sugars, malic and
tartaric acid, tannins, volatile oils, potassium, iron, boron selenium and manganese. Fruits
contain an average protein content of 30% and leaves 20%. .
The juice extraction rate is about 70%. Methods of using the fruit include:
Juices and drinks (sweetened). The fresh juice can be preserved with honey (4 parts juice to
1 part honey). It can then also be used as a sweetener or to make liqueurs.
Syrups, jams, marmalades and compotes.
AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol IS No 3 Page 31
Making a sauce to accompany fish and meat (similar to cranberry sauce) .
The juice can be used in place of lemon juice.
The juice is used in beers and wines.
When processing fruit , the juice should be exposed to the air and light for as short a time as
possible, and aluminium pans should not be used. Vitamin levels will decline through prolonged
heating, so minimum cooking times should be employed. Fruit can be successfully preserved by
freezi qg.
The leaves are also high in nutrients and are sometimes used in herbal tea mixtures (after being
dried and ground).
Medicinal uses
Fruits exhibit with polyphenol activity, containing such rare fatty acids and alkaloids as
nervonic and serotonin, reputed to protect the human central nervous system from toxins
such as radioactivity.
The freshly pressed juice can be taken against colds, febrile conditions, tiredness, exhaustion etc.
The juice is widely used to make vitaminrich medications used in the treatment of
hypovitaminosis, infectious diseases and during convalescence; also for cosmetic preparations
such as face creams and toothpaste.
Fruits are used in traditional Chinese medicine as a stomachic, antidiarrhoeal and antitussive.
Medicinal uses of sea buckthorn are well documented in Asia and Europe. Clinical tests on
medicinal uses were first initiated in Russia during the 1950s. The most important
pharmacological functions attributed to sea buckthorn oil are: anti inflammatory, antimicrobial ,
pain relief, and promoting regeneration of tissues. More than ten different drugs have been
developed from sea buckthorn in Asia and Europe and are available in different forms, such as
liquids, powders, plasters, films, pastes, pi lls, liniments, suppositories and aerosols.
Other uses
Sea buckthorns are highly salt and windresistant and are excellent for hedging and shelterbelts
as long as there is good light.
In Russia, H.rhamnoides is often interplanted with Norway spruce (Picea abies) as a nurse, and
several years of fruit crops are obtained before the spruce overtake and shade out the
Hippophae.
Because of H.rhamnoides' suckering and invasive habit in open areas, one of the major uses is
for soil reclamation during reforesting projects on degraded soils (China); and for dune
reclamation (Holland).
Stems, roots, foliage and fruit of H.rhamnoides all impart a yellow dye.
The timber of H.rhamnoides, though always small in dimensions, is sometimes used for turnery
and rake teeth: it is fine grained, hard and of average heaviness.
Sea buckthorn oil extracted from seeds is popular in cosmetic preparations, such as facial cream,
hand cream, lip balm, deodorant, and oil for body massage.
Page 32
Sea buckthorn leaves, pulp and seed residues are used for animal feed.
For many animal and bird species, sea buckthorn is an important source of food or provides
shelter.
Cultivation
Although sea buckthorn is found wild on well drained soils, it tolerates damp clay soils and can be
grown almost anywhere; the main limiting factor to its growth is its demand for light: seedlings will
not grow at all if shaded, and mature plants quickly die if trees overshadow them. Also it cannot
tolerate waterlogged soil for very long. A wide range of soil pH is tolerated.
Because plants are male and female, a mixture is needed. Commerc'ial operations use about 1
male per 6 females, often using a mixed row of male/female plants every third row, with the two
rows between all female. Rows are planted 3m (10 tt) apart with plants at 1m (3 tt) apart in the
row.
Growth is some 5 m (16 tt) in 10 years, and reaches 60 cm (2 tt) per year. Fruit is borne early,
after 3-4 years, but plants of H.rhamnoides, if not allowed to spread via suckering, are short lived
and after 10-12 years, fruiting declines rapidly. Fruiting is regular, normally every year.
Hippophae saficifofia fruits
Hard pruning is tolerated, and because fruit is mainly produced on the most recent 1-3 years of
wood, a pruning regime for H.rhamnoides similar to that for blackcurrants (cutting out a third to a
quarter of all wood, choosing the oldest wood, at the base each year) can be undertaken if fruit
production is the primary objective.
The leaves as a tea crop, should be harvested preferably from male plants only, during late June
and mid July, so as not to interfere with the fruit set on the female plants. The best nutritional time
period is after fruit appearance ( a minute green berry on the female plant) .

Fruits are very rich in vitamins (see below) and the sea buckthorn is increasingly culti vated for
fruit. If cultivating for fruit, a ratio of one male to every six females is needed for satisfactory
pollination. This may be a problem with H.salicifolia, because at present, sexed plants are not
available in Britain. Fruits are collected when they start to ripen in September, while still firm; they
are juicy, sour and difficult to pick from the thorny branches.
Fruit harvesting is the only time consuming operation in growing sea buckthorn. The relati vel y
small fruit size, short pedicel , force required to pull off each fruit, the density of fruit on the branch,
and the thorniness of the plant, are the disadvantages during harvesting.
Hand picking can yield 7kg fruit per hour, nevertheless a proportion of the fruits will burst. Also it
can be a painful business when you get scratched and the acid juice runs down your hand and
wrist! If hand picking off trees, it is easiest to put a sheet or tarp on the ground and drop fruits as
they are picked.
Hand picking is faster if many of the fruiting branches are cut off, they can then be stripped of fruit
more comfortably. The vigorous bushes are thus pruned to keep a little smaller at the same time.
Make sure you allow enough new growth to fruit the following year.
Mechanical harvesting is sometimes used commercially, but requires machines that shale the
bushes very vigorously, leading to lots of debris falling with the fruits, which must be sorted.
Another commercial technique, which can also be used on a small scale, is to cut off fruiting
shoots as above. These are then placed in 'a freezer and as soon as the fruits have frozen, the
shoots can be tapped and all the fruits will fall off easily. Some leaves will fall too, so these must
be sorted, but it remains a very quick way to harvest. If birds leave fruits on bushes over the
winter (they don't always), then you could pick in situ like this after a heavy frost or in freezing
temperatures - no doubt this is what people did millennia ago when gathering the nutrient-rich
fruits.
The fruits store in cool conditions for a week or so, and frozen for at least a year.
Breeding work has been going on in Russia, central and eastern Europe since the 1930's to
produce culti vars with larger fruits and which are free of thorns; germplasm from Siberia has
mostly been used in Russia. These cultivars are medium shrubs, 1.8-3 m (6-10 It) high and 2-3 m
(7-10 It) wide; fruits are yellow or orange, weighing 0.4-1.0 g each. Plantations have plants
spaced at 2 x 4 m (7 x 13 It). Yields are normally 6-15 Kg (13-33Ib) per plant , occasionally up to
45 Kg (100 Ib). Over 30 existing cultivars have been bred for fruit quality. The Russian cultivars
do not seem to do welt in mild British conditions but the eastern and central European varieties
are excellent.
Page 34
Cuitivars
Askola - female, fruits heavi ly with medium-large dark orange oval fruits. Early ripening
(August).
Dorana - female, a smaller bush, bears medium-large fruits. Does not sucker
much. Early ripening (August).
Frugana - female, upright, fairly vigorous bush bearing good crops of medium-large light orange
fruits. Early ripening (August).
Hergo - female, upright bush bears medium-large, light orange fruits. Early ripening (August).
Leikora - female, a rounded vigorous shrub, bears large deep orange fruits. Late ripening (mid
September to mid October).
Orange Energy (Habego) - female, bears heavy crops of large yellowish-orange fruits. Mid
season (September).
Polmix - a series of males bushes (Polmix 1, 2 and 3). Polmix one flowers a little earlier and
Polmix 3 a little later.
Juliet - female selected in Sweden.
Romeo - male, selected in Sweden.
Sirola - female, columnar bush with small thorns and few suckers, bears large reddish-orange
fruits on longer stalks than normal , sweeter than most. Very early ripening (July-August).
Propagation
Propagation is normally by seed, or layering; several other methods are feasible. Vegetative
methods are necessary to obtain plants of known sex. Until plants reach flowerir g age there is no
way of distinguishing males from females; from flowering age onwards, the sex can be
determined in winter from the buds, which are conical and conspicuous on male plants and small
and rounded on females.
Layering: carried out in late autumn as usual.
Seed: can be removed from fruits or bought in a dry state; if stored dry, try to keep moisture levels
below 12%. There are on average 90,000 seeds per Kg (40900 seeds per Ib), of which some
34% are viable, ie the number of viable seeds in approx 31 ,000 per Kg (1 4100 per Ib).
Seed requires stratification for 15 months in moist sand: some seed will germinate after 3
months stratification, but some may not germinate for a further year. A temperature of below 50C
(41F) is necessary in stratification to break the dormancy.
Sowing in a seed bed, a density of 100 seedlings per m' (8S/yd') is satisfactory; to achieve this,
sow about 13 g of seed per m' (11 gar 0.4 oz per yd'). Try and keep the seed bed clean for a
second year in case of late germinating seeds.
Root cuttings: these are taken in winter, pieces of roots at least mm thick and 8
cm (3") long should be placed in pots of compost in cold frames until growth starts.
Softwood cuttings: taken in July, give bottom heat and mist; no hormone rooting powder is
needed.
Hardwood cuttings: taken in November or December, using new season wood in lengths of 20-
2Scm (8-10"). Place directly in the ground, leaving a few cm above soil level. Easy for
H.rhamnoides but not with H.salicifolia.
References
Crawtord, M: Sea buckthorn. Agroforestry News, Vol 2 No 1 ( t993).
U, T: Sea buckthorn production guide. Canada Seabuckthorn Enterprises Ltd, 1997.
Sea Buckthorn. GFU for Underutilized species. www.underuti lized-species.ora
Myoga: a hardy ginger
Introduction
Myoga, also calied myoga ginger, mioga ginger or Japanese ginger, belongs in the same family
as true ginger, with the Latin name Zingiber mioga.
Myoga is a widely used vegetable in Japan and China, and increasingly in Australia and New
Zealand where cultivation was introduced a few years ago. Unlike true ginger, it is not the
rhizome that is used, rather it is the young shoots and also the young flower buds which are used.
The rhizome and mature parts of the plant are not edible - indeed they are regarded as toxic.
Description
Myoga is an herbaceous perennial , native to the forests of southern China and possibly Japan
(though it may have been introduced into Japan over a thousand years ago). The plant
regenerates each spring from underground rhizomes, sending up shoots which produce dense
foliage on stalks which can reach 1.S-2m tall, though sometimes only 60-S0cm. Narrow pale
green leaves are up to 35cm long.
The flowers (which are sterile, so do not produce seed) are produced at ground level directly from
the rhizomes, during summer and autumn. They appear as a loose cone of pale green bracts
surrounding a number of flowering stems.
The rhizomes spread continuously outwards during the growing season, as much as 25 cm per
year. (The plant is sometimes regarded as a pest!)
Page 36
Hardiness is between zone 6 and zone 7 - if well mulched then winter temperatures of
_18C are tolerated as long as the soil is well enough drained. .
Culinary uses
The new shoots in spring, and flower buds in summer and autumn, are prized for their crisp
texture (a crispness like celery heart or water chestnuts) and their delicate ginger flavour with both
a sweetness and sourness that is refreshing. The gingery fragrance is stronger than that of root
ginger. This ginger is used in a wide range of Japanese dishes, especially in summer (using the
flower buds).
The new shoots and flower buds are often finely shredded and used as a garnish for miso soup,
sunomono (vinegared dishes), dishes such as roasted eggplant, somen (chilled noodles), with oily
fish and with sushi ; also shredded and fried in tempura batter. Thinly chopped it is used a
condiment for many dishes. Myoga stimulates the appetite, which makes it ideal for use in
starters.
Myoga can be pickled in many ways with miso, sweet vinegar, cider or wine vinegar etc. on its
own or with other vegetables. It
can also be blanched and
frozen whole for use later. It
loses its flavour when dried.
Myoga is regarded as a
powerful antioxidant, with mild
anti-bacterial properties. It is
high in potassium and calcium
and also contains magnesium,
iron and manganese, and
vitamins Bl , B2 and B6.
In Japan it has been
consi dered as a natural
medicine since the 3rd century,
which helps preserve one's
stamina in summer.
Preservation is done best by
wrapping in kitchen paper
inside the fridge. Can be safely
kept for 10 days.
Cultivation
(source: NZICFR)
Myoga needs free draining, fertile soils to grow well, and on poorly drained soils plant growth is
retarded and rhizome rotting can occur (from Fusarium and Pythium species. ) In Japan, the best
known myoga growi ng areas have rainfall throughout the summer. Shelter from strong winds is
essential. Deep soils with pH 5.5 to 7.0 preferable.
The other critical thing needed is shade. In sun, the leaves sunburn and become chlorotic; 30-
50% shade is ideal. Commercials growers in Australia and New Zealand usually use shade cloth
to provide the shade, however in China trees are sometimes used, notably Pau/ownia. The trees
are planted in rows wide enough to create suitable shade for alleys of myoga in between.
Page 37
Propagation is by root division, usually from 25 cm (10") long rhizome pieces dug from
dormant plants in winter. These rhizomes should be cool stored at 4 OC for six weeks to
improve subsequent crop establishment. In late winter to early spring, rhizome pieces are
planted 10 cm deep, 40 cm apart. Commercial growers plant in rows 1.5 m apart , but
there is nothing to stop you from planting closer over a whole area to establish an entire
patch.
Wider spacing in rows does make flower bud harvesting easier, as these are borne mainly
on the edge of the rhizome mass
The crop is left through the first one or two years to establish. Harvesting of the flower
buds can then begin, while harvesting of spring shoots starts a year or two later.
New shoots appear mid to late spring, and can be harvested by cutting off a little beneath the soil
surface. The new shoots can be mounded with earth or
For harvesting of flower buds, a thick mulch over the plants is useful , because myoga flower buds
are picked before they emerge above the surface from underground, turn green and the flower
petals open. Rather than dig around in soil , a loose mulch makes searching for the buds much
easier. Commercial growers use 10-15cm (4-6") of sawdust mulch, the drawback being that extra
nitrogen fertiliser will be needed to compensate for the nitrogen robbery which will occur at the
soiVsawdust interface. Bark mulches should be just as effective without the drawbacks.
The flowers buds are located in the mulch and picked individually once they are at the appropriate
stage of maturity. August and September are likely to be the main months of flower bud
production, extending into October in milder regions. Long photoperiods (day length over 16
Page 38
hours) and warm nights are conducive to large yields
of flower buds. In Japan, early and late strains are
available. Picking the buds stimulates continued
production.
Flower bud harvest should be at least two to three
times each week depending on how quickly the flower
buds are maturing. Choose firm and "tight"
specimens, well-rounded and compact in shape with a
pinkish colour. One person can pick 10 kg buds/hour
depending on crop production and the thickness of the
stand. Once picked, the flower buds keep well under
cool store conditions. Production of around 1 kg buds
per square metre from young plants should be
possible.
Because myoga likes well drained soils, if these are
sandy then irrigation in dry summers may be required to
maintain growth and production. Heavy cropping will
Myoga flower bud in cross section
(source - Shizuoza Gourmet)
require inputs of nitrogen to be sustained. One option would be to use a nitrogen-fixing tree as
the overstorey creating the shade conditions the crop requires - for example Ital ian alder (Alnus
cordata) or Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). In Japan manure is applied as a mulch in late
winter.
Weed control is important to maintain productivity. In Japan, hand weeding and the use of a rice
straw mulch achieves this. An light-impermeable mulch over winter is also possible.
Outside of China and Japan, myoga appears to be almost disease and pest-free. Some slug
damage may occur after heavy rain - the thick mulch may attact them too. Known to be
susceptible to cucumber mosaic virus.
UK plant sources
Beeches Nursery, Ashdon, Saffron Walden, Essex, CB10 2HB.
Tel: (01799) 584362. Email: sales@beechesnursery.co.uk Web: www.beechesnursery.co.uk
Crug Farm Plants, Griffith's Crossing, Caernarfon, Gwynedd, LL55 nu.
Tel: (01248) 670232. Email : info@crug-farm.co.uk Web: www.mailorder.crug-farm.co.uk
Edulis, 1 Flowers Piece, Ashampstead, Reading, Berks, FiG8 SSG.
Tel: (01635) 57S113. Email : edulis.nursery@virgin.net Web: www.edulis.co.uk
Poyntzfield Herb Nursery, Nr Balblair, Black Isle, Digwall, Ross-shire, IV7 SLX.
Tel: (01381) 610352. Email : info@poyntzfieldherbs.co.uk Web: www.poyntzfieldherbs.co.uk
References
Clothier, S: Myoga ginger. TreeCropper, March 2010 (issue 61).
Myoga ginger - Zingiber mioga. Broad Sheet 27, New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food
Research Ltd (NZICFR), 2001.
Shizuoza Gourmet (http://shizuokagourmeLwordpress.com): Vegetables Facts & Tips 20:
MyogaiMyoga Ginger. Accessed May 2010.
Williams, R ( Namayasai LLP - www.namayasai.co.uk) : pers.comm.
"Nut wizard" harvesters
At the ART we discovered these fantastic examples of small scale technology a couple of
years ago, and we now do all our nut harvesting with them.
These high quality, hand crafted tools are designed to pick up almost any object 5mm to
tOOlnm (t /4" to 4") in diameter, depending on the size of wizard. The tool weighs 2.5kg (5
1/2 Ib) and is 1.5m (5') long.
You roll the nut wizard over the ground and the spring wire spreads and flips the object in
the basket. Very little pressure is needed and easil y operated by anyone. Included with
the tool is a spreader which attaches to any standard bucket; when the wizard basket is
full , you push basket over spreader, separating the wires and objects fallout.
We have found that nut harvesting is 3 to 4 times faster using nut wizards (that's for hazels,
chestnuts and wal nuts) compared with hand pi cki ng.
In fact we think these are so good that we are now selling them! There are 4 sizes - large
(walnuts). medium (chestnuts), small (hazels) and extra small (acorns). You can see more
details and order on our website at http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/.
21 per year in Britain and the E.U. (17 unwaged). 39 / 2 years.
postag. Order online or make cheques payable to 'Agroforestry Research Trust' .
and send to: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes.
Devon, TQ9 6JT, UK. Fax/telephone: +44 (0)1803 840776. Email :
mail@agroforestry.co.uk. Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk.
The Trust is a charity registered in England (Reg. No. 1007440) , with the object to
Agroforestry News
~
g " : . . . ~ .. '-=
History of sweet chestnut
Volume 18 Number 4
August 2010
Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Contents
2 News: Plant compounds and human health /
Saffron
4 Ginkgo biloba: the maidenhair tree
11 Sea buckthorn
19 Bees and ales from trees and shrubs
24 Comus mas: Cornelian cherry
32 The history of sweet chestnut
40 Book review: Roundwood Timber Framing
Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Oartington,
Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. UK Telephone & fax: +44 (0)1803840776
News
Plant compounds and human health
An array of studies from scientists at the Agricultural Research Service's Western Human
Nutrition Research Center in Davis, California, is yielding new clues about the roles that
from plants may play in preventing cancer and other diseases .

For example, molecular biologist Susan J . Zunino has investigated the role that certain
compounds in strawberries may have in combating cancer. Her tests wi th lab-cul tured cells of a
cancer known as "acute lymphoblastic leukemia" have provided additional evidence that three
compounds occurring naturally in slrawberries-ellagic acid, kaempferol , and quercetin----can
cause death, or significant damage, to certain lines of these leukemia cells.
The compounds' modes of action vary, as does their effectiveness, Zunino and coresearchers
found. Each strawberry component was extracted and purified and then tested separately in a
succession of doses extending over a 72-hour period.
The scientists point out that several key questions still need to be answered. Among them: Are
the compounds as effective in humans as they are in lab-cultured cells? How bioavailable are the
phytochemicals, that is, what amounts do our bodies actually take up, and use, from the foods
that we eat?
Zunino and her ARS colleagues collaborated in the studies with medical researchers at the
University of California-Los Angeles and published their findings in the Journal of Functional
Foods in 2009. ARS and the Watsonvi lle-based California Strawberry Commission funded the
studies.
ARS colleague Daniel H. Hwang, also a molecular biologist at Davis, investi gates the ability of
plant chemicals to protect us from harmful inflammation. Unwanted inflammation can increase risk
not only of cancer , but also of certain other disorders, including heart disease and insulin
resistance.
Hwang and a team of coinvestigators have teased out precise details of how six natural
compounds in plants-Iuteolin, quercetin, chrysin, eriodicytol, hesperetin, and naringenin-
apparently act as anti-inflammatory agents.
Luteolin is found in celery, thyme, green peppers, and chamomile tea. Foods ri ch in quercetin
include capers, apples, and onions. Oranges, grapefruit, lemons, and other citrus fruits are good
sources of hesperetin, eriodicytol , and nari ngenin. Chrysin is from the fruit of blue passionflower,
a tropical vine.
The scientists have provided new, specific, and previously unknown details about how these
phytochemicals work indirectly to undermine and inhibit the expression of certain genes. Without
that interference, the products of those genes might-in turn-trigger inflammation.
It's research that involves determining how the plant compounds send biochemical signals
downstream, along some of the body's complex pathways. Then, researchers have to determine
which molecules along the pathways are the phytochemicals' intended targets.
Hwang's team has shown, for the first time, that all six plant compounds target an ehzyme known
as "TBK1." Each compound inhibits, to a greater or lesser extent, TBK1's ability to activate a
specific biochemical signaL If unimpeded, the signal would lead to formation of gehe products
known to trigger inflammation.
Of the six compounds, luteal in was the most effective inhibitor of TBK1. Luteolin is already known
to have anti-inflammat!Jry properties. But Hwang and his colleagues were the first to provide this
new, mechanistic explanation of how luteolin exerts its anti-inflammatory effects.
What's more, the approaches that the researchers developed to uncover these compounds'
effects "can also be used, in the future, to identify additional anti-inflammatory compounds present
in fruits and vegetables, " Hwang notes.
Source: Cancer-Fighting Roles of Intriguing Plant Compounds.
magazine, July 2010.
Agricultural Research
Saffron: hard to produce and more costly than gold
Saffron is the stigma of a very pretty crocus native to a strip of west Asia. The modern plant is
sterile, the hard-won result of cross-breeding and human-led Darwinism. Every year, people have
to dig it up, split the bulb-like corms that form part of its root and replant them. The flowers bloom
in October, pushing out two or three fragile, wispy stigmas that you can only harvest by hand, and
pickers work through the night to catch these at their best.
It's punishing, fiddly work. So saffron is notoriously the most expensive spice, its retail price,
pound for pound, often exceeding that of gold.
For as long as there have been people, people have known about saffron. A dye from its stigmas
colours 50 OOO-year-old cave paintings in what is now Iraq. Ancient frescoes on the Greek island
of Santorini depict a goddess watching - or perhaps blessing - a woman picking saffron,
presumably for medicine. No one knows how old this painting is: a volcano buried it in around
1500BC, and the work could have been hundreds of years old even then. Ovid wrote that Smilax
changed her pursuer Crocos into a flower, leaving the red stigma as a symbol of his passion.
Another myth describes Hermes, the messenger to the gods, accidentally wounding his friend
Cracos: blood dripping from Crocos's head fell on the ground, where Hermes changed it into the
flower. Zeus slept on a bed of saffron. The spice appears in the sybaritic verses of the Song of
Solomon and in Chinese writings dating to 1600BC.
The Romans grew saffron in Gaul but when the empire fell so did the civilized taste for the spice.
The Moors, to whom we owe so much in our food, reintroduced saffron to a benighted continent in
the eighth and ninth centuries. Basel was the centre of the European saffron industry in the
middle ages, and unscrupulous dealers would, under local law, be burned alive for selling an
adulterated product. Then, as now, cheap imitations based on turmeric and safflower tempted the
chancers and cheats.
Saffron's popularity had waned by the 18th century as foods like vanilla, cocoa and coffee
emerged to titillate the palates of the rich. That's why comparatively few classic European dishes
feature saffron - and those that do, such as paella and bouillabaisse, almost invariably come from
saffron-producing regions like Provence or Valencia. Cornish saffron cake, however, is a classic
Page 3
English dish with an uncertain history. In this country, saffron grew most successfully in the east
particularly Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and Essex (Saffron Walden is named after the crop that, for c
time, made it rich, and a crocus appears on its coat of arms). Nobody knows why saffron cakE
should have come from Cornwall. It's been posited that the Cornish, who were trading tin witl
foreign merchants possibly Phoenicians as early as 400BC, bought saffron at the time anc
retained it in their cooking. If this is true, England is almost unique in Europe, having cooked witl
saffron for more than two millennia.
Iran now produces around 90 percent of the world's saffron. The EU has tried and largely failed te
Afghan poppy farmers to switch to saffron - although the spice is quite lucrative ant
to much Afghan land, farmers earn only half as much for it as they do for opium
Producing saffron has always been difficult, and few countries do not even attempt it today. .
Source: www.guardian.co. ukllifeandstyle/wordofmouth/201 0/jun/29/saffron
Ginkgo biloba: the maidenhair tree
Introduction
The maidenhair tree or ginkgo (also spelt gingko) is a relic of prehistoric ages, being the onll
survivor of a genus which was widely distributed (including in Britain) 180 million years ago. It is
only found in the wild in the Tianmu Mountains of Zhejiang province in China. It has been widell
cultivated for a very long time in China, Japan and Korea. Trees are quite hardy (to zone 4)
tolerating winter temperatures of
The name ginkgo derives from the Chinese, 'yin-kuo', via the Japanese pronunciation, 'gink_'. ThE
Japanese name for the species translates to 'silver apricot'. Ginkgos are trees, probabll
one reason why they are primarily found around temples in Japan, Korea and Manchuria, where it
regarded as a sacred tree. The tree introduced to Europe in around 1730, from seeds collectec
from trees in temple gardens.
Description
Although placed in the conifer family, the ginkgo is a tall deciduous tree, growing up to 40 m (130 ft
high (though reaching only 25 m (80 ft) in Britain). It has a variable habit, sometimes narrowll
conical, other times spreading; trees tend to be upright when young, becoming more spreading
age. The bark is grey and deeply furrowed on older trunks. Trunks often branch low, with severa
erect main branches forming. The season of active growth is from late May to late August.
Shoots are of two types, long extension growths with alternate leaves; and short woody
bearing fruit and leaves in false whorls of Buds are brown.
The distinctive leaves are with branching parallel veins and an irregular
margin, leathery and tough, 5-12 em (2-5") wide, bright yellowish-green above, paler beneath, after
cut into two lobes, on long stalks 2-9 em (1-3Vi') long. The leaves turning golden-yellow in autumr
before quickly falling. .
Page 4 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 18 No <
Ginkgo leaves (Source: Wikimedia Commons)
Flowers are borne in leafaxils on separate trees, in spring before the leaves full y open. Male
flowers are yefl ow, catkin-like, pendulous, solitary, 25-80 mm (1 -3") long, shedding pollen in March;
Page 5
female flowers are pale yellow becoming orange, tiny (2 mm), in 2'5 or 3's, on long stalks.
Pollination is via the wind and female flowers then d ~ v e l o p into drupe-like fruits, with a fleshy outer
shelt and hard inner nut.
The fruits, maturing in the autumn, appear singly or in pairs like small round yellowish-green plums,
25 mm (1") long; the fleshy exterior starts to decay on the tree, darkening to purple-black; ripe fruits
fait, the fleshy covering then bursting and emitting an unpleasant odour of rancid butter. The inner
nut is smooth and white, ovoid, 12-20 mm long, with 2 or 3 ridges .

The ginkgo is dioecious, so trees are either male or female; only females bear fruits. There is no
easy sure way of telling male and female plants apart before they flower, though there are three
unsubstantiated ways of telling the sexes apart:
(1) It is believed that males leaf out 2 weeks earlier in spring and drop their leaves 2 weeks later
than the females in autumn.
(2) Seeds are marked by 2 or 3 longitudinal ridges. Traditional Chinese sources say that those with
2 produce females, while those with 3 produce males.
(3) One source says that females are almost horizontally branched, with deeply lobed leaves, while
males branch at a sharper angle with less lobed leaves.
Maidenhair trees are long-lived: trees over 200 years old are stitt growing and healthy in Britain.
Uses
The maidenhair tree has traditionally been used as a street tree in Japan, and more recently in other
countries - male clones are usually used so there is no unpleasant-smelJing fruit for folk to complain
about - it become slimy anp slippery as it decays.
The decaying fleshy fruit exterior has been variously described as 'unpleasant', 'evil' , 'foul', 'offensive'
and 'malodorous'. This is caused by butanoic acid, which causes the smell of rancid butter. Gloves
should be used when handling fruits, as the juice from the outer flesh causes itching, rashes and
even dermatitis in some people. .
Nevertheless, the kernel of the nut when cooked is well-flavoured and esteemed as a delicacy in
China and Japan, where they are sold in markets. In China the nuts are often served on special
occasions such as weddings and the Chinese new year. Most of the trees in Britain are males, but
when females have been planted they have fruited abundantly.
Seeds contain, per 1'OOg: 403 Calories, 10.2-10.5% protein, 3.1-3.5% fat, 83% carbohydrate (mostly
starch), 1.3g fibre, 11 mg Ca, 327 mg P, 2.6 mg Fe, 15 mg Na,1139 mg K, 392 mg beta-carotene
equivalent, 0.52 mg thiamine, 0.26 mg riboflavin, 6.1 mg niacin, 54 mg ascorbic acid. The main fatty
acids are oleic, linoleic and palmatic. Ory kernels constitute about 59% of seed weight.
Seeds are first shelled, then usually soaked in hot water to facilitate peeling off the papery inner
seed layer. Kernels are eaten roasted or boiled for 10-15 minutes, when they have a pleasant and
characteristic flavour, which has been likened to almond or mild Swiss cheese. Eaten at Chinese
feasts, they are supposed to aid digestion and alleviate the effects of drinking too much wine. (NB
seeds are mildly toxic raw and should only be eaten cooked). Canned, boiled Ginkgo nuts can
sometimes be seen in oriental grocery stores. The Chinese often bake them with meat or fowl and
include them in sweet soups with Chinese dates (Zizyphus jujube) or whi te fungi.
The oil from the kernels is also edible when cooked. It can also be burnt as an illumination source.
Ginkgo is seldom felled for its timber, which is yellow-brown, light, soft, close-grained and brittle, with
a thin satiny-white sapwood. It has insect-repelllng properties and is used for chessboards, bas-
reHef carvings and toys. Trees can be coppiced.
Extracts from the leaves and roots (with alcohol) have been found to have effective pest-control
properties. Leaf extracts act as a repellent to silverfish and as an antifungal to brown rot of pome
fruit (MoniHnia fruticola) ; root extracts act as an antifeedant and insecticide to the European corn
borer, and as an antiviral to the southern mosaic bean virus.
The seeds are used in China to wash clothing, and are steeped in wine to make a cosmetic
detergent.
Traditional Chinese medicinal uses
The fruit pulp, seeds and leaf extracts have been long used in traditional Chinese medicine. The
f ~ u i t pulp is macerated in vegetable oil for 100 days and used for tuberculosis and pulmonary
complaints [Ginkgolic acid is acti ve against the tubercle bacillus] ; Seeds (raw) are antitussive,
astringent and sedative, and are said to be anticancer; they are used for bladder ailments,
cardiovascular ailments and cancer. They are also sometimes used fried. NB Large quantities of
raw seeds are reported to be toxic. Leaf extracts are used in peripheral arterial circulation problems
and are inhaled for ear, nose and throat ailments. '
Modern medicinal uses
The numerous use of Ginkgo in Chinese medicine have brought the plant to the attention eM:
mainstream medicine. Leaf extracts have an antiradical effect on the brain ie aid the body to rePEl
attacks of free radicals which damage cell membranes - and are vasoregulatory (improving generij
microcirculation especially in the brain). Extensive research in the past 30 years has
that ginkgo can improve cerebral circulation. It is also thought to slow dow\
cerebral ageing by improving the glucose consumption of the brain. The effects are to improve
performance of short-term memory, alertness and drive; other uses are for cerebral oedema!
tinnitus, dizziness, dementia and Parkinson's disease etc. Leaf extracts are now used in a drug tc
treat senility, while another extract is used for sufferers of diabetes mellitus and arterial disease,
Some large pharmaceutical companies are investing in gingko plantations to provide bulk leaf matte)
for drug extraction. Note though that recent clinical trials have concluded that there is no
measurable benefit in memory or related cognitive function in adults with healthy cognitive functiollJ
Other clinical trials have shown no benefit in preventing or treating dementia or Alzheimer's disease.
Some studies suggest a link between ginkgo and the easing of the symptoms of tinni tus.
Prel iminary studies also suggest that Ginkgo may be of benefit in multiple sclerosis,
modest improvements in cognition and fatigue without increasing rates of serious adverse events
in this population. Another study in 2003 concluded that Ginkgo is an effective treatment few
arresting the development of vitiligo.
Cultivation
Male and female trees are needed for fruiting to take place: one male will pollinate up to 5 females.
A mate branch can be grafted onto a female tree to ensure pollination.
Ginkgos are tolerant of most conditions, including part shade, acid soils (to pH 4.5), alkaline soils (to
pH 8.5), steep slopes, high & low humidity, air pollution, and are very drought tolerant. They are
resistant to wind and snow damage. They are hardly ever affected by pests or diseases, and are
immune to honey fungus (Armillaria mellea). The main thing to avoid is poor drainage and
exposure, neither of which are liked. .
Preferred conditions are a deep, well-drained soil with pH on the acid side (5-5.5). Growth is best in
hot summers, though the typical British summer is quite adequate. Growth is quite slow, about 3 m
(10 ttl in 10 years and 8 m (25 ttl in 20 years.
Trees start bearing fruits at 25-35 years of age. Fruits are readil y produced in Britain, where the tree
generally thrives in all but exposed locations. The fruits ripen and fall in autumn. The offensive
odour is only emitted when the ripe fruit pulp is crushed. Early-picked frui ts wi ll not have properly.
developed kernels, though they can be stored (see Propagati on, below) to overcome this. Gloves
should be used when collecting fruits as the juice from the fleshy exterior coat can be a skin irritant.
Plantations have been set up in China, Japan, Korea, France and the USA to yield leaves for the
pharmaceutical industry. Plants grown for leaf production are cut back to 30 cm (1 ttl every year in
October. The leaves are harvested while still green in late summer or early autumn, dried
immediately and pressed into bales for transport to the processing plant. Yields of leaves are
estimated to rise quickly to 20 tonnes per Hectare per year (8 tons/acre/year) in the third year atter
planting in an intensive plantation. Trees could be grown as an understorey crop for leaf production.
Cultivars
Good fruiting cultivars may have bee)1 selected in China and Japan, but only a few are available in
the western world, with mostly ornamental cultivars available. Some of these are of known sex, so
they could still be used for nut production jf males and females are both utilised. Most of the
ornamental cultivars a.re columnar or narrowly conical in shape.
Males: Fairmount (= Mayfield, Princeton Sentry, Saratoga (=Autumn Gold)
Females:
Eastern Star: Originating from China, bears abindant crops of large nuts.
King of Dongling: Originating from China, a good fruiting form.
Ohazuki (= Epiphylla) Tree 4-5m high with large leaves.
Variegata
Hermaphrodite:
Dr Causton: Found in a garden in Gloucestershire (UK) , a self-fertile form.
Others: Aurea, Autumn Glory (rounded), Fastigiata, Heksenbezen Leiden, Horizontalis (very
low growing), Laciniata, Lakeview, Pale Alto (spreading), Pendula (small , domed), Prostrata, St
Cloud, Tit (shrubby), Tremonia, Tubilolia, Umbrella.
Propagation
Propagation is easiest from seed. There are on average 600 seedslkg (270/lb) [range 400- t t50/kg[;
seeds do not need stratification and can be sown in spring; germination may be improved, though,
with one or two months of stratification or chilling, or by being sown in autumn (since this is when
seeds are likely to be acquired, it may be easiest and most successful to sow them immediately).
One report [Den01 states that washing the seeds in water and cleaning daily for seven days prior to
sowing was essential for germination.
Seeds intended for propagation can be picked in mid Autumn, before the flesh begins to rot, and
packed in warm, moist sand for some weeks to permit the embryos to finish developing. Seeds do
not store very well , and must not be stored dry for long. Seeds can be broadcast or station sown in
a seedbed at a density of 300 seeds/m2 beware of rodent predation. If sowing in the autumn or
wi nter, use of containers will be safer and easier to monitor. Between 30% and 80% of seeds
usually germinate. Seedlings are susceptible to frost damage in early autumn, but not to any pests
and diseases. Seedlings reach 20-30 em (8-12") in their first year.
All other methods of propagation are somewhat difficult (especially cuttings and air layering) with
mediocre results. Methods which have worked for some are:
Softwood cuttings in midsummer can be rooted under glass or intermittent mist quite readily.
cm cuttings, either terminal or spur growth, from young or old trees, given mist, root in
weeks. There are some reports that rooted cuttings are slower to grow away than grafted plants.
Hardwood cuttings of ripened wood, taken in December and placed in a frame, may work.
Simple layering and air layering, between April and August.
Grafting is sometimes used to propagate cultivars. The spliced side veneer graft or whip and cleft
graft are usually used, in spring.
.,'
Trees are capable of sprouting from embedded buds near the base of the trunk
(Iignotubers) in response to disturbances, such as soil erosion. Old individuals are also
capable of producing aerial roots art the undersides of large branches in response to
disturbances such as crown damage; these roots can lead to successful clonal
reproduction upon contacting the soil.
References
Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs hardy in the British Isles (Volume II). John Murray.
Bianchini , F & Corbetta, F: The Fruits of the Earth. Cassett, 1975.
Deno, N: Seed Germination, Theory and Practice. N.Deno, 1993.
Crawford, M: Ginkgo biloba - the maidenhair tree. Agroforestry News, Vol 3 No 2.
Dirr, M & Heuser, C: The Reference Manual of Woody Plant propagation.
Duke, J A: CRC Handbook of Nuts. CRC Press, 1989.
Duke, J A & Ayensu, E: Medicinal Plants of China. Reference Publications, 1985.
Funfgeld, E W (Ed): R6kan (Ginkgo biloba): Recent Results in Pharmacology and Clinic. Springer-
Verlag, 1988.
Grange, M & Ahmed, S: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties. Wiley, 1988.
Hartmann, H & Kester, D: Plant Propagation. Prentice-Halt.
Jaynes, R: Nut Tree Culture in North America. NNGA, 1979.
Krussmann, G: Manual of Cultivated Conifers. B T Batsford, 1984.
McMillan Browse, P: Hardy Woody Planls from Seed. Grower Books, 1979.
Plants for a Future: Plant database, 1994.
Reighard, G: Minor Nuts of the Past, Present and Future. NNGA (Northern Nut Growers
Association) 80th Annual Report, 1989.
Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening, Volume 2. 1992.
Wikipedia. Accessed 26 August 2010.
Sea buckthorn
The sea buckthorn (sea berry, sallow thorn, sandthorn), Hippophae rharrinoides, is often grown as a
garden shrub but rarely as a culinary or medicinal plant, the fruits often described in Britain as 'sour
and inedible'; however, in many parts of Europe and Asia it is highly valued for its fruit which is very
high in nutrients and is processed into foods much in the same way as sloes are in Britain.
H.rhamnoides is one of six species and twelve subspecies all closely related native to Europe and
Asia, but is by far the most widespread, with a range extending from the Atlantic coasts of Europe
right across to northwestern China. In western Europe, it is largely confi ned to sea coasts where
salt spray off the sea prevents other larger plants from out-competing it, but in central Asia it is
more widespread in dry semi-desert sites where other plants cannot survive the dry conditions; in
central Europe and Asia it also occurs as a subalpine shrub abovethe tree line in mountains, and
other sunny areas such as river banks.
Description
Hippophae rhamnoides, of the family elaeagnaceae, is a deciduous shrub native to Europe
(including Britain) and Asia, found growing in the wild in open and exposed places on well-drained
soils from sea level on coastlines to high mountains. Sea buckthorn can form extensive thickets by
s.uckering. It is extremely hardy, to zone 3 (-37'C, -35"F).
The sea buckthorn usually grows as a medium shrub to 2m (6 ft) in very exposed locations or as a
large shrub to 6m (20 h) high, and rarely more tree-like and up to 9m (30 h) or even 12m (40 h) high.
(The more vigorous natural variety Procera grows to 18m (60 h) in China). Young plants are
covered with silvery grey scales. Branches are numerous, stiff and thorny, becoming black where
the silvery scales have fallen. Fruiting begins at an age of 3-5 years.
Leaves are distinctively willow-like, Silvery when young and brownish underneath. They are
alternate and short-stalked, long and narrow (15-75mm x 3-10 mm; Y.-3" x 0.12-0.4"), tapering at
both ends and glossy silvery on both sides. Male plants produce conical conspicuous buds in
winter whereas the female produces buds which are smaller and rounded.
Flowers are very small (3 mm) and inconspicuous, yellow-green, appearing in March-April (before
the leaves) in the leaf-axils of the previous years' shoots, in short spikes or racemes; the species is
dioecious, so male and female flowers are borne on different plants. Female flowers are stalked,
and where attached to the shoots, a thorny short shoot often forms. Pollination is by wind.
Frui ts, produced in abundant dense clusters, are bright orange-yellow on short stalks, rounded or
oval, 6-10 mm long (though up to 15 mm in cultivars), juicy with an acid yellow juice. Fruits ripen in
September onwards to November. Fruits can sometimes hang on the bushes all through winter until
Page 11
February or March; sometimes they are left by birds but they are relished by migrating fieldfares,
waxwings and starlings upon their arrival in autumn. The fruits contain one hard, black seed.
Like many in it's family, the sea buckthorn is a nitrogen fixer (the roots produce nodules containing
nitrogen-fixing bacteria), and this enables it to thrive and colonise very poor and sandy soils.
Hippophae salicifolia sea-buckthorn) is restricted to the Himalayas, to the south
of the common sea-buckthorn, growing at high altitudes in dry valleys; it differs from
H.rhamnoides in broader (to 10 mm broad), greener (less silvery) leaves, and yellow roundish
fruits 6-9mm across. It has a more tree-like form" growing to 8-1 Om high or so.
Cultivation
Although the plant is found wild on well drained soils, it tolerates damp clay soils and can be grown
almost anywhere; the main limiting factor to its growth is its demand for light: seedlings will not grow
at all if shaded, and mature plants quickly die if trees overshadow them.
r
I
Growth is some 3.5 m (11 11) in 10 years, and reaches 60 cm (2 f1) per year. Frui1 is borne early,
after 3-4 years, but the plants, if not allowed to spread via suckering, are short lived and after 10-12
years, fruiting declines rapidly. Fruiting is regular, normally every year. I !
Hard pruning is tolerated, and because fruit is mainly produced on the most recent 1-3 years of
wood, a pruning regime similar to that for blackcurrants (cutting out a third to a quarter of all wood,
choosing the oldest wood, at the base each year) can be undertaken if fruit production is the primary
objective.
Harvesting is difficult due to the dense thorn arrangement among the berries and because the
fruits are held tightly to the branch with hardly any fruit stalk. One common commercial
harvesting technique is to remove an entire fruiting branch whi ch is then frozen, allowing the
berries to be easily shaken off.
Mechanical harvesting using berry shakers is the other commercial harvesting method used, but it
leaves up to 50% fruits on the bushes.
Hand harvesting is slow and can be painful as the fruits easily burst allowing the acid juice to run
into scratches and cuts on the hands. Running the hands down a branch, squeezing the juice
into a container held beneath is another option.
Fruits are very rich in vitamins (see below) and the sea bucktorn is increasingly cultivated for fruit. If
cultivating for fruit, a ratio of one male to every six females is needed for satisfactory pollination.
Fruits are collected when they start to ripen in September, while still firm.
Breeding work has been going on in Russia and centraVeastern Europe since the 1930's to produce
cultivars with larger fruits and which are free of thorns. These cultivars are medium shrubs, 1.8-3 m
(6-1011) high and 2-3 m (7-1011) wide; fruifs are yellow or orange, weighing 0.4-1.0 g each.
Planfafions have planfs spaced af 2 x 4 m (7 x 1311). Yields are normally 6-15 Kg (13-33 Ib) per
planf, occasionally up fo 45 Kg (100 Ib).
In Russia, sea buckthorn is often interplanted with Norway spruce (Picea abies), and several years
of fruit crops are obtained before the spruce overtake and shade out the Hippophae.
Propagation
Propagation is normally by seed, or layering; several other methods are feasible. Vegetative
methods are necessary to obtain plants of known sex. Until plants reach flowering age there is no
way of distinguishing males from females; from flowering age onwards, the sex can be determined in
winter from the buds, which are conical and conspicuous on male plants and small and rounded On
females.
Layering: carried out in late autumn as usual.
Seed: can be removed from fruits or bought in a dry state; if stored dry, try to keep moisture levels
below 12%. There are on average 90,000 seeds per Kg (40900 seeds per Ib), of which some 34%
are viable, ie the number of viable seeds in approx 31 ,000 per Kg (14100 per Ib).
Seed requires stratification for 315 months in moist sand: some seed will germinate after 3 months
stratification, but some may not germinate for a further year. A temperature of below 5'C (41 1=) is
necessary in stratification to break the dormancy.
If sowing in a seed bed, a density of 100 seedlings per m' (as/yd' ) is satisfactory; to achieve this,
sow about 13 g of seed per m' (11 g or 0.4 oz per yd'). Try and keep the seed bed clean for a
second year in case of late germi nating seeds.

Root cuttings: these are taken in winter, pieces of roots at least 5-10 mm (0.2-0.4") thick and 8 em
(3") long should be placed in pots of compost in cold frames until growth starts.
Suckers: these can be dug up in w(nter and transplanted, though they often have rather poorly
branched root systems.
Softwood cuttings: taken in July, give bottom heat and mist; no hormone rooting powder is
needed.
Hardwood cuttings: taken in the dormant season and placed into a well drained cuttings bed,
canbe moderately successful.
Culinary uses
One hundred grams of fruit pulp contains in the order of 10 mg provitamin A (this represents 100-
200 daily does for an adult), 200-1500 mg Vitamin C , 160 mg Vitamin E, Vitamins B1 and B2, 15-40
mg carotenoids, 100-1000 mg flavonoids (especially rutin) , 3-8% ails, 6-11% fatty acids, 3-9%
sugars, malic and tartaric acid, tannins, volatile oils, potassium, iron, boron and manganese. The
juice is acid, with a pH of 2.7 to 3.3.
Methods of using the fruit include:
Juices and drinks (sweetened). The fresh juice can be preserved with honey (4 parts juice to 1
part honey). It can then also be used as a sweetener or to make liqueurs.
Syrups, jams, marmalades and compotes.
Making a sauce to accompany fish and meat (similar to cranberry sauce).
The juice can be used in place of lemon juice.
Pies.
Use as a baby food ingredient in Finland.
A specialty beer called Tyrnilambic Baie d'Argousier has been produced at the
Cantillon Brewery in Brussels exclusi vely for the Finnish Market
When processing fruit, the juice should be exposed to the air and light for as short a time as
possible, and aluminium pans should not be used. Vitamin levels will decline through prolonged
heating, so minimum cooking times should be employed. Fruit can be successfully preserved by
freezing.
When the fruits are pressed, the resulting sea-buckthorn juice separates into three layers: on top
is a thick, orange cream; in the middle, a layer containing sea-buckthorn's characteristic high
content of saturated and polyunsaturated fats; and the bottom layer is sediiment and juice. The
upper two layers contain oils applicable for cosmetic purposes and can be processed for skin
creams etc., while the bottom layer can still be used for edible products.
Medicinal uses
Sea Buckthorn has been used in Chinese medicine for over 12 centuries
Nutrient and phytochemical constituents of sea-buckthorn berries have the potential value to
affect inflammatory disorders and other diseases although no specific health benefits have yet
been proven by clinical research in humans. Many traditional uses are widely utilised in Asia,
especially China.
The freshly pressed juice can be taken against colds, febrile conditions, tiredness, exhaustion etc.
The juice is widely used to make vitamin-rich medications used in the treatment of hypovitaminosis,
infectious diseases and during convalescence; also for cosmetic preparations such as face creams
and toothpaste. Fruits are used in traditional Chinese medicine as a stomachic, antidiarrhoeal and
antitussive.
For its hemostatic and anti-inflammatory effects, berry fruits are added to medications for
pulmonary, gastrointestinal , cardiac, blood and metabolic disorders in Indian, Chinese and
Tibe1an medicines. Sea-buckthorn fruit components have potential acti vity against cancer
and dengue virus.
The bark and leaves may be used for treating diarrhoea and dermatological disorders.
Oil extracted from the pulp and seeds has been used clinically for decades in China and
Russia. Sea buckthorn oil made from the berries is rich in fatty acids that are essential for
skin maintenance and is widely used in the west in skin care products.
Oils from sea-buckthorn seeds and pulp differ considerably in fatty acid composition. While
lineleic acid and a-linolenic acid are the major fatty acids in seed oil , sea buckthorn pulp oil
contains approximately 65% combined of the monounsaturated fatty aci, palmitoleic acid, and the
saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid. Few other vegetable oils contain a similar quantity of these
fatty acids. Both the seed and pulp oils are rich in tocopherols, tocotrienols and plant sterols. In
addition, the pulp oil contains especially high levels of carotenoids.
Oil from the leaves can be used in' ointments for treating a wide range of skin conditions
such as acne, eczema, bed sores, radiation damage and burns. The oil from the leaves is
also used internall y to treat stomach and intestine disorders. Russian cosmonauts have
used Sea buckthorn cream made from pulp oil for protection against cosmic radiation.
Hedges, windbreaks, shelterbelts
Sea buckthorn is highly salt and wind-resistant and is excellent for hedging and shelterbelts as long
as there is good light. It is ideal for growing in cold dry climates such as the Canadian prairies
due to its drought tolerance, extensive root system, ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and
winter hardiness. At present t here are approximately 250,000 mature sea buckthorn in
Saskatchewan.
Extensive use has been made os sea buckthorn in China in areas characterised by cold,
dry windy weal her; some 30,000 heclares (75,000 acres) of planlalions are now
established. These plantations have reduced soil erosion by a factor of 8 and increased
grain yi elds. I I
Fruit is borne on female trees, and is rich in vitamins C, A, E, K and P, carbohydrates,
proteins, organic acids and amino acids; the fruit has been used for centuries in Europe
and Asia for its medicinal and nutritional qualities. Sea buckthorn in shelterbelts can
produce up 10 5 kg (11 Ib) of fruil per female Iree annually.
In Canada, as well as used for shelterbelts, sea buckthorn has been used in reclamation
and wi ldlife plantings, as an ornamental species, and recently in commercial orchards.
25,000 shelterbell Irees have recently been surveyed by Ihe PFRA Shellerbell Cenlre al
Indian Head to evaluate fruit size, quality and yield, growth habit, lack of thorns and ease
of harvesting. Nine female selections have been released to growers for testing. They
have large fruits, few thorns, and are easily harvested by hand or machine.
Other uses
The leaves contain an average of 15% protein and may be used feed for livestock and
pels.
Because of its suckering and invasive habit in open areas, one of the major uses is for soil
reclamation during reforesting projects on degraded soils (China) ; and for dune reclamation
(Holland).
Stems, roots, foliage and fruit aU impart a yellow dye.
The timber, though always small in dimensions, is sometimes used for turnery and rake teeth: it is
fine grained, hard and of average heaviness.
Cultivars
AskoJa: Vigorous, 4-5m high, fruits densely, fruits deep orange, medium-large, oval-cylindrical. Mid
season (Iale Aug/early Sepl).
Dorana: Slow-medium growing, relatively small cutlivar with few suckers. Fruiting shoots heavy
laden with medium-large, deep orange fruits, relatively easy to pick. Early season (August) and the
highest vitamin C of all cultivars.
Frugana: Medium vigorous upright shrub to 4m high. Fruits medium-large, shiny light orange,
heavily produced. Early-mid season (mid August).
Hergo: Upright shrub with overhanging branches. Fruits medium-large, light orange, ripening early-
miq season (mid August) .

Juliet: Female.
Leikora: Broad and upright shrub growing to 4m high with sturdy fruiting branches. Fruits large,
deep orange-red, cylindrical, borne densely close on fruiting sprigs. Ripens late (mid to late Sept).
Orange Energy: Broad, upright, sturdy shrub. Fruits large, oblong-oval , bright yellowish-orange,
densely borne. Ripens late (mid to late September).
Polmix 1: Male, early flowering. Upright, almost thornless shoots.
Polmix 3: Male, medium tall , mid season flowering covering most female varieties. Broad, upright,
weakly thorned.
Romeo: Male.
Sirola: Upright, columnar shrub, with few thorns and few suckers. Fruits large, oval to cyli ndrical ,
reddish-orange, quite sweet on fairly long fruit stalks allowing easy picking. Ripens very early (Late
July to early August)
References
Bean, W J:Trees and Shrubs hardy in the British Isles, Vol 2. John Murray, 1976.
Beckett, K & G : Planting Native Trees and Shrubs. Jarrold, 1979.
CAB Horticultural Abstracts: Abstracts of articles in German, Lithuanian, Russian & Slovakian jnls
1987-92.
Crawford, M: Useful Plants for Temperate Climates, Vol 2. A.RT, 1993.
Frankli n, P & Schroeder, W: Development of sea buckt horn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) as
an agroforestry crop on the Canadian prai ries. Proc. 7th Biennial Conference on
Agroforestry in N.America, 2001.
Gordon, A G & Rowe, D C: Seed Manual for Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. HMSO (FC Bulletin
59),
1982.
Hornok, L: Cultivation and Processing of Medicinal Plants. Wiley, 1992.
KrOssmann, G: Manual of Cultivated Broad-leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford, 1986.
Lanska, D: The Illustrated Guide to Edible Plants. Chancellor Press, 1992.
Launert, E: The Hamlyn Guide to Edible & Medicinal Pl ants. Hamlyn, 1981.
Plekhanova, M N: Article in Pomona Vol xxiii , No.3, describing work in USSR.
Smal l E. , Catling P.M. , Li T.S.C. (undated) Blossoming treasures of biodiversity. 5: Sea
Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L. ) - an ancient crop with modern virtues.
Accessed September 2007 on www.seabuckthorn.com/filesl sample-
buckthorn.pdf
Todd J. (2006) Introduction to Sea buckthorn. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural
Affairs.
Ontario, Canada.
Wikipedia. Accessed 26/8/ 2010.
Page 18 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vo/f8 No 4
.
Beers and ales from trees and shrubs
Birch
Birch beer is one of the better know tree brews. Birch sap, like maple, was one of the
staples of American settlers and has been used a great deal in Northern Europe as a
refreshing drinks, for beer and wi ne, and as a syrup for sweeteni ng foods. The sap has a
light , fresh flavour .
Most traditional recipes add sugar rather t han try and concentrate the sap because of the
labour involved in making birch sap sweet enough to provide enough sugar for
fermentation by itsel f . Birch sap is usual ly about 0.6% sugars, compared with 2% for
sugar maple. Tapping the tree involved dri lli ng a shal low hole in spring and collecting the
sap that pushes out under pressure (see the ART Factsheet 507 for more details).
Birch beer:
Ingredients: 1 gal lon (4.5 litres) birch sap
2 Ib (0.9kg) sugar
Yeast
Add sugar to sap and boil together until all impurities rise to the top and are
skimmed off.
Allow to cool , transfer to fermenter and add yeast.
Birch sap contains methyl salicylate, causing a wintergreen flavour. This compound is
similar to Aspirin and is strongly analgesic and anti-inflammatory.
Elder
For centuries elder was often used in both Europe and Nort h America to make ales and
wines, as well as in herbal remedies. It is stili used for wine, especially in Britain.
Elderflower ale was very popular at the time of the American Revolution. The flowers and
berries of both European elder (Sambucus nigra) and t he American elder (S.canadensis)
can be used.
Elderflower beer:
Ingredients: 1 pint (half a litre) fresh elderflowers
1 gall on (4.5 lit res) water
1 lemon
1 Ib (0.45 kg) sugar
Yeast and nutrient
Squeeze lemon juice and put ina bowl with the elde florets and sugar, then pur
over the boiling water. Cover closely and leave to infuse for 24 hours.
Add yeast and ferment for a wekk in a warm room.
Strain and bottle. Store in a cool place. Ready to drink after 1 week.
Elderberry ale:
Ingredients: 1 gallon (4.5 litres) water
2 cups fresh elderberries
2 Ib (0.9kg) malt ex1ract
Yeast
Place elderberries and 2 pints (1 litre) water in blender and puree.
Page 19
Slow boil the puree with the remainign water for one hour.
Allow to cool the strain and press through a sieve.
Add malt extract.
Pour into fermenter abd add yeast. Ferment to completion.
Bottle. Can be drunk after 1-2 weeks but best flavour is thought to be after long
storage, a year or more.
Maples
All maples can be tapped for their sweet sap. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is the best
known, and has the highest percentage of sugars (about 2%) in the fresh sap. Many
others, including sycamore (A.pseudoplatanus) have nearer to 1 % sugars.
Sugar maple sap was traditionally drunk as a spring tonic, being high in many nutrients
including sugars, calcium, potassium, phosphorus and vitamin B12.
Beer recipes using maple sap are basically the same as for birch sap, but the amount of
sugar can be reduced by about half for maples with 1% sugars, and can be omitted
entirely for sugar maple sap.
Oak
Oak bark ale is a traditional brew made in England using bark of either of the native oaks
(Quercus robur and Q.petraea). Oak bark is primarily astringent, being high in tannins -
and sometimes oak galls were used instead.
Oak bark ale:
Ingredients:
1.5 gallons (6.7 litres) water
2.2 Ib (1 kg) pale malt extract
2.3 2 oz (SSg) oak bark
Yeast
Boil water with malt extract and oak bark for 45 minutes
Cool and strain into fermenter; add yeast.
Ferment until complete (7-10 days). Siphon into bottles and store for 1-02 weeks
before drinking.
Some brewers suggest adding oak chips top the fermenting vessel (1-40z 1 25-100g per 5
gallons/22.5 litres of wort) and leaving the brew to ferment unti l the chips sink (about 8
days); the chips are steam sterilised in a pressure cooker for 20 mins before adding).
Other brewers simply make an oak bark infusion by boiling one cup of roughly ground oak
bark in two cups of water for 20 minutes, and adding this to the fermenter to add an oak-
like character.
Saskatoon
Saskatoon (Ame/anchier a/nifolia) is one of the serviceberries (or juneberries) , all of which
have blackcurrant-sized dark purple fruits which are sweet and tasty. They were
commonly used in North America in jams, jellies, pies and fermentation. The small seeds
add a very nice almond flavour to beers and ales
Saskatoon ale:
Ingredients: 1 gallon (4.5 litres) water

3 cups fresh saskatoons (or any serviceberry)'
2 Ib (O.9kg) malt extract
Yeast
Place berries and a quarter of the water in a blender and puree.
Slow boil the puree and remainign water for one hour.
Cool and strain I press through a sieve.
Add malt extract , pour into fermenter and add yeast. Fermant until completion.
Bottle. Can be drunk after 12 weeks but attains best flavour if stored for a longer
time.
Sassafras
Sassafras beer was widely known in North America, and indeed sassafras root bark from
the tree Sassafras albidum was the original herb used in ' all 'root' beers. These, like
spruce beers, were considered both pleasant to drink and with medicinal virtues too.
Sassafras root bark contains about 9% of volatile oils (mostly safrole). Some years ago
the American FDA determined that safrole was carcinogenic and banned its use in food in
the USA. The noted ethnobotanist James Duke commented however that "t he safrole in a
can of oldfashioned root beer is not as carcinogenic as t he alcohol in a can of beer ",
making the FDA ban seem rather absurd.
It is possible to buy an ' oil of sassafras' for use in root beers from wtrich safrole has been
removed and which still gives sassafras beer its normal flavour.
Sassafras beer:
Ingredients: 2 gallons (9 litres) water
6 cloves
3 pints (1.7 lit res) molasses
2 oz (55g) sassafras bark
2 oz (55g) wintergreen herb (Gaultheria procumbens foliage)
Pinch of cinnamon powder
Pinch of grated nutmeg
3 pints (1.7 litres) honey
1 tablespoon cream of tartar
Yeast
Scrape bark from sassafras roots, cover with 4 pints (2.3 litres) boiling water, add
wintergreen, cinnamon and nutmeg; cover closely and let stand.
When of desired strength, strain, add molasses, honey and cloves. Bring slowly
to boil and simmer for 10 minutes.
Strain again and add cream of tartar.
Add remaining water, cool , transfer to fermenter and add yeast.
When fermentation complete, bottle. Ready to drink in 71 0 days.
Douglas fir
Pseudotsuga menziesii is used in the same way as the Abies firs , the young spring shoots
being made used in beers. The shoots of this contain fairly high concentrations of sugar,
and in hot weather will sometimes secrete a white crystalline sugar, composed of a rare
trisaccharide, melizitose. This makes the shoots especially useful in fermentation.
Firs
Throughout Europe and North America, fir trees (Abies spp.) were used much like pine and
spruce in beers - mainly as antiscorbutic agents. Again the young spring shoots are
usually used and any spruce beer recipe can be adapted and used.
Juniper
Juniper ale and beer is traditionally brewed in Norway, Finland and Sweden, though like
many traditional beers it is not nearly as common now as it once was. The taste of the
final ale is reputedly good and very refreshing.
Juniper is important in the culture of Norway in particular. Juniper extract (a concentrated
tea made form juniper branches and berries) has long been used for washi ng and cleaning
(it has long been known to have antiseptic qualities). Though hops are often used in beers
today along with juniper, juniper is the oldest herb in traditional beer making in Norway
and other Scandinavian countries, and its antiseptic or preserving qualities predate the
use of hops.
Alt hough juniper is the pri mary tree herb used, alder is also frequently used, and other
trees including birch, spruce, fir , hazel , oak, willow and rowan have been occasionally
used.
After malti ng the barley (or sometimes oats are used in ' poorer' beers), the beer is usually
prepared in the following manner:
The malt is soaked in a hot liquid (water or juniper extract), just enough to cover
the malt, topping it, up as the malt absorbs the liquid. Juniper extract is made by
boiling a quantity of juniper branches in water (the amount and strength of this
infusion varying by region and brewer).
The soaking malt (the mash) is allowed to sit from 1 hour to several days, keeping
it warm, which releases sugars from the malted barley into solution.
A new container is prepared (traditional ly a barrel with tap or spigot at the bottom)
by cross-layering layers of straw (boi led to remove bacterial infecti ons) and
juniper branches in alternate layers, with larger branches at the bottom and
smaller higher up. Someti mes alder branches are added as a final top layer or
replace the juniper.
The liquid (wort) is now drawn off the mash and saved, and the wet malt
remaining is ladled into the second container.
The saved wort is now added to more hot water or juniper extract and the
resulting liquid poured very slowly over the mash in the barrel. The straw, juniper
(and perhaps alder) create an efficient strainer.
The sweet wort is now drawn off t he bottom of the barrel. Sometimes this wort is
boiled again, this time with hops and poured once more over the mash and
strained.
The final wort is then placed in a fermentef and allowed to cool , before yeast is
added.
P.oe 22 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 18 No 4
Pine
A few brewers in Norway used parts of pine trees (Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris) for brewing
ale and beer. Pine resin is ofpourse used in retsina wine in Greece.
Pine needles are strongly antiscorbutic and impart a pleasant taste to teas (and indeed
beers) - the young spring shoots are normally used. They also possess expectorant ,
diuretic and antiseptic qualities. Pine resin is also strongly expectorant.
Spruce
Spruce beer is perhaps the best known of the tree beers, especially in North America due
to its popularity with settlers there. Black spruce (Picea mariana) or red spruce (Picea
rubens) were usually used to make spruce essence (itself ~ s e d to make beer) , but blue
spruce (P.pungens) was sometimes used, though stronger.
Spruce essence:
Take the new green shoots of spruce trees in spring, cover with water and boil
until the water is pungent, strongly flavoured, and reddish-brown.
Strain and boil the liquid to reduce it to half its volume
This can be bottled and kept all year round.
Spruce essence is strongly preservative, like juniper, and is strongly anJiscorbutic.
Spruce beer - traditional recipe:
Ingredients: 1 gallon (4.5 I) water
1 oz (28g) spruce essence
7 oz (200g) molasses
Yeast
Add half the water to the spruce essence, boil , strain and allow to cool
Add the rest of the water (warmed), molasses and yeast.
Transfer to fermenting vessel
Bottle (strongly) while still fermenting to finish the process in bottie.
Spruce beer - a modern recipe:
Ingredients: 2 gallons (9 litres) water
2 Ib (0.9kg) molasses
6 oz (170g) fresh spruce shoots
Yeast
Boil water and spruce shoots for one hour.
Take from heat and remove spruce shoots.
Add molasses and stir well to dissolve.
Allow to cool , transfer to fermenter ands add yeast.
When complete, bottle. Ready to drink in 10 days.
Spruce beer prevented and cured scurvy amongst settlers in North America which explains
its popularity there, though the native peoples made it long before the settlers arrived.
Reference
Buhner, S: Sacred and Healing Beers. Brewers Publications, 1998.
r
Cornus mas: Cornel ian cherry
Introduction
cherry or Sorbet, Comus mas, is a member of the dogwood family, and is well
known in ornamental gardens for its cheerful yellow flowers in late winter. It is native to
central and southern Europe, Asia minor, Armenia and the Caucasus in dry deciduous
forests and brushlands.
It has been cultivated for centuries, and is still cultivated is some parts of Europe for its
fruits (notably Turkey, Russia, Moldavia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus - Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Georgia). It was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and grown in
monastery gardens in Europe through the middle ages; it was introduced to Britain by the
16th century. By the 18th century, it was common in English gardens, where it was grown
for its fruits, sometimes called cornel plums. It is now naturalised in Britain.
The cornel is grown intensively in the Anatolia region of Turkey, where at least 20
selections (some of them seedlings) are considered as having high economic value. 1988
figures report some 1.6 million cornel trees in Turkey, producing 18,000 tons of fruit per
year.
The name ' Carnelian' refers to the similarity in colour of the fruit to carnelian (or carnelian)
quartz, which has a waxy lustre and a deep red, reddish-white or flesh red colour.
Description
Comus mas is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5 m (16 ft) high and wide
(exceptionally to 7% m, 25 tt) , with a spreading, rounded, rather open habit. It usually
branches near to the ground. It tends to be more spreading in shadier locations. Larger
specimens can have trunks to 20 cm (8") In diameter.
Young branches are covered with minute flattened grey hairs.
Leaves appear as typical dogwood-type. They are opposite on branches, oval-elliptic,
pointed, 4-10 em ( l Y,=4") long by 2-4 em (0.7S-1 Y,") wide, dark green, somewhat glossy
above and with 3-5 pairs of veins. They usually turn purple-reddish in autumn in cool
climates.
The flowers are golden yellOW, in small umbels of 5-9, appearing before the leaves in
February to March (occasionally April ) at nodes on the previous year's wood and on spurs
of older wood. Eaeh flower is 3 mm (0.16") in diameter, with umbels about 2 em (0.8")
across. The flowers are pollinated by bees, mostly wild bumble bees unless the weather
at flowering is warm. The flowering period is long, and the flowers are frost tolerant ,
hence fruiting does not suffer too much from bad weather. Trees are generall y partially
self-fertile (some more than others), and cross pollination usually increases fruit yields.
Page 24
Fruits are usually bright glossy red, oblong, 14-20 mm (0.6-0.8") long (30- 40 mm, 1.2-1.6"
in large selections) and about 12 mm (W') wide, astringent unti l fully ripe (usually in
September) and then sweet-acid (depending on the selection). They contain a single large
elongated seed, 1 3 ~ 1 8 mm long by 4-9 mm wide; larger in larger fruits.
Cornelian cherry is hardy to about -25'C (USDA zone 4) , though the flower buds are less
hardy, to about .-20C; some selections, from Russia for instance, are much hardier, to -
37'C. Trees may be very long-li ved (up to 200 years).
Flowers on bare branches in late winter (Source: Wikimedia Commons)
Uses
The fruits are edible raw, dried and used in preserves; they can also be used to make wine
and liqueur. They were popular enough to be found in European markets up to the end of
the 19th century, and especially popular in France and Germany. The j ruits are still
commonly found in markets in Turkey.
The fully ripe fruits are on the acid side of sweet-acid with a tangy plum-like taste and
texture; before full y ripe they have an unpleasant astringency. The juice has a pleasant
flavour.
In Turkey the fruits are a favoured i.ngredient of sherbet (or serbet), a drink sold in stores
and by street vendors (t his is where the common name ' sorbet' comes from); jams and
marmalade are also made in commercial quantities.
In Ukraine, the fruits are juiced and sold commercially as soft drinks; they are also made
into preserves (conserves - the fruits are low in pectin, hence extra pectin or other fruits
need to be added), and also fermented into wine and distilled into a liqueur. Here and in
many --Ot her countries of the Caucasus the fruits are both dries as fruit leathers and also
canned. In the Caucasus, dried fruits are ground to powder and sprinkled on grilled meats
and into spice sauces.
In Russia, fruits are made into jams, jellies, fruit candies, purees, soft drinks and are
stewed. The dried fruits are used in sauces.
When the fruit was popular in Britain, it was rarely eaten out of hand (perhaps because
better-tasting clones were unknown there) , but was esteemed for the delicious tarts they
made; shops also
commonly sold rob de cornis, a thickened, sweet syrup made from Cornelian cherry fruits.
The fruit juice was also added to cider and perry. Eau-de-vie was made with the fruit in
France.
Fruit characteristics and content varies between cultivars and is also effected by
environment:
Fruit size: can reach 30-40 mm (1. 2- 1.6") long is better selections.
Fruit weight: can reach 6 g per fruit in larger fruited selections (wild forms are
typically 2 g).
Flesh! seed r a t i o ~ can reach 6 or more in better selections.
Juice colour: can vary from light to mid-red. An important characteristic for
the )uice industry.
Stone: can be clinging or non-clinging (free).
Soluble solids content: 9-14%, average 12%.
Sugar content (invert sugar) : 4-12%; 5-11 g per 100 ml.
Citric acid content: 1-7%
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C): 36-300 mg/ l00 g - very high (higher in more
northerly populations).
Vitamin C content after cooking: 30-50 mg! 100 g - as high as raw lemons!
Pectin content: 0.6-1.4% (of which 0.35-0.63% is soluble).
Fruits also contain substantial amounts ci f calcium, magnesium, provitamin A
and rutin.
The flowers are edible, used as a flavouring - used in Norway to flavour spirits.
An oil can be extracted from the seeds (only practical on a large scale) - oil content of
seeds is up to 34%. The oil is edible and can be used for lamp fuel (i e an illuminant). The
seeds can also be roasted and ground to make a coffee substitute.
In the traditional medicine system of the Caucasus and Central Asia, cornelian cherry has
been used for more than 1000 years. Products made from the leaves, flowers and fruit are
used to treat sore throats, digestion problems, measles, chickenpox, anaemia, rickets,
hepatitis A and pyelonephritis. The fruit juice is used for diabetes. Products from the
leaves, dried and powdered fruits and dried ground drupes (fruit plus seed) are used for
diarrhoea and haemorrhoids. Products from the bark and evaporated juice are used to
treat skin wounds and furunculosis.
Researchers in the former USSR noted that the flesh of the fruit and seed oi l are useful for
recovery and regeneration of damaged skin, and have been used successfully to cure
difficult-to-heal wounds, stomach ulcers and colitis. The fruit , bark and leaves have also
demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus and E.col; bacteria. Recent
Russian research reports that the fruit contains sutistances that leach radioactivity from
the body.
A study in Azerbaijan of the properties of the fatty oil obtai ned from the drupes (which
contain 34-35% of the oil) showed significant antiba'cterial activity against Staphylococcus
and E. coli bacteria.
The flowers are valued by bees (hive and wild bumble bees but mostly the latter) and are a
good early season source of nectar and pollen. In Russia it is regarded as an excellent
honey plant.
The leaves are high in tannin and can be used for tanning.
A yellow dye is obtained from the bark, used for dyeing wool.
The wood, though never available in large sizes, has considerable value because of its
very hard, tough, flexible, durable nature; it is heavier than water. It is val ued for turnery
and used for making small articles for domestic use (skewers, handles, utensils), f lutes
and other traditional musical instruments, jewellery, javelins, wheel spokes, gears and
ladders. The Greeks and Romans used it for making wedges to split wood, pins and bolts
and in spears.
The tree is used in the Czech Republic and Slovakia in screens and windbreaks. It
tolerates trimming and makes an impenet rable hedge.
Cultivation
Carnelian cherry is easy to grow in any soil of moderate to good fertility, including heavy
clay. Preferred conditions are a moist soil and sun. light shade and exposure to wind are
both tolerated; plants are very drought resistant. Plants transplant easily and grow at a
moderate rate. It is resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria mel/ea & other species) and to
Verticillium wilt.
Trees should be spaced 6-7 m (20-23 tt) apart in orchard-like conditions. They can also
be grown as a trimmed hedge - plant 3.7 m (12 tt) apart.
Seedli ngs can take 3-5 years, sometimes more, before flowering, and 6- 10 years before
fruiting; plants grown from cuttings fruit more quickly but are shorter-lived. Trees may live
and continue fruiting for a long time - a botanical garden in Kiev has trees 150-200 years
old that still fruit. It is usual for no fruits to set for the first few years of flowering - the
flowers often start off being male only, but will change to perfect flowers (ie with male &
female parts) after a while.
Grafted fruiting varieties, on the ot her hand, usually start fruiting within 1-2 years of
planting.
If the weather at flowering time is poor and bumble bees aren't flying, hand-pollinating the
flowers may improve fruit set. Fruit yields are also usually increased by cross pollination,
ie growing more than one cultivar. Mature trees can typicall y on average yield 11 Kg (24
Ib) of fruit, the better selections up to double this; individual trees can yield much more
than this.
Fruits from a single tree ripen over a long harvest period. The simplest way to harvest in quantity
is to periodically give the branches a gentle shake once the fruit has coloured,
Page 28 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol IS No 4
and collect the fallen fruits from the ground. Ripe fruits hang well on the tree (if birds
leave them alone), becoming more concentrated in flavour and sweetness. If fruits are
kept at room temperature for a day or two after harvest, they sweeten further .
Fruits generally ripen in September, but varies by up to 4 weeks between cul ti vars. Fruit
shape can vary from oblong to cylindrical and pear shape; fruit colour can range from
cream to yellow, orange and bright red to dark reddish-violet and almost black. Similarly,
flavour and other characteristics can vary.
In native stands, fruit yields are in the region of 500-1000 kg per hectare, but in orchard
plantings of improved varieties, yields can reach 5000 kg/ hectare (2 tons/acre).
There are few pests or diseases. In prolonged wet periods, a fungal leaf spot may affect
leaves (possi ble Septoria comico/a which also affects Comus sanguinea) ; plants recover
in dryer weather. Birds may compete for the fruits and squirrels are reported to be fond of
the seeds in North America, sometimes taking even unripe fruits.
Propagation
Seed: sow from fresh fruits (remove from the fruit) in autumn or stratify dry seed for 23
weeks (cold) or 16 weeks warm plus 4-16 weeks (cold). There are, on average, 5000
seeds/ Kg (2270Ilb) , of which 68% are viable. Germination of dried seed can be very slow,
often taking 12-15 months after st ratificati on. Nicking the seed coat prior to stratificati on
shoul d speed germination. When they sprout, seedlings raise two large irregular oval
seed leaves; normal foliage follows , with leaves in pairs.
Cuttings: Difficult. Hardwood cuttings can be taken of the current year' s growth, with a
heel, taken in autumn. Use IBA rooting hormone.
Also possible are softwood cuttings of side shoots in July-August. Each cutting should be
25 em (10") long with all but the top two leaves removed; give part shade and mist , and
use IBA rooting hormone. 50% success should be considered very good for most
cultivars.
Layering : Layer branches in June-July. Layered plant can be removed the following
spring.
Suckers: Remove suckers in spring. If the tree was grafted these will be identical to the
rootstock!
Grafting: The easiest way to propagate superior clones. Any method is suitable, using
seedling rootstocks and grafting low. Because plants branch close to the ground, make
sure that al l branches on a grafted plant arise from the scion and not the rootstock.
Cultivars
Alba: Fruits are nearly white.
Aurea: Fruits are red, medium sized; a good cropper. Leaves are yellowish; selected for
ornamental use.
Aureoelegantissima (Syns. 'Elegantissima', 'Tricolor', f.aureomarginata): Leaves are
partly broad yellow of pink margined, partl y all yel low. A medium sized shrub, growing 2 m
(6 It) high and 3 m ( 10 It) in spread; prelers part shade. Selected for ornamental use.
Bulgarian: Fruit large, pear-shaped, deep scarlet-violet; flesh sweet, excellent flavour ,
stone small. Very productive, originated in Bulgaria.
Cream: Fruit cream coloured, excellent quality. Originating from Eastern Europe .

Devin: Czech selection, a heavy and regular cropper ; fruit large with small stones.
Elegant : A large-fruited cullivar bred in the Ukraine.
Flava (Syn. f .xanthocarpa): Fruits are large, yellow, and sli ghtly sweeter than most other
culti vars. Propagates well by softwood cuttings.
Golden Glory: Flowers are larger and more profuse; leaves and fruits (red) are also large.
Tree upright and columnar ; leaves very dark green. Selected for ornamental use.
Gourmet : Bears very large, bright red, slightly pear-shaped fruits, very sweet.
Helen: A large-fruited cultivar bred in the Ukraine.
Jolico: Productive, large-fruited cultivar from Austria. Yields some 2.5 Kg (S ib) of fruit per
plant, fruit weight averages 4.5-5.6 g (very large), very sweet ( 13-15% soluble sugars).
Kazanlak: Mid season (August), fruits pear-shaped, very large. Bulgarian variety.
Macrocarpa: Fruits are l a ~ g e r than the species and pear-shaped. Cultivated on the
Balkan Peninsula and in the Caucasus.
Nana : Growth is dwarf and rounded; leaves also dwarfed. Selected for ornamental use.
Pioneer: A large-fruited cultivar bred in the Ukraine.
Pyramidalis: Growth is narrowly upright with branches only slightly oulspread. Selected
for ornamental use.
Red Star: A large-fruited cultivar bred in the Ukraine.
Redstone: A heavy cropper.
Romanian: Fruit large, round, bright red; flesh sweet, delicate flavour, excellent quality.
Very productive. Originated in Romania.
Russian Giant : Fruit large, barrel-shaped, dark reddish-scarlet; flesh sweet, excellent
flavour, stone small. High yieldi ng tree.
Shan: Mid season (August), fruits large. Bulgarian variety.
Page 30
Shurian: Late season (September), fruits large. Bulgarian variety.
f.sphaerocarpa: natural variety wit h rounded fruits from Romania.
Titus: Czech selection, a heavy' and regular cropper; fruit large with small stones.
Variegata (Syn. var.argenteomarginata): Leaves usually have a wide creamy white
border. Dense growth. A good cropper of medium-sized fruits and self-fertile, although
selected for ornamental use.
Violaceae: Fruits are violetblue.
Yell ow: Good fruiting selection with yellow fruits.
References
Bean, W J: Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. John Murray, 1973.
Burmistrov, L A: Underexploited Fruits and Nuts of Russia. WANATCA Yearbook 1994,
3-19.
Chiej , R: The Macdonald Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. Macdonald, 1984.
Crawford, M: Cornel ian cherry. Agroforestry News, Vol 6 No 2.
Facciola, S: Cornucopia. Kampong Publications, 1990.
English, J: Cornus mas. Pomona, Vol. xxix No. 1 (Winter 1996), pp 37-38.
Eris, Atilla etc: A research on the selection of cornel. In Schmidt, H & Kellerhals, M:
Pr ogress in Temperate Fruit Breeding, 207-210. Kluwer, 1994.
Gordon, A G & Rowe, D C F: Seed Manual for Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Forestry
Commission Bulletin 59, HMSO, 1982.
Krussmann, G: Manual of Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs. Batsford, 1985.
Lanska, D: The Illustrated Guide to Edible Plants. Chancellor Press, 1992.
Mamedov, N & Craker, L: Corneli an Cherry: A Prospective Source for Phytomedicine.
Acta Hort. 629, ISHS 2004, pp 83-86.
Reich, L: Corneli an Cherry From the Shores of Ancient Greece. Arnoldia- Boston, 1996,
56 :1, 2-7.
Reich, L: Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Addison-Wesley, 1991 .
Smatana, L et al: Results of Breeding and Growing Minor Fruit Species in
Czechoslovakia. Acta Horticulturae 224, 1988: 83-87.
Whealy, K & Demuth, S: Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. Seed Saver Publications, 1993.
I ~
The history of sweet chestnut
Introduction
In the mountainous areas of the Mediterranean where cereals do not grow well, if at all, the
chestnut (Castanea sativa) has been a staple food for thousands of years. Ancient Greeks and
Remaps, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of the flatulence produced by a diet that centred
too closely on chestnuts and commented on the nuts' medicinal properties, which supposedly
protected against such health hazards as poisons, the bite of a mad dog, and dysentery.
Moving forward to the sixteenth century, there are references that "an infinity of people live on
nothing else but this fruit [the chestnut]", and in the nineteenth century an Italian agronomist,
describing Tuscany, wrote that "the fruit of the chestnut tree is practically the sale subsistence of
our highlanders". Later that century, Frederic Le Play noted that "chestnuts almost exclusi vely
nouri sh entire populations for half a year ; in the European system they alone are a temporary but
complete substitution for cereals". Chestnuts were also know to have been ground into flour for
bread making notably that was consumed daily in Corsica until well into the twentieth century.
Clearly, then, chestnuts have played an important role in sustaining large numbers of people over
the millennia of recorded history.
The Tree
Geographic location has had much to do historically with those who have ga'ined a significant part
of their diet from the chestnut tree. Historically, the tree has tended to stop bearing fruit north of
52, and its yield in Eurasia was satisfactory only south of a hypothetical line 'drawn from Brittany
to Belgrade and farther east to Trabezon, Turkey - the line ending up somewhere in Iran.
Present breeding work and selection however, in combination with climate change, has moved
that line northwards. In Africa, chestnuts grow only in the Maghreb, In North America, there were
many chestnut trees before the first decades of the twentieth century, at which time some three
billion were destroyed by a blight. Another species of chestnut exists in China, and Japan is on its
way to becoming the world's leading chestnut producer.
Chestnuts grow somewhat haphazardly within these geograp'hic limitations. For example,
because they dislike chalky soils, they are rare in Greece, except on some sedimentary or
siliceous outcrops, where they can become so abundant that they determine place names, such
as "Kastania," In addition, the roots of chestnuts tend to decay in badly drained soils, which helps
to explain why the trees thrive on hills and mountai nsides. Such exacting requirements also help
us pinpoint those regions of Portugal, Spain, France, and Italy where populations were long
nourished by chestnuts,
Most chestnuts that are found beyond the
geographic limits just outlined are grown for
their wood and not for their fruit (chestnut
wood is as strong as oak but signi ficantly
lighter) - an entirely different method of
cultivation. Fruit-producing chestnut trees
need wide spacing to encourage a broad
fruit-beari ng crown, whereas trees for timber
are planted close and encouraged to grow
tall. In addition, fruit-producing trees usually
require grafting- an activity deemed vital in
historical documents because the ungrafted
tree produces two or three small chestnuts in
one prickly pericarp or husk (called a bur)
and with each nut often subdivided into
several seeds, whose only use is for animal
feed. Even in our own times, grafting remains important as it is one of the ways to avoid the
diseases of chestnuts that have so menaced the trees since about 1850.
The Nut
After extracting the chestnut from its bur, then (often with some difficulty) peeled off the hard outer
shell, and also the adhering tannic pericarp (the inner brownish skin surrounding the nut) skin,
one has a nourishing nut that is 40 to 60 percent water, 30 to 50 percent carbohydrates, 1 to 3
percent lipids, and 3 to 7 percent protein. In addition, the nut has significant amounts of trace
minerals which vary, depending on the soil ; and chestnuts are the only nuts to contain a
signi ficant amount of vitami n C.
Dried, the chestnut loses most of its water as its caloric value increases. According to the usual
conversion table, 100 grams of fresh chestnuts provide 199 calories; dried, they provide almost
twice (371 calories) that amount. (For comparative purposes, 100 grams of potatoes = 86
calories; 100 grams of whole grain wheat bread = 240 calories; 100 grams of walnuts = 660
calori es.)
Historical sources place the daily consumption of chestnuts by an individual at between 1 and 2
kilograms, which shows why the chestnut qualifies as a staple food. And like such staples as
wheat or potatoes, chestnuts can be prepared in countless ways. Corsican tradition, for example,
calls for 22 different types of dishes made from chestnut flour to be served on a wedding day.
When fresh, chestnuts can be eaten raw, boiled, baked, and roasted (roasted chestnuts were sold
on the streets of Rome in the sixteenth century and are still sold on the streets of European towns
in the wintertime) .

Chestnuts can also be made into jam and vanillachestnut cream, and they are candied. When
dried, they can also be eaten raw, but they are usually ground into flour or made into a porridge,
soup, or mash (polenta in Italy) and mixed with vegetables, meat, and lard. As flour, chestnuts
become bread or pancakes and thickeners for stews. Chestnuts very nearly became the raw
material for the production of sugar: Antoine Parmentier extracted sugar from the nuts and sent a
chestnut sugarloaf weighing several pounds to the Academy in Lyon. Research on the possibility
of placing chestnuts at the centre of the French sugar industry intensified a few years later during
the Continental blockade of the early nineteenth century. Napoleon's choice, however, was to
make sugar from beets.
A Chestnut Civilization
That the geographical areas favourable to chestnut trees and their fruits were precisely the areas
in which populations adopted chestnuts as a staple food seems obvious enough. But in order to
make full use of the opportunity, populations had to create what might be called a "chestnut
civilization," meaning that they had to fashion their lives around the trees, from planting the trees
to processing the fruits.
Planting
Chestnut trees seldom grow spontaneously. Moreover, pollination rarely occurs wherever the
trees grow in relative isolation from one another, and fruiting can be poor in neglected trees. For
all these reasons, it is generally the case that the presence of a fruiting chestnut tree is the result
of human activity, in contrast to a random act of nature. This is clearly so in the case of
plantations, or trees whose alignment marks, the borders of fields and pathways. But it is also the
case with the countless clusters of two or three trees that cast their shadows upon the small hilly
parcels of poor tenants.
It is important to note, however, that people did not plant chestnut trees for themselves. Rather,
they do it for generations to come because the until recent varieties were selected, trees did not
begin to bear fruit until they are at least 15 years old, and their yield was not optimal until they
were 50 years old: "Olive tree of your forefather, chestnut tree of your father, only the mulberry
tree is yours," as the saying goes in the Cevennes.
Cultivation
Most of the operations connected with chestnut cultivation involve looking after the trees. This
means clearing the brush beneath them and, when possible, loosening the soil ; giving water when
really necessary; fertilizing with fallen leaves; repairing enclosures to keep away stray animals
whose presence could be catastrophic and whose taste for chestnuts is well known; and above
all , trimming branches so that they will bear a maximum amount of fruit. Yet, tree care is hardly an
exacting task, requiring only 3 to 8 days a year per hectare of tree. The trees, of course, would
survive without even this minimal care, which is important only for improving the yield of nuts,
Page 34
which prompted some critics in the nineteenth century to compare chestnuts to manna falling
directly from heaven into the hands of lazy onlookers.
Yet, when all of the exacting and repetitive tasks involved in growing and preparing chestnuts are
contemplated, with an absenc,e of mechanization the common characteristic, chestnutting
suddenly seems like very hard work indeed.
Collecting
Efficient collection required that the area under and around the trees be clean so that few
chestnuts would be overlooked. Collecting was a manual job, lasting at least three weeks
(chestnuts do not fall all at once), and required the efforts of all members of the family. Perhaps
half of the burs - the prickly polycarps - open on the tree or when they hit the soil. The other
half had to be shelled, often with the bare and calloused hands of those viewed as tough
"chestnutters" by fellow workers. Next the fruits were sorted. T h ~ very best nuts were sent to
market , about 20 percent were judged "throw-outs" for the pigs, and the rest were set aside for
domestic consumption.
Nuts of the variety 'V.,ri,l.
Chestnut collection was tedious and hard on the back, requiring about 10 hours of labour for an
average collection of between 50 and 150 kg per person. An estimate was made that 110 working
days were required (100 women-chi ldren/days; 10 men/days) to gather the chestnuts from 2
hectares, which would amount to about 5 tons of fruit.
Peeling
Fresh chestnuts constituted the bulk of the diet for those who harvested them until about mid-
January - about as long as they could safely be kept. But before they could be eaten, the nuts
had to be extracted from their rigid shell and stripped of their bitter and astringent skin. This is a
relatively easy procedure when chestnuts are roasted, but generally they were boiled. Peeling
Page 35
chestnuts was usually done by men in front of the fire during the long evenings of autumn and
winter. To peel 2 kg of raw chestnuts (the average daily consumption per adult in the first part of
the nineteenth century) required about 40 minutes. Therefore, some three hours, or more, of
chestnut peeling was required for the average rural family of five. The next morning around 6 A.M.
the chestnuts, along with some vegetables, were put into a pot to begin boiling for the day's main
meal.
Dry,ing
The only way to preserve chestnuts for longer periods was to dry them. The usual method was to
spread out the fruit on wattle hurdles high over the heat and smoke of a permanent fire for about
two weeks, often in wooden smoking sheds built specifically for this purpose. Following this step,
the dried chestnuts - from 5 to 10 kg at a time - were wrapped in a cloth and rhythmically
thrashed against a hard surface to separate the nuts from shells and skins that the drying process
had loosened.
Dried chestnuts had the effect of liberating peasants from the irksome chore of daily peeling, and
the drying procedure had important social consequences as well. Diego Moreno and S. de
Maestri have noted that the expanding cultivation of chestnut trees in the sixteenth-century
Apennines gave birth to hamlets that sprang up around the smoking sheds.
Grinding and Flour
After the chestnuts were dried, they could be ground into flour that would keep for two or three
years, provided it was not subjected to moisture. From this flour pancakes and bread were made,
although because chestnut flour does not rise, many commentators refused to call the loaves
bread. There were also others who had harsh words for other chestnut products, making fun of
"this kind of mortar which is called a soup" or that bread which "gives a sallow complexion".
Chestnut Consumers
Chestnuts were mostly the food of rural peasants in mountainous regions that stretched in a belt
from Portugal to Turkey. But they were a well-appreciated food by many accounts, such as those
of regionalist connoisseurs who praised .the "sweet mucilage" and the following 1763 text
published in Calendriers ... du Limousin:
All the goods nature and art lavish on the table of the rich do not offer him anything
which leaves him as content as our villagers, when they find their helping of chestnuts
after attending their rustic occupations. As soon as they set eyes on them, joy breaks
out in their cottages. Only mindful of the pleasure they then taste, they are forgetful of
the fatigues they endured: they are no more envious of those of the towns, of their
abundance and sumptuousness.
This is not to say, however, that only peasants ate chestnuts, and, in fact, numerous sources
indicate that this foodstuff could be a prized dish at higher levels of SOCiety. For example, a
French nobleman recorded that on October 22, 1580, while on his way to Italy, he ordered raw
chestnuts. And, in fact , a Spanish nobleman wrote in his account of a campaign against the
Moriscos that the whole company, nobility included, consumed 97.4 tons of bread, 33,582 litres of
wine, and 240 tons of chestnuts, as against only 19.3 tons of biscuit and 759 kg of chickpeas. We
know that chestnuts were served in Utrecht in 1546 at the royal Golden Fleece banquet.
The older references tend to obscure the fact that, for the rich in particular, there were chestnuts
and then again, there were chestnuts. The French (and the Italians) have two words for chestnut.
The ordinary chestnut is called cha.taigne, whereas the best (and sweetest) chestnut is called a
marron (which in English is known as the Spanish chestnut). The difference lies in size and form.
Usually the nut holds only one 'marron with no dividing skin (the kernel is whole), whereas there
may be three or more chataignes within a nut divided by partitions of bitter pericarp. Marrons are
the material of commercial candied chestnuts and have historically commanded a price three or
four times greater than their common, flawed counterparts. One of the reasons is that the yield of
marrons is less. Thus, in times past, those who grew them were usually located on a commercial
artery and did not depend on chestnuts alone to feed families and pigs.

000
Cross section through nuts showing chataignes (top row) and (bottom row)
From the Renaissance on, there were three major commercial routes for chestnuts in Europe.
One ran from the Portuguese provinces of Minho and TrasosMontes to the harbours of northern
Portugal and Galicia where chestnuts were loaded aboard ships, usually bound for Bordeaux. In
that port the Iberian chestnuts were combined with chestnuts bought on the Perigueux market
and then sent on to Great Britain and the Netherlands. A British author writing of thi s trade route
said that the choicest chestnuts were those grown in Spain or Portugal.
The French, by contrast , thought the best chestnut was the socalled Lyon chestnut , which was
actually an Italian chestnut travelling the second of the three European chestnut arteries. Lyon
monopolized the importation of Italian chestnuts, transhipping them to Paris and paints farther
north. The third route, which also originated in Italy, ran from Milan and Bergamo north to the
Germanic countries.
Fresh chestnuts are perishable, staying fresh for only about three months. And weeks of travel in
wagons and the holds of ships did them no good. Thus, transporting chestnuts in bulk was a risky
business, and wholesalers fixed their prices accordingly. Only the best chestnuts were shipped,
and they went mostly into sweetmeats. In markets they were so costly that only the welloff could
purchase them for a tidbit at the table. Consequently, the chestnut trade never did involve large
quantities, and most of the chestnuts sold for consumption went through local markets and
merchants. In 1872, for example, Paris received barely 6,000 tons of an estimated national crop
of 500,000 tons.
The bulk of any chestnut crop, of course, reached no market but was consumed by the peasant
families that grew them, along with their poultry and two or three hogs. The British agronomist
Arthur Young, who travelled in limousin, France, during the years t787-89, catculated that an
acre with 70 chestnut trees would feed one man for 420 days or 14 months. This seems a
substantial overestimation of the average number of trees per acre. It was generally the case that
between 35 and 100 trees grew on 1 hectare (about 2.5 acres). If , however, one assumes that a
,
'"
family living on a hilly and not particularly productive hectare of land could harvest about 2,800 kg
of chestnuts, then certainly the chestnuts alone could feed a family for more than half a year. With
an average daily consumption of 2 kg per person or 10 kg for a family of five, the 2,800 kg of
chestnuts would have fed the family for close to 7 months and a pig or two (350 kg are required to
fatten a pig from 100 to 200 kg). The pigs, in turn, might be sold or slaughtered, and one suspects
that several pigs on a chestnut farm were a food index of chestnut surpluses.
Chestnuts in Decline
A very good question is why such a useful and valuable foodstuff as chestnuts has today been
virtually forgotten. The "golden age" of the chestnut, which seems, in retrospect, to have begun
wi th the Renai ssance, had all but vanished by the middle of the nineteenth century. It is difficult to
quantify the decline because the statistics do not reflect domestic production for self-sufficiency.
Nonetheless, a series of events that had a considerable impact on chestnutting can be identified.
One of the first blows dealt to chestnut production (especially in France) was the very hard winter
of 1709. According to observers, tree loss was considerable, even to the paint of discouraging
replanting. The Intendant in Limoges reported in 1738 that owners there had not replanted even a
twentieth of the trees that had frozen 29 years earlier. And in 1758, a chestnut plantation around
the Pau castle was uprooted. Unquestionably, the winter of 1709 caused considerable concern for
the future of chestnut cultivation, as did the similarly devastating winters in 1789 and 1870.
A second factor was the substi tution of mulberry trees for chestnuts around the Rhone valley,
where Lyon and its silk industry exerted considerable influence. Silkworms are fond of mulberry
leaves, and the mulberry tree (unlike the chestnut) grows fast and produces quickly. Its cultivation,
therefore, encouraged a cash economy as opposed to sel f-sufficiency.
A third reason for the decline of the chestnut, at least in France, may have been free trade in
wheat. In 1664, fear of food shortages had prompted Colbert to take the severe measures of
contrOlling wheat production and prohibiting its exportation. At the same time, the exportation of
chestnuts was encouraged. Such regulations lasted about a century before the free traders
triumphed over regional monopolists and wheat became a cheap and widely available foodstuff,
even competing with chestnuts in regions that had traditionally grown them.
Chestnuts also came under fire beginning in the eighteenth century as a foodstuff deficient in
nutrients. A well-off society that tasted a marron occasionally pitied the unfortunate peasants who
were condemned to gulping down a pig food - the chataigne.
But this was the time of the Physiocrats, who thought the soil was the only source of wealth and
aimed at improving the productivity of farming by questioning all traditional rural economic
processes. That chestnuts suffered at their hands is indisputable. In a query sent to provincial
learned societies, Quesnay and Victor Riqueti Mirabeau, both initiators of the
Physiocratic school , asked the following questions: "Are there acorns or chestnuts used as
foodstuff for pigs? Do chestnuts give a good income? Or are said chestnuts used as food for the
peasants, inducing them to laziness?". And in an agricultural text of a few decades later, the
question of laziness was pursued: "To my knowledge, inhabitants of chestnut countries are
nowhere friendly with work". It went on to suggest that they refused to replace their trees with
more productive plants because of thei r fear of taxation and concluded that they were not worthy
citizens of the modern state.
Interestingly, the voice of Arcuet Voltaire in 1785 was one of the few who defended the
chestnut:
Page 38
Wheat surely does not nourish the greatest part of the world. There are in our
country, whole provinces where peasants eat chestnut bread only; this bread is more
nourishing and tastier than the barley or rye bread which feeds so many people and is
much better for sure than the bread ration given to soldiers.
More than two hundred years later we find A. Bruneton-Governatori agreeing with Voltaire, noting
that chestnuts provide a balanced diet and around 4,000 calories of energy. The condemnation
the chestnut received in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries might "raise doubts about the
pertinence of contemporary evidence concerning the nutrition of non-elite people."
The half century from 1800 to 1850 was one of slow decline for the European chestnut as fewer
and fewer people were interested in cultivati ng it, eating it , or defending it. Some 43,000 trees
were uprooted in the Italian Piedmont between 1823 and 1832, and public surveyors here and
there reported that chestnut- '
planted lands were diminishing.
But following the midpoint of
the nineteenth century, we
have statistics in France that
demonstrate vividly the
magnitude of the decline. In
1852, there were 578,224
hectares of land given to
chestnut cultivation; in 1892,
309,412; in 1929, 167,940; and
in 1975, only 32,000.
A final factor in the decline of
chestnuts was doubtless the
so-called ink disease, which
officially began in Italy in 1842,
had spread to Portugal by
1853, and reached France by
1860. The disease could kill
chestnut trees in two or three
years, and entire areas
of dried-up trees
discouraged any notions of Variety 'Belle Epine', from Dordogne in France
replanting. And, as mentioned,
another disease appeared in North America to kill practically all the chestnuts there.
Thus, chestnuts went the way of so many other foods of the past as, for example, salted codfish.
Once popular and cheap foods that fed many, they have now become expensive delicacies for a
few.
Reference
Fauve-Chamoux, A: Chestnuts. In The Cambridge World History of Food, K Kiple & F Ornelas
(Eds). Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Page 39
"
Book review
Roundwood Timber Framing
BujJding Naturally Using Local Resources
Ben Law
Permanent Publications, 2010; 168pp; 19.95
ISBN 978-1-85623-045-2
Ben Law's new book is a practical how-to-do-it book for bui lding sustainably using
roundwood timber as well as advocating timber-frame buildings as one of the few truly
sustainable building methods in a future of dwindling resources.
An initial chapter looks at using roundwood in building, frame types and basic terminology
used in a timber framed building.
A couple of chapters then concentr ate of the trees themselves. The first looks at how to
manage woodlands for suitable roundwood production - which basically divides into
coppice systems (with sweet chestnut, ash and hazel) ; and plantation systems, mainly for
conifers such as larch, Douglas fir and Western red cedar. It is good to see a note
emphasising thinking for the future, and interesting to contrast Ben' s (justified)
enthusiasm for black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) with Natural England's virtual terror of
this species due to its suckering habit.
The next chapter looks at ' the tree species themselves, both conifers and hardwoods, with
descriptions of the silvicultural characteristics, timber characteristics, strength, durability,
working qualities and uses in roundwood timber framing. Trees described include Western
red cedar , Scots pine, Larch, Douglas fir , Ash, Sweet chestnut , Oak , Black locust and
Lawson cypress. Swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) also gets a mention.
Description of the timber framing process is preceeded by a chapter on tools, with
excellent photos of the tools and details of their uses.
The next two chapters tackle the nitty gritty of roundwood frame construction. The first
looks at the main frame itself , starting with foundations and laying out, then continuing with
the step by step procedure of building and erecti ng the frame, with a lot of detai l on
roundwood framing jOints. The second of these two chapters looks at the next steps in
construction - cutting a roof , roofing materials (with an emphasis on shingles), wall
materials, and floors.
Finally, there are a number of roundwood timber frame builds ' described ' in the form of
photo diaries, showing construction at different points in time.
The book has excellent colour photos throughout, illustrating every aspect of the process
from tree to building and is highly recommended.

Art 16-18

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Art 16-18

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Agroforestry is the integration of trees and agriculture!

S-ar putea să vă placă și