Manual Merchandising (New)

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE
PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE LAHORE
MERCHANDISING MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

A ROAD MAP TO FUTURE
COMPILED BY:
Muhammad Mubeen Iqbal Puri Project Director
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SN 1 CHAPTERS PAGE HISTORY OF CLOTHING The Functions of Clothing 10 Materials Used for Clothing 12 Beginnings of Textile Production {Wool; Silk; Cotton) 12 Regional Differences in Textiles 13 Recent Trends in Textile Manufacture 13 50 years of textile industry of Pakistan (Cotton industry; Cotton 14
Spinning industry; Cotton Cloth industry; Cotton Wet Processing industry; Man Made Fiber Industry; Knitwear industry; and Garments industry)
THE ECONOMY OF PAKISTAN Exports Imports Going Forward Pakistan Trade Figures (Export of Textile Manufacture %age Share;
Pakistans Major Exports %age Share; Major Export Markets %age Share; Major Contributions to Export Earnings; Monthly Exports Structure of exports; Group Wise Growth Performance; Key Economic Indicators)
18 19 19 22
MERCHANDISING ENVIRONMENT The Modern Enterprises (Manufacturing; Distribution & Marketing;

Design; Branding; and Research and Development) Apparel Industry (Change; Timing; Quality; Price)
25 26 28 29 30 30 31 32 33 38 39 39 40 41 42 44
Organization of Apparel Industry Departments in an Apparel Industry MERCHANDISING MANAGEMENT Marketing, Merchandising and Selling Merchandising Operations Principal Functions of Merchandising Manager / Merchandiser Information Required by a Merchandiser Merchandising Route MERCHANDISING SKILLS Negotiation (Order Negotiation; Skill Required for Success full Negotiation) Golden Rules for Good Time Management How to Build Your Men and Win Their Loyalty Leaders or Managers How to Improve the Productivity of Meetings Role of Quick Response for Merchandisers MERCHANDISING PROCESS Sampling/Types of Samples (Offer / Marketing Samples; Counter
Samples; Size Sets; Photo Samples; Buying / Seal Samples; and TOPS) Sampling Process (Proto/Counter; Pre-Line/Photo Shoot; Sales Man; Size Set; Buyers Comments Samples; and Pre-Production Samples)
Samples Sending Procedure/Documents Required for Sending Technical Informations (Lab Dip Descriptions; Sketch Sheet; Specs
44 46 46 52 56
Sheet; Material Sheet; Incidental Sheet; Garment Accessories; Packing; Sourcing; Lead Time; Sourcing Production; Labeling, Ticketing, and Packaging; Minimums; Apparel Product Lines; Product Identification and Development; Product Sourcing).
Sample Order Sheet GARMENTS TYPES / STYLES / COMPONENTS Types / Styles of Garments (Coat, Jackets and Rainwear; Winter
Outerwear; Male / Female Casual and Fine Wear; Trouser, Overalls and
Shorts; Hosiery; Tailored Collar Shirts; Woven Shirts and Blouses; Athletic Wear, Blouses, Knitted / Crocheted / Sweat, T-Shirts; Underwear; Sleepwear and Bathrobes; Sweaters; Swimwear; Foundation Garments; Babies Garments; Other Coated Garments; Smocks and Shop Coats; Other Garments; Misc; Gloves) Garment Components (Top Front/Back, Bottom Front/Back; Sleeves; Plackets; Collars; Cuffs; Pockets; Waistline)
61 62 67 68 69 69 71 75 75 76
Picture Gallery of Garment Styles and Designs MERCHANDISING TECHNIQUES Garment Analysis Method of Garment Analysis Process of Garment Analysis Product Positioning Strategy Functional / Aesthetic Purpose and
Durable / Disposable Performance; Intrinsic / Extrinsic Cues to Quality; Product Change; Price and Price Range) Sizing and Fit (Sizing System and Size Ranges; Indicators of Size; Fit Indicators; Dimensional Sizes for Mens Wear)
Material Selection Classification of Materials (Piece Goods; Support Materials; Trims;

Closures; and Threads)
Criteria for Analysis of Materials (Material Name; Material Contents;

Yarn Type and Size; Fabrication; Count or Gauge; Weight and / or Size; Drapeability; Color Application; Structural or Applied Design; Finishes; Care; Application) Garment Structure (Criteria for analysis of garment components)
Final Garment Assembly and Finishing Garment Finishing Process (Trimming; Wet
Processing; Garment Dyeing; Finish Pressing; Post Cure Durable Press; Ticketing, Tagging and Packaging)
77 79 79 80 81 82 86 86 87 87 88 89 91 94 94 94
Criteria for Analysis of Final Assembly / Finishing Garment Presentation Garment Analysis Guide MERCHANDISING CALCULATIONS Costs, Costing, Pricing and Profit Material Costs (Direct Material; Indirect Material) Labor Costs (Direct Costs; Indirect Costs) Expenses (Direct expenses; Indirect expenses; Factory expenses;
Administrative expenses; Selling expenses; and Distribution Expenses)
Cost of Goods Produced (Primes; Factory; Production; and Total Cost) Costing Exercises Other Factors Influencing Costing (Yarn Count; Knitted / Woven
Fabric; Dyeing and Finishing; Cutting/Styling; Embroidery; Thread; Rates
(Measuring Actual Thread Consumed; Thread Consumption Formulas; Estimating Thread Costs; Approximate Consumption for Per Inch Stitching) Estimating Fabric Consumption (Fabric Consumption Calculations Exercises; Fabric Consumption (Shirt; Pant; T-Shirt; Sweater; Polo Shirt)
Sample Cost Sheet Consumption Calculations Estimating Thread Consumption
97 100 102 102 103
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PRICING, BUDGETING AND SCHEDULING Pricing strategies (Markup Pricing; Target Return Pricing) Garment Costing Parameters Budgets Production Routing and Scheduling (Master Schedule; Time and
Action Calendar Planning and Executing; Gantt Charts; CPM)
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MATERIALS MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL Material Management Types of Accessories Support Materials Interlinings Functions of Interlinings Characteristics of Interlinings (Fiber Content; Weight; Fabrication) Interlining Application (Sew-In Interlinings; Fusible Interlinings) Fusible Interlinings (Strike Back; Strike Through; Differential Shrinkage; Cost of Interlinings Linings Functions of Linings (Aesthetics; Performance; Comfort) Characteristics of Lining (Fiber Content; Weight; Fabrication) Support, Enclosure, and Quality Lining Structure / Lining Application Costs of Linings Interfacing, Underlining, and Lining Options. Other Support Materials Adhesives (Direct Application or Direct Stabilization) Shoulder Pads (Materials; Construction; Covers; Installations) Sleeve Headers Tapes Collar Stays Closures (Purpose of Closures; Aesthetics; Performance) Zippers (History; Characteristics; Specifications; Sizes, Types; Application;
Parts and Materials; Terminologies; Picture Gallery of Zippers and Sliders)
105 105 105 106 106 107 109 110 111 112 112 113 114 115 116 116 116 116 117 119 119 120 120 121 128 129 130 135 135 137 139 139 144 144 145 145 145 148 153 153 154 154 155 156 158 161
Button and Button Holes Functions of Buttons and Button Holes (Aesthetics; Performance) Characteristics of Buttons (Materials; Types; Sizes; Application) Cross Stitched Buttons Characteristics of Button Holes Button Holes (Types; Sizes; Placement) Snaps (Parts; Materials; Application) Elastics Functions of Elastic (Aesthetics; Performance, Elastics; Application;
Materials; Fabrications)
Hooks Cost of Closures Trims Nature of Trims Types of Trims (Aesthetics and Performance; Sources of Trims,Knit Trims Embroidery (Direct; Schiffli; Single; Multi head Embroidery Machines)
(Sequins; Emblems; Production of Emblems) (Materials for Embroidery; Design Development; Punching Tapes)
Embroidery Stitches Cost of Embroidery Quality Factors for Embroidery Appliqus (Materials; Quality; Performance; Assembly; Inset Trims) Lace / Types of Laces Screen Printing (Design Development; Materials and Equipment; Process) Quality and Performance of Screen Printing; Heat Transfer Prints Labels (Label Materials; Styles; Application; Sources of Labels) Hangers (Sizes, Types and Styles)
12
STITCHING Stitching Process (Designing; Selection of Fabric; Accessories; Pattern

Making; Production of Sample Garments; Grading; Marking and Lying; Cutting; Position Marking; Bundle Operation; Fusing; Sewing)
163
13
TEXTILE RAW MATERIAL (FIBERS) Fiber Definitions (Types of Fiber Length; Crimp Property of Fibers; Denier
Property of Fibers; Qualities of Fibers to convert them into Fabrics; Process of Converting Fibers into Yarn; Converting Fibers Directly into Fabrics) Textile Fibers Quality to meet end users (Length; Fineness; Elasticity; Extensibility; Moisture Regain; Abrasion Resistance; Dye ability; Resistance to Weathering; Luster; Density; Thermal Stability; Softness;
165 166 168 168 169 171 171 171 171 172 172 173 173 173 175
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Properties of Cotton How to Care for Cotton Classification of Fibers / Fibers Histroy (Table) TEXTILE YARN Cotton Picking Ginning Process Spinning Mills Operations (Cotton Management; Cotton Testing; Staple
Length; Micronaire; Floating; Presley Strength; Strength; Color +b Value) Nature of Yarn Faults (Un-Evenness; Colored Contamination; Dead Cotton; Barrie; Breakage; Imported Cotton Usage)
Yarn Count Blending of Cotton with any Manmade Fiber Plied Yarn Spinning (Spun Yarn; Filament Yarn) Spinning Process Flow (Blow Room; Carding; Doubling; Combing;
Drawing; Roving; Spinning; Simplex; Ring Frame; Auto Cone; Uster Standards; Conditioning and Packing) Types of Yarn (Carded and Combed Yarn; Line and Tow Yarn; Woolen and Worsted Yarn; Reeled Silk Yarn; Filament Yarn; Double or Plied Yarn; Blended Yarn; Thread; Texturised Yarn; Fancy Yarn; Boucle; Chenille Yarn; Nub Yarn; Slub Yarn; Corkscrew Yarn; Loop Yarn; Splash Yarn; Thick and Thin Yarn; Marl Yarn; Viol or Crepe Yarn; Printed Yarn; Kicker Broker; Blended Yarns)
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Chief Value of Mix Weave or Mix Knit Example of Mixed Weave / Mix Knit Weight Calculation of Fabrics of Spun Yarn/Filament Yarn Skill to determine the Substance of a Yarn FABRICATION (WOVEN) Weaving Fabric Construction Identification of Warp and Weft Fabric Weight Preparation of Weaving Types of Looms (Shuttle Looms; Shuttleless Looms; Circular Looms) Salvages (Plain; Tape; Split; Fused; Leno; and Tucked Salvages) Classification of Weaves (Plain; Basket; Ribbed; Twill; Satin; Crepe; Pile;
Double Cloth; Gauze Leno; Mock Leno; Swivel; Lappet; Dobby; Jacquard)
176 176 177 177 179 179 179 179 179 180 180 181 183
Types of Woven Fabrics (Barathea; Batiste; Bedford cord; Blanket Cloth;

Blazer Cloth; Brocade; Broderie Anglais; Brushed Cotton; Calico; Cambric; Cheese Cloth; Chiffon; Cyldella; Corduroy; Flannel; Gaberdine; Ginham; Lawn; Needle Cord; Silk Organdie; Pique; Poplin; Reversible Fabric; Satin; Seer Sucker; Towelling; Velvet; Velveteen; Viyella; Winceyette; Wool; Armure; Birdscye; Cloque; Cavalry Twill; Crepe; Damask; Drill; Glen Urquhart; Guards Check; Leno; Helling Bone; Honey Comb; Hop Sack;
Hounds Tooth; Matelasse; Repp; Shepherds Check; Shark Skin; Tattersal Check; Prince of Wales Check; Denim; 3 X 1 and 2 X 1 Z Twills; 3 X 1 S Twills; 3 X 1 Broken Twills) History of Denim (Origins in Europe, America, Denim meets 21st Century) Basic Material of Denim (Fiber Yarn Spinning, Open End Spinning, Ring Spun, Construction, Plain Weave, Twill Weave)
188 191 192 193 194 195 195 196 197 199 200 204 205 205 207 209 209 210 210 211 211 211 212 212 212
Denim Washing Characteristics of Jeans (Weight; Shrinkage; Shrinkage in Rigid Fabrics;

Shrinkage in Stretch Fabrics; Skewness; Stretch Fabrics)
Identifying the right side of a fabric Identification of Gray Fabric Defects (Major and Minor Defects) Woven Fabric Defects (Burl Mark; Draw Backs; Dropped Pick; End Out;
Fly; Harness Breakdown; Jerk In; Knots; Mixed End (Yarn); Mixed Filling; Open Reed; Slub; Smash; Soiled Filling or End; Spot Mark; Thin Place) Fabric Inspection Standards (Grey Fabric) (Ten Points; Four Point System Penalty Point Evaluation; Point Calculation)
Skills to Order Fabrics (Woven / Knitted) Weaves and their Characteristics Tables: (Cotton, Woven Fabrics Construction; Corduroy Fabrics; Denim
Fabrics Specifications; Stretch Fabrics Specifications)
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FABRICATION (KNITWEAR) Construction of a Knitted Fabric Classification of Knitted Fabrics Weft Knitting (Plain Knitting; Purl Stitch; Rib Stitch; Cable Stitch) Warp Knitting (Tricot Knit; Raschel Knit; Ketten Raschel Knit; Crochet;
Milanese Knit; Simplex Knit; Jacquard Knitting; Pile Knitting; Fleece Knit; High Pile Knit; Terry Knit; Velour Knit)
Fabric Weight and Yarn Size Weight System of Knitted Fabrics Knitting Defects (Barre; Birdseye; Broken Color; Drop Stitches; End Out;
Hole; Missing Yarn; Mixed Yarn; Needle Line; Press off; Runner; Slub)
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Knitted Fabrics Types(Brushed Acrilan; Brushed Nylon; Jersey; Stretch Jersey; Velour) Table Knitting Defects Felted and Non Woven Fabrics Decorative Fabric Construction TEXTILE DYEING Selection of Dyes Natural Dyes (Vegetable Dyes; Animal Dyes; Mineral Dyes) Synthetic Dyes (Basic or Cationic Dyes; Acid or Anionic Dyes; Acid PreMetalized Dyes; Mordant or Chrome Dyes; Developed Dyes; Disperse Dyes; Vat Dyes; Pigment Dyes; Oxidation Bases; Acid Milling Dyes; Azoic Dyes; Neutral Pre- Metalized Dyes; Direct Dyes; Sulphur Dyes; Reactive Dyes; Optical Brighteners) Selection of Dyeing Methods (Stock Dyeing; Top Dyeing; Yarn Dyeing; Solution Pigmenting or Dope Dyeing; Garment Dyeing; Piece; Beck Dyeing; Vacuum Impregnation; Pad Dyeing; Beam Dyeing; Solvent Dyeing; Cross Dyeing; Jet Dyeing; Jig Dyeing; Cold Pad Batch Dyeing; Foam Dyeing; Tumble Dyeing) Dyeing and Finishing Defects of Fabrics (Skewed or Bias; Back Fabric Seam Impression; Bowing; Color Out; Color Smear; Crease Mark; Crease Streak; Dye Steak; Mottled; Pin Holes; Puckered Selvage; Printer Machine Stop; Print out of Register; Sanforize Pucker; Scrimp Selvage)
212
213
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TEXTILE PRINTING Dyes used for Printing
215
19
Methods Used for Printing (Direct; Discharge; Resist Printing) Types of Printing (Block; Vegetable; Roller; Screen; Batik; and Tie dyeing) Printing on Denim TEXTILE FINISHING Kinds of Finishing Processes Preparatory Processes (Singeing or Gassing; Bleaching) Stabilizing Process (Mercerizing; Ammoniating; Shrinking; Fulling;
Tentering; Crabbing)
215 215 216 217 217 217 218 219
Textural Process (Temporary / Permanent Stiffening; Weighting;

Calendaring; Glazing; Embossing; Beeting; Raising; Napping; Sanding; Shearing; Wrinkled effects) Functional Effects (Shape Retentive Finishes; Wrinkle Resistant Finish, Wash and Wear Finish; Permanent Press; Water Repellency; Water Proofing; Absorbency Finish; Soil Repellency; Soil Release; Flame Retardant Finish; Mothproofing; Mildew proofing; Anti Bacterial Finishes; Slip Resistance; Antistatic Finish; Heat Reflectant Finish) New Trends in Denim Finishing (Sand Blasting; Tinting / Over Dyeing; Discharge Printing; Resist Bleaching; Enzymatic De-colorization)
221 223 224 225 227 227 227 230 231 233 233 234 235 237 237 238 244 246 248 250 252 257 258
Problems of Denim Yellowing ABCs of Washing Techniques for Denim (Unwashed; Mill Washed;
Pre-Washed; One-Washed; Stone Washed; Double Stone Washed; Sand washed; Bleached; Sky Blue; Stone Bleached; Bomber Washed; Old Blue) Finishing Techniques of Blue Denim (Finishing; Sizing; Singeing; Desizing; Bleaching; Dyeing; Emery; Napping; Finishing; Anti-Twist; Shrinking; Mercerizing; Printing; Bonding) Bleaching Free from Chlorine (Control in Wet Processing of Denims)
Garments Wet Processing Different Working Techniques (Garment Wash; Normal Wash; Pigment
Wash; Bleach Wash; Stone Wash with or without Bleach; Size of Stones used; Stone Ratio; Washing Time; Amount of Bleach) Stone Wash Procedure (Desizing; Stoning; Bleaching; Neutralizing; Soaping; Softening; Hydro Spinning; Tumble Drying) Types of Stone Washes (Acid or Enzyme Wash; Garment Wash Over dye)
Sand Blasting Methods of Sand Blasting (Sand Brushing; Sand Blasting with Gun; Laser
Sand Blasting; Spray Sand Blasting; Spraying; Color Spray Technique; Indigo Reducer Technique; Manual Sand Blasting with Sand Paper)
20
Wrinkle Free Finish on Garments Technology of Wrinkle Free Finish (Fabric for Wrinkle Free Finish) PATTERN DRAFTING Designer, Stylist, and Pattern Maker; Definition of a Pattern Designing Patterns (Points to Note When Pattern Drafting) Important Terminologies in Pattern Drafting and Sewing How to Measure Standard Body Measurements Ease and Allowances (Seam Allowance; Ease Allowance; Wearing Ease;
Design Ease; Hem Allowance; Gathering Allowance; Dart Allowance; Pleat Allowance; Shrinkage Allowance) Pattern Symbols (Symbol Key; Pattern Adjustment Lines; Grain Lines; Place on Fold Line Cutting Lines; Notches; Stitching Lines; Dots) Basic Blocks (Block Patterns; Blocks; Drafting the Blocks; Paper Patterns and Size Specification; Missing measurements)
Jacket Pattern Measurements Pant Pattern Measurements
21
INDUSTRIAL SEWING A Stitch, Seam, Sewing, and Stitches Seams Properties Seams Dimensions (Seam Length; Seam Width; Stitch Depth) Seam Types (Superimposed Seams (SS) Class-1; Lapped Seams (LS) Class-2;
Bound Seams (BS) Class-3; Flat Seams (FS) Class-4; Ornamental Seams (OS) Class-5; Edge Finishing (EF) Class-6; Seam Class-7; Seam Class-8)
259 259 260 261 262 262 264 269 282 288 290 290 290 292 293 295 296 296 296 296 297 297 297 297 298 298 298 298 298 299 301 302 303 306 308 309 310 311
Seam Types and Common Uses Stitch Properties (Length; Width; Depth; Tension; Stitch consistency) Stitch Classes (Chain Stitch Class-100; Hand Stitch Class-200; Lock Stitch
Class 300; Multi Thread Chain Stitch Class-400; Overedge Chain Stitches Class-500; Covering Chain Stitches Class-600)
Seam Types and Stitch Types (Tables) Classification of Garments by Sewing Articles Classification of Sewing Machines Seam Puckering Yarn Displacement or Structural Damage (Solutions to Puckering) Tension Puckering (Solutions to Puckering Caused by Tension Puckering)
Lock Stitch Machines; Chain Stitch Machines; Identification; Solutions)
Feed Puckering (Identification; Solutions to Feed Puckering) Optimizing Seam Performance for Denim (Core Spun Threads;
Broken Stitches; Major Causes and Solutions to these Problems)
Damage Done During Pre-Washing Thread Cost (Ways of Reducing Cost) Seam Quality Defects (Re-Stitched Seams / Broken Stitches) Minimizing Thread Breakage Skipped Stitches (Minimizing Skipped Stitches; Minimizing Seam Failures; Minimizing Seam Failures Seam Slippage Needle Cutting On Knits (Minimizing Needle Cutting on Knits) Excessive Seam Puckering Wovens Minimizing Excessive Seam Puckering Puckered Seams Knits and Stretch Wovens Excessive Seam Grain Improper Stitch Balances (301 Lock; 401 Chain; 504 Over edge stitches) Ragged / Inconsistent Edge Overedge or Safety Stitch Un-Raveling Buttons Sewing Machines (Sewing Machine Parts and Different Sewing Beds) Thread (Types; how Thread is made; Thread Twist; Thread Finishing) Thread Types (Spun Threads; Core Spun Threads; Continuous Filament
Stitch Cracking; Open Seam, Seam Failures, Seam Slippage; Minimizing Seam Failures in Fabric)
Threads; Textured Threads; Monofilament Thread) Thread Sizing (Sizing Standards; Sizing Systems; Weight/Size Comparison) Minimizing Thread Breakage (Characteristics in Thread Affecting Breakage/Skipped Stitches; Proper Loop Formation; Elongation and Initial Modulus; Lubrication; Uniformity and Consistency of Physical Properties) Factors that Affect Thread Breakage (Yarn Construction; Uniformity Absence of Yarn Imperfections; Proper Frictional Characteristics; Thread Lubricant; Good Ply Security or Ply Adhesion; Thread Selection Summary)
Other Causes of Thread Breakage and Skipped Stitches Thread Facts (Fiber Content; Fiber Length; Fiber Twist) Types of Thread (Cotton; Cotton Covered Polyester Core; Polyester; Silk;
Rayon; Nylon; Specialty Threads; Thread Care; Thread Tips;)
What Makes a Good Thread? (Elongation; Uniformity; Ply-Security;
Lubricity; Strength; Breaking Strength; Loop Strength; Tenacity; Twist; All Threads are not Created Equal) Color Fastness of Thread (Wash Fastness; Crock Fastness; Sublimation; Cold Water Migration; Light Fastness) Sewing Needles (Selecting the Proper Machine Needle) Minimizing Needle Heat (What Causes Needle Heat; Minimizing Heat) Machine Needles Parts (Point; Eye; Shank; Shaft; Scarf; Front Groove) Machine Needle Types (Universal; Jeans / Denim; Jersey / Ball Point Needle; Stretch Quilting; Microtex Needle; Top Stitch Needle; Embroidery Needle; Metallic Needle
312 313 313 313 315 315 316 316 317 324 324 324 325 325 325 326 326
Thread Machine Needle Chart Parts of a Basic Five Pocket Denim Jean Stitching of Basic Denim Jean (Operations and Machines; Sewing
Operation Rates and Payment Sheet)
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QUALITY CONTROL IN GARMENT MANUFACTURING Quality (Quality Definition; Quality Garment; Quality Control) Inspection (Objectives; Sections of Inspection in a Garment Industry) Inspection Stages (Raw Material; Pre-Production; In-Progress; and Final) Raw Material Inspection (Woven; Knitted; and Printed Fabric) Accessories Inspection In-process Inspection (Spreading; Defects; Sewing; Pressing;; Finishing) Final Inspection Quality Construction Checklist (Overall Appearance; Belts; Buttons;
Buttonholes; Collars; Cuffs; Darts; Facings; Fit; Gathers; Hems; Interfacing; Lining; Neckline; Needle Work; Pleats & Tucks; Pockets; Pressing; Seams; Sleeves; Fasteners; Stitching; Top and Under Stitching; Waistband; Waistline seam; Zipper)
AQL Inspection Procedures Environment to Proceed an Audit (Tolerances; Shipment Audit;

Packing List; Packing Inspection; Sampling Procedures; Styling Conformation; Measurements) Conducting of a Audit (Classification of Faults; Inspection Report) Classification of Non-Conformities (Major; Minor; Critical)
330 331 333 337 342 354 362 367 368 369 369 370 371 374 376 381 383 387 390 394
Basic Quality Inspection Standards for Apparel Quality System Audits (First Party Audit; Second Party Audit and Third
Party Audit; Auditors Responsibilities; Auditors Activities and Attributes)
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Care Labeling Standards IMPORT EXPORT PROCEDURE Shipping and International Trade Terms Exports (Shipment Track; Cut of Date; Means of Shipment; Delivery of
Consignment; Financial Aspects; Custom Clearance Documents; Invoice List; E-Form; Bill of Lading; Valuation Form; Visa) Documentary Credit (L/C; Types of L/C; Irrevocable; Revocable; at Sight) Nondocumentary Credit(Cash against Deposit; Documents against Days) Imports and Re-Exports (SRO 440; SRO 554; SRO 450)
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Flow Chart of Import and Export Letter of Credit Transaction and Complete Export Procedure Packing and Capacities with Examples BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Definition of Communication Process of Communication and Miscommunication Principals of Business Communication Process of Preparing Effective Business Messages Appearance and design of Business Messages 9
HISTORY OF CLOTHING
Coverings and garments intended to be worn on the human body. The words cloth and clothing are related, the first meaning fabric or textile, and the second meaning fabrics used to cover the body. The earliest garments were made of leather and other non fabrics, rather than of cloth, but these non fabric garments are included in the category of clothing. Fashion refers to the kind of clothing that is in a desirable style at a particular time. At different times in history, fashionable dress has taken very different forms. In modern times nearly everyone follows fashion to some extent. A young woman would look odd if she wore the clothing that her grandmother had worn when young. However, only a small minority of people dress in the clothing that appears in high-fashion magazines or on fashion-show runways. It is not always easy to tell the difference between basic clothing and fashionable clothing. Especially today, fashion designers often use inexpensive and functional items of clothing as inspiration. Blue jeans, for instance, originated as functional work clothing for miners and farmers. Yet today, even people who dress in jeans, T-shirts, and sports clothes may be influenced by fashion. One year, fashionable jeans may have narrow legs; the next year the legs may be baggy. Clothing historians trace the development of dress by studying various sources, including magazines and catalogs, paintings and photographs, and hats, shoes, and other surviving items. Reliable evidence about everyday clothing from the past can be hard to obtain because most publications and images concern the fashions of the wealthy. Furthermore, clothing that has survived from the past tends not to be typical of what was worn in daily life. Museum collections are full of fashionable ball gowns, but have very few everyday dresses worn by ordinary working-class women. Even fewer examples of ordinary men's clothing have been saved. Images, such as paintings, prints, and photographs, do provide considerable evidence of the history of everyday clothing. These sources indicate that although everyday clothing does not usually change as rapidly as fashionable dress, it does change constantly.
1. THE FUNCTIONS OF CLOTHING: Since prehistoric times, people in

almost all societies have worn some kind of clothing. Many theories have been advanced as to why humans began to wear clothing. One of the earliest hypotheses is the so-called modesty/shame theory, also known as the fig leaf theory. This theory is based on the biblical story of creation. In the book of Genesis, Adam and Eve, the first human beings, realize they are naked after they eat an apple from the tree of knowledge. Ashamed of their nakedness, they make clothing for themselves out of fig leaves. As late as the 19th century, most Europeans and Americans believed that people wore clothing primarily for reasons of modesty. With the rise of a nonreligious worldview, however, people began to offer other theories. Some argued that the origin of clothing was functionalto protect the body from the environment. Others argued that some clothing was designed for attraction. Evidence that early clothing was indeed functional came from a 1991 discovery of a 5,000-year-old male body, frozen on top of a glacier near the Austrian-Italian border. It was clothed in a fur cap, a crudely tanned leather cape, a lioncloth (strip of cloth wrapped around the waist and between the legs), leggings, and leather shoes. A grass 10
cloak covered the fur and leather clothing. These clothes would have provided protection against the cold and rain. The Iceman, as he is called, also had tattoos, which may have been marks of decoration or tribal identity, or were perhaps intended to provide magical protection. Decoration seems to satisfy a fundamental human need. Other animals groom themselves, but only human beings have ornamented themselves. Although in some societies people have worn little or no clothing, so far as we know, people have decorated their bodies in some way in all societies throughout history. Archaeological and anthropological evidence suggest that early people may have decorated their bodies with paint, tattoos, and other types of ornamentation even before they began wearing clothing made of fur or fabric. Body decoration, like clothing, has served a variety of social and symbolic purposes. Modern scholars believe that clothing provides a mark of identity and a means of nonverbal communication. In traditional societies, clothing functions almost as a language that can indicate a person's age, gender, and marital status, place of origin, religion, social status, or occupation. In modern industrialized societies, clothing is not so rigidly regulated and people have more freedom to choose which messages they wish to convey. Nevertheless, clothing can still provide considerable information about the wearer, including individual personality, economic standing, even nature of events attended by wearer. When a woman who usually wears blue jeans puts on a frilly, flowered dress, she may be stating that she wants to look more traditionally feminine. A person wearing a T-shirt emblazoned with the name of a rock band is probably a fan of that music group and may have attended one of groups concerts. A societys economic structure and its culture, or traditions and way of life, also influence the clothing that its people wear. In many societies, religious laws regulated personal behavior and permitted only members of an elite class to wear certain prestigious items of clothing. Even in modern democracies, clothing may represent social standing. Clothing with a designer label tends to be relatively expensive, so it may function as an outward sign of a person's economic standing. Clothing most obviously defines a social role in the case of uniforms, such as those worn by police officers and nurses, and garments worn by clergy or members of religious orders. Clothing metaphorsblue-collar and white-collar workers, for exampleare used to distinguish between types of work factory or office. Clothing also derives meaning from the environment in which it is worn. In most cultures brides and grooms as well as wedding guests wear special clothes to celebrate the occasion of a marriage. The clothing worn for rituals such as weddings, graduations, and funerals tends to be formal and governed by unwritten rules that members of the society agree upon. Clothing may also signal participation in leisure activities. Certain types of recreation, especially active sports, may require specialized clothing, e.g. football, soccer, and hockey players wear matching jerseys and pants designed to accommodate such accessories as protective pads. Most modern societies comprise different social groups, and each group has its own beliefs and behaviors. As a result, different clothing subcultures exist. Within a single high school, for example, teenagers known as jocks are likely to wear different styles of clothing than teens called nerds. This difference can indicate to which group a teen belongs.
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2. MATERIALS USED FOR CLOTHING: The development of new

materials for use as covering or ornament has played a major role in the history of clothing. In early prehistoric times, the range of materials for clothing was small. Until about 10,000 years ago, people used animal skins for clothing. Single skins were worn as capes thrown around the shoulders; two skins fastened together at the shoulder made a simple garment. Fitted clothes, such as trousers or a parka (an outer garment with a hood), were also made from animal skins. Simple needles made out of animal bone, found in many sites in Europe and Asia, provide evidence of sewn leather and fur garments from at least 30,000 years ago. However, only with the development of textile technology did greater variety become possible.
3. BEGINNINGS OF TEXTILE PRODUCTION: Tens of thousands of

years ago, early humans learned to obtain fibers from wild plants, such as wild flax, hemp, and nettles. Such fibers could be spun into thread and made into cloth textiles. People began to weave fabric during the Neolithic Era, a period that began around 8000 BC. Evidence of early weaving comes from fragments of flax fibers found in Switzerland. In some cultures, people made cloth without weaving, by pounding sheets of bark to produce a soft, flexible textile. The development of agriculture led to the domestication of fiber plants, such as cotton, hemp, and flax. The production of textiles requires the ability to process fibers, spin them into thread, and make cloth from the thread. Cloth can be made in a variety of ways, such as knotting, knitting, and braiding, but most cloth is made by weaving. Weaving is usually done on a loom that holds long threads (called the warp) under uniform tension so that other threads (the woof or weft) can be inserted over and under them. Many different types and patterns of weaving are possible, depending on the fiber used and the arrangement of the threads. Ancient Egyptians wove their earliest textiles from flax, which produced linen; in southern Europe, the earliest textiles came from wool; in China, from silk; and in India, Peru, and Cambodia, from cotton. 3.1 WOOL: Wool was probably the first animal fiber to be made into cloth. People began to raise sheep for wool about 6,000 years ago. Different kinds of wool, and mixtures of wool with other fibers, can be used to create tightly woven fabrics with smooth surfaces or more loosely woven fabrics with rougher surfaces. In many Middle Eastern societies, nomadic peoples beat wool into a matted fabric called felt, which they used to make clothing, saddle blankets, tents, and other useful items. Sheep-raising nomads in the Middle East also invented carpets made by knotting woolen weft threads onto a linen warp. Woolens came to be the characteristic textile for European clothing during the middle Ages, which lasted from about the 5th to the 15th century. People still commonly use wool for clothing, either as pure wool textiles or in blends with other fibers. Wool has obvious advantages as a clothing fabric because it is warm, even when wet, and readily accepts a wide range of color dyes. 3.2 SILK: China's chief contribution to world clothing has been the development of silk thread and cloth. By 3000 BC the Chinese had domesticated silkworms, feeding them mulberry leaves and unwinding their fresh cocoons to produce long strands of silk fiber. This fiber was spun into thread, and the thread was woven into cloth. By 1500 BC elaborate weaving techniques had been developed, using thread dyed in many colors. Silk is lustrous, soft, and lightweight but warm, and it can easily be dyed. Silk cloth excavated from tombs dating from the 2nd century BC includes gauze (thin, loosely woven fabric), twill (fabric with a woven design of parallel diagonal
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ribs), damask (fabric woven with patterns on both sides), brocade (heavy fabric woven with an intricate raised design), and plain cloth embroidered with different stitches. Farm women in China of the period were expected to raise silkworms and produce silk as part of their regular household duties. Silk was used in China, and it was also exported along the Silk Road; this ancient trade route linking China and the Roman Empire was named after the primary export carried on it. The silk trade, conducted between western Asia and the Mediterranean as early as AD 200, brought great wealth to ancient China and sustained the economies of towns along the route. China kept the technology of silk production secret; the ancient Greeks speculated that silk grew on a special tree in China. Christian monks finally broke China's monopoly on silk production in 400s, when they smuggled silkworm eggs to Syria on their return from China. 3.3 COTTON: Domesticated cotton first came into widespread use in ancient India. Much Indian cotton cloth had a simple weave to take advantage of materials lightness and airiness; it was then dyed and printed by hand using wood blocks that had patterns cut into them. Indian textiles have influenced textiles of other regions from antiquity through modern era. One type of printed cotton fabric, called calico by Europeans (after an Indian textile center named Calicut), was exported from India to Europe in large quantities in the 16th century. Imported Indian cotton became extremely fashionable and undermined the European woolen cloth industry. This helped stimulate the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, as Europeans tried to develop ways of producing cotton cloth by machine more cheaply than it could be made by hand in India.
4. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN TEXTILES: The materials used for

clothing vary around the world. Some textiles are better suited to a particular climate, e.g. knitted wool is more useful in cold climates, and thin woven cotton is more useful in warm climates. For most of history, the textiles people used and depended on the raw materials available locally, such as flax in Egypt, cotton in India, and silk in China. Beyond considerations of utility and availability, however, people tend to derive regional or national identity from their most characteristic textiles. Thus, a European businessman defines himself in part by his woolen suit, an Indonesian farmer by his cotton sarong (skirt of brightly colored cloth, worn wrapped about the waist). For centuries, silk-wearing Chinese people despised wool, which they considered the fabric of uncivilized people. Today, such considerations of identity have weakened amid international trade and international cultural exchange.
5. RECENT TRENDS IN TEXTILE MANUFACTURE: Throughout the

20th century, the trend in textiles has been toward lighter-weight materials. Better transportation and improved indoor heating have made warmth a less important aspect of clothing for most people than it was in earlier centuries. Since 1900 the weight of average clothing fabric has fallen by more than one-third. When people need extremely warm clothes, they tend to wear special outer garments such as parkas that today are typically made of lightweight synthetic materials. Synthetic materials, produced from chemical compounds rather than from plant fibers or animal hair, have provided less-expensive substitutes for natural fibers. Synthetic materials can also be superior to natural fibers in strength and durability. Rayon was
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an early synthetic substitute for silk. Nylon, a synthetic fiber introduced was another early substitute for silk and quickly became the fiber of choice for women's stockings. Polyester, a form of plastic, was introduced in clothing in the early 1950s. Blended with, rayon or cotton. Polyester found its first use in so-called wash-and-wear fabrics that needed little or no ironing. Synthetic fibers fell out of favor in the late 1960s and 1970s, but new kinds of polyester that are more durable and have a softer, more natural feel to them have become increasingly popular in the late 20th century. Synthetic fibers such as spandex have revolutionized clothing by making possible the production of extremely flexible, form-fitting garments. Other synthetic fibers, created for special purposes, range from lightweight but extremely warm or water-resistant fabrics, such as polypropylene and the composite polymer Gore-tex, to woven, bullet-proof fabrics such as Kevlar that serve as body armor.
6. 50 YEARS OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY OF PAKISTAN: The textile

industry of Pakistan especially the cotton textiles has achieved an extraordinary progress and growth during the last 50 years. Starting from 177,000 spindles and 5,000 looms in both East and West wings, Pakistan has today about 6.6 million spindles and 83,000 working rotors, 150,000 shuttles, 30,000 auto and 15,000 shuttleless looms and about 300 wet processing units for fabrics. In addition to this about 10,000 terry towel looms, 15,000 knitting machines and 100,000 sewing machines for the garments sub sector have been installed. The man-made fiber industry, after a slow start, is now meeting the entire staple and most of the filament needs for local consumption and export. About 60,000 looms are working in this sector. Textile industry today is the backbone of economy of Pakistan and provides the largest numbers i.e. about 40% of the total industrial jobs and very vast indirect service opportunities. The industry also tops as an earner of ever-so-scarce foreign exchange and exported goods worth US $ 5.58 billions last year and this amount is about two third of the total national exports. These very remarkable achievements did not come easily and were due to combined and tireless efforts of Govt. Planners, industrialists, technical support staff and our hard working and inexpensive labor. On top of these, Pakistan has been blessed with suitable climate and perennial supply of good quality water to grow about 1.7 million tons per annum of lint cotton, "silver fiber" that forms a natural and sound base for a viable textile industry. Pakistan can be rightly proud of growth and achievements of her largest industry and it may be interesting, especially for the younger generation, to follow the historical development of the textile industry in the country during the last 50 years.
6.1 COTTON SPINNING: Areas comprising West and East Pakistan were big
producers of good quality cotton and jute fibrous raw materials but the value added conversion industries were mainly located around the Indian cities of Bombay and Calcutta in the respective order. At the time of independence, Pakistan was producing about one million bales of cotton which were exported and from the receipts, cloth and yarn for hand looms were imported. The Govt. took stock of this situation immediately and encouraged setting up of textile mills in both the wings of the country and by 1960, 2 million spindles and 30,060 looms were installed. In those days Govt. sanctioned only composite mills with 25,000 spindles, 500 looms and a wet processing unit to finish the cloth produced in the mills. The balance quantity of yarn was required to be sold, often through an official channel, to the weavers of hand
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looms and later to the power looms. The mill owners made huge profits but their efforts for further investment were hindered due to paucity of foreign exchange. This Situation, however, eased when the machinery manufacturers started offering their plants under "the in Suppliers Credit, or "Pay as you Earn" plans. This facility brought in its wake escalation of price of the textile machines and this started a new development of installing only the spinning units of the 12,500 spindles. Many of the spinning units were then sanctioned on political considerations but went into the hands of genuine entrepreneurs in no time. At that time Govt. tried to disperse the industry away from the exiting industrialized cities and new textile centers emerged in small towns like Kotri, Sheikhupura etc. By 1971, Pakistan had a substantial textile industry with about 3.5 million spindles and 38,000 looms in mills sector and exported textile goods worth US $ 400 million. After separation of East wing, Pakistan was left with about 2.5 million working spindles but the growth was continuous and rapid and by 1985, the figure reached 3 million. At that time, the Govt. took a decision to convert all the home grown cotton into yarn and for the first time, decided to waive the requirement of getting official sanction for setting up a spinning mill. This decision opened the flood gate and in just five years, the capacity increased to 5 million spindles. The present working capacity is about 6.6 million spindles and 83,000 rotors. In 1996-97, the spinning industry produced 1,531 million kg of yarn, out of which about 20% was polyester cotton and viscose blended yarn. Development of the spinning sector is not in numbers alone but, there is also an improvement in the average productivity. On the basis 20S count, productivity has gone up from 190 grams (6.7 oz) in 1986-87 to 235 grams (8.3 oz) per shift per spindle in 1996-97. Improvement in quality of the yarn over the years may be seen from rise in the export price of $1.95/kg in 1986 to $2.78/kg in 1996. Further, about 60% of the yarn is exported to Japan which is a very choosy country for the quality. However, it may be kept in mind that some other factors are also involved in this jump in price. Pakistan exported 508, tons that are about 33% of the total cotton yarn produced in 1996-97 and this makes her the largest exporter in the World with a share of about 28%. This is not to be very proud of because yarn is a primary and not a value added commodity. Incidentally, it has been estimated that about 70% of total cotton yarn is exported directly or after conversion into value added products.
6.2 COTTON CLOTH: As mentioned earlier, the Govt. initially encouraged the
power loom industry to create jobs but by 1970, its production equaled to that of the mill sector and then there was no stopping of it. By 1990, it was producing 90% of the fabric in the country. As the power loom cloth suffers from some inherent defects, it is either exported in grey form for the lowest end of the market or is printed to cover its shortcomings and then converted into bed sheets and dress material. With development of exports of the better quality garments and also for the local demand, the weaving sector witnessed a new development. In 80s a number of high productivity shuttle-less loom mills were set up that produced quality fabric in comparatively wider widths. A large number of second hand shuttle-less looms were also imported in the 90s. Presently this sub-sector is weaving about one third of the total quantity of cloth. In 1996-97, Pakistan produced about 3,800 million square meters of cloth out of which about 33% was exported securing 6.8% share in the world exports. Unfortunately about 50% of it is shipped in the grey form and so the average export price is low i.e. only 1 US$ per Sq meter. 15
6.3 COTTON WET PROCESSING: The wet processing or finishing of

cotton yam and fabrics was initially started in the composite mills but with expansion of the power looms, independent wet processing units were established. These are concentrated in Faisalabad which is now the textile capital of the country. Up till the late 60s, the pretreatment of scouring and bleaching were carried out in Kiers and rope washing machines and dyeing was done on jiggers. The independent units had limited funds and so they encouraged manufacture of the finishing machines locally and somehow these competed with the mill sector fairly successfully. In the seventies, exporters of fabrics and garments vendors realized the importance and good profit associated with quality of the finished fabric. This realization led to installation of the open width processing machines, both new and second hand, in Karachi, Faisalabad and Lahore. The 80s and 90s may also be taken as an era of textile printing and large investments were made to print wide width fabrics for the fast growing bed sheet export business of more than US $ 400 million per annum. At present about 40 units exist in the composite mills and about 300 are working independently. The total capacity now is about 5,000 million square meters per annum which is more than the existing requirement of 3,000 million square meters. It may, however, be recorded that in spite of the big capacity, only a very limited number of mills can satisfactorily dye cloth of more than 60 inches width. This sad state of affairs is due to non availability of proper equipment and experienced / trained staff.
6.4 MAN MADE FIBER INDUSTRY: This industry had been variously
called as "silk", "art silk", "rayon", "synthetic" etc., but now it has acquired a more accurate generic title of the "man made" fiber industry. Initially, looms were installed mainly in Karachi, Lahore and Gujranwala but later Swat and tribal areas also became their centers because of Govt.s encouragement. This industry was then catering exclusively for the domestic demand using the imported filaments and getting the import permit was a big factor in the profit. However, manufacture of the filaments mainly the nylon and acetate started in the late 50s. Later, with domination of the polyester fibers in the apparel business, nylon mills were converted into the polyester filament producing units. Gradually many new and large polyester enterprises were started in the public as well as private, both local and multinational sectors. It may be mentioned that the polyester staple fibers are almost exclusively used for blending with the cotton fibers in Pakistan and so this industry strictly is not a part of this paragraph on the filament fabrics. However, this is discussed here because both the staple and filament are manufactured by the same processes. Nowadays total production of the staple fibers in 8 units is 400,000 tons and that of filaments in 18 mills is 80,000 tons per annum. Starting from a cottage industry, the M.M. Filament industry today has 60,000 looms producing about 1,000 million square meters of fabric annually. The entire capacity is wet processed in about 150 units, spread all over the country. Besides meeting the local requirements, the industry boasts of an export of US $ 500 million per annum which is about 6% of the total exports. The fabric is exclusively exported in the finished form and so the unit value of US$ 0.87 per sq. meter is not very flattering.
6.5 KNITWEAR INDUSTRY:
Manufacturing of Knitwear or as it was previously termed hosiery goods started as a cottage industry after creation of Pakistan. Refugees from Ludhiana (East Punjab), a centre of hosiery manufacturing in
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pre independence India, started the business with locally made knitting machines. The production was just enough to meet the local demand for under-garments but the poor quality and low productivity completely excluded the possibility of its export. Gradually the industry started exporting cheap T-shirts at US $ 6 per dozen and in 1980-81 goods worth US $ 23 million were exported with a share of 0.78% in the national exports. In 80s, a great change was witnessed when a large number of high speed knitting machines were imported from Europe, Japan, Korea and Taiwan along with soft flow dyeing machines. By 1990-91, the exports jumped to US$ 334 million with 5.4% share in the total exports. Last year its exports touched a figure of US$ 671- million with 8.1 % share in total exports. This growth over the years is remarkable because it has been achieved in spite of the high export quota price. The exports consist of both the fabrics and garments but recently export of fabric to USA and Europe has declined and is mainly confined to the Gulf countries where the fabric is converted into garments by labor imported from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India etc. Share of the fabric in the total knit export now is only about 10%.
6.6 GARMENT INDUSTRY: Garments are the ultimate product of the textile
and are the most value added component of the industry. Compared with the lint cotton, garments made in Pakistan sell at about 10 times more value per unit weight, after taking account of wastage at all the manufacturing stages. Garment export creates. The maximum number of direct and indirect jobs and is thus most valuable to the economy of the country. Their export as a "ready made garment" category has been very remarkable and has gone up by a factor of 10, from US$ 75 million in 1980-81, to US$ 727 million in 1996-97. However, garments also include the knitwear dresses which are 90% of the total knitwear export. This calculates out to be US. $ 604 million in 96-97 and so the total garment export is 727 + 671 or US$ 1,398 million. The share of the garment export is thus 16.9% in the total export and 25.1% in the textile export. The 25.1% share appears to be an impressive improvement in a few years but figures poorly against respective shares of 40% in India and 75% in China. Further the unit prices are low as compared with South East Asian countries like Hong Kong. Malaysia, Thailand etc. Pakistan's share in the total world export is about 2% but that of clothing is only 0.5%. Considering our rising population and job creating potential of the garment industry, it is essential that all out efforts be concentrated on increasing volume and improving quality of our clothing export. Pakistan is a key cotton grower, has a strong textile industry and cheap labor. These facts open a lot of opportunities to gain a greater share in the world market. One important and yet inexpensive element for achievement of this goal is to train the technical and management personnel at all levels to attain better quality, higher productivity and machine efficiency should attract attention of our planners.
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THE ECONOMY OF PAKISTAN

Riding on the strong economic fundamentals of last year Pakistans economy has gathered greater momentum during the fiscal year 2003-04. Acceleration in growth accompanied by a sharp pick up in industrial production, a strong upsurge in investment, and a further strengthening of the external balance of payments have been the hallmarks of this year's performance. The pre-payment of high cost external debt, the strategic re-entry into the international capital markets through the floatation of a Eurobond and the re-basing of Pakistans national accounts have been the other stellar occurrences of the fiscal year 2003-04. No efforts to revive the economy will be complete unless these macroeconomic gains are transferred to the masses in terms of an improved standard of living. The efforts of the last five years have started yielding positive results and this year has seen the incidence of poverty declining, enrolment in primary, middle and matric levels rising, and various quality of life indicators improving. During this fiscal year, Pakistan succeeded in attaining; a higher than targeted growth in real GDP, powered by stellar growth in large-scale manufacturing and a continuing robust performance in services; a double-digit growth in per capita income, reaching $ 652; a strong rebound in investment, particularly in private sector investment owing to a rare confluence of various positive developments on the economic scene; low inflation and an investment-friendly interest rate environment; an unprecedented increase in credit to the private sector; sharp increases in the consumption of electricity and gas reflecting rising levels of economic activity; a reduction in the fiscal deficit; on target tax collection; a buoyant stock market with an all-time high aggregate market capitalization; a double-digit growth in exports and imports; workers' remittances maintaining their momentum with the current account balance remaining in surplus for the third year in a row; a continued accumulation of foreign exchange reserves and stability in the exchange rate; a sharp decline in the public and external debt burden; a lowering of the interest cost through the pre-payment of $ 1.17 billion of high cost external debt; and a successful return to the international capital markets through the floatation of a Eurobond. From the grassroots perspective, the incidence of poverty has declined by 4.2 percentage points over 2001 figures. Other social indicators such as enrolment in primary, middle and matric levels; access to sanitation, safe drinking water, housing, electricity and gas have all showed marked improvements. Two successive years of strong growth along with over Rs.860 billion of cumulative spending over the last five years on social sector and poverty related programs is now beginning to bear fruit. Notwithstanding these improvements, much remains to be done, and this is that critical juncture in time when maintaining momentum through policy stability is permanent. While socio-economic and macroeconomic policies pursued, during the year have had a strong influence on this across-the-board improvement, an increasingly broad and dynamic global recovery with industrial production and global trade picking up sharply, have aided Pakistan in this endeavor.
1. EXPORTS: Exports grew by 13.1 percent during July-April 2003-04 against a

hefty increase of 20.8 percent during the same period last year. When viewed against the backdrop of stellar growth (20.8%) last year, a higher double-digit growth rate in exports is one of the major achievements of the outgoing fiscal year. Given the performance of the first 10 months of the current fiscal year exports are likely to cross 18
the target of $ 12.1 billion for the whole year. The higher unit values of exports, deeper penetration into the European and US markets, a sharp decline in the Export Refinance rate, and a competitive exchange rate have contributed to the surge in exports during the year. The surge in exports is underpinned by a strong growth in textile manufacturers and others exports. Textile manufacturers, accounting for 65.4 percent of total exports, registered an increase of 14.3 percent while other exports covering 9.2 percent of total exports grew by a hefty 48.6 percent. Almost 71 percent of the contribution to overall export growth came from textile manufactures and 26 percent came from other exports. Primary commodities exports registered a decline of 1.5 percent mainly on account of very little export of wheat this year. Excluding the exports of wheat, primary commodities exports show an impressive growth of 12.8 percent. It is also encouraging to see the exports of engineering goods picking up at a much sharper pace. This year, exports of engineering goods grew by 33.4 percent rising from $ 55.1 million to $ 73.5 million.
2. IMPORTS: Imports grew by 19.0 percent during the first ten months (July April) of the current fiscal year against a hefty increase of 22.5 percent in the same period last year. Most importantly, non-food non-oil imports are up by almost 32 percent against 23.5 percent last year. The exceptionally strong growth in non-food non-oil imports is one of the leading indicators of a surge in domestic economic activity. The salient features of this year's performance of imports include: impressive growth in the import of the machinery, chemical, metal and textile groups. The petroleum group registered a decline of 7.7 percent on account of 27.4 percent decline in the imports of petroleum products. In quantity terms, the import of petroleum products was down by 42.2 percent on account of a continuing surge in POL output by local refineries, an increased use of gas in industries and electricity generation, and lesser reliance on fuel oil-based thermal electricity owing to higher electricity generation through hydel. The major contributors to this year's rise in imports are the machinery group (27.1 %), followed by the agricultural and chemical group (22%), and metal group (7.0 %). The share of oil bills remained unchanged at 26.6 percent since last year. However, if the unprecedented rise in oil prices persists then given the rising level of economic activity Pakistan's oil bill is likely to cross $ 3.0 billion in 2004-05. If extrapolated for the remaining two months of the year, total imports may likely be in the neighborhood of $ 14.5 billion for the whole fiscal year. As a result of the developments in exports and imports, the trade gap has widened from $ 1251.5 million to $ 2011.4 million during the first 10 months of the current fiscal year, showing a deterioration of 60.7 percent. Given stronger than anticipated surge, in domestic economic activity, the widening of the trade gap in the short-run is quite normal. The year is expected to close at a trade deficit of around $ 2.5 billion against the yearly target of $ 0.7 billion.
3. GOING FORWARD: Pakistan has lived through a difficult and testing

period. After five years of hard work the complexion of economy has changed altogether. It is no longer fragile and its balance of payments is no more vulnerable to external shocks. Wide-ranging structural reforms, prudent macroeconomic policies, financial discipline and a consistency and continuity in policies, not seen before, have transformed Pakistan into a stable and resurgent economy in 2003-04. The stage is now set for economic growth to accelerate with the private sector expected to play the leading role in taking the economy on a higher growth trajectory. Notwithstanding the major successes on the socio-economic front, the progress made so far not commensurate with the country's considerable potential. Although stronger, the
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economy of Pakistan has many challenges lying ahead. Maintaining and building on the macroeconomic stability; and sustaining and further accelerating the growth momentum will be the continuing challenges. Linked with these are the challenges of job creation, poverty alleviation, minimizing social inequality and strengthening country's physical infrastructure. The stage is now set for growth to accelerate from 6.4 percent this year to 8.0 percent over the next three to four years. An essential foundation for sustaining this higher growth is the pursuance of sound macroeconomic policies, the key elements of which include fiscal discipline, appropriate monetary and exchange rate policies, and prudent debt management. The centrality of economic growth in addressing the challenges listed above is beyond doubt. Economic growth reduces poverty because average incomes of the poor typically tend to rise proportionately with the average income of the population. This result is robust overtime and across countries and regions. At the macro level, growth implies greater availability of government resources to improve the quantity and quality of education, health, water supply, sanitation, and other services. At the micro level, growth creates employment opportunities, increases income and reduces poverty. To achieve 7-8 percent growth in the next three to four years, sectors like agriculture, small and medium enterprises (SMEs), housing and construction, oil and gas, and information technology and telecommunications will have to play the central role. Of these, agriculture, SMEs and housing and construction are expected to generate pro-poor growth - essential in addressing the income distribution issue. With the country's population growing at less than 2.0 percent per annum over the next three to four years, real per capita income is projected to rise by 5.5 - 6.0 percent per annum. This is the growth in per capita income which will be required to substantially reduce poverty and unemployment in the country. Structural change is the essence of development while reform is a dynamic concept. The country must continue to adjust itself with the changing domestic and external environment. Over the last five years Pakistan has introduced wide-ranging reforms in various sectors of the economy. These reforms have started yielding dividends in terms of higher growth and macroeconomic stability. To achieve 7-8 percent growth on a sustained basis Pakistan needs to introduce a second-generation of reforms over the next 4-5 years. This reform agenda must concentrate on strengthening institutions, improving the competitiveness of industries, building a robust financial system and further strengthening of the tax administration. The current upturn in the economy offers the ideal opportunity to implement reforms needed to deliver faster growth that is sustainable in the long run. It is reassuring to see the government's unwavering commitment to pursue the reform program in the coming years. Few policies have promoted socio-economic development as successfully as effective investment in human resources. No nation can progress without a strong human capital base and investment in this area will be as essential as sound macroeconomic policies in achieving the desired economic boom. Education is central to overall human resource development. While basic education develops basic skills related to literacy and numeric, higher education especially at the tertiary level involves specialization in fields of study and occupation relevant to developing technological capability. Better access of the poor to education and health care, and a better quality of these services, expand opportunities for them to improve their own well-being. This calls for allocating adequate government resources to spending on human capital development. It is reassuring to see that the government has allocated substantial resources to the social sector in the PSDP for 2004-05. Most importantly, the 20
allocation for higher education has increased by 84 percent in 2004-05. This is an important step in the right direction. Cutting across this agenda is the empowerment of women by removing barriers to their fuller participation in the development process. Promoting gender equality is not only an important social goal but is also essential for the achievement of the broader development goals. Studies find that gender equality contributes to better education and health outcomes. More recent cross-country research has found that gender inequalities in education impede economic growth. Good quality infrastructure is essential for promoting and sustaining strong growth, necessary to reduce poverty. Pakistan has already moved to a higher growth trajectory and has targeted a 7-8 percent rate in the next three to four years. To achieve and sustain this Pakistan needs to invest heavily in infrastructure -water, power, roads, highways, ports, transport and communications. Heavy investment in infrastructure is also needed to take advantage of Pakistans strategic location in the region for expanding regional cooperation in trade and commerce. In particular, Pakistan can serve as a bridge between East and West Asia, as well as the entry port for Afghanistan and the Central Asian Republics. It is in this perspective that the main theme of this year's Pakistan Development Forum (PDF) was infrastructure development. Realizing the importance of infrastructure the government has allocated Rs.87 billion for the fiscal year 2004-05 - 28 percent higher than last year. Allocation to infrastructure amounts to 59 percent of the total Federal Government PSDP (Rs.148 billion). This is a step in right direction. Increased investment in infrastructure alone, however, is not the answer as it must be underpinned by improvements in governance to ensure effectiveness and sustainability. Pakistan's economy has gained more strength during the outgoing fiscal year. All its macro economic indicators show marked improvement over last year. The macroeconomic policies and reform programmes pursued over the last five years have not only made the economy healthier but also set the stage for taking the economy on a higher growth path. The fruits of macro economic gains have also started trickling down to the poor. A strong economic growth along with massive spending on social sector and poverty related programmes are now beginning to yield dividends in terms of declining poverty and improvements in living conditions as well as in social indicators. Much progress has been made but much remains to be done. Maintaining the momentum and building on the gains will be both vital and challenging. Sound macro economic policies, financial discipline, continuity of policies, political and regional stability will be the key to sustain the momentum. The growth in the external sector of Pakistan gained further momentum during fiscal year 2003-04. This buoyant trend was broad-based and can be attributed to an improved macroeconomic environment within the country on the one hand and acceleration in world economic growth on the other. Pakistan witnessed robust export and import growth during this time period coupled with a healthy increase in foreign exchange reserves. Notwithstanding an anticipated marginal decline in the flow of remittances along with a double-digit rise in imports, the current account balance continued its positive trajectory. The increase in imports was the direct outcome of higher machinery purchases thus giving credence to the argument of resurgence in the manufacturing sector. On the external front, a strong rebound in the global economy has firmed up demand for the Pakistani goods. As per the statistical information, Government receives foreign exchange up to Rs. US$ 119 against export of 170 K.g
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bales of raw cotton, whereas the same quantity of raw cotton converted into fabric and exported as textile garments, fetch US$ 1500 to US$ 1600 as foreign exchange. EXPORT OF TEXTILE MANUFACTURERS (%AGE SHARE)
ITEM Cotton Yarn Cotton Cloth Knitwear Bead Wear Towels Tents, Canvas & Tarpaulin Readymade Garments Synthetic Textiles Made-up Articles Others 1998-99 19.0 22.4 14.9 12.3 3.6 0.8 13.1 8.0 5.1 0.8 100.0 1999-00 19.2 19.6 15.9 12.7 3.5 0.9 13.8 8.2 5.5 0.7 100.0 2000-01 18.7 17.9 15.8 12.9 4.2 0.9 14.4 9.5 5.7 100.0 2001-02 16.1 19.6 14.6 15.9 4.6 0.9 15.1 7.1 6.1 100.0 2002-03 12.9 18.6 15.9 18.4 5.2 1.0 15.1 7.9 5.0 100.0 2003-04* 14.8 20.9 17.3 17.4 4.8 0.9 12.6 6.1 5.2 100
PAKISTANS MAJOR EXPORTS (%AGE SHARE)

COMMODITY Cotton Leather Rice Synthetic Textiles Sports Goods Sub-Total Others Total 9091 61.0 9.1 5.6 5.7 2.2 83.6 16.4 100.0 9293 59.8 9.3 4.7 7.4 1.9 83.1 16.9 100.0 9495 58.7 8.0 5.6 7.1 3.2 82.6 17.4 100.0 9697 61.3 7.7 5.6 6.1 3.7 84.4 15.6 100.0 9899 59.1 6.9 6.9 5.1 3.3 81.3 18.7 100.0 9900 61.0 6.3 6.3 5.3 3.3 82.2 17.8 100.0 0001 58.9 7.5 5.7 5.9 2.9 80.9 19.1 100.0 0102 59.4 6.8 4.9 4.5 3.3 78.9 21.1 100.0 0203 63.3 6.2 5.0 5.1 3.0 82.6 17.4 100.0 0304* 62.5 5.3 5.2 4.2 2.6 79.8 20.2 100.0
MAJOR EXPORT MARKETS (%AGE SHARE)

COUNTRY USA Germany Japan UK Hong Kong Dubai Saudi Arabia Sub-Total Other Countries Total 90-91 10.8 8.9 8.3 7.3 6.0 2.8 3.6 47.7 52.3 100.0 92-93 13.9 7.8 6.8 7.1 6.6 5.9 4.7 52.8 47.2 100.0 94-95 16.2 7.0 6.7 7.1 6.6 4.0 2.7 50.3 49.7 100.0 96-97 17.7 7.5 5.7 7.2 9.4 4.6 2.6 54.7 45.3 100.0 98-99 21.8 6.6 3.5 6.6 7.1 5.4 2.4 53.4 46.6 100.0 99-00 24.8 6.0 3.1 6.8 6.1 5.7 2.5 55 45.0 100.0 00-01 24.4 5.3 2.1 6.3 5.5 5.3 2.9 51.8 48.2 100.0 01-02 24.7 4.9 1.8 7.2 4.8 7.9 3.6 54.9 45.1 100.0 02-03 23.5 5.2 1.3 7.1 4.6 9.0 4.3 55 45.0 100.0 03-04* 23.6 5.0 1.1 7.5 4.9 7.7 3.0 52.8 47.2 100.0
MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO EXPORT EARNINGS (July April 2003-04*)

EXPORTS Additional Export Earnings Primary Commodities Textile Manufacturers Other Manufacturers Others * Provisional NET INCREASE %AGE $ MILLION CONTRIBUTION 1154.7 100.0 -12.5 -1.1 818.2 70.9 49.0 4.2 300.0 26.0 Source: FBS & E.A.Wing. Finance Division
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MONTHLY EXPORTS
MONTH July August September October November December January February March April Monthly Average * Provisional 2002-03 2003-04 $ MILLION $ MILLION 816.7 890.2 902.8 1038.7 869.0 1038.8 891.8 1006.8 854.1 861.6 863.2 1045.1 946.5 1094.0 776.4 906.2 935.6 1024.0 990.2 1095.8 884.6 1000.1 Source: FBS & E.A.Wing. Finance Division
STRUCTURE OF EXPORTS ($ Million)

PARTICULARS A. Primary Commodities Rice Raw Cotton Fish & Fish Preparation Fruits Tobacco Wheat B. Textile Manufacturers Cotton Yarn Cotton Cloth Knitwear Bed Wear Towels Readymade Garments Synthetic Textiles C. Other Manufacturers Carpets, Rugs & Mats Petroleum Crude Petroleum Goods Sports Goods Leather Tanned Leather Manufactures Leather Garments Chemicals & Pharmaceutical Engineering Goods D. Others Total * Provisional JULY APRIL 2003-04 818.3 508.2 40.9 126.4 82.2 10.5 6.0 6535.4 964.8 1370.8 1132.0 1136.4 312.5 824.1 396.1 1730.4 184.0 27.7 181.9 257.7 192.9 340.2 268.1 204.6 73.5 916.9 10001.0 JULY APRIL %AGE 2002-03 CHANGE 830.9 -1.5 454.7 11.8 46.3 -11.7 109.2 15.7 68.8 19.5 4.5 133.3 110.5 -94.6 5717.3 14.3 776.1 24.3 1066.5 28.5 881.7 28.4 1033.6 9.9 283.9 10.1 891.2 -7.5 439.3 -9.8 1681.3 2.9 174.5 5.4 34.8 -20.4 156.7 16.1 262.4 -1.8 188.5 2.3 313.9 8.4 176.4 52.0 210.1 -2.6 55.1 33.4 616.8 48.6 8846.3 13.1 Source: Federal Bureau of Statistics
GROUP WISE GROWTH PERFORMANCE (%AGE Share)

GROUP Food, Beverages & Tobacco Textile and Apparel Leather Products Paper and Board 2001-02 4.3 7.5 -4.8 -38.7 2002-03 1.5 3.6 -2.5 15.6 2003-04* 13.7 7.0 39.0 7.9
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Pharmaceutical Chemicals Petroleum Group Tyres and Tubes Non-Metallic Mineral Products Basic Metal Industries Light Engineering Goods Electricals Automobile Overall Growth * July - March
2.6 3.0 21.1 -15.4 5.9 33.4 14.1 2.8 1.7 9.7 15.7 2.7 2.5 9.8 13.7 -2.9 9.8 7.0 1.7 9.5 6.6 37.4 27.3 45.8 0.9 49.5 52.7 3.5 7.2 17.1 Source: Economic Advisor Wing, Finance Division
KEY ECONOMIC INDICATORS (JULY-MARCH)

ITEMS UNIT 2003-04 2002-03 %AGE CHANGE Large Scale Manufacturing* % 15.0 7.7 Inflation % 3.7 3.5 Food % 4.6 3.3 Non-Food % 3.1 3.4 Tax Collection (CBR) Rs. Billion 352.4 310.3 13.6 Exports $ Million 8902.2 7856.0 13.3 Imports $ Million 10502.1 9029.8 16.3 Trade Balance $ Million -1599.9 -1173.8 36.3 Deterioration Current Account Balance $ Million 1422 1910 (Excluding Official Transfers)* Remittances $ Million 2875.3 3230.1 -11.0 Foreign Investment (Total) $ Million 586.8 664.7 -11.7 FDI $ Million 632.3 658.2 -3.9 Portfolio $ Million -45.5 6.5 FOREX Reserves (End March) $ Billion 12.6 9.6 31.2 Exchange Rate (Avg. March) Rs / US$ 57.5 57.9 0.7 Appreciation Stock Market (KSE Index) # Index 5582.3 2715.7 105.5 Market Capitalization Rs. Billion 1489.5 603.0 147.0 Credit to Private Sector @ Rs. Billion 237.0 101.0 * July-February @ As on March 27. # As on April 16, 2004.
PERFORMANCE OF KEY ECONOMIC INDICATORS

UNIT 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 (T) 1. REAL SECTOR Real GDP Growth % 2.2 3.4 5.1 5.3 Agriculture % -2.7 -0.1 4.1 4.3 Large Scale Manufacturing % 9.5 4.9 8.7 8.8 Investment % of GDP 15.9 14.7 15.5 16.5 National Savings % of GDP 15.0 17.0 19.4 17.1 Inflation % 4.4 3.5 3.1 4.0 2. Fiscal Sector Revenue Collection Billion Rs. 396.4 403.9 461.6 510.0 Fiscal Deficit % of GDP 4.6 5.1 4.5 4.0 Public Debt** % of GDP 99.7 100.8 90.5 84.4 Of which FC. denominated % of GDP 51.8 52.6 47.0 40.8 Debt Servicing % of Total Revenue 57.0 51.1 35.7 31.3 3. External Sector Exports Billion $ 9.2 9.1 11.2 12.1 Imports Billion $ 10.3 10.3 12.2 12.8 Remittances Billion $ 2.4 2.4 4.2 4.0 Foreign Direct Investment Million $ 322.4 484.7 198.0 1500.0 Current Account Balance % of GDP -0.9 2.3 4.4 0.6 External Debt and FOREX Liab Billion $ 37.1 36.5 35.0 33.5 External Debt and Liabilities % of FOREX Earnings 259.5 236.8 178.9 160.0 Foreign Exchange Reserves Billion $ 3.27 6.26 10.73 12.6* T: Target *: End March 2004 **: Adjusted for Grant Assistance.
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MERCHANDISING ENVIRONMENT
1. THE MODERN ENTERPRISES: The concept of successful enterprise has
changed dramatically all over the world. At the beginning of industrial revolution, machines were competing with hands. Hand made products in homes or small workshops are quickly being replaced by machine made products because they are cheaper and consistent. Today machine are common & cheaper. Any successful Company must have following areas of work: 1.1 MANUFACTURING: Garment factory is just the manufacturing part of the apparel business, and as discussed above, it is relatively the easiest part. Modernizing manufacturing and production of garment is what we should be aiming for; since production of garment is a vast area, we should break it up into different stages i.e. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Equipment selection, planning and investment. Factory layout plans and facilities. Selection criteria of personnel and job descriptions. Organization chart and designations in a medium scale garment factory. Purchasing of fabrics, accessories and in house testing. Pattern making techniques for quality improvement and cost reduction. Stitching methods and processes. Cutting techniques. Process design, process analysis, & time motion study and work sample. Finishing, pressing and packing techniques. Internal training of workforce. Motivation and improvement of productivity of the workforce. Safety and health of the workforce. Management tools and methods.
1.2 DISTRIBUTION & MARKETING: It can be visualized as the method in which the product reaches the intended target. It is one of the parts of the selling aspect of the trade and thereby also including marketing. It also means the method in which you get the product from the manufacturing facility to near by outlet or can involve warehousing agents, trucking, etc. It is important to note that each link in the distribution chain has a cost associated and therefore profit margin. Majority of us are simply working on style given by their customers local agents and the mode of shipment, delivery date, and nomination of forwarding agent is specified. We just follow the procedure and thats it. In future Apparel companies will have to look at selling differently. Distribution chain for manufacturing to overseas retailing is marketing and selling tools including costing; selection of sole agents in foreign countries; selection of forwarding and clearing agencies; selection of shipping or airline companies; visiting trade fairs; locating and arranging a central warehouse; selecting transportation companies from warehouse to eventual destinations; and implementing / managing all above through modern methods i.e. computers. 1.3 DESIGN: It is this aspect of the apparel business, which is the most important and also the most rewarding. We all know the importance of designs in the trade. At least twice every year, new designs are developed somewhere and reach us through fax and email from our customers and we are asked to develop them and send them samples. We also are aware that a little difference in styling can sometimes increase or decrease the price. Why is it that local companies seldom design their own products? How many of us have trained designers in our factories?
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1.4 BRANDING: This is probably the toughest aspect of the apparel business. It requires a long-term investment, a lot of promotion and a clear vision. It also means that for the same product, the consumer is willing to pay more just for the name, when we think about LEVIS our REEBOK. But there are million other small brands all over the world trying to create their version of styling and recognition. Apparel companies who wish to expand business through design and distribution must also invest in branding. 1.5 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT: There are two areas in apparel business where initially research and development can play an important role. They are the identifying and creating new designs and material and developing better and more efficient manufacturing capabilities. These expansions do not mean in any way that the existing work will be curtailed, it only gives a road map to the future. All of it can be summarized in few words as If you fail to plan, then you plan to fail
2. APPAREL INDUSTRY: The apparel industry is a broad based international

system of merchandising, producing, marketing, and financing. It involves sourcing textiles from international markets, merchandising product lines, manufacturing garments and related products, and marketing finished goods to retailers and ultimate consumers. Participation in the textile and apparel business requires complex interactions and relationships among material suppliers, apparel manufacturers, retailers, and consumers. Business success is dependent on meeting customers needs. Over the past 150 years, the apparel business has evolved from custom fitting and assembling of individual hand sewn garments to the mechanized, automated, and sometimes robotized mass production and distribution of ready to wear in the world market. Compared to many other product lines, apparel manufacturing remains labor intensive. Because of the variety of product categories, the endless change in materials and styling, and the difficulty in handling soft goods, manual production operations are usually needed. Advancements in technology have increased the functions and capabilities of machines and equipment, but complexities of manipulating flexible materials and dealing with constantly changing styles limit the degree of automation for many production operations. 2.1 CHANGE: Change in apparel is accepted and expected by most manufacturers, retailers and consumers. Two types of change have profound effects on the apparel business: Fashion change and seasonal change. A Fashion is the styling or mode that is accepted by a particular group of people at a particular time and place. According to fashion theory, consumers quickly become bored with whatever is widely accepted: thus, they constantly seek new and different variations of products and activities. The apparel business is widely known as the fashion business because fashion change is so intimately associated with apparel in the minds of most people. Fashion change relates to change in color, styling, fabrication, silhouette, and performance to reflect fashion trends. Seasonal Change is often confused with fashion change. Seasonal change is modification of products available in market and used by consumers according to the time of the year. Factors influencing seasonal change includes the weather, holidays, beginning and ending of the school year, and cultural and religious traditions.
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2.2 TIMING: The combination of fashion change and seasonal change makes the apparel business the most change intensive business in the world. Apparel professionals plan and implement product changes based on interpretations of target customers needs and wants. Apparel firms must be flexible and completely oriented to change since many develop five product lines a year; some introduce new styles on a monthly or even weekly basis. Many challenges must be over come to maintain product quality and performance while meeting deadlines and delivery dates. Managing change requires careful timing. A fashion or seasonal product that hits the market a few days late may be totally un-salable. Thus, apparel manufacturers and retailers are constantly working against deadlines. Labor intensity, soft materials, constant fashion and seasonal change, and essential timing make the apparel business unique. The performance and quality of products produced and marketed in this environment are dependent on intensive interactions of apparel manufacturers, retailers, and consumers in the world market. 2.3 QUALITY: The term Quality as applied to apparel has a multiplicity of meanings. Quality is the essential nature of something, an inherent or distinguished characteristic or property, superiority, excellence, or a perceived level of value. From a merchants perspective, the quality characteristics that should be incorporated into a product line are those that customers desire and are willing to pay for and that can be cost effective. Established product lines are often known for their quality and value. Exact characteristics that are perceived as quality features vary according to the standards of each individual. To some people, quality is goodness or luxury. To others, quality is durability, beauty, labels or high prices. Clearly, people rely on wide variety of cues to determine whether products meet their quality standards. Perceived quality is a composite of intrinsic and extrinsic cues to quality. Intrinsic quality is created during product manufacturing and is dependent on styling, fit, materials, and assembly methods. Intrinsic cues relate to the innate and essential parts or inherent nature of a garment. The general population is not well informed about properties of fibers, yarns, fabrics, finishes, and garment assembly processes to evaluate intrinsic quality and performance of apparel. An objective analysis of the intrinsic quality or performance of apparel is often not possible. Consequently, extrinsic cues are sometimes regarded as indicators of intrinsic quality. Extrinsic cues originate from outside the product and are not inherent parts of the product. Prices, brand names, reputations of retailers, visual merchandising techniques, and advertising are common extrinsic cues. Extrinsic cues seem to be less complex to interpret intrinsic cues. However, interpretations of relationships between apparel quality and performance are subject to individual experiences, understandings, standards, and expectations. Manufacturers / retailers frequently use extrinsic cues to influence perceptions of product quality, value, and performance. 2.4 PRICE: Price is one of the primary extrinsic cues relative to quality. The general price classifications of low end, budget, moderate, better, and designer price are widely used to describe merchandise sold in apparel markets. Each price classification represents a general price range. Terms budget, moderate, and better are used to describe quality and performance characteristics that are consistent with expectations within a particular price classification. Low end and budget price classifications make up well over half the apparel merchandise sold in retail market. Mass merchandisers and discounters, such as 27
Kmart, Wall Mart, Target, and Sears have high proportions of their assortments made up of budget merchandise. Most budget merchandise, while comparatively low in price, provides adequate performance and quality to meet the needs of a large proportion of the population. In Low end and budget markets, price is the primary point of competition, which makes controlling costs of production and materials a necessity. Low end and Budget manufacturers control costs by using less expensive materials and different quality standards for production. Production costs may also be contained by combing or eliminating steps in manufacturing processes. Moderate price classifications have their own core customers plus fringe customers from the budget and better price ranges. Budget customers may shop for moderate priced garments when they are on sale or for special occasion garments. Better customers may shop moderate merchandise when they perceive styling, quality, or status to be less important. Moderate merchandise makes up most of what is sold in community and regional malls. Most department and specialty stores carry the majority of their merchandise in the moderate category. Nationally advertised brands of apparel tend to be upper moderate, moderate, lower moderate prices merchandise. Moderate priced merchandise often has a conglomeration of product characteristics. Some of which may be typical of budget or better categories. Moderate merchandise is designed to meet the fashion, performance, and quality needs. Markets for apparel sold within the better and designer price classifications represent a comparatively small proportion of the population. A few nationally known retailers specialize in better, higher priced apparel, as well as a few specialty chains and local independent retailers. Some mainstream department stores carry some better apparel in a few departments that specialize in upscale quality. Manufacturers of better and designer apparel meet market demands with more focus on styling and fit, selection of unique fabrics and other materials, and use of more complex construction techniques. Styling and quality are the primary selection criteria for this price classification. Manufacturers of better apparel have more options available in design and production because they have different cost limitations than manufacturers of budget or moderate. Better market demand; more exclusivity, uniqueness, and commitment to a total image. Result is usually greater focus on intrinsic quality.
3.ORGANIZATION OF APPAREL INDUSTRY: The organizational

structure of the apparel industry can be divided into four levels, beginning with the production and distribution of materials at the mill level and ending with the consumer. At the mill level i.e. Level-1, materials such as fabrics including piece goods and interlinings, zippers, thread, trims, and buttons are manufactured and sold to apparel firms. Some apparel manufacturers buy from vendors open stock, and others have products developed to their specifications. Few apparel manufacturers are vertically integrated with textile production and therefore may produce in their own plants all or some of the materials used in their garments. At the apparel manufacturing level i.e. Level-2; apparel firms are responsible for the marketing, merchandising, and production of products. Apparel manufacturers have two types of organizational structures: (1) those that perform all or nearly all of their manufacturing within their own facilities and by their own employees and (2) those that contract some or all of the manufacturing functions to other firms.
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Apparel contractors are sources of many goods and services. Contractors are firms that make a profit by providing sewing or specialty services to one or more apparel manufacturers. Contractors sometimes enter competitive bidding for sewing jobs by submitting bids based on estimates of production costs for a given volume of output, regardless of location, they are responsible for meeting specifications and delivery dates set by the firms that contract their services. Contractors do not own the products on which they work. Some times apparel retailers also interact with apparel contractors to produce apparel that they want to sell in their stores, thus bypassing the manufacturers. Many manufacturers and retailers hire specialty contractors to perform processes for which they lack skills or equipment. Special operations, such as making belts, pleating, printing, and / or embroidering, are contracted as needed for certain styles in a line. In addition, during the peak of a seasonal production period, many manufacturers hire contractors to supplement their own production facilities. Contracting part of the regular production allows a manufacturer to maintain a level work force without having to hire additional personnel to meet seasonal demands. At Level-3, manufacturers have entered the retail business through factory owned stores and manufacturers outlets. This gives the manufacturer direct contact with the consumer which can aid decision making during product development. If manufacturers and retailers are not vertically integrated, merchandise is sold at wholesale through apparel markets or traveling sales representatives. At Level-4 are the consumers, who are the target and purpose, of the entire textile and apparel industry. Satisfied consumers make business growth and profitability possible.
4. DEPARTMENTS IN AN APPAREL INDUSTRY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Administration Department. Human Resource Department Marketing Department Merchandising Department Export Department Accounts Department Internal Audit Department Production Planning and Control Department (PPC) Production Department Quality Control Department Fabric Department Woven Industry Knitting Department Knit Industry Dyeing Department Washing Department Pattern Department CAD Department Cutting Department Stitching Department Finishing Department Packing Department
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MERCHANDISING MANAGEMENT
1. MARKETING, MERCHANDISING AND SELLING: Marketing is a
social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating, offering, and freely exchanging products and services of value with others. For a managerial definition, marketing is an art of selling products, but people are surprised when they hear that the most important part of marketing is not selling. Selling is only the tip of marketing iceberg. Actually, marketing is to know and understand the customer so well that the product or service fits him and sells itself. Ideally, marketing should result in a customer who is ready to buy. All that should be needed is to make the product or service available. Merchandising is a process through which products are designed, planned, developed, promoted and presented for identical target markets with regard to prices, assortments, styling, and timing. Merchandisers may be involved in both the whole sale and retail levels of the apparel business. The role of merchandising in todays apparel business has become increasingly important and centralized compared to years past because of increasing complexity of line and product development, complex channels of distribution in the market, the growing rate of fashion and seasonal change, and the emphasis on quick response relationships. In both manufacturing and retailing firms, merchandisers are responsible for developing and presenting product lines that will meet profit objectives within a firms strategic plan and marketing strategy. Effective merchandise planning and control are required in order to meet deadlines, delivery dates, and sales goals. Merchandising is central coordinating point for product lines. Selling is the process in which sales operations implement marketing and merchandising activities by physically selling the line to retail customers according to the marketing plans.
2. MERCHANDISING OPERATIONS
1. Receiveing inquiry and lab dips from buyer. 2. Analyzing trim detail (local and imported accessories). 3. Receiving sample swatch and check possibility of fabric 4. Finalizing pricing and costing. 5. Order Development Confirmations. 6. Arranging Yarn. 7. Prepare Sampling Plan 8. Knitting starts 9. Check Fabrics 10. Receiving Sample Grey Fabric in Grey Fabric Store. 11. Dyeing starts. 12. Dyed fabric inspection Department checks the fabric Quality. 13. Cutting starts and cutting Audit 14. Embroidery / Printing starts (if required) 15. Stitching of Samples 16. Contract Confirmation by the Buyer 17. Provide Purchase Order copy to Import and Export Department 18. Bulk Production Approval from the Buyer 30
19. A Copy sent to Import & Export Department and Production, Planning 20. Develop the Size-Sets 21. Get the paper patterns adjusted from Sampling Department 22. Submit Pre-Production Sample to the Buyer for Approval 23. Provide Sealed Pre-Production Sample to Stitching 24. Bulk Production Starts 25. Dye Lot and Production Dye Lot Approval from Buyer (if needed) 26. Submission of Wash Test Sample for Approval 27. Give Production Status to the Buying House (If Needed) 28. Extension in delivery date (If required) 29. Intimate to Quality Assurance Department of Buying House for Final Audit 30. Shipment is Ready, if Rejection, make Correction otherwise shipment out.
3.1 FUNCTIONS OF A MERCHANDISER

Job Title Reporting To Reporting Staff : : : Merchandiser Senior Merchandiser Nil
PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS 1. Receive inquiry, makes costing and negotiates price. 2. Plan and execute order. 3. Monitors & controls sampling program. ROUTINE FUNCTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Delivers POs to export, PPC, production & purchase officer. Gets internal factory PO # from PPC for further proceeding. Prepares, arranges & monitors check list for local & imported accessories, Prepares lab-dips program of buyer for seeking approval. Monitors sample preparation & approval from buyer. Prepares gats pass for samples. Monitors all type of fabric development programs and seeking approval Coordinates with all departments for monitoring all related activities. Prepares & plans booking schedule. Makes arrangement for final audit of order.
3.2 FUNCTIONS OF A MERCHANDISING MANAGER

Job Title Reporting To Reporting Staff : : : Merchandising Manager CE / DO (A) Merchandiser (B) Asst. Merchandiser
PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. Prepares booking schedule & confirms booking space from the buyers. Makes pricing & negotiates with the buyer consulting with CE. Monitors & Controls all activities regarding merchandising department. Prepares shipment schedule for on time delivery.
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ROUTINE FUNCTIONS 1. Monitors & controls all Pos on time deliveries, availability of accessories & proper execution of orders. 2. Monitors/ensures receipt of all factory POs by the concerned merchandiser. 3. Monitors & involves in all types of fabric department & sampling programs. 4. Sets Priorities of all programs & adjusts accordingly. 5. Arranges & consults all visits & meetings with all buyers. 6. Coordinates all concerned depts. For monitoring & controlling all activities.
4. INFORMATION REQUIRED BY A MERCHANDISER

1. Name of the Buyer 3. Style Number 5. Program Name 7. Season 1. Garment Specs. / Measurements 11. Yarn Specification 21. Embroidery details 15. Packing List 17. Fabric Weight 19. Shrinkage details 21. Garment Type / Sketch 2. Style Name 4. Product Type 6. Work Order Number 8. Freight on Board (F.O.B. Date) 10. Washing Instructions 12. Trim Placement Sheet 14. Printing details 16. Quality details 18. Fabric Color 20. Sample / Size Range 22. Tag Sample / Main Label
Other then these informations, the merchandiser must also know his companies strength, and there own standards of performance. He should keep in mind the flow chart of the order for quick execution and communication. Planning is the first step in merchandising function. It is the process of setting performance objectives and determining what should be done to accomplish them. Planning sets the stage for good organizing, Leading and controlling.
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5. MERCHANDIZING ROUTE

(1) INQUIRY RECEIVED
E-MAIL
GARMENTS FOR REFERNCE STYLE SHEET
TELEPHONE (INCASE REFERENCE ALREADY PRESENT)
PERSONAL REQUEST
YARN CONTENTS 100% COTTON (2) ANALYSIS OF INQUIRY
(A) FABRICATION
(CHIEF VALUE COTTON (CVC) COTTON/POLY RATIO (e.g. 80/20, 60/40)
1. 2. 3.
YARN COUNT GAUGE DIA

CVS (CHIEF VALUE SYNTHETIC)
Send Packing List,
DOUBLE COTTON /POLY CASE. SINGLE 100% COTTON
(B) DYEING
FINISHING ROUTE
REQUIRED GSM
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GARMENTS FEATURES TO BE DEVELOPED
DIFFICULTY LEVEL OF THE GARMENT (CONSTRUCTION & FASHION IF APPLICABLE)
EMBELLISHMENT (INHOUSE & COMMERCIAL)
EMBRIODERY PRINTING FLOCKING HEAT STICKERS ETC.
SEWING CONSTRUCTION (3, 4 AND 5 THREAD, SINGLE AND F/L STICHING NATURE.
TRIMS & ACCESSORIES (IMPORTED AND LOCAL.
WASHING EFFECTS (IF ANY)
PERFORMANCE ATTRIBUTES (DRY FIT ETC.)
(3) COSTING & PRICING
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(1) PROTO DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDING
(2) LAB / YARN DIPPING PROCEEDING
(3) SAMPLING PLAN FABRICATION
REQUIRED YARN ARRANGEMENT KNITTING AS PER REQUIRED PARAMETERS KNITTED FABRIC INSPECTION DYEING WASHING PLAN DYEING / WASHING & FINISHING FINISHED FABRIC INSPECTION
(4) SAMPLING PLAN (CUT TO PACK)
PATTERN MAKING CUTTING CUTTING AUDIT EMBELLISHMENT (IF ANY) INDUCTION (INLINE) FOR SEWING QUALITY AFTER OFFLINE ALTERATION IF REQUIRED PACKING SUBMISSION OF PROTO SAMPLES.
(5) PRECEDING OF SIZE SETS AFTER APPROVAL OF BUYERWITH COMMENTS (IF ANY)
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(6) PO CONFIRMATION BY BUYER AFTER APPROVAL OF SIZE SETS.
(7) ISSUANCE OF PLAN OF ACTION TO PPC DEPARTMENT.
(8) ISSUING FACTORY W/O AGAINST BUYERS PO.
(9) ORDERING OF IMPORTED ACCESSORIES, PACKING MATERIALS.
(10) SALESMAN / PROTO SHOT SAMPLES (WITH EVERYTHING IN ORIGINAL)
(11) KNITDOWN & DYED LOTS SUBMISSION FOR APPROVAL OF BULK PRODUCTION FOR FABRICATIONS & DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS.
(12) SUBMISSION OF EMBELLISHMENTS AS STRIKE OUTS IN ORIGINAL FABRIC AND SHADES OF APPROVAL.
(13) ON APPROVAL OF FABRIC LOTS PP SAMPLES ARE PREPARED IN EVERYTHING ORIGINAL LIKE ALL PACKING MATERIAL, ACCESSORIES & FABRIC.
(14) ON APPROVAL OF PP SAMPLES, APPROVAL FOR BULK PRODUCTION IS GRANTED BY THE BUYER.AFTER TESTING THE FABRICATION, CUTTING APPROVAL BY THE BUYER.
(4) PROVISION OF SEALED PP SAMPLE TO PRODUCTION
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(5) TRIAL RUN IN SEWING
(6) BULK PRODUTION STARTS
(7) BOOKING OF VESSEL BY THE EXPORT DEPARTMENT
(8) INTERNAL & EXTERNAL QA CHECKUP
(9) PRODUCTION STATUS TO BUYER DAILY
(10) TOPS
(11) SHIPMENT SAMPLES
(12) SHIPMENT READY
(13) CONDUCTION OF AUDIT
(14) FINAL AUDIT
(15) SHIPMENT OUT (IF APPROVED)
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MERCHANDISING SKILLS
1. NEGOTIATION: It is a stimulating way to arrive at an acceptable solution to
the need for something, whether it is a need to resolve difficulties or to settle terms. It enables to try to get what they want while giving others chance to do same. Negotiating plays a vital role in whatever you mange. When what you want is under the control of others, it is not always easy to accomplish your ends. Nor, if you are in control, do others necessarily get what they want. In reality, neither side ever totally achieves what it sets out to achieve. But if both sides can arrive at an amicable agreement which more or less satisfies mutual interests, the negotiation can said to be a success. 1.1 ORDER NEGOTIATION: Order that have been sent to factories will be negotiated for price, delivery, quota and quality etc. the order negotiation between he buyer and the manufacturer is not always an easy task. The buyers are always trying to get this garment make at very low prices whilst the manufacturers are hoping they get at least 2 per cent more than what they got last time for a similar style. The buyer always has a target price for the merchandise he hopes to buy. He has already finished his home work and fully aware of the market price for that particular type of garment. Therefore, he will do his best to buy the garment below his target price or for this target price. We should not forget the globe is full of manufacturer or country if he fails to buy at his price. On the other hand, the manufacturers will promise the best quality and prompt delivery to convince the buyers to pay his merchandise. It is rather difficult to convince a buyer to pay more than his target price, but it may be possible to do so if the company has a good relationship with the buyer or if the company has a very good reputation for excellent performance, in other words a good image should do the trick. Buying Officers, their representatives should not consult companies operating at very high CMT to do very low priced merchandise. Buying officers not only should have knowledge of companys performance but also their average CMT prices. Another important aspect in the order negotiation is to know the fairly accurate cost of making the garment. Most factories do this in a hurry and invariably arrive at out of focus cost. This situation will cause frustration to both parties during an order negotiation. The buyers are generally more conversant with the costing and would be able to judge almost immediately the manufacturers operations if price quoted are much different from his target price. If quoted price is higher it may be due to; 1234567Higher overheads in the factory (high CMT) Lower productivity in the factory Higher mark-up Raw material costs at high prices. A premium is charged for the label / buyer. A higher price for the quota. Wrong consumptions etc.
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2. SKILLS REQUIRED FOR SUCCESSFUL NEGOTIATION:

Assertiveness Inventing creative options; Dealing with emotion and conflict Gaining agreement and commitment. Discovering interests and common grounds; Establishing facts; Removal of personal issues; Win-win solutions; Questioning skills; Listening effectively (including summarizing & reflecting); Understanding body language; Establishing rapport; Observation, interpretation & Judgment; Influencing Skills. ALL THESE SKILLS NEED PRACTICE.
3. GOLDEN RULES FOR GOOD TIME MANAGEMENT

123456789101112131415161718192021Development of a fixed daily routine; do routine things at routine times. Do the important jobs when you are at your best (lark or owl). Set time limits and stick to them. Never put-off unpleasant or difficult tasks if they are also important. Put-off everything that is not important. Analyze interruptions; take steps to avoid them. Set up a quiet hour and publicize it. Do one thing at a time. Plan phone calls and stick to the plan. Keep a notebook to collect ideas in one place. Wherever possible, finish your task. Arrange breaks at times when you cannot work effectively. Communicate routine matters at routine meetings. Learn to say no. Do similar type jobs at same time, e.g. all phone calls one after another. Conduct a time audit about once in every four months. Only take work home if you intend to do it. Think, and then act. Do things adequately; dont be a perfectionist. Set a task for the year, month, the week, the day. Make lists and cross-off tasks when done; it feels good.
4. HOW TO BUILD YOUR MEN AND WIN THEIR LOYALTY

Since manger gets results through efforts of his men, his basic job is to develop his men because as they develop their value increases; they achieve more, and thus, through them, the manger achieves more. Manger can build his men consistently and improve their effectiveness by careful attention to following requirements: 1- Set realistic, high, but attainable goals for them. 2- Develop co-ordination and teamwork for your people. 3- Interpret goals into individual results expected from each.
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4- Provide staff help, if needed, to help people attain desired results. 5- Give them adequate authority to attain desired results. 6- Having given results to achieve, call them to account when they fail to achieve. 7- Insist on creativity, thinking ahead and on improvement by all. 8- Supervise them wisely and give them needed direction and guidance. 9- Stimulate them and keep them from lagging at difficult times. 10- Set an example which will induce progress & achievement, not retard the efforts. 11- Inspire them to reach higher and to give their best efforts and greatest value. 12- Set realistic performance standards for them and guide them toward measuring up to these standards. 13- Use controls to show actual results, deviations from expected results and get people to take corrective measures when deviations, Use controls to build selfreliance. The manager will never have fully productive team unless he wins the loyalty for his men. He cannot persuade, or force them to be loyal to himself or the company. He must earn their loyalty through a fair exchange. He must first demonstrate his loyalty to them and wins their loyalty in response to his treatment of them. Faithful observance to following guidelines will help to win loyalty of people. 1. 12Be fair. Play no favorites Make few promises. Scrupulously keep those you do make. Keep your temper under control. Do not get annoyed at trivialities.
5. LEADERS OR MANAGERS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Leaders shape the outputs Managers chase the inputs Leaders focus on group products Managers focus on individual jobs Leaders encourage new ideas Managers enforce old ideas Leaders stimulate right things, Managers monitor for wrong things Leaders thrive on though competition Manages talk little of competition Leaders prize comparison with others, Managers see scant need for comparison Leaders thinks of involvement programs Managers thinks of suggestion programs Leaders empower others to make decision Managers control the decision process Leaders see leading as animate & proactive Managers see managing as inanimate and reactive Leaders thinks of a dynamic, caring human system Managers think of a business as followings a script Leaders things of improving initiative and innovating Managers things of improving compliance & conformance Leaders shape organization charter, culture & climate Managers assume that neither is a bog deal, for their job What would you like to be, my friend Sight your target right now before its too late 40
6. HOW TO IMPROVE THE PRODUCTIVITY OF MEETINGS: It is

estimated that over 500 important meetings are held in Sri Lanka on a single working day for different purposes. These meetings are attended by public servants, professionals, businessmen and others holding important position in society. About 8000 10000 man hours and costing over Rs.2-3 million would be spent on a day for these meetings. However, not much attention has been paid for the improvement of productivity to these meetings. Productivity is defined as the efficient use of resources labor, capital, materials, energy, etc. production goods and services. The productivity of a meeting is measured in terms of the outcome of the meeting per man hour spent. Please note that the equation is not mathematical, but conceptual Productivity = Outcome of the meeting Total No. of hours spent by participants
If the same outcome is achieved by a lesser number of participant hours, the productivity would be higher and similarly, if a better outcome (in terms of quality and quantity) could be achieved by the same number of participant house, the productivity would be higher again. In other worlds, both the quality of the outcome (decision made) and the man hours spend would be critical for optimum productivity. Hence the productivity of a meeting depends on the preparatory work done for the meeting and the actual conducting of the meetings. It may be noted that the quality of the discussions (input) and number of participants for a meeting are sometimes beyond the control of the organization convening the meetings and is based on the statutes (in case of an official meeting) or based on nominations made by the organization represented on committee. Reasons for low productivity at meetings are. The objectives of the meetings are not clear to the participants The working documents are not sent in time to the participants Adequate notice of the meeting is not given The working documents are too bulky. An executive summary highlighting the important issues is not provided. Participants come unprepared for the meetings. Participants get late for the meetings Participants get involved in cross talk during the meeting Participants discuss matters outside the scope of the meeting The Chairman fails to manage the time allocated for each agenda item The Chairman fails to control the meetings.
It is seen from the above that the two parties responsible for the proper conduct of a meeting are the Chairman and Secretary. The Chairman should establish ground rules for the conduct of the meeting and should communicate these rules to all participants. Following are some examples of the ground rules; 1. Start and end the meeting on time 2. Do not interrupt when one participant has the floor 3. Avoid cross talk, discussions should be directed to the Chairman 4. Participants should seek permission from the Chairman before they speak 5. Make compromises when necessary 6. Allocate time to each agenda items. 7. Stick to the agenda and the time frame 8. Every one should participate and no one should dominate 9. Do not criticize the ideas of others 10. Summaries the important decisions made at the end of the meeting. 41
The Secretary is responsible for the preparation and transmission of documents to the participants, for making arrangements for the meeting, for briefing the Chairman on important issues that may come up to the meetings. It is always better for the Secretary and the Chairman to meet before the meeting and discuss the agenda items. The personal quality of the Chairman will also contribute to the productivity of the meetings. He should be knowledgeable on the subject matter, should have good public relations, diplomacy and tact and should be unbiased. He should be a good communicator and should be able to guide the committee for a compromise solution when everything fails.
7. ROLE OF QUICK RESPONSE (QR) FOR MERCHANDISERS:

Quick Response (QR) works wonders with planning, cooperation and technical investment among vendors, apparel manufacturers and retailers. The alarming need of QR in apparel industry has given more versified dimensions to the duties of merchandisers. QR programs have helped to create customer driven market. Lead time (Time between placement of an order and goods delivery) is closely monitored and retailers get sufficient time to anticipate profits on the selling floor.
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MERCHANDISING PROCESS
The whole process starts with an inquiry by the customer along a sketch, a size chart or sample of the garment. In response, a sample is made and sent for customer approval. This sample is made in Sampling hall after VMD issue them Standard 0. Customer sends his comments on the sample and any amendments he may want. It usually takes about 2-3 samples before final approval is granted. Price negotiations start at this point and a variety of factors have to be considered while quoting the price. Some of these include difficulty level of the garment; fabric cost per meter; fabric cost per garment; pocket lining cost per garment; stitching cost; trims cost; fixed costs; and profit margin. After the price has been negotiated, the customer places the order and specifies the quantity he wants; PPC is consulted at this point that provides the ETD for the order depending on the order quantity and difficulty level. An order confirmation is send to the customer which mentions all these negotiated points. The fabric average per garment for the approved sample is provided to the Commercial department, along with Standard 2, for bulk fabric purchase. If there are any special fabric requirements not available in the market in running quantity, the R & D department is contacted to get the fabric manufactured on demand. Before the bulk fabric is purchased, lab dips are provided to the customer for his approval on the washing or dyeing required on the fabric. At the same time, MMC are provided with standard 3 for the procurement of all accessories to be attached to the garment, Periodic follow up is kept with these departments to check the progress of fabric and accessories. The expected arrival date for fabric and accessories is informed to PPC for planning purposes. While fabric and accessories are in process of arrival, production standards for cutting, stitching, washing and packing are handed over to PPC who distribute these standards to the concerned departments. This pre production sample of an order, before bulk production is started, is checked and any fault that might be occurring is rectified. Some alterations in cutting might do the trick in which case GGT are informed to alter their pattern. 1st batch in washing is also checked by VMD and any alteration to make in recipe are told to GWPD. After pre production samples are approval by VMD, the bulk production of the order is started. Follow up to the order in each production stage has to be maintained and any problem occurring at any stage has to be solved either on their own or by consulting the customer. A Booking Status is maintained by each account Manager which shown the progress of his order. The information maintained in booking status are samples / size set approval date; standard 2 dates; lab dips approval date; fabric arrival date; standard 3 dates; accessories arrival date; order conformation; L/C receiving; and Production status. After the order is ready for packing (and inspected in cases where the customer sends his inspector), booking has to be placed with a shipping company and goods have to be sent to the docks in time to make it to the intended vessel. The documents to be provided to the Import / Export department to book a place in a vessel are Container Requirement (mentioning the CBM requirement for the shipment); Packing List; and Delivery Note
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If the shipment does not reach the vessel by the deadline (as placed by the shipping company) the booking is cancelled, and another booking has to be made with the shipping company. The customer is to be informed in this case and the new date of departure of his goods is provided to him.
1. SAMPLING: Sampling is one of the most important departments in a garment

company since all orders are confirmed by the customer after viewing samples made by this department. The operators in this department are on monthly wages so that they dont rush their work to increase earnings. The operators have huge amount of experience and skill and produce samples that exhibit the highest quality of workmanship. 1.1 TYPES OF SAMPLES OFFER / MARKETING SAMPLE: This sample is made for the purpose of marketing the product of a company. It shows the level of quality and workmanship that the company has to offer. Marketing samples are usually shown to fresh clients to attract new orders. COUNTER SAMPLE: This sample is send in reply to an initial inquiry by the customer. The customer usually sends a garment along with its size chart and asks for an exact copy. Only if he is satisfied by quality of the counter sample does he place the order. SIZE SET: This set of samples is send to the customer is a variety of sizes for him to check for measurement in each size. The customer places these samples on mannequins to check for styling, measurement and fitting. BUYING / SEAL SAMPLE: This is the final sample on which the order is placed and has to be followed completely in bulk production. The customer places his seal of acceptance specifying that he has approved this particular sample and the bulk production should be exactly as per it. PHOTO SAMPLE: Kind of sample is send to the customers with catalogues after they have placed their order. The color and size requirements are specified by the customer. The sample is to be worn by a model whose picture, with the garment, would be included in the companys catalogue. TOP OF PRODUCTION SAMPLES (TOPS): These samples are garments, which are randomly picked from the bulk production and represent the whole production. They are sent to buyer for approval. For Mens style the sample size is L while for Ladies it is M. As the TOPS are sent to buyer for review and for some buyer this is compulsory that the shipment cannot be handed over until factory receives the TOPs comments from the buyer. So to meet this requirement these TOPs should be submitted to customer office at least 7-8 working days before the final audit date so that company could have buyers comments before planned / agreed handover date. 1.2 SAMPLING PROCESS: Sampling procedure is started when an inquiry is send to VMD. VMD provide the size chart and sketch/sample along with Standard 0 to sampling department. All the samples made in the department are for approval purpose only. Pre production samples are made in the stitching halls after the order
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has been confirmed and before the bulk cutting and stitching is started. The pre order samples made in sampling department are usually attached with neutral buttons, rivets and other accessories unless explicitly specified by the customer. Standard colored threads are used in denim and matching colors in twill. All buyers require both preproduction and production samples from the company. As these samples make customer realize the companys capabilities and performance for their particular style/item, so it is important that these samples fabrication & workmanship should be excellent. Details of these pre-production and production samples are given below. PROTO / COUNTER SAMPLE: Specifications and sketch sheet / BOM sheet of the style is received from the buyer in order to make the sample for styling and stitching approval. Proto Sample can be made from available fabric or color as well as in actual fabric or color to fulfill the buyers requirements. Merchandising Department provides the specification or measurement sheet to the Sampling Department in order to make the samples. The basic concept of any proto sample is to show it to buyer for taking the confirmation regarding styling and stitching details of that particular style, so it is imperative that the stitching and styling should be as per buyer requirements. For companys comfort the sample may be in available fabric weight, available color, and available garment accessories. For Mens the sample size is L while for Ladies it is M. PRE-LINE SAMPLES / PHOTO SHOOT SAMPLES: Pre-line Samples are made after receiving the Proto Sample comments from the buyer. Buyers can request to make pre-line sample in actual fabric / color/accessories as per their requirement. The buyer, to use in these samples, provides the imported accessory sources. Buyer can make a request for pre-line samples before salesmen samples for their reference. Once buyer receives Photo Shoot Samples, photos are taken of theses samples and a catalogue (a major marketing tool) is prepared which helps buyer to market these items to its Customers. Normally for Mens sample size is L while for Ladies M. At submission time of actual required quantity of Photo Shoot Samples, company will also submit the reference samples at the same time. Company will be advised the buyers comments for those reference samples. Buyers comments hold a very important place. Sampling and bulk production should be as per these comments. SALESMEN SAMPLES: Salesmen Sample request is received from the buyer as per their specified requirement for their sales meeting after sending the Proto Sample comments. Buyer sends the complete range of imported accessories details and their sources along with complete BOM/Spec/Sketch Sheets. These samples are always made in actual fabric, color and accessories as per the buyers request. Merchandising Department provides the information of all the accessories and forwards the information to the Logistics Department in order to place the orders of local and imported accessories used in these samples. Merchandising Department makes the knitting, dyeing and cutting plan of these salesmen samples and sends the demand of yarn to the yarn dealer on the yarn purchase form. SIZE SET SAMPLES: The size set in actual fabric and color with actual accessories is required to finalize the specs/patterns of that particular style. The size set samples is required only for first order and not for repeated orders. But if there is any major change in specs, then the jump size set will be required for buyers approval. The size set should be in actual fabrication and trims.
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BUYERS COMMENTS ON SAMPLES: Factory needs to submit the size set samples at least 15 days before the planned agreed cutting date so that factory could have buyers comments well before time. Once factory submits the size set to customer, buyers comments will be with factory within next 7-8 days. Buyers comments are extremely important and patterns should be adjusted accordingly. SEALED PRE-PRODUCTION SAMPLE: After receiving the comments on size set sample from the buyer, stitching is begun of pre-production sample in actual fabric, color and accessories. Sometimes buyer may require PPS just to reconfirm that all details are clear to company regarding that particular style. Pre-Production sample represents bulk production so the sample should be with original fabrications, actual required specs and all original accessories. For Mens the sample size is L while for Ladies it is M. The Merchandising Department provides size set comments to the Sampling Department in order to make the pre-production sample. After approval of pre-production sample, bulk production starts. It is the duty of the Merchandising Department to get the pre-production sealed samples form the buyer and provide it to the concerned stitching unit through PCD department for reference. 1.3 SAMPLES SENDING PROCEDURE: Salesman sample purchase orders will either go by courier or airfreight collect. Customer will inform the factory of the shipping mode when it issues the purchase order. All Salesman Sample orders are for non-mutilated garments, unless customer informs the factory otherwise. 1.4 DOCUMENTS REQUIRED: Regardless of the shipping mode it requires the following documents for salesman sample shipments. COMMERCIAL INVOICE - The quantity shipped and the price per piece on the purchase order must be on this document. A list of all goods and services furnished for production of merchandise, and a complete description (including component fiber breakdown) of merchandise must be included. Please include the net weight and gross weight of the shipment as well as the carton dimensions. PACKING LIST - Include purchase order number, carton dimensions (Height x Width x Length), total cubic meters and number of pieces broken down by size and color per carton, and net and gross weight of shipment. AIRWAY BILL - For airfreight collect shipments, DRI will advise the agent and / or factory on the details.
2. TECHNICAL INFORMATIONS
2.1 LAB DIPS DESCRIPTION: Once a style is confirmed, company will be given the color standards to develop the lab dips options, buyer will review these dips and will approve the best option i.e. close match to color standard. While submitting the lab dip options to customer, company should mark each option very carefully, as one dip is one complete recipe, and any wrong denotation can lead everyone to a big confusion. It is better that lab dips should be in actual fabrication. Lab dipping is the part of pre-production, so it should be developed and approved at least two months before the ship date. The day factory submits lab
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dips to customer it will take next 7 8 working days to advice to factory the buyers comments. Factory should try its level best to develop the closely matched dips in first go, this is vital to improve the delivery efficiency because if dips are rejected, it will take another week to develop and take buyers comments. 2.2 SKETCH SHEET: It comprises of garment graphic representation, stitching details and color combos etc of that particular style. This is of much importance and the company must have this sheet with clear understanding before proceedings for this styles sampling / bulk production to avoid any confusion / misconception. Sketch sheet will be issued to factory at pre-production time. If any change is required, sketch sheet will be updated and forwarded to factory before bulk production starts. 2.3 SPECS SHEET: It comprises of garments of all required sizes of that particular style. The company must have this sheet with clear understanding before proceedings for this styles sampling / bulk production to avoid any confusion. Specs sheet will be issued to factory at pre-production time. If any change requires, specs sheet will be updated and forwarded to factory before, to commence bulk production. 2.4 MATERIAL SHEET: This sheet comprises the complete fabric and trims description / construction, garment accessories and their placements, color combos and all stitching details. The company must have this sheet with clear understanding before proceedings for this styles bulk production to avoid any confusion. It is issued to factory once all details are finalized with factory. This is necessary that fabric details should be finalized at least 45 days. 2.5 INCIDENTAL SHEET: This sheet comprises of the names / codes and placements of all labels, hang tags, packing accessories details, care instructions and shrinkage standards. The company must have this sheet with clear understanding before proceeding for this styles bulk production to avoid any confusion / misconceptions. This is very much important and company must have this sheet at least 45 days before the actual ship date so that all labels are followed up, checked and approved well before time. 2.6 GARMENT ACCESSORIES: The accessories which are directly involved with garment stitching like woven labels, purchase order labels, patch labels, grommets, buttons and button thread, sewing thread, shoulder tape, gross grain tape, and twill tape etc come under this category. Factory is required to pay extra care and attention while following up each accessorys specification. Once all details like specifications, names and codes are cleared to factory, factory should immediately book the order with approved sources (if any) so that the accessories should be with factory at least 30 days before the actual shipment date. This is factorys primary responsibility to get all specifications from customer on time, to book the order with sources (whether its local or imported) and have a strong follow up with them and inform customer wherever its help and coordination is required. Factory is required to take approval of each accessory, from customer, being used for an order. Factory is supposed to check the quality and quantity of the bulk accessories received from suppliers on timely basis. It will enable the company to have the exact status of accessories, 47
shipments and in case of any problem (quality or quantity) necessary measures could be taken to avoid any delays. The accessories which are required for garment packing like poly bag and poly bag sticker, hang tag, tissue paper, cartons, cartons sticker etc come under this category. Factory should be very much careful while following up each accessorys specification. Once all details are cleared to the factory, the factory should immediately book the order with approved sources (Local or Imported) so that the accessories should be with factory at least 15 days before the actual shipment date. This is factorys primary responsibility to have a strong follow up with them and inform the customer whenever its help / coordination is required. Factory is required to take approval of each accessory from customer being used for an order. Factory is supposed to check the quality and quantity of the bulk accessories received from suppliers on timely basis. It will enable company to have the exact status of accessories shipments and in case of any problem (quality or quantity) necessary measures could be taken to avoid any delays. 2.7 PACKING: As packing plays a main role to enhance the presentation, safety and proper placement of a garment, the factory is required to follow the same packing instructions, methods and requirements for that particular style advised by the concerned buyer. At the time of final audit it will make sure that factory has followed the same packing as advised by concerned buyer. In case of any non-conformance, final audit will be rejected. Packing instructions may vary from packing all the packed garments in polythene and put them in a box or, enclose the box in big polythene, or all of the above. 2.8 LABELING, TICKETING, AND PACKAGING: The use of brand names, trademarks, designer names, and private labels is a key factor in hanger appeal and product differentiation. Merchandisers and marketers must determine the size, type, quantity, and means of attaching labels, hangtags, and tickets. The use of large, colorful hangtags may be an effective strategy for target markets served by self service retailers. Large hang tags are easy for customers to find. Other target markets require more subtle presentation of brand names. On better, career type garments sold by full service retailers, jacquard labels may be sewn to the inside of garments and / or presented on simple hang tags. Whatever the labeling technique is, manufacturers and retailers want customers to recognize and identify with certain brands of merchandise to develop Customer Loyalty. Label information includes fiber content, care, country of origin, and manufacturers identification, which are required by law. Tickets, which may be added by the manufacturer or retailer, provide essential product information such as style number, size, color, and price. Tickets may include human readable, machine readable, or both human and machine readable information. Bar codes that can be scanned into computer systems are regarded as the most effective means of recording machine readable information. Some machine generated tickets are difficult for consumers to read and may result in lost sales. Tickets may also be attached to garments where they are difficult to find or covered by hangers or other display devices. Most apparel is shipped ready for retailers racks or shelves. Garments are folded and packed or placed on hangers and covered with plastic bags. Packing and hanging devices provided by manufacturers often become part of retail displays. Dresses for babies may be placed on frame type hangers and padded 48
with multiple layers of tissue paper. Mens dress shirts may be boarded and pinned. Multiple supports are often used to maintain the perfectly formed appearance of collars. Fashion apparel may be placed on specially designed hangers to emphasize the silhouette or keep the garments from falling off the hanger. Hangers may be designed so as not to cover the neckline labels of garments. Successful visual presentation in the retail sector is essential to complete the merchandising process. 2.9 SOURCING: Sourcing is determining the most cost efficient vendor of materials, production, and / or finished goods at the specified quality and service level. Sourcing finished goods, materials, or production is closely associated with and may be a part of merchandisers responsibilities. Materials selection and sourcing are often a responsibility of merchandisers in cooperation with designers when product development is part of the line development strategy. Materials include piece goods and findings. Piece goods are fabrics that are cut and assembled into garments. Piece goods order is committed very early in line development, especially if the yardage is to be used for prototype garments. Not only does the fabric have to be appropriate and suited to the garment design and end use, but it also must be available at the precise time that it is needed. Deliveries of all materials required for a style must be coordinated for production to begin on time. Orders for materials may be placed before styles have been tested, thus imposing considerable risk with each order. Merchandisers must consider the anticipated sales volume for each style since manufacturing capacity for fashion fabrics may be committed early in the selling season, which eliminates the opportunity for repeat orders. Lines are often planned with several styles or a group from the same fabric. Styles that do not sell in adequate numbers are canceled and do not go into production. The fabric is committed to other styles in the group that do sell in adequate volume. If the entire group does not sell, the manufacturer may take a loss on the piece goods, but a loss on fabric is less than a loss of fabric plus garment production costs. Fabrics from canceled styles may be used for different styles or sold to jobbers, fabric wholesalers, or retailers. Findings are all the materials other than piece goods that are required to make a garment. Examples of findings include interlinings, trims, zippers, buttons, and thread. Findings require the same careful planning as piece goods. Compatibility with other materials, for both wear and renovation, is a major consideration that must be examined and resolved before purchasing. Lines that require a wide variety of decorative trims can create costly inventions of materials. Trims are also more difficult than fabrics to sell at the end of a season. Ordering materials as close to production as possible reduces inventory costs associated with early commitments. On the other hand, other types of costs are incurred when deliveries are late and materials are not available when styles are scheduled to go into production. 2.10 LEAD TIME: Lead time varies with point of origin, shipping methods, whether materials are open stock or custom designed, and whether products are performance tested before production begins. Imported fabrics or other materials may require 6-9 months lead time, while domestically produced fabric requires 2 weeks 3 months depending on availability and additional processing. Lead 49
times are reduced significantly when QR programs are put in place. Open stock materials are often available for immediate delivery. Open stock usually consists of widely used, basic colors such as red, blue, black, white, and the fashion colors of the season. These materials are often manufactured to stock in anticipation of demand. Greige goods may be purchased and stored in anticipation of need. Goods can be printed or finished to order. This provided flexibility and delayed decision making. An apparel firm may gain exclusive use of a fabric produced by a particular vendor by buying a complete run of vendors production for the season. Merchandisers may have fabrics custom designed to have materials unique from competitors lines. Producing custom designed fabrics requires extra lead time for developing and producing the designs and materials. The amount of materials testing performed by the apparel manufacturers is another factor in determining the lead time. Inadequate performance testing of materials can result in poor performance and unsatisfactory finished garments. Testing is usually done to sample yardage before major purchase commitments are made. Apparel manufacturers quality control procedures determine whether the performance of materials is tested prior to garment assembly. Some merchandisers depend on specifications provided by fabric producers, others develop their own specifications for the materials they need. It is safer to do some performance testing before ordering large quantities of piece goods rather than finding out after the fact that fabric or trim is not colorfast, washable, or compatible with other materials. 2.11 MINIMUMS: Order minimums are another factor affecting materials selection. Minimums established for vendor efficiency may be inconsistent with an apparel firms needs for variety in materials selection. Textile and apparel producers often disagree as to what is a reasonable minimum order. Many fashion firms want to buy fabrics and other materials in small quantities of various fabrications and colors to provide variety in their apparel assortment. However, materials vendors establish minimum quantities that are feasible to produce and distribute. Minimums also relate to order processing, packaging, and shipping costs. 2.12 SOURCING PRODUCTION: Merchandisers may be responsible for scheduling and sourcing production for their lines. Meeting peak demand and minimizing lead time are two primary considerations in determining sources of merchandise. A firms own plants, domestic contractors, and / or international sources may be used. These options are analyzed to determine which are most cost effective, can meet delivery dates, and provide consistency of quality. Merchandisers continually review orders and or retail sales, compare forecasted sales with actual sales, and evaluate gross margin for profit potential. If sales and profit figures are below the projected level, production of certain styles may be canceled. This frees production capacity to concentrate on those styles that are in greater demand and have greater gross margin. Dealing with product change, negotiating compromises, and meeting deadlines and delivery dates are constant parts of merchandisers jobs. A merchandiser must coordinate these activities in order to present salable, profitable product lines.
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2.13 APPAREL PRODUCT LINES: Merchandisers develop product lines using combinations of styles that satisfy similar or related needs. The term product line is used in at least two ways. In a general context it is used to refer to all items presented for sale by a firm. For a firm, total product line may be Pants or Shirts. This general product line often has several divisions, and each of these may also be referred to as a product line but is more specific. In this context, term product line refers to a group of items that is (1) closely related because it satisfies certain needs, (2) used with other items, (3) sold to the same target market, (4) marketed within the same outlets, and/or (5) priced within similar price ranges, e.g. within Pants line there may be a line of women's Pants. Childrens Pants and men's Pants. Each of specific lines of Pants may be divided into classifications or categories. Classifications in men's Pants might include dress Pants, casual Pants, and work Pants. Within each line and classification the merchandiser builds an assortment, which is range of choices offered at particular time. The assortment is determined by number of styles, sizes, and colors, in which products are offered. Styles in a classification are often modified from one season to next. A design is a specific or unique version of a style that has not yet be accepted into a product line. Designs that are accepted into a line are given a style no. and from then on are simply referred to by manufacturers as a "style," a "style number," or simply "number." A style number provides identification of product throughout manufacturing / distribution process. Product line is an apparel firm's source of potential profit; therefore, its content, development, and production require constant analysis and planning. Wrong mix of products may not appeal or meet the needs of specific target market and thus would limit sales and profits. Number of lines produced in a year and number of styles or variety in each line depend on nature of product(s) and individual firm's objectives, strategies, size, and projected sales volume. Large apparel firms may have several product lines for each selling season. Each product line may be marketed at a different price range, under a different label, and targeted to a different market segment. This gives the firm broader market coverage. Each of these lines may have a different merchandise manager. 2.14 PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT: Buying houses gives a fabric swatch to the factory to develop along with garment description. Now it becomes essential for the factory merchandisers to quickly carry out the analysis whether the product with that specified fabric would be feasible to manufacture or not. Analysis includes quota positioning. If a special quota has to be purchased to pursue the order, the pricing of a garment would be structured accordingly. If not, quota price is generally not included in the garment price. Moreover, availability of yarn is checked thoroughly. If there is a large order with sharp prices that can go over months and touch only the break even point, a factory generally accepts it. If there is any shrinkage or heating errors in the fabric at sampling stage, it is better not to pursue the order. These problems can cause a big trouble in bulk production.
51
Supplier: Trademark: Season: F/S 2001 Date: 17/10/2000
Order 10304 Article: 25248-0

Article mens jeans Description: Comments:
MEASUREMENT
28
047 Zip 085 waist 091 seat 092 deep of hip/below waist 093 front rise excl w/b 094 back rise excl w/b 096 inseam 30 096 inseam 32 096 inseam 34 098 leg opening 099 thigh 110 knee width 16,0 35,0 47,5 18,0 23,5 31,5 76,5 81,5 86,5 18,0 28,2 19,5
29
16,0 36,7 48,7 18,0 24,1 32,1 76,5 81,5 86,5 18,5 28,9 20,4
31
16,0 38,0 50,0 18,0 24,7 32,7 76,5 81,5 86,5 19,0 29,6 21,1
31
16,0 38,2 51,2 18,0 25,3 33,3 76,5 81,5 86,5 19,5 30,3 21,8
32
16,0 40,5 52,5 18,0 25,9 33,9 76,5 81,5 86,5 20,0 31,0 22,5
33
16,0 41,7 53,7 18,0 26,5 34,5 76,5 81,5 86,5 20,5 31,7 23,2
34
18,0 43,0 55,0 18,0 27,1 35,1 76,5 81,5 86,5 21,0 32,4 23,9
35
18,0 44,2 56,2 18,0 27,7 35,7 76,5 81,5 86,5 21,5 33,1 24,6
36
18,0 45,5 57,5 18,0 28,3 36,3 76,5 81,5 86,5 22,0 33,8 25,3
38
18,0 48,0 58,7 18,0 29,0 37,5 76,5 81,5 86,5 22,5 34,7 26,2
40
20,0 50,5 60,0 18,0 29,7 38,7 76,5 81,5 86,5 23,0 35,6 27,1
42
20,0 53,0 61,2 18,0 30,4 39,9 76,5 81,5 86,5 23,5 36,5 28,0
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Order 00301563
ORDER No. : 301563 Date : 11.06.2003 Supplier : 219636 In Charge : Tanja Schilling Telephone: Fax No. : Email : Price/each EUR Value/
Page No.1 Article No. Description EUR
200500 Herren Jeans ____________ 100% Baumwolle, blue denim, 14,5 OZ

205 stonewashed Shipment date:


Amount Terms of Delivery Shipment Terms of Payment : FOB : Shipment by sea : L/C
_________________
Cost for required details for approval plus freight charges for all send parcels (Preferable DHL, FedEx) have to be send free of charge to office. This is valid for all requested things out of our timing sheet including documents. If shipment is delayed supplier has to dispatch the goods per airfreight from any airport to Hamburg airport latest 10 days after the respective latest shipment date. In this case Air way bill instead of BL/CMR required and consigned to Terms of Delivery; CFR Hamburg. 'These requirements are content of order sheet-contract. If not all requirements are full filled from supplier side than order sheet-contract will not be valid. Please sign and send this letter back to us.
53
Order 00301563_OPS_SPEC
SPECIFICATION
Description: Quality: Waistband: Zip: Zip Puller: Button: Rivet: Belt loop: Pocket: Pocket: Pocket: Pocket: Saddle: Yarn: Position: Zip: Button: Rivet: Belt loop: Pocket: Saddle: Yarn: Men's denim jean 5pocket style 100 % cotton, stonewashed denim 14,50z waistband, self fabric YKK metal old brass no 5 Normal zip puller old brass. full metal waist button with__________, color dull silver full metal rivet with_________ Color dull silver Belt loop out of self fabric (for Size 40, please make 7) 5 pocket style front side pocket front with coin pocket right side backside pocket saddle at back contrast yarn as per sent sample hidden under front fly on waistband/front fly mid 2 rivets on coin pocket, 2 rivets on each front pocket 2 loops beside front fly, 1 loop on mid saddle, 1 loop on each side seam mid on front pocket on top of backside allover
LABEL
AND
CARE LABEL
a) Flag label: Imagine woven flag label to be fixed on left backside pocket left side on top. I Shell ATTENTION USE FULL LIGHT BLUE AND WHITE______.LABEL! b) PU- label: Imagine PU-Iabel to be fixed on backside waistband between mid and right side belt loop. c) Paper pocket plaster: Imagine paper pocket plaster to be fixed on right backside pocket with matching yarn. d) Paper size label: Imagine paper size label to be fixed on backside waistband beside PU-Iabel with matching yarn. Barcode/Price label Should be printed on paper size label, position as per overview EAN Barcodes: please find enclosed Please make sure that the EAN Barcode film could be read. Please send sample for our approval, so that we can check with our scanner: General Remarks for print label: 1. all further details as per original sample 2. Print label: - stating: 301563/20050-0/-2/-4 - length: 1,5 cm - width: 3,5 cm - to be sewn behind wash and care label
Shell
100 % Baumwolle Cotton Cotton Algodon
Washing symbols and instructions Wash dark colors separately Dunkle Farben separat waschen Laver les couleurs foncees separement Lavar cola res oscuros par separado Size of care label: 3,5 x 8 cm Material: printed Ground color: white Lettering col.: black Type: looplabel Delivered by: supplier Position of wash and Care label: separate care instruction loop label has to sewn at left side of inner waistband, 15 cm from front fly.
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Order: 00301563_OPS_SPEC
PACKING AND CARTON INSTRUCTION
Carton instruction: - carton size: length = 60 cm width = 40 cm height = 30 cm
Carton Marking ___________________________ Order No.: 301563 "" Style: __________________ Article-No.: 200500/2 /4 -strong seaworthy recyclable export Quantity: carton Colors: stone washed (205) Size: ... -max. 15 kg gross weight per carton Carton no 1/up Borghorst / Germany Packing instruction: -20 pcs. solid size + solid length 'per carton -each garment 3 times length folded -2 pcs. per polybag (recyclable polyethylene, with air condition holes + with self adhesive stripe) -no master polybag! -pis. take care that there is no empty space in the carton -short shipped cartons are not acceptable -markings on each length- and front side required -for closing the cartons do not use metal clips but adhesive paper tape only
Order: 00301563_OPS_TIMING
SAMPLE ORDER / TIMING
REPEAT ORDER as 301365!!
Quantity Lab Dips Approval sample Size Set sample Accessories
Size As per Sent swatch No Need No Need Pocket paper label size paper label selvadhesive tape woven imagine! Barcode label No Need Jumping Sizes No Need
Deadline ETA Hamburg
ASAP
Photo Sample Preproduction sample Shipment Sample
ASAP
55
GARMENT TYPES / STYLES & COMPONENTS

1. GARMENT TYPES / STYLES: Garments for Mens, Womens, Boys,
Girls, and Childrens are categorized into Tops and Bottoms. Garment used to cover upper part of the body are called Tops and garments used to cover lower part of the body are called Bottoms. These are further categorized into under garments and upper garments. Definitions of the Garments Types / Styles are given below: COAT, JACKETS & RAINWEAR: Coats, jackets and rainwear, for men, boys, women, girls, and children, are garments generally worn over all other clothing for protection against the weather. These Garments can be divided into separate garments by means of undoing buttons, zippers or other convenient means of fastening, and can be worn independently of each other. Coats include overcoats and similar articles extending to the knee or below (e.g. top coats, great coats). Other garments include car-coats, capes, ponchos, cloaks and other similar articles (e.g. duffel coats, three-quarter coats). These products are made from knitted, crocheted or woven fabrics. Jackets include wind-cheaters, wind-jackets, anoraks and similar articles that do not extend to the knee, and possess none of the thermal characteristics. These products are made from knitted, crocheted or woven fabrics. The phrase "thermal characteristics" means a textile product that is designed to protect the wearer against the cold. Rain wear include raincoats and similar garments. These products are made from knitted, crocheted or woven fabrics, treated to protect the wearer from the rain (water resistant or water repellent). WINTER OUTERWEAR: Winter outerwear, for men, boys, women, girls and children, are garments which have an outer shell manufactured substantially by surface area of woven textile fabrics that are lined or filled (e.g. down or fore filing and quilted lining), and are generally worn over all other clothings for protection against cold. The brushed, tufted fleeced or napped linings weighing not more than 140 g/m2 are considered not to possess thermal characteristics and, not to provide protection against cold. These includes ski suits, snow suits, snowmobile suits, anoraks, ski jackets, windcheaters and wind-jackets, bib and brace ski overalls, and ski pants and other similar articles (e.g. parkas, padded sleeveless vests, brushed and fleeced jackets and quilted shirt like garments with tailored collar). A ski overall, that is, a one piece garment designed to cover the upper and lower parts of the body, can have sleeves and a collar as well as pockets and footsteps; or a ski ensemble, that is, a set of garments composed of two or three pieces, comprising one garment for the upper part of the body (e.g. anorak, jacket or similar article), a waistcoat/vest, and trousers whether or not extending above the waist, one pair of breeches or one bib and brace overall; the "ski ensemble" may also include an overall and a type of padded, sleeve less jacket worn over the overall; all components of a "ski ensemble" must be made up in a fabric of the same texture, style and composition whether or not of the same color, and must be of corresponding or compatible size. MALE / FEMALE CASUAL & FINE WEAR: Male casual and fine wear includes knitted, crocheted or woven fine suits, jackets and blazers (i.e. sports coats) for men, boys and children and dresses, skirts including divided skirts (culottes) and woven saris for women, girls and children. 56
The suits are composed of two or three pieces made up in same fabric and comprising one garment designed to cover the lower part of the body and consisting of trousers, breeches or shorts (other than swimwear) having neither braces nor bibs, and one suit coat or suit jacket the outer shell of which, (exclusive of sleeves, and facings or collar, if any) consists of at least four panels (two in the front and two at the back) sewn together lengthwise, designed to cover the upper part of the body, with a full front opening without a closure or with a closure other than a slide fastener (zipper). It does not extend below the mid-thigh area and is not for wear over another coat, jacket or blazer. A tailored waistcoat may also be included (the material of the back panel need not be same as the front panels). All of the components of a suit must be of the same fabric construction, style, color and composition; they must also be of corresponding or compatible size. Also included are the morning dress, comprising a plain jacket (cutaway) with rounded tails hanging well down at the back and striped trousers; evening dress (tailcoat), generally made of black fabric, the jacket of which is relatively short at the front, does not close and has narrow skirts cut in at the hips and hanging down behind; dinner jacket suits, in which the jacket is similar in style to an ordinary jacket (though perhaps revealing more of the shirt front), but has shiny silk or imitation silk lapels. These also include sports coats, jackets and blazers. They have the same characteristics as the suit coats and suit jackets, except that the outer shell (exclusive of sleeves, and facings or collars, if any) may consist of three or more panels (of which two are at the front) sewn together lengthwise. The Dresses comprises of one-piece garment extending above the waist. Included are jumpers, evening gowns, wedding gowns, dusters, house dresses other than sleepwear. A sari is a woven, draped garment in which the costume is constructed entirely by draping, without cutting. Complementary components to dresses such as matching or coordinated jackets, vests, boleros or other similar components are not included. Skirts or divided skirts (e.g., culottes) are one-piece garments not extending above the waist. Included are kilts for women, girls, men, boys and children, golf skirts and wrap skirts. The leg separation of culottes or divided skirts, when worn, is not apparent when viewed from the front, they retain a frontal appearance of a skirt, and as such are regarded as skirts. Garments which resemble culottes but do not have fullness about the leg and that cling close to leg shall be regarded as shorts. TROUSERS, OVERALLS & SHORTS: These Garments include knitted, crocheted or woven trousers, bib and brace overalls, coveralls, breeches, shorts, and similar articles (e.g. jodhpurs, knickers, leggings, i.e., footless tights, gauchos, etc.) for men, boys women, girls and children. The term "leggings" means garments similar to trousers or pants but are designed to be worn tightly against the skin (footless tights). Shorts are trousers which do not cover knee. These Garments also include trousers, pants, slacks, jeans, breeches and other similar articles which envelop each leg separately, cover knees and usually extend to or below ankles, and usually do not extend beyond waist. Presences of braces do not cause these garments to lose their essential character of trousers. Other garments include leggings (other than those used for ballet) jodhpurs, knickers, gauchos, pants with foot straps and trousers with back bibs. Overalls & Coveralls are one-piece garments, whether or not they cover the knee, extending above the waist in form of a bib and brace or other structure which partially or fully covers the upper part of body. Garments of this subcategory include bib and brace overalls, coveralls and jumpsuits. 57
TAILORED COLLAR SHIRTS: Tailored collar shirts, for men, boys and children, are knitted, crocheted or woven garments designed to cover the upper part of the body, worn next to the skin or directly over underwear, with a full or partial front opening which may include a zipper, and may be designed to be worn either inside or outside of pants. A tailored collar consists of one or more pieces of material which are cut and sewn or cut and fused and designed with two pointed or rounded ends. The construction may include stays, lining, and stiffening by any means. Also include shirts with detachable collars, dress shirts, sports shirts and leisure shirts, all of which are fitted with a tailored collar. Shirts having a front opening on the neckline which fastens or overlaps left over right are considered to be garments for men and boys. Tailored collar shirts for children are classified according to sizes 2 to 3x and 4 to 6x. These does not include sleeveless garments, quilted shirt like garments, with tailored collar, garments having pockets below the waist, those with a ribbed waistband or other means of tightening at the bottom of garment, or knitted or crocheted shirts having an average of less than 10 stitches per linear centimeter in each direction counted on an area measuring at least 10 cm x 10 cm. WOVEN SHIRTS AND BLOUSES: These Garments include woven shirts, blouses and shirt-blouses, singlet and vests (other than under wear) and other similar articles for men, boys, women, girls and children. Shirts, blouses and shirt-blouses are garments designed to cover the upper part of the body, nominally worn next to the skin or directly over underwear, with a full or partial front opening which may include a zipper, and may be designed to be worn either inside or outside of pants; Shirts having a front opening on the neckline which fastens or overlaps left over right are considered to be garments for men and boys; Garments with pockets below the waist, or with a ribbed waistband or other means of tightening at the bottom of the garment, or sleeveless garments (men's or boys') are not considered shirts, blouses or shirt blouses. Other garments include singlet, vests and garments which may have a ribbed waistband or other means of tightening at the bottom of the garment, or garments which cover only chest, that do not reach shoulders, or that have a full front or back opening. Garments of this type include interalia, crop or halter tops, or sleeveless. ATHLETIC WEAR/BLOUSES/KNITTED/CROCHETED/SWEAT/ T- SHIRTS: These include knitted or crocheted shirts, blouses, shirt-blouses, singlet and vests, Tshirts, sweatshirts and track suits and other athletic wear, whether knitted, crocheted or woven, and knitted or crocheted ski suits. These are garments for men, boys, women, girls and children. These Garments include knitted or crocheted shirts, blouses and shirt-blouses, singlet and vests (other than underwear) and other similar articles. Shirts, blouses and shirtblouses are garments designed to cover the upper part of the body, are normally worn next to the skin or directly over underwear, with a full or partial front opening which may include a zipper, and may be designed to be worn either inside or outside of pants; These Garments must have an average of 10 or more stitches per linear centimeter in each direction counted on an area measuring at least 10 cm x 10 cm; Shirts having a front opening on the neckline which fastens or overlaps left over right are considered to be garments for men and boys; Garments with pockets below the waist, or with a ribbed waistband or other means of tightening at bottom of garment, or sleeveless garments (men's or boys') are not considered shirts, blouses or shirtblouses. Other garments include singlet, vests and garments which might otherwise qualify as a shirt or blouse, i.e., garments which may have a ribbed waistband or other means of tightening at the bottom of the garment, or garments which cover only the 58
chest, that do not reach the shoulders, or that have a full front or back opening. Garments of this type include, inter alia, turtleneck shirts, tank tops, midriffs, tube tops, crop or halter tops or sleeveless garments. T-shirts are generally worn against the skin and are not intended to be used for the purpose of underwear. T-shirts are knitted or crocheted garments of the vest type, not napped, nor of pile or terry fabric, in one or more colors, with or without pockets, with long or short close-fitting sleeves, without buttons or other fastenings, without collar, without opening in the neckline, having close-fitting or lower neckline (round, square, boat shaped or V-shaped). These garments may have decoration, other than lace, in the form of advertising, pictures or an inscription in words, obtained by printing, knitting or other process. The bottom of these garments, usually hemmed, is never made with a ribbed waistband, drawstring or other means of tightening. T-shirts used as underwear & thermal T-shirts are not included. Sweatshirts are knitted or crocheted garments that cover the upper part of the body and where at least one side is brushed or fleeced (napped). Excluded are sweaters, pullovers, cardigans, waistcoats and other similar articles. Athletic Wear for men, boys, women, girls and children means track suits, judo sets, jogging suits, knitted or crocheted ski suits and other special articles of apparel used exclusively for certain sports or for dancing or gymnastics (e.g., fencing clothing, jockey silks, ballet skirts, leotards covering the trunk of the body). Woven ski suits and swimwear are excluded. Track suits are woven or knitted/crocheted articles consisting of two pieces, lined or unlined but sometimes with a raised inner surface (nap) which, because of their general appearance and the nature of the fabric, are clearly meant to be worn exclusively or mainly in the pursuit of sporting activities. Track suits consist of two garments. A garment meant to cover the upper part of the body down to or slightly below the waist. It has long sleeves, with ribbed or elasticated bands, zip fasteners or other tightening elements at the cuffs. Similar tightening elements, including drawstrings, are generally to be found at the bottom of this garment. When it has a partial or complete opening at the front, it is generally fastened by means of a slide fastener. It may or may not be fitted with a hood, a collar and pockets. A second garment (a pair of trousers) which may be either close or loose fitting, with or without pockets, with an elasticated waistband, drawstring or other means of tightening at the waist, with no opening at the waist and therefore no buttons or other fastening system. However, such trousers may be fined with ribbed or elasticated bands, slide fasteners (zippers) or other tightening elements at the bottom of the trouser-legs which generally go down to ankle level. They may or may not have foot straps. Knitted or crocheted ski suits are garments which by their general appearance and texture, are identifiable as intended to be worn for skiing. They consist either of a ski overall, a one piece garment designed to cover upper and lower parts of the body; in addition to sleeves and a collar the ski overall may have pockets or footsteps; or a ski ensemble, that is, a set of garments composed of two or three pieces, comprising one garment for the upper part of the body (e.g. anorak, jacket or similar article), a waistcoat/vest, and trousers whether or not extending above the waist, one pair of breeches or one bib and brace overall. Knitted or crocheted "ski ensemble" may also include an overall and a type of padded, sleeveless jacket worn over the overall; all components of a "ski ensemble" must be made up in a fabric of the same texture, style and composition whether or not of the same color, and must be of corresponding or compatible size.
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UNDERWEAR: Woven or knitted or crocheted undergarments for men, boys, women, girls and children are garments worn under other garments. They include underpants, briefs, boxer shorts, panties, bloomers, slips, petticoats, camisoles, singlet and vests of the underwear type, t-shirts of the underwear type and similar articles of underclothing (e.g. thermals, union or combination suits, etc). T-shirts of the underwear type means but not necessarily restricted to, lightweight T-shirts, commonly in plain white with no pockets and are commonly made of cotton or manmade fibers. T-shirts, singlet and vests packaged together with slips, briefs, panties and similar articles (i.e., underwear) will be considered garments of underwear type. SLEEPWEAR & BATHROBES: Sleepwear and bathrobes are knitted, crocheted or woven garments worn for sleeping or in privacy. Garments include pajamas, nightshirts, nightdresses, negligees, bed jackets, dressing gowns, bathrobes and similar articles (e.g. beach robes, loungewear, etc). Sleepwear for men, boys, women and girls are garments normally worn for sleeping including nightshirts, pajamas, nightdresses, and similar articles. Nightshirts may be distinguishable from shirts by the mere length of the garment, usually to the knee, not suitable to tuck underneath other clothing. Bathrobes for men, boys, women and girls are garments normally worn in private, including bathrobes, beach robes, loungewear, smoking jackets, negligees, dressing gowns, and similar articles. SWEATERS: Knitted or crocheted sweaters for men, boys, women, girls and children, cover the upper part of the body from the neck or shoulder to the waist or mid-thigh. These garments include sweaters, sweater vests, jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, turtleneck sweaters and other similar articles (e.g. ponchos, waistcoats/vests, etc). It also covers knitted or crocheted tailored waistcoats except when these are presented with and constitute one of the components of a man's, boy's, woman's or girl's suit or ensemble. These garments may have a collar of any type, including a hood, or no collar, and any type of neck line; they may have full frontal or back opening, with or without buttons; they may be sleeveless and made with or without pockets. SWIMWEAR: Swimwear for men, boys, women, girls and children are knitted, crocheted or woven garments worn for swimming or bathing. Swimwear includes one-piece or two-piece bathing costumes, swimming shorts and trunks, whether or not elastic. Garments which complement swimwear and are not used for swimming, such as short sets, beachwear sets or cabanas are excluded. FOUNDATION GARMENTS: This category covers articles, whether or not knitted or crocheted, of a kind designed for wear as body-supporting garments and are worn under all other clothing. These garments are classified without distinction between male or female. Products belonging to this category include brassieres, girdles and panty-girdles, corselets (combinations of girdles or panty-girdles and brassieres) and corsets. Such articles may be furnished with trimmings of various kinds (ribbons, lace, etc). Items excluded from this category are suspender-belts, hygienic belts, suspensory bandages, suspender jock straps, braces, suspenders, garters, shirt-sleeve supporting arm-bands and armless, body belts, maternity, post pregnancy or similar supporting or corrective belts. BABIES GARMENTS: These are garments made for young children of a body height not exceeding 86 cm (or the equivalent of O to 24 months). This includes garments constructed from knitted, crocheted or woven fabrics or from coated fabrics 60
where textile material accounts for 50% or more by weight. Excluded are: felt and non woven garments; garments made from coated fabrics where the textile material accounts for less than 50% by weight; and clothing accessories, mittens, tights, bootees and other similar articles. OTHER COATED GARMENTS: Included in this category are garments for men, boys, women, girls, children and babies made up from impregnated, coated, covered or laminated knitted, crocheted or woven fabrics of plastic, rubberized or other coating material, where the coating material is more than 50% by weight of the textile material. If the coating material is 50% or less by weight, the garments will be treated as rainwear for men, boys, women, girls and children. SMOCKS & SHOP COATS: Garments of this category for men, boys, women, girls or children are woven garments worn over other clothing to protect the body or other clothing, include smocks, barber, clinical, medical, laboratory and shop coats, and surgical gowns. OTHER GARMENTS: These are men's, boys', women's, girls', children's or babies knitted, crocheted or woven aprons, clerical, ecclesiastical, vestment, professional or scholastic gowns, specialized clothing for airmen, woven tailored waistcoats included MISCELLANEOUS APPAREL ARTICLES: These include apparel goods and other made up clothing accessories and parts like Shawls, Ties & Handkerchiefs, Garters and Similar Articles etc. HOSIERY: These includes knitted or crocheted footwear without distinction between male or female, i.e., men's, boys', women's, girls', children's and babies. These also excludes women's full-length or knee-length hosiery, measuring per single yarn less than 67 decitex; pantyhose; tights; stockings, socks, etc. (other than knitted or crocheted); knitted footwear with applied soles; and, leggings and gaiters (including "mountain stockings" without feet). WORK GLOVES: This category includes work gloves and work glove liners made of textile material. Also included are textile work gloves impregnated, coated or covered with plastics or rubber and gauntlets or other long gloves that may cover the forearm. Articles such as mitts or mittens, friction gloves for massage or toilet use, gloves and mittens for babies, gloves, mitts or mittens of paper, cellulose wadding or webs of cellulose fibers are excluded.
GARMENT COMPONENTS (STYLES AND DESIGNS): These are

garment parts that require one or more separate pieces to be assembled as a unit. Garment components are basic sections of garments including top fronts, top backs, bottom fronts, bottom backs, sleeves, collars / neckline treatments, cuffs / sleeve treatments, plackets, pockets, and waistline treatments. Hems may be completed as a part of a component or final assembly. The stitches, seams, and / or bonding are used to assemble components and final garment. Components such as collars, cuffs, and pockets are small parts that are usually constructed independently for final assembly. Many small parts are attached to the major garment components (tops, bottoms, and sleeves) before final assembly, e.g. sleeve plackets may be attached to sleeves prior to final assembly, but cuffs may be
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added after the sleeve is attached and the underarm seam is sewn. Particular treatment given to a component involves consideration of functional use, aesthetics, quality, complexity, materials, component shape, sequence of assembly operations, and costs. TOPS AND BOTTOMS OF FRONTS AND BACKS: Are the major sections of garments. Fronts and backs may be one or more pieces depending on the styling of the garment. Left and right sections are frequently minor images of each other but may be different if the garment is asymmetrical. Sometimes side seams are eliminated so that fronts and backs are one piece. Fronts and backs often have other components attached to them before the garment is assembled. SLEEVES: Sleeves are fundamental parts of a garment design, silhouette and fit. They are functional in covering all or part of the arm. Sleeves also provide opportunities for creative styling, frequently with additional components, such as sleeve plackets and cuffs attached. PLACKETS: Plackets provide a finished opening in the garment to allow a body part to pass through. Types of placket formations and methods of assembly vary widely in cost, quality, and design. Plackets often require some type of closure. COLLARS: Collars and other neckline treatments, such as facings and knitted bands, may finish, support, and provide aesthetic emphasis for neckline of a garment. Neckline treatments may also involve closures and plackets to allow the head to pass through and still maintain a close till at the neck. CUFFS: Cuffs and other sleeve treatments are components used to finish the lower edges of sleeves. Cuff type varies with the style, and function of the component and garment, materials used and methods of assembly and attachment. Other sleeve treatments include casings, facings, and hems. POCKETS: Pockets may be functional, aesthetic, or both. They may be sewn onto garment parts, cut into the body of a garment, or incorporated into garment structure. Pocket treatment may also involve a closure. Pockets are sometimes used as a means of differentiating brands of products, particularly on jeans. WAISTLINE: Waistline treatments include components that serve to define the waistline of a garment, provide entrance to a garment, and / or hold a garment in place on the body. Waistline treatments involve formation or application of bands, casings, facings, and elastics. KNITTED COLLARS
Crew
Round
Boat
U-neck
V-neck
Shawl
High
Turtle
Off turtle
Henley
Button
Polo
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SHIRT COLLARS
Arched
Regular
Long Points
Mitre
Pin hole
Button down
Riley
Round
Short Point
Stand
Tab
NECKLINES
High Round
Off shoulder
horse shoe
Low Round
Square
Heart Shaped
Built Up
Drapped Twist
Key Hole
Beteau
Halter
VShaped
Low Cowl
High Cowl COLLARS
Band
Barrymore
piece shawl
piece notched
Belted
Bias cuff
Eton
Bias roll
Buster brown
Chin
Chinese
Mandarin
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Choir-boy
Convertible
Dogs ear
Elizabethan
Sailor
Scaft
Flat
Gladstone
High Shawl SHIRTS
Italian
Shakspare
Pierrot
Aloha/hawalin
Ascot
Ascoted
Athletic
Cow Boy
Football
Body Shirt
Boson
Cleric
Guayabera
Dress
Lvy
Drawstring
Dress evening
Epaulet
Oversided / Big
Pilot
Polo T-Shirt
Tank top
Tee-Shirt
Sports Shirts
Sweater Shirt
Work Wear
SLEEVES
Bag
Ballon
Lantern
Bell
Juliet
Regular
Bishop
Motton
Melon
Puff
Epaulet
Kimono
Reglan
Tree Seam
Split
Rollup
Cap
D-Shoulder
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SHORTS
Bermuda
Cargo
Cut-off
Pleated
Short
Skort
POCKETS
Breast
Breast
Hip
Ticket
Watch
Pleased
Change
Bound
Welt
Slash
Cross
Cargo
Seam
Flap
Kangaro PANTS
Gusset
Pin Tucks
Western
Ankle Tied
Baggy
BellBottom
Cargo Pocket
Contine ntal
Cropeped
Flares
Gaucho
Culotte Pant
Drawstring
Harem
Jodhpurs
Knickers
Overalls
Oxford Bags
Palazzo
Plus Forus
Riding Breeches
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SKIRT
Accordion Pleate
A-line
Balloon
Bell
Box Pleate
Unpressed
Built up Waistline
Circular
Culotte
Dimdl
Dome
Wrap-around
Drapped
Escargot
Flared
Flounced
Flying-panel
Torso
Foyr gored
Garhered
Gored
Harem
Hip Yolk
Trumpet
Inverted
Kilt
Mini
Multi-gored
Panel
Tulip
Pegged
Peg-Top
Peplem
Sarong
Side
Tunic
Six Gored
Six goredtrunpet
Slit
Sun-burst pleat
Rapered Tiers
Umbrella
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MERCHANDISING TECHNIQUES
1. GARMENT ANALYSIS:
Challenges to apparel professionals include providing target customers with products that satisfy the customers priorities and needs while making a profit. Apparel merchandisers are constantly faced with the responsibility for analyzing the (Products produced by their factories and / or contractors; Products produced by their competitors; Products made available by vendors; and Products and processes developed by suppliers). The process of conducting a systematic product analysis can be very extensive or limited, depending on the purpose and desired outcome. Outcomes may be conclusion related to product positioning, quality, value, producibility, cost, and consumer appeal. Most apparel Merchandisers engage in some type of garment analysis, either formal or informal, as part of their job responsibilities. Garment Analysis procedure differs depending on who performs the analysis, the purpose of the analysis, and the methods of analysis that are employed. Consumers engage in garment analysis every time they shop for apparel. The thoroughness of the analysis depends in large part on the type of garment being sought and the consumers level of product knowledge. Consumers perceptions of products may be based on intrinsic or extrinsic cues to quality and performance depending on personal preferences or priorities. Consumers purchases determine success of decisions made by apparel professionals. The ultimate goal of apparel merchandisers is to satisfy consumer needs for apparel. What are the target customers priorities among aesthetics, performance, price, and value? What aspects of apparel serviceability are of particular concern to consumers? Comfort?, Durability?, Care?, functional use, do customers focus on intrinsic or extrinsic cues in making apparel choices? The answer to these questions provides apparel professionals with priorities for line development, product development, production, and marketing decisions. Professional apparel analysis involves following goals, processes, and limitations: Products are examined from a business perspective with the goal of positioning products to satisfy the needs of target customers. Decisions are made in the context of product line and firms strategic plan. Products are developed and marketed to suit large groups of target customers in terms of styling, fit, fashion, quality, and value. Sound technical knowledge of materials and garment assembly is needed to determine product performance. Alternative product development, production, and marketing processes are assessed. The Bottom Line always is considered in evaluating alternatives. Quality standards are based on perceptions of target customers expectations. Analysis may be focused on one particular aspect of a product as production costs or specifications. The results of professional analysis determine what will be available to consumers on the retail sales floor.
Apparel, professionals are constantly faced with pressure to control costs of labor, materials, and overheads. These costs are often interrelated; reducing costs in one area may increase costs in another. The choice of less expensive materials may result in
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using materials with more flaws or handling problems, which thus raises spreading, cutting, and sewing costs. Choice of sourcing production in a developing country with lower labor costs may result in increased risks of nonconformance to specifications, more second-quality goods, higher shipping costs, and missed delivery deadlines. Production costs provide a baseline for determining lowest price that will allow a reasonable profit. Analysis may involve intrinsic and / or extrinsic factors depending on the purpose of the analysis. The tangible, intrinsic characteristics of garments include materials, methods of assembly, styling, fit, and pressing. Extrinsic aspects originate from outside the product and are not a physical part of the product itself. Price, brand name, reputation of the manufacturer or retailer, visual merchandising techniques, and advertising are common extrinsic cues to quality and value. Developing higher levels of intrinsic quality and performance requires increased investment in materials, equipment, skills, and time. A myriad of option differing in quality, appearance, performance, and cost have to be evaluated by apparel professionals in making decisions about the development of each product characteristics.
2. METHODS OF GARMENT ANALYSIS: The purpose of garment

analysis determines the methods and complexity of the analysis. Three different methods of analyses could be used are: Visual inspection. Augmented visual inspection, aided by simple tests, simple magnification and measuring equipment, and / or home laundry equipment; and Laboratory analysis with standard test methods, specialize testing equipment, high-power magnification, and highly calibrated measuring equipments.
Visual inspection is the least sophisticated and least complex method of garment analysis. It is effective in evaluating overall garment appearance and aesthetics, estimating fabric quality, identifying stitch and seam types, and estimating numbers of stitches per inch. A skilled person can conduct a quick and reasonably reliable assessment of these product characteristics using visual inspection. Experience in garment analysis develops the ability to see and feel quality in products. Skills are developed through comparing similar characteristics and performance of a wide variety of products. Visual assessments may also compare with more scientific analyses for verification. Visual inspection is frequently used by consumers and retail buyers when viewing product lines for the first time. The reliability of visual analysis is completely dependent on the skill of the individual conducting the analysis. Garment analysis using augmented visual inspection provides more information and increases the ability to reach reliable conclusions. The less experienced analyzers or those requiring extremely consistent results need more than visual inspection as a basis of analysis. For example, simple burning or solubility tests might he used to verify fiber content. Use of microscopes increases the details that can be observed in fabric structures relative to interlacing patterns. Yarn types, yarn twist, methods of color application, and so on. Use of home laundry equipment can provide insight into latent defects such as color bleeding and shrinkage. Both visual inspection and augmented visual inspection can often be performed without destroying the product. Use of tests and equipment increases costs of analysis but also amount of information available.
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The most scientific garment analysis involves laboratory tests of products and materials. Laboratory tests with standard test methods endorsed by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC), or other professional organizations and controlled laboratory conditions provide the most reliable results, Laboratory analysis with textile testing equipment may be particularly useful when concerned with performance aspects such as shrinkage, strength, abrasion resistance, air permeability, colorfastness, and shading. Analysis of these aspects can be used to determine the compatibility of materials and suitability to particular end uses. Tests are frequently destructive, and extra materials and garments must be sampled according to specified methods. Firms may establish and operate product testing labs or contract laboratory services. The time required to have the tests performed may be prohibitive given intense, time-driven nature of the apparel business. In-house testing is less timeconsuming but requires equipment, time, and personnel.
3. PROCESS OF GARMENT ANALYSIS: Professional garment analysis

can be accomplished by evaluating six aspects of garments: 1. Product positioning strategy. 3. Materials selection. 5. Final assembly and finishing. 2. 4. 6. Sizing and fit Component assembly. Garment Presentation.
Garment analysis, conducted to meet particular business needs, may require extensive knowledge of certain aspects of the apparel business, e.g. analysis conducted to cost a garment requires an in depth understanding of apparel production and materials. 3.1 PRODUCT POSITIONING STRATEGY: The foundation for garment analysis is the purpose or intended use of a garment. Factors that are useful in describing a product's purpose and styling include functional / aesthetic priorities, durable / disposable performance, intrinsic / extrinsic cues to quality, basic / fashion styles, non-seasonal / seasonal use, and low end / budget / moderate / better / designer price ranges. Each set of factors forms a range of possibilities that can be selected to position a product to make it desirable for a particular target market. Functional / Aesthetic Purpose And Durable / Disposable Performance: For a particular target customer, does a garment serve primarily a functional purpose or an aesthetic purpose? This is closely related to the level of intrinsic quality and durability needed in end use. An extreme in functional purpose is an astronaut's space suit. An astronaut's apparel must provide protection from highly hostile environments. Appropriate garment performance is accomplished through engineering, experimentation, and testing. Visual effect is of comparatively little importance as long as an extensive list of functional needs is accomplished. An actor/actress is a target customer that requires an extreme of visual and aesthetic needs in stage costume. Visual effect is primary requirement. Comfort and protection may be sacrificed for the appearance of the garment. Appearances of theater costumes are evaluated from a distance therefore, quality of execution may also be secondary. Quality is judged, primarily, on whether the item accomplishes its visual purpose. However, stage costumes may also need to be durable enough to withstand the rigors of stressful use, rapid changes, and frequent laundry. Apparel intended for general consumer use usually represents a blend of functional and aesthetic priorities.
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Intrinsic / Extrinsic Cues To Quality: Quality standards tend to be arbitrary in terms of meeting consumer needs. Sometimes what is perceived as high quality meets functional needs; other times it meets aesthetic needs, e.g. some garments intrinsic cues to quality are more important; for others extrinsic cues are more important. Profitable positioning and satisfactory performance can be accomplished at different levels of quality and durability, depending on the purpose of garments and priorities of target customers. Tangible intrinsic cues of quality include styling, fit, sizing, fabrics and other materials, stitches and seams, and finishing. Each characteristic represents a group of options that creates a range from high to low quality. Specifications are developed to ensure an appropriate combination of quality characteristics, maintain quality throughout production, and control costs. Many intrinsic characteristics that contribute to quality also contribute to costs of finished products. Cost is the value surrendered in order to receive and / or produce goods or services, Costs of production include a combination of costs of materials, labor, equipment, transportation, and overhead. Developing intrinsic quality requires greater investment in materials, equipment, skill and time. Normally, higher-quality goods cost more to produce than lower-quality goods. However, high-quality garments may not be producible within the price range of the target customer; thus, trade-offs must be made. Intrinsic quality is built into garments beginning with product development and design. The desired intrinsic quality level determines the selection and use of materials, production methods, the processing sequence, and the degree of accuracy that is expected. Advanced technology and automation are means of reducing labor costs, and increasing production efficiency and accuracy while increasing intrinsic quality. For example computer-aided design equipment may increase the accuracy of pattern development and efficiency of use of time and materials. Some firms invest in product development by having designers and merchandisers travel all over the world for design inspiration and selection of unique fabrics and trims. Other firms invest in extensive product testing to determine the performance capabilities of their products. Still others "knock off" styles; i.e. they copy styles from other firms lines using lower-cost materials and production methods. Thus, a design may begin with making original sketches, draping piece goods on a body form. Or making patterns from other firms' finished garments. The investment in creativity, uniqueness, and perfection of fit depend on quality and fashion level acceptable to the target market. The perception of quality in fashion goods depends more on extrinsic cue then intrinsic ones. Extrinsic cues include price, brand name, apparel firms repu tation, product presentation, and advertising. Selection and evaluation of fashion goods are often based on fashion advertising, acceptance by peer groups, and popular labels. Manufacturers and retailers use advertising to romanticize and glamorize products, price reductions to promote good value and brand names and trademarks to promote consumer confidence. The product images created using extrinsic cues may or may not be consistent with intrinsic quality. The most significant intrinsic cues for fashion goods may be styling and color. Other intrinsic factors such as quality of materials and construction may be overlooked by manufacturers, retailers, and consumers in favor of styling and effective fashion promotion. The wearable life of a fashion garment may be only 8-12 weeks; therefore, 70
intrinsic characteristics that affect durability are less critical to acceptable performance. On the other hand, basic garments with little change year after year depend on intrinsic characteristics for better performance. Styling may be a vehicle for setting a higher retail price without increasing other intrinsic quality characteristics. Consumers are willing to pay a higher price because of the value they place on styling. Effective merchandising and marketing programs can make it possible to sell a product at a higher price than the quality represents; thus, price may not be a reliable indicator of quality. Product Change: How does the product relate to the fashion / basic, seasonal / non-seasonal continues for example, does the customer prefer a garment that provides basic, non-seasonal functional service? Or, is the garment intended to provide fashionable styling at a budget price? What is the general price range at which the garment should be offered? Principles of design, seasonal color story, and current fashion are sources of criteria for analysis of the visual appearance of garments. Each garment or style has certain performance characteristics that are needed in order to meet performance needs and expectations. These performance traits are the result of the characteristics of materials, assembly, and finishing processes. Analysis of these factors and matching product characteristics to preferences of the target market provides a framework for successfully positioning products. Price and Price Ranges: The general price ranges of low-end, budget, moderate, better, and designer are deeply embedded in the apparel business. Firms establish their definitions of product lines to include the price range of merchandise and position products considering their competitors at similar prices. Thus, merchandise is developed and produced and / or selected to be marketable within the intended price classification. Unfortunately, high price does not always mean high quality or vice versa. Analysis of combination of price and quality result in relative value of product.
3.2 SIZING AND FIT:
Apparel manufacturers, retailers, and consumers are concerned about sizing and fit. Consumers seek garments that provide an attractive appearance and comfort during wear, often within whatever current fashion suggests as acceptable fit. Manufacturers and retailers recognize that garments must be labeled in a manner that allow customers to find the right size. However, apparel industry has no universally used sizing standards. The responsibility falls on manufacturers to develop appropriate systems of measurements to suit target customers. A firm's sizing system is a means of product differentiation. The challenge is to offer consistency in sizing among styles, product lines, and seasonal offerings. Customers want to be able to select the same size for a new style of a favorite brand name and have it fit in a similar manner to products already owned. It is imperative for a firm to develop its own sizing and fit standards with tolerances for variation consistent with consumer expectations. Manufacturers usually test the size and fit of garments on specifically designed body forms and live fitting models. However, consumers who buy the finished garments are seldom exactly the same size or shape as the body forms. Potential sales volume is higher for garments that have versatility in fitting a variety of body shapes. Sizing Systems and Size Ranges: A body type is the fundamental basis of sizing systems. The body types are classified by body proportions as related to age and gender, e.g. sizing terms infants, toddlers, children, and preteens relate to age and common proportional changes during human body growth and development. Junior, 71
missy, and women's sizing systems represent different proportional relationships among body parts of fully formed females. Sizes for additional body types are achieved by using petite, tall, or large variations. A sizing system includes a range of sizes based on gradation of dimensions for a body type. Apparel firms identify body types that are representative of their target customers and develop what they perceive to be appropriate proportions for each size and graduations between sizes. Commonly used size ranges are given below: Infant-baby, not mobile Newborn 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 months Toddler-stocky, mobile 1T, 2T, 31, 4T Girls--preschool and elementary school-age female 4, 5, 6, 6x, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14 Boys-preschool and elementary school-age male 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 Preteen-pre-puberty female 7, 9, 11, 13 Junior-young, fully formed female figure 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 Misses-mature female figure over 5'4" 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 Half-size-:-full-bodied female figure less than 54 141/2, 16 1/2, 181/2, 201/2, 221/2, 241/2, 261/2 Women's-full-bodied female figure over 5'4" 32,34,36,38,40,42,44,46,48,50,52 Young men's-young male 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 Men's-mature male 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52 Indicators of Size: Size of a garment is indicated by a word, letter, or number i.e. General body size (small, medium, large; S, M, L). Proportional relationships among body parts (10, 12, 14 for missy or 7, 9, 11 for juniors). Age / height / weight (size 6, 12, 18, or 24 months for infants; size A, B, or C for pantyhose), or Dimensional sizes of body parts (151/2 - 32 for collar and sleeve length of men's dress shirts or 34-33 for waist and inseam of men's trousers).
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Indications of general body size include one-size-fits-all; small, medium, large, extra large (S-M-L-XL) within "normal" size ranges. Anyone who is larger or smaller than "normal" knows that one-size-fits-all does not always fit all. However, garments with a one-size-fits-all size indication are usually very loosely fitted or made of stretch materials, may be unisex, and include garments such as caftans or bathrobes. S-M-L is used to describe men's, women's, or children's body types. Garments that commonly have general body size include sweaters, T-shirts, men's sport shirts, and sweats. Sizes for adult females usually consist of a number assigned to a particular set of unrevealed dimensions. It has long been believed that women do not want to be reminded or reveal their body dimensions when shopping for clothes. Therefore, as ready-to-wear was developed for women during nineteenth and twentieth centuries, sizing systems were developed that used size designations unrelated to any specific garment dimensions. Actual garment dimensions are not indicated by numbers, e.g. the 8, 10, 12 in the misses system represents the proportions of a more mature figure than the 7, 9, 11 sizes of the junior classification, but the general size of people who wear a 7 or 8 may be similar. Firms that style garments to appeal to a broader age category may use 7/8, 9/10, and 11/12 size designations to indicate appropriateness for a broader target market. These designations are commonly used on basic pants / slacks, blouses, and shirts. Size designations that indicate age, height, and / or weight provide specific information about suitability of garment size to certain body dimensions. Perhaps the only sizing system for women that uses body height and weight has been developed for pantyhose. Commonly used size indicators, i.e. size A, B, C, or D, do not specify body dimensions, but information is provided at point of sale about range of height and weight that will fit within a given size. Pantyhose sizing systems may represent a breakthrough in size information for women's apparel. Infants' garments are commonly offered in newborn, 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months sizes. Labels may also indicate body weight. However, there is wide variation in infant body size related to age; thus, age is not a good indicator of garment size. Therefore, for an age / weight size designation to be meaningful, a sizing system must be developed that is based on body dimensions for a given age. Sizes of men's apparel have long been based on dimensional measurements, that is, length or circumference of specific body parts including neck, arm length, chest, waist, and leg. Measurements specified by size relate to dimensions of a garment component relative to a particular body part such as collar or inseam. Examples of dimensional sizes used for men's wear are shown below. Garments with dimensional sizing tend to have more consistency in measurements among styles and brands. Garments tend to be more basic in nature and wider size ranges tend to be offered. Fit Indicators: Size alone does not determine garment fit. Fit is how a garment conforms to or differs from the body. Fit is sometimes described as garment "cut," A well-cut garment conforms to the body in a comfortable and flattering manner. Fit or cut is determined by proportional relationships among measurements used in a firm's sizing system. Garments of the same size from different manufacturers are unlikely to have exactly the same measurements because each firm customizes its sizing and fit according to its perception of fashion and its target customer. The two sources of information about fit are labels and garment structure. Labels often describe the body type the garment was designed to fit. For example, a garment 73
might be labeled short, regular, long, petite, or tall. Information about garment circumference may be indicated by descriptors, such as trim, slim, tapered, stocky, or husky. These indicators of fit provide a basis of judging appropriateness of' garment selection for a particular body type. Examination of garment structure reveals the general silhouette of a garment, number and location of limited fit points, and amount, placement, and control of fullness. Silhouette is an indicator of how closely a garment conforms to the body. Dimensional Sizes for Men's Wear MEN'S DRESS SHIRTS Neck sizes: 14, 141/2, 15, 151/2, 16, 161/2, 17, 171/2, 18 Sleeve length: 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 MEN'S PANTS Waist sizes: 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40. 42, 44, 46 Inseam: 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36 MEN'S SUITS OR SPORT COATS Chest size: 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48. 50, 52 Length: short, regular, long Body type: regular, trim, stocky Large and tall versions are also available. Generally, closer the silhouette conforms to body shape, more limited the garment is in accommodating varying body proportions. Stretch fabric may allow a garment to conform exactly to a greater variety of body shapes of similar size than rigid fabrics. Limited fit points include rigid garment components that do not readily expand or contract to accommodate different body shapes and dimensions. Collar length, shoulder width, waistband length, or hip circumference may provide fit limitations depending on the style of the garment. Garment components may be modified to allow more variance in fit. For example, waistbands sometimes have a small section of elastic, side tabs, or other adjustment built in to allow variance in waist size. Fullness in a garment is controlled by darts, tucks, pleats, and gathers. Fullness allows for comfort and freedom of body movement within the garment. For example, pleats below the yoke on the back of a shirt allow expansion of back width with arm movement. Fullness also allows different shapes to fit within the garment. Skirts with front pleats will accommodate a greater variation in hip circumference than fitted skirts. More extensive evaluation of sizing and fit requires analysis of pattern development and apparel production processes. Garments marked the same size not have same fit because of many factors contributing to the dimensions of a particular style of a particular size. Contributors to variance include (1) lack of industry-wide sizing standards; (2) factors that determine garment fit, (3) sizing standards used by firms, (4) production tolerances for garment dimensions, and (5) quality control.
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There is no generally adopted industry wide standardization of fit or sizing with mandated sets of dimensions specifying garment sizes. Many apparel professionals and consumers believe that there is a need for a massive anthropometric study involving measurements of thousands of people of different ages and ethnic origins to provide a basis for industry-wide sizing standards. Recently, the U.S. government has taken a position that the apparel industry should set its own sizing standards. Based on recent research, sizing standards are now available for infants, and research is under way related to a sizing system for mature females. Without widely used sizing standards, there is variation in measurements used for different styles of the same size. Lack of consistency in fit of garments of same size creates confusion for consumers. For example, a comparison of dimensions for size 8 dresses produced by four manufacturers revealed the dimensions reported each of these size 8 dresses would fit differently because of differing proportional relationships among key measurements. Customers need to understand the firm's sizing system in order to choose the appropriate size. Customers are not able to try on garments before ordering. So sizing needs to be consistent with their expectations. 3.3 MATERIAL SELECTION: Section 3 of apparel analysis guide identifies a list of types of materials and criteria that are commonly used for analyzing materials, Materials used in apparel manufacturing include piece goods and findings. Piece goods are fabrics that are cut and assembled into shells of garments. Findings include all the rest of materials required to complete garments including support shaping materials, trims, closures, threads, labels and accessories. In apparel business, this category of materials has a number of common names including: sundries, findings, trims, and notions. Proper selection and consistent quality of materials are important to apparel quality and performance. Incorrect or inferior material can impart a lower quality level to entire garment. Quality aspect must also be consistent with product positioning strategy. The technical nature of quality and performance of materials, such as strength, abrasion resistance, resiliency, pilling and snagging resistance, and color fastness, is too complex. For garments in which intrinsic quality and durability are particular concerns, these properties may be analyzed in addition to the criteria listed here. These properties may be estimated through visual analysis or, more reliably, determined using standardized laboratory tests. Classification of Materials: classified as under: Materials commonly used for the purpose are
PIECE GOODS make up the outer shell of a garment. Piece goods analysis involves material content, yarn type / structure / size, fabrication, count / gauge, weight / size, structural / applied design, color application, finish(es), care, and quality. Piece goods are often the primary focus of material analysis because of their role in garment aesthetics performance, and cost. They are first target when cost reduction is desired. SUPPORT MATERIALS are used on inside of a garment to provide shape, shape retention, reinforcement, and durability. Included are linings, interlinings, tapes, shoulder pads, collar stays etc. Factors to consider for evaluation of support materials include material content, fabrication, weight, stiffness, color, care, quality, and method of application. Interlinings are frequently intrinsic parts of collar, sleeve, and waistline treatments as well as pockets and hems. Compatibility of support materials and piece goods is essential to assure acceptable garment performance.
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TRIMS are materials or stitching applied primarily for aesthetic reasons to provide decorative details. Trims may be dual purpose in providing both aesthetic focus and functional service such as a braid or tape that serves as an edge finish or hem as well as a decorative effect. Evaluation of trims may be based on material content, fabrication, size, color application, finishes, care, and method of application. Compatibility of trims with the piece goods is essential because of the potential for latent problems like bleeding or differential shrinkage. CLOSURES are devices that secure a garment around the body. Closures may be functional and / or aesthetic. The basic types of closures are buttons, snaps, hooks, Zippers, hook-and-loop tape, elastic, and drawstrings or ties. A garment may have closures at the neckline, waistline, sleeve openings, pockets, hems, and so forth. Analysis of closures requires evaluation of the material content, fabrication, size, color, finishes, care, methods of attachment, effectiveness of operation, and quality. Functional closures are often combined with plackets in order to open and close garments and keep them closed. THREAD is a linear medium used to form stitches in fabric. It is a major factor in the strength and appearance of seams. Thread can be analyzed based on material content, type, size, and finishes. Thread choice depends on type of piece goods, findings, stitches, seams, and machines that are used, as well as where the thread is used and the durability needed. Criteria For Analysis of Materials: This include material name, material content, yarn type and size, fabrication, gauge, weight / size, hand / drapability, structural / applied deign, color application, finishes, care, and method of application. Each criterion represents a range of possibilities that relate to quality and performance. Sometimes these can be determined by general observation; other times lab analysis is required. MATERIAL NAME should identify each material and where it is used in garment, (shirt material includes piece goods, thread for seams, top stitching, and embroidery). MATERIAL CONTENT refers to type and proportion of textile fibers, plastics, metals, or other substances that make up the product. Materials content is determinant of product performance and properties such as strength, resiliency, melting point, abrasion resistance, and absorbency. YARN TYPE AND SIZE relates only to textile materials, Yarns are long continuous strands of textile fibers that make up most textile fabrics. Thread is a special type of yarn used for sewing materials together. Yarn type or structure and size are major factors in the hand, appearance, durability, and quality of woven and knitted fabrics. Yarns and threads might be smooth or textured filament combed or carded, spun, plied, and / or core spun. Plied construction provides greater strength and durability. Yarns and threads are sized by denier, tex, or cotton count. Precise type and size can be determined by lab analysis, but useful and reasonable estimations can be made. FABRICATION refers to the process used to produce the material. Textiles are woven, knitted, or non-woven fiber web; Specific characteristics are identified by fabric names such as denim, tricot, and gingham. Fabrication of zipper chain may refer to coils or scoops. Fabrication of other materials such as snaps or hooks may refer to whether the material is molded, cast, or stamped. 76
COUNT OR GAUGE is used to describe textile materials. Count is the number of yarns per square inch in woven fabrics. Gauge is the number of Wales per inch in knit fabrics, Count and gauge are factors related to fabric quality and durability. WEIGHT AND / OR SIZE is unique to each type of material. Fabric is purchased by ounces per linear yard, yards to the pound, or ounces per square yard. Fabric weight is determined largely by fiber content, yarn size, and count. In lower quality fabrics, finishes may make an important contribution to fabric weight. Weight and / or size of materials other than fabric frequently involve a special measuring system such as "lignes" for buttons. DRAPABILITY refers to the manner in which a material hangs or bends over a three dimensional object. These characteristics are particularly important in the choice of piece goods, support materials, trims and closures when considering compatibility of materials and desired appearance of finished garments. STRUCTURAL OR APPLIED DESIGN refers to how the design is incorporated in the material. Structural design suggests the appearance is an intrinsic part of the material; the design is formed as the material is made. Applied designs may be printed, embossed, or added-in some other way to the surface of the material. For example, labels may be produced by a jacquard weave or by printing fabric tapes. Structural designs are more expensive and require more lead time but are more durable for extended use and care. COLOR APPLICATION refers to methods that are used to add color to materials. Textiles may be solution dyed, fiber dyed, yarn dyed, piece dyed, printed, or product dyed, Solution dying of artificially made textiles, buttons, and molded zippers causes color to become a part of the material because it is added before material is formed. FINISHES refer to mechanical or chemical processes that modify the appearance or performance of the material. Piece goods may be made resistant to wrinkles or moisture and printed or napped to create a particular appearance. Materials may also be starched, polished, buffed, or glazed to improve their texture or appearance. CARE refers to processes for garment upkeep, making garments suitable for continued wear. For garments, care labels are required by law to describe appropriate renovation procedures. Materials that are combined must be compatible in terms of laundry or dry cleaning. METHOD OF APPLICATION refers to technique used to hold a particular material in place in a garment. Various materials may be stitched, tacked, fused, glued, clamped, or stapled. Costs and performance of application methods must be evaluated. Special equipment may be required for some application methods, so choice of materials for production of a particular garment may be limited by equipment availability.
3.4 GARMENT STRUCTURE: Garment structure refers to the manner of

assembling materials into garments, garment structure must also be consistent with the product positioning strategy. Analysis of the formation of garment structure can be divided into two phases: (1) assembly of garment components and (2) final garment assembly and finishing.
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CRITERIA FOR ANALYSIS OF GARMENT COMPONENTS: Garment analysis guide lists criteria that may be used for analyzing components of garment structure. These criteria include identifying components, determining number of pieces and number of materials in each component, operational breakdown, types of stitches and seams, compatibility among materials, compatibility of materials and assembly methods, degree of enclosure, and pressing. First step is to identify the components used in the garment structure. The second step is to examine the structure of each component individually. The number of pieces in a component is a significant factor in labor cost, method and complexity of assembly, selection of seams, and amount of handling that is required. Each garment piece requires developing a pattern, marking, cutting, sewing, and handling, all of which contribute to the cost of production. Larger the numbers of materials in components, greater the sourcing, inventory, and handling costs for the garment. Each material must be acquired and prepared for the assembly process. Different materials may be used in various components of same garment because of different performance expectations. Within garment structure materials must complement each other. Determining the operation breakdown is the next step in the analysis of components. An operation breakdown is a sequential list of the steps in the production process. Appropriate methods and sequences are determined to meet cost and quality requirements. The process of component assembly determines the methods and sequence of assembly operations. Selecting stitch and seam types depends on materials used, predetermined quality level, performance expectations, cost limitations, equipment available, and aesthetic requirements. Most stitch and seam types are identified according to US Federal Government Standards 751a. Stitch and seam quality depends on appropriate selection, thread tension and performance, machine settings, and skill of operators. Materials must be compatible within each garment, with assembly procedures, and performance expectations. The greater the number of materials in each garment the greater the risk of non-compatibility. Combinations of materials are successful when the appropriate appearance, hand, and performance are achieved initially as well as after use and care by the consumer. When materials are compatible, problems such as differential shrinkage are eliminated and appropriate care procedures are consistent for all materials. Assembly methods and materials must also be compatible. For example, use of non-woven interlining on facings that receive abrasion may be unsatisfactory due to pilling. Piece goods chosen for drapability may be lower in count and have a tendency to ravel. Particular stitches and seams need to be chosen to compensate for the less desirable fabric characteristics. Degree of enclosure is usually an indicator of quality of garment structure. The interior of a garment may be open, closed, or some combination of the two. Open construction reveals raw edges or exposed seams on the interior of a garment closed construction has all seams or edges enclosed on the interior of a garment. Garment structure may be enclosed by selection of specific seam types, sequence of assembly, choice of over-edge and cover stitches, use of trim / bindings, assembly methods that enclose seams, and partial or full linings More enclosed the interior of a garment, higher the quality tends to be. A seam covered with fabric may be higher quality than a seam covered with thread, e.g. when setting a cuff to a sleeve, seam may be completely enclosed between the parts of cuff, or seam may be constructed with raw edge covered only by an over-edge stitch. In general, the more enclosed the interior of a garment, the greater the number of 78
production processes and the cost. In-process pressing, called under-pressing, involves pressing component parts during assembly process. It involve pressing open (busting) seams, shaping pockets, or creasing hems in preparation for operations that follow Under-pressing is an added operation that increases processing and handling time, which, may increase production costs. It is used to make handling and placement of pieces easier and increase accuracy of sewing and also improves appearance of garment components and finished garments. In-process pressing is regarded as important part of component construction for higher quality garments,
3.5 FINAL GARMENT ASSEMBLY AND FINISHING: It is the process

used to combine garment components and produce the finished appearance of the garment. Processes that might be included in final assembly are attaching collars, setting sleeves, attaching waistbands, inserting linings, closing side seams, and forming hems. Small components are attached to larger components such as pockets to fronts, plackets to sleeves, and waistbands to skirts or pants. Combined components are assembled to make a complete garment by inserting linings and closing seams. Operations may be planned so the product remains flat as long as possible. Efforts are also made to keep the combined components as small as possible so operators will have less material to manipulate and handle. Potential steps in garment finishing include trimming, wet processing, garment dyeing, post curing, and final pressing called off-pressing. These finishes may enhance visual effects or performance but may also reveal irregularities and latent defects of materials. Garment finishing may also create potential for additional latent defects. Each finish requires special selection of materials that are compatible with finishing processes. GARMENT FINISHING PROCESSES: Garment finishing process involves: TRIMMING: This removes thread ends and loose threads and contributes to a neat appearance. Trimming is indication of quality and attention to detail in production. WET PROCESSING: This includes rinsing, washing and / or bleaching and abrading of garments after assembly. Wrinkled, crinkled, flecked, or other fashionable looks may be created by special types of wet processing. Wet processing usually removes fabric sizing and may cause latent fabric defects to be revealed. GARMENT DYEING: This provides an opportunity to use fashion colors as demand dictates and reduces risks associated with use of fashion colors. Garment dyeing can result in shading problems among materials that may be visible only after processing. POST CURE DURABLE PRESS: These finishes on materials may be used to increase permanency of finished appearance. Post cure finishes are activated by heat or steam after a garment is completed to permanently set the shape of garment. Post cure durable press may limit alteration of garment fit, change hand of piece goods, and cause soil retention. FINISH PRESSING: It makes a contribution to finished appearance of a garment. Smooth seams are indications of quality assembly and final pressing. Pressing is used to camouflage poor construction. Poor pressing can distort a well-made garment. TICKETING, TAGGING, AND PACKAGING: This prepares the garment for retail presentation. Tickets include UPC codes, style number, and price. Hang tags are
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added to identify trademarks for materials or manufacturer. Products may be hung or folded/pinned to enhance shelf or hanger appeal. CRITERIA FOR ANALYSIS OF FINAL ASSEMBLY/ FINISHING: The apparel analysis guide identifies the garment structure criteria appropriate for final assembly and garment finishing. The analysis process addresses the operations used to achieve the finished garment as well as the overall quality of the finished garment. Criteria include total number of components and materials in the garment, operation breakdown for final assembly, types and quality of stitches and seams, matching of seams and design, finishing operations break down, color matching of materials, shading, and degree of enclosure, consistency, and overall appearance. Identifying the total number of components and materials contributes to understanding the complexity of garment assembly and the difficulty of materials management. Final garment assembly operations, including operation sequence and choice of stitches and seams, make a major contribution to product quality and performance. Criteria for analysis of stitches & seams are same as when evaluating components. Care in planning and accuracy of garment assembly are visible in matching corresponding seams and fabric design. The degree of matching is an indication of quality. For example, all parts may be matched or only specific seams may be matched. "One hundred percent plaid / pattern match" means every seam has fabric design perfectly placed for unity of appearance. Matching requires additional planning, extra materials handling, lower utilization of piece goods, greater sewing skill, and more time. All of these factors increase costs; therefore, the amount of matching used is designated to meet cost and quality goals. The operation breakdown for garment finishing identifies all the finishing operations used on the garment. Criteria for analysis of finishing include appropriateness, effectiveness, and uniformity. The degree of color matching among materials indicates the attention paid to detail and the aesthetic quality of the garment. Accuracy of color matching depends on a firm's quality standards and effectiveness of sourcing. Matching thread, buttons, and zippers are found on better-quality garments unless design criteria dictate contrasting appearance. These factors are most obvious when a garment is considered as a finished whole. Shading in piece goods is another colormatching problem. Shading an expensive problem for both apparel manufacturers and textile mills is color variation that occurs within or among dye lots of the same fabric and color number. High standards for color consistency mean piece goods are carefully matched prior to cutting so there is little or no shade variation in a garment. Fabrics can be pre-shaded by electronic instruments at the mill to comply with rigid quality control standards. This improves quality of finished goods and reduces handling and production costs particularly in spreading and cutting. Evaluation of the quality of stitches is based on the correct formation of the stitches as compared to Federal Standard 751a. Correctly formed stitches are called balanced. Incorrectly formed stitches are unbalanced . Quality of seams is judged on the selection of the stitch type, number of' stitches per inch, seam width, finish, and appropriateness of the seam type for the fabric and styling. Design of components and final assembly sequence determines degree of enclosure that is achieved in finished garment. Partial or full linings, if used, are usually added in final assembly process. While linings are usually regarded as a quality feature, they sometimes cover poor quality in other aspects of garment assembly. Consistency is a major factor in determining quality and value. Manufacturers establish quality standards that result in garments of a particular quality level. Garments of different quality levels serve 80
different purposes. Not all garments need to be highest quality, but garments should be of highest quality for which customer is willing to pay. Each item must provide adequate quality and performance to ensure serviceability in use and renovation. Consistency is the primary indication of conformance to manufacturer's quality standards such as stitch and seam selection, size standards, materials performance, e.g. consistency of size measurements is a major concern for some manufacturers. Measurements of different garments of same style and size should be same or within tolerances. Garments are rejected when they do not meet the firm's sizing standards. Judgment of overall appearance requires consideration of purpose of the garment, materials, components, final assembly, and finishes.
3.6 GARMENT PRESENTATION: Hanger and shelf appeal is critical for

selling product to the target consumer. The product must look attractive to the customer. The apparel analysis guide identifies criteria for analysis of garment presentation for effective hanger / shelf appeal. Garment presentation involves extrinsic cues to quality and value such as labeling, ticketing, accessories, display devices, and packaging. Evaluation of labeling and ticketing involves examination of the availability, accuracy, and effectiveness of printed information attached to garments. Labels and tickets that are sewn into garments need to be durable enough to last the life of the garment. Labels also provide specific product information. Analysis of the effectiveness of labeling and ticketing involves answering the following questions. What types of labels and tickets are included with the garment? Are the labels and tickets intended for consumer use placed in locations where they are easily accessible? Are the types of information that consumers normally seek easily readable (e.g., size, fiber content, care, brand name, price.)? Are legal requirements for labels met? Are labels and tickets effective, for marketing? Is there any reason to believe information on labels and tickets is misleading? Merchandisers often add accessories, such as belts, scarves, bows, pins, or other objects, to garments to complete the aesthetic appeal or function of a product. These accessories are then sold with the garment, considered a part of the style, and included in the garment price. The accessories that are sold as part of the style are not to be confused with accessories added for display purposes at the retail level. Accessories that are part of the style may be evaluated based on compatibility with garment from both the aesthetic and performance perspectives. Accessories may make a small addition to cost while making a major contribution to hanger appeal. Packaging may provide functional protection and / or aesthetic appeal. Functional packaging protects garments during storage, shipment, or display. Aesthetic packaging includes visual presentation of a garment including hanging, folding, padding, pinning, draping, and boxing. Display devices such as collar supports, clips, skirt or sock hangers, and bubble packs add to the appeal of the garment at point of sale. Display devices such as hangers, sometimes interfere with customers access to label information. Are display devices appropriate to the garment? Do display devices interfere with being able to see the garment? Effective presentation may determine the financial success of the product. All the efforts towards product positioning, materials selection, and the development of garment structure, assembly, and. finishing may be in vain if garments are inappropriately presented.
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GARMENT ANALYSIS GUIDE

(1) Positioning Strategy Functional . .... Aesthetic Durable ...... Disposable Intrinsic Cues to Quality .Extrinsic cue to quality Basic styling .... .. Fashion Styling Non-seasonal ..............................Seasonal Budget price ...Moderate price ..... Better price (2) Sizing and Fit Appearance Gender Comfort Body Type Versatility Size indicators / codes Consistency Fit indicators (3) Material Selection Material name and content Yarn type / size Fabrication Count / gauge & weight / size Hand / drapability Structural / applied design Color application & finishes Care Method of application of material Components Assembly (5)
Piece goods Support / Shaping materials Trims Closures Thread
(4) Top fronts Top back Bottom fronts Bottom backs Sleeves Collars / neckline reatments Cuffs / sleeve treatments Plackets Pockets Waistline treatments
Identify components No. of piece & materials in each Operation breakdown Type of stitches & seams Compatibility of materials / assembly Degree of enclosure In-process pressing
Final assembly Finishing Finish pressing
Labeling & ticketing Accessories Packaging Display devices
Final Assembly and Finishing Total No. of Components & materials Final assembly operations Types of stitches and seams Finishing operations Color matching / shading of materials Quality of stitches and seams Matching of seams & design Degree of enclosure Consistency & overall appearance (6) Garment Presentation Hanger / shelf appeal Accuracy of information Placement/readability of information Appropriateness to product
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GARMENT ANALYSIS GUIDE

(1) Product Positioning Strategy Style No. _________
(For each pair of criteria. Circle one number that represents the relative priority for this style) (0 shows equal priority)
Band Name ___________________________ Garment Description _____________________ Functional Durable Intrinsic cues / quality Basic Styling Non-seasonal Budget price 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 Aesthetic Disposable Extrinsic cues / quality Fashion Styling Seasonal Better price
(2)
Sizing and Fit Style No. _________ (Circle or write in the appropriate indicators.) Sizing System Classification by Gender and Body Type
Unisex Infant Toddler Children Student Adult Male Boys Young mens Mens Female Girls Preteen Young juniors Juniors Misses Womens
Specificity of Size Indicator / Code General body size: small medium 1x 2x 3x 4x 5x large extra large
other _______________________________________
Number code used to indicate garment size: ______________________________________ Dimensional Size: Collar ______ Sleeve ______ Chest _____ Waist ________ Inseam ______ Other __________ Fit Indicators: Height: Short Medium Circumference: Trim Slim
Long
Petite
Tall
other ____________
Tapered
Stocky
other _____________________
Weight : ___________________________________________________________________ Silhouette: Closeness of conformance to body: Amount of fabric: Components that limit fit: Control of fullness LOCATION Darts ________________________________________________________________ Tucks ________________________________________________________________ Pleats ________________________________________________________________ Gathers _______________________________________________________________
little little
moderate moderate
high high
Top front Top back bottom front bottom back sleeves Collar cuffs plackets pockets waistline hems
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(3)
Materials Selection Style No. _________ (piece goods, support fabrics, trim, closures, thread) (Use this analysis process for each material in the garment.) Material Name ________________________________________________________ Material content ________________________________________________________ Yarn type/size ________________________________________________________ Fabrication ________________________________________________________ Count/gauge ________________________________________________________ Weight/size _______________________________________________________ Hand _______________________________________________________ Struct./appl. Design ________________________________________________________ Color application ________________________________________________________ Finishes _______________________________________________________ Care _______________________________________________________ Application method _______________________________________________________
(4)
Components Assembly
(top front, top back, bottom front, bottom back, sleeves, collar, cuffs, placket, pockets, waistline, hems) Style No. _______ Component _______ No. of Pieces _______ No. of Materials ___________ Operational Breakdown Operation 1 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 2 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 3 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 4 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 5 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 7 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 8 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 9 ___________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 10 __________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Operation 11 __________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________
Operation 6 ___________________________ Operation 12 __________________________ SPI _________________________________ SPI _________________________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Stitch/seam type _______________________ Quality Summary Compatibility among material ___________________________________________________ Commutability materials/ assembly _______________________________________________ Quality of stitches and seams ____________________________________________________ Degree of enclosure ___________________________________________________________ Under pressing _____________________________________________________________
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(5)
Final Assembly and Finishing
Style No. _________ Total No. of Components ________ Total No. of materials ________ (Final assembly, trimming, wet processing, dyeing. Post curing, finishing pressing) Final Assembly Operations Finishing Operations Operation 1 ___________________ Operation 1 _________________________________ SPI __________________________ ____________________________________________ Stitch/seam type ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching seams ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching design ________________ ____________________________________________ Operation 2 ___________________ Operation 2 _________________________________ SPI __________________________ ____________________________________________ Stitch/seam type ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching seams ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching design ________________ ____________________________________________ Operation 3 ___________________ Operation 3 _________________________________ SPI __________________________ ____________________________________________ Stitch/seam type ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching seams ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching design ________________ ____________________________________________ Operation 4 ___________________ Operation 4 _________________________________ SPI __________________________ ____________________________________________ Stitch/seam type ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching seams ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching design ________________ ____________________________________________ Operation 5 ___________________ Operation 5 _________________________________ SPI __________________________ ____________________________________________ Stitch/seam type ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching seams ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching design ________________ ____________________________________________ Operation 6 ___________________ Operation 6 _________________________________ SPI __________________________ ____________________________________________ Stitch/seam type ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching seams ________________ ____________________________________________ Matching design ________________ ____________________________________________ Quality Analysis of Finished Garments Color matching ______________________________________________________________ Color shading _______________________________________________________________ Quality of stitches and seams ___________________________________________________ Degree of enclosure ___________________________________________________________ Consistency of quality _________________________________________________________ Overall appearance ____________________________________________________________
(6)
Garment Presentation Analysis of Labeling/Ticketing Information Types ____________________________________________________________________ Placement _________________________________________________________________ Readability ________________________________________________________________ Completeness _____________________________________________________________ Appropriateness ___________________________________________________________ Accuracy _________________________________________________________________ Analysis of Hanger / Shelf Appeal Accessories ________________________________________________________________ Ticketing _________________________________________________________________ Packaging _________________________________________________________________ Display devices ____________________________________________________________ Other extrinsic cues to quality ________________________________________________ Appropriateness to product ___________________________________________________
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MERCHANDISING CALCULATIONS
1. COSTS, COSTING, PRICING AND PROFIT: In this competitive age,
it is necessary for a factory that the advance information about the cost of manufacturing orders to be put through should be available before taking up the actual production. Costing is the process for estimating the total resource investment required to merchandise, produce, and market a product. Costing may be defined as a system of accounts which systematically and accurately records all expenditure in order to determine the cost of a product after knowing the different expenses incurred in various departments. The different probable elements of costs to be recorded are material, labor and other charges which jointly complete the cost of the product. For the successful functioning of an industrial enterprise, one of the most important considerations is to reduce the cost of manufacture of the apparel item, as much as possible without affecting the quality. Cost is the total amount invested in a product. Price is the dollar amount asked or received in exchange for a product. The difference between the price and the cost of a product is profit or loss on that product. For a firm, revenue minus costs equals profit or loss. Revenue is the total of all receipts from the sale of the firms products during a stated time period. In order to make a profit, revenue must exceed costs. When costs exceed revenue, a loss is incurred. Pricing is the process of determining exchange value of goods that are made available for sale. An Income statement has three sections: revenue (sales) cost of goods sold / produced, and general operating expenses. Cost of goods sold / produced represents all expenses associated with the manufacture of the product line including material costs, labor costs, and overhead expenses. The gross profit margin also called gross profit or gross margin is the amount of income remaining after cost of goods sold / produced is covered. When general operating expenses are deducted from the gross profit margin, the bottom line becomes profit or loss. Cost of goods sold / manufactured includes all the expenses that are incurred in making a finished product available. It is made up of three main elements. 1.1 MATERIAL COST: Materials costs are affected by the percentage of utilization. Utilization depends on how much of the material is actually used compared to the amount that actually becomes part of the product. e.g. a specific short-sleeve blouse requires 1.3 yards of fabric. Actual calculations show the fabric to be consumed by the blouse is 0.95 yards. The 0.35 yards of fabric that is not used is considered waste even though it is required for cutting the garment. This may be the result of a poorly engineered design, patterned fabric, or an inefficient marker. Many firms have established standards for fabric utilization, but some waste is inevitable. Each firm develops its own policy for costing material waste. Many firms use a percentage of the cost of each material to cover waste. About 3% to 10% is common. This figure may vary with the item based on past history of the material and vendor. Wastes may also result from poor quality materials, in-consistent fabric width, splicing, and re-cuts. It is further divided into two groups:a) DIRECT MATERIAL: Direct material is that material which becomes a part of the product. It is the material which is consumed in the manufacturing of a product and which can be measured and charged directly to the cost of the product. Thus, fabric used in manufacturing of a garment thread or zips / buttons used for making a garment is direct material.
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b) INDIRECT MATERIAL: Indirect material is that material which cannot be traced as a part of the product. It is the material required for maintaining and operating the plant and equipment but can not be a part of the product. Thus e.g. various lubricants, cotton waste, grease, coolants and allied materials. 1.2 LABOR COST: It generally, constitutes fifty per cent of the total cost to produce an article. It is also further divided into two classes a) DIRECT LABOR: Direct Labor is one which is directly employed in manufacturing operation. It is the labor which actually processes material either manually or with the help of machines. Wages of such labor can be charged directly to job under preparation. Thus workers or operators engaged for operating on various production machines are known as direct labor. Direct labor is also called as productive labor, operating labor or process labor b) INDIRECT LABOR: Indirect Labor is the non-productive staff engaged upon general services connected with the running of a factory as a whole. It is the labor which helps the productive labor in performing their duties, e.g. Foreman, supervisors, storekeepers, chowkidars, and crane drivers etc. 1.3 EXPENSES: Apart from material cost in each factory there are several other expenditure such as depreciation charges, cost of transportation, salaries and commissions etc. All these expenditure are known as overheads or expenses. So, from above it is clear that except for direct material and direct labor cost, all other expenditures are known as expenses. Expenses include indirect material cost and indirect labor cost and other expenses. Expenses can be divided into two classes. a) DIRECT EXPENSES: Direct Expenses also known as chargeable expenses and includes any expenditure other than direct material or direct labor incurred on a specific cost unit. These are the expenses which can be charged directly to a particular job and are done for that specific job only, e.g. hire of special tools or equipment; cost of special jigs or attachments or some special patterns, maintenance cost; costs of layouts, designs and drawings or experimental work on a particular job etc. b) INDIRECT EXPENSES: These are known as overhead charges, burden or on-cost. All the expenses over and above prime cost are indirect expenses. Overhead is the sum of indirect labor cost, indirect material cost and other expenses including service which cannot be conveniently charged to specific cost unit. These can be classified as: (i) FACTORY EXPENSES OR PRODUCTION EXPENSES: These expenses cover all indirect expenditures incurred by the undertaking from the receipt of the order until its completion and ready for dispatch. Factory expenses are also known as factory on-cost, production overhead, factory overheads, works on-cost, works overheads etc. Factory expenses may include Rent, rates and insurance chargeable against works; Indirect Labor e.g. supervision such as salaries of foreman, supervisors, factory manager etc; Consumable stores and all forms of indirect material such as cotton waste, grease, oil etc; Depreciation, maintenance and repair of buildings, plant, machine tools etc; Power such as steam, gas, electricity, hydraulic or compressed air, internal transport. 87
(ii) ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES: These expenses include all the expenses incurred on managerial or administrative staff for the planning and policy making work. Such as Salaries of directors and managing directors; Salaries of cost, finance and secretary, office staff including clerks and peons; Expenses of direct amenities like telephone, coolers and other modern equipments; Traveling expenses for attending meetings; charges of electric consumption for light, heating and cooling; Stationery, auditing expenses; Insurance of building and employees, repairs, maintenance and depreciation of building. (iii)SELLING EXPENSES: These consist of the expenditures spent towards securing orders, and finding or retaining markets for the products manufactured. These includes: Advertising and publicity expenses; Salaries of the sale department staff including sales manager and sales man etc; Traveling expenses of sales engineers; Cost of preparing tenders and estimates; Expenses of making blocks and posters; Sales stock storage charges etc. (iv) DISTRIBUTION EXPENSES: These are expenses which are paid for the distribution of products. It includes the expenditure made on holding finished stock, packing cost and dispatching them to customer. These expenses include: Finished stock storages; Cost of packing; Loading, unloading charges, freight and warfare; and Expenses of transportation and vehicles. 1.4 COST OF GOODS PRODUCED 1. 2. 3. 4. PRIME COST = Direct material + Direct Labor + Other Direct Expenses. FACTORY COST = Prime Cost + Factory On-Cost. PRODUCTION COST = Factory Cost + Administrative Expenses. TOTAL COST = Production Cost + Selling Expenses + Distribution Expenses
Profit Selling Costs
Revenues
General and administrative cost Fixed and miscellaneous expenses Indirect Labor
Overhead Cost
Cost of goods sold
Cost of good produced
Area of Concentration Of a quality cost Program
Indirect Materials Direct Labor Direct Materials
Prime cost
A traditional cost and price structure.
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1.5 COSTING EXERCISES

PROBLEM-1: Find out Prime Cost of a company, Cost of Production, and Selling Cost. Also find Cost per Unit, if 5,000 jeans are to be manufactured. Provided that Works On-Cost = 40% of Prime Cost and Office On-Cost = 15% of Factory Cost Fabric: Thread: Buttons / Rivets Stitching: SOLUTION Material Cost: Labor Cost: Prime Cost: Works On-Cost Factory Cost: Office On-Cost: Production Cost Cost Per Unit = Rs. (5, 00,000+25,000+20,000+30,000+12,000) = Rs. 5, 87,000 = Rs. (10,000 + 90,000 + 10,000) = Rs. 1, 10,000 = Rs. (5, 87,000 + 1, 10,000) = Rs. 6, 97,000 = Rs. (6, 97,000 X 30%) = Rs. 2, 09,100 = Rs. (6, 97,000 + 2, 09,100) = Rs. 9, 06,100 = Rs. (9, 06,100 X 15%) = Rs. 1, 35,915 = Rs. (9, 06,100 + 1, 35,915) = Rs. 10, 42,015 = Rs. (10, 42,015 5,000) = Rs. 208.00 5, 00,000 20,000 12,000 90,000 Lining: Zip s: Cutting: Washing: 25,000 30,000 10,000 10,000
PROBLEM-2: A product is manufactured in batches of 100. Direct cost is Rs.16, direct labor cost Rs. 28, and overheads chargeable are Rs. 21. If selling cost is 50% of factory cost, what must be selling price to realize a profit of 15% of selling price)? SOLUTION Direct Material Cost: = Rs. 16 Direct Labor Cost: = Rs. 28 Overheads: = Rs. 21 Factory Cost: = (16 + 28 + 21) Selling Cost: = (65 X 50%) Total Cost: = (65 + 32.50) Selling Price: (Let Selling Price be S) = (97.50 = S 15% 0f S) Selling Price per Unit: = (14.70 100)
= Rs. 65.00 = Rs. 32.50 = Rs. 97.50 = Rs. 114.70 = Rs. 1.147
PROBLEM-3: An operation of a garment can be made either manually or on an automatic machine. In the former case the time taken is 2 hours and factory overheads are 100% of the labor cost. In the latter case the factory overhead expenses are 200% of the labor cost. The operator is paid at a rate of Rs. 4 and Rs. 8 per day respectively (For 8 hours working day). If the material cost is Rs. 4 per operation, how many operations can be made per day on the automatic machine, so that the factory cost is same in both the cases? SOLUTION Manual Operation One operation is made in 2 hours. Labor cost per operation: Factory Overheads: Material Cost for One Operation: Factory Cost per Operation
= (2 /8 X 4) = (1 X 100%) = (4 + 1 + 1)
= Rs. 1.0 = Rs. 1.0 = Rs. 4.0 = Rs. 6.0
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Automatic Operation If number of operations done in one day Material Cost for One Operation: Labor cost for one operation: Factory Overhead (200% of Labor cost) Factory cost per article: =N = Rs. 4.0 = (8 Y) = 16/Y = 12
= (8 Y) X 200% = (4 + 8/Y + 16/Y)
PROBLEM-4: Two operators engaged on a machine complete 20 jobs, each weighing 5 Kg. in a shift of 8 hours. They are paid at the rate of Rs. 6.0 and Rs. 4.0 per day. The material costs Rs. 2 per kg. If the overhead and administrative expenses are 150% of labor cost, find the cost of production per unit. SOLUTION Total labor cost for one day: Weight of material for 20 jobs: Material cost: Administrative & factory overheads: Total cost for 20 jobs: Cost of production per unit: = (6 + 4) = (20 X 5) = (2 X 100) = (150% X 10) = (200 + 10 + 15) = 225 20) = RS. 10.00 = KG. 100 = RS. 200 = RS. 15 = RS. 225 = RS. 11.25
PROBLEM-5: A workers ordinary pay is Rs. 0.90 per hour. He is engaged on a machine operation, his output being 6 pieces per hour. The overheads to be allocated, as work done, on his machine, amounts to Rs. 0.60 per hour. Find the factory cost per piece (Ignore material cost). The man is put on piece work, the rate being fixed at 0.15 per piece. He increased his output to 15 pieces per hour. Find his new rate per hour and new cost per piece. SOLUTION First Case: Output per hour: Workers pay per hour: Workers pay per piece: Overheads per hour: Overheads per piece: Factory cost per piece Second Case: Workers pay per piece: Output per hour: Overheads per hour: Overheads per piece: Factory cost per piece: Workers pay per hour:
= (0.90 6) = (0.60 6) = (0.15 + 0.10)
= 6 Pieces = Rs. 0.90 = Rs. 0.15 = Rs. 0.60 = Rs. 0.10 = Rs. 0.25
= (0.60 15) = (0.15 + 0.04) = (15 X 0.15)
= Rs. 0.15 = 15 Pieces = Rs. 0.60 = Rs. 0.04 = Rs. 0.19 = Rs. 2.25
PROBLEM-6: The selling price of a product is fixed at Rs. 40. Allowing a net profit of 10% on the selling price, and overhead expenses amount to 20% of the total factory cost, find the factory cost of the component? Suppose factory cost of the component = F
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SOLUTION Profit (10% on selling price): Total Cost: Overhead expenses (20% of factory cost) Total Cost: = (40 X 10%) = (40 4) = (20 100) X F = F + 0.2 F 1.2F = 36 = Rs. 4 = Rs. 36 = 0.2F = 1.2F = Rs. 30
PROBLEM-7: A factory is producing 1000 pieces of a product per hour on a machine. Its material cost is Rs. 400, labor cost Rs. 350 and direct expense is Rs 75. The factory On-Cost is 150% of the total labor cost and office On-Cost is 25% of the total factory cost. If the selling price of each product is Rs. 1.75, calculate whether factory is going in loss or gain and by what amount? SOLUTION Overhead Charges Total Factory Cost: Office On-Cost: Total cost of production per 1000 pieces Production cost per piece: Selling price Profit per piece: = (150% X 350) = (400 + 350 + 75 + 525) = (1350 X 25%) = (1350 + 337.50) = (1687.50 1000) = Rs. 1.75 = (1.75 1.69) = Rs. 525 = Rs. 1350 = Rs. 337.50 = Rs. 1687.50 = Rs. 1.69 = Rs. 0.06
PROBLEM-8: For manufacture of 1000 pieces per hour, a unit undergoes expenses of Direct Material cost Rs. 350; Direct Labor cost Rs. 200; Direct Expenses Rs. 75; Factory On-Cost 150% of total labor cost; and Office On-Cost 30% of total factory cost. Pieces are sold at Rs. 1.025 per piece. Work out loss or gain per piece? Solution Prime cost: Factory On-Cost Factory cost Office On-Cost Total cost: Total cost per piece: Selling price per piece Loss per piece: = (350 + 200 + 75) = (200 X 150%) = (625 + 300) = (925 X 30%) = (925 + 277.50) = (1202.50 1000) = (1.2025 1.0250) = Rs. 625 = Rs. 300 = Rs. 925 = Rs. 277.50 = Rs. 1202.50 = Rs. 1.2025 = Rs. 1.025 = Rs. 0.18
1.6 OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCING THE COSTING:

YARN COUNT: Yarn count mainly affects the cost sheet. The higher the count, the thinner the yarn and so higher the price. It means that the yarn counts and prices are directly proportional to each other.
100% Cotton of 10 Lbs
COUNT 16/1 20/1 30/1 COMBED Rs. 480 Rs. 520 Rs. 610 CARDED Rs. 400 Rs. 445 Rs. 540
HEATHER (Mlange) of 1 Pound

Color Grey 10% Medium Grey Charcoal 20/1 Rs. 54 Rs. 80 Rs. 100 30/1 Rs. 64 Rs. 90 Rs. 110 24/1 Rs. 48
PV 1 Pound
34/1 Rs. 54 44/1 Rs. 60
KNI TTED FABRIC: Normally fabric weight is measured in GSM (Grams per square meter). If we 91
increase the GSM of fabric then its over all weight will increase due to increase in course and vales per inch and so the cost of the fabric. Waste factor on Cotton is 2% and in Polyester is 5%. Knitting rates of fabrics are:
Fabric Types Single Jersey Pique Fabric Interlock Rib Auto Striper Feed Striper Fleece Sherpa Fleece Terry Fleece Raising Rates Gauge (GG), Ply, Count GG 14, 3, 20/1 GG 14, 4, 30/1 Fashion Collar in Cotton Fashion Collar in Polyester Cost in Rupees 9 to 10 9 to 10 9 to 10 15 to 16 60 to 70 25 to 30 12 to 13 12 to 13 and 25 to 30 12 to 13 2 to 3
Collar Arm Band Rs. 22 Rs. 11 Rs. 22 to 24 Rs. 11 to 12 Rs. 20 to 10 for one piece Rs. 15 to 20
DYEING AND FINISHING: There are two types of dyeing. Namely Solid dyeing or Fabric dyeing and Yarn dyeing. Fabric dyeing is cheaper than Yarn dyeing. If we use Fabric dyeing (100% Cotton) then normally it is about 45/- per kg and if it is blended (Cotton + Polyester) its price will go higher i.e. about 70/per kg. If we use Yarn dyeing then its cost is above 115/- per kg. Rates of dyeing and finishing vary due to shades being dark, medium and light.
Yarn Dyeing For Cotton Solid Dyeing (Accruc Fabric) Mercerizing Stenter Garment Wash (Silicon Wash) Garment Wash (Simple Wash) Rs. 80 to 120 Per Kg. Rs. 80 to 115 Per Kg. Rs. 125 Per Kg. Rs. 20 to 30 Per Kg. Rs. 6 to 7 Per Kg. Rs. 2 to 3 Per Kg.
CUTTING AND STYLING: Cutting rates for different styles are different. In styling we look about the garment shape (i.e. Short sleeve, long sleeve and front open). So, there are different prices for all the styles. The prices change based on fabric consumption and labor charges based on garment styling.
Polo Shirt (One Dozen) Rs. 24 Round and V-Neck (One Dozen) Rs. 15 to 60 Collar Opening (One Dozen) Rs. 5 to 6
EMBROIDERY: Imported thread and best quality embroidery rates ranges from Rs. 1.70 to 2.00 per thousand stitches. Local thread with inferior quality embroidery rates rages Rs. 1.30 to 1.55 per thousand stitches. These rates are quoted as on 14-09-2004. SEWING THREAD: Royal Korean Length, Cone 2200 yards Rs. 60/STITCHING RATE FOR ONE POLO SHIRT
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PREPARATION (SHORT SLEEVE ON HANGER SYSTEM)

Operation Fusing Cuff / Sleeve Half Moon Fusing Label Sewing Placket Marking Machine Type Threads Time in Seconds Iron / Pressing 36 Over Lock 3 36 Over Lock 3 18 Lock Stitch 2 72 Manual 20 Rates in Rs. 3.50 5.00 2.00 5.00 Salary
ASSEMBLING
Operation Loading Placket Katcha Half Moon Attach Shoulder Seam, Twill Tape Shoulder Top Stitch Collar Katcha, Twill Tape Hala Cutting Collar Pakka Placket Pakka Sleeve Attach Arm Hole Top Stitch Hemming Front Back Separately Side Seam Excluding Side Vent Side Vent Top Stitch + Twill Tape Cuff Bar tack Clipping Pressing Finishing Machine Type Manual Lock Stitch, Scissors Lock Stitch Over Lock Flat Lock Lock Stitch Over Lock Lock Stitch Lock Stitch Over Lock Flat Lock Flat Lock Over Lock Lock Stitch Lock Stitch Threads 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 5 2 3 4 2 2 Time in Seconds 32 54 54 36 18 96 18 54 115 54 36 36 72 180 36 Rates in Rs. Salary 7.00 5.00 5.00 3.00 10.50 3.00 8.00 18.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 8.00 21.00 4.00 8.00 per Doz. 8.00 per Doz. 4.00 per Doz.
ACCESSORIES: Accessories may be local or imported. Local accessories are cheaper then imported ones but inferior in quality.
Accessories Tag Button Care Label in Paper Zipper YKK Length 5 Inches Sticker Transparent Hanger Packing Tape Tag Pin Poly Bag Individual Poly Bag Price in Rs. 0.50 to 2.50 10.00 to 1.50 0.50 to 0.60 12.00 to 13.00 per zip 0.50 to 0.60 3.00 to 4.00 30.00 100.00 to 150.00 One Packet for 1000 pins 40.00 to 50.00 & 80.00 to 100.00 Per One Kg. 1.00 to 1.50 for One Poly Bag.
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COST SHEET
STYLE: PATTERN: DESCRIPTION: S. N. DESCRIPTION 1 CLOTH ----59 2 PKT LINNING 3 THREAD 4 ZIP 5 ELASTIC 6 SIZE/CARE LABEL 7 BUTTON 8 REVIT 9 WOVEN LABEL 10 PU LABEL 11 EMBROIDERY 12 TWILL TAPE 13 BUCKLE SUB TOTAL S. N. PACKING 1 BACK POCKET CARD 2 SWING TICKET 3 PRICE TICKET 4 RIDER CARD 5 LEG STICKER 6 CORD 7 POLY BAG 8 CARTON 9 TAPES 10 STICKERS SUB TOTAL S. N. WAGES / PAR PC 1 CUTTING 2 STITCHING 3 WASHING / DYEING 4 FIXED FOH SUB TOTAL Rejection 5% Profit 10% Sea freight C & F Sub total GRAND TOTAL FINAL CALCULATI ONS COST IN GBP @ SIZE RANGE: DATE: RATE
QUANTITY
AMOUNT
QUANTITY
RATE
AMOUNT
AMOUNT
2. CONSUMPTION CALCULATION
Consumption refers to the required use of fabrics and accessories to produce given garments. The consumption of fabrics and accessories differs from dress to dress and size to size, but the exact consumption figures mainly depend on the minute measurement of the concerned dress. So, readymade garments business largely depends on proper measurements. 2.1 ESTIMATING THREAD CONSUMPTION: It is important to know the amount of thread consumed in a sewn product so to Estimate the number of cones needed and calculate cost of the thread needed to manufacture the finished product. Thread consumption can be determined in several ways. To calculate the amount of thread in a seam, you can measure actual amount of thread consumed in a specific length of seam; calculate thread consumption by using mathematical stitch formulas, and calculate the thread consumption using thread consumption estimates.
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MEASURING ACTUAL THREAD CONSUMED: Specified seam, e.g. 3 inches, is measured on seam and then thread is removed by carefully unraveling stitch. Then calculate amount of thread consumed in 1 , multiply this factor times total length of seam measured. EXAMPLE Length of seam is 42 inches or 1.17 yards. Stitch and seam construction: 401 SSa-1. Specified length of thread removed from a seam equals 3 inches. Needle thread removed = 9 inches Looper thread removed = 8 inches
CALCULATION Needle thread factor=93 = 3 inches of needle thread per inch of seam. Looper thread factor=83 = 2.67 inches of looper thread per inch of seam. Total needle thread consumed = factor 3 X 1.17yards = 3.51 yards. Total looper thread consumed = factor 2.67 X 1.17yards = 3.12 yards Total Thread = 3.51 + 3.12 = 6.63 yards per seam. 15 -20% waste factor is added due to chaining-off, thread breaks, repairs, etc. If a waste factor of 15% is selected then: 6.63 yards/seam X 1.15 = 7.62 yards/seam including 15% waste factor.
THREAD CONSUMPTION FORMULAS: Union Special Machine Company published a "Thread Consumption Booklet" that consists of a number of thread consumption formulas for various stitch types based on stitch length and thickness of seam. These consumption factors can be multiplied times the length of the seam to estimate combined amount of top and bottom thread. On some over-edge and coverstitch types it is necessary to also know the seam width or needle spacing to properly calculate the amount of thread consumed. EXAMPLE: Stitch and seam: 401 SSa-1 Stitches per inch: 8 Thickness of the seam: .075 inches (measured with a micrometer) Length of the seam: 42 inches or 1.17 yards. Union Special 401 Chain Stitch Chart Seam Thickness 8 SPI 0.055 4.88 0.060 4.96 0.065 5.04 0.070 5.12 0.075 5.20 CONSUMPTION BASED ON THE MATHEMATICAL EQUATION: C = 4 + 2ts; C = 4 + 2(.075 X 8) = 5.20. if t = seam thickness; s = stitches per inch 1.17 yards X 5.20 = 6.08 yards / seam. 6.08 yards/seam X 1.15 = 7.00 yards per seam including a 15% waste factor. 95
As you can see from the Union Special chart, the more stitches per inch and the thickness of the seam impacts the amount of thread consumed. However, most heavy fabrics are sewn with fewer stitches per inch and most light fabrics are sewn with more stitches per inch. Therefore we have come up with estimates based on typical seam thickness and stitch length. EXAMPLE: Stitch & Seam 401, SSa-1 and Length of seam 42 inches or 1.17 yards Estimated Thread Consumption = 1.17 yards. X 5.0 (Ratio) = 5.85 yards / seam 5.85 yards/seam X 1.15 = 6.73 yards/seam including a 15% waste factor Estimated needle thread = 6.73 X 40% = 2.69 yards Estimated looper thread = 6.73 X 60% = 4.04 yards
STITCH TYPE 301 Lockstitch 401 Chain stitch CONSUMPTION RATIO 3.0 to 4.0 (1) 5.0 to 7.0 NEEDLE THREAD 50% Lt. Wt. 40% (2) M. Wt. 50% H. Wt. 60% 60% 25% BOTTOM THREAD 50% 60% 50% 40% 40% 75%
503 Over-edge 7.0 to 10.0 (2 thread) 12.0 to 16.0 504 Over-edge (3 thread) 515 Safety stitch 12.0 to 17.0 55% 45% (4 thread) 17.0 to 23.0 37% 63% 516 Safety stitch (5 thread) Use lower estimated thread consumption numbers for light-weight fabrics or long Stitch lengths. On the chain stitch construction, the amount of looper thread does not change unless the stitches per inch changes. On the other hand, the needle thread will change based on the thickness of the seam. Therefore, percentage of needle thread goes up when the fabric gets heavier. Lt. Wt. (light weight) is generally like shirts and blouses; M. Wt. (medium weight) is generally like slacks or chinos; and H. Wt. (heavy weight) is generally like denim applications.
AVERAGE THREAD CONSUMPTION BY GARMENT: Following is a list of sewn products and thread consumed totals based on thread consumptions. These figures include a 25% waste factor based on a garment construction. ESTIMATING THREAD COST: The thread cost can be estimated by multiplying the thread consumed times the cost of thread in the same unitss. For example: Mens Dress Shirt thread consumption with 25% waste factor = 131 yards. Average Cost of T-24 Poly Wrapped Core Thread = $4.50 / 6000 yard cone. Cost per yard = $4.50 6000 = $.00075/yard Calculation: 131 yards./shirt X $.00075/yard = $.09825/shirt
Product Sewn Mens Slack Jean Jean Short Yards/Garment Product Sewn Boys 225 Jeans 200 Pants 160 Jacket Yards/Garment 168 183 175
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Work Pants Suit Coat Dress Shirt long sleeve Work Shirt Knit Polo Shirt Fleece Sweat Shirt Tee Shirt Tank Top Knit Brief Womens Lined Coat Blazer Dress Skirt Blouse Pants Jeans Shorts Robe Night Gown Panties Bra
238 175 131 115 130 280 63 58 68 246 153 141 192 122 162 250 151 300 135 62 63
Dress Shirt Knit Shirt Baseball Cap
101 83 44
Girls Blouse Dress Swim Suit
73 118 65
APPROXIMATE CONSUMPTION ON MACHINES PER INCH STITCHING 1. Plane Machine 2. Over Lock three thread machine 3. Over Lock four thread machine 4. Over Lock five thread machine 5. Kansai Special machine (four Needle) 6. Two Needle machine 7. Back Tape machine 8. Flat Lock machine 9. Zigzag machine 10. Bar Tack machine 11. Button Hole 3/8 12. Button Hole 1/2 13. Button Hole 5/8 14. Button Stitch 1 Eye Button 15. Button Stitch 2 Eye Button 16. Button Stitch 4 Eye Button = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 2 12 15 18 17 5 7 17 3 2 6 8 10 2 3 5
3. ESTIMATING FABRIC CONSUMPTION

3.1 FABRIC CONSUMPTION OF A SHIRT GIVEN SPECIFICATIONS Body Length: Yoke Length: Sleeve Length: Cuff Length: Collar Length: Band Length: 32 23 25 10.5 19 18 27 5 24 2.5 2 1.5
Body Width: Yoke Width: Sleeve Width: Cuff Width: Collar Width: Band Width:
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Box Plate + Button Plate Length: Box Plate + Button Plate Length: Placket Length: CALCULATIONS Body Yoke Sleeve Cuff Collar Band Box Plate + Button Plate Pocket Placket
29 3 5.5 = = = = = = = = =
Pocket Length: Pocket Width: Placket Width:
7 5 1 1728 115 1200 53 76 54 87 35 22 3,370
(32 X 27) X 2 (23 X 5) (25 X 24) X 2 (10.5 X 2.5) X 2 (19 x 2) x 2 (18 X 1.5) x 2 (29 x 3) (7 x 5) (5.5 x 1) x 4 TOTAL:
= = = = = = = = = =
Consumption of shirt body: (Length x Width x 2) Fabric Width 36 + Wastage Consumption of shirt sleeve: (Length x Width x 2) Fabric Width 36 + Wastage Others: As per the above formula but the basis will be number of required parts. IN YARDS = = = 3370 44 76.59 36 2.12 + 0.09
= = =
76.59 2.12 yards + 4.5% wastage 2.21 yards.
IN METERS = 76.59 39.37 = 1.95 + 0.07
= =
1.95 meters + 4.5% wastage 2.02 meters.
3.2 FABRIC CONSUMPTION OF A PANT GIVEN SPECIFICATIONS Body Length: Waist Belt Length: Zipper Box Length: Inner Pocket Length: Back Pocket Length: Zipper Fly Length: CALCULATIONS Body Waist Belt Zipper Box Inner Pocket Back Pocket Zipper Fly 40 35 7.5 3 6.5 7.5 (40 X 13) X 4 (35 X 1.5) (7.5 X 1.5) (3 X 3) (6.5 X 6.5) x 2 (7.5 X 1.5) x 2 13 1.5 1.5 3 6.5 1.5
Body Width: Waist Belt Width: Zipper Box Width: Inner Pocket Width: Back Pocket Width: Zipper Fly Width:
= = = = = =
= = = = = =
2080 53 11 09 85 23
TOTAL: = 2,262
Consumption of Pant body: (Length x Width x 4) Fabric Width 36 + Wastage Others: As per the above formula but the basis will be number of required parts. = = 2261 60 37.68 36 = = 98 37.68 1.05 yards + 4.5% wastage
Or
= = =
1.05 + 0.05 37.68 39.37 0.96 + 0.04
= = =
1.10 yards. 0.96 meters + 4.5% wastage 1.0 meter.
3.3 FABRIC CONSUMPTION OF A T-SHIRT Given Specifications: Body Length: 72 cm; Body Width: 58 cm; Sleeve Length: 25 cm; Sleeve Width: 58 cm; Rib Length: 54 cm; Rib Width: 2.5 cm. CALCULATIONS (T-SHIRT K.G. PER DOZEN.) Body = (72 X 58) X 2 = 8352 Sleeve = (25 X 58) X 2 = 2900 TOTAL: = 11,252 Consumption = (Length x Width) X GSM X 12 1, 00, 00,000 + Wastage + Rib FABRIC = 11,252 X 200 X 12 = 27004800 10000000 = 2.70 + 0.32 = (54 X 2.5) X 2 = 270 X 250 X 12 = 810000 10000000 = 0.081 + 0.009 = = = = = = = 27004800 2.70 K.G. per dozen + 12% wastage 3.02 K.G. per dozen. 270 810000 0.081 + 12% wastage 0.09 K.G per dozen. = 3.11 K.G per dozen
RIB
RIB + FABRIC = 3.02 K.G + 0.09 K.G
3.4 FABRIC CONSUMPTION OF A SWEATER GIVEN SPECIFICATIONS Body Length: 80 cm Body Width: Sleeve Length: 62 cm Sleeve Width: (Length x Width) X GSM X 12 1, 00, 00,000 + Wastage + Rib 68 cm 68 cm
MEASUREMENTS IN CM. Body = (80 X 68) X 2 = 10880 Sleeve = (62 X 68) X 2 = 8432 = 19,312 = 19312 X 300 x 12 = 69523200 = 69523200 1, 00, 00,000 = 6.95232 K.G per dozen + 18% wastage = 6.95 + 1.25 = 8.20 K.G = As 1 K.G = 2.24 Lbs = 8.20 X 2.24 = 18.37 Lbs 3.5 FABRIC CONSUMPTION OF A POLO SHIRT GIVEN SPECIFICATIONS Body Length: 78 cm Body Width: 54 cm Sleeve Length: 22 cm Sleeve Width: 54 cm Pocket Length: 16 cm Pocket Width: 13 cm Collar Length: 52 cm Collar Width: 08 cm Rib Cuff Length: 40 cm Rib Cuff Width: 03 cm CALCULATIONS: MEASUREMENTS IN CM. Body = (78 X 54) X 2 = Sleeve = (22 X 54) X 2 = Pocket = (16 X 13) =
8424 2376 208 TOTAL: = 11,008
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= (Length x Width) X GSM X 12 1, 00, 00,000 + Wastage + Collar + Cuff = 11,008 X 220 X 12 = 29061120 = 29061120 10000000 = 2.90 K.G. per dozen + 12% wastage = 2.90 + 0.35 = 3.25 K.G. per dozen. RIB COLLAR = = = = (52 X 3) 416 X 280 X 12 1397760 10000000 0.14 + 0.02 = = = = 416 1397760 0.14 K.G. per dozen+ 12% 0.16 K.G per dozen.
wastage RIB CUFF = Wastage = FABRIC: RIB CUFF:
= (40 X 3) X 2 = 240 = 240 X 280 x 12 = 806400 806400 1, 0000000 = 0.08 K.G per dozen + 12% 0.08 K.G + 0.0096 kg. = 0.09 K.G per dozen 3.25 K.G. per dozen; 0.09 K.G. per dozen; RIB COLLAR: TOTAL: 0.16 K.G. per dozen 3.50 K.G. per dozen
4. PRICING, BUDGETING AND SCHEDULING

4.1 PRICING STRATEGIES: The prices on a manufacturers product must first cover costs and then meet the profit and volume goals of the firm. Cost estimating provides the basis for pricing, but many other factors such as discounts, allowances, and pricing strategies must be considered before establishing the list price and the wholesale price. Most whole sale price structures are based on list prices. The list price is the suggested retail price identified in a manufacturers catalogs and price sheets. The list price is often an estimate of the value of the product to the ultimate consumer. The differences between list prices and wholesale prices are discounts and allowances. Discounts and allowances are reductions from list price that are granted by a manufacturer to a firm that performs some marketing or distribution function. As a part of defining their business, apparel manufacturers identify what general price range of merchandise they will produce. The general price ranges in apparel markets include Low-End, Budget, Moderate, Better, and Designer. Firms position themselves within the general price range in order to appeal to their target customer and respond to the competition in market. Under most pricing strategies, it is desirable to establish a markup that is sufficient to cover variable and non-variable costs, profit and subsequent price reductions. The first step in setting prices is having an accurate knowledge of costs. When setting prices, managers take into account the firms goals and strategic plan. Over the long run, a firm must sell its products at prices that will cover costs and provide a profit. In short run, pricing strategies may be designed to impact a particular phase of the firms growth, development, or profitability. Determining an appropriate pricing strategy requires careful evaluation of market including positioning of competitors and product demand. There are two types of pricing strategies. Cost Based pricing strategy involve determining manufacturing costs and adding some amount of markup to determine wholesale price. e.g. cost plus pricing and return on investment pricing. Demand Based pricing strategy involve prices based on costs, e.g. status pricing, market penetration pricing and market pricing.
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The company must decide where to position its product on quality and price. There can be competition between prices quality segments. The following figure shows nine price- quality strategies. The diagonal strategies: 1, 5, and 9 can all co-exist in the same market; that is, one firm offers a high quality product at a high price, another offers an average quality product at an average price, and still another offers a low quality product at a low price. All three competitors can co-exit as long as market consists of three groups of buyers: those who insist on quality, those who insist on price, and those who balance the two considerations.
High High Product Quality Medium Low 1. Premium Strategy 4. Overcharging Strategy 7. Rip Off Strategy Price Medium 2. High Value Strategy 5. Medium Value Strategy 8. False Economy Strategy Low 3. Super Value Strategy 6. Good Value Strategy 9. Economy Strategy
Strategies 2, 3, and 6 are ways to attack the diagonal positions. Strategy 2 says, Our product has the same high quality as product 1 but we charge less. Strategy 3 says the same thing and offers an even greater saving. If quality sensitive customers believe these competitors, they will sensibly buy from them and save money (unless firm 1s product has acquired snob appeal). Positioning strategies 4, 7 and 8 amount to overpricing the product in relation to its quality. The customers will feel taken and will probably complain or spread bad word of mouth about the company. 4.2 MARKUP PRICING: The most elementary pricing method is to add standard markup to products cost. Suppose a garment has costs and sales expectations as. Variable cost Rs.10/-; Fixed cost Rs. 3, 00,000; Expected unit sales Rs. 50,000 Unit Cost = Variable Cost + Fixed Costs Unit sales Unit Cost = 10 + 3, 00,000 50,000 = Rs 16/Now assume the manufacturer wants to earn a 20% markup on sales. Then the manufacturers markup price is given by: Markup = Unit Cost (1- desired return on sales) Markup = 16 (1-0.2) = Rs. 20/The manufacturer would charge the buyer Rs. 20/- per garment and make a profit of Rs. 4/- per unit. The buyers in turn will markup the garment. If the buyer want to earn 50% on their selling price, they will markup garment to Rs. 40/-. This is equivalent of cost markup 100%. 4.3 TARGET RETURN PRICING: In target return pricing, the company determines the price that would yield its target rate of return on investment (ROI). Target pricing method is also used by public utilities, which need to make a fair return on their investment. Suppose the garment manufacturer has invested Rs. 1 million in the business and wants to set prices to earn a 20% ROI, specifically Rs. 2, 00,000. Target return price Target return price = = Unit cost + desired return X invested capital unit sales Rs. 16 + 0.02 X 1,000,000 50,000 Rs. 20/-
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The Manufacturer will realize this 20% ROI provided its costs and estimated sales turn out to be accurate. But what if sales do not reach 50,000 units? The manufacturer can prepare a break-even chart to learn what would happen at other sales levels. The following figure shows the breakeven point. The fixed costs are Rs. 3, 00,000 regardless of sales volume. Variable costs, not shown in the figures, rise with the volume. Total costs equal the sum of fixed costs and variable costs. Total revenue curve starts at zero and rises with each unit sold. The total revenue and total cost curves cross at 30,000 units. This is the breakeven volume. The manufacturer of course is hoping that the market will buy 50,000 units at Rs. 20, in which case it earns Rs. 2,00,000/- on its Rs. 1 million investment. But much depends on price elasticity and competitors prices. Unfortunately, target return pricing tends to ignore these considerations. The manufacturer needs to consider different prices and estimate their probable impacts on sales volumes and profits. The manufacturer should also search for ways to lower its fixed and variable costs, because lower costs will decrease its required break even volume.
Break Even Chat
1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Sales Volume in Units (Thousa nds)
R u p e e s in T h o us a n d s
Total Revenue Total Cost Fixed Cost
4.4 GARMENT COSTING PARAMETERS: To price a garment there are two procedures, pricing an unstitched garment and pricing a stitched garment. In order to calculate the price of a garment, we must note measurements, total weight of the garment (consumption), cut weight (GSM), the required finished weight, all the incurred processing costs and sometimes the quota costs too. In addition to all these costs, 25% to 30% wastage is included and profit margin as per your requirement is added to the final price of the garment.
5. BUDGETS: Budgets are comprehensive financial plans that establish the

allocation of resources for achieving the financial and operational goals of a firm. They are based on sales goals, cost containment goals, and profit objectives. All of a firms divisions supply data needed for formulating budgets. Involving everyone in budget preparation helps ensure support for the goals reflected. A budget is prepared for each product, line, and division for selling season and or year. Budgets specify the expected money investment, number of units to be produced and or sold, and revenue to be earned. Comparisons of actual sales and costs to budgets determine the level of success related to execution of the business plan. Based on resource allocations reflected in budget, following management actions can be taken: 1. 2. Prepare sales goals. Plan Shipping volumes and deadlines. 102
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Project Costs of Production. Make sourcing decisions of where, when, how many styles will be produced. Determine Inventory levels for materials. Schedule piece goods deliveries to coordinate with the production schedules. Project Sales, Shipping, and administrative costs. Project timing and money value of capital expenditure. Project timing and money value of accounts receivable. Project timing and money value of accounts payable. Evaluate cash flow.
6. PRODUCTION ROUTING AND SCHEDULING: Production Order
provides informations about productions operations involved in production process and arranges that information in a systematic manner to carry out the production planning activities of an organization. It is a prerequisite for the effective application of production control techniques. As soon as the production order is formulated, next problem comes to decide when and where each operation is to be done. Reason behind it is that there may be several ways in which various operations as described in the production order may be executed to get final product and naturally, one may prefer the way which makes maximum utilization of man, machine and material and minimizes wastage and cost of production. The best way of production strategy is planning through routing and scheduling. Thus production routing and scheduling is the final stage in production planning. It plans where and by whom each production operation is to be executed. Thus it decides the route that work shall follow and the sequence of operations and describes man, material and machine required to complete the task effectively. This is called routing. Further it fixes time taken by each operation and establishes time at which each operation will be complete. 6.1 MASTER SCHEDULE: It is one of the basic tools of production order. It is also known as main schedule. Master schedule is in fact a time table which shows when work on each major part of the product must be started and finished if the whole contract is to be completed by the required delivery or completion date. In preparing master schedule, stress is laid upon completion of work by due date and allowing sufficient time for the completion of each division of the product. Apart from these two most important factors, several other factors like capital tie-up in completing the product or even loading of capacity must also be considered. The master schedule shows the production requirements against the plant capacity. The information about this is collected by the planning department after studying the customers orders and sales estimates. In this way, master schedule establishes a relationship between customers orders and sales estimates considering the plant capacity and other factors affecting production. Master schedule helps completion of various projects in time. 6.2 TIME AND ACTION CALENDAR PLANNING AND EXECUTING The latest business concept is: If You Can Plan It, You Can Do It Planning is the key tool to expedite an order, so a solid and realistic planning is required from factory. Once an order is confirmed / placed, factory will need to advise the Time & Action calendar to buyer. He will review and if it seems workable, it will be accepted, otherwise will be discussed with factory to make it workable. Time & Action calendar shows / guides the time of each activity like samples, knit down, bulk lots and accessories submission time. This covers production activities through yarn procurement to garment packing / final audit. Time & Action should be detailed and realistic. Factory should put its best efforts to proceed as per advised Time & Action. 103
Based on the initial Time & Action calendar submitted for production activities, factory is required to prepare and send production status of each order to customer. This is of vital importance that production status should be according to initial Time & Action advised by the factory. The customer will keep follow up and factorys submitted production status will be reviewed critically. Factory is required to keep the buyers priorities in mind and all agreed ship dates should be met accordingly. Whenever there is any change expected or occurred in production activities for any order, factory will need to up date customer so that the changes and new dates could be discussed / reviewed with buyer well before time. Major change in production process should be high lightened / specified in the weekly production status report to make it noticeable. If the factory foresees that a purchase order (PO) might be delayed due to some internal or external factors, it should officially be bring into customers notice. He will review the situation with the buyer and then will advise (whether extension request is accepted or rejected) factory for further proceedings. 6.3 GANTT CHART: It is the principal tool used in scheduling. It consists of a simple rectangular grid, divided by series of parallel horizontal and ventricular lines. Vertical lines always divide horizontal scales into units of time. Time units can be in years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes or seconds according to the work. In the chart, the time which an activity should take in completing the task is represented by the horizontal line. The length of the line is drawn in proportion to the duration of time. Generally, the time in the chart should flow from left to right and activities be listed from top to bottom. The progress of the work may be shown by a bar or a line within the uprights of the activity symbol and its length should represent the amount of work completed. Horizontal lines divide the chart into sections which can represent various work tasks (work schedule) or work centers (load schedule). When it shows only work tasks-products, orders, or operations to be completed, it is known as work schedule. When it shows the same task opposite the work centers at which they are produced factories, departments, workshops, machine tools or men it is known as load chart. The units scheduled or loaded on these charts are always the same because these work tasks are known as having a known standard time. The work tasks can be represented on the chart by numbers or symbols. The symbols used on the chart may vary from company to company. 6.4 CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM): The Critical Path method analysis is an important tool in production planning and scheduling. Gantt charts have one disadvantage for which they are found to be unsuitable. The problem with Gantt chart is that the sequence of operations of a project or the earliest possible date for the completion of the project as a whole cannot be ascertained. The problem is overcome by this method of CPM. CPM is used for scheduling special projects where the relationship between the different parts of projects is more complicated than that of a simple chain of task to be completed one after the other. This method CPM can be used at one extreme for the very simple job and at other extreme for the most complicated tasks. A CPM is a route between two or more operations which minimizes (or maximizes) some measures of performance. This can also be defined as the sequence of activities which will require greatest normal time to accomplish. It means that the sequences of activities which require longest duration are singled out. It is called at critical path because any delay in performing the activities on this path may cause delay in the whole project. So, such critical activities should be taken up first. CPM techniques can be used effectively in the production planning.
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MATERIALS MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL

1. MATERIAL MANAGEMENT: The procurement of support material and
accessories to be used in the factory, except fabric, is the responsibility of MMC. Most important among these materials are the before and after wash accessories to be attached to the garments. In time procurement of these accessories is the top priority of the department so that the production process is not disturbed or hindered. As soon as an order is confirmed, the process of purchasing and getting the accessories in house is started. For repeat order, the accessories which were attached to the previous order are checked by referring to the Customer Wise Trim Sheet with Rates and the supplier is asked to provide them. For new orders, inquires are sent for samples to various suppliers and the one who supplies the accessory with the best quality, reasonable price and within acceptable time is chosen. These accessories are attachment on a Trim Sheet and send for customer approval.
2. TYPES OF ACCESSORIES: The accessories are procured from various

sources which include local suppliers, international suppliers, and customer supplied products (CSP). Buttons, rivets and zips are usually imported or CSP. All trims are categorized as either before wash or after wash. Before wash trims include threads, zips, care labels, Velcro, nylon pullers, elasticized bands and dori, and metal eyelet. Then the after wash accessories include buttons, rivets, labels, tags, stickers, ball and chain, poly bags, fabric tapes, brass buckles, and stoppers.
3. SUPPORT MATERIALS: Support materials may provide foundations for

shape, structure, and appearance of garments. They include interlinings, linings, adhesive, tapes, shoulder pads, sleeve headers, and collar stays. Support materials may offer stability, reinforce points of stress, increase retention of original appearance during wear and care, and / or enclose garment interiors. Decisions made during product development determine how the designed shape of the garment will be supported and / or enclosed. Support materials must be compatible with shell fabrics and other materials in garment if acceptable appearance and appropriate performance are to be maintained over extended periods of use and care 3.1 PURPOSES OF SUPPORT MATERIALS: Support materials are important to the intrinsic quality of garments but are often invisible in finished products. Support materials contribute to the aesthetics and / or performance of garment components, shell fabrics, and other materials. Several different types of support materials may be used in one garment, but not all garments require support materials. Inadequate and inappropriate support materials become apparent after a period of display, wear, or cleaning when the original shape or appearance of garment cannot be recovered, in such cases, less expensive or less appropriate support materials may be used to reduce costs. As a cost-cutting alternative, support materials are sometimes omitted even though may improve performance of finished garments. Support materials have a wide range of physical dimensions, performance capabilities, application methods, and costs. Manufacturers determine the needs for support materials in particular styles through prototype development, technical information, product testing, and guesswork. Materials should be selected to serve specific functions. Because of the constant change in styles, piece goods, and materials, it is sometimes difficult for the garment manufacturer to know best options for every style.
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Decisions as to the type of support materials that will provide the desired performance are based on material specifications and product test results provided by suppliers. Producers of support materials often operate own testing laboratories to develop technical data and to test the performance of garment prototypes. Based on this information, suppliers of support materials may make recommendations for specific uses. Cost of returns that can be attributed to faulty support materials or improper applications is a cost often greater than the cost of the defective product. Dissatisfied customers are often lost customers. Defects attributed to support materials are seldom isolated cases are likely to relate to entire production runs. Problems occur because of poor selection of materials, improper methods of assembly and equipment that does not perform correctly, and lack of quality control or testing procedures. Proper selection, application, and use of support materials influence the aesthetics, quality, performance, and cost of finished garments. Although it is not possible to cover all the variables, only more commonly used support materials and the major factors affecting their performance will be focused. For the purposes support materials are classified in interlinings, linings, and other support materials. 3.2 INTERLININGS: Interlinings are materials that are fused or sewn to specific areas on the inside of garments or garment components. They may provide shape, support, stabilization, reinforcement, hand, and improved performance for garments. Also called interfacings, particularly by the home sewing industry, interlinings are the most extensively used support material in ready-to-wear and are important factors in garment quality. Hundreds of different interlinings are readily available from suppliers that specialize in support fabrics, but interlinings with special characteristics can also be engineered to meet needs of a product or manufacturer. 3.3 FUNCTIONS OF INTERLININGS: Interlinings serve two major functions: (1) to produce and retain the desired aesthetic appearance and (2) to improve garment performance. Selecting most appropriate interlining is not a simple task. It is based on the firm's standards for aesthetics, performance, and costs. Interlinings must be compatible with piece goods and other materials used in the style. Interlinings that enhance hand of shell fabric and create desired aesthetic characteristics for component may be preferred. In other instances performance during sewing operations, wear, or care may be more critical. Aesthetics: Appropriately chosen interlinings provide the foundation for the shape and hand of garments and the stability to maintain the same appearance through use and care. Aesthetic standards are often subjective and vary with each firm. One firm's interpretation of a soft silhouette may be interpreted as limp by another firm's standards. A firm with high-quality standards may determine shrinkage of either interlining or shell fabric is unacceptable; other firms may allow tolerances for shrinkage if both shrinks same amount. Interlinings help form and maintain the hand, stability, durability, and resiliency of the shell fabric. Hand refers to the drape, stiffness, or softness of materials used in a garment. Interlinings are available in a variety of different hands and must be analyzed with the shell fabric when determining the best combination. A fine or stiff hand may be provided by fiber structure, sizing, coating and / or resins. An interlining may be stiff but lightweight without a lot of bulk. Stiffness is important to those garments, components, or fabrics that require a lot of support but little bulk. Tailored shirt collars need a stiffer interlining then soft rolled collars. Interlinings that are too stiff cause rolled edges to break and buckle. Some collars and lapels need a soft but not limp hand that will create a gentle smooth roll. 106
Different interlinings are used for mass market merchandise than for more expensive garments produced for the better specialty markets. Mass market merchandise, which may be warehoused for extended periods, often has a stiffer, more resilient type of interlining to provide hanger appeal and to prevent a limp appearance when displayed on the retail flour. More expensive garments may require a softer hand and different hanger appeal. Performance: Two performance aspects of interlining may be considered: performance during production and performance in end use, Manufacturers may select certain types of interlinings to facilitate handling and improve the sewability of fabrics and garment parts; Interlinings may be used to reduce raveling and provide stability for the sewing process. They are frequently used under embroidery to stabilize fabrics during stitching. Interlinings can increase drag during stitching which cause uneven feed of fabric layers. To improve performance in end use, interlinings may be used in small areas to reinforce points of stress and weakness and in larger areas for stability and shape retention, Interlinings may he used for reinforcement and extended durability of yokes, necklines, welt pockets, buttons, buttonholes. and so on. Interlinings are used in large areas to provide body, improve resiliency, and increase durability of many low-count and lightweight fabrics. Whole fronts of jackets or coats are frequently interlined to provide a smooth, clean look. Shrinkage control is critical to performance of the interlining and satisfaction with the finished garment. Shrinkage may be attributed to moisture and / or heat, and, unless properly tested, may not be apparent until final pressing or garment renovation by consumers. Both interlining and shell fabric should be tested to determine the shrinkage potential. Differential Shrinkage: occurs when garment, or different materials shrink unequal amounts. Differential shrinkage of interlinings and shell fabrics can be a major cause of second-quality goods or customer dissatisfaction and returns. If either material shrinks more than the other, it will cause puckering and buckling of the garment component. Satisfactory performance is dependent on similar shrinkage of interlinings and designated shell fabrics. Materials to be used together should be tested together. 3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERLININGS: Factors that contribute to the aesthetics and performance of interlinings are material (fiber) content, weight, fabrication, and method of application and produce specific performance characteristics of particular interlinings. Fiber Content: Fiber content contributes to the strength, hand, weight, and resiliency of interlining. Fibers may be blended to incorporate the best properties of each. Polyester and nylon fibers are often used in fiber webs, wovens, and knits to contribute strength, stability, and resiliency without adding bulk and weight Monofilament nylon fiber may be used for stiffness and resiliency, producing a lightweight material with little bulk. This type of interlining is often used in waistbands of skirts and slacks. The main contribution of cotton and rayon is softness and hand. Wool and hair fibers may be used in hair canvas to provide resiliency and compatibility with wool piece goods. Hair canvas is widely used in better tailored suits and coats because of its 107
resiliency and shape retention. Identification of the fiber content of garment interlinings is not required by law, which makes it difficult for consumers to relate interlining performance to fiber content since the information is often unavailable. Weight: Interlinings are available in a wide range of weights from 0.4 to 1.0 Ounces per square yard. Heavier interlinings provide more support for heavier more structured garments such as coats and suits. Lighter weight interlinings offer resiliency and more support, but they may provide a softer hand. Because fashion trend in recent years has been to a softer, less structured look in men's and women's clothing, many newer interlinings are lighter weight. However, lighter-weight interlinings may provide less support, which may decrease stability and resiliency of garments. Fabrication: Interlinings are available in four basic fabrications: fiber webs, wovens, knits, and foam laminates, Fiber webs are widely used fabrication for interlining due to low cost, versatility, and ease of engineering specific characteristics into the interlining, Fiber webs may have less strength but do not ravel in handling, which is a benefit during sewing operations. The performance of interlinings made of fiber webs is closely linked to fiber content, fabric weight, and fiber orientation in web. Fiber web interlinings are most often found in washable garments. Fiber webs are frequently made from lightweight, strong synthetic fibers such as nylon and polyester. The high strength and resiliency of these fibers are utilized in producing lightweight interlinings of varying hand and performance. High-bulk or high-loft interlinings are also produced as fiber webs. Fiber webs may have fibers randomly distributed or oriented in the lengthwise direction. Randomly arranged fibers allow some stretch in any direction. This type of fiber web may be called allbias, which means it does not have a specific grain orientation. All-bias fiber webs may be cut more economically but do not provide stability in areas of stress, such as buttonholes or waistbands. Length wise orientation of fibers in fiber webs provides lengthwise stability and crosswise stretch. Special consideration should be given to grain alignment in cutting and placement in a garment when using lengthwiseoriented webs. Lengthwise-oriented webs may provide appropriate stability for knit garments, except when horizontal buttonholes are used. If not stabilized, horizontal buttonholes on a knit fabric will stretch out and not recover. Pilling is a problem often associated with the use of fiber webs since fiber webs tend to have low abrasion resistance. Abrasion from the garment itself may cause pills to form and continue to enlarge with use. Over time, pilling of interlining alters the hand of garment components and affects garment appearance. Pills tend to collect lint, and when used with light-colored fabric, they show through. . Woven interlinings may be, produced from almost any type of fiber. This fabrication is usually the most expensive and subject to raveling and shrinkage. Unless used as true bias for greater flexibility or as straight grain to stabilize a bias component, woven interlining should be cut on the same grain as the garment component for satisfactory performance. When, like grains of the shell and interlining, are not used 108
together, the stretching, distortion, and poor drapeability of garment pieces can result. The performance of the interlining can alter the performance of the shell fabric. Woven interlining used in collars and front shirt bands may be cut on the bias to provide good flexibility and shaping as the collar rolls and bends. Knit fabrics used for interlinings are primarily warp knit tricots, raschels, and weft insertion raschels. The tricots and raschels used for interlining purposes are produced in varied weights with high stability and little or no stretch. They are used for strength in relation to weight, low bulk, and smooth hand. Weft insertion raschels knits are used primarily as a fusible interlining with adhesive applied to one surface. The weft insertion structure provides resiliency in the width, stability and control in the length, flexibility, and good drapeability with a soft hand. This type of knit interlining is commonly used with wool and wool-blend fabrics because of their loft, soft hand, and resiliency. They are also used with knit fabrics because of flexibility. Knit interlinings allow more tolerance for grain variation without effecting performance than woven interlinings. Foam substrates may be laminated to shell fabrics or linings to improve body and increase stiffness, durability, and warmth. Foam, which also provides insulation, may be used as interlining on budget and moderate-priced cloth coats. 3.5 INTERLINING APPLICATIONS: There are three basic means of applying interlinings: sew-in, fusing, and lamination. Method of interlining application causes modifications in garment assembly process. Sew-In Interlinings: Sew-in interlinings are sewn directly to the garment or garment component. They require extra handling and manipulation during sewing process, which generally adds to the cost of the garment and need for more skilled operators. Sewins requires proper placement and accurate grain alignment. They may stretch or distort as sewn, causing seam pucker and twisting. During use, sewins is more flexible, less boardy, and tends to have fewer performance problems than fusibles if properly applied. Sew-in interlinings may be attached at different stages during construction of components: 1. Interlining may be sewn to a component part before construction of the component, e.g. interlining may be sewn to collar hands and outer cuffs before the component is assembled, this is a separate operation that may be automated. 2. Interlining is attached or inserted in a seam as component is assembled, e.g. interlining may be inserted as pocket hem and is turned and stitched. 3. A third option is inserting the interlining after the component is nearly completed. An example of this would be interlining placed at center front of a shirt but held in place only with buttons and buttonholes. Sew-in interlinings may be completely secured along all edges, partially secured with stitching along one edge, or secured only by tacking or minimal stitching in the center. The earlier the interlining is attached in the assembly process, the more secure it is likely to be. The more secure the interlining, the more structured the garment, the 109
better its performance, and the higher the quality level, if application has been done correctly. The more sewing that is done to secure the interlining, the less distortion there is likely to be during additional sewing processes or during care of the garment. The more securely interlining is attached, the greater the risk that differential shrinkage will distort garment appearance. Fusible Interlinings: Fusible interlinings are fabrications coated with some form of resin or adhesive that serves as a bonding agent to hold the interlining to the shell fabric. Substrates may be wovens, knits, or fiber webs. Fusible interlinings must be fused to shell fabric prior to the construction of components. The fusing process usually requires that garment pieces be individually matched with interlining pieces and fused together. Fused garment parts have more body, do not ravel, and easy to sewing. Fusing is the process of bonding fabric layers by application of heat and pressure for a specific amount of time. The time required for fusing is called dwell time. The precision of the fusing process depends on three elements: heat that softens the resins, pressure that spreads the resin and forces it onto the fabric surfaces, and time needed for application of heat and pressure. The cooling time is necessary, to allow the resin to set. Fusing may require more direct labor initially, but it reduces handling and irregularities. Fusible interlinings make certain fabrics easier to handle, reduce labor and improve quality. Most equipment used for fusing differs from the equipment used for garment pressing and finishing. Types of equipment used to fuse interlinings include (1) roller presses, (2) flat-bed presses, (3) continuous pressing machines, and (4) irons. Most equipment used for fusing has complex controls for altering and monitoring fusing conditions. Roller presses are occasionally used for fusing interlining to piece goods prior to cutting. For flat-bed presses and continuous presses, garment pieces that are to be interlined are individually placed facedown on a tray or carrier, and fusible interlining pieces (which are cut slightly smaller) are accurately placed on the pieces with resin side against the back of fabric. Shuttle trays are placed in fusing machine or paper trays put on a conveyer to be carried to and through continuous press machines. Fused garment pieces are stacked and bundled for additional assembly. Continuous press machines have high productivity and controlled pressure and temperature, but they are costly to purchase and operate. Major requirement for successful fusing is setting pressing equipment to desired conditions and maintaining those conditions. Lack of consistency in fusing conditions (heat, time, and pressure) causes problems for manufacturers and consumers. Microprocessor control units used in newer machines improve consistency of fusing process. Irons have limited use in fusing interlinings. They may be used for application of small pieces of fusible interlining to reinforce points of stress. Main problem with iron fusing is inconsistency of pressure, dwell time, and temperature. Roller presses are sometimes used for small parts with better productivity and more consistency in heat, time, and pressure than irons. 110
1. STRIKE BACK: is the penetration of resin through the interlining substrate. It causes resin to stick to the fusing press, conveyor, or shuttle tray. Strike back may be the greatest single factor affecting both cost and quality of fusing. Strike back is the cause of many other problems of fusible interlining such as color change, differential shrinkage, bubbling, poor strength, and boardiness. 2. STRIKE THROUGH: is the penetration of resin through to face of the shell fabric. It may be caused by too much pressure, too high a fusing temperature, or too long a fusing time. This is a greater problem with sheer, lightweight, nonabsorbent fabrics than with heavier, bulkier, more absorbent ones. 3. DIFFERENTIAL SHRINKAGE: may cause performance problems if one garment part shrinks because of application of fusible interlining and adjoining pieces do not shrink. This may make accurate seaming impossible, create puckered seams, or cause puckered surfaces of shell fabric. With proper testing the amount of potential shrinkage of the shell fabric and interlining can be determined and adjustments made. 4. DELAMINATION: is the loss of bond between the interlining and the shell fabric. Resin, because it migrates toward heat, becomes embedded in the interlining substrate instead of the shell fabric, which prevents an effective bond between the two materials. The shell fabric may appear to be bubbled. Delamination may be the result of under fusing, over fusing, not enough cooling time, or incompatibility of resin and the shell fabric. 5. COLOR CHANGE: may be a temporary or permanent discoloration caused by the high temperatures and resins, used in the fusing process, Certain types of dyes may change color with the application of high temperature. 6. BUBBLING: is a condition that results in the face fabric or interlining becoming puckered from delamination, poor bonding, differential shrinkage, uneven temperatures or pressure, and inconsistent use of resin. 7. BOARDINESS: is another problem related to the adhesives used on fusible interlining and inappropriate selection. If resins liquefy and run together, to form a resin coating, instead of being retained in a sintered or dotted manner, a stiff hand is produced. This can be the result of over fusing, too much adhesive, and the application of excessive heat and / or pressure. Boardiness can also be caused by incompatibility of the shell fabric and interlining, 3.6 COSTS OF INTERLININGS: When evaluating the costs of using interlinings in garments, the aesthetics, hanger appeal, quality, and consumer needs and expectations must be evaluated. There is no question that the use of interlining increases the cost of producing a garment, but lack of appropriate interlining may decrease its appeal and performance and make it less desirable. Interlinings require special equipment and extra handling and processing. The increased costs of materials, inventory, handling, production, equipment, and quality control must be figured into the total cost of the garment. Interlinings are available in a wide range of prices. Often interlinings with similar performance characteristics are available at different price points. Performance from the manufacturer's perspective examines the total cost of each alternative compared with the functions it serves. What matters is whether the interlining provides the characteristics for which the consumer is willing to pay. Consumers want flexibility and stability but not rigidity and bulk.
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Application costs for interlining are often higher than the initial cost. Interlinings may be used in small amounts in small areas, but application may require individual handling and processing. In some instances sew-in interlinings are less costly to apply than fusible interlinings depending on the method of application, characteristics of the shell fabric, and the amount of automation that is utilized. Hair canvas may be used on tailored garments, but it may involve much higher labor costs. Fusible interlinings require special equipment, handling, and additional energy costs. The cost of maintaining consistent quality may also be a factor in total garment costs. Fusible interlinings are particularly susceptible to inconsistencies involving the materials, equipment, and fusing process, Extra quality control may be required to inspect the fused garment parts and test fusing equipment and performance of fused parts. Unacceptable quality of garments with sew-in interlinings may result from poor design, poor preparation in pre-assembly, inadequate training, lack of operator skill, or incorrect methods. Sew- in interlinings also may need quality checks, but this may be included with monitoring other sewing processes. LININGS: These are materials that increase aesthetics and performance by supporting and or enclosing the interiors of garments or garment components. Garments may have full linings, partial linings, component linings, or no linings. Some mills specialize in the production and marketing of lining materials, which are sampled, analyzed, tested, and sourced similarly to other piece goods. FUNCTIONS OF LININGS: Linings may be used to improve aesthetics, performance, and comfort of styles. In garments, linings accomplish these functions. AESTHETICS: Linings are used to enhance the aesthetic value of garments. Lining fabrics are available in fashion and basic colors, prints, and special weaves, which may be used to provide special visual effects, Lining fabrics are usually different than the shell fabrics, but in some instances the same fabric is used for the garment and lining. Sometimes designers choose to use signatures, logos, or brand names on lining fabrics to provide identification and differentiation. Aesthetically, linings are used to conceal the back of shell fabrics and the inner construction of a garment such us Seams, interlinings, and other support materials. This contributes to the hanger appeal of garments. Linings can also be a means of covering poor construction techniques and inferior materials. In the case of lightcolored and / or light-weight shell fabrics, linings may he used to make the shell fabric look more opaque and have more body. The hand of linings should complement the aesthetics of the shell fabric and provide comfort to the wearer; Linings need to be flexible and soft unless a firmer fabric is needed for support. Linings with a stiff heavy hand may be strong and provide support, but they may alter the drape of the shell fabric and fit of the garment. Stiff linings of filament yarns may also make rustling noises as the lining rubs against itself or the shell fabric during wear. This is often the case with taffeta linings. PERFORMANCE: Performance expectations of linings vary with product type and end use. Performance criteria for jacket or coat linings are quite different from the criteria for swimsuit linings. Factors that affect the quality and performance of linings include fabric characteristics, design, and structure of linings, compatibility with other materials and garment structure, and suitability for end use.
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Properly designed and properly constructed linings may extend the wear life of garments, Linings absorb the stress of body movement and activity, which prevents stretching and overextension of the shell fabric, e.g. better quality slacks and skirts are lined to prevent bagginess in the knees and seat areas. Linings are slightly smaller than the outer shell to absorb stress that occurs during use. Linings also reduce abrasion on seams and other support materials during use and care. Linings also extend garment life by preventing hanger stress and body contact with the shell fabric. When used, linings are the garment part closest to the body, the layer that separates the body from the garment. This prevents absorption of perspiration and body oils that may deteriorate or stain shell fabrics. Linings also provide the structure for additional details or components such as internal pockets. COMFORT: Linings may provide tactile comfort, garment fit, and thermal comfort for a garment. Tactile comfort is provided by the lining fabric if it is smooth, absorbent, or has a pleasant hand. The lining also protects the human body from the shell fabric, seams, and support materials that may be harsh or abrasive to the skin. Linings improve garment fit by absorbing the stress of tight fit and movement, thus allowing the outer garment to hang free and relaxed. Linings of smooth filament yarns provide ease of movement by reducing friction with other garments the individual is wearing. With slip ease, dressing is easier and garments are less restrictive. For this reason fabrics with filament yarns are commonly used, especially for sleeve linings. Coat and jacket linings usually have vertical ease pleats at center back and horizontal ease pleats at hems to allow freedom of movement. These are particularly important if the lining is entirely sewn down. Higher-quality garments tend to have deeper ease pleats. Ease pleats should be deep enough to permit garment alteration without altering the lining. Linings may also be used to provide thermal comfort. Lining materials may be selected for breath ability or insulative properties. Comfort of a water resistant garment may depend on the absorbency and breathe ability of the lining material used, e.g. nylon mesh is used for lining to allow for air circulation. Garments may reduce body heat loss by creating wind resistance, using layers to trap air, and / or using insulative linings. Wind resistance may be achieved by using highcount, tightly woven linings or shell fabrics. Fabrics may be coated with resins to improve their wind resistance. Insulative linings are designed to trap body heat and may be inner layers of multiplelayer constructions. Free-hanging insulative linings may be permanently sewn in or removable. Materials such as down or synthetic fiberfill are commonly used for quilted constructions. Insulation materials are available with a soft or firm hand to support various fashion silhouettes, thin, medium, and lofty. Insulative linings may be covered by another lining to improve aesthetics and / or performance. 3.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LININGS: Factors that contribute to the performance of linings are fiber content, fabrication, finishes, hand, and drape. Choice of lining materials relates to the intended end use, characteristics of the piece goods, and performance expectations for the product, quality level, and cost. FIBER CONTENT: Fiber content is a major determinant of type of fabrication, aesthetics, performance, and durability of linings. The synthetic fibers, nylon and polyester, are used for durable lightweight linings. Nylon and nylon / spandex blends are used in linings for active sportswear (football pants, swimsuits, jogging shorts, 113
and so on) providing high strength, elasticity, and minimal weight and bulk. Synthetic fibers are clammy, do not breathe, and allow buildup of static electricity. Fiber modifications with wicking properties that increase comfort and reduce static buildup are sometimes used for lining fabrics. Acetate is used extensively for lining coats, jackets, skirts, and slacks, although its performance may be short-lived. Acetate is less expensive than some other fibers when cost is a major consideration. It takes a press well, has pleasing hand and drape, retains its shape, and is frequently available with printed designs. However, acetate may be subject to fume fading if not solution dyed. Acetate also is a very weak fiber, does not withstand stress and abrasion, and needs to be dry- cleaned. Acetate linings often wear out long before the garment shell. Acetate blends are used in warp knits for many of napped or brushed linings found in moderate and budget-priced wind breakers. Napped back satins found in women's/men's dress coats are acetate blends. Cotton and rayon are used in linings because of their hand and absorbency. Filament rayon makes a comfortable lining that may be used in better suits, uniforms, and other garments, but rayon also has low abrasion resistance. Cotton is absorbent and comfortable, but with less slip ease because of staple fiber structure. Cotton lining is a fashion fabric used as part of a component or to match shell fabric. Cotton or rayon is blended with polyester to improve resiliency and abrasion resistance. Wool is an excellent insulating material used only as an insulative lining. Wool materials are used to line gloves and bodies of topcoats. If a wool lining is used in a coat, other slick materials are often used to line the sleeves and upper part of garment. Many materials provide same amount of insulation for less cost and weight. Silk is used for its aesthetic appeal, comfort, and status in better-tailored garments. Silk is lightweight, smooth, drapeable, and absorbent, but its cost prohibits common usage. WEIGHT: Weight of lining fabric affects wearing comfort, thermal comfort, compatibility, and opacity, hand, and drape ability. Generally, lighter-weight linings may be selected for wearing comfort, hand, or drape ability, while the heavier linings are selected for their support, shaping characteristics, and / or warmth. Heavy weight is not necessarily required for warmth. With synthetic materials, i.e. polyester fiber fill, it is possible to have high bulk for warmth without heavy weight. FABRICATION: Linings are available in many different fabrications. Fabrications may affect the drape, opacity, durability, and thermal comfort of the lining and garments. Lining fabrications range from the lightest-weight, balanced, plain weave fabrics to the bulky quilted or pile fabrics. Common fabrications found in jacket linings are satins and twills. These provide slip ease, comfort, flexibility, durability, and wind resistance with high-count and filament yarns. Skirts and slacks are best lined with balanced plain weave fabrics due to their flexibility and strength. SUPPORT, ENCLOSURE, AND QUALITY: The amount of lining used for a garment depends on the type and style of garment, quality level, type of shell fabric, expected garment performance, and cost limitations. Garments with full lining have completely enclosed interiors, a finished appearance, and protection for the garment shell. Full or partial linings may be assembled as separate components and partially or completely attached to the garment shell. Linings need to be long enough to be functional, but not too long to extend beyond hems and edges of garments.
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Partial linings enclose only a portion of garment interiors but provide some degree of protection and comfort. They are used to protect garment components or shell fabric in areas of high stress or high contact. They also provide slip ease to sleeves or across shoulders. Partial linings are a means of reducing costs of materials, but reductions in labor costs depend on the methods used. Partial linings in skirts may protect back that is stressed during sitting, or it may be a complete front and back lining only long enough to cover areas of stress. Lining may be a part of garment components. Lining or shell fabrics may be used to enclose interiors of components. Components may be lined in garments where full or partial linings are not desired, e.g. shirts may have lined yokes and pockets. Manufacturers of jackets may choose to line only sleeves, shoulder areas, fronts and sleeves, or other combination that will meet consumer needs and/or cost limitations. Unlined garments have less structure, are of a more casual nature, and do not depend on the aesthetics of the lining for hanger appeal or performance. Many types of products are never lined and do not need to be, such as sweaters, underwear, T-shirts, and jeans. With product types, such as jackets and skirts in which linings are optional, greater use of lining normally increases quality, if the lining is properly constructed. A 100% cotton, gathered skirt with a lining is regarded as higher quality than the same skirt without a lining even though it may not need the lining to prevent stress. It will hang and drape better if lined. 3.8 LINING STRUCTURE: Linings should be designed, and structured, similar to the garment shell. Linings do not need to be cut to the same identical shape as the garment, but they must be complementary and usually maintain a similar grain orientation. In some cases, the lining needs to be identical to the outer garment. If the outer garment has styling ease, the lining is more functional if it is designed with a basic shape that complements the fashion silhouette. A full pleated skirt needs only a smooth-fitting A-line-shaped lining. This lining structure avoids the bulk of the pleats but provides smooth fit that absorbs the stress and allows the skirt pleats to hang smoothly. A fitted lining in a garment with styling case needs to be carefully proportioned to minimize fitting problems that may limit the sale of the style. Lining, that are too short or too tight cause garments, to pucker or draw up. 3.9 LINING APPLICATIONS: Lining construction may be judged by the same standards as garment assembly. Standards may vary with the quality level, operator skill, and equipment. Seam busting, seam finishes, and in-process pressing are part of producing better quality linings. Linings are installed primarily by machine, but better-quality garments may have some operations done by hand. Full linings may be completely assembled and attached by machine. In jackets, when full linings are completely attached by machine, an opening is left in one sleeve lining seam for turning the garment. Completely attached linings avoid twisting that might occur during wear, but the lining must fit the garment accurately and have adequate room for movement. Completely attached linings make it difficult for retail buyers and consumers to evaluate intrinsic construction and alter garment. Better-quality jackets and coats may have hand-set sleeve linings. The sleeve lining and garment body lining are assembled and attached as separate components. One of the final processes is the attachment of the sleeve lining at the armhole, which is often done by hand. This is a traditional method of assembly that prevents the lining from shifting across the armhole and shoulder area. Generally this method provides better fit and durability but results in costlier garments. Full or partial linings that are 115
partially attached are usually attached at the front, neck, waist, or upper part of the body and are free-hanging at the lower edge. In some cases, lower edges of these linings are held in place by lining tacks or long-thread chains. This allows flexibility but keeps the lining in place. Coats, women's jackets, and skirts are often constructed in this manner. In some garments, the lining forms a whole separate component that is attached only at the waist as may be found in jogging shorts, men swimwear, and skirts. Linings of garment components are usually installed as the components are assembled. Linings may be a means of enclosing seams or hems.
3.10 COSTS OF LININGS: The major costs of lining garments are materials and labor. Material costs vary with the fabrication and yardage requirements. Labor costs vary with the number of steps needed to complete the garment lining, the number of hand operations, and finishing processes used. The design and production of complete linings can contribute a significant proportion to production costs. Linings that do not perform according to consumer expectations may be subject to high costs of returns.
4. OTHER SUPPORT MATERIALS: Other support materials-including

adhesives, shoulder pads, sleeve headers, tapes, and collar stays-provide special support needed in specific types of garments. Trims, closures, and thread may also provide support to certain areas of garments as well as aesthetics or functional use. 4.1 ADHESIVES: Adhesives may be used as support materials or as bonding agents to hold support materials in place. They are used to stabilize, support, and / or bond layers of fabric together. Adhesives are synthetic, thermoplastic resins with a variety of chemical compositions and performance characteristics. Resin content of adhesives 116
includes polyamides, polyesters, poly-ethylene, with different heat sensitivities and bonding powers. Adhesives are selected according to specific end use requirements and fusing equipment. Each resin requires a different fusing temperature or glue line temperature for a secure bond, Glue line temperature is the temperature reached between the fabric and adhesive at the time of fusing. Bond strength refers to the strength of the bond achieved by the adhesive. A peel test determines bond strength by measuring the force required to separate the fused materials. Bond strength may be tested after fusing and again after care procedures. Adhesives and resins, which may be permanent or temporary, may be added to either piece goods or interlinings. Adhesives or resins may be applied to surface of substrates to create fusible interlinings, applied as webs or filament threads between two layers of fabric, or applied as polymer paste or powder directly to back of shell fabrics. Resins are applied to a substrate as even or randomly printed dots, randomly sintered or sprinkled deposit or as even uniform coatings. Dot size and number of dots may vary with degree of bonding needed and weight of substrate. Bonding security is affected by resin type, amount of application, pattern and uniformity of application, compatibility with fabrics, and fusing process. Too much or too little resin affects bond strength and hand of fabric. Resins applied as webs or filament fibers between layers of fabric act as a glue to hold fabric pieces in place. Resins may be used as glues to stabilize fabric pieces for appliqu s or other sewing. A resin web may be used to hold hems in place without use of thread. DIRECT APPLICATION OR DIRECT STABILIZATION: As it may be called, stabilizes garment pieces without use of a separate interlining. The resin is mechanically applied to the back of garment parts and set by radiant heat. Improvements in technology of resins and adhesives suggest increases in the use of direct stabilization because of economy and efficiency of application. 4.2 SHOULDER PADS: Shoulder pads provide support and shape for the desired shoulder silhouette, add hanger appeal to garments displayed in retail settings, and protect garments from hanger stress over long periods. Shoulder pad shapes are influenced by fashion and may be thick, thin, rounded, oblong, crescent shaped or domed. Shoulder pads are designed for raglan sleeves, set-in sleeves, kimono sleeves, suit coats, and blouses. In a well-designed garment, the shoulder pad is an integral part of the design. The designer and / or merchandiser decide on the look that is appropriate for each style, and the selected shoulder shape is placed on the body form as the initial garment is draped. This is the best way to get the desired look. Alternatively, designers may make selections from samples shown by sales representatives or work with a representative in designing new shapes. Some apparel manufacturers who are most cost-conscious than style conscious by a single style of shoulder pad in large quantities and use the same pad for all garments. Shoulder pads provide hangar support for garments and enhance the store presentation, but often they are not best suited to the style or its appearance on the body. Shoulder pads for men's clothing are quite different from those used in most women's garments. Men's wear quality standards are often higher, and life expectancy for the garments is often longer. Shoulder pads for men's clothing often are an integral part of garment construction and are critical to the aesthetics and performance of garments.
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They are made of a combination of different materials and are larger and more structured than those used in women's apparel. Shoulder pads for women's garments are made in a greater variety of shapes, sizes and materials. Shoulder pad styles change when fashion silhouettes changes. Garment manufacturers usually do not produce their own shoulder pads; instead, they order from firms that specialize in shoulder pad production. One manufacturer may produce as many as 4,000 different variations of basic shoulder pad. Shaping materials form the shoulder pads, which may or may not be covered by other materials before installation in garments. SHOULDER PAD MATERIALS: The most common materials used for shoulder pads are foams, needle-punched fiber webs, fiber bats, and wadding. Foam is generally the least expensive material but often has the least desirable performance. Foams discolor owing to aging, exposure to light, and the baking (oxidation) process used in their production. Foams also may distort easily with high dryer temperatures. Foam pads are generally used in blouses and dresses because they are inexpensive and lightweight. Needle-punched fiber webs are used as the basic shaping material in many types of shoulder pads for both men and women because they are lightweight, flexible, and less expensive than some other materials. Fiber webs are layered and shaped to provide the thickness and shape desired. Fiber bats and wadding are large sheets or bats of fiber. Bats and wadding may be used alone or as filler in combination with other materials. SHOULDER PAD CONSTRUCTION: Shoulder pads are sewn, molded, fused, and cut. Decisions are based on materials, desired appearance, cost limitations, and compatible care procedures. Sewn shoulder pads consist of multiple layers arranged in a stepped manner to provide a sloped look and smooth blending of layers. Materials used in sewn pads maybe polyester batting, needle-punched fiber webs, woven canvas, cotton or wool wadding, or any combination of these. Layers are stitched together to provide stability/durability through use and care. They are used in men's wear because of their durability. Sewn shoulder pads are usually uncovered and used in structured garments with linings. They are time-consuming and require skilled operators to produce them; thus, they are often most costly. Molded pads are shaped to a preformed mold or die. Developing new shoulder pad begins with designing the new shape and producing a mold that duplicates the shape. Once the mold has been developed, pads can be mass-produced in the desired shape in a process called baking. High-loft polyester bats are sprayed with a resin that acts as a binder and allows the fiber bat to be heat set in the desired shape. Bats are die-cut and then molded to the shape desired. The hand or stiffness varies with the baking process. The higher the temperature and pressure applied to the mold, the firmer the pad produced. For a softer shape, the temperature and pressure on the mold are decreased. Molded pads have good resiliency, but resins tend to breakdown during dry cleaning, which can affect the shape of the pad. They are relatively slow to produce because of molding process. Polyurethane foam is molded with a different process, but its use is limited due to cost of process and poor performance of material. Fused pads are made from layers of fiber web that are sprayed with resin and then spot fused to hold the pieces together. This is a fairly new process and faster to produce than the molded pad, which puts them at a lower price point. Care and use can weaken their structure and shape. Cut shoulder pads require very little time to produce. Large polyurethane foam blocks are cut with an automated knife. This process can produce large quantities in short periods of time with very little waste. Needle-punched fiber webs may be die-cut and covered to make an inexpensive pad. 118
SHOULDER PAD COVERS: Many of the shoulder pads used in women's garments are covered in style-matching piece goods or a basic taffeta tricot in basic colors. Many shoulder pad manufacturers provide the service of covering the shoulder pads if the piece goods are supplied. This is another instance when time must be carefully planned in order to have all materials available for garment production at the same time. Shoulder pad coverings are a major cause of dissatisfaction with shoulder pads. If the covering shrinks, it crinkles the pad inside the cover so it cannot lie flat. Another problem occurs if the inner materials are not caught completely in stitching. With the first washing, the inner material will fold and wad up, which makes the pad totally unusable. These problems can usually be remedied better methods, proper testing to determine compatibility of materials, and better quality control procedures to ensure that pads have been sewn correctly. SHOULDER PAD INSTALLATION: The application method used is critical to the performance of the pad and appearance of the garment. Methods used to insert shoulder pads in garments depend on garment type and structure, styling, care process, quality level, price range, and the equipment used. The best-quality shoulder pad available will not be satisfactory if it is not applied appropriately. Shoulder pads in coats, suits, and jackets may be permanently attached to the garments. They may be sewn or tacked to shoulder and armhole seams and covered lining. Some are set in before sleeves are attached. Shoulder pads in blouses dresses are minimally tacked to the shoulder seam and armhole seam. This allows shifting during care, which may overstress the shell fabric and seams. Removable shoulder pads are often attached to the shoulder area by means of a Hook-and-Loop strip. This enables consumers to remove the shoulder pads before care procedures. It also allows consumers to decide whether they want to use shoulder pads on any given day. With Hook-and-Loop attachment, the investment in materials and labor costs are greater for garment manufacturer, but benefit may be a better satisfied consumer. 4.3 SLEEVE HEADERS: Sleeve headers are an additional support material used in moderate- and better quality tailored coats and jackets. Use of sleeve headers is a quality feature that adds primarily to the appearance of the garment, especially after extended wear and renovation. Sleeve headers support the tops of sleeves to provide a smooth hang over the arm. They are sewn to the top of armhole seam and provide shape for fall of a set-in sleeve. Sleeve headers are soft, flexible fiber webs. 4.4 TAPES: Tapes are support materials used primarily for shape retention and / or aesthetics. Application of tape may be an intrinsic factor that affects garment quality and its performance, or it may add color and interest to a style. Tape may be used to stabilize seams with potential for excessive stretching that could permanently alter the shape or fit of garment. A critical factor is dimensional stability of the tape. Tapes that shrink cause garment distortion. Some firms preshrink tapes to avoid this problem. Tape may be sewn into seams, used to cover seams or hems, or used as a separate garment component. Tape may be narrow twill fabrics (twill tape), knits, braids, woven bias, or strips cut from matching shell fabric. It can be as narrow as 1/8 inch or as wide as 2 inches. The fiber content of tape may be cotton, polyester, acetate, rayon, or blends of these fibers. Tape is frequently used to prevent stretching along shoulder seams and neck edges of knit garments; provide shape retention of lapel edges, collar edges, necklines, and armholes of jackets; and trim plackets and other parts of garments. It may be used as a binding, incorporated in a garment component, or serve as 119
a garment component such as the plackets on rugby shirts. In many instances, tape is fed directly from a roll, through an attachment in front of the needle, and stitched directly to garment as seams are sewn. On some garments, tape application is a separate step that requires extra handling and processing. 4.5 COLLAR STAYS: Collar stays are support materials often used to build shape retention into structured collars of shirts and blouses. Plastic collar stays are available in various types, lengths, widths, and weights. Thin flexible collar stays may be superimposed on the front edge seam of the collars as they are sewn. They fold and become doubled as the collar is turned. Other flexible plastic stays are stitched through the center as they are attached to the interlining or under collar. This type of collar stay remains permanently attached to the collar. Permanently attached stays are the fastest and least expensive application, but they may have performance problems. Stays that are stitched in place are susceptible to heat during care procedures and may cause excessive wear or abrasion of the shell fabric. Excessive heat may also cause distortion. The image of the collar stay may be pressed through to the top collar, or the stay may abrade the top collar with use and during agitation in laundry. Removable stays are found in higher-quality garments. Under-collar or shirts is structured with two pieces that overlap to form a pocket with an opening through which stays can be removed and reinserted. Removing stays during laundry and cleaning prevents bending and permanent distortion. 5. CLOSURES: Human body shape requires certain garment components to separate or expand so garment that surrounds and conforms to the body or specific body parts can be put on or taken off. Expansion is built into garments through structural openings and elastic materials. Plackets are structural openings that are usually dependent on mechanical devices called closures to secure openings. Closures are fasteners, such as zippers, buttons, buttonholes, snaps, elastics, hooks, hook-andloop tapes, and other devices used to open, close, and secure garments. Proper selection, application, and skilled workmanship result in properly working closures. 5.1 PURPOSE OF CLOSURES: Closures may be used as single fastening units, in multiples, or combined with other types of closures or trims. Closures contribute to garment aesthetics and performance. The number, type, and placement of closures are important to garment appearance, fit, comfort, durability, and care. AESTHETICS: Plackets and closures may be used to add interest, carry out style features, or enhance the piece goods and trims used in a garment. Closures may be selected to blend with shell fabric, create an accent, or support the overall ambiance of the garment. When closures are used as trim, simulated plackets may be designed to carry out a fashion or traditional look. Specific styles of closures are traditionally used for certain garment types, e.g. metal zippers are used in jeans, and molded zippers are used in ski wear. Flat, four-hole buttons are customarily used on men's dress shirts and sport shirts. Some clothing manufacturers may use metal shanked buttons for jackets and blazers, while others use flat, four-hole, color-matched buttons. PERFORMANCE: Performance criteria for closures may be established relative to garment design, quality standards, end use, and performance standards for other garment materials. Closures may allow the wearer to adjust openings for personal size or thermal comfort. Garments are usually designed to surround the body and accommodate body movement. Usually closures are subject to more horizontal stress than vertical stress because of the nature of body kinetics. When more than one 120
closure is used, horizontal stress may be shared with other fastening units for greater strength and holding power, e.g. a single fastening unit used on a waistband must absorb all the stress; all the strain is placed on one small area of shell fabric. When a skirt is closed with a zipper that is supported by both outer and inner buttons with corresponding buttonholes the whole assembly is stronger. If one part fails, the remaining closures should hold the garment in place. 5.2 ZIPPERS: Zippers are mechanical slide fasteners. A Zipper closes a placket when two rows of interlocking elements (teeth, scoops, or coils) are drawn together by a slider. Zippers allow garments to expand for dressing and to become smooth and fitted when closed. They may provide closer, smoother garment fit and accept more seam stress than buttons, snaps, or other closures. When used as closures, they are essential to the performance of garments, since zipper failures often render garments unusable. Probably no single element of a garment can cost so little but cause so much dissatisfaction among consumers when it (the zipper) malfunctions. Many zippers are also used for their aesthetic value such as those with elaborate or ornate pulls, decorative zipper tapes, or color-coordinated chains. Zippers that are used on lower ends of side seams in sweatpants and jeans allow expansion of lower pant legs over shoes or boots, but they may be more important from a styling / aesthetic perspective than from a performance perspective. The cut of pant leg determines the use of zipper. HISTORY OF ZIPPERS: Elias Howe, who invented the sewing machine, also invented the 'Automatic, Continuous Clothing Closure', which was patented in 1851. But it was Whitcomb Judson from Chicago who first marketed the 'Clasp Locker', which was patented on August 29, 1893. Together with businessman Lewis Walker, Whitcomb launched the Universal Fastener Company to manufacture the new device. In 1913, Swedish immigrant and electrical engineer, Gideon Sand back, who worked at the Universal Fastener Company, produced a better model, the 'Separable Fastener.' It was patented in 1917 and is what we know today as the modern zipper. He increased the number of fastening elements, had two facing-rows of teeth that pulled into a single piece by the slider and increased the opening for the teeth guided by the slider. Until this point, they were called hook less fasteners. B.F. Goodrich liked the z-z-zip sound they made and coined the term zipper. In the 1930's, a sales campaign began for children's clothing featuring zippers. In 1937 the zipper beat the button in the "Battle of the Fly" when French fashion designers raved over zippers in men's trousers. The next big boost for the zipper came when zippers could open on both ends, as on jackets. Today the zipper is everywhere, in clothing, luggage, leather goods and countless other objects meeting the needs of consumers, all thanks to the early efforts of these famous zipper inventors. CHARACTERISTICS OF ZIPPERS: Hundreds of different sizes and types of zippers are available, e.g. YKK, one of the world's largest zipper manufacturers, produces approximately 2000 zipper styles in over 400 basic and 1,000 specialty colors in its plant. Zipper selection should be based on input from merchandising, design, production, and quality assurance with assistance from zipper manufacturer. Factors that contribute to the aesthetics and performance of zippers include type and fabrication of zipper parts and materials, types of zippers, and zipper applications. ZIPPER SPECIFICATIONS: Main Categories of Zippers are polyester; mold Plastic; injection Mold; metal - brass, and aluminum. In Open-end Zippers, both the ends get separated from each other. A Box & Pin mechanism is provided on the lower end of the Zippers to join with each other and close it using a Slider. These zippers are 121
normally used on Jackets. Close-end Zippers are non-separating and are normally opened and closed with a Slider. These zippers are used on Trousers, Jeans, and Jackets. Zipper Sizes: 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, (The bigger the size, the stronger the Zipper will be.) Allowable Tolerance of Zipper Length German DIN, 3419 Part 2.1 Zipper length (mm) below 250 250 - below 1000 1000 - below 5000 above 5000 Allowable tolerance 5mm 1% 10mm 50 mm Errors provided by Japanese YKK in the New Century Fair Zipper length Allowable (mm) tolerance below 30 30 - below 60 60 - below 100 above 100 5mm 10mm 15mm 3%
ZIPPER PARTS AND MATERIALS: Zippers consist of four main parts: chain, slider, stops, and tapes. The zipper chain consists of two interlocking stringers of teeth, scoops, or coils that lock or unlock with the movement of the slider. Metal chains may be stronger than continuous coils and are often used in slacks and jeans where durability and strength are required. Metal teeth, made of brass, nickel, steel or zinc, are clamped onto zipper tapes. During zipper application, metal teeth may be removed without damaging the tape. This provides a space for stitching or bar tacking across the zipper. Teeth can also be pulled off the tape due to stress during use, meaning the zipper would have to be replaced or the garment discarded. Chains-that do not rust or corrode are essential for garments that are wet processed, chemically treated, or garment dyed. Sliders will not operate on corroded zippers. Chain made of synthetic materials, such as molded nylon or polyester, may have scoops or teeth molded like metal chain or made from continuous monofilament coils. Synthetic chains are more flexible and cause less abrasion and snagging than metal zippers, and they are more comfortable to wear in cold conditions. Synthetic zippers are also available in a much wider range of colors with the chain and tapes dyed to match. Molded synthetic scoops are an integral part of the tape so individual scoops cannot be removed without damaging the tape. Coil-type chains are available in varying sizes and degrees of strength. Coils can usually be pulled apart to remove fabric or thread caught in the elements, usually without damage to garment or zipper. However, coils may also separate during wear but can usually be reunited by operating the slider. Coil zippers that are folded or creased may be weakened and permanently separated at point of damage. Chains are available in varied widths and thicknesses. The width of the chain and material selection affect holding power, zipper profile, and visibility. Zippers with wider chains have more holding power. Low-profile chain is flat and nearly smooth, which produces smooth plackets and reduces the potential for the zip per image becoming embossed on the shell fabric during pressing. High-profile zipper chain has more depth and is raised from the tape. A slider is the movable part of a zipper that disengages or interlocks the stringers to form a chain. Elements on separate zipper
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stringers enter the throat of the slider, are interlocked, and emerge from the mouth of the slider as chain. Sliders must be compatible with the chain and placed correctly on the chain if the elements are to engage correctly. Sliders are usually metal, even though they may be used with synthetic chain, since metals are resistant to wear and heat distortion. Many metal parts are enameled to hatch the color of synthetic chains and tapes, but the enamel may wear or chip off during use. Zipper sliders have different types of pulls and locking action. Zipper pulls are handles for moving sliders and may also lock sliders in place. They may be small, large, flat, round, plain, ornate, or stamped with the logo of zipper/garment manufacturer, There are flange / automatic lock, cam / pin lock, and non lock sliders. Flange lock sliders prevent zippers from being accidentally opened by pressure on the stringers. Cam lock sliders, used commonly in jeans, lock if the tab is in a straight up or down position and move easily when the tab is at a right angle to the zipper, Automatic lock sliders lock when the tab is in a down position, which allows the zipper to be closed with the tab in the down position but not opened. Pin lock sliders have a small pin or projection that fits between the zipper teeth. Pin lock sliders are used primarily on garments such as coats and sweatshirts and tend to give the most operating problems. Non lock sliders do not lock in position and are used primarily on purses, backpacks, upholstery, and in areas without stress. Improper handling and use by manufacturers and consumers may damage the locking device, teeth, or coils and cause sliders to malfunction. Too much force in pulling a slider can cause the slider to separate and cease to mesh the chain. Sliders can also be damaged by excessive pressure in the pressing operation at the factory or dry cleaners. Zipper tapes are the substrate for attachment and support of the zipper chain. Durability of the tape is a major factor in zipper performance. Tapes may be cotton, synthetic, or fiber blends. Synthetic tapes are strong, lightweight and they tend to have less shrinkage potential. Tapes may be stable knits or narrow twill weaves produced in different widths. High count woven tapes are stronger. Stress may cause the teeth to become detached from low-count tapes. Zipper tapes that shrink cause puckered plackets and seams. Tapes may be treated with resins for compatibility with permanent press garments and for dimensional stability. Resin treated cotton tapes may be semi or fully cured for compatibility with shell fabrics. It is important to use semi cured tape with semi cured materials since fully cured zipper tapes may degrade with final curing of the garment because of double treatment of the resin on the tapes. Zipper stops are essential in preventing the slider from advancing and becoming disengaged from the chain. They are needed at both ends of a zipper chain. They may be enlarged teeth, metal bars, and staple like devices that wrap the chain, a seam, or a line of stitching. Stops that are not tightly secured may not prevent the slider from advancing. This happens frequently with slacks when the wearer applies stress to the lower end of the zipper while stepping into the garment. If the stop does not hold, the slider continues to unlock the chain until the slider comes off and the chain completely separates. Bar tacks or back stitching across the chain are frequently used to support zipper stops at the closed end of zippers.
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ZIPPER TERMINOLOGY BASED ON ASTM D 2050-87

Zipper Parts CHAIN Element Definition A device designed for interlocking, capable of being affixed along the edge of one of the opposing edges of two tapes and being engaged and disengaged with the movement of slider. A Zipper consisting of two continuously formed elements; coils A Zipper consisting of two series of separately formed elements; teeth or scoops. Tape, bead, & element assembly that constitutes one side of chain Formed by interlocking several elements of two stringers. The bearing surface of an interlocking element by which the chain is contained inside the flanges of the slider. A narrow strip of material to which the elements are attached An enlarged section on the inner edge of each tape to which interlockabe elements are affixed on a separate element zipper. An optional enlarged section of the tape located at the edge of continuous interlock able elements and against which the slider flanges bear.
Continuous Element Zipper Separate Element Zipper Stringer Chain Shoulder TAPES Tape Bead Bead SLIDERS Slider Mouth Pull Flanges Flange Lock Slider
The part that opens and closes the zipper The opening in a slider that receives the chain A part connected to a zipper slider used to operate the slider The edges of the slider formed to contain the chain A slider with notches in the flanges that block the shoulders of the elements when the stringers above the slider are pulled apart. Automatic Lock A slider that provides involuntary, positive locking action on the chain when the Slider pull is released. Pin Lock Slider A slider that incorporates a projection on the pull that fits between adjacent interlocking elements of a zipper Cam lock slider A slider that incorporates curled projection(s) on the pull that extend through a window on the slider to effect a locking action by pressing against the chain TOP AND BOTTOM ASSEMBLY Stop The device at the top and bottom of the chain or stringer that prevents the slider from leaving the chain Bottom Stop Part affixed to both stringers immediately below, or over the chain Top Stop A part affixed between or immediately above the interlocking elements on either or both stringers Bridge Top Stop A part affixed immediately above the chain, holding the tops of two stringers together Non-separable A zipper having two stringers that are permanently attached to each other at one Zipper or both ends. Separable zipper A zipper fitted with special components at the bottom of a chain so as to permit complete disengagement and then reengagement of the two stringers.
ZIPPER TYPES: There are two main types of zippers: separable and non-separable. Separable zippers consist of two completely separate stringers with a bottom assembly to reengage the zipper. Separable zippers are used for jackets and coats. Some separable zippers use two sliders so the chain can be disengaged from both ends. This arrangement may be found on car coats so that the can unzip the coat from the bottom for more comfortable sitting. Separable zippers are purchased as complete zipper units because of the special ends required for starting the chain through the slider. Non--separating zippers open only in one direction and have a stop across both halves of the chain at one or both ends so that the slider will not run off the chain. Non-separating zippers are used in pants, skirts, and dresses. They are available as
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complete zipper units or as continuous chain. A complete zipper unit is constructed to a pre-determined length and consists of the chain and tape, slider, and stops. Continuous chain is purchased by the reel and cut to the desired length as it is applied to garments. Sliders and stops are purchased in bulk and applied to the chain during garment assembly. Continuous chain eliminates stocking a wide range of zipper lengths and provides flexibility in selecting the length for specific garments. Continuous chain zippers are less costly, reduce inventory, and are widely used by manufacturers of basic goods and industrial products. Special equipment is used to strip metal teeth from a portion of the stringers so machines can sew across the tape during application. ZIPPER APPLICATIONS: The two basic types of zipper applications are exposed and enclosed. Many different methods may be used with either of these types of applications depending on the quality level, anticipated stress, climatic conditions for end use, structure of the garment, and aesthetic expectations. Features that improve the durability of zipper plackets are interlining properly placed bar tacks, double stitched plackets, and properly placed supporting closures. Zipper plackets may include a zipper facing installed under the zipper to make the zipper more comfortable to wear. More structure requires more materiel parts, and more operations, which may result in greater cost. Exposed zippers are not covered or concealed by fabric and may be aesthetic as well as functional. Zippers may provide color accent and texture variation for a style. The chain and slider may be part of the garments trim. Exposed applications require the least structure and fewest assembly operations. Exposed zippers may be applied in seams but do not require seams for application; they may be installed in a slash cut in a garment. Exposed zipper applications are symmetric and commonly used for neckline openings in knit garments, front openings of jackets and sweatshirts, and pocket closures on various types of outerwear. Exposed zippers may also be selected for the flexibility and lack of bulk associated with this type of application. Minimal fabric is required in applying exposed zippers. Enclosed zippers are concealed by plackets located in seams. Enclosed zipper applications may be symmetric or asymmetric plackets. Symmetric plackets may use seam openings and are formed from seam allowances and continuous topstitching or formation of the zipper tape, which provide equal cover for the zipper from both sides of the seam. The invisible zipper placket is formed by a permanently folded zipper tape that must be flattened during stitching. When closed, the formation of the zipper tape brings the fabric together without a need for topstitching. Application requires a special proprietary sewing machine. Symmetric applications are often found at the center fronts and backs of garments, lower ends of sleeves and pant legs, and so on. Asymmetric applications include lapped plackets or fly plackets. Lapped plackets, which are approximately 1/2 inch wide, also use the seam opening with the overlap and under-lap formed from corresponding seam allowances. Zippers are offset under the seam opening and covered with the overlap half of the seam allowance. Lapped zippers are commonly used in women's skirts, dresses, and slacks. Fly plackets are traditionally used on men's pants and some womens and children's wear. A fly placket is wider (111/2 inches) and more structured than the typical lapped placket. To construct a fly placket, extensions on the seam allowances or separate pieces of shell fabric are required. A more structured fly placket increases durability and quality.
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ZY-E YKK Zipper - #5 Aluminum Style YEA56-aluminum teeth; for jackets, outerwear. Open top or separating. 82 colors, sizes from 5 inches up. ZY-F YKK Zipper - #5 Brass Style YEG56-brass zipper for jackets, outerwear. Open top or separating. 82 colors, sizes from 5 inches up. ZS-5B Zipper - #5 Antique Brass
ZY-A YKK Zipper - 2.5 mm Nylon Style 703-open top/closed bottom; auto slider. For skirts, pants, pockets, handbags. 401 colors, sizes from 4" up. ZY-B YKK Zipper - Poly Concealed Style 2CC-sewn into seams for an 'invisible' look; polyester tape, teardrop slider. Open top only. 80 colors; sizes from 5 inches up. ZY-H YKK Zipper - #3 Molded Style VF36-plastic teeth, auto slider. Open top or separating. 9 colors, sizes from 4 inches up. ZY-J YKK Zipper - #5 Molded Style VF56-plastic teeth, auto slider. Open top, separating and 2-way. 88 colors, sizes from 6 inches up. ZY-K YKK Zipper - #5 Molded Ring Pull Style VF56R-plastic teeth, ring slider; for outerwear, luggage. Open top or separating; black or white, other colors available as special order. Sizes from 5 inches up. ZY-M YKK Zipper - #10 Molded Style VF106-plastic teeth, auto slider. Available in open top, separating, reversible and 2-way. 13 colors, sizes from 6 inches up. ZS-6C Zipper - 6 mm Coil ZS-N Zipper - Nylon YKK style. Skirt and dress ZS-I Zipper - Invisible
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BASIC & FANCY SLIDERS
M51
M31D1
M31M(S) M31W1 M31W2 M31W9
M5101
M51X1
M51H
M51K1
M51N
M56V8
M51F
M51G1 M51L(L)
M31L
M51S(L)
M4YG
M51Y5
M518
M51Y M51V45 M51M(L)
M51V3
M51V3
M51X1O
M31C
M51T(S)
M56
M55EM
M51E1
M51X
M51V5
M51X17
M51Q
M51X18 M51Y9
M51E
M75EM
M51D
M51N104
M51X11
M5108
M51X4
M51X5 M51B1
M51B
M51B2
M31B(S)
M51HL
M51U1
M51U2
M51U6
5.3 BUTTONS AND BUTTONHOLES: Buttons are small knob or disk like devices that are secured to the garments to perform as closures when paired with the button holes. Buttonholes are slit or loop openings that retain buttons. Slit buttonholes have edges finished with thread fabric, or other material. Loop buttonholes are formed from thread, fabric, narrow elastic, braid and so on. Loops are usually attached to garment edges or seams, while other buttonholes are cut through the piece goods. Together, buttons and buttonholes form fastening units or closures. The performance of button and buttonhole closures depends on materials, structure, quality, and performance of each device and its compatibility with garment styling and materials. 128
FUNCTIONS OF BUTTONS AND BUTTONHOLES: Button and buttonhole selection is not a simple matter, as many different aspects of garment design and production must be considered. Buttons and buttonholes may be decorative, functional, or both. AESTHETICS: Buttons can be produced in nearly any shape, color and size. Some buttons are works of art made by hand using precious metals and precious and semiprecious stones. Such buttons are used on couture, one-of-a-kind garments. Buttons appearing on apparel are mass-produced just as garments are mass-produced. Buttons may be flat, domed, concave, ball shaped, oblong, round, square, or irregular. They may be produced in the shape of objects, animals, toys, or abstract shapes to complement a style feature. Buttons are often stamped with logos or symbols to increase differentiation for garment manufacturers. They may add interesting texture and color to what might otherwise be a very ordinary shell fabric and garment. In contrast, buttons covered with matching fabric blend with the garment. Buttons used as trim mayor may not he functional or have a corresponding buttonhole. In some cases the buttonhole may be visible but not functional. PERFORMANCE: Functional buttons and buttonholes close plackets, support other closures, or support other buttons, Closing security and flatness of plackets depend on button shape and spacing, and buttonhole size, structure, and placement, Flat, round buttons remain buttoned under stress better than irregular shapes, Closer spacing prevents buckling and gapping of plackets. Garment styling and fit influence button spacing. Buttonholes should retain the button, be stable in size and shape, and not become distorted during use. Buttonholes must be the correct size for the button or the closure will not hold, Buttonholes should be tight enough to prevent buttons from slipping through without manual assistance but allow buttoned garment pieces to move as the body moves, Gapping, distorted buttonholes look unsightly and do not stay buttoned, Interlining is often used to support buttonholes and prevent stretching, Buttons must be accurately placed for the corresponding buttonholes or gaps will be created and plackets will not lie flat. Automation can provide consistent spacing of buttons and buttonholes, but the placement of the garment part depends on the operator. Buttons that support other buttons may be attached inside a garment, directly behind the primary button fastener to reduce the strain on the shell fabric. Support buttons are most often used on better-quality coats and jackets to increase the durability of buttons that receive excessive use and stress. Support buttons reinforce other buttons and do not require a buttonhole. Performance specifications may include mildew resistance, color fastness, heat resistance, strength, launderability, and dry clean ability. High performance and durability of buttons will often elevate costs. Performance tests most often used for buttons are breaking strength and impact strength. Garment manufacturers may chose to do their own performance testing, or they may make their selection based on specifications and testing provided by the button manufacturer. Buttons need to be compatible with the shell fabric, other materials in the garment, determined care procedure, and button-setting equipment. The choice of shell fabrics affects the selection of color, finish, size, and weight of buttons. Heavy buttons may place excessive stress on lightweight fabrics, especially if many buttons are used without 129
proper support. Some synthetic buttons are not dry cleanable and will dissolve or become tacky in cleaning solution, while others such as leather and wood may not perform well when washed. Dyed buttons may change color during laundering or dry cleaning and may no longer match the shell fabric. Dye may not penetrate the button so abrasion quickly removes the color, particularly along edges and ridges. Garment end use is also a factor in button selection, e.g. rubber buttons are used, on authentic rugby shirts, while synthetic buttons are often used on rugby styles designed for street wear. Rubber buttons are selected for their comfort and resistance to impact when worn for contact sports. To protect the attaching thread from abrasion on garments that get hard use, buttons may be chosen that are concave on the top, have a deep thread groove, or have a rimmed edge. Even with the best selection of button type and application method, button loss is still a consumer problem. On better garments, extra replacement buttons may be attached to the garment in an inconspicuous place or to a hangtag or contained in a small plastic bag. CHARACTERISTICS OF BUTTONS: Button quality, aesthetics, and performance are affected by the materials incorporated in the buttons, the methods of coloring, finishing, styling, craftsmanship, and method of application. Buttons that are visible should be of similar quality as the garment. A producer of high-quality men's jackets may choose to use pewter or silver buttons instead of antiqued nickel or synthetic buttons. Makers of better topcoats may use leather, bone, or horn instead of buttons made of synthetic materials. Color-matched buttons are found on better-quality garments. Matched buttons create sourcing problems to secure an exact match and require more quality control to monitor shading and button strength. The outer buttons used on men's slacks and women's skirts often match or coordinate with the shell fabric, but inner buttons are often a standard color or clear and a flat style. In order to control inventory costs and setup delays, manufacturers may opt to use a neutral color button that will suit all fabrics and styles. Buttons are often marketed by findings representatives who work with garment manufacturers to meet needs for aesthetics, performance, delivery, quality, and cost. A findings rep may market several lines of buttons produced by different manufacturers and made from a variety of materials. Buttons are often selected from sample cards and ordered by the gross. Manufacturers may also work directly with designers and merchandisers to develop buttons for specific garments. Practical considerations include types of materials, fabrications, buttons, methods of attachment, and costs. BUTTON MATERIALS AND FABRICATION: Buttons may consist of one piece or a combination of pieces and materials that are clinched, clamped, glued, soldered, or molded together. Multipart buttons often have the top or face made of different materials than the back. The security with which the parts or materials are assembled is important in button performance. Button parts that have been glued together may not be adequate to withstand the rigors of buttoning, wear, and care. Glued buttons may also separate in cleaning if glue is soluble in water, detergent, or dry cleaning solvents. Buttons are available in a wide variety of finishes and textures ranging from shiny, glossy buttons to dull, matte finishes. Button finish is selected for compatibility with shell fabric. Buttons may be polished, antiqued, glazed, painted, and dyed after formation of the button blank. Dyeing finished buttons may not be as permanent as adding color to the liquid resin, but it allows the manufacturer to delay color decisions. Dyes may weaken some buttons. 130
True, not imitation, pearl buttons, which are cut and developed from natural mussel shells, have long been recognized for the appearance, quality, and status they contribute to garments. Buttons made from shells are fragile and have many variations in color and shape. Designers often try to imitate the natural irregularities in coloring while using more durable synthetic substances to produce a smooth button without irregularities in shape. Irregularities of natural materials may not be compatible with automatic button setting equipment. Buttons are also made of other natural substances, including wood, bone, shell, horn, tagua nuts, glass, rubber, leather, and metals including brass, pewter, nickel, copper, and silver. Plastic buttons are made of nylon, polyester, melamine, and urea. Button manufacturers tend to specialize in certain materials because of the expertise and special equipment needed. Most buttons used on mass-produced garments are made of plastics. Polyester, melamine, and urea are thermo set plastics whereas nylon is thermoplastic. Once hardened, thermo set plastics cannot be re-melted; thus, thermo set buttons are less subject to damage from heat during garment processing and care than thermoplastic buttons. Buttons selected for garment dyeing must be able to withstand dyeing and finishing processes and not take on any color. Buttons and fabrics cannot be dyed to match in the same dye bath. Neutral buttons are used for garment dyed apparel as button materials require different types / methods of dyeing than fabrics and other materials. Plastic buttons are commonly fabricated by casting and molding. Casting is the process of pouring synthetic resin inside a rotating drum. The resin forms a pliable sheet from which button blanks are cut with a dye. Blanks are machined to the desired shape and holes are drilled. Machined blanks are polished for hours with pumice, corn cobs, or other materials to develop desired level of smoothness and luster. More than one layer of resin may be cast for special effects. One method for making a simulated pearl button has streaks of brown or black pigment added to the first layer of resin to simulate the appearance of the back of natural shell buttons. The top layer of resin, with pearl essence (a creamy liquid extracted from fish scales) added, is cast for the luminous appearance of pearl. Casting tends to be less expensive than molding. Casted buttons are commonly used for basic buttons on budget and moderate priced apparel. Compression and injection molded buttons tend to be more aesthetically pleasing than cast buttons, but molded buttons are also more expensive because production processes are much slower. Compression molded buttons are formed by pressing a mold into soft resin, which sets up to form the button blanks. Injection molding requires special molds created to the precise shape and size of desired button. Injection molding is used to achieve 3-dimensional shape and more surface pattern. BUTTON TYPES: There are two basic types of buttons: holed and shanked. Thread or other material is passed through holes or shanks to secure buttons to garments. Holed buttons may have two to four holes extending through the center of the button. Buttons may be all one piece or a combination of parts and materials. Holed buttons may be sewn flat or attached with thread shanks. Thread shank allows button to be elevated to provide more flexibility and ease of movement. Thread shanks reduce strain on the thread and fabric and allow garment to lie flat when buttoned. Length of shank can be varied depending on the thickness of the buttonhole. A special presser foot is used to hold the button above the garment to provide slack as it is attached.
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Wrapped thread shanks are used in areas of excessive wear on better quality garments or if thread shanks are long. Wrapping is a process of placing button on its side after attachment and stitching over the thread shank. Thread shanks may be wrapped in order to protect thread and help button maintain its position. Wrapping makes a more durable button application. Wrapped button shanks are found on better jackets, coats, and some skirts and slacks. It is common for a manufacturer to wrap center front buttons that receive extensive use but not to wrap pocket or sleeve buttons. Shanked buttons have short, stem like devices (the shanks) on the backs of buttons. Shanks may be made of fabric, molded of the same material as button face, or formed from a separate metal part and combined with the face or back of button. Cloth shanks are found primarily on fabric covered buttons and are least durable. Molded shanks are produced through injection molding. Durability of molded shanks depends on the thickness of shank and strength of materials used to produce the button. Metal shanks may be cast as part of button, formed as looped wire like structures attached to or through the center of button, or stamped and shaped from sheet metal to form a button back that includes the shank. Shanks may be glued, soldered to metal, screwed into wood, set into molded buttons during formation, or clinched in place as multiple part buttons are assembled. Stamped button backs and shanks sometimes have sharp edges that sever thread and abrade or discolor fabrics. Shanked buttons are subject to crushing with compression, which may occur in pressing or consumer wear. Shanked buttons are permanently attached or removable if held in place by a toggle or ring on the inside of the garment. Permanently attached buttons are sewn to the garment or mechanically tacked. For removable buttons, a small eyelet is made in garment that allows shank of the button to be inserted. The toggle or ring slides through shank to hold button in place. Removable buttons are used on uniforms and other garments when buttons must be removed for cleaning and pressing. Tack buttons are named for the method of attachment. They have no thread to wear and abrade and are strong and durable. Tack buttons are multiple-part buttons attached with tacks that pass through the back of fabric into molded shanks on the back of the button. They consist of four parts: face, disk, shank, and tack. Face is outer, aesthetic portion that is often stamped with a design, logo, or firm's name that wraps the back of shank portion. Face is supported and protected by a hard concave disk that prevents the tack from piercing the button face. Tack has a post that consists of one or two prongs to secure tack in place. Shape of disk causes post to bend when forced through the shank, thus locking it in place. A two-prong tack has more holding power and is less likely to come out. Special button-setting equipment is used to apply pressure and secure the tacks in place. Once inserted, tacks cannot be removed without damaging the button and garment. Tack buttons, commonly found on jeans, jean jackets, and overalls, are fast and easy to apply but applications must be accurate. Tack buttons are also more rigid and therefore more difficult to manipulate in the buttoning process.
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BUTTON SIZE: Button diameter is specified in lignes, a unit of measure equal to 1 /40 of an inch. Dimension specifications would include diameter and thickness of the buttons, number of holes and the diameter and spacing of holes, shank type, depth, hole-size, and thickness of the bridge. (The bridge is the distance from the end of the shank to the edge of the hole. This is the distance that the needle must travel in attaching a shanked button.) Button dimensions may be limited by method of application and available equipment that a manufacturer uses. Button size, for a particular garment, is determined by the number of units to be used on the style, holding strength, appearance desired, and fashion trends. Some types of garments may use different sizes of the same button style, e.g. some men's shirts use larger buttons down the front and smaller ones for button-down collars; coats often use large buttons for the front and a smaller size for sleeves, neckline, or belt. As many as three different sizes may be used on one garment and some garments may use more than one style.
BUTTON APPLICATION: Button sewers are cycle machines with templates that are adjusted to produce a specific number of stitches in a specific pattern. Cams control the movement of the foot, which holds the button as stitches are formed. Depending on the production needs and sophistication of the machine, buttons may be fed automatically or placed by hand in the foot. Automatic button feeding systems feed buttons from a hopper, face-up, into a tube that carries them to the foot. Operators position the garment or component and engage the machine. During a cycle, buttons are stitched, threads cut, and the garment or component is released. Buttons must be smooth and consistently shaped to feed properly through automatic systems. Irregular buttons may feed through upside down or block the tubes. Automatic systems may have button indexers with automatic spacers that move the garment for placement of multiple buttons. These systems are regularly used by the shirt industry. With automatic feeding systems, changing button types, sizes, or colors is not a simple matter; thus, automatic button-feeding equipment is most frequently used on basic goods with which changes in types and colors are less frequent. The feeding system must be emptied and tubes changed to accommodate the new button size; machines are refilled, reset, and rethreaded. To save time and costs, manufacturers often limit selection to one size of neutral-colored buttons that blend with many different materials in the line. 134
Buttons are often attached with a 101 chain stitch. This stitch can set a button in a minimal amount of time; but it is also likely to unravel if a loose thread is pulled. The secret of good button application is using a sufficient number of stitches to hold the button and trimming thread close to the last stitch. Four-hole buttons may be stitched with parallel or cross-stitched patterns controlled by a template. Parallel stitched buttons are the most widely used. Stitches form in first pair of holes and then 2nd set. Cross-stitching uses diagonal holes in button as stitches are formed. CROSS-STITCHED BUTTONS: are often regarded as better-quality, but the only real difference may be aesthetic. When cross-stitching is done as one operation it is primarily a merchandising feature rather than a performance feature. When crossstitching is two separate operations, the button attachment is stronger. 5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF BUTTONHOLES: Buttonhole aesthetics and performance are related to type, materials used, method of construction, size, and placement of the buttonhole in relation to the button and type of fabric, Buttonhole quality relates to stitch type, stitches per inch, formations of stitches, and method of construction. BUTTON HOLE TYPES: Buttonhole types bound, loop, straight, and keyhole. Bound buttonholes are rectangular in shape with sides finished with fabric, leather, or other material. They are labor intensive and therefore have limited use in massproduced garments. A single bound buttonhole may involve several operations. Bound buttonholes are sometimes used on leather garments as the tight stitching used on straight or keyhole buttonholes could damage the leather. Leather is also sometimes used as the binding in buttonholes. Bound buttonholes also may be found on better women's coats and on women's custom-made apparel. Loop buttonholes are attached in a seam with the loop extending beyond the edge of the garment part; Loops are used in areas where there is little or no overlap of garment pieces, where there is little stress, and where a placket is in back of the loops. Loops may also be used for their aesthetic value, Loops may be nearly invisible, as with thread loops, or visibility may contribute to the style of the garment such as the button loops often used down the back of wedding gowns. Loops may be made of piece goods, narrow fabrics, such as braid, elastic, or tape, or thread. Piece goods are made into tubing from bias strips of fabric. Tubing may have cord in the center to make it three dimensional and increase its durability. Manufacturers may make their own tubing out of matching piece goods, contract the production of the tubing or purchase basic colors and types of tubing that can be used on different garments. Straight buttonholes are a slit with cut edges encased in thread and ends reinforced with stitching. Straight buttonholes are used on most types of garments and at all price points. Keyhole buttonholes have an enlarged, round shape at the end closest to the garment opening. This provides space for shanked buttons to fit into buttonholes without causing the buttonhole to gap open. Keyhole buttonholes are usually found on coats, jackets, and jeans. Edges of straight and keyhole buttonholes are finished with thread. Thread size varies with the type of buttonhole, weight of the shell fabric, and the expected performance. Threads used on shirt buttonholes are much finer than threads used on coats, jeans, and so on. Gimp is extra heavy thread frequently used to reinforce and strengthen keyhole buttonholes. It is laid on top of the buttonhole ahead of the stitching. Stitches encase the gimp and cover the cut edge of the fabric as the buttonhole is formed. 135
Buttonholes are usually stitched with a lock stitch (301 or 304) or single thread chain stitch (101). The lock stitch is more durable and will not ravel out if a loose thread is pulled. The number of stitches used in making buttonholes can be adjusted for each style. Stitches should be close together but not piled on top of other stitches. If they are too close, they may damage the fabric. Excessive stitching can put stress on the stitching line, wear out the fabric, or prohibit recovery when stretched. High stitch count on some stretch fabrics will cause buttonholes to gap unless the fabric has been stabilized. Stitches that are too far apart do not provide adequate support to the cut edge, allow fabric to ravel, and are less durable and aesthetically pleasing. The sequence of buttonhole making varies with the style of the garment, type of equipment, fabric type, and quality level of the garment produced. Buttonholes are produced with cycle machines that require an operator to position the garment and engage the machine. The most common type of buttonhole machine stitches a complete buttonhole before a knife comes down and cuts a slit between the rows of stitching. With this method, yarns from the piece goods or interlining may ravel from the cut edges and get caught on the button during the buttoning process, When this happens, snags and pulled yarns can occur in the piece goods in any direction from the buttonhole. Another method that makes a more finished buttonhole is the machine that cuts the opening first, followed by the stitching, This method is more likely to secure all threads and produce smooth edges and a more finished buttonhole, This method requires that the fabric be heavy enough to support the stitching, If it is too lightweight, the stitches over the cut edge will draw the fabric together and the buttonhole will not lie flat. Automated equipment can produce multiple buttonholes at one time similar to button-setting equipment, Buttonhole indexers can make 6 buttonholes in 19-sccond cycle time. BUTTONHOLE SIZE: Buttonhole size is determined in relation to the corresponding button. A minimum size for a buttonhole is the diameter of the button to be used. Other factors that should be considered are depth and smoothness of the button, and the amount of stretch in the shell fabric. Buttonholes that are too small for the buttons are difficult to use and receive excessive wear. Buttonholes that are too loose will not retain the button during wear and stress. BUTTONHOLE PLACEMENT: Buttonholes may be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal. Vertical buttonholes are usually centered on front bands or narrow plackets as found on many shirts and blouses. Horizontal buttonholes are used on fronts of coats and jackets and on cuffs and collar bands of shirts. Horizontal buttonholes have better holding power because the point of stress is the end of the buttonhole rather than the center, as is the case with vertical buttonholes. Buttonholes may be placed on the diagonal for special aesthetic or functional effects, but they must be stabilized, e.g. diagonal buttonholes are sometimes used for the support button on the underside of waistbands to keep waistband ends from showing. During wear, buttons pull to the end of buttonholes closest to the garment opening; therefore, buttonholes need to be positioned knowing this is the natural button 136
position. Center closing horizontal buttonholes should be located just beyond the center of the garment to allow the button to center itself. Vertical buttonholes are centered on the button, e.g. buttonholes are commonly vertical down the center front of a shirt, but the collar band buttonhole is horizontal. Buttonholes should be perfectly aligned with the buttons in order to avoid gaps and buckling of the garment. Buttonhole placement too close to the edge of a garment may allow too much stress on a weakened area of fabric. When this happens on skirts or slacks, the buttonhole may eventually tear out. Buttonholes should be set far enough into the garment to prevent buttons from extending over the edge of the component or from putting too much stress on other closures. If buttonholes are used on knit or bias-cut woven fabric, the length of the buttonhole should be stabilized to prevent gapping. Interlining should be chosen that is stable in at least one direction. The stable grain of the interlining should be aligned parallel with buttonhole, e.g. bias-cut woven interlining used in button-down collars is straight grain under the collar buttonholes. This provides a base for a stable, flat buttonhole. 5.5 SNAPS: Snaps are mechanical closures that are frequently used on adult and children's clothing in place of buttons, particularly when a less formal look is desired. They are used as closures on outerwear, active sportswear, and many types of casual apparel. Snaps allow easy access and fast change. Compared to buttons, snaps are quick and easy to press closed and pull open, which makes opening a pocket or placket faster and more accessible to the wearer, However, they require precision matching and strength that may not be necessary for buttons. Snaps are available with varied degrees of opening and closing action. The gripping power of snaps tends to increase with size since larger snaps have more gripping surface. Snaps may be used to secure garments and accessories that are too bulky or stiff for buttons and buttonholes such as belts and purses. ASTM has standard tests for evaluation of snap performance relative to lateral holding strength and snap action, D 4846-88. Snaps also may be selected for their aesthetic value. Caps, the primary visible part of snaps, are separate coverings used on the outside of the snap unit. Caps may be made to look like buttons, exhibit a logo, or provide aesthetic enhancement. Occasionally only the decorative half of the snap is applied to the garment if it does not have to be functional. Snaps are sized by lignes the same as buttons but produced in fewer sizes. The more common sizes are 15, 16, 18, 20, and 24 lignes, although special sizes and types may be produced to specifications. Sport snaps, which are 12 or 14 lignes snaps, are a smaller version. Sport snaps are used extensively on both woven and knit sport shirts, blouses, and some dresses. SNAP PARTS: Snaps are paired mechanical closures that consist of a closure unit and an attaching unit. A closure unit consists of two different closure parts: a stud and socket that must be compatible. Studs are the projecting half of the closure unit with an expanded rim, ball, or flattened end that must fit the socket half of the closure unit. They are available in varied diameters, depths, and shapes that affect the holding power of the snap. Studs are attached to the under lap of a garment or component, and sockets are attached to the overlap. Sockets are the hollow half of the closure unit that contains a spring to retain the stud. The spring and corresponding shape of the stud provide the holding power for the closure unit. Larger sockets generally house one of two types of springs: a floating ring spring or parallel springs. A floating ring spring expands and contracts behind the expanded rim as the stud is forced into the socket. Ring springs are generally more durable and have greater holding power. Parallel 137
spring snaps can be identified by two parallel bars on either side of the socket. Snaps are attached to garments by sewing or clinching. Sewn snaps are attached with a 101 chain stitch similar to button setting or by hand as may be the case with custom sewn garments. Snaps used on most mass-produced garments are clinched in place by attachment parts positioned behind the closure parts. Attaching units establish the position and provide holding power for setting closure parts. There are two main types of attaching units: eyelets and pronged disks or open-top rings. An eyelet consists of two parts: a top, which is often called a cap (also called a button or cover), and a barrel. The cap is the decorative part of the snap and the most visible portion. Caps may be formed separately and attached to the rest of the snap or formed as part of it. The barrel is inserted through the fabric into the closure unit and compressed to clinch the fastener. Barrels may be self-piercing, which means the barrel cuts a small slit in the garment as it is inserted. This eliminates drilling holes prior to setting the snaps. The eyelet with attached cap is used to attach the socket or overlap unit. The eyelet of the under lap unit consists of a flange that supports the snap and protects the surrounding fabric. Pronged rings or disks are used to secure smaller, flatter snaps, which are sometimes referred to as press fasteners or grippers. Pronged rings may be stainless steel, brass, nickel plated, or white enameled. Prongs penetrate the fabric and are clinched to the closure units by means of a special tool. The strength and holding power of pronged snaps are dependent on the length and number of prongs used. Rings are available with four or five prongs, different prong lengths, and fineness. Long-length prongs are designed for use with bulky fabrics in order to provide better penetration. Fine prongs are sharper and able to penetrate fabrics with less damage to yarns. Pronged rings need to be supported with interlining, especially on knits. When stretched, knits will pull away from the prongs unless stabilized.
MATERIALS: Materials used in producing snaps are primarily metal: steel, brass, and nickel. Snaps may be plated with various metals to produce a product more compatible with processing and care procedures. Snaps must be compatible with other materials used in the garment and the required care procedures. Caps may be made of nylon, polyester, urea, melamine, leather, cloth, bone, vinyl, or stamped metal and produced in nearly any shape, size, color, or finish. Caps may be antiqued, plated, enameled, painted, or cloth covered. Many different types of finishes are available, similar to those used on buttons. Plastic snaps are seeing wider usage on specific types of products such as children's wear, rain wear, lingerie, and some packaging. 138
APPLICATION: Accurate placement and durable snap setting are important factors in producing quality garments. Clinched snaps usually cannot be removed and replaced without damaging the garment. A snap that is lost or not clinched properly causes a defective garment. Snaps can be applied with manual or automatic equipment. Snap-setting equipment, regardless of the complexity and degree of automation, is dependent on pressure applied with a chuck and die. A die is the lower portion that must be the proper size and shape for the specific cap to be used. The die holds the cap of the snap. The chuck that must fit the die exerts pressure for clinching. Improper fit of the die and snap or the die and chuck will not allow the snap to be set properly. Once snaps are set, there is little flexibility in changing position. Snaps with pronged rings may be pried loose and reset if the fabric has not been damaged; however, the holes required by hollow barrel eyelets mean they cannot be applied in another location. Throat depth of the attaching device is a factor in how far from a garment edge a snap can be set. Automated snap setters have automatic feeding systems that alternately feed the appropriate parts. Inventory and the setting process can be simplified if only one type of attaching part is used. The equipment used to attach or apply closures is often proprietary and will fit only on that supplier's product. Vendors determine minimum orders that will qualify the manufacturer to have title to the attaching equipment without monetary outlay. 5.6 ELASTIC: Elastic may be used to create an expandable closure or opening in a garment. Elastic has two functions: to expand when stretched and to recover to its original dimension when released. The loss or reduction of either function inhibits the aesthetics and performance of elastic and the garment to which it is attached. The degree of expandability and recovery is provided by the structure of elastomeric fibers, fabrication of the elastic, and application methods. Elastics may be sampled and tested, and garment prototypes with elastic incorporated may be tested to determine if the performance of the elastic is adequate. Elastics may be purchased from open stock or ordered to specifications. Vendors of open-stock elastics usually provide a specification data sheet that apparel manufacturers may use in making purchase decisions. Elastics must be suited to the desired aesthetics and expected performance of the product. They are often a factor in determining garment structure, fit, and comfort. The performance of elastic may determine the life of the garment in which it is used. FUNCTIONS OF ELASTIC: Performing a variety of functions, elastics may be separate garment components, incorporated in garment components, or applied directly as a facing or means of incorporating fullness. Elastic components include bra straps and waistbands made entirely of elastic. Elastics used in casings are often referred to as insert elastic or commodity elastic. Casings are fabric or thread enclosures that completely encase elastic so is not visible or in contact with the body. Elastics used as facings are protective coverings and finishes for garment edges. Facing elastics are used for waists of underwear, edges of bras, and for jogging shorts. AESTHETICS: Elastic used as trim may be selected for its particular color or design. Structural design elastics include stripes, jacquard patterns, logos, or special constructions; applied designs are printed on elastics. Logos may be incorporated into elastic structures to provide differentiation for garments, as is often the case with underwear elastic. Trim elastics are applied to the outer part of the garment so they 139
are readily visible instead of being concealed in a casing. Casual skirts and shorts sometimes use elastic trim as the waistband. Elastic may also contribute to aesthetics as part of garment fit and styling. Used in a component, it can provide a tight fit with flexibility that would otherwise be uncomfortable and restrict movement. Elastics may gather a sleeve or waistline, finish an edge or provide shape and support to garment components. Elastics are often used to produce firm edges and provide shape retention for fabrics such as nylon tricot, power net, and swim wear fabrics. Without elastic, fabric edges would roll and curl when stretched and would not return to the original flat state. PERFORMANCE: Elastic materials are selected for their specific performance characteristics such as the amount of stretch, holding power, flexibility, comfort, and hand. The performance in any given application is dependent on the elongation and recovery of a particular type of elastic, method of application, and weight and structure of shell fabric. Elastics provide a comfortable fit for waistlines, cuffs, and necklines as long as they are sized correctly. Elastics allow for a close body fit and expansion without a placket as long as the garment itself is large enough. Elastic expansion makes it easier to pull on garments and in many cases eliminates the need for plackets or other closures, Garments or components with elastic expansion require fewer materials and operations, thus reducing production costs. Elastics, which are produced in varied amounts of elasticity, must be suited to the size of the opening needed and the tightness of fit expected. Once installed, elastics cannot expand further than the garment component in which they are contained. Elastics used inside a woven waistband can be stretched only to maximum of fabric casing, while elastics used on waist of knits are limited only by stretch of fabric. Elastics provide flexibility for comfort and movement and in size and fit for a variety of body shapes. As body moves and bends, soft elastic will flex, fold, bend, and stretch rather than remaining rigid and firm. This allows the wearer to move freely without being restricted. Garments with expandable waistlines may often be sized in small / medium large as one size fits a wider range of customers. From the manufacturers and retailers perspectives, flexibility in size and fit means one garment will fit a greater variety of body shapes and dimensions and fewer SKUs are needed. Resistance elastic exhibits to strain provide holding power. Elastics are made with varying degrees of stretch and holding power. Elastics with high elasticity and little resistance to strain provide low holding power. High-control stretch provides greater resistance to strain and thus more holding power. Elastics with a high degree of stretch are used to retain gathers or fullness in areas needing easy expansion and recovery. If elastic is sewn in an expanded condition, it will cause gathering when it relaxes. Probable uses include the cuffs or sleeves of children's dresses and sleepwear. Higher holding power is required for athletic apparel, tops of hosiery, and some types of intimate apparel. Power stretch elastics, those with a greater resistance to stretch, are often used in support clothing, protective devices, and foundation garments. Special elastic garments or elastic components are structured to provide support, protection, and shape to muscles and body parts. Full, garments structured with power stretch fabrics may be used by athletes to support muscles and retain special types of pads or for surgical wraps and support devices. Power stretch fabrics and elastic components are also used in foundation garments to firm, shape, and smooth the human body. The expanded elastic whether high or low control, must contract to its original dimension, in order to provide consistent fit, shape, and appearance.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF ELASTICS: Characteristics of elastics depend on materials, fabrication, and size. Elastics are often produced for a specific end use, with high or low stretch, and fabricated for a specific garment category, e.g. elastics used in the waistline of men's briefs may have 100-110% stretch, while elastics used in women's briefs may have 130-140% stretch. Facing elastics have approximately 160% stretch, and strap elastic has 70-80% stretch. The amount of stretch is determined by fiber content and fabrication. MATERIALS: Fiber content is a major factor in the longevity, stretch, performance, and care of elastics. The high extendibility of elastics is due to elastomeric fibers: rubber or spandex. Both of these elastomerics have excellent elongation and recovery properties, but rubber, in the same size fiber or yarn, has lower strength. Rubber costs less than spandex, ages faster, yellows with age, and is susceptible to damage by heat, dry cleaning solvents, and chlorine bleach. Spandex tolerates both dry cleaning and laundering. Elastomerics may be combined with cotton, rayon, acetate, nylon, and polyester in yarns and fabrics. The percentage of elastomerics included may have a direct relationship to the percentage of stretch and recovery that can be expected from a specific type of elastic or material. Elastics produced for swim wear are sometime treated to increase resistance to chlorine, sun, and salt water. In spite of this modification, deteriorating elements will eventually reduce effectiveness of elastic. FABRICATIONS: Elastomeric material may be used as broad elastics made in widths that exceed 15 inches, as thread, flat filament yarns, or finished narrow fabrics in widths ranging from 1/8 inch to 15 inches. Broad elastics may be cut and sewn similar to other fabric yardage. Elastic thread or yarn commonly consists of an elastomeric core wrapped with cotton or acetate. The wrapping contributes to aesthetic effect and comfort, and it facilitates the sewing operation. Elastic thread or yarn can be woven or knitted into fabrics or used for decorative rows of stitching. Flat strips of elastomerics may be encased in thread during the sewing process or used as inserts. This application is often found on underwear or in leg or cuff casing of sweats. Common narrow elastic fabrications are braids, knits, and wovens. Braided elastics usually have a high degree of stretch but become narrower as stretched, which may create problems with recovery after stitching. Stitching through elastic that has narrowed while stretched may prevent total recovery after stitching, depending on the type and closeness of the stitches. Braided elastics, which may be called tunnel elastics, because they are widely used in casings, have a high degree of stretch and are often used on children's wear. Woven elastics are heavier than knitted and braided elastics and have more width stability, better rigidity to fold over, and more holding power because the elastomerics are easier to control. According to specific quality standards, woven elastics provide better appearance and are frequently used in garments with tighter specifications and less tolerance. Most military uniforms that require elastic specify wovens. Woven elastics are more expensive to produce because fewer strips can be produced at one time and more operations are required. On a 36 to 40 inch bed, approximately four one inch strips can be woven at one time as compared to warp knitting, which can produce up to twenty-five one inch strips on a machine of the same size. Woven elastics may be plain weaves, satin weaves, or a novelty variation. Plain weaves are used for the commodity insert types of elastic; satin weaves are used to produce strapping elastic and plush elastic. Plush elastic is used as an edging or facing that may be used next, to the skin. Plush elastics are constructed of stretch nylon and 141
spandex that elongate when stretched. The nylon "bulks up" when the elastic is relaxed to produce a plush surface. Woven elastics may be produced with a scalloped, looped, or picot edge, which adds aesthetic value to the elastic and garment. These may be referred to as toppings. Knit elastics are produced on warp knitting machines with individual needles fed by separate yarns. Yarns are knitted around the elastomers to hold them in place vertically and horizontally. This provides vertical elongation and horizontal stability and does not allow the elastic to become narrower when elongated as with braided elastics. Knit elastics are cheaper to produce as raw elastomeric fibers are used instead of covered yarns. Warp knitting machines can produce more yards, per hour because more strips can be knitted at same time. Knit elastics weigh less than woven, which may be an advantage for some uses. Lightweight, open-construction elastic allows body heat to escape and is less bulky. In other instances, extra body may be needed to produce the hand or aesthetics desired. Additional weight or body may be added to elastic by use of filler yarn, increasing yarn size of filler yarns, and raising the number of courses per inch. The filler yarns, which may be referred to as courses, can be added, to knit structures to provide, more stiffness or substance. As more courses are used, more yarn is incorporated, which increases both weight and cost. Width of knitted elastics is controlled by the number of needles and the amount of space between the needles used in the knitting operation. Needle spacing may be adjusted on knitting machines to form channels or sewing tracks in the elastics. Sewing channels are lengthwise spaces without elastomers where the elastic can be stitched to a garment but not damage the elastomers or reduce elastic recovery. Needle spacing on sewing machines must be compatible with the sewing tracks for effective application. Quick / Cord, which is a variation of this type of construction, is an elastic with a draw cord knitted into the center in place of elastomeric fibers. This elastic is attached in the traditional manner, but the operation of inserting a draw cord through a casing is eliminated. The cut ends of the cord are drawn out and positioned ready to tie. This type of elastic is frequently used on shorts, sweatpants, and other active wear. APPLICATIONS: Elastic applications may be exposed or enclosed. Exposed elastic applications are often used at the waistline of underwear and lingerie. Exposed elastic may be applied to the outside or inside of a garment and not covered by a casing or cover stitch. It has direct contact with the body or other garments which may limit its durability and aesthetic appeal. Most exposed applications have elastic fed from a reel and sewn directly to flat components, such as sleeves of childrens dresses, lingerie, underwear, and swimwear. Direct application of exposed elastic is often the fastest and least expensive method of application because it involves only one operation. It requires the elastic be attached or closed off in a seam, which may be bulky and uncomfortable to the wearer. Manufacturers may choose to bar tack across the seam to make it lie flat or cover it with a label. Better lingerie may have seams in elastic covered with a small square of fabric to conceal the scam area. Direct application of elastic requires uniform stretch of the elastic during the entire stitching process in order for the elastic to contract evenly. This is done with a metering device that can be adjusted to apply a specific amount of tension to elastic as it is being sewn to garment.
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Elastics are most often applied with a chain stitch because of the stretch built into the stitch. In some cases, an over-edge stitch is used to combine operations of finishing the cut edge of' the casing and attaching the elastic in the same operation. This method is risky unless special attachments are used to protect the elastic. Exposed applications on lingerie may be attached with a 406 cover stitch or a 308 multiple zigzag; the latter is the neatest, most time-consuming, and most costly. Enclosed elastic applications are concealed by a fabric casing or cover stitching. A casing is a fabric channel to encase elastic or a drawstring. Casings may be formed by folding fabric around elastic for stitching or applying casing materials to the garment, doublestitching two adjacent garment pieces together, or using a cover stitch over the elastic. Enclosed elastic may be more comfortable and aesthetically pleasing because the elastic is covered or concealed. Enclosed elastics may also be more durable because the elastic is covered and protected but bulkier due to the double thickness of fabric used. Enclosed elastics may be applied directly prior to final seaming, or the elastic may be cut and sewn together prior to enclosure. They may be allowed to remain free in the casings without additional stitching that could restrict recovery. In some types of garments, rubber bands of specified dimensions may be used in a casing. This is a fast method of encasing elastic and eliminating bulky seams. 5.7 HAND AND LOOP TAPE: Hook-and-loop tape was developed as a touch fastener by a Swiss engineer, who noticed how tenaciously cockle burrs clung to his dog and clothing. Hook-and-loop fasteners consist of paired polyamide tapes, one covered with tiny hooks and one covered by tiny loops. Two tape structures are closed by touch and pressure and opened or separated with peeling action. Original patent has expired, but parts of production process are still protected. Research efforts are ongoing to improve product and production processes. Hook-and-loop tapes have many uses, including but not limited to apparel. On clothing, hook-and-loop tapes provide a means of attachment or closure. It is used to hold accessories or garment parts such as shoulder pads in place, or as fasteners on jackets, shoes, slacks, shorts, swimsuits, gloves, and lingerie. Hook and loop tapes are often used on clothing for children and people with disabilities because of the ease in opening and closing compared to other types of closures that require a higher degree of skills and strength. PERFORMANCE: Hook-and-loop tapes are more important functionally than aesthetically, although they have been a fashion closure in active sportswear and are available in a variety of basic colors. Hook-and-loop tapes are contact fasteners with hooks to grasp and hold the loops. Holding power is affected by the amount of pressure applied to the tapes, structure of the tapes, and method of application to the garment or product. The more pressure that is applied, the more interlocking there will be between hooks and loops. Vibration or agitation also increases holding power by allowing hooks to attain a deeper grasp of the loops. Performance of hook-and-loop tape is determined by peel strength and shear strength. Peel strength is a measure of the amount of force needed to pull the two tapes apart from one end. Shear strength is the amount of force required to cause two parts to slide on each other thus separating the tapes. In measuring shear strength, force is applied to opposite sides of the paired tapes. Durability of hook-and-loop tape is determined by testing the holding power and checking the appearance of' the tape after a specified number of opening and closing cycles. Tapes may be tested after a specified number of cycles, such as 5,000, 10,000, or 20,000. Closure strength or holding power may be altered by increasing or decreasing the size of the tapes, hooks 143
per inch, hook strength, and hook length in relation to the size of the closure. The more hooks per square inch, the more force it takes to separate the tapes. Flexibility of the hook affects hook strength and the amount of resistance the hook has to straightening when stressed. Performance problems related to the use of hook-andloop tape include tendencies of the hook side of the tape to attach to other materials or garment parts, especially during laundering. MATERIALS: Apparel hook and-loop tapes are fabricated from nylon filament that is knitted or woven into narrow fabric with 1/16-inch selvages. The loop tape is interwoven or knitted to form a dense pile surface consisting of a mass of fine loops. The pile surface is napped to disorient the surface and provide better holding power. The surface of the hooked tape is formed from monofilament loops that are cut to form hooks. Both hook-and loop tapes may be heat-set to ensure shape retention of hooks, loops, and dimensional stability of tapes. Tapes are dyed, back coated, and cut. Back coating involves coating each tape with a synthetic resin to prevent yarn slippage. It contributes to the stiff hand, which can be an advantage during application but uncomfortable when used in garments. APPLICATIONS: Hook-and-loop fasteners may be applied by sewing, adhesive bonding, ultrasonic sealing, or heat sealing depending on the particular type of hookand-loop fasteners used and the product to which it is applied. Although sewing is the most common application used on apparel, hook-and-loop fasteners are available with a wide variety of factory applied adhesive pre-coats, including solvent-activated, heatactivated, and pressure-sensitive backings for easy application to specific products. There are also liquid adhesives suitable for most applications. Hook-and-loop tapes are available in standard widths (5/8 to 4 inches), and shapes may be die cut to specified dimensions. It is available on reels for continuous application or in dispenser packages for easy access and handling by operators. 5.8 HOOKS: Waistband hooks are paired metal fasteners, a hook and a bar (eye), that are set prior to waistband assembly. Each part of the fastener is held in place by a clinch plate that is placed inside the band. The hook and bar are designed with staple like devices on the back. Prongs on the hook or bar penetrate the band and clamp around the plate. Hooks attached may be used on many types of pants and skirts at all price levels. Hooks may be used singly, in multiples, or supported by buttons. COSTS OF CLOSURES: Closure costs focus on four main areas: cost of materials and inventory maintenance, labor costs for placket formation and closure installation, costs of purchasing or leasing specialized equipment, and cost of returned garments because of closure failure. For manufacturers of outerwear and sportswear, inventory management of closures is a major responsibility. It involves a large number of vendors and dozens of SKUs from each vendor. Variables include minimums, lead times, and order requirements, all of which may impact costs. Closure failure can be attributed to faulty garment design, improper selection of closures, faulty materials, incorrect production methods, poor sewing or application procedures, and customer abuse. The plackets, that are too short or poorly placed, impact performance of the closure and customer satisfaction. Construction that is not appropriate for the closure type, shell fabric, or other fasteners may cause excessive strain during use and result in closure failure. Poor design and in-correct installation methods may not be apparent until garments have been worn. This may put turn around time for problems at 4 6 months after initial production. Meanwhile, a lot of garments can be produced with potential for closure failure. 144
6. TRIMS: Trims are materials used to ornament or enhance garments. They are
visible parts of garments that may be used to increase hanger appeal, provide product differentiation, relate to current fashion trends, and carry a theme through an entire collection. Trims include a broad range of materials and treatments that may be superficially applied or structurally incorporated into nearly any type of' garment. Possibilities for trim are limited only by availability, design creativity, costs and equipment to produce and apply them. Trims are grouped into four categories: bindings, edgings, flat applications, and other trims. A selected type of trims includes embroidery, lace, appliqus, knit trims, screen printing, heat transfers, and labels. 6.1 NATURE OF TRIMS: Trims, which are an integral part of garment design, may be decorative and / or functional, Decorative trims are selected and applied to enhance the aesthetic appeal of a garment but are not essential to garment function and performance. Examples of decorative trims are embroideries, screen printing, and appliqus. Functional trims are an integral part of garment structure and use. They serve a specific purpose in garment performance and aesthetic contributions are optional, e.g. knit collars and cuffs, buttons, edge finishes, and labels. Trims may be added to piece goods, garment components, or finished garments or they may be garment components such as knit collars and cuffs. Piece goods are embroidered or narrow fabrics have edgings applied prior to cutting. Trims are often applied to garment components prior to assembly to facilitate handling and application. They become a more integral part of a garment if applied early in production process. Finished garments may be trimmed to customize a product, but rarely are structural trims added after assembly. Screen printing may be applied to garment components or finished garments depending on the nature of design and customer needs. 6.2 TYPES OF TRIMS: Wide varieties of materials are used as garment trim, including piece goods, support materials, closures, thread, and special purpose fabrications. These materials are applied to garments as bindings, edgings, flat applications and other trims. Bindings are primarily functional trims that finish outer edges of garments or garment components by encompassing them. They are used to finish neck lines, armholes, hems, front openings, and so on. Bindings may be made of a wide variety of materials including bias cut wovens, knit strips, and folded braid, which might be used to bind the edge of jogging shorts. Bindings need flexibility to conform to garment curves. Knit and bias bindings have more stretch and flexibility than woven gods cut on straight grain. Binding width and stretch must be appropriate for the amount of contour expected. Narrow bindings work best on sharp contours while either wide or narrow bindings can be used on straight edges. Bindings are selected to match or accent piece goods or to carry out a specific color theme in a garment design. They are applied using methods specified in the Bound Seam Class of the Federal Stitch and Seam Specifications. Edgings are used to accentuate style lines, outline shapes, or to compartmentalize blocks of color. They may be applied to edges or included in seams of garment components. Edgings are used on straight edges such as hems, ruffles, tucks, and straight design lines and on curved edges such as necklines. Edgings on straight edges need to be flexible but not necessarily shapeable. Edgings can also be gathered for aesthetic appeal and shaping along contoured seams. Types of edgings are piping, lace, ribbon, fringe, tapes, picot trim. Piping is a covered cord that forms a raised edge along seams. Used to stabilize seams, outline components, and absorb wear and abrasion that would affect seams. Stiff piping lacks flexibility, is difficult to shape, may distort component shape, and is more susceptible to abrasion than a more flexible type. 145
Laces are often used to trim necklines and sleeves, particularly of sleepwear and infant and toddler dresses. Edging laces have a stiffer hand. That is why little children become fussy when dressed in frilly dresses with scratchy lace edging around the neck and sleeves. A softer hand is more comfortable and considered to be better quality. Piping, lace, and other types of edgings may be applied as lapped seams or superimposed seams depending on whether the edging has one or two finished edges and where it is being applied to the garment. Unfinished edges of trims should be enclosed in seams or covered by garment components. Edgings with two finished selvages can lap edges of components for application. Flat trims are applied to the surface of garment components to ornament a style. Flat trims include braids of all types and designs, twill tapes, ribbons, knit tubings, narrow weaves, warp knit bands, embroidery, appliqu, and screen print ing. Braids, tapes, ribbons, and bands may be sewn to garment components in single or multiple rows, scrolled on collars or fronts of blouses and dresses, or used to stripe sleeves or pant legs or to cover seams. These trims are available in a vast variety of widths and fabrications. Width affects use and application. Scrolling requires very narrow and flexible trim. Wider trims are difficult to curve and manipulate for a flat application. Coverage of seams with trims requires wider; durable applications. Flat trims is applied with lock or chain stitch machines. Embroidery, appliqu, and screen printing are applied to garment piece goods, garment components, and trims to create special visual and textural appeal. Other trims, including nail heads, rivets, rhinestones, grommets, and buckles, are sewn or clinched into garments with special equipment. Use of these trims is subject to fashion acceptance. Prongs or other attaching devices need to grasp and hold shell fabrics securely without cutting or snagging the garment or scratching the wearer. Prongs may cut yarns and damage shell fabrics if not properly selected and carefully applied. Soft and knitted piece goods often need a backing to stabilize and support metal trims. AESTHETICS AND PERFORMANCE: Appropriate trim selections can make ordinary garments special; the wrong trim can make garments un-salable. Highquality trims can make otherwise inexpensive garments look terrific, while cheap buttons or laces can ruin the appeal of well-made garments. Some trims have specific appeal to certain market segments, e.g. lace trims and ruffles on little girls dresses are more important to the gift market and certain ethnic markets than more functional trims. Trims are also part of the fashion scene. Appliqu s may be in high demand some seasons, while leather trims and rhinestone studs are popular another season. For good performance, trims must be compatible with other materials used in the garment and suited to assembly methods, equipment, and skill of operators. From a production standpoint, trims serve best when they can embellish basic, easy-toproduce, easy-to-wear fashions. Care must be taken to select trims that (1) have similar care requirements as the piece goods, (2) are colorfast, and (3) are dimensionally stable or dimensionally compatible with piece goods. Bindings, edgings, and flat applications should be flexible, have a soft hand and resist abrasion. Bindings and edgings are used in areas of high body contact such as armholes of sleeveless garments, necklines, fronts of jackets, and hems. Bindings are especially subject to abrasion because they surround garment edges and rub against the body. Dimensional stability during application, use, and care is important to aesthetics and performance. Fiber content is a selection criteria related to durability, abrasion resistance, and care. Shrinkage can cause puckering of garment components and poor fit. Excessive stretching during application may result in uneven application, pucker, and distortion. Work aids such as folders and guides are frequently used to facilitate 146
sewing operations and to improve quality and consistency of application. Common performance problems include failure of trims in laundry or dry cleaning, color bleeding, shrinkage, stretching, distortion during application and distortion following renovation. A better understanding of aesthetics and performance of trims is gained by the more in-depth discussion of the production methods and characteristics of some major types of trims. SOURCES OF TRIMS: Apparel manufacturers may purchase trims or produce their own. Purchased trims may be selected from open stock or produced to specifications. Trim manufacturers specialize in certain types of products such as lace, embroideries, knit collar and cuffs, and narrow fabrics. Many trim manufacturers work with fabric houses and garment manufacturers to develop trims to coordinate with piece goods or to enhance garment styling. Trim wholesalers market a variety of products produced by multiple sources that may include appliqus, braids, buttons, and laces. This enables garment manufacturers to work with fewer vendors in sourcing materials for their product line and reduce the marketing done directly by a trim manufacturer. Trim buyers depend on a vendor's testing and specifications when ordering from open book, but compatibility with other garment materials must also be checked. Open-stock items have smaller minimum orders and are easier to reorder but have limited confinement. They are available in traditional colors and limited fashion colors, which create difficulties in matching specific colors a garment manufacturer may use, Trims, may be ordered to specifications to obtain a specific color match, logo, or fabric consistency but benefits of ordering from open stock disappear. Garment manufacturers that produce their own trims may have their own specialized machines or contract production. When trims are produced in house or by affiliated plants, there is more product control, exclusivity, and less opportunity to be copied than when trims are contracted or purchased from open stock. When a firm produces its own trims, delivery is more dependable, quality control is easier, shading and matching problems are reduced, lead time is reduced, and inventory adjustments are easier. Manufacturers may choose to produce some types of trims and contract production of others in order to limit investment in specialized equipment and skills. KNIT TRIMS: Knit trims are primarily functional trims used as bindings and edgings with aesthetics added through color, pattern, and texture. Knit trims may be used for flat applications such as stripes or bands or for components, such as collars and cuffs. Yarn-dyed stripes and jacquard designs are frequently part of knit trim structures. Knit trims are designed and used primarily on knit sportswear, but they may also be used to trim woven sports wear. Fashion sometimes dictates knit trims on wovens or woven trims on knits. Knit trims may be cut and sewn or knitted to specified dimensions, depending on methods of fabrication. Circular knit trims are produced in tubes that range from 1 inch to 60 inches in circumference. Tube size depends on the size of a needle bed and gauge. Neckbands, cuffs, and some knit braid may be produced as a tube and cut to specific lengths or widths as needed. Narrow tubes may be cut to specific lengths and used as a tubular trim, while wider tubular piece goods may be cut crosswise as a continuous strip and rolled for application during assembly. Flat-bed knitting machines may be used to produce knit trims, such as collars or cuffs. Trim pieces may be knitted to specific size dimensions, have finished edges, or be shaped by decreasing and connecting Wales to form fashion marks, Moisture-soluble yarns may serve as connecting courses between pieces of trim. On completion of a run, application of steam dissolves the soluble connecting yarns, leaving separated 147
pieces that are the prescribed size. Trims may also be separated by cutting or pulling the connecting yarns. Warp knitting can be used to produce yardage for cut and sew trims or flat narrow trims with finished edges. Narrow knit trims are used for racing stripes on pants, sleeves, and shoulder trims on athletic uniforms, Warp knit tricots may be produced in standard widths and cut to size for specific types of trim such as bindings on lingerie and sleepwear and spaghetti strapping. Rib trims used to complete necklines and lower sleeve edges are produced as 1 x 1 or 2 x 2 ribs depending on the amount of bulk and stretch needed. Edge structures determine whether a knit trim is used as a single or double ply. Rib trim with one finished edge may be used as single-ply trim on sweater necklines and cuffs of polo shirts. Two-ply folded trims may be used as sleeve, waist, or neck bands. Folded trims applied with a superimposed seam results in an exposed seam at neckline and cuff edges. Two-ply trims may also be seamed before folding to enclose the seam and form a tube. This treatment is often found on letter jackets with ribbed cuffs; it is regarded as better-quality construction because the seam is enclosed. Another type of ribbing used on sweaters is formed on a machine with two needle beds. The outer edge of the band is single ply, and the attaching edge is double ply. This forms a binding to cover the seam and a single ply ribbing at the neckline to reduce bulk. This is used on sweaters and bulkier knits. Knit trims often need to stretch and recover as a garment is put on and taken off. Stretch and recovery are affected by fiber content, knit structure and gauge, and method of application. Knit trims are often the same fiber content as knit garments on which they are applied. When knit trims are used on woven piece goods or other fabrications, the fiber content may not be the same, which can cause compatibility problems. Spandex yarns are often knitted into trims to provide better recovery and shape retention. Some preshrink knit trims to tighten gauge and provide more stretch. 6.4 EMBROIDERY: Embroidery is an art form that uses close or overlapping stitches to form intricate, three-dimensional, surface designs to embellish piece goods, trims, or garments. Embroidery has evolved from hundreds of years of handwork by dozens of cultures to an established art form. Today, embroidery is made by using advanced technology to mass produce trims for the garment industry. Embroidery has evolved from a customized hand-sewing process to computer controlled stitching for mass production. Some of the first embroidery machines made it possible to apply names on individual garments, such as hats and shirts. This required a great deal of operator skill to manipulate garments and form the lettering. Modem embroidery machines only require the operator to place the garment or fabric to be embroidered. Embroidered designs may be applied directly to piece goods and finished garments, or produced as individual emblems. DIRECT EMBROIDERY: Direct embroidery may be applied to materials, garment component and finished garments. It becomes an integral part of garment structure as stitching cannot be removed without damaging piece goods. Piece goods are embroidered with Schiffli embroidery machines. Garment components and finished garments may be embroidered directly with single and multi-head machines. Garment components may be embroidered with designs or logos prior to assembly to facilitate handling and manipulation of materials. Completed garments are embroidered to customize garments with logos and special designs. 148
UNLV Baseball Brave Santa Fe San Diegan Elk Grazing
Hill House Clark County Rodeo
City of Covina
Toy Train Operators
Jake's Wire Rope
Naval Aviator Wings Mojo Lures Malanois
Monogramming is a means of personalizing finished garments for specific consumers by direct embroidery of their names or initials. Monogramming is usually done on a special order basis or by retailers. SCHIFFLI EMBROIDERY MACHINES: Schiffli embroidery machines are large, loom like machines used to stitch designs on lengths of piece goods. They are used to embroider piece goods, produce emblems, and make novelty and Venise lace trims. Two fabric lengths 10 15, or 21 yards depending on machine size-are spanned or pulled taut onto a frame. The frames, which are mounted vertically, have controlled vertical and horizontal movements directed by a punched tape to form stitch patterns. Actions of Schiffli machines are controlled by an automat a system of rods, cams, and levers, used to read punched tapes and direct embroidery frames in forming a design. Needles are mounted on two horizontal fixed tracks that span the length of the frames. Needle bars move needles horizontally in and out of piece goods in synchronization with frame movement. Needles are pushed into framed piece goods and retracted for stitch formation. A stitched pattern evolves from frame movement. Eyelet fabrics and trims are made by borers mounted directly below the needle bars. Borers puncture fabric and push aside yarns prior to stitching that encompasses the edge. Schiffii embroidered fabrics may experience a reduction in yardage due to the heavy concentration of stitches. Because of complexity, size, and cost of Schiffii equipment and specialized training and expertise needed to operate it, apparel firms use contractors that specialize in Schiffli work. Fabrics can be sent to contractors to embroider, or embroidered trims can be special ordered. 149
SINGLE-HEAD EMBROIDERY MACHINES: Single-head embroidery machines are similar to basic lock stitch sewing machines. They were developed for small orders and may be used for customizing garments. Garments or components are secured in hoops or frames to span or hold materials taut for stitching. Single-head machines are most often used for monogramming and custom work. They may be manually operated or computer controlled. Manually operated machines depend on skilled operators to position and manipulate materials under the needle. Computerized embroidery machines have preprogrammed alphabets that can be produced in any size, slant, or lettering type, All the operator needs to do is place the garment. Technology has expanded the use of single-head embroidery machines. A computer network can interface and control ten different embroidery machines so that each machine can run a completely different embroidery program at the same time. This allows the manufacturer to customize its service and produce very small orders as needed by its customers. To stitch a small order of three on a large multi-head machine would waste a lot of capacity that could be better used for large orders. MULTI-HEAD EMBROIDERY MACHINES: Multi-head embroidery machines are similar to single-head machines except they may contain four to twenty-three heads operated by a common drive shaft or belt. The heads are controlled by a punched tape or computer disk that programs needle action and stitch formatting. With multi-head machines, garments may be individually framed and inserted horizontally under each head. Each-head may utilize one to six needles in stitching a design and produce designs with up to six colors. The number of heads per machine is limited by machine size and area to be stitched. Smaller areas are best done with more, close-set heads; larger patterns need a wider needle range and fewer heads. Border machines may provide the most flexibility, as close-set heads can be spaced close together and alternate ones uncoupled to allow stitching of a wider pattern. Garment manufacturers select machine types that best suit product lines and sizes of embroidery. 6.5 SEQUINS: These come in a wide range of shapes and are usually made of plastic. They generally have a shiny, metallic finish, but some are nearly transparent and some are iridescent. Typical diameter ranges are 6-16 mm. Sequins are used wherever color, sparkle or glitter is desirable. Applications are found in party wear, dance wear, bridal wear, underwear, and costume and clothing with an ethnic design. Sequins are often attached to embroidery with, or as an alternative to, beads. 6.6 EMBLEMS: Emblems are individual embroidered designs with finished edges. They are mass-produced trims known as embroidered patches, appliqu s, insignia, or badges frequently used on outerwear. The largest single customer in the world for embroidered emblems is the U .S. government. Emblem embroidery was originally developed in Switzerland under extremely high quality standards. Because of the quality and tradition associated with the industry in Switzerland, the term Swiss embroidery is often used even though the emblems may be produced in the United States or other countries. Compared with direct embroidery, emblem designs are often larger, more complex, and more stitches, colors and thread. Designs may involve more intricate lettering, figures, or symbols. Emblem designs may be customized for a particular firm or organization or sold by souvenir shops. Emblems are used in place of direct embroidery when materials are not suitable for direct embroidery; emblems are more cost-effective than direct embroidery; there is a need for a specific customized emblem with great detail and trims are stocked for sale. Emblems may be applied to visors or hats, coat fronts, sleeves, and so on, that would otherwise be too heavy or awkward to embroider. 150
PRODUCTION OF EMBLEMS: The majority of embroidered emblems are produced on Schiffli machines because of efficiency and cost. Time and volume of production are major factors in the wide usage of Schiffli machines for large quantities and multi-head machines for producing small quantities. Multi-head machines can produce one emblem per head during one run, while Schiffli machines can produce hundreds of emblems at one time depending on the size of the emblem. Emblems are stitched on lengths of piece goods, cut or separated from other emblems, and edges finished with a tight 504 stitch for easy application and durability. Emblems are applied to garments by sewing, heat sealing, and electrostatic adhesion. Some of emblems may be stick-on, but usually this is only a temporary application until it can be sewn in place. MATERIALS FOR EMBROIDERY: Materials required for all embroidered designs are piece goods (also called ground or base fabric) and thread; punched tapes are essential for the operation of the equipment and will be discussed later. Some types of embroidery also require backings. Piece goods need to be sewable and durable enough to withstand a high stitch count, and they must be able to maintain dimensional stability. Durable ground fabrics make it possible to use a high stitch count and more overstitching without damaging piece goods. Backgrounds of emblems may be solid stitching or exposed ground fabrics. When ground fabrics are the background for designs, color and surface texture are important factors. Solidstitched designs depend on ground material for support and strength. Medium and lightweight fabrics may need backing for additional support. Thread used for embroidery must be strong, lustrous, flexible, and compatible with the care procedures for the garment, and it must feed evenly. Thread shrinkage can distort a design and garment components. Color bleeding is a major problem with thread if compatibility not considered. Fiber contents most used for embroidery threads are 100% rayon and 100% polyester. Cotton threads are used for some laces, monogramming, and fine embroidery. Thread size is an important factor in interpreting and punching a design. Fine thread requires more stitches to form a design and cover an area but it is frequently related to better-quality execution. Synthetic threads may range in size from 70 denier, for extra-fine lettering and definition to, 600 denier, for over locking edges. Some threads are specific to cover stitching, while others are developed for fine detail stitching. Embroidery threads may be plied for strength and texture. Metallic threads are difficult to run due to a tendency to knot and break. Metallics are not as flexible as other threads and are not a good choice for small, thin-lined areas. Backings are used with direct embroidery and emblems. Direct embroidery is often backed to provide support, prevent distortion, and produce more aesthetically pleasing designs. Backings for direct embroidery are usually pieces of non-woven material placed under garment components as they are framed for stitching. Backings are of varied weight and hand. Excess backing may be cut away by hand, or a tear-away backing may be pulled away from the stitching. Stiffer, tear-away backing may not tear away completely, leaving rough and scratchy areas. Backing does not cover stitch buildup, knots, or loose threads that may accumulate during the embroidery process. These can also be very irritating to the wearer. Due to stiffness, buckram is often used to back piece goods used to produce solid stitched emblems. Emblems are frequently backed or coated with plastic substances to provide a firm hand, ease in handling, greater durability, and to secure loose threads. Back coating provides extended body and life. Emblems may be backed with plastic films for heat sealing or adhesives that make emblems pressure sensitive for stick-on. 151
EMBROIDERED DESIGN DEVELOPMENT: Design development begins with submission of a sketch by the customer or the sales representative. Artists determine a design's suitability to embroidery, interpret the design, and examine potential execution for a specific garment or location. Artists develop designs based on a customer's specifications. Final designs are produced in exact dimensions with full color representation and submitted to the customer for final approval. 6.7 PUNCHING TAPES: Approved designs are interpreted and translated into stitches by punchers. Stitch patterns are formulated by varying stitch types, length, spacing, direction, placement, and density. Stitch patterns are noted on an enlarged (six times) detailed drawing of the design. It is the puncher's interpretation of the design and skill in executing it that adds life, beauty, and quality to a design and determines the look and feel of finished embroidery. Punchers need to understand the performance of piece goods, yarns, equipment, and their effect on execution and performance of design. Punchers determine placement of tie-in stitches that fasten embroideries together, loft and tensions relative to stitch size, color changes, the number of stitches to cover an area, and the operational functions needed to complete a design. Tie-ins are needed to connect parts of embroideries or lace with open designs. Less tension is used with large stitches to reduce pulling and allow piece goods to lie flat. Density of stitches is directly related to stitch length and yarn size. Finer yarns require more stitches to provide density and cover needed. Machine functions such as boring, color change, cord in-lay, and tension change are controlled. Punching also involves the process of developing the controlling tape or pattern that regulates movement of frames and needles on embroidery machines. Punching may be manual or computerized depending on the equipment and degree of automation used by a manufacturer. With manual punching, each stitch and function noted on the enlargement are recorded and transferred to a punch drum that perforates the pattern tape. When the puncher activates trip mechanism it is recorded by punching the tape. Computerized punching involves scanning and enlarging a design. A digitizer is used to plot stitches and functions based on input commands. A developed design can be checked on a screen or printed on a plotter for checking and analysis. Completed designs can be reduced or enlarged by the computer as needed for different-size garments. A computer can calculate completed designs to be punched based on a variety of commands. Completed designs can be stored and recalled for later use or revisions. Computer output can be converted to punched tape, electronic tapes, or disk, depending on equipment requirements. Regardless of the method, decision making by the puncher is the puncher is the same but punching time is greatly reduced and flexibility is increased with computerized punching. Punching may be contracted by some firms, while others do all their own punching. Large firms may do both. Firms that do their own punching reduce the risk of having their designs copied. Trims are knocked off just as any other fashion goods, but no two punchers will interpret a design in precisely the same manner or with the same quality characteristics. Considerations of a puncher in preparing punched tapes are: How will the piece goods respond to framing? How will piece goods respond to heavy concentration of stitches? How much will piece goods pull in with stitch formation? How small can a stitch be on piece goods and still be visible? How will the thread react? Where tie-in stitches should be placed? Where should tight tension and loose tension be used? How close should the stitches be relative to yarn size? 152
EMBROIDERY STITCHES: Machine embroidery uses three basic stitch types that can be varied and manipulated to produce a wide variety of affects. A design should contain more than one type of stitch for best execution. Steil stitches are small, closely aligned stitches that follow a tight back-and forth pattern. They are often used for edges and reinforcements for scallops, finishing edges of eyelet embroidery, and so on. Blatt stitches are wider 1/8 inch or more with the same back-and-forth configuration and less tension. Often called satin stitches, they create dramatic textured effects when used in different directions. Blatt stitches require more stitches per inch unless an underlay is used to prevent gapping. Running stitches form a design with one thickness of thread. They can be placed in any direction and may not be covered by other stitching. Running stitches are often used for shading and connecting parts of a design. Changing stitch direction changes the way light reflects off the thread and creates an interesting effect. Many variations and combinations of these are used by the puncher in creating an embroidered design. Other stitch formations include chain stitches and chain-stitch variations. Chain stitching, forms loop on the surface of the fabric from a single thread source. Moss or chenille stitches are formed by a chain-stitch machine with a drop stitch or loop formation on the back side of the piece goods. Moss stitches are used to fill and provide a three dimensional appearance. They are used on award letters for sports. A similar stitch, looping, is rapidly gaining attention. Looping stitches attach to the fabric surface by a monofilament thread instead of being pulled through the fabric. Looping stitches are used to add a three dimensional look to designs. These stitches require much heavier yarns than other embroidery stitches. COSTS OF EMBROIDERY: Costs of embroidery relates to size of a design, No. of stitches in a design, materials used, complexity of design, color changes, and handling of garments or components. Smaller designs or repeats cost less, Costs increase by using more stitches, finer yarns, more detail, more expensive materials, more handwork, and more finishing. Manufacturers with a concern for cost of a design may establish a ceiling on number of stitches to be used in a design. Number of stitches required is related to size of the design and thread to be used. For embroidery to look good, a fixed amount of stitches must be used for each size yarn. Smaller design requires fewer stitches, and coarser yarns require fewer stitches to fill a space. It is important not to lose sight of design or cost control. Both factors are important to the salability of garments. The time required to produce each piece of embroidery determines its cost and production capacity. Stitching time is determined by dividing the number of stitches required to produce a design by the speed of the machine. Stitching speed is affected by the type of automat, stitch size, type of piece goods, size of embroidered design, number of stitches required, and other technology utilized on the machine. Older multi-head machines are controlled by mechanical automats that allow stitching speeds of approximately 350 stitches per minute (SPM), while newer electronic readers can increase the stitching speed to 800 SPM. Stitch lengths may range from 0.1 to 15 mm. Under-thread trimmers, automatic color changers, break indicators, and so on, all help reduce handling and production time. 153
QUALITY FACTORS: Quality of embroidered trims is based on designs and execution of the products. Many variables can be evaluated: thread type and size, stitch count and size, stitch formation, stitch patterns, and materials selection. Each of these variables can affect a product's aesthetics, performance, and quality. Planned placement of embroidered designs is important to execution, aesthetics, and performance. Embroidered designs should not cross seams and yet should be far enough away from seams that an embroidered area can be secured in a hoop during stitching. 6.8 APPLIQUS: Appliqus are emblems or cut-out fabric shapes, figures, or motifs that are superimposed and sewn or fused to garment components. Appliqus may be a single ply of fabric, pre-embroidered sequin, or beaded emblems, Venise lace, or other materials. Appliqus have had a strong fashion emphasis with the popularity of these designs on sweat-suits, sweaters, children's clothing, and other types of sportswear. MATERIALS FOR APPLIQUS: Materials used for appliqus are limited only by their sewability and compatibility with other materials used in a garment. Contrasting and unusual textures are often used for appliqu s that may create care and performance problems. Leather is often selected for its interesting texture and ease of stitching with little concern for the limitations and complications of dry cleaning the garment. Compatibility is often taken for granted as appliqus are often small and seem insignificant to performance of a total garment, although a small piece of fabric that is not colorfast or dimensionally stable could render an entire garment unusable. Appliqus are often backed with some type of fusible interlining to facilitate handling and sewing. Fusible interlining adds body to small pieces that may be difficult to grasp and position. Backing also reduces potential for raveled and stretched edges during sewing. Some appliqus may have a heat-activated adhesive applied to the back for fused applications to hosiery, lingerie, and so on. Others may have a glue substance that enables immediate attachment to a variety of surfaces. This type of application is usually considered temporary but can be used for accurate positioning prior to sewing. QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE: Quality and performance of appliqu s are related to creativity of design, materials used for appliqu and garment, method of application, stitch selection, sewability, and product testing. Well-designed appliqu s are integrated into style, structure, and aesthetics of a total garment; they are not just an add-on for color or detail. Carefully planned and accurate placement of appliqu s is also a factor in garment aesthetics and quality. Appliqu s are often used to establish or support a focal point on a garment, but they also distract from a focal point if not well planned and positioned. Execution of details affects quality of appliqus. Use of intricate shapes, more stitching, and added trims may enhance interpretation of a design, but too much detail that is poorly done can have an adverse affect on quality. Fabric appliqu s are frequently die cut for accuracy and greater consistency. Die cutting produces a smooth, well-defined edge that facilitates sewing operation and results in better-finished products. METHODS OF ASSEMBLY: Most appliqu s are manually applied by sewing operators. Emblems, which have finished edges, are often applied with a basic lock stitch. A lock stitch is secure and does not distract from emblem designs. Fabric 154
pieces may be attached with a basic zigzag (304 or 404) stitch to accent shape and design. With this type of application, stitches must be close enough to prevent raveling, create a solid outline for the appliqu, but not so close as to damage piece goods. The execution of stitching patterns on corners and curves affects appliqu appearance, performance, and quality. Corners must be stitched down without stitch buildup or irregular stitching. This is often dependent on skills and quality standards of operators. A high stitch count with accurate stitching requires more time and increases costs but creates a more defined outline and better-quality appliqu . Thread selection and use require thorough preplanning. On better-quality appliqus, thread color is often matched to each part unless a dominant outline is needed in which case contrasting thread, braid, sequins, or other trim may be used. Use of several thread colors on one appliqu requires extra handling or thread changes that are time consuming and costly. 6.9 INSET TRIMS: Inset trims are frequently formed from laces, sheer, or contrasting fabrics and used on fronts of sleepwear, blouses, dresses, and so on. Insets are a structural trim that are cut to a specific shape and inserted into a garment component. They are a single ply of material that is different from the shell fabric. It may be a sheer material inserted into an opaque fabric or a contrasting color used as an accent. In mass-produced garments inserts are usually along edges of components because application is easier. The shell fabric is removed where the inset will be inserted, and the cut edges are finished. The inset depending on the type of material and shape of the inset may be applied with an LSa or an SSa. Quality of workmanship is important to aesthetics and performance of insets as they become focal points of a garment. 6.10 LACE: Lace is an ornamental openwork fabric or trim made into a variety of designs by intricate manipulation of fiber or yarn. Traditionally, laces were formed by hand, but today most laces are machine made.
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TYPES OF LACES: Machine-made laces are produced on Leavers machines, raschel knitting machines, or Schiffli embroidery machines. Leavers lace is controlled by a jacquard system and formed by bobbins that wind yarn around a set of warp yarns to form a pattern. Quality and cost of Leavers lace depend on yarn quality and intricacy of design. Many European laces are produced on Leaver machines. Raschel knit laces resemble Leavers lace but are less intricate, produced at much higher speeds, have a stiffer hand, and are much less expensive. Raschel laces are used extensively on moderate, budget lingerie and children's wear. Many of stretch laces used on intimate apparel are also produced on raschel knitting machines. Schiffli embroidery machines are used to produce novelty and Venise lace trims. This method results in a lace type of trim that is widely used on apparel. It can be fine, soft, and have an intricate and open design that meets high quality standards even though it is produced in a nontraditional manner. Venise lace is produced by stitching designs on a base fabric with Schiffli embroidery machines and dissolving the base fabric to leave only the stitched threads or open lace trims. This is a process called aetzing. Designs are stitched to net or Solvron. Solvron is a moisture-sensitive non-woven material that dissolves during the bleaching process. Once the backing is dissolved, only individual lace trims remain. This process is used to produce lace collars, cuffs, medallions, yokes, and a variety of other small lace trims. Shapes of laces made on Schiffli machines are limited only by the stitch range of the machine. This makes it possible to produce small or large irregular shapes that can be used for collars or insets. The quality of Venise lace depends on the originality and intricacy of design, thread fineness, and stitching pattern. Tie-ins are especially important for Venise lace in order for parts to link together. Better-quality Venise lace may be made from 300count 100% cotton yarn. Lace selection should be based on appearance, hand, color, and care procedures. Many lace trims are produced for a specific style, use, and location, and in any size, shape, and dimensions needed. 6.11 SCREEN PRINTING: Screen printing is the process of applying a printing medium through a mesh stencil to produce a surface design. It is commonly used for printing piece goods. However, the focus of this discussion is screen printing as it is presently used as trim for garments or garment components. Screen printing may be used to convert an ordinary, plain garment into a garment with identity, fashion humor, or status. Designs focus on contemporary themes, humor, politics, logos, status symbols, or aesthetic enhancement. Screen printing is used to place designs on many garments including T-shirts, jackets, hats, shorts, blouses, dresses, and athletic uniforms. Designs may be simple or complex, large or small, one or multiple colors. Screen printing may be used for limited or large volume production, although design development costs are the same regardless of whether one or a thousand garments are printed. Screen-printed designs are less costly to produce than embroidered designs and allow a wide variety of aesthetic effects. Garments may be screen printed to strategically place a design that would otherwise create excessive waste if the fabric were printed with a large repeat. Screen printing may be used on larger garment pieces if design is large and only limited yardage is needed. In some cases it is less costly to screen print a garment individually than to purchase printed fabric with high minimum yardage requirements. Screen-printed garments or components offer design confinement and less lead time than many other types of fabric printing. 156
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT: Designs for screen printing is developed from original artwork or by cutting and pasting from a variety of existing artworks, lettering, and so on. Once the desired appearance is achieved, designs may be enlarged or reduced to specified dimensions. To print the design, color separations must be planned and accurately executed to produce clear, well defined screen prints. Register marks are used to accurately align garments and screens for precise color placement. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Basic materials and equipment required for screen printing include screens that are made into stencils, squeegees, and ink. Screen making involves frame selection, mesh selection and preparation, and stretching. Frames are used to hold and tension mesh materials used for stenciling. Frames are wood or metal, rigid or self-stretching. Wood frames are less expensive, lighter weight, and easier to stretch onto, but not adjustable. Adjustable frames make it possible to take up slack in a screen that may occur with printing and cause poor registration. Metal frames are easier to reclaim after use, but they are more expensive, heavier, and take longer to stretch. Screen materials are polyester or nylon mesh that is stretched over frames to make a stencil. Mesh needs to be abrasion-resistant and dimensionally stable. Polyester has less elongation and retains stretched tension with varying atmospheric conditions better than nylon. Mesh count (the number of openings per linear inch) affects quality of a print and the amount of ink deposited with each pull of the squeegee. Greater thread diameter results in greater ink deposit. High-count mesh with finer yarns allows less ink deposit, while low-count mesh with coarser yarns allows more ink deposit. Garment piece goods are also a factor in selecting mesh to be used. Finer mesh is better for hard-finish piece goods; coarser mesh is better for soft surfaces and garments, such as uniforms, which need a high deposit of ink due to high abrasion during use. Stretching the screen is one of the most important factors in successful screen printing. Improper stretching of the mesh screen material can cause poor registration, excessive wear on screens, breakdown of stencil materials, and poor prints caused by crimping the screen as the squeegee passes over it. Stencil making involves coating a screen with photo-sensitive emulsion. Designs are placed on the emulsion-coated screen and exposed to light to burn the design into the emulsion. This leaves areas of the design open so ink can pass through the screen onto a garment. A squeegee is a rubber or plastic blade held by a wooden strip and used to force ink through the openings of a screen-printing stencil. The type of squeegee, angle of the blade, form of the edge, pressure, and sweep speed all affect the quality of a print. Imaging materials are the inks used to print the designs. Inks are blends of vinyl chlorides, dispersion resins, plasticizers, pigments, heat and light stabilizers, surfactants, fillers or extenders, and other additives a particular printer may choose to use, On proper heat curing, the ink forms a tough flexible film on the piece goods that withstands stretching and rubbing. Various types of additives may be selected to achieve the desired hand and performance of the printed design, e.g. puff inks are used to create three-dimensional portions of screen-printed designs. SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS: The printing process may be a manual operation or carried out with varying degrees of automation. Garments or garment components are precisely placed on a palate. Sometimes an adhesive spray is used on the palate to ensure stationary placement of the item to be printed. A screen for each color in the design is loaded onto a rotating carousel. An operator lowers each screen, one at a time in a predetermined sequence, over the garment on the revolving palette. A squeegee is used to force a thick, viscose ink through the screen and onto the garment. 157
For multicolor designs, the ink may be partially cured (flashed) between applications to eliminate discoloration or smearing. Inks are cured by exposing them to heat, usually between 300 - 350 0F. Heat softens resin particles and causes them to swell. Resins absorb liquid around them and meld together to form a film. Ink curing time and the amount of heat required vary with each brand of ink, amount of ink applied to a garment; blend of ingredients, and the type of drying oven. Light-color inks may require more heat than darker inks due to reflection characteristics. Garment color may also alter curing time. Curing can be tested by stretching printed design forcefully. If cracks appear, crumbles or smears when rubbed, film is under-cured. QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF SCREEN PRINTS: Printing quality involves uniform ink film thickness, maximum resolution of detail, and adequate curing. All of the materials and processes can affect print quality. The combined effects of the screen mesh, squeegee blade, ink, and piece goods determine quantity and distribution of ink. Correct size and the tightness of frames and screens allow for appropriate action of a squeegee and flexing of the screen for contact of' ink with the garment. Correct curing makes the design permanent. Precise color registration involves placement of a garment or substrate as well as placement of screens during color applications. Accurate registration is essential for clarity of a design. Correct registration is achieved by precise placement of garment and careful matching of register marks within design as each color is applied. HEAT TRANSFER PRINTS: Heat transfer is the process of transferring an image to a substrate by applying heat and pressure. A design is printed on paper with special dyes and transferred to a product by application of heat and pressure. Specific temperatures and dwell times change a dye from a solid to a gaseous state and back to a solid form on the product. Heat transfer prints are available in stretch, flock, puff, reflective, and foil designs. Heat transfer designs used to be limited to synthetics or synthetic blends and non-stretch fabrics but improved technology now makes it possible to heat transfer on cottons and knits of various kinds. Heat transfers may be applied by fabric converters, garment and trim manufacturers, and retailers. Garment manufacturers can make applications before or after sewing. Heat transfers are colorfast. The depth, of color depends on temperature, dwell time, and pressure used in application and the amount of color available on the paper for vaporization. The paper printer is responsible for design development, definition, color matching, and ink selection. Advantages of the use of heat transfer prints are speed and flexibility for meeting specific orders. Printed goods do not have to be carried in inventory. 6.12 LABELS: Most garments have multiple labels that provide information for both the apparel firm(s) that manufacture and distribute the garments and the consumers who select and use them. Brand name and / or RN number (the manufacturer's identification number), fiber content, country of origin, and care information are required by law. Other product information such as style number, size, and construction features. Brand labels are the large, colorful, image builders that are strategically located for obvious visibility. Size labels help the apparel firm(s) and the customer identify a garment. Other informational labels may be used by consumers to formulate performance expectations and determine the garment's suitability for their needs. In some instances, the label information is combined on a single label, but many times each bit of information is provided on separate labels, e.g. not all size 12 blouses will be 100% cotton, and not all 100% cotton will have the same care requirements. Thus, for accuracy and flexibility, multiple labels are used.
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LABEL MATERIALS: Label materials must be compatible with the garment materials, appropriate for the location in which label is placed and processing to which garment will be subjected. In addition, labels must be durable, easy to attach, and meet cost constraints. Labels are available in nearly any fiber content, from 100% combed cotton to vinyl. There are also many different types of fabrications for labels including non-woven fiber webs; narrow weaves in satin, twill, plain; yarn-dyed, jacquard fabrications, and molded designs. Narrow woven fabric labels may range from 114 inch to several inches in width. Images and messages are woven in or printed on the narrow fabrics; Woven-in messages tend to be the most durable but also may be more costly. Apparel firms frequently use woven-in messages for brand names and less expensive printed labels for the rest of the information. Fabric coatings are used to make labels more durable, smoother for printing, and more receptive to inks. Some jacquard weaves may be coated on the back to prevent yarn slippage, and label tapes may be coated to make them easier to handle and less likely to be affected by care procedures. Coatings also add stiffness that consumers may find uncomfortable; thus, coated labels cannot be used indiscriminately inside garments. Labels may have a short life if the consumer decides to remove them because of their discomfort. Label materials must be selected to be able to withstand garment finishing operations, e.g. garment dyeing may alter the appearance because the labels pick up the color of the dye. There also may be a problem with blurring or loss of printed images after chemical treatments such as laundering.
STYLES OF LABELS AND APPLICATION METHODS: Labels are made in four basic styles; double with a single fold and open at one end, flat with no ends folded, flat with ends folded in, and folded loops. In many cases the style determines how the label will be attached. Labels that are double with a single fold are designed to be sewn into a seam or attached to another label. Information is often on both sides of fold so the folded end needs to be free. Often they are used for combining different types of information such as care and RN number, which may reduce number of labels needed. Flat labels are finished on two sides and heat sealed as they are cut on the other two sides. This prevents raveling so they can be applied almost anywhere on a garment. Flat labels can be superimposed on a garment and sewn on all four sides as may be done to apply brand labels with a special label setter. This application may be used to sew labels to the outside of garments as well as to back yokes, pockets, or facings where the stitching only needs to go through one ply of the shell fabric. Sewing all 159
four sides is probably the most secure approach, but it is most likely to show problems with differential shrinkage. Flat labels may be sewn on two sides or inserted in seam / hem. Flat labels with folded ends are another commonly used style. The ends are folded toward the underside so the cut edge will not ravel or be irritating to the wearer. They are usually stitched on each end with a 304 or 404 stitch type, which allows good flexibility for the label and garment. Application of this type of label requires a separate process and is usually done with a label setter. They are frequently used inside of garments, on collar bands, back neck facings, waistbands, and so forth. Because the center of the label is loose, it allows flexibility of the garment, Differential shrinkage can be a problem if label shrinks and stresses the shell fabric. Folded loop labels are functional as well as informative. They have a horizontal orientation with diagonally folded ends that are inserted in a seam. This type of label is a brand label and often inserted in neckline seams of jackets and sport shirts. Label application methods are determined by the look desired, garment construction methods, and equipment that is available. Labels may be attached as separate pieces, sewn in seams, sewn to other labels, or fused to the garment. If labels are inserted as seams or hems are sewn, a separate label-setting operation is not necessary, but it requires a label with three finished edges. Labels are often sewn to other labels so when they are finally inserted into a garment, there is a whole collection of the various types attached in one operation. Manufacturers that produce private-label merchandise for multiple retailers may add the individual retailer's brand name just before garments are shipped. With this type of product line, garments are all assembled the same, and all but the brand label are attached during construction. Prior to shipping the label for an individual retailer is added. These may be fused in place rather than sewn so the stitching does not show on the finished garment. The attachment of private label brand names is sometimes done in the warehouse or distribution center. One major concern of application is getting the correct label into the appropriate garment. This takes diligent attention to specifications and order numbers. Placing incorrect information in a garment is much worse than no information at all. SOURCES OF LABELS: Labels may be purchased from firms that specialize in the production of certain types of labels or apparel firms may produce their own. Firms that specialize in label production have the capability to design and produce labels on a custom order basis. They work closely with the apparel firm to determine the requirements for image building, label type, and available equipment. If fancy woven labels are desired, they are best ordered from a firm with high-tech equipment that specializes in fancy narrow weaves. Labels of jacquard weaves or printed tapes can be ordered on rolls or fuse-cut ready to use. Apparel firms that choose to make their own labels purchase label-making equipment that can print and fuse-cut labels as needed. When labels change frequently, it may be cost-effective to produce their own. Producing labels in house provides shorter lead times and more flexibility. Some firms order custom-made brand labels and produce their own printed information labels. Label costs vary with the intricacy of the design, the size of the label, additional processing that is done, and the volume ordered. Compared to printed labels, fancy woven brand labels are considerably more costly for a small quantity because of the design and setup cost.
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6.13 HANGERS Hangers are an integral part of any showroom or retail store. The functionality goes without saying: Take one step further into the world of a visual merchandiser and understand continuity of display. Hangers are the link between fixtures or end cap and marketing. What good is a beautiful face-out when the hangers convey a different story? Good in-store marketing is implemented with the help of the hanger. Hangers invite customers to the clothing. Think for one minute. When you see a garment hanging nicely on a hanger - you want to pick it up. The hanger is a touchable extension to your store. Conversely, when you see clothes shoved on discolored "clear" hangers, some broken, you may question the quality of the clothing as well. Hangers provide an immediate perception of high quality clothing. As we know, perception is customer reality. The personality of your store or showroom will be reinforced by the color, the style and the texture of hangers. Category Length 10"; 12"; 15" 15"; 15"; 17 17" MedWht 17" HvyWht HvyWht* 19" MedWht 19" HvyWht* 10"; 12"; 14" 16"; 18" 19" MedWht 19" HvyWht 10*4"; 10*7" 12*4"; 12*7" 14*4"; 15*7" 8"; 10"; 12" 10"; 12" 8"; 10" 11"; 12" 10"; 12" Profile
TOPS Poly-Pro
TOPS Poly-Styrene
SETS
BOTTOM No-Show BOTTOM No-Show Loop BOTTOMS Croc-Lock OUTERWEAR Metal Hook OUTERWEAR
18"
12"
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OUTERWEAR HvyWht OUTERWEAR Up-Slope BOTTOMS Gripper BOTTOMS Gripper-Loop TOPS JACKET
12"; 15" 17"; 19"
18"
8"; 11"
8"; 11" 10"; 12"; 14" 17"; 19" 12"; 14" 16"; 19" 12" 14" 10" 12"
SETS
FRAMES
INTIMATE APPAREL
10"
INTIMATE APPAREL
10" 8"; 10" 12"; 14" 10" 12" 8"; 10" 12"; 14" 7" 8" 8"; 11"; 14" 10"; 12" 15"; 17"; 19"
BOTTOMS BOTTOMS Long Jaw BOTTOMS Coordinates CLIPS Prong Style TROUSER BAR TOPS
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GARMENT STITCHING
Stitching is not one single operation as the name suggests; it consists series of operations to complete one garment. It starts from the designing of the garment till the garment is finished with necessary trims or accessories, from choosing the type of fabric to the choosing of the right type of sewing machines for appropriate operations, etc. It involves pattern making, laying, cutting, etc.
1. DESIGNING: Firstly, the desired style is set (e.g. dropped shoulder, hemlines
lower or higher, color combinations, etc.) and then the designer designs the finished garments taking into consideration all the facts about the season, age group, type of people, style and the trend. Designed garments are draped on Mannequins to show how the finished garment would look on the human figure. The Mannequins include details of shirring, darts, pleats and tucks, plackets and necessary trims. Designing is either done by hand or by computer.
2. SELECTION OF FABRIC: Fabric is the basic requirement or raw material

for making a garment. One should choose the fabric with great care about the design and the purpose of the garment. The type of weave, blend, fabric weight, fiber composition, required shade, composition, etc must be taken into consideration. Otherwise the purpose of the whole garment will be lost.
3. ACCESSORIES: Like fabric accessories should also be chosen with good

care; fabrics and accessories go side by side. There are a number of accessories used in garments out of which sewing thread plays an important role. The fabric and the sewing thread used should more or less have the same characters e.g. only polyester threads are used for stitching polyester fabrics. For the sewing process to be trouble free, the thread must be of uniform diameter, free from knots, must have minimum tendency to snarl and have good abrasion resistance. Considering the durability of the fabric, other accessories used in garment also should be of good quality. Other major accessories used are, buttons, zippers, interlinings, hooks, eyes, elastic, and lining, also include packing materials like poly bags, covers, tissue papers, hangers, etc.
4. PATTERN MAKING: This function connects design to production by

producing paper templates for all components such as cloth, lining and fusible, which have to be cut for a garment. Working pattern is generally prepared from basic blocks based on Average standard body measurements. These blocks are paced on hard paper to mark their boundaries. Seam allowance, dirt/pleat/folding allowances are then added to give a working pattern. Pattern making is highly skilled technique which requires technical ability of understanding of the process technology used by the factory. Pattern making is the most important stage of making a garment. The pattern maker drafts the pattern necessary to produce the desired creation. Drawings and notations usually guide them from designers. Their goal is to produce a pattern which, when assembled or stitched will produce design on paper, while meeting correct size.
5. PRODUCTION OF SAMPLE GARMENTS: Working Patterns are

placed on cloth, lining and fusible to cut components which are sewn together to produce sample garments. Cost calculation is done for the sample garment and after its approval by the Sales team; production pattern is prepared from the working pattern. If any difficulty is observed during manufacture of sample garments, it is sent back to the designer for its necessary corrections.
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6. GRADING: Production pattern is prepared from approved working pattern on

hard paper. A production pattern must contain the marks i.e. Grain-line marking; Dart marking; Centre front line and Centre back line marking; Button-hole marks; Button attaching positions; Drill holes; and Notches. Pattern grading is the drafting process of enlarging or diminishing the patterns for a particular design into patterns for other sizes without changing the style sense of the original design.
7. MARKING AND LYING: The entire part of the garment or more garments
to be cut from a fabric marked on a paper or fabric within the width of the fabric to be cut, with due importance to the grain line, with maximum utilization of fabric and most importantly with minimum waste. Marker planning is done by using the full size patterns made from cardboard. Marking can be made on fabric or on paper. Lying is the spreading of fabric on the cutting table one on top of the other according to the length of the marker is called lying. But marking and lying are followed only in the garment industries or where garments are mass-produced. The composition of each spread i.e. the number of plies of each color is obtained from cut orders plan. Number of plies depends upon the capacity of the cutting machines, volume of production, type of fabric itself (rough or slippery), and the thickness of fabric.
8. CUTTING: After the patterns are ready, the fabric is laid and the patterns are
laid on the fabric the fabric is ready for cutting. There are several methods of cutting i.e. Hand Shears or Scissors; Straight Knife; Round Knife; Band Knife; Notches; Drills; Die Cutting; Laser Cutting; Plasma Cutting; Water jet; and Ultrasonic Cutting.
9. POSITION MARKING: This operation marks components with guides for

sewing and other operations. A drill marker is used for marking pocket positions, dart lengths etc. The mark can be a small hole or a mark made by a chalk-based liquid taken through the spread by the drill flutes.
10. BUNDLE OPERATION: Bundles of cut work are prepared according to

size, color and quantities, their actual composition determined by the requirements of sewing room. Bundle tickets identify each bundle and in themselves play on important role in production planning and control for sewing and finishing sections.
11. FUSING: The term fusible interlining is applied to a base fabric having a
deposit of thermoplastic resin (usually on one side only) which can be bonded to another fabric by heat and pressure. The base cloth is an interlining material on which the thermoplastic resin is coated, sprayed or painted. Base clothes may be of woven, knitted, or non-woven from natural or synthetic fiber and each type has a specific applications. Irrespective of construction and fibers used, the base cloth influences the following characteristics in the finished garments: Handle and bulk, Shape retention, Shrinkage control, Crease recovery, Appearance in wear, Appearance after drycleaning or washing, and Durability. In addition the final cost of the garment is influenced by the type and amount of fusible used in its construction.
12. SEWING: Sewing is the last process of stitching. This involves great attention
too, like stitch type, the procedure, and the type of sewing machine to be used. There are several types of sewing machines for each special operation like stitching buttons, buttonholes, etc.
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TEXTILE RAW MATERIALS (FIBERS)

1. FIBER DEFINITIONS: Textile fibers may be defined as follows:
A. It Is The Matter Either Existing Naturally Or Made Artificially Which Has Following Properties: 1. Length: 2. Crimp: It should be appropriate and not less them 0.5cm It is the curl or wave to improve processability of the fiber.
Curl 3. Denier: -
Wave -
Crimp -
It is the unit of measurement of cross section. 1 denier = 1 mass in grams 9,000 m
B.
Fiber Is a Unit of Matter Characterized By Flexibility, Fineness and a High Ratio of Length to Thickness Fiber Is A Slender Filament or Fine Strand of Sufficient Length, Pliability, and Strength to Be Spun Into Yarns and Woven or Knitted Into Cloth
C.
As we can see from the definitions, an important characteristic of fiber is that it can be turned into yarn, from which cloth can be produced. Making yarn from fiber is a fairly simple procedure. If a bundle of fibers is arranged with the strands parallel to each other, the ends of some fibers overlapping the ends of others, and is then twisted, a yarn or thread will be made. 1.1 TYPES OF FIBER LENGTH: There are two types of fiber length continuous Filament (Infinite Fiber) Silk, Rayon, Nylon etc. and staple (Short Fiber) e.g. Cotton, Wool etc. 1.2 CRIMP PROPERTY OF FIBER: This property of a fiber is explained as under: Crimp is the curl or wave nature to improve process ability of the staple fiber. Crimp occurs naturally in cotton and wool. Crimp is produced artificially in synthetic fibers. Crimp is also produced in continuous filament to change their appearance and feel as in nylon carpet yarn.
1.3 DENIER PROPERTY OF FIBER: It is the unit of measurement of cross section. The value of denier depends upon weight per unit length. A Fiber has cross section 1 denier if 9000 m of this fiber weights 1 gram. 1.4 QUALITIES OF FIBER TO CONVERT IT INTO FABRICS: For the fiber to be converted into fabrics the fiber must have ability to be spun excellently; must be available in bulk; cost of production of fiber must be economical and physical properties of fiber must be desirable to the consumer.
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FIBER THE BASIS OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY: Once fiber has been made into yarn, fabric (the technical term for cloth) can be produced. Various end-goods can then be made from the fabric. Fabric is therefore the basis of the textile industry. It there were no fiber, there would be no textile industry. The relationship between fiber, intermediate goods and end products in the textile industry is set out as under:
As you can see above that a fiber is the starting material and yarn / fabric are intermediate products or intermediate goods in textile industry. The final products are made from fibers, i.e. clothing, are called textile end product. CATEGORIES OF END-PRODUCT: Three large categories of end-product can be made from fiber, namely apparel or clothing (Such as shirts, blouses, trousers, skirts, suits and so on); household articles (Bed-Sheets, Carpets awnings and many others) and textiles for technical use in industries (Agriculture, Construction and sports, e.g. filter cloths, sun-screens of green house, fishing nets; sail cloths etc.) 1.5 PROCESS OF CONVERTING FIBER INTO YARN: The process of converting fiber into yarn is called spinning. The yarn is then usually converted into fabric by either weaving or knitting, 1.6 PROCESS OF CONVERTING FIBER DIRECTLY INTO FABRIC: It is now possible to convert fiber directly into fabric by a process called non woven-fabric production. Fabric produced by this method is usually known as non-woven fabric. A lot of disposable articles, such as diapers for babies, are non-woven.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS: To avoid any confusion by the names

and identification of fibers for the consumers the United States Congress Enacted the Textile Fiber Products Identification Act this became effective on March 3, 1960. This act requires that the labels of all textile products must show the fiber contents both by fiber name a family name. To standardize this identification procedure the federal trade commission (FTC) assigned generic groups of manufactured fibers according to chemical composition.
3. TEXTILE FIBERS QUALITIES TO MEET END-USES: No fiber

has all desirable properties, each fiber having a different combination of properties. 1. LENGTH: Fiber should have sufficient length to Spun into yarn. If fiber is too short, for example less than 0.5cm it will be very difficult to produce yarn from it. In cotton short fibers are responsible for Increasing the waste & losses; Unevenness and reduction in strength in the yarn spun; Irregularity and process costs are increased and quality is reduced; and Problems in yarn appearance by increasing slubs, naps. Length of common natural fibers are (Cotton 1.27 6.34cm, Flax (linen) 50cm average, Wool 3.8 38.0cm, and Silk upto 2,000m or more).
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2. FINENESS: Represents the size of cross section dimensions of the fiber. In cotton if yarn spun from the fine fiber will be more even and strong than the yarn spun from the coarser fibers. 3. TENACITY: It is max specific stress that fiber can withstand without breaking when tension is applied along its length. Stronger a fiber, higher the tenacity. 4. ELASTICITY: It is the ability of a fiber to recover from the deformation involving bending, extension, and creasing. A fiber with good elasticity will recover from deformation very easily. 5. EXTENSIBILITY: It is the property of a fiber to extend or elongate under tension. For example, if a fiber has 2% extensibility at break, a fiber 100 mm long will extended to 102 mm before it breaks. 6. 7. MOISTURE REGAIN: It is a quality of a fiber to absorb moisture. ABRAISION RESISTANCE: It is the resistance of a fiber to abrasion or rubbing. It is very important in those cases where the garment is at maximum exposure to rubbing, such as undergarments i.e. underwear, blouses, socks etc. DYEABILITY: It is the ability of fiber to take color. No body would be happy if all garments were white because of non availability of this property. RESISTANCE TO WEATHERING: It is the resistance of a fiber to sunlight and moisture. Fiber damage on exposure to sunlight for long or becomes yellow or brown in color. Absorption of moisture cause loss of strength and changes in dimensions due to extensibility and damage the fiber. Fiber should have good resistance to weathering if we use the end product for out door use such as umbrella, raincoat etc. Cloth with frequent washing should have good resistance to moisture, such as underwear, shirts, towels, and socks etc.
8. 9.
10. LUSTER: Generally it is more difficult to increase the luster of fiber except cotton which may attain silky luster by mercerization or finishing process. 11. RESISTANCE TO INSECTS AND MICRO ORGANISMS: Fiber should have resistance against attack of insects and microorganisms. Advantage of this property gives long life to fiber. 12. DENSITY: Mass per unit volume is called density. Yarn made from low density fiber make goods bearing full solid appearance more cheaply. 13. THERMAL STABILITY: Fibers ability to withstand high temperature such as:(i) (ii) (iii) During washing we use the boiling water along with detergents or soaps. During dyeing high temperature is also used for fixation of dyes on fibers and if the fiber would have less thermal stability then it can be damaged. During ironing a high temperature is given, so fiber should have the ability to bear the temperature etc.
14. SOFTNESS: Softness is very acceptable Quality / Property in a fiber, i.e. garments, baby wear; undergarments require maximum softness properties.
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4. PROPERTIES OF COTTON: 1. It doesnt irritate sensitive skin or cause allergies. 2. Cotton is very soft, that is why it is particularly favored in underwear ranges that get close to the skin. The ends of cotton fibers are spun very tightly into the yarn so that the fabric doesnt irritate skin or cause static electricity. 3. Cotton is long lasting if well looked after. 4. Cotton can be easily blended with other fibers such as synthetics. 5. Cotton can be dyed in various colors. 6. Stains can be easily removed from cotton. 7. Cotton is a good conductor of heat. It draws heat away from skin to keep cool, making it very comfortable to wear. 8. Cotton absorbs moisture easily and can take up to one fifth of its weight in water before it actually feels damp. Examples of products taking advantage of this quality are medical products such as bandages and cotton balls, which can be used to soak up blood or other liquids. 9. Cotton tends to not be affected by sunlight so it can be used for curtains, tents and tarpaulins that are exposed to the sun a lot. 10. Cotton does not contain any chemicals and therefore is a natural product. 4.1 HOW TO CARE FOR COTTON: There are lots of other ways you can take care of your cotton products, making them last longer and therefore getting better value for your money. Following are a few tips: Tip: Make sure you read the instructions on the label before washing. Most clothing has clear washing instructions on the label. These instructions are particularly important in for cotton fibers. Tip: Wash any of your new cotton clothes soon after wearing them for the first time, this means that any oils from your skin and dirt wont settle into the fabric. Tip: When ironing 100% cotton, make sure the iron is on a medium to high heat setting. If the garment is a blend of cotton and synthetic fibers then the iron should be a little cooler. If the iron gets too hot when ironing a cotton/synthetic fiber blend, the garment can start to melt and/or get shiny. Tip: The longer you leave stains in, the harder they will be to get out. As soon as you spill something on any cotton garment, try and wash it off. Tip: If garments you own start to fade, it is most likely that the colored dye, not the cotton, is starting to lose quality. You can always consider having clothes redyed. Tip: Try if possible to keep your cotton clothes in a dry cupboard. If it gets to damp, the clothes can become mild way. If you are not going to be wearing your cotton clothes for a while, wash them carefully before storage.
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CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS
TYPE Natural Fibers NAME OF FIBER Cotton Linen Jute Hemp Sisal Kapok Ramie Coir Pina Wool Silk Hair Asbestos SOURCE OR COMPOSITION Cotton boll (Cellulose) Flax stalk (Cellulose) Jute stalk (Cellulose) Hemp or abaca stalk (Cellulose) Agave leaf (Cellulose) Kapok tree (Cellulose) Rhea or China grass (Cellulose) Coconut husk (Cellulose) Pineapple leaf (Cellulose) Sheep (Protein) Silkworms (Protein) Hair-bearing animals (Protein) Varieties of rock (silicate of magnesium and calcium) Cotton liner or wood Cotton liner or wood Cotton liner or wood Aliphatic polyamide Aromatic polyamide Dihydric alcohol and terephthalic acid Acrylonitrile (at least 85%) Acrylonitrile (35-84%) Polyurethance (at least 85%) Ethylene or propylene (at least 85%) Vinyl chloride (at least 85%) Vinylidene chloride (at least 80%) Phenol based novalac Carbonic acid (polyester derivative) Tetraminobiphenyl and diphenyl isophthalate Calcium alginate Tetrafluoroethylene Molecular graft of polymers Mixture of polymers Monohydric alcohol an dacrylic acid Acrylonitrile (10-50%) and a diene Vinylidene dinitrile (at least 85%) Vinyl alcohol (at least 50%) Corn, soybean, etc. Natural or synthetic rubber Aluminum, silver, gold, stainless steel Silica sand, limestone, other minerals Alumina, silica Carbon
Vegetable
Animal Mineral Manmade Fibers Cellulose
Non-Cellulose Polymers
Rayon Acetate Triacetate Nylon Aramid Polyester Acrylic Modacrylic Spandex Olefin Vinyon Saran Noveloid Polycarbonate Polybenzimidazole Alginate Fluorocarbon Graft Matrix Anidex Lastrile Nytril Vinal Azlon* Rubber Metal Glass Ceramic Graphite
Protein Rubber Metallic Mineral
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FIBERS HISTORY
HISTORY OF PRINCIPAL FIBERS USED IN TEXTILES FOR APPAREL
DATE 5.000 BC FIBER FLAX: BACKGROUND AND PRODUCTION NATURAL FIBERS Considered to be the oldest natural textile fiber. Fine linen was used as burial shrouds for the Egyptian pharaohs. Largest producer: Soviet States; others include Poland, Germany, Belgium and France. Largest exporters are Northern, Ireland, Belgium Worn by Egyptians earlier than 2,500 BC. Eli Whitneys invention of the cotton gin 1793 revolutionized the processing of cotton. Development of the power loom in 1884 brought significant improvement and variations to cotton fabrics. Major producers: United States, Soviet States, China and India. Lesser producers include Pakistan, Brazil, Turkey, Egypt, Mexico Iran and Sudan. Used by people of Late Stone Age, 40 breeds of sheep, produce approx 200 types of wool of varying grades. Major producers include: Australia, New Zealand, Soviet States, China, South Africa, and Argentina. It is made of two continuous filaments cemented together and used to form the cocoon of silk worm. Silk culture began about 1725 BC, sponsored by wife of a Chinas emperor. Secrets of cultivation and fabric manufacturing were closely guarded by the Chinese for about 3,000 years. Two monks smuggled seeds of mulberry tree and silkworm eggs out of China. The major producer and exporter is Japan. MAN-MADE FIBERS Commercial production of rayon fiber started by the American Viscose Company. It developed two basic types viscose rayon and cup ammonium rayon. Today, only viscose rayon is being produced in U.S. First commercial production of acetate fiber in the USA was in 1924 by the Celanese Corporation First commercial production of nylon was in 1939 by the E. I. du Pont de Nemours & company, Inc. It is this country, behind polyester. The first commercial production of acrylic fiber in the United States was in 1950 by E. I du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc. First commercial production of polyester fiber in the USA was in 1953. Polyester is the most used man-made fiber in the U.S First commercial production of triacetate fiber was by the Celanese Corporation. Domestic Triacetate production was discontinued in 1985 First commercial production of spandex fiber in the USA was in 1959. It is an electrometric man-made fiber (able to stretch at least 100% and snap back like natural rubber). Spandex is used in filament form. First commercial production of an olefin fiber manufactured in the U.S. was by Hercules Incorporated. Polyolefin was the worlds first and only Nobel-Prize winning fiber. First commercial production of micro fiber in the USA was by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company Inc. Today micro fibers are produced in a variety of synthetic fibers (i.e. polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.) A Micro fiber has less than one denier per filament. Micro Fiber is the thinnest, finest of all man-made fibers. Human hair is more than 100 times the size of some micro fibers. First commercial production of lyocell in the USA was in 1993 by Courtaulds Fibers, under the Tencel trade name. Environment friendly, lyocell is produced from the wood pulp of trees grown specially, for this purpose. It is specially processed, using a solvent spinning technique in which the dissolving agent is recycled, reducing environmental effluents.
3,000 BC
COTTON
3,000 BC
WOOL
2,600 BC
SILK
1910
RAYON
1924
ACETATE: NYLON:
1939 1950 1953 1954 1959
ACRYLIC: POLYESTER TRI ACETATE SPANDEX
1961
1989
POLYOLEFIN Or POLY PROPYLENE MICRO FIBERS OR MICRO DENIER
1993
LYOCELL
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TEXTILE YARN
1.
COTTON PICKING: Pakistani Cotton is hand picked mainly due to small

land holding, farmers do not have proper storing facilities thus contamination is always added to the raw cotton. But the advantage of manual picking is that irrelevant material is avoided i.e. immature cotton balls, leaves, straws etc. Only mature fibers / cotton balls are picked during manual picking process.
2.
GINNING PROCESS: In ginning process oil seeds are separated from

raw cotton. Big Contamination i.e. Straws, leaves, colored marital are separated to a certain extent. The raw cotton is pressed in the form of bales. The ginners add water contents to the raw cotton for gaining weight. Normal moisture contents in Bales are around 7-8% but ginners add additional 2-3 % moisture for gaining extra weight to their benefit. Leaves, straws and other contamination materials are a part of trash. Normal trash contents in Pakistani cotton are around 8 % but can go as high as 10-11 % due to poor ginning process. Imported cotton trash % is normally 2% -3% only. Basically there is a difference of almost 8% in trash between Pakistani and imported Cotton i.e. Australian, American, CIS, Egyptian.
3.
SPINNING MILLS OPERATIONS: Spinning mills operations involve:

a) RAW COTTON MANAGEMENT: Proper placement of incoming raw cotton by lots i.e. one lot consists of 100 bales of raw cotton. b) COTTON TESTING i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Staple length: Pakistani cotton has a staple length of 1 to 1.10 Micronaire: It is number of micro grams per inch of raw cotton. Its range of 4 to 4.5 is considered to be the best as matured Cotton. Floating: It is number of short fiber % at drawing. Generally 18% floating Fiber Index in Pakistani raw cotton is acceptable. Presley Strength: Pakistani cotton ranges 80,000 - 92,000 PSI Strength: Long staple cotton has higher Presley. Color +b Value: It is the degree of Yellowishness of raw cotton. Pakistani cotton has +b value of Yellowishness range 7-9. Range of 0.25+/- is acceptable.
4.
NATURE OF YARN FAULTS: Some common yarn faults are:

a) Colored Contamination: Presence of Jute, Hair, Polypropylene fiber etc that causes appearance of Black, Green, Red, Color dots. b) Unevenness: Appearance of thin and thick yarns in the fabric. c) Dead Cotton: Appearance of white dots / specs on the fabric. d) Barrie: Appearance of stripes, light or dark mainly in the dyed fabric. e) Breakage: Due to low twist or weak and or improper splicing.
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5.
IMPORTED COTTON USAGE: Pakistan imports raw cotton from

USA, Australia, CIS, China, West Africa etc mainly imported cotton is being used to produce contamination free / very low contamination yarn. Such yarns are used for white programs, where contamination is critical. Pakistani yarn is generally good for medium and dark color use. Due to the nature of soil characteristics, Pakistani cotton has better dye-ability, soft hand feel and a better luster which adds value to product quality.
6.
YARN COUNT: Count is determined by the number of hanks. Each of 840

yards weighs one pound gives the count of the yarn, e.g. If 30 hanks of 840 yards weigh one pound, yarn count is 30/1 (30 Single). Various yarn count measuring systems are (N.E, D-Tex, and N-M Tex). Conversion system between these is: Tex = D.Tex/10 = 590.54/NE = 1000/NM EXAMPLE Convert NE 20/1 to D-Tex i.e. D-Tex/10 = 590.54/NE D-Tex = 590.54 x 10/NE = 590.54 x 10/20 D-Tex = 5905.94/20 D-Tex = 295.27 INDIRECT SYSTEM
SYSTEM UNIT OF LENGTH 840 Yards (Hank) 1000 meters 560 Yards (Hank) 300 Yards (Hank) 1000 Meter (Hank) 100 Yards (Hank) 1000 Yards 300 Yards 320 Yards 256 Yards 50 Yards 100 Yards UNIT OF WEIGHT Pound 0.5 Kg. Pound Pound Kg. Pound Ounce 1.5 Pounds 1 Pound 1 Pound 1 Pound 1 Pound COUNT No. of hanks that weigh One Pound No. of hanks that weigh 0.5 Kg. No. of hanks that weigh One Pound No. of hanks that weigh One Pound No. of hanks that weigh 1 Kg. No. of hanks that weigh One Pound No. of hanks that weigh One Ounce No. of hanks that weigh 1.5 Pound No. of hanks that weigh One Pound No. of hanks that weigh One Pound No. of hanks that weigh One Pound No. of hanks that weigh One Pound
Cotton English Spun Silk Continental Worsted Linen Metric Fiber Glass Silk Wool (Galashicls) Wool (West of England) Wool (Yorks Skein) Asbestos (England) Asbestos (America)
To elaborate, it is explained by the example: (53760 yards weigh 4 pounds. Find the count in (i) Worsted (ii) Linen (iii) Cotton (iv) Wool (Yorks) (v) Wool (gala). Weight of 53760 yards Yards / Lbs Worsted Count 7. = = = 4 lbs 53760 / 4; = 13440 / 560; = 13440 24S
BLENDING OF COTTON WITH ANY MANMADE FIBER:

Separate blow rooms are used for making laps (Rolls) of cotton and man made fiber. Likewise, separate carding machines are used for producing such slivers. Mixing of slivers / Blending is carried out as per required ratio of a certain blend during a spinning process i.e. P/C 65:35 means blending of 65% Polyester with 35% cotton; CVC 60:40 means Chief value Cotton means i.e. blending of 60% cotton with 40% polyester.
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8.
PLIED YARNS: Twisting of two or more yarns together is called plying of

yarn or doubling of yarn. e.g. N.E 20/2 carded yarn means two yarns of 20/1 carded twisted together to make 20/2 carded yarn.
9.
SPINNING: Primitive people discovered that a succession of short fibers could be twisted to a continuous yarn. This was probably accomplished slowly and laboriously at first, but the greater strength thus produced and the many uses soon found for articles made from continuous yarns led to the invention of hand implements to aid and improve the process of twisting and spinning. At the same time, it was necessary to invent simple methods of disentangling, separating and arranging the fibers according to their length, other than by using the fingers. Thus, crude methods of carding were invented to separate the fibers according to their length of staple. Eventually, techniques were refined. Fiber is a generic term for a slender thread like substance called a staple. Staple is a fiber of cotton, wool or ramie etc. of no more than a few inches long. All fabrics, woven or knitted are made from yarn. We usually make two kinds of yarn called spun yarn and filament yarn.
9.1 SPUN YARN: Spun yarn is a kind of yarn we make by gathering together a bundle of staple by means of an action called spinning with a tool called spindle which spins at a very high speed to twist the staples together to form a piece of yarn. For spun yarn, we call the yarn size 10 count, 20 count and 40 count etc. In the trade, we usually write 10s, 20s and 40s to mean 10 count single, 20 count single and 40 count single etc. 10s is twice as thick as 20s, and 20s is twice as thick as 40s. In other words, the bigger the number is, the finer the yarn is, or smaller the number is, the thicker the yarn is. 10s means 10 count of 1-ply, similarly, 20/2 means 20 count 2-plies, 20/3 means 20 count 3-ply, 10/2 means 10 count 2-plies and 60/4 means 60 count 4-ply etc. Theoretically, we can make a piece of yarn of any size. 1 count yarn means 840 yards of it to weigh 1 pound, and of 10 count yarn, 8400 yards to weigh 1 pound and so on. 9.2 FILAMENT YARN: Unlike spun yarn, we use a very different system to control the size. The big number is the thick size; small number, the small size. Filament yarn usually comes in 70 - denier and 140 - denier or 160 denier. 140 - Denier is twice as thick as 70 - Denier. The formation of yarn from fibers by spinning becomes possible when they have surfaces of cohesiveness. Flexibility permits the fibers to be twisted around one another. These two factors depend upon the type of fiber. When stated in terms of basic manufacturing processes, is as follows: 9.3 SPINNING PROCESS FLOW: detailed below: Spinning process involves steps as
1. BLOW ROOM: (Waste Extraction 5% to 6%). High pressure air blow is used as a means of transportation of raw cotton. The objectives of the process is opening, cleaning and mixing of Raw Cotton. 2. CARDING: (Waste extraction 6%). This process is called the Heart of Spinning. Before the raw stock can be made into yarn, the remaining impurities must be removed, the fibers must be 173
disentangled, and they must be straightened. This straightening process puts the fibers into a somewhat parallel lengthwise alignment. The initial process of arranging the fibers in parallel fashion is known as carding. The result from the carding machine is called as card sliver. The objective of the process is conversion of cotton tufts into individual fiber state and cleaning them. 3. DOUBLING: After carding, several slivers are combined. This results in a relatively narrow lap of compactly placed staple fibers. The compactness of staple fibers permits this cotton stock to be attenuated, or drawn out, to a sliver of smaller diameter without falling apart. 4. COMBING: (Waste Extraction up to 20%). When the fiber is intended for fine yarns, the sliver is put through an additional straightening called combing. Combing process forms comb sliver made of longest fibers. This process eliminates 25% of card sliver. This produces finer yarns. Objective of the process is removing short fibers, extra straightening, and parallelization and cleaning of fibers. 5. DRAWING: (Waste Extraction 0.5%). The combining of several slivers for drawing, or drafting, process eliminates irregularities that would cause too much variation if the slivers were put through singly. After several stages of drawing out, the condensed sliver is taken to the slubber, where rollers draw out cotton further. Here the slubbing is passed to the spindles, where it is given its first twist and wound on bobbins. The objective of this process is straightening, drafting, parallelization of fiber for blending double passage for carded and three passages for combed yarn.
6.
ROVING: The bobbins are placed on the roving frame, where further drawing out and twisting take place until the cotton stock is about the diameter of a pencil lead. There are two stages in roving: intermediate and fine. The operations are identical. Roving is the final product of several drawing-out operations.
7. SPINNING: The roving, on bobbins, is placed in the spinning frame, where it passes through several sets of rollers running at successively higher rates of speed and is finally drawn out to yarn of the size desired. Spinning machines are of two types: ring frame and mule frame. The ring frame is faster process, but produces relatively coarse yarn. For very fine yarns mule frames are used. 8. SIMPLEX: Preparing package for ring frames, drafting of sliver and twisting of sliver at initial stage. 9. RING FRAME: Final spinning process in yarn manufacturing after drafting and twisting (draft means increase in length per unit weight). 10. AUTO CONE: Removing faults by cutting the yarn i.e. Thin, Thick, Neps and Winding the yarn on cones for final packing. 11. USTER YARN STANDARDS: Uster standards are used to determine the quality of yarn. For example 5% Uster result means, the results which 5% top standard mills are producing of a certain count are (thin -50%), (Thick +50%), and (Neps +200%) of actual yarn count
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12. CONDITIONING AND PACKING: Moisture is being added to the yarn cones in order to increase the strength of yarn. 24 Hours time is generally required for such conditioning. Conditioning also helps to set the yarn twist in order to avoid un-twisting at the time of final use. As the fibers pass through these processes, they are successfully formed into lap, sliver, roving and finally yarn. Fibers may be blended during the spinning process. The blending procedure varies with its compatibility with particular spinning techniques i.e. Open-end spinning; Friction spinning; Self-Twist spinning; Electrostatic spinning; Vortex spinning; Air-jet spinning; Twist less spinning; Wet spinning; Dry spinning; Melt spinning; Bi-component spinning; Bi-constituent spinning; Film splitting; Integrated Composite spinning; Cover-spun; Selfil; and Aerodynamic spinning 9.4 TYPES OF YARNS: There are various types of yarns, having characteristics that vary according to construction and treatment given yarn manufacture. 1. CARDED AND COMBED YARN: The purpose of combing fibers is to strengthen and makes fibers more parallel in order to have a smoother, more uniform and stronger yarn. The fibers which are subjected to spinning process after carding without combing are termed as cared yarns. The fibers which are combed before spinning are termed as combed yarns. 2. LINE AND TOW YARN: Flax or linen yarns are spun either wet or dry. The finer yarns known as line yarn are generally wet spun. The tow yarns are made from short fibers and used for making coarse yarn and are dry spun. 3. WOOLEN AND WORSTED YARN: Wool fibers which are coarse and spun after carding are known as woolen yarn finer and longer fibers which are subjected to combing are first converted to wool tops. The worsted yarn is spun from tops. The worsted yarns are smoother and have hard outer surface. Worsted Yarn is combed, smooth and compact yarn with long fibers and higher TPI. 4. REELED SILK YARN: The pure silk yarn obtained from cocoons is termed as reeled silk. The raw silk is spun on conventional spinning system. 5. FILAMENT YARN: The yarns are continues and slightly twisted. Men made yarns are generally converted into filament yarns. Some yarn may consist of single filament as Nylon is called mono filament yarns. 6. DOUBLE OR PLIED YARN: Two or more yarns twisted together. 7. BLENDED YARN: Yarn; made from two or more kinds of fibers. 8. TEXTURISED YARNS: Any filament yarn which has been modified to change the basic characteristics is known as texturised yarn. It gives the filaments a coil, crimp, curt & results in greater bulk & stretch. 9. THREAD: If a number of strands of yarn are twisted together the resultant yarn is know as thread. If an eight cord cotton thread is to be made eight strands are twisted together. A good thread must be strong, even, smooth and elastic. Threads are made of cotton, linen, silk, nylon and polyesters etc. 10. FANCY YARN: Fancy yarns are used in fabrics which have special appearance and effects. Fancy yarns are made on fancy yarn twisting machines.
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11. BOUCLE: It can be described as yarn with tight loops which projects from the body of yarn at regular intervals. It is generally made from the blend of cotton, wool, and rayon. Generally used for knitting sweater, dressed and upholstery. 12. CHENILE YARN: Special, soft and lofty yarn with pile on all sides. Used for sweaters and other knitted outer wears. 13. NUB YARN: It is made by twisted one end around the other many times in a very small length causing nubs on the surface of yarn. 14. SLUB YARN: The yarn forming slubs may be continues or made of tufts of roving inserted at regular intervals in the yarn. 15. CORKSCREW YARN: This effect is produced by twisting fine and coarse yarn. 16. LOOP YARN: The loose twisted yarn is twisted to form loops and curls. This yarn is held in place by two or more binding yarn. 17. SPLASH YARN: Elongated slub yarn tightly twisted about base yarn. 18. THICK AND THIN YARN: Produced by varying diameter of man-made fibers. 19. VOIL OR CREPE YARN: yarn with extra twist as such these tend to curl. 20. PRINTED YARN: Yarn with regular or irregular dyeing effect throughout length. 21. MARL YARN: Color combined in roving where two roving are drafted together. 22. KNICKER BROKER YARN: Neps of singlw color are placed in carded sliver. 9.5 BLENDED YARNS: In order to achieve certain appearance, and effect on fabrics, we often mix different fibers in the yarn to make fabrics. Instead of using only one kind of fiber, we may use 2 or even 3 kinds. As each kind of fiber has its own characteristics, when we plan to mix them, we should consider their characteristics to create a hybrid with the characteristics we need. With the above basic key materials, we usually do the blending i.e. Polyester Cotton Blend; Polyester Rayon Cotton Polyester Wool; Acrylic Wool; Polyester Rayon; Silk Cotton; and Rayon Cotton. Sometimes, fabrics of the above composition are made of blended yarn, and sometimes, they are made of yarn of only one kind of fiber, bur we mix two kinds of yarn, warp (vertical threads) one kind, and weft (horizontal threads) another kind, to achieve this effect. This is called mixed weave or mixed knit 9.6 CHIEF VALUE OF MIX WEAVE OR MIX KNIT: When it is a mixed weave / knit, we must calculate %age of each fiber used to make sure the chief value of the fabric. EXAMPLE MIXED WEAVE: On a fabric, the size of yarn on the warp and the weft is the same; also the density of warp and weft is the same. If the warp thread is of 65% polyester, 35% cotton and the weft is 100% polyester, this fabric is TC. .Polyester Cotton Warp (TC) 65% 35% Weft (100% Polyester) 100% 0% 165% 2 = 82.5% Polyester 165% 35% 35% 2 = 17.5% Cotton; this fabric is TC, 82.5% Polyester and 17.5% Cotton If we change the weft from 100% Polyester to 100% cotton, then this fabric is CVC
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.Polyester Cotton Warp (TC) 65% 35% Weft (100% Polyester) 0% 100% 65% 2 = 32.5% Polyester 65% 135% 135% 2 = 67.5% Cotton; this fabric is CVC, 67.5% Cotton and 32.5% Polyester. EXAMPLE MIXED KNIT: You can use thread of 32s in TC and the next thread of 32s 100% cotton to knit. As a result, the fiber contents of this knitted fabric are: .Polyester Cotton Thread of TC 65% 35% Thread of 100% Cotton) 0% 100% 65% 2= 32.5% Polyester 65% 135% 135% 2= 67.5% Cotton; this fabric is CVC, 67.5% Cotton and 32.5% Polyester. WEIGHT OF WOVEN FABRICS MADE OF SPUN YARN Fabric Construction: 60 X 60; 20s X 20s It means warp 60pcs of threads each of 20s and weft 60pcs of threads each of 20s In one square yard of this fabric we have 36 X 60 warp threads = 2,160 yards of 20s yarn 36 X 60 weft threads = 2,160 yards of 20s yarn 2,160 warp threads + 2,160 yards weft threads = 4,320 yards of 20s yarn As 20pcs of 20s yarn each of 840 yards = 1pound or 16 ounce Which means 20pcs X 840 yards = 16,800 yards of 20s = 1pound or 16 ounce? It also means that 16,800 yards of 20s yarn 16 ounce = 1,050 yards per ounce Now, we have 4,320 yards of 20s yarn in one square yard of this fabric which means this fabric is 4,320 yards 1,050 yards = 4.11 ounce per square yard Dyeing / Weaving shrinkage 12%; 4.11 ounce 12% = 4.61 ounce per square yard. WEIGHT OF WOVEN FABRICS MADE OF FILIMENT YARN Fabric Construction: 120 X 90; 70d X 70d Means warp 120pcs of threads each of 70d and weft 120pcs of threads each of 70d In one square yard of this fabric we have 36 X 120 warp threads = 4,320 yards of 70d yarn 36 X 90 weft threads = 3,240 yards of 70d yarn 4,320 warp threads + 3,240 yards weft threads = 7,560 yards of 70d yarn As 10,000 yards of 70d filament yarn is 70grams It also means that 7,560 yards of 70d yarn X 0.007 grams = 52.9 grams Since 1 gram = 0.0352 grams; 52.9 X 0.0352 ounces =1.862 ounce per square yards Dyeing and weaving shrinkage say 8%; 1.862 ounce X 8% = 2 ounce per square yard. Above formula is based on 12% weaving shrinkage which may go up to 18% or down to 6% and should be adjusted based on size of weft yarn and weft density. 9.7 SKILL TO DETERMINE THE SUBSTANCE OF A YARN: To determine what the substance is of the yarn, it requires good knowledge and experience to make a good judgment. If we want to be very accurate we have to send it to a lab for a scientific analysis. However, as garment merchandisers, we should be able to use some skill to get the answer quickly. Through following methods we can analyze the yarn our self without any equipment.
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1. COTTON: When you untwist, unravel the yarn and pull out the staples from it, you will see that all the staples are less than 2 . When you burn it, it burns to grayish white ash like burning paper. 2. SILK: When you untwist, unravel the yarn and pull out the fibers from it you will see that the fibers are much longer than 2 . They are very fine and soft. When you burn it, it burns to dark grey hard ash like a bubble. You can crush it by hand into dust. 3. RAMIE: When you untwist, unravel the yarn and pull out the fibers from it you will see that the fibers are much longer than 2 . They are thick and stiff, not too pliable. When you burn it, it burns to grayish white ash similar to cotton. 4. WOOL: When you untwist, unravel the yarn and pull out the fibers from it, you will see that the fibers are longer than 2 and they are not very straight and not very fine and pliable. You would suspect either it is wool or synthetic. When you burn it, it gives you a very strong smell like burning human hair. During the process of burning, it does not melt. 5. SYNTHETICS: If it is rayon, when you untwist, unravel the yarn and pull out the fiber you will see that the fiber length is very long, very soft and even in thickness. When you burn it, it burns like paper or cotton to grayish white ash. In process of burning you do not see anything melting. If it is polyester, nylon, acrylic etc, all those from petroleum, when you untwist, unravel the yarn and pull out the fiber from it, you will see that the fiber length is very long and even in thickness. When you burn it, it melts first. When it catches fire, the smoke is black.
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FABRICATION (WOVEN)
1. WEAVING: A major method of fabric construction is weaving. Weaving is the
process of interlacing two or more yarns at right angles to each other (Warp and Weft) to produce woven fabric. The technique probably became known before spinning. Primitive people may have observed the interlaced grasses and twigs in the nest of birds, and thus discovered how they could make clothing for themselves, baskets and nets, and thatch like huts and fence. Or they may have seen rushes naturally interlacing as they grew. Spinning developed when people discovered that the raw materials could be improved before they were woven. In course of time, rude looms were made, which were crudely simple and hand-operated. The modern power loom used in textile industry today essentially performs the same operations. 1.1 FABRIC CONSTRUCTION: Construction of fabric consist Warp: Yarn which runs in the lengthwise direction; Weft: Yarn which run in the crosswise direction; Ends: Number of thread warp wise; and Picks: No. of threads weft wise. Both Ends and Picks counted per inch. 1.2 IDENTIFICATION OF WARP AND WEFT: To identify warp and weft direction and their basic properties, following table may be helpful. ITEM
Sized yarn Amount of twist Yarn spacing Tension Selvage Bowing Thread Linear density of yarn
WARP
Yes Higher Uniform Tighter Parallel No Greater Finer
WEFT
No Lower Uniform Looser Perpendicular Yes Smaller Coarser
1.3 FABRIC WEIGHT: In order to determine the cost of grey fabric it is important to know the weight of fabric. Weight of fabric consists of Weight of Warp and Weft. Weight of Warp = Number of Warp Ends X 36 X Shrinkage% X Width Warp Count X 840 1.4 PREPARATION FOR WEAVING: In weaving operation, the lengthwise yarns run from back of the loom, forms basic structure of fabric and called Warp. Crosswise yarns are the fillings, called as Weft. Both types of yarns undergo certain treatment for type of fabric for which they will be used. Warp yarns undergo spooling, warping, and slashing to withstand strain of weaving. In spooling the yarns is wound on large spools or cones placed on creel from which it is wound on a warp beam. These yarns are un-wound to be put through a sizing bath, which will be either starch or a synthetic, based. The sized yarns are then wound on a final warp beam and are ready for the loom. The sequences of four operations that are fundamental in any weaving operations are shedding raising specific warp yarns by means of the harness or heddle frame; picking inserting filling yarns through the shed; beating up (battening) pushing filling yarns firmly in place by reed and taking up & letting off winding the finished fabric on the cloth beam and releasing more of the warp from the warp beam. there are three types of looms in constructing the fabric; they are shuttle looms, shuttle less looms, circular looms
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1.5 TYPES OF LOOMS SHUTTLE LOOMS: The conventional loom utilizes a shuttle that contains a bobbin of filling yarn, which emerges through a hole in the side. As the shuttle is batted across the loom it leaves a trail of the filling. The shuttle loom is the oldest kind of the loom. It is effective and versatile. Shuttle looms operate more slowly than new looms they are also noisier. SHUTTLE LESS LOOMS: To overcome disadvantages of shuttle looms, several different kinds of shuttle less looms have been developed. Each type uses a different method of picking, which provides specific characteristics / applications. Different types of shuttle less looms are Missile or Projectile Looms, Rapier Looms, Water-Jet Looms, Air-Jet Looms CIRCULAR LOOMS: Circular looms are specially designed to produce tubular rather than flat fabrics woven by the looms heretofore discussed. They require the use of a shuttle device that circulates the filling in a shed formed around the machine. The circular loom is used primarily for bagging material. 1.6 SALVAGES: As the shuttle moves back and forth across the width of the shed, it weaves a self edge called the selvage, or selvedge, on each side of the fabric. The selvage prevents the fabric from raveling. It is usually made more compact and stronger than the rest of the fabric by using more or heavier warp yarns or by using a stronger weave. There are different kinds of selvages. The kind of selvage used depends upon economy of production and the expected use of the fabric: PLAIN SALVAGES: These salvages are constructed of the simple plain weave with the same size yarn as the rest of the fabric, but with the threads packed more closely together. Such selvages are fairly durable and firm. TAPE SALVAGES: These are sometimes constructed with the plain weave but often are made of the basket weave, which makes a flatter edge. Tape selvages are made of heavier yarns or ply yarns, which provide greater strength. SPLIT SALVAGES: These are made by weaving a narrow width fabric twice its ordinary width with two selvages in the center. The fabric is then cut between the salvages, and the cut edges are finished with a chain stitch or hem. FUSED SELVAGES: These are made on fabrics of thermoplastic fibers, such as nylon, by heating the edges of the fabric. The fibers melt and fuse together, sealing edges. This technique is sometimes used to split wide fabrics into narrower widths. LENO SELVAGES: These are used on some shuttleless looms. Construction utilizes a narrow leno weave which locks cut ends along fabric edge. A loose weave generally requires a tight leno selvage, whereas a light weave may have a leno selvage with less tension. TUCKED SALVAGE: This is a technique used on some shuttleless looms. A device is used to tuck and hold the cut ends into the fabric edge. The construction of the selvage is dependent upon the particular weave and a number of other factors. A formula for weaving the tucked selvage considers fiber density, the diameter of the yarns as well as the yarn diameter balance, or ratio of the diameter of the filling yarn to that of the warp yarn.
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2. CLASSIFICATION OF WEAVES: Manner in which groups of warp yarns

are raised by harnesses to permit the insertion of filling yarn determines the pattern of weave, and in large measure the kind of fabric produced. Weave patterns can create varying degrees of durability in fabrics, adding to their usefulness and their appearance. The weaves can be classified as: PLAIN WEAVE: The plain weave is also referred to as the tabby, homespun, or taffeta weave. It is inexpensive to produce. It requires only two harnesses. In plain weave construction each filling yarn goes over and under the warp yarn across the width of the fabric; on its return the yarn alternates its pattern of interlacing. It is used extensively for cotton fabrics. Plain weave does not have a wrong side, e.g. gig ham, voile, calico, muslin and taffeta. There are two variations of the plain weave i.e. Basket Weave and Ribbed Weave BASKET WEAVE: The variation of the plain weave known as the basket weave uses doubled yarns to produce the design that resembles the familiar pattern of a basket. Two or more filling yarns with little or no twist are interlaced with a corresponding number of warp yarns. They are woven in a pattern of 2 X 2, 3 X 3, or 4 X 4, instead of 1 X 1, which is the plain weave. Due to the characteristic looseness of construction and the low tensile strength of yarns that have little or no twist, this weave is not considered desirable for clothing purposes where the factor of durability is a primary consideration. RIBBED WEAVE: Ribbed, or corded, effects are further variations of the plain weave. The rib may be produced in the warp or in the filling by alternating fine yarns with coarse yarns. Most ribbed effects are medium weight. The ribbed, compact structure generally provided greater drapability than the plain weave. The cloth may be smoother and softer, depending upon the yarn and finish used. TWILL WEAVE: In twill weave, the filling yarn interlaces more than one warp but never more than four as strength would be sacrificed by doing so. On each successive line the filling yarn moves the design one step to the right or to the left, thus forming the diagonal. Whichever the direction of the diagonal on the face of the fabric the design runs in the opposite direction on the reverse side. The direction of the diagonal lines, which come from upper left-hand to the lower right-hand, is left-hand twill, and from upper right-hand to lower left-hand is right-hand twill. There are two types of twill Even Twill and Uneven Twill SATIN WEAVE: It is similar to twill weave. It uses from 5 to as many as 12 harnesses. The difference from twill weave is that the diagonal of satin weave is not visible. They may have warpface or filling-face construction. Warp-face weave is woven so that warp is seen on the surface. Filling face satin weave is also called as sateen weave. The filling yarns are seen on right side.
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CREPE WEAVE: It gives the fabric a pebbly crepe surface. True crepe is woven with highly twisted yarns and textured yarns. Similar effects can be obtained by variation in the plain and the satin weave with the use of dobby attachment on the loom. Irregular indistinct patterns using both plain weave and varied lines of satin floats in warp and/or filling produce crepe weave. The result is somewhat rough textured material. PILE WEAVE: It is a fancy weave that also includes plain and twill construction. This introduces a decorative third dimension creating an effect of depth. It gives softness, warmth and absorbency. Weaving additional warp yarns or filling yarns into the basic structure produces the pile. The additional yarns, which form the loops in regular intervals, are drawn away from the surface of the fabric by thick wires. The loops maybe cut or uncut, hence the two variations are Cut Pile or Uncut Pile DOUBLE-CLOTH WEAVE: In a double-cloth weave, the two fabrics are woven on a loom at same time, one on top of the other. The fabric may have a plain weave on one side and a twill weave on other. Each of fabrics requires its separate sets of warp and filling yarns or by means of a complete fifth set of stitching yarns. Surfaces of such fabrics may show different patterns or color on each side by varying the yarns as to color and size. Double cloth weave produces two pieces of fabric combined into one fabric so woven are commonly regarded as strong and warm. Double-cloth fabrics are by their nature heavier weight materials. They may be made of spun yarns or of spun and filament yarns. GAUZE LENO WEAVE: Leno weave improves the stability in open fabrics which have a low fiber count. A form of plain weave in which adjacent warp fibers are twisted around consecutive weft fibers to form a spiral pair, effectively locking each weft in place. Fabrics in leno weave are normally used in con-junction with other weave styles because if used alone their openness could not produce an effective composite component. MOCK LENO WEAVE: A version of plain weave in which occasional warp fibers, at regular intervals but usually several fibers apart, deviate from the alternate under-over interlacing and instead interlace every two or more fibers. This happens with similar frequency in the weft direction, and the overall effect is a fabric with increased thickness, rougher surface, and additional porosity. SWIVEL WEAVE: The swivel weave is the method by which decorative effects, such as dots, circles, or other figures, are interwoven on the surface of a fabric while it is being constructed on a loom. The weaving of the design requires an extra filling yarn and additional small shuttles or insertion devices and a separate shed is made for them. While the fabric is being constructed, the row of small shuttles drops across the width of the loom, each interweaves its separate design with a 182
circular motion on a small area of the warp. Different colors may be used in each of the designs because each figure is woven with its own specific bobbin. The decoration produced by swivel weave is not considered durable, because the swivel yarns are cut when the fabric is completed and cannot be securely fastened. This swivel weave is employed with sheer lightweights, such as dotted Swiss and grenadine and medium weight such as Madras LAPPET WEAVE: The lappet weave is also used to super impose a small design on the surface of the fabric while it is being woven. In the lappet weave, the design is stitched into the fabric by needles that operate at right angles to the construction. The floating threads on the back may be cut away when the fabric is completed, but the ends are fastened securely and will not pull out easily. Therefore, the fabrics made with the lappet weave are superior to similar ones made of swivel weave. The simplest form employs an extra set of filling or warp yarns differing in weights and often in colors from those used in the body of the fabric to produce the design. These yarns are thrown into the figure of the design on the face of the cloth and are carried from selvedge to selvedge. The same yarns float on the back of the cloth as appear in the design on its surface. These floats between the figures or in case of warp yarns they run entire length of the fabric. The durability of design is dependent only on compactness of the ground yarns, which hold the heavy designing yarn in place. DOBBY WEAVE: The dobby weave is a patterned weave used to conduct designs cannot be produced by the plain, twill or satin weave. The designs are simple, limited in size and geometric in form. This weave is constructed with filling yarns floating on the surface in such a manner that they produce small diamond shape design. Most familiar type of dobby weave is birds eye small diamond pattern made with short floats gives an impression of eye. JACQUARD WEAVE: The jacquard mechanism controls thousands of heddles, which lifts one or more warp yarns independently of others without the use of harnesses. The preparation of a jacquard weave is the most expensive part of its construction. Floats are inevitable in the jacquard weave because of the elaborate designs.
3. TYPES OF WOVEN FABRICS: The range of fabrics available today is so

varied and exciting that it is easy to get carried away with enthusiasm and not take careful account of how it will make up as a garment. Some of the fabrics we can expect to find are as follows: BARATHEA: This was originally a close woven silk used in the making. It was later made from a silk and worsted wool mixture, and is now made entirely from worsted wool. It makes very good suits, blazers, trousers and coats. BATISTE: Fine soft cotton now made with a percentage of polyester. (Some 100 per cent polyester batistes are also available.) It is very useful for lining bodices and yokes because of its fineness, and used for shirts, blouses, under slips and nightwear. BEDFORD CORD: This is made from any yarn, but identified by a lengthways ribbed effect. Used for heavy duty wear, riding breeches, winter coats and trousers.
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BLANKET CLOTH: Originally made for covering beds, this is a thick, non-frying fabric made from wool or a mixture of fibers. Often available as a reversible material, it is suitable for capes and duffel coats. It is produced with a napped finish like velvet. BLAZER CLOTH: Warm and lightweight, this is available in pure wool and in mixed fibers. A type of flannel that is good for childrens coats. BROCADE: Originally a heavy silk, but now a name for any fabric that has a raised woven pattern and a simple weave for background. It is used for bridal and bridesmaid dresses, and fancy dress costume. BRODERIE ANGLAIS: This is an embroidered fabric (usually cotton) that has small holes in the motifs. Imitation broderie anglais is available, but the embroidery does not incorporate the small holes, which identify the real thing. BRUSHED COTTON: This is 100 percent cotton, available in plain colors or prints. The brushing process, applied to the right side of the fabric, gives it warmth. Use it for dresses, blouses and skirts, but it creases and will require careful ironing. CALICO: Creases very easily, but is strong and washes and wears well. It is usually 100 percent cotton, but can be mixed with synthetic fibers. CAMBRIC: First made in cambrai, France, from a linen yarn, this fabric is now usually 100 percent cotton of a very fine quality. CHEESECLOTH: This loose woven cotton fabric has a wrinkled appearance. If 100 percent cotton, it is not hardwearing, but the addition of synthetic fibers improves both the wear and washability. CHIFFON: This is a very delicate fabric woven from highly twisted yarn, which makes the edges roll after cutting out. Can be made from nylon, polyester and pure silk, and drapes beautifully. CLYDELLA: A trade name for a soft, plain or print mixture of cotton and wool. CORDUROY: Usually made in cotton, but can be a mixture of fibers. Firm to handle and with long, velvety ribs running down the length of the fabric. Corduroy mist is cut in one direction ply to avoid shading. FLANNEL: This is loosely woven wool, or a mixture of wool and other fibers. It wears well and does not fray easily, so is therefore useful for many garments, such as trousers, blazers and coats. GABERDINE: The twill weave of this cloth makes it water repellent and it is also sometimes proofed for raincoats. Mixed fiber fabrics, and 100 percent synthetic fabrics, such as trevira, are excellent when produced with the gabardine look. GINGHAM: This is very strong and hard-wearing 100 percent cotton, or a cotton mixture. Often produced in checks or stripes, it is widely used for childrens blouses, shirts and school dresses. LAWN: This is a very soft and delicate cotton fabric, also available as a mixture of cotton and synthetic fibers. It is often used for baby clothes, and many famous trade names (including liberty) use this fabric for blouses, dresses and shirts. NEEDLECORD: This is a fine-ribbed version of corduroy, which is hard-wearing and usually washable. It is normally made of cotton, but can be made with a percentage of synthetic fibers. It must always be cut in one direction to avoid shading. 184
ORGANDIE: Made from very fine yarn to give a transparent effect, organdie is usually stiffened and has a glazed finish. Use it for collars, pinafores, special dresses and delicate blouses. PIQUE: This is a hard-wearing cotton or synthetic fabric, which is very similar to needle cord in that it is woven with a close rib. Use it for making shirts, trousers, dungarees, collars and cuffs. POPLIN: This is a plain cotton or synthetic fabric with a characteristic shine on the right side. It is very hard-wearing and often used for pockets. As it is difficult to hand sew, be careful with hems, which can look better machines. REVERSIBLE FABRIC: Many fabrics can be used on both sides, which can look very attractive if we want to create a trimmed effect without buying additional fabric. Some reversible fabrics are made from two layers of cloth of different colors or design, stitched, or permanently stuck, together. These fabrics are excellent on such garments as capes or duffel coats when not use a lining, edges should be bound. SATIN: This word describes a type of weave as well as a type of fabric. It always has a smooth, lustrous surface and is made from a continuous filament thread such as pure silk or nylon. Take care to avoid iron marks when pressing. SEERSUCKER: This is usually cotton, or a cotton mixture, which washes well and needs no ironing. It is a characterized by its bubbly, uneven surface. SILK: An expensive but very beautiful fabric that is not difficult to handle. Try to use silk thread and always test for ironing on small pieces. TOWELLING: This fabric, often called terry toweling, is made from thick cotton with close loops, and is ideal for beach robes and dressing-gowns. It is often possible to make childrens garments more cheaply, and in better quality toweling if we use household towels rather than buy from a roll. Stretch toweling, which is jersey backed, is ideal for beach wear, anoraks and shorts, but is usually available only in very wide widths. VELVET: A sophisticated pile fabric was originally made in 100% cotton with velvet surface cut after weaving. Velvet is now available with mixed fibers, but 100% cotton velvet is recommended for satisfactory home dressmaking. It must be cut in one direction only, decision being made after assessing which way to prefer. VELVETEEN: This is very short pile cotton velvet, highly recommended for childrens clothes because it handles and washes more easily than true velvet. It must be cut in one direction. VIYELLA: Like clydella, Viyella is a trade name, but often used to describe any soft, warm mixtures of wool and cotton. It can be plain or printed. WINCEYETTE: This is a type of brushed cotton that wears and washes well, but should only be bought if flame-proofed by the manufacturer. Always ask about this when buying the material; small additional cost is more than offset by safety factor. WOOL: This is a traditional and beautiful fabric, but if 100 percent pure wool, it is expensive. Some wool mixtures feel and handle like the real thing but have the added bonus of crease resistance, strength, shape retention and washability. ARMURE: French term for a small irregular pebbled or embossed effect. The fabric surface has a wavy rib character that produces an all-over textural effect.
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BIRDSEYE: A worsted suiting type, featuring a small design based on the diamond principal with a small dot in centre of each figure, achieved by weave and color. CAVALRY TWILL: A firm and sturdy warp-faced fabric in which the weave has steep double twill lines separated by pronounced grooves formed by the weft. The term is derived from the fabrics once used for making riding breeches for military. CLOQUE: A double fabric with a figured blister effect produced by use of yarns of a different character or twist, which respond in different ways to finishing treatments. CREPE: Puckered and crinkled fabric that has weave construction produced by random distribution of floats using highly twisted yarns, crepe is available in variety of weights and fibers. The Crpon is a variety of crepe with more prominent fluted effect in the warp direction giving a tree-bark effect. DAMASK: It has also become known as a type of weave. It produces a figured fabric usually, in silk or linen, in which the pattern is created by reversing the weave alternately between warp-faced satin and weft-faced sateen. The pattern is often selfcolored but can be emphasized with the use of colored yarns. DRILL: A robust twill fabric similar to denim most commonly used for heavy weight shirtings and work wear, the grain runs in the opposite direction to normal twill. GLEN URQUHART: This check is one of the most common and forms the basis for numerous variations. The alternate blocks of coloring in warp and weft on a 2/2 twill produce panels of hounds tooth check and panels of guard's check. GUARDS CHECK: When a 2 and 2 color order is used in both the warp and the weft of a 2/2 twill, a distinctive vertical line effect is produced. HERRINGBONE: A combination of twill weaves in which the direction of the twill is reversed to produce a striped pattern resembling herring bones. Also, called, feather or arrowhead twill. HONEYCOMB: A fabric in which the warp and weft threads float to form a diamond shape with ridges and hollows to produce a cellular cloth. Brighton and Grecian weaves are adaptations of the honeycomb principle. HOPSACK: Also known as basket weave is a modification of a plain weave fabric in which two or more ends and picks are woven as one. This produces a rustic surface, especially if loosely woven. HOUNDS TOOTH: One of the most easily identifiable checks is the hounds tooth or dogs tooth check. This weave is produced in a pattern of four light and four dark yarns in both warp and weft. The gun club check is a variation of the hounds tooth but using a different color sequence traditionally on a light colored ground. LENO: Gauze weaves with an open effect in which warp threads are made to cross one another between the picks. The lightweight fabric produced is often used as a ground for more elaborate ornamentation. MATELASSE: A double cloth with a quilted appearance commonly made with two warps and two wefts. The quilted effect can be accentuated by the use of wadding threads and the designs are formed by floating threads or small areas of fancy weaves. REPP: Plain weaves fabric with a prominent weft way-rib effect, made from two warps and two wefts. Both the warp and the weft threads are arranged alternately
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coarse and fine. Coarse threads are raised above coarse picks and fine threads are raise above fine picks, the rib effect being accentuated by different tensions in the warps. The group of Repp fabrics is known by different names depending on the prominence of the rib. Some examples, in increasing order of prominence of the rib, are taffeta, poult, faille and grosgrain. SHEPHERD'S CHECK: This is sometimes confused with the hounds tooth but is woven with a color sequence of five or more yarns alternating and a 2/2 twill weave that causes the hounds tooth shape to be lost. Instead solid square shaped blocks are produced where the colors intersect. SHARKSKIN: This originated as a closely woven twill fabric with a rather stiff handle. A delustred continuous filament yarn is most commonly used for woven sharkskin to give the effect of a finely grained surface. TATTERSAL CHECK: Is a simple design that was originally a small scale version of horse blanket checks. The names comes from famous horse auction rooms in London and the equestrian influence continues as the designs are still most commonly used for riding shirts. Window pane checks are a much larger version of tattersal and frequently appear as over checks on other designs. PRINCE OF WALES CHECK: It is actually a very large check with a repeat of nine inches in bold red or brown on a cream ground with a grey over check. However, a misunderstanding arose when Edward, Duke of Windsor became the Prince of Wales and he favored a black and white Glen Urquhart check and the two designs became confused in many people's minds. DENIM: Traditionally blue, but now a fashion fabric in many shades. Twill weave cotton or polyester cotton is most widely available. Denim washes and wears well, but will crease in wear. A stretch variety can now be bought, which is especially useful for tight jeans. True denim is a woven construction which gives good fabric stability and an attractive rugged appearance. Warp threads running the length of the fabric are yarn dyed and the weft threads going across the fabric are usually natural, with grey or some other contrasting color being used occasionally to achieve a special effect. 3 X 1 Z TWILLS: 3 x 1 Z twill is the weave most commonly used for denim. It is a warp faced weave where each warp thread interlaces over 3 weft picks and less than one. The points of intersection move one to the right and one upward on succeeding picks. This causes a diagonal line to be formed in the cloth, in this case from bottom left to top right which is why this twill is sometimes called 3 x 1 left to right twill instead of Z twill. The angle of the twill line is a result of the relationship between the warp and weft threads per cm. And because in twill denim there are always more ends than picks per cm. The twill angle is steeper than 45 which enhances fabric appearance. All 3 x 1 weave Z twills must be pre-skewed. 3 X 1 S TWILLS: In the past, 3 x 1 S twill has been quite commonly used for denim but recently, especially for the more fashionable end uses, where a 3 x 1 twill is required, it is being replaced by 3 x 1 Z twill. In otherwise identical constructions the Z twill gives a more even appearance and slightly better warp cover than S twill. The interlacing of 3 x 1 S twill is similar to 3 x 1 Z twill but in this case the points inter-section move one to the left and one upward on succeeding picks. This causes the diagonal line to be formed in the cloth from bottom right to top left which is why this twill is sometimes called a 3 x 1 right to left twill instead of S twill. Fabrics produced 3 x 1 S; or Z twill in otherwise identical constructions will have
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the same performance except that potential skew will be in opposite directions and appearance will be different. All 3 x 1 S; twills must be pre-skewed.
3 X 1 BROKEN TWILLS: 3 X 1 broken twill is a combination of 3 x 1 Z and S twills, alternating as 2 ends of Z, 2 ends of S right across the fabric. To call it twill is somewhat of a misnomer because the broken up surface appearance is more like a crepe than twill. When, finished square fabric in this weave has no potential to skew. However, now that pre-skewing of twills is possible, this is no longer such an advantage and in Australia at least, the better appearance of 3 x 1 Z twill is required by most major manufacturers. 3 x 1 broken twill where used in an otherwise identical construction to a Z or S twill results in fabric that is 2 3% narrower. 2 X 1 Z TWILLS: 2 x 1-twill is increasing in popularity, especially for womens wear, because it allows for the design of a lighter fabric which still maintains good fabric stability despite reduced ends, picks and mass when compared to 3 x 1-twill. 2 x 1 twill directions is almost entirely Z and is the only one we need concern ourselves with. It is a warp faced weave (but to a lesser degree than previous 3 x 1 twills) where each warp thread interlaces over 2 weft picks and under one. The points of intersection move one to the right and one upward on succeeding picks. 2 x 1-twill is slightly more difficult to weave than 3 x 1 twill because of the more frequent interlacing of warp and weft but apart from this, fabric construction economics are in favor of 2 x 1-twill. For the same warp to weft ratio 2 x 1-twill will show more weft than 3 x 1-twill. All 2 x 1 twills must be pre-skewed.
4. HISTORY OF DENIM: Denim is more than a cotton fabric; it inspires strong

opinions from historians, designers, teenagers, movie stars, reporters and writer. In 1969 a writer for American Fabrics magazine declared, Denim is one of the worlds oldest fabrics, yet it remains eternally young. If continuous use of and interest in an item makes it eternally young, then denim certainly qualifies. Legend and fact are also interwoven when scholars discuss the origin of the name denim. Most reference books say that denim is an English corruption of the French phrase serge de Nimes; a serge fabric from the town of Nimes in France. However, some scholars have begun to question this explanation. ORIGINS IN EUROPE: There are a few scholars of thought on the derivation of the word denim. T he serge de Nimes fabric traces back to France prior to the 17th century. At the same time, there was also a fabric known in France as nim. Both fabrics were composed partly of wool. Serge de Nimes was also known in England before the end of the 17th century. The question then arises: was this fabric imported from France or was it an English fabric bearing the same name? Fabrics which were named for a certain geographic location were often also made elsewhere; the name was used to lend a certain cachet to the fabric when it was offered for sale. Therefore a serge de Nimes purchased in England was very likely also made in England, and not in Nimes, France. There still remains the question of how the word denim is thought to have descended from the word serge de Nimes. Serge de Nimes was made of silk and wool, but denim has always been made of cotton. Again, this relation between fabrics is in name only, though both fabrics are twill weave. Is the real origin of the word denim serge de nim, meaning a fabric that resembled the part-wool fabric called nim? Was serge de Nimes more well-known than serge de nim and mistranslated when it crossed the English Channel? Its likely we will never really know.
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To confuse things even more, another fabric known as Jean also existed at this same time. Research on this textile indicates that it was fustian cotton, linen and / or wool blend and that fustian from Genoa, Italy was called jean. This is evidence of a fabric being named for a place of origin; it was apparently quite popular and imported into England in large quantities during the 16th century. By the end of this period, jean was being produced in Lancashire. By the 18th century, jean cloth was made completely of cotton and used to make mens clothing, valued especially for its property of durability even after many types of washing. Denims popularity was also on the rise. It was stronger and more expensive than jean, and thought the two fabrics were very similar in some ways, they did have one major difference: denim was made of one colored thread and one white thread; jean was woven of two threads of the same color. DENIM COMES TO AMERICA: As denim moved across the Atlantic in the late 18th century, American textile mills started to produce their own denim fabric on a small scale, mostly as a way to become independent from foreign producers (mainly the English). From the very beginning, cotton fabrics were an important component of American mills product line. A Factory in the state of Massachusetts wove both denim and jean. American President George Washington toured this mill in 1789 and was shown the machinery that wove denim. That same year, one of the first printed references to the word denim in the United States appeared: a Rhode Island newspaper reported on the local production of denim among other fabrics. The book Weavers Draft Book and Clothiers Assistant, published in 1792, contains sketches of weaving methods for variety of denims. In 1864, an East Coast wholesale house advertised that advertised that it carried 10 different kinds of denim, including New Creek Blues and Madison River Browns, terms that still sound contemporary today. Websters Dictionary from the same year contained the word denim, referring to it as a coarse cotton drilling used for overalls, etc. Research shows that jean and denim were two very different fabrics in 19th century America. They also differed in how they were used. In 1849, a New York clothing manufacturer advertised topcoats, vests or short jackets in chestnut, olive, black, white and blue jean. Fine trousers were offered in blue jean; overalls and trousers make for work were offered in blue and fancy denim. Other American advertisements show working men wearing clothing that illustrate this difference in jean and denim usage. Mechanics and painters wore overalls made of blue denim. Working men in general, including those not engaged in manual labor, wore more tailored trousers make of jean. Denim, then, seems to have been reserved for work clothes, when both durability and comfort were needed. Jean was a sturdy fabric, but it did not offer the added benefits of denim, such as durability and comfort. The first Blue jeans in 1962, the magazine American Fabrics fan an article that stated, If we were to use a human tern to describe a textile we might say that denim is an honest fabric substantial, forthright, and unpretentious. So how did this utilitarian and unpretentious fabric become the stuff of legends that it is today? And how did pants made out of denim come to be called jeans, when they were not made out of the fabric called out of denim come to be called jeans, when they were not made out of the fabric called jean? One very important reason can be found in the life and a Bavarian-bran jean? One very important reason can be found in the life and work of a Bavarian-bran businessman who made his way to San Francisco nearly 150 years ago.
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Levis Jeans, of course, are named for the founder of the company that invented them: Levi Strauss, in Bavaria in 1829. He, his mother and two sister left Germany in 1847 and sailed to New York, where Loeb s half-brothers ran a wholesale dry-goods business (selling bolts of cloths, linens, clothing, etc.) For a few years, young Loeb worked for this brother, and by 1850 had changed his name to Levi. In 1853, he obtained his American citizenship and decided to make a new start and undertake the hazardous journey to San Francisco, a city enjoying the benefits of the recent Gold Rush. His mission was to open the West Coast branch of his brothers wholesale drygoods business, which he started as soon as he got off the boat. He sold common drygoods products to small stores all over the West. These products included pillows, blankets; underwear and clothing whose manufactures are no longer in business. Levi worked hard, and acquired a reputation for quality products over the next tow decades. In 1872, he got a letter from Jacob Davis, a Reno, Nevada tailor, who had come up with a great idea. To improve the strength of the pants he makes for his customers, he added metal rivets, which proved to be a big success. He wanted to patent the idea, but didnt have the money he needed to file the paper. So he wrote to Levi, saying that if he would pay for the application, the two men could make riveted clothing and, as Davis put it in his letter, makes a very large amount of money. Levi knew a good business opportunity when he saw one, and in 1873 he and Davis received a patent for an Improvement in Fastening Pocket-Openings. Levi brought Jacob Davis to San Francisco to oversee the first manufacture of their copper riveted waist overall, the old name for jeans. These pants were made from brown cotton duck and blue denim. Knowing that the riveted pants were going to be perfect for work wear, Levi and Jacob decided to make them out of denim rater than jean because denim was a very sturdy fabric appropriate for work wear. Levi Strauss died in 1902, at the age of 73. He left his thriving manufacturing and dry goods business to his four nephews who helped rebuild the company after the big earthquake and fire of 1906. The following year, Jacob Davis sold back his share of the company. The oldest surviving catalog in our company archives, which was published after the earthquake, shows a variety of denim products for sale. This attitude could be seen very clearly in the decorated denim craze in the 1970s, which included beaded, embroidered, painted and sequined jeans appearing on streets from California a New York and abroad. Personalizing ones jeans was such a huge trend in the United States that Levi Strauss & Co. sponsored a Denim Art Contest in 1973, inviting customers to send in pictures of their decorated denim. The company received 2,000 entries from 49 of the United States, as well as from Canada and the Bahamas. The winning garments were sent on an 18-month tour of American museums and some of them were purchased by Levi Strauss & Co. for the company archives. DENIM MEETS THE 21ST CENTURY: American Fabrics magazine predicted back in 1969 that denim would become a fashion statement for many occasions when it said, What has happened to denim in the last decade is really a capsule of what happened to America. It has climbed the ladder of taste. Today, millions of p eople wear jeans to work, where the suit once ruled. Looking back, we know hat the very first people to wear Levis jeans worked with pick and shovel. Though our tools are now pencils, paper and computer keyboard, we have been moved to wear the same thing: denim jeans. 4.1 BASIC MATERIAL OF DENIM: The basic material of Blue Denim is cotton. The highly wear and tear resistant features of this vegetable fiber are even increased when the fabric is wet. Further advantages are its absorbency and moisture 190
receptivity, good dyeability, easy cleaning, and no pilling (nubs). Due to its natural development and its natural advantages cotton became the basic material for Denim. However, today also a small percentage of synthetical fibers are admixed into some Denim qualities (such as, Stretch-Denim or fabrics elasticized in the warp or weft). 4.2 FIBER YARN SPINNING: From the freshly harvested flake to the final yarn the cotton is subject to the following processes:
After that, the yarn is spun. This can be done in two different ways: OPEN END SPINNING (OE): Open End Spinning was developed in the 60s and represents today's standard quality. Here, the warp and/or weft yarn are produced by open end spinning (rotor) which means that no roving is required. Furthermore, the productivity per spinning station is 7 times higher than with ring frames. This makes production faster and more cost efficient. Moreover, the contexture of the Denim qualities is comparatively uniform. For rotor spinning, the fed card or drafter sliver is dissolved and cleaned down to individual fiber. In the rotor, a fiber ring of predefined strength is formed by the application of the centrifugal forces. The open end of the fire is joined to the fiber ring and drags it out. Therefore, rotor spinning is also called open end spinning. RING SPUN: Ring Denim is the former standard Denim, which was succeeded by today's open end spun quality for the above reasons. In the course of the Retro Denim Wave it was re-discovered and now serves as a fashionable highlight in many of today's ranges. It is characterized by the fabric's uneven surface. This special effect is due to the yarn type used. Warp and weft are made of ring yarn. As a "ring" is used for spinning this manufacturing process is called ring spun. This method requires more work than open end spinning, and as a longer fiber is used the yarn also shows thin and thick places. Especially this "roughness" is nowadays asked for, as it is so typical for traditional Denim - an effect which is even enforced by stone washing.
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4.3 CONSTRUCTION OF DENIM: To produce a fabric warp and wefts are regularly crossed. Warps are vertical yarns and Wefts are horizontal yarns in fabric PLAIN WEAVE: The fundamental weave is plain weave, in which the tightest crossing of warps and wefts is achieved. For this, fabric disposes of certain stiffness and a dead gloss. Fabrics with a typical flat and smooth surface structure are generally referred to in the jeans industry as flats. ("Flats" are jeans made of the former and equally important as the Blue Jeans and their fashionable variations. In Jeans- and Sportswear the typical plain woven cotton fabrics are: Popeline, Canvas, and Chambray. POPELINE possesses fine ribs in weft direction which result from the use of an especially densely woven fine warp and a relatively rough weft. There is also Popeline available, the warp and weft or even the ladle of which consists of plied yarn. The CANVAS is a long-wearing, coarse cotton fabric. CHAMBRAY is made of a white warp and an Indigo blue weft. TWILL WEAVE: Twill weave can be recognized by its diagonally running lines, the so-called twill line which comes from the side wards racketed crossing points Examples: Gabardine Twill, Denim (also see Brothers and Sisters of Blue Denim) GABARDINE is a dense fabric with steep running fine twill lines. TWILL is a light and soft twill woven fabric. The look of Denim fabrics is characterized by its diagonally running streaks which are achieved through a 3:1 twill weave. The diagonally running streak is created by rackedly worked in wefts. The weft runs from the right under three warps and comes up over the fourth warp. This pattern is kept over the entire length of the weft row. In the next row, the weft is worked in racked by one warp. So, the right side of the fabric is dominated by the blue warp, the wrong side by the white weft. 4.4 DENIM WASHING: Once the jeans have been sewed they are, of course, not directly shipped to shops. They are pre-washed first. This is done once or several times in huge washing machines. How often the jeans are pre-washed depends on how soft and light in color the fabric should become. Pre-washing makes the trousers soft 192
and fuller in handle. Their wear behavior significantly improves. However, washing them once does not make a perfect, individual jeans look. Not long ago, young people "pre-washed" their jeans treating them with brushes and discharging washing detergents until they looked "properly". Thanks to technical progress jeans are nowadays mostly mechanically treated. So, the right jeans can be offered for any taste - from one wash to stone washed and up to bleached and sky blue. 4.5 DENIM JEANS CHARACTERISTICS: The classical Five-Pocket-Jeans is defined by very specific production features. A Basic Jeans is characterized by following features: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Saddle Construction Striking Saddle Stitching And Lap Seam Fillings Leather Label On Patch Pocket Or Waistband Five Pockets: Two Patch-Pockets Two Swing-Pockets (Front Pockets) One Watch-Pocket (Watch Pocket on Right Front). Rivets At The Front Pocket Entries
STYLES: Essential for different styles are corresponding modifications to the width of waistband, width of seat, width of thigh, width of knee, and width of foot FORM: Various types of fit are slim fit (Tighter Fit), straight fit (Straight, Classic Fit), and loose fit (Wide Fit) Denim Weight: Ounces/Yard: The weight of the denim is in ounces of fabric per yard. Most jeans are made out of 12oz. denim; this is considered a medium-weight fabric. We offer jeans from light 10 oz. denims to heavy 15 oz. denims. You may select jeans that will be most comfortable in your climate. 4.6 SHRINKAGE: It is the natural characteristic of cotton fiber that after some processing (usually washing) they contract/shrink. The gaps left in the fiber during spinning fill up because the fibers get tightly twisted together. In case the fibers were too tightly twisted during spinning, they loosen up after washing. This phenomenon is known as elongation. When fabric is being inspected for quality, it is checked for shrinkage by cutting swatches of fixed size and getting them washed. The shrinkage pattern is also checked when pre production samples are made. The reason for this is that shrinkage in swatches is usually more than that in the stitched garment. If there is minor difference between the two shrinkage values, then it is fine. If there is a considerable difference between the two values, then GGT are informed and they make alternations into their patterns according to the revised shrinkage values. SHRINKAGE IN RIGID FABRICS: Four swatches are cut from randomly selected rolls and are washed. If the result of the four rolls are the same (or nearly same), then the shrinkage for all the rolls is considered to be the same. If there are differences within the values, more swathes are cut from different rolls, of the same fabric, and are washed. If these values are not consistent as well, then all rolls will have to check for shrinkage calculation.
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SHRINKAGE IN STRETCH FABRICS: Due to high amount of variation in shrinkage within rolls of the same stretch fabric, 100%shrinakge has to be done. Initially 4 randomly selected swatches are cut and their shrinkage noted. Next, a pre production sample is made and the rest of the swatches are washed with it. The result of the sample and swatches are compared. The swatches are grouped together using the Fabric Analysis Report according to their shade and further according to shrinkage in each roll. SKEWNESS: Another characteristic of cotton fabric is that they tend to go back to their original shape after cutting. This result in skew in the finished garments too much of which damages the shape of the garment. A skew test is performed by placing the four corners of the fabric together and noting the displacement between the ends that do not meet. The skew percentage is calculated as follows: Skew = difference between the two ends x 100 Fabric width The acceptable level of skew in a fabric is 7%. Anything more or less usually results in the garment being displaced from it original shape with time. Figure 3.1 illustrates the quality procedure in fabric checking in the form of a flow chart.
5. STRETCH FABRICS:
They are usually stretchable horizontally, not vertically. The elasticity is from the Lycra mixed in the weft. The weight of Lycra is usually 2% to 8% of the fabric weight depending on the yarn size used in the fabric. Heavy fabric makes the percentage of Lycra small; light fabric makes the percentage of Lycra big. It is not up to us to specify what percentage of Lycra we want in the fabric. The construction and the yarn size will dictate the weight percentage of Lycra in the fabric. However, there is the following method the weaver may use to adjust the percentage of Lycra in the fabric: If the fabric is heavy, we usually will use Lycra on every piece of the weft yarn to give it a strong elasticity or recovery. But, if the fabric is light, we may use Lycra on every other one of the weft thread to save 50% of Lycra. Since the fabric is of light weight, we may still have sufficient elasticity. We can make most of the fabrics elasticized, such as: Yarn dyed check and plaids, yarn dyed stripes, and solid colors. We can also make it in poplin weave or all kinds of twill weave. It is to be noted that when we dye the stretch fabric, the heat used in the dyeing process may hurt the lycra resulting in the fabric width being wider than what we plan to have but with insufficient elasticity or recovery. When we order stretch fabric in solid color mention this point to the mill and specify the width of the fabric relaxed, and width extended on our purchase order to avoid argument. When the Lycra is fatigued from excess heat in dyeing, it cannot be revitalized.
7. IDENTIFYING THE RIGHT SIDE OF A FABRIC: For cutting and

sewing purposes, it is necessary, to identify the face, or right side, of a fabric. When the cloth is on a bolt, identification is easy because the fabric is wound or folded with the right side inside to keep it clean. Off the bolt, other characteristics may be observed. If one side of the fabric is shinier than the other, the more lustrous side is the face. If a printed fabric has a more distinct design on one side, that is the right side. When the fabric has a nap, the face is, as a rule, the fuzzier side. When slub yarns are used, they tend to be more outstanding on the right side.
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TWILL WEAVE: Since twills often have a diagonal with a distinct wale or ridge on the face, the right side may be identified in this manner. Even when there is no wale, the diagonal of the twill is likely to be more discernible on the face of the fabric. The cloth should be held so that the wrap yarns run up and down. SATIN WEAVE: If the fabric is very smooth and lustrous, the fabric should be examined closely for floats, which would be on the face. By partially separating out a thread along the edge of the material, one could observe whether the yarn forms the characteristic floats of the satin weave. A magnifying glass will help. PILE WEAVE: The prime purpose of the pile weave is to provide textural interest to the fabric. Therefore the pile will be on the face of the fabric. FANCY WEAVES: The smoother sides of swivel and clip-spot weaves are the right sides. The back of the cloth will show the ends of the clipped yarns used for the design. The lappet weave usually has a trail thread passing on the back of the fabric from one design to the next in the row. The dobby design including piques, are clearer and more outstanding on the face. Jacquard patterns stand out from the background although the pattern is not always raised.
IDENTIFICATION OF GRAY FABRIC DEFECTS. Often Inspectors are

given the responsibility of inspecting finished garments without adequate training in fabric defects and their causes. The ultimate solution, of course, is to provide actual examples or photographs of both major and minor defects. This section provides a list of defects and explanations and simplifies the language and the judgments used in making visual fabric evaluations. The Quality Control Manager can provide this list to inspectors as a practical tool for achieving uniform inspection decisions. MAJOR AND MINOR DEFECTS: Definitions central to fabric inspection are: MAJOR DEFECT - A defect that, if conspicuous on the finished product, would cause the item to be a second. (A "second" is a garment with a conspicuous defect that affects the sale ability or serviceability of the item.) MINOR DEFECT - A defect that would not cause the product to be termed a second either because of severity or location. When inspecting piece goods prior to cutting, it is necessary to rate questionable defects as major, since the Inspector will not know where defect may occur on the item. WOVEN FABRIC DEFECTS: Some of the common Woven Fabric Defects are: Burl Mark - When a slub or extra piece of yarn is woven into the fabric, it is often removed by a "burling tool". This will leave an open place in the fabric. Major. Drawbacks - Caused by excessive loom tension gradually applied by some abnormal restriction. When the restriction is removed the excess slack is woven into the fabric. Usually the ends are broken. Major. Dropped Pick - Caused by the filling insertion mechanism on a shuttle less loom not holding the filling yarn, causing the filling yarn to be woven without tension. The filling yarn appears as "kinky". There will also be areas of "end out". Major. End Out - Caused by yarn breaking and loom continuing to run. The defect will appear as a thin line. Major.
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Fly - Usually caused by the spinning process; small fibers spun into yarn of another stock. Often defect, but severe caused by lack of precautions to prevent contamination. Usually a minor defect, but severe size and color contamination could make it major. Harness Breakdown - Caused by the harness straps breaking on a conventional loom. There will be a definite pattern change in the weave. Major. Jerk-In - Caused by an extra piece of filling yarn being jerked part way into the fabric by the shuttle. Minor depending the defect will appear at the selvage. Major or minor depending on how close the patterns are cut to the selvedge edge. Knots - Caused by tying spools of yarn together - Usually Minor. Mixed End (yarn) - Yarn of a different fiber blend used on the warp frame, resulting in a streak in the fabric. Usually Major. Mixed Filling - Caused by bobbin of lightweight yarn or different fiber blend used in filling. It will appear, as a distinct shade change. Major. Open Reed - Results from a bent reed wire causing warp ends to be held apart, exposing the filling yarn will be conspicuous on fabrics that use different colored yarns on wrap and shuttle. Major or minor. Slub - Usually caused by an extra piece of yarn that is woven into fabric. It can also be caused by thick places in the yarn. Often is caused by fly waste being spun in yarn in the spinning process. Major or minor. Smash - Caused by warp ends that have been repaired. Major. Soiled Filling or end - Dirty, oily looking spots on the warp or filling yarns, or on package-dyed yarn. Major. Spot Mark - When the loom is stopped, the yarn elongates under tension; when loom starts again, the slack is woven into the fabric. Major or minor. Thin Place - Often caused by the filling yarn breaking and the loom continuing to run until the operator notices the problem. Major.
8.
FABRIC
INSPECTION
STANDARDS
(GREY
FABRIC):
Generally grey fabric inspection is conducted in accordance with Ten Points System. TEN POINTS SYSTEM: Ten Points System derived its name from basic grading rules. It states that no more than ten penalty points may be assigned for and single defect. No more than ten penalty points may be assigned to one linear yard (Meter), regardless of the number of defects within one yard / (meter). PENALTY POINT EVALUATION: Defects in both the warp / weft direction will be assigned points using the following criteria: Any splice and hole shall be assigned Ten Points for each yard (meter).
POINTS 1 point 3 points 5 points 10 points IMPERIAL Defects up to 3 Defects size 3 to 6 Defects size 6 to 9 Defects size greater than 9 METRIC Defects up to 75 mm Defects size in between 75mm to 150mm Defects size in between 150mm to 230mm Defects size greater than 230mm
196
POINT CALCULATION: All textiles are evaluated on linear yard computation. The formula used to determine the point count level of a roll of fabric is as below: Imperial: Metric: Total point x 100 / Inspection yards = Points per 100 linear yards per roll. Total point x 100 / Inspection meters / 1.0936 = Point per 100 linear yards
FOUR POINT SYSTEM: Goods must be 100 % inspected and burled. The accepted method employed to assess detection of defects is to pass goods over an inspection machine that is illuminated both from above and beneath the fabric. The inspection speed should not exceed 15yd/min. This allows both surface and transparent type defects to be found. Classification of Defects :( According to defect size, except net floats and holes) SIZE OF DEFECT 3 inches or less Over 3 but 6 or less Over 6 but 9 or less Over 9 and small net floats, holes PENALTY POINTS 1 2 3 4
9. SKILL TO ORDER FABRICS: When we order fabrics, it is very easy for

us to leave certain details unspecified. This is likely to lead to unpleasant arguments and is to our great disadvantage because after delivery of the fabrics, if we find certain particulars incorrect and complain to the suppliers, they have the right to say that the things we complain about were understood and accepted by us. Being a buyer we do not have too much ground to argue since no relevant specifications were detailed in the contract. In order to avoid this kind of detrimental ambiguity, when we order fabrics, we should spell out our specifications as much as possible. Following list of items should be considered in our preparation of the contract. WOVEN / KNITTED FABRICS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Composition (fiber contents) Construction Yam count of warp and weft Kind of yarn (O.E., ring spun, A grade, fully combed, Semi combed, or Carded) Width of fabric Woven by shuttleless looms or shuttle looms. What dye, or what colorfastness standards we need. Piece Length with no seam, e.g. we need 75% of the fabric longer than 80 yards per piece and maximum 25% between 30 and 79 yards. 9. Finishes: (Please consider the following for what we need): a) Preshrunk with maximum residual shrinkage of certain percentage. b) Loom state - Desized Softened c) Pre-washed crinkle effect d) Brushed on front or both side e) Sanded on front side only f) Skewed g) Sanforized h) With chintz finish on front side. i) With resin finish j) With water proof / repellant finish k) Peached on front side l) Permanent press, Pre / Post Secured m) Crinkled 10. Packing: e.g. we need Rolled on tube and then each roll in an "untearable" polybag, or Folded at one yard length and then each piece in an "untearable" polybag, and then so many pieces in a 3-pJy carton, or in nylon "jute" bales. 197
11. Marking and labeling: We may want the suppliers to stamp both ends of the fabric with their company chop or any stamp they have so that in case of shortage, we can easily find out if the piece has been cut. We also may want them to write the yardage of the piece on the out side end of the fabric in addition to yardage written on paper label. we may want the suppliers to put a paper label to be affixed to one end of the roll showing style no, color, and name or color no, roll no, and yardage. 12. Type of knit 13. Weight per square meter 14. If the fabric is of a light weight type, we may want to have both selvedges starched so that when it is laid on cutting table, selvedges will not curl up. Among the above terms suggested, the most important ones are the specifications of dyes and colorfastness standards. If we have a group of colors, we should discuss with the mill about what dyes they plan to use for each of the colors. If what they plan to use does not seem to be good enough to meet our required standards, we should suggest to use better dyes even if we have to pay an extra amount to do so. When this is all settled, we should put down the dyes and color standards (color change, color staining, wet crocking and dry crocking) as the mill has agreed, on the contract. However, if the standards achievable are seemingly too low for the garment buyer, we should discuss them with the garment buyer. Only when he accepts the standards, we then place the fabric order. If we do not get the color standards clarified between the garment buyers and the fabric mills, we are exposed to tremendous danger; our buyers expect the products to be of acceptable quality standards by common sense. Common sense by a test from a laboratory using the current standards, but the mill may feel since there are no specific dyes or standards detailed, it is not wrong to use the less expensive dyes. We are sure there are reputable mills that only use the best dyes, but we should not take a chance. As dyes, color quality, shrinkage and other details can affect the cost or a fabric substantially, we should write up the fabric contract as clearly as possible. Please see the following which is not impossible: If we dont specify Reactive dye or vat dye Residual shrinkage below 5% Minimum piece lengths Colorfastness standards Combed yarn We may get: Direct dye 8% Some pieces of less than 20 yards Any standard Carded yarn
198
WEAVES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS Plain

Plain
Structure
Each filling passes alternately over and under each warp in a square pattern.
Appearance
Flat; no distinct design unless yarns have contrasting colors or thicknesses.
Properties
Easily produced; maximum yardage; durability depends on yarn count and balance; inexpensive; adaptable for printing and other finishing processes. Inexpensive; drapeable; somewhat flexible and resilient; absorbent; less durable than plain weave; soils more easily. Drapes will; durability affected by pronounced ribs; possible yarn slippage from tension. Strong, firm texture; increased drapability and resilience; interesting designs; may develop shine. Lustrous; excellent drivability; floats subject to snagging. Soft, warn, resilient, absorbent; interesting surface effects. Strong; warm; may be bulky. Sheer but durable for its weight. Attractive; design yarns tend to roughen on back and may pull out. Attractive; design more durable than swivel.
Basket
Two or more warps simultaneously interlaced with one or more fillings giving balanced structure.
Variations of plain weave; basket or checkerboard pattern; contrasting colors often used; attractive.
Ribbed
Plain weave with Wales or Cords in warp or filling.
Variation of plain weave; ribs or cords provide texture and design. Left-or right-hand diagonal; variations provide chevron (herringbone), cork-screw, hounds tooth, or other designs; enhanced by colored yarns. Compact; smooth; interrupted diagonal discernible with magnifying glass. Three-dimensional effect formed by yarns entering perpendicularly into the ground weaves. Two different surfaces, sometimes reversible; thick; heavy. Open-mesh with yarn securely held; variations produce corded effects. Decorative designs, sometimes multicolored; extra yarns forming design are cut on reverse side. Decorative design, extra yarn of design are cut on reverse side but held firmly. sometimes multicolored; Decorative designs, often with corded effect which my give textured surface. Unlimited range of intricate design on all types of backgrounds; multicolor effects.
Twill
Satin
Three (or more) shaft; warp or filling floats over two or more counterpart yarns in progressively stepped up right or left direction. Four (or more) shaft with warp floats in interrupted diagonal. Extra set of warps or fillings woven over ground yarns of plain or twill weave to form loops. Two fabrics of independent weaves woven together with extra set of yarns. Pairs of warps twisted over each other with each passing of filling. Small designs interwoven on surface of fabrics with extra filling yarn insertion mechanism. Small designs interwoven on surface of fabrics with extra filling yarn insertion mechanism. Small, geometric designs composed of short floats created by dobby loom attachment. Any combination of weaves and patterns possible since each warp in individually controlled with each pick passage.
Pile
Double Cloth Gauze (Leno) Swivel
Lappet
Dobby
Attractive; good body.
generally
Jacquard
Attractive; drapes will; serviceable but durability dependent upon weave and yarn.
199
100% COTTON, WOVEN FABRICS

DESCRIPTION 7+7X7+7 70X38 10X10 70X42 36/2X16 94X48 21X21 90X52 21+21X21 108X40 21/2X10 70X42 7X7 68X38 10X7 70X42 10X10 70X42 12X10 80X46 16X12 108X56 16X12 108X56 20X16 128X60 20X20 108X58 24X24 96X48 16X12 96X48 30X30 130X70 36/2X24/2 114X57 30/2X24/2 112X58 60/2X60/2 114X76 21X19 51X59 14X14 60X62 32X7 130X60 14X10 102X52 16X20 44X134 40X40 77X177 40X40 133X72 16X16 103X51 32/2X21/2 72X50 18X18 108X58 20X16 120X60 21X21 108X58 60/2X30 156X76 45/2X21 135X70 30X30 130X70 33/2X33/2 111X55 20/2X20/2 42X40 32/2X12 70X34 20X20 100X56 20X20 60X60 45/2X45/2 100X53 45/2X23 88X64 45X45 139X94 45X45 133X72 45X45 110X76 20X16 128X60 75D/72FX150D/216F 127X74 75DX162D 200X102 32/2X32/2 58X52 32/2X32/2 99X56 WIDTH(INCH) 44/43" OR 58" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" OR 58" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" OR 36" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" 44/43" COMP. 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 100%COTTON 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C 100%COTTON 100%POLY. 100%POLY. 65/35 T/C 65/35 T/C WEIGHT G/S.Q.M. 366 264 200 172 171 263 353 291 261 269 265 233 231 189 160 236 151 251 269 181 131 199 307 306 209 153 132 241 220 221 231 195 184 222 160 252 201 236 202 146 178 162 136 121 106 244 103 153 212 261
200
CORDUROY FABRICS
Name Wales Dyed Corduroy 2.5 Dyed Corduroy 3.5 Dyed Corduroy 3.5 Dyed Corduroy 4.5 Dyed Corduroy 4.5 Dyed Corduroy 4.5 Dyed Corduroy 6 Dyed Corduroy 6 H-L Corduroy 6 Dyed Corduroy 6 Bubble Corduroy 8 R/C Corduroy 8 Dyed Corduroy 8 Dyed Corduroy 8 Dyed Corduroy 8 Dyed Corduroy 8 Dyed Corduroy 8 Dyed Corduroy 8 Dyed Corduroy 9.5 Dyed Corduroy 11 Dyed Corduroy 11 Dyed Corduroy 11 Dyed Corduroy 11 Dyed Corduroy 11 Dyed Corduroy 14 Dyed Corduroy 16 Dyed Corduroy 19 R/C Corduroy 21 Dyed Corduroy 21 Dyed Corduroy 21 Dyed Corduroy 28 Yarn Count Density Composition Width 16x16 58x180 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 16x16 58x180 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 16x16 54x150 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 16x20 58x180 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x134 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 42/2x21 58x180 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 16x21 58x180 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 32/2x16 52x165 R50%C50% 43/4" or 57/8" 42/2x21 58x170 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x12 48x148 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 21/2x21 45x220 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 21/2x16 43x179 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 21/2x16 45x190 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 42/2x21 58x170 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 21/2x16 45x190 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 12x16 64x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 42/2x21 57x134 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 42/2x21 57x150 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 16x16 72x128 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 16x20 44x134 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 42/2x21 58x134 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 42/2x32 58x150 R30%C70% 43/4" or 57/8" J40xJ40 77x177 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" J42/2xJ32 58x150 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8" 60x60 102x212 100%Cot 43/4" or 57/8"
DENMIM FABRIC SPECS

DESCRIPTION Check /Stripe/Colors Check /Stripe/Colors Check /Stripe/Colors Check /Stripe/Colors Check /Stripe/Colors Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved SPECIFICATION 58/60'' 21x21/68x54 58/60'' 16x16/68x54 58/60'' 16x21/80x46 58/60'' 16x16/80x46 58/60'' 12x12/72x44 CM40/2XR/C20 CM32/2X(N140D+SP30D)Color weft CM32/2X(T150+SP30D) (2/1) CM32/2XT300D CM32/2X(T300D+SP40D) CM32/2XT360D CM32/2XR/C10 C10X(T/R32/2+SP70D) C16XR/C20 (2/1) C16X(T150D+SP40D)(2/1)Color weft R/C32/2XT/C40/2 (2/1) R/C32/2XR/C32/2 R/C10XR/C10 WEIGHT 4.5oz 6oz 6.0oz 6.5oz 7.5oz 5.5OZ 7.5OZ 7.5OZ 7.5OZ 8.0 oz 8.5OZ 9.5OZ 11.0 oz 5.5OZ 7.5OZ 6.0OZ 9.0OZ 10.0OZ WIDTH 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 59"-60" 50/52 52/54 58"-59" 55/57 58"-59" 56"-57" 48/50 59"-60" 53/55 58"-59" 58"-59" 58"-59"
201
Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Blended & Interweaved Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Comb 100% Cotton Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Glistened Denim Imitation Corduroy Imitation Corduroy Indigo Denim Indigo Denim Indigo Denim Indigo Denim Indigo Denim Indigo Denim Indigo Denim Indigo Denim Indigo Plain Indigo Plain Indigo Plain Indigo Plain Indigo R/S Indigo R/S Indigo R/S Indigo R/S Indigo R/S Indigo R/S Indigo R/S Indigo Stretch Indigo Stretch Indigo Stretch Indigo Stretch Indigo Stretch Indigo Stretch Indigo Stretch Indigo Stretch R/S Indigo Stretch R/S Indigo Stretch R/S Jc Indigo Denim Jc Indigo Denim Jc Indigo Denim Jc Indigo Jc Indigo
R/C10XR/C10 (2/1) R/C10X(T/C32+R30)/SP70D (C12+SB10)X(T/C32+R30)/SP70D CM40/2XC21 (2/1) CM40/2XC21 (2/1) CM40/2XCM40/2 CM32/2XCM40/2 (2/1) CM32/2XCM32/2 CM32/2XC20 CM32/2XC16 CM32/2XC16 CM32/2XC12 CM32/2XC10 C6XT600D(2/2 ) C7XT600D (3/1) C7XT600D (3/1) C7XT600D (3 1/1 1) (Color weft) C7XT600D (3 1/1 1) C7XT600D (2/2) (Twill) C10XT450D (2/1) C10XT600D (3 1/1 1) C16XT300D (2/1) C16XT450D (2/1) C30/2XC12 C10XC10 21x21/80x46 16x21/80x46 16x21/80x46 12x12/72x44 12x12/80x46 10x10/76x46 7x10/72x46 7x7/72x46 X 21x21/68x54 16x16/68x54 12x12/68x44 10x10/68x38 12+16x16/80x46 8+10x21//72x46 8+10x16/72x46 8+10x10/72x46 8+10x7/72x46 8+10x8+16/72x46 8+10x8+10/72x44 32x40+40D/138x68 21x21+70D/118x46 16x16/+70D/118x46 10x16+70D/90x46 10x10+70D/84x46 7x10+70D/72X42 7x10+70D/84x46 12+16x16+70D/100x4 8+10x8+16+70D/88x4 8+10x8+10+70D/84x4 60/2x40/130x70 60/2x60/2/130x70 60/2x32/130x70 32x32/130x70 40/2x40/2/96x52
10.0OZ 12.0 oz 10.0 oz 4.5 oz 5.5 oz 6.0 oz 7.0 oz 8.0 oz 7.0 oz 6.0 oz 8.0 oz 8.0 oz 9.0 oz 13.0 oz 13.0 oz 13.0 oz 12.0 oz 12.5 oz 13.0 oz 8.0 oz 11.0 oz 7.0 oz 7.5 oz 8.5 oz 10.0 oz 5.0oz 6.0oz 6.0oz 7.5oz 8.0oz 10oz 12oz 12oz 4.5oz 6oz 7oz 8oz 6.5oz 7.5oz 8oz 10oz 12oz 8oz 10oz 4.5oz 6.5oz 8oz 9oz 10oz 12oz 13.5oz 6 8oz 6 9oz 6 11oz 4oz 4.5oz 4.5oz 4.5oz 5.5oz
58"-59" 51/53 47/48 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 56/57 58/60" 58/60" 57/58 58/60" 58/60" 62/63 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 45/47 48/50'' 50/52'' 50/52'' 50/52'' 50/52'' 50/52'' 48/50 50/52'' 50/52'' 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60"
202
Jc Indigo Jc Indigo Lurex threads Slub, 100% Cotton Slub, 100% Cotton Slub, 100% Cotton Slub, 100% Cotton Slub, 100% Cotton Slub, 100% Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Stretched Cotton Wrinkled Stretched
40/2x40/103x85 32/2x40/2/80x52 C10X(C16+C16/Lurex) (2/1) (16+SB14)XC21 (2/1) (16+SB14)XC16 (2/1) (12+SB10)XC12 (2/1) (12+SB10)XC10 (2/1) (12+SB10)XC7 (2/1) (12+SB10)XC6 (2/1) C7X(C10+SP70D) C7X(C21/2+SP70D) C10X(C16+SP40D) C10X(C16+SP70D) C10X(C10+SP70D) C16X(C16+SP40D) (2/1) C16X(C16+SP70D) (2/1) C16X(C16+SP40D) (2/1) C16X(C16+SP70D) (2/1) C16X(C32/2+SP40D) (2/1) CM21X(C30+SP30D) (2/1) CM32/2X(C21+SP40D) (2/1) CM40/2X(C32+SP40D) (2/1) CM40/2X(C21+SP40D) (2/1) (C12+SB10)X(C16+SP40) (2/1) C7X(C10+C21/2 / SP70D)
5.5oz 6oz 9.0 oz 5.5OZ 6.5OZ 8.0OZ 9.0OZ 10.0OZ 12.0OZ 12.0OZ 12.5OZ 9.0OZ 10.0OZ 11.5 oz 8.0OZ 8.5 oz 8.0OZ 8.5 oz 8.5 oz 6.5OZ 8.5 oz 6.5OZ 7.0 oz 9.0 oz 11.5 oz
58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 58/60" 51/53 50"-52" 51/53 50"-52" 50"-52" 53/55 50"-52" 53/55 50"-52" 50"-52" 50"-52" 50"-52" 48/50 50"-52" 53/55 53/55
STRETCH FABRICS
NAME T/R Jean taille gleamy Silk n/C Poplin n/C Poplin n/R Faille WEIGHT DENSITY 240/350 260/390 108/135 125/150 125/150 235/340 9070 15058 13372 13372 9065 11274 9085 90100 9060 WIDTH CONTENT T/R/SP 57" 100D+40D10s 64/34/2 T/R/SP 57" 150D+40D10s 39/56/2 47" T/SP 97/3 108D+10D40D N/C/SP 47" 40S70D+40D 39/68/3 N/R/SP 47" 40S70D+40D 29/68/3 N/R/SP 57" 75D+40D10s 34/64/2 N/T/SP 44" NT-0D+70D40D 29/69/2 R/N/SP 57" 70D+40D21S 29/69/2 N/R/SP 57" 70D+40D30S 59/69/2 N/T/SP 70D+40D100D+75D 57" 29/69/2 T/R/SP 47" 40S/275D+40D 39/59/2 T/R/SP 49" 40S/240S/2+40D 64/34/2 T/R/SP 49" 40S/240S/2+40D 64/34/2 MATERIAL
n/T Plain Wool 160/180 n/R Elastic Poplin n/R Elastic n/T Elastic t/R Poplin t/R Plain t/R Twill 165/240 125/180
135/NT-0 90110 125/150 13372
NT-0/260 8965 255/330 11062
203
FABRICATION (KNITWEAR)
Knitting is the second most frequently used method of fabric construction. Hand knitting was an early invention. The earliest known knitted fabric was a pair of thick hand knitted wool socks found in an Egyptian Tomb. Knitted fabrics may be constructed with a single yarn that is formed by interlocking loops by the use of hooked needles. The loops may be either loosely or closely constructed as required. Woven fabrics are constructed by the interlacing of two or more set of yarns, which does not allow the fabric to stretch to any marked degree unless it is especially stretch woven. If a certain amount of stretching is necessary, woven fabric must be cut on the bias that is in a diagonal direction. Even then the fabric can be stretched only in the direction of the diagonal cutting. The advantage of stretchability in knitted fabrics is an important consideration; they fit the figure but do not bind it. Knitted fabrics also give warmth because of the insulative air pockets contained in this type of construction. Yet they are porous and provide breathing comfort because body movements cause the loops to expand and contract, thus pushing air through close fitting garments. Unless fabric is napped or foam laminated, it is not windproof. Knitted fabrics are very absorbent, light in weight, and wrinkle resistant. It is usually unnecessary to iron them after packing and laundering. However, they may shrink considerably more than woven cloth unless special techniques and shrink proofing process, such as pak-nit or permasized are used. Certain kinds of knitted fabric have one serious disadvantage: if one of the loops breaks, a hole is made, which starts a run. This disadvantage can be eliminated by variation in the stitch, which protects the fabric from raveling if any single stitch is broken. Some knitted fabrics tend to lose their shape and sag.
1. CONSTRUCTION OF KNITTED FABRIC: The thread count or the

number of threads per square inch is used to evaluate the construction of woven fabrics. The construction of knitted fabrics is evaluated by the number of stitches or loops. When the interlocking loops run lengthwise, each row is called a wale. A wale corresponds to the direction of the warp in woven fabrics. When the loops run across the fabric, each row is called a course. A course corresponds to the filling, or weft. Thus a knitted fabric having 40 loops or stitches in 1 inch of width, and 50 loops in 1 inch of length, is said to have 40 Wales and 50 courses. In metric terms, a knitted fabric having 16/cm loops or stitches across the width and 20/cm loops in the length is said to have 16 Wales and 20 courses. The construction of the knitted fabrics varies with the type, and each type has its own particular appearance and properties. All other factors of yarn and knit type being equal, the fabric that has more Wales in it will be more rigid and stable in width, but the fabric with more courses in it will be more rigid and stable in length. The fabric that has both more Wales and more courses per area will also have better recovery from stretching than one with fewer Wales and courses per area, whereas, the fabric with less Wales and courses per area will be less rigid, stretch more easily, fit to the body contour better, but have poorer recovery ability. Also, the fabric that has more Wales will shrink less in the width, while the fabric that has more courses in it will shrink less in the length. The quality of needle will affect the quality of knitted fabric.
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2. CLASSIFICATION OF KNITTED FABRICS: Knitted fabrics are

divided into weft knitting, warp knitting, jacquard knitting, and pile knitting. 2.1 WEFT KNITTING: There are three fundamental stitches in weft knitting; they are plain knit stitch, purl stitch, rib stitch, and novelty stitch. 1. PLAIN KNITTING: It is the basic form of knitting. It can be produced in flat knit or in tubular form. The flat knit is called jersey stitch because the construction is like that of the turtleneck sweaters. Plain flat knit may be shaped or full fashioned. The knitting is done with a row of latch or beard needles arranged in a linear position on a cylinder. The spacing of the needles is referred to as the gauge or cut. Gauge refers to number of needles per inch. The count may be determined by a line grating device similar to that used for weaving. Although, there is a technical face and a technical back to the plain knit (jersey stitch), either side may be used as the face, unless a finish or print is given which produces a specific right side. When technical side is used as face, fabric is called reverse jersey. Jersey fabrics have a tendency to curl at the edges. The sides will curl towards the technical back, while the top and bottom will curl towards the technical face. Although, this characteristic can be reduced by techniques of fabric construction and certain finishes, it can not be completely eliminated. If a yarn is broken in a plain jersey knit, a run will form vertically as the broken loop drops the loops above and below it. The plain knit produces a relatively lightweight fabric compared with the thicker fabrics produced by other stitches. It has a high rate of production and is in expensive, and lends itself readily to variations in design by pattern devices. These variations include stripes, multicolored patterns, textured surfaces produced by raised designs, and pile effects. Horizontal stripes can be knitted in plain jersey by using yarns of different colors and / or different types of yarn on different feeds or by setting certain feeds to produce a looser stitch. Multicolored designs called intarsia patterns can be knitted into a jersey fabric through the use of highly specialized flat bed machines. The tuck stitch is a variation of the plain knit used to create special effects of raised designs which generally impart a lofty appearance and a soft hand. The miss or float stitch is another variation. It is used in knitted colored designs as a means of passing colored yarn on the back of the material. Pile surface variations are also created by napped, terry, and velour effects. As the fabric will stretch more in the width than in the length, the plain knit stitch is widely used for underwear, gloves, hosiery, and sweaters. Most jersey sweaters are knitted with two ply yarns, providing greater strength and shape retention. 2. PURL STITCH: This construction is also referred to as the links- and links stitch. It is made on flat-bed and circular machines by needles using hooks on both ends. It is a slower and more costly technique. The fabric looks the same on both sides and resembles the back of the plain knit. Like the plain knit, the pearl knit will run up and down if a loop is broken. But a purl knit fabric will not curl at the edges. The use of double hook needles enables ready changeover during fabric construction to include flat and rib stitches, which makes it possible to duplicate virtually any hand knitted
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structures. It lends itself to the heavy, jumbo stitch that produces the familiar bulky effect. Because the purl stitch has crosswise stretch and excellent lengthwise stretch, it is used in infants and childrens wear. 3. RIB STITCH: Rib knit fabrics have alternating lengthwise rows of plain and purl stitches constructed so that the face and back of the fabric appear alike. This may be produced either on a flat rib machine or on a circular rib machine. Rib stitches can be 1 X 1, 2 X 2, 2 X 1, 3 X 1, and so on. A combination of 1 X 1 and 2 X 2 is called an accordion rib. Rib construction is costlier because of the greater amount of yarn needed and the slower rate of production. The rib construction will not curl at the edges. If yarn breaks, it will cause a run down only. The rib stitch has excellent widthwise elasticity, particularly in the 2 X 2 rib structure. This characteristic has resulted in its extensive use in apparel where snugness of fit is essential, such as waistbands of sleeves and waist bands of garments. It is used for underwear and socks for men and children. Horizontal stripes can be knitted in plain rib fabrics in the same manner as in jersey. Vertical stripes can be achieved by removing selected needles, also as in jersey, but the effect can produce more interesting textural variations. An extension of the vertical stripe is the variation of producing pleats. Other variations of the rib stitch includes the full-cardigan stitch is a bulky rib knit having same appearance on both sides, looking like slightly stretched jersey fabric; the half cardigan stitch is a variation of the full cardigan stitch. The construction on the back of the fabric is the reverse of the face. A variation of this stitch is the rack stitch which has a herringbone pattern on the face; the interlock stitch is also a variation of the rib stitch, resembling two separate 1 X 1 rib fabrics interknitted. To accomplish this, production is slow. Fabric edges will not curl, and a broken interlock stitch will cause a downward run only. The fabric is relatively firm and smooth. It has the same appearance on both sides, and pattern variations are limited. Horizontal and vertical stripes can be knitted by using yarns of different colors and or different types of yarn for textural effects. The limited widthwise but excellent lengthwise extensibility of this stitch has been used to advantage for knit shirts and other sportswear. The fabrics made with the interlock stitch are extremely soft, firm, and absorbent. 4. CABLE STITCH: It is formed by small groups of plain Wales plaited with one another in ropelike fashion. One familiar form is made of two groups of three Wales each, thus utilizing six needles. The interesting and textural effect has made this construction popular for outerwear, particularly sweaters. The double knit stitch is made on the rib or interlock machine. Simple double knits are almost identical on both sides, which look much like a regular rib knit with close, distinct stitches. They are usually thicker and heavier than jersey, and this may have given rise to the name double knit. There are several forms of double knit construction. One type, called double jersey, looks like a fine ribbed fabric on the face and a fine jersey on the reverse. The cloth is quite compact, yet a bit spongy. Double knit fabrics lay flat and do not run. However, stitches may catch or snag. This is particularly true when the coarser stitches and textured yarns are used. Double knits have a very desirable property and characteristics customarily found in knitted fabric as well as those found in 206
knitted goods. Double knit fabrics have firmness, body, and dimensional stability. They therefore do not sag or get baggy. They have hand and drape similar to that of woven cloth. Yet, the double knits are naturally shape retentive, wrinkle resistant, and quite durable. These characteristics have made double knit fabrics very popular. They lend themselves to such apparel as sportswear and womens suits and dresses, and they are promoted for mens suits and slaks. Another typ e of double knit is double pique. The surface of this fabric can vary to look like diamond or honeycomb pique or the reverse side of wale piqu. Double pique is produced on circular machines. Swiss double piqu is made with similar, finer loop than the French double pique. 2.2 WARP KNITTING: Warp knitting differs from weft knitting basically, in that each needle loops its own thread. The stitches on the face of the fabric appear vertically, but at a slight angle; and the stitches on the back appear horizontally as floats at a slight angle. These floats called laps, or under laps, is a distinguishing identification of warp knits. Warp knitting may be flat or tubular and can be produced in many varieties of patterns. It can yield cloth with a dimensional stability almost equal to that of woven fabric. Consumers like warp knits because of their smoothness, possible sheerness, wrinkle and shrink resistance, strength and abrasion resistance. Warp knit fabrics, as compared with weft knits, also have certain other advantages. Warp knits will not ravel or run and are less susceptible to sagging. Quality is usually better; stitch definition, texture, and fabric cover are generally better than in weft knits. Warp knits have superior dimensional stability. Products ranging from hairnets to rugs may be produced by warp knitting, depending upon the machine and technique employed. The seven types of warp knitting are tricot, Milanese, simplex, raschel, Ketten raschel, crochet, and weft-insertion warp. 1. TRICOT KNIT: The word tricot comes from the French word tricoter which means to knit. In the tricot production, since one guide bar is used for each set of warp yarns, the number of warp beams determines the number of guide bars employed. Consequently, the terms of one bar tricot, two bar tricot, etc. indicate the number of guide bars used to produce the fabric. The greater the number of bars, the greater the design flexibility. The gauge in tricot knit is expressed in terms of the number of knitting elements per bar inch. They range from the coarsest of 14 to the finest of 44. The higher the gauge, the lighter the fabric and the greater its strength per ounce. Tricot fabrics are soft, wrinkle resistant, and have good drapability. They have controllable elasticity, and they do not run fray. Tricot construction contributes to good abrasion resistance and high bursting and tearing strength. Other factors that contribute to the fabrics strength are the fiber and yarn structure. Tricot Knits are used for a wide variety of fabric weights and designs. Typical uses are lingerie, loungewear, sleepwear, blouses, shirts, dresses, slacks, uniforms for nurses and waitresses, bonded fabric material, outerwear, and automobile upholstery. These fabrics may be identified by type: Plain Tricot, or tricot jersey, is the basic fabric using two bar construction. It is used for the widest range of applications. Satin tricot is a variation of the plain tricot and is made with long under laps of up to 6 Wales wide, which provided an extremely smooth hand. The fabric does not curl and has excellent stability in the width. Mesh and fancy open effect tricot also refers to a range of fabrics. The mesh or open effects are produced either by eliminating needles and yarn at certain points or by threading certain guides with
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two or three yarns. The facings are generally of fine gauge and are light to medium weight. Clipped dot tricot is a variation of the two bar tricot jersey. Outerwear tricot is made with textured yarns of three and four bar constructions. They often have interesting colors and surface effects. Upholstery Tricot is often a two bar jersey made of relatively heavy filament yarn. There are many variations, including three and four bar constructions with interesting surface and color effects. Napped or brushed tricot is a plain tricot given a napped finish. 2. RASCHEL KNIT: The raschel fabrics can usually be distinguished from tricot fabrics in that raschel constructions are made with heavy yarns and usually have an intricate, lacelike pattern, whereas tricot constructions are made with fine yarns and are either flat or have a simple geometric pattern. 3. KETTEN RASCHEL KNIT: This knit is also called the chain raschel. It is a variation of the tricot knit that produces a coarse gauge of 14 to 20 needles per inch. It can be produced in raised pattern effects in one or more colors by a shell stitch construction. Fabric is finer, has a better hand, superior elasticity and cover. 4. CROCHET: This basic stitch is used in hand crochet work employing a pillar chain. This construction is used in a wide variety of fabrics ranging from nets and laces to bedspreads and carpets. 5. MILANESE KNIT: The Milanese stitch, though accomplished by a different technique. Produces a fabric very similar in appearance to tricot. It can be identified by the fine rib on the face and a diagonal pattern on the back. Milanese is knitted on a flat bed or a circular machine. It is usually knitted from filament yarn into fine lightweight fabrics. Milanese fabrics are superior to tricot in smoothness, elasticity, regularity of structure, and split and tear resistance. 6. SIMPLEX KNIT: These fabrics are of fine gauge knits. The stitches appear on both sides of the cloth which looks like a double faced tricot. Simplex fabrics are made of fine yarn but are relatively dense and thick. They are used for gloves, handbags, sportswear, and slipcovers. 7. JACQUARD KNITTING: Both weft and warp knitting can incorporate the jacquard mechanism to produce multicolored designs. The jacquard punched card technique used in weaving can also be adapted to knitting. Jacquard knits are made on flat bed and circular machines, and the fabric may be flat or ribbed. The fabrics are multicolored. The back of the fabric can be varied, as with a novel effect, stripped, pique (birds eye), blister, or solid back. 8. PILE KNITTING: They are constructed as fleece, high pile, terry, and velour knits. They are used for fur fabrics, rugs, and fashion apparel fabrics. a) FLEECE KNIT: Technically, fleece fabrics are not truly of a pile construction. Fleece fabrics are knitted so that, when finished, they will have a short to medium nap that has a soft, pleasant hand, will provide warmth and body, as well as moisture wicking and absorption, if desired. They are used for liners, active sportswear, outerwear, and plush toys. b) HIGH PILE KNIT: Both weft and warp knitting machines are used to produce imitation fur fabrics and rugs. The fabrics are similar in appearance to their original counterparts, but are more flexible and have better drape. These fabrics are lightweight and easy to care for. They usually can be laundered and cold tumble dried.
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c) TERRY KNIT: They are made of a variation of the jersey knit construction. Knitted terry is produced in weights ranging in suitability for robes and beachwear to fashion apparel. Terry knits are more flexible, softer, and more absorbent than woven terry cloth but not as durable. They do not hold their shape as well and they tend to snag, causing the loop yarn to pull and trail and if cut could cause a run. d) VELOUR KNIT: Knitted velour fabrics are constructed in the same manner as knitted terry. They are soft, suede like surface that is somewhat like that of velvet. However, knitted velour is softer and has better drapability. It is used for such fashion apparel as mens shirts and womens dresses.
3. FABRIC WEIGHT AND YARN SIZE: In knitted fabrics, we control the
weight of the fabric by gauge and size of yarn. Gauge means the number of stitches per inch across the fabric. If we want fabric to be of light weight we should use heavy gauge and heavy yarn to make heavy knitted fabric. 3.1 WEIGHT SYSTEM OF KNITTED FABRICS: In woven fabrics, we judge the weight by the ounce per square yard. We know 4 ounce per square yard is a light weight shirting fabric; 14 ounce is a heavy fabric for jackets or pants. In Knitted fabric we go by grams per square meter. 160 grams per square meter is a light weight fabric; 360 gram is a heavy fabric. In knitted fabrics, the mills always make their sales by weight (kilo or pound) because knitted fabrics are difficult to measure by length due to their stretchbility. As garment manufacturers or merchandisers, for production of an order, we may not know how many kilos of fabrics we need, but according to marker, we know yards of fabrics we need. If the garment we intend to make consists of quite a few cut pieces and sewn together, chances are the wastage will be normal which means 10% to 15%. So, we can weigh the sample garment and order the knitted fabric of 115% of the garment weight, and we will not be off too much. If we have a CAD/CAM System for marker making, the computer can tell us the %age of the wastage, and then we will be more accurate. If the garments consist of only 4 panels, it is not safe to generalize. We should make up a marker to look at to determine what %age is the wastage. If we already have the marker drawn, and that we know the consumption of fabric by yard, we can convert yardage to weight by following formulas: If we have the fabric of 360 grams per yards or 36 X 60 = 360 grams In order to convert fabric of 360 grams per yard into pounds 0.360 kilo X 2.2046=0.79 pounds per yard In order to convert fabric of 360 grams per yard into ounces (0.360 kilo X 2.2046) X 16 =12.64 ounces per yard In order to find weight per square yard 12.64 60 X 36=7.58 ounces per square yard In order to convert from weight per yard to weight per square meter 360 X 39.3 X 39.3 36 60=257.42 grams per square meter In order to convert weight per square meter to weight per yard of 60 width 257.42 39.3 39.3 X 36 X 36 =360 grams per yard of 60 width. In order to know how many yards are there in 1 kilo 1000 grams (1 kilo) 360 grams = 2.78 yards per kilo If weight of the fabric is 400 grams per yard, how many yards are there in 1 kilo 1000 gram (1 kilo) 400 gram = 2.5 yard per kilo 209
4. KNITTING DEFECTS: Some of most common defects in knitting fabric are:

Barre - Occurs circular knit. Caused by mixing yarn on feed into machine. Fabric will appear to have horizontal streaks. Usually major. Birdseye - Caused by unintentional tucking from malfunctioning needle. Usually two small distorted stitches, side by side. Major or minor depending on severity. Broken Color pattern - Caused by colored yarn out of place on frame Major. Drop Stitches - Results from malfunctioning needle or jack. Will appear as holes or missing stitches. - Major. End Out - Occurs in Warp knit. Results from knitting machine continuing to run with missing end. Major. Hole - Caused by broken needle. Major Missing Yarn - Occurs in Circular knit. Caused by one end of yarn missing from feed and machine continuing to run. Major. Mixed Yarn - Occurs in warp knit. Results from wrong fiber yarn (or wrong size yarn) placed on warp. Fabric could appear as thick end or different color if fibers have different affinity for dye. Major. Needle Line - Caused by bent needle forming distorted stitches usually a vertical line Major or minor. Press-Off - Results when all or some of the needles on circular knitting fail to function and fabric either falls off the machine or design is completely disrupted or destroyed. Many knitting needles are broken and have to be replaced when bad pressoff occurs. Bad press-offs usually start a new roll of fabric. Major. Runner - Caused by broken needle will appear as a vertical line. (Most machines have a stopping device to stop machine when a needle breaks.) - Major. Slub - Usually caused by a thick or heavy place in yarn, or by lint getting onto yarn feeds. Major or minor. Straying End - Warp knit. Caused when an end of yarn breaks and the loose end strays and is knit irregularly into another area. - Major.
5. TYPES OF KNITTED FABRICS

BRUSHED ACRILAN: Ideal for babys sleeping bags and for dressing gowns, this thick, light fabric comes in a variety of pretty shades. It must be used with great care because it is very flammable. The fabric is usually acrylic fiber on a jersey backing and normally has a nap finish, which means cutting in one direction only. BRUSHED NYLON: Like brushed cotton, the right side of this fabric has a brushed finish for warmth. It washes well and requires no ironing. JERSEY: This is a name for any fabric that is knitted rather than woven. It can be made from almost any fiber or mixture of fibers. STRETCH JERSEY: This is a two-way stretch fabric available in many weights and types, made from polyester, cotton and other fibers. It is suitable for trousers, sports wear, and many other garments, but the seams must stretch with the fabric so 210
the right thread must be used. It should be sewn on a machine with a small zigzag or stretch stitch facility. Ball point or perfect stitch needles can also help in handling. VELOUR JERSEY: This is usually made from acrylic fiber with a velvet pile running in one direction on the right side. Not often hard wearing, but very attractive in glowing colors, and with a stretch quality that allows you to make garments without zips or openings to get themon. Cut in the same way as velvet. Making up must be done with a small zigzag or stretch stitch, which will give with the fabric. KNITTING DEFECTS.
Barr
Thick End
Thin End
Unraveled Yarn
Needle-break
Hole
Dropped Stitch
Tuck
FELTED AND NONWOVEN FABRICS: Felts and non-woven fabrics are similar in that they are formed directly, from the fiber. Yet, there are differences between the two types of fabrics in terms of their compositions, methods of production, and characteristics. The art of producing fabrics directly from fibers matted together began before spinning and weaving were invented. St. Feutre of Caen, France, put wool fibers in his sandals to make them more comfortable during his long walking trips; the pressure, moisture, and heat from his feet caused fibers to interlock into matted layer. DECORATIVE FABRIC CONSTRUCTION: The construction of decorative fabrics began as a handicraft of inter-wining yarns in whatever directions suited the makers purpose. While braiding and netting have always had practical applications, they are also used for decorative fabrics and are precursors to the more elaborate lace fabrics and embroidery decorations. The decorative constructions are braiding, netting, lace, and embroidery
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TEXTILE DYEING
When yarn is made into fabric, interesting and intricate constructions begin to add beauty of appearance and serviceability. Various finishing processes suggest additional means of enhancing appearance of newly formed fabric. It remains for dyeing and printing processes to provide lasting beauty and delight to beholder by adding color to fabrics. Dyeing and printing differ in method by which color is applied to fabric. In dyeing process, fiber, yarn or fabric is impregnated with dyestuff. In printing, a pattern or design is generally imprinted on fabric in one or more colors by using dyes in paste form or some related means.
1. SELECTION OF DYES: To select proper dye for a fiber, it is necessary to

know which dyes have an affinity for vegetable, animal, or manmade fibers. All dyes have their own limitations. One of these is degree of color fastness. Fastness of color refers to its ability to remain unchanged. Different dyes for different colors have different degrees of fastness to various conditions like perspiration, dry cleaning, bleach, salt water, swimming pool additives, atmospheric gases, or air pollutants. Dyes may sometimes bleed too. There are different types of dyes; and they are classified into two basic categories. The Natural Dyes and Synthetic Dyes 1.1 NATURAL DYES: Primitive people obtained dyes from flowers, nuts, berries and other forms of vegetable and plant life, as well as from mineral and animal resources. These sources have provided such natural dyes throughout civilization. They are no longer used in quantity by dyeing industry, but are still in oriental countries to a certain extent for rug dyeing and for native handicrafts. Vegetable Dyes fustic, sumac, catechu, madder, henna, saffron, logwood indigo and alizarin. Animal Dyes cochineal, squid sepia, lac, and tyrian purple are obtained from pieces of fish and small insects. Mineral Dyes Prussian blue, chrome yellow, and iron buff. 1.2 SYNTHETIC DYES: Synthetic dyes may be categorized into sixteen classes.

Basic or Cationic Dyes Acid or Anionic Dyes Acid Pre-Metalized Dyes Mordant or Chrome Dyes Developed Dyes Disperse Dyes Vat Dyes Pigment Dyes
Oxidation Bases Acid-Milling Dyes Neutral Pre-Metalized Dyes Substantive Direct Dyes Azoic Dyes Sulphur Dyes Reactive Dyes Optical Brighteners
2. SELECTION OF DYEING METHODS: Textiles may be dyed at any

stage of their development from fiber into fabric or certain garments by Stock Dyeing, in the fiber stage; Top Dyeing, in the combed wool fiber form; Yarn Dyeing, after the fiber has been spun into yarn; Piece Dyeing, after the yarn has been constructed into fabric; Solution Pigmenting or Dope dyeing, before a manmade fiber is extruded through the spinneret Garment Dyeing after certain kinds of apparel are knitted
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2.1 STOCK DYEING: Stock dyeing refers to dyeing a staple fiber before it is spun. There are two methods. The older and widely practiced procedure is that of removing the packed fiber from the bales and then packing the stock in large vats and circulating dye liquid through the mass of fiber at elevated temperatures. The newer method, bale dyeing, which is applicable to wool and all types of manmade fibers; is that of splitting the bale covering on all six sides, placing the entire bale covering on all six side, placing the entire bale in a specially designed machine and then forcing the dye liquor through the bale of the fiber. 2.2 TOP DYEING: One step nearer to the finished yarn than stock dyeing is what is called top dyeing in the worsted industry. Top is wool that has been combed to take out the short fibers, then delivered from the combs in a ropelike from 1 inches (30mm) thick. The top is wound on perforated spools and the dye liquor is circulated through it. Very even dyeing is possible with this method. 2.3 YARN DYEING: When dyeing is done after the fiber has been spun into yarn, it is described as yarn dyeing. There are several methods of yarn dyeing. They are Skein or Hank Dyeing, Package Dyeing, Warp-beam Dyeing, Space Dyeing 2.4 PIECE DYEING: Great bulk of dyed fabric in the market is dyed in piece. This method gives manufacturers maximum flexibility for their inventories to meet large or small demands for a given color as fashion requirements. These methods are:

Union Dyeing Beck Dyeing Pad Dyeing Beam Dyeing Vacuum Impregnation Solvent Dyeing
Cross Dyeing Jig Dyeing Cold Pad-batch Dyeing Jet Dyeing Foam Dyeing Tumble Dyeing
2.5 SOLUTION PIGMENTING OR DOPE DYEING: During the production of manmade fibers, a great deal of time and money can be saved if the dye is added to solution before it is extruded through spinnerets into filaments. This method also gives a greater degree of color fastness. Other method is called Chip Dyeing. 2.6 GARMENT DYEING: Certain kinds of non-tailored apparel, such as hosiery, pantyhose and sweaters can be dyed as completed garments because they are each made of single component will not be readily distorted. Garment dyeing is an economical method and is used when practical. It also reduces the risk of building and inventory that could be affected by changes in color fashion
3. DYEING AND FINISHING DEFECTS OF FABRICS:

1- SKEWED OR BIAS - Condition where filling yarns are not square with wrap yarns on woven fabrics or where courses are not square with wale lines on knits. Major or minor, depending on severity.
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2- BACK FABRIC SEAM IMPRESSION - Backing fabric is often used to cushion fabric being printed. If there is a joining seam in the backing fabric, an impression will result on a printed fabric Major 3- BOWING - Usually caused by finishing. Woven filling yarns lie in an arc across fabric width; in knits the course lines lie in an arch across width of goods. Establish standards of acceptance. Critical on stripes, and patterns, but not on, solid color fabrics. 4- COLOR OUT - Color running low in reservoir on printing machine. Major 5- COLOR SMEAR- color being smeared during printing-Major or Minor 6- CREASE MARK - Differs from crease streak in that streak will probably appear for entire roll. Crease mark appears where creases are caused by fabric folds in the finishing process. On napped fabric final pressing may not be able to restore fabric. Often discoloration is a problem. Major 7- CREASE STREAK - Occurs in Tubular knits. Results from creased fabric passing through squeeze rollers in dyeing process Major or minor depending on product; usually major for fashion outerwear, Minor for underwear. 8- DYE STEAK IN PRINTING - Results from a damaged doctor blade or a blade not cleaned properly. A long streak until operator notices the problem. 9- MOTTLED - Color applied unevenly during printing. - Major or Minor 10-PIN HOLES - Holes along selvage caused by pins holding fabric while it processes through Stenter frame. Major, if pin holes extend into body of fabric far enough to be visible in the finished product. 11-PRINTER MACHINE STOP - Dye smudged along width of fabric as a result of stop the printing machine stopping. Major. 12-PRINT OUT OF REGISTER - Print rollers not synchronized properly; results in various colors not printed in proper position. Major or minor. 13-PUCKERED SELVAGE - Usually caused by selvage being stretched in finishing or by uneven wetting out in sanforization process. Major or minor. 14-SANFORIZE PUCKER - Results from uneven wetting out on Sanforize; usually caused by defective spray heads. Fabric will appear wavy or puckering when spread on cutting table. Difficult to detect while inspecting on inspection machine with fabric under roller tension. Major or minor. 15SCRIMP - The result of fabric being folded or creased when passing through print machine. There will be areas not printed. Major. 16-SELVAGE TORN - Usually caused by excessive tension while processing through tenter frames. Major. 17-WATER SPOTS - Usually caused by wet fabric being allowed to remain too long before drying; color migrates leaving blotchy spots. Major.
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TEXTILE PRINTING
One form of applying color decoration to a fabric after it has otherwise been finished is called printing. The yarns produced in the spinning process create some form of decoration in the fabric. In the formation of the fabric, decoration is also obtained by the pattern of construction. When fabric passes through finishing operations, it may be given lustrous appearance. Other finishes add other decorations to the fabric. Dyeing makes an important contribution to fabric decoration by many beautiful colors it produces and color harmonies obtained by combinations of various dyeing methods. Fabric can be further enhanced by printing color designs on finished cloth.
1. DYES USED FOR PRINTING: Most classes of dyes are adaptable to one
or more of the various types of printing. The choice depends on the purpose for which the goods will be used, fiber or fibers involved (blends) and what potential customer would be willing to pay. (Cotton printing vat, reactive, pigment and naphthol dyes; Silk acid colors; Wool acid and chrome dyes; Manmade fibers disperse and cationic dyes)
2. METHODS OF PRINTING: There are three approaches to printing a color

on a fabric: Direct printing; Discharge Printing; Resist Printing. 2.1 DIRECT PRINTING: Most common approach for applying a color pattern is direct printing. It may be done on a white fabric, it is called over printing. Dye is imprinted on fabric in paste form. 2.2 DISCHARGE PRINTING: Another approach for applying a color pattern is discharge printing, but its use has been declining. The fabric is dyed in the piece and then printed with a chemical that destroy color in certain areas. Sometimes base color is removed and another color is printed in its place, but usually a white area is desirable to brighten overall design. 2.3 RESIST PRINTING: A third approach to obtain color pattern is resist printing. Bleached goods are printed with a resist paste a resinous substance that cannot be penetrated when the fabric is subsequently immersed in a dye. The will affect only the parts not covered by the resist paste. After fabric has passed through dyeing process, resist paste is removed, leaving a pattern on dark ground.
3. TYPES OF PRINTING:
3.1 BLOCK PRINTING: The oldest method of printing designs on the fabric is block printing by hand. This process is too slow and printed fabric cannot be produced inexpensively in large enough quantities by hand-blocked method. To make block prints, the design must be carved on a wooden or metal block. The dyestuff is applied in paste form to the design on the face of the block. The block is pressed down firmly by hand on selected portions of the surface of the fabric. 3.2 VEGETABLE PRINTS: These prints are made with not wooden or metal blocks but with vegetable blocks. The blocks are made of potatoes, ladiesfinger, carrot and lots of other vegetables to the taste of the designers and the block printers. Any kind of vegetable can be used but one should keep in mind that soft vegetables should not be selected. This vegetable prints can be achieved at home, with various creative designs, with various vegetables. 215
3.3 ROLLER PRINTING: Roller printing resembles block printing but the difference lies in the blocks used for printing. Roller printing is the method of printing designs on the cloth by engraved rollers. The use of engraved copper cylinders or rollers takes place of the hand-carved blocks. 3.4 SCREEN-PRINTING: Originally this technique was referred to as silkscreen printing because the screens were made of fine, strong silk threads. Today, they are made of nylon, polyester, vinyon, and metal. The screen is made and the frame is placed on the fabric, then the dye in paste form is poured on the screen and forced through its unblocked areas onto the fabric with rubber edged squeegee. 3.5 BATIK DYEING: resist-dyeing process, whereby designs are made with wax on the fabric, which is subsequently immersed in a dye to absorb color on un-waxed portions, known as batik dyeing . The chosen motif is drawn on the fabric. Then melted wax mixed with the resin is traced on the areas not to be dyed with a tainting, which is a small instrument made of a short, straight reed handle to which is attached a small, funnel-shaped copper cup with one or more spouts. The application of the wax must be done on both sides of the fabric. After each application of the wax the fabric is dipped into the dye solution to obtain the particular color. 3.6 TIE-DYEING: It is also a method of resist dyeing. The dye is resisted by knots that are tied in the cloth before it is immersed in the dye bath. The outside of the knotted portion is dyed, but the inside is not penetrated if the knots are tightly tied. The process is repeated as many times as desired by making knew knots in other parts of the fabric in additional dye baths. 4. PRINTING ON DENIM: Denim is made from "Beam dye" with the warp threads heavily covered by starch mixed with indigo or Sulphur dye. If we want to print on it, the only method we can use is to use pigment print to cover the dark color of denim. However, when we do that the pigment dye applied is on the surface of the fabric; to make it clearer, it is on the starch mixed with indigo or Sulphur dye but not on the cotton fiber. When the printing is done, the printed design may look acceptable without giving us a clue that there is a hidden problem. However, when garments are made from this fabric and washed, the printing disappears leaving only faint marks where the printing used to be. This is because during washing the starch is washed away and the printing which was attached only to the starch went with it. When we order printed denim we must tell the printing mill how much we want the printing to stay on the fabric after wash, e.g. 100% of the printing to stay; 70% of the printing to stay; 40% of the printing to stay; or 5o% of the printing to stay. If we want 100%, of the printing color to stay on the fabric after wash, before printing we must desize the fabric very thoroughly and the pigment dye must contain sufficient "binder" to make the dye stay. Also after printing must get fabric through "baking process" for sufficient time / temp. With this the printing will be colorfast and remain bright and fresh after washing. Usually garment buyers would not like the printing on denim to be colorfast, to stay bright and fresh like new. They would like 30% or 40% of the printing to go away after washing with 60% or 70% of the color to stay. In such case, we still desize the denim thoroughly before printing and we still use "binder" in our pigment dye, but use less amount. Also we will still get printed denim through baking process but at lower temperature and shorter time. From the adjusted process, a certain amount of the dye will be washed away when the garment goes through the washing process, to achieve the slightly faded look desired.
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TEXTILE FINISHING
Newly constructed fabric as it comes from the mill is called as greige goods or gray goods. This does not imply that the fabric is gray in color; it simply denotes any unfinished fabric. The goods must pass through various finishing processes to make it suitable for its intended purposes. Finishing may change the appearance of the fabric, its hand (feel), its serviceability, and its durability. Finishing may take many forms, for it must be adapted to the kind of fiber and yarn used in the fabric and, most important of all, to its intended purpose.
1. KINDS OF FINISHING PROCESSES: Finishing processes are

categorized as Wet and Dry finishes. They are also referred to as Chemical and Mechanical finishes, respectively. Finishes are also classified according to their degree of permanence. A permanent finish generally involves a chemical process that changes the fiber structure that will not subsequently alter throughout the life of the fabric. A durable finish may last throughout the life of the fabric but its effectiveness diminishes. A semi durable finish will last through several laundering or dry cleaning; some are renewable. A temporary finish will be removed or subsequently reduced when the fabric is laundered or dry cleaned. Designers and merchandisers classify finishes as aesthetic that affects the appearance and / or hand of the fabric and functional that improves the performance for specific purpose. Major types of finishing process are given below.
2. PREPARATORY PROCESSES: The gray goods from the looms have to

be cleaned before they are given other advanced finishes; they may contain warp sizing solution, oils and other stains during the weaving process. There are two kinds of preparatory processes; they are singeing or gassing and bleaching 2.1 SINGEING OR GASSING: To give the fabric a smooth finish, the gray goods are passed over gas flames usually two burners to a side, at a speed of 100 to 250 yards per minute. Singeing burns off lint, threads as well as all fuzz and fiber ends, leaving an even surface. Practically all cotton fabrics, except those are to be napped are singed. Spun rayon is often singed. Other hair fibers and thermoplastic fabrics are not singed; due to the heat either they burn or melt. 2.2 BLEACHING: To give fabrics white color bleaching is done. The gray goods dont have a white color. Bleaching is nothing but the removal of natural color from gray fabric. When cloth has been bleached for other finishes, they are called bleached goods. Singed goods are put through a rapid de-size streamer, washed, impregnated with a wild 3% solution of caustic soda and pulled up into top of a huge J-shaped container that is equipped to maintain a temperature of 100 C. Manmade fibers as a class require less preparation to whiten.
3. STABILIZING PROCESS: Under stabilizing Processes there are two

important processes; they are mercerizing and shrinking 3.1 MERCERIZING: This is an important stabilizing process for cotton fabrics. It is also used for linen fabrics. The fiber becomes more lustrous than the original fiber, and its strength increases by as much as 20%. This finish can give cotton broaden cloth a silk-like appearance and cause cotton damask to be mistaken for linen.
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3.2 AMMONIATING: This process is for cotton yarn and fabrics, as well as for yarn and fabrics of rayon. It has many advantages over mercerizing. The process is less expensive, has little or no polluting consequences, results in fewer imperfections, produces greater strength of 40% to 50% over untreated cotton as compared to the 20% increase by mercerization, and increases yarn smoothness, thereby improving abrasion resistance, and knit ability. Ammoniating increases luster, dimensional stability, and affinity for dyes. 3.3 SHRINKING: Fibers spun into yarn are under constant tension during the weaving process. Their physical condition is changed, but not permanently fixed: fibers revert to their natural state, causing shrinkage. To realize maximum preshrinkage in finishing, the fabric must be given a preshrinking operation in which no tension is exerted while the fabric is in damp condition. There are several types of shrinking processes; they are Compressive Shrinkage; Cylinder Method; London Shrinkage; Chlorination Process; Chemical Treatment; and Resin Treatment. FULLING: This process operates as a preshrinking process for wool. The fibers are cleaned, scoured, and condensed by a combination of moisture, heat, soap, and pressure. Sometimes chemicals are added to increase the adhesion of the fibers. TENTERING: This process is applied at various stages of finishing. Usually, the fabric is wet when it is run into a tenter; drying and evening of the fabric width are the primary purposes of tentering CRABBING: In finishing wool fabrics, a stretching process called crabbing passes the cloth over rollers into hot water or steam. The fabric is then put into cold water, after which it is pressed. This process is similar to tentering, as the fabric is stretched or loosened where necessary and finally set at the width at which the warp and filling yarns are in proper relation to each other. DECATING: It preshrinks as well as improves the appearance, luster, and hand of the fabric without loss in succeeding finishing operations. It is a mechanical process that may be applied to woven or knitted goods. The extent of modification depends upon the fiber, fabric structure, ad control exercised over the process. There are two Decating i.e. Dry Decating and Wet Decating.
4. TEXTURAL PROCESS: Textural process as the name suggests gives

texture to the fabrics. The most important textural processes are stiffening, weighting, crepe, and crinkled effects 4.1 STIFFENING: There are two types of stiffening Temporary Stiffening and Permanent Stiffening. TEMPORARY STIFFENING: Cotton and Linen can be given stiffness, smoothness, weight, and strength by immersing in a solution of starch. This process is starching. Cotton fabrics that are starched are organdy, lawn, voile, and buckram. PERMANENT STIFFENING: chemical processes that change the cellular structure of the fiber can achieve permanent stiffening effects. By this method, sheer and medium weight cotton fabrics are given stiffness, which sometimes lasts throughout the life of the fabric. These processes are known as specific trademarks. They vary in method, in the chemicals used, and in degree of permanency of the final finish. All have the property of making the fabric smoother, and it soils less easily because dirt tends to slide off rather than cling. They need less laundering and last longer.
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4.2 WEIGHTING: Silk may be treated with tin salts to increase weight of the fabric and improve its hand and drape. Weight and body of the fabric are increased by immersing it in a solution containing metallic salts. Salts permeate yarns and become part of the fabric but cannot be detected by handling. 4.3 CALENDERING: It is essentially an ironing process that adds sheen to the fabric. The method varies according to the type of finish desired. Another type of calendar that is used to produce glazed finishes is the friction calender. 4.4 GLAZING: A stiff polished or glazed surface can be obtained by the application of starch, glue, mucilage, or shellac followed by friction Calendering. The process makes a fabric resistant to dust and spots and minimizes shrinkage. 4.5 EMBOSSING: The process of producing raised figures or designs in relief on surfaces of fabrics by passing the cloth between heated engraved rollers. The process can be applied to fabrics made of all types of fibers except wool. This finish is permanent when applied to fabrics made of thermoplastic or manmade fibers. It is not permanent when applied to untreated fabrics made of natural or manmade fibers. 4.6 BEETING: It is common finishing process for linen. Yarns are flattened by the impact of wooden mallets. This hammering closes weaves and gives cloth a form, flattened, lustrous appearance. 4.7 RAISING: A fabric may be given a fuzzy or hairy surface by any one of several methods that abrades the cloth and pulls fibers ends to the surface. 4.8 NAPPING: It is chiefly used to obtain a relatively deep hairy surface, but the degree of depth depends upon the technique used. When the fabric is to be napped, the yarn intended for the construction of cloth are given only a slack twist in spinning process. 4.9 SANDING: In order to obtain suede like surface, fabrics may be given a sanding by passing them through a series of emery covered rollers. The process produces a soft, chamois like nap. However it is subject to pilling. 4.11 SHEARING: Pile weave fabrics and fabrics that have been napped are usually sheared to give an attractive smooth surface to the cloth. Shearing levels all surface irregularities caused by the plucking action in the napping process. 4.12 CREPE AND CRINKLED EFFECTS: Permanent crepe effects are obtained by using hard-twisted yarns in the weaving process. Crepe surfaces can also be produced by certain finishing processes, but the results are not always satisfactory. There are two methods that result in crepes and crinkled effects. One finishing method imprints a crinkled effect by means of engraved rollers. In the other finishing method, caustic soda is impressed on cotton fabric in the form of figures and stripes. Fabric is then washed. Degree of permanency varies with each finishing process. 4.13 BURNT-OUT EFFECTS: A fabric constructed of two different yarns, each of a different kind of fiber, can be printed with a chemical that will dissolve one fiber but not affect the other.
5. FUNCTIONAL EFFECTS: In addition to certain of the finishes, certain

functional finishes are given to the fabric. SHAPE RETENTIVE FINISHES: Fabrics of cellulose fibers lack the ability to retain their shape, they wrinkle and crush easily. To make them competitive with
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other fibers in a market that demands easy care for apparel, a variety of shape retentive finishes has been developed. The initial process was for the purpose of making spun rayon fabrics wrinkle resistant. This was followed by similar treatment for cotton and linen. With further development, chemical finishes were added to cotton fabrics for what became known as wash and wear cotton. A further extension of this is the development of permanent press, which is used on cotton and cotton blend fabrics as well as wool and wool blends. These finishes are based on resins or reactants that combine chemically with fibers through a process of cross-linking. WRINKLE RESISTANT FINISHES: These finishes are referred to as crease resistant finishes. Purpose of this finish is to prevent deformation of the fabric by undesirable and unintentionally introduced folds and rumples. The purpose is to keep fabric flat and smooth as compared to creases or pleats deliberately placed in a fabric. WASH AND WEAR FINISH: They are also referred to as drip-dry finishes. They are of the same type as the wrinkle resistant finish. Garments made of fabrics with wash and wear finishes will dry smooth and need little or no ironing after washing, depending upon the quality of the finish and the construction. PERMANENT PRESS: This is also referred to as durable press. The finish gives the fabric a built in memory which interfered with the shaping garments to conform to body contours, pressing creases into trousers, and putting pleats in skirts. WATER REPELLENCY: A water repellent fabric is one that will resist absorption and penetration of water for a given period of time, depending upon the length of exposure and the force of the water. Eventually, however, water will penetrate even a water repellent fabric. Penetration of water through a fabric is dependent upon the kind of fiber in the fabric, the tightness of the yarn twist, the compactness of the construction of the fabric, and the finish used to discourage water from soaking through the yarns and pores of the fabric. A type of non-durable finish is usually based on paraffin wax- aluminum acetate emulsion; semi durable finish is based on wax and / or salt solutions and durable finishes are based on pyridinium compound is applied to cotton, linen and viscose rayon fabrics. This type of finish permeates the fibers and becomes part of it. WATERPROOFING: For a fabric to truly waterproof, it must be completely sealed with a substance that is insoluble in water. The familiar rubber coated garb of fire fighters is a good example. Modern waterproofing materials include the vinyl resins. ABSORBENCY FINISHES: The cellulose fibers of cotton, linen, and rayon have good absorbency. Sometimes it is desired that they be more absorbent. Appropriate application of ammonium compounds modifies cellulose to become more absorbent. SOILREPELLENCY: A group of fluorochemical finishes which act as water repellents are also soil or stain repellents. These finishes, which are applied to a wide variety of fabrics for clothing, are effective against water and oil borne stains. SOIL RELEASE: Finishes have been developed that will facilitate the removal of dirt or stains from fabrics treated with a permanent press finish. FLAME RETARDANT FINISH: A wide variety of flame retardant chemical finishes has been developed for application to fibers and fabrics. Among the most effective and widely used was tris 2-3 dibromopropyl phosphate. The second approach is the creation of flame retardant fibers by the addition of certain chemicals to existing fiber spinning solutions. The third approach is the development of special
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flame retardant fibers, which are produced in specific eneric classes. MOTHPROOFING: Wool fabrics are sometimes mothproofed as one of the finishing operations to the cloth by impregnating the yarns with a chemical. MILDEWPROOFING: Cellulose fibers are particularly susceptible to mildew, silk and wool are also susceptible, but to a lesser extent. Such untreated fabrics will become stained, malodorous, and eventually deteriorated by the fungus if allowed to remain in a moist condition for a period of time. ANTIBACTERIAL FINISHES: Chemical antiseptic finishes impart a selfsterilizing quality to a fabric. The appearance and feel of the fabric are unchanged, and no chemical odor remains. Dry cleaning does not impair the finish. SLIP RESISTANCE: In fabrics that have a low thread count, the warp yarns sometimes slip along the filling yarns. Unusual wear or strain on some part of a fabric may cause the same action, known as slipping. Permanent firmness can be given by immersing them in synthetic resins, then stretching and drying under tension. ANTISTATIC FINISHES: Wool and such manmade fibers as nylon, acrylic, and polyester develop static electricity from the friction caused by wearing and general use. As a result, the fabrics attract dirt particles, cling and climb, crackle, even spark, and cause very minor but discomforting shock to the user. HEAT REFLECTANT FINISHES: It may be desirable to conserve the heat of the body if conditions are cold or to protect it from the heat if conditions are hot. For cold conditions, a properly treated fabric with a metallic substance faced toward the body will reflect its radiated heat back to the body rather than permit it to escape. For hot conditions, the same treated material with the face outward will reflect the outside heat away from the body. A fabric to be used as a lining can be coated with a resinated metal usually aluminum spray, which adds less than an ounce to the weight of the lining and does not interfere with the porosity or pliability of the fabric. FOAM LAMINATING: The heat insulative properties of dead or trapped air spaces have been formerly laminated to the nature of the fiber, yarn, and fabric construction. One type is the ether urethane foam commonly found in furniture upholstery. FABRIC TO FABRIC BONDING: This technique uses specially developed adhesives that affect a permanent bond between two fabrics. It can be applied to a wide variety of fabrics of different fibers, constructions, and textures.
6. over the years, in response to changing

fashion demands various methods have been developed for getting new effects and new finishes fabrics and garments. In the garment sector worldwide, denim garments are dominant which mainly companies jeans, shirts, jackets, skirts and kid wear. Initially denim fabrics were very thick strong and blue colored. With demands for change in fashion, new the denims are available in light ounce, heavy ounce, satin weave, etc. With weaving, only few textures can be obtained. Garments washes are making continuous efforts to give new looks to denim garments by chemical and mechanical means. Few methods, which are popular, have been discussed below. 221
6.1 SAND BLASTING: indigo has poor wash fastness properties indigo dyeing is present just below the outer surface of fibers. In sand blasting process, the desired area is bombarded with tiny hard particles with pressure. Because of the abrasion, the dye gets stripped from the fabric making that area lighter hard particles can be hard sand, aluminum silicate etc. Compressor is used for air pressure. The garment is placed on a table inside a chamber. A mixture of compressed air and hard particles is shooted through a gun on defined area of fabric. The sand can be collected and reused. After blasting, the garments are processed in normal way. With sand blasting, we get faded / lighter areas at particular place on garment. 6.2 TINTING / OVER DYEING: Now days, it is a hot fashion to have denim garments faded and then tinted or topped with different dyes. The fading is normally done by sand blasting, brushing or chemical means, the over dyeing is normally done with direct, Sulphur or reactive dyes. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Direct dyes have poor wash fastness Sulphur dyeing is a lengthy process. To get the brightness after topping is very important. This can be achieved with thorough soaping with anionic detergent. One way to get bright topping is to use pigments. The faded denim garments after desizing and enzyme washing are tinted with pigments. Garments are first treated with pigment dyes. After-treatment with binder is not given. Garments are soaped and softened. With tinting, different shades can be produced. 6.3 DISCHARGE PRINTING: Discharge printing is a method to destroy the dye on fabric from a particular area. We can destroy indigo dye with either oxidative or reductive chemicals. In oxidative method, sodium hypochlorite or potassium permanganate is used. Print paste can be prepared by 9% sodium Alginate; 3% Potassium Permanganates, and 88% Water. This paste is printed on denim garments with nylon screen. The print pasts is allowed to dry on garments. It is then neutralized with sodium bisulphite or acidified hydrogen peroxide. This paste is not stable for a long time after its preparation. The print paste is freshly prepared and used. Few ready made discharge printing pastes are available in markets. Those pastes can also be sprayed on garments. White discharge can be obtained in this way and then the garments can be tinted with different colors to get new looks. 6.4 RESIST BLEACHING: This technique is similar to tie and dye. In this, denim garments are tied at particular places with nylon thread. The tying is compact and tight, after tying, the garments are them desized, enzyme washed and bleached. The tied area remains dark colored whereas other area becomes light. It gives a look of a dark colored random design on light background. Those garments can also be light tinted with different dye to get new look. It is also possible to print denim garment with protective chemical, which forms a resistant film on printed area. The garments are then processed with enzymes and bleach. The final effect is extra ordinary. 6.5 ENZYMATIC DECOLOURISATION OF DENIMS: Denim is the most popular fabric worldwide. It is very popular among all the age groups. Earlier thick variety of denim was very popular and it was considered as very tough fabric suitable for rough use. But now a days light ounce denim fabrics are making a special identity and finding versatile use. Denim fabric is made from 100% cotton yarns. The specialty of the denims is that only warp yarns are dyed and weft yarns are white. The denim fabric is constructed with warp faced 2/1 or 3/1 twill weave. Due to this construction the fabric seems to be dyed uniformly with the color in which warp yarns are dyed. Denim is the only fabric in which warps are sized after dyeing.
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The processing of denim fabrics has become more or less simple and routine. The processing includes wetting, desizing, bio-fading, bleaching (optional) and softening. As denims are dyed with blue indigo dye and processed almost in similar manner, the possibilities to create new looks are limited. The general aim of processing the denim garments is to remove size from the fabric and also to remove indigo dye. This gives a used look to denims, which is very popular. As most of the denims are blue colored, the processors can play only with the shade of the color to create a range of blues and with the grain structure on the fabric. For obtaining good grain structure, various celluloses (acid and neutral) are used. The contrast and grain structure depends on the ability of an enzyme to cut the cellulose and the control of re-deposition of dye. For creating different shades of blues, bleaching of denim fabrics is carried out. The purpose of the bleaching is to decolorize the indigo dye to certain level for getting the desired shade. Sodium hypochlorite is the commonly used oxidizing agent for the purpose. It has certain advantages of being cheap and the reaction takes place at room temperature. But also it is harsh chemical and gives yellowness to the fabrics if not neutralized properly. Being a strong oxidizing agent, it also attacks cotton and reduces the strength. This is not desirable in light ounce denim. Sodium hypochlorite bleaching is not an Eco-friendly process. Now days, people have become more environmental conscious. A trend of Eco-friendly processing is becoming more and more popular. Government agencies are putting more restrictions for control on effluent quality. In these circumstances, processors are looking for Eco-friendly alternative chemicals for processing. In denim garment processing, enzymes are used for desizing and abrasion look. As being biodegradable enzymes are Eco-friendly. Now, it has become possible to decolorize indigo with an enzyme. Indigo is one of the toughest dyes to bleach without the use of hypochlorite or other harsh chemicals. Zytex has developed a formulation based on laccase system capable of degrading indigo in a very specific way. The trade name of the product is "Zylite. The product contains an enzyme, laccase and a mediator. The laccase alone is not capable of breaking the indigo, hence mediator is used. Laccase has oxidative action, which is very complex. In presence of an aqueous medium, the enzyme gets oxidized and attacks the mediator to convert it into free radicals. The free radicals generated then attacks the indigo and convert it into oxidized products.
7. PROBLEM OF DENIM YELLOWING: Indigo denims have become the

most popular words in the world of garments. The history of denim starts with the story of Levi Strauss who was born in 1829 in Franconian Buttenheim, then migrated to America in 1847. Until Second World War, jeans were considered as working trousers. It was the appearance of a young, world famous Film Star James Dean, who played role of young rebellious revolutionary, wore jeans, since then Jeans became the symbol of youth there on. The film star not only made an impact on films but also on economic history at the same time. Indigo, the royal blue dye had been laboriously extracted from plants for centuries. In 1897, BASF produced the first charge of fully synthetic indigo and won the race with Hoechst, which was succeeded in working out its structure in 1883. Although the fastness properties and stability against oxidation and reduction of indigo are poor, these properties have made it more valuable for blue denims. Even though the jeans are very popular, their manufacturing and processing is more tricky and lengthy. The blue jeans are mainly dyed with indigo alone or indigo and Sulphur dyes. The original shade of garment is changed by various methods of wet processing and lots of different shades are created. Sometimes the shades are very dark, known as hard wash, sometimes medium, known as mid stone and sometimes
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light, known as heavy stone. Off course, the terminology differs from market to market. The grain structure is controlled by using either neutral or acid celluloses. Many of the times, the shades are achieved by using bleach i.e. hypochlorite solution. A major problem of denim industry is the yellowing and fading of indigo dyed jeans material on storage. It causes a loss to shop owners and increases the Blood Pressure of manufacturers. The reasons for this problem are: Contribution of Damaging Gases: - The polluting gases present in air can destroy indigo. The air, especially of large cities, is polluted with ozone and nitrogen oxides. Ozone, O , is very powerful oxidizing agent. Ozone, in presence of sunlight, when comes in contact with indigo generates free radicals. The free radicals decompose Indigo into an oxidized product called as Isatin. It is yellowish in color and hence imparts yellowness to the fabric. Destruction of the dye occurs predominantly at the edges of jeans exposed to air when lying around during storage. Air Circulation in the Fabric: - Air circulation should be as low as possible. This means the ventilation of the storage room also should be low. It is best to wrap the goods in air impermeable bag.
8. ABC S OF WASHING TECHNIQUES FOR DENIM:

UNWASHED: The authentic look of the jeans. The Denim is neither washed nor chemically post-treated, but only desized (i.e.: any adhesives or the like left over from processing are eliminated from the fabric). The result is a dark blue indigo-Denim. As jeans does not come pre-shrunk it should be bought one size larger than needed. MILL WASHED: The Denim yard good has already been pre-washed in open width washing machines by the manufacturer. PRE WASHED: Also for this technique the Denim is pre-washed in huge washing machines. However, the goods are washed until they are as soft and light as desired. ONE WASH: The jeans are once washed without any chemical additives in plain water and therefore mostly keep its dark blue color. During washing, the jeans shrink to the pre-calculated size. Typical: the Retro Jeans in the look of the 50s. STONE WASHED: This technique represents the classical washing type used for Denim. The jeans are supposed to look worn. For this, the finished product is washed in special machines together with natural pumice. The stones are almost completely dissolved by the friction forces during the washing process thereby creating this typical aged look. The washing time is approx. 45/60 minutes. Stone washed jeans are characterized by the abrasions at the seams, belt loops and pocket entries. DOUBLE STONE WASHED: Here, the jeans are simply longer washed than during normal stone-washing and more pumice is used. Washing may take up to 6 hours. The effect: higher abrasion, softer handle, seams and edges may look torn. SANDWASHED: This is a more refined stone washed technique for which the jeans are washed together with smaller and completely round pumice stones. Result: a full and soft handle. BLEACHED: During pre-washing a precisely computed amount of bleach is added to the lye which extracts part of the Denim's Indigo color thereby causing the trousers to be uniformly colored light blue. The color is also referred to as bleached jeans blue. The trousers are washed on their right side for 80 minutes so that this effect is
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achieved. For bleaching the Denim, EDWIN uses the environmentally friendly glucose technology, i.e. the Denim is bleached without adding chlorine. SKY BLUE STONE BLEACHED: A bleaching substance, e.g. chlorine, is added to the stone washing process. Afterwards, the solution is neutralized. The "stoned" jeans are extremely light in color, well, bleached. To achieve a uniform and improved color, EDWIN post-treats the trousers correspondingly. BOMBER WASHED: Jeans already having been stone washed are strongly cleared at heavily worn parts (thigh. seat.) applying a special procedure. OLDBLUE WASHED: Also this washing type bases on the stone-washed principle. By adding environmentally friendly substances, the trousers get its yellow cast. THE COLOR BLUE: The weft remains white and the warp is dyed blue. This beautiful rich shade of blue which is typical for Blue Jeans is achieved by dying the Denim with indigo. Indigo is the world's ancient known organic dye. It was used in China and Egypt already in 2500 B.C. At that time, Indigo was cultivated and traded despite its use as a poison and "magical substance". Indigo was even publicly condemned as the Devil's color. At that time, dyeing things blue was also popular in Germany where Wade, a blue dyeing herbaceous plant was used. Nevertheless, our ancestors began to import Indigo from India (which was then the world's most important exporter of Indigo). Indian Indigo dyed much more beautifully and intensively and was, above all, more durable and wearable. The intensive bright blue of the Indian Indigo was much appreciated and widely used for some centuries - i.e. until the age of chemical dye stuff. In 1878, Adolph von Bayer was the first to artificially produce indigo-Blue. The two large chemical producers BASF and Hoechst immediately bought the patent on this new technology. Nevertheless, it was not until 1897 that after massive investments into the companies' own chemical research chemically won Indigo was marketed. From 1900 natural Indigo was no longer imported by Germany and up to now natural Indigo has never regained its former importance. Neither has it been used for the typical blue dyeing of jeans. His chemical brother was always cheaper and still provided for the same features of application as natural Indigo. Indigo still is the most popular dye of the world, with an annual production of more than nine thousand tons.
9. FINISHING TECHNIQUES OF BLUE DENIM JEANS: Even before

weaving, the wedge yarn is steeped a dye bath. Here, entire hanks of ca. 300 yarns are drawn through Indigo blue. A typical characteristic of this technique is that the color does not interpenetrate the yarn but coats the fiber. Consequently, the inner of the yarn remains white which explains the white abrasion marks of heavily worn jeans. Here, the yarn's inner came free from its blue coating. Therefore, this technique is also called coat dyeing. The more often the yarn hanks have been steeped into the dye bath the more intensive in blue color the Denim gets. After each steeping yarns are taken out so that color can react with oxygen. This makes the yarn turn blue. Remaining non-oxidized dye is washed out of cotton yarns. Dyed yarn can be further processed. FINISHING: Before Blue Denim is woven, warp is dyed using Indigo then it is sized SIZING: The warps are smoothed by means of starch, adhesives or similar substances as this increases their strength during weaving as it is particularly here, where the warp is subject to high friction forces and tension.
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SINGEING: Fibers protruding from the fabric's surface after weaving are burnt off. By this, a smooth surface is achieved. DESIZING: Sizing reduces the receptivity for dyes (especially with Color Denim); however, it is necessary for weaving. After weaving the fabric is therefore desized by quasi washing it in a special solvent. BLEACHING: This applies to fabrics which are supposed to be dyed after weaving. DYEING: Fabrics woven of natural colored yarn can now be dyed. Specific problem of the so-called Color- Denim is that the entire fabric is dyed, i.e. both warp and weft are dyed. The typical look of traditional jeans with its visible natural colored weft is not found with Color-Denim. The coat dyeing may only be achieved using indigo. EMERY: For this technique fine wire lamellas or emery paper covered rollers are led over the fabric. It is slightly napped resulting in a sort of "peachy skin". This technique is only applied to the right side of the goods. NAPPING: For this process the right types of wire brushes are to be used. They move in all directions so that a uniform and dense nap is created. Napping is applied to both the right and wrong side of the goods. One of the disadvantages of this finishing technique is the pilings "fostered" by the velvet surface. FINISHING: The finish modifies the handle of the goods. High-quality Denims dispose of a wash-proof finish, their handle is still firm after washing but they are nevertheless convenient to wear. ANTI-TWIST: Due to the weave construction tensions arise within the fabric. They are released during the washing of the Blue Jeans resulting in turn in the so-called "gauzes". To "anti-gauze" finish the fabrics they are deliberately unilaterally twisted by approximately 7 % - 8 %. After this step the Denim's weft does no longer run in a 90 to the warp but diagonal. SHRINKING: The "shrinking" technique is also called "Sanfor-finish". By means of a special machine through which the goods are fed, damp heat is applied to the fabrics. This consequently results in a width and length shrinking. By this the Denim is artificially pre-shrunk. This step is necessary, as the material is subject to high tensile loads during the entire manufacturing process (from the spinning and weaving up to the finishing). If moisture is applied later, the material shrinks to its original length. The finishing techniques described are applied one after the other and after weaving. In modern textile mills the goods are fed through the right finishing lines, which can be more than 20 meters long. For this, up to 20,000 meters of goods are sewed together to one run. Flats may be further finished using following techniques: MERCERIZING: Making fabric smooth, glossy and sliding by means of caustic soda lye. PRINTING: The material is printed using simple techniques: the fabric is dyed and then a pattern is printed on it either uni or bilaterally. CALENDERING: The goods are provided with paraffin or washing emulsion and fed through rotating hot rollers. By this it gets smoother, closer, more flexible and glossier. This fabric is called Chinz. In order to ensure its washability it has to be treated with special synthetic resins. BONDING: Bonding means the later joining of to fabrics by means of adhesives or the so-called foam laminating (sandwich lamination). 226
10. BLEACHING FREE FROM CHLORINE: Until recently it seemed to

be sheer utopic to combine fashion with ecological commitment. In August 1992, EDWIN presented the first jeans bleached without chlorine at the event of Inter-Jeans to the expert dealers. Thanks to comprehensive research and numerous test washings EDWIN developed a bleaching technique which allows for achieving the popular "bleached look" without having to add environmentally damaging additives. Now, glucose, known from the food industry, is used for bleaching and this without adding any chlorine. This "sugar bleaching" produces no residues which could deposit in the jeans. This technique is not only environmentally favorite but also results in significantly well-tolerable Denim which is an additional benefit for the customer. However, this new type of bleaching also provides for another benefit: the desired bleached color becomes more effective and is, by this, less fading. CONTROL IN WET PROCESSING OF DENIMS: - As discussed earlier, bleach solution is largely used to prepare various shades. It is very essential that the bleach liquor should get neutralized properly. The traces of bleach present in finished fabric can cause yellowing or patchy fading of denim garments. After bleaching operation, a proper rinse and antichlor treatment with sodium bisulfite or peroxide up to satisfactory level is a must. The softeners, which are being used during finishing of denims, also play an important role in yellowing. Most of the times, cheap cationic softeners available in the market do have high acid value i.e. high free amine content. Those softeners during drying impart yellowness to garments. While selecting the softeners, their nature should be checked. Denims have toughness that can be lowered by using silicone softeners along with cationic softeners. Normally silicones used in exhaust process are amino silicones. These compounds also impart yellowness to the denim garments. People in washing believe that silicone containing products accelerate the degradation of indigo by harmful gases. Hence most of them are not using silicones in denim finishing. Instead of these, polyethylene emulsions as well as mainly non-ionic and cationic fatty acid derivatives are now in use. In a scientific study, various silicone softeners with varying amine number, viscosity, etc. were applied on denim fabric and tested for yellowing and fading. It was observed that all the silicones were bad, including nonfunctional PDMS polymers and blocked amine structures. But when only silicone oil was applied through solvent medium on denim fabric, it was observed that silicone oil no way was responsible for fading. In further tests, it was revealed that it is the emulsifier system, which is the main culprit for yellowing. If the processor takes proper precautions in processing denim garments and selecting the finishing agents, yellowing can be avoided to a great extent. The precautions during the storing are also very important. For safety precautions, anti ozone softeners are available in market. They can be used but only after testing their efficiency by ozone exposure test.
11. GARMENTS WET PROCESSING: Number of washing techniques is

commonly used to make a suitable finish of a garment in which garments are passed through water holding combination of temperature, stones, chemicals, and dyes. 11.1 DIFFERENT WORKING TECHNIQUES: Fashion Trends now a day demand that the majority of casual wear should give a soft and comfortable feel and are laced look. As result, these types of garments would undergo washings processes that render them with such properties. The washing technique has in fact developed and expanded to become a finishing process of its own.
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11.2 GARMENT WASH: Since 1978, garment pre washing has become more and more popular. It began with denim jeans for the following reasons: 1. Before garment pre washing was done on jeans, consumers had to wash them at home before wearing them because before washing they were too stiff, too long and too big to wear. (The garment manufacturers used to make them bigger and longer to allow for shrinkage). 2. After pre washing, the consumers do not have to worry about the fit after they wash them as pre washing has taken away almost all the shrinkage and made the jeans stable. 3. After pre washing the denim color looks livelier particularly with the pronounced washed look left on the double-needled seams. In view of the above merits, garment pre washing once started received great acceptance in the market. Not only became popular, it flourished into many fashions to achieve different results. As garment merchandisers, although we may not have to know the exact formulas used on each kind of wash, we should know enough about each wash in order to better control the quality and avoid problems which may emerge when the garment is washed. 11.3 NORMAL WASH: Wash in hot water added with detergent and softener. Rinse in plain water and dry in tumble dryer until it is 100% dry. If we wish to have a more pronounced "washed look on the garment, we should add some sodium to wash. Depending on what kind of fabric the garment is made of and how much of a washed look we need, we should adjust the water temperature, the amount of detergent or sodium and the length of time to wash., Hot water, detergent or sodium will dissolve the starch which is what holds the fibers in the yarn together to make the fabric stiff. The softener is to make the fiber soft, and tumble drying will make the fabric fluffier. However, we should know how to solve the following problems if they emerge during the process of washing: If the garments are of solid piece dye shell fabric and white color cotton pocketing and lining such as a twill pant, or a jacket, we may find that after washing is done, the color from the shell has come on to the lining, not just a little bit, enough to look offensive. This phenomenon may have been caused by the too much softener used in washing and the fabric is of inferior color quality. Softener can make the fiber soft, but it also breaks the dye loose to stain. If too much of it is used, the fabric will feel a little waxy. If we see a clue like that we should try to wash the garment with less softener and see if the staining problem is solved or alleviated. Or, we should simply use no softener to wash to see if problem is still there, we should not see the problem of staining any more. However, if by using less softener, we still see the problem or the improvement achieved is very small, we can be convinced that the fabric used in the garment is of poor color quality. If this is the case, not only the garment has a staining problem on the pocketing and lining, it will not pass the lab test of the prevailing standards on possibly the aspects of color change, color staining, and Crocking (rubbing). In order to salvage this merchandise of such low quality dye, there is a method we can try: First, we have hot water (of about 40 degree centigrade) ready in the tumble washer and then infuse a chemical called "color fixing agent" (available in solution or powder form) of about 1 % into it. When it is evenly mixed in the water, we put the garment (dry, not wet) into the tumble washer and let them soak in the solution for 5 minutes
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and then lift them up for drying. It is important that we only rotate the tumble washer a couple of cycles and stop. If we rotate the tumble washer too much, the dye will come off the fabric to stain. Try to move the garments inside the tumble washer as little as possible; just let them soak and absorb the chemical. When the garments are dried, the color quality should be substantially improved. Actually, the above process does not have to be done in a tumble washer. As long as we can arrange to soak the dry garment in the hot water mixed with color fixing agent as described above, it is all we need to do. When the garments are cured as above, they can be washed in the normal way to give it the washed look we need. This time, the color from the shell fabric should not stain. The color quality has been basically improved; it may pass the lab test on the above mentioned standards. 11.4 PIGMENT WASH: "Pigment Wash" is actually same as Normal Garment Wash but the washing mill may charge a little more because of the following: When the garment is made of solid color pigment dye, we normally would want the solid color (or colors if the garment is a combination of 2 or 3 colors) to fade evenly in washing, leaving a prominent washed effect on the garment. In order to achieve the result as described, above, it is important that the washing mill observes following: 1. To use hot water to wash (normal wash needs about 40 degree centigrade to wash) pigment wash needs 50 to 60 degree centigrade to wash, so that the color would fade more evenly. 2. Do not stuff the tumble with too much. Try to load the tumble with 60% or 70% of its capacity so that the garments inside the tumble can turn "comfortably". As a result, the color of the garment fades evenly. 3. If we load the tumble full, garment may turn out to be streaky after wash due to hard rubbing on the same spot inside tumble for lack of random movement. 11.5 BLEACH WASH: Bleach wash is simple; we just have to add bleach to the water in the tumble for washing. However, timing is very important because any garment over bleached cannot be corrected or reversed back to a "less bleached condition". The bleach works in washing as an Indigo reducer. Bleaching process only used in 46 tones for medium stone wash and 48 tones for light wash and in some tint wash orders. In 46 tones, bleaching is used 3 to 6 litters and in 48 tones 7 to 15 litters. Temperature in stretch fabric is given 50 c and in Non stretch fabric temperature is 55 to 70 c. If temperature is given up to 50 c then its strength will be loosened. After bleaching, naturalize the bleach with sodium Meta Bisulphate. 11.6 STONE WASH WITH OR WITHOUT BLEACH: The idea of washing with porous volcanic stones is to give the garment a strong and rough wash to achieve the pronounced washed effect through abrasion on exposed areas. Sometimes, we add bleach to the wash to make the color fade more seriously, such as denim, from navy to light blue. To achieve good results, a lot of experience and skills are needed. If we cannot get the effect we need, we should make the washing mill check the following: 1. Size of the stones used. Big stones will give more abrasion, small stones, and mild abrasion. However, big stones may damage the garment if made of light weight fabric or fabric of weak construction. 2. Stone ratio: (Weight of stones relative to the weight of garment) Wash with more stones will create the more apparent blue/white contrast on the fabric surface. The ratio of stone to fabric weight varies from 0.5 to 3:1.
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3. Washing time 4. Amount of bleach: If we use more bleach, we can shorten the washing time. Sometimes, this is what the washing mill may want to do. However, if we do that we will lose the desired blue/white contrast on the surface. The garment will look flat. Therefore instead of using more bleach, we shou1d use the normal amount of stone and lengthen the washing time. The procedure of Stone wash is divided into 8 parts as briefly explained below: 1. Desizing: This process is applied to get the sizing off the yarn (sizing is applied to the yarns during the weaving process. After the sizing agent has been removed (using the appropriate desizer), the fabric is left with a softer feel since the stiffness caused by the sizing agent has been removed. 2. Stoning: Stoning is done to give the salt and pepper effect to the garment. Enzymes are applied during the stoning process which speed up the operation and provide surface contrast since the enzymes attack the yarn making it more vulnerable. The application of stones during this process helps give the grainy effect to the garment. The stone used in the process is known as pumice which is the solidified form of lava from volcanoes however, they are manufactured as well. Only those stones that float on water are used. Size of the stone varies according to fabric strength with diameters ranging from 2-5 cm. 3. Bleaching: Sodium hypo chloride (a.k.a. bleach) is applied during this process to fade the color of the garment in order to get the desired effect. The quantity of bleach to be applied varies according to the extent of fading required. Since there is variation in shade within rolls, the garments are washed in batches with the same base shade. If the quantity exceeds the requirement, the process can not be reverted. Excessive bleaching is usually caused by operator negligence and seldom by machine fault. Due to electricity fluctuations, the machine may stop, leaving garments inside exposed to the bleach for a long time causing them to fade more. 4. Neutralizing: After getting required shade form bleaching, garment has to be neutralized to remove bleach smell and to lessen its strength. Bleach, if left on the garment, is harmful to human skin and causes irritation when the garment is worn. Other effects if neutralization is not done include paleness of shade, loss in fabric strength and uneven resulting dye. 5. Soaping: The garment is rinsed with soap to remove any stains which might have stuck to the garment during the production process. The wearing of the pumice stone mixed with water causes mud to deposit in the pockets of the garment. Soaping helps remove mud from the garment. 6. Softening: Process is applied to get a soft hand feel on the garment. Type and quantity applied varies according to requirements of customer. 7. Hydro Spinning: After the washing process is complete, the garments are taken out of the machine and put into the hydro machine. The machine extracts the moisture from the garment leaving it in a semi-wet condition. 8. Tumble Drying: The final process in the chain is the complete drying of the garment in drying machines. The temperature in the dryer varies according to the strength and composition of the fabric. 230
12. COMMON TYPES OF STONE WASH INCLUDE:

Dark Stone Wash (44 tons) 1. De sizing 2. Enzyme and stone 3. Soaping 4. Softening 5. Hydro drying 6. Tumble drying 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Medium Stone Wash (46 tons) De sizing Enzyme and stone Bleaching Neutralizing Soaping Softening Brightening (if required) Hydro drying Tumble drying Stone Wash for black denim Stoning (use enzyme if require Draining Rinse with water Soaping Softening Hydro drying Tumble drying Tumble drying
Light Stone/Bleach Wash (48 tons) 1. De sizing 2. Enzyme and stone 3. Bleaching 4. Neutralizing 5. Soaping 6. Softening 7. Brightening (if required) 8. Hydro drying
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9.
If the garment is washed excessively with stones, and its shade fades away more than the requirement, there is no process of getting it back. The only way is to include the garment in an order (with the same specifications) that required a lighter shade. Otherwise, the garment will become BII. After these processes are complete, the stones in machine have to be removed manually by operator. 12.1 ACID WASH: Acid wash is a kind of stone wash, but it consists of two steps; the first step is to "wash" without water and the second step with water. (This process of washing has been patented) Those who do not have the written consent from the company who owns the patent right should not use this process on garments for export to the U.S. Market. Anyway the following is a simple description of the process for our understanding. First, we soak the stones in potassium permanganate solution, and let the stones which are porous volcanic stones like a sponge, pick up the chemical until they are saturated. Then we dry stones (by air and in the sun), Now, we have chemically treated stones ready for use. On the other hand, we prepare the denim garments ready for acid wash by first destarching them in water and then get them out from the tumble washer for spin drying. Now we put them in another tumble washer with the potassium permanganate treated stones, it is important that we do not infuse any water into the tumble washer, but rotate the washer to "wash" the garment without water, inside the tumble, the stones will hit the garment due to the rotation of the machine. The stones will hit the parts of the garments where they are exposed the most. After about 30 minutes all the exposed parts of the garments will have been abraded by the stones soaked with chemical. However, the hidden areas such as underneath the pocket flaps and inside of the zipper fly, are still untouched by stones. After the above process, the garments should be taken out of the tumble and transferred to another tumble filled with water for washing and rinsing. When rinsing is done thoroughly, the prominent add wash effect will emerge. The stones had carried the chemical to bleach the exposed parts of the 231
garment to almost white, leaving the unexposed parts or less exposed parts of the garment pretty much untouched. Normally, during rinsing, we may .add some "whitening agent", in the water to make the white color in the blue garment whiter to emphasize the acid wash effect. 12.2 ENZYME WASH: Enzyme is a kind of live cell. We use it to wash because we want it to break some of the fibers on the surface in order to give the fabric a soft, sanded or "peached" effect. Or, if the garment is made of indigo denim, enzyme can replace stone, to give the denim a stone wash look, with better and nicer blue and white contrast on the surface. However, enzyme is rather expensive and therefore enzyme wash is more expensive than stone wash. In order to have caustic wash effect, we must start from printing of fabrics. Normal1y, before we do printing on cotton fabrics, we must treat the raw fabrics in boiling water with "Caustic" which is a chemical with corrosive nature, or strong cleaning power especially for grease. During this process, all the dirt, grease, fine particles of cotton seeds and all foreign particles are cleaned up leaving only the pure cotton fiber in the fabric for printing. When printing is done on this well cleaned fabric, the printing will stay clearly and securely on the fabric. However, when we want to do caustic wash on garments, we just do the opposite of the above; before printing, we do not clean the raw fabric with caustic treatment. We just apply the printing on the raw fabric so that about 30%.of the printing done on the surface may eventually go away. Finally, when garments are made of this fabric and ready for wash, we will wash them with caustic and hot water. At this time, about 30% of the printing will be washed away together with the foreign materials-leaving about 70% of the printing on the fabric making the design ,or stripe nice and soft. This is the look we call "caustic wash". For caustic wash, the printing must be pigment print with binder and baking treatment to an extent that color stay on the fabric only fairly securely to coincide with caustic wash. 12.3 GARMENT WASH AND OVER-DYE: This is being done mostly on denim garments to give them another look. The way to do it is; first we wash the denim garments with stone so that the double needle seams, pocket flaps and those areas exposed the most get washed dawn to light blue color or white. Then we should put dye into the tumble to dye the garments into the color we want. In this process, a coat of new color will come on to the garment particularly where it has been washed down to a light shade - to create a different look. "Of course, when we do the above process, the lining or pocketing will pick up the color too. In over-dyeing, we can use direct dye or reactive dye same as dyeing fabrics or yarn; if we choose to use direct dye for cost saving, we must use "color fixing agent" after dyeing to make the color more stable. In such case, it is acceptable because the whole garment is of one color and staining within the garment is not a problem. However, there is still some risk - when it is washed together with some other garments of different colors by consumers, the over-dyed color may transfer. Therefore, it is still a better choice to use reactive dye. 12.4 WHITENING: Unless the garment we wash is all colored namely no white color at all in the fabric, we should use whitening powder in the rinsing process to make the white part whiter. This is especially important for denim where we have colored warp threads, and white weft threads. If we, use e.g. "stone wash and bleach" we must use whitening powder in the final rinsing to make the white threads in the fabric whiter to create a stronger contrast between blue and white on the surface of the fabric, otherwise, it will look yellowish grey on the surface which is not the desired color shade. When we wash denim, we, should look at the reverse side of the fabric to 232
determine if enough whitening powder has been added to the rinse. In fact, when we wash a garment which has some white portions in the fabric, after wash as a final touch, we must use whitening powder to rinse to make the white parts or white threads in the fabric whiter to achieve the fresh look needed.
13. SAND BLASTING: In this process we give used look to the garments, we
used sand with a pressure for this purpose and get used look effect in different styles according to the customer requirements. Different styles of sand blasting include whiskers / mustaches effect; full length use look; and apple style use look effect etc. 13.1 METHODS OF SAND BLASTING 1. SAND BRUSHING: It is done with the help of plastic wired brush which run through power brush motor. We can apply this running brush on required places. The advantage of this method is that plastic tooth wired brush does not damage the stitching of the garments. Sand brushing is applied on before wash garments. 2. SAND BLASTING WITH GUN: In this method special type of sand is forcedly sprayed on the garment with the help of compressor gun. The garment are put on the marble table and a person holding the pressure gun which suck the sand from the sand bag applied on the required area of the garment to get the used look effect. Sand blasting is a high risk procedure in which sand is sprayed onto the garment under great pressure. This results in the fading of dye at the points of impact and is used to give garments a used look. Special care has to be taken during the process since the garment can easily be damaged under the high pressure of the blasting machine. Sand blasting is usually the first procedure in the washing stage (even before de sizing). Any other operation to be performed, during washing, is done after sand blasting. If sand blasting is done after washing, then the dye and de sizing agent would have been removed already and the blasting would cause damage to the fabric yarn rather than fading its color. The production quantity ranges from 2000-3000 garments per day. 3. LASER SAND BLASTING: It is a latest technology which is mainly used to produce whiskers on the garment. Laser light is applied on the desired please. The laser machine is very expensive, so only few units use this technology; this method can be applied in both before and after wash. 4. SPRAY SAND BLASTING: Methods used for this process are: 13.2 SPRAYING: During this process, the garment is placed on an inflated balloon and sprayed with KMnO4. The pattern of spraying is according to customer requirements. The original color of KMnO4 is pink/violet but it gives a mixed effect depending on the original color of the garment. The process is usually applied to the garment after it has been washed. The garment is placed on a balloon and sprayed from a distance with KMnO4. Masks have to be worn by the operators who spray the garments since inhaling of KMnO4 is injurious to health. The daily production of KMnO4 spraying varies from 300-350 garments. If moustaches have to be sprayed, the production drops down to 100-150 garments per day since these have to be done with hand and the overall process is lengthy. 13.3 COLOUR SPRAY TECHNIQUE: Pigment colors are sprayed on the desire areas of the garments with the help of paint spray gun machine. After that garments are cured on heat belt machine for the fixation of the colors applied. This technique is used on after wash garments. 233
13.4 INDIGO REDUCER TECHNIQUE: Indigo reducer is a chemical. In this process we use KMNO 4 (Chemical) solution and sprayed it on garments for used look effects in different styles. We use 1.5% KMNO 4 solution to get light effect and 3% solution for heavy effect. Normally this is applied on after wash garments. 13.5 MANUAL SAND BLASTING WITH SAND PAPER: Small wood block like D shape is covered with the sand paper and a person holding this block rub it on the required position. The force during rubbing is applied according to the standard given by the customer for sand blast depth level. Sand papers are available in different surface light, medium and heavy harsh, which can be used according to the fabric thickness and a required level of sand blasting. In this method it is difficult to get sand blast effect on stitching areas. This process of sand blasting is applied on before wash. 13.6 RISK FACTORS VS.VALUE ADDITION IN EACH PROCESS: Spraying, tinting and sand blasting are high risk operations since once done, they cannot be reserved. Unlike dyeing, spraying and tinting can not be stripped off the garment hence extreme care has to be taken while performing these operations. Excessive sand blasting can wear the dye off the garment to an extent from where it can not be retrieved. Also there is danger of damaging the garment since the sand is blasted under pressure and long exposure can cause holes in the garment. The more the value added after an operation, the more the cost would be of the garment with that particular operation. Spraying, tinting and sand blasting, although high risk procedures, add more value to the garment than simple dyeing. This is why garments with these processes have a higher price than garments with uniform dyeing. 13.7 FACTORS WHICH EFFECT WASHING PROCESS: During the washing process the faults that can affect the quality of garments are shade variation problem; washing line streaks; dye sports & un-even spots; bleaching spots; damaging during washing / sand blast; cracks; blast staining; silicon spots; indigo spots; Kmno4 spots; light & uneven & heavy kmno4 or sand blast effect; dull mustaches effect; used look out position than original standard; and spray out position than sample.
14. WRINKLE FREE FINISH ON GARMENTS: The wrinkle free finish

(also known as "Easy Care", Durable Press", "Wrinkle-Resistant", "Wash and Wear", "No-Iron" etc.) is obtained by cross-linking cotton. Permanent press finishes function by forming cross-links between adjacent cellulose polymer chains; these give cotton some elastic and resiliency properties. Such cross-linked cotton can recover from deformation stresses and thus wrinkles will not form.
Even today, DMDHEU is the main cross-linking agent. With magnesium chloride as the acid catalyst to initiate a reaction, it forms cross links in the amorphous regions of the fiber. The structure and reaction of DMDHEU is shown in the figure 1. Through the reaction (>NCH2=>NH+HCHO) free formaldehyde is released. Inadequate curing also leads to the liberation of formaldehyde at high temperature. A number of approaches have been developed to limit the amount of formaldehyde released, such as after washing of cured fabrics; the addition of formaldehyde scavengers like carbohydrazide to the bath; use of urea in the pad-bath or application through a spray; modification of DMDHEU to etherized, glycolated or methylated DMDHEU. Alternatives to DMDHEU are also being researched. Main alternatives are polycarboxlicacids, typically BTCA (1, 2, 3, 4 butane tetra carboxylic acid) or citric acid. However, BTCA is expensive to use and citric acid causes yellowing. Another approach has been to use polymers of maleic acid to form ester cross-links, and yet another to fix a quaternary group through an epoxidation reaction to the cellulose 234
chain to form cross-links. Research on all these alternatives continues. Commercially, it is the modified DMDHEU (glycolated or methylated) that is most used today. The product is pre-buffered to prevent premature curing and also pre-blended with a catalyst. Magnesium based catalysts are the most popular in use today. Citric acid or aluminum chloride can also be blended to increase catalysis when curing times are short. A typical formula for a pre-cure or post-cure finish is as follows: DMDHEU (45%), 2-20% of weight of DMDHEU but not less than 1% owb; wetting agent. 0.1% owb; and softeners, 2-8% owb. The wetting agent allows the fiber to be internally penetrated, so cross linking can take place throughout the fiber cross-section. A high density polyethylene restores some of the lost tear strength and abrasion resistance by providing lubrication. It also has a synergetic effect with silicone or fatty-based softeners to produce a very pleasing hand. Among the silicone softeners, reactive polysiloxanies with silanol functional end-groups ( Fig 2 ) act as elastomeric finishes imparting higher crease resistance, good dimensional stability (smooth drying properties) and excellent soft handle with good sewability. They can also reduce free formaldehyde release by replacing part of the resin. Several types are available today: Pretavyl VP 1601A by Boehme Filatex Inc., and siltouch RS by Yorkshire Chemicals. 14.1 TECHNOLOGY FOR ACHIEVING "WRINKLE FREE" FINISH: The major application methods currently used are based on the following processes: precure; post-cure; garment-dip; spray (metered) application; and Vapor phase. In pre-cure, the fabric is treated with resin, dried and cured in flat open-width form. This fabric can be used to produce garments that resist wrinkling during wearing and have a smooth appearance after washing and tumble drying. However, it will not be possible to introduce sharp durable creases as the cross-linked fabric will resist any attempt to press in creases. Such fabrics find application in womenswear market for some skirts, casual trousers and shirting where smoothness is the main criterion. A post-cure process gives an option to produce a garment with smooth drying and wrinkle resistant properties along with sharp creases that are durable for the life of the garment. In this process the resin is padded onto the fabric and dried at low temperature (as in the Koretron process). The fabric is then cut, garment constructed and creases pressed into the garment. A high temperature cure in this configuration is given to cross-link the resin. This process, though giving excellent results, has not been too successful with garment manufacturers owing to obvious limitations of colors, styles and fabric weight, and the need for a direct interface between mills, garment manufacturers and retailers. In an improvement to this process, a company in Japan gave a post-cure finish to fabric that was mercerized in liquid ammonia, giving exceptional easy care properties together with the soft handle of non-cross-linked cotton. Liquid ammonia mercerization is a treatment given at ultra-low temperatures and it causes deconvolution of cotton; smoothing of the surface; swelling of the fiber to a circular cross section; improved absorbency, strength and luster; and a very soft touch. The other three options are for finishing the fabric once it has been constructed into a garment. In the garment-dip method, garments are constructed from nonresinated fabric, then impregnated with a resin formula similar to that used in postcure process, extracted to about 65% wet pick-up and then tumble dried to 8-10% moisture content, a critical factor that is determined using a moisture meter. In the spray method, the resin is applied by spraying it onto the garment during tumbling in an enclosed rotational device. A microprocessor is used to meter the exact amount of chemicals and to control the rotation time, desired wet pick-up, spray rate
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and process time. The garments are then pressed and cured as in the case of the postcure process. The process is increasingly used for both menswear and womenswear with the market moving towards washed-down looks and softer handles. In the vapor phase process, the fabric is dyed and finished at the mill, cut sewn and pressed into garment form before cross linking. Gaseous formaldehyde is then applied together with an acid catalyst in a special chamber oven. The garments are later steamed to induce cross-linking. Excess moisture is then exhausted. The formaldehyde itself forms the cross-links (conventional resin will always have unreacted N-methylol groups that can hydrolyze to release formaldehyde). The process is being used today by manufacturers of shirts and other light weight garments. However, it is reportedly difficult to control, potentially resulting in uneven treatments and higher strength losses. 14.2 CHOOSING FABRIC FOR "WRINKLE FREE" FINISH: The garment finisher usually does not manufacture his own fabric and he may be faced with unacceptable losses in tensile strength, tear strength and abrasion resistance in the fabric when cross-linking. Because of the added value, garments rejects due to low strength may prove to be more expensive than fabric rejects. For producing an acceptable wrinkle-free garment, precautions taken in fabric selection: (a) The base fabric must have sufficient strength to withstand 40-60% loss in tensile and tear strength and still maintain sufficient strength to provide a garment of acceptable wear life and durability. (b) It must also have excellent absorbency to allow resin to penetrate into the very interior of the fibers and form cross links. Surface adhering resins do not serve any useful purpose and are inefficient and wasteful. (c) If the fabric is dyed the dye must be fast to acid catalysis and high temperatures. Sulphur dyes, which are known to generate acid upon storage, are strictly avoided. (d) Residual extractable on the fabric (like starch from size) can react with resin and lower its effectiveness, a high degree of size removal is thus essential. (e) Fabric pH should be in between 6.5 to 7.0 with an alkalinity of less than 0.05%
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PATTERN DRAFTING
1. DESIGNER, STYLIST, AND PATTERN MAKER: These three terms
are not synonymous, although one may function in all three capacities. The stylist set a trend. Sloped shoulders, nipped in waistlines, raised or lowered hemlines and definite color combinations are examples of style trends. The designer creates specific products in accordance with the trend. The pattern maker drafts the pattern necessary to produce the creation. The designer may create by making a sketch which is forwarded to the draper or patternmaker for execution. Some designers drape or draft the final production pattern directly without making a sketch. Apparel patterns are made with one of two basic methods. 1. Draping the garment on a form or model with muslin or the fabric used to make the garments. The production pattern is traced from the muslin or fabric cuts. 2. Drafting the pattern on a paper with either direct measurements for the pattern or developing the pattern draft with the aid of a sloper. 3. The fundamentals of Apparel Production: Apparel and allied products are commonly referred to in many circles as the Soft-goods industries or NeedleTrade industries. Originally, this encompassed any industry producing products. (1) Which are made from fabric (or similar raw materials, such as leather, plastic etc) or (2) which are produced largely with sewing machines. The degree to which each of three factors of apparel (quality, style, durability, and utility) must be present in order to win consumer approval for a sale will, of course vary with the product. It is true in some cases, that one are more of these values have very minute values which may be evaluated as zero for practical purpose. For example, in many types of work clothes, the style or emotional appeal may be evaluated as zero because the range of styles that would satisfy the individual, when the required durability and utility factors are present, is practically infinite. 1.1 DEFINITION OF A PATTERN: A Representation of the shapes and sizes of all the component parts to be cut from material necessary to make a garment or other made-up product, including seam and hem allowances. These individual components are referred to as Pattern Pieces. Pattern may be constructed from card or other sheet material, or may be held as digital information in a computer database, and are used primarily as means of controlling the cutting of fabric. 1.2 DESIGNING PATTERNS: As fashions change the ideal body size and shape also changes. We have only to look back a few decades to see a variety of fashionable silhouettes, from the shapeless, flat chested flapper of the twenties to the small waisted, shapely new look of the late forties. The pattern cutter has to be aware of this fact and continually be changing the basic blocks from which he or she works. The pattern cutter should always be aware of the nature of what is worn and how, if at all, does it affect the outline of the body to be fitted. The British Standards Institute continually releases tables of measurements in order to reflect the size and proportion of the women of the day. Different clothing firms aim at particular markets, a fact which often influences their selection of measurements.
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1.3 Points to Note When Pattern Drafting 1. When measuring curves use the tape measure on its edge. 2. Accurate, clear lines are essential, and these can only be achieved with the use of hard pencils; Sharpened with a pencil sharpener. Sketchy lines have no place in pattern cutting. 3. Notches are always marked at 90o to seam line on which they are placed 4. The two sides of a dart must always be identical in length. 5. Grain lines are marked parallel to the CF or CB except in a few cases, for instance a flared panel in a skirt would have the grain line marked through its centre as in a sleeve. 6. Calico is available in varying weights and qualities, so whenever possible use the type most similar to fabric chosen for your garment to test your pattern 7. If the pattern is to be used on a fabric with a nap, i.e. corduroy, mark grain line in normal position but have the arrows facing in one direction usually upwards. IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES IN PATTERN DRAFTING AND SEWING
ALLOWANCE ANKLE GIRTH: APPLIQU The extra dimensions allowed over body measurements. Circumference of the leg over the greatest prominence of ankle. Sewing a piece of fabric atop another after folding under a small bit of fabric to create a clean edge. When done by machine, many use a satin stitch (tight zigzag) by hand, blind stitching is used. Arm bent at 90 and the clenched fist placed on the hip, the distance from the shoulder joint along the outside of the arm over the elbow to the greatest prominence on the outside of the wrist. Area of a garment through which the arm passes or into which a sleeve is fitted. The armhole is not necessarily the same shape or location as the armscye. The hollow under the junction of the arm and the shoulder. The body measurement with the arm hanging down, the distance from the shoulder joint through front-break point, the armpit, the back-break point and to the starting point. The opening in a garment for attachment of a fitted sleeve. Armscye is a tailors term for armhole. The opening follows a line passing over the shoulder joint, front- and back-break points and armpit area. The distance on a garment from the crutch to the centre back of the waistline. Used at beginning and end of a machine sewn seam to anchor the seam in place; it involves couple of extra stitches back and forth. Strap across back of a garment at waist usually fitted with a buckle, or other method of adjustable fastening, and used to adjust fit of garment, within limits, to the wearers requirements. Reverse sewing at the beginning and end of a seam for reinforcement. Also called Cross back width. In body measurements, the distance from back break point to back break point. A method of joining facings and/or linings to the outer fabric of a garment by sewing them together face to face in the form of a bag and then turning the garment out to the Right side. Marks placed on seams, retaining balance and helping the machinist match the pieces in construction. Group of closely sewn stitches (back and forth from side to side a zigzag) that is used to tack a belt loop or similar item in place. This is not a tasting stitch and should be repeated several times on the machine to make a very short run of satin stitching.
ARM LENGTH:
ARMHOLE: ARMPIT: ARMSCYE CIRCUMFERENCE: ARMSCYE: BACK RISE BACK STITCH BACK STRAP BACK TACKING BACK WIDTH: BAGGING OUT BALANCE NOTCHES
BAR TACK
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BELT LOOP BIAS BIGHT BINDING POINT BLIND HEM BLIND STITCH BLOCK PATTERN BOBBIN BODICE BODY DIMENSIONS: BOTTOM ASSEMBLY
BOUND SEAM-FINISH
BOX PLEATS BRIDLE
BUCKRAM
BUNDLE
BUNDLE STITCH BUST BUST GIRTH: BUST POINT TO BUST POINT: BUTT SEAM BUTTON
A loop of fabric or thread which is sewn into the waist of the garment. The degree of fit is adjustable by means of a belt drawn through the loop or loops. Runs diagonally to the straight grain of the fabric. This is the stretches part on the fabric. Also called Bite. The distance from the edge of a fabric or fabrics that the needle-thread penetrates in an Overedge seam construction. Also called Stitch. A special form of thread interlacing used, e.g. to join the layers of compound cloths (see Double cloth) or to consolidate single structures (see Hopsack). A hemming method in which the stitches are placed between the hem allowance and the outside of the garment. A stitch (either by hand or machine), which does not go right through the fabric. A template of the basic pattern shape, upon which design details can be superimposed. In sewing machine. A small tube, with or without flanges, on to which is wound the under-thread of a lockstitch machine. The spool is held in the spool case underneath the throat plate. Section of a womans garment covering body from neck to waist A body measurement which can be used to build a sizing system or to select an appropriately sized garment. In zippers, the components of the lowermost part of the slide fastener, which determine whether the slide fastener will be non-separable or separable. A finish for the raw edges of a plain seam, in which another fabric encloses the raw edges of one or more seam allowances. A bound seam-finish is made by (1) encasing the raw seam allowance edge(s) in double-fold bias tape, seam binding or light weight fabric such as tricot or net. If tape or binding are used, the wider side of the tape or binding is underneath, (2) machine stitching through all thick-nesses close to the edge of the binding or the raw edge of the fabric. Usually each seam allowance is encased individually; occasionally, seam allowances may be placed together and treated as one, such as in necklines. A form of enclosed pleat achieved by double folding the fabric alternately in opposite directions. A narrow strip of fabric which is attached to the interlining along the roll of the lapel to hold and control it. A stiff fabric, generally linen or cotton, made by impregnating a plain-weave open-set fabric with fillers and stiffeners. Alternatively fabric consisting of two stiffened fabrics bonded together, the fabrics being not necessarily of identical construction. Used for linings, millinery, waistbands and bookbinding. 1. A collection of sufficient pieces of cut fabric to make up several garments. The size of the bundle is limited by weight and the number of pieces required for each garment. 2. A number of similar garment parts temporarily kept together for convenience of handling. Series of parallel stitches on a fabric and tied together at centre. A shaped form (male or female) on which clothes are worked on, inspected or displayed. Also called Bust, Full-bust girth. In body measurements, the circumference of the body over the fullest part of the breasts and parallel to the floor. In body measurements, the distance across the front from the apex of one breast to the apex of the other. A seam, which is sewn with the two fabric edges abutting. A knob, disc or similar object which when forced through a narrow opening or buttonhole, fastens one part of a garment or other flexible substrate to another. Buttons may be attached a garment also as a means of ornamentation. In buttons, that portion which will be exposed, after attaching to the substrate, is
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BUTTON PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS BUTTON STAND BUTTONHOLE BUTTONHOLE STAND CAD / CAM / CIM CALF GIRTH: CARE INSTRUCTIONS CARE LABELS CATCH-STITCH CENTRE BACK WAIST LENGTH: CENTRE FRONT WAIST LENGTH: CERVICAL TO BUST POINT: CERVICAL TO WRIST: CHAIN STITCH CHAIN THICKNESS CHEST GIRTH:
called face. There are basically two types of buttons: Sew-through flange button: These buttons have two or more holes in its flange for passage of a needle and thread so that the button can be attached to a garment or other flexible substrate. Usually the main performance characteristic which is tested on plastic sew-through buttons is its impact resistance, i.e. the resistance to fracture under sudden application of external force The performance specification requirements for buttons are usually guided by the internationally approved standard performance specifications. Generally, the main performance characteristics which are tested on buttons are: Resistance to washing liquor; Resistance to dry-cleaning solvents; Resistance to ironing; Resistance to water; Resistance to chlorine water; Resistance to sea water; Impact test Distance from finished edge of garment to centre of the button A Hole through which a button is passed to hold garment in position. The distance from the finished edge of the garment to the eye of the buttonhole. Acronym for Computer aided design. Term used to describe the stages whereby a computer is employed to assist in the designing of a product. In body measurements, the maximum circumference around the leg between the knee and ankle, parallel to the floor. A series of directions describing which care practices should refurbish a product without adverse effects and warnings for those care practices expected to have a harmful effect. A label that gives directions for refurbishing a product Cross-stitch made backwards; used if cloth is too bulky to turned down twice. The vertical distance along the spine from the cervical to waist. In body measurements, the vertical distance from the neck baseline at the centre front to the waist level. In body measurements, the distance from the cervical around the base of the neck and down to the bust point. In body measurements, with the arm bent, the distance from the cervical to the shoulder joints, along the outside of the arm, over the elbow to the greater prominence on the outside of the wrist. Stitches formed by interloping one or more threads. See Single thread chain stitch and Two-thread chain stitch. In zippers, the measurement from front to back of the chain Also called High-bust girth. In body measurements, the circumference of the body over the shoulder blades, under the arms and across the upper chest. Also called Turned and stitched seam-finish. A finish for the raw edges of the seam allowances of a plain seam, in which the raw seam allowance is folded under and edge stitched. A clean-finish seam-finish is made by (1) turning under the raw edge of a plain seam allowance approximately 3 to 6 mm, and (2) stitching close to the folded edge. It may be helpful on curved areas or some fabrics, to place a row of stitching 3 to 6 mm from the raw edge to serve as a guide for turning. Abbreviation of cut, make and trim. In garment industry, the practice of a contractor being supplied with materials and designs in order to produce garments for a principal Neck band, upright or turned over on a coat, dress, shirt, etc. Band of lining, lace or other material, which completes the upper part of a garment around the neck. Types of chain stitch produced on twin or multi-needle machines, used for covering seams. A fold added deliberately to a fabric by pressing, to give desirable appearance features such as fashion rightness, usefulness and minimum care.
CLEAN-FINISH SEAMFINISH
CMT
COLLAR COVERING STITCHES CREASE
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CREASE MARK
CROSS POCKET
CROSS STITCH CROSS-CHEST WIDTH: CROTCH: CUFF CUP SEAMING DART EASE EASE ALLOWANCE EDGE STITCH ELBOW GIRTH: FACING FINISH EDGE FLAT FELLED SEAM
GARMENT
GARMENT TWIST
GATHERING
GRAIN
Also called Wrinkle mark. Fabric defect, usually major for fashion outerwear, minor for underwear. Defect evidenced by a break, line, or mark in a fabric generally caused by a sharp fold. A visible deformation left in a fabric after a crease has been incompletely removed during fabric processing. The crease mark is where creases can be caused by fabric folds in the finishing process. On napped fabric the final pressing may not be able to restore the fabric to original condition. Often discoloration in the area is a problem. A pocket, which lies horizontally or at an oblique angle from the horizontal. In trousers, the pocket mouth can run from the waistband on the front to a point on the side seam. A hand stitch, the formation of which begins on the left and consists in passing the needle alternately on and off the edge slightly through the material and in advance of the last stitch. Used as a substitute for felling or for ornamentation of raw edges. In body measurements, the distance from front break point to the back-point. In anatomy, the body area adjacent to the vertex of the included angle between the legs. In garment, the lower part of the sleeve, which at the wrist usually has a plain turned in edge? If turned up it may be described as Gauntlet cuff. Joining two pieces of knitted fabric on a selvedge-to-selvedge basis by means of a chain stitch produced on a sewing machine in which the fabrics are moved forward between revolving feed cups. See Linking. A fold in the fabric which is stitched to give shape depending where it is positioned. It will appear to taper at both ends. To distribute evenly fullness from a longer length of fabric to a shorter length without allowing it to gather or puck. Always gave to longer length on the tip of the shorter one Extra required for body movement over actual body measurement A stitch done a scant 1/8 from the folded or seamed edge. The body measurement with the arm straight, the circumference of the elbow. Fabric sewn on the raw edge of a garment piece that is turned under and serves as a finish for the edge as well. The edge of a fabric, which is processed by a sewing machine. For reinforcing seams on pajamas or to reduce bulk in a seam. A shaped article of textile fabric, intended to cover portions of the human body. Garments may be grouped as: Active wear, Blouses, Bottoms, Bridal, Dresses, Dress shirts, Foundations, Hosiery, Outerwear, Pajamas, Robes, Skirts, Sleepwear, Sport coats Sport shirts, Suits, Sweaters, Swimwear, Tailored clothing, Underwear, Uniforms, Work wear, Tops, etc. A rotation, usually lateral, between different panels of a garment resulting from the release of latent stresses during laundering of the woven or knitted fabric forming the garment. Twist may also be referred to as Torque or Spirally. Shortening of fabric length by drawing together and holding a succession of small folds of material by stitching. Machine gathering or Gauging is achieved by use of a special presser foot or attachment Grain of the fabric is the relationship of its structural elements to vertical and horizontal lines. Grain is easily appreciated and illustrated by the example of a woven fabric where in ideal conditions warp direction represents the vertical line and weft direction represents the horizontal. Warp and weft interlace at 90 so that in a correctly made and finished woven fabric grain and structure are square with each other. Deliberate off grain cutting is sometimes essential particularly in woven fabrics in order to obtain necessary fabric movement for shaping or styling. Conversely, the taping or otherwise stabilizing of certain garment seams is necessary to prevent movement or stretching. This is often necessary where perhaps a woven fabric has been cut on the bias to obtain movement or shape in one part but another part may need to be kept fairly rigid, or in a straight seam in a knitted fabric where the natural movement of the fabric is too great for the necessary rigidity of the garment.
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GRIN HEAD GIRTH: HEIGHT: HEM HEM ALLOWANCE HEMLINE HIGH-HIP GIRTH: HIP GIRTH: INSEAM INSIDE-LEG LENGTH: INTERFACING IRONING KNEE GIRTH: KNEE:
In sewn seams, to stress a sewn seam so that the individual stitches can be seen The maximum circumference of the head above the ears. In body measurements, the vertical distance from the crown of standing subject to the soles of the feet. For persons unable to stand, height is measured while they are lying down. A folded edge produced by turning in the edge of a garment and securing it. The amount of fabric turned under at the hemline. The line along which a hem is marked and folded. In body measurements, the circumference of the body at a point approximately 7.5 cm be-low the waist and parallel to the floor. In body measurements, the maximum circumference of the body at the level of maximum prominence of the buttocks. Seam inside the leg of pants that runs from the crotch to the hem. Also called Crotch height. In body measurements, the vertical distance from the crotch to the soles of the feet. Fabric between facing and garment to support and edge and hold a shape i.e. collar, cuff etc It is done by moving the iron back and forth over fabric ironing is generally not utilized when sewing. In body measurements, with the leg straight, the circumference of the knee over the kneecap and parallel to the floor. In anatomy, the joint between the lower and upper leg. Used to finish the inside of a garment, to hide the seam construction, to allow for ease of putting a garment on or taking it off, and provide decorative effect. A lining is cut of the same pattern pieces as the garment and often is made of slippery fabrics. It provides a minimal amount of warmth and usually extends the life of a garment. Linings should be washable if the garment is washable and linings should be pre washed. Indicating pattern details on fabric showing seam allowance for cutting, showing fitting corrections In body measurements, circumference of the neck approximately 25 mm above the neck base. The circumference of the upper leg between the hip and the knee. It is the fuzzy part of a fabric that is usually directional in nature. Corduroy and velvet are good examples of fabric which has a nap or a pile. If smoothed with the hand in one direction, nap is typically shiny in one direction and not shiny in the other. When cutting out a pattern, care should be taken to keep fabric pieces going in same direction nap-wise unless one is intentionally mixing naps and piles to produce a different look. The notch is shown on a pattern with a dark diamond. They are commonly cut outward and should be matched on seams when joining for sewing. . A V cut in seam allowance to eliminate bulk in outer curving seams Fabrics where the surface interest runs in the same direction, this includes prints, nap or pile as well as warp-knitted fabrics In body measurements, the distance from the side waist to the soles of the feet, following the curve of the body. An overcast stitch to prevent raveling of fabric. There are sewing machines made to do over lock stitching. A replica of garment in flat card or paper. A template used for marking out the parts of a garment on material prior to cutting. See also Block pattern. Raised woven-in surface on velvets and fabrics Narrow sewn rows of fabric that give a decorative raised look to a garment. Some blouse are made with pin tucking on the bodies for a more tailored look. A cord covered with fabric, often used for decorative edging on garment or projects.
LINING
MARKING MID-NECK GIRTH: MID-THIGH GIRTH:
NAP OR PILE
NOTCH ONE-WAY FABRICS OUTSIDE-LEG LENGTH: OVER LOCK PATTERN PILE PIN TUCK PIPING
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PIVOT
PLACKET PLAIN EDGE PLAIN SEAM
PLEAT
PLUGGING POCKET POCKET BAG POLO COLLAR RAW (EDGE) SCYE DEPTH: SEAM SEAM ALLOWANCE
SERGER
SHANK BUTTON
SHOULDER JOINT:
SHOULDER LENGTH: SHOULDER SLOPE: SIZING SYSTEM: SLASH SLIP-TACK SNIP STAY STITCHES TACKING TAILORS TACKS THIGH GIRTH: TOLERANCE
To leave the needle in fabric, raise the presser foot and turn the fabric at a 45degree angle. Then lower the presser foot and start sewing. Used to sew a square seams. Opening provided in a garment to facilitate removal, or an extra piece of fabric applied to that opening for reinforcement or as a style feature. The placket may incorporate fastenings. Finished edge of a garment that shows no stitching on the surface. A blind or filling stitch is used. A seam formed by a single joining line. A plain seam joins two or more layers of fabric; multiple layers of fabric may be treated as a single layer. Raw edges of the seam allowance in a plain seam may or may not have a finish applied. Three layers of fabric involving two folds or reversals of direction; the back fold may be replaced by a seam. Material folds introduced to allow for expansion or to provide style features. Pleats may be either pressed to give sharp creases or left unpressed to give soft folds Fastening decorative buttons by inserting a plug through the eyes of the shanks on the inside of the garment A bag inserted into or attached to a garment, for practical or decorative use. Pockets may have flaps, jetting or welts. The part of a pocket on the interior of a garment. A variation of the round neck collar on a jumper that extends well up the neck and is turned over or doubled on the outside. The edge of fabric that is not stitched or finished. The distance from the cervical to a point level with the armpit. Result when two pieces of fabric are sewn together along a line. Distance between a cut edge and stitching line is called a Seam Allowance. It will be added when cutting fabrics, as it may cause puckering of your seam later on. A type of sewing machine that stitches the seam, encases the seam with thread, and cuts off excess fabric at the same time. These are used for construction of garment with knit fabrics mostly, or to finish seams of any fabric. A button with space left between the button and fabric. A shank button is one made with a shank. Other buttons can be shanked by wrapping thread under the button to create a shank. In anatomy, the juncture of the collarbone and the shoulder blade. The outer end of the collarbone or clavicle pivots against the Acromion which in turn pivots against the hummers or upper arm bone in the arm. These bones form the shoulder girdle. See Acromion, above. In body measurements, the distance from the side neck base to the armscye line at the shoulder joint. In body measurements, the angle formed when the slant of the shoulder line deviates from the horizontal line that originates at the side neck base. In garment construction, a method of designating garment sizes. The cut along a given line to open a dart or fold To tack a seam, through s folded edge from the outside to match perfectly plaids stripes for stitching A small cut made either at right angles or at a slant to the raw edge of a seam all Vance to enable it to spread and follow a stitched curve Line of stitches made by hand or machined to prevent stretching Continuous row of machine stitches to hold two or more layers of fabric together. Tacking is stitches made with a double thread where every second stitch forms a loop used to mark pattern detail through layers of fabric The maximum circumferences of the upper leg close to the crotch. An amount added to body measurements when constructing a pattern or block. This extra amount allows for movement of garment over a figure.
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TOP STITCHING TOTAL CROTCH LENGTH: TOTAL VERTICAL TRUNK LENGTH: UNDERARM LENGTH: UPPER ARM GIRTH: UPPER ARM LENGTH: WAIST GIRTH: WAIST: WRIST GIRTH: WRIST:
A line of machine stitching made on the outside of a garment parallel to an edge or seam In body measurements, the distance from the waist level at centre front through the crotch to the waist level at centre back. In body measurements, the distance from the right shoulder line midway between the neck base and the shoulder joint, down the back through the crotch and over the projection of the right breast to the starting point. In body measurements, the body measurement with the arm down, the distance from the armpit to the midpoint on the inside of the wrist in line with the greatest prominence. In body measurements, the maximum circumference of the arm usually midway between the elbow and the shoulder joint. In body measurements, with the arm bent, the distance from the shoulder joint along the outside of the arm to the prominence of the elbow. In body measurements, the circumference of the waist immediately below the lowest rib. In anatomy, the part of the body at the location between the lowest rib and hip identified by bending the body to the side. In body measurements, the circumference over the prominence of the inner and outer forearm bones. In anatomy, the joint which articulates between the end of the lower arm and the hand.
HOW TO MEASURE
1. Waist (Relaxed / Extended) On garments with a waist seam, measure from side to side alone the waist seam. On garments with a waistband, measure from side to side alone the center of the waistband. Double the measurement. For extended measurements, measure as above with elastic or knit fully extended. Double the measurement. Lay garment flat with front of the garment facing you. Measure up the specified amount on the size specification sheet from crotch point. Measure side to side following contour of waist seam. Lay one entire leg flat. At the crotch, measure down as specified on the size specification sheet. At this point, measure across the leg parallel to waist from fold to fold. Double the measurement. With leg flat, locate the knee. Measure up the specified amount on the size specification sheet. At this point measure across the leg from point to point. Double measurement. Lay the bottom of the pant leg flat. Measure straight across the bottom opening from fold to fold. Double the measurement. Lay garment flat with front of garment facing you. Measure from crotch seam up the center front seam to the top edge of the garment (including waistband.) Lay garment flat with back of garment facing you. Measure from crotch seam up the centre back seam the top edge of the garment (including waistband) Lay one entire leg flat with inseam fading you. Measure from where the crotch seam joins the inseam down to the bottom of the garment. Lay one entire leg flat. Measure from the top of the garment to the bottom of leg following the contour of the side seam. Garment is flat with back facing you. Measure from top of waistband down centre back to bottom of garment. Lay garment flat with the front facing you measure from the high point of shoulder down the front rise to the fold at the crotch. Double the measurement.
2.
Hip / seat
3.
Thigh
4.
Knee
5.
6.
Bottom Opening / Leg Opening (Relaxed / Extended) Front Rise
7.
Back Rise
8. 9. 10. 11.
Inseam Out Seam Center Back Length (Skirts) Trunk Length / Torso Length
244
12.
Front Length (High Point of Shoulder) Back Length (Center Back Neck) Chest Bust Sweep
13.
14. 15.
16.
Across Shoulder
17.
Across Back
18.
Armhole Circumference
19.
Upper arm
20.
Sleeve Length (From Center Neck)
Back
21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.
Sleeve Length (From Shoulder) Cuff Opening (Relaxed / Extended) Cuff, Rib Knit, Or Elastic Band Height Collar Length (Button to Button) Collar Length (On Seam) Neck Circumference (Relaxed / Extended)
Lay garment flat with front facing you. Measure from the high point of shoulder or from the fold of natural shoulder to the bottom of garment, keeping taps measure parallel to center front Lay garment flat with the back of the garment facing you. Measure from the joining seam at the neck opening (Collar) t the bottom edge of the garment. Lay garment flat. Measure straight across garment from side to side 1 from the bottom of armholes. Double the measurement. Lay garment flat, making sure that any pleats are fully extended. Measure at bottom of garment following the contour of hem. Double the measurement. For extended measurement, measure as above with elastic or knit fully extended. Lay garment flat with the back of the garment facing you. Locate the shoulder points, where the shoulder seams meet the top of the armhole when there is no shoulder seam; measure where the natural fold of the shoulder meets the top of the armhole. Measure straight across from shoulder point to shoulder point. Lay garment flat with back of garment facing you. Measure down to center of armhole. At this, measure straight across from armhole to armhole seam. Lay garment flat, aligning front and back armhole seams and position so that armhole seam has no wrinkles. Measure from bottom to top of armhole following seam contour. Double the measurement. Lay sleeve flat. With tape measure at a right angle to center fold of the sleeve, measure straight across form underarm to center fold. Double the measurement. Garment with center back seam: Starting where the center back seam meets neck seam, measure across the back to the point where the shoulder seam joins the armhole, following the contour of the center fold of the sleeve to the bottom. To determine center back neck of garment without center back seam, measure along the back neck seam from shoulder seam to shoulder seam. Half of amount is center back neck. Measure along the outside fold of the sleeve from the armhole seam at shoulder to the bottom of the sleeve. Lay the sleeve flat (sleeve closed on button styles). Measure straight across the bottom of the sleeve fold to fold. Double the measure. Measure from joining seam to outer edge of band or ribbing. Open collar and lay flat. Measure along the center of the collar stand from the outside end of buttonhole to the center of the button. With the collar open and lying flat, measure along the collar joining seam from end to end, following the contour of the joining seam. Close neckline and lay flat from center back to center front. Measure along neck seam opening. For extended measurements, measure as above with elastic or knit fully extended. Placket and zipper openings must be included in extended measurement. Lay garment flat with the front facing you. Measure down from the imaginary line (point to point) to the neck/collar seam at the center front. Lay garment flat with the front facing you. Measure from side to side, the inside width of the neck at the fold. Measure along the collar point edge from the collar joining seam to the outer end of the collar.
27.
Neck Drop Front / Back Neck Width Collar Point
28. 29.
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STANDARD BODY MEASUREMENTS Mature Figure (Regular Mens Sizing) Height 170 cm 178 cm (5 ft 7 in 5 ft 10 in) A SIZE CHART FOR OVERGARMENTS, TROUSERS, CASUAL WEAR
A B C D EF GH G-I J KL EM NQ PQ R Chest Seat Natural Waist Trouser Waist (4 cm below natural waist) Half Back Natural Waist Length Scye Depth Neck Size Sleeve Length. (one piece sleeve) Sleeve Length (two piece sleeve) Inside Leg Body Rise 88 92 74 77 18.5 43.4 22 37 63.6 79 78 26.8 16.4 92 96 78 81 19 43.8 22.8 38 64.2 80 79 27.2 16.8 96 100 82 85 19.5 44.2 23.6 39 64.8 81 80 27.6 17.2 100 104 86 89 20 44.6 24.4 40 65.4 82 81 28 17.6 104 108 90 93 20.5 45 25.2 41 66 83 82 28.4 18 108 114 98 100 21 45 26 42 66 83.5 82 28.8 18.4 112 118 102 104 21.5 45 26.4 43 66 84 82 29.2 18.8 116 122 106 108 22 45 26.8 44 66 84.5 82 29.6 19.2 120 126 110 112 22.5 45 27.2 45 66 85 82 30 19.6
Close Wrist Measurement Extra measurements Garments length Cuff size, two-piece sleeve Trousers bottom measurement Jeans bottom measurement
Varies with type of garment and with fashion 27 23.5 20.5 28 24 21 29 24.5 21.5 30 25 22 31 25.5 22.5 31.6 26 23 32.2 26 23 32.8 26 23 33.4 26 23
A SIZE CHART FOR SHIRTS (Mature and Athletic Figures)

A G-I G-H E-N G-M Neck (collar size) Chest Scye depth Natural waist length Half back Sleeve length for shirts Shirt length Cuff size for shirts 37 88 22 43.4 18.5 84 76 22 38 92 22.8 43.8 19 84 78 22.5 39 96 23.6 44.2 19.5 85 80 22.5 40 100 24.4 44.6 20 85 81 23 41 104 25.2 45 20.5 85 81 23 42 108 26 45 21 87 82 23.5 43 112 26.4 45 21.5 87 82 23.5 44 116 26.8 45 22 87 82 24 45 120 27.2 45 22.5 87 82 24
STANDARD BODY MEASUREMENTS (Athletic Figure) Height 170 cm - 178 cm (5 ft 7 in - 5 ft 10 in) A SIZE CHART FOR OVERGARMENTS, TROUSERS, CASUAL WEAR
A B C D E-F G-H G-I J K-L E-M N-Q P-Q Chest Seat Natural Waist Trouser Waist (4 cm below natural waist) Half Back Natural Waist Length Scye Depth Neck Size Sleeve Length. (one piece sleeve) Sleeve Length (two piece sleeve) Inside Leg Body Rise 88 90 71 74 18.5 43.4 22 37 63.6 79 78 26.8 92 94 75 78 19 43.8 22.8 38 64.2 80 79 27.2 96 98 79 82 19.5 44.2 23.6 39 64.8 81 80 27.6 100 102 83 86 20 44.6 24.4 40 65.4 82 81 28 104 106 87 90 20.5 45 25.2 41 66 83 82 28.4 108 110 91 94 21 45.4 25.6 42 66 83.5 82.5 28.8 112 114 95 98 21.5 45.8 26 43 66 84 83 29.2
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Close Wrist Measurement Extra measurements Garments length Cuff size, two-piece sleeve Trousers bottom measurement Jeans bottom measurement
16.4
16.8
17.2
17.6
18
18.4
18.8
Varies with type of garment and with fashion 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 23.5 24 24.5 25 25.5 26 26 20.5 21 21.5 22 22.5 23 23
BODY MEASUREMENT CHART FOR SMALL-MEDIUM-LARGE-XLARGE

CHEST SIZES BETWEEN A B C D E-F G-H G-I J K-L E-M N-Q P-Q R Chest Seat Natural Waist Trouser Waist (4 cm below natural waist) Half Back Natural Waist Length Scye Depth Neck Size Sleeve Length. (one piece sleeve) Sleeve Length (two piece sleeve) Inside Leg Body Rise Close Wrist Measurement Extra measurements Garments length Trousers bottom measurement Jeans bottom measurement SMALL 88-92 92 94 75 78 19 44 23 39 64 80 79 27.5 16.8 MEDIUM 96-100 100 102 83 86 20 44.8 24.6 41 65 82 81 28.5 17.6 LARGE 104-108 108 110 91 94 21 45.6 26.2 43 66 84 83 29.5 18.4 XLARGE 112-116 116 118 99 102 22 46.4 27.8 45 67 86 85 30.5 19.2
Varies with type of garment and with fashion 24 25 26 27 21 22 23 24
SMALL-MEDIUM-LARGE-X LARGE SIZES: Actual measurements applied under the labels Small, Medium, Large; X Large etc depend on breadth and type of market that is targeted. Manufacturers targeting the mature man will usually offer sizing that fits man of average height. Intervals of 8 cm between size labels give good divisions being used by many manufacturers. SIZES FOR TALL / SHORT MEN HAVE EACH VERTICAL MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED
SHORT 162cm 170 cm (5 ft 4 in 5 ft 7 in) - 2 cm - 1 cm - 2.5 cm - 4 cm -4 cm no change TALL 178 cm 186 cm (5 ft 10 in 6 ft 1 in) +2 cm +1 cm +2.5 cm + 4 cm + 4 cm + 4 cm
Natural waist length Scye depth Sleeve length Garment length Inside leg Body rise
Standard Body Measurements Chart Continental Size Chart (FEMALE FIGURE)

SIZE SYMBOL BUST WAIST HIPS BACK WIDTH 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
80 58 85 32.4
84 62 89 33.4
88 66 93 34.4
HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS 92 97 102 107 112 70 75 80 85 90 97 102 107 112 117 35.4 36.6 37.8 39 40.2
117 95 122 41.4
122 100 127 42.6
127 105 132 43.5
132 110 137 45
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CHEST SHOULDER NECK WIDTH DART ARMHOLE NAPE TO WAIST SHOULDER TO WAIST ARMHOLE DEPTH SKIRT TO KNEE WAIST TO HIP LENGTH TO WRIST TOP ARM WRIST BODY RISE SIDE SEAM FINAL KNEE WIDTH FINAL HEM WIDTH
29.8 11.75 6.75 5.8 37.5 38.5 38.1 20 56 21
31.2 12 7 6.4 39 39 38.8 20.5 57 21.25
32.6 12.25 7.25 7 40.5 39.5 39.5 21 58 21.5
34 12.5 7.5
35.8 12.8 7.8
37.6 13.1 8.1
39.4 13.4 8.4
41.2 13.7 8.7
43 14 9 106 49.5 42.5 43.7 24 61.5 23
44.8 14.3 9.3 11.2 51 43 44.4 24.5 62 23.25
46.6 14.6 9.6 11.2 52.5 43.5 45.1 25 62.5 23.5
48.4 14.9 9.9 12.4 54 44 45.8 25.5 63 23.75
7.6 8.2 8.8 9.4 10 42 43.5 45 46.5 48 VERTICAL MEASUREMENTS 40 40.5 41 41.5 42 40.2 21.5 59 21.75 40.9 22 59.5 22 41.6 22.5 60 22.25 41.3 23 60.5 22.5 43 23.5 61 22.75
55.75
56.5
57.25
SLEEVE MEASUREMENTS 58 58.5 59 59.5
60
60.5
61
61.5
62
24.8 15 26.5 101 25.8
26.2 15.5 27 102 26.4
27.6 16 27.5 103 27
29 30.5 32 33.5 16.5 17 17.5 18 MEASUREMENTS FOR PANTS 28 28.5 29 29.5 104 104.5 105 105.5 27.6 28.4 29.2 30
35 18.5 30 106 30.8
36.5 19 30.5 106.5 31.6
38 19.5 31 107 32.4
39.5 20 31.5 107.5 33.2
41 20.5 32 108 34
25.8
26.4
27
27.6
28.4
29.2
30
30.8
31.6
32.4
33.20
34
2. EASE AND ALLOWANCES FOR PATTERN DRAFTING: While

drafting a pattern following allowances shall be considered to make a perfect pattern. 2.1 SEAM ALLOWANCE: Also called Seam margin. The distance from the edge of a fabric to the parallel stitch line furthest from that edge, or the cutting allowance around each piece i.e. a pre-determined amount of material between the edge of the component parts of the garment and the seam line. Many commercial patterns specify seam allowances which may vary usually between 10 mm to 30 mm depending upon the pattern. Seam allowances may be trimmed during or after seam construction. SEAM ALLOWANCE GUIDE Seam Light Weight or Allowance Medium Weight Fabric 0.5 1 cm Collars, neck lines, sleeveless arm holes, facings or enclosed seam. 1.5 cm Side seams, shoulder seams and waist seams. 2 cm 2.5 cm Side seams, waist seams and any seam possibly requiring alteration. Hem Allowance on flared skirts and seams possibly requiring alteration. Possibly hem allowance Usually impracticable 248 Heavy Weight or Bulky Fabric Impracticable Collars, neck lines, sleeveless arm holes, facings or enclosed seam. Side seams, shoulder seams and waist seams Side seams, waist seams and any seam possibly requiring alteration. Hem on flared coats or skirts. Possibly hem allowance on coats
5 cm 6 8 cm
2.2 EASE ALLOWANCE: Ease, or ifference between actual body measurements and the finished measurements of a garment, directly affects the look, style, fit, and comfort of any garment. Most garments need a slight amount of ease (called wearing ease) to fit around body and permit movement; form-fitting knit garments are the exception, they need a negative amount of ease to stretch around the body. Any additional ease (called style ease) contributes to a garment's overall silhouette and design. When you purchase a ready-made paper pattern, you don't necessarily need to think about ease. Ease is already factored into the pattern's style, so if you like the fit and style, you can buy the pattern and not worry about ease. If you don't like the fit and style, you can either leave the pattern at the store or alter it in some way. With pattern-drafting software, you are the designer, so you need to make some decisions about ease right from the start. Every Pattern must take into consideration the need for comfort and movement by including ease. There are two main types of ease: EASE CHART
Garment Type Units of Measure Fitted Standard Loose Dresses & Blouses In 2 2 3 1 /8 Cm 5 7 8 Pants In
3
Skirts In 1 3 1 /8 to 4 Cm 2 4 16 to 24
Jackets In 3 1/8 4 4 3/8 Cm 8 10 11 In 4 3/8 5 1/8
Coats Cm 11 13 13 to 17
Cm 1 2 8
/8
3 1/8
5 1/8 to 6 1/8
2.3 WEARING EASE: It is the additional inches or centimeters we add to patterns at certain points, for example, the waist, hips and bust. The amounts we add in ease will vary according to body type and personal level of comfort. Some garments have little or no wearing ease at all. Garments like strapless bodices or halter-neck garments, as these have to fit closely. Garments made from stretch or knit fabrics will also have less ease as the fabric will itself will allow for movement and comfort. 2.4 DESIGN EASE: It is the extra fullness in garments that a designer or pattern maker will use to create various effects and silhouettes. Garments like coats, dresses and jackets are those that use this extra fullness to allow for comfort especially when being worn over the top of other garments. These are standard amounts to follow when adding ease but these are not strict amounts and will vary according to personal taste and comfort. Finding out what suits you will come when we get into solving fitting problems and adjusting our patterns. 2.5 HEM ALLOWANCE: Hem is the folded edge produced by turning in the edge of a garment for the purpose of securing and or decorating. The amount of fabric turned under at the hemline is called Hem Allowance. An inconspicuous hem is a mark of quality construction. A properly finished hem in a tailored garment helps to achieve a professional look and adds the final touch. Suggested widths for hems in jackets and coats are 1 1/2 to 2 inches for lightweight and 2 to 3 inches for heavyweight fabrics. Hem depth depends on the style of garment. The fuller the bottom edge, the narrower the hem should be. On the other hand, straight tailored skirts and dresses really need a 1 " hem to hang correctly. Deeper hems are better done with a hand stitch, while narrow hems look good with a machine stitching line. Wide Topstitched Hem technique can be used on all fabrics and styles, except for much curved hems. For the most attractive proportions hem allowance should be 1-1/4" to 249
2-1/4" (3.8cm-5cm) wide. Narrow Machine Hem is particularly attractive on sheers, lightweight silk and synthetic fabrics and for hemming ruffles. It works especially well on flared hems. Note: To do this hem, your garment must have at least 5/8" (1.5cm) hem allowance. 2.6 GATHERING ALLOWANCE: Gathering is used to add frills. A frill before it is gathered needs to be at least 1.5 times its finished length but making it twice as long gives a much better effect. Gathering allows for making a long piece of fabric to fit with a shorter piece of fabric and also is a method of easing a seam to allow insertion of sleeves and other rounded pattern pieces. Gathering is done to ease in fabric along curves, such as when sewing in sleeves, and for adding fullness, such as with curtains. The gathering can be very subtle (just enough to ease in the sleeve) and not show along the seam, or can be much fuller, such as for a puffy sleeve or a skirt. The permanent stitch is placed right on top of the inside gathering stitch. 2.7 DART ALLOWANCE: A dart is used to shape a flat piece of fabric to fit bust, waist, hip or elbow curves. There are two types of darts. A single-pointed dart is wide at one end and pointed at the other. A shaped dart has points at both ends. It is usually used at the waistline, with the points extending to the bust and hips. Besides providing a closer fit, darts are also used to create special designer touches and unique styles. Perfect darts are straight and smooth, not puckered at the ends. 2.8 PLEAT ALLOWANCE: Pleat is a fold in fabric that is either inverted or folded outward is not sewn accepts on top edge (as in a skirts waistband), provides decorative or functional fullness. Pleating is folding and pressing fabric at regular intervals to control large amounts of fabric. Pleats control a minimum of double the amount of needed fabric and some times as much as four to five times the amount. Pleats may be pressed down the entire length of the garment, or they may be released just inside the seam allowance. This is done by simply not pressing the pleat into the fabric except in the seam allowance. All pleats are made by folding the fabric over on itself or by attaching a separate piece of the underside of the pleat. The second method is used to accommodate small pieces of fabric or when the inside of the pleat is a different fabric, such as cheerleading skirts. All pleats have four parts, and there are several kinds of pleating common to costume shops. 2.9 SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE: Natural fibers are likely to shrink slightly over the first few washes. Because of this we include a shrinkage allowance when we produce our patterns. Before drafting a Pattern, a swatch of the selected fabric is prewashed to determine its shrinkage ratio and on its basis shrinkage allowance is determined or otherwise whole of the fabric is pre-shrieked.
3. PATTERN SYMBOLS: Picking up a pattern piece can be like trying to read

a foreign language. There are many basic rules of thumb on pattern symbols. They may vary slightly from company to company but most are universal. Always refer to the manufacturers pattern directions. 3.1 SYMBOL KEY: On almost every commercial pattern, there is a key to the symbols that are on your pattern pieces. This should be found either on pattern tissue or on the direction sheet. Refer to it when ever you are in doubt. This symbol key will vary by company and may change over time, to prevent costly errors, do a quick refresher every time you open a pattern.
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3.2 PATTERN ADJUSTMENT LINES: These are lines included on the pattern piece for lengthening and shortening the pattern piece. Always refer to the pattern directions to alter in these locations.
3.3 GRAIN LINES: These are lines included on the pattern piece to make sure you cut the fabric out on the proper grain line for the way the garment is intended to hang. When measuring from the salvage edge measure more then one area of the line. A 1/4" difference from one end of the line to the other, magnifies it self in the finished garment. If you are teaching someone to sew, it is a good idea to extend this line and allow them to measure the difference from the salvage edge.
3.4 PLACE ON FOLD LINE: This line indicates that the edge of the pattern piece must be placed on a fold of fabric. The edge of the pattern piece is usually indicated as a broken line, to remind you not to cut on that edge. If you cut this edge, there is no seam allowance and trying to join these will change the way the pattern fits, as well as how other pieces will join to this piece.
3.5 CUTTING LINES: These are usually a solid black line on the outer edge of the pattern piece. Some pattern companies do not include a seam allowance on the edge of your pattern pieces. Be sure to check the directions to make sure it is included. On multi sized patterns there will be more then one cutting line in many areas of the piece. If you are going to use the pattern again for a different size, it is wise to trace the pattern piece and save the original.
3.6 NOTCHES: Notches are used to line up two or more pieces of fabric that you will be joining together. Notches are symbolized in various sizes, from single to quadruple. Larger notches always refer to the back side of the garment, which help keep fronts and backs straight in your mind and prevent mistakes. Notches can be cut into the seam allowance, however when working with beginners it is advisable to have them cut the notch outside of the seam allowance as demonstrated by the red lines in the diagram. 3.7 STITCHING LINES: Not all pattern pieces include stitching lines. When they are included they are a broken line, indicating the areas that will be stitched together. These are a guide so you can see where a line of
251
stitching intersects and where you will not be stitching. It is not recommended that you mark every stitching line on to your garment. This would result in excess handling of your fabric. 3.8 DOTS: Dots are made in various sizes by the pattern companies. These must be marked onto your fabric. They indicate starting and stopping points for stitching, as well as points to match up markings for things like darts. When you are working with multi sized patterns, be sure you transfer the marking for size you are working with.
4. BASIC BLOCKS
4.1 BLOCK PATTERNS: A block is a foundation pattern constructed to fit a specific figure. A block can be drafted to fit an individual figure using personal measurements. In the clothing industry the blocks are constructed to the standard (average) measurements for specific group of men e.g. young men, regular sized men, tall men and size charts of these groups are based on the relationship of different measurements (e.g. chest to seat) of an average man in a particular group. The block is constructed to a set of standard measurements for a particular size. It is used as a basis for interpreting a design and producing a finished pattern. The design shape may change dramatically but the basic fit of the pattern will conform to the size of the basic block. 4.2 BLOCKS: The type of pattern cutting which is used here is known as Flat Pattern Cutting or Flat Pattern Drafting. It is a method of obtaining patterns by working from the measurements of the figure according to a set of instructions and drawing a shape on paper or card. The alternative is to work directly on a dress stand, either using a cheap fabric such as calico or muslin which is then used as a pattern to cut the fabric, or using the fabric itself. This system is known as modeling and although it is the only suitable method for draped styles (as it enables the exact position and amount of fullness to be controlled) it would be very expensive and timeconsuming to make every pattern by modeling. There are two stages is pattern drafting (The making of a set of five basic patterns known as block patterns or block) and (The adaptation of the blocks to the style required). The five blocks are Front Bodice; Back Bodice; Sleeves; Front Skirt; and Back Skirt. The advantage of cutting from blocks is that: 1. The blocks provide a permanents record of the correct fit while dart movements, additional seams, fullness, etc., are planned on them. 2. Cutting form blocks has added advantage of being quicker than any system. 3. The method of using the same set of blocks to adapt to any style shows that all styles, no matter how different they may appear, must be related since they are all developed from the same basic shape and will thus fit the same figure. It therefore follows that unless the fit of the blocks is perfect, no pattern cut from them will fit well, and it is worth spending time on making up your set blocks in calico to check the fit. Any adjustments needed must first be made in the fabric and
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the transferred to the blocks. From then on, the cutter may have complete confidence in adapting the revised blocks to any styles, knowing that any pattern developed from the blocks will have the same good fit. Having checked the fit of the blocks, it is advisable to make a set of blocks in card board as they may then be outlined quickly and will be better able to stand up to frequent use. Plastic coated card is preferable as it does not wear at the edges. Blocks are always made without seam allowances as they are then very mush easier to adapt and the seam allowances may be added to the final pattern, if required. All the patterns shown in the diagrams are without seam allowances for the sake of simplicity. The block instructions which follow are simple to draft due to the logical sequence of work. The construction lines, which are drawn first, help to show the relation between the block and the figure, which is very important. It is therefore essential that the construction line (bust line, front and back width lines, hip line etc.) are transferred when the block is outlined to make a pattern. The back bodice block has two darts one at the waist and one at the shoulder (to provide room for the shoulder blades). The front bodice block has only one dart, at the waist. Many blocks have a shoulder dart instead, or a shoulder and a waist dart, but the single waist dart most clearly illustrates the reason why a dart is needed in the front bodice, i.e. because the dart is formed of the difference between the bust and waist measurements. This difference is known as the waist suppression. It also clearly shows that the greater the difference, the wider the dart needs to be. The waist suppression must be distributed around the figure to avoid creasing caused by over-shaping in one area and a loose fit in another area. The side seam can only take a small amount of suppression before it begins to crease but a further amount may be taken at the back, below the shoulder blades, thus the back block has a dart in that position. However it is obvious that, for the female figure, most of the suppression needs to be at the front, hence large dart in front bodice block. The reason underlying the shape of the bodice blocks can further be demonstrated by making a plain bodice by modeling fabric directly on a dress stand. It will be found that the fabric cannot be fitted over the front of stand without fullness appearing somewhere around the edge of the fabric. If it is first pinned along the C/F and over the shoulder area, and then smoothed along the Under Arm Seam, the fullness will be concentrated at the waist and will fall under the bust point. This is position in which it is shown on the block. Pinning a piece of fabric over the back of stand will produce similar results, with fullness concentrated beneath the shoulder blades. This shows results produced by an accurate system of pattern drafting are identical to those produced by modeling. The sleeve block is completely straight at the side and this shape was chosen because it is much easier to adapt than a block which tapers at the side. The Skirt Blocks are vary slightly flared at the side, but this is the minimum recommended hem width since a skirt which is completely straight at the sides will appears to taper inwards. Blocks are not intended to be used as pattern i.e. for cutting out fabric, without being adapted and are not suitable for use without adaptation for several reasons. For instance, the front dart on the bodice block extends to the bust point (to ensure that a dart drawn in any position will always point towards the bust point)but the bust dart on pattern must always be shortened 1 2 (2.5cm -5.0cm). Also the dart in the front bodice block is very wide since it contains most of the waist suppression, but it would not be practical to make a dress with such a large dart as it would badly distort the grain of the fabric. Two smaller darts give a much better fit when a tightly fitted bodice is required. 253
4.3 DRAFTING THE BLOCKS: All bust, waist and hip measurements referred to are net i.e. without case. All horizontal construction lines must be parallel to each other and at right angles too all vertical lines. Bodies and skirt blocks are always drafted with the C/B on the left hand side and the C/F on the Right hand Side, and similarly the sleeve is drafted with the back on the left hand side of the center line and the front on the right hand side. The complete set of blocks therefore fits the right hand side of the figure. The only reason is that the majority of blocks are set out in this way and it is therefore easier to understand other blocks and to compare them. All commercial patterns are arranged in this way. All the curves which are drawn during the drafting on the blocks should be regarded as provisional and must be corrected after the blocks have been completed by placing corresponding edges together and checking that the curves are smooth and continuous across the seams. For instance, on the bodice blocks, place the shoulder seams together to check the curves of neckline and A/H, place the side seams together to check the curves of A/H and waist. On the skirt blocks place side seam together, first at the waist to check the curve of the waist line, then at the hem to check the hem line curve. Place the sleeve seams together to check the curve of S/H and waist. Sine the block represent only half of the front or back, all lines which join to the E/F or C/B must join at right angles to ensure that the line is continuous when the complete section is opened out. Before drafting blocks to yours own measurements, practice drafting them in stock sizes so that the Shape and proportions may be compared. This provides a valuable lesson in the appreciation of line and proportion, which is so important in good pattern cutting. Also practice drawing smoothly curved lines as it is vital that the curved lines on pattern are drawn smoothly with gradual, never abrupt, changes of direction, and that curves are joined very smoothly into straight lines. Patterns may be drafted using tailors chalk instead of pencil and many people find it easier to draw a good line with the edge of a piece of chalk. 4.4 PAPER PATTERNS & SIZE SPECIFICATION: As Garment Merchandisers, we do not necessarily need to know how to make patterns or to create size specifications. However, the knowledge to analyze them and to detect mistakes or something important being missing is of great importance. Size specifications which we usually call "size spec" are normally given by the buyer who may copy them from another buyer or he may have a pattern maker that creates them. When we receive a size spec from a buyer, we should not take the attitude that it is perfect and complete, and that even if it is wrong, it is his responsibility, not ours. We should consider ourselves a partner of the buyer in the business. When there is a mistake in the product, it will somehow come back to hurt us. When we first receive a size spec, we should look it over carefully to judge if something important is missing, or if we find something there which will cause trouble. If we find things like that we should bring them to the buyers attention with your suggestions. After you have taken care of them, you should give the spec to the factory for making samples. When we give it to the factory to make samples, we sometimes may still hear from the factory's pattern maker that something is still wrong about the spec. If you hear this, we must study what he says. Usually a good pattern maker knows what is right and what is wrong. Only inexperienced or irresponsible pattern makers will blindly follow it without thinking. After you have studied the size spec and listened to the pattern maker's explanation, if you agree there is something wrong with the spec, you should make your point again to the buyer, to work out some improvements on the size spec. The buyer should appreciate your carefulness and constructive suggestions to improve his merchandise. Following are some common errors or oversights which may lead to bad mistakes in final product.
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(1) MISSING THE WAIST MEASUREMENT: On the size spec of a shirt or a blouse, it is not uncommon that the size spec you receive does not have the waist measurement. The buyer may just give you the chest and sweep measurements. Do not give the spec like that to the factory for sample making or for production. If you do, the following may happen: Some makers may make the waist 44" thinking for a, normal person, the waist measurement should be 4" smaller than the chest; some may make the waist 45" thinking the waist being 3" smaller than the chest is normal. (For your information, the above thinking is not wrong.) However, some pattern maker may make the waist 48 same as the chest and sweep. Therefore in the end, by using the same size spec you may get the following different products and you cannot complain (Some with the waist 4" smaller than the chest), (Some with the waist 3" smaller than the chest), and (Some with the waist same size as the chest). As a merchandiser, you may not even know what waist measurements you have on the shirts or blouses until the buyer complains to you because you or your merchandise inspectors may not even measure the waist during the inspection since measurement is not on the size spec. As a good merchandiser, you should notice that the waist measurement is missing when you receive the spec. and work out with buyer to complete it to avoid possible confusion. (2) MISSING THE CHEST POCKET POSITION: On a size spec of a shirt or a blouse it is not uncommon that the size spec you receive does not have the chest pocket position. If you pass such spec to the maker for production, you may end up with the pocket positioned too high or too low on the finished product and you cannot blame the maker or hold him responsible, Please understand your position as follows: If the chest pocket position is obviously too high the buyer has the right to say it is a mistake and may complain or even reject the goods. The fact that he did not mention the pocket position in the size spec does not allow you to put the pocket anywhere you want. You are supposed to go by common sense and now the pocket is so high (or so low) that it does not make sense. Therefore he has the right to reject the goods if he wants to. Now, as far as the maker is concerned, if you want to hold him responsible or reject the goods, he, can rightfully argue with you pointing it out to you that on your size spec there is no mention of the chest pocket position, When there is no mention of the pocket position you cannot say the pocket is too high or too low. If you say by common sense it is too high he may say to please translate the common sense into measurements to be specific. You obviously can not win the argument. The buyers may not always give you specific complete details which are needed in the garment production. If you do not block the loopholes, you may get hurt due to the ambiguity. In a case like the above, you should contact the buyer with your suggestion for his approval. The way to work out the pocket position for a men's basic shirt is as follows: You draw a straight line from armpit to armpit and place the pocket 1 1/4 above this line for all sizes and then measure the distance from the shoulder high point to the top of the pocket. You will see that the distance varies on the different size shirts. The various distances are the sizes to be added to the spec. The pocket position so worked out will make sense as the chest pocket position has a direct relationship with the armpit. However, when the pocket is longer than normal, you may have to adjust the 11/4" above the armpit line to 1 1/2 or the pocket is a short one, adjust it to 1". You will not go wrong when you use this rule of thumb. 255
(3) SHIRT / BLOUSE COLLAR: In many, cases the buyer may give you 3 measurements to control the size and shape of the collar o.e. (Collar length; Back neck width; and Neck drop). As you can easily understand that the most important measurement is the collar length which is for the circumference of the person's neck. The back neck and the neck drop sizes are to control the shape of the collar. Unfortunately, in many cases when the buyer gives you the back neck and the neck drop measurements, they do not form the circumference of the neck as specified, e.g. measurements given are: Collar length: Back neck width: Neck drop: 15 1/2 6 5
But; if you make the back neck 6", neck drop 5" your collar length is 17 3/4, not 15 1/2. Obviously the buyer wants to control the shape of the collar but he may have overlooked the fact that the back neck width and neck drop must conform to the circumference specified. In a case like this, you have 4 choices and 3 of them are wrong: (A). Keep the 6" back neck and the 5" neck drop. Disregard the 15 1/2" collar length. However, this choice is very wrong because collar length is the most important measurement of the 3 which yon must keep. (B). Keep the 6 back neck and the 15 collar length but disregard the 5 neck drop. This choice is also wrong as the shape of the collar will look ugly. (C). Keep the 5" neck drop and the 15 collar length but disregard the 6" back neck. This choice is wrong too because collar shape will also look ugly. (D). Keep the 15 collar length but disregard both the back neck and the neck drop and make the shape yourself into a normal shape. This is the right choice. You may tell your buyer what you are doing. If you wish to be specific, you may draw up a sketch and measure the back neck and neck drop to complete the size spec as follows: Example: Draw up a sketch in full scale to measure. Collar lengths required: S M L XL = = = = 14 15 16 17
(4) When the buyer tells you to increase the chest measurement on a shirt he may forget to tell you to increase the waist, the sweep and the shoulder which are related to the chest. If you increase the chest by 2" you should consider increasing the other related measurements as follows to keep the shape of the garment: Shoulder +1 Chest +2 Waist +2 Sweep +2 (5) When you change the armhole of a shirt you should consider changing the "muscle" also. (6) When the buyer wants to increase the knee on a pant, you should consider increasing the thigh or perhaps the leg opening also.
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JACKET PATTERN MEASUREMENTS

a c e g i k m o q Sleeve Length with cuff / Inc / cuff Flap height Yoke forward Flap height from side Yoke length from back Back centre panel width Bottom Cuff height Chest 1 Below b d f h j l n p Flap width Collar Spread Arm hole diagonal / Straight Sleeve length with out cuff Back centre panel length Garment length from H.P.S Waist band height Across front
Front JACKET PANALS
Back
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JACKET PATTERN MEASUREMENTS Pant No. 1

a c e g j k a c e g I Waist Thigh Bottom In seam from J stitch Back rise In seam Back Pocket length from centre Yoke length from side Ticket pocket from waist band Yoke height from centre Back pocket side length b d f h j Seat line hip Knee Side length Front rise Hip point height
Pant No. 2
b Back Pocket width from up d scoop pocket opening from side f Ticket pocket from side length Back Pocket width from bottom.
PANT NO. 1
PANT NO. 2
Pocket Bag
Facing
Ticket Pocket
Back Pocket
Front Panel
Loops
Double Fly
Single Fly
Waist Belt 258
Yoke
Back Pannal
INDUSTRIAL SEWING
Garments are shaped and formed in three ways: materials molded to a form, fabric pieces cut to shape and assembled by bonding, and pieces cut to shape and sewn. The first two methods are used to a limited degree. Sewing garment pieces together with thread formed into stitches and seams is the most used method at this time. In the future more garments may be assembled with seam alternatives, such as adhesives, fusing, spot welding, or molding, but for the present time, thread and stitches are the primary means of garment assembly. A stitch, which is the elementary basis of sewing, can be formed without fabric, within fabric, or on fabric. For the purpose of standardization of stitch and seam formations, the US government developed a guide that defines stitches and seams in current use. The United States Federal Stitch and Seam Specifications (Federal Standard 751a) were adopted in 1965 and revised in 1983. These specifications have been recognized but not adopted worldwide. They are used by sewing machine manufacturers, apparel manufacturers to classify stitches, seams and stitching made by sewing machines. The British Standard BS 3870: schedule of stitches, seams and stitching was also developed about the same time and defined stitches and seams in a manner similar to the US Standard. The main difference is that BS 3870 identifies two additional classes of seams that are included in the US Standard as lapped seams. A STITCH: As per Federal Standard 751a, one unit of conformation of thread resulting from repeatedly passes a strand or strands and / or a loop or loops of thread into or through a material at uniformly spaced intervals to form a series of stitches. A SEAM: As per Federal Standard 751a, a seam is a joint consisting of a sequence of stitches uniting two or more pieces of material(s) and used for assembling parts in production of sewn items. SEWING: As per Federal Standard 751a, sewing consists of a sequence of stitches for finishing an edge or for ornamental purposes or both in preparing parts for assembling. STITCHES: Stitch classification is based on structure of the stitch and method of formation. Stitch properties such as size, balance, and consistency determine stitch quality, performance, and appropriateness for end use. Stitch quality needs to be good enough to satisfy the consumers desire for performance and esthetics.
1. SEAMS PROPERTIES: Objectives of sewing, is the construction of seams

that combines the required standards of appearance and performance with an appropriate level of economy in production. Good appearance in a seam normally means smooth fabric joins with no missed or un-even stitches and no damage to the material being sewn. Alternatively it may mean regular gathering to create a style feature or a varying but controlled amount of ease to ensure a good fit to the body. In other cases, fabric may be stretched deliberately to achieve an effect but the amount should still be pre-determined and controlled. With the wide varieties of fabric types and fabric constructions available, good seam appearance during manufacturing demands varying techniques. Once it has been achieved, it must be maintained throughout the design life time of the garment, despite the additional problems that arise during wearing, washing and dry cleaning processes.
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Performance of seams means the achievement of strength, elasticity, durability, security and comfort, and the maintenance of any specialized fabric properties such as waterproofing, or flame proofing. Seams must be as strong as the fabric, in directions both parallel to and at right angles to the seam. They must also stretch and recover with the fabric. Stretch fabrics are increasingly being used in garments, both low level comfort stretch as used in stretch corduroy or denim where the amount of stretch may be up to about 30%, and high level action stretch for swimwear and dancewear where 100% or more is normal. Such level of stretching places very heavy demands on seaming. Seams must also be durable to the kind of abrasion experienced in wearing and washing as well as security against fraying apart or the unraveling of stitches. A seam in a close fitting or underwear garment must not present an uncomfortable ridge or roughness to the skin. A fabric used for a childs night dress, which must by law conform to specified flammability requirements , must be constructed with sewing threads that will not propagate a flame along the seam. Finally, seam performance as well as seam appearance can be spoilt by the fact that damage may occur to the fabric along the stitch line.
2. SEAM DIMENSIONS:
2.1 Seam Length is the total distance covered by a continuous series of stitches, such as a side seam or shoulder seam. It is determined by garment design and size. Exact measurements of seam length are used to costing, calculating thread usage, writing specifications, and monitoring quality standards. Seam length can be a factor in determining stitch type, seam type, and handling procedures. Long seams are often sewn of chain stitch and Overedge machines that have high RPMS, but quality and performance standards for each product will ultimately determine the stitch type to be used. Garments with long seams require frequent repositioning of fabric plies by the operator to keep seam allowances even. 2.2 Seam Width considerations are width of a seam allowance, the seam heading of a lapped or top stitched seam, and the width of a line of stitches relative to the seam. A seam allowance is measured from the cut edge of fabric to the main line of stitches. This is the amount of fabric that extends beyond the actual seam line. Width of seam allowance is often a factor in judging garment quality, reducing yarn slippage, and providing fabric for alterations. Wider seam allowances may increase costs because of the fabric they require. They may also need to be serged before seaming to prevent raveling. A seam heading is the distance from the folded edge of the top ply to the first line of stitches. On a patch pocket, the seam heading would be the distance between the stitches and the folded edge of the pocket. A header reduces the strain on the cut edge of fabric and makes the seam stronger. The width of the stitches relative to the seam varies with stitch type, lateral movement of the needle bar and spreader, or the number of needles used. The wider the line of stitches, the more holding power and strength the stitches have, the stronger the seam is. Seam width is the distance between the outer most lines of stitches as determined by the space between the needles on the needle bar. This is also referred to a gauge. Gauge for a two needle cover stitch may be , 3/16, and so on. Machines can be ordered with different gauges, but it is not an adjustment that can be made. 2.3 Stitch depth is the thickness or compressibility (flatness) of seam, both of which are major factors in appearance and comfort of a garment. Seam depth is affected by fabric weight, fabrication, and selection of seam type, e.g. seams of overlapping layers may be thicker and bulkier but more durable than pressed open seams.
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3. SEAM TYPE: The choice of seam type is determined by aesthetic standards,

strength, durability, comfort in wear, convenience in assembly in relation to the machinery availability, and cost. BS 3870: Part 2: 1991, allows for eight different classes to seam, including some where only one piece of fabric is involved. Examples are the hem of a garment folded up on it and a raw edge has been neatened by means of stitches. This alters the traditional concept of a seam as a joint between fabrics. The British Stranded divides stitched seams into eight classes according to the minimum number of parts that make up the seam. These parts can be the main fabrics of the garment or some additional item such as lace, braid or elastic. 3.1 SUPERIMPOSED SEAMS (SS) CLASS-1: This is formed by joining two or more pieces of fabric, usually with seam allowance edges even and one piece superimposed over the second. This class is probably the most widely used although not the largest with 57 different seam types. These seams can be sewn with a lock stitch, chain stitch, Overedge stitch, or safety stitch. Superimposed seams include the plain booked seam, which may be busted (pressed open and flat) and the safety stitch seams (516), which cannot be busted. Either of these could be used for side seams of dress slacks, skirts, blouses, and so on. 3.2 LAPPED SEAMS (LS) CLASS-2: Two or more pieces of fabric joined by overlapping at the needle. This is the largest seam class including 101 different seam types, with a great deal of variety as to where a seam is lapped and how it is lapped. These seams are used for attaching front bands to shirts, setting pockets, side seams of quality dress shirts, side seams or inseams of jeans, and so on. Lapped seams may be sewn with a lock stitch or chain stitch but not on Overedge stitch. 3.3 BOUND SEAMS (BS) CLASS-3: This requires separate pieces of fabrics that encompass the edge of one or more pieces of the garment. There are only eighteen seam types in this class. These seams are used to finish plain necklines, edges of short sleeves on some styles of t-shirts, and so on. Bound seams may be sewn with a lock stitch, chain stitch, or cover stitch. They would never be sewn with an Overedge stitch as the knife would cut off the binding. 3.4 FLAT SEAMS (FS) CLASS-4: This class is the smallest class with only six different types. The formation of this seam occurs with the butting together of two pieces of fabric, but not overlapping them. The stitches extend across the seam, holding both pieces together and covering the seam on one or both sides. Flat seams are constructed to remain flat through care and wear. They are commonly used for seams of sweatshirts, lingerie, and long underwear. 3.5 ORNAMENTAL SEAMS (OS) CLASS-5: The stitching is formed on a single piece of fabric. The fabric may be folded in a variety of ways so the stitching may be through more than one thickness, but it remains a single piece of fabric. It may be used on a single ply for decorative purpose. It can be done anywhere on the garment except the edge. The decorative stitching may be used on jean pockets, embroidered logos, and pin tucks. 3.6 EDGE FINISHING (EF) CLASS-6: The stitching is formed on a single piece of fabric. The fabric may be folded in a variety of ways so the stitching may be through more than one thickness, but it remains a single piece of fabric. It is stitching that encompasses the cut edge or provides a finish for a single ply of fabric with a folded edge configuration. Stitches from any of the classes may be used depending on the type of fold and placement of the stitching.
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3.7 SEAM CLASS-7: Seams in this class relate to the addition of separate items to the edge of a garment part. They are similar to the lapped seam except that the added component has a definite edge on both sides. Example would be a band of lace attached to the lower edge of a slip or inserted elastic on the leg of a swimsuit. 3.8 SEAM CLASS-8: In this class only one piece of material need be involved in constructing the seam. The commonest seam type in this class is the belt loop as used on jeans, raincoats, etc. NOTATION SS SSa SSb SSc SSd SSe LS LSa LSb LSc LSd LSe BS BSa BSb BSc BSd BSe FS FSa FSb FSc FSd FSe EF EFa EFb EFc EFd EFe OS OSa OSb OSc OSd OSe SEAM TYPE AND COMMON USES Superimposed Seams Side seams of skirts, dress slacks, inseams of jeans Finishing belt ends, attaching elastic to waistline Ends of waistbands on jeans Seaming, but not widely used Collars or cuffs, seamed and top stitched Lapped Seams Vinyl and leathers Attaching curtain to waistband of mens dress slacks Side seams of dress shirts and jeans Attaching patch pockets and overlay yokes, sewing on labels Attaching yokes Bound Seams Edges bound with ribbon or braid T-Shirt necklines or sleeve edges with knot trim Neckline or front edges bound with bias-woven material Seaming and binding Seaming and binding Flat Seams Raglan seams of sweatshirts Sweatshirts and underwear Seams of support garments Sweatshirts and underwear Sweatshirts and underwear Edge Finishing seams Single fold hem Double fold hem T-Shirt hem Edge finish, serging Ornamental edge finish Ornamental Stitch Seams Decorative Stitching on jean Pockets Decorative stitching with cording insert Raised stitching without cording insert for backs of gloves Raised stitching, cording between two plies of material Pin tucks on front of blouse.
4. STITCH PROPERTIES: Properties of stitches that relate to aesthetics and

performance are size, tension, and consistency. Stitch Size has three dimensions: Length, Width, and Depth. Each may affect the aesthetic appearance, durability and cost of garment. Stitch Length is specified as the number of stitches per inch (SPI) 262
and can be an indicator of quality. Stitch length is determined by the amount of fabric that is involved under the needle between penetrations. High SPI means short stitches: low SPI means long stitches. Long stitches are usually durable and may be considered lower quality because they are more subject to abrasion and likely to snag. Mens dress shirts with 22 SPI are considered higher quality than a similar shirt made with 8 SPI. Shorter stitches produce more subtle, less obvious lines of stitches that are often more visually appealing. Generally, the greater the SPI, the greater the holding power and seam strength. A high stitch count also has potential to increase seam pucker or weaken the fabric. Attributes must be weighted in determining the stitch length best suited to the materials and product. 4.1 STITCH LENGTH: It is also related to the speed of sewing. Each stitch requires one revolution of the stitch-forming mechanism of a sewing machine, and each machine type has a different capacity for speed or revolutions per minute. A seam sewn with 8 SPI could be sewn nearly three times as fast as one requiring 22 SPI if maximum speed was maintained. The more SPI required, the more time and thread required to sew a seam: thus, costs of production are increased. 4.2 STITCH WIDTH: Stitch width and depth need to be specified for certain classes of stitches. Overedge, zigzag, and cover stitches are examples of stitches that have width dimensions. Stitch width refers to the horizontal span (bight) covered in the formation of one stitch or single line of stitching. Stitches that have width dimensions require multiple needles or lateral movement of the thread carriers such as the needle bars, loopers, or spreaders. 4.3 STITCH DEPTH: Stitch depth is the distance between the upper and lower surface of the stitch, e.g. the depth of a blind stitch determines the amount of penetration by a curved needle. Stitch depth should be sufficient to catch all fabric plies, yet not deep enough to show through on face of fabric. 4.4 THREAD TENSION: It affects stitch formation in two ways. Tread tension involves the balance of force on the threads that form the stitch and the degree of compression on the fabric created by the threads as a stitch is formed. Tension ensures a uniform supply of thread and determines how well stitches conform to the standard formation. Tension is controlled by adjusting a screw that holds the pressure disks. If too much tension is placed on the thread, not enough thread is allowed to form the stitch and the thread will restrict and compress the fabric that it surrounds. A tight thread will also draw a looser thread over the edge of a seam allowance, which causes an unbalanced stitch. Thus, too much tension causes seam pucker, uneven stitches, unbalanced stitches, weakened thread, and damaged fabric. Too little tension may allow too much thread to be pulled off and cause excessive looping or loose and skipped stitches. Stitches formed with too little tension will not hold fabric together under stress. Each thread used in forming the stitch must have some tension in order for the stitch to form properly, but it is usually better to use the least amount of tension possible. 4.5 STITCH CONSISTENCY: It is the uniformity with which each stitch is formed in a row of stitches. Each stitch should be exactly like the previous stitch regardless of curves, corners, or varying thickness of the fabric. There must be a compatibility of fabric, stitch and seam type, needle, thread, and machine settings. Proper machine maintenance is also a major factor in achieving consistency. If the fabric resists the needle or the machine timing is off, stitches will not form correctly making stitches appear uneven or irregular.
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5. STITCH CLASSES: Stitch classes, as described in Federal Standard 751a,

are based on type of thread formation created by a sewing machine. Sewing machines are classified according to their intended use and the means of forming stitches. Stitch classes are specific to the type of machine that is used and the mechanism for controlling the lower thread. For example, Lock stitch machines require a bobbin and a bobbin case with a rotating hook as part of the stitch forming mechanism, while chain stitch and Overedge machines use loopers and spreaders to form the stitches. Machines in each class may have the capability of producing several different types of stitches depending on the machines structure and how it is set and threaded. A lock stitch machine (300 Class) built with a needle bar that moves laterally can produce the basic lock stitch (301) as well as stitches with a zigzag appearance, 304 and 308. There are many different stitch types, but only a few are versatile stitches. Many stitch types are specific to certain sewing operations and product lines. All the stitches being used now a days has been dived into six main classes. These are: Stitch Class No.100 called Chain Stitches, Stitch Class No. 200 are stitches originating as hand stitches, Stitch Class No. 300 are called Lock Stitches, Stitch Class No. 400 are called Multi Thread Chain Stitches, Stitch Class No. 500 are called Overedge Chain Stitches, and Stitch Class No.600 are called Covering Chain Stitches. 5.1 CHAIN STITCHES CLASS 100: the stitch types in this class are formed from one or more needle threads, and are characterized by intra-looping. One or more loops of thread are passed through the material and secured by intra-looping with a succeeding loop or loops after they are passed through the material. Since each loop is in this way dependent on the succeeding one, stitches in this class are insecure and if the finishing end of thread is not passed through the last loop or separately through the fabric, or if a stitch is broken, it unravels very easily. Simplest of all stitch types is 101, formed from a single thread. Because of its insecurity, it can be removed easily, and it is used for basting operations using a white, soft cotton thread. It can only be used where the marks of needle penetration close up afterwards in pressing. A basting operation, in positions each as edges, flaps, collars and so on, is a temporary stitch, allowing accurate placement of permanent stitching. It is too insecure to be used for seams involving the joining of fabrics but it is widely used in multi-needle machines. A range of decorative effects can be achieved using some or all of a bank of closely spaced needles, which may number as many as sixty five. An additional device can be used to lay embroidery threads back and forward on the surface of the fabric under the needle threads in a variety of patterns to create further decoration. If classic thread is used in the needles and sewn into the fabric in a stretched state, it then relaxes and draws the fabric in, enabling garment features such as elasticated waists and cuffs to be created. This stitch type is particularly useful in this case as any other stitch which could cope with elastic thread would not use as much and would not enable as much stretch to be included. This stitch type cannot be chained-off, i.e. sewn without fabric, nor can the stitching be brought to a halt and the needles removed from the fabric in the middle of a garment part. In the construction of a garment, it is necessary to start and finish at a fabric edge, and that edge may need to be a small piece of temporary fabric held to the garment edge by the stitches. The fabric edges must then be joined securely through the ends of the chain stitching in order to prevent the stitches running back. Another common use of class 100 stitches is in the special sewing process of button sewing; button holing and blind hemming or felling. The y use the zigzag version and the machines are fast and require no bobbin, but their use generates a high level of consumer dissatisfaction as the stitching, especially on buttons, often does not last the 264
lifetime of the garment. Careful machine adjustment, along with a small thread tail left at the end is necessary for maximum security. The blind stitch version, 103 utilizes a curved needle in order to successively penetrate partially into the fabric, and then into the hem edge, while showing minimally or not at all on the right side of the garment. If required, the machine can be set to skip stitch that is to pick up the fabric on alternate stitches only. This renders it even less visible. Again, the level of insecurity is often high but can be improved by the use of slightly hairy rather than smooth sewing threads. Machines are available which condense a few stitches at the beginning and end of the seam, though such rubback only occurs from the finishing end it is not really necessary at the beginning. Careful machine adjustment is necessary with all these single thread chain stitches if the garments carrying them are to survive normal wear and tear. 5.2 HAND STITCHES CLASS 200: The stitch types in this class originated as hand stitches and are characterized by a single thread passed through the material as a single line of thread, the stitch is secured by the single line of thread passing in and out of the material. Hand stitching is used at the expensive end of garment production because the consumer expects it at that price, the skills are available and it may be the only way to a perfect finish. Occasionally it is the only way to achieve a particular sewn effect though it should be said that if a large enough quantity of a garment style is being made, it is frequently possible to engineer the garment so that everything is done by machine. In some cases, machines have been developed to simulate hand stitching, the best example being stitch type 209 which is used around the outer edges of tailored jackets. This is referred to as pick stitching. A double pointed, centre-eyed needle sews short lengths of thread in a near-perfect simulation of the hand-sewn version. The machine can be set to show a longer stitch on the top than the bottom or vice versa, with instant change-over at the break point of a lapel. Thread ends are trimmed close if the stitch is small or sewn in invisibly by hand. A button sewing version is also available, which both sews the button and wraps the shank. The machines are not fast by lock stitch standards, achieving a maximum of a few hundred stitches per minute, but this is considerably higher than the rate achieved in hand sewing and a consistently high quality standard is guaranteed. 5.3 LOCK STITCHES CLASS 300: The stitch type in this class are formed with two or more groups of threads, and have for a general characteristic the interlacing of the two or more groups. Loops of one group are passed through the material and are secured by the thread or threads of a second group. One group is normally referred to as the needle threads and the other group as bobbin threads. The interlacing of thread in stitches of this class makes them very secure and difficult to unravel. Straight lock stitch, 301, with a single needle thread and a single bobbin thread, is still the commonest stitch used in the clothing industry, especially in small volume manufacturing of a variety of garment types. Lock stitch has enough strength for most purposes, provided that suitable thread is used, and enough stretch, when correctly balanced, for conventional and comfort stretch fabrics stretching up to 30% or even more. It has the same appearance on both sides, an advantage denied to virtually all other stitch types, and of significance in the assembly process of garments, especially where top stitching is required. In its straight stitch version, it is also the only stitch type that reliably forms the stitch when it is necessary to sew round a corner by pausing and pivoting on the needle. This is also important in top stitching as well as in seam joining of facings, Collars, pockets and many similar garment parts. The stitch is 265
secure because the breaking of one stitch in wear will not cause the whole row to unravel; additionally, the end of a line of stitching can be secured by reversing or back tacking. Alternatively, if the back tack lever is deliberately restricted, a group of small or condensed stitches is formed, which secures the end of the stitching without the machine actually sewing in reverse. The thread in a lock stitch generally beds well into the fabric, which improves abrasion resistance. In its single throw, zigzag version, it is commonly used for attaching trimmings such as lace and elastic where a broad row of stitching but no neatening is needed. In its three step zigzag version, it is commonly used to provide a secure but stretchy stitch for the edges of stretch bras and other corsetry. The single and the three step zigzag are also used in two or three parallel rows, in the type of simple lapped seam used for joining the fabric panels in sails. These zigzag stitches perform a very useful function on seams of the type given here but would not give a good appearance on a superimposed seam. Stitch type 306 provides a lock stitch blind stitch. This is more secure than the traditional 103, but close study of the stitch construction will show a straight bobbin thread, which, if caught and broken, can allow sections of stitching to come undone. It also tends to show pucker on fine fabrics. The main disadvantage of the lock stitch is that it uses a bobbin to provide the lower thread and this bobbin can contain only a limited length of that thread. Changing bobbins is time consuming in production, as is the un picking of top stitching when a thread runs out at a point where a join is visually un acceptable. Where garments are sewn with twin or multi-needle machines, especially where complicated fabric folding is involved, the loss of stitching on one row because of one bobbin running out would be a major problem. Multi-needle stitching with many closely spaced needles is not actually possible because of the space that the bobbins would require. Two is the maximum number of needles commonly in use on lock stitch machines. Optical bobbin run-out detectors, which pick up a reflection from a flat side on the centre of an otherwise round bobbin as the last of the thread begins to run out are being used now on some machines as are automatic counters which stops the machine after a predetermined number of cycles that will leave the bobbin or bobbins almost empty. Even a manual count of the number of garments sewn will tell the operator when another complete seam sill not be achieved. On button holing, where restitching is possible provided that the hole has not been cut, the machines normally stop without cutting the hole if the bobbin runs out or the needle thread breaks. The other dis-advantage of lock stitch are its limited stretch for todays high stretch fabrics, and its un-suitability for edge neatening, other than by a simple rolling of the fabric edge or the use of a zigzag, both of which are un-tidy. Thus a wide range of additional stitch types replaces the traditional lock stitch in manufacturing situations which allow it. These are primarily situation where large quantities, perhaps thousands, are made of the same style of garment. Small sections only are sewn by each operator who can then use a sewing machine specially suited to the purpose. To a greater or lesser extent, virtually all stitch types other than 301 are in this category. 5.4 MULTI-THREAD CHAIN STITCHES CLASS 400: The stitch types in this class are formed with two or more groups of threads, and have for a general characteristic the interloping of the two groups. Loops of one group of threads are passed through the material and are secured by interlacing and interloping with loops of another group. One group is normally referred to as the needle threads and other group as the looper threads. 266
The simplest version of this class of stitch is 401. It has the appearance of lock stitch on the top but has a double chain effect formed by a looper thread on the underside. The chain generally lies on the under surface of the material, the needle thread being drawn through to balance the stitch. Stitches in this class are sometimes referred to as double-locked stitches (not to be confused with class 300 lock stitches) because the needle thread is interconnected with two loops of the under thread. Because of the geometry of the stitch, a two thread chain stitch is stronger than a similar lock stitch, and with no threads interlocking within the fabric it is less likely to cause the type of pucker that arises when closely woven fabrics are distorted by the sewing thread. Its great advantage is that both the threads forming the stitch are run from large packages on top of the machine so there are no problems with bobbins running out. It is frequently used on long seems in garments such as trousers. On twin needle folded seams, such as those used on jeans, it is by far the most suitable stitch to use. A bobbin run out in that situation would be disastrous. It will unravel from the finishing end if broken, but less easily than 101, and provided the machine is correctly adjusted, there should be no problem. If not sewn across at the end in the course of the garments construction, 1 cm of thread chain should be left. It does not back tack well but the stitches can be condensed. When adjusted normally, the stretch with this stitch is about the same as with lock stitch, but if a small amount of seam grin is acceptable, the thread tensions can be loosened and a small increase in stretch obtained. Lower thread tension are normally used with these machines, compared with lock stitch, and this enables higher machine speeds to be used with less chance of thread breakage. Typical maximum speeds for lock stitch would be 6000 stitches per minute (SPM) whereas with two thread chain stitch 8000 SPM can be achieved. It should be remembered that these are theoretical maxima, and although the machines will run at these speeds, practical garment making situations rarely allow it. Limitations of seam length and the requirements of operator handling often cause machines to be set to run at lower speeds. Acceleration and braking are often more important than top speed. Stitch type 401 is often used in combination with an Overedge stitch for economy of seam joining and neatening in bulk production. Another increasingly used stitch in this class is 406, which uses two needles and has a longer thread, covering the fabric between them on the underside. It is used for attaching lace and braid trimmings to garments where the edge of the fabric must be neatened, and also for turning up hems where stitching showing on the right side is acceptable. In each case, the raw edge of the fabric can be contained under the cover stitching. Both 406 and the three needle version 407 are used for attaching elastic edging to briefs where, in order to achieve a comfortable edge to the garment, a broad band of stitching is needed. Alternatively, a decorative effect can be achieved by folding an edge of garment and attaching a plane elastic braid by means of the three step zigzag 411, sewn with the chain showing on the right side of the garment and a contrast thread in the looper. In situations where elastic is attached to garments, the elastic is stretched by a preset amount whilst being sewn to the fabric, and on relaxation draws the garment part in to the correct measurement. The straight or zigzag version of 401 can be chained off the edge of the fabric and further decorative effects can be created by this means. If 401 is sewn along a garment edge that has previously been neatened or hemmed in some way, and it is sewn with the chain effect to the right side of the garment, an effect similar to a crocheted picot edge can be achieved with a twin needle version of the same stitch, sewn with the needle moving in opposition, an open work join between two folded edges of fabric can be achieved. 267
5.5 OVEREDGE CHAIN STITCHES CLASS 500: The stitch types in this class are formed with one or more groups of threads, and have as a general characteristic loops from at least one group of threads passing around the edge of the material. The most frequently use of these stitch types have one or two needle threads and one or two looper threads, and they form a narrow band of stitching along the edge of the fabric with threads intersecting at the edge and preventing the fabric from frying. All have high elasticity, they do not unravel easily, and a trimming knife on the machine ensures a neat edge prior to sewing. This knife can also allow excessive amounts to be trimmed off, thus altering the dimensions of the garment. These stitches are commonly referred to as over locking, although the term derives from a trade mark and is only really correct when used in relation to a particular machine. The correct term is over edging. Stitch type 504 is formed from one needle thread and two looper threads, and is used for neatening edges and, in knitted fabrics, for joining seams. It has excellent stretch and recovery properties when sewn with suitable threads, but its narrow bight (distance from needle to fabric edge), typically 3 to 5 mm, does not provide enough strength on fabrics that fray or slip. The bight can be adjusted within these limits to provide satisfactory appearance and an acceptable amount of bulk, according to the nature of the knitted fabric being joined. When joining fabrics with this stitch, a thread chain end must be left and the seam then secured by some means. This may be a cross seam, or if the seam ends on the edge of the garment it may be necessary to secure the thread chain and the seam end by means of a short lock stitch tack or a bar tack, or a short zigzag of stitching of fixed length. A special machine attachment is available which can latch back the chain end at the starting end of the seam and recently finishing end attachments have also been developed. This stitch type can also be used to provide a decorative neatened edge if sewn with a high stitch density and a narrow bight over an edge which, after the usual trimming, has been rolled under to the width of the stitch, usually 2 mm. A contrasting colored thread is often used, of a type that spreads out and forms a good cover over the edge. On suitable fabrics, the edge can be stretched while sewing to give a soft frill. Stitch type 503, formed with one needle thread and only one looper thread, is less versatile and is used mainly for edge neatening, often referred to as serging, especially in menswear. It is particularly suitable for trousers because the two thread construction is less likely to show an impression of the edge after pressing the legs. It is not normally used for conventional joining of two pieces of fabric as the stitch opens up when stressed transversely, but there are some situations where this feature can be used to advantage. One such is on tee-shirt hems where careful fabric folding ensures a neatened edge as well as a sewn hem with the minimum of stitching showing on the right side. This process is often called over lock welting. Also in this class are stitch type 521 and 514, which uses two needles and a total of four threads. They provide a wider birth than 504 and this, combined with the second needle, gives a securer seam when fabrics are joined. They are used on light and medium weight woven fabrics, especially lingerie and shirts. They also provide good stretch and recovery when used on knitted fabrics. A combination of 401 and 503 or 504 sewn simultaneously on one machine is very common where a joined and neatened seam is required that does not need to be pressed open. It referred to as safety stitch and provides an economical seam on both woven and low stretched knitted fabrics. It can be used on the same kind of light weight fabrics as 512 and 514, as well as on heavier fabrics such as denim and cord 268
for jeans. It is written as (401.503) or (401.504), the dot indicating a combination stitch and the brackets denoting simultaneity sewing. It has the level of stretch of 401 since that is the stitch that actually holds the seam. For brevity, the US Federal Stitch Type Numbers: often used in the case of these combination stitches and they then becomes 515 and 516 respectively. Because of its similar appearance on one side to safety stitch, stitch type 512 is often referred to a mock safety stitch. Seam joining with any of the Overedge stitches, whether 504, 512 or 514, or a combination stitch, gives a closed seam where the seam allowance must be pressed to one side rather than opened out. The appearance that this gives will not always be acceptable, e.g. it is common on youths trousers but not on mens. 5.6 COVERING CHAIN STITCHES CLASS 600: With the exception of the very first type, stitch, types in this class are formed with three groups of threads. The general characteristic is that two of the groups cover both surfaces of the material. Loops of the first group of threads (the needle thread) are passed through loops of the third group already cast on the surface of the material, and then through the material where they are interloped with loops of the second group of threads on the underside of the material. The second and third groups are usually referred to as the top cover threads and the bottom cover or looper threads. Stitches in this class are the most complex of all and may have up to nine threads in total including four needle threads. They are used in similar situations to 406 and 407, making a broad, flat, comfortable joining of elastic, braid or binding to the edges of garments such as briefs with the scope for a decorative top cover stitch as well as the functional bottom cover over the raw edge of the garment fabric. Careful study of 602 will show that it is actually the same as 406 with the addition of the top cover thread. Most types of stitch join fabrics where the two plies are placed one on top of the other, and when the faces of the fabric are opened out the seam is wholly inside the garment. Alternatively, they join fabric to fabric or fabric to a trim of some kind in a lapped manner. The most complicated stitch type in this class, 606, which is known as the flat lock can be used to join fabrics which are butted together in what used to be called, in the old British standard, a flat seam. Two trimming knives ensure that neat fabric edges butt together and four needles and nine threads provide a smooth join with good extensibility. It is used on knitted fabric especially underwear fabrics, to give a seam with low bulk that can be worn comfortably against the skin. With the top cover thread in a contrast color it can be used decoratively on other knitted leisurewear. With this class of stitch, a chain end is left at the end of the seam which must be secured if not crossed by another seam.
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
Stitch Type Matrix Flyer
279
280
281
CLASSIFICATION BY SEWING ARTICLES
Counter sleeve
stitch
DDL-9000; DDL-8700 DLU-5490N; DDL-5550N MH-380; MH-481 MO-6116D; MO-6916S MO-6716S LH-3120SQ/M315/R031/R006 MB-1800; MB-377NS MB-373NS; LK-1903A LK-1903A/BR35; ACF-164-1903 DDL-9000; DDL-8700 DDL-5550N ACF-172-1790 LBH-1790; LBH-781 LK-1903A; MB-1800 LK-1903A/BR35 MB-377NS; MB-373NS
Attach sleeve Sew front fly to left front
Sew button on front
Sew pocket Sew buttonhole on front
Sew button to top of front & cuff
282
MS-1190F
Sew side & under sleeve
MO-6116D; MO-6916S MO-6716S LBH-1790; LBH-781 DDL-9000; DDL-8700 DDL-5550N; MH-481 DLM-5200N; DLM-5400N DLM-5420N
Sew buttonhole to top of front & cuff
Sew yoke to back
Runstitch cuff
Hem ticket pocket Sew eyelet buttonhole Topstitch waist band corner Sew waist band Serge side pocket facing
MH-380 MEB-3200JS DLN-9010; DLN-5410NJ MH-1410 MO-6904S; MO-6704S
283
Topstitch left front fly Sew inseam Hem bottom Sew side Bar tack front fly Sew belt loop (5pcs.) Make belt loop Sew leather label to waist band
LH-3128G; LH-3178G MS-1261; 35800D DLN-6390 MO-6916G; MO-6916J LK-1900A-H MOL-254 MFB-2600 DDL-5600NJ DDL-5550NH DDL-8700H AMS-215D; AMS-215D[P] AMS-221D; AMS-221D[P] AVP-875A
Decorative stitch to hip pocket
Sew hip pocket to back
Sew eyelet buttonhole Set sleeve
MEB-3200SS DP-2100
284
Sew flower hole Hand stitch front edge Blind stitch lapel tape Topstitch for welt pocket Pinpoint stitch facing Bar tack inside pocket
MEB-3200SS FLS-350NA CB-641 LZ-2290A-SR MP-200N LK-1900A DDL-9000; DDL-8700; DDL-5550N AMS-210D; LZ-2290A-SR DLM-5200N
Sew brand label
Cut front edge Sew sham buttonhole Bar tack buttonhole end Blind stitch front bottom Sew button to front
MBH-180S; ACF-182
LK-1901A 30-210 MB-1800 ; MB-377NS; MB-373NS MB-1800 ; MB-377NS; MB-373NS LK-1903A; LK-1903A/BR35 APW-298; APW-297 APW-196N; APW-195N 16-100H LZ-586; LZ-2280N; LZ-2281NB LZ-2290A; LZ-2290A-SR 30-230 LT-591 16-460 DLN-9010SS; DDL-9000; DDL-8700 DLU-5490N; DDL-5550N
Sew button to sleeve
Sew front pocket welt to back
Sew bottom of under collar
Sew upper collar
Blind stitch back bottom Baste bottom Blind stitch sleeve mouth Sew outside of sleeve
285
Sew buttonhole to front fly
LBH-1790; LBH-781 LK-1903A; LK-1903A/BR35 MB-1800; MB-377NS; MB-373NS MO-6104D; MO-6904S; MO-6704S MO-6914C
Sew button to front fly
Serge pocket mouth
Attach sleeve mouth rib to sleeve
MO-6704S-0E6-300/LB-3 MO-6904S-0E6-300/LB-3
Sew under sleeve

MO-6714S-BE4-307/LB-4 MO-6914S-BE4-307/LB-4 MO-6114D; MO-6914S; MO-6714S DDL-9000; DDL-8700; DDL-5550N DLD-5430N
Sew side & under sleeve
Sew pocket
Sew sleeve
MO-6114D; MO-6914S; MO-6714S
Hem bottom
MF-7723; MF-7823
Make slit
DDL-9000; DDL-8700; DLU-5490N DDL-5550N; DLD-5430N
286
Attach zipper to left fly
LH-3128
Make belt loop
MFB-2600
Sew button to fly & hip pocket
MB-1800; MB-377NS; MB-373NS
Serge front & back
MO-6104D; MO-6904S; MO-6704S ASN-697; ASN-695
Sew eyelet buttonhole Sew belt loop to waist band Sew belt loop bottom
MEB-3200TS; MEB-3200SS; LK-1901A-S
LK-1902A-S
Sew hip pocket welt to back
APW-297; APW-195N; APW-194N MH-481; MH-486; DDL-9000; DDL-8700 DLU-5490N; DDL-5550N
Sew side
287
Join neck rib & attach neck rib to body Attach sleeve Hem sleeve Hem bottom
MF-7723-C10 MO-6114D MO-6914S MO-6714S MF-7723-U10 MF-7823-H20
CLASSIFICATION OF SEWING MACHINES
LOCKSTITCH MACHINES
1-needle, Lockstitch Machine 1-needle, Lockstitch Machine Direct-drive, High-speed, 1-needle, Lockstitch Machine with Automatic Thread Trimmer Direct-drive, High-speed, Needle-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Automatic Thread Trimmer 1-needle, Needle-feed, Lockstitch Machine High-speed, Cylinder-bed, 1-needle, Needle-feed Lockstitch Machine with Large Hook 1-needle, Bottom & Variable Top-feed Lockstitch Machine 1-needle, Differential-feed, Lockstitch Machine 1-needle, Lockstitch Machine with Vertical Edge Trimmer and Automatic Thread Trimmer <Electronic-stop motor type>1-needle, Lockstitch Machine with Automatic Thread Trimmer 2-needle, Needle-feed, Lockstitch Machine DDL-5550N SERIES DDL-8700 SERIES DDL-9000 DLN-9010 DLN-5410N SERIES DLN-6390 SERIES DLU-5490N SERIES DLD-5430N SERIES DLM-5400N-7 DMN-5420N-7 EC-10B SERIES LH-3100 SERIES MO-6100D SERIES MO-6900S SERIES MO-6700S SERIES MO-6900R SERIES MO-6900C SERIES MO-6900G SERIES MO-6900J SERIES LB-3, LB-4
OVERLOCK / SAFETY STITCH MACHINES

Dry-head, High-speed, Over lock / Safety Stitch Machine Super-high-speed, Over lock / Safety Stitch Machine High-speed, Over lock / Safety Stitch Machine High-speed, Variable Top-feed, Over lock / Safety Stitch Machine Super-high-speed, Cylinder-bed, Over lock Machine Bottom-feed, Over lock / Safety Stitch Machine for Extra Heavy-weight Materials Variable Top-feed, Over lock / Safety Stitch Machine for Extra Heavy-weight Materials Over lock Machine with Semi-automatic Back latch Device Variable Top-feed Over lock Machine with Semi-automatic Back latch Device
ZIGZAG STITCHING MACHINES

Computer-controlled, Direct-drive, High-speed, 1-needle, Lockstitch, Zigzag Stitching Machine Computer-controlled, Direct-drive, High-speed, 1-needle, Lockstitch, Zigzag Stitching Machine with Automatic Thread Trimmer (quick reverse type) LZ-2290A SERIES LZ-2290A-SR-7
288
High-speed, 1-needle, Lockstitch, Zigzag Stitching Machine High-speed, Cylinder-bed, 1-needle, Lockstitch, Zigzag Stitching Machine with Automatic Thread Trimmer(with standard / 3-step zigzag stitching pattern changeover function)
LZ-2280N SERIES LZ-2284C-7
SPECIAL PURPOSE MACHINES

Computer-controlled, Dry-head, Lockstitch Sleeve Setting Machine with Multi-programming Device High-speed, Flat-bed, Top and Bottom Cover stitch Machine High-speed, Cylinder-bed, Top and Bottom Cover stitch Machine High-speed, Flat-bed, 2-needle, Double Chain stitch Machine 1-needle, Double Chain stitch Machine High-speed, Cylinder-bed, Needle-feed, Double Chain stitch Machine Pinpoint Saddle Stitching Machine DP-2100 MF-7700 SERIES MF-7800 SERIES MH-380 MH-382 MH-481 SERIES MH-1410 MP-200N MB-1800 MB-373NS SERIES MB-377NS SERIES LK-1903A LK1903A / BR35 LBH-1790 LBH-780 SERIES MEB-3200 SERIES
BUTTON SEWING MACHINES

Computer-controlled, Dry-head, High-speed, Single-thread, Chain stitch Button Sewing Machine Single-thread, Chain stitch, Button Sewing Machine Single-thread, Chain stitch, Button Sewing Machine with Knot-tying Mechanism Computer-controlled, High-speed, Lockstitch, Button Sewing Machine
BUTTONHOLING MACHINES
Computer-controlled, High-speed, Lockstitch Buttonholing Machine 1-needle, Lockstitch Buttonholing Machine Computer-controlled, Eyelet Buttonholing Machine with Trimmer for Needle and Looper Thread with Gimp Computer-controlled, High-speed, Bar tacking Machine Computer-controlled, High-speed, Shape-tacking Machine
BARTACKING MACHINES / SHAPE-TACKING MACHINES

LK-1900A SERIES LK-1910 SERIES AMS-210D AMS-215D AMS-221D ACF-164-1800 ACF-164-1903 ACF-172-1790 ASN-697 ASN-695 APW-290 SERIES APW-190N SERIES FLS-350NA FLS350NB AVP-875S AVP875A MOL-254 DDL-5600N SERIES DDL-8700L DNU-1541 SERIES LU-1500N SERIES LU-1520N-7 LU1521N-7 LU-2210N LU2260N SERIES LU-2216N LU2266N SERIES DNU-261H DSC-240 SERIES LS-1340 SERIES PLC-1610 SERIES
COMPUTER CONTROLLED CYCLE MACHINES

Computer-controlled Cycle Machine with Input Function <sewing area: 60mm(L) x 130mm(W)> Computer-controlled Cycle Machine with Input Function <sewing area: 110mm(L) x 130mm(W)> Computer-controlled Cycle Machine with Input Function <sewing area: 160mm(L) x 250mm(W)>
AUTOMATIC MACHINES
High-speed, Computer-controlled, Dry-head, Single-thread Chain stitch, Button Sewing Indexer Computer-controlled, Lockstitch, Button Sewing Indexer High-speed, Computer-controlled Buttonholing Indexer Automatic Serging Machine Automatic Pocket Welting Machine with Automatic Welting Patch Feeder Automatic Pocket Welting Machine Electronic Hand stitching Machine (for soft-to-the-touch stitch type) Automatic Pocket Setter (for Jeans) Automatic 2-needle Belt-loop Attaching Machine
MACHINES FOR LETHER & HEAVY MATERIALS

1-needle, Lockstitch Machine with Double-capacity Hook 1-needle, Lockstitch Machine for Leather and Heavy Materials 1-needle, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Large Hook 1-needle, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Vertical-axis Large Hook 2-needle, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Vertical-axis Large Hooks 1-needle, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Vertical-axis Large Hook and Automatic Thread Trimmer (needle thread roll-in and short tail type) High-speed, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Large Hook and Automatic Thread Trimmer Long-arm, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Vertical-axis Large Hook and Automatic Thread Trimmer 1-needle, Unison-feed, Long Arm Lockstitch Machine with Large Hook Cylinder-bed, 1-needle, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine Cylinder-bed, 1-needle, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine with Vertical-axis Hook 1-needle, Post-bed, Unison-feed, Lockstitch Machine
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6. SEAM PUCKERING: Seam Puckering refers to the gathering of a seam

either just after sewing or after laundering causing an unacceptable seam appearance. Seam puckering is more common on woven fabrics than knits; and it is prominent on tightly woven fabrics. Puckering is usually caused due to yarn displacement (structural jamming); tension puckering (excessive thread tension); or feed puckering (uneven ply puckering) 6.1 YARN DISPLACEMENT OR STRUCTURAL DAMAGE: Seam puckering is more prevalent on very tightly woven fabrics because the yarns are oriented in very tight layers that cannot shift easily to compensate for the thread as it is inserted in the seam. This causes these tight yarns in the fabric to draw up giving a rippled appearance along the seam line. This is usually more of a problem when seams are sewn in the warp direction than in the weft (filling) or bias directions. Solutions to Puckering Caused by Yarn Displacement: To minimize seam puckering caused by yarn displacement or the structural jamming of the yarn in the fabric being sewn, do the following: 1. Use the smallest thread size available that will maintain adequate seam strength and sewing performance. In some cases it may be necessary to go to a different thread type to take advantage of its higher tenacity. It may be advantageous to use a smaller thread on non-stress seams that are more prone to seam puckering. 2. Use smallest needle size possible that will not cause excessive sewing problems. We recommend a needle with a longer needle point so that it will have less resistance as it penetrates the seam. 3. Use a needle plate with a small needle hole; and a presser foot with a small needle hole. 4. Reduce the number of stitches per inch (SPI) so there are fewer yarns displaced in the stitch line to cause seam puckering. 5. When possible, cut the garment pieces so they can be sewn on bias or in a direction that allows different yarns in construction of fabric to be displaced. 6. Threads that are ideal for seaming shirts and blouses with minimum seam puckering are very strong for their size and have an excellent lube allowing them to be sewn with minimum machine thread tension. Identification: Carefully clip the thread between adjacent needle penetrations along the seam and observe if the puckering remains in the fabric or goes away. If the puckering is still in the seam after the threads are clipped, then yarn displacement is the probable cause. 6.2 TENSION PUCKERING : If a thread is sewn into the seam with heavy machine thread tension so that it has been elongated or stretched as the stitch is being set, the thread will try to recover or return to its original length. This can cause the seam to pucker immediately as the seam is coming out from under the presser foot; however, sometimes the sizing or resins in the fabric will initially maintain a flat seam but later in the day, the seam will appear puckered. This phenomenon also occurs after the garment is laundered and the sizing materials are removed causing the seam to pucker and the inspector to think that there was too much shrinkage in the thread. Excessive thread tension during sewing will not only cause puckered seams but also cause other sewing problems including thread breakage and skipped stitches.
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Solutions to Puckering Caused by Tension Puckering: To minimize seam puckering caused by tension puckering or excessive thread tension of yarn in fabric being sewn, do following: 1. If structural jamming does not appear to be a problem, increase the needle size or use a needle with a ball eye needle to open up a larger hole in the fabric so the stitch can be set with the lightest tension possible. 2. Properly set the take-up spring so that the stitch can be set with minimum thread tension. Polish or replace all eyelets and thread guides that may be grooved to make sure they do not affect the frictional properties of the thread. On some machines a rotary tension system is available that meters the thread more uniformly that conventional tension disc systems. 3. On some machines the thread control guides and eyelets can be adjusted to control the thread more efficiently so less tension is required. Lock stitch Machines 1. On lockstitch machines, make sure the positioning finger is correctly set to allow the thread to pass through the hook with minimum resistance. If the machine has a mechanical opener, set the opener to shift the bobbin case holder so it will allow the thread to pass by the positioning finger with as little resistance as possible. 2. On lockstitch machines, it is sometimes necessary to refine the gib or rail on the bobbin case holder so the thread can be released by the hook sooner in the stitch cycle. This sometimes allows the thread to be set with lighter tension. 3. On most sewing machines, four elements help in setting the stitch in the seam. They are the take-up system; the feed system, the needle thread tension, and the bottom thread tension. Proper feed timing in reference to the take-up system is critical to sewing with light tensions. 4. In extreme cases, it may be necessary to use an oil free hook which uses at Teflon coated rail. It has been found that machine oil migrates on other surfaces of the hook and can increase the surface friction as the thread passes around the hook. Chain stitch Machines 1. On 401 Chain stitch machines, adjust the stitch balance so the needle loops on the bottom side of the seam lay over at least half way to the next needle penetration when the looper thread is unraveled out of the seam, the looper thread must also be as loose as possible. 2. Adjust the thread controls to allow the stitch to be set with minimum thread tension. On many chain stitch machines it is best to draw most of the needle thread through the tension discs when the needle is rising, and a small amount when the needle is descending (75% on upstroke & 25% on the down stroke). Advancing the looper thread take-up timing will sometimes allow the needle thread to be released sooner so that it can set with lighter machine thread tension. Identification: Carefully clip the thread between adjacent needle penetrations along the seam and observe if the puckering is reduced in the fabric. If it is, then excessive thread tension is the probable cause of the seam puckering. Solutions to Tension Puckering: To minimize seam puckering caused by thread tension, do following: 1. Use very light machine thread tensions. Begin by setting the bottom thread tension (bobbin or looper) as light as possible but still maintain the proper thread control. Next adjust the needle thread tension to a minimum level
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necessary to maintain a closed seam and a balanced stitch. This reduces the elongation of thread in seam, also improves loop formation and sews ability. 2. Use a thread with a low elongation or high initial modulus to minimize stretching during sewing. Use a thread with good lubricity characteristics that will allow it to be sewn with minimum thread tension. 3. Reducing the thread size will not only help to minimize structural jamming but can usually be sewn with lighter machine thread tension because a smaller thread requires less tension to pull it up into the seam and set the stitch. 6.3 FEED PUCKERING (UNEVEN PLY FEEDING): Feed puckering occurs when one of the fabric plies is fed into the seam at a different rate than the other ply or plies. This causes a gathering effect in over-fed ply. Ply mismatching as shown in: 1. Usually occurs when the presser foot holds back on the upper ply as the bottom ply is being fed into the seam at a faster rate by the feed dog. 2. Usually occurs when the operator holds back on the bottom ply and pushes the top ply into the machine so the fabric edges will come out evenly. Identification: Make two perpendicular cuts across a sewn seam where the puckered condition is the greatest. Remove the thread in the seam and see if the two plies are of equal length. If one is longer than the other then the puckering is being caused by uneven ply feeding. Solutions to feed puckering: To minimize seam puckering caused by uneven ply feeding, do the following: 1. Use the minimum presser foot pressure that will maintain uniform feeding. Make sure the presser foot is clamping the fabric properly both in front and back of the needle. When the feed is up and moving the fabric, the seam should be clamped by the entire bottom surface of the presser foot. This can be checked by inserting a piece of paper under the foot from different angles and observing if the foot is clamping the fabric properly. 2. Set the feed dogs at their proper height and check for back-feeding. The feed dog should have the optimum teeth per inch and number of rows of teeth for the operation and fabric being sewn. Puckering can sometimes occur if the material is not held down flat as it is being fed through the machine creating a rippled appearance as the plies conform to the feed dog teeth. Usually lightweight wrinkle resistant fabrics should be sewn with feed dogs with 20 24 teeth per inch. Medium weight fabrics like men's trousers should be sewn with feed dogs with 14 - 18 teeth per inch. Heavy weight fabrics are usually sewn with feed dogs with 8 - 12 teeth per inch. Use the correct presser foot and needle plate for the material and operation being sewn. The needle plate and presser foot should have relatively small needle holes in relation to the needle size being used. As a general rule, the needle hole should be approximately twice the size of the needle. Check to make sure that the needle plate is not bent down at the needle hole. 3. Use a low friction presser foot: Teflon coated roller bearing, "feeding foot", etc. Use an "anti-puckering" needle plate with a retaining spring that holds back on the bottom ply to match the top ply. 4. Use machines equipped with a needle feed or compound feed mechanism where the needle moves with the feed as the fabric is being sewn. This "pinning" of the plies as they are being fed helps reduce feed puckering.
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5. Use machines equipped with auxiliary top feeding mechanisms such as: walking foot, puller, top driven roller feed, upper belt feed, etc. 6. On machines equipped with differential feed systems, set the differential action to slightly stretch the bottom ply to match the top ply so they are fed evenly into the seam. 7. Use automatic machines equipped with material clamping systems that prevent the fabric from moving as it is being sewn. 8. Make sure you are using the correct capacity of folders and guides for the fabric being sewn. 9. Observe operator for proper fabric movement to and through the machine. 10. Make sure the pieces are cut properly in the cutting room and the proper seam tolerances have been maintained so pieces are of equal length before seaming. 11. If the plies have different stretch characteristics, position the ply with the greatest amount of stretch are against the feed if possible.
7. OPTIMIZING SEAM PERFORMANCE FOR DENIM: Selecting the

proper thread for denim garments is very important to minimize sewing and seam performance issues. There is an old saying that Thread only makes up a small percent of the cost of the finished product but shares 50% of the seam responsibility. A typical pair of adult size jeans will have from 200 to 250 yards of thread in them depending on the seam construction. Most major jean manufacturers have experimented with different thread types and sizes and have found that core spun threads give the best overall performance. The cost of this high-performance thread will be approximately $0.25 to $0.30 per jean. Most jean manufacturers put their products through various wash processes after the garment is assembled and these processes can be very harsh. The cost of these wash-processes can be from $0.75 to $3.00 per jean depending on the chemicals, stones, enzymes and process time required. The total thread in the garment costs $0.25 while the wash-process can cost up to $3.00 per jean. The thread must be able to withstand all of these processes and hold the seams together for the life of the garment. When we talk about sewing denim, there are five key issues that need to be addressed are (What weight denim is being sewn?; What seam appearance, boldness of stitch, do you need?; What wash process will the jeans see?; What is the after wash color that you desire?; and What degradation issues need to be addressed?. With these questions answered, we will be able to produce jeans that meet the requirements for today's variety in Jeans-Wear. From a basic 5-Pocket Jean to the most creative pair of High-Fashion Jeans, your sewing plant can produce the quality for each. The threads of choice used by most quality denim garment manufacturers for sewing on all types of sewing equipment, including multi-directional sewing machines, and for withstanding chemical degradation and abrasion, are the core spun threads: 7.1 CORE SPUN THREADS: Core threads are made by spinning a wrapper of cotton or polyester staple around a bundle of continuous filament polyester fibers to form a yarn and then two or more of these yarns are twisted together to form a core spun thread. Generally, the core makes up approximately 60% of the thread construction contributing to a more uniform and higher tenacity sewing thread as compared to a 100% spun polyester sewing thread, e.g. a T-60 PW Core thread will have a breaking strength of approximately 8.7 lbs, while a T-60 Spun Polyester thread will have a breaking strength a little over 5 lbs. When wrapped with a cotton wrapper, core spun threads have very good needle heat resistance. When wrapped with a polyester wrapper, core spun threads have excellent 293
chemical resistance and color fastness. The fibrous surface on either thread reduces the shiny look and also contributes to superior frictional characteristics. Some designers prefer the thread to wash-down during the wash processes and, if this is the case, you would select a Cotton-Wrapped Core thread. Degrees of color fastness will vary with particular shades. With this known factor, a user of Cotton-Wrapped Core should look at all wash codes to insure the thread color will be appropriately maintained. We also recommend doing pre-production wash testing to assure that the wash-down look will be acceptable. On the other hand, many jean designers want the thread to maintain its color for the life of the garment and offer a signature look. If color fastness is key, then select a Polyester-Wrapped Core thread. Also with Polyester Wrapped products, you have the option of picking the desired color from a color palette to obtain the look you want after the wash procedures. This will allow a more controlled shade, which will be maintained after continual washes by the consumer. We still recommend doing preproduction wash testing prior to going into production. Cotton-Wrapped and Polyester Wrapped Core threads offer excellent abrasion resistance to the varied wash codes that a pair of jeans may be exposed to. While most of the wash codes in the USA are now a combination of chemicals and stone to obtain the desired look, stone is still predominately utilized outside the USA. THREAD SIZE
NEEDLE THREAD Tex 120 Tex 105 Tex 80 Tex 60 Tex 40 LOOPER THREAD Tex 80 or 60 Tex 80 or 60 Tex 60 or 40 Tex 40 Tex 40 SERGING T-40 T-40 T-40 T-40 T-40* APPLICATION Extra Bold Appearance Bold Appearance Bold Appearance -
Both of these thread types are available in sizes to meet the variety of denim fabric weights. From a Tex 40 to a Tex 120, you can achieve the desired performance throughout the sewing floor and after the varied finishing processes. Use the correct size to obtain the desired look while maintaining seam integrity. Some basic sizes used in today's denim are listed in the table to the right:
8. CUT OR BROKEN STITCHES: Most manufacturers of denim and twill

garments that pre-wash garments after assembled have experienced problems with excessive "cut" or "broken" stitches. In fact, many manufacturers have found this problem to be significant reaching in excess of 20 to 30% of the products being sewn. Many times this problem occurs when a previously sewn stitch line is crossed during a subsequent operation and needle damages the thread in seam. Broken stitches can also occur when there is excessive abrasion or chemical degradation of thread during wash. 8.1 MAJOR CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS TO THESE PROBLEMS 1. Many manufacturers have significantly reduced the number of "cut" and "broken" stitches by using high-performance sewing threads. Make sure the correct thread type and size are being used in both the needle and bottom (looper) positions. Core threads that have a continuous filament polyester core in each singles yarn are more resistant to cutting and degradation than 100% spun polyester threads and other thread constructions. 2. Usually the larger the thread size, the more resistant the thread is to being cut by the needle or feed or to failure due to chemical degradation or heat. 294
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Because of this many manufacturers have increased the thread size on critical operations like waist banding, seat seaming, etc. Typical thread sizes used on heavy denim run from T-105 to T-60 depending on desired look. Typical thread sizes used on twills of chinos run from T-40 to T-60. Inspect the needle point at regular intervals and check for sharp or burred points. If the needle point is damaged, replace the needle. Companies have found best just to replace needle on critical operations once or twice a day. Check for signs of needle heat or excessive heat exposure during laundering that may be melting the thread. Usually if the thread has been damaged by heat, the thread will have a hard melted surface that can be felt or seen using a magnifying glass. If you suspect that needle heat is a problem, try using a special coated needle or needle coolers to reduce needle heat. Make sure the thread has the proper type and amount of lube. Most major thread suppliers have developed high-performance lubricants to minimize heat damage on polyester threads. A cotton wrapped core thread may be more resistant than a 100% polyester thread. Use proper thread tensions. Make sure the stitch on the seam line is loose and be able to move if it is hit by the needle. Tight machine thread tensions will not allow proper flexibility in the stitch and will increase "cut-stitch" damage. Generally, on chain stitch seams, the ideal stitch balance is when the needle loop on the underside of the seam lays over half way to the next needle penetration. This can be checked by unraveling the looper thread and observing the needle thread on the underside of the seam. Check the edges of the needle plate and presser foot needle holes to make sure they do not have any sharp edges or burrs that can damage the thread during sewing. Properly remove all burred or sharp surfaces making sure not to oversize the needle holes which can lead to excessive "flagging". Inspect the feed dog teeth directly behind the needle holes and make sure they are not sharp. If required, buff the feed dog teeth with a wire wheel or with a stone if they appear to be sharp. Be careful not to remove too much of the feed dog teeth that could hinder the feeding or interfere with chaining. Use the minimum amount of presser foot pressure to get a uniform stitch length. Excessive presser foot pressure can cause the thread to be damaged when it is compressed against a relatively sharp surface. On some machines it is sometimes necessary to use a presser spring with fewer coils per inch to give more consistent pressure even when crossing heavy seams. The proper type and capacity folder should be used to prevent stalling when crossing heavy seams. Feed stalling will increase the chances of "cut" stitches.
8.2 DAMAGE DONE DURING PRE-WASHING: Sometimes partially damaged thread from the sewing operation will fail during stone washing or other processes. Most of the time this damage is difficult to detect but should be investigated using the suggestions mentioned on the previous pages. On the other hand, many seams are damaged during the wash processes due to excessive abrasion, chemical degradation, and heat degradation. To reduce damage to thread in seams, make sure the correct fiber type, thread construction, and size is being used. For example, 100% polyester is much more resistant to enzymes and chemicals as compared to cotton threads. Work with your laundry to develop standards with regard to the type and amount of chemicals, rocks, cycle times, and temperatures that are being used in both the washing and drying processes. You should monitor and properly test any changes of rocks and chemicals from one vendor to another; Changes of cycle times and Changes in temperature during the washing or drying cycles. 295
Evaluate the best way the garment should be processed, whether it should be insideout or right-side-out, the fly buttoned or not buttoned, etc. Care should be taken if the garments are turned right-side-out when they are still wet. Extra moisture in garments can cause excessive whipping of bottom hem seam causing excessive damage. 8.3 Thread Cost: Core spun threads generally have a higher purchase prices than spun polyester and air entangled threads. However, the total cost of thread, which should include any additional maintenance costs related to thread sewing and seam performance, generally makes core spun thread a real value. 8.4 Ways of Reducing Cost: In today's competitive market place, everyone must be concerned about costs. Ways of reducing thread cost without sacrificing in performance might include using high performance thread reduces down time and rejects due to seam failure; using smaller thread sizes, e.g. using T-40 core spun thread on serging; and natural instead of dyed thread on loopers or inside threads. If used a less expensive thread construction on a non-critical seam, this may include using spun polyester or air entangled threads as looper threads or serging threads on the inside of the garment. Your Thread Company should have an excellent Technical Service Team to assist with any questions you may have concerning thread application or thread specifications for any denim fabric you will sew. Also, recommendations on the correct needle size and machine setup for obtaining the maximum efficiency for each operation.
SEAM QUALITY DEFECTS (RE-STITCHED SEAMS / BROKEN STITCHES): Where a "splice" occurs on the stitch line. If this occurs
9. on Topstitching, then the seam does not appear to be 1st quality merchandise. Caused by thread breaks or thread run-out during sewing; or cut or broken stitches during a subsequent treatment of the finished product (i.e. stone washing). 9.1 MINIMIZING THREAD BREAKAGE 1. Insure proper machine maintenance and sewing machine adjustments. 2. Make sure sewing machines are properly maintained and adjusted for the fabric and sewing operation. 3. Observe sewing operators for correct material handling techniques. 4. Use a better quality sewing thread. This may include going to a higher performance thread designed to minimize sewing interruptions. 9.2 SKIPPED STITCHES: Where the stitch length is inconsistent, possibly appearing as double the normal stitch length; or where you can see that the threads in the stitch are not properly connected together. Caused by the stitch forming device in the sewing machine missing the thread loop during stitch formation causing a defective stitch. On looper type stitches, this will allow stitch to unravel causing seam failure. MINIMIZING SKIPPED STITCHES: 1. Insure proper machine maintenance and sewing machine adjustments; 2. Make sure sewing machines are properly maintained and adjusted for the fabric and sewing operation. 3. Observe sewing operators for correct material handling techniques. 4. Use a better quality sewing thread. This may include going to a higher performance thread designed to minimize sewing interruptions.
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Where the threads in the seam have ruptured leaving a hole in the stitch line caused by improper stitch for application; inadequate thread strength for seam; and not enough stitches per inch. 9.3 MINIMIZING SEAM FAILURES STITCH 1. Use the proper size thread for the application 2. For knit fabrics, check for "Stitch Cracking". 3. Use a better quality sewing thread. This may include going to a higher performance thread designed to give greater seam performance. Stitch cracking can be caused either by not enough stitches per inch; improper seam width or needle spacing for application; improper stitch balance; and or improper thread selection. OPEN SEAM - SEAM FAILURE FABRIC: Where the stitch line is still intact but the yarns in the fabric have ruptured. MINIMIZING SEAM FAILURES - FABRIC: Where the yarns in the fabric pull out of the seam from the edge. This often occurs on fabrics constructed of continuous filament yarns that are very smooth and have a slick surface. Also caused by loosely constructed fabrics. 9.4 MINIMIZING SEAM FAILURES - SEAM SLIPPAGE 1. Consider changing the seam construction to a French seam construction 2. Increase the seam width or width of bite 3. Optimize the stitches per inch 4. Contact your fabric supplier. 9.5 NEEDLE CUTTING ON KNITS: Where needle holes appear along the stitch line that will eventually turn into a "run". Generally, caused by the needle, damaging the fabric, as it is penetrating the seam. MINIMIZING NEEDLE CUTTING ON KNITS: 1. Make sure proper thread and needle size and type are being used for the fabric 2. Make sure fabric is properly stored to prevent drying out and finished properly 3. Check with your fabric manufacturer. 9.6 EXCESSIVE SEAM PUCKERING - WOVENS: Where the seam does not lay flat and smooth along the stitch line. Caused by one of the following: 1. Feed Puckering - where the plies of fabric in the seam are not being aligned properly during sewing; 2. Tension Puckering - where the thread has been stretched and sewn into the seam. The thread then causes the seam to draw back and pucker. 3. Yarn Displacement or structural jamming - caused by sewing seams with too large of thread that causes the yarns in the seam to be displaced, giving a puckered appearance. MINIMIZING EXCESSIVE SEAM PUCKERING 1. Sew with minimum sewing tension to get a balanced stitch 2. Make sure machines are set up properly for the fabric being sewn 3. Check for proper operator handling techniques. 4. Use the correct thread type and size for the fabric. In many cases, a smaller, higher tenacity thread is required to minimize seam puckering but maintain seam strength 297
9.7 PUCKERED SEAMS - KNITS & STRETCH WOVENS: does not lay flat after stitching.
Where the seam
SOLUTIONS 1. If sewing machines are equipped with differential feed, set them properly. 2. Use minimum presser foot pressure during sewing. 3. Observe operator for correct handling techniques. Too much stretching of the fabric by the sewing operator will cause this problem. 9.8 EXCESSIVE SEAM GRIN: Where the stitch balance is not properly adjusted (stitch too loose) and you can see the seam opening up. To check for Seam Grin, apply normal seam stress across the seam and then remove the stress. If the seam remains opened, then the seam has too much "grin through". SOLUTIONS: To correct, readjust the sewing machine thread tensions so that the proper stitch balance is achieved. Too much tension will cause other problems including seam failures, excessive thread breakage, and skipped stitches. 9.9 IMPROPER STITCH BALANCES - 301 LOCKSTITCHES: Where loops are seen either on the bottom side or topside of the seam. This is particularly evident with different colored needle and bobbin threads. Also, where the stitch is too loose. SOLUTIONS: Use a quality thread with consistent frictional characteristics and Properly balance the stitch so that the needle and bobbin threads meet in the middle of the seam. Always start by checking the bobbin thread tension to make sure it is set correctly, so that the minimum thread tension is required to get a balanced stitch. 9.10 IMPROPER STITCH BALANCES - 401 CHAINSTITCH: Where the loops on the bottom side of the seam are inconsistent and do not appear uniform. SOLUTIONS 1. Use a quality thread with consistent frictional characteristics 2. Properly balance the stitch so that when the looper thread is unraveled, the needle loop lays over half way to next needle loop on the underside of seam. 9.11 IMPROPER STITCH BALANCE - 504 OVEREDGE STITCH: Where needle loop is not pulled up to underside of seam and "purl" is not on edge of seam. SOLUTIONS 1. Use a quality thread with consistent frictional characteristics. 2. Properly balance the stitch so that when the looper thread is unraveled, the needle loop lays over half way to next needle loop on the underside of seam. 9.12 RAGGED / INCONSISTENT EDGE-OVEREDGE OR SAFETYSTITCH Where the edge of the seam is either extremely "ragged" or "rolls" inside the stitch. SOLUTIONS 1. Make sure the sewing machine knives are sharpened and changed often. 2. The knives should be adjusted properly in relationship to the "stitch tongue" on the needle plate to obtain the proper seam width or width bite. In the photo, the trimming knives have been set wider than the "stitch tongue" on the needle plate causing the "ropy" appearance. 9.13 UNRAVELING BUTTONS: Where a tail of thread is visible on the topside of the button and when pulled, button falls off.
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SOLUTIONS 1. Use a quality sewing thread to minimize skipped stitches. 2. Specify attaching the buttons with a Lockstitch instead of a single thread Chain stitch Button sewing machine.
10. SEWING MACHINES: There are different types of sewing machines, or

but they can be classified into two major types; they are Industrial sewing machines and Domestic sewing machines. The industrial sewing machines are designed for tuff wear and tear purposes, and the domestic sewing machines are used for simpler tasks. Most important thing is to know your sewing machines. The parts of a sewing machine and its functions are listed below: 1. SPOOL PIN: It holds the spool of thread. 2. THREAD GUIDES: They hold thread in position from spool to the needle. 3. TENSION DISC: It consists of two discs and the thread passes through these discs. The tension of the thread is adjusted by a spring and a nut, which increases or decreases the pressure on the disc. 4. TAKE UP LEVER: There is a small hole on the top of this lever through which the needle will pass. The lever moves down to loosen the top thread while the stitch is being formed; then pulls up the thread tight to complete the stitch. 5. NEEDLE BAR: This is a steel rod, which holds needle at one end with the help of a clamp. 6. BOBBIN CASE: This moves into position to catch the top thread and form the stitch as the needle is lowered into the bobbin chamber. 7. PRESSER FOOT: This is attached to presser bar for raising and lowering the presser foot. 8. STITCH REGULATOR: This controls the length of the stitch. Some regulators can be set to stitch in reverse. 9. FLY WHEEL: When the wheel is made to rotate, it works the mechanism of the machine. 10. CLUTCH OR THUMB SCREW: This is in the center of the flywheel and it engages and disengages the stitching mechanism. 11. SLIDE PLATE: This is a rectangular plate, which can be slid open to remove bobbin case. 12. NEEDLE PLATE OR THROAT PLATE: This is a semicircular plate with a hole to allow the needle to pass through it. 13. FEED DOG: This consists of a set of teeth fitted below the Needle plate. It helps to move a cloth forward while sewing. 14. FACE PLATE: This is a cover which when remove give access to the oiling points on Needle bar and thread take up. 15. SPOOL PIN FOR BOBBIN WINDING: Spool of thread is placed on this at the time of winding the bobbin.
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16. TAKE UP SPRING: To change the stroke of thread take up spring, loosen screw in the thread tension post socket, and turn thread tension post appropriately. To change pressure of thread take-up spring, loosen screw (hidden inside machine) in thread tension post and adjust the pressure of thread take-up spring. Loosen screw and remove thread tension post. Turn thread tension post clockwise, and the pressure of the thread take-up spring will increase. Turn the thread tension post counter clockwise and the pressure will decrease. 17. PRESSER FOOT PRESSURE: Turn pressure spring regulator clockwise to increase or counterclockwise to reduce the presser foot pressure. 18. REVERSE STITCHING LEVER: Depress lever, machine performs reverse stitching while lever is kept down, Release lever and lever will rise for forward stitching. 19. WINDING BOBBIN: Thread bobbin winder as per instructions, Tilt bobbin presser to bring bobbin winder wheel into contact with the belt, If bobbin is not wound up evenly adjust position of thread tension bracket, The moment bobbin has been wound up, bobbin presser is released and bobbin winder stops automatically. 10.1 TYPES OF SEWING BEDS: Sewing Beds are Machines designed to sew a Stitch Chain, Join a Seam or Perform a Specific Operation. There are 4 types of Bed: 1 FLAT BED: The most widely used type of Machine Bed for the flat Sewing. 2 CYLINDER BED: The shape of this bed allows for the easy rotation of tubular parts, such as cuff of an assembled sleeve during a felling operation. 3 POST BED: The shape of this bed allows for a part to be grasped and turned without difficulty. This bed shape is used for sleeve setting. 4 FEED OFF THE ARM: The shape of this bed is used for lap seaming the outside leg seams of trousers after the inside leg seam has been closed. MACHINES FOR SPECIAL OPERATION: different special operations; they are: Several machines are used for
SINGLE NEEDLE LOCKSTITCH MACHINE (SNLS): This machine is used for stitching all the basic operations. With needles changed mostly all kinds of materials can be sewn with this machine. DOUBLE NEEDLE LOCKSTITCH MACHINE (DNLS): This machine is used were double stitches are necessary on garments. It saves time instead of sewing twice with a single needle lockstitch machine. COMPUTERIZED LOCKSTITCH MACHINE: This is similar to the SNLS and DNLS machines except that a small device controls all their operations attached to the machine. It controls the speed, stitch length, trimming extra threads, bar-tack, etc. FEED OF ARM: This machine is used for stitching only the sleeve and side seam of a shirt. This forms a complete flat-fell seam in a single operation with a folder. BUTTONHOLE MACHINE: This stitches buttonholes on fabric in single operation.
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BUTTON STITCH MACHINE: Button stitch machine helps in sewing buttons to fabric; it is done in single operation. BAR-TACKING MACHINE: This helps in securing corners of pockets, securing loops to pants, and mainly used in sewing denims. OVER-LOCKING MACHINE: This machine is also called as safety stitch machine. This machine helps to secure raveled edges and avoids raveling. BLIND STITCHING MACHINE: Blind stitching machines are types of machines used for fastening hems, facings and cuff finishing or various garments such as blouses, mens shirts, skirts and slacks. AUTOMATIC BELT-LOOP ATTACHING MACHINE: A Machine for Sewing Belt Loops on the Finished Garment with Capacity of Changing Length and Width. AUTOMATIC POCKET SETTER: An automatic machine is used to produce neatly finished pockets on casual shirts and dress shirts. Every category of sewing machine produces a specific type of stitch formation depending on the number of needles, looper and threads which combine to construct the stitch. Each of these configurations is known as a stitch type and they are classified according to their main characteristics. Machine used generally for different types of sewing are known as Lock stitch machine. Chain stitch machine, Over-lock machine, Button hole and button attaching machine, bar tack machine etc.
11. THREAD: In the world of sewing, specifically home sewing, nothing is as

misunderstood as thread. The vast array of fibers alone is enough to be confusing to the average home sewer, add to that sizing, S-twist vs. Z-twist, spun vs. filament and it is enough to baffle even the most knowledgeable "expert". The purpose of this booklet is simply to provide the factual information you need to make informed choices. 11.1 COMMON TYPES OF THREAD: The earliest sewing threads were made from either animal or vegetable products and while most of these natural fiber threads are still very popular, threads made from man-made or synthetic fiber have become increasingly popular in recent years. NATURAL FIBERS: Animal (wool, silk, hair); Vegetable (cotton, flax, jute) REGENERATED: Cellulose (rayon, acetate) MAN-MADE: Mineral (glass, metallic) SYNTHETIC: (polyester, nylon, acrylic, elastic, polypropylene) 11.2 HOW IS THREAD MADE? All sewing threads begin as simple yarns. Twisting together short fibers or continuous filaments produces these yarns. This process known as singling twist is responsible for the strength and flexibility, which is essential in any good sewing thread. When two or more yarns are combined to make the thread, a reverse twist is applied to add balance. Without a reverse twist, the thread cannot be controlled during sewing. The individual yarns or plies would separate as they pass through the needle and the tensions discs of the sewing machine.
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TWIST: Twist is simply the number of turns per cm or inch put in the thread. A thread with too little twist may fray and break, one with too much twist can cause snarling, looping and knotting. Balance is the key and a good sewing thread has it. TWIST DIRECTION: As threads pass through a sewing machine some additional twist may be added. For this reason the direction in which the thread is twisted becomes important. A thread with a Z-twist, or left twist, is engineered specifically for the sewing machine. The action of the sewing process tends to increase the twist of a Z-twisted thread, but can actually untwist a thread with S-twist, or right twist. PLY: The number of component yarns that are twisted together to produce a thread is the ply. Two-ply threads, therefore, are simply two yarns which have been twisted together.
10.3 THREAD FINISHING: After construction, the thread is finished to enhance its suitability for various sewing uses. 1. SOFT - No further processing to change its physical characteristics. It is only dyed and lubricated. 2. MERCERIZED - In this process cotton thread is treated in a caustic solution under controlled tension. This causes the fibers to swell, resulting in a greater affinity for dyeing. Mercerization also increases luster and adds some strength. 3. GASSED - Passing cotton thread through a flame at high speed to reduce the fuzz is known as gassing. This process also produces a higher sheen. 4. GLAZED - This is a process in which cotton threads are treated with starches and special chemicals under controlled heat and then polished to a high luster. The glazed process results in a thread with a hard finish that protects the thread from abrasion and enhances ply security. 5. BONDED - Treating continuous filament nylon or polyester with a special resin that encapsulates the filaments is called bonding. The result is a tough smooth coating that adds significantly to the thread's ability to resist abrasion and greatly enhances ply security. 10.4 THREAD TYPES SPUN THREADS: Throughout most of the twentieth century, cotton thread was the standard sewing thread both industrially and in the home. When synthetics were developed, it was only natural to attempt to emulate the sewing characteristics of cotton. Spun polyester thread, made from polyester fibers cut to the same length as cotton staple, was introduced as a substitute for cotton. All spun threads are made up from staple fibers that are spun into single yarns and then plied to make a sewing thread. Mettlers all-purpose polyester, Maxi-Lock, Elite Premium Serger Thread, Gutterman and all cotton threads are examples of spun thread. Twisting together yarns made from short fibers, as we learned earlier, produces all spun threads. 302
However the staple lengths of the fibers utilized can have an important effect on the quality, strength, and performance of the thread produced. As a general rule of thumb, the longer the staple length of the fibers, the better the quality of thread produced. YLI Quilting threads and Mettler's cotton threads are examples of cotton threads produced with long staple cotton. The highest quality spun polyester, such as Mettler and Gutterman are produced from longer staple fibers. Spun threads will have a more fuzzy surface, which gives them a soft hand and good lubricity characteristics. CORE SPUN THREADS: This process seeks to achieve the strength of continuous filament threads with the sewing performance of spun thread. Core spun thread features a continuous filament polyester core covered with cotton or polyester fibers. Two or more of these composite yarns are then twisted to form the thread. The most common examples are Dual Duty and Signature. CONTINUOUS FILAMENT THREADS: This process begins by extruding individual filaments of synthetic material. A singling twist is applied to these unbroken, continuous fibers. They are then brought together and a finishing twist is applied. The result is a strong, consistent sewing thread. The most common examples are most rayon and polyester embroidery threads and YLIs Ultrasheen. TEXTURED THREADS: This process adds texture to the parallel continuous filaments of synthetic yarns, creating softness and bulk. The textured filaments are then twisted slightly and heat set. These threads provide excellent coverage for seams and rolled edges. Textured threads are typically used in the loopers of a serger or over locker. Woolly Nylon is the best example of textured thread. MONOFILAMENT THREAD: This is a single synthetic filament extruded to a specific diameter. They are available in a number of sizes, .004 and .005 being the most popular for the home sewer. Wonder Invisible Thread and Sulkys invisible thread are good examples. THREAD SIZING: There is a great deal of confusion and misinformation regarding the size of sewing thread and how we communicate size to one another. No clear standard has evolved that is universal in the home sewing market. Our intent here is to give you universal standards by which you can compare thread sizes from one manufacturer to another, spun polyester to filament silk, or even cotton to rayon. 10.5 COMMON THREAD SIZING STANDARDS: In the industrial sewing thread market, the Cotton Count System (NEc) has been the accepted standard utilized in sizing spun threads and the Denier System (Td) has been the accepted standard for filament threads. Over the last several years there has been a great deal of support to adopt a universal standard under which all sewing threads can be sized and will be understood world wide regardless of the threads construction. The TEX System is that standard for industrial sewing thread. The TEX system will be used as the standard in this booklet. Once you understand how the various standards, (such as cotton count, or denier) relate to TEX, you will be able to relate the thread one manufacturer calls a number 50 to a 40/3 ply from another. Until the TEX system, or some other standard, is adopted for home sewing thread, confusion will exist. However, we hope the information here will help. SIZING SYSTEMS: All threads can be produced in different thicknesses and the "size" of a particular thread is the relationship of its length to its weight. This relationship of length to weight is known as linear density, yarn count, or size. There are many sizing systems used, but they generally fall into two classifications: 303
Fixed Weight: These systems use the length of yarn that makes up a given weight. NEc (Cotton Count) - For Spun Threads This is the number of hanks (840 yds.) of yarn it takes to equal 1 pound. A cotton count of 1 means 840 yards of yarn weigh 1 pound and a cotton count of 2 means 1680 yards (840x2) weigh 1 pound. EXAMPLE: If you had a single strand of yarn 840 yards long weighing one pound, its count (or size) would be shown as 1/1. This simply means it had a count of one (the first number) and that it was a single strand of yard (the second number). If you then twisted two of those single strands together, the size would then be 1/2: One count yarn (the first number), in a two ply construction (the second number). Equivalent Size - The same size thread can be constructed using different count yarns by varying the number of plies. All the following threads are physically the same size of 30/2; 45/3; 60/4. To determine the equivalent size, simply divide the yarn count by the number of plies. All three of these threads have the equivalent size of 15. In Fixed Weight Systems, Higher the Number - Finer the Yarn. Fixed Length: These systems use the weight of a given length. Td (Denier count): Continuous Filament Threads - weight in grams per 9,000 m. Tex (TEX) - Weight in grams of 1,000 meters. (1 Tex = 1 gram per 1,000 meters)
FIXED LENGTH SYSTEMS, HIGHER THE NUMBER-THICKER THE YARN.
10.6 THREAD WEIGHT: Another popular size measurement system, particularly in embroidery thread is Thread Weight. Since most embroidery thread is a two-ply construction it is generally believed that Thread Weight equals the count number (the first number) as in the Cotton Count System. 40/2 = 40 count, 2 ply = 40wt; and 30/2 = 30 count, 2 ply = 30wt. unfortunately, this only works for two-ply threads. For example, a 40/3 quilting thread is not a 40wt. thread. 40/3 Cotton, 40 3= 13.33 equivalent the same size in a two-ply thread would be 26.67 or a 26.67 weight. Filament embroidery threads (i.e.: rayon and polyester) are typically measured in denier, so to determine Thread Weight the denier size of the thread must be converted to cotton count. Cotton Count = 5315 denier 120 denier two -ply rayon embroidery thread = 44.29 cotton count = 40wt. 150 denier two-ply rayon embroidery thread = 35.43 cotton count = 35wt. THE TEX SYSTEM: As we indicated earlier, the Tex system will be used in this brochure as the standard sizing system. It was chosen for two reasons: first, because metric designations are used worldwide, and Tex is a metric system. Second, since Tex is a direct numbering system, logical size numbers are assigned, the finer the thread, the smaller the size number assigned, and the coarser the thread, the larger the number. In order to reduce the sheer volume of sizing numbers that could be assigned, the Tex sizes are bracketed. All sizes falling into a particular bracket receive the same Tex number. The number assigned is always the smaller bracket number. For example a Tex 42 thread would be labeled a Tex 40 thread. Tex # [10.0 - 11.9] = Tex 10 Tex # [16.0 - 17.9] = Tex 16 Tex # [21.0 - 23.9] = Tex 21 Tex # [27.0 - 34.9] = Tex 27 Tex # [40.0 - 49.9] = Tex 40 Tex # [61.0 - 79.9] = Tex 60 Tex # [90.0 - 104.9] = Tex 90 Tex # [12.0 - 15.9] = Tex 12 Tex # [18.0 - 20.9] = Tex 18 Tex # [24.0 - 26.9] = Tex 24 Tex # [35.0 - 39.9] = Tex 35 Tex # [50.0 - 59.9] = Tex 50 Tex # [80.0 - 89.9] = Tex 80
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THREAD SIZE COMPARISON: In order to make comparisons as understandable as possible, the following chart breaks thread into three major classifications: Heavy weight threads: Tex 40 - Tex 90 Medium weight threads: Tex 27 - Tex 35 Light weight threads: Tex 10 - Tex 24 The threads used in the following chart are only examples to help you establish a basis of understanding. All you need to know is the cotton count or denier to convert any thread size to Tex. To convert cotton count to TEX Divide the cotton count, into 590.5. To convert denier to TEX multiply denier by .1111 (d x 0.1111) HEAVY WEIGHT THREADS: Thread Type Cotton Denier Tex Tex Count Number Size YLI Jeans Stitch 18/3 98 90 YLI Silk # 30 567 63 60 YLI Colors 30/3 59 50 YLI Quilting 40/3 44 40 Mettler Quilting 40/3 44 40 Gutterman Quilting 40/3 44 40 Signature Cotton 360 Quilting 40/3 44 40 Sulky #30 rayon 40 40 MEDIUM WEIGHT THREADS: Thread Type Cotton Denier Tex Tex Count Number Size Mettler, all purpose poly 50/3 35 35 Gutterman, all purpose poly 50/3 318 35 35 Coats Dual Duty, poly/cotton 35/2 300 33 27 YLI Silk #50 243 27 27 YLI Select, cotton 40/2 31 27 Finishing Touch, #35 rayon 300 33 27 Elite 60/3 29 27 Maxi-Lock 42/2 28 27 LIGHT WEIGHT THREADS: Thread Type Cotton Denier Tex Count Number Sulky rayon #40 240 26 R&A,rayon #40 240 26 Mettler PolySheen 240 26 Woolly Nylon 240 24 Mettler cotton 60/2 19 YLI Heirloom 70/2 16 Madeira cotton 80/2 14 YLI Heirloom 100/2 11 YLI Silk #100 124 12 Tex Size 24 24 24 24 18 16 12 10 12
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10.7 MINIMIZING THREAD BREAKAGE: Thread breakage and skipped stitches are common aggravations on any sewing floor because it interrupts production, affects quality, and reduces the earnings and efficiency of production operators. Thread breakage and skipped stitches can be caused by many factors including: 1. Wrong thread for the application. 3. Improper needle / thread size relationship. 5. Improper threading. 7. Defective needle or improper positioning. 9. Worn or defective machine parts. 11. Improper feeding. 13. Flagging. 2. Quality defects in the thread. 4. Worn or defective thread guides. 6. Excessive machine thread tension. 8. Needle heat. 10. Machines out of adjustment. 12. Improper operator handling.
There are many variables that impact thread breakage and skipped stitches. Initially, we will focus on the characteristics in thread that impact thread breakage, but later we will also discuss a logical approach used for trouble-shooting thread breakage. 10.8 Characteristics in Thread That Affect Breakage & Skipped Stitches: The key product characteristics in thread that have the greatest impact on thread breakage and skipped stitches includes proper loop formation; absence of yarn imperfections; proper lubrication; and ply security or ply adhesion. Proper Loop Formation: Every sewing machine uses a needle to pass thread through the seam to form a stitch. Most sewing machines begin their stitch forming cycle when the needle starts to rise from the bottom of its stroke. a) The upward motion of the needle b) The clamping action of the thread between the needle blade and the fabric, and c) Holding of seam in a position play an important role in proper loop formation. Loop Formation refers to the forming of a loop for the stitch-forming device (e.g., hook, looper, spreader) to enter. When the needle thread loop is formed, three things can happen and two of them are bad. Ideally, the stitch forming device will enter the loop and continue to form the stitch; however, if an improper thread loop is formed, the stitch forming device can strike the thread causing the thread to break or miss the loop causing a skipped stitch. The thread characteristics that impact loop formation include elongation or stretchiness of the thread; initial modulus or initial resistance to stretching; twist direction & twist level; liveliness of the thread and frictional characteristics needed to set a balanced stitch If the needle size - thread size relationship is improper, the thread will not be properly clamped on the scarf side of the needle and poor loop formation will occur. If the seam is not held in a stationary position when the needle is rising, the seam will rise with the needle and not form a proper needle loop. This condition, called flagging, is one of the most common causes of skipped stitches and thread breakage. Many times a skipped stitch or thread break will occur when crossing another seam. This problem could occur due to the additional thickness that the needle has to penetrate. This could apply additional tension to the thread or cause the needle to deflect away from the stitch-forming device. However, many times the skip or break occurs right after the thickness has been crossed and usually the result of flagging. This happens when the back portion of the presser foot is still on the seam and the front portion of the foot is no longer clamping the fabric securely. Therefore, as the needle begins to rise, the fabric moves up with the needle and a poor needle loop is formed
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Thread Elongation and Initial Modulus: The inherent stretchiness or elongation of the thread is generally determined by the fiber type. For example, both nylon and polyester threads have a much higher elongation than 100% cotton threads. On the following graph, you can see the relationship between tension and elongation. The cotton thread stretches approximately 3 to 4% before it breaks. Polyester thread, on the other hand, stretches approximately 17 to 20% before it breaks. Polyester thread has a higher elongation at break that contributes to seam elasticity and seam strength. A key product characteristic developed in our synthetic threads to enhance loop formation is a high initial modulus or initial resistance to stretching. A thread with a higher initial modulus will minimize the amount that the thread stretches as the needle approaches the bottom of its travel. Therefore, when the needle begins to rise, the thread will be relaxed so a proper needle loop will be formed. When the thread is stretched as the needle reaches the bottom of its travel in the stitch formation cycle, the thread will recover to its original un-stretched length as the needle begins to rise. The more the thread is stretched, the later a needle loop will be formed and the smaller the target the stitch forming device has to enter to form a proper stitch. The end result may be a skipped stitch or thread breakage. The physical properties in thread that impact how much the thread is stretched during the sewing process includes elongation properties of the fiber being used; initial modulus - the thread's initial resistance to stretching; and frictional characteristics of the thread needed to set a balanced stitch. Note: Regardless of the type of thread being used, as more and more tension is applied to the thread, the thread will stretch more, affecting loop formation. Improper loop formation will result in a higher frequency of sewing interruptions. This is why it is recommended to always adjust the sewing machines thread handling system to sew with minimum thread tension. A recommended procedure for balancing the stitch on any sewing machine is to set the bottom tension (bobbin or looper) to a minimum that still forms a consistent stitch and reduce the needle thread tension until the stitch appears to be loose on the bottom side of the seam then tighten the top tension until a balanced stitch is achieved. Thread Lubricant: The thread lubricant is another important variable in the loop formation equation. Ideally, the thread lubricant will give the thread a consistent dynamic tension as it passes through the sewing machine's thread guides and tension devices and also allow the thread to form a balanced stitch with minimum thread tension. This will minimize the amount that the thread stretches allowing a proper needle loop to form. Later in this bulletin, we will look at some of the variables that impact the frictional characteristics of sewing thread. Many thread lubricants include an anti stat to minimize the static electrical attraction of the thread to metal surfaces. This attraction can cause the thread to leave its proper thread path impacting loop formation and thread breakage. Synthetic threads made from polyester and nylon is more susceptible to static than threads made from cotton or rayon. Uniformity - Consistency of Physical Properties: Many factors affect the uniformity of the thread. By uniformity, we are referring to the consistency in physical properties regarding yarn construction; yarn diameter; strength; elongation and modulus; lubrication; and Cone build or wind. These are the primary thread properties that have an impact on sew ability. Other factors that affect seam integrity and seam appearance includes color; color fastness; resistance to seam degradation (chemicals, abrasion, UV, etc.); and Loop strength. 307
10.9 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THREAD BREAKAGE. Yarn Construction: Continuous filament thread constructions are more consistent in physical properties and diameter and generally have a higher tenacity or strength per size than spun constructions made with staple fibers. The ranking of thread constructions regarding consistency of construction are mono filament; mono cord; twisted multi filament; textured air entangled; core spun; and spun. The reason why spun constructions are not as consistent as continuous filament thread constructions is that spun threads are made from staple fibers that are spun into a yarn. Thousands of staple fibers have to be aligned and twisted together to make the thread. Spun threads are also generally weaker than continuous filament threads of equal size and therefore may break during the spinning and twisting processes requiring knots or air splices. However, spun threads have the advantages as fibrous or fuzzy surface has a softer "hand"; fibrous or fuzzy surface refracts light so it blends in better with spun fabrics; fibrous surface contributes to superior frictional characteristics; and Generally, spun threads are less expensive than continuous thread constructions like Core spun and Twisted multifilament thread constructions. Uniformity - Absence of Yarn Imperfections: Yarn imperfections like knots and slubs will generally cause thread breakage; that is why A&E has reengineered many of its processes to eliminate major imperfections. This includes the use of Air Splices where knots used to be used. We believe that "no knot is a good knot". Payoff the Cone Due to the Build or the Wind: To minimize thread breakage, it is imperative that the thread feed off the cone with the least amount of resistance. This is why it is important that the thread-stand eyelet is located directly over the center of the cone. Proper Frictional Characteristics: The frictional characteristics of a sewing thread can be affected by Fiber Type (e.g., Cotton, Polyester); Thread Construction (e.g., Spun, Textured, and Air Entangled); Dye Types and Cycle times (e.g., Disperse, Acid); Thread Finish (Soft, Bond, Glace); Thread Lubricant (e.g., Silicone, Wax based); and Cone type and wind. Thread Lubricant: One purpose of a thread lubricant applied to the surface of the thread is to allow the thread to pass through the sewing machine's thread guides and tension devices with uniform tension and to also allow the stitch to be set with minimum thread tension. The other primary purpose of a thread lubricant on synthetic threads is to protect the thread against needle heat is generated by the friction between the fabric and the needle blade. Ideally, the thread lubricant comes off on the needle blade surface allowing it to penetrate the fabric with less friction. A number of factors impact the amount of heat generated by the sewing process. They include Seam density and thickness; Machine speed; Needle type and size; and amount and type of lubricant used on the thread. Generally larger thread sizes have more thread lubricant than finer thread sizes because larger thread sizes are sewn into the heavier fabrics. Good Ply Security or Ply Adhesion: If you look at the end of the thread that has broken, it usually is not a clean break but an unraveled group of fibers. These unraveled thread breaks are caused by a breakdown in the ply adhesion of the fibers in the thread. If there was a clean cut or break it could be caused by a weak spot in the thread or a sharp surface in the machine that cuts the thread. However, most breaks appear to have been unraveled. A number of factors affect the ply security of the
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thread. They include Thread construction (e.g., spun, core, textured); Uniformity of construction; Twist level (TPI); Fiber cohesion characteristics; Thread finish (e.g., soft, bonded, graced); and Frictional characteristics of the thread. Most manufacturers have learned by experience that core spun threads give better sewing performance on automated multi-directional sewing machines than spun constructed threads. Thread Selection Summary: As you can see from the preceding remarks, there are many causes of thread breakage and skipped stitches so it is important to observe and evaluate the problem to determine what might be the primary cause. Usually, more than one of the factors listed contributes to excessive thread breakage. 10.10 Other Causes of Thread Breakage and Skipped Stitches: In the following comments, we will outline a trouble-shooting guide from three perspectives i.e. Is the thread breakage or skipping occurring on all operations and on most machines?; Is the thread breakage or skipping occurring primarily on one operation or type of machine?; and Is the thread breakage or skipping occurring on one or two machines only? The reason for this analysis is to help you differentiate between thread related problems and machine related problems. Common sense should tell you that if a sewing problem is occurring on only one or two machines, the problem is most likely NOT a thread related problem unless a noticeable defect is visible. On the other hand, if the problem is occurring on one color and on all sewing operations, the thread should be investigated first. Is Thread Breakage Occurring on All Operations and on Most Types of Machines? Check the following: 1. Has there been a thread change: a) From one type to another? b) From one size to another? c) From one supplier to another? 2. Check the quality of the thread for obvious defects: a) Knots, subs, neps, improper twist, etc. b) Does the thread feel weak? c) Does the thread feel dry or pull through the sewing machine with a rough drag? 3. Check the quality of the piece goods being sewn: a) Has there been a change from one supplier to another? b) From one type to another? c) In the weight or stiffness of the fabric? d) Is thread breakage occurring on all colors and patterns, or on one color or style? Recommendations 1. Try sewing with thread from a different case or shipment. 2. Make sure the correct thread type and size is being used. 3. Send cones that are breaking to your thread supplier for evaluation. Ask for technical assistance if available. 4. If the fabric appears to be different, see if fabric from a different shipment causes the same problem. 5. Ask your piece goods supplier to check the fabric for proper finishing, etc. 6. Check for signs of needle heat.
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Is Thread Breakage or Skipping Occurring Primarily on One Operation or Type of Machine? 1. Is the correct type and size needle being used? 2. Is the proper machine and attachment being used for the operation? 3. Are the machines adjusted correctly for the operation? 4. Have the sewing operators made any changes in their method of operation? 5. Has there been a thread change from one type to another; from one size to another and or from one supplier to another? Recommendations: 1. Observe the operation to see if the thread is breaking at the same location most of the time. Depending on fabric and operation, a special thread required. 2. Make sure correct needle and thread sizes are being used for the operation. 3. The machines should be set up correctly for the operation with the correct presser foot, feed, needle plate and attachments. 4. Check to make sure the mechanics are familiar with the particular type of machines being used on this operation. If not, try to find a training program on the equipment. Check with your machine supplier. 5. Check for signs of needle heat. Try reducing the size of the needle or use a special coated needle. Use needle coolers on the machines if needed. 6. Make sure the sewing operators are properly trained on the operation and are using the correct material handling techniques.
11. THREAD FACTS: There are many types of threads available on the
market today. They vary in fiber content, fiber length, thread size, and intended use. A good quality thread will be easier to work with in a sewing machine, serger or by hand. The results of the project will also be improved if a quality thread is used instead of a "bargain" thread. A good quality thread is strong, smooth (not fuzzy), consistent in thickness and resists tangles. 11.1 FIBER CONTENT: The thread's fiber content is of two basic types, natural and synthetic. Natural fiber threads come from a source in nature and include: cotton, linen, and silk. Synthetic fibers are made by a chemical manufacturing process. Synthetic fibers include: polyester, nylon, rayon and acrylic. Polyester is the most common of these. In most cases, a synthetic fiber has greater strength than a natural fiber. 11.2 FIBER LENGTH: The fibers of thread can be staple length fibers or filament fibers. A filament fiber is a continuous fiber and can be very long. Silk is one continuous filament fiber. Synthetic fibers are produced as continuous filaments then cut into desired staple lengths. Staple fibers are fairly short, usually up to two inches in length. Cotton is an example of a staple fiber. Synthetic filament fibers are cut into staple fibers of desired length, sometimes up to five inches. 11.3 FIBER TWIST: Thread is made by aligning and then twisting fibers together. Thread made from longer fibers, staple or filament; tend to have greater strength than short staple fibers. Short staple fibers are often used in inexpensive threads, causing them to be fuzzier and weaker than when longer staple length fibers are used. These shorter fibers often loose lint in the sewing process and may cause machine problems.
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12. TYPES OF THREAD: No one thread can be used successfully on every

fabric. It is important to understand that best thread depends on the project in which it be used. 12.1 COTTON: Thread of 100 percent cotton is less used today then in previous times due to greater durability and versatility offered by other threads. Cotton thread forms soft stitches and comes in several weights, useful for sewing fabrics of different weights. They have little stretch and are best used on natural fiber woven fabrics. 12.2 COTTON COVERED POLYESTER CORE: The most commonly used all purpose thread. The polyester core provides strength and stretch while the cotton outer layer gives easier sewability. 12.3 POLYESTER: Thread that is 100 percent polyester has good strength, and has the ability to stretch and recover. It is recommended for knits, though it also sews well on wovens. Short-staple polyester has been cut into 1 1/2" staple lengths. It appears fuzzy and tends to produce lint. Long-staple polyester filaments are 4" to 5" in length. This makes the thread finer, smoother and more even. 12.4 SILK: Quality silk thread is made from long continuous filament fibers resulting in strong and lustrous thread. Bit expensive, but good for tailoring because it can stretch. 12.5 RAYON: This thread is lustrous like silk, but is less durable. Use it as a substitute for silk in decorative work. 12.6 NYLON Monofilament nylon thread is strong and semi-transparent. It is designed for sewing nylon tricot and other lingerie fabrics. Avoid using a very hot iron on nylon thread. Use it in conventional or serger machines. 12.7 SPECIALTY THREADS: Metallic threads are for decorative use. They should be used with a larger sized needle, an all purpose thread in the bobbin, and sew slowly. Fiber content may be 60 percent polyester and 40 percent metallic. Basting thread is a soft, weak light weight thread made especially for easy removal. Buttonhole twist and topstitching threads are intended for the uses their names suggest. They are available in silk or polyester. Use a large needle with a large eye to keep thread from shredding. Button and carpet threads are very strong and have a glazed finish to ease the piercing of heavy weight fabrics. Machine Embroidery thread is designed to fill in smoothly and evenly without building up or breaking. It may be cotton, rayon, long staple polyester or core-spun polyester. Thread Fuse TM is a polyester thread coated with a heat activated fusible fiber. It bonds with the touch of a steam iron. Use it in the bobbin of a conventional machine or the lower looper of a serger. Try it for hems, positioning zippers, pockets, facings appliqu s, and matching plaids. Stitch'n Fuse is a similar thread made of 100 percent nylon. Serger thread is specially made for high speed sewing. It is slightly finer in size, and has a special finish for higher speed sewing. It is available on cones, king or compact tubes. There are a variety of threads used for serging. Any may be tried on a serger: Pearl cotton, a mercerized 100 percent cotton; Decor 6, a 100 % viscose rayon filament thread; rayon ribbon floss, a 1/16" braided mini ribbon; and wooly nylon, a texturized nylon thread. 12.8 THREAD CARE: Consider the care requirement of your thread choice. While most threads are easy care (machine wash and dry) there are some exceptions. Some rayon threads require cold water temperatures, while metallic and nylon threads may
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be heat sensitive; silk is harmed by chlorine bleach. The thread care requirements should be compatible with the fabric care requirements. 12.9 THREAD TIPS 1. Select a thread color to match your fabric or one shade darker. 2. For plaids and multicolored background select thread to match main color. 3. Buy your fabric and thread at the same time. 4. Purchase enough thread to complete the project. 5. For ease in threading a needle, cut thread on a slant with sharp scissors. 6. It is best to work with thread no longer than 18" when hand sewing. 12.10 WHAT MAKES A GOOD THREAD? This may seem like the $64,000 question, but in general all good sewing threads have in common good sewability, good seam performance and in the case of decorative threads, aesthetics. Several characteristics contribute to these attributes and are regularly measured and monitored by most thread manufacturers. 1. Elongation - This is the amount a thread stretches before it breaks. Threads with high elongation will give greater seam elasticity, but can cause poor loop formation leading to excessive skipped stitches and thread breakage. The elongation of a sewing thread is determined by fiber type but can also be controlled by drawing and heat setting of synthetics such as polyester and nylon. Cotton thread has very little, if any, elongation. 2. Uniformity - Imperfections or defects in thread are thick and thin places that can cause sewing problems. The most common imperfections are: knots, slubs, neps, dropped ply, dropped filament and singles kinks. Obviously the fewer the better. 3. Ply Security - This is a thread's ability to stay together during the sewing process. The most common type of thread break is caused by a loss of ply security. If the plies open up during the sewing process they are much more susceptible to breaking. 4. Lubricity - This is the frictional characteristic of thread as it passes through the sewing machine and into the seam. The soft fuzzy characteristic of cotton thread and spun polyester actually gives these threads greater lubricity and better sewability than continuous filament threads. 5. Strength - The amount of force required to break a thread. This characteristic can be measured several ways: 6. Breaking Strength force applied to each end of thread until it breaks. 7. Loop Strength - when one strand of thread is looped with another strand and then broken, also measured in pounds. 8. Tenacity - the breaking strength of a thread adjusted for thread size. Tenacity is measured in grams/denier. Thread made from continuous filaments is generally stronger and have higher tenacity than threads made from staple fibers. 9. Twist - A thread with too little twist may fray and break, one with too much can cause snarling, looping and knotting. Thread breaks can be caused by a no of variables including:
312
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
Using the wrong thread for the application Incorrect needle or damaged needle Thread defects Too much elongation Being sewn with too much tension Worn machine parts Machine out of adjustment Operator handling
ALL THREAD IS NOT CREATED EQUAL: Hopefully you now understand how thread is made, the things to look for in a good quality thread, how to compare the various sizes to one universal standard, and the importance of the needle to sewing performance. Now, in order to effectively compare one thread to another you need to ask the manufacturer for the appropriate information like Tex Size; Tenacity, Loop Strength, and/or Breaking Strength; Color Fastness; Raw Material - Spun or Filament Yarn; Type of Finish and Construction COLOR FASTNESS: The ability of a thread to retain its color during normal use is its colorfastness. There are several variables that are measured. a) Wash Fastness - the ability to resist color change after laundering. b) Crock Fastness - Rubbing off of color. Crocking is checked wet and dry. c) Sublimation - The loss of color due to heat. Certain dyes will change from a solid to gas when exposed to high heat and will redeposit elsewhere. d) Cold Water Migration - Possibility of staining when light colored fabric is combined with stronger colored thread and left wet for a period of time. e) Light Fastness - In this test, samples are exposed for prolonged periods of time to daylight. While synthetic threads are generally more colorfast than cotton or rayon, keep in mind some thread types may be colorfast to some variables and only moderately colorfast to others.
13. SEWING NEEDLES: You may wonder what a section on needles is doing
in a brochure about thread, but the relationship between needle and thread is crucial to successful sewing or quilting. As important as it is to select the proper needle for the fabric, it is equally important to select the proper needle for the thread you are using. Very often thread breakage, skipped stitches or other "thread" problems are the result of damaged or improper needle selection. 13.1 SELECTING THE PROPER MACHINE NEEDLE: Proper needle selection is determined by two key factors: thread to be used and fabric to be sewn or quilted. 1. Select the thread to match the fabric or the project 2. Next, select the needle type best suited for the fabric used 3. Finally, select the needle size to match the thread. The thread must lay in the front groove without sitting on top or wobbling in the groove. The eye must be large enough for the thread to pass through with minimal friction. 4. Always start with a new needle 13.2 MINIMIZING NEEDLE HEAT: Today, most high-speed industrial sewing machines sew at very high speeds from 4,000 to 10,000 stitches per minute. Also, the most common sewing threads used for the manufacturing of apparel or non-apparel items are either polyester or nylon that have been produced using a melt-spinning 313
process. Many of the fabrics being sewn are made from synthetic fibers that can be impacted by excessive heat. Some needle holes that appear to be needle cuts are actually caused by excessively hot needles. In this bulletin, we will discuss what causes needle heat and what can be done to minimize needle heat. 13.3 What Causes Needle Heat: The friction between the needle blade and the fabric creates needle heat. The following factors can have an impact on the amount of heat that is generated: 1. Fabric thickness 2. Fabric finish or density 3 Fabric color or density 4. Sewing machine speed 5. Needle contact surface 6. Needle Size or diameter 7. Needle length 8. Type of needle blade. 9. Type of needle finish Needle heat is usually more of a problem when sewing either synthetic threads and / or synthetic fabrics and can cause excessive thread breakage and / or damage to the fabric being sewn. Generally, needle heat will cause thread breakage when the operator stops sewing after a long run and the thread comes to rest in the needle eye.NOT during sewing. The result is that the polyester or nylon threads melts and breaks. Both polyester and nylon have a melt point of approximately 485 F or 252 C. Whenever the needle reaches a temperature higher than the melt point of the thread, the thread will melt. Needle thread breakage due to needle heat can be detected by checking the end of the thread to see if there is a hard nodule where the thread melted and re-solidified. American & Efird puts a thread lubricant on the thread to help minimize needle heat and give the thread good frictional characteristics to set a uniform balanced stitch. Usually, larger sizes of thread that are sewn into to heavier weight garments have a heavier lube application to protect thread against needle heat. 13.4 Ways of Minimizing Needle Heat: Use a smaller diameter needle whenever possible. A smaller diameter needle will definitely minimize needle heat and may be the solution in marginal situations. Use a "ball eye" needle. A "ball eye" needle is where the diameter across the eye is generally .003 or .004 inch larger than the blade diameter, therefore, it opens up a larger hole, minimizing the friction on the needle blade. Many needle manufacturers even have an "oversized ball eye" needle in some classes of needles that are commonly used for sewing heavy fabrics. On leather, vinyl, and other homogeneous fabrics, uses a needle with cutting edges like a diamond, triangle, or wedge point. These needle point types actually cut through the fabric minimizing the penetration resistance and needle heat. Cutting point needles are not recommended for woven or knitted fabrics used for making apparel due to fabric damage. Try needles with special low friction surfaces. Most needles have low friction chrome plating; however, there are other special needle coatings like Teflon or Tungsten that will minimize the friction between the needle and the fabric. Use needle coolers or devices that blow compressed air on the needle during sewing. This requires the availability of compressed air and lines carrying this air to the sewing machines. Machines should have control switches that conserve the consumption of compressed air and only supplies air on the needle during sewing. Use cotton wrapped polyester core spun thread like A&Es D-Core. The cotton wrapper acts as an insulator protecting the thread from the heat. Ask you thread supplier if they have products available with heavier lube levels. The danger of using excessively high lube applications is finish migration in to the seam. Equip the machine with needle positioners that position the needle down after long high-speed runs. This allows the fabric to help dissipate heat and hopefully prevents the thread
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from melting; however, it can cause more needle holes on synthetic fabrics. Slow the sewing machines down to an acceptable level to minimize thread breakage due to needle heat.
13.5 MACHINE NEEDLES PARTS AND TYPES: Parts of Machine Needles a) Point - One of the main differences between needles is the type of point. The point type is the most important consideration in regards to the fabric. b) Eye - The eye is the hole through which the thread passes and is therefore extremely important to thread selection. c) Shank - This is the part that is inserted into the machine. d) Shaft - The body of the needle itself or how thick the needle is. e) Scarf - This is the indentation in the back of the needle. Important because this is where the stitch is formed. When the bobbin shuttle swings into the scarf it hooks into the looped needle thread to form the stitch. f) Front Groove - The front groove allows the needle thread to lay close to the needle as it travels down the needle towards the bobbin. The deep groove of some needles helps protect the thread from friction created when the needle pierces the fabric. If the needle is too fine for the thread being used, stitch faults may occur. Machine needles range in size from 60/8 (very fine) to 120/19 (heavy duty). The higher number relates to the needle's shaft diameter in metric, the lower number to a U.S. system, which relates to shaft diameter. g) Universal - A general-purpose needle that can be used on woven fabrics as well as knits. They come in 60/8 to 120/18. h) Jeans / Denim - Designed for densely woven and heavily finished fabrics. It features a very stiff shaft, sharp point and slender eye. It is a great choice for getting perfectly straight stitches. Sizes range from 70/10 to 110/18. i) Jersey / Ballpoint - This needle is designed to be used on knits. Its rounded point slips between the fibers rather than cutting them. From 70/10 to 120/18. j) Stretch - This needle has a slightly more rounded point than a universal needle. There is a tiny hump between the eye and scarf that allows the thread to make a large loop on one side of the needle. This loop makes it easy to complete a stitch. They come in sizes 75/11 or 90/14. 315
k) Quilting - These needles have a thin, tapered deep point, which is good for sewing multiple layers. They come in sizes 75/11 or 90/14. l) Microtex - With a thin shaft, and a slim, sharp point, these needles are the right choice for lightweight fabrics, delicate wovens and any heirloom sewing. Sizes range from 60/8 to 100/16. m) Topstitch - This extra sharp needle is less rounded than the universal. The eye is twice as long and the front grove is deeper. This is good choice when using heavier threads without piercing large holes in fabric. Sizes 70/10 to 100/16. n) Embroidery - Designed to work with embroidery threads, has a large eye and special scarf protecting more fragile threads. Sizes range from 75/11 to 90/14. o) Metallica - These needles are designed specifically for metallic and flat decorative threads. The eye is double sized and Teflon coated, the front groove is deep and the scarf is longer. Sizes 80/12 or 90/14. THREAD / MACHINE NEEDLE CHART: SPUN THREAD 70/2 ply 60/2 ply 50/3 ply 40/2 ply 40/3 ply 30/2 ply 30/3 ply Jeans Stitch SYNTHETIC Rayon # 40 Poly #40 Rayon/Poly #30 Metallic FILAMENT #100 #50 #30 TEX Tex 16 Tex 18 Tex 35 Tex 27 Tex 40 Tex 35 Tex 50 Tex 90 TEX Tex 24 Tex 24 Tex 40 Tex 24 TEX Tex 12 Tex 27 Tex 60 NEEDLE SELECTION Universal 70/10, Embroidery 75/11, Microtex 70/10 Universal 70/10, Embroidery 75/11, Microtex 70/11 Universal 70/10 - 80/12, Jeans 80/12, Quilting 75/11 Universal 70/10 - 80/12, Quilting 75/11 Universal 80/12, Sharp 80/12, Embroidery 90/14 Top Stitch 90/14, Embroidery 80/12, Jeans 90/14 Top Stitch 90/14, Quilting 90/14, Embroidery 90/14 Denim 90/14, 100/16, Embroidery 90/14 NEEDLE SELECTION Embroidery 75/11- 80/12 Embroidery 75/11- 80/12 Embroidery 90/14 Metallica or Metafil 80/12, Embroidery 90/14 NEEDLE SELECTION Microtex 70/11, Embroidery 75/11 Universal 80/12, Embroidery 80/12 - 90/14 Top Stitch 90/14, Embroidery 90/14
PARTS OF A BASIC FIVE POCKET DENIM JEAN Part Quantity Back length 2 Back yoke 2 Back pocket 2 Front length 2 Coin pocket 1 Front facing 2 Pocket bag 2 Single fly 1 Double fly 1 Waist belt 1 Belt loops 5-7 Total 21-23
316
STITCHING OF BASIC FIVE POCKET DENIM JEAN Operation BACK 1. Attach back yoke to back lengths 2. Back rise stitching 3. Back pocket hemming 4. Tracing of back pocket on back lengths 5. Back pocket mock stitch 6. Attach back pocket on back lengths 7. Back pocket bar tack FRONT 8. Coin pocket hemming 9. Tracing of coin pocket on front facing 10. Attach coin pocket on front facing 11. Front facing over lock 12. Attach pocket bag with front facing 13. Pocket bag over lock 14. Apply reverse stitch on the over locked pocket bag 15. Hang swing. Attach pocket bag to front length using twill tape 16. Attach front facing to front length 17. Front length over lock (inseam) ZIP 18. Single and double fly over lock 19. Attach single fly to front length and zip to single fly a.k.a. zip prepare. 20. J stitch 21. Attach front length to the second side of zip and conceal the zip a.k.a. zip finished. The front rise is also stitched. 22. Fly bar tack ASSEMBLY 23. Stitch inseam 24. Stitch out seam 25. Make belt loops 26. Out seam top Stitch (9 / 6) 27. Attach belt loops 28. Attach waist belt and fold at ends 29. Place eyelet 30. T Stitch 31. Belt Loop bar tack 32. Bottom hemming Machine Feedo Feedo Single/Double Needle Single Needle Single Needle Bar tack Double Needle Single Needle Over lock Flat Lock Over lock Single Needle Double Needle Single Needle Over Lock Over Lock Single Needle Double Needle Single Needle
Bar tack Feedo Over lock / Safety Belt Loop Single Needle Single Needle Waist Belt Eyelet Single Needle Bar tack Single Needle
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OPERATIONS AND MACHINES Operation Back rise Back yoke attachment Hemming Mock stitch Patching Bar tack Hemming Coin pocket stitch Front facing over lock Pocket cloth with front facing Pocket bag over lock Reverse stitch Hang swing Front facing to front length Over Lock front length Single & Double fly over lock Zip prepare J stitch Zip finished Fly bar tack Inseam Out seam Belt loop Waist belt Eye let T stitch Bar tack Hemming Button Rivet Machine Feedo / over lock Feedo Single / Double Needle Single needle Single Needle Bar tack Single / Double Needle Single Needle Over Lock Flat Lock Over Lock Single needle Double Needle Single Needle Over lock Over lock Single needle Double needle Single needle Bar tack Feedo / Over Lock Feedo / Over Lock Single needle Waist belt Eye let Single needle Bar tack Single Needle Button attach Rivet Attach
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AA AB AC AD
318
Payment for the month of December 2003 (Skirts. 0# 314-529 Pcs) Sr. #
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Operation
Front Jati Facing Two Needle Scoope Over Lock Expense Zip Kachi Kanara Slai J-Slai Botton Tek Karoch Latha Pcoket Pocket Panel Sheet Feedo Back Pocket Hem Logo Press Design Back Pocket Yok Mark Back Pocket Att. Flek Labe Inseam Feedo Size Label Side Safety Pass Selai Loopi Kachi Att. West Belt Att. Belt folding Kanara Selai Loop Make & Attached Belt Label Attached Bottom Hem Bar Teck
Stit. Pcs.
Total
Rate
1.05 0.20 0.50 0.35 0.40 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.75 0.20 0.20 0.40 0.20 1.35 0.70 0.20 0.45 0.30 0.30 0.45 0.45 0.20 0.15 0.40 0.50 0.85
Total Amount
5,902 1,124 2,811 1,967 2,248 1,405 1,686 1,686 1,124 4,216 1,124 1,124 2,248 1,124 7,588 3,935 1,124 2,529 1,686 1,686 2,529 2,259 1,124 843 2,248 2,811 4,778 0 0 0 0 65,203.6
5621 5621.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621 11242.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621 5621 16863.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621 5621 16863.00 5621 5621.00 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 28105.00 5621 5621 5621 5621
11.60
319
ABC Ltd
RATE LIST (Tro.Side Pintuck O # 280-318) Pcs. 348
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 43 Operation TICKET POCKET ATTACHED LATTHA BOOT SALAI FRONT ATTACHED JATI FACING TWO NEEDLE SCOPE LATTHA POCKET OVERLOCK FRONT SIDE KANARA SALAI FRONT SIDE PENNAL KACHA KARNA PANNAL OVERLOCK KARNA FRONT PANNAL KANARA SALAI FRONT BACK SIDE KACHI KARNA FRONT AND BACK OVERLOCK KARNA SIDE KANARA SALAI J-SALAI BUTTONB TAKE SIZE LABLE FLY KACHI KARNA ZIP KACHI KARNA KAROOCH BUTTON TAKE THOKA BELT LABLE BELT LABLE BELT PACKA KARNA OVER LOCK EXPENCES PANNAL SEAT FEEDO BACK POKET HEIM LOGO PRESS DESIGN YOUK MARK BACK POCKET ATTACHED INSIM SAFTY BOTTOM HEIM LOOPI CUT+MAKE BAR TAKE BLOWS TWO BEEDLE + SIZE LABLE FLY THOKA Rate 0.50 0.20 0.35 0.20 0.50 0.20 6.00 1.20 0.45 0.80 1.20 0.45 0.80 0.30 0.45 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.20 1.20 0.40 1.25 0.30 0.75 0.20 0.20 1.10 0.20 1.25 0.45 0.75 0.20 0.85 1.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.2 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 43
ABC Ltd
RATE LIST (Tro.Reverse Yoke O # 310-348) Pcs.106
Operation TICKET POCKET LATTA BOOT STITCH FRONT ATTACH JATI FACHING TWIN NEEDLE SCOOP FRONT KINARA STITCHED LATTHA PICKET OVERLOCK FLY KINARA SALAI ZIP KACHI SALAI J-SALAI BUTTON KROOCH OVELOCK BACK YOKE EXPENCES BACK YOKE OVERLOCK BACK YOKE TWO NEEDLE SEAT SAFTY SEAT FEEDO INSIM SAFTY SIDE SAFTY SIZE LABLE PASS SALAI WAIST BELT BELT FOLDING BELT BOTTOM HEIM BARTAKE LOOPI CUT + MAKE BLOWS TOW NEEDLE + SIZE LABEL INSIM TOP FEEDO Rate 0.50 0.20 0.35 0.20 0.50 0.80 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.35 0.30 0.35 0.50 0.20 0.40 0.30 0.45 0.45 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.20 1.00 0.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.95
TOTLA RATE
TOTAL RATE
320
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Operation
Stit. Pcs.
5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621
Total
5621.00 5621.00 5621.00 11242.00 5621.00 5621.00 5621.00 5621.00
Rate
1.05 0.20 0.50 0.35 0.40 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.75 0.20 0.20 0.40 0.20 1.35 0.70 0.20 0.45 0.30 0.30 0.45 0.45 0.20 0.15 0.40 0.50 0.85 11.60
Total Amount
5,902 1,124 2,811 1,967 2,248 1,405 1,686 1,686 1,124 4,216 1,124 1,124 2,248 1,124 7,588 3,935 1,124 2,529 1,686 1,686 2,529 2,259 1,124 843 2,248 2,811 4,778 65,203.6
16863.00 5621.00 5621.00
16863.00 5621.00
28105.00
321
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Operation
Stit. Pcs.
5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621 5621
Total
5621.00 5621.00 5621.00 11242.00 5621.00 5621.00 5621.00 5621.00
Rate
1.05 0.20 0.50 0.35 0.40 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.75 0.20 0.20 0.40 0.20 1.35 0.70 0.20 0.45 0.30 0.30 0.45 0.45 0.20 0.15 0.40 0.50 0.85 11.60
Total Amount
5,902 1,124 2,811 1,967 2,248 1,405 1,686 1,686 1,124 4,216 1,124 1,124 2,248 1,124 7,588 3,935 1,124 2,529 1,686 1,686 2,529 2,259 1,124 843 2,248 2,811 4,778 65,203.6
16863.00 5621.00 5621.00
16863.00 5621.00
28105.00
322
ABC Ltd Rate List of (SKIRTS. O # 314-352) Pcs.530

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Operation Buckal Belt Make Front Kanara Salai Buckal Belt Thoka Round Belt Thoka Fly Kanara Salai J-Salai Button Take Karooch Button Take Make OverLock Expenses Side Safty Size Lable Round Belt Kacha Karna Round Belt Paka Rarna Buttim Heim Belt Lable Belt Thoka 3 No. Loopi Cut + Make Bar Take Pannal Seat Feedo Zip Kachi Karna Total Rate Rate 3.50 0.80 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.20 0.35 0.45 0.20 1.20 1.00 0.90 0.40 0.40 0.25 0.80 0.75 0.20 13.15 530.00 529.00 529.00 13.15 6956.40
Total Cutting Receiving Total Stitch Payment of Pcs. Per Pcs Rate Total Payment
323
QUALITY CONTROL IN GARMENT MANUFACTURING

1. QUALITY: Quality is the main feature in a product that delights the customer
by either meeting or exceeding expectations. 1.1 QUALITY DEFINITION: As per ASQC (American Society for quality)

Systematic approach to the search for excellence Fitness for use i.e. combination of the characteristics or properties of product which makes the product useable.
1.2 QUALITY GARMENT: Quality Garment is one, which meets following requirements:

It must be free from defects e.g. Stains, open seams, loose threads, misaligned buttons. It must fit to the label size It must performance satisfactorily in normal use. (It must be able to withstand normal laundering, dry cleaning, pressing without color loss or shrinkage, etc.)
1.3 QUALITY CONTROL: Quality Control is the system or process to make sure that quality is maintained. Quality Control is not just to find faults but also rectify and prevent such faults from further occurrence 1.4 INSPECTION: Inspection is the inherent part of Quality Control. The visual examination or review of raw materials (such as fabric, buttons, zippers, etc.), partially finished components of a garment and completely finished garments in relation to some standard specifications or requirements.
2. OBJECTIVE OF INSPECTION: The main objective of inspection is to

detect defects and non-conformances as early as possible in manufacturing process to avoid the wastage of time and money. STAGES OF INSPECTIONS IN GARMENT INDUSTRY: They are Raw material inspection and In-process inspection. RAW MATERIAL INSPECTION: It is the inspection of Fabric, Sewing Thread, Zippers, Closures and Snap fasteners. PRE-PRODUCTION INSPECTION: Before the actual production is planned, samples are made in the sampling department for approval by the buyers. These samples are inspected according to the specific requirements from the buyers for correct size, fabric type, trims, labels, finishing, and packing. IN-PROCESS INSPECTION: It is done in the Spreading, Cutting, Sewing, and Pressing and Finishing sections of production. FINAL INSPECTION: Final inspection is nothing but checking the finished garments, which are ready for shipment.
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2.1 RAW MATERIAL INSPECTION: It involves following inspections WOVEN FABRIC INSPECTION Broken end: Yarn broken in a warp direction in woven fabrics Broken Pick: Yarn broken in a weft direction in woven fabrics Burl mark: A slub or knot being removed with a burling tool in fabric. Coarse end / Pick: A yarn having a large diameter than normal to the fabric Double End: Two ends wrongly woven as one Double pick: Two picks wrongly placed in a single shed. End Out: A missing warp yarn. Hole: Any broken yarns to form a hole. Knot: Two or more ends of yarns tied together. Loom Bar: A change in shade across the full width of the fabric Mis-pick: Missing a weft yarn. Slub: A short abnormal thick place in a yarn Soiled filling: A weft yarn soiled by dirt or grease. Thick place: Where place of weft yarn greater in diameter than normal. Thin Place: Where place of weft yarn smaller in diameter than normal KNITTED FABRIC INSPECTION Barre: Noticeable stripes in the direction of the weft wise. Some causes are uneven yarn and uneven tension. Birdseye: Unintentional tucked stitches appear occasionally on knitted. Coarse yarn : A yarn having a large diameter than that normal to the fabric Dropped stitches: Stitch failing to form because of malfunctioning needle. Fine Yarn: A yarn having a smaller diameter than normal to the fabric. Missing Yarn: A yarn is missing or broken while machine continuing to run. Needle Line: Wales are distorted caused by a bent needle. Press-off: Condition in which knitted fabric fails to knit as a result, either the fabric falls off the needles or the design of the fabric is completely destroyed. Run: A vertical line of unformed stitches caused by damaged needle. PRINTED FABRIC INSPECTION Color out: Some printing pattern not fully printed. Color Smear: The color smeared out during printing. Out Of Register: Color printed not in a proper position during printing. Scrimp: Printing pattern is broken due to fabric creased during printing. 2.2 ACCESSORIES INSPECTION: As fabrics are inspected for defects similarly trims and accessories are also inspected for defects. The most important accessories inspected in a garment industry are buttons, interlining, labels, zippers, elastic, sewing threads, etc. They are checked for good strength, color fastness, durability, etc. Each trim undergoes different testing process as they differ from each other in their character and type. 2.3 IN-PROCESS INSPECTION: This means inspection at various points in the entire manufacturing process from spreading the fabric to pressing or finishing. 2.4 ADVANTAGES OF IN-PROCESS INSPECTION: Reduction in faults; Saves more time; and Decrease in labor cost due to decrease in repair rates.
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A. SPREADING: Factors to be checked are Ply alignment; Ply tension and Bowing. B. CUTTING DEFECTS: Frayed edges; Fuzzy, Ragged or Serrated edges; Ply to ply fusion; single edge fusion; Misplacement of Patterns; Wrong notches; Drilling. To prevent such defects Check knife speed; Keep knives sharp; Place wax paper in between fabric plies that lubricates cutting blade; Check notches, drill marks and patterns. C. SEWING: In-Process inspection in sewing involves the inspection of work from each operator with a quality standard established. There are two types of defects that may occur while sewing; they are the Sewing defects and seaming defects. Sewing defects refer to wrong use of presser footers, wrong type of needle, broken stitches, puckered seams, skipped stitches, incorrect type of feed, etc. Seaming defects refer to irregular or incorrect shape of the stitching line, insecure back stitches, seam burst open, raw edges or notches are visible, bad handling by the operators, etc. D. PRESSING AND FINISHING: Burned or scorched garments; Water spots or stains; Garments not thoroughly dried; Pockets not smooth; Shrinkage due to heat and moisture; Pockets not smooth; Packing not to specifications or details; and Broken buttons, zippers, etc. 2.5 FINAL INSPECTION: Garments are ready for shipment. During this inspection the packed garments are checked at random before shipping for packing, size or color ratios and cartons.
3. QUALITY CONSTRUCTION CHECKLIST

1. Appearance, Overall a) Notions compatible in color, fiber, weight, and design. b) Fabric nap correctly used. c) Pressed to give smooth look to finished garment. d) Loose ravelings, basting threads, and thread ends removed. e) Fabric used correctly, plaids, stripes, checks, or other designs planned. 2. Belts a) b) c) d) Style of belt suitable to garment design, uniform width. Ends well finished. Closure appropriate. Durable and attractive.
3. Buttons a) Neatly and securely fastened. b) Appropriate in size and design. c) Placement accurate and attractive, uniform distance from edge. d) Appropriate shank provided. e) Stitching started and ended under button. 4. Buttonholes a) Flat and securely stitched. b) Even in width and length. c) Placed at points of strain. d) Attractive and accurate in distance from edge & in spacing between. e) Cut on grain. f) Appropriate in size. g) Appropriate interfacing used.
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For fabric (bound) buttonholes h) Lips an attractive size and even in width. i) Lips meet exactly at the center of the hole. j) Corners square. k) Facing securely and appropriately fastened to the back of the buttonhole. For machine-made buttonholes l) Stitches evenly spaced; smooth in appearance on front and back. m) Center cut neatly with all loose threads trimmed off. n) Interfacing an appropriate color. 5. Collars a) Free from bulky seams graded, clipped, or notched. b) Under stitching holds under collar in place so it does not show. c) Appropriate interfacing used. d) Shape symmetrical on right and left. e) Curved edges smooth, points sharp and flat. f) Rolls smoothly or lays flat according to design. 6. Cuffs a) Flat, smooth, free from bulky seams graded and under stitched where applicable. b) Even in width. c) Under cuff does not show. d) Appropriately interfaced. 7. Darts a) b) c) d) e) Tapered and smooth, free from pucker or bubble at point. Securely fastened at ends. Symmetrical in shape, length, and spacing. Attractive placement. Pressed correctly, vertical darts pressed toward center, horizontal darts pressed down.
8. Facings a) Flat, smooth, free from bulk. b) Seams graded, clipped or notched, and under stitched as needed. c) Securely tacked in place at seams, darts, and openings. d) Facing edges free from ravelings e) Any edge finish flat, smooth, & free from bulk. 9. Fit a) b) c) d) e) f) Adequate ease for comfort. Fitting details (neckline, armhole, and waistline) properly located on body. Silhouette lines follow silhouette of body. Lengthwise grain line perpendicular to floor; crosswise grain line parallel to floor. Darts point to and stop short of the fullest part of the area they fit. Free from strain and/or excess fullness.
10. Gathers a) Uniform, evenly distributed. Stitched so pleats are not formed. b) Adequately full, do not look skimpy or bulky.
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11. Hems a) Flat and inconspicuous, unless meant to be decorative. b) Seams pressed as required and graded to reduce bulk. c) Hem fold pressed so hem hangs smoothly at lower edge. d) Hem edge smooth, flat, and free from ravelings. e) Excess fullness evenly eased, free from pleats. f) Seams aligned. g) Hem edge finish should not create ridge or add bulk. h) Hem even in width. i) Width appropriate for garment style and fabric type. j) Topstitching attractive in size & placement, straight. k) Hand stitches uniform, secure, & inconspicuous. l) Fused hems securely fused & flat. m) Hem hangs parallel to floor. n) Length attractive for wearer & appropriate for garment. 12. Interfacing a) Enhances body & wear of garment. b) Color & care requirements compatible to outer fabric. c) Free from bulk & ravelings. d) Not visible on inside or outside of garment. 13. Lining a) Conceals inner construction of garment without adding excess bulk. b) Color & care requirements compatible with outer fabric. c) Fits smoothly inside garment with seams aligned. d) If attached at hems, has pleat for ease. e) If free hanging, attached at seams with French tacks. f) Hemmed shorter than garment, 1/2 inch shorter than sleeves & 1 inch shorter than skirt. 14. Neckline a) Free from bulk. b) Facings flat & inconspicuously graded, clipped, & under stitched. c) Design symmetrical. 15. Needlework (hand stitching) a) Uniform stitches, secure, inconspicuous. b) Correct technique used on stitch with single thread. c) No bulky knots at thread ends. d) Correct stitch used for purpose. 16. Placket a) Flat, free from excess bulk. b) Inconspicuous unless meant to be decorative. c) Correct technique used for purpose faced, bound, hemmed. 17. Pleats, tucks a) Uniform in width (unless design varies). b) On straight grain of fabric when design allows. c) Neatly pressed as required. d) Stitching straight. e) Spacing attractive & accurate.
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18. Pockets a) Flat, smooth, free from bulk. b) Stitching straight. c) Pressed neatly. For Patch pockets d) Upper corners reinforced. e) Square corners mitered; round corners symmetrical. f) Hem appropriate width & neatly finished. g) Attractive placement. h) If in pairs, coordinated in size, shape, & fabric design (if applicable). In-seam pockets i) Interfaced, under stitched, lay flat when worn. j) Inconspicuous unless meant to be decorative 19. Pressing a) Garment smooth & free from wrinkles. b) Free from sheen & scorch. c) No ridges from seams or facings. d) Seams pressed flat & inconspicuous. e) Darts presses to shape garment. f) Pleats, tucks, creases pressed as design requires. 20. Seams a) Securely stitched, straight, flat, free from bulk. b) Stitches appropriate in size & tension. c) Fullness eased as required. d) Crossed seams intersect correctly. e) Pressed in correct direction. f) Graded or trimmed & under stitched where appropriate. g) Fabric design matched as possible. h) If finish used, no added bulk or tension. i) Construction notches trimmed off after seams are sewn. j) Free from raveling. 21. Sleeves Set-in sleeves a) Fullness evenly distributed. b) Seam smooth & even in width around cap. c) Underarm section of seam trimmed & double stitched. d) Seam pressed toward sleeve cap. e) Free from raveling. Kimono or raglan sleeves f) Seams pressed open g) Clipped & reinforced as needed. 22. Snaps, hooks & eyes, & other fasteners a) Applied with small, neat stitches that do not show on right side. b) Reinforced with interfacing. c) Placed at least 1/8 inch from garment edges. d) Inconspicuous from right side of garment. e) Garment lays flat when fastened. 329
23. Stitching a) Stitch length & tension appropriate for fabric. b) Straight, free from tangles, knots, & skipped stitches. c) Beginning & ending of stitching locked in appropriate way. d) Loose threads cut off. 24. Topstitching a) Straight. b) Attractive in placement. c) Stitch length & tension appropriate for design & fabric. 25. Under stitching a) Even distance from seam & inconspicuous. b) Holds seam against facing, under collar, or cuff without wrinkles. c) Prevents facing, under collar, or cuff from rolling to right side of garment. 26. Waistband a) Smooth, even width. b) Free from bulk. c) On grain. d) Interfaced. e) Stitching straight. f) Corners square. g) Unless band is a design feature, the overlap is even w/placket & a 1 inch extension is on the under lap of band. h) Skirt or pants eased to fit band. i) Sets exactly at top of zipper. 27. Waistline Seam a) Inconspicuous, smooth, & flat. b) Seams & darts match if appropriate. c) Secured by waistline stay to prevent stretching. 28. Zipper a) Placket smooth, flat, & free from puckering. b) Stitching straight & even. c) Placket appropriate length & width. d) Seams & neckline edges match. e) Zipper completely covered. f) Zipper slides easily. g) Inconspicuous unless meant to be a design feature. h) Skirt & zippers end at band. i) Neckline zippers end 1/2 inch from neckline so fastener can be attached above zipper
4. AQL - INSPECTION PROCEDURES:
Acceptable Quality Level (AQL). This specifies the number and level of inspection required for each line. It classifies products according to whether they are conforming or non-conforming i.e. whether accepted or rejected based on quantity and type of faults found. Each fault must be counted, and further classified according to whether they are major or minor. The AQL random sampling inspection was derived from the mathematical theory of probability and is based on the sampling scheme defined in Military Standard 105D (MIL-STD-105D). This method constitutes taking random samples from a lot of
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merchandise, inspecting them and, depending on the quality of the samples inspected, determining whether the entire lot is acceptable or not. The MIL-STD-105D (also BS6001, ISO 2859, DIN 40080), provides the sampling plans, and these determine the number of samples to be inspected in lot size, in addition to indicating the acceptable quality level (AQL), which represents the maximum number of defects per hundred units that for the purpose of the sampling inspection can be considered satisfactory as process average. In general cases, the customer will determine which sampling plan and what AQL to adopt. The AQL 1.5 is applied when severe inspection conditions are required on high-class expensive items. The AQL 2.5 is applied when textiles of normal/good quality are involved. There are three types of sampling plans: single, double and multiple sampling plans. Each sampling plan can be performed at three levels: normal, tightened and reduced, depending on the inspection requirements and the quality of the products. In the garment industry, generally single and double normal sampling plans are applied; therefore only examples of these two will be provided. Normally a manufacturer produces a tremendous volume of units of consumers. If each unit of merchandise is inspected before the delivery, whatever the number of inspection personnel, required tests and automated inspection, this situation will lead to high costs. A sampling method is a technique for inspecting partial volume of units with certain attributes as representing the quality level of the entire production. Apparel manufacturers frequently use a statistical quality control process called acceptance sampling. There are four basic elements for carrying out inspection by this method; the acceptable quality level; the lot size; the sampling plan and the acceptance number. The standards and specifications for the product determine the acceptable quality level. The lot size determines the population from which the sample is selected. Lots should as homogeneous and as large as possible. The sample, in order to be representative of the entire lot, is selected using random sample techniques so that every piece in the lot has an equal chance of being chosen. Statistical acceptance sampling techniques are established for each checkpoint, with the size of the sample varying according to the level of defects normally produced in that area. A sample lot will be selected from the order and a percentage of the garments will be inspected, this percentage usually being stipulated by the customer. 4.1 ENVIRONMENT TO PROCEDE AN AUDIT: It is important that the audit room in which the audit will take place has proper lighting capacity (min 860 lux). The walls of the audit room should be white in color presenting a very bright appearance to the room and making it possible for the auditor to conduct the audit easily. The lights on top of the inspection table should be at a distance of 3 feet. The inspection table should be an adjustable one in terms of adjusting the height of the table. It is a standard requirement that the inspection table should be at a height of an auditors waist, this could only be achieved if the inspection table is an adjustable one as heights of human beings vary from one another. The temperature of the audit room should be at standard room temperature 250C. Another important feature is that the audit room should be spacious in-order to make it convenient for the auditor to conduct the audit. Measurements . Tolerance: Some construction standards and specifications include plus-or-minus tolerances. A tolerance is the difference between the allowance minimum and maximum of a specification or standard. Allowable tolerances establish the limits within which the product can vary yet still be of acceptable quality. It is 331
important to set up a guide for garment tolerances in order to avoid defective goods being passed through, whilst standards that are too rigid may result in acceptable goods being unnecessarily rejected. Tolerances: The word tolerance describes the extent of margin allowed from a specific point. The customer allows certain tolerances on all parts of the garment that is acceptable from a consumer point of views. The main purpose of establishing this tolerance concept is that it allows the vendor a range to play as there are production limits and at the same time allows the buyer that the garment is not skipping a size. Vendor has to remain consistent of keeping the measurements of the garments within allowed tolerance specified in the spec package. Shipment Audit: The following information laid out indicates the steps that take place during an inspection of a shipment. It will indicate both the importance as well as the procedure in which it is conducted. Packing List: Packing list is a document tat specifies the complete details of an order in its final form. In other words it is an index of an order in its packed form that is being presented for inspection. A packing list serves the purpose of providing a clear picture to all the parties involved in the processing or an order. It is important that the packing list is completed to full detail and precisely. Auditor requires from its vendors to provide the packing list before the audit is presented showing the expected deviation if any. Contents of Packing List: It is important to have a clear understanding of the contents listed in a packing list. The contents of a packing list includes color-wise and size-wise breakdown of the garments /cartons presented for audit; style #, PO#, Customer ref#, Vendor name, date of audit, color codes; complete details of serial numbers of cartons allotted to each carton; net and gross weight of shipment; and carton dimensions as well as deviation chart. Packing Inspection: A packing audit is conducted to ensure that the details listed in a packing list are correct and is according to the customers packing needs. It is important for the vendor to understand and comply with all packing details described in a garment package, as packaging method can vary from one customer to another. A sample of cartons is taken to conduct the packing audit in-order to check if the shipment is in accordance with the following: To ensure that carton markings are correct Ensure correct styling/color/quantity/size ratio/or garments inside carton Ensure correct carton / barcode sticker and information listed on them. Ensure correct quality/number of plys of carton and strapping of cartons. To ensure that the folding method and fold size of garment is correct.
Sampling Procedure: After completing the packing audit, a sample of garments is selected for garment inspection. This sample taken for audit depends on the number of garments being presented at the time of final inspection. Styling Confirmation: One of the most important parts of the audit is to confirm the styling of the garment against the package details. This step takes place just before the garments are going to be inspected for quality and specs. The auditor checks the whole details against the package to verify that everything is correct. 332
Measurements: After completing the garment audit, a sample of garment is selected for measurement purpose. This is to verify that the measurements of the garments are within acceptable range. A total number of 6 garments are taken/size to conduct measurements of all areas of those garments. If measurements are lying out of tolerance, more garments will be picked for measurement purposes. Later on a percentage will be derived out of the garments measured and will be forwarded to the customer for final decision. The customer has the right to either accept or Reject the shipment based on the auditors findings. 4.2 Conducting of an Audit: After the sample has been taken, the garments are checked for overall quality and presentation. Classification of Faults: At the end of the audit, the faults found are classified into two major categories namely as major and minor faults. The fate of the shipment is decided after comparing the number of faults that are allowed on a certain sample size, which the auditor depicts after comparing it with AQL standards or any other. Inspection Report: It is important for all parties involved in the processing of an order to have a thorough understanding of the contents listed in an inspection report, as it may lead all parties involved into a complex situation if the text underlined in the inspection report is not clearly understood. The inspection report is mainly divided into three portions. An identity of shipment; Faults Detected; and Conclusion. In each section following points generally included. 1. Identity of the Shipment: consists of information related to identity of garment such as: PO#, Style #, customer name, quantity ordered. Packing and marking checklist Vendor name, country of origin, merchandiser/auditor Label checklist Second portion of the inspection report consists of
2. Faults Detection: information such as:
Types of defects found Sample quantity and status of findings Shipment status Serial numbers of cartons inspected during audit
3. Conclusion The third portion consists of Comments and findings and Proposals / suggestions. 4.3 EXAMPLE OF DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN METHOD The inspection will be carried out as laid down in BS 6001: 1991 sampling procedures for inspection by Attributes DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN. Samples are to be selected completely at random. The inspection is to be carried out at AQL 2.5 at normal inspection Level 2. All results are to be recorded on inspection report Copies of the report arte to be distributed to the office at source, the factory and the related Technologist. 333
Any action required is to be specified by the relevant Technologist. If shipment consists of different colors, each color to be treated separate batch. If a shipment consists of different sizes, each size is to be treated as a subbatch and inspected in the same ratio as it exists in the shipment. DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN BS6001: Part 1 1991 Inspection Level 2 Tightened
Consignment Lot Size 91 150 151 280 281 500 501 1200 1201 3200 3201 10000 10001 35000 Sample Size Cumulative Sample Size 13 26 20 40 32 64 50 100 80 160 125 250 200 400 AQL 2.5 Accept 0 1 0 1 0 3 1 4 2 6 3 11 6 15 Reject 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 7 7 12 10 16
13 13 20 20 32 32 50 50 80 80 125 125 200 200
DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN BS6001: Part 1 1991 Inspection Level 2 Tightened

Consignment Lot Size 91 150 151 280 281 500 501 1200 1201 3200 3201 10000 10001 35000 Sample Size Cumulative Sample Size 13 26 20 40 32 64 50 100 80 160 125 250 200 400 AQL 2.5 Accept 0 1 0 3 1 4 2 6 3 8 5 12 7 18 Reject 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 7 7 9 9 13 11 19
13 13 20 20 32 32 50 50 80 80 125 125 200 200
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AQL INSPECTION REPORT PART 1 Customer: Style No: Factory: Order No: Quantity: Description: Major Minor 1 st 2nd 1st 2 nd Fabric Defect Fabric Shading Fabric Pulls/snags Uneven Pile Fabric Holes Fabric Cut Off Grain Needle Damage Non-inclusion Skipped Stitched Broken Stitching Seam Pucker Slippage Roping Grinning Bad Trimming Dyeing/Printing Faults Soiling/Grease Marks Contamination Damaged Components Mismatched Stripe/Check Embroidery/Print Fault Buttonhole Construction Button Attachment Poor Pressing/Glazing Non Alignment Placket Construction Placket Construction Labeling Packing Decision: ACCEPT / PEND / REJECT Representative: Comments
DATE: Factory Representative:
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AQL INSPECTION REPORT PART 2 Customer Measurement Order No. Style No. Factory Description
Comments: Inspection Date:
4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF NON-COMFORMITIES: All no-conformities may be classified into three broad categories. Used as a rough guide, they offer immediate advice on what action to take in each instance. However, these guidelines are not definite. If in doubt, always consult with your customer to agree standards. The main three categories: CRITICAL: A critical non-conformity is one that is likely to make the product unsafe to use, or which does not comply with the law. MAJOR: A major non-conformity is one, which may cause the product to fail in any respect, reducing the use ability and sale ability prompting customer complaint. MINOR: A major non-conformity is one that is not likely to reduce the use ability of the product, but which departs from the established standard agreed at the time of contract.
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CLASSIFICATION OF NON CONFORMITIES CRITICAL Insole Tacks (Shoes). Pins, Needles, Staples or Parts Left In Product. Insecure Studs Rivets, Poppers. Functional Hood Cords On Infants and Childrens Garments. Incorrect/Number Of Fibers Labeling. Fire Warning Missing (where legally required). Any legal requirements. Any Potentially dangerous components. Untrimmed Thread ends in baby wear 0-3 years. MAJOR Appearance. Shaded Panels. Dirty marks/oil Stains. Fabric Faults, bars, Slubs, snags. Ladders, Drop Stitch, Knitting faults. Fly Stitch. Holes, Cuts. Twisted Straps. Pocket Position, Alignment, not straight. Print faults, insecure Motif. Stripes not matching where necessary. Misplacing (socks). Sizing. Measurement outside tolerance and unacceptable. Insufficient Neck Stretch. Stitching. Broken/Cut stitching. Insecure linking. Insecure hem felling. Skip Stitching. Needle damage. Insufficient Seam bight. Pucker Holes in pockets. Sleeve lining not sewn up. Twisted sleeve/linings/legs linings. Pressing/Packing. Wading migrating. Packing. Creases, glazing, impressions. Pressing marks, boarding out. Incorrect size label, barcode, packaging, swing ticket. Components. Faulty zips. Chipped stud/popper. Missing button, hook and bar, Stud, popper. Insecure button. Button/hook & bar/eye position. 337 MINOR Appearance. Shaded panels. Dirty marks/oil stations. Fabric saults, bar, slubs, snags.
Fly stitch.
Pocket position, alignment, Not straight. Print fault Strips not matching where Necessary. Mis plating (sticks) Sizing. Measurement outside Tolerance but acceptable.
Stitching. Skip stitching. Slight pucker. Thread ends. Pressing/Packing. Wadding migrating. Packing, folding. Creases, glazing, impressions. Pressing marks, boarding out. Components. Insecure button. Button/hook & bar/eye Position.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAJOR AND MINOR DEFECTS SEAMS AND STITCHES DEFECTS S1. Any seams open or broken. MAJOR MINOR
S2.
Any seams twisted, puckered, spiraled or containing pleats: a) Conspicuous b) Slight Any part of garment caught in seams or unrelated part of Garment. Any raw or uncovered seams, edges, cuffs, hems: a) Conspicuous (outside) b) Slight (inside) Any seams not back-tacked secure or covered by another seam (Exceptions only if specified on sealed sample) Any needle damage. Any contrast stitching uneven, irregular or missmatched: a) Conspicuous (outside) b) Slight (inside) c) Any joins in top stitching Any run-offs of top stitching: a) Conspicuous b) Slight Any excessively loose tensions or stitch counts other than Specified on sealed sample. Any ropy hems, cuffs, edges or openings: a) Conspicuous b) Slight Any weakness in seam joins, underarms, shoulders, collars, Cuffs, hoods, trouser crotch. Any drop stitches or miss stitches. Knitted
S3.
S4.
S5.
S6. S7.
S8.
S9.
S10.
S11.
S12
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S13.
Any patterns not matched and balanced: a) Conspicuous b) Slight
S14.
Any stepping of seams, (Depends upon severity)
CLASSIFICATION OF MAJOR AND MINOR DEFECTS MATERIALS (FABRICS)
DEFECTS F1. Any holes, obvious weakness or flaw that develops into a hole. Any cuts, tears or surface repairs made during production, Packaging or transit.
MAJOR MINOR
F2.
F3.
Any pulled threads or snags between buttons or button holes, seams or visible part.
F4.
a) Any slubs 1cm or more in length or 2 threads wide in any conspicuous or focal points of garments. b) Other hidden or obscure areas any slubs 1cm or below. Any Barre fabric, dye spots, misprints, smudges or faulty registration of prints that are obviously noticeable and seriously detract from the appearance of the fabric. Any miss-matching or stripes, checks, plaids, on fronts, backs or seams. (Not agreed on sealed sample)
F5.
F6.
F7.
Any bowing of the fabric. If it objectionably affects the appearance or performance of the garment a) 1-2 cm or more b) Less than 1cm. Any shading of parts within the garment. Shade variations within or between garments. (Not agreed on sealed sample)
F8.
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F9.
Any pilling or surface fussing of fabrics.
F10. Any yellowing of fabric trims and shoulder pads due to nitrogen dioxide and packaging. F11. Any monofilament sewing yarns.
F12. Any variation in handle or finish, (not agreed in sealed (sample)
CLASSIFICATION OF MAJOR AND MINOR DEFECTS CLEANNESS AND APPEARANCE
DEFECTS A1. Any spots, stains or soiling on the surface of the garment
MAJOR MINOR
A2.
Any button, button holes, studs, or poppers not accurately spaced and in correct alignment.
A3.
Any buttons broken or not stitched securely.
A4.
Any button holes not stitched tidy and securely or not clearly cut. Any loose threads or over lock ends that are not removed from garment: a) Outside (if unsightly) b) Inside Any garment labels not placed central and neatly to neck or other part of garment: a) Outside (if unsightly) b) Inside Any adhesive labels or Kimble tag damage to surface of garment.
A5.
A6.
A7.
A8.
Any sharp or tarnished edges on belts, buckles, zips, studs, poppers or insecurely fixed eyelets.
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A9.
Any loose belt loops, poppers, buttons, motifs, any other trims. All should be neatly and firmly fixed. Any bubbling due to delimitation of fusible linings, collars, cuffs, facings or self covered belts
A10.
A11. Any stepping on hem vents or neck opening
A12. Any non-functioning of zips or poorly attached.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAJOR AND MINOR DEFECTS MEASUREMENTS DEFECTS M1. Any measurements not to size specification and tolerances Specified. MAJOR MINOR
M2. Any variation in length or width of legs, sleeves, collars within a garment.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAJOR AND MINOR DEFECTS PRESSING
DEFECTS P1. Any burn or scorch marks. P2. Any glazing or pressure marks on the surface: a) Conspicuous b) Slight P3. Press marks from clips, coat hangers, others: a) Conspicuous b) Slight P4. Any un pressed or poorly pressed seams.
MAJOR MINOR
P5. Any absence of pressing when specified: a) Conspicuous b) Slight
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5. Basic Quality Inspection Standards for Apparel

A major defect is any defect that is sufficient to render the merchandise second quality or unacceptable because it is conspicuous and/or may affect the sale ability or serviceability and/or is a significant deviation from a Buyers specification. Whenever judgment is required to classify a major defect, use the above definition as a guide to make your decision. Note: This quality standard is the complete listing of defects for this product line. Classification of Defect Packaging Code Major Defect Explanation # 011 Size of the unit marked on the package differs from the size marked on the unit inside the package 016 Substituted color 017 Substituted size 018 Substituted merchandise 019 Merchandise folded or packaged incorrectly, resulting in poor appearance, and /or not according to contract 101 Sizes vary within A skirt is marked size the set 12. A jacket is marked size 14 Brand or Size 080 Missing, incorrect Label or illegible 081 Not caught completely or not sewn securely 086 Inside breast Suit label pocket label not sewn on all four (4) sides 087 Inside breast Suit label pocket label omitted or incorrect Construction 110 Substituted body fabric 111 Substituted or omitted component part 112 Any thread count The average of three more or less than counts taken at various
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113
Fabric
114
115
116
117
118
119
120 121
the specified spots on the garment tolerance in both will not determine the directions actual thread count. A visual comparison with a confirmation sample may be used when body fabric or component parts are not specified. Substituted or poor match of color or print pattern when compared to master swatches. Conspicuous Be sure that parts are mismatch in joined by course and shading between Wales on knit fabrics. panels of a garment Sometimes there are or within a set different fibers in pieces of a set and perfect matches are nearly impossible. A hole in the fabric Do not include needle or material cuts under this code number Body fabric or component part is inverted or opposite of normal arrangement Conspicuous Sloppy sewing identifies irregular or irregular or distorted distorted construction. Carefully construction inspect the garment making sure the problem is permanent. Folding and packaging may cause the item to look distorted. Conspicuous repair Repair of some fabric to body fabric or defects are allowed if component parts the repair is neat. Holes sewn closed are not allowed. Snags or pull threads on knits may be repaired if the dye finish is not changed. Conspicuous soil Soil must be conspicuous. Its location is also important Defective elastic Runner in knitted A runner identifies a
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fabric
122 132
Conspicuous slub in fabric Fabric patterns not balanced and/or symmetrically matched.
133
134
Conspicuous horizontal streaks in knitted fabric Conspicuous needle streaks in knitted fabric
knitting defect if defect is from a needle cut list it as code 505 Location, size, and type are important. Horizontal plaid or stripe must be even across the top centre and the packet. The most dominant line in a stripe or plaid must be centered in the button, line of the top center. The collar and cuffs must be balanced so that each one has the same pattern as the other side of the shirt. Horizontal streaks identify a knitting defect. A needle streak identifies a knitting defect. This defect must be conspicuous as it will not affect the items serviceability.
135
199
200
202
Sports with napping missing on inside (fleece) Conspicuous fabric There are too many detect technical fabric detects to identify. Reference the Manual of Standard Fabric Defects in the Textile industry, produced by Graniteville Co. Mae certain that the defects will affect the items serviceability or sale ability. Location is also a factor. Conspicuous break The defect must be in print patter, poor conspicuous print registration or dye streak. Fabric bowing that Fabric bowing identifies is more than in a finishing defect. It any 6 horizontal does not affect the items
344
measurement or is more than 1 over tall body width of a fabric
203
299
Sewing
500
501
502
503
504
Skewness in fabric more than 3% (based on piece goods inspection standards of 60goods with a tolerance of 1 2/4 ) Miscellaneous dyeing or finishing defects other than those previously listed in this table. Substitution of seam type, unless approved. Substitution of A runner identifies a stitch class, unless knitting defect if defect approved is from a needle cut list it as code 505 Seam grin Caused by loose tension, too, large stitch size, or loosely woven fabric Stitch count more Stitches per inch (SPI) or less than the specified tolerance A broken stitch on A broken stitch on any any functional or functional or decorative decorative seam seam is a major defect. A single broken stitch (no more than 2 incidents per seam) if it occurs on a seam that is neither functional nor decorative is a minor
serviceability, only the sale ability. Bowing is usually found in the finishing of tubular knit fabric. Although a tolerance is given the defect must be conspicuous. The defect is difficult to see in solid color items, more critical in stripes and plaids. The stripes and plaids will usually be even at the bottom hem, but curve up in the center of item. Most often found in tops. Width of Garment Tolerance 10 to 14' 3/8 16 to 18 20 to 22 5/8 24 to 26 28 to 30 7/8
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505
Needle cuts on knit fabric that cause a runner of a hole
506
Open seam
507
Conspicuous seam repair
508
Conspicuous waste sewn into the outside of garment of exposed when garment is warn of used
509
510
Conspicuous pleat unintentionally formed by folding fabric into seam Conspicuous Some fabrics can not be puckering of seam sewn without some
defect (Example: over lock/ serge / marrow on a pressed open seam). A runner or a hole in the fabric identifies a sewing machine defect. This defect is usually found on knitted fabric. Critical stress areas are the armhole and seal where movement causes strain on the fabric. No defect exists where the needle distorts the knitting fabric without cutting it. Open seam identifies an operator error. That is, the operator did not securely catch all plies of fabric in the seam. This defect is critical on construction seams that join parts together. Do not call an instance where the blind stitch (hemming) may not catch the fabric for a short distance (about ) an open seam. Sloppy repair is a major defect. Whenever a chain stitch seam is repaired, be sure that the repair locks in both ends of a broken stitch or else the chain stitch will revel out. This defect is caused by small pieces of fabric being sewn into the seam. The defect does not weaken the garment but could affect the items appearance. Location is critical.
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minor distortion. 511 512 513 Conspicuous wavy stitching Fraying or material Conspicuous raw edge that could affect durability of appearance
514
515 516
519
520
525
526
A raw edge is usually found on a felled seam where the fabric is not folded under and caught in the stitching. In washing, this wall tray. Drawing sewn so This defect seldom that it will not draw occurs, but it will result freely in a return. Carefully inspect items with drawstrings. Conspicuous runoff stitching Substitution of thread or mismatch of thread color Wrong size lining The size is usually sewn in garment or identified on the lining, wrong size lining especially on zip-outs. sewn in zip-out in Most critical if lining is garment too small. Check by laying garment flat with lining up. The linings side seam should be aligned with the shell fabric on the other side. If the lining is small, the customer will be wearing the lining instead of the coat. Stitching off elastic, tapes or trim into body fabric which is not intended Any skip stitch that Usually found on a will ravel (non-lock chain stitch (refer to stitch) code 507 explanation). You must inspect the side of the stitching with the loops. One skip or drop stitch and the seam will ravel out. Skipped stitch Any one skipped stitch (lock-stitch) in a row permitted. No more than 2 occurrences
347
per seam. 530 Conspicuous incomplete embroidery Seam closure causing stop at cuff etc. Seam closure uneven off more than 1/5 Conspicuous The clearance difference variation in length will depend on the of collar points. fabric, size of collar, style, and so on. The defect must be conspicuous. Fullness or When the collar is tightness in fabric closed, the distribution of fabric should be even on the top and on the bottom. If not the collar will not press without pleating the fabric. This defect may affect the lay of the collar Conspicuous sewn crooked or not centered on neck Conspicuous Normal tolerance is bottom closure on regular weight uneven fabrics: use your judgment. Defect must be conspicuous. For vertical buttonholes, see if the panels are aligned. Sleeve lengths varying more than on knitted and woven fabrics, including sweaters. Sleeve lengths varying more than on knitted and woven fabrics Sleeve lengths varying more than 1 for sweaters Fullness or Closing the cuff is tightness in fabric similar operation to closing the collar. Refer to collar explanation
539
575
Collar
561
517
117
Front Closing 539 (button, zipper, snap closing)
Sleeve Length 558 Infants: Girls: Boys Womens Mens &
Sleeve (shirts)
Cuff 517
348
Patch Pockets 532 /Darts
533
115
Pocket Flaps
522
523 524 Belt Loops 536 537
545 565 506
Fly
544
Inseam 541 Infants: Girls : Boys Womens & Mens Hem (sleeve, 563 waist, bottom hem) Zipper 123 132 535
Conspicuous Consider the ferments pocket or dart sewn pocket position. A crooked. pocket that is close to a definite line with have less tolerance Conspicuous Pocket position must be high/low pockets or considered. Rate to darts explanation code 532. Drill hole exposed Usually, a spot hole is drilled in cutting to position pocket. Be sure the hole does not show after the pocket is set. Conspicuously not centered over pocket Flaps shorter in width than pockets. Not horizontally aligned over pocket Belt loops crooked more than Tight loops with large degree of waistband compression Missing belt loop Belt loop too small for belt Pen seam in belt Check underside of belt loop construction loop. Open seam will cause fraying on woven fabric Exposed zipper tape when fly closed Pant legs uneven, off more than on any fabric Pant legs uneven, off more than on any fabric Hem width various more than 25 percent of the width of the hem Insecure bottom stop Faulty slider or zipper Impaired zipper
349
Button buttonhole
or 130 517
518
520 521
528
531
Body Lining
564
570 577
578
Packaging
010 011 013 304
operation Defective button Stitches cut or raveling on buttonhole Missing or extra button or buttonhole Button not securely sewn Stitching too narrow, causing buttonhole to operate from fabric Incomplete buttonhole, neither cut nor stitched Button or buttonhole not aligned, causing noticeable bulge Pocket thoroughly misaligned so as to create difficulty in use Excessive fullness in length or width Missing loop that holds lining to coat at hem, on side seam for center back vent coats and center back on side vent coats or more space between bottom of lining and edge of turned-up hem of coat where the facing meets the lining Lightweight bag Tom or damaged Poor or improper sealing Insert discrepancy a. Mis-identified product b. Incomplete identification c. Incorrect
350
Dimension
100
202
Material
111 115 119 199 H21
H24 Workmanship 504
506 507
Fusing
513 600
602 604
Sleeve Setting
542
literature d. Wrong copy on insert e. Missing insert where required f. Poor insert legibility Body out of tolerance (top panel, drops, insert etc) Miscellaneous out of tolerance (specify) Omission of component part Hole, cut, tear, damage Sell, stain, spot Visible fabric defect Backing defect (highly conspicuous only) Attachment or accessory defect Broken stitch in a non-lock type stitch, or 2 or more per 36 in a lock stitch Open seam Poor mend or repair (conspicuous) Raw edge De-lamination and Check out babbling due to following care incorrect fusing instructions Discoloration of fabric due to fusing Strike through or strike back caused by incompatible interlining and shell fabric or improper fusing cycle Sleeves reversed
after label
351
556 Snaps Fasteners of 131
534
551 Ornaments 204 Bows Horizontal lace 538 Trimmings
117
Tack
700
750 Pressing 751 753 801
Trimming
802
Bias cut or pieced sleeve Detective or damaged snap; will not snap Snaps not aligned, causing noticeable bulge Missing or extra snap Bow missing or not securely fastened Bow misplaced. Not uniform in position, being conspicuous Arc of lace irregular to point of garment appearing distorted Omitted or misplaced and no: servicing intended purpose Winkled appearance Burned or scorched Conspicuous winkle in pressing Generally untrimmed garment inside or outside Ply mark tickets
Snap is loose enough that it will not stay closed securely
Ties
124
Tie twisting
Ply mark tickets left in garment in a conspicuous location or in an area that could cause discomfort to the wearer. Tickets left on for identification of 2 or more place outfits should not be considered as defects. Drape tie over finger about 5 back (toward the small and) from center. It should hang straight with no visible twist
125
126
Full margin tie not constructed accordingly. Point of tie not
352
127 128
129 Miscellaneous 623 999
balanced Pattern not balanced Interlining of tie does not fill tie correctly Label not securely sewn. Not as pictured/ incorrect style Any conspicuous defect(s) not listed elsewhere in this table.
The table below lists packaging and labeling defects that are not counted as major quality defects. However, if these defects occur on 10 percent or more of the sample, the lot would automatically be caused to fail. Classification of Defect Packaging Defect Explanation
Fiber Content
Incorrect packaging material including dimensions of same Missing, incorrect or illegible pre-marked label and / or point of sale ticket Poor heat seal of filmseal opens before plastic stretches Damaged film or box Excessive hanging or loose threads, or other foreign matter in package or on garment includes buttonholes Fiber content missing or incorrect Any deviation from Federal Two of the most common Trade Commission requirements discrepancies are: 1. Abbreviation of the generic name of the fiber. Wrong 100% Poly Correct 100%Polyester 2. Elimination of the generic name of the fiber Wrong 100% Dacron Correct 100% Dacron Polyester. The generic name of the fiber must always be shown. The trade name (Dacron) does not have to be shown.
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Basic Quality Inspection Standards for Apparel Classification of Major Defect Explanation Defect Permanent Care Label Missing or incorrect permanent Label must be permanently care label attached and withstand the life of the garment Catalog Multiple Piece Joker ticketindicate number Sales of component pieces of the set Raw edge Brand Label Crooked by more than when visible in the package Misplace more than 3/8 from center of neck Suit Label Vendor ID tag omitted or incorrect (Found in inside of right breast pocket of coat) Woven label on left sleeve Mens Suits Only omitted or incorrect. (Coordinates with inside label)
6. QUALITY SYSTEM AUDITS:
Quality System has been defined as organizational structure, responsibilities, procedures, processes and resources needed to implement quality management. Systems should be as comprehensive as needed to meet quality objectives. ISO-9000 series describes the twenty elements to be followed by the management. It is important to note that ISO-9000 series standards are systems standards, not product standards and the quality systems are only audited and certified during the certification process. An audit is examinations/evaluations of quality system and documentation employed by an organization to collect objective evidence to permit an informed judgment, about the status of the quality program of the organization and/or department. ISO defines quality audit as A systematic and independent examination to determine whether quality activities and results comply with planed arrangements are implemented effectively are suitable to achieve objectives. Three types of audits are: 6.1 FIRST PARTY AUDIT: An audit by organization of its owns quality systems and documentation. First party audit is also called as internal audit. 6.2 SECOND PARTY AUDIT: An audit by the organization on its supplier and subcontractors. This is a type of external audit. 6.3 THIRD PARTY AUDIT: An audit by a certifying body which is commercially and contractually independent of the organization, its suppliers and customers. This is performed in order to conform the requirements of ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003 6.4 Auditors Responsibilities: Major responsibilities include Develop/help in developing an audit plan; Carrying out the audit; and Submitting the audit report. Other responsibilities include: Complying with audit requirements Communicating/clarifying audit requirements 354
6.5 Auditors Activities Remain within audit scope Exercise objectivity Collect/analyze evidence Remain alert to collect evidence Act in an ethical manner Be able to determine whether or not the Documented Quality System is available, understood and used properly and the Documentation is adequate.
Planning/carrying out the audits effectively and efficiently Documenting observations Reporting audit results Verifying effectiveness of corrective actions Retaining/safeguarding audit documents Supporting the management
6.6 Auditors Attributes: An Auditor should be: Knowledgeable about the product and processes a good communicator (especially in listening) able to judge the importance of information acquired honest tactful firm and confident inquisitive patient self-disciplined flexible in opinion making able to decide priorities respectful
Stages of Quality Audits

1. Audit Planning
2. Carrying out the audit
3. Audit Reporting
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Stage 1 (Audit Planning)

1.
Obtain Briefs on: 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The documented Quality System Conformance to ISO 9001/2/3 Processes Products / services
Gain Information on Processes, including: Known problems Results of previous audits On-going statistical techniques
Pre-Audit Activities Visit /memo/telephone/fax, as necessary Confirm the audit scope and arrangements (duration, use of rooms, lunch and safety/protective equipment required) Confirm the date and timings Confirm the availability of relevant personnel
Audit the Documentation Collect the documents Check the documentation for its completeness and correctness with the requirements of ISO 9000. Note any non-conformities and key observations.
To Prepare the Audit Plan Identify the processes being covered Identify the trails/key points to be covered in the audit Cross refer to standard requirements Highlight physical areas to be covered on the floor plan Ensure balance of tasks, if more than one auditor is involved Estimate target times Draft check list for each element (See Annex 2) Draft the Audit plan (See Annex 3)
Agenda for the Opening Meeting Confirm the scope Explain how you will conduct the audit Explain how the audit will be reported Confirm the audit plan Answer questions Follow the timings strictly
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Annex 2
Example Check-List for Auditing Stores
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. What checks/inspections are done on receipts of goods? How are damaged goods dealt with? What packaging/storage criteria are used? If a computer database is used how is it updated? How is the location of an item stores items decided? Do records cover the type, quality, and location of items in stores? Is the environment suitable; i.e. temperature, humidity and dust? Are there any items with limited shelf life, if so how are they controlled? Are there any items requiring special protection; e.g. from electrostatic damage? How often are items checked for deterioration? How often are stock checks performed? How are defective items identified / segregated? Is there any evidence of poor house-keeping, handling, or storage? What training do stores personnel get? What procedures/work instructions exist for the receipt and issue of stores? Are there consumable in stores, if so how are they controlled? Is parts kitting done, if so how? How are stock levels monitored? Is stock clearly identified? Can stores be obtained outside normal hours, if so how? Is storage are secure? Are correct pallet, containers, conveyors and vehicles used in stores?
Annex 3
Example Audit Plan ALLIED CONSTRUCTION COMPANY LIMITED
Department/Location. Elements applicable ..... Auditor Planned Dates If follow-up audit, then the audit reference 24 June (Sat)
9.00 am Opening meeting with Dept. Head 9.30 Management Responsibility, Quality System 10.15 Contract Review, Customer Supplied Product, Quality/Records 11.15 Document Control, Corrective Action 12.15 pm Training, Statistical Techniques 1.00 Closing Meeting 1.30 End ___________________________________________________________________________
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Stage 2
Conducting an Audit
1. Auditors Tool Kit

2. 3. 4.
Clipboard Copy of the Standard Check lists Non-conformity forms Audit plan Writing instruments
Conduct Opening Meeting Confirm the audit plan Confirm the availability of personnel
Tour the site Only do it if practicable Auditor gets the feel of the situation Obvious nonconformities can be spotted Verify if the plan is realistic Check items like uncontrolled system documentation, staff attitude, poorly stored product, and cleanliness, etc.
Audit Question/Interview Relevant Persons: Salutation, Explanation by the auditor, questioning, check facts and record findings, thank the auditee, move on to the next stage. Encourage auditee to talk freely. Prevent him from talking too much. Use what, where when, why, who, how, and how many questions and also ask him to show you the evidence. Avoid trick, ambiguous, and multiple questions. Be friendly and do not pretend to be bossy. You should listen 80% and talk 20% of the time. Check: Use the check list to ask questions. Where possible, observe a process in operation and check it against the procedure, and ask what if questions. You are not just looking for nonconformities, but also positive evidence or conformance. Observe: Keep your eyes and mind open for any thing odd or unusual within the process and its surroundings.
5.
Agreeing on Nonconformities: The auditor should agree with the auditee on the facts found. If it turns out to be nonconformity then this should be agreed as soon as possible, and should be recorded on the relevant form. Closing Meeting: Always have a closing meeting with the in charge of the process before leaving the department. Give your views and observations on nonconformities.
6.
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Stage 3 Audit Reporting

1. Review the Overall Findings Collect all the findings and draw your conclusions Review major/minor nonconformities Be factual/objective Be clear and to the point Give proper references to the standards/company documents Define the exact instance
2.
Categorize Nonconformities properly

Do not treat all nonconformities as a major. Properly categorize them as major/minor Make sure that the auditee also understands this. Address root causes(s) and corrective actions.
3.
Issue Nonconformity Report: Issue a nonconformity report. A sample report is shown on the next pages. A sample Corrective Action Log Sheet is also shown. Prepare Audit Report: A formal, factual and agreed record of the audit, including nonconformities, observations, corrective action, timescale and conclusions.
4.
The report should include: Date of audit Scope and objectives of audit Signature of the auditor Audit plan Audit team names Identification of dept./organization audited Identification of reference documents Observations/nonconformities Degree of compliance Ability to achieve defined quality objectives Distribution list Audit report should not include: Individuals names in nonconformities Confidential information Subjective statements Emotional statements Un-related information
7. Quality Audits: Quality auditing is being viewed by many companies as

powerful tool in managing the business, particularly as it provides a mechanism for the identification of improvement opportunities. Auditing techniques can be applied at a number of levels.
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The quality system audit to assess quality management systems and styles The product audit to evaluate the conformance of product to specification. The process audit to monitor the effectiveness of specific operations The self-audit to review individual performance.
In the UK this activity has traditionally been in the domain of the quality department and carried out by them, very much in the role of policemen. Recent trends have brought about the need for independent audits, and many are seeing this as an opportunity to involve more of their management team. In introducing the concept of the internal customer, the auditing of departments internal suppliers can be a useful forum for contact, discussion and feedback. However, auditing must be carried out with the aim of finding opportunities for corrective action and quality improvement, not for casting blame. The widespread adoption of ISO9000/BS5750/EN29000 has great affected audit activities within the UK. The ISO9000 standard has a specific requirement that the company conducts a series of planned internal audits of the quality system and therefore the importance and frequencies of application of these internal audits has greatly increased. To support these auditing requirements the British Standards Institute and the International Standards Organization have issued Standards BS7229: 1989 and ISO10011: Part I: 1989 respectively. Work is also being conducted on the qualification of quality systems auditors and on guidelines for managing audit programmes. Whilst further guidance can be found in the standards mentioned above, the success of the techniques of auditing is predetermined by the way they are introduced into any business culture. They must be seen as providing a no blame forum for review, discussion and improvement. The following are some key and often over locked, factors for consideration by any audit team. Discussion not interrogation: The emphasis in an audit should be on discussion with departmental personnel on how they carry out their activities and about any problems they experience. There should not be an outside observer standing remote from the activities and scrutinizing them, nor just a question and answer quickly. Listen: Initiate discussion by pertinent questions, but then adopt the role of listener. The more talking you do, the less you are going to find out. Dont criticize or argue: It is not the role of the auditor to pass judgment on individuals activities. Auditing is carried out to determine objectively if the quality system is being operated as documented. Any element of perceived personal criticism or outright argument is counterproductive to obtaining the necessary objective evidence of compliance to the system. Verify non-compliance: Where you discover a discrepancy, establish noncompliance based on facts, not on subjective opinion. Where possible, verify from records. Determine whether the necessary records exist; dont record non-compliance just because records have not been automatically presented to you. Be specific: When non-compliance is found, the proposed corrective action should be discussed with either the nominated escort or the head of department. The department should be given the opportunity to recommend the appropriate corrective action and give advice if requested. The corrective action should be agreed between
360
the auditor and the department and recorded. The time-scale for following up the corrective action should be agreed and recorded. Seek clarification: While the knowledge of the auditor, with respect to the quality system standard and the relevant part of the quality system, is important, he /she can not be expected to know everything. If any doubt arises either in defining a noncompliance or suitable corrective action, then clarification should be sought from the management representative for the quality system. Dont resort to guesses or subjective opinion or, worse, ignore a potential problem. Dont be secretive: In the course of an audit it is necessary to make notes, on observations and comments which may need to be followed up by checking records. The open discussion necessary for a good audit will not be achieved if furtive notetaking is perceived by the department. Adopt a stance which will allow the escort and if possible the individual involved to see the information being recorded. Give credit where due: The personnel you have involved may be operating under difficult conditions and the audit may only be adding to the pressure. If they are operating the system effectively, then ensure that message is conveyed to them. If they have found, a way of improving the system, then, though it may result in noncompliance to the current system, concentrate on agreeing the necessary action to amend the system rather than emphasizing the non-compliance. Control time: Although it is important to listen to departmental personnel, ensure that you are not side-tracked or subjected to all the grievances of the department, and that you do not allow the discussion to degenerate into gossip. From time to time it may be necessary to insert another pertinent question to keep the audit moving in the right direction. 7.1 THE 1-10-100 RULE: It makes a difference when a problem is fixed. The 110-100 rule states that if a problem is not fixed when it occurs, it will only become more costly to fix later in terms of both time and money.
Catching and fixing problems in your work area.
Catching and fixing problems after they have left your work area.
Repairing the damage from problems caught by external customers.
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Quality Costs: The quality cost consists of the following: Cost of prevention. Inspection (Appraisal. Failure) Necessary Costs: Are required to achieve and sustain a defined standard of work Available Costs: Occur wherever wrong things are done or things are done wrong. Necessary costs include Prevention and Inspection. Available costs include some inspection (or appraisal) costs and failure costs. Prevention Costs: Are costs of any actions intended to make sure that thing will not go wrong. Inspection Costs: Are the costs of finding out if and when things are going wrong so correction or preventive can occur. Failure: Costs are the costs incurred when a customer is or will be-dissalfied: you pay the price in damaged reputation, rework, waste, legal penalties, special charges, or loss of pride.
8. CARE LABELING: When you purchase a garment. You often find a small
tag inside which explains, for example, how to wash, iron or dry-clean it. This tag is a care label; there are certain practices and standard symbols associated with care labeling with which you should be familiar. To assist consumers in getting proper information about clothing care, manufacturers and importers attach care labels giving full instructions for at least one satisfactory method of care necessary for ordinary use of the garment. So, read the label! A little common sense and effort in laundering can extend the life of a garment. While some consumers prefer the economy of buying garments they can wash, others are looking for the convenience of dry cleaning. Regardless, proper handling and cleaning will have the following benefits Garments will maintain a fresh appearance longer; Color fading will be minimized; Damage to fabric from laundering will be reduced; and the useful life of fabric will be extended, making your money go farther. 8.1 WHAT'S IN A LABEL Size: Tells what size the garment is. May list a numeric size or size class such as Small (S), Medium (M), Large (L), and X- Large (XL). There is no uniform standard for sizing in India. Made In: "Made in Pakistan". For imported fabric "Made in USA," "China," etc. Style No: Identify particular style of garment in a manufacturer's line. Tracks sales. Fabric Type: It will be written as 100 % cotton, pure wool etc Number: Sometimes an identification number is there on the label. However, the number can be used in Place of a name on the label or tag that is required to be affixed to these products. The Number is helpful for consumers when trying to contact a manufacturer with question, or complaint. Care Instructions: Care Labeling Rule requires clothing manufacturers and importers to provide at least one satisfactory method of care necessary for the 362
ordinary use of the garment. The label must also provide warnings against the use of any method which the consumer can reasonably Expected to use that would harm the product. Note that fabrics on a bolt should have care Instructions on the end of the bolt. The laundry instructions are to provide instructions for, Washing, bleaching, drying, and ironing; and dry cleaning instructions are to include one Symbol. Refer to our Care Symbol Guide to understand your garment better. Different Countries have a variety of rules governing care labeling. INTERNATIONAL CARE LABELING PRACTICE Country U.S.A Care Labeling Practice Care labeling rules are enforced by the federal Trade Commission and. Require that the label countries words and phrases, not symbols, to denote care instructions. Japan Most items of clothing and certain Textile products such as pile rugs, curtains, blankets and bedspreads require a label giving their care instructions. The label should be in Japanese and use symbols as regulated under the Japanese Houses hold Goods Law. Canada Care labeling is voluntary; if a label is affixed to a garment, it must adhere to the standard green, amber and red care symbols, corresponding to individual care symbols which relate to the severity of the care warning. Bilingual ism (French and English) is required for all labels. EEC Care labeling is voluntary, but if used must conform to international Standardization Organization (ISO) directives and be in the consumers own language. In the U.K., a voluntary care labeling scheme is run by the Home Laundering Consultative Council, which is similar to that of the ISO. Australia The Standards Association of Australia has adopted a consumer product information standard, designed to help consumers avoid damage to clothing during care. The standard requires a care label to the permanently fixed to most garments. Switzerland Care labeling is voluntary. However, the International Care Labeling Symbols system is encouraged by the Swiss Textile Trade Association. The International Textile Care Labeling Code lists a large number of standard symbols. Some commonly used symbols are: WASHING INSTRUCTIONS
95 Maximum temperature 90 C; Mechanical action normal; Spinning normal
95 Maximum temperature 95 C; Mechanical action reduced; Rinsing at gradually decreasing temperature (cool down); spinning
70 Maximum temperature 70 C; Mechanical action normal; Spinning normal
60 Maximum temperature 60 C; Mechanical action normal; Rinsing normal; Spinning normal
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reduced
60 Maximum temperature 60 C; Mechanical action reduced; Rinsing at gradually decreasing temperature (cool down); spinning reduced
40 Maximum temperature 40 C; Mechanical action normal; Rinsing normal Spinning normal
40 Maximum temp. 40 C; Mechanical action much reduced; Rinsing at gradually decreasing normal spinning normal; Do not wring by hand
30 Maximum temperature 30 C; Mechanical action much reduced; ; Rinsing normal; Spinning normal
Hand wash; Do not machine wash; maximum temperature of wash 40 C; Handle with care. Dot not wash; Be cautious when treating in wet stage.
A number and a temperature in the washtub symbol indicate that the article can be washed safely, either bye machine or hand. The figure, which appears above the waterline in the tub, represents the full washing process, while the figure below represents the temperature. A hand in the washtub indicates the article must not be washed by machine. MACHINE WASH CYCLES
Do Not Wring
Normal
Permanent Press
Delicate / Gentle
WATER TEMPERATURE (Maximum Symbols (200F) 95C 160F 70C 140F 60C 120F 50C 105F 40C 65-85F 30C\
RECOMMENDED WASHING TEMPERATURE
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Material Cotton, Viscose Wool (washable) Nylon, polyester Acrylic, acetate, Triacetate Silk
Recommended Temperature (Washing) 60 C (light color) 40 C (dark color) Max. 40 C ( gentle color ) 60 C ( light color ) 50 C ( dark color ) Max. 40 C Hand wash, Max. 30 C
BLEACHING INSTRUCTIONS The Care labels for bleaching are shown. A triangle containing the letters CL indicates that the article may be treated with chlorine bleach. If the letters are crossed through, chlorine bleach must not be used. Some articles are suited to bleaching agents other than chlorine. In such cases, the separate wording only non-chlorine bleach when needed is added to the label, but the article should undergo a nonchlorine bleach test for confirmation. BLEACHING
CL
Chlorine-based bleaching Dot not use Any Bleach Only non-chlorine allowed; only cold and chlorine-based (When bleach when dilute solution bleach needed) needle. DRY CLEANING INSTRUCTIONS Letter placed in a circle indicate that the article may be dry-cleaned, and the type of solvent which may be used. Only the letters A, P and E are recognized. In some cases, the circle containing P or F is underlined this indicates that special procedures such as steam and a certain drying temperature are required. DRY CLEANING
A
Dry-cleaning in all solvents normally used for drycleaning this includes all solvents listed for the symbol P, plus trichloroethylene and 1, 1, 1trichloroethanne.
P
Dry-cleaning in trichloroethylene, monofluorotrichloro methane and all solvents listed for the symbol F; Normal cleansing procedures without restrictions.
P
Dry-cleaning in the solvents listed in the previous paragraph; Strict limitations on the addition of water and/or mechanical action and / or temp during cleaning and /or drying; No selfservice cleaning allowed.
F
Dry-cleaning in triflurotrichloroetha ne, white spirit (distillation temp. between 150 C and 210 C, flash point 38 C to 60 C); Normal cleansing procedures without restrictions.
F
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Reduced Moisture Short Cycle Dry-cleaning in the Do not dry clean; solvents listed in the No stain removal previous paragraph with solvents. Strict limitation on the addition of water and/or temperature during cleaning and/or drying; No selfservice cleaning allowed.
Low Heat
No Steam Finishing
IRONING INSTRUCTIONS IRONING
Iron at a maximum sole-plate temperature of 200 C
Iron at a maximum soleplate temperature of 150 C
Iron at a maximum soleplate temperature of 110 C Steam ironing may be risky.
Do not iron; Steaming and steam treatments are not allowed.
No Steam
AA
SHIPPING & INTERNATIONAL TRADE TERMS ABBREVIATIONS

Association of Avg adjusters DTI Department of trade and industry
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A/C ABS AMT ANF BIFA B/L BNA BIMCO Blue book BOTB BV CAD CAF CAP Carr Fwd CB CCC C/D CF or CFR CFS CHIEF CI CIF CIF & E CIM COD CMI CN CO COGSA COT CRN CSN CT CTD CTO D/A DDA DDV Dead of freight DEQ DES DGN
Account Current American bureau of shipping classification society Air mail transfer Arrival notification form British Intl freight association Bill of Lading British North Atlantic Baltic & Intl maritime council Carriage of dangerous goods in ships British Overseas trade board Bureau Varitas (French ship) classification society Cash against document or cash after delivery Currency adjustment factor Common agricultural policy Carriage forward Container base Customs clearance certificate Collected and Delivered Cost and freight Container Freight station Customs handling of import and export freight Consular invoice Cost insurance and freight Cost insurance freight and exchange Intl convention for conveyance of goods by rail Cash on delivery Comite maritime international Consignment note Certificate of origin Carriage of goods by sea (Sea Act). Customers own transport Customers registered number Container safety convention Combined transport Combined transport document Combined transport operator Deposit account Duty(customs)determent account Delivery duty unpaid Space booked on vessel but not used Delivered ex-quay Delivery ex-ship Dangerous goods note
ECSI ECU
Export cargo shipping instructions European currency unit
EDI Electric data interchange Ediship Organization exchange data between carriers & merchants EDP Electronic data processing EEA European Economic area EFTA European free Trade Area EPU Entry processing Unit ESC European National shippers councils ETA Estimated time of arrival ETD Estimated time of departure FCL FIO FOB FOR GATT DLO Full Container Load Free in and out Free on Board Free on rail General agreement of tariff & trade Dispatch, money payable loading only
IMPORT EXPORT PROCEDURE
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1. EXPORT
Any export process start from the inquiry or from the purchase order which the Merchandising Department receives from the buyer. Merchandiser sends the purchase order to the Export department or this department inquires about the details and FOB rates mentioned the P/O. The P/O contains all the details of the Goods, Packing list, Invoice numbers, Price list, Cargo volumes, and track to ship, time schedule, destination, and final date. SHIPMENT TRACK: Here the export manager look into the details and manage the type of the shipment to be on the destination on the given date and time. Here he contacts the agents or the clients who ship the containers and give them his last date of the consignment. CUT OF DATE: This is the date, which export department gets from the agent, which is usually the date two days before the final date. From this cut off date he plans and manages his working for the final completion of the order and the delivery. MEANS OF SHIPMENT: The export manager chose the best option to ship the container to the Karachi port depending on the finish of the order and the time between the cut off date and final date. (Trucking; By Air; Railway) DELIVERY OF THE CONSIGNMENT: When the order is completed, ready and packed, the export completes all the required documents and hand over to the agent for the customs clearance. Then the container is handed over to the shipping line who loads this on the vessel and the vessel is shipped to the destination on the mentioned date and time. FINANCIAL ASPECT: In the financial aspect all the documents are needed which are essential for the completion of the order and the export / import deal. CUSTOM CLEARANCE DOCUMENTS: Custom department need these documents to verify and check the legality of the trade like vise; Invoice details, Packing List, Export Form, Bill of Lading, Instruction Form, Valuation Form, and Copy of L/C. INVOICE LIST CONTAINS: Import export details, Goods details, Unit Price, L/C number, Total Volume, No. of Units, Shipping Terms, and No. of Containers, No of bales / Rolls, Export or Ex-paid License No and Gross net weight of the shipment. Net Net weight = Garment weight without accessories. Net weight = Garment weight with accessories. Gross weight = Garment with packing material weight. E FORM: This document is issued by a Commercial Bank on behalf of the State Bank of Pakistan including 4 original page, duplicate page, triplicate page and quadruplicate pages details. It contains the details of Import / export, L/C No., Total Volume, No of Cartons, Unit Price, Destination, Delivery date, Export License No. The form is filled by the exporter and submitted to the custom for the details and the validity check. BILL OF LADING: This is a negotiable document which is issued by the importer or the buyer. It contains all the details of the goods and it serves as the receipt of the documents and the order confirmation. B/L is issued for the delivery of the goods
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through the ship or sea is called Shipping Bill, when these goods are delivered by Air the Air way Bill is issued. VALUATION FORM: It contains the value of goods, invoice No/date, Copy of L/C Invoice details, Price List, E form and shipping bill. The shipping bill is attested by the custom and send back to the exporter. The report on the bill is made by the custom inspector reporting any misclause or faults in the details and then this form is verified by the superintendent. The form also contains invoice details, price list, 2 copies of shipping bill, visa for the quota countries details and figures of quota validity, B/L, destination, Weight of the shipment, unit price, FOB value, and quota purchased or issued information. VISA: It is a custom invoice for the destination that the shipment is legal and the documents are complete in all aspects.
2. DOCUMENTARY CREDITS: These are the documents which are needed

for the completion of the export process. L/C OR LETTER OF CREDIT: This is a legal negotiable document issued by the buyers for the support of the trade of export. TYPES OF L/C: In general terms mostly 95% export is done by the Irrevocable L/C types. This type of L/C is more secure and has the best terms and the deals which give security to both the parties and a fair deal of trade. a) Irrevocable L/C. In this type of L/C no change can be made without the consent of both parties if any change is needed both parties has to be agreed upon. b) Revocable L/C. In this type the terms of the L/C can be changed without the consent of the parties and deal made is void. c) L/C at sight. This type o L/C is known when the L/C is handed over in documents and with all the legal terms and conditions. d) L/C for days. Documents are shifted to the seller in 30, 60, 90, 120 days what ever is decided in the deal. NON DOCUMENTARY CREDITS: After collection of all the documents they are dispatched after the confirmation and approvals. 12CAD CASH AGAINST DOCUMENTS: In this, documents are released as soon as cash is received in bank and seller starts production for the order. D A DOCUMENTS AGAINST DAYS: In this term documents are delivered to the seller with in the given time period of 60, 90, 120, 240 days.
3. IMPORT: The first process in getting the goods after they have arrived is to get
costume clearance for these goods. A Bill of Entry (BOE) is filed to customs which contains complete description of the goods. Customs in turn issue a BOE number for the particular import. Incase the goods arrive at Karachi, the Commercial Invoice, Packing List and BOE number are shown to collect the goods. For goods arriving in Lahore, they are transmitted under custom responsibility from Karachi. The above mentioned documents are presented in Lahore to collect the goods. The Government
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of Pakistan provides a relaxation of duty on goods that are imported to be re exported after being processed under the Statutory Rules of Order (SRO). SRO 440 can be availed if goods imported are re exported within a year. The duty and taxes levied on the invoice value of these imported goods is submitted to the government in the form of a Bond. This bond is released by the government upon the export of these goods within a years time (after presenting a proof of the re export). SRO 554 is issued for imported machinery and spare parts only if 60% of the machine production is are exported. An installation Certificate is issued by the Excise and Taxation Department after physically viewing the installed machinery. The bond is released after the Installation Certificate has been granted. SRO 450 is issued for goods whose re export time is 3 years. The bond is released as soon as the quality imported has been re exported. 4. RE- EXPORT: For the re-export of goods, 3 types of documents are used: 1 CUSTOM CLEARANCE DOCUMENTS Commercial Invoice Packing List Consumption Sheet of imported items used Rebate Sheet E-Form VISA / EXPORT LICENSE DOCUMENTS E-Form Shipping Bill Bill of Lading Certificate of Origin BANK / CUSTOMER DOCUMENT Packing List Bill of Lading Generalized System of Preference (GSP) Form A Export License Certificate of Origin Commercial Invoice L/C
2-
3-
Start
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Goods arrive at Karachi or Lahore.
File Bill of Entry for custom clearance
BOE number assigned by customs
File Packing List, Commercial Invoice, BOE and Consumption
Formula Custom inspect goods
Custom calculate duty and taxes
Submit PDC and Bond against duty to avail SRO Goods Clear for Collection
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Start
Container Requirement sent by VMD
Inspection
Booking with forwarder
Booking not placed
Book container and vessel space
Wait for next available vessel
Commercial Invoice, Packing List, Consumption Sheet, Rebate Sheet, E-Form for Custom Clearance
Visa Documents E-Form, Shipping Bill, Bill of Lading
Visa Documents checked by PRGMEA
Export License Granted by EPB
Send Packing List, Bill of Lading, GSP, Export License, BOE, Invoice, L/C Certification of Origin to Bank.
Send Packing List, Bill of Lading, GSP, Export License, BOE, Invoice, L/C Certification of Origin to Buyer.
Export License Granted by EPB
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A LETTER-OF-CREDIT TRANSACTION: Here is what typically happens when payment is made by an irrevocable letter of credit confirmed by U.S. bank. 1. After you and your customer agree on the terms of sale. The customers arranges for his or her bank to open a letter of credit. (Delays may be encountered if, e.g. buyer has insufficient funds In many developing countries, foreign currencies, such as the U.S. dollar, may be scarce) 2. Buyers bank prepares an irrevocable letter of credit, including all instructions. 3. The buyers bank prepares an irrevocable, letter of credit to a U.S. bank requesting confirmation (Foreign bank with more than one U.S. correspondent bank generally select the nearest one to the exporter) 4. The U.S. bank prepares a letter of confirmation to forward to you, along with the irrevocable letter of credit. 5. Your review carefully all conditions in the letter of credit, in particular, shipping dates. If you cannot comply, alert your customer at once. (Your freight forwarder can help advice you. 6. You arrange with your freight forwarder to deliver your goods to the appropriate port or airport. If the forwarder is to present the documents to the bank (a wise move for new to-export firms) the forwarder will need copies of the letter of credit. 7. After the good are loaded, the forwarder completes the necessary documents (or transmit the information to you) 8. You or forwarder present documents indicating full compliance to U.S. Bank 9. The bank reviews the documents, if they are in order, issues you a check. The documents are airmailed to buyers bank for review and transmitted to buyer. 10. Buyer or agent gets the documents which may be needed to claim the goods.
5 COMPETE EXPORT PROCEDURE

PURCHASE ORDER FROM BUYER: After approval of samples buyer sends purchase order to manufacturer, in which complete description of required quantity is mentioned along with number of pcs in each size and style, wash, fabric to be used in the order is mentioned along with delivery term, payment term and mode of transport. PERFORMA INVOICE GIVEN TO BUYER: After receiving purchase order from the buyer, exporter will send them Performa invoice in which all the particulars of the purchase order are mentioned along with any provision amended from purchases order. Mostly the date of shipment is extended in the Performa invoice from purchase order. The main object the Performa invoice is to show his commitment on buyers purchase order to fulfill the order. This is duly stamped along with seal of the company. Some time import & Export department e-mail this Performa invoice to buyer and sometime faxed the buyer for the opening of letter of credit. L/C OPENED BY THE CUSTOMER: On received the Performa invoice the buyer on its basis opened a letter of credit in favor of exporter. The main L/Cs are L/C at Sight; L/C at 30 Days from B/L Date; L/C at 60 Days from B/L Date; L/C at 75 Days from B/|L Date; L/C at 120 Days from B/L Date; and L/C at 360 Days from B/L Date. ORDER FOR CONTAINER: When production department is about to finish his work, merchandiser informs the import and export department to take a place in a ship or air booking and order a container for the delivery of the consignment. The chief executive is directly involved in all the matter of the import and export department.
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DOCUMENTATION FOR CUSTOM: After the departure of container the production department will provide Import & Export department Manual Packing List, the Import and Export Department with the consultation of the Merchandising department prepares the following documents for the custom of the consignment and dispatched them at that night to forwarder at Karachi for custom: Commercial Invoice 5 Nos in letter head. Packing List 5 Nos in letter head. E-form duly attested by the bank in Quadruplicate. Brand undertaking 1 No in letter head. Drug Undertaking 1 No in letter head.
The above mentioned documents are necessary for the custom of a consignment. In air shipment there is manifest but in sea shipment there is Mate Receipt number issued on behalf of the captain of the ship, it is issued when the ship crosses the boundaries of the country. TYPES OF BILL OF LANDING: Bill of lading is a negotiable instrument. After having received Billing of Lading, one can easily negotiate the export documents of shipped goods from any bank. This Bill of Lading could issue by the shipping company on different times (Received for Shipping; One Board Shipment; Shipped on Board) House Bill of lading is issued against he master Bill to each shipped whose goods are in the container, and one master bill be issued. On presentation of House Bill of lading at destination, the house bills than surrender against the master B/L. DEPARTURE OF SHIP: Every shipping company has its own date of departure according to their planning. On its date of departure the ship moves from the port towards the destination called departure of ship. Now the consignment on container is in transit towards the buyers destiny. VISA OF SHIPPED GOODS: At that stage when the ship is on the way the import and export department starts preparing the documents to send to the customer for the release of shipment. The documents are prepares and dispatched to the buyers bank so that the buyer could receive the shipping documents from his bank and release the shipment by the giving the payment. Before the documents dispatch, visa of shipped goods is obtained from EPB through exporters association. DOCUMENTS SUBMITTED TO BUYERS BANK: After visa procedure, the documents are ready to dispatch towards buyers bank mentioned in the L/C. Set of the documents is handed over by the exporter to his bank for onward submission to buyer bank. Exports bank checks documents according to provisions of the L/C and on same day dispatch documents by courier and gives the exporter AWB No. of documents. The following documents are handed over to bank by an exporter: Covering Letter for attached documents Commercial Invoices in Original as required in L/C. Packing List in Original as required in L/C. Bill of Lading 3 Original. Or AWB E-form Duplicate and Triplicate copies. (document only for Bank and SBP) Export License (if Quota item is exported) Certificate of Origin. GSO Form A Certificate from Lahore Chamber of Commerce (if required.) Any other Document / Certificate as required by L/C. 375
NEGOTIATION ON L/C: After submission of the bank documents, the can negotiate the export documents from its bank immediately. The bank will credit the amount to the exporters account on that dates prevailing currency exchange rate. PAYMENT RECEIVED BY OUR BANK: After that crediting the exporters account, exporters bank will adjust the credited amount when it receive the payment from buyers bank and earn its profit. At that stage the bank will issue us an EPRC means Export precede Realization Certificate in which complete detail of the payment is mentioned along with charges deducted by the bank. This EPRC will be used in applying for rebate.
6. PACKING: Packing may sound simple and unimportant. However, if we do not

have sufficient knowledge about it to handle it intelligently, we may end up wasting a lot of money on packing materials and freight in shipping. 6.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHAPE AND CAPACITY: A round shape container like a sphere has the smallest surface area to provide the biggest capacity compared to any other shapes. The second shape of the smallest surface area to provide the biggest capacity is a perfect square. 10 Surface Area: 10 10 X 10 X 6 sides = 600 Sq. inches. 10 Capacity: 10 X 10 X 10 = 1,000 cubic inches.
This perfect square box has a surface area of 600 square inches and it has a capacity of 1,000 cubic inches. If we change the shape to other shapes to provide the same 1,000 cubic inches, the surface area will be bigger than 600 square inches. 20 10 5 Surface Area 20 X 10 X 2 sides = 400 Sq. inches 10 X 5 X 2 sides = 100 Sq. inches 20 X 5 X 2 sides = 200 Sq. inches Capacity 20 X 10 X 5 = 1,000 Cubic inches
Surface area of the above box is 700 Sq. inches and the capacity is still 1,000 Cubic inches. Therefore, by making a carton this size and shape we are using 100 Sq. inches more of materials. In fact, we waste more than 100 Sq. inches of materials because the surface area on the flaps folded in has not been accounted for. If the cost of the carton in first example is Rs. 6.00 each, the carton of second example should be about Rs. 7.20 each. To hold the same amount of goods, why should we spend Rs. 7.20 per carton while Rs. 6.00 is sufficient. It is now very clear that second packing method is 376
not a smart idea, and we should use first method if at all possible. By making the carton in the shape of first example, not only we save carton cost, we will also save the packing materials of carton sealing tape and P.P. strap. The carton of first example shape is stronger than the second, therefore, when we design the dimension of a carton, we should try to make it as square as possible based on the folding size of the garment required by the buyer. Of course, we should not sacrifice the folding size of the garment in order to make the carton square. After all, the saving obtainable is small compared to the value of the merchandise. However, when there is a choice, we should make the carton as square as possible for reasons as explained. 6.2 SHIPPING MARKS AND HOW TO CUT DOWN THE SIZE OF CARTONS. In many cases, cartons have to be ordered and made up before the garments are ready for packing. Therefore, we may have to judge the height of the cartons from only a few pieces of garments. In that case, we should not print the shipping mark so big that it takes up the full space on the side of the carton. Instead, we should leave some empty space at the bottom.
Style No. 123 P.O. # 456 Made in Pakistan Carton No. 124
Style No. 123 P.O. # 456 Made in Pakistan Carton No. 124
When we start to pack the goods, and if we find the cartons too high, we can easily cut it down without hurting the appearance of the carton. The method to cut down the height of the carton is a follows. Turn the carton up side down, Slit the 4 sides and cut away the top flap. When the above is done, we then bend the 4 flaps in wards and we will have a properly sized carton. The idea of cutting it down from the bottom instead of from the top is to keep the top part intact so that the person who opens it from the top would not even notice that the carton size has been altered. 6.3 HOW TO INCREASE HEIGHT OF THE CARTON: If the height of the carton is found too low to hold the amount of goods we intend to hold, it is a problem. Chances are we may have to remake the cartons, but before we do that we should consider increasing the height of the carton. If we need 2 to 4 more on the height, we may manage to do it. Turn the carton up side down and use a big ruler or a piece of straight board firmly pressed on the marked line and bend the flap outwards and then bend inwards. After bending the flaps, we will see that there is a gap. Now we should cut up separate piece of corrugated board of the same thickness to fill the gap. When we finish increasing the height of the carton and packing the goods, it is hard to find out that the carton height has been increased as you usually open it from the top. 377
6.4 SEA FREIGHT AND AIR FREIGHT CALCULATION: Although most orders for garments are placed by buyers on FOB basis, with buyers to pay for freight at the shipping destination, it is still necessary for the shipper or the agent to know how to calculate sea freight and air freight s buyers always need to know how much freight the merchandise costs per dozen. If we are required to sell on CIF basis, with the shipper to prepay for freight at the shipping port, we will need to calculate the freight accurately for our own costing. SEA FREIGHT: Sea freight is usually charged based on volume how much per cubic meter (CBM) very rarely by weight as density cargo. In fact Asia North America Eastbound Rate Agreement (ANERA) has designed the freight tariff more based on the usual value of the type of goods, than the usual weight of them, taking into consideration that for low value merchandise they should give a low freight rate in order to make it possible for the importers to buy goods overseas, they should charge a high freight rate as it is believed that the buyer can afford to pay more on freight. They have designed the freight tariff in such a way that everybody can do business and there is sufficient profit for the shipping lines. EXAMPLE The shipping line charges US$160.00 per CBM if we ship goods by the CBM as loose cargo. But, if we ship goods by the container, they charge us about US$3,500.00 per 20 foot container, or US$5,000.00 per 40 foot container. These are approximate rates for shipment from the Far East to USA ports, but they vary from each of the far east countries and to east or west coasts of the USA. However, the above example can give us the general relationship between the rates of loose cargo, 20 foot and 40 foot containers. 20 FOOT CONTAINER INSIDE MEASUREMENTS: Length: 228 X Width: 84 X Height: 94 228 X 84 X 94 = 1,800,288 Cubic Inches 1,800,288 1728 cubic inches = 1,041.83 cubic feet 1,041.83 35.32 = 29.50 CBM A 20 foot container has an air capacity of 29.50 CBM, but when we ship goods packed in cartons or wooden crates, it can only hold about 27 CBM as there will be gaps or spaces wasted. If the rate of a 20 foot container is US$3,500.00 our average rate per CBM is about US$130.00. 40 FOOT CONTAINER INSIDE MEASUREMENTS: Length: 474 X Width: 84 X Height: 94 474 X 84 X 94 = 3,742,704 Cubic Inches 3,742,704 1728 cubic inches = 2,165.92 cubic feet 2,165.92 35.32 = 61.32 CBM A 40 foot container has an air capacity of 61.32 CBM, but when we ship goods packed in cartons or wooden crates, it can only hold about 54 CBM as there will be gaps or spaces wasted. If the rate of a 40 foot container is US$5,000.00 our average rate per CBM is about US$92.00. 40 FOOT HIGH CUBE CONTAINER INSIDE MEASUREMENTS: Length: 474 X Width: 84 X Height: 106 474 X 84 X 106 = 4,220,496 Cubic Inches 4,220,496 1728 cubic inches = 2,442.41 cubic feet 2,442.41 35.32 = 61.15 CBM
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A 40 foot high cube container is about 12% bigger than a 40 foot regular container, and the cost of a 40 foot hi cube is about 10 to 12% higher, so the rate per CBM is about the same. There is very little, or no advantage in using a 40 foot cube as the rate per CBM is concerned. However, there is great advantage when you have the amount of cargo which exceeds the capacity of a 40 foot container only by 5 to 8 CBM. However, it is not always possible for the buyers to buy goods with the quantity adjusted to fill the containers. But, if the quantity ordered is so big that it takes a few 40 foot containers to ship at different times, and then the shipper should plan the shipments carefully so that the right amount of goods is shipped each time to fill a 40 foot container, because the saving in using 40 foot container is so big that it is worth your time and effort to work to achieve it for your buyer. EXAMPLE One dozen of mens stand -up collar shirt is about 0.034 CBM (a).IF WE SHIP THIS SHIRT AS LOOSE CARGO 0.034 X 160.00 = $5.44 per dozen sea freight (b). IF WE SHIP THIS SHIRT IN A 20 FOOT CONTAINER (FULL) 0.034 X 130.00 = $4.42 per dozen sea freight (c). IF WE SHIP IN A 40 FOOT, OR A 40 HI CUBE CONTAINER (FULL) 0.034 X 92.00 = 3.13 per dozen sea freight. It is very clear that good planning in shipping can save your customer a great deal of money. As most shippers are shipping goods by the container, we may form an opinion that as long as we pay for the whole container we may fill up the container regardless of the weight of the merchandise. However, this is not true; the usual weight limits of the containers are 16,300 kg or 18,148 kg including the weight of the container for a 20 foot container and 19,500 kg or 25,400 kg including weight of the container for a 40 foot container. The tare weights of the containers are: 20 foot Steel: 40 foot Steel: 40 foot Aluminum: 45 foot aluminum / steel 1960 to 2350 kg 3390 to 4190 kg 2450 to 3050 kg 3925 to 4500 kg
AIR FREIGHT: Unlike sea freight, the airlines have decided to charge for the heavy merchandise (high density goods) by weight and light weight merchandise (low density goods) by volume. However, as airplanes can take less weight than ocean liners, the way they set the standard, in the garments industry, when we ship goods by air, we have a 70% chance to be charged by weight, about 30% chance by volume. If our merchandise is of high density (heavy) such as jeans, flat packed shirt, jackets without polyester padding, T-Shirts without hanger, there is a good chance we will be charged by weight. In that case, it is not possible to save air freight by packing the goods tighter in cartons to try to reduce the measurements. However, if our merchandise is of low density (light weight) such as stand-up collar shirts, shirts individually boxed, jackets with polyester padding, or down fill, T-shirts or other shirts with hangers, heavy gauge sweaters, there is a good chance we will be charged by volume. In that case, we should make an effort to make the carton as small as possible. In order for you to determine if it is necessary to do so, we must know the following relationship between weight and volume as set by IATA. (a). From most shipping locations in far east to US destinations and Canada 7,000 Cubic CM is equal to 1 kilo. (b). From certain shipping locations in Far East to the US destinations and Canada 6,000 cubic CM is equal to 1 kilo. 379
Therefore, when we have low density (light weight) goods to ship by air, in order to determine if we should try to make the cartons as small as possible to save freight, we should first check with the local air forwarding agent by asking him in the country where we are, how many cubic cm is considered 1 kilo in weight. He will tell us either 7,000 or 6,000. This is the answer we need. Secondly, physically check the weight and measurements of the goods packed for air shipment. Now we have the answers as follows: (a) The country is Pakistan and the formula is 6,000 cubic cm = 1 kilo (b) The measurements of the cartons are 50 cm X 60cm X 40 cm (c) The gross weight of the cartons is 16 kilo per carton. Now, let us find out if we should try to make the cartons smaller to save air freight by doing the following calculations: 50cm X 60cm X 40cm = 120,000 cubic cm 120,000 cubic cm by 6,000 = 20 kilo Now we know by volume, the one carton is of 20 kilo, but by actual weight, the carton is of only 16 kilo. We also know the airline will charge whichever is higher; in this case, they will charge us for 20 kilo, by volume. If the air freight rate is 2.80 per kilo, this carton will cost us $56.00. In order to save some money, let us try to make the carton smaller (usually by cutting down the height of the carton. Lets say we have succeeded in cutting down height by 5 cm and see how much money we can save. Original size of the carton: 50 X 60 X 40cm = (20 kilo) Now cut down to 50 X 60 X 35cm 50 X 60 X 35cm = 105,000 cubic cm 105,000 6,000 = 17.5 kilo Now by using the new carton, we have saved 2.5 kilo and this carton will cost us only $49.00 (17.5 kilo X 2.80 = 49.00). Should we try to cut it down further, if possible? The answer is yes, because 17.5 kilo is still bigger than the actual weight. We should try to cut it down to: 50 X 60 X 32cm. because 50 X 60 X 32cm 6,000 = 16 kilo which is the same as the actual weight. In this case we will have to pay 16 kilo X 2.80 = 44.80 for the air freight of this carton no matter by weight or by volume the airline charges us. Now we can see, by cutting the height down by only 8 cm we have reduced the freight from 56.00 to 44.80 saving 11.20 per carton. Since the saving is so great, should we try to cut down the height further? The answer is no. If we cut it down further by another 2 cm, then 50 X 60 X 30cm 6,000 = 15 kilo. The air line will not charge us for 15 kilo. They will still charge us for 16 kilo because the actual weight is 16 kilo. The last 2 cm we cut down will not save us any money. However, if we can cut down the size of the carton and not hurt the appearance of the garment inside, we should always do it because over sized cartons can easily be crashed due to insufficient support from inside, and in the season when air space is tight, our volumetric cargo may have lower priority than other peoples density cargo to get on the plane. One point noteworthy is when we know it is going to be volumetric cargo and that the merchandise is sweater, e.g. which can be squeezed without being hurt, we should use very strong carton to pack these goods, such as 9-ply cartons, In that case the airline would take the measurements from the biggest point to the biggest point. As a result, we will be charged more than we calculated. However, if we use stronger cartons we can avoid this to an extent. We should not worry about the 9-ply carton being heavier than the 7-ply carton to cost us more airfreight, because we are being charged by volume, not by weight. 380
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
1. Definition of Communication: The word communication means the act or process of giving or exchanging of information,: signals, or messages as by talk, gestures, or writing. Technically speaking, in the act of communication, we make opinions, feelings, information, etc known or understood by others through speech, writing or bodily movement. 1.1 Importance of Communication: Communicating effectively in speaking and writing is useful in all areas of business, such as management, technical, clerical, and social positions. The ability to communicate well has always given advantages to those who possess it. Communication has a rich history. The ancient world, both the East and the West, depended on oral communication. In ancient Greece and Rome, it was necessary to communicate when dealing with matters in assemblies and the courts. During the Medieval and Renaissance Periods, the oral tradition progressed. As writing became more important as a permanent record of communication, authors and books on written communication principles appeared. So we can say that some of today's principles of writing are a mixture of ancient oral and written traditions. Lifeline of an Organization: An organization is a group of people associated for business, political, professional, religious, social, or other purposes. Its activities require human beings to interact and react, that is, to communicate. They exchange information, ideas, plans, order needed supplies and make decisions, rules, proposals, contracts, and agreements. All these activities require one skill that is communication. So we can say that communication is the "Lifeline" of every organization. It enables organizations to function. It takes place not only among the members of an organization but also between two or more organizations at the same time. 1.2 Communication Flow: The best ways to study the importance of communication is to observe the directions in which it flows within an organization. Internal Communication: An exchange of information within an organization is called internal communication. It takes place at different levels downwards, upwards and horizontal. The internal communication helps increase job satisfaction, safety, productivity, and profits and decreases. Absenteeism, grievances, and turnover. In an organization people communicate at following levels: Downward Communication: When employees receive appropriate downward communication from the management, they become motivated and more efficient. They need clear job directions, safety rules, facts about organizational strategy, products, and viewpoints on important controversial issues. They are concerned about their benefits suchas healthcare, promotions, pensions, training, etc. Upward Communication: Upward internal communication is also very important. Many executives want comments from employees in addition to the usual periodic reports. Successful managers listen closely to opinions, complaints, problems, and suggestions, especially when these are clearly put forward. Horizontal Communication: Horizontal communication takes place between peers in organizations in order to solve problems, perform job duties, prepare for meetings, and cooperate on important projects. So you cat imagine that people spend time on listening to and making requests, writing notes and memos, and discussing and writing about projects: And they do it through communication.
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Ways of Internal Communication: Among various ways of communicating within organizations are memos, reports, meetings, face to face discussions, teleconferences, video conferences, and electronic mail etc. EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION: Communication that takes place outside the organization is called external communication. The right letter, proposal, report, telephone call, or personal conversation can win back an angry customer, create a desire for a firm's product or service, encourage collections, motivate performance, and in general, create goodwill. Communication to the public is also very important. Communication outside the organization helps create a good reputation and bears a positive impact on success. Ways of External Communication: interviews with the news media; etc. Letters, pamphlets, annual reports,
1.3 Advantages of Communication in your Career: Your success in your career is based on your ability to do well in written and oral communication. This ability to communicate effectively is a valuable asset for you. If your career requires mainly mental rather than manual labor, your progress will depend on how effectively you communicate your ideas to others who need or should receive them. Strong communication skills are found in every job description listed by companies advertising positions. Communication is a primary responsibility in many careers, such as customer relations, labor relations, marketing personnel, merchandisers, public relations, sales, and teaching. It is also required in government and non profit organizations. There skills play a major role at every level. Even if your work is mainly with figures, as in the accounting profession, the ability to communicate to those who read your financial reports is necessary. A quality for Promotion: An executive must have the ability to communicate if he wants promotion. Those who cannot communicate effectively in either oral or written communication remain in the same positions. Many surveys have born out the idea that effective communication is essential for success and promotion in every field. 1.4 Communication & Global Market: The way you communicate both within and outside your own country affect everything you do. Moreover your ability to speak and write effectively will also make a difference to your organization. These qualities will help you to be successful in dealing with international business people. Always remember that "To the customer, you are the company". Your dealing with customers, clients and the public reflects the company you represent. Important communications can make difference to your company because each message communicates the essential quality and .culture of your company and can either build goodwill or destroy it. Messages written to international customers and other business contacts are sensitive to the readers. Your goodwill as well as your organization's is at stake. So be very carefu1 while communicating with international people. Importance of Communication for a Businessman: The ability to communicate effectively with others is repeatedly named as a top quality of a successful businessman, you as a businessman may be a very intelligent person; but if you can't get your message across to the other, you will be thought of as less intelligent than you are because ideas are common, but the ability to clearly communicate ideas to others is rare. If you are a better communicator, customers and business associates form better impression of you and your organization. This impression is based solely upon your ability to communicate both oral and written.
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Effective business message builds or retains goodwill which is a priceless commodity. Because the exchange of written communication is vital to a. businessman for promoting goodwill, the art of producing effective correspondence will help ensure your success in business. So, your ability to communicate is, in fact, your trademark. The memos, letters and reports you write, demonstrate your ability, or lack of ability to communicate. Presenting your self through your communication will project a favorable image as well as promote successful business operators both internally and externally. Besides, as a businessman you are required to run the working of your organization smoothly because you are to clearly transfer your objectives, policies, method of working etc. to the people working with you at different levels, so this ability to, communicate is very crucial for you as a businessman for basic managerial functions. As a businessman you will regularly plan design and control affairs to maximize your production and minimize your cost. Your ability to communicate effectively is going to help you from the brainstorming step to implementing the objectives that you chalk out for the promotion of your business. Another factor that is important for a businessman to achieve the desired objectives is decision making. Here again ability to communicate both orally and in writing helps you make the most of yourself and your organization. Above all else, your ability to communicate helps you in understanding human relationships. Being an effective communicator you can interact effectively and positively with others. This situation results in an open climate of communication within organization as well as outside it. So communication is of paramount importance for a businessman to be successful in his business.
2.
Process
of
Communication
&
Miscommunication:
Communication is a process of Sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal messages. Communication is considered effective when it achieves the desired reaction or response from the receiver. So we can say that communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information. The process of communication has six components that take place when we communicate. They are context, sender / encoder, message, medium, receiver / decoder, and feedback. 2.1 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIONS Context: Every message, whether oral or written, begins with context. A context is a broad field that includes country, culture, organization, and external and internal stimuli. Every country, every culture and every company or organization has its own way of processing and communicating information: Another aspect of context is the external stimuli such as a letter, memo, fax telephone that make you send a message. Your response to it may be oral or written. Internal stimuli have effect on how you translate ideas into a message. Your attitudes, opinions, emotions, past experiences, likes and dislikes, education, job status and confidence in your communication skills all influence the way you communicate your ideas. For effective communication give them importance. Sender/Encoder: While sending a message, you are the "encoder", the writer or speaker, depending on whether your message is written or oral. You try to choose symbols or words that express your message so that the receiver(s) will understand it and react as you desire. You decide which symbols best convey your message and which message channel will be most effective among the oral and written media (letter, memo, telephone, etc).
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Message: The message is the main idea that you wish to communicate; it is of both verbal (written or spoken) symbols and nonverbal (unspoken) symbols. First decide exactly what your message is. Also consider the receiver of your message. Medium / Channel: It means the way by which a message is communicated. It includes a11 the factors discussed above. You can choose electronic mail, the printed word, or sound. The choice of medium is affected by the relationship between the sender and the receiver. Urgency of a message is a factor in whether to use the written or spoken medium. We normally choose oral or written medium / channel because of their following characteristics. Oral Communication: The oral communication brings back immediate feedback. It has a conversational nature with shorter words and sentences. It stresses on interpersonal relations. This medium needs less technical details. Its sentence structures are simple. Kinds of sentences used are generally imperative, interrogative and exclamatory. Written Communication: This medium is more formal with focus on contents. It can convey any amount of technical information. It is best for permanent record. This medium uses longer words and longer sentences. It brings delayed feedback. The most important thing about this medium is its possibility of review. The written channel is often preferred when the message is long, technical, or formal in nature, and when the message needs to be in black and white. The oral channel is useful when the message is urgent or personal or when immediate feedback is important. Inside Your Organization: For internal communication, written media may be memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, posters, notes, employee manuals, electronic bulletin boards, even internal faxes. Oral communication may take the form of staff meeting reports, face to face discussions, presentations, audio tapes, telephone chats, teleconferences, or videotapes. Outside Your Organization: External written communication media may be letters, reports, telegrams, cablegrams, mailgrams, faxes, telexes, postcards, contracts, ads, brochures, catalogs, news releases etc. Orally it may be face to face discussions, telephone, or presentations in solo or panel situations. Receiver/Decoder: The receiver / decoder of your message is your reader or listener. A message may have more than one decoder. Both receive messages through the eyes and ears but are also influenced by nonverbal factors such as touch, taste, and smell. Feedback: Feedback can be oral or written; it can also be an action, such as receiving in the mail an item you ordered. Sometimes silence is used as feedback, though it is not very useful. Senders need feedback in order to determine the success or failure of the communication. 2.2 Problems in Effective Communication: People in the world are not exactly alike. Cultures or countries are not the same. These differences, however, can cause problems in conveying your meanings. Each person's mind is different from others. As a result, message sender's meanings and the receiver's response are affected by many factors, such as individual conventions of meaning, perceptions of reality, and values, attitudes, and opinions. A basic principle of communication is that the symbols the sender uses to communicate messages must have the same meaning in both / the sender's and receiver's minds. You can never be sure that the message in your mind will be clearly sent to your receiver. 384
Problems in Conventions of Meaning: The meanings of words (semantics) are built within each person's experience of reality. The knowledge we each have about a subject or word affects the meaning we attach to it. Miscommunication occurs when the sender and receiver have different meanings for the symbols used. Words have several dictionary definitions. A word may have more meanings. To avoid communication errors, be sure that your words convey the intended meaning to the reader. Miscommunication may occur due to reactions to denotations, connotations and euphemisms. It can also occur because words have both denotative and connotative meanings. Denotations: A denotation is usually the dictionary definition of a word. Denotative meanings name objects, people or events without indicating positive or negative qualities. Such words as car, desk, book, house, and water convey denotative meanings. The receiver has a similar understanding of thing in which word is used. Connotations: A connotation is an implication of a word or a suggestion separate from the usual definition. Some words have connotative meanings, that is, qualitative judgments and personal reactions. The word man is denotative, father, prophet, brother are connotative. Some words have positive connotations in some contexts and negative meanings in others for example, slim girl and slim chances. Euphemism: An expression that is gentler or less direct than the one used to refer to something unpleasant or embarrassing. For example, pass away is a euphemism for die. Communication Problems in Perception of Reality: Because of the changing world, everyone has his own concept of reality. Also, human beings, sensory perceptions touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste are limited, and each person's mental filter is unique. In our daily interaction with others, we make various abstractions, inferences and evaluations of world around us. Abstracting: Selecting some details and omitting others is a process called abstracting. On many occasions abstracting is necessary. However, you should be cautious about "slanted" statements. Differences in abstracting take place not only when persons describe events but also when they describe people and objects. Slanting is unfair in factual reporting. When presenting some particular facts, you include your own biased ideas into it, you make slanting statement. Try not to let personal preferences affect your factual reporting of information. Inferring: Conclusions made by reasoning from evidence are called inferences. We make assumptions and draw conclusions even though we are not able to immediately verify the evidence. Some inferences are both necessary and desirable; others are risky, even dangerous. Necessary Inferences: 1. When we reach a foreign country, we are sure that we will be treated politely. 2. When we post a letter, we infer that it will reach its destination. Problems Involving Values, Attitudes, and Opinions: A receiver's attitude toward a message can determine whether it is accepted or rejected. The effectiveness is influenced also by the values, attitudes, and opinions of the communicators. People react favorably when they receive agreeable message. Receivers views of the information will affect their response. This response could be what the sender desires
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or just the opposite. Occasionally' people react according to their attitudes toward a situation rather than to the facts. Closed Minds: Some people hold rigid views on certain subjects. They maintain their rigid views regardless of the circumstances. Such a closed minded person is very difficult to communicate to. Sender's Credibility: Credibility in the sender is important in getting a favorable reaction. An effective sender builds credibility by writing and speaking in a fair and just manner and by considering receivers' points of view. Life's stresses also affect our ability to send effective messages. Non Verbal Communication: We also communicate nonverbally, that is without words. Sometimes nonverbal messages contradict the verbal; often they express feelings more clearly than the spoken or written language. 60% to 90% effect of a message comes from nonverbal cues. Nonverbal communication is of types (Appearance, Body Language, and Silence; Time and space) How Appearance Communicates: Your appearance carries nonverbal impressions that affect receivers' attitudes towards the verbal message even before they read or hear you. Effect on Written Messages: The format, neatness, and languages of a written message send a nonverbal message to the reader. The letter, report, or title page communicates nonverbally before its contents are read. Language itself, aside from its context, communicates something about the sender. Effect on Oral Messages: When you speak to a person face to face or to a group in a meeting, personal appearance and the appearance of your surroundings convey nonverbal messages that affect attitudes towards your spoken words. Your Personal Appearance: Clothing, hairstyle, neatness, jewelry, cosmetics, posture, and stature are part of personal appearance. They carry impressions regarding occupation, age, nationality, social and economic level, job status; and good or poor judgment, depending on circumstances. Youre Surroundings: Surroundings include room size, furnishings, architecture, decorations, and other features. Surroundings vary according to status, country and culture. How Body Language Communicates: Body language includes facial expressions, gestures, postures and movement, smell and touch, and voice and sound. Facial Expressions: The eyes and face are especially helpful means of communicating nonverbally. They can reveal hidden emotions, including anger, confusion, enthusiasm, fear, joy surprise, uncertainty, and others. They can also contradict verbal statements. Gestures, Postures, and Movement: Postures, gestures, and body movement carry a message. Gestures and movements are culture specific. The meaning of a gesture in one culture may be different in another. Posture and movement can convey self-confidence, status, or interest. Smell and Touch: Various odors and fragrances sometimes convey the emotions of the sender and sometimes affect the reactions of the receiver.
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Paralanguage: Your voice quality and extra sounds are also a part of nonverbal communication called Paralanguage. It includes voice, volume, rate, articulation, pitch and the other sounds you may make, such as throat cleaning and sighing. A loud voice often communicates urgency while a soft one is sometimes calming. Speaking fast may suggest nervousness or haste. How Silence, Time, and Space Communicate: Silence, time, and space can communicate more than you may think, even causing hard feelings, loss of business, and profits. Silence: Just imagine how you feel when you make an oral request that is met with silence. Or think about the confusion you feel when your written message brings about no response. Time: Ideas of time and space are culture-specific. In some countries you should reach a meeting place on time and any delay can cause problem. Space: The idea of space also carries nonverbal message. In different cultures, people like to keep a certain distance from one another. In the United States, personal space in a two-person conversation is about 18 inches. The need for space is less in many Middle Eastern countries. The key to success is to be aware of the differences.
3. Principles of Business Commutation:
Communication is an important part of our world today. The ability to communicate effectively with others is considered a prized quality of the successful Business people. To communicate easily and effectively with your readers, you should apply the Seven C' principles: (Clarity; Correctness; Conciseness; Courtesy; Consideration; Completeness; and Concreteness 3.1 Clarity: Clarity means getting your message across so that the receiver will understand what you are trying to convey. You may not be able to write clearly if you have not thought out your message first. It is better to write down the main points of the message. A rough draft should be made first and then revised. Some ways to help make your message clear are (Choose, short, familiar, and conversational words. Always use the words you know that your reader can understand. Construct effective sentences and paragraph. Trite, vague, and unfamiliar words or phrases are the enemy of clear writing. For example: VAGUE CLEAR (i) Acknowledge receipt of (i) Thank you (ii) In due course (ii) In five/ ten days (iii) Attached please find (iii) Attached is Clear writing is easy, to understand. It requires short and easy words. Generally speaking, a sentence in a business letter should have 3 to 30 words. Each sentence should express unity of thought. The words into a sentence and sentence into a paragraph should be arranged in a way, that they become a coherent whole. For example; Vague: Being the chief executive, we can expect help from you. Clear: Being the chief executive, you can surely help us. Include examples, illustrations, visual aids, etc. Anything that can help understand your message may be used, such as chart, graph, picture, etc.
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3.2 Correctness: After you have determined that your message is courteous, clear, complete, etc, you must be sure that it is also correct. The correctness principle is more than proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. A message may be perfect grammatically but still lose a customer and fail to achieve a purpose. Though mistakes are never intentional, they spoil our image. Errors in letter fall in the following categories: 1. Mistakes in names, figures, facts, and words: Any mistakes in names, figures, facts, etc, can make your message unclear. Such mistakes can also create problems for you. If you write 2000 where you were supposed to write 200. 2. Mistakes in punctuation and capitalization: Not properly punctuated sentence can create problems for the reader, so sentences should correctly be punctuated. 3. Mistakes in the level of Language: There are two types of writings: formal and informal. In formal writing, our style is unconversational. In informal writing, we use words that are short, familiar and conversational, for example; (Formal, Informal, Commence, Start, Approximately, About). It is essential, that every letter may carefully be written and revised before it is mailed. 1.3 Conciseness: A concise message saves time and expenses for both sender and receiver. Conciseness means that you have to convey your message in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the other 'C' qualities. Conciseness is a very desirable quality. But, conciseness should not be confused with brevity. To achieve conciseness, notice the following suggestions: 1. Eliminate wordy expressions: To avoid wordy expressions, use single Words whenever possible. Here are some examples of how word economy saves the reader's time and effort. Wordy: Concise: Wordy: Concise: Arrived at the conclusion. Concluded. At the present time. Now.
2. Include only relevant material: Your reader will lose interest in your message if he / she find irrelevant things in your message. Using only well-chosen words can help you convey relevant facts. 3. Avoid unnecessary repetition: Avoid repetition by using pronouns, short names or acronyms, etc. Writing concisely means using only meaningful words. 3.4 Courtesy: Courtesy does not mean the use of old fashioned expressions such as your kind enquiry, thank you and please. Rather, it is politeness that grows out of respect and concern for others. Courtesy is a quality that enables a request to be refused without killing all hope of future business, Courtesy also means replying promptly to all letters; if you feel your correspondent's comments are unfair, try to answer tactfully. In short, whole letter should have a courteous tone. It is not what you say; it is how you say it. Following are suggestions for producing a courteous tone: 1 Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative: Sometimes you have to deal with unpleasant messages. Always remember that by using tact and being thoughtful you can convey anything, however unpleasant it may be, to your readers.
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Use expressions that show respect: Expressions like, irresponsible or I do not agree with etc., are annoying. Use expressions that show respect for your reader and help him think positively about your message. Choose nondiscriminatory expressions: Courtesy also requires use of nondiscriminatory expressions that refer to any particular, gender, race, ethnic, origin, etc, Replace 'manpower' with workers, employees, etc., because in west people are concerned about using the term man as part of a compound noun.
3.5 Consideration: Consideration means writing every letter with your reader in mind. It also means acting on the 'you attitude'. When we put ourselves in our reader's place, we are considerate. We can understand our reader's desires, problems, circumstances and emotions. This thoughtful consideration is exactly 'you attitude'. Three specific ways to indicate consideration are: 1 Focus on 'you' instead of 'I' and 'we': For writing considerate message, think how your reader will benefit from your messages. For example. I or We attitude: we are delighted to announce You attitude: you will be pleased to know...... 2 Show audience benefits or interest: Your reader is likely to response positively when you show them benefits. Even in conveying unfavorable message to your reader, you can plan it in a way the reader finds some benefit in it. Emphasize positive, pleasant facts: Another Way to show you attitude for your reader is to present facts in a positive, pleasant way. For example;
Unpleasant: We can't extend you the facility of credit. Pleasant: However, we are sure that in future you will certainly benefit from our credit facility. 3.6 Completeness: A business message is complete when it contains all facts that the reader or listener needs for the reaction you desire. Senders and receivers are influenced by their background, viewpoint, needs, experience, attitude, status and emotions. Because of their difference, the receiver needs to be sure that he has included all relevant information. Completeness is closely related to clarity. A complete message brings desired result. It does a better job of building goodwill. It helps remove costly lawsuits that may result if important information is missing. Moreover, the communication that seems unimportant can be surprisingly important if the information is complete and effective. For completeness, keep the following guideline in mind: 1. Provide all necessary information: Your reader needs to know how much, what size, what type and other details. To achieve this clarity, your message should answer What, When, Where, Which, Whey, Who and How. 2. Answer all questions asked: Replying to an inquiry or request, answer all questions asked, and even anticipate the reader's reaction by providing other relevant information. 3. Give something extra when desirable: Sometimes, as an intelligent writer, you know what your reader may need to know about any certain thing. In this case you must include anything that is of your reader's benefit.
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3.6 Concreteness: Concreteness means that a message is specific, definite and vivid. If a message lacks these qualities, it will be vague and general. To achieve concreteness, denotative words will be used instead of connotative words. By using concrete facts and figures, you can make your reader know exactly what is required or desired. Concrete messages are more richly textured. They avoid vagueness. The following guideline should help you compose concrete, convincing message. 1. Use specific facts and figures: Always use specific facts and figures in your messages, e.g. Vague: Clear: Please send us the following items by the end of this month. The following items should reach us on or before 21 August.
2. Put active verbs in the sentences: Active verbs make writing forceful and more interesting to read or hear. Passive: Active: The proposal was approved. The general manager approved the proposal.
Active verbs also make sentence specific, personal and concise. Choose vivid, Image building words. To make the language of your message, you must choose concrete nouns, adjectives and adverbs. Figurative language should be used carefully as it can spoil the effect if not handled properly. After going through the principles, you must have noticed as to how helpful they are in making your message understandable. By paying attention to them, you will express yourself better in writing and develop good writing skills.
4. Process of Preparing Effective Business Messages: While

preparing a written or an oral business message, you need to plan, organize, compose, edit and revise it. The message must also be proofread and corrected before it is mailed. Apart from the steps mentioned above the writer must take care of seven C qualities and also of legal aspect. Careful preparation of communication is important, even if the writer / speaker has the modern technology. The basic planning steps are as follows: 4.1 Planning Steps: Before writing a message, the following steps are necessary for effective communication. 1. Know the purpose of the message. 2. Analyze your audience - readers or listeners. 3. Choose the ideas to include. 4. Collect all the facts to backup, these ideas. 5. Outline - organize - your message. . Know your Purpose: While planning the communication, the first step is to know your specific purpose. For instance, is it a replacement for defective goods? Or is your main purpose to introduce the new product, etc.? In addition to the specific purpose of each message, all communications have an underlying general Purpose - to build goodwill. So even refusing a credit request, this goodwill aspect should be kept in mind. Analyze Your Audience: It is very important to write the message to the recipient's views and needs. You might or might not have met the recipient. It is better to visualize the individual. Try to picture that person - business or professional person, or laborer, superior (boss) colleague, or subordinate, man or woman, new or longtime customer, young, middle-aged, or elderly client. Also, consider the person's educational level, attitudes, and so on. If the message is for many people, try to find
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some common characteristics. In all communications, the areas must be considered on which the recipient is likely to be well informed or uniformed, pleased or displeased, positive, negative, or neutral, interested or uninterested and unreceptive. Choose the Ideas: While answering a 1etter, one can underline the main points to discuss and get the ideas briefly on a pad. If one is writing unsolicited or a complex message, one can begin by listing ideas as they come to mind. Then most important facts can be changed into message. It is better that the message written to welcome a customer should have other incentives or policies what the firm offers. Collect All the Facts: After the main ideas, the writer / speaker should ask himself what specific facts, updated figures or quotations he needs. The knowledge of the company's policies, procedures, and product details is necessary for an effective communication. A brochure, table picture, or product sample is also useful to enclose. Outline-Organize the Messages: The order in which the ideas are to be presented is as important as the ideas themselves. Disorganized writing reflects disorganized, illogical thought process or careless preparation. Choose the organizational plan after the purpose has been finalized collecting all necessary facts. Ask yourself "How will the reader or listener react to these ideas? " 4.2 Basic Organizational Plans Direct (Deductive) Approach: When you think that your audience will be interested in what you have to say or willing to cooperate with you, you can use the direct or deductive plan to organize your message. It means your present request or the main idea in the beginning, which follows up necessary details and then you close your message with a cordial statement of action you want. We use this approach when the request requires no special tact or persuasion. Close to direct request is good-news plan that is used to grant requests, announce favorable or neutral information and exchange routine information within or between organizations. Look at the outline of direct organizational plans and good-news plan. Direct-Request plan DIRECT-REQUEST PLAN GOOD NEWS PLAN 1. State the request or main idea. 1. Best news or main idea. 2. Give necessary desirable details for 2. Explain necessary and desirable easy reading. details with any helpful material 3. Close with a cordial request for 3. End positively and friendly stating specific action. clearly the desired action and offering any further help. Give date of action if necessary. Indirect (Inductive) Approach: If you think that your message might upset your reader or listener, you use the indirect plan to ease your audience into the part of your message that shows that you are fair-minded and eager to do business with him on some other terms. This approach consists of four parts (A buffer, Explanation of your decision supported by reason, Negative decision tactfully expressed or understood with helpful suggestion, and a helpful, friendly, and positive close). By giving reasons for your decision before the negative decision, you actually prepare your reader for bad-news. This approach is very helpful in conveying the bad-news to your reader. As good-news plan is similar to direct-request plan, so is persuasive plan to bad-news plan. Persuasion is the attempt to change a reader's attitude, beliefs or action in your 391
favor. This plan is used to influence the readers who may resist otherwise. One way to organize persuasive messages is the AIDA plan, which is of four stages (Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action). In the attention stage, you convince the reader that you have something interesting or useful for him. In interest stage you explain how your message is related to your reader. In the desire stage you provide relevant evidence to prove your claim drawing attention to any enclosures. And in the action stage you close message with an action ending that suggests a specific action reader may take. 4.3 Beginnings & Endings: The way you begin your message makes it clear whether your reader will respond favorably or unfavorably to the message. When you are sure that your message has something favorable or neuter for the reader, you must begin your message with the main idea or good-news in the beginning. The opening must be impressive in a way that it captures the attention of the reader. So always choose appropriate openings that suit the purpose of your message. The following openings are desirable in direct-request, good-news and neutral messages. Main Idea: The goods which you ordered on March 5 have been sent to you by passenger train. Request: So that your order can be filled promptly, please send another copy of the requisition. Announcement: Now you can take an air conditioned coach from Lahore to Islamabad any hour. Buffer: If you have bad news, begin your message with a buffer. A buffer is a statement, that helps you bring your reader in a positive frame of mind, and the message becomes readable for the reader. But "Buffer" should be neutral in tone. You should also avoid misleading the reader into thinking that the message is good. Poor: It is impossible to open your account unless you send us the following information. With buffer: The moment you send us the following information your account will be opened. Poor: We never exchange damaged goods. With buffer: We are happy to exchange the merchandise that is returned to us in good condition. In persuasive request (sales letter), begin the message with an attention-getting statement. An experienced writer uses some common technique to attract the reader. Consider some of attention-getting statements: A challenge: Don't waste another day wondering how you're going to become the success you've always wanted to be! The writer should avoid using trite and stereotyped expressions. Make your openings considerate, courteous concise, and clear. Keep your first paragraph short and use simple conversational language. Never open your letter with an incomplete sentence like: Reference to your letter of March 6 regarding opening of a current account. Make opening specific Poor: Specific: Thank you for your order. Thank you for you order for 200 writing pads.
4.3 Closing Paragraphs: An effective ending will motivate the reader to act as requested. If no direct request is required, leave the reader with some expression of
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regard: assurance, appreciation or willingness to help. Always remember that closings should be strong, clear and polite. They should leave a sense of closure and goodwill with the receiver. 1. Make your request clear and complete with Five W and the H. 2. Include your phone number and extension if you want the reader to phone you. 3. Enclose a form (card, order, blank, or questionnaire) and an addressed reply envelope (perhaps with postage paid) if you want the reader to furnish something. 4. Give complete instructions regarding how and where if you do not include a form and envelope. 5. State your office hours and location if you want the reader to come to you in person. Make Action Vague: I look forward to hearing from you regarding this matter. Better: so that we can make appropriate arrangements for your visit, please call me at 541000, before Friday, Nov. 16, anytime between 9 A.M. and 5 P.M. End on a Positive, Courteous Thought: Include Any Apologies and Negatives Before Last Paragraph. Study these examples: Negative: Positive: Be Friendly: I'm sorry we can't be more encouraging at this time. We wish you success in your search for a position. Offer to help the reader further, if that is appropriate. Words like please or will you help soften commands. Good: If there is any further way we can assist you please call 555-4567, Monday through Friday between 9 A.M. And 5: P.M. Appreciation: Everyone likes sincere praise when earned. But do not thank people for doing something before they have agreed to do it. Avoid: Thank you in advance for distributing these questionnaires to your employees. Say: I will appreciate your distributing these questionnaires to your employees. Keep Last Paragraph Concise and Correct: Trim your last paragraph to five or fewer lines of complete sentences. Avoid unnecessary repetition. In short letters, the writer often gives his message and stops without any special formality. Make your opening and c1osing paragraph shorter than average because the most important location in a letter is the opening. The second most important is the closing. Composing Message: You have gone through the planning steps. You are ready to compose. Composing is the process of drafting your message. Your first draft is a bit difficult to write. But at least you have brought the most important information on paper. If you have time, look for opportunities to improve your ideas. When you feel confident that you can achieve your propose, begin to write. While composing the message, no two people do it the same way. Some people follow the outline and move from one point to other. Other goes in a more circular style, putting their ideas down in less fixed organization. The best equipment available nowadays is a computer which allows you to make changes. Style is the way you use words to achieve a certain overall impression. The right choice depends on the nature of your message and your relationship with the reader.
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4.4 Revising your message: If possible, let your writing "Cool off' for a while before you begin to evaluate and revise. In this process you add necessary information and remove unnecessary one. You also look at the organizational approach. You also check all seven Cs in it. Besides, ask the following questions to yourself: 1. 2. 3. 4. Does your message accomplish its purpose? Have you chosen most effective organizational plan? Are your points supported by adequate material? Is your language complete, concise, considerate, concrete, clear, courteous, and correct? 5. Have you used variety in sentence structure? If you have included unnecessary material, remove it. If you need additional information, get it. Change, move, add, and delete as much information as you need to create an effective message. The best writers confirm again and again that revision is the key to good writing. 4.5 Editing and proofreading messages: Editing means revising your message that is still in rough draft. It not only involves correcting spelling, grammar, punctuation and similar errors but also means much more. Editing requires looking at a written message critically to see if revising the content will improve it. Proofreading means checking the final copy to make sure it is free from errors. Editing your message also means checking all paragraphs for good topic sentences and sound structure, grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Sometimes you will proofread your document several times to be sure that you have not missed any errors. Even minor mistakes, such as typographical errors, can reduce the effectiveness of your message and undermine your credibility. Those, writing in a second language can take one more step in proofreading material. Read your written material aloud. Most people who speak a second language are more competent in oral communication in their second language than in written. If you identify weaknesses in these areas and correct them, you will be making the finishing touches that ensure that your written communication will be as close to perfect as possible. 5. The Appearance and Design of Business Messages: The electronic revolution is changing the way we communicate, and these changes include formats and conventions of written communication. In the more traditional forms of written communication, your receiver will form an impression of you based on the overall appearance and format of the message. The medium used most often for written messages to person outside your organization is business letters. Elements of appearance that help produce favorable reactions are appropriate stationery and correct letter parts and layouts. 5.1 Stationery & envelopes: A good company uses a paper which is most often at least 25% cotton content. Its quality is usually 20 pound weight. The standard size is 81/2 by 11 inches. Some legal firms use 81/2 by 14 inches. The Color should be white, cream, or light gray. 5.2 Letterhead: A letterhead is a printed paper with the name and address of a person or organization. Modem letterheads usually occupy no more than 2 inches at the top of the page. Letterhead information should include the name, address, telephone number, etc. Sometimes nature of business and name of department are also included.
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5.3 Envelopes: Return addresses of the senders, often printed like the letterhead or, if necessary, typewritten, should be in the upper left comer of the envelope. Address should always be typed in block form; with all lines aligned. Information in the address should be listed in the order (Name & title of receiver, Name of department, Name of Organization, Name of building (if relevant), Street address & suite number or post box number, City, state & zip code or postal code, and Country (if outside the country). Mail notation such as Registered should be typed in capitals below postal area. 5.4 Standard Parts of the Letter: Most business letters have following parts: Heading: A heading shows where the letter comes from. If letterhead stationery is not used, the address, not your name, is typed above the date 2 inches from the top. Date: Usually the date is typewritten two to six lines below the last line of the letterhead. Date sequence preferred in America is month, day, year - March 6, 1998 with the month spelled out. Others prefer day, month, and year -6 March, 1998. Date in figures 3/5/98- should be avoided as it can create confusion. Inside Address: The inside address should begin with the addressee's name preceded by a courtesy and / or professional title, It is written two spaces below the date on the left hand margin, The order of items is (Courtesy title, Name, and, Executive or professional title, if any). All parts are typed- single-spaced. Salutation: Salutations are typed below the inside address and two spaces above the body of the letter. It is an expression of courtesy to put your reader in a friendly frame of mind. A comma or colon should be used after the salutation. Gentlemen should be used in writing to a company, organization or any group of men and women. Body: Most letters are typed single-spaced, with two spaces between paragraphs, before and after the salutation and before the complimentary close. A short letter could be double-spaced with additional blank line spaces before and after the date and within the signature area. When second page is used, addresses name, page number, and date is written at the top. Complimentary Close: If the letter begins with a formal salutation (Sir, Dear Sir) it will close with "Yours faithfully". If it begins with a personal name Dear Mr. Khan, it will close with "Yours sincerely". Yours truly or cordially are also used. Informal closes as Warm regards, Best regards / wishes are also used. A comma is used after complimentary close. It is related to the salutation, so the same degree of formality should be used in it. It is written two spaces below the last line of the body. In full block format, it is written on the left hand side of the Page. Signature: Always type your name after the handwritten signature and the position in the firm. It is better to give courteous title (Mr., Miss, etc.) to avoid confusion. A letter should always be signed in ink. Reference Section: The reference section may include information about the message composer, the typist, and sometimes word processing data. Only initials are used. They are typed two spaces below the name and positions of the person signing the letter. . 5.5 Optional parts of the letter: When appropriate, any of these optional parts can be included (Attention line, Subject Line, Enclosure( s), Copy Notation, File or Account number and mailing notation, and Postscript.
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Attention Line: To send a letter direct to a person or department, attention line is used especially when we don't know a particular person or know only the person's surname. Attention line is written between the inside address and salutation two spaces below and above respectively. Subject Line: It helps the reader to know at a glance what the letter is about. The subject line may include or omit the word subject. It is placed below the salutations. It may be started from left hand margin or indented. The typing may be capitals or lowercase and underlined or all capitals. Enclosure Notation: An enclosure or attachment notation is included to remind the reader to check for additional pages of information. The enclosure is typed single or double space below the reference initials. Copy Notation: When persons other than the addressee will receive a copy of the message, it is noted by writing 'C', 'PC', 'Copy' or 'CC' followed by the names of these persons just below the reference initials or the enclosure notation. File or account number and Mailing Notation: File or account number and Mailing Notation to aid in filing that file, loan, or account number be typed above the body of the letter. Postscript: Sometimes an extra message is added at the end of a letter. It may be something important or some personal comment. Write Ps or Ps and leave two spaces before the first word of the postscript, e.g. Ps. Mail the card today. 5.6 The layout of a Business Letter: Written messages to persons outside the organization are business letters. Appearance of the letter conveys non-verbal impression that affects a reader's attitude; Business letters are usually arranged in different styles or layouts. The style or format is determined by certain conventions. There are different styles in fashion and it is difficult to say which one is the best. Nowadays firms use the following type styles and formats: The Block-form / Modified Block: This form is named so because inside address, salutation and paragraphs are blocked not indented in this form. If plain paper is being used, heading, date, complimentary close and signature are type written at the horizontal centre of the page. Place so that they end near the right hand margin. Double spaces between two parts are given while single space is used within the paragraph. In Pakistan, closed punctuation is used. This form is a time saver as no part is indented in it. The Full-Block: This format is considered to be the most modem. All essential parts in this form are started from the left hand margin. Open punctuation should be used in this form. This form saves time more than any other form. . The Semi-Block: This form is much used in Pakistan. Heading, date, complimentary close and signature sections begin at the horizontal of the page or are placed so that they end near the right hand margin. First line of each paragraph is indented five to seven spaces. Only closed form of punctuation is used in this form. This letter style is attractive on the page. AMS (Administrative Management Society): It has been in use since 1950, AMS is simple style. It uses full block form and open punctuation. No salutation or complimentary close is used. Reader's name is used in the first and last sentences. Subject and writer's name are typed in capitals.
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PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE LAHORE

MERCHANDISING MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Muhammad Mubeen Iqbal Puri Project Director

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

MERCHANDISING ENVIRONMENT The Modern Enterprises (Manufacturing; Distribution & Marketing;

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

Material Selection Classification of Materials (Piece Goods; Support Materials; Trims;

Criteria for Analysis of Materials (Material Name; Material Contents;

Sample Cost Sheet Consumption Calculations Estimating Thread Consumption

97 100 102 102 103

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

STITCHING Stitching Process (Designing; Selection of Fabric; Accessories; Pattern

Types of Woven Fabrics (Barathea; Batiste; Bedford cord; Blanket Cloth;

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

Denim Washing Characteristics of Jeans (Weight; Shrinkage; Shrinkage in Rigid Fabrics;

TEXTILE PRINTING Dyes used for Printing

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

215 215 216 217 217 217 218 219

Textural Process (Temporary / Permanent Stiffening; Weighting;

Jacket Pattern Measurements Pant Pattern Measurements

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

What Makes a Good Thread? (Elongation; Uniformity; Ply-Security;

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

AQL Inspection Procedures Environment to Proceed an Audit (Tolerances; Shipment Audit;

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

1. THE FUNCTIONS OF CLOTHING: Since prehistoric times, people in

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

2. MATERIALS USED FOR CLOTHING: The development of new

3. BEGINNINGS OF TEXTILE PRODUCTION: Tens of thousands of

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

4. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN TEXTILES: The materials used for

5. RECENT TRENDS IN TEXTILE MANUFACTURE: Throughout the

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

6. 50 YEARS OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY OF PAKISTAN: The textile

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

6.3 COTTON WET PROCESSING: The wet processing or finishing of

6.5 KNITWEAR INDUSTRY:

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

THE ECONOMY OF PAKISTAN

1. EXPORTS: Exports grew by 13.1 percent during July-April 2003-04 against a

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

3. GOING FORWARD: Pakistan has lived through a difficult and testing

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTANS MAJOR EXPORTS (%AGE SHARE)

MAJOR EXPORT MARKETS (%AGE SHARE)

MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO EXPORT EARNINGS (July April 2003-04*)

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

STRUCTURE OF EXPORTS ($ Million)

GROUP WISE GROWTH PERFORMANCE (%AGE Share)

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

KEY ECONOMIC INDICATORS (JULY-MARCH)

PERFORMANCE OF KEY ECONOMIC INDICATORS

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

2. APPAREL INDUSTRY: The apparel industry is a broad based international

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE

PAKISTAN READYMADE GARMENTS TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAHORE